U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. A. D. MELVIN, Chief oh Bureau. SPECIAL REPORT ON DISEASES OF THE HORSE. BY Drs. PEARSON, MICHENER, UW, HARBAUGH, TRUMBOWER, LIAUTARD, HOLCOMBE, HUIDEKOPER, MOHLER, EICHHORN, HALL, AND ADAMS. REVISED EDITION, 1916. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1916. $f^ U Depaktmext of Agriculture, Washington, March 30, 1916. This edition of the Special Report on Diseases of the Horse has been prei)ared in compliance with House Concurrent Resolution Xo. 13, passed February 3, 1916, as follows : Resolved by the House of Representatives {the Senate conciirrino). That there be printed and bound in cloth one hundred thousand copies of the Special Report on tlie Diseases of tlie Horse, tlie same to be first revised and brought to date, under the supervision of the Secretary of Agriculture ; seventy tliou«and copies for the use of the House of Representatives and thirty thousand for use of tne Senate. Since the original edition issued bv the Department in 1890 several editions have been printed by order of Congress. The work was reprinted in 1896, and revised and reprinted in 1903, 1908, and 1911. In accordance with the foregoing resolution it again has been revised so as to embody the latest practical development of knowledge of the subject. D. F. Houston Secretary, ^ CONTENTS. Page. Tho examination of a sick horse. By Leonard IVarson 7 Fundamental principles of disease. Hy Rush Shippen Iluidekoper 27 Methods of administering medicines. By Ch. B. Michener 44 Diseases of the digestive organs. By Ch. B. Michener 49 Di-seases of the respiratory organs. By W. II. Harhaugh 95 Diseases of the urinary' organs. By James Law 134 Diseases of the generative organs. By James Law 164 Diseases of the nervous system. By M. R. Trumhower 210 Diseases of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics. By M. R. Trumhower. . 247 Di.scases of the eye. By James Law 274 Lameness. By A . Liautard - 298 Diseases of the fetlock, ankle, and foot. By A . A . Ilolcombe 395 Diseases of the skin. By James Law 458 Wounds and their treatment. By Ch. B. Michener 484 Infectious diseases. By Rush Shippen Iluidekoper 507 Shoeing. By John W. Adams 583 Ind '< 607 3 no7134 ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. Page. Plate I. Tnnammation 32 II. Inflammation 32 III. Digestive apparatus 48 IV. Age of horses as indicated by teeth 58 V. Intestinal worms 92 VI. Dots 92 VII. Position of the left lung 112 VIII. Longitudinal section through kidney 136 IX. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 13G X. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 13f> XI. Calculi and instrument for removal 152 XII. Normal presentation 192 XIII. Some factors in difficult labor 192 XrV. Instniments used in difficult labor 192 XV. Abnormal presentations 200 X^'I. Abnormal presentations 200 XVII. Abnormal presentations 200 XVIII. Al)normal presentations 200 XIX. The nervous system ; 21G XX. Interior of chest, showing position of heart and diaphragm 248 XXI. Circulatory apparatus 248 XXII. Diagrammatic vertical section through horse's eye 277 XXITI. Skeleton of horse 304 XXIV. Superficial layer of muscles 30 1 XXV. Splint 312 XXVI. Ringbone 312 XXVII. Various types of spavin 312 XXVIII. Bone spavin 312 XXIX. Bone spavin 312 XXX. Dislocation of shoulder and elbow, Bourgelat's apparatus 360 XXXI. The sling in use 360 XXXII. Anatomy of foot 400 XXXIII. Anatomy of foot 400 XXXIV. Anatomy and diseases of foot 400 XXXV. Sound and contriuted feet 400 XXX^T Quarter crack and remedies 432 XXXVII. Foundered feet 432 XXXVIII. The skin and its diseases 458 XXXIX. Mites that infest the horse 480 XL. Glanders 544 XLI. Clandera 544 XLII. Glanders 544 5 6 ILLUSTRATIONS. TEXT FIGURES. Page. Fig. 1. Ground surface of a right fore hoof of the "regular' ' form 590 2. Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular standing position .'*. , 591 3. Pair of fore feet of base-wide form in toe-wide standing position 591 4. Pair of fore feet of base-narrow form in toe-narrow standing position . . 592 5. Side vievr of an acute-angled fore foot, of a regidar fore foot, and of a stumpy fore foot 592 6. Side \dew of foot with the foot-axis broken backward as a result of too long a toe 595 7. Left fore hoof of a regular form, shod with a plain fullered shoe 599 8. Side view of hoof and fullered shoe 1 599 9. An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe 601 10. A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster 601 11. Left fore hoof of regular form shod with a rubber pad and "thi'ee- quarter ' ' shoe ; 602 12. A narrow right fore hoof of the base-wide standing position shod with a plain ' ' dropped crease ' ' shoe 602 13. Hoof surface of a right hind shoe to prevent interfering 603 14. Ground surface of shoe shown in fig. 13 603 15. Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the 'breaking over" in a "forger" 604 16. Side view of a short-toed hind hoof of a forger 004 17. A toe-weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet 605 18. Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to induce high action in fore feet, ..,.......,,.„,. ..o ,..., = ......,...... = .o. ,„ = o o.., = , 605 SPECIAL REPORT ON DISEASES OF THE HORSE. THE EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. By Leonabd Peabson, B. S., V. M. D. In the examination of a sick horse it is important to have a method or system. If a definite phm of examination is followed one may feel reasonably sure, when the examination is finished, that no important point has l)een overlooked and that the examiner is in a position to arriAe at an opinion that is as accurate as is possible for him. Of course, an experienced eye can see, and a trained hand can feel, slight alterations or variations from the normal that are not perceptible to the unskilled observer. A thorough knowledge of the conditions that exist in health is of the highest importance, because it is only by a knowledge of what is right that one can surely detect a wrong condi- tion. A knowledge of anatomy, or of the structure of the body, and of physiology, or the functions and activities of the body, lie at the bottom of accuracy of diagnosis. It is imj^ortant to remembei- that animals of ditl'erent races or families deport themselves ilitFer- ently under the influence of the same disease or pathological prcx-ess. The sensitive and highly organized thoroughbred resists cerebral depression more than does the lymphatic draft horse. Hence a de- gree of fever that does not produce marked dullness in a thorough- bred may cause the most al)ject dejection in a coarsely bred, heavy draft horse. This and similar facts are of vast importance in the diagnosis of disease and in the recognition of its significance. The order of examination, as given hereafter, is one that has proved to be comparatively easy of application and sufficiently thorough for the purpose of the readei*s- of this work, and is recommended by several writers. 8 DISEASES OP THE HOESE. HISTORY. It is important to know, first of all, something of the origin and development of the disease ; therefore the cause should be looked for. The cause of a disease is important, not" only in connection witli diag- nosis, but also in connection with treatment. The character of feed that the hoi-se has had, the use to which he has been put, and the kind of care he has received should all be closely inquired into. It may be found by this investigation that the horse has been fed on damaged feed, such as brewers' grains or moldy silage, and this may be suffi- cient to explain the profound depression and weakness that are char- acteristic of forage poisoning. If it is learned that the horse has been kept in the stable without exercise for several days and upon full rations, and that he became suddenly lame in his back and hind legs, and finally fell to the ground from what appeared to be partial paralysis, this knowledge, taken in connection with a few evident symptoms, will be enough to establish a diagnosis of azoturia (excess of nitrogen in the urine). If it is learned that the horse has been recently shipped in the cars or has been through a dealer's stable, we have knowledge of significance in connection with the causation of a possible febrile disease, which is, under these conditions, likely to prove to be influenza, or edematous pneumonia. It is also important to know whether the particular horse under examination is the only one in the stable, or on the premises, that is similarly afflicted. If it is found that several horses are afflicted much in the same way. we have evidence of a common cause of disease which maj^ prove to be of an infectious nature. Another item of importance in connection with the history of the case relates to the treatment that the horse may have had before he is examined. It sometimes happens that medicine given in excessive quantities produces symptoms resembling those of disease, so it is important that the examiner be fully informed as to the medication that has been employed. ATTITUDE AND GENERAL CONDITION. Before beginning the special examination, attention should be paid to the attitude and general condition of the animal. Sometimes horses assume positions that are characteristic of a certain disease. For example, in tetanus (lockjaw) the muscles of the face, neck, and shoulders are stiff and rigid, as well as the muscles of the jaw. This condition produces a peculiar attitude, that once seen is subse- quently recognized as rather characteristic of the disease. A horse with tetanus stands with his muscles tense and his legs in a somewhat bracing position, as though he were gathered to repel a shock. The neck is stiff and hard, the head is slightly extended upon it, and the THE EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 9 face is drawn, and the nostrils are dilatetl. The tail is usually held up a little, and when pressed down against the thighs it springs back to its previous position. In inflammation of the thi'oat, as in pharvn- golaryngitis, the head is extended upon the neck and the angle be- tween the jaw and the lower border of the neck is opened as fai- as possible to relieve the pressure that otherwise would fall upon the throat. In dumniiness, or immobility, the lianging position of the head and the stupid expression are rather characteristic. In pleurisy, peritonitis, and some other painful diseases of the internal organs, the rigid position of the body denotes an effort of the animal to avoid pressure upon and to protect the inflamed sensitive region. The horse may be down in the stall and unable to rise. This condi- tion may result from paraplegia (paralysis), from azoturia, from forage poisoning, from tetanus, or from painful conditions of the bones or feet, such as osteoporosis or founder. Ikying down at unusual times or in Unusual positions may indicate disease. The first symptom of colic may be a desire on the part of the horse to lie down at an unusual or inappropriate time or place. Sometimes disinclina- tion to lie down is an indication of disease. "\Mien there is diniculty in breathing, the horse knows that he can manage himself better upon his feet than upon his breast or his side. It happens, therefore, that in nearly all serious diseases of the respiratory tract he stands persistently, day and night, until recovery has commenced and breathing is easier, or until the animal falls from sheer exhaustion. If there is stiffness and soreness of the muscles, as in rheumatism, inflammation of the muscles from overwork, or of the bones in osteo- porosis, or of the feet in founder, or if the muscles are stiff and be- y(md control of the animal, as in tetanus, a standing position is main- tained, because the horse seems to realize that when he lies down he will be unable to rise. Abnormal attitudes are assumed in painful diseases of the diges- tive organs (colic). A horse with colic may sit upon his haunches, like a dog, or may stand upon his hind feet and rest upon his knees in front, or he may endeavor to balance himself upon his back, with all four feet in the air. These positions are assumed because they give relief from pain by lessening pressure or tension u]ion the sensi- tive structures. Under the general condition of the animal it is necessary to observe the condition or state of nutrition, the confonuation, so far as it may indicate the constitution, and the temperament. By observing the condition of nutrition one may be able to detennine to a certain ex- tent the effect that the disease has already had upon the animal and to estimate the amount of strength that remains and that will be available for the repair of the diseased tissues. A good condition of nutrition is shown by the rotundity of the body, the pliability and 10 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. softness of the skin, and the tone of the hair. If the subcutaneous fat has disappeared and the muscles are wasted, allowing the bony- prominences to stand out; if the skin is tight and inelastic aad the coat dry and harsh, we have evidence of a low state of nutrition. This may have resulted from a severe and long-continued disease or from lack of proper feed and care. ^Vlien an animal is emaciated — that is, becomes thin — there is first a loss of fat and later the muscles shrink. By observing the amount of shrinkage in the muscles one has some indication as to the duration of the unfavorable conditions under which the animal has lived. By constitution we understand the innate ability of the animal to withstand disease or unfavorable conditions of life. The constitution depends largely upon the conformation. The type of construction that usually accompanies the best constitution is deep, broad chest, allowing plenty of room for the lungs and heart, indicating that these vital organs are well developed; capacious abdomen, allowing sufficient space for well-developed organs of digestion; the loins should be short — that is, the space should be short between the last rib and the point of the hip ; the head and neck should be well molded, without superfluous or useless tissue; this gives a clear-cut throat. The ears, eyes, and face should have an expression of alertness and good breeding. The muscular development should be good; the shoulders, forearms, croup, and thighs must have the appearance of strength. The withers are sharp, which means that they are not loaded with useless, superfluous tissue ; the legs are straight and their axes are parallel ; the knees and hocks are low, which means that the forearms and thighs are long and the cannons relatively short. The cannons are broad from in front to behind and relatively thin from side to side. This means that the bony and tendinous structures of the legs are well developed and well placed. The hoofs are compact, tense, firm structures, and their soles are concave and frogs large. Such a horse is likely to have a good constitution and to be able to resist hard work, fatigue, and disease to a maximum degree. On the other hand, a poor constitution is indicated by a shallow, narrow chest, small bones, long loins, coarse neck and head, with thick throat, small, bony, and muscular development, short thighs and forearms, small joints, long, round cannons, and hoofs of open texture with flat soles. The temperament is indicated by the manner in which the horse responds to external stimuli. When the horse is spoken to, or when he sees or feels anything that stimulates or gives alarm, if he re- sponds actively, quickly, and intelligently, he is said to be of lively, or nervous, temperament. On the other hand, if he responds in a slow, sluggish manner, he is said to have a sluggish, or lymphatic. THE EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 11 temperament. The temperament is indicated by the gait, by tlie expression of the face, and by tlie carriage of the head and ears. The nature of the tempeiament shoiihl Ik* taken into consick'iatiou in an endeavor to ascertain the severity of a given case of iUness, because t!ie general expre.ssion of an animal in disease as well as in health de- pends to a large extent on the temperament. THE SKIN AND THE VISIBLE MUCOUS MEMBRANES. The condition of the skin is a fair index to the condition of the animal. The effect of disease and emaciation upon the j)liability of tlie skin have been refeiied to above. Tliere is no part of the body that loses its elasticity and tone as a result of disease sooner than the skin. The practical herdsman or flockmaster can gain a great (k*al of information as to the condition of an animal mciely by grasping the coat and looking at and feeling the skin. Similarly, the condition of the animal is shown to a certain extent by the appearance of the muct>iis membranes. For example, wlien the hoi'se is anemic as a result of disease or of inappropriate feed the mucous membranes become pale. This change in the mucous membranes can be seen most readily in the linhig of the eyelids and in the lining of the nostril. For convenience of examination the eyelids can readily be everted. Paleness means weak circulation or poor blood. Increased redness occurs physiologically in painful cuti<>n of the blood, the body may be warmer than nornud, whik> tiie extremities (the legs and ears) may be cold. Where the general surface of the body becomes cold it is evident that the small blood vessels in the skin have contracted and are keeping tiie blood away, as during a chill, or that tlu* ln';ir< is weak :ind i- 12 DISEASES OP THE HOESE. unable to iDiimp the blood to the surface, and that the animal is on the verge of collapse. The sldn is moist, to a certain degree, at all times in a healthy horse. This moisture is not in the form of a perceptible sweat, but it is enough to keep the skin pliable and to cause the hair to have a soft, healthy feel. In some chronic diseased conditions and in fever, the skin becomes dry. In this case the hair has a harsh feel that is quite different from the condition observed in health, and from the fact of its being so dry the individual hairs do not adhere to one another, they stand apart, and the animal has what is known as " a staring coat." When, during a fever, sweating occurs, it is usually an indication that the crisis is passed. Sometimes sweating is an indication of pain. A horse with tetanus or azoturia sweats j)ro- fusely. Horses sweat freely when there is a serious impediment to respiration; they sweat under excitement, and, of course, from the well-known physiological causes of heat and work. Local sweating, or sweating of a restricted area of the body, denotes some kind of nerve interference. Swellings of the skin usually come from wounds or other external causes and have no special connection with the diagnosis of internal diseases. There are, however, a number of conditions in which the swelling of the skin is a symptom of a derangement of some other part of the body. For example, there is the well-known " stocking," or swelling of the legs about the fetlock joints, in influenza. There is the soft swelling of the hind legs that occurs so often in draft horses when standing still and that comes from previous inflamma- tion (lymphangitis) or from insufficient heart power. Dropsy, or edema of the skin, may occur beneath the chest or abdomen from heart insufficiency or from chronic collection of fluid in the chest or abdomen (hydrothorax, ascites, or anemia). In anasarca or purpura hemorrhagica large soft swellings appear on any part of the skin, but usually on the legs, side of the body, and about the head. Gas collects under the skin in some instances. This comes from a local inoculation with an organism which produces a fermentation beneath the sldn and causes the liberation of gas which inflates the skin, or the gas may be air that enters through a woimd penetrating some air-containing organ, as the lungs. The condition here de- scribed is laiown as emphysema. Emphysema may follow the frac- ture of a rib when the end of a bone is forced inward and caused to penetrate the lung, or it may occur when, as a result of an ulcerat- ing process, an organ containing air is perforated. This accident is more common in cattle than it is in horses. Emphysema is recog- nized by the fact that the swelling that it causes is not hot or sensi- tive on pressure. It emits a peculiar crackling sound when it is stroked or pressed upon. THE EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 13 Wounds of the skin may be of importance in the diapiosis of internal disease. Wounds over the bony prominence, as the point of the hip, the point of the shoulder, and the greatest convexity of the ribs, occur when a horse is unable to stand for a long time and, through continually lying upon his side, has shut off the circulation to the portion of the skin that covers parts of the body that carry the greatest weight, and in this way has caused them to mortify. I^ittle, round, soft, doughlike swellings occur on the skin and may be scattered freely over the surface of the body when the horse is afflicted with urticaria. Similar eruptions, but distributed less gen- erally, about the size of a silver dollar, may occur as a symptom of dourine, or colt distemper. Hard lumps, from which radiate welt- like swellings of the lymphatics, occur in glanders, and blisterlike eruptions occur around the mouth and pasterns in horsepox, THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. The first item in this portion of the examination consists in taking the pulse. The pulse may be counted and its character may be de- termined at any point where a large artery occupies a situation close to the skin and above a hard tissue, such as a bone, cartilage, or tendon. The most convenient place for taking the pulse of the horse is at the jaw. The external maxillary artery runs from between the jaws, around the lower border of the jawbone, and up on the outside of the jawbone to the face. It is located immediately in front of the heavy muscles of the cheek. Its throb can be felt most distinctly just before it turns around the lower border of the jawbone. The balls of the first and second or of the second and third fingers should be pressed lightly on the skin over this artery when its pulsations are to be studied. The normal pulse of the healthy horse varies in frequency as follows : Stallion - 28 to 32 boats per nilmite. Cc'ldinf: 33 to 38 beats per inimite. Mnre 34 to 40 boats por niiiuito. Foal 2 to 3 years old . 40 to 50 boats por niimite. Foal 6 to 12 months old 45 to 60 bents per minute. Foal 2 to 4 weeks old 70 to 90 boats i)er niiiuite. Tlie pulse is accelerated by the digestion of rich food, by hot weather, exercise, excitement, and alarm. It is slightly more rapid in the evening than it is in the morning. Well-l)red horses have a slightly more rapid pulse than sluggish, cold-blooded horses. The pulse should be regular; that is, the .separate beats should follow each other after intervals of equal length, and the beats should be of equal fullness, or volume. 14 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. In disease, the pulse may become slower or more rapid than in health. Slowing of the pulse may be caused by old age, great ex- haustion, or excessive cold. It may be due to depression of the cen- tral nervous system, as in dumminess, or be the result of the admin- istration of drugs, such as digitalis or strophantus. A rapid pulse is almost always found in fever, and the more severe the infection and the weaker the heart the more rapid is the pulse. Under these conditions, the beats may rise to 80, 90, or even 120 per minute. When the pulse is above 100 per minute the outlook for recovery is not promising, and especially if this symptom accompanies high temperature or occurs late in an infectious disease. In nearly all of the diseases of the heart and in anemia, the pulse becomes rapid. The pulse is irregular in diseases of the heart, and especially where the valves are affected. The irregularity may consist in varying inter- vals between the beats or the dropping of one or more beats at regu- lar or irregular intervals. The latter condition sometimes occurs in chronic diseases of the brain. The pulse is said to be weak, or soft, when the beats are indistinct, because little blood is forced through the artery by each contraction of the heart. This condition occurs when there is a constriction of the vessels leading from the heart and it occurs in certain infectious and febrile diseases, and is an indication of heart weakness. In examining the heart itself it is necessary to recall that it lies in the anterior portion of the chest slightly to the left of the median line and that it extends from the third to the sixth rib. It extends almost to the breastbone, and a little more than half of the distance between the breastbone and the backbone. In contracting, it rotates slightly on its axis, so that the point of the heart, which lies below, is pressed against the left chest wall at a place immediately above the point of the elbow. The heart has in it four chambers — ;two in the left and two in the right side. The upper chamber of the left side (left auri- cle) receives the blood as it comes from the lungs, passes it to the lower chamber of the left side (left ventricle) , and from here it is sent with great force (for this chamber has very strong, thick walls) through the aorta and its branches (the arteries) to all parts of the body. The blood returns through the veins to the upper chamber of the right side (right auricle) , passes then to the lower chamber of the right side (right ventricle), and from this chamber is forced into the lungs to be oxidized. The openings between the chambers of each side and into the aorta are guarded by valves. If the horse is not too fat, one may feel the impact of the apex of the heart against the chest wall with each contraction of the heart by placing the hand on the left side back of the fifth rib and above the point of the elbow. The thinner and the better bred the horse is the more distinctly this impact is felt. If the animal is excited, or if he THE EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 15 has just been exercised, the impact is stronger than when the horse is at rest. If the horse is weak, the impact is reduced in force. The oxamination of the heart with the ear is an important matter in this coimection. Certain sounds arc produced by eacli contraction of the normal heart. It is customary to divide these into two, and to call them the first and second sounds. These two sounds are hear$>^iite5i tkaJi It l)e*«is tu> <^' the sioiSMK'k walk;. Ttit:;; has Ch- -- ' • - ^ ^:iae tiwkt ~ ' ~ - . ■ v"^ iwct. 5aiEh.ie asiua;? ifc^t'ses v-. . rwai'd* b^KXWBke eatu"^' sjcvumi A:06ei- riiijptUiiv ,**- - 'v ■ ^ ■■'_ ■- ^^ --s, 'V- 82;^ - ■ ■■ '^ ,■""- "'^.- -^ «£ Sim :- (iX* oo; aa a. ♦■^ . - ■- - - ■ Kiusi on. i3»«iii£.T aa-d iii^ > to«xi. ia a TT •-"- ■- •■<., '- ■ ' . ,-,-.^., tJuSi. TOBblatiEiiQai 0X 9as ist tyi: th. ^- _ . V> , . .. t:- - - - - - ^ - -1- tiiQii ais© occiaiFS m TiecaiBiiiis irom tfte eocicraetkaa oi tJaie abdKfWfidaal lank. Oil eitlaer tine ri^t or ieift sa-de, ct- _ - -is aetaT be iueard titat are fcntowTa as peristaltic iar9-?t>?r: ^ . , ;ii^ a littlie ^n tlje ri_ sM, di the fact that tike iar^ intes- t: ■ - "^ -■•••-;'--^^ -;•--■ ^.s is always an JL. - - -. - ^ - ..:*alT^ o-f.tbe iiM)eaCi3*s. Tms laaT €»cc^2r im. cercaiia kiaa^ oi coiK and is an "un- . :oii oi the animal, ^ boen fed and the , -. . : ;v be the i-esuh :n the abdoma- ^■»r am iodicatioti ■e^i fed for a ksag luieia. occmrrii^ ft .> ;iu a^'iionoal co©di~ -It ia volnaiBae froaa aceu- ri!i>e abdoaiea becooaces small and - ^ -- -^-'-- ■'' --- .e- fa- • ca_a^- -^ ■* ■ "^- ^.,..^.. : 5. I5. gjg heard wh^^ tbe imtes- __an iaa health, as ia ^lasiaaodic ijso wiaei^ tiaere is aa excess of flniid or sras ia the intestiaal The feces ^-(Mr. to» a certain exteat. tlae thoro«^:iiEse6s of digesti^sn. s ]?eeD. "well o^roBcmd, aad siijOiald. im - ,-v.lor or eoatiiags ©f nuTiicws. A coat- 's tairh. Bi'^ -^i OB the feces indicates Thej she; iL_ ioacti _ _ ;- Keccal exa.: pelvic ea' baaid ' -^ - Iwr a '. aad is ijseless except to oiae who has a gjood ks'7*iicK2^ wi LUjsf ajaacomT of the parts ajpcemed. •?lor aC' . -- ^v_-I;ilDe- "■ -ists iffl e3a If msLj coiaaie frc«3i of the orarans of the ,., ^-.- .^- - -.^ . .--.;_ ;^v-u^ J. ::>t ^ . . c-_ ,. ced n V i,>n iir' ^n4$?«:£t' U us- iKui iu'vn. nil I mil 24 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. irresponsive to external stimuli. Cerebral depression also occurs in the severe febrile infections diseases, in chronic hydrocephalus, in chronic diseases of the liver, in poisoning with a narcotic substance, and with chronic catarrh of the stomach and intestines. Fainting is a symptom that is not often seen in horses. \'\lien it occurs it is shown by unsteadiness of gait, tottering, and, finally, in- ability to stand. The cause usually lies in a defect of the small brain, or cerebellum. This defect may be merely in respect of the blood supply, to congestion, or to anemia, and in this case it is likely to pass away and may never return, or it may be due to some permanent cause, as a tumor or an abscess, or it may result from a hemorrhage, from a defect of the valves of the heart, or from poisoning. Loss of consciousness is known as coma. It is caused by hemor- rhage in the brain, by profound exhaustion, or may result from a saturation of the system with the poison of some disease. Coma may follow upon cerebral depression, which occurs as a secondary state of inflammation of the brain. ^Vliere the sensibility of a part is increased the condition is laiown as hyperesthesia, and where it is lost — ^that is, where there is no feel- ing or knowledge of pain — the condition is known as anesthesia. The former usually accompanies some chronic disease of the spinal cord or the earlier stages of irritation of a nerve trunk. Hyperesthesia is difficult to detect in a nervous, irritable animal, and sometimes even in a horse of less sensitive temperament. An irritable, sensitive spot may be found surrounded by skin that is not sensitive to pressure. This is sometimes a symptom of beginning of inflammation of the brain. Anesthesia occurs in connection with cerebral and spinal paralj^sis, section of a nerve trunk leading to a part, in severe mental depression, and in narcotic poisoning. URINARY AND SEXUAL ORGANS. In considering the examination of the urinaiy and sexual organs we may consider, at the beginning, a false impression that prevails to an astonishing extent. Many horsemen are in the habit of pressing upon the back of a horse over the loins or of sliding the ends of the fingers along on either side of the median line of this region. If the horse depresses his back it is at once said " his kidneys are weak." Nothing could be more absurd or further from the truth. Any healthy horse — any horse with normal sensation and with a normally flexible back — will cause it to sink when manipulated in this way. If the kidneys are inflamed and sensitive, the back is held more rigidly and is not dej^ressed under this pressure. To examine the kidneys by pressure the pressure should be brought to bear over these organs. The kidnevs lie beneath the ends of the THE EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 25 transverse processes of the vertebne of the k)iiis aiul heneatli the hind- most ribs. If the kidneys are actually inflamed and especially sensi- tive, pressure or light blows applied here may cause the horse to shrink. The physical examination of the sexual and generative organs is made in large part through the rectum, and this portion of the exami- nation should be carried out by a veterinarian only. By this means it is possible to discover or locate cysts of the kidneys, urinary calculi in the ureters, bladder, or ui)}>er urethra, malformations, and acute inflannnati(ms acct>uipanied by pain. The external genital organs are swollen, discolored, or show a discharge as a result of local disease or from disease higher in the tract. The manner of urinating is sometimes of considerable diagnostic importance. Painful urination is shown by frequent attempts, dur- ing which but a small quantity of urine is passed; by groaning, by constrained attitude, etc. This condition comes from inflammation of the bladder or urethra, urinary calculi (stones of the l)lad(ler or urethra), hemorrhage, tumors, bruises, etc. The urine is retained from spasms of the muscle at the neck of the bladder, from calculi, inflammatory growths, tumors, and paralysis of the bladder. The urine dribbles without control when the neck of the bladder is weakened or paralyzed. This condition is seen after the bladder is v\ eakened from long-continued retention and where there is a partial I ai-alysis of the hind quarters. Horses usually void urine five to sjeven times a day, and pass f lom 4 to 7 quarts. Disease may be shown by increase in the number of voidings or of the (|uantity. Frequent urination indicates an irritable or painful condition of the bladder or urethra or that the <|uan- tity is excessive. In one form of chronic inflammation of the kidneys (interstitial nephritis) and in j^olyuria the quantity may be increased to 20 or 30 quarts daily. Diminution in the quantity' of urine comes from profuse sweating, diarrhea, high fever, weak heart, diseased and uonsecreting kidneys, or an obstruction to the flow. The urine of the healtln' horse is a pale or at times a slightly red- dish yellow. The color is less intense when the quantity is large, and is more intense when the quantity is diminished. Daik-brown urine is seen in azoturia and in severe acute muscular rheumatism. A brownish -green color is seen in jaundice. Red color indicates admix- ture of blood from a bleeding point at some part of the urinary tract, usually in the kidneys. The urine of the healthy horse is not clear and transparent. It contains mucus, which causes it to bo slightly thick and string}*, and a certain amount of undissolved carbonates, causing it to be cloudy, A sediment collects when the urine is allowed to stand. The urine of the horse is normally alkaline. If it becomes acid the bodies in sus- 26 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. pension are dissolved and the urine is made clear. The urine nuay be unusually cloudy from the addition of abnormal constituents, but to determine their character a chemical or microscopic examirr^tion is necessary. Red or reddish flakes or clumps in the urine are always abnormal, and denote a hemorrhage or suppuration in the urinary tract. The normal specific gravity of the urine of the horse is about 1.040. It is increased when the urine is scanty and decreased when the quantity is excessive. Acid reaction of the urine occurs in chronic intestinal catarrh, in high fever, and during starvation. Chemical and microscopic tests and examinations are often of great importance in diagnosis, but require special apparatus and skill. Other points in the examination of a sick horse require more discus- sion than can be afforded in this connection, and require special train- ing on the part of the examiner. Among such points may be men- tioned the examination of the organs of special sense, the examination of the blood, the microscopic examination of the secretions and excre- tions, bacteriological examinations of the secretions, excretions, and tissues, specific reaction tests, and diagnostic inoculation. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DISEASE. By Rush Shiimm;n Hiidkkoi-kk, .M. I >.. \'kt. [Revlsod by I Hi>nl I'.iusDn, 1'.. S., V. M. !».] ANIMAL TISSUES. Tho nonprofessional reader may repinl the animal tissues, which are subject to inflanunation, as excessively simple structures, as simi- lar, simple, and fixed in their organization as the joists and boards ■which frame a house, the bricks and iron coils of pipe which build a furnace, or the stones and mortar which make the support of a great railroad bridge. Yet while the principles of structure are thus sim- ple, for the general understanding by the student who begins their study the complete appreciation of the shades of variation, which differentiate one tissue from another, which define a sound tendon or a ligament from a fibrous band — the result of disease filling in an old lesion and tying one organ with another — is as complicated as the nicest jointing of Chinese woodwork, the building of a furnace for the most difficult chemical analysis, or the construction of a bridge which Avill stand for ages and resist any force or weight. All tissues are composed of certain fundamental and similar ele- ments which are governed by the same rules of life, though at fii-st glance they may appear to be widely different. These are (a) amor- phous substances, (b) fibers, and (r) cells. (a) Amorphous substances may be in licjuid form, as in the fluid of the blood, which holds a vast amount of salts and nutritive matter in solution; or they may be in a semilicjuid condition, as the plasnui which intiltrates the loose meshes of connecti\e tissue and lubricates the surface of some membranes; or they may be in the form of a glue or cement, fastening one structure to another, as a tendon or nuiscle end to a Ijone; or, again, they hold similar elements firmly together, as in bone, where they form a still" matrix wlijcli becomes impreg- nated with lime siilts. Amori)hous substances, again, form the pro- toplasm or nutritive element of cells or the elements of life. (b) Fibei's are formed of elements of organic matter which have only a passive function. They can be assimilated to little strings, or cords, tangled one with another like a mass of waste yarn, woven regularly like a cloth, or bound together like a rope. They are of two 28 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. kinds — white connective tissue fibers, only slightly extensible, pliable, and very strong, and yellow elastic fibers, elastic, curly, ramified, and very dense. These fibers once created require the constant presence of fluids around them in order to retain their functional condition, as a piece of harness leather demands continual oiling to keep its strength, but they undergo no change or alteration in their form until destroyed by death. (c) Cells, which may even be regarded as low forms of lifej are masses of protoplasm or amorphous living matter, with a nucleus and frequently a nucleolus, which are capable of assimilating nutri- ment or food, propagating themselves either into others of the same form or into fixed cells of another outward appearance and differ- ent function but of the same constitution. It is simply in the mode of the grouping of these elements that we have the variation in tis- sues, as (1) loose connective tissue, (2) aponeurosis and tendons, (3) muscles, (4) cartilage, (5) bones, (6) epithelia and endothelia, (7) nerves. (1) Loose connective tissue forms the great framework, or scaf- folding, of the body, and is found under the skin, between the muscles surrounding the bones and blood vessels, and entering into the structures of almost all the organs. In this the fibers are loosely meshed together like a sponge, leaving spaces in which the nutrient fluid and cells are irregiTlarly distributed. This tissue we find in the skin, in the spaces between the organs of the body where fat accumu- lates, and as the framework of all glands. (2) Aponeurosis and tendons are structures which serve for the . termination of muscles and for their contention, and for the attach- ment of bones together. In these the fibers are more frequent and dense, and are arranged with regularity, either crossing each other or lying parallel, and here the cells are found in minimum quantity. (3) In the muscles the cells lie end to end, forming long fibers which have the power of contraction, and the connective tissue is in small quantity, serving the passive purpose of a band around the con- tractile elements. (4) In cartilage a mass of firm amorphous substance, with no vas- cularity and little vitality, forms the bed for the chondroplasts, or cells of this tissue. (5) Bone differs from the above in having the amorphous matter impregnated with lime salts, which gives it its rigidity and firmness. (6) Epithelia and endothelia, or the membranes which cover the body and line all its cavities and glands, are made up of single or stratified and multiple layers of cells bound together by a glue of amorphous substance and resting on a layer composed of fibers. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DISEASE. 29 "When the monibiaiio serves for secreting or excietinn; purposes, fis ill the salivary ghiiids or the kidneys, it is usually simple; when it serves the niedianic-al purj^ose of pi-oteeting a part, as over the tongue or skin, it is invariably multiple and stratilied, the surface wearing away while new cells replace it from beneath. (7) In nerves, stellate cells are connected by their rays to each other, or to fibers which conduct the nerve impressions, or they act as receptacles, storehouses, and transmitters for them, as the switch- board of a telephone system serves to connect the various wires. All these tissues arc supplied with blood in greater or less quan- tity. The vascularity depends upon the function which the tissue is called upon to perform. If this is great, as in the tongue, the lungs, or the sensitive part of the hoof, a large quantit}' of blood is re« I'I..VII-. I. / VtiLKtluinril uin,/t,/lJf htit .'-' Inntiniftl fiiit/ /»/■ l/i>- hill ^ N 1 ] . A \ 1 M . \ r I U. S. Dept. cf Agriculture, Diseases of the Horse. Fi^A.rrhz II. / nith n-l iriii/ w/ii/r r/ir/tusc/r.f; 0,/'. ''■ihifirioiis riir\r (U>r" . r,i'ii/jij/iiri- '/ i/ , /Jnr/:-l,f,ri{ffrf/ /urrr fihn' ; f r, r„itnfrtivc ti.^siie n-ith roii/irrfiyr //.■.:■.//' vnr/HtsUes (iiirl trii.,r,r\tcs s,rtiO-ri'i .'.y/iinsrly t/trniir/h if. -/fi/7////iii/.T/,\-,-; fji,- r;/l i/i f/ir rr/ifrf ii/iif 'h. •.■iiil 'X.n.iir,., ,,ti./,./ Ijir f.iu'L-;- r.,-, r,tf,i/l,ir\ ,//.•.• frri,i,;f wH/i n,/ utitl wliit, r,-, 7>risrl,:-\ iiiimln-r ff'thr w/ii/r tnnr/i f/fcnt/S't/ .■ t/.if Coii/n'Ciixi- tissur- /irfu,,- vr/tnh aiifl r/,/,i7/,iry />//,// uvV// iiiii/rii/i,/ litiiiirvtrs , r r Cr>nit'-c/tvf /.■<.5irt, to quiet the patient, and to combat the fever or general effects of the trouble in the system, and to favor the neutralization or elimination of the products of the inflammation. Reduction of blood is obtained in various ways. The diminution of the quantity of the blood lessens the amount of pressure on the vessels, and, as a se(iuel, the volume of it which is carried to the point of inflammation; it diminishes the bodj^ temperature or fever; it numbs the nervous system, which plays an important part as a con- ductor of irritation in diseases. Blood-letting is the most rapid means, and frequently acts like a charm in relieving a commencing inflanmiatory trouble. One must remember, however, that the strength of the body and repair depend on the blood; hence blood-letting should be practiced only in full- blooded, well-nourished animals and in the early stages of the disease. Cathartics act by drawing off a large quantity of fluid from the blood through the intestines, and have the advantage o\^v the last remedy of removing only the watery and not the formed elements from the circulation. The blood cells remain, leaving the blood as rich as it was before. Again, the glands of the intestines are stimu- lated to excrete much waste matter and other deleterious material which may be acting as a poison in the blood. Diuretics operate through the kidneys in the same way. Diaphoretics aid depletion of the blood by pouring water in the form of sweat from the surface of the skin and stimulating the dis- charge of waste material out of its glands, which has the same effect on the blood jM-essure. Antipyretics are remedies to reduce the temperature. This may be accomplished by depressing the center in the brain that controls heat production. Some coal-tar products are very effective in this way. but they have the disadvanlage of depressing the heart, which should always be kept as strong as possible. If they are used it must be with knowledge of this fact, and it is well to give heart tonics or stimu- lants with them. The teuiperature of the i)ody may Ix) lowered by cold packs or by showering with cold water. This is a most useful procedure in many diseases. Depressants aie drugs which act on the heart. They slow or weaken the action of this organ and reduce the quantity and force of the current of the blood which is carried to the point of local disease: they lessen the vitality of the animal, and for this reason are now used much less than formerly. 38 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Anodynes quiet the nervous system. Pain in the "horse, as in the man, is one of the important factors in the production of fever, and the dulling of the former often prevents, or at least reduces, the latter. Anodynes produce sleep, so as to rest the patient and allow recuperation for the succeeding struggle of the vitality of the animal against the exhausting drain of the disease. The diet of an animal suffering from acute inflammation is a factor of the greatest importance. An overloaded circulation can be starved to a reduced quantity and to a less rich quality of blood by reducing the quantity of feed given to the patient. Feeds of easy digestion do not tire the alread}' fatigued organs of an animal with a torpid diges- tive system. Xourisliment will be taken by a suffering brute in the form of slops and cooling drinks when it would be totally refused if offered in its ordinary form, as hard oats or dry hay, requiring the labor of grinding between the teeth and swallowing by the weakened muscles of the jaws and throat. Tonics and stimulants are remedies which are used to meet special indications, as in the case of a feeble heart, and which enter into the after treatment of inflammatory troubles as well as into the acute stages of them. They brace up weakened and torpid glands; they stimulate the secretion of the necessary fluids of the body, and hasten the excretion of the waste material produced by the inflammatory process ; they regulate the action of a weakened heart ; they promote healthy vitality of diseased parts, and aid the chemical changes needed for returning the altered tissues to their normal condition. FEVERS. Fever is a general condition of the animal body in which there is an elevation of the animal body temperature, which ma}^ be only a de- gree or two or may be 10° F. The elevation of the body temperature, which represents tissue change or combustion, is accompanied with an acceleration of the heart's action, a quickening of the respiration, and an aberration in the functional activity of the various organs of the body. These organs may be stimulated to the performance of excessive work, or they may be incapacitated from carrying out their allotted tasks, or, in the course of a fever, the two conditions may both exist, the one succeeding the other. Fever as a disease is usually preceded by chills as an essential symptom. Fevers are divided into essential fevers and symptomatic fevers. In sj^mptomatic fever some local disease, usually of an inflammatory character, develops first, and the constitutional febrile phenomena are the result of the primary point of combustion irritating the whole body, either through the nervous system or directly by means of the waste material which is carried into the circulation and through the FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DISEASE. 39 blood vessels, and is distributed to distal partes. Essential fevers are those in which there is from the outset a general disturbance of the whole economy. This may consist of an eUMuentary alteration in the blood or a general change in the constitution of the tissues. Fevers of the latter class are usually due to some infecting agent and belong, therefore, to the class of infectious diseases. Essential fevers are subdivided into ephemeral fevers, which last but a shoii, time and terminate by critical pheftomena; intermittent fevers, in which there are alterations of exacerbations of the febrile symptoms and remissions, in which the boily returns to its normal condition or sometimes to a depressed condition, in which the func- tions of life are but badly j^erformed; and continued fevers, which include contagious diseases, such as glanders, influenza, etc., the septiu diseases, such as pyemia, septicemia, etc., and the eruptive fevers, such as variola, etc. AVhether the cause of the fever has been an injury to the tissaies, such as a severe bruise, a broken bone, an inflamed lung, or excessive work, which has surcharged the blood with the waste products of the combustion of the tissues, which were destroyed to produce force, or the toxins of influenza in the blood, or the presence of irritating ma- terial, either in the form of living organisms or of their products, as in glanders or tuberculosis — the general train of symptoms are much the same, varying as the amount of the irritant differs in (juantity, or when some special quality in them has a specific action on one or another tissue. There is in fever at first a relaxation of the small blood vessels, which may have been preceded b}' a contraction of the same if there was a chill, and as a consequence there is an acceleration of the cur- rent of the blood. There is, then, an elevation of the peripheral temperature, followed by a lowering of tension in the arteries and an acceleration in the movement of the heart. These conditions may be produced by a primary irritation of the nerve centers of the brain from the effects of heat, as is seen in thermic fever, or sunstroke, or by the entrance into the blood stream of disease-producing organisms or their chemical products, as in anthrax, rinderpest, influenza, etc. There are times when it is difficult to distinguish between the exist- ence of fever as a disease and a temporary feverish condition which is the result of excessive work. Like the condition of congestion of the lungs, which is normal up to a certain degree in the lungs of a race horse after a severe race, ant I morbid when it produces more than temporai-y phenomena or when it causes distinct lesions, the tem- perature may rise from physiological causes as nuich as four degrees, so fever, or, as it is better termed, a feverish condition, may follow any work or other employment of eneigy in which excessive tissue 40 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. change has taken place; but if the consequences are ephemeral, and no recognizable lesion is apparent, it is not considered morbid. This condition, however, may predispose to severe organic disturbance and local inflammations which will cause disease, as an animal in this condition is liable to take cold and develop lung fever or a severe enteritis, if chilled or otherwise exposed. Fever in all anunals is characterized by the same general phe- nomena, but we find the intensity of the symptoms modified by the species of animals affected, by the races which subdivide the species, by the families which form groups of the races, and by certain condi- tions in individuals themselves. For example, a pricked foot in a Thoroughbred may cause intense fever, while the same injury in the foot of a Clydesdale may scarcely cause a visible general symptom. In the horse, fever produces the following symptoms : The normal body temperature, which varies from 99° to 100° F., is elevated from 1° to 9°. A temperature of 102° or 103° F. is mod- erate fever, 104° to 105° F. is high, and 106° F. and over is excessive. The temperature is accurately measured by means of a clinical ther- mometer inserted in the rectum. This elevation of temperature can readily be felt by the hand placed in the mouth of the animal, or in the rectum, and in the cleft betw^een the hind legs. It is usually appreciable at any point over the surface of the body and in the expired air emitted from the nos- trils. The ears and cannons are often as hot as the rest of the body, but are sometimes cold, which denotes a debility in the circulation and irregular distribution of the blood. The pulse, which in a healthy horse is felt beating about 42 to 48 times in the minute, is increased to 60, 70, 90, or even 100. The respirations are increased from 14 or 16 to 24, 30, 36, or even more. With the commencement of a fever the horse usually has diminished appetite, or it may have total loss of appetite if the fever is excessive. There is, however, a vast differ- ence among horses in this regard. With the same degree of eleva- tion of temperature one horse may lose its appetite entirely, while another, usually of the more common sort, will eat at hay throughout the course of the fever, and will even continue to eat oats or other grains. Thirst is usually increased, but the animal desires only a small quantity of water at a time, and in most cases of fever a bucket of water should be kept standing before the patient, which may be allowed to drink ad libitum. The skin becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. Sweating is almost unknown in the early stage of fevers, but frequently occurs later in their course, when an out- break of warm sweat is often a most favorable symptom. The mucous membranes, which are most easily examined in the conjunctivae of the eyes and inside of the mouth, change color if the fever is an FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DISEASE, 41 acute one: without alteiatiou of blood the mucous inenibriines become of a rosy or tleep-red color at the outset; if the fever is attended with distinct alteration of the blood, as in influenza, and at the end of two cr three days in severe cases of pneuuionia or other extensive inflam- matory troubles the mucous membranes are tinged Avith yellow, whicli may even become a deep ocher in color, the result of the decomposi- tion of the blood corpuscles and the freeing of their coloring matter, ■which acts as a stain. At the outset of a fever the various glands are checked in their secretions, the salivary glands fail to secrete the saliva, and we find the surface of the tongue and inside of the cheeks dry and covered with a brownish, bad-suielling deposit. The excre- tion from the liver and intestinal glands is diminished and produces an inactivity of the digestive organs which causes a consti]iation. If this is not remedied at an early period, the undigested nuiterial acts as an irritant, and later we may have it followed by an inflamma- tory process, producing a severe diarrhea. The excretion from the kidneys is sometimes at first entirely sup- pressed. It is always considerably diminished, and what urine is passed is dark in color, undergoes ammoniacal change rapidly, and deposits quantities of salts. At a later period the diminished excre- tion may be replaced by an excessive excretion, which aids in carrying off waste products and usually indicates an amelioration of the fever. While the ears, cannons, and hoofs of a horse suffering from fever are usually found hot, they may frequently alternate from hot to cold, or be much cooler than they normally are. This latter condition usually indicates great weakness on the part of the circulatory system. It is of the greatest importance, as an aid in diagnosing the gravity of an attack of fever and as an indication in the selection of its mode of treatment, to recognize the exact cause of a febrile condition in the horse. In certain cases, in very nervous animals, in which fever is the result of nerve influence, a simple anodyne, or even only quiet with continued care and nursing, will sometimes be sufficient to dimin- ish it. When fever is the result of local injury, the cure of the cause produces a cessation in the constitutional symptouis. "\Mien it is the result of a pneumonia or other severe parenchymatous inflam- mation, it usually lasts for a definite time, and subsides with the jBrst improvement of the local trouble, but in these cases we constantly have exacerbations of fever due to secondary inflammatory processes, such as the formation of small abscesses, the development of second- ary bronchitis, or the deaih of a limited quantity of tissue (gangrene). In specific cases, such as influenza, strangles, and sepficemia. there is a definite poison in the blood-vessel system and carried to the heart and to the nervous system, which produces a peculiar irritation, usually lasting for a s])ecific period, during wliich the temperature can be but slightly diminished by any remedy. 42 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. In cases attended with complications, the diagnosis at times be- comes still more difficult, as at the end of a case of influenza which becomes complicated with pneumonia. The high temperature of the simple inflammatory disease may be grafted on that of the specific trouble, and the determination of the cause of the feyer, as between the two, is therefore frequently a difficult matter but an important one, as upon it depends the mode of treatment. Any animal suffering from feyer, whateyer the cause, is much more susceptible to attacks of local inflammation, which become com- plications of the original disease, than are animals in soimd health. In feyer we haye the tissues and the walls of the blood yessels weak- ened, we haye an increased current of more or less altered blood flowing through the yessels and stagnating in the capillaries, which need but an exciting cause to transform the passiye congestion of feyer into an actiye congestion and acute inflammation. These con- ditions become still more distinct when the feyer is accompanied with a decided deterioration in the blood itself, as is seen in influenza, septicemia, and at the termination of seyere pneumonias. Feyer, with its symptoms of increased temperature, acceleration of the pulse, acceleration of respiration, dry skin, diminished secre- tions, etc., must be considered as an indication of organic disturb- ance. This organic disturbance may be the result of local inflamma- tion or other irritants acting through the neryes on nerye centers, alterations of the blood, in which a poison is carried to the nerye cen- ters, or direct irritants to the nerye centers themselyes, as in cases of heat stroke, injury to the brain, etc. The treatment of feyer depends upon its cause. One of the impor- tant factors in treatment is absolute quiet. This may be obtained b}^ placing a sick horse in a box stall, away from other animals and extraneous noises and sheltered from excessiye light and drafts of air. Anodynes, belladonna, hyoscyamus, and opium act as antipy- retics simply by quieting the neryous system. As an irritant exists in the blood in most cases of feyer, any remedy which will fayor the excretion of foreign elements from it will diminish this cause. We therefore use diaphoretics to stimulate the sweat and excretions from the skin: diuretics to fayor the elimination of matter by the kidneys: cholagogues and laxatiyes to increase the action of the liyer and intestines, and to drain from these important organs all the waste material which is aiding to choke up and congest their rich plexuses of blood yessels. The heart becomes stimulated to increased action at the outset of a feyer. but this does not indicate increased strength ; on the contrary, it indicates the action of an irritant to the heart that will soon weaken it. It is, therefore, irrational further to depress the heart by the use of such drugs as aconite. It is better to strenathen it and to fayor the elimination of the substance that is FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DISEASE. 43 irritating it. The increased bk)od pressure tliroiip^hotit the body may be diminished by lessening: the quantity of bhmd. This is ol)tained in some cases witli advantagfe when the disease is but startinvhich draw to the surface the fluid of the blood, thereby lessening its vol- ume without having the disadvantage of impoverishing the ele- ments of the blood found in bleeding. In many cases antipyretics given by the mouth and cold applied to the skin are most useful. When the irritation which is the cause of fever is a specific one, either in the form of bacteria (living organisms), as in glanders, tuberculosis, influenza, septicemia, etc., or in the form of a foreign element, as in rheumatism, gout, hemaglobinuria, and other so-called diseases of nutrition, we employ remedies which have been found to have a direct specific action on them. Among the specific remedies for various diseases are counted quinin, carbolic acid, salicylic acid, antipyrene. mercury, iodin, the empyreumatic oils, tars, resins, aro- matics, sulphur, and a host of other drugs, some of which are of known effect and others of which are theoretical in action. Certain remedies, like simple aromatic teas, vegetable acids, such as vinegar, lemon juice, etc., alkalines in the form of salts, sweet spirits of niter, etc.. which are houseliold remedies, are always useful, because they act on the excreting organs and ameliorate the effects of fever. Other remedies, which arc to be used to influence the cause of fever, must be selected with judgment and from a thorough knowledge of the nature of the disjcuse. METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. By Ch. B. Michener. V, S. [Revised by Leonard Tearson, l\. S., V. M. D.] ^fedicinc may enter the body tlirongli any of tlie folio-wing: desig- nated channels: First, by the mouth; second, by the air passages; third, by the skin; fourth, by the tissue beneath the skin (hypo- dermic methods) ; fifth, by the rectum: sixth, by the genito-urinary passages; and, seventh, by the blood (intravenous injections). By the mouth. — Medicines can be given by the mouth in the form of solids, as powders or pills; liquids, and pastes, or electuaries. Powders. — Solids administered as powders should be as finely pul- verized as possible, in order to obtain rapid solution and absorption. Their action is in this way facilitated and intensified. Powders must be free from any irritant or caustic action upon the mouth. Those that are without any disagreeable taste or smell are readily eaten Avith the feed or taken in the drinking water. When placed with the feed they should first be dissolved or suspended in water and thus sprinkled on the feed. If mixed di'y the horse will often leave the medicine in the bottom of his manger. Xonirritant powders may be given in capsules, as balls are given. Pills, or " &rt77,9," when properly made, are cylindrical in shape, 2 inches in length and about three-fourths of an inch in diameter. Thej'^ should be fresh, but if necessary to keep them some time they should be made up with glycerin, or some such agent, to prevent their becoming too hard. Very old. hard balls are sometimes passed whole with the manure without being acted upon at all. Paper is sometimes wrapped around balls when given, if they are so sticky as to adhere to the fingers or the balling gun. Paper used for this pur- l)ose should be thin but firm, as the tougher tissue papers. Balls are preferred to drenches when the medicine is extremely disagreeable or nauseating; when the dose is not too large ; when the horse is difficult to drench; or when the medicine is intended to act slowly. Certain medicines can not or should not be made into balls, as medicines requiring to be given in large doses, oils, caustic substances, unless in small dose and diluted and thoroughh^ mixed with the vehicle, deli- quescent, or efflorescent salts. Substances suitable for balls can be made uj) by the addition of honey, sirup, soap, etc., when required for immediate use. Gelatin capsules of different sizes are now obtain- able and are a convenient means of giAing medicines in ball form. 44 METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 45 TMien balls are to be given we shouM observe the followines should be clean, strong, and smooth about its neck: it should be without shoulders, tapering, and of a size to suit the amount to be given. A horn or tin bottle may be better, becatise it is not so easily broken by the teeth. If the dose is a small one the horse's head may be held up by the left hand, while the medicine is poured into the mouth by the right. The left thumb is to be placed in the angle of the lower jaw. and the fingers spread 46 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. out in such manner as to support the lower lip. Should the dose be large, the horse ugly, or the attendant unable to support the head as directed above, the head is then to be held up by running the tines of a long-handled wooden fork under the noseband of the halter or the halter strap or a rope may be fastened to the noseband and thrown over a limb, beam, or through a pulley suspended from the ceiling. Another way of supporting the head is to place a loop in the end of a rope, and introduce this loop into the mouth just behind the upper front teeth or tusks of the ujDper jaw, the free end to be run through a pulley, as before described, and held by an assistant. It is never to be fastened, as the horse might in that case do himself serious injury. The head is to be elevated just enough to prevent the horse from throwing the liquid out of his mouth. The line of the face should be horizontal, or only the least bit higher. If the head is drawn too high the animal can not swallow with ease or even with safety. (If this is doubted, just fill your mouth with water, throw back the head as far as possible, and then trj^ to swallow.) The per- son giving the drench should stand on some object in order to reach the horse's mouth — on a level, or a little above it. The bottle or horn is then to be introduced at the side of the mouth, in front of the molar teeth, in an upward direction. This will cause the horse to open his mouth, when the base of the bottle is to be elevated, and about 4 ounces of the liquid allowed to escape on the tongue as far back as possible, care being taken not to get the neck of the bottle between the back teeth. The bottle is to be immediately removed, and if the horse does not swallow this can be encouraged by rubbing the fingers or neck of the bottle against the roof of the mouth, occa- sionally removing them. As soon as this is swallowed repeat the operation until he has taken all the drench. If coughing occurs, or if, by any mishap, the bottle should be crushed in the mouth, lower the head immediately. Do not rub, pinch, or pound the throat nor draw out the tongue when giving a drench. These processes in no way aid the horse to swallow and oftener do harm than good. In drenching, swallowing may be hastened by pouring into the nose of the horse, while the head is high, a few teaspoonfuls of clean water, but drenches must never he given through the nose. Large quantities of medicine given by pour- ing into the nose are liable to strangle the animal, or, if the medicine is irritating, it sets up an inflammation of the nose, fauces, windpipe, and sometimes the lungs. By the air passages. — Medicines are administered to the lungs and upper air passages by insufflation, inhalation, injection, and nasal douche. InySufjiation consists in blowing an impalpable powder directly into the nose. It is but rarely resorted to. METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 47 Inhalaiion. — Gaseous and volatile medicines are given by inhala- tion, as is also medicated steam or vapor. Of the gases used there may be mentioned, as the chief ones, sulphurous acid gas and, occa- sionally, chlorin. The animal or animals are to be placed in a tight room, where these gases are generated until the atmosphere is suffi- ciently impregnated Avith them. Volatile medicines — as the an- esthetics (ether, chloroform, etc.) — ai"e to be given by the attending surgeon onlv. Medicated rapoi-s are to be inhaled by placing a bucket containing hot water, vinegar and water, scalded hay or bran, to which carbolic acid, iodin, compound tincture of benzoin, or other medicines have been added, in the bottom of a long grain bag. The horse's nose is to be inserted into the top of the bag, and he thus inhales the ''medicated steam." Care must be taken not to have it hot enough to scald the animal. The vapor from scalding bran or hay is often thus inhaled to favor discharges in sore throat or '• distemper."' Injections are made into the trachea by means of a hypodermic syringe. This method of medication is used for the purpose of treat- ing local diseases of the trachea and upper bronchial tubes. It has also been used as a mode of administering remedies for their constitu- tional effect, but is now rarely used for this purpose. The n^asal douche is employed by the veterinarian in treating some local diseases of the nasal chambei'S. Special appliances and profes- sional knowledge are necessary when using lifjuid medicines by this method. It is not often resorted to, even by veterinary surgeons, since, as a rule, the hoi*se objects very strongly to this mode of medication. By the skin. — Medicines are often administered to our hair- covered animals by the skin, yet care must be taken in applying some medicines — as tobacco water, carbolic-acid solutions, strong creolin solutions, mercurial ointment, etc. — over the entire body, as l^oisoning and death follow in some instances from absorption thiough the skin. For the same reasons care must also be exercised and poisonous medicines not applied over very large raw or abraded surfaces. With domestic animals medicines are only to be applied by the skin to allay local pain or cure local disease. By the TTssi e reneatii the skin (hypodermatic method). — Medicines are frequently given by the hypodermic syringe under the skin. It is not safe for any but medical or veterinary practitioners to use this form of medication, since the medicines thus given are ])owerful poisons. There are many precautions to be observed, and a knowledge of anatomy is indispensable. One of the chief precau- tions has to do with the sterilization of the syringe. If it is not sterile an abscess may be produced. By the RECTr:si. — Medicines may be given by the rectum when thev can not l)e iiiven bv the mouth, or when thev are not retained in 48 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the stomach ; when we want a local action on the last ^t ; when it i desired to destroy the small worms infesting the large bowels or tt stimulate the peristaltic motion of the intestines and cause evacual tion. Medicines are in such cases given in the form of suppositories oi as liquid injections (enemas.) Foods may also be given in this way Suppositories are conical bodies made up of oil of theobroma and opium (or whatever medicine is indicated in special cases), and are introduced into the rectum or vagina to allay irritation and pain of these parts. They are not much used in treating horses. Enemas^ when given for absorption, should be small in quantity, neutral or slightly acid in reaction, and of a temperature of from 90° to 100° F. These, like feeds given by the rectum, should be intro- duced only after the last bowel has been emptied by the hand or by copious injections of tepid water. Enemas, or clysters, if to aid the action of physics, should be in quantities sufficient to distend the bowel and cause the animal to eject them. Simple w^ater, salt and water, or soap and water, in quantities of a gallon or more, may be given every half hour. It is best that the horse retain them for some little time, as the liquid serves to moisten the dung and favors a pas- sage. Stimulating enemas, as glycerin, should be administered after those already mentioned have emptied the last bowel, with the pur- pose of still further increasing the natural motion of the intestines and aiding the purging medicine. Liquids may be thrown into the rectum by the means of a large syringe or a pump. A very good " irrigator " can be bought of any tinsmith at a trifling cost, and should be constantly at hand on every stock farm. It consists of a funnel about C inches deep and 7 inches in diameter, which is to be furnished with a prolongation to which a piece of rubber hose, such as small garden hose, 4 feet long may be attached. The hose, well oiled, is to be inserted gently into the rec- tum about 2 feet. The liquid to be injected may then be poured in the funnel and the pressure of the atmosphere will force it into the bowels. This appliance is better than the more complicated and expensive ones. Ordinaiy cold water or even ice-cold water is highly recommended by many as a rectal injection for horses overcome by the excessive heat of summer, and may be given by this simple pipe. By the gexito-tjrinaey passages. — This method of medication is especially useful in treating local diseases of the genito-urinary organs. It finds it chief application in the injection and cleansing of the uterus and vagina. For this purpose a large syringe or the irrigator described above may be used. By the blood. — Injections directly into veins are to be practiced by medical or veterinary practitioners only, as are probably some other means of giving medicines — intratracheal injections, etc. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Diseases of the He Plate III. m o^s^Q-32^iiSi^:ii a D moi^ocvo — rsinVio DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. By CH. B. MlCHENKK, V. S. lE^-vlPed by John R. MoLler, V. M. D] It is not an eas}' task to write " a plain account of the common diseases, with directions for preventive measures, hygienic care, and the simpler forms of medical treatment," of the digestive organs of the horse. Being limited as to space, the endeavor has been made to give simply an outline — to state the most important facts — leaving many gaps, and continually checking the disposition to write any- thing like a full description as to cause, prevention, and modes of treatment of diseases. WATER. It is generally held, at least in practice, that any water tnat stock can be induced to drink is sufficiently pure for their use. This prac- tice occaaons losses that would startle us if statistics were at hand. Water that is impure from the presence of decomposing organic mat- ter, such as is found in wells and ponds in ch»se proximity to manure heaps and cesspools, is frequently the cause of diarrhea, dysentery, and many other diseases of stock, while water that is impregnated with different pois<^»ns and contaminated in very many instances with specific media of contagion produces death. Considering first the quantity of water required by the horse, it may be stated that when our animals have access to water continually they never drink to excess. Were the horse subjected to ship voyages or any other circumstances where he must depend upon his attendant for the supply of water, it may be roughly stated that he requires a daily average of alx>ut 8 gallons of water. This varies somewhat upon the character of his feed: if upon green feed, less water will be needed than when fed upon dry hay and grain. The time of giving water should be carefully studied. At rest, the horse should receive it at least three times a day; when at work. more fretoms are as follows: The horse is able to swallow a few mouthfuls without apparent difficulty; then he will stop feeding, paw, contract the muscles of his neck, and eject a portion of the feed through his nose or U)outh, or it will gradually work down to the stomach. As the dilatation thus empties itself the symptoms grad- ually subside, only to reappear when he has again taken solid feed. Liquids pass without any, or but little, inconvenience. Should this dilatation exist in the cervical region, surgical interference may sometimes prove effectual; if in the thoracic portion, iu)thing can be done, and the patient rapidly passes from hand to hand by " swap- ping," until, at no distant date, the contents of the sac become too lirm to be dislodged as heretofore, and the animal succumbs. DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. As a ride it is mo^t diffiodt to distinguish between diseases of the stomach and of the intestines of the horse. The reason for this is that the stomach is I'elatively small. It lies away from the abdom- inal wall, and so pres.sure from without can not be biought to bear upon it to reveal sensitiveness or pain. Nor does enlargement, or ilistention. of the stomach pioduce visible alteration in the form of the abdomen of the horse. Moreover, it is a rule to which there aie few exceptions, that an irritant or cause of disease of the stomach acts likewise upon the intestines, so that it is ciistomarv to find theui similarly deianged. For these reasons it is logical to discuss together 66 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. the diseases of the stomach and intestines and to point out such localizations in one organ or another as are of importance in recog- nizing and treating the diseases of the digestive organs of the horse. It should be understood that gastritis signifies an inflammation of the stomach and enteritis an inflammation of the intestines. The two terms may be used together to signify a disease of the stomach and intestines, as gastroenteritis. COLIC. The disease of the horse that is most frequently met with is what is termed "colic," and many are the remedies that are reputed to be " sure cures " for this disease. Let us discover, then, what the word " colic " means. This term is applied loosely to almost all diseases of the organs of the abdomen that are accompanied with pain. If the horse evinces abdominal pain, he probably will be considered as suf- fering with colic, no matter whether the difficulty is a cramp of the bowel, an internal hernia, overloading of the stomach, or a painful disease of the bladder or liver. Since these conditions difl^er so much in their causation and their nature, it is manifestly absurd to treat them alike and to expect the same drugs or procedures to relieve them all. Therefore, it is important that, so far as possible, the various diseased states that are so roughly classed together as colic shall be separated and individualized in order that appropriate treatments may be prescribed. With this object in view, colics will be consid- ered under the following headings: (1) Engorgement colic, (2) ob- struction colic, (3) flatulent or tympanitic colic, (4) spasmodic colic. Worm colic is discussed under the heading " Gastrointestinal parasites," page 90. The general symptoms of abdominal pain, and therefore of colic, are restlessness, cessation of whatever the horse is about, lying down, looking around toward the flank, kicking with the hind feet upward and forward toward the belly, jerky switching of the tail, stretching as though to urinate, frequent change of position, and groaning. In the more intense forms the horse plunges about, throws himself, rolls, assumes unnatural positions, as sitting on the haunches, and grunts loudly. Usually the pain is not constant, and during the intermis- sions the horse may eat and appear normal. During the period of pain sweat is poured out freely. Sometimes the horse moves con- stantly in a circle. The respirations are accelerated, and usually there is no fever. Engorgement colic. — This form of colic consists in an overload- ing of the stomach with feed. The horse may have been overfed or the feed may have collected in the stomach through failure of this organ to digest it and })ass it backward into the intestines. Even a normal quantity of feed that the horse is unaccustomed to may cause DISEASES OF TJIE DIGESTIVE OKGaNS. 67 disease. Henco a sudden t'han«^e of feed may piodiK-e rii^(»r<.^Mueiit colic. Continued full rations while the horse is resting for a day oi" two or working too soon after feeding may serve as a cause. New oats, corn, or hay, damaged feed, or tluit which is diflicult of diges- tion, such as barley or beans, may incite engorgement colic. This disease may result from having fed the horse twice by error or from its having escaped and taken an unrestricted meal from the grain bin. Ground feeds that pack together, making a sort of dougli, may cause engorgement colic if they are not mixed with cut hay. Greedy caters are predisposed to this disease. ASi/iiij>fonu^. — The hoise shows the general signs of abdominal pain, which nuiy be long continued or of short duration. Ketching or vom- iting movements are made: these are shown by la])ored breathing, upturned upper lip. contraction of the flank, active motion at the throat, and drawing in of the nose toward the breast, causing high arching of the neck. The horse may assume a sitting position like a dog. At times the pain is very great and the hor^e makes the most violent movements, as though mad. At other times there is profound mental depression, the horse standing in a sleepy, or dazed, way, with the head down, the eyes closed, and leaning his head against the manger or wall. There is, during the struggles, profuse perspira- tion. Following retching, gas nuiy escape fiom the mouth, and this may be followed by a sour froth and st)me stomach contents. The horse can not vomit except when the stomach is violently stretched, and, if the accumulation of feed or gas is gicat enough to stretch the stomach so that vomiting is possible, it may be great enough to rup- ture that organ. So it happens not infrequently that a horse dies from ruptured stomach after vomiting. After the stomach ruptures, however, vomiting is impossible. The death rate in this foini of colic is high. Treatment. — The bowels should l)c stimulated to contraction by the use of clysters of large quantities of water and of glycerin. Veteri- narians use hypodermic injections of eserin or arecolin or intra- venous injections of bariuui chlorid, but they must be euiployed with great caution. It is not profitable to gi\e leuiedies by the stomach, for they can not be absorbed. But small doses of morphin (5 grains) or of the fluid extract of Indian heuip (li drams) may be phued in the mouth and are absorbed in part, at least, without passing to the stomach. These drugs lessen pain and thus help to overcome the violent movements that are dangerous, because they may be the means of causing rupture of the diai)hragni or stouuich. If facilities are available, relief may be afforded by passing an esophageal tube tJirough which some of the gaseous and liquid contents of the stomach may esca[)e. 68 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Rupture of the stomach. — This mostly occurs as a result of en- gorged or tympanitic stomach (engorgement colic) and from the horse violently throwing himself when so affected. It may result from disease of the coats of the stomach, gastritis, stones (calculi), tumors, or anything that closes the opening of the stomach into the intestines, and very violent pulling or jumping immediately after the animal has eaten heartily of bulky feed. These or similar causes may lead to this accident. The symptoms of rupture of the stomach are not constant or alwaj^s reliable. Always make inquiry as to what and how^ much the horse has been fed at the last meal. Vomiting may precede rupture of this organ, as stated above. This accident appears to be most liable to occur in heavy draft horses. A prominent symptom ob- served (though it may also occur in diaphragmatic hernia) is when the horse, if possible, gets the front feet on higher ground than the hind ones or sits on his haunches, like a dog. This position affords relief to some extent, and it will be maintained for several minutes; it is also quickly regained when the horse has changed it for some other. Colicky symptoms, of course, are present, which vary much and present no diagnostic value. As the case progresses the horse Avill often stretch forward the fore legs, lean backward and down- ward until the belly nearly touches the ground, and then rise up again with a groan, after which the fluid from his nostrils is issued in increased quantity. The pulse is fast and weak, breathing hur- ried, body bathed in a clammy sweat, limbs tremble violently, the horse reels or staggers from side to side, and death quickly ends the scene. In the absence of any pathognomonic symptom we must consider the history of the case; the symptoms of colic that cease suddenly and are succeeded by cold sweats and tremors; the pulse quick and small and thready, grov/ing weak and more frequent, and at length running down and becoming altogether imperceptible ; looking back at the flank and groaning; sometimes crouching with the hind quar- ters ; with or without eructation and vomiting. There is no treatment that can be of any use whatever. Could we be sure of our diagnosis it would be better to destroy the animal at once. Since, however, there is always the possibility of a mistake in diagonsis, we may give powdered opium in 1-dram doses every two or three hours, with the object of keeping the stomach as quiet as possible. Obstruction colic. — The stomach or bowels may be obstructed by accumulations of partly digested feed (fecal matter), by foreign bodies, by displacements, by paralysis, or by abnormal growths. Impaction of the large intestines. — This is a very common bowel trouble and one which, if not promptly recognized and properly DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. (39 treated, results in death. It is caused l\v overfeedinfr. especially of bulky feed eontaiuiu<; an excess of intligestihle residue; old. dry, hard hay, or stalks when largely fed; deficiency of secretions of the intes- tinal trarts; lack of water: want of exercise, medicines, etc. Impaction of the large bowels is to be diagnosed by a slight abdoniiiKil pain, which may disappear for a day or two to reappear with more violence. The feces are passed somewhat more fi'e<|uently, but in smaller (juantities and drier; the ab(h)men is full, but not dis- tended with gas; the horse at first is noticed to paw ami soon I'egins to look baek at his sides. Probably one of the most characteristic fcyniptoms is the position assumed when down. He lies Hat on his side, head an»l legs extended, occasionally raising his head to look toward his Hank; he remains on his side for from i\\e to fifteen minutes at a time. Evidently this position is the one giving the nu)st freedom from pain, lie rises at times, walks about the stall, paws, looks -it his sides, backs up against the stall, which he presses with his tail, and scon lies down again, assuming his favored position. The intestinal sounds, as heard by applying the ear to the flank, are dimin- ished, or there is no sound, indicating absence of motion of the bowels. The bowels may cease entirely to move. The i)ressure of the dis- tended intestine upon the bladder may cause the horse to make fre- ijuent attemi)ts to urinate. The pulse is but little changed at first, being full and sluggish; later, if this condition is not overcome, it becomes rapid and feelde. Horses may suffer from impaction of the Ijowels for a week, yet eventually recover, and cases extending two or even three weeks have ended favorably. As a rule, however, they seldom last more than four or five days, many, in fact, dying sooner than this. The treatment c<»nsists of efforts to produce movement of the bowels and to prevent inflammation of the same from arising. A large cathaitic is to be given as early as possible. Either of the f(»llow- ing is recommended: Powdered Barbados aloes 1 ounce, calomel 2 dram.s, and powdered nux vomica 1 dram; or linseed oil 1 ])int and croton oil 15 drops; or from 1 pint to 1 (|uait of castor oil may be given. Some favor the administration of Epsom or (llauber's salt, 1 pound, with one-quarter pound of common .salt, claiming that this causes the horse to drink largely of water, thus mechanically soften- ing the impacted mass and favoring its expulsion. Whichever physic is selected, it is e.s.sential that a full dose be given. This is nuich better than small and repeated doses. It must be borne in mind that horses re<|uire about twenty-four hours in which to respond to a physic, and under no circumstances is it to be repeated .sooner. If aloes has been given and has failed to operate at the proper time, oil or s<»me different cathartic should then be administered. Allow 70 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. the horse all the water he will drink. Calomel may be administered in half -dram doses, the powder being placed on the tongue, one dose every two hours until four doses are given. Enemas of glycerin, 2 to 4 ounces, are often beneficial. Rubbing or kneading of the abdominal walls and the application of stimulat- ing liniments or strong mustard water also, at times, favor the ex- pulsion of this mass. Walking exercise must occasionally be given. If this treatment is faithfully carried out from the start the majority of cases will terminate favorably. When relief is not obtained in- flammation of the bowels may ensue and cause death. Constipation, or costiveness. — This is often witnessed in tiie horse, and particularly in the foal. Many colts die every year from failure on the part of the attendant to note the condition of the bowels soon after birth. Whenever the foal fails to pass any feces, and in partic- ular if it presents any signs of colicky pains — straining, etc. — imme- diate attention must be given it. As a rule, it will be necessary only to give a few injections of soapy water in the rectum and to introduce the finger through the anus to break down any hardened mass of dung found there. If this is not effective a purgative must be given. Oils are the best for these young animals, and preferably castor oil, giving from 2 to 4 ounces. The foal should always get the first of the mother's milk, which, for a few days, possesses decidedly laxative properties. If a mare, while suckling, is taking laudanum, morphin, atropia, or similar medicines, the foal during this time should be fed by hand and the mare milked upon the ground. Constipation in adult horses is often the result of long feeding on dry, innutritions feed, deficiency of intestinal secretions, scanty water supply, or lack of exercise. If the case is not complicated with colicky symptoms a change to light, sloppy diet, linseed gruel or tea, with plenty of exer- cise, is all that is required. If colic exists a cathartic is' needed. In very many instances the constipated condition of the bowels is due to lack of intestinal secretions, and when so caused may be treated by giving fluid extract of belladonna in 2-dram doses three times a day and handful doses of Epsom salt daily in the feed. It is always best, when possible, to overcome this trouble by a change of diet rather than by the use of medicines. For the relief of constipation such succulent feeds as roots, grass, or green forage are recommended. Silage, however, should be fed sparingly, and not at all unless it is in the very best condition. Moldy silage may cause fatal disease. Foreign bodies {ealevll, stones) hi the stomach. — There are prob- ably but few symptoms exhibited by the horse that will lead one to suspect the presence of gastric calculi, and possibly none by which we can mimistakably assert their presence. They have been found most frequently in millers' horses fed sweepings from the mills. A de- DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 71 pra\e(l and c-apiici(»us appetite is ct)uim()U in hor.ses that liave a stone foiiuin«iC ill tilt' stomachs. Tlierc is a ilisposition to eat the wood- work of tlie stable, eaitli, antl, in fact, ahnost any substance within their reaeh. This symptom must not, howe\ei', be consideied as j)atho^nomonic, since it is obser\ed whi'n calculi are not present. Occasional colics may lesult from these "stomach stones," and when the latter hnlire at the outlet of the stomach they may j^ive rise to symptoms id" en*;oi«;ed stomach, already ilescribeil. There is. of course, no treatment that will prove effective. Remedies to move the bowels, to relieve pain, and to cond)at infhunmation shoidd be ^iven. Intestinal concntions {calculi or f^tatus in the intcfs fines). — These concretions are usually found in the lar^e bowels, though they are occasionally seen in the small intestines. They are of various sizes, Avei«ichin^ from 1 ounce to :.*."> pounds; they may be sing:le or multiple, and differ in composition and appearance, some being soft (com- posed mostly of animal or veijetable matter), while others are porous, or honeycombed (consisting of animal and mineral matter), and others are entirely hard and stonelike. The hair balls, so common to the stomach and intestines of cattle, are very rare in horses. Intestinal calculi form around some foreign body, as a rule — a nail or piec€ of wood — whose shape they may assume to a certain extent. Layei-s are arranged concentrically around such nucleus until the sizes above spoken of are attained. These stones are also often found in millers' horses, as well also as in horses in limestone dis- tricts, where the water is hard. When the calculi attain a sufficient size and become lodged oi- blocked in some part of the intestines, they cause obstruction, inflammation of the bowels, colicky symp- toms, and death. There are no certain signs or symi)toms that re- veal them. Kecurring colics of the type of impaction colic, but more severe, may lead one to sus{)ect the existence of this condition. PLxamination through the rectum may reveal the calculus. The symjitoms will be those of obstruction of the bowels. ITpon post-mortem examinations the.se .stones will be di.scoveivd mostly in the large bowels; the inte^itines will be inflamed or gangrenous about the point of obstruction. Sometimes calculi have been ex|)elled by the action of a physic, or they may be removed by the hand when found to occupy the rectum. As in concretions of the stomach, but little can be done in the way of treatment more than to ovei'come spasm (if any exi.st^s), and to give physics with the hope of dislodging the .stone or stones and carrying them on and outward. I ntuMsiixciption, or irn'of/inofion. — This is the slipping of a portion of the intestine into another portion immediately adjoining, like a partially turned glove finger. This may occur at any part of the bowels, but is most frequent in the small guts. The invaginated por- 72 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. tion may be slight — 2 or 3 inches only — or extensive, measuring as many feet. In intussusception, the inturned bowel is in the direction of the anus. There are adhesions of the intestines at this point, con- gestion, inflammation, or even gangrene. This accident is most liable to occur in horses that are suffering from spasm of the boAvel, or in those in which a small portion of the gut is paralyzed. The natural wormlike or ringlike contraction of the gut favors the passage of the contracted or paralyzed portion into that immediately behind it. It may occur during the existence of almost any abdominal trouble, as diarrhea, inflammation of the bowels, or from injuries, exposure to cold, etc. A fall or leaping may give the initial maldirection. Foals are most likely to be thus afflicted. Unless the invaginated portion of the gut becomes strangulated, probably no symptoms except constipation will be appreciable. Strangulation of the bowel may take place suddenly, and the horse die within 24 hours, or it may occur after several days — a week even — and death then follow. There are no symptoms positively diagnostic. Colicky pains, more or less severe and continuous, are observed, and at first there may be diarrhea, followed by con- stipation. Severe straining occurs in some instances of intussuscep- tion, and when this occurs it should receive due credit. As death approaches, the horse sweats profusely, sighs, presents an anxious countenance, the legs and ears become cold, and there is often free- dom from pain immediately before death. In some rare instances he recovers, even though the invaginated portion of the gut has become strangulated. In this case the imprisoned portion sloughs away so gradually that a union has taken place between the intestines at the point where one portion has slipped into that behind it. The piece sloughing off is found passed with the manure. Such cases are ex- ceedingly rare. Nonirritating laxatives, such as castor oil, sweet oil, or calomel in small closes, should be given. Soft feed and mucilagi- nous and nourishing drinks should be given during these attacks. E. Mayhew Michener has operated successfully on a foal with intus- susception by opening the abdomen and releasing the imprisoned gut. Volvulus, gut tie, or twisting of the howels. — These are the terms applied to the bowels when twisted or knotted. This accident is rather a common one, and frequently results from the violent manner in which a horse throws himself about when attacked by spasmodic colic. The symptoms are the same as those of intussusception and obstructions of the bowels; the same directions as to treatment are therefore to be observed. Paralysis of the intestine. — This occurs in old, debilitated animals that have been fed on coarse, innutritions fodder. This produces a condition of dilatation so pronounced as to make it impossible for the intestine to advance its contents, and so obstruction results. The DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 73 symptoms are as in other forms of ()l)struotion colic. The history of the case is of much service in diag^nosing the trouble. The treatment consists in the ailministration of laxatives. One may give 1 (juart of raw linseed oil and follow it the next day with 1 pound of (Ilauber's !-alt dissolved in a (juart of warm water. Strychnia may be given in doses of 1 grain two or three times daily. If the stagnant nuiss of feces is in the rectum, it must be removed with the hand. Ahnornud (/roirfhs, such as tumors or fibrous tissue, producing contraction or stricture, may be causes of obstruction. The colic caused by these conditions is chronic. The attacks occur at gradually shortening intervals and become progressively more severe. lielief is art'oidcd by the use of pui'gatives that render the feces soft and thin and thus enable them to pass the obstruction, but in time the con- tiacted place is liable to close so far that passage is impossible and the horse will die. Flatulent colic (ty^ipanitic colic, wind colic, or bloat). — Among the most frequent causes of this form of colic are to be men- tioned sudden changes of feed, too long fasting and feed then given while the animal is exhausted, new hay or grain, large quantities of feed that is green or that has lain in the manger for some time and become sour, indigestible feed, irregular teeth, crib biting, and, in fact, anything that produces indigestion may produce flatulent colic. Si/mptoms. — The symptoms of Avind colic are not so suddenly (leveloped nor so severe as those of cramp colic. At first the horse is noticed to be dull, paws slightly, and may or may not lie dotvn. The pains from the start are continuous. The belly enlarges, and by striking it in front of the haunches a drumlike sound results. If not soon relieved the above symptoms are aggravated, and in addition difficult breathing, bloodshot eyes, and red mucous mem- branes, l(»iid tumultuous heai't beat, profuse perspiration, trembling of front legs, sighing respiration, staggering from side to side are noticed, and. finally, plunging foiward dead. The diagnostic symp- tom of flatulent colic is the distention of the bowels with gas, detected by the bloated appearance and resonance on percussion. Trmtment. — The treatment for wind colic difl'ers very greatly from that of cramp colic. Absorbents are of some .«;ervice, and charcoal may be given in any quantity. Relaxants and antispas- modics are alsf) beneficial in this foim of colic. Chloral hydi'ate not only pos.sesses these cpialities, but it also is an antifermeut and a pain reliever. It is, then, particularly well adapted to the treatment of wind colic, and should be given in the same-sized doses and in the mannei- directed foi- spasmodic colic. Diluted alcohol oi* whisky may be given, or arf)matic spirits of ammonia in 1-ounce doses at >hort intervals. mSEAMKB fff THK mumU%E. ma&JLSfi, 75 iHiiwfil at a tone: tlu» i» «r Uadikr. Is nfinr lii^ a e toMnj waya in wfcich tfcefciae< nm i nfcg pt««- ece of pain. As a matter of fact. » a€ the Mwhirg cr kidacTS otbc horse are exceeding! j rare. Co recapitulate the ^mptomc^ of ma'iiwfii' ettSitz The Mstorj «^ ti case, the type of horse, the mni i irnnrab of the atiatrir, the »- r-iased intestinal sounds, the intcrrals of eaae (whkh beeaaae ml '■ it^ r duration as the case progresses >. the riolait pain, the aaranl .i^^rature and pulse dnrin^ the interrak of eaae. the f 1 1 tfm nt afe- teipts to urinate, etc^ dioold be kepc in mind, and there is thcB hm iide danger of confounding this with other foraft of cobc Weatment. — Since the pain is doe to s|iaau or cnanp of the fooweis^ roiicines that overeune spasn^i — antJaposaiodics — are the caid. Chloral hydrate may be used. This is to be givcB in a oil ounce in a pint of water as a drench. As this drug is irxttjjii %m til throat and stomach, it has to be weQ dilated. A ?>es. tliey may then be ivpeated. The bodty jh o nlJ l>ewarmly clothed and perspiration induced. Blankecs dipped in ^€7 hot water to Avhicli a small quantity of turpentuw has Wen aded should l)e placed around the belly and ov>vered with drT blakets, or the alxlomen may be rublted with stimulating hmmenifes ornustarvl water. The ditficulty. however, of ar ->ot Uanbrts an keeping thoni in place forces us in iiHtst ii.>..,....> to disp^NKae wii them. If the cnimp is due to UTitants in ihe b*.»wels^ a o«re is lujcomplete until a cathartic of 1 omuv of aloie^ or 1 j>iut of lnk?«w^i oils given. Injoitions of warm, s^vipy water v>r :>alt and water into thdvctum aid the cun\ .ectal injei'tious, clystei-s, or emnuas as a rule siuuiul Iv lukewarm^ all fnuu r> to r» quarts aiv i\> U» given at a time. Vhev aiay be tvuatod every half Iumu* if utw^-Jsjuy. i«t\'^( ^^aiv is tk» tv (abNH »K*t (o ijinv the itvtum in giving s»h^\ lUJectaukiK A )al>l^t' syrti^ee or a I'iic ol rubber bo>v I or ."» ftvt long, with a funnel \>\\K nllord.s llic Uvst means bv which tv» gi\e them syinp> or the has*^ intrtubuHsl into the iw^um must l»ebl«ui, •, Miji smooth; it is ((> U> tlu>r\Miy;l\ly oiUsl and iheu v (hi^ugh the amis in a sliglitlv up\vai\l dii^vtiou. M^v bo vtiidcil, for the ixvtuui mav U* buvi^tinl auvi 5«emu4sv\ or » on ilontii ivsult, Kxoivise will aid the acti^m ^^f tb«» K^x^-vls m wis iiiiiNiiuihir »i>ll»Ky tr\M»blos, but m^oiv galloping or ti\>tlii\g is tv* U> 76 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. avoided. If the horse can have a loose box or paddock, it is the best, as he will then take what exercise he wants. If the patient is ex- tremely violent, it is often wise to restrain him by leading: him with a halter, since rupture of the stomach or displacement of the bowels may result and complicate the trouble. INDIGESTION OR GASTROINTESTINAL CATARRH. From the facts that they merge insensibly into each other and usually occur simultaneously, there is ample reason for considering these conditions together. This condition may be acute — that is, of sudden onset — or it may be chronic. The changes of structure pro- duced by this disease occur in the mucous membrane lining of the stomach and intestines. This membrane becomes red from increased blood supply or from hemorrhage into it, is swollen, and is covered by a coating of slimy mucus. In some especially severe cases the mem- brane is destroyed in spots, causing the appearance of ulcers or of erosions. The causes of indigestion are numerous, but nearly all are the result of errors in feeding. Some horses are naturalh'^ endowed with weak digestive organs, and such are predisposed to this condition. Anything that irritates the stomach or intestines may cause this disease. Feeds that the animal is unaccustomed to, sudden changes of diet, imperfectly cured, unripe, or damaged feeds are all fruitful causes, and so are worms. In suckling foals this condition may come from some disease of the dam that renders her milk indigestible, or from overexertion or over- heating of the mare. Another prolific cause is bad teeth, making mastication imperfect, and thus causing the horse to swallow his feed in a condition unfit for the action of the digestive juices. "Working a horse too soon or too hard after feeding may cause either colic or indigestion. Any condition that reduces the vitality, such as disease, overwork, poor feed, or lack of care, may directly bring on indiges- tion by weakening the digestive organs. Symptoms. — Indigestion is characterized by irregular appetite; refusing all feed at times, and at others eating ravenously; the appe- tite is not only irregular, but is often depraved ; there is a disposition on the part of the horse to eat unusual substances, such as wood, soiled bedding, or even his own feces; the bowels are irregular to-day, loose and bad smelling, to-morrow bound ; Avhole grain is often passed in the feces, and the hay passed in balls or impacted masses, under- going but little change: the horse frequently passes considerable quantities of sour-smelling wind. The animal loses flesh, the skin presents a hard, dry appearance and seems very tight (hide-bound). If the stomach is verv seriouslv involved, the horse may yawn by DISEASES OF THE DIOESTIVE ORGANS. 77 stretcliin:«rish and dull. 'I'lio abdomen gradually becomes small, giving a " tucked up " appearance, or, on the other hand, it becomes flaccid and pendulous. Tnatnunf. — (3ne shouhl commence with the feed — its (|ualitv, quantity, and time of feeding; examine the water supply. ;uul see, ])esides. that it is given before feeding: then carefully observe the condition of the mouth and teeth: and. continuing the observations as best we may, endeavor to find the seat of the trouble. If the teeth are sharp or irregular they must be i-aspcd down: if any are decayed they must be extracted: if indigestion is due to ra\enous eating or bolting, the feed mu>t then be given from a large manger where the grain can be spread and the horse thus compelled to eat slowly. Any irritation, such as worms, undigested feed, etc.. that is oper- ating as a cause is to be removed by appropriate treatment, as advised elsewhere. If there is a tendency to distention of the stomach and bowels, with gas, during indigestion, tlie following may be used: Baking soda, powdered ginger, and powdered gentian, equal parts. These are to be thoroughly mixed and given in heaiVing tablespoonful doses, twice a day, before feeding. This powder is best given by dissolving the above-named quantity in a half pint of water and given as a drench. As a digestive tonic the following is good : Cilauber's salt. '2 pounds ; common salt. 1 pound; baking soda, one-half pound. Of this a heaping tablespoonful may be given in each feed. If diarrhea exists, the treatment advised below may be used. DIARRHEA. Diarrhea is due to indigestion or intestinal catarrh or to irritation of the bowels from eating moldy or musty feed, drinking stagnant Avater, diseased condition of the teeth, eating irritating substances, to l)eing kept on lov,\ marshy j^astures, and to exposure during cold nights, or in low, damp stables. Some horses are i)redisposed to scour and are called "'washy" by horsemen; they are those with long bodies, long legs, and narrow, flat sides. Horses of this build arc almost sure to scour if fed or watered immediately before being \)\\t to work. Fast or road work, of cour.se. aggravates this trouble. Diar- rhea may exist as a complication of other diseases, as pneumonia and influenza, for instance, and again during the disea.ses of the liver. The symptoms are the frequent evacuations of licpiid stools, with or without i)ronounced abdominal pain, loss of appetite, emaciation. vU\ Treatment is at times very simjile. but re<|uircs the utmost care and judgment. If due to faulty feed or water it is sufficient to change these. If it results from some in-itant in the intestines this is best 78 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. gotten rid of by the administration of an oleaginous purge, for which nothing is better than castor oil, although raw linseed oil may be used if the case is not severe. The diarrhea often disappears with the ces- sation of the operation of the medicine. If, however, purging con- tinues it may be checked by giving wheat flour in water, starch water, white-oak bark tea, chalk, opium, or half-dram doses of sul- phuric acid in one-half pint of water twice or thrice daily. Good results follow the use of powdered opium 2 drams and subnitrate of bismuth 1 ounce, repeated three times a day. In all cases it should be remembered to look to the water and feed the horse is receiving. If either of these is at fault it is at once to be discontinued. We should feed sparingly of good, easily digested feeds. With that peculiar build of nervous horses that scour on the road but little can be done as a rule. They should be watered and fed as long as possi- ble before going on a drive. If there is much flatulency accompany- ing diarrhea baking soda or other alkaline medicines may effect a cure, while if the discharges have a very disagreeable odor it may be corrected by 1 ounce of sulphite of soda or dram doses of creolin in water, repeated twice a day. Be slow to resort to either the vege- table or mineral astringents, since the majority of cases will yield to change of feed and water or the administration of oils. Afterwards feed upon wheat-flour gruel or other light feeds. The body should be warmly clothed. SuPEEPURGATioN. — This is the designation of that diarrhea, or flux from the bowels, that, at times, is induced by and follows the action of a physic. It is accompanied with much irritation or even in- flammation of the bowels and is always of a serious character. Al- though in rare instances it follows from a usual dose of physic and where every precaution has been taken, it is most likely to result under the following circumstances : Too large a dose of physic ; giv- ing physics to horses suffering from pneumonia, influenza, or other debilitating diseases: riding or driving a horse when purging: ex- posure or drafts of cold air; or giving large quantities of cold water while the physic is operating. There is always danger of super- purgation if a physic is given to a horse suffering from diseases of the respiratory organs. Small and often-repeated physics are also to be avoided, as they produce debility and great depression of the system and predispose to this disorder. '\^nien a physic is to be given one should rest the horse and give him sloppy feed until the medicine begins to operate: clothe the body with a warm blanket; keep out of drafts; give only warm water in small quantities. After a horse has purged from twelve to twenty-four hours it can mostly be stopped, or " set." as horsemen say, by feeding on dry oats and hay. Should the purging continue, however, it is best treated by giving demulcent drinks — linseed tea and oatmeal or wheat-flour DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 79 gruel. After this th& astringents s[K)ken of I'nr iliarrhea may lie given. Besides this the liorso is to receive brandy in doses of from 2 to 4 ounces, with milk antl eggs, foui- or ti\e times a day. Laminitis ("founder") is a frequent secjuel of superpurgation and is to be guaiik'd against by removing the shoes and standing the horse on moist sawdust or some siuiihir bedding. DYSENTERY. This disease, sometimes called "bloody flux," is an intestinal disease attended with fever, occasional abdominal pains, and fluid di.s- charges mingled with blood. Discharges in dysentery are coffee colored or bloody, li(iuid. and very offensive in odor, and passed with much .straining. It is rare in the hoise, but is sometime^s quite prevalent among foals. Causes. — Probably the most common cause is keeping young horses in particular for a long time on low, wet, marshy pastures, without other feed (a diarrhea of long standing sometimes terminates in dys- entery) ; exposure during cold, \\et weather; decomposed feeds; stag- nant water that contains large quantities of decomposing vegetable matter; low, damp, and dark stables, particularly if crowded: the existence of some disease, as tuberculosis, of the abdominal form. In suckling foals it may come from feeding the dam on irritant feeds or from disease of the udder. In other foals it may be produced by exposure to cold and damp, to iiritant feed, or to worms. Symptoms. — The initial symptom is a chill, which probably esca])es notice in the majority of instances. The discharges are offensive and for the most part liquid, although it is common to find lumps of solid fecal matter floating in this liquid portion; shreds of mucous mem- ])rane and blood may be passed or the evacuations may be muco-puiii- lent; there is much straining, and. rarely, symptoms of abdominal pain; the subje^'t lies down a great deal; the pulse is quickened jind the teuiperature elevated. Thirst is a j)rominent .symptom. In the adult, death rarely follows under two to three wi'oK-^. l»iit in fo.iK the disease mtiy end in death after a few days. Treatnwnt. — This is most unsatisfactory, and I aui inclined to place more dependence upon the care and feetl than any metlication tliat may be adopted. First of all the horse nuist be placed in a dry, warm, yet well-ventilated stable: the .skin is to receive attention by fretjuent rubbings of the surface of the body, with blaidvcts, and bandages to the legs. The water must be pure and given in snuill quantities: the feed, that which is light and easily digested. Medici- nally, give at first a light do.se of castor oil, about one-half junt, to which has been added *2 ounces of laudanum. The vegetable or min- eral astringents aie al.so to be given. Starch injecti«ms containing laudanum often afford great relief. The strength must be kept up 80 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. by milk punches, eggs, beef tea. oatmeal gruel, etc. In spite of the best care and treatment, however, dysentery is likely to prove ratal. In the case of nurslings, the dam should be placed in a healthy con- dition or, failing in this, milk should be had from another mare or from a cow. GASTROENTERITIS^ This condition consists in an inflammation of the stomach and intestines. Instead of being confined to the mucous, or lining, mem- brane, as in gastrointestinal catarrh, the inflammatory process ex- tends deeper and may even involve the entire thickness of the wall of the organ. This disease may be caused by irritant feed, hot drinks, sudden chilling, moldy or decayed feeds, foul water, parasites, or by chemical poisons. It may also complicate some general diseases, especially infectious diseases, as anthrax, influenza, rabies, or petechial fever. Long-continued obstruction of the bowels or displacement resulting in death are preceded by enteritis. Symptoms. — The symptoms differ somewhat with the cause and depend also, to some extent, upon the chief location of the inflamma- tion. In general the animal stops eating or eats but little: it shows colicky pain; fever develops; the pulse and respiration become rapid; the mucous membrane becomes red; the mouth is hot and dry. Pressure upon the abdomen may cause pain. Intestinal sounds can not be heard at tlie flank. There is constipation in the earlier stages that is followed later by diarrhea. The extremities become cold. Sometimes the feces are coated with or contain shreds of fibrin, looking like scraps of dead membrane, and they have an evil, putrid odor. If the disease is caused by moldy or damaged feed there may be great muscular weakness, with partial paralysis of the throat, as shown by inability to swallow. If chemical poisons are the cause, this fact may be shown by the sudden onset of the disease, the his- tory of the administration of a poison or the entire absence of known cause, the rapid development of threatening symptoms, the involve- ment of a series of animals in the absence of a contagious disease, and the special symptoms and alterations known to be produced by certain poisons. To make this chain of evidence complete, the poison may be discovered in the organs of the horse by chemical analysis. In nearly all cases of gastroenteritis there is nervous depression. The poisons that are most irritant to the digestive tract are arsenic, corrosive sublimate, sugar of lead, sulphate of copper, sulphate or chlorid of zinc, lye, or other strong alkalies, mineral acids, and, among the vegetable poisons, tobacco, lobelia, and water hemlock. Treatment. — The treatment will depend upon the cause, but if this can not be detected, certain general indications may be observed. In all cases feed should be given in small amounts and should be of the DISEASES OF THE DICESTIVK ORCAXS. 81 most soothing description, as oatmeal gnicl. flaxseed tea, hay tea, fresh grass, or rice ^Yater. The skin should be Nvell rubbed with alcohol and wisps of straw, to equalize the distribution of the blood; the legs, after being rubbed until warm, should be bandaged in raw cotton or with woolen bandages. The horse should be warndy blanketed. It is well to apply to the abdomen blankets wrung out of hot water and frequently changed; or mustard paste may bo rubbed on the skin of the belly. Internally, o})ium is of service to allay pain, check secretion, and soothe the inflamed membrane. Tho dose is from 1 to i2 drams, given every three of four hours. If there is constipation, the opium should be mixed with 30 grains of calomel. Subnitrate of bismuth may be given with the opium or separately in t2-dram doses. Stiuiulants, such as alcohol, aromatic si)irits of am- monia, or camphor may be given in 2-ounce doses, mixed with waun water to make a drench. If putrid feed has been consumed, creolin may be administered in doses of 2 drams, mixed Avith 1 pint of warm water or milk. If there is obstinate constipation and if a laxative must be employed, it should be sweet or castor oil, from 1 pint to 1 quart. Antidotes for poisons. — For the various poisons the remedies are as follows: Arsenic: Oxyhydrate of iron solution, 1 pint to 1 quart; or calcined magnesia, one-half ounce in 1 pint of water. Corrosive sublimate (bichlorid of mercury) : The whites of a dozen eggs, or 2 ounces of flowers of sulphur. Sugar of lead: Glaubers salt, 1 pound in 1 (|uart of warm water; to be followed with iodid of potash, 3 drams at a dose, in water, three times daily for five days. Sulphate of copper: Milk, the whites of eggs, or reduced iron. Sulphate or chlorid of zinc: Milk, the whites of eggs, or calcined magnesia. Lye or alkalies, as caustic potash or soda : Vinegar, dilute sul- l)huric i'.cid, and linseed tea, with ojiium, 3 drams. ^fineral acids: Chalk, or calcined lUiignesia. or baking soda; later give linseed tea and opium. HEMORRHOIDS. OR PILES. These are rare, comparatively, in horses. Thej' are diagnosed by the appearance of bright-red irregular tumors aft^r defecation, which may remain visible at all times or be seen only when the horse is down or after passing his manure. They are mostly due to con- stipation, irritation, or injuries, or follow from the .severe straining during dysentery. I have observed them to follow from severe labor pains in the mare. 30444°— IG C 82 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. Treatment. — Attention must be paid to the condition of the bowels; they should be soft, but purging is to be avoided. The tumors should be washed in warm water and thoroughly cleansed, after which scarify them and gently but firmly squeeze out the liquid that will be seen to follow the shallow incisions. After thus squeezing these tumors and before replacing through the anus, bathe the parts with some anodyn wash. For this purpose the glycerite of tannin and laudanum in equal parts is good. Mucilaginous injections into the rectum may be of service for a few days. HERNIA, OR RUPTURE. There are several kinds or hernias that require notice, not all of which, however, produce serious symptoms or results. Abdominal hernias, or ruptures, are divided into reducible, irreducible, and strangulated, according to condition; and into inguinal, scrotal, ven- tral, umbilical, and diaphragmatic, according to their situation. A hernia is reducible when the displaced organ can be returned to its natural location. It consists of a soft swelling, without heat, pain, or any uneasiness, generally larger on full feed, and decreases in size as the bowels become empty. An irreducible hernia is one that can not be returned into the abdomen, and yet does not cause any pain or uneasiness. Strangulated hernia is one in which the contents of the sac are greatly distended, or when from pressure upon the blood A'essels of the imprisoned portion the venous circulation is checked or stopped, thereby causing congestion, swelling, inflammation, and, if not relieved, gangrene of the part and death of the animal. Accord- ing to the time or mode of origin, hernias may be congenital or acquired. Congenital scrotal hernia. — Not a few foals are noticed from birth to have an enlarged scrotum, which gradually increases in size until about the sixth month, sometimes longer. Sometimes the scro- tum of a six-months-old colt is as large as that of an adult stallion, and operative treatment is considered. This is unnecessary in the great majority of cases, as the enlargement often disappears by the time the colt has reached his second year. Any interference, medic- inal or surgical, is worse than useless. If the intestine contained within the scrotum should at any time become strangulated, it must then be treated the same as in an adult horse. Scrotal hernia is caused by dilatation of the sheath of the testicle, combined with relaxation of the fibrous tissues surrounding the in- guinal ring, thus allowing the intestine to descend to the scrotum. At first this is intermittent, appearing during work and returning when the horse is at rest. For a long time this form of hernia may DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGAXS. 83 not cause the least iiiieasiuess or distress. Ti\ couisi' of time, howe\ei-. the imprisoned gut becomes filled ^^ith feces, its return into the id»- dominal cavity is prevented, and it l)ecomes strangulateil. While the gut is thus fillinjij the horse often appt'ais dull, is disinelined to move, appetite is impaired, and there is rumhling and ohstruction of the bowels. Colicky symptoms now supervene. Strangulation and its consequent train of symi)toms do not always follow in sciotal hernia, for often horses have this ctmdition for years without sutler- ing inconvenience. Inguinal hernia is but an incomi)lete scrotal hernia, and, like the latter, may exist and cause no signs of distress, or, again, it may become strangulated and cause death. Inguinal hernia is seen mostly in stallions, next in geldings, and very rarely in the mare. Bearing in mind that scrotal hernia is seen only in entire horses, we may proceed to detail the symptoms of strangulated, inguinal, and scrotal hernia at the same time. When, during the existence of colicky sj'inptoms. we find a horse kicking with his hind feet while standing or lying upon his back, we should look to the inguinal region and scrotum. If scrotal hernia exists, the scrotum will be enlarged and lobulated: by pressure we may force a portion of the contents of the gut back into the abdomen, eliciting a gurgling sound. If we take a gentle but firm hold upon the enlarged scrotum and then have an assistant cause the horse to cough, the swelling will be felt to expand and as quickly contract again. The history of these cases will materially aid us, as the owner can often assure us of preceding attacks of "colic." more or less severe, that have been instantaneously relieved in some (to him) unaccount- able manner. The colicky symptoms of these hernias are not diag- nostic, but. probably, more clo.sely resemble tho.se of enteritis than any other bowel diseases. In many cases the diagnosis can be made only by a veterinarian, when he has recourse to a rectal examination; the bowels can heie be felt entering the inteinal abdominal ring. Trcatnu nf of hifnnnaJ hernia. — If the reader is sure of the exist- ence of hernia, he should secuie the hor.se upon its back, and. with a hand in the rectum, endeavor to catch hold of the wandering bowel and pull it gently ba«k into the cavity of the abd()men. l*re.ssure should be made upon the scrotum during this time. If this fails, a veterinarian mu.st be called to reduce the heinia by means of incising the inguinal ring, reida'.-ing the intestines. ;«nd to castrate, using clamps and performing the "covered operation." Ventral hernia. — In this form of hernia the protrusion is through some accidental opening or rupture of the abdominal wall. It may occur at any part of the belly e.xcept at the ujubilicus, and is cau.sed by kicks, blows, hooks, severe jumping or |)ulling. etc. Ventral 84 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. hernia is most common in pregnant mares, and is here clue to the weight of the fetns or to some degenerative changes taking pLice in the abdominal coats. It is recognized by the appearance of a swell- ing, at the base of which can be felt the opening or rent in the ab- dominal tunics, and from the fact that the swelling containing the intestines can be made to disappear when the animal is placed in a favorable position. Treatment of ventral hernia. — In many instances there is no occa- sion for treatment, and again, where the hernial sac is extensive, treatment is of no avail. If the hernia is small, a cure may be at- tempted by the methods to be described in treating of umbilical hernia. If one is fortunate enough to be present when the hernia occurs, and particularly if it is not too large, he may, by the proper application of a pad and broad bandage, effect a perfect cure. Umbilical, hernia is the passing of any portion of the bowel or omentum ("caul") through the navel, forming a " tumor "" at this point. This is often congenital in our animals, and is due to the im- perfect closure of the umbilicus and to the position of the body. Many cases of umbilical hernia, like inguinal and scrotal of the con- genital kind, disappear entirely by the time the animal reaches its second or third year. Advancing age favors cure in these cases from the fact that the omentum (swinging support of the bowels) is pro- portionally shorter in adults than in foals, thus lifting the intestines out of the hernial sac and allowing the opening in the walls to close. Probably one of the most frequent causes of umbilical hernia in foals is the practice of keeping them too long from their dams, causing them to fret and worry, and to neigh, or cry, by the hour. The con- traction of the abdominal muscles and pressure of the intestines dur- ing neighing seem to open the umbilicus and induce hernia. Acci- dents may cause umbilical hernia in adults in the same manner as ventral hernia is produced, though this is very rare. Treatment of vmhilicol hernia. — In the treatment of umbilical hernia it should be remembered that congenital hernias are often removed with age, but probably congenital umhilical hernias less fre- quently than others. Among the many plans of treatment are to be mentioned the application of a pad over the tumor, the pad being held in place by a broad, tight bandage placed around the animal's body. The chief objection to this is the difficulty in keeping the pad in its place. Blisters are often applied over the swelling, and, as the skin hardens and contracts by the formation of scabs, an artificial bandage or pressure is produced that at times is successful. Another treatment that has gained considerable repute of late years consists in first clipping off the hair over the swelling. Nitric acid is then applied with a small brush, using only enough to moisten the skin. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. So This sets up a deep -sea ted, adhesive innammation, which, in very many cases, ch)ses the openini\\t by means of the hypodermic svrin^e nt three or four points about the base of the swdlinfr. This acts in the same manner as the precedinfr. but may cause serious injiirv if the syringe or solution is not sterile. Others, again, after keeping the animal fasting foi- a few hours, cast and secure it upon its back; the bowel is then carefully returned into the abdomen. The skin over the opening is pinched up and one or two skewers are run through the skin from side to side as close as possible to the umbilical opening. These skewers are kept in place by passing a cord around the skin between them and the alulomen and securely tying it. Great care must be taken not to draw these cords too tight, as this would cause a speedy slough of the skin, the intes- tines would extrude, and death result. If properly applied, an adhe- sion is established between the skin and the umbilicus, which effectu- ally closes the orifice. Special clamps are provided for taking up the fold of the skin covering the hernial sac and holding it until the adhesion is formed. DiAriiRAo:MATi<" iiKRMA. — Tliis consists of the passage of any of the abdominal viscera through a rent in the diaphragm (midriff') into the cavity of the thorax. It is a rather rare accident, and one often impossible to diagnose duiing life. Colicky symptoms, ac- companied with great difiiculty in breathing, and the peculiar posi- tion so often assumed (that of sitting upon the haunches), are some- what characteristic of this trouble, though these symptoms, as we have already seen, may be present during diseases of the stomach or anterior portion of the bowels. Even could we diagnose with cer- tainty this form of hernia, there is little or nothing that can l)e done. IxMiding the horse up a very steep gangwa}' or causing him to rear up may possibly cause the hernial portion to return to its natural position. This is not enough, however; it must be kept there. PERITONITIS. Peritonitis is an infhnnmation of the serous membrane lining the cavity of and covering the viscera contained within the abdomen. It is very rare to see a case of primaiy peritonitis. It is, however. somewhat common as. a secondary disease from extension of the in- flammatoi-y action involving oj-gans covei'ed by the peritoneum. Peritonitis is often caused l)y injuries, as punctuiTd wounds of the abdomen, severe blows or kicks, or, as is still more common, follow- ing the operation of castration. It follows strangulated hoiiiia, invagination, or rupture of the stomach, intestines, liver, or womb. 86 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Symptoms. — Peritonitis is mostly preceded by a chill ; the horse is not disposed to move, and, if compelled to do so, moves with a stiff or sore gait; he paws with the front feet and may strike at his belly with the hind ones : lies down very carefully ; as the pain is increased while down, he maintains the standing position during most of the time; he walks uneasily about the stall. Constipation is usually present. Pressure on the belly causes acute pain, and the horse will bite, strike, or kick if so disturbed; the abdomen is tucked up: the extremities are fine and cold. The temperature is higher than nor- mal, reaching from 102° to 104° F. The pulse in peritonitis is rather characteristic; it is quickened, beating from TO to 90 beats a minute, and is hard and wiry. This peculiarity of the pulse occurs in inflammation of the serous membrane, and if accompanied with colicky symptoms, and, in particular, if following any in- juries, accidental or surgical, of the peritoneum, there is reason to think that peritonitis is present. Peritonitis in the horse is mostly fatal when it is at all extensive. If death does not occur in a short time, the inflammation assumes a chronic form, in which there is an extensive efl^usion of water in the cavity of the belly, constituting what is known as ascites, and which, as a rule, results in death. Treatment. — The treatment of peritonitis is somewhat like that of enteritis. Opium in powder. 1 to 2 drams, with calomel, one-half dram, is to be given every two, three, or four hours, and constitutes the main dependence in this disease. Extensive counterirritants over the belly, consisting of mustard plasters, applications of mercurial ointment, turpentine stupes, or even mild blisters, are recommended. Purgatives must never be given during this complaint. Should we desire to move the bowels, it can be done by gentle enemas, though it is seldom necessary to resort even to this. ASCITES, OR DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN. This is seen as a result of subacute or chronic peritonitis, but may be due to diseases of the liver, kidneys, heart, or lungs. There w^ll be found, on opening the cavity of the belly, a large collection of 5'ellowish or reddish liquid: from a few quarts to several gallons may be present. It may be clear in color, though generally it is yellowish or of a red tint, and contains numerous loose flakes of coagulable lymph. Sympt&ms. — There is slight tenderness on pressure: awkward gait of the hind legs; the horse is dull, and may ha^e occasional very slight colicky pains, shown by looking back and striking at the belly with the hind feet. Oftener, however, these colicky symptoms are absent. Diarrhea often precedes death, but during the progress of DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 87 the disease the bowels are alternately constipated and loose. On [tev- cussino: the abdominal* walls we find that dullness exists to tlu' saau' height on both sides of the belly; by suddenly pushino^ or striUinfj the abdomen we can hear the rushing or Hooding of water. If the case is an advanced one. the horse is potbellied in the extreme, and dropsical swellings are seen under the belly and upon the legs. Treatment is. as a rule, unsatisfactory. Saline cathartics, as Kp- som or Glauber's salt, and diui-etics, ounce doses of saltpeter, may be given. If a veterinarian is at hand he will withdraw the accumula- tion of water by tapping and then endeavor to pi-event its recurrence (though this is almost sure to follow) by giving thi-ee times a day saltpeter 1 ounce and iodid of potash 1 dram, and by the applica- tion of mustard or blisters over the abdominal walls. Tonics, min- eral and vegetable, are also indicated. Probably the best tonic is one consisting of powdeied sul[)hate of iron, gentian, and ginger in equal parts; \\ heaping tablespoonful of the mixture is given as a drench or mixed with the feed, twic^ a day. Good nutritious feeds and gentle exercise complete the treatment. DISEASES OF THE LIVER. In the United States the liver of the horse is but rarely the seat of disease, and when we consider how frequently the liver of man is affected this can not but appear strange. The absence of the gall bladder may account to a certain extent for his freedom from liver diseases, as overdistention of this and the presence in it of calculi (stones) in man is a fre(pient source of trouble. In d(»mestic animals, as in man. hot climates tend to produce diseases of the liver, just as in cold climates lung diseases prevail. Not only are disease-^ of the liver rare in horses in temperate climates, but they are also very <)l)scure. and in many cases pass totally unobserved until after death. There are .some .sym})t<)ms. however, which, when i)re.sent, should make us examine the liver as carefully as possible. Thest' are jaundice (yellowness of the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and eyes) Dud the condition of the dung, it being light in color ami pa.sty in appearance. HEPATITIS. OR INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. This di.sease may be general or local, and may assume an acute or chi'onic form. Syniptojiuf. — The symptoms of acute hepatitis are: Dullness; the horse is suffering from s^)me internal j)ain, but not of a severe type: constipateel ami clay-colored dung balls; .scanty and high-colored urine; and general febrile symptoms. If lying down, he is mostly 88 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. found on the left side; looks occasionally toward the right side, ■which, upon close inspection, may be found to be slightly enlarged ever the posterior ribs, where pain upon pressure is also evinced. Ob- scure lameness in front, of the right leg mostly, may be a symptom of hepatitis. The horse, toward the last, reels or staggers in his gait and falls backward in a fainting fit, during one of which he finally suc- cumbs. Death is sometimes due to rupture of the enveloping coat of the liver or of some of its blood vessels. Causes. — Among the causes that lead to this disease we must men- tion first the stimulating eilect of overfeeding, particularly during hot weather. Horses that are well fed and receive but little exercise are the best subjects for diseases of this organ. We must add to these causes the more mechanical ones, as injuries on the right side over the liver, w^orms in the liver, gallstones in the biliary ducts, for- eign bodies — as needles or nails that have been swallowed and in their wanderings have entered the liver — and, lastly, in some instances, the extension of inflammation from neighboring parts, thus involving this organ. Acute hepatitis may terminate in chronic inflammation, abscesses, rupture of the liver, or may disappear, leaving behind no trace of disease whatever. Treatment. — This should consist, at first, of the administration of 1 ounce of Barbados aloes or other physic. General blood-letting, if had recourse to early, must prove of much benefit in acute inflamma- tion of the liver. The vein in the neck (jugular) must be opened, and from 4 to 6 quarts of blood may be drawn. Saline medicines, as Glauber's salt or the artificial Carlsbad salt, are indicated. These may be given with the feed in tablespoonful doses. The horse is to be fed sparingly on soft feed, bran mashes chiefly. If treatment proves successful and recovery takes place, see to it that the horse afterwards gets regular exercise and that his feed is not of a too highly nutritious character and not excessive. JAUNDICE, ICTERUS, OR THE YELLOWS. This is a condition caused by the retention and absorption of bile into the blood. It was formerly considered to be a disease of itself, but is now regarded as a symptom of disorder of the liver. " The yellows " is observed by looking at the eyes, nose, and mouth, when it will be seen that these parts are yellowish instead of the pale- pink color of health. In white or light-colored horses the skin even may show this yellow tint. The urine is saffron colored, the dung is of a dirty-gray color, and constipation is usually present. Jaundice may be present as a symptom of almost any inflammatory disease. We know that when an animal has fever the secretions are checked, the bile may be retained and absorbed throughout the system, and DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORCANS. 89 yellowness of the imioons membranes follows. Janiuliee inay also exist dni-ing the presence of simple constipation, hepatitis, biliary calculi, abscesses, hardening of the liver, etc. Treatment. — When jaundice exists we must endeavor to rid the system of the excess of bile, and this is best accomplished by giving purgatives that act upon the liver. Calomel, 2 drams, with aloes, 7 drams, yhould be given. Glauber's salt in handful doses once or twice a day for a week is also effective. May apple, rlnibarb, castor oil, and other cathartics that act upon the first or small bowels may be selected. AVe must be careful to see that the bowels are kept open by avoiding haid, dry. luilkv feeds, RUPTURE OF THE LIVER. This is known to occur at times in the horse, most frequently in old, fat horses and those that get but little exercise. Horses that have suffered from chronic liver disease for years eventually present symptoms of colic and die quite suddenly. T'pon post mortem ex- amination we discover that the liver has ruptured. The cicatrices, or scars, that are often found upon the liver indicate that this organ may suffer smnll rupture and yet the horse may recover from it. This can not be the re-ult, however, if the rent or tear is extensive, since in such cases death must quickly follow from hemorrhage, or, later, from peritonitis. Enlarged liver is particularly liable to rup- ture. The iuiinediate causes of rupture appear to be excessive muscular exertion, as leaping a fence, a fall, a blow from a collision, a kick from a horse, or sudden distention of the abdomen with gas. The symptoms of rui)tui-e of the liver will depend upon the extent of the laceration. If slight, there Avill be simply the symptoms of abdominal pain, looking back to the sides, lying down, etc.; if exteu- hivc, the horse is dull and dejected, has no appetite, breathing be- comes short and catching, he sighs or sobs, visible mucous membranes are pale,, extremities cold, pulse fast, small, and weak or running down. Countenance now shows much distress, he sweats profusely, totters in \\\^ gait, jnops his legs wide ai)art, reels, staggers, and falls. He may get up again, but .soon falls dead. The rapid running-down pulse, paleness of the eyes, no.^^e, and mouth, sighing, .stertorous breathing, tottering gait, etc., are .symptoms by which we know that the animal is dying from internal hemorrhage. Treatnunt. — But little can be done in the way of triatnicnt. Opium in powder, in doses of "2 drams every two or three hours, may be given, with the idea of preventing as much as possible all movements of internal organs. If tlierc is rea.sf n to su.spect interna! bleeding. 90 DISEASES OF THE HOESE, we slioulS give large and frequent doses of white-oak bark t«a, dram doses of tannic or gallic acid, or the same quantity of sugar of lead, ever}^ half hour or hour. Fluid extract of ergot or tincture of the chlorid of iron, in ounce doses, may be selected. Cold water dashed upon the right side or injected into the rectum is highly spoken of as a means of checking the hemorrhage. BILIARY CALCULI, OR GALLSTONES. These are rarel}' found in the horse, but may occupy the hepatic ducts, giving rise to jaundice and to colicky pains. There are no absolutely diagnostic symptoms, but shoukl one find a horse that suffers from repeated attaclvs of colic, accompanied with symptoms of violent pain, and that during or following these attacks the animal is jaundiced, it is possible that gallstones are present. There is little or nothing to be done except to give medicines to overcome pain, trusting that these concretions may pass on to the bowels, where, from their small size, they will not occasion any inconvenience. DISEASES OF THE PANCREAS AND SPLEEN. Diseases of the pancreas and spleen are so rare, or their symptoms so little understood, that it is impossible to write anything concei'iiing either of these organs and their simple diseases that will convey to the reader information of practical value. GASTROINTESTINAL PARASITES. [By Maurice C. Hall. Ph. D., D. V. M.] Horses are subject to infestation bj' a number of species of worms, these worms being especially numerous at certain pomts in the alimentary canal. The tapeworms of the horse are relatively unimportant and not very common. There are three species, the smallest about two inches long and the largest about eight inches long. These two occur in the small intestine ; a form intermediate in size may also -be found in the cecum and colon. These are flat, segmented worms with the head at the smaller end. Flukes occur in horses elsewhere, but have apparently never been reported in the United States. Roundworms, or nematodes, constitute the most important gi"oup of parasitic worms in the horse. The more important of these are as follows: Roundworm {Ascans equoritm). — ^This is the common large, yel- lowish roundworm (PL V, fig. 5), about the size of a lead pencil or larger, which mav be found in horses almost anvwhere in the DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 91 United States. It occurs in the intestine and i)iobably occasions little damage as a rule, except when present in hirge numbers, in which case it will probably be found in the droppings. The symp- toms occasioned by it are rather obscure and are such as might aiise from a nuuiber of other causes, namely, colicky pains, depraved aj)- petite, diarrhea or constipation, and general unthrii'tiuess. In a general way. the presence of parasites may be susi>ected when an aniuial shews no fever but is unthrifty, debilitated, and shows dis- ordered bowel moAements in cases where there is no evident ex})la na- tion in the way of feed, care, and surroundings. Triiitnunt for the removal of this worm consists in the use of anthelmintics such as tartar euietic, tur[>entine, and carl)on bisulphid. but as these remedies are essentially poisons intended to kill the Avorm. and as their use by persons unused to determining conditions unfavorable for their use is dangerous and likely to result in the death of the animal or in pernuinent injury to the kidneys or other organs, it is advisable to call in a veterinai'ian in such cases. PiNwoRM {O.rt/ui'is equi). — This is a rather large worm (PI. \'. fig. 1), somewhat smaller than the foregoing and readily distin- guishable fiom it by the presence of a long, slender tail. It also occurs generally throughout the United States, and except when present in large numbers probably does very little damage. It in- liabits the laige intestine and hence is difficult to reach with medicines administered by the mouth. The use of a half ounce of gentian on the feed night and morning for a week has been recommended, but the use of rectal enemas will give moie jirompt and iierhap> more certain residts. These enemas may be made up with one or two table- spoonfids of salt to the pint, or infusions of quassia chips, a half pound to the gallon of water, and injected into the rectum ony the mucous membrane. Near the junction of the skin and membrane is a small hole, i)resenting the appearance of having been made with a punch; this is the open- ing of the lachrymal duct, a canal that conveys the tears fiom the eyes. A\'ithin and abo\e the nasal openings are the cavities, or fis- sures, called the false nostrils. The nasal chambers are completely separated, the right from the left, by a cartilaginous ]>artition. the nasal septum. Kach nasal chamber is divided into three continuous compartments by two thin, scroll-like turbinated bones. The mucous membrane liniiiir the nasal chambei-s. and, in fact, the entire respiratory tract, is much moie delicate and more fre<|uently diseased that the mucous membrane of any other part of the body. The sinuses of the head ai'e compartments which connnunicate with the nasal chambei> and aie lined with a continuation (»f the same membrane that lines the nasal chamlxM-s: their presence increases the volume and modifies the form of the head without increasing its weight. The horse, in a normal condition, breathes exclusively throiigli the nostrils. Tlie organs of resj^iration are (piite liable to Wcome dis- 95 90 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. eased. ;ind, as munv of the causes \vhicli load to these attiioks can be avoided, it is both important and protitable to kno\Y and sSnidy the causes. CAUSES OF DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS. The causes of many of the diseases of these organs may be given nnder a common head, because even a simple cold, if neglected or badly treated, may nm into the most complicated Inng disease and terminate fatally. In the spring and fall, uhen the animals are changing their coats, there is a marked predisposition to contract disease, and consequently at those periods care should be taken to prevent other exciting causes. Badly ventilated stables are a frequent source of disease. It is a mistake to think that country stables necessarily have purer air than city stables. Stables on some farms are so faultily constructed that it is almost impossible for the foul air to gain an exit. All stables should have a sufficient supply of pure air. and be so arranged that strong drafts can not bUnv directly on the animals. In ventilating a stable, it is best to arrange to i*emove air from near the floor and ad- mit it through numerous small openings near the ceiling. The reason for this is that the coldest and most impure air in the stable is near the floor, while that which is warmest and purest, and therefoi-e can least be spared, is near the top of the room. In sununer, top exits and cross currents should be provided to remove excessive heat. Hot stables ai-e almost always poorly ventilated, and the hot stable is a cause of disease on account of the extreme change of temperature that a horse is liable to when taken out. and extreme changes of tem- perature are to be avoided as certain causes of disease. A cold, close stable is invariably damp, and is to be avoided as much as the hot. close, and foul one. Horses changed from a cold to a warm stable are moi*e liable to contract cold than when changed from a warm to a cold one. Pure air is more essential than warmtli, and this fact should be especially remembered when the stable is made close and foul to gain the warmth. It is more economical to keep the horse warm with blankets than to prevent the ingress of pure air in order to make the stable warm. Stables should be well drained and kept clean. Some farmers allow large quantities of manure to accumulate in the stable. This is a pernicious practice, as the decomposing organic matter evolves gases that are predisposing or exciting causes of disease. T\lien a horse is overheated, it is not safe to allow him to dry by evaporation; rubbing him dry and gradually cooling him out is the wisest treat- ment. Wlien a horse is hot — covered with sweat — it is dangerous to allow him to stand in a draft : it is the best plan to walk him until his DISEASES OF THE HESPIRATORY ORGANS. 97 temperature moderates. In siitli cases a lijrht blanket tlirown over the animal may prevent a cold. Overwork or overexertion often causes the greater number of fatal cases of congestion of the lungs. Avoid prolonged or fast "svork when the horse is out of condition or unaccustomed to it. Animals that have been working in cold rains should be dried and cooled out and not left tt) dry by evaporation. When the temperature of the weather is at the extreme, either of heat or cold, diseases of the organs of respiration are most frecjuent. It is not to be sui)posed that farmers can give their horses the par- ticular attention given to valuable racing and pleasure horses, but they can most assuredly give them common-sense care, and this may often save the life of a valuable animal. If the owner properly con- siders his interests, he will study the welfare of his horses so that he may bo able to instruct the servant in details of stable managcmenl'. WOUNDS ABOUT THE NOSTRILS. Wounds in this neighborhood are conunon, and are generally caused by snagging on a nail or splinter or by the bite of another horse; or by getting "run into." or by running against something. Occasionally the nostril is so badly torn and lacerated that it is im- possible to effect a cure without leaving the animal blemi>hed for life, but in the majority of instances the blemish, or scar, is the result of want of conservative treatment. As soon as possible after the acci- dent the parts should be brought together and held there by stitches. If too much time is allowed to elapse, the swelling of the parts will considerably interfere. Never cut away any skin that may be loose and hanging, or else a scar will certainly remain. Bring the paiis in direct apposition and place the stitches from a quarter to a half- inch apart, as circumstances may demand. It is not necessary to luive special surgeons' silk and needles for this operation; good linen thread or ordinary silk thread will answer. The wound afterwards only rcfjuires to be kept clean. For this purpose it should be cleansed and discharges washed away daily with a solution made of carbolic- acid 1 part in 40 parts of water. If on account of the irritability the horse is inclined to rub the wound against some object, his head should be tied by means of two halter ropes atta«hed to the oj^jwsite sides of the stall to prevent him from opening the wound. Kxcept when at work or eating, the head shoidd be s(» ticcl abmit 10 days. TUMORS WITHIN THE NO.STRILS. A small, globular tumor is sfnnetiino found within the fal.M' nostril, under that i)art of the skin that is seen to i)uff or ri^* and fall when a horse is exerted and breathing hard. These tumors contain nujtter of a cheesy consistency. 36444°— 10 7 98 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. Treatment. — If the tumor is well opened and the matter squeezed out, nature will perform a cure. If the opening is made from the out- side through the skin, it should be at the most dependent part, but much the best way to open the tumor is from the inside. Quiet the animal, gently insert your finger up in the direction of the tumor, and you will soon discover that it is much larger inside than it appears to be on the outside. If necessary put a twitch on the ear of the horse to quiet him; run the index finger of your left hand against the tumor; now, with the right hand, carefully insert the knife by run- ning the back of the blade along the index finger of the left hand until the tumor is reached : with the left index finger guide the point of the blade quickly and surely into the tumor; make the opening large. A little blood may flow for a while, but it is of no consequence. Squeeze out the matter and kee^J the part clean. COLD IN THE HEAD, OR NASAL CATARRH. Catarrh is an inflammation of a mucous membrane. It is accom- panied with excessive secretion. In nasal catarrh the inflammation may extend from the membrane lining the nose to the throat, the in- side of the sinuses, and to the eyes. The causes are the general causes of respiratory disease enumerated above. It is especially common in young horses and in horses not acclimated. SyTnptoms. — The membrane at the beginning of the attack is dry, congested, and irritable; it is of a deeper hue than natural, pinkish red or red. Soon a water}^ discharge from the nostrils makes its appearance ; the eyes may also be more or less affected and tears flow over the cheeks. The animal has some fever, which may be easily detected by means of a clinical thermometer inserted in the rectum or, roughly, by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feeling of heat conveyed to the finger will be greater than natural. To become somewhat expert in ascertaining the changes of temper- ature in the horse it is only necessary to place the finger often in the mouths of horses known to be healthy. After you have become accus- tomed to the warmth of the mouth of the healthy animal you will have no difficulty in detecting a marked increase of the temperature. The animal may be dull; he sneezes or snorts, but does not cough unless the throat is aftected; he expels the air forcibly through his nostrils, very often m a manner that may be aptly called '' blowing his nose."' A few days after the attack begins the discharge from the nostrils changes from a watery to that of a thick, mucilaginous state, of a yellowish-white color, and may be more or less profuse. Often the appetite is lost and the animal becomes debilitated. Treatment. — This disease is not serious, but inasmuch as neglect or bad treatment may cause it to lead to something worse or become chronic it should receive proper attention. The animal should not DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATOBV ORGANS. 99 be worked for a time. A few days of lest, with pure air and good feed, will be of gn-ater beiielit tlian most mediiatioii. TIk* value elfected by hohling the horse's head over a bucketful of boiling water, so that the animal will be compelled to inhale steam with every inhalation of air. Stirring the Imt water with a wisp of hay causes the steam to arise in gieater abundance. One may cause the horse to put his nose in a bag containing cut hay upon which hot water has been pouied. the bottom of the bag being stood in a bucket, but the bag must be of loose texture, as gunny sack. or. if of canvas, holes must be cut in the side to admit fresh air. The hoi-se may be nuide to inhale steam four or five times a day, about 15 or '20 minutes each time. Particular attention should 1^ paid to the diet. Give bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass, if in season. If the hoi-se evinces no desire for this soft diet, it is better to allow any kind of feed he will eat, such as hay, oats, corn, etc., than to keep him on short rations. If the animal is constipated, relieve this symptom by injections ^enemas) of warm water into the rectum three or four times a day, b>it do not administer purgative medicines. excei>t of a mild character. For simple cases the foregoing is all that is requiretl. but if the ap{)etite is lost and the animal appears debilitated and dull, give 3 ounces of the solution of acetate C)f anmionia and 2 drams of i>ow- dered chlorate of potassium diluted with a pint of water three times a day as a drench. Be careful when giving the drench: do not l)ound the horse on the gidlet to make him swallow: be patient, and take time, and do it light. If the weather is cold, blanket the animal and keep him in a com- fortable stall. If the throat is sore, treat as advised for that ail- ment, to be descnbed hereafter. If, after 10 days or 'J weeks, the discharge from the nostrils con- tinues, give one-half dram of reduced iron three times a day. This may be mixed with damp feed. Common cold should l>e thoroughly inulerstcM)d and intelligently treated in order to j)ievent more dan- gei-ous diseases. CHRONIC CATARRH (OR NASAL GLEET. OR COLLECTION IN THE .SINU.SES). This is a subacute or chronic inflammation of some p;iit ol the membrane ati'ected in common cold, the disease just described. It is manifested by a persistent discharge of a thick white or yellowish- white matter from one or both nostrils. The conunonest cause is a neglected or badlv treated cohl, and it usuallv follows those cases 100 DISEASE,? OF THE HORSE. where the horse has suffered exposure, been overworked, or has not received proper feed, and, as a consequence, has become debilitated. It may occur as a sequel to influenza. Other but less frequent causes for this affection are : Fractures of the bones that involve the membrane of the sinuses, and even blows on the head over the sinuses. Diseased teeth often involve a sinus and cause a fetid discharge from the nostril. Violent coughing is said to have forced particles of feed into the sinus, which acted as a cause of the disease. Tumors growing in the sinuses are known to have caused it. It is also attributed to disease of the turbinated bones. Absorption of the bones forming the walls of the sinuses has been caused by the pressure of pus collecting in them and by tumors filling up the cavity. Symptortis. — Great caution must be exercised when examining these cases, for the horse may have glanders, while, on the other hand, horses have been condemned as glandered when really there was nothing ailing them but nasal gleet. This is not contagious, but may stubbornly resist treatment and last for a long time. In most cases the discharge is from one nostril only, w^hich may signify that the sinuses on that side of the head are affected. The discharge may be intermittent; that is, quantities may be discharged at times and again little or none for a day or so. Such an intermittent discharge usually signifies disease of the sinuses. The glands under and be- tween the bones of the lower jaw may be enlarged. The peculiar ragged-edged ulcer of glanders is not to be found on the membrane within the nostrils, but occasionally sores are to be seen there. If there is any doubt about it, the symptoms of glanders should be well studied in order that one may be competent to form a safe opinion. The eye on the side of the discharging nostril may have a peculiar appearance and look smaller than its fellow. There may be an en- largement, having the appearance of a bulging out of the bone over the part affected, between or below the eyes. The breath may be offensive, which indicates decomposition of the matter or bones or disease of the teeth. A diseased tooth is further indicated by the horse holding his head to one side when eating, or by dropping the feed from the mouth after partly chewing it. When the bones between the eyes, below the eyes, and above the back teeth of the upper jaw are tapped on, a hollow, drumlike sound is emitted, but if the sinus is filled with pus or contains a large tumor the sound emitted will be the same as if a solid substance were struck; by this means the sinus affected may be located in some instances. The hair may be rough over the affected part, or even the bone may be soft to the touch and the part give somewhat to pressure or leave an im- pression where it is pressed upon with the finger. DISEASES OF THE RESPH^ATOBY ORCA-S'S. IQl Treatment. — The cause of the trouble must be ascertained before treatment is commenced. In the many ca^es in which tlie animal is in pour condition (in fact, in all ca»e.s) he should have the moht nutri- tive feed and regidar exercise. The feed, or box containing it, should be placed on the ground, as the dependent position of the head favors the ilischarge. The cases that do not require a surgical operation must, as a lulc, have persibtent medical treatment. Mineral tonics and local medica- liun are of the moat value. For eight days give the following mix- ture: Keduced iron, 3 ounces; powdered mix vomica, 1 ounce. Mix and make into 10 powders;. one powder should be mixed with the feed twice a day. Arsenioiis acid (white arsenic) in doses of from i> to G grains three times daily is a good tonic for such cases. Sulphur burnt in the ^table while the animal is there to inhale its fumes is also a valuable adjunct. Care .-ihould be taken that the fumes of the burning sulphur are sufficiently diluted with air so as not to suffocate the horse. Chlorid of lime sprinkled around the stall is good. Also keep a quantity of it under the hay in the manger so that the gases will be inhaled as the horse holds his head over the hay while eating. Keep the nostrils washed and the discharge cleaned away from the manger and stall. The horse may be caused to inhale the vapor of compound tincture of benzoin by pouring 2 ounces of this drug into hot water and fumigating in the usual way. If the nasal gleet is the result of a diseased tooth, the latter must be removed. Trephining is the be,st possible way to remove it in such cases, as the operation inuucdiately opens the cavity, which can be attended to direct. In all those cases of nasal gleet in which sinuses contain either tumors or collections of pus the only relief is by the trephine; and, no nuitter how thoroughly described, this is an operation that will be seldom attempted by the nonprofessional. It would therefore be a waste of time to give the modus operandi. An abscess involving the turbinated bones is similar to the collec- tion of pus in the sinuses and must be relieved by trephining. THICKENING OF THE NASAL MEMBRANE. This is soujetimes denoted by a chronic discharge, a snulUing in the breathing, and a contraction of the nostril. It is a result of common cold and requires the same treatment as prescribed for nasal gleet, namely, the sulphate of iron, sulphate of coiq)er, iodid of pcttassium, etc. The membranes of both siiles may be allected. but one side only is the rule; the affected side may be easily detected by holding the hand tightly over one n< >tril at a time. A\'hen tlir healthy tiide is closed in this manner the i)reathing tluough the allected side will demonstrate a decreased caliber or an obstruction. 102 DISKiSES OF THE HORSE. NASAL POLYPUS. Tumors with narrow bases (somewhat pear-shaped) are occasion- ally found attached to the membrane of the nasal chambers, and are obstructions to breathing through the side in which they are located. They Aary much in size; some are so small that their presence is not manifested, while others almost completely fill the chamber, thereby causing a serious obstruction to the passage of air. The stem, or base, of the tumor is generally attached high in the chamber, and usually the tumor can not be seen, but occasionally it increases in size until it can be observed within the nostril. Sometimes, instead of hanging down toward the nasal opening, it falls back into the phar- ynx. It causes a discharge from the nostril, a more or less noisy snuffling sound in breathing, according to its size, a discharge of blood (if it is injured), and sneezing. The side that it occupies can be detected in the same way as described for the detection of the affected side when the breathing is obstructed by a thickened membrane. The onh' relief is removal of the polypus, which, like all other operations, should be done by an expert when it is possible to obtain one. The operation is performed by grasping the base of the tmnor with suitable forceps and twisting it round and round until it is torn from its attachment, or by cutting it off with a noose of wire. The lesulting hemorrhage is checked by the use of an astringent lotion, such as a solution of the tincture of iron, or by packing the nostrils with surgeon's gauze. PHARYNGEAL POLYPUS. This is exactly the same kind of tumor described as nasal polypus, the only difference being in the situation. Indeed, the stem of the ■ tumor may be attached to the membrane of the nasal chamber, as before explained, or it may be attached in the fauces (opening of the back part of the mouth), and the body of the tumor then falls into the pharynx. In this situation it may seriously interfere with breath- ing. Sometimes it drops into the larynx, causmg the most alarming symptoms. The animal coughs, or tries to cough, saliva flows from the mouth, the breathing is performed with the greatest difficulty and accompanied with a loud noise; the animal appears as if strangled and often falls exhausted. Allien the tumor is coughed out of the lar- ynx the animal regains quickly and soon appears as if nothing were ailing. These sudden attacks and quick recoveries point to the nature of the trouble. The examination must be nnade by holding the ani- maFs mouth open with a balling iron or speculum and running the hand back into the mouth. If the tumor is within reach, it must be removed in the same manner as though it were in the nose. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 103 BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE. Tliis often ocnirs durmfr the course of certain (diseases, nanielv. influenza, bronchitis, ])urpura hemorrhncriea, frhmders, etc. But it also f)ccurs in(le[)enrlently of other affections and, as before lueii- tioned, is a s^Tuptoin of pol^-pus, or tumor, in the nose. Injuries to the head, exertion, violent sneezing — causinjr a rupture of a small blood vessel — also induce it. The bleedin.>jM] ,1- such with the diseases of the digestive tract. SORE THROAT. OR LARYNGITIS. The larynx is situated in the space between the lower jawbones just back of the root of the tongue. It may be considered as a box (sduie- what depressed on each side), comj^osed piincipally of cartilages and small muscles, and lined on the inside with a continuation of the respiratory mucous membrane. Posterioily it opens into and is con- tinuous with the windpii)e. It is the organ of the voice, the voiiie, and in the space between the lower jaws. This liniment should be applied once a day for two or three days. If the animal is bieathing with great dilliculty. persevere in steam- ing the nostrils, and dissolve '2 drams of chlorate of potassium in every gallon of water he will drink : even if he can not swallow nuR-h of it, and even if it is returned through the nostrils, it will be of some benefit to the pharynx as a gaigle. An electuary of acetate of potash, 2 drams, honey, and licorice powder may be spread on the teeth with a paddle every few hours. Tf the pain of coughing is great, 2 or 3 grains of morphin may be added to the electuary. When the breathing begins to be loud, relief is afforded in some cases by giving a drench composed of 2 drams of fluid extract of jaborandi in half a pint of water. If benefit is derived, this drench may be repeated four or five hours after the first dose is given. It will cause a free flow of saliva from the mouth. In urgent cases, when suffocation seems inevitable, the operation of tracheotomy must be performed. To describe this operation in words that would make it comprehensible to the general reader is a moi-e difficult task than performing the ojieration. which, in tlie hands of the expert, is simple and attended with little danger. The operator should be provided with a tracheotomy tube (to be purchased from any veterinary instrument maker) and a sharp knife, a sponge, and a liucket of clean cold water. The place to be selected for opening the wind}upe is that part which is found, upon examina- tion, to be least coveied with muscles, about 5 or C inches below the throat. Right here, then, is the place to cut through. Have an assistant hold the animal's head still. Orasp your knife firmly in the rijrht hand, select the spot and make the cut from above to below directly on the median line on the anterior surface of the windpipe. Make the cut about 2 inches long in the windpipe: this nece.ssitates cutting three or fom- rings. One bold stroke i> usually sufficient, but if it is necessary to make several other cuts to fini.sh the operation, do 106 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. not hesitate. Your purpose is to make a hole in the windpipe siiffi- ciently large to admit the tracheotomy tube. It is quickly manifested when the windpipe is severed: the hot air rushes out, and when air is taken in it is sucked in with a noise. A slight hemorrhage may result (it never amounts to much) , which is easily controlled by wash- ing the woimd with a sponge and cold water, but use care not to get an}'' water in the windpipe. Do not neglect to instruct your assistant to hold the head down immediately after the operation, so that the neck will be in a horizontal line. This will prevent the blood from getting into the windpipe and wdll allow it to drop directly on the gi'ound. If 3^ou have the self-adjustable tube, it retains its place in the wound without farther trouble after it is inserted. The other kind requires to be secured in position by means of two tapes or strings tied around the neck. After the hemorrhage is somewhat abated, sponge the blood away and see that the tube is thoroughly clean, then insert it, directing the tube downward toward the lungs. The immediate relief this operation affords is gratifying to behold. The animal, a few minutes before on the verge of death from suffoca- tion, emitting a loud wheezing sound with every breath, with hag- gard countenance, body swaying, pawing, gasping, fighting for breath, now breathes tranquilly, and may be in search of something to eat. The tube should be removed once a day and cleaned with carbolic- acid solution (1 to 20), and the discharge washed away from the wound with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part to 40 parts water. Several times a day the hand should be held over the opening in the tube to test the animal's ability to breathe through the nostrils, and as soon as it is demonstrated that breathing can be performed in the natural way the tube should be removed, the wound thoroughly cleansed with carbolic-acid solution (1 to 40), and closed by in- serting four or five stitches through the skin and muscle. Do not include the cartilages of the windpipe in the stitches. Apply the solution to the wound three or four times a day until healed. When the tube is removed to clean it the lips of the wound may be pressed together to ascertain whether or not the horse can breathe through the larynx. The use of the tube should be discontinued as soon as possible. It is true that tracheotomy tubes are seldom to be found on farms, and especially when most urgently required. In such instances there is nothing left to be done but, with a strong needle, pass a waxed end or other strong string through each side of the wound, including the cartilage of the windpipe, and keep the wound open by tying the strings over the neck. During the time the tube is used the other treatment advised must not be neglected. After a few days the discharge from the nostrils DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY' 0RGA2sS. 107 becomes thicker ami more profuse. This is a good symptom and signifies that the acute stage has passed. At an}-^ time during the at- tack, if the horse becomes weak, give whisky or aromatic spirits of ammonia, 2 ounces in water. Do not be in a hurry to put the animal back to work, but give phMity of time for a complete recovery. Gentle and gradually increasing exercise may be given as soon as the horse is able to stand it. The feed should be carefully selected and of good quality. Tonics, as iron or arsenic, may be employed. If abscesses form in connection with the disease they must be opened to allow the escape of pus, but do not rashly plunge a Icnifo into swollen glands; wait until you are certain the swelling contains pus. The fonuation of ])us may be encouraged by the constant appli- cation of poultices for hours at a time. The best poultice for the purpose is made of linseed meal, with sufficient hot water to make a thick paste. If the glands remain swollen for some time after the attack, rub well over thorn an application of the following: Biniodid of mercury. 1 dram: lard, 1 ounce: mix well. This nuiy be applied once every day until the part is blistered. Sore throat is also a symptom of other diseases, such as influenza, strangles, purp\ira hemorrhagica, etc., which diseases may be con- sulted under their proper headings. After a severe attack of infhunmation of the lar\-nx the mucous membrane may be left in a thickened condition, or an ulceration of the part may ensue, either of which is liable to produce a chronic cough. For the ulceration it is useless to prescribe, because it can neither be diagno.sed nor topically treated by the nonprofessional. If a chronic cough remaius after all the other symjitoms have disappeared, it is advisable to give 1 dram of iodid of potassium dis- solved in a bucketful of drinking water, one hour before feeding, three times a day for a month if necessary. Also rub in well the preparation of iodid of mercury (as advised for the swollen glands) about the throat, froui ear to ear. and in the space between the lower jawbones. The application may be repeated every third day \mtil the part is blistered. SPASM OF THE LARYNX. Tlie symptoms are as follows: Sudden seizure by a violent fit of coughing: the horse may reel and fall, and after a few uiiuutes i-e- cover and be as well as ever. The treatment recouunended is this: Three drams of bromid of potassium three times a day, dissolved in the drinking water, or give as a drench in about a half ])int of water for a week. Then give 1 dram of powdered nux voujica (either on the food or shaken with water as a drench) once a day for a few weeks. 108 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. CROUP AND DIPHTHERIA. Neither of these diseases affects the horse, but these names are sometimes wrongly applied to severe laryngitis or pharyngitis, or to forage poisoning, in which the throat is parah^zed and becomes ex- cessively inflamed and gangrenous. THICK WIND AND ROARING. Horses that are affected with chronic disease that causes a loud, unnatural noise in breathing are said to have thick wind, or to be roarers. This class does not include those affected with severe sore throat, as in these cases the breathing is noisy only during the attack of the acute disease. Thick wind is caused by an obstruction to the free passage of the air in some part of the respiratory tract. Xasal polypi, thickening of the membrane, pharyngeal polypi, deformed bones, paralysis of the wing of the nostril, etc., are occasional causes. The noisy breathing of horses after having been idle and put to sudden exertion is not due to any disease and is only temporary. Very often a nervous, ex- citable horse will make a noise for a short time when started off, generally caused by the cramped position in which the head and neck are forced in order to hold him back. ]Many other causes may occasion temporary, intermittent, or per- manent noisy respiration, but chronic roaring is caused by paralysis of the muscles of the larynx ; and almost invariably it is the muscles of the left side of the larynx that are affected. In chronic roaring the noise is made when the air is drawn into the lungs; only when the disease is far advanced is a sound produced when the air is expelled, and even then it is not nearly so loud as during inspiration. In a normal condition the muscles dilate the aperture of the larynx by moving the cartilage and vocal cord outward, allowing a sufficient volume of air to rush through. But when the muscles are paralyzed the cartilage and vocal cord that are normally controlled by the affected muscles lean into the tube of the larynx, so that when the air rushes in it meets this obstruction and the noise is produced. When the air is expelled from the lungs its very force pushes the cartilage and vocal cords out, and consequently noise is not produced in the expiratory act. The paralysis of the muscles is due to derangement of the nerve that supplies them with energy. The muscles of both sides are not supplied by the same nerve; there is a right and a left nerve, each supplying its respective side. The reason why the muscles on the left side are the ones usually paralyzed is owing to the difference in the anatomical arrangement of the nerves. The left nerve is much longer and more exposed to interference than the right nerve. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 109 111 chronic roaring there is no evidence of any disease of the huynx other than the wasted condition of the muscles in (luestion. The disease of tlie nerve is generally far from the larynx. Disease of parts contiguous to the nerve along any i)art of its course may inter- fere with its proper function. Enlargement of lymphatic glands within the chest through which the nerve passes on its way back to the larynx is the most fre(iueiit i.uterruption of ncivous supply, and consetpiently roaring. "When loariug hecomes conlirmcd, medical treatment is entirely useless, as it is impossible to le.store the wasted muscle and at tin* same time remove the cau>c of the intcnuplioii of the nervous supply. Before roaring becomes i)ermanent the con- dition may be benefited by a course of iodid of potassium, if caused by disease of the lymphatic glands. Electricity has been used with indifferent success. Blistering or firing over the larynx is. of course, not worthy of trial if the disease is due to interference of the nerve supply. The administration of strychnia (nux vomica) on the ground that it is a nerve tonic with the view of stimulating the af- fected nniscles is treating only the loult of the disease without con- sidering the cause, and is therefoie useless. The operation of extir- l)ating the collapsed (^artilage and vocal cortl is believed to be the oidy relief, and, as this operation is critical and can be performed only by the skillful veterinarian, it will not be described here. From the foregoing de^criittion of the disease it will be seen that the name " roaring," by which the disease is generally known, is only .1 symptom and not the disease. Chronic roaring is also in many cases accompanied with a cough. The best way to test whether a liorse is a "roarer" is either to make him pull a load rapidly up a hill or over a sandy road or soft giound; or, if he is a saddle horse, gallop him up a hill or over soft ground. The object is to make him exert himself. Some horses require a great deal more exertion than t)thers before the characteristic sound is emitted. The greater the distance he is forced, the more he will appear exhausted if he is a roarer; in bad cases the animal becomes utterly exhausted, the breathing is rapid and difticult, the no.strils dilate to the fullest ex- tent, and the animal appears as if suffocation was imminent. An animal that is a roarer should not be used for breeding i)ur- poses. The taint is transmissible in many instances. (rrunflnf/. — A conunon test used by veterinarians when examining '• the wind " of a horse is to see if he is a '' grunter." This is a sound omitt€»d during expiration when the animal is suddenly moved, or startled, or struck at. If he grunts he is further tested for roaring, (irunters are not always roarers, l)ut, as it is a common thing for a roarer to grmit, such an animal must be looked upon with suspicion until he is thoroughly tried by pulling a load or galloped up a hill. The test should be a severe one. Horses sutfcring with pleurisy, 110 DISEASES or THE HOESE. pleurodynia, or rheumatism, and other affections accompanied with much pain, will grunt when moved, or when the pain is aggravated, but grunting under these circumstances does not justify the term of "grunter" being applied to the horse, as the grunting ceases when the animal recovers from the disease that causes the pain. High hlounng. — This term is applied to a noisy breathing made by some horses. It is distinctly a nasal sound, and must not be con- founded with " roaring.'' The sound is produced by the action of the nostrils. It is a habit and not an unsoundness. Contrary to roaring, when the animal is put to severe exertion the sound ceases. An ani- mal that emits this sound is called a "high blower." Some horses have naturallj^ very narrow nasal openings, and they may emit sounds louder than usual in tlieir breathing wdien exercised. WhistUng is only one of the variations of the sound emitted by a horse called a " roarer," and therefore needs no further notice, except to remind the reader that a whistling sound may be produced during an attack of severe sore throat or inflammation of the larynx, which passes aw^ay Avith the disease that causes it. CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. This may be due to the same causes as acute bronchitis or it may follow the latter disease. An attack of the chronic form is liable to be converted into acute bronchitis by a very slight cause. This chronic affection in most instances is associated with thickening of the walls of the tubes. Its course is slower, it is less severe, and is not accompanied with so much fever as the acute form. If the animal is exerted, the breathing becomes quickened and he soon shows signs of exhaustion. In many instances the animal keeps up strength and appearances moderately well, but in other cases the appetite is lost, flesh gradually disappears, and he becomes emaciated and debilitated. It is accompanied with a persistent cough, which in some cases is husky, smothered, or muffled, while in others it is hard and clear. A Avhitish matter, which may be cuidled. is discharged from the nose. If the ear is placed against the chest behind the shoulder blade, the rattle of the air passing through the mucus can be heard within. Treatment. — Rest is necessary, as even under the most favorable circumstances a cure is difficult to effect. The animal can not stand exertion and should not be compelled to undergo it. It should have much the same general care and medical treatment prescribed for the acute form. xVrsenious acid in tonic doses (3 to T grains) three times daily may be given. As arsenic is irritant, it must be mixed with a considerable bulk of moist feed and never giA^en alone. Ar- senic may be given in the form of Fowler's solution, 1 ounce three times daily in the drinking water. An application of mustard ap- DISEASES OF THE RKSIMHATORV ORGANS. Ill plied to the breast is a beiielicial adjunct. The diet shouKl he the most iioiii-ishin^. Bulky feed should not be g:iven. liinst'od inashe>, scalded oats, and, if in season, grass and green-blade fodtler are the best diet. THE LUNGS. The lungs (^soe PI. VTT) are the I'.ssential organs ot' rcspirati'Mi. They consist of two (right and left) spongy masses, commonly called the " lights," situated entirely within the thoracic cavity. On account of the space taken up by the heart, the left lung is the smaller. K\- ternally, they are compU'toly covered by the pleura. The structure of the lung consists of a liglit. soft, but very strt)ng and remarkably I'lasti** tissue, which can be torn only with dilTiculty. Each lung is divided into a certain number of lobes, which are subdividey auscultation important information may be gained. AVlien the ear is placed against the chest of a healthy horse, the resi)irat()ry murmin- is heard uiore or less distinctly, according to the part of the chest that is l)eneath the ear. In the very first stage of pneuujonia this murmur is louder and hoarser; also, there is a fine, crackling sound something similar to that produced when salt is thrown in a fire. After the atl'ected part becomes solid there is an absence of sound over that particular part. After absorption begins one may again hear sounds that are of a moie or less uioist character and resemble bul)bling or gurgling, which gradually chanire mitil the natural sound is heard announcing return to health. AMien a fatal termination is ai>|>roaching all the symptoms l>e- come intensified. The breathing becomes still more raj)id and diffi- cult; the flanks heave; the animal stares wildly about as if seeking 116 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. aid to drive oif the feeling of suffocation; the body is bathed Avith sweat; the horse staggers, but quickly recovers his balance; he may now, for the first time during the attack, lie down; he does so, how- ever, in the hope of relief, which he fails to find, and with difficulty struggles to his feet; he pants; the nostrils flap; he staggers and sways from side to side and backward and forward, but still tries to retain the standing position, even by propping himself against the stall. It is no use, as after an exhausting fight for breath he goes down; the limbs stretch out and become rigid. In fatal cases death usually occurs in from 10 to 20 days after the beginning of the attack. On the other hand, when the disease is terminating favor- ably the signs are obvious. The fever abates and the animal gradu- ally improves in appetite; he takes more notice of things around him ; his spirits improve ; he has a general appearance of returning health, and he lies down and rests. In the majority of cases pneumo- nia, if properly treated, terminates in recovery. Treatment. — The comfort and surroundings of the patient must be attended to first. The quarters should be the best that can be pro- vided. Pure air is essential. Avoid placing the animal in a stall where he may be exposed to drafts of cold air and sudden changes of temperature. It is much better for the animal if the air is cold and pure than if it is warm and foul. It is b'etter to make the animal comfort- able with warm clothing than to make the stable warm by shutting off the ventilation. From the start the animal should have an unlimited supply of fresh, cold drinking water. Blanket the body. Eub the legs until they are warm and then put bandages on them from the hoofs up to the knees and hocks. If warmth can not be reestablished in the legs by hand rubbing alone, apply dry, ground mustard and rub well in. The bandages should be removed once or twice every day, the legs well rubbed, and the bandages replaced. Much harm is often done by clipping off hair and rubbing in powerful blistering com- pounds. They do positive injury and retard recovery, and should not be allowed. Much benefit may be derived from hot application to the sides of the chest if the facilities are at hand to apply them. If the weather is not too cold, and if the animal is in a comfortable stable, the following method may be tried : Have a tub of hot water handy to the stable door; soak a woolen blanket in the water, then quickly wring as much water as possible out of it and wrap it around the chest- See that it fits closely to the skin ; do not allow it to sag so that air may get between it and the skin. Now wrap a dry blanket over the wet hot one and hold in place with three girths. The hot blanket should be renewed every half hour, and while it is off being wetted and wrung the dry one should remain over the wet part of the chest to prevent reaction. The hot applications should be kept up for three or four hours, and when stopped the skin should be DISEASES OF TKE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 117 quickly rubbed as dry as possible, an application of alcohol nil)l)ed over the wet part, ami a diy blanklet snugly fitted over the uniinal. If the hot applications appear to benefit, they may be tiled on three or four consecutive days. Unless every facility and circum.stunce favors the application of heat in the foregoing!: manner, it .should not be attemi)ted. If the weather is very cold or any of the details are (unitted, moie harm than «:;ood may result. Mustard may be applied by makini; a paste with a pound of freshly «j:romul mu.stard mixed with wnin water. This is to be s))read evenly over the sides Itack of the shouhlei- blades and down to the median line below the chest. Care should be taken to avoid rubbing the mustard upon the thin skin immeiliately back of the elbow. The mustard-covered area should be co\-eied witli a ]iaiHM* and this with a blanket j^assed up from below and fastened over the back. The blanket and paper should be removed in from one to two hours. AVhen ])neumonia fol- lows another disease, the system is always more of le^s debilitated and requires the careful* use of stimulants from the beginning. To weaken the animal still furthei* by bleeding liim is one of the mo.st etl'ectual methods of retarding recovery, even if it does not hasten a fatal termination. Another and oftentimes fatal mistake made by the nonprofessional is the indi.scriminate and reckless use of aconite. This drug is one of the most active poisons, and should not be handled by anyone who does not thoroughly understand its action and uses. It is only less active than prussic acid in its poisonous etl'ects. It is a common opinion, often expressed by nonprofessionals, that aconite is a stimu- lant. Nothing could be more erroneous; in fact, it is just the rever.se. It is one of the mo.st powerful sedatives used in the practice of medi- cine. In fatal doses it kills by paralyzing the very muscles used in breathing; it weakens the action of the heart, and should not be used. Do not give purgative medicines. If constipation exists, overcome it by an allowance of laxative diet, such as scalded oats, bran, and lin- seed mashes; also, gra.ss, if in season. If the costiveness is not re- lieved by the laxative diet, give an enema of about a quart of warm water three or four times a day. A diet consisting principally of bran mashes, scalded oats, and, when in season, grass or corn fodder is preferable if the aninuil retains an appetite: but if no desire is evinced for feed of this par- ticular description, then the animal must be allowed to eat anything that will be taken spontaneously. Hay tea. made by pouring boiling water over good hay in a large bucket and allowing it to stand luitil cool, then straining off the li(]uid, will sometimes create a desire for feed. The animal may be allowed to drink as much of it as he desires. Corn on the cob is often eaten when everything else is refused. Bread may be tried; also apples or carrots. If the animal 118 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. can be persuaded to drink milk, it may be supported by it for days. Three or four gallons of sweet milk may be given during the day, in which may be stirred three or four fresh eggs to each gallon. Some horses will drink milk, while others will refuse to touch it. Tt should be borne in mind that all feed must be taken by the horse as he desires it; none should be forced down him. If he will not eat, you will only have to wait until a desire is shown for feed. All kinds may be offered, first one thing and then another, but feed should not be allowed to remain long in trough or manger ; the very fact of its constantly being before him will cause him to loathe it. When the animal has no appetite for anything the stomach is not in a proper state to digest food, and if it is poured or drenched into him it will only cause indigestion and aggravate the case. It is a good practice to do nothing when there is nothing to be done that- will benefit. This refers to medicine as well as feed. Nothing is well done that is overdone. There are many valuable medicines used for the 'different stages and different types of pneumonia, but in the opinion of the writer it is useless to refer to them here, as this work is intended for the use of those who are not sufficiently acquainted with the disease to recognize its various types and stages; therefore they would only confuse. If you can administer a ball or capsule, or have anyone at hand who is capable of doing it, a dram of sulphate of quinin in a capsule, or made into a ball, with sufficient linseed meal and molasses, given every three hours during the height of the fever, will do good in many cases. The ball of carbonate of ammonia, as advised in the treatment of bronchitis, may be tried if the animal is hard to drench. The heart should be kept strong by administering digitalis in doses of 2 drams of the tincture every three hours, or strychnia 1 grain, made into a pill with licorice powder, three times daily. If the horse becomes very much debilitated, stimulants of a more pronounced character are required. The following drench is useful : Eectified spirits, 3 ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces; water, 1 pint. This may be repeated every four or five hours if it seems to benefit; or 6 ounces of good whisky diluted with a pint of water may be given as often, instead of the foregoing. During the period of convalescence good nutritive feed should be allowed in a moderate quantity. Tonic medicines should be sub- stituted for those used during the fever. The same medicines advised for the convalescing period of bronchitis are equally efficient in this case, especially the iodid of potash; likewise, the same general in- structions apply here. The chief causes of death in pneumonia are heart failure from exhaustion, suffocation, or blood poisoning from death (gangrene) of lung tissue. The greater the area of lung tissue diseased the greater DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 119 the danger; hence double pneumonia is more fatal tlian piMMunonia of one lung. THE WINDPIPE. The windpipe, or trachea as it is technically called, is the flexible tube that extends from the larynx, which it succeeds at the throat, to above the base of the heart in tlio chest, where it terminates bv dividing into the right and left bronchi — the tubes going to the right and left lung, respectively. The windpipe is composed of about fifty incomplete rings of cartilag'' united l)y ligauicnts. A muscular layer is situated on the superior surface of the rings. Internally the tube is lined with a continuation of the mucous membrane that lines the entire respiratory tract, which here has very little sensibility in contrast to that lining the larynx, which is endowed with exquisite sensitiveness. The windpipe is not subject to any special disease, but is more or less aU'ected during laryngitis (sore throat), influenza, bronchitis. etc., and requires no special treatment. The membrane may be left in a thickened condition after these attacks. One or more of the rings may be accidentally fractured, or the tube may be distorted or malformed as the result of violent injury. After the operation of tracheotomy it is not uncommon to find a tumor or malformation as a result, or sequel, of the operation. In passing over this section attention is merely called to these defects, as they require no particu- lar attention in the way of treatment. It may be stated, however, that any one of the before-mentioned conditions may constitute one of the causes of noisy respiration described as "thick wind." GUTTURAL POUCHES. These two sacs are situated above the throat, and communicate with the pharynx, as well as with the cavity of the tyuipanuni of the ear. They are peculiar to soli))eds. Xormnlly. th( y coiitMin air. Their function is unknown. One or both guttural i)ouches may contain pus. The t.yniptt>iu> arc as follows: Swelling on the side below the ear and an intermittent discharge of matter from one or both nostrils, especially when the head is depressed. The swelling is soft, and, if pressed ui)on, matter will escape from the nose if the head is depressed. As before mentioned, these pouches communicate with the pharynx, and through this suiall opening matter may escape. A recovery is probable if the animal is turned out to graze, or if he is fed from the giound, as the dependent position of the head favors the escape of matter from the pouches. In addition to this, give the topics recommended for nasal gleet. If this treatment fails, an operation mu.st be performed, which should not be attempted by any one unacquainted with tho anatomy of the part. 120 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. BRONCHITIS AND BRONCHO-PNEUMONIA. Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. "V\Tien this inflammation extends to the air sacs at the termini of the smallest branches of the bronchial tubes, the disease is broncho-pneumonia. Bronchitis affecting the larger tubes is less serious than when the smaller are involved. The disease may be either acute or chronic. The causes are generally much the same as for other diseases of the respiratory organs, noticed in the beginning of this article. The special causes are these: The inhalation of irritating gases and smoke and fluids or solids gaining access to the parts. Bronchitis is occa- sionally associated with influenza and other specific fevers. It also supervenes on common cold or sore throat. Syrrbptoms. — The animal appears dull ; the appetite is partially or Avholly lost; the head hangs; the breathing is quickened; the cough, at first dry, and having somewhat the character of a "barking cough," is succeeded in a few days by a moist, rattling cough; the mouth is hot; the visible membranes in the nose are red; the pulse is frequent, and during the first stage is hard and quick, but as the disease advances becomes smaller and more frequent. There is a discharge from the nostrils that is at first Avhitish, but later becomes creamy or frothy, still later it is sometimes tinged with blood, and occasionally it may be of a brownish or rusty color. By auscul- tation, or placing the ear to the sides of the chest, unnatural sounds can now be heard. The air passing through the diseased tubes causes a w^ieezing sound when the small tubes are affected, and a hoarse, cooing, or snoring sound when the larger tubes are involved. After one or two days the dry stage of the disease is succeeded by a moist state of the membrane. The ear now detects a different sound, caused by the bursting of the bubbles as the air passes through the fluid, which is the exudate of inflammation and the augmented mu- cous secretions of the membrane. The mucus may be secreted in great abundance, Avhich, b}^ blocking up the tubes, may cause a col- lapse of a large extent of breathing surface. Usually the mucus is expectorated; that is, discharged through the nose. The matter is coughed up, and when it reaches the lar3"nx much of it may be swal- lowed, and some is discharged from the nostrils. The horse can not spit, like the human being, nor does the matter coughed up gain access to the mouth. If in serious cases all the symptoms become aggravated, the breathing is labored, short, and quick, it usually in- dicates that the inflammation has reached the breathing cells and that catarrhal pneumonia is established. In this case the ribs rise and fall much more than natural. This fact alone is enough to exclude the idea that the animal may be affected with pleurisy, because in that disease the ribs are as nearly fixed as it is in the power of the DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 121 animal to do so, and the breathing is accomplished tu a great extent by aid of the abdominal muscles. The horse persists in standing throughout the attack. He prefers to stand with head to a door or window to gain all the fresh air possible, but if not tied may occa- sionally Avander listlessly about the stall. The bowels most likely are constipated; the dung is covered with slimy mucus. The urine is decreased in (juantity and darker in color than usual. The animal shows more or less thirst; in some cases the mouth is full of saliva. The discharge fi'om the nose increases in (|uantity as the disease atlvances and inllanunation subsides. This is rather a good symp- tom, as it shows that one stage has passed. The discharge then gradually decreases, the cough becomes less rasping, but of more fre(iuent occurrence, until it gradually disappears with the return of health. Bronchitis, allecting the smaller tubes, is one of the most fatal diseases, while that of the larger tubes is never very serious. It must be stated, however, that it is an exceedingly difficult matter for a nonexpert to discriminate between tlie two forms, and, further, it may as well be saiil here that he will have difficulty in discriminat- ing between bronchitis and pneumonia. Treatment. — The matter of first importance is to insure pure air to breathe, and next to make the patient's (piarters as comfortable as possible. A well-ventilated box stall serves best for all purposes. Cover the body with a blanket, light or heavy, as the season of the year demands. Hand-rub the legs until they are warm, then wrap them in cotton and api)ly flannel or Derby bandages from the hoofs to the knees and hocks. If the legs can not be made warm with hand rubbing alone, apply dry mu.stard. Rub in thoroughly and then put the bandages on; also rub mustard paste wi'll over the side of the chest, covering the space beginning iui- mediately l)ehind the shoulder blade and running back about eigh- teen incht'S, and from the median line i)eneath the breast to within ten inches of the ridge of the backbone. Kepeat the application to tlie side of the chest about three days after the first one is ap- plied. Compel the animal to inhale steam frf»m a bucketful of boiling water containing a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine and spirits of camphor, as advised for cohl in the head. In serious cases the steam should be inhaled every hour, and in any case the oftener it is dono the greater will be the beneficial results. Three times a day admin- ister an electuary containing acetate of potash ('J drams), with lico- rice and molasses or honey. It is well to keep a bucketful of cold water before the animal all the time. If the horse is prostrated and has no appetite, give the following drench: Spirits of nitrous ether. 122 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 2 ounces; rectified spirits, 3 ounces; water, 1 pint. Repeat the dose every four or five hours if it appears to benefit. When the horse is hard to drench, give the following: Pulverized carbonate of am- monia, 3 drams; linseed meal and molasses sufficient to make the whole into a stiif mass; wrap it with a small piece of tissue paper and give as a ball. This ball may be repeated every four or five hours. ^Mien giving the ball care should be taken to prevent its breaking in the mouth, as in case of such accident it will make the mouth sore and prevent the animal from eating. If the bowels are constipated, give enemas of warm water. Do not give purgative medicines. Do not bleed the animal. If the animal retains an appetite, a soft diet is preferable, such as scalded oats, bran mashes, and grass, if in season. If he refuses cooked feed, allow in small quantities anything he will eat. Hay, cob corn, oats, bread, apples, and carrots may be tried in turn. Some horses will drink sweet milk when they refuse all other kinds of feed, and especially is this the case if the drinking water is with- held for a while. One or 2 gallons at a time, four or five times a day, will support life. Bear in mind that when the disease is estab- lished recovery can not occur in less than two or three weeks, and more time may be necessary. Good nursing and patience are re- quired. When the symptoms have abated and nothing remains of the dis- ease except the cough and a white discharge from the nostrils, all other medicines should be discontinued and a course of tonic treat- ment pursued. Give the following mixture : Reduced iron, 3 ounces ; j)owdered gentian, 8 ounces ; mix well together and divide into sixteen powders. Give a powder every night and morning mixed with bran and oats, if the animal will eat it, or shaken with about a pint of flax- seed tea and administered as a drench. If the cough remains after the horse is apparently well, give 1 dram of icdid of potassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water one hour before each meal for two or three weeks if necessary. Do not put the animal to work too soon after recovery. Allow ample 'time to regain strength. This disease is prone to become chronic and may run into an incurable case of thick wind. PLEURISY. The thoracic cavity is divided into two lateral compartments, each containing one lung and a part of the heart. Each lung has its sepa- rate pleural membrane, or covering. The pleura is the thin, glisten- ing membrane that covers the lung and also completely covers the in- ternal walls of the chest. It is very thin, and to the ordinary ob- server appears to be part of the lung, which, in fact, it is for all I DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 123 practical purposes. The smooth, shiny suiftice of the lung, as woll as the smooth, shiny surface so familiar on t\w. rib, is the plura. In health this surface is always moist. A fluid is thrown olF by the pleura, wliicli causes the surface to be constantly moist. This is to prevent the eti'ects of friction l)etween tlio lun«is and the walls of the cliest and other contiguous parts which come in contact. It nuist bo remembered that the lungs are dilating each time a breath is taken in, and ccmtracting each time a breath of air is expelled. It may be reatlily seen that if it were not for tiie moistened state of the surface of the pleura the continual dilatation and contraction and the conse- quent rubbing of the parts against each other would cause serious friction. Intlammation of this membrane is called pleuri.sy. Being so closely united with the lung, it can not always escape participation in the disease when the latter is inflamed. Pleurisy may be due to the same predisposing and exciting causes as mentioned in the beginning of this work as general causes for diseases of the organs of respi- ration, such as exposure to sudden changes of temperature, confine- ment in damp stables, etc. It may be caused also by wounds that penetrate the chest, for it must be remembered that such wounds must necessarily pierce the pleura. A fractured rib may involve the pleura. The inflammation following such wounds may be cir- cumscribed ; that is, confined to a small area surrounding the wound, or it may spread from the wound and involve a large portion of the pleura. The pleura may be involved secondarily wlien the heart or its membrane is the primary seat of the disease. It may occur in conjunction with bronchitis, influenza, and other diseases. Diseased growths that interfere with the pleura may induce pleurisy. The most frequent cause of pleuri.sy is an extension of inflammation from adjacent diseased limg. It is a conunon comiilication of ])neu- monia. Pleurisy will be described here as an independent afl'ection, although it should be remembered tlint it is very often a.ssociated with the foregoing diseases. The first lesion of pleuri.sy is overfilling of the blood vessels that ramify in this membrane and dryness of the surface. This is fol- lowed by the formation of a coating of coagidated fibrin on the di.seased pleura and the transudation of serum whieh collects in the chest. This serum may contain flakes of fii)rin and it may be straw colored or red from an admixture of b]erchlorid of iron. 1 ounce: tinrttire of gentian. 2 ounces; water. 1 pint. Al«> give 1 dram of iodid of potassium, dissolved in the drinking water, an hour before feeding every night and morninir for a week or two. 126 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Eydrothorax is sometimes difficult to overcome by means of the use of medicines alone, when the operation of tapping the chest is performed to allow an escape for the accumulated fluid. The opera- tion is performed with a combined instrument called the trocar and cannula. The puncture is made in the lower part of the chest, in the space between the eighth and ninth ribs. Wounding of the intercostal artery is avoided by inserting the instrument as near as possible to the anterior edge of the rib. If the operation is of benefit, it is only so when performed before the strength is lowered beyond recovery. The operation merely receives a passing notice here, as it is not presumed that the nonprofessional will attempt it, although in the hands of the expert it is attended with little danger or difficulty. We have described here bronchitis, pneumonia, and pleurisy mainly as they occur as independent diseases, but it should be remem- bered that they merge into each other and may occur together at one time. While it is true that much more might have been said in regard to the different stages and tj^pes of the affections, and also in regard to the treatment of each stage and each particular type, the plan adopted of advising plain, conservative treatment is considered the wisest on account of simplifying as much as possible a subject of which the reader is supposed to know very little. PLEUROPNEUMONIA. This is the state in which an animal is affected with pleurisy and pneumonia combined, which is not infrequently the case. At the beginning of the attack only one of the affections may be present, but the other soon follows. It has already been stated that the pleura is closely adherent to the lung. The pleura on this account is frequently more or less affected by the spreading of the inflammation from the lung tissue. There is a combination of the symptoms of both diseases, but to the ordinary observer the symptoms of pleurisy are the most obvious. The course of treatment to be pursued differs in no manner from that given for the affections when they occur independently. The symptoms will be the guide as to the advisability of giving oil and laudanum for the pain if the pleurisy is very severe. It should not be resorted to unless it is necessary to allay the pain. BRONCHO-PLEUROPNEUMONIA. This is the term or terms applied when bronchitis, pleurisy, and pneumonia all exist at once. It is impossible for one who is not an expert to diagnose the state with certainty. The apparent symptoms are the same as when the animal is affected with pleuropneumonia. II DISEASES OF TUE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 127 SUPPURATION AND ABSCESS IN THE LUNG. There are instances, and especially when the surroundings of the patient have been bad or tlie disease is of an especially severe type, when pneumonia terminates in an abscess in the lung. Sometimes, when the inllanmiation has been extreme, suppuration in a lar«re por- tion of the lung takes place. Imi)ure all', the result of imi)roper ven- tilation, is among the most frequent causes of this termination. The symptoms of suppuration in the lung are chronic pneumonia, a solidified area of lung tissue, continued low fever, and, in some cases, offensive smell of the breath, and the discharge of the matter from the nostrils. MORTIFICATION. Gangrene, or mortification, means the death of the part affected. Occasionally, owing to the intensity of the inflammation or bad treat- ment, pneumonia and pleuropneumonia terminate in mortification, which is soon followed by the death of the animal. Perhaps the most common cause of this complication is the presence of a foreign body in the lung, as food particles or medicine. Rough drenching or drenching tlirough the nostrils may cause this serious condition. HEMOPTYSIS, OR BLEEDING FROM THE LUNGS. Bleeding from the lungs may occur during the course of congestion of the lungs, bronchitis, pneumonia, influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, or glanders. An accident or exertion may cause a rupture of a vessel. Plethora and hypertrophy of the heart predispose to it. Following the rupture of a vessel the blood may escape into the lung tissue and cause a serious attack of pneumonia, or it may fill up the bronchial tubes and prove fatal by suffocating the animal. When the hemor- rhage is from the lung it is accompanied with coughing; the blood is frothy, of a bright red color, and comes from both nostrils; whereas when the bleeding is merely from a ru|>ture of a vessel in some part of the head (hertofore described as bleeding from the nose) the blood is most likely to issue from one nostril only, and the discharge is not accompanied with coughing. The eai- may be placed against the windpij^e along its course, and if the blood is from the hmgs a gurgling or rattling .sotmd will be heard. "NVlien it occurs in connec- tion with another disease it .seldom reijuires special ti'eatnient. When caused by accident or overexertion the animal should be kept quiet. If the hemorrhage is profuse and continues for several hours, 1 dram of the acetate of lead dis.solved in a pint of water may be given as a drench, or 1 ounce of the tincture of the jierchlorid of iron, diluted with a pint of water, may be given instead of the lead. It is rare 128 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. that the hemorrhage is so profuse as to require internal remedies. But hemorrhage into the hmg may occur and cause death by suffo- cation without the least manifestation of it by the discharge of blood from the nose. TUBERCULOSIS OF THE LUNGS. Pulmonary consumption or tuberculosis has been recognized in the horse in a number of instances. The symptoms are as of chronic pneumonia or pleurisy. There is no treatment for the disease. HEAVES, BROKEN WIND, OR ASTHMA. Much confusion exists in the popular mind in regard to the nature of heaves. Many horsemen loosely apply the term to all ailments where the breathing is difficult or noisy. Scientific veterinarians are well acquainted with the phenomena and locality of the affection, but there is a great diversity of opinion as regards the exact cause. Asthma is generally thought to be caused by spasm of the small cir- cular muscles that surround the bronchial tubes. The contmued existence of this affection of the muscles leads to a paralysis of them, and the forced breathing to emphysema, which always accompanies heaves. . Heaves is usuaUy associated with disorder of the function ot diges- tion or to an error in the choice of feed. Feeding on clover hay or damaged hay or straw, too bulky and innutritions feed, and keeping the horse in ''a dustv atmosphere or a badly ventilated stable produce or predispose to heaves. Horses brought from a high to a low level are predisposed. In itself broken wind is not a fatal disease, but death is generally caused bv an affection closely connected with it. After death, if the organs are examined, the lesions found depend much upon the length of time broken wind has affected the animal. In recent cases very few changes are noticeable, but in animals that have been broken- winded for a long time the changes are well marked. The lungs are paler than natural, and of much less weight in proportion to the vol- ume, as evidenced bv floating them in water. The walls of the small bronchial tubes and the membrane of the larger tubes are thickened. The rio-ht side of the heart is enlarged and its cavities dilated. The stomach is enlarged and its walls stretched. The important change found in the lungs is a condition technically called pulmonary em- physema. This is of two varieties : First, what is termed " vesicular emphysema," which consists of an enlargement of the capacity of the air cells (air vesicles) by dilation of their walls. The second form is caUed interlobular, or interstitial, emphysema, and follows the DISEASES or THE RESl'lRATORV ORGANS. 129 fii*st. In tliis variety the air find^; its way into the liinp tissue be- tween the ail" cellis or the tissue between the small lobules. Symptoms. — Almost every experienced horseman is able to detect hea\es. The peculiar movement of the flanks and abdomen jjoint out the ailment at once. In recent cases, however, the atleitetl aninud does not always exhibit the characteristic breathing unless exerted to a certain extent. The cough which accompanies this disease is peculiar to it. It is ditlicult to dcsciibe, but the sound is short and something like a giunt. A^'hen air is inspired — that is, taken in — it appears to be done in the same manner as in health; it may i)o.^sibly be done a little (luick'cr than natural, but not enough to attract any notice. It is when the act of expiration (or expelling the air from the lungs) is performed that the great change in the breathing is perce|)tible. It nuist be remembered that the lungs ha\e lf)st much of their elasticity, and in consequence of their power or contracting on account of the degeneration of the walls of the air cells, and also on account of the pai'alysis of muscular tissue before mentioned. The air passes into them freely, but the power to expel it is lost to a great extent by the lungs: therefore the abdominal muscles are brought into play. These muscles, especially in the region of the flank, are seen to contract, then pause for a moment, then complete the act of contracting, thus making a double bellowslike movement at each expiration, a sort of jerky motion with every breath. The double expiratory movement may also be detected by allowing the horse to exhale against the face or back of the hand. It will be ob- served that the exi)iratory current is not continuous, but is broken into two jets. When the animal is exerted a wheeezing noise accom- panies the breathing. This noise may be heard to a less extent when the aninud is at rest if the ear is applied to the chest. As before remarked, indigestion is often present in these cases. The animal nuiy have a depraved appetite, as shown by a desire to eat dirt and soiled bedding, which he often devours in preferencce to the clean feed in the trough or manger. The s-tomach is liable to be overloaded with indigestil)le feed. The abdomen may assume that form called "potbellied." The animal frequently passes wind of a very offensive odor, ^^'hen first put to work dung is passed frefjuently: the bowels are often loose. The animal can not stand much work, as the mu.scular .sy.stem is soft. Kound-chested hor.sef are said to l3e predisposed to the di.sease, and it is certain that in cases of long standing the chest iisiudly becomes rounder than natura]. Certain individuals become very expert in managing a horse af- fected with heaves in suppressing the symptoms for a short time. They take advantage of the fact that the breathing is much easier when the stiunach and intestines are empty. They al.so resort to the 30444"— IG 9 130 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. use of medicines that have a depressing effect. When the veterina- rian is examining a horse for soundness, and he suspects that the animal has been " fixed," he usually gives the horse as much water as he will drink and then has him ridden or driven rapidly up a hill or on a heavy road. This will bring out the characteristic breathing of heaves if the horse is so afflicted, but Avill not cause the symptoms of heaves in a health}'- horse. All broken-winded horses have the cough peculiar to the affection, but it is not regular. A considerable time ma}^ elapse before it is heard and then it may come on in paroxysms, especially when first brought out of the stable into the cold air, or when excited by work, or after a drink of cold water, riie cough is usually the first symptom of the disease. Treatment. — T\Tien the disease is established there is no cure for it. Proper attention paid to the diet will relieve the distressing symp- toms to a certain extent, but they will undoubtedly reappear in their intensity the first time the animal overloads the stomach or is al- lowed food of bad quality. Clover hay or bulky feed which contains but little nutriment have much to do with the cause of the disease, and therefore should be entirely omitted when the animal is affected, as well as before. It has been asserted that the disease is unknown where clover hay is never used. The diet should be confined to feed of the best quality and in the smallest quantity. The bad effect of moldy or dusty hay, fodder, or feed of an}^ kind can not be over- estimated. A small quantity of the best hay once a day is sufficient. This should be cut and dampened. The animal should invariabl}'^ be watered before feeding; never directly after a meal. The animal should not be worked immediately after a meal. Exertion, when the stomach is full, invariably aggravates the symptoms. Turning on pasture gives relief. Carrots, potatoes, or turnips chopped and mixed with oats or corn are a good diet. Half a pint to a pint of thick, dark molasses with each feed is useful. Arsenic is efficacious in palliating the symptoms. It is best ad- ministered in the form of a solution of arsenic, as Fowler's solution or as the white powdered arsenious acid. Of the former th^ dose is 1 ounce to the drinking water three times daily; of the latter one may give 3 grains in each feed. These quantities may be cautiously increased as the animal becomes accustomed to the drug. If the bowels do not act regularly, a pint of raw linseed oil may be given once or tAvice a month, or a handful of Glauber's salt may be given in the feed twice daily, so long as necessary. It must, however, be borne in mind that all medicinal treatment is of secondary considera- tion; careful attention paid to the diet is of greatest importance. Broken-winded animals should not be used for breeding purposes. A predisposition to the disease may be inherited. DISEASES OF TUE RESPIRATOKV OKUANS. 131 CHRONIC COUGH. A chronic cough may succeod the acute disease of tlie lespiratorv organs, such as i)ncuni()uia, bronchitis, hiryngitis, etc. It accom- panies chronic roaring, chronic broncliitis, broken wind; it may succeed influenza. As previously stated, cough is but a symptom and not a disease in itself. Chronic cough is occasionally associated with diseases other than those of the organs of respiration. It may be a syuiptom of chronic indigestion or of worms. In such cases it is causetl by a retlex ner\t)us irritation. The proper treatment in all cases of chronic cough is to ascertain the nature of the disease of which it is a symptom, and then cure the disease if possible and the cough will cease. The treatment of the atfections will be found under their appro- l)riate heads, to which the reader is referred. PLEURODYNIA. This is a form of rheumatism that affects the intercostal muscles; that is, the muscles between the ribs. The apparent symptoms are very siuiilar to those of pleurisy. The animal is stiff and not in- clined to turn round; the ribs are kept in a fixed state as much as j)ossil)le. If the head is pulled round suddenly, or the affected side struck with the hand, or if the spaces between the ribs are pressed with the fingers, the animal will flinch and perhaps emit a grunt or groan expressive of much pain. It is distinguished from pleurisy by the absence of fever, cough, the friction sound, the ellusion into the chest, and by the existence of rheumatism in other parts. The tieatment for this affection is the same as for rheunuitisni affecting other parts. WOUNDS PENETRATING THE WALLS OF THE CHEST. A wound i)enetrating the wall of the chest admits air into the tho- racic cavity outside the lung. This condition is known as pneumo- thorax and may result in collai)se of the lung. The wound may be .St) made tluit when the walls of the chest are dilating a little air is sucked in, but during the contraction of the wall the contained air presses against the torn part in .such manner as entirely to close the wound; thus a .small (|uantity of air gains access with each inspira- tion, while none is allowed to escape until the lung is pre.s.sed into a very .small compass and ff)rced into the anterior jiart of the chest. The same thing may occur from a l)roken rib inflicting a wound in the lung. In this form the air gains access from the lung, and there mav not be even an opening in the walls of the chest. In such ca.ses the air may be absorbed, when a spontaneous cure is the result, but 132 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. when the symptoms are urgent it is recommended that the air be removed by a trocar and cannula or by an aspirator. It is evident that the treatment of wounds that penetrate the tho- racic cavity should be prompt. It should be quickly ascertained whether or not a foreign body remains in the wound ; then it should be thoroughly cleaned with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part in 40 parts of water. The wound should then be closed immediately. If it is an incised wound, it should be closed with sutures or with adhesive plas- ters ; if torn or lacerated, adhesive plaster may be used or a bandage around the chest over the dressing. At all events, air must be pre- vented from getting into the chest as soon and as effectually as pos- sible. The after treatment of the wound should consist principally in keeping the parts clean with a solution of carbolic acid, and applying fresh dressing as often as required to keep the wound in a healthy condition. Care should be taken that the discharges from the wound have an outlet in the most dependent part. (See Wounds and their treatment, p. -484.) If pleurisy supervenes, it should be treated as advised under that head. THUMPS, OR SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM. " Thumps " is generally thought by the inexperienced to be a pal- pitation of the heart. lAliile it is true that palpitation of the heart is sometimes called "thumps," it must not be confounded wdth the affection under consideration. In the beginning of this article on the diseases of the organs of respiration, the diaphragm was briefly referred to as the principal and essential muscle of respiration. Spasmodic or irregular con- tractions of it in man are manifested by what is familiarly known as hiccoughs. Thumps in the horse is similar to hiccoughs in man, although in all cases the peculiar noise is not made in the throat of the horse. There should be no difficulty in distinguishing this affection from palpitation of the heart. The jerky motion affects the whole body, and is not confined to the region of the heart. If one hand is placed on the body at about the middle of the last rib, while the other hand is placed over the heart behind the left elbow, it will be easily demon- strated that there is no connection between the thumping or jerking of the diaphragm and the beating of the heart. In fact, when the animal is affected with spasms of the diaphragm the beating of the lieart is usuall}^ much weaker and less perceptible than natural. Thumps is produced by causes similar to those that produce con- gestion of the lungs and dilatation or palpitation of the heart, and may occur in connection wdth these conditions. If not relieved, death usually results from congestion or edema of the lungs, as DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATOHV ORGANS. 133 tlie breathing is interfered with by the inordinate action of this important muscle of inspiration so nnich that i)roper aeration of the bU)od can not take phue. The treatment should be as pre- scribed for congestion of the hings, and. in addition, antispasmodics, such as 1 ounce of sulphuric ether in \varm water or 3 drams of asafetiila. RUPTURE OF THE DIAPHRAGM. Post-mortem examinations after colic or severe accident sometimes reveal rupture of the diaphragm. This may take place after death, from the generation of gases in the decomposing carcass, wliich distend the intestines so that the diaphragm is ru]itured by the great pres.sure against it. The symptoms are intensely dillicult res- piration and great depression. There is no treatment. . DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. By James Law, F. R. C. V. S., Formerly Professor of Yeterinanj Science, etc., in Cornell .University. USES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. The urinary organs constitute the main channel through which are excreted the nitrogenous or albuminoid principles, whether derived directly from the feed or from the muscular and other nitrogenized tissues of the body. They constitute, besides, the channel through which are thrown out most of the poisons, whether taken in by the mouth or skin or developed in connection with faulty or natural digestion, blood-forming, nutrition, or tissue destruction ; or, finally, poisons that are developed within the body, as the result of normal cell life or of the life of bacterial or other germs that have entered the body from without. Bacteria themselves largely escape from the body through the kidneys. To a large extent, therefore, these organs are the sanitary scavengers and purifiers of the sj^stem, and when their functions are impaired or arrested the retained poisons quickly show their presence in resulting disorders of the skin and connective tissue beneath it, of the nervous system, or other organs. Nor is this influence one-sided. Scarcely an important organ of the body can suffer derangement without entailing a corresponding disorder of the urinary system. Nothing can be more striking than the mutual bal- ance maintained between the liquid secretions of the skin and kidneys during hot and cold weather. Ill summer, when so much liquid ex- hales through the skin as sweat, comparatively little urine is passed, whereas in winter, when the skin is inactive, the urine is correspond- ingly increased. This vicarious action of skin and kidneys is usually kept within the limits of health, but at times the draining off of the water by the skin leaves too little to keep the solids of the urine safely in solution, and these are liable to crystallize out and form stone and gravel. Similarly the passage, in the sweat, of some of the solids that normally leave the body, dissolved in the urine, serves to irritate the skin and produce troublesome eruptions. PR03IINENT CAUSES OF URINARY DISORDERS. A disordered liver contributes to the production under different circumstances of an excess of biliary coloring matter which stains the urine; of an excess of hippuric acid and allied products which, being less soluble than urea (the normal product of tissue change), 134 DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 135 favor the formation of stono, ot" taiirocholic acid, ami other bodies that tend ^vhen in excess to destroy the hh)()d «rl()l)ules and to cause iiritation of the kidneys by the resultin^j; henio«j:b)bin excreted in the mine, and of «2^1yco<;en too abuntbmt to be burned up in the system, which induces sacciuirine mine (diabetes). Any disorck'r leadin*^ to impaired functional activity of the hin pnrriori ; h, Afet/iiUtifV ' I'r fiihiitttr > />ni-fin/i r.f'i-rtf)fie'fii//>i'rti»riof't/ir tnttrf; if ,/ntffior i>t't/ir /tf/M.v ; li'.fi'. .Irni.v i>f't/tr f>ft\-i.ri/ir rrtwU . f!/n/}t/it/i/>i//iun , uJ'rrtrr. •Irl.nnpT IIArtMivnl \t^^^ i.()N(;iTri)iNAi. SK( -I'loN rHHnirrii/ii,\-, 'loot, nfthr I ■ ■ ■; /if 7,v.s :r,!-r I ! ■ ./ //,'/'//,■, , /:' J/.a- i^rr/o,. I.-,. A/r,: ,ll-u:-.-l7Sirni;:/ :r:irio/r roiiii/it/ /, <■ /.!:■' (i/IIUKI ti'illl Ihl' l(ipl/llr.-ii.y Oi I '.'.'•.],-.■ f'^'r c,i/ii//,i!-i(.s of t'K <<>rU\i /.{■liu/or \ ,-iii . :\S.\rto rr; r iwi.i/ //,: . /i.ii(ir i (■<■/,,,■ . Xoti' : 7'/tr s/ifiitcd /'iirl n/'l/ir ii/i//o/\\ i/zir/.'.' rr/iiv.Mvi/ /fyr pii/l ii< w/iir/i l/ir c/'il/ichitm IS /•(>i/)li{/ /III (■/,■/ 11 /ifiiiiiihi/- iipprtiiiilirc . (.;■.. M..rxiin. iI>AilK,vi,t , ;> :!7-J. MlCKOSroPH' ANATOMY' OF KiDXKY. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Diseases of the Horse. I*l..\.l 1-. X. f; !• ii;il (ill. iii(M"iilii.-i . II .\rriry,: liir ,/lriniriiln.\ h, ttrniirh siiti/if\iiiii tin ntU i , nt w.wr/ ol'lhr tftfifiimihi.-^. t- AITrrfii! iv.v.sr/ aft/ir f/h'tncrilfc; it. Irttrv i/'ii/tp t/irrt /f\ fi ''if irm/hn-x /iii:rii.\ of tfir i nr/in'/ .sii/i.- IfHirt : r.l'itnil/' 'ninrt ittii.s Kflllll liltlllllTulllS Wilh lIsaHclTlllM-NSI-IsilllllcniTIMlls. n lliiinrh t'f'rr/Hit tn-ft'fy; l>. .tfii'ffnf \'i\\.sr/ t>( rfit trlffitrt-trhl.i; c .Ch'litcrtllllM : tf, Aflrr/fHt \1.w>rf ,/ti . mr/tH.vHf r of' Mii//iii//ii MICI f" tS<*(>l'[C AN'.vroMV nv i:i!)NK>' DISEASES OF TlIK VHINAHV 01U;ANS. 137 looked for: (1) Color: White from depositetl .salts of lime: l>io\vn or red from blood clots or coloriii<^ matter; yellow or oran<»:e from hile or hlood pigment; pale from excess of .water; or variously coloreil from vejretaMe ingredients (santonin makes it red; rhubarb or senna, brown; tar or carbolic acid, green). ("2) Detusity: The horse's urine may be 1.030 or 1.050, but it nuiy greatly exceed this in diabetes and may sink to 1.007 in diuresis. (3) CJunihal naefion. as ascertained by blue litmus or red test i)apers. The horse on vegetable diet has alkaline urine turning red test papers blue, while in the suckijig I'olt and the horse fed on flesh or on his own tissue (in star\ ation or abstinence during disease) it is acid, turning blue litmus led. (4) Organic constituents, as when glairy from albumen co- agulable by strong nitric acid and boiling, when charged with micro- scoj)ic casts of the uriniferous tubes, with the eggs or bodies of worms, with sugar, blood, or bile. (5) In its salts, which may crystallize out >l)ontaneously, oi" on boiling, or on the addition of chemical reagents. Albuminous urine in the horse is usiuilly glairy, so that it may be drawn out in thieads, but its presence can alwaj's be tested as follows: If the li(|uid is oi)a(iue, it may be first ]^assed through filter ]^ai)er; if very dense and already precipitating its salts, it may be diluted with distilled water; add to the suspected Vniuid acetic acid drop by dro]) until it reddens the blue litmus paper: then boil gently in a test tube; if a i)recipitate is thrown down, set the tube aside to cool and then add strong nitric acid. If the precipitate is not dissolved, it is albumen; if dissolved it is probably urate or hippurate of am- monia. Albumen is normally present in advanced gestation; abnor- mally it is seen in diseases in which there occurs destruction of l)lood globules (anthrax, low fcvei's. watery states of the blood, dropsies), in diseases of the heart and li\er which j)revent the free escape of blood from the veins and throw l)ack venous pressure on the kidneys, in inflammation of the lungs and i)leurje, and even tympany (bloat- ing), doubtless from the same cause, and in all congestive or inflam- matory diseases of the kidneys, acute or chronic. Casts of the uriniferous tubes can be seen only by jjlacing the sus- pected urine undei* the microscoj)e. They aie usually very ela>tic and mobile, waving about in the li(piid when the cover glass is touched, and showing a unifoi-m, clear transi)arency (waxy) or entangled cii- cular epithelial cells or opa<|ue granules or flattened, red-blood glob- ules or clear, rcfrangent oil globides. They may be even densely opaqiie from crystals of earthy salts. I'lis cells may be fotmd in the urine associated with albinuen, and are recognized by clearing up, when treated with acetic acid, so that each cell shows two or three nuclei. 138 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. DIURESIS (POLYURIA, DIABETES INSIPIDUS, OR EXCESSIVE SECRETION OF URINE). This consists in an excessive secretion of a clear, water}^ urine of a low specific gravit}^ (1.007) with a correspondingly ardent thirst, a rapidly advancing emaciation, and great loss of strength and spirit. Causes. — Its causes may be any agent — medicinal, alimentary, or poisonous — which unduly stimulates the kidneys ; the reckless admin- istration of diuretics, which form such a common constituent of quack horse powders; acrid diuretic plants in grass or hay; new oats still imperfectly cured ; an excess of roots or other very waterj^ feed ; a full allowance of salt to animals that have become inordinately fond of it; but, above all, feeding on hay, grain, or bran which has not been properly dried and has become musty and permeated by fungi. Thus hay, straw, or oats obtained in wet seasons and heating in the rick or stack is especially injurious. Hence this malady, like coma somnolentum (sleepy staggers), is widespread in wet seasons, and especially in rainy districts. Symptonns. — The horse drinks deep at every opportunity" and passes urine on every occasion when stopped, the discharge being pale, water}' , of a low density, and inodorous ; in short, it contains a great excess of water and a deficiency of the solid excretions. So great is the quantity passed, however, that the small amount of solids in any given specimen amounts in 24 hours to far more than the normal — a fact in keeping with the rapid wasting of the tissues and extreme emaciation. The flanks become tucked up, the fat dis- appears, the bones and muscles stand out prominently, the skin be- comes tense and hidebound, and the hair erect, scurfy, and deficient in luster. The eye becomes dull and sunken, the spirits are de- pressed, the animal is weak and sluggish, sweats on the slightest exertion, and can endure little. The subject may survive for months, or may die earl}^ of exhaustion. In the slighter cases, or when the cause ceases to operate, a somewhat tardy repover}'^ niay be made. Treatment consists in stopping the ingestion of the faulty drugs, poisons, or feed, and supplying sound hay and grain free from all taint of heating or mustiness. A liberal supply' of boiled flaxseed in the drinking water at once serves to eliminate the poison and to sheathe and protect the irritated kidneys. Tonics like sulphate or phosphate of iron (2 drams morning and evening) and powdered gentian or Peruvian bark (4 drams) help greatly by bracing the system and hastening repair. To these may be added agents calcu- lated to destroy the fungus and eliminate its poisonous products. In that form which depends on must}^ food nothing acts better than large doses of iodid of potassium (2 drams), while in other cases creosote, carbolic acid (1 dram), or oil of turpentine (4 drams), properly diluted, may be resorted to. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORtiANS. 1,39 SACCHARINE DIABETES (DIABETES MELLITUS, GLYCOSURIA, OR INOSURIA). This is |)riin:ii-ily a tlist'iise of tlu' iktvous systt'iu or Iimt ratluT than of the kichievs. yet, as the most prominent symptom is the sweet mine, it may be treated here. Causes. — Its causes are varied, hut resolve themselves largely into disorder of the liver or disorder of the brain. One of the most l)rominent functions of the liver is the formation of glycogen, a prin- ci[)le allied to grape sugar, and passing into it by further oxidation in the blood. This is a constant function of the liver, but in health the resulting sugar is burned up in the circulation and does not appear in the urine. On the contrary, Avhen the .supply of oxygen is defective, as in certain diseases of the lungs, the whole of the sugar does not undergo combustion and the excess is excreted by the kidneys. Also in certain forms of enlarged liver the quantity of sugar produced is more than can be disposed of in the natural way, and it appears in the urine. A temporary sweetness of the urine often occurs after a hearty meal on starchy feed, but this is due altogether to the super- abundant supply of the sugar-forming feed, lasts for a few hours only, and has no pathological significance. In many cases of fatal glycosuria the liver is found to l)e enlarged, or at least congested, and it is found that the disorder can be produced experimentally by agencies which produce an increased circulation through the liver. Thus Bernard produced glycosuria by pricking the oblong medulla at the base of the brain close to the roots of the pneumogastric nerve, which happens to be also the nerve center (vasomotor) which presides over the contractions of the minute blootl vessels. The pricking and irritation of this center leads to congestion of the liver and the exces- .sive pioduction of sugar. Irritation carried to this point through the j)neumogastric nerve causes saccharine urine, and, in keeping with this, disease of the pancreas has been found in this malady. The com- ])lete removal of the pancreas, however, determines glycosui'ia, the oi-gan having in health an iiihibitive action on sugar pi-oduction by the liver. The same result follows the reflection of irritation fioni (»ther sources, as from diflerent ganglia (coij)ora striata. optic thalami, j)ons, cerebellum, cerel)rum) of the l)rain. .Similarly it is induced by interruption of the nervous control along the vasomotor tracts, as in destruction of the upper oi' lower cei'vical sympathetic ganglion, by cutting the nervous liranch connecting these two, in injury to the spinal mariow in the interval between the brain and the second or fourth dorsal vertel)ra, or in disea.se of the celiac plexus, which directly presides over the liver. Certain chemical poisons also cause saccharine urine, notably woorara. strychnia, morphia, phosphoric acid, alcohol, ether. (|uinia. chloroform, ammonia, arsenic, and phlorizin. 140 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Symptoms. — The symptoms are ardent thirst and profuse secre- tion of a pale urine of a high density (1.060 and upward), rapid loss of condition, scurfy, unthrifty skin, costiveness or irregularity of the bowels, indigestion, and the presence, in the urine, of a sweet principle — grape sugar or inosite, or both. This may be most promptly detected by touching the tip of the tongue with a drop. Sugar may be detected simply by adding a teaspoonful of liquid yeast to 4 ounces of the urine and keeping it lightly stopped at a temperature of 70° to 80° F. for 12 hours, when the sugar will be found to have been changed into alcohol and carbon dioxid. The loss of density will give indication of the quantity of sugar trans- formed; thus a density of 1.035 in a urine which was formerly 1.060 Avould indicate about 15 grains of sugar to the fluid ounce. Inosite, or muscle sugar, frequently present in the horse's urine, and even replacing the glucose, is not fermentable. Its presence may be indicated by its sweetness and the absence of fermentation or by Gallois's test. Evaporate the suspected urine at a gentle heat almost to dryness, then add a drop of a solution of mercuric nitrate and evaporate carefully to drjmess, when a yellowish residue is left that is changed on further cautious heating to a deep rose color, which disappears on cooling and reappears on heating. In advanced diabetes, dropsies in the limbs and under tlie chest and belly, puffy, swollen eyelids, cataracts, catarrhal inflammation of the lungs, weak, uncertain gait, and drowsiness may be noted. Treatment is most satisfactory in cases dependent on some curable disease of liver, pancreas, lungs, or brain. Thus, in liver diseases, a run at pasture in warm weather, or in winter a warm, sunny, well- aired stable, with sufficient clothing and laxatives (sulphate of soda, 1 ounce daily) and alkalies (carbonate of potassium, one-fourth ounce) may benefit. To this may be added mild blistering, cupping, or even leeching over the last ribs. Diseases of the brain or pancreas may be treated according to their indications. The diet should be mainly albuminous, such as wheat bran or middlings, peas, beans, vetches, and milk. Indeed, an exclusive milk diet is one of the very best remedial agencies. It may be given as skimmed milk or butter- milk, and in the last case combines an antidiabetic remedy in the lactic acid. Under such an exclusive diet recent and mild cases are often entirely restored, though at the expense of an attack of rheu- matism. Codeia, one of the alkaloids of opium, is strongly recom- mended by Tyson. The dose for the horse would be 10 to 15 grains thrice daily. In cases in which there is manifest irritation of the brain, bromid of potassium, 4 drams, or ergot one-half ounce, may be resorted to. Salicylic acid and salicjdate of sodium have proved useful in certain cases; also phosphate of sodium. Bitter tonics (es- pecially nux vomica one-half dram) are useful in improving the di- gestion and general health. DISEASES OF THE IHINAHV ORGANS. 141 HEMATIRIA (BLOODY URINE), Cautu'. — As soon in the lunsi.'. hlootly uiiiio is usually the dii-ect result of mechanical injuries, as sprains ami fraotuies of the loins, lacerations of the suhlu.mbar muscles (psoas), iiritation caused by stone ill the kidney, ureter, bladder, or urethra. It may, however, occur 'Nvith acute c<)n<;estion of the kidney, with tumors in its sub- stance, or with papilloma or other diseased growth in the bladder. Acrid diuretic plants present in the feed may also lead to the escape of blood from the kidney. The predisi)osition to this atfection is, however, incomparably less than in the case of the ox or the sheep, the difference being: attributed to the greater plasticity of the horse's blood in connection with the larger (luantity of fibrin. The blo<^)d nuiy be present in small clots or in more or less intimate admixture with the urine. Its coijdition may furnish some indication as to its source; thus, if from the kidneys it is more liable to be uni- formly diffused through the urine, while as furnished by the bladder or passages clots are more liable to be present. Again, in bleeding from the kidney, minute, cylindrical clots inclosing blood globides and formed in the uriniferous tubes can be detected under the micro- scope. Precision also may be approximated by observing whether there is coexisting fracture, sprain of the loins, or stone or tumor in the bladder or urethra. Tnatjncnt. — The disease being mainly due to diiect injury, treat- ment will consist, first, in remo\ ing such cause whenever possible, and then in applying general and local styptics. Irritants in feed nnist be avoided, sprains appropriately treated, and stone in bladder or urethra removed. Then give mucilaginous drinks (sli}>pei'y elm. lin- seed tea) freely, and styptics (tincture of chlorid of iron 3 drams, acetate of lead one-half dram, tannic acid one-half dram, or oil of turpentine 1 ounce). If the dischaige is abundant. ai)ply cold water to the loins and keep the animal pei'fectly still. HEMOGLOBIMRIA (AZOTURIA, AZOTEMIA, POISONING BY ALBUMINOIDS). I^ike diabetes, this is lather a disease of the liver and blood-foini- ing functions than of the kidney, but as prominent symptoms are loss of control over the hind limbs and the passage of ro]>v and dark- coloi-ed urine, the vulgar idea is that it is a disorder of the urinaiy (»rgans. It is a complex affection directly connected with a plethora in the blood of nitrogenized constituent.s. with extreme nervous and muscular disorder and the excietion of a dense leddish or biowuish urine. It is directly connected with high feeding, especially on liighly nitrogenized feed (oat.s, bean.s, peas, vetches, cottonseed meal), and with a period of idleness in the stall undei* full rations. The disease is never seen at pasture, rarely nndtr constant daily work, 142 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. even though the feeding is high, and the attack is nsually precipi- tated by taking the horse from the stable and subjecting it to exer- cise or work. The poisoning is not present when taken from the stable, as the horse is likely to be noticeably lively and spirited, but he will usually succumb under the first hundred yards or half mile of exercise. It seems as if the aspiratory power of the chest under the sudden exertion and accelerated breathing speedily drew from the gorged liver and abdominal veins (portal) the accumulated store of nitrogenous matter in an imperfectly oxidized or elaborated condi- tion, and as if the blood, surcharged with these materials, were un- able to maintain the healthy functions of the nerve centers and muscles. It has been noticed rather more frequently in mares than horses, attributable, perhaps, to the nervous excitement attendant on heat, and to the fact that the unmutilated mare is naturally more excitable than the docile gelding. Lignieres has found in hemoglobinuria a streptococcus which pro- duced nephritis, bloody urine, and paraplegia in experimental ani- mals, including horses. Symptons. — In the milder forms this affection may appear as a lameness in one limb, from indefinite cause, succeeding to some sud- den exertion and attended by a dusky-brown color of the membranes of the eye and nose and some wincing when the last ribs are struck. The severe forms come on after one or two days of rest on a full ration, when the animal has been taken out and driven one hundred paces or more. The fire and life with which he had left the stable suddenly give place to dullness and oppression, as shown in heaving flanks, dilated nostrils, pinched face, perspiring skin, and trembling body. The muscles of the loins or haunch become swelled and rigid, the subject .moves stiffly or unsteadily, crouches behind, the limbs being carried semiflexed, and he soon drops, unable to support him- self. When down, the body and limbs are moved convulsively, but there is no power of coordination of movement in the muscles. The pulse and breathing are accelerated, the eyes red with a tinge of brown, and the urine, if passed, is seen to be highly colored, dark brown, red, or black, but it contains neither blood clots nor globules. The color is mainly due to hemoglobin and other imperfectly elabo- rated constituents of the blood. It may end fatally in a few hours or days, or a recovery may ensue, which is usually more speedy and perfect if it has set in at an early stage. In the late and tardy recoveries a partial paralysis of the hind limbs may last for months. A frequent sequel of these tardy cases is an extensive wasting of the muscles leading up from the front of the stifle (those supplied by the crural nerve) and a com- plete inability to stand. DISEASES OF THE VRIKARV ORGANS. 143 Prevention. — The prevention of this serious afTeotion lies in re- stricting the diet and giving daily exercise when the animal is not at work. A horse that has had one attack should never be left idle for a single day in the stall or barnyard. When a horse has l)een condemned to absolute repose on good feeding he may have a laxa- tive (one-half to 1 pound (Jlauber's salt), and liave graduated ex- ercise, beginning with a shoi-t walk and increasing day by day. 7'reafnu'nt. — The treatment of the mild cases may consist in a laxa- tive, graduated daily exercise, and a daily dose of saltpeter (1 ounce). Sudden attacks will sometimes promptly subside if taken on the instant and the subject kept still and calmed by a dose of bromid of potassium (4 drams) and sweet spirits of niter (1 ounce). The latter has the advantage of increasing the secretion of the kidneys, lodid of potassium in one-half ounce doses every four hours has succeeded well in some hands. In severe cases, as a rule, it is desir- able to begin treatment by a dose of aloes (4 to G drams) with the above-named dose of bromid of potassium, and this latter may be continued at intervals of four or six hours, as may be requisite to calm the nervous excitement. Fomentations with warm water over the loins are always useful in calming the excitable conditions of the spinal cord, muscles, liver, and kidneys, and also in favoring secre- tion from the two latter. On the second day diuretics may be re- sorted to, such as saltpeter one-half ounce, and powdered colchicum one-half dram, to be repeated twice daily. A laxative may be re- peated in thi'ee or four days should the bowels seem to demand it. and as the nervous excitement disappears any remaining nuiscular weakness or paralysis may be treated by one-half dram doses of nux vomica twice a day and a stimulating liniment (a(iua ammonia and sweet oil in equal proportions) rubbed on the torpid muscles. During the course of the disease friction to the limbs is useful, and in the advanced paralytic stage the application of electricity along the line of the atTected muscles. When the patient can not stand he must have a thick, soft bed, and should be turned from side to side at least e\erv twelve hours. As soon as he can be made to stand he may be helped up and even supported in a sling. ACUTE INFLAiMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS, OR ACUTE NEPHRITIS. Inflammations of the kidneys have been diffeicntiated widely, ac- coi-ding as they were acute or chronic, ])arenchymatous or tubal, sup- purative or not, with increased or shrunken kidney, etc. In a work like the present, however, utility will be consulted by classing all under acute or chronic inflammation. Causes. — The causes of inflammation of the kidneys are extremely varied- Congestion occurs from the altered and irritant products passed through these organs during recovery from inflanunations of 144 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. other organs and during fevers. This may last only during the exist- ence of its cause, or may persist and become aggravated. Heart dis- ease, throwing the blood pressure back on the veins and kidneys, is another cause. Disease of the ureter or bladder, preventing the escape of urine from the kidney and causing increased fullness and tension in its pelvis and tubes, will determine inflammation. Decom- position of the detained urine in such cases and the production of ammonia and other irritants must also be named. In elimination of bacteria through the kidney, the latter is liable to infection with con- sequent inflammation. The advance of bacteria upward from the bladder to the kidneys is another cause. The consumption in hay or other fodder of acrid or irritant plants, including fungi, the absorp- tion of cantharidine from a surface blistered by Spanish flies, the reckless administration of diuretics, the presence of stones in the kidney, exposure of the surface to cold and wet, and the infliction of blows or sprains on the loins, may contribute to its production. Liver disorders which throw on the kidneys the work of excreting irritant products, diseases of the lungs and heart from which clots are car- ried, to be arrested in the small blood vessels of the kidney, and injuries and paralysis of the spinal cord, are additional causes. Symptoms. — The symptoms are more or less fever, manifest stiff- ness of the back and straddling gait with the hind limbs, difficulty in lying down and rising, or in walking in a circle, the animal sometimes groaning under the effort, arching of the loins and tucking up of the flank, looking back at the abdomen as if from colicky pain, and ten- derness of the loins to pinching, especially just beneath the bony processes 6 inches to one side of the median line. Urine is passed frequently, a small quantity at a time, of a high color, and sometimes mixed with blood or even pus. Under the microscope it shows the microscopic casts referred to under general symptoms. If treated by acetic acid, boiling and subsequent addition of strong nitric acid, the resulting and persistent precipitate indicates the amount of albumen. The legs tend to swell from the foot up, also the dependent parts beneath the belly and chest, and effusions of liquid may occur within the chest or abdomen. In the male the alternate drawing up and relaxation of the testicles in the scrotum are suggestive, and in small horses the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may reach the kidney and ascertain its sensitiveness. Treatment demands, first, the removal of any recognized cause. Then, if the suffering and fever are high, 2 to 4 quarts of blood may be abstract-ed from the jugular vein; in weak subjects or unless in high fever this should be omitted. Next relieve the kidneys so far as possible by throwing their work on the bowels and skin. A pint of castor oil is less likely than either aloes or salts to act on the kid- neys. To affect the skin a warm stall and heavy clothing may be DISEASES OF THE rRlXAKV ORGANS. 145 supplementtHl by (.Irani closes of Dover's j^owdor. Pain may be sootlied by dram doses of bromid of potassium, lioiled llaxseed may be added to the drinking water, also thrown into the rectum as an injection, and l)hnikets saturated with liot water should be per- sistently applied to the loins. This may be followed by a very thin pulp of the best ground mustard made with tepid water, rubbed in against the direction of the hair and covered with paper and a blanket. This may be kept on for an hour, or until the skin thickens and the hair stands erect. It may then be rubbed or sponged off and the blanket reapplied. When the action of the bowels has been started it may be kept up by a daily dose of 2 or 3 ounces of Glauber's salt. During recovery a course of bitter tonics (nux vomica 1 scruple, ground gentian root 4 drams) should be given. The patient should also be guarded against cold, wet, and any active exertion for some time after all active symptoms have subsided. CHRONIC INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. Causes. — Chronic inflannuation of the kidneys is more commonly associated with albumen and casts in the urine than the acute form, and in some instances these conditions of the urine may be the only prominent symptoms of the disease. Though it may supervene on blow, injuries, and exposures, it is much more commonly connected with faulty conditions of the system — as indigestion, heart disease, lung or liver disease, imperfect blood formation, or assiuiihition ; in short, it is rather the attendant on a constitutional inlirmity than on a simple local injury. It may l)e associated with various forms of diseased kidneys, as shrinkage (atrophy), increase (hypertrophy), softening, red conges- tion, white enlargement, etc., so that it forms a group of diseases rather than a disease by itself. Si/mptoms. — The symptoms may include stiffness, weakness, and increased sensibility of the loins, and modified secretion of urine (increase or sup)ii*ession), or the flfvw may Ik* natui-nl. T'sunlly it contains albumen, the (piantity furnishing a fair criterion of the grav- ity of the affection, and microscopic casts, also most abundant in bad cases. Dropsy, manifested in swelled legs, is a significant symptom, and if the effusion takes place along the lower line of the body or in chest or abdomen, the significance is increased. A scurfy, unthrifty skin, lack-lus-ter hair, inability to sustain sexere or continued exer- tion, poor or inegular ai)petite, loss of fat and flesh, softness of the muscles, and pallor of the eyes and nose are equally suggestive. So are skin eruptions of various kinds. Any one or more of these symp- toms would warrant an examination of the urine for albumen nud casts, the finding of which signifies renal inflammation. 36444°— 16 10 146 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Treatment of these cases is not always satisfactory, as the cause is liable to be maintained in the disorders of important organs else- where. If any such coincident disease of another organ or function can be detected, that should be treated first or simultaneously with this affection of the kidneys. In all cases the building up of the general health is important. Hence a course of tonics may be given (phosphate of iron 2 drams, nux vomica 20 grains, powdered gentian root 4 drams, daily) or 60 drops of sulphuric acid or nitrohydrochloric acid may be given daily in the drinking water. If there is any ele- vated temperature of the body and tenderness of the loins, fomenta- tions may be applied, followed by a mustard pulp, as for acute inflammation, and even in the absence of these indications the mus- tard may be resorted to with advantage at intervals of a few days. In suppression of urine, fomentations with warm water or with infu- sion of digitalis leaves is a safer resort than diuretics, and cupping over the loins may also benefit. To apply a cup, shave the skin and oil it ; then take a narrow-mouthed glass, rarify the air within it by introducing a taper in full flame for a second, withdraw the taper and instantly apply the mouth of the glass to the skin and hold it closely applied till the cooling tends to form a vacuum in the glass and to draw up the skin, like a sucker. As in the acute inflammation, every attention must be given to secure warm clothing, a warm stall, and pure air. TUMORS OF THE KIDNEYS. Tumors, whether malignant or simple, would give rise to symptoms resembling some form of inflammation, and are not liable to be recog- nized during life. PARASITES. To parasites of the kidney belong the echinococcus, the larval, or l)iadder worm, stage of the small echinococcus tapeworm of the dog. Dioctophyme renale^ the largest of roundworms, has been found in the kidney of the horse. Its presence can be certified only by the passage of its microscopic eggs or of the entire worm. Immature stages of roundworms, either Strongylus equinus or a related species, may be found in the renal artery or in the kidney itself. SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. This affection consists in spasmodic closure of the outlet from the bladder by tonic contraction of the circular muscular fibers. It may be accompanied with a painful contraction of the muscles on the body of the bladder; or, if the organ is already unduly dis- tended, these will be affected with temporary paralysis. It is most frequent in the horse, but by no means unknown in the mare. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 147 rV/?/67if. — The causes are usually hard and continuous driving ^vithout opportunity for passing urine, cold rainstorms, drafts of cold air when perspiring and fatigued, the administration of Spanish fly or the application of extensive blisters of the same, abuse of diuretics, the presence of acrid, diuretic plants in the fodder, and the presence of stone in the bladder. As most mares refuse to urinate while in harness, they should be unhitched at suitable times for urination. Spasms of the bowels are always attended by spasm of the bladder, hence the free passage of water is usually a symjitom of relief. /Si/mpfonia. — The symptoms are frecjuent stretching and strain- ing to urinate, with no result or a slight dribbling only. These vain eti'orts are attended by pain and groaning. On resuming his natural position the animal is not freed from the pain, but moves uneasily, paws, shakes the tail, kicks at the abdomen with his hind feet, looks back to the flank, lies down and rises, arches the back, and attempts to urinate as before. If the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum the greatly distended bladder may be felt beneath, and the ])atient will often shrink when it is handled. It is important to notice that irritation of the urinary organs is often present in impaction of the colon with solid matters, because the impacted intestine under the strainmg of the patient is forced backward into the pelvis and presses upon and irritates the bladder. In such cases the horse stands with his fore limbs advanced and the hind ones stretched back beyond the natural posture and makes frequent efforts to urinate, with varying success. T^npracticed ob- servers naturally conclude that the secondary urinary trouble is the main and only one, and the intestinal impaction and obstruction is too often neglected until it is irremediable. In cases in which the irritation has caused spasm of the neck of the bladder and overdistention of that organ, the mistake is still more easily made; hence it is important in all cases to examine for the impacted bowel, forming a bend or l(H:)p at the entrance of the pelvis and usually toward the left side. The impacted intestine feels soft and doughy and is easily indented with the knuckles, forming a nuirked contrast with the tense, elastic, resilient, overdistended bladder. It remains to be noted that similar symptoms may be determined by a stone or sebaceous mass, or .stricture obstructing the urethra, or in the newborn by thickened mucus in that duct and by the pres- sure of hardened, impacted feces in the rectum. In obstruction, the hard, impacte^l body can usually be felt by tracing the urethra along the lower and posterior surface of the penis and forward to the median line of the floor of the pelvis to the neck of the bladder. That part of the urethra between the seat of obstruction and the 148 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. bladder is usually distended with urine and feels enlarged, elastic, and fluctuating. Treatment. — Treatment may be begun by taking the animal out of harness. This failing, spread clean litter beneath the bellj^ or turn the patient out on the dung heap. Some seek to establish sympa- thetic action by pouring water from one vessel into another with dribbling noise. Others soothe and distract the attention by slow whistling. Friction of the abdomen with wisps of straw may suc- ceed, or it may be rubbed with ammonia and oil. These failing, an injection of 2 ounces of laudanum or of an infusion of 1 ounce of tobacco in water may be tried. In the mare the neck of the bladder is easily dilated by inserting two oiled fingers and slightly parting them. In the horse the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may press from before backward on the anterior or blind end of the blad- der. Finally, a well-oiled gum-elastic catheter may be entered into the urethra through the papilla at the end of the penis and pushed on carefully until it has entered the bladder. To effect this the penis must first be withdrawn from its sheath, and when the advancing end of the catheter has reached the bend of the urethra beneath the anus it must be guided forward by pressure with the hand, which guidance must be continued onward into the bladder, the oiled hand being introduced into the rectum for this purpose. The horse cathe- ter, 34 feet long and one-third inch in diameter, may be bought of a surgical-instrument maker. PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. Paralysis of the body of the bladder with spasm of the neck has been described under the last heading, and may occur in the same way from overdistention in tetanus, acute rheumatism, j^araplegia, and hemiplegia, in which the animal can not stretch himself to urinate, and in cystitis, affecting the body of the bladder but not the neck. In all these cases the urine is suppressed. It also occurs as a result of disease of the posterior end of the spinal marrow and with broken back, and is then associated with palsy of the tail, and. it may be, of the hind limbs. Symptoins. — The symptoms are a constant dribbling of urine when the neck is involved, the liquid running down the inside of the thighs and irritating the skin. When the neck is unaffected the urine is retained until the bladder is greatly overdistended. when it may be expelled in a gush by the active contraction of the muscular walls of the abdomen; this never empties the bladder, however, and the oiled hand introduced through the rectum may feel the soft, flabby organ still half full of urine. This retained urine is liable to decompose and give off ammonia, which dissolves the epithelial cells, exposing the raw, mucous membrane and causing the worst type of cystitis. DISEASES OF TKE URINARY OH(,ANS, 149 Suppression and inrontinence of urine are eoiunion also to ohstitic- tion of the urethra by stone or otherwise: hence tliis source of falhicv should be excluded by manual examination along the whole course of that duct. Tnatnunt. — Treatment is only applicable in cases in which the de- termining cause can be abated. In remedial sprains of the back or disease of the spinal cord these must have appropriate treatment, and the urine must be drawn oti' fre(iuently with a catheter to prevent overdistention and injury to the bladder. If the paralysis persists after recovery of the s]unal cord, oi- if it continues after relief of spasm of the neck of the bladder, apply a pulp of mustard and water over the back part of the belly in front of the udder, and cover with a rug until the hair stands erect. In the male the mustard may be applied between the thighs from near the anus downward. Daily doses of 2 drams extract of belladonna or of 2 grains powdered Spanish fly may serve to rouse the lost tone. These failing, a mild current of electricity daily may succeed. INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER (CYSTITIS, OR UROCYSTITIS). Cystitis may be slight or severe, acute or chronic, partial or gen- eral. It may be caused by abuse of diuretics, especially such as are irritating (cantharides, turpentine, copaiba, resin, etc.), by the pres- ence of a stone or gi-avel in the bladder, the irritation of a catheter or other foreign body introduced from without, the septic ferment (bacterium) introduced on a filthy catheter, the overdistention of the bladder by retained urine, the extrication of ammonia from retained decomposing urine, resulting in destruction of the epithelial cells and iriitation of the raw surface, and a too concentrated and irritating urine. The application of Spanish flies or turpentine over a too ex- tensive surface, sudden exposure of a ^lersjiiring and tired horse to cold or wet, and the pi-esence of acrid jilants in the fodder may cause cystitis, as they may nephritis. Finally, inflammation may extend from a diseased vagina or urethra to the bladder. i^t/mptom.s. — The symptouis are slight or severe colicky jiains: the animal moves his hind feet uneasily or even kicks at the abdomen, looks around at his flank, and may even lie down and rise frequently. More characteristic are fre(|uently repeated elTorts to urinate, result- ing in the discharge of a little clear, or red, or more connnonly floc- culent urine, always in jets, and accompanied with signs of pain, which persist after the discharge, as shown in continued straining, groaning, and perhaps in movements of the feet and tail. The penis hangs from the sheath, or in the mare the vulva is frequently opened and closed, as after urination. The animal winces when the alxlomen 150 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. is pressed, in the region of tlie sheath or udder, and the bladder is found to be sensitive and tender when pressed with tlie oiled hand introduced through the rectum or vagina. In the mare the thicken- ing of the walls of the bladder may be felt by introducing one finger through the urethra. The discharged urine, which may be turbid or even oily, contains an excess of mucus, with flat shreds of membrane, with scaly epithelial cells, and pus corpuscles, each showing two or more nuclei when treated with acetic acid, but there are no micro- scopic tubular casts, as in nephritis. If due to stone in the bladder, that will be found on examination through rectum or vagina. Ti'eaUnent implies, first, the removal of the cause, whether poisons in feed or as medicine, the removal of Spanish flies or other blistering agents from the skin, or the extraction of stone or gravel. If the urine has been retained and decomposed it must be completely evacu- ated through a clean catheter, and the bladder thoroughly washed out with a solution of 1 dram of borax in a quart of water. This must be repeated twice daily until the urine no longer decomposes, be- cause so long as ammonia is developed in the bladder the protecting layer of epithelial cells will be dissolved and the surface kept raw and irritable. The diet must be light (bran mashes, roots, fresh grass), and the drink impregnated with linseed tea, or solution of slippery elm or marsh mallow. The same agents may be used to inject into the rectum, or they may even be used along with borax andbpimn to inject into bladder (gum arabic 1 dram, opium 1 dram, tepid water 1 pint). Fomentations over the loins are often of great advantage, and these may be followed or alternated with the appli- cation of mustard, as in paralysis; or the mustard may be applied on the back part of the abdomen below or between the thighs from the anus downward. Finally, when the acute symptoms have subsided, a daily dose of buchu 1 . dram and nux vomica one-half dram will serve to restore lost tone. IRRITABLE BLADDER. Some horses, and especially mares, show an irritability of the blad- der and nerve centers presiding over it by frequent urination in small quantities, though the urine is not manifestly changed in character and no more than the natural quantity is passed in the twenty-four hours. The disorder appears to have its source quite as frequently in the generative or nervous system as in the urinary. A troublesome and dangerous form is seen in mares, which dash off and refuse all control by the rein if driven with a full bladder, but usually prove docile if the bladder has been emptied before hitching. In other cases the excitement connected with getting the tail over the reins is DISEASES OF THE URIXARV ORGANS. 151 a powerful determining cause. The condilion is marked in many mures during tlie period of heat. An oleaginous hixative (castor oil 1 pint) will serve to remove any cause of irritation in the digestive organs, and a careful dieting will avoid continued irritation by acrid vegetable agents. The bladder should be examined to see tiiat there is no stone or other cause of irri- tation, and the sheath and penis should be washed with soapsuds, any sebaceous matter removed from the bilocular cavity at the end of the peni.>, and the whole lubiicated with sweet oil. Irritable nuires should be induced to urinate before they are harnessed, and those that clutch the lines under the tail may have the tail set high by cutting the cords on its lower surface, or it may be pi^evented from getting over the reins by having a strap carried from its free end to the breeching. Those proving troublesome when " in heat" may have 4-dram doses of bromid of potassium, or they may be served by the male or castrated. Sometimes irritability may be lessened by daily doses of belladonna extract (1 dram), or a better tone may be given to the parts by balsam copaiba (1 dram). DISEASED GROWTHS IN THE BLADDER. These may be of various kinds, malignant or simple. In the horse I have found villous growth> from the nuicous membrane especially troublesome. They may be attached to the mucous membrance by a narrow neck or by a broad l)ase covering a great part of the organ. Si/f/ipfoms. — The symptoms are frequent straining, passing of urine and blood with occasionally gravel. An examination of the bladder with the hand in the rectum will detect the new growth, which may be distinguished from a hard, resistant stone. In mares, in which the finger can be inserted into the bladder, the recognition is still more satisfactory. The polyj)! attached by narrow necks nuiy be removed by surgical operation, init for those with broad attachments treatment is eminently unsatisfactory. DISCHARGE OF URINE BY THE NAVEL, OR PERSISTENT URACHUS. This occurs only in the newborn, and consists in the nonclosurt; of the natural channel (urachus), through which the urine is discharged into the outer water bag (allantois) in fetal life. .\.t that early stage of the animal existence the bladder re^sembles a long tube, which is j>rolonged through the navel string and opens into the outermost of the two water bags in which the fetus floats. In this way the mine is prevented from entering the inner water bag (anmion), where it would mingle with the liquids, bathing the skin of the fetus and cause irritation. At birth this channel closes up. and the urine takes 152 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the course normal to extrauterine life. Imperfect closure is more fre- quent in males than in females, because of the great length and smiill caliber of the male urethra and its consequent tendency to obstruction. In the female there may be a discharge of a few drops only at a time, while in the male the urine will be expelled in strong jets coincidently with the contractions of the bladder and walls of the abdomen. The first care is to ascertain whether the urethra is pervious by passing a human catheter. This determined, the open urachus may be firmly closed by a stout, waxed thread, carried with a needle through the tissues back of the opening and tied in front of it so as to inclose as little skin as possible. If a portion of the naval string remains, the tying of that may be all sufficient. It is important to tie as early as possible so as to avoid inflammation of the navel from contact with the urine. In summer a little carbolic-acid water or tar water may be applied to keep the flies off. EVERSION OF THE BLADDER. This can occur only in the female. It consists in the turning of the organ outside in through the channel of the urethra, so that it appears as a red, pear-shaped mass hanging from the floor of the vulva and protruding externally between its lips. It may be a mass like the fist, or it may swell up to the size of an infant's head. On examining its upper surface the orifices of the urethra may be seen, one on each side, a short distance behind the neck, with the urine oozing from them drop by drop. This displacement usually supervenes on a flaccid condition of the bladder, the result of paralysis, overdistention, or severe compression duiing a difficult parturition. The protruding organ may be washed with a solution of 1 ounce of laudanum and a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water, and returned by pressing a smooth, rounded object into the fundus and directing it into the urethra, while careful pressure is made on the surrounding parts with the other hand. If too large and resistant it may be wound tightly in a strip of bandage about 2 inches broad to express the great mass of blood and exudate and diminish the bulk of the protruded organ so that it can be easily pushed back. This method has the additional advantage of protecting the organ against bruises arid lacerations in the effort made to return it. After the return, straining may be kept in check by giving laudanum (1 to 2 ounces) and by applying a truss to press upon the lips of the vulva. (See Eversion of the womb.) The patient should be kept in a stall a few inches lower in front than behind, so that the action of gravity will favor retention. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Diseases of tiie Horse. Iiu>.\f>/uitu lu/fnitt.w urti- tuiil fff/f/fa.s IMj^Vl-l^: XI. ttlicllUl.\ <»/'m /«//<■///■ of (lint :rt,i, :'./ '■■.■. , />•< n- >' /tiwiiit itijtt^i. Sfirnr Hrf)ri\'rfl t>f' frrttn ff»r ft/f,si'nrr ofumir rit .irnlii ll,.in.t^nin<2: their tone, and by a liberal use of water and watery fluids to increase the urine and the pressure upon the calculus from behind. One or two ounces of laudanum, or 2 drams of extract of belladonna, may be given and repeated as it may be necessarj^, the ivlief of the pain being a fair criterion of the abating of the spasm. To the same end use wann fomentations across the loins, and these should be kept up persistently until relief is obtained. These act not only by soothing and relieving the spasm and inflammation, but they also favor the freer secretion of a more watery urine, and thus tend to carry off the smaller calculi. To accomplish this object further give cool water freely, and let the feed be only such as contains a large pro- portion of liquid, gruels, mashes, turnips, beets, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, succulent grasses, etc. If the ng the upi)er bordci- of the testicle as to su; to dropsy, occasionally causes cramps of the hind limbs. The limb is raised without flexiiifj^ the joints, tho front of the h(K)f bein<:: directed toward the ijfrouiul. or, the spasms occurring intermittently, the foot is kicked violently against the ground several times in rapid succession. The inust^les are felt to be liini and rigid. The cramp may be i)romptly relieved by active rub- bing or by walking the animal about, and it does not reappear after parturition. CONSTIPATION. This may result from compression by gra\id woml), and is best corrected by a graduated allowance of boiled flax.seed. PARALYSIS. The pressure on the nerves of the pelvis is liable to cause paralysis of the hind limbs or of the nerve of sight. These are obstinate until after parturition, when they recover spontaneously, or under a course of nux vomica and (local) stimulating liniments. PROLONGED RETENTION OF THE FETUS (FOAL). Though far less fre(juently than in the ca.se of the cow, parturition may not be completed at term, and the jnare, to her serious and even fatal injury, may carry the foal in the womb for a number of months. Hamon records one case in which the mare died after carrying the fetus for 17 months, and Caillier a similar result after it had been carricxl 22 months. In these cases the fetus retained its natural form, but in one reported l)y (lohier the bones only woic left in the womb amid a mass of apparently purulent matter. Cause. — The cause may be any effective obstruction to the act of parturition, stich as lack of contractile jxjwcr in the womb, undidv strong (inllammatory ) adhesions between the womb and the fetal membranes, wrong presentation of the fetus, contracted pelvis (from fracture or disease of the Ixmes), or disea.se and induration of (he neck of the womb. The mere prolongatiim of ge.-tation does not necessarily entail the death of the foal; hence the latter has been born alive at the four himdredth day. P^ven when the foal has ))erished j)Utrefaction does not set in unle.ss the membranes (water bags) have been ruptured and septic bacteria have been admitted to the interior of the womb. In the latter case a fetid decomposition advances rapidly, and the mare usually perishes from poisoning with the putrid matters absorbed. 182 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. At the natural period of parturition preparations are apparently made for that act. The vulva swells and discharges much mucus, the udder enlarges, the belly becomes more pendent, and the animal strains more or less. No progress is made, however; there is not even opening of the neck of the womb, and after a time the symptoms subside. The mare usually refuses the male, yet there are exceptions to this rule. If the neck of the womb has been opened and putrefy- ing changes in its contents have set in, the mare loses appetite and condition, pines, discharges an offensive matter from the generative passages, and dies of inflammation of the womb and putrid infection. In other cases there is a slow wearing out of the strength, and she finally dies of exhaustion. The treatment is such as will facilitate the expulsion of the fetus and its membranes and the subsequent washing out of the womb with disinfectants. So long as the mouth of the womb is closed time should be allowed for its natural dilatation, but if this does not come about after a day or two of straining, the opening may be smeared with extract of belladonna, and the oiled hand, with the fingers and thumb drawn into the form of a cone, may be inserted by slow oscil- lating movements into the interior of the womb. The water bags may now be ruptured, any malpresentation rectified (see "Difficult parturition"), and delivery effected. After removal of the mem- branes wash out the womb first with tepid water and then with a solu- tion of 2 ounces of borax in half a gallon of water. This injection may have to be repeated if a discharge sets in. The same course may be pursued even after prolonged retention. If the soft parts of the fetus have been absorbed and the bones only left, these must be carefully sought for and removed, and subsequent daily injections wall be required for some time. In such cases, too, a course of iron tonics (sulphate of iron, 2 drams daily) will be highly bene- ficial in restoring health and vigor. ABORTION. Abortion is, strictly speaking, the expulsion of the impregnated ovum at any period from the date of impregnation until the foal can survive out of the womb. If the foal is advanced enough to live, it is premature parturition, and in the mare this may occur as early as the tenth month (three hundredth day). The mare may abort by reason of almost any cause that very pro- foundly disturbs the system; hence, very violent inflammations of important internal organs (bowels, kidneys, bladder, lungs) may in- duce abortion. Profuse diarrhea, whether occurring from the reck- less use of purgatives, the consumption of irritants in the feed, or a simple indigestion, is an effective cause. No less so is acute indiges- tion with evolution of gas in the intestines (bloating). The presence DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 183 of stone in tlio kitlnoys, uterus, bladder, or urethra may induce so much sympathetic disorder in the >Yomb as to induce abortion. In exceptional cases wherein mares come in heat during gestation, service by the stallion may cause abortion. Blows or pressure on the abdo- men, rapid driving or riding of the pregnant mare, especially if she is soft and out of condition from idleness, the brutal use of the spur or whip, and the jolting and straining of travel by rail or boat are prolific causes. Bleeding the pregnant mare, a painful surgical op- eration, and the throwing and constraint resorted to for an operation are other causes. Traveling on heavy, muddy roads, slips and falls on ice, and jumping must be added. The stimulation of the abdom- inal organs by a full drink of iced water may precipitate a miscar- riage, as may exposure to a cold rainstorm or a very cold night after a warm day. Irritant poisons that act on the urinary or generative organs, such as Spanish flies, rue, savin, tansy, cotton-root bark, ergot of rye or other grasses, the snnit t)f maize and other grain, and various fungi in musty fodder are additional causes. Frosted or indigestible feed, and, above all, green succulent vegetables in a frozen state, have proved effective factors, and filthy, stagnant water is datigerous. Low condition in the dam and plethora have in oppo- site ways caused aborticm, and hot, relaxing stables and lack of exercise strongly conduce to it. The exhaustion of the sire by too frequent service, entailing debility of the offspring and disease of the fetus or of its envelopes, must be recognized as a further cause. The symptoms vary mainly according as the abortion is earl}' or late in pregnancy. In the first month or two of pregnancy the mare may miscarry without observable symptoms, and the fact appears only by her coming in heat. If more closely observed a small clot of blood may be found behind her, in which a careful search reveals the rudiments of the foal. If the occurrence is somewhat later in gestation, there will be some general disturl)ance, loss of appetite, neighing, and straining, and the small body of the fetus is expelled, enveloped in its membranes. Abortions during the later stages of pregnancy are attended with greater constitutional disturbance, and the process resembles normal parturition, with the aggravation that more effort and straining is requisite to force the fetus through the comparatively undilatable mouth of the wouib. There is the swelling (;f the vulva, with mucus or even bloody discharge; the abdomen droops, the flanks fall in, the udder fills, the mare looks at her flanks, paws with the fore feet and kicks with the hind, switches the tail, moves around uneasily, lies down and rises, strains, and. as in n;itural foaling, expels first mucus and blood, then the waters, and finally the fetus. This may occupy an hour or two, or it may be prolonged for a day or more, the symptoms subsiding for a time, only to reappear with renewed energy. If there is malpresentation of the fetus it will 184 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. hinder progress until rectified, as in difficult parturition. Abortion may also be followed by the same accidents, as flooding, retention of the placenta, and leucorrhea. The most important object in an impending abortion is to recog- nize it at as early a stage as possible, so that it may, if possible, be cut short and prevented. Any general, indefinable illness in a preg- nant mare should lead to a close examination of the vulva as regards swelling, vascularity of its mucous membrane, and profuse mucus secretion, and, above all, any streak or staining of blood; also the condition of the udder, if that is congested and swollen. Any such indication, with colicky pains, straining, however little, and active movement of the fetus or entire absence of movement, are suggestive symptoms and should be duly counteracted. The changes in the vulva and udder, with a soiled and bloody con- dition of the tail, may suggest an abortion already accomplished, and the examination with the hand in the vagina may detect the mouth of the womb soft and dilatable and the interior of the organ slightly filled with a bloody liquid. Treatment should be preventive if possible, and would embrace the avoidance of all causes mentioned, and particularly of such as may seem to be particularly operative in the particular case. If abortions have already occurred in a stud, the especial cause in the matter of feed, water, exposure to injuries, overwork, lack of exercise, etc., may often be identified and removed. A most important point is to avoid all causes of constipation, diarrhea, indigestion, bloating, vio- lent purgatives, diuretics or other potent medicines, painful opera- tions, and slippery roads, unless well frosted. When abortion is imminent, the mare should be placed alone in a roomy, dark, quiet stall, and have the straining checked by some sedative. Laudanum is usually at hand and may be given in doses of 1 or 2 ounces, according to size, and repeated after two or three houre, and even daily if necessary. Chloroform or chloral hydrate, 3 drams, may be substituted if more convenient. These should be given in a pint or quart of water, to avoid burning the mouth and throat. Or Vihurnmn prunlfoh'mn (black haw), 1 ounce, may be given and re- peated if necessary to prevent straining. When all measures fail and miscarriage proceeds, all that can be done is to assist in the removal of the fetus and its membranes, as in ordinary parturition. As in the case of retention of the fetus, it may be necessary after delivery to employ antiseptic injections into the womb to counteract putrid fermentation. This, however, is less nec- essary in the mare than in the cow, in which the prevalent contagious abortion must be counteracted by the persistent local use of antisep- tics. After abortion a careful hygiene is demanded, especially in the matter of pure air and easily digestible feed. The mare should not DISEASKS OF TlIK CKNKRATIVK OltCAXS. 186 be served airain for a month oi- loiifrer, and in no ca>e nntil after all disc-haige from the vulva has ceased. INFECTIOUS ABORTION IN MARES. This disease is disiMisst'd in the i-haptei" on *' Jiifect ioiis I )i>.c;isi's."' PARTURITION. SYMPTOMS OF PARTURITION. A.S the period of partuiition approaches, the swellinf; of the udder bespeaks the coming event, the engorgement in exceptional cases extending forward on the lower sui'face of the alxloinen and even into the hind limbs. Fur about a week a serous iluid oozes from the teat and concretes as a yellow, Avaxlike mass around its orifice. About '24 houi's before the birth this gives place to a whitish, milky li(|uid, which falls upon and mats the hairs on the inner sides of the legs. Another symptom is enlargement of the vulva, with redness of its lining membrane, and the escape of glairy mucus. The belly droops, the tlanks fall in, and the loins may even become depressed. Finally the mare becomes uneasy, stops feeding, looks anxious, whisks her tail, and may lie down and rise again. In many mares this is not repeated, but they remain down; violent contractions of the abdominal muscles ensue; after two or three pains the water bags appear and burst, followed by the fore feet of the foal, with the nose between the knees, and by a few more throes the fetus is expelled. In other cases the act is accomplished standing. The whole act may not occupy more than 5 or 10 minutes. This, together with the disposition of the mare to avoid observation, renders the act one that is rarely seen by the attendants* The navel string, which connects the foal to the membranes, is ruptured when the fetus falls to the ground, or when the mare rises, if she has been down, and the membranes are expelled a few minutes later. NATURAL PRESENTATION. A\'hen there is a single foal, the common and desiiable presentation is with the fore feet first, the nose iK'tween the knee.s, and with the front of the hoofs and knees and the forehead directed upward toward the anus, tail, and croup. (Plate XII, fig. 1.) In this way the natural curvature of the body of the fetus corresponds to the curve of the womb and genital passages, and particularly of the bony pelvis, and the foal pasi^es with much greater ease than if placed with its back downward toward the udder. When there is a twin birth the second foal usually comes with its hind feet first, and the backs of the legs, the points of the hock.s, and the tail and croup are turned upward toward the anus and tail of the mare. (Plate XII, 186 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. fig. 2.) In this way, even with a posterior presentation, the curva- ture of the body of the foal still corresponds to that of the passages, and its expulsion may be quite as easy as in anterior presentation. Any presentation aside from these two may be said to be abnormal and will be considered under " Difficult parturition." PREMATURE LABOR PAINS. These may be brought on by any violent exertion, use under the saddle, or in heavy draft, or in rapid paces, or in travel by rail or sea, blows, kicks, crushing by other animals in a doorway or gate. Ex- cessive action of purgative or diuretic agents, or of agents that irri- tate the bowels or kidneys, like arsenic, paris green, all caustic salts and acids, and acrid and narcotico-acrid vegetables, is equally in- jurious. Finally, the ingestion of agents that stimulate the action of the gravid womb (ergot of rye or of other grasses, smut, various fungi of fodders, rue, savin, cotton root, etc.) may bring on labor pains prematurel3^ Besides the knowledge that parturition is not yet due, there will be less enlargement, redness, and swelling of the vulva, less mucous dis- charge, less filling of the udder, and fewer appearances of wax and probably none of milk from the ends of the teats. The oiled hand introduced into the vulva will not enter with the ease usual at full term, and the neck of the womb will be felt not only closed, but with its projecting papillae, through which it is perforated, not yet flat- tened down and effaced, as at full term. The symptoms are, indeed, those of threatened abortion, but at such an advanced stage of gesta- tion as is compatible Avith the survival of the offspring. TreatTnent. — The treatment consists in the separation of the mare, in a quiet, dark, seclude prunifolimn (black haw), in ounce doses, may be added if neces- sary. Should parturition become inevitable, it may be favored and any necessary assistance furnished. DIFFICULT PARTURITION. "With natural presentation this is a rare occurrence. The great length of the fore limbs and face entail, in the anterior presentation, the formation of a long cone, which dilates and glides through the passages with comparatiA^e ease. Even with the hind feet first a simi- lar conical form is presented, and the process is rendered easy and DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 187 quick. Difficulty and danger arise mainly from the act being hrouglit on prematurely before the passages are sufficiently dilated, from nar- rowing of the pelvic bones or other mechanical obstruction in the passages, from monstrous distortions or dui)licati()ns in the fetus, or from the turning back of one t)f the members so that the elongated conical or wedge-shaped outline is done away with. Prompt as is the noinial parturition in the mare, however, difficult and delayed ])ar- turitiuns are surrounded by s[)ccial dangers and recjuire unusual precautions and skill. From the proclivity of the mare to unhealthy inflammations of the peritoneum and other abdominal organs, pene- trating wounds of the womb or vagina are liable to prove fatal. The contractions of the womb and abdominal walls are so powerful as to exhaust and benmnb the arm of the assistant and to endanger penetrating wounds of the genital organs. By reason of the looser connection of the fetal membranes with the womb, as compared with those of ruminants, the violent throes early detach these membranes throughout their whole extent, and the foal, being thus separated from the mother and thrown on its own resources, dies at an early stage of any protracted parturition. The foal rarely survives four hours after the onset of parturient throes. From the great length of the limbs and neck of the foal it is extremely difficult to secure and bring up limb or head which has been turned back when it should have been presented. When assistance must be rendered, the operator should don a thick woolen undershirt with the sleeves cut out at the shoulders. This protects the body and leaves the whole arm free for manipulation. Before inserting the arm it should be smeared with lard. This protects the skin against septic infection and favors the introduction of the hand and arm. The hand should be inserted with the thumb and fingers drawn together like a cone. Whether standing or lying, the mare should be turned with head downhill and hind parts raised as much as possilde. The contents of the abd(jmen gra\itating forward leave much more room for manipulation. Whatever part of the foal is presented (head, foot) should be secured with a cord and running noose before it is pushed back to search for tiie other missing paits. Even if a mi.ssing part is reached, no attempt should be made to bring it up during a labor pain. Pinching the back will sometimes check the ]>ains and allow the operat<»r to secure and bring up the missing member. In inti-act- able cases a large dose of chloral hydrate (1 ounce in a (piart of water) or tlie inhalation of chlorofoini aiul air (equal pro|)orti(»ns) to insensibility may secure a respite, during which the missing membei-s may be replaced. If the waters have been discharged and the mucus dried up, the g«'nital passages and body of the fetus should be lubricated with lard or oil In'fore any attemjH at extrac- tion is made. AXHien the missing member has been brought up into 188 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. position and presentation has been rendered natural, traction on the fetus must be made only during a labor pain. If a mare-js inclined to kick, it may be necessary to apply hobbles to protect the operator. Difficult parturition from narrow pelvis. — A disproportion between the fetus got by a large stallion and the pehns of a small dam is a serious obstacle to parturition, sometimes seen in the mare. This is not the rule, however, as the foal up to birth usually accommo- dates itself to the size of the dam, as illustrated in the successful crossing of Percheron stallions on mustang mares. If the dispro- joortion is too great the only resort is embrj^otomy. Fractured hip bones. — More commonly the obstruction comes from distortion and narrowing of the pelvis as the result of fractures. (Plate XIII, fig. 2.) Fractures at any point of the lateral wall or floor of the pelvis are repaired with the formation of an extensiAe bony deposit bulging into the passage of the pelvis. The displace- ment of the ends of the broken bone is another cause of constriction, and between the two conditions the passage of the fetus may be ren- dered impossible without embryotomy. Fracture of the sacrum (the continuation of the backbone forming the croup) leads to the de- pression of the posterior part of that bone in the roof of the pelvis and the narrowing of the passage from above downward by a bony ridge presenting its sharp edge forward. In all cases in which there has been injuiy to the bones of the pelvis the obvious precaution is to withhold the mare from breeding and to use her for work only. If a mare with a pelvis thus narrowed has got in foal inadvert- ently, abortion may be induced in the early months of gestation by slowly introducing the oiled finger through the neck of the womb and following this by the other fingers until the whole hand has been introduced. Then the water bags may be broken, and with the escape of the liquid the womb will contract on the solid fetus and labor pains will ensue. The fetus being small will pass easily. Tumors in ti^e vagina and pelvis. — Tumors of various kinds may form in the vagina or elsewhere within the pelvis, and when large enough will obstruct or prevent the passage of the fetus. Gray mares, vrhich are so subject to black pigment tumors (melanosis) on the tail, anus, and vulva, are the most liable to suffer from this. Still more rarely the wall of the vagina becomes relaxed, and being pressed by a mass of intestines will protrude through the lips of the vulva as a hernial sac, containing a part of the bowels. If a tumor is small it may only retard and not absolutely prevent parturition. A hernial protrusion of the wall of the vagina may be pressed back and emptied, so that the body of the fetus engaging in the passage may DISEASES OF TUB GENERATIVE ORGANS. 189 find no further obstacle. When a tumor is too hu^re to allow delivery the only resort is to remove it. hut before proceed inj:; it nuist be clearly made out that the obstruction is a mass of diseased tissue, and not a sac containiu*; intestines. If the tiuuor han«j:s by a neck it can usually bo nu)st safely remo\ed by the ("'craseui-, the chain being passed around the pedicel and iriadually tijrhtciicd until that is torn throustetiicians, yet it is very rarel}' seen in the Jmire. The form of the fetus can be felt through the walls of the sac, so that it is easy to recognize the condition. Its cause is usually extei'- nal violence, though it may start from an umbilical hernia. A\'hen the period of parturition arrives, the first effort should be lo return the fetus within the ])i-oper abdominal cavity, and this can sometimes be accomplishetl with the aid of a stout blanket gradually tightened around the belly. This failing, the mare may be placed on her side or back and gravitation brought to the aid of manipulation in elFect- ing ttie return. Even after the hernia has been reduced the relaxed state of the womb and abdominal walls may serve to hinder parturi- tion, in which case the oiled hand must be introducecl thi-ough the vagina, the fetus brought into p-osition, and traction cointiih-nt with the labor pains employed to produce delivery. Twisting of the neck of the womii. — This condition is very uncommon in the mare, though occasi\{\ .SIX lATIONv, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Diseases of the Horse. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Diseases of the Horso. iT v^. __i N' DIFFl' DISEASES OF THE CiENKRATIVE ORGANS. 193 Plate XIIT, fig. J5.) AVith an anterior presentation (fore feet and nose) this presents an insuperable dbstac-le t<» progress, as the dis- eased cranium is too hirjje to enter the pelvis at the same time with the fore arms. With a i)osterior presentation (liind feet) all goes well until the body and shoulders have ])assed out, when progress is sud- denly arrested by the great bulk of the head. In the first ease, the oiled hand introduced along the face detects the enormous size of the head, which may be diminished by puncturing it with a knife or trocar and cannula in the median line, evacuating the water and pressing in the thin, bony walls. With a i)osterior presentation, the same course must be followed; the hand passed along the neck will detect the cranial swelling, which may be punctured with a knife or trocar. Oftentimes with an anterior presentation the great size of the head leads to its disi>lacement backward, and thus the fore limbs alone engage in the passages. Here the first object is to seek and bring u}> the missing head, and tlien jiuncture it as above sug- gested. AsciTKS, OR DitorsY OF THE AnooMEN IX THE FOAL. — The accumula- tion of liquid in the abdominal cavity of the fetus is less frecjuent, but when present it may arrest parturition as completely as will hydrocephalus. With an anterior presentation the foal may pass as far as the shoulders, but behind this all efforts fail to effect a further advance. With a posterior presentation the hind legs as far as the thighs may be expelled, but at this point all progress ceases. In either case the oiled hand, passed inward by the side of the foal, will detect the enormous distension of the abdomen and its soft, fluc- tuating contents. The only course is to puncture the cavity and evac- uate the liquid. With the anterior presentation this may be done with a long trocar and cannula, introduced through the chest and diaphragm, or with a knife an incision may be made between the first two ribs and the lungs and heart cut or torn out, when the diaphragm will be felt i)rojecting strongly forward, and may be easily j)unctured. Shoukl there not i)e room to introduce the hand through the chest, the oiled hand may be passed along beneath the breast bone and the adbomen punctured. With a posterior presen- tation the adbonien must be punctured in the same way, the hand. armed witii a knife protected in its palm, being passed along tiie side of the flank or In'tween the hind limbs. It should l»e added that moderate dropsy of the abilomen is not incompatible with natural delivery, the liijuid being at fii*st crowded back into the poition of the belly still engaged in the womb, and passing slowly from that into the advanced portion as soon as that has cleai(', anus, confluent digits, etc. (5) Monsters through fusion of parts — one central eye, one nasal opening, etc. ((■)) Monsters through abnormal position or form of parts — curved spine, face, limb, etc. (7) Monsters through excess of formation — enormous head, super- numerary digits, etc. (8) Monsters through imperfect dili'erentiation of se.xual organs — - hermaphrodites. (9) Double monsters — double-headed, double-bodied, extra limbs, etc. Causes. — The causes of monstrosities appear to be very varied. Some monstrosities, like extra digits, absence of horns or tail, etc., run in families and are produced almost as certainly as color or form. Othei-s are associated with too close breeding, the powers of symmet- rical develoj)ment being interfered with, just as in other cases a sex- ual incompatibility is developed, near relatives failing to breed with each other. Mere arrest of development of a part may arise from accidental disease of the embryo; hence vital organs are left out, or portions of organs, like the dividing walls of the heart, are omitted. Sometimes an older fetus is inclosed in the body of another, each having started indejiendently from a separate ovum, but the one having become embedded in the semitluid mass of the other anil hav- ing developed there simultaneously with it, but not so largely nor l)erfectly. In many cases of redundance of ])arts the extra part or member has manifestly developed from the same ovinn and nutrient center with the normal member to which it remains adherent, just as a new tail will grow out in a newt when the former has been cut otf. In the early embryo, w ith its great powers of deveh)pment, this fac- tor can operate to far greater purpose than in the adult animal. Its influence is .seen in the fact pointed out by St. Ililaire that such reilundant parts are nearly always connected with the corresponding jiortions in the normal fetus. Thus superfluous legs or digits are attached to the normal ones, double heads or tails are connected to a common neck or rumi). and double l)odies are attached to each other by corresi)onding points, navel to navel, breast to breast, back to 196 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. back. All this suggests the development of extra parts from the same primary layer of the impregnated and developing ovum. The eli'ect of disturbing conditions in giving such wrong directions to the developmental forces is well shown in the experiments of St. Hilaire and Valentine in varnishing, shaking, and otherwise break- ing up the natural connections in eggs, and thereby determining the formation of monstrosities at will. So, in the mammal, blows and other injuries that detach the fetal membranes from the walls of. the womb or that modify their circulation by inducing inflammation are at times followed by the development of a monster. The excitement, mental and physical, attendant on fright occasionally acts in a simi- lar way, acting probably through the same channels. The monstrous forms liable to interfere with parturition are such as, from contracted or twisted limbs or spine, must be presented double: where supernumerary limbs, head, or body must approach the passages with the natural ones; where a head or other member has attained to an unnatural size; where the body of one fetus has become inclosed in or attached to another, etc. Extraction is sometimes possible by straightening the members and obtaining such a presentation as will reduce the presenting mass to its smallest and most wedgelike dimensions. To effect this it may be needful to cut the flexor tendons of bent limbs or the muscles on the side of a twisted neck or body: one or more of the manipu- lations necessary to secure and bring up a missing member may be required. In most cases of monstrosity by excess, however, it is needful to remove the superfluous parts, in which case the general principles employed for embryotomy must be followed. The Ca'sa- rean section, by which the fetus is extracted through an incision in the walls of the abdomen and womb, is inadmissible, as it prac- tically entails the sacrifice of the mare, which should never be done for the sake of a monster. (See " Embryotomy,"' p. 202.) Entrance of twins into the passage at once. — Twins are rare in the mare, and still more rare is the impaction of both at once into the pelvis. The condition would be easily recognized by the fact that two fore limbs and two hind would occupy the passage at once, the front of the hoofs of the fore feet being turned upward and those of the hind feet downward. If both belonged to one foal, they would be turned in the same direction. Once recognized, the con- dition is easily remedied by passing a rope with a running noose round each foot of the foal that is furthest advanced or that prom- ises to be most easily extracted, and to push the members of the other fetus back into the depth of the womb. As soon as the one fetus is fully engaged into the passage it will hold its place and its delivery will proceed in the natural way. DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 197 ABNORMAL PRESENTATIONS. (I'ls. XV-X\111.) AbnoiiiKil presentations may be tabulated as follows: Fore limbs. Anterior pree- eutations. Posterior pres- entations. Head. Incompletely extended. Flexor tendons shortr ened. fronted over the neck. IU»nt biuk at the kneo. IkMit l)U( k fniin tlu' nliouldcr. Ik'Ut do\m\\aril on the nelvs may be inserted in the neck as near the head as can be readied, and ropes attached to these may be dragged on, while the body of the foal is pushed back by the fore limbs or by a repeller. Such repul- sion should be made in a direction obliquely upward toward the loins of the mother, so as to rotate the fetus in such a way as to bring the head up. As this is accomplished a hold sliould be secured nearer and nearer to the nose, with hand or hook, until the head can be straightened out on the neck. All means failing, it becomes necessary to remove the fore limbs (embryotomy) so as to make more space for bringing up the heail. If, even then, this can not be accomplished, it may be possible to push the body backward and upward with the repeller until the hind limbs are brought to the passage, when they may be noosed and delivery effected with the posterior presentation. Head turned on shoulders. — In this case the fore feet present, and the oiled hand passed along the fore arms in search of the missing head finds the side of the neck turned to one side, the head being per- haps entirely out of reach. (Plate XVIII, fig. 1.) To bring the head forward it may be desirable to lay the mare on the side opposite to that to Avhich tlie head is turned, and even to give chloroform or ether. Then the feet being noosed, the body of the fetus is puslied by the hand or repeller forward and to the side opposite to that t>ccupied by the head until the head comes within reach, near the entrance of the pelvis. If such displacement of the fetus is difficult, it may be facilitated by a free use of oil or lard. When the nose can be seized it can l)e brought into the passjige, as when the head is turned down. If it can not be reached, the orbit may be availed of to draw the head forward until the nose can be seized or tlie lower jaw noosi'd. In very dillicult cases a rope may be passed around the neck by the hand or with the aid of a curved carrier (Plate XIV), and traction may be made upon this while the body is being rotated to the other side. In the same way in bad cases a hook may be fixed in the orbit or even between the bones of the lower jaw to assist in bringing the head up into position. Should all fail, the amputation of the fore limbs may he resorted to, as advised under the la>t heading. Head turxed upward on rack. — This differs from the last mal- presentation only in the direction of the head, which has to be sought 200 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. above rather than at one side, and is to be secured and brought for- ward in a similar manner. (Plate XVIII. fig. '2.) If a rope can be' passed around the neck it will prove most effectual, as it naturally slides nearer to the head as the neck is straightened and ends by bringing the head within easy reach. HixD FEET ENGAGED IX PELVIS. — In this case fore limbs and head present naturall}^, but the hind limbs bent forward from the hip and the loins arched allow the hind feet also to enter the passages, and the further labor advances the more firmly does the body of the foal become wedged into the pelvis (Plate XVII, fig. 2.) The condition is to be recognized by introducing the oiled hand along the belly of the fetus, when the hind feet will be felt advancing. An attempt should at once be made to push them back, one after the other, over the brim of the pelvis. Failing in this, the mare may be turned on her back, head downhill, and the attempt renewed. If it is possible to introduce a straight rope carrier, a noose passed through this may be put on the fetlock and the repulsion thereby made more effective. In case of continued failure the anterior presenting part of the body may be skinned and cut off as far back toward the pelvis as possible (see "Embryotomy") ; then nooses are placed on the hind fetlocks and traction is made upon these while the quarters are pushed back into the womb. Then the remaining portion is brought away by the posterior presentation. Anterior presentation with back turned to one side. — The diameter of the axis of the foal, like that of the pelvic passages, is from above downward, and when the fetus enters the pelvis with this greatest diameter engaged transversely or in the narrow diame- ter of the pelvis, parturition is rendered difficult or impossible. In such a case the pasterns and head may be noosed, and the passages and engaged portion of the foal freely lubricated with lard, the limbs may be crossed over each other and the head, and a movement of rotation effected in the fetus until its face and back are turned up toward the croup of the mother; then parturition becomes! natural. Back or eoal turned to floor of pelvis. — In a roomy mare this is not an insuperable obstacle to parturition, yet it may seriously impede it, by reason of the curvature of the body of the foal being opposite to that of the passages, and the head and withers being liable to arrest against the border of the pelvis. Lubrication of the passage with lard and traction of the limbs and head will usually suffice with or without the turning of the mare on her back. In obstinate cases two other resorts are open: First, to turn the foal, pushing back the fore parts and bringing up the hind so as to make a posterior presentation, and, second, the amiDutation of the fore limbs, after w^hich extraction will usually be easy. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Diseases of the Horse. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Diseases of the Horse. pr^jvTE x\'r. 7'rifi*.ii'i'/\-;t itri'.-n li./fffitjii 'f 'tij/it' iv/*i \ \i ; X( » 1< MAI. r l< K S !•: .VTATM ;N"S U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Diseases of the Horse. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Diseases of tlie Horse. pla-xp: xa III., iritfrior- fii-fSf/i/tintni flr-rtii Ounfil on liofl. Al ) X(^ K M,\ [ . P K I : S 1 . X 1' \ n ( ) N s DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 201 IIlXD PRESENTATION WITH LECJ BENT AT IK>CK. lu tluS foriU till' (juart may result from injuries sustained by the womb during oi- after parturition, from exposure to cold or wet, or from the irritant infective acti(m of putrid products within the woini>. Under the inflammation the womb remains dilated and flaccid, and decomposi- tion of its secretions almost always tx^curs, so that the inflammation tends to assume a ])utrid character and general septic infeomi' casos. may lay tlie foundation for a tuinoi- (tf tlie ^land. Treatment. — The treatment is simple so long us there is only con- gestion. Active riihljintr ^vith lard or oil, or. better, camphorated oil, and the fre(|uent drawing oil .of the milU, by the foal or with the hand, will usually bring about a rapid improvement. "When active intlamniation is ])resent, fomentation with warm water may be kept up for an hour and followed by the api)lication of the cam- phorated oil, to which has been added some carbonate of soda anintment of vaseline 1 ounce, balsam of tolu .5 grains, and sulphate of zinc ") grains. 3G444°— 16 14 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. By M. R. Tbumbower, V. S. [Revised by John R. Mohler, A. M., V. M. D.] ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. (PI. XIX.) The nervous system may be regarded as consisting of two sets of organs, peripheral and central, the function of one being to estab- lish a communication between the centers and .the different parts of the body, and that of the other to generate nervous force. The whole may be arranged under two divisions : First, the cerebrospinal system; second, the sympathetic or ganglionic system. Each is possessed of its own central and peripheral organs. In the first, the center is made up of two portions — one large and expanded (the brain) placed in the cranial cavity; the other elongated (spinal cord), continuous with the brain, and lodged in the canal of the vertebral column. The peripheral portion of this system consists of the cerebrospinal nerves, which leave the axis in symmetrical pairs and are distributed to the skin, the voluntary muscles, and the organs. In the second, the central organ consists of a chain of ganglia, connected by nerve cords, which extends on each side of the spine from the head to the rump. The nerves of this system are dis- tributed to the involuntary muscles, mucous membrane, viscera, and blood vessels. The two systems have free intercommunication, ganglia being at the junctions. Two substances, distinguishable by their color, namely, the white or medullary and the gray or cortical substance, enter into the for- n:ation of nervous matter. Both are soft, fragile, and easily injured, ill consequence of which the principal nervous centers are well pro- tected by bony coverings. The nervous substances present two dis- tinct forms — nerve fibers and nerve cells. An aggregation of nerve cells constitutes a nerve ganglion. The nerve fibers represent a conducting apparatus and serve to place the central nervous organs in connection with peripheral end organs. The nerve cells, however, besides transmitting impulses, act as physiological centers for automatic, or reflex, movements, and also for the sensory, perceptive, trophic, and secretory functions. A nerve consists of a bundle of tubular fibers, held together by a 210 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 211 dense areolar tissue, and inclosed in a ineiiibranoiis sheath — the neuri- lemma. Nerve libers possess no elasticity, but are very strong. Divided nerves do not retract. Nerves are thrown into a state of excitement when stimulated, and are, therefore, said to possess excitable or irritable properties. The stinndi may be applied to, or may act upon, any part of the nerve. Nerves may be paralyzed by continuous pressure bein<^ a[)plied. When the nerves divide into branches, there is never any splittijig up of their ultimate fibers, nor yet is there ever any coalescing of them; they retain 'their individuality from their source to their termination. Nerves which convey impressions to the centers are termed sensory, or centripetal, and those which transmit stinmlus from the centers to organs of motitm are termed motor, or centrifugal. The function of the nervous system may, therefore, be defined in the simplest terms, as follows: It is intended to associate the different parts of the body in such a manner that stinudus aj)plied to one organ may excite or depress the activity of another. The brain is that i)ortion of the cerebro-spinal axis within the cra- nium, which may be divided into four parts — the medulla oblongata, the cerebellum, the pons Varolii, and the cerebrum — and it is cov- ered by three membranes, called the meninges. The outer of these membranes, the dura mater, is a thick, white, fibrous membrane which lines the cavity of the cranium, forming the internal periosteum of the bones; it is continuous with the spinal cord to the extremity of the canal. The second, the arachnoid, is a delicate serous membrane, and loosely envelops the brain and spinal cord; it forms two layers, hav- ing between them the arachnoid space which contains the cerebro- spinal fluid, the use of which is to protect the spinal cord and brain from pressure. The third, or inner, the pia mater, is closely adher- ent to the entire surface of the brain, but is much thinner and more vascular than when it reaches the si)inal cord, which it also envelops, and is continued to form the .sheaths of the spinal nerves. The medulla oblongata is the ])rolongation of the spinal cord, extending to the pons Varolii. This jjortion of the brain is very largt' in the horse: it is pyramidal in shai)e, the narrowest part join- ing the cord. The pons \'arolii is the transver^- pi ojection on the base of the brain, between the medidla oblongata anac-iit«', but from its intimate relation with the siiiface of the l»rain the hitter very soon becomes involved in the morbid changes. Practically, we can not separate inflammation of the pia mater from that of the brain ])roper. Inflam- mation may. howe\ er. exist in the center of the great nerve ma.s.scs — • the cerebrum, cerebellum, pons Varolii, or medulla at the base of the brain — without invoh ing the surface. AMien. therefore, inflamma- tion invades the brain and its enveloping membranes it is piopeily called encephalitis; when the membranes ahme are affected it is called meningitis, or the brain substance alone cerebritis. Since all the conditions merge into one another and can scarcely be recognized separately during the life of the animal, they may here be considered t(;gether. f'ausfs. — Kxi)o>ure to extreme heat or cold, sudden and extreme changes of temperature, excessive continued cerebral excitement, too much nitrogenous feed, direct injuries to the brain, such as concus- sion, or from fracture of the cranium, overexertion, sometimes as sequela^ to influenza, pyemia, poisons having a direct influence uj)on the encephalic mass, extension of inflammation from neighboring structures, food poisoning, tumors, parasites, metastatic abscesses, etc. Syjnptomf(. — The diseases here grouped together are accompanied with a variety of symptoms, almost none of which, however, are asso- ciated so definitely with a special jiathological process as to point unmistakably to a given lesion. Usually the first symptoms indicate mental excitement, and are followed by symptoms indicating depres- si(m. Acute encephalitis may be ushered in by an increased sensi- bility to noises, with more or less nervous excitability, contraction of the pupils of the eyes, and a quick, hard pulse. In Aery acute at- tacks these symptoms, however, are not always noted. This condi- tion will soon be followed by muscular twitchings, convulsive or spasmodic movements, eyes wide open with shortness of sight. The animal becomes afraid to have his head handled. Convulsions and delirium will develop, with inability of muscular control, or .stupor and coma may supervene. AVhen the membranes are greatly impli- cated, convulsions and delirium w ith violence nuiy be expected, but if the brain sub>tances aie principally affected stu|)or and coma will ])e the prominent symptoms. In the former condition the pulse will be •juick and hard: in the latter, soft and depressed, with often a dilata- tion of the pujnls, and deep, slow, stertorous breathing. The symj)- toms may follow one another in rapid succession, and the disease approach a fatal termination within 1'2 hom-s. In subacute at- tacks the symptoms are better defined, and the animal seldom dies before the third day. Within three or four days gradual improve- ment may become manifest, or cerebral softening with partial paral- 214 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. ysis may occur. In all cases of encephalitis there is a marked rise in temperature from the very onset of the disease, with a tendency to increase until the most alarming symptoms develop, succeeded by a decrease when coma becomes manifest. The violence and character of the symptoms greatly depend upon the extent and location of the .structures involved. Thus, in some cases there may be marked paral- ysis of certain muscles, while in others there may be spasmodic rigid- ity of muscles in a certain region. Very rarely the animal becomes extremely violent early in the attack, and by rearing up, striking with the fore feet, or falling over, may do himself great injury. Usually, however, the animal maintains" the standing position, prop- ping himself against the manger or wall, until he' falls from inability of muscular control, or from unconsciousness. Occasionally, in his delirium, he may go through a series of automatic movements, such as trotting or walking, and, if loose in a stall, will move around per- sistently in a circle. Early and persistent constipation of the bowels is a marked symptom in nearly all acute affections of the brain ; re- tention of the urine, also, is frequently observed. Following these symptoms there are depression, loss of power and consciousness, lack of ability or desire to move, and usually fall of temperature. At this stage the horse stands with legs propped, the head hanging or resting on the manger, the eyes partly closed, and does not respond when spoken to or when struck with a whip. Chronic encephalitis or meningitis may succeed the acute stage, or may be due to stable miasma, blood poison, narcotism, lead poison- ing, etc. This form may not be characterized in its initial stages by excitability, quick and hard pulse, and high fever. The animal usually appears at first stupid ; eats slowly ; the pupil of the eye does not respond to light quickly; the animal often throws his head up or shakes it as if suffering sudden twinges of pain. He is slow and sluggish in his movements, or there may be partial paralysis of one limb, one side of the face, neck, or body. These symptoms, with some variations, may be present for several days and then subside, or the disease may pass into the acute stage and terminate fatally. Chronic encephalitis may effect an animal for ten days or two weeks without much variation in the symptoms before the crisis is reached. If improvement commences, the symptoms usually disappear in the reverse order to that in which they developed, with the exception of the paralytic effects, which remain intractable or permanent. Paral- ysis of certain sets of muscles is a very common result of chronic, subacute, and acute encephalitis, and is due to softening of the brain or to exudation into the cavities of the brain or arachnoid space. Softening and abscess of the brain are terminations of cerebritis. It may also be due to an insufficient supply of blood as a result DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 215 of (liseast'd cerebral arteries and of tii)o[)lexy. The syinptonis are drowsiness, vertigo, or attacks of giddiness, increased timidity, or fear of familiar objects, paralysis of one limb, hemiplegia, imperfect control of tlie limbs, and usually a weak, intermittent pulse. In some cases the symptoms are analogous to those of apoplexy. The char- acter of the symptoms depends upon the seat of the softening or abscess within the brain. Cerebral sclerosis sometimes follows inllanmiation in the structure of the brain affecting the connective tissues, which eventually become hypertrophied and press upon nerve cells and iibers, causing their ultimate disappearance, leaving the parts hard and indurated. This condition gives rise to a progresssive paralysis and may extend along a certain bundle of fil)ers into the spiiud cord. Complete paralysis almost invariably supervenes and causes death. Lesions. — On making post-mortem examinations of horses wlii
  • ecomes slower, then (juicker and feebler, and after a little time ceases. If the rupture is one of a snuiU artery and the extravasation limited, sudden paralysis of some part of the body is the result. The extciil and location of the paralysis depend upon the location within the brain which is functionally deranged by the pressure of the extra va- cated blood; hence these conditions are very variable. In the absence of any premonitory symptoms or an increase of tem- l)erature in the early stage of the attack', we may be reasonably cer- tain in making the distinction between this di^ease and congestion of the brain, or sunstroke. Pathology. — In apoplexy there is generally found an atheromatous condition of the cerebral vessels, with weakening and degeneration of their walls. "When a large artery has been ruptured it is usually fol- lowed by immediate death, and large rents may be found in the cere- brum, with great destruction of brain tissue, induced by the forcible pressure of the liberated blootl. In small extravasations producing local paralysis without marked general disturbance the animal nuiy recover after a time; in such cases gradual absori)ti()n of tlie clot takes place. In large clots atrophy of the brain substances may fol- low, or softening and abscess from want of nutrition ujay result, and render the animal worthless, idtimately resulting in death. Treatment. — Place the animal in a quiet, cool place and a\ oid all stimulating feed. Administer, in the drinking water or feed. 2 drams of the iodid of potassium twice a day for several weeks if necessary. Medical interference with sedatives or stimulants is more liable to be harmful than of benefit, and bh^odletting in an apoplectic- fit is extremely hazardous. From the fact that cerebral apoplexy is due to diseased or weakened blood vessels, the animal remains sub- ject to subsequent attacks. For this reason treatment is very unsatis- factory. COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIN. Causes. — In injuries from direct violence a i)iece of broken bone may press upon the brain, and. according to its size, the brain is rol>bed of its normal space within the cranium. It may also be due to an extravasation of blood or to exudation in the subdural or arach- noid spaces. Death from active ceiel)ral congestion results through compression. The occurrence may sometimes be traced to the direct cause, which will give assurance for the correct diagnosis. Symptoms. — Inqiairment of all the special senses and localized paralysis. All the symptoms of lessened functional activity of the brain are manifested to some degree. The paralysis remains to be 222 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. our guide for the location of the cause, for it will be found that the paralysis occurs on the opposite side of the body from the location of the injury, and the parts suffering paralysis will denote, to an expert veterinarian or physician, the part of the brain which is suffering compression. Treatment. — Trephining, by a skillful operator, for the removal of the cause when due to depressed bone or the presence of foreign bodies. When the symptoms of compression follow other acute diseases of the brain, apoplectic fits, etc., the treatment must be such as the exigencies of the case demands. CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN. This is generally caused by falling over backward and striking the poll, or perhaps falling forward on the nose, by a blow on the head, etc. Train accidents during shipping often cause concussion of the brain. Symptoins. — Concussion of the brain is characterized by giddi- ness, stupor, insensibility, or loss of muscular power, succeeding immediately upon a blow or severe injury involving the cranium. The animal may rally quickly or not for hours ; death may occur on the spot or after a few days. When there is only slight concussion or stunning, the animal soon recovers from the shock. When more severe, insensibility may be complete and continue for a considerable time ; the animal lies as if in a deep sleep ; the pupils are insensible to light ; the pulse fluttering or feeble ; the surface of the body cold, muscles relaxed, and the breathing scarcely perceptible. After a variable interval partial recovery may take place, which is marked by paralysis of some parts of the body, often of a limb, the lips, ear, etc. Convalescence is usually tedious, and frequently permanent im- pairment of some organs remains. Pathology. — Concussion produces laceration of the brain, or at least a jarring of the nervous elements, which, if not sufficiently severe to produce sudden death, may lead to softening or inflamma- tion, with their respective symptoms of functional derangement. .Treatment. — The first object in treatment will be to establish reac- tion or to arouse the feeble and weakening heart. This can often be accomplished by dashing cold water on the head and body of the ani- mal; frequent injections of weak ammonia water, ginger tea, or oil and turpentine should be given per rectum. In the majority of cases this will soon bring the horse to a state of consciousness. In more severe cases mustard poultices should be applied along the spine and above the fetlocks. As soon as the animal gains partial consciousness stimulants, in the form of whisky or capsicum tea, should be given. Owing to severity of the structural injury to the brain or the pos- sible rupture of blood vessels and blood extravasation, the reaction DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 223 may often be followed by encephalitis or cerebiitis, and will then have to be treated accordingly. For this reason the stimulants should not be administered too freely, and they must be abaiuloned as soon as reaction is established. There is no need for further ti-eatment unless complications develop as a secondary result, lilcod- inserved in all cases. 232 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. SPINAL MENINGITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE MEMBRANES ENVELOPING THE SPINAL CORD. This may be induced by the irritant properties of blood poisons, exhaustion and exposure, spinal concussion, all forms of injury to the spine, tumors, caries of the vertebrae, rheumatism, etc. Sympt&ins. — A chill may be the precursor, a rise in temperature, or a general weakness and shifting of the legs. Soon a painful, con- "VTilsive twitching of the muscles sets in, followed by muscular rigid- ity along the spine, in which condition the animal will move very stiiSy and evince great pain in turning. Evidences of paralysis or paraplegia develop, retention or incontinence of urine, and often- times sexual excitement is present. The presence of marked fever at the beginning of the attack, associated with spinal symptoms, should lead us to suspect spinal meningitis or myelitis. These two condi- tions usually appear together, or m^'elitis follows inflammation of the meninges so closely that it is almost impossible to separate the two ; practically it does not matter much, for the treatment will be about the same in both cases. Spinal meningitis generally becomes chronic, and is then marked principally by paralysis of that portion, or parts of it, posterior to the seat of the disease. Pathology. — In spinal meningitis we find essentially the same con- dition as in cerebral meningitis; there is an effusion of serum be- tween the membranes, and often a plastic exudation firmly adherent to the pia mater serves to maintain a state of paralysis for a long time after the acute symptoms have disappeared by compressing the cord. Finally, atrophy, softening, and even abscess may develop within the cord. Unlike in man, it is usually found localized in horses. Treatment. — Bags filled with ice should be applied along the spine, to be followed later by strong blisters. The fever should be con- trolled as early as possible by giving 20 drops of Norwood's tincture of veratrum viride every hour until the desired result is obtained. One dram of the fluid extract of belladonna, to control pain and vas- cular excitement of the spinal cord, may be given every five or six hours until the pupils of the eyes become pretty well dilated. If the pain is ver^^ intense 5 grains of sulphate of morphia should be in- jected hypodermically. The animal must be kept as free from excite- ment as possible. If the urine is retained in the bladder it must be drawn off every four or six hours. In very acute attacks the disease generally proves fatal in a few days. If, however, the animal grows better, some form of paralysis is liable to remain for a long time, and the treatment will have to be directed then toward a removal of the exudative products and a strengthening of the system and stimula- tion of the nervous functions. To induce absorption, iodid of potas- sium in 2-dram doses, dissolved in the drinking water, may be given DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 233 twice a day. To stren^hen the system, iodicl of iron 1 dram twice a day and 1 dram of nu\ vomica once a day may be g:iven in the feed. Electricity to the paralyzed and weakened muscles is advisable; the current shouhl be weak, but be continued for half an hour two or three times daily. If the disease is due to a broken back, caries of the vertebra*, or some other irremediable cause, the animal should be destroyed at once. MYELITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE SPINAL CORD. This is a rare disease, except as a secondary result of spinal menin- gritis or injuries to the spine. Poisoning by lead, arsenic, mercury, l)h()sphorus. carbonic-acid gas, etc., has been known to produce it. Myelitis may be conlined to a small spot in the cord or may involve the whole for a variable distance. It may lead to softening abscess or degeneration. >^>/mjftom-fi. — The attack may begin with a chill or convulsion: the muscles twitch or become cramped very early in the disease, and the bladder usually is affected at the outset, in which there may be either retention or incontinence of urine. These conditions are followed by complete or partial paralysis of the muscles posterior to the locality of the inflamed cord, and the muscles begin to waste away rapidly. The paralyzed limb becomes cold and dry, due to the suspension of proper circulation; the joints may swell and become edematous; vesicular eruptions appear on the skin; and frecjuently gangrenous sloughs form on the paralyzed parts. It is exceedingly seldom that recovery takes place. In a few instances it may assume a chronic type, when all the symptoms become mitigated, and thus continue for some time, until septicemia, pyemia, or exhaustion causes death. Pathology. — The inflammation may involve nearly the whole length of the cord, but generally it is more intense in some places than others; when due to mechanical injury, the inflannnation may remain confined to a small section. The cord is swollen and con- gested, reddened, often softened and infiltrated with pus cells, and the nerve elements are degenerated. Trtatnient. — Similar to that of spinal meningitis. SPINAL CONGESTION. This condition consists in an excess of blood. As the blood vessels of the pia mater are the principal source of supply to the spinal cord, hyperemia of the cord and of tlu' meninges usually go together. The symptoms are. tlierefore, closely allied to those of sjiinal menin- gitis and congestion. ^Vhen the pia mater is diseased, the si)inal cord is almost invariably affected also. 234 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Cause. — Sudden checking of the perspiration, violent exercise, blows, and falls. Symptcynis. — The symptoms may vary somewhat with each case, and closely resemble the first symptoms of spinal meningitis, spinal tumors, and myelitis. First, some disturbance in movement, lower- ing the temperature, and partial loss of sensibility posterior to the seat of the congestion. If in the cervical region, it may cause inter- ference in breathing and the action of the heart. "When in the region of the loins, there may be loss of control of the bladder. Wlien the congestion is sufficient to produce compression of the cord, paraplegia may be complete. Usually fever, spasms, muscular twitching, or muscular rigidity are absent, which will serve to distinguish spinal congestion from spinal meningitis. Treatjnent. — Hot-water applications to the spine, 1-dram doses fluid extract of belladonna repeated every four hours, and tincture of aconite root 20 drops every hour until the symptoms become ameliorated. If no inflammatory products occur, the animal is likely to recover. SPINAL ANEMIA. This may be caused by extreme cold, exhausting diseases, spinal embolism or plugging of a spinal blood vessel, an interference with the circulation through the abdominal aorta, from compression, thrombosis, or aneurism of that vessel; the spinal vessels may be caused to contract through vasomotor influence, a result of periph- eral irritation of some nerve. Spinal anemia causes paralysis of the muscles used in extending the limbs. AATien the bladder is affected, it precedes the weakness of motion, while in spinal congestion it follows, and increased sensibility, in place of diminished sensibility, as in spinal congestion, is observed. Pressure along the spine causes excessive pain. If the exciting cause can be removed, the animal recovers ; if this fails, the spinal cord may undergo softening. SPINAL COMPRESSION. "When caused by tumors or otherwise, when pressure is slight, it produces a paralysis of the muscles used in extending a limb and contraction of those which flex it. When compression is great it causes complete loss of sensibilty and motion posterior to the com- pressed part of the cord. Compression of a lateral half of the cord produces motor paralysis, disturbance of the circulation, and difficulty of movement, an in- creased sensibility on the side corresponding to the compressed sec- tion, and a diminished sensibility and some paralysis on the opposite side. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 235 Treatm^'tit. — AVheii it ocviirs as a .sequence of a precedin*; inflam- matory ilisease, iodid of i)otassium and general tonics are indicated. When due to tumors growing within the spinal canal, or to pressure from displaced bone, no form of treatment will result in any benefit. SPINAL HEMORRHAGE. This may occur from changes in the wall of the blood vessels, in connection with tumors, acute myelitis, traumatic injuries, etc. The blood nuiy escape through the pia mater into the subarachnoid cavity, and large clots be formed. Si/mpfams. — The symptoms are largely dependent upon the seat and extent of the hemorrhage, as they are princii)ally owing to the compression of the cord. A large clot may jiroduce sudden paraplegia, accompajiied with .severe pain along the spine; usually, however, the paralysis of both motion and sensation is not very marked at first; on the second or third day fever is liable to appear, and increased or diminished sensibility along the .spine posterior to the seat of the clot. When the bladder and rectum are involved in the symptoms it indicates that the spinal cord is compressed. Tnatmcnt. — In the occurrence of injuries to the back of a hor.se, whenever there is any evidence of paralysis, it is always advisable to apply bags of ice along the spine to check or prevent hemorrhage or congestion, and '2 drams of the fluid extract of ergot and 20 drops of tincture of digitalis may be given every hour until three doses have been taken. Subsequently tincture of belladonna in half-ounce do.sos may be given three tiuies a day. If there is much pain. 5 grains of sulphate of morphia, injected under the skin, will atl'ord relief and lessen the excitability of the animal. In all cases the animal should be kept perfectly quiet. SPINAL CONCUSSION. Tliis is rarely observed in the horse, and unless it is sufficiently severe to produce well-marked symptoms it would not be suspected. It may occur in saddle horses from jumping, or it may be pro- duced by falling over an embankment, or a violent fall upon the haunches may produce it. Concussion may be followed by partial ])aralysis or spinal hemoiThage; generally, however, it is confined to a jarring and some disturbance of the nerve elements of the cord, and the paralytic effect which en.sues soon pa.s.ses off. Treatment con.sists in rest tmtil the aniuial has completely recovered fiom the shock. If secondary effects follow from hemorrhage or compression, thev have to be treated as heretofore directed. PTKWASffS OF TEGB BTOBSE. SPrSAL TTMOBS. Within the substance of the cord "rlioma or the mixed g:!i«ear«>- mata. are foand to be the mogt fre<:iuent. tumors may form from the Bueainges and the vertebrae, being of a fibroos or btjiiy nature, and ftffeet the spinal cord indirectly by compression. In the meninges we may find glioma, cancers, and psanimoma. hbromata ; aneuriims ftf the spinal arteries have been dis<-'overed in the spinal canal. Sij'mpto'nii!. — Tumors of the spinal canal cause symptoms of spinal irritati^Mi or compression of the cord. The gradual and slow de- \elopment of symptoms of paralysis of one or both hind limbs or certain muscles may lead to a suspicion of spinal tumors. The par- alysis induced is progressive, but not usually marked with atrophy of the muscles or increase^! - * along the spine. Whea iSatt tumor is within the spinal ci .. . ...:...: all the symptoms of myelitK may be present. T featment. — General tonics and 1-dram doses of nui vomica may be given: iodid of iron or io»iid of potassium in 1-dram doses, three times a day in feed, may. in a very few cases, give some temporary benefit. UsuaEy the disease progresses steadily until it proves fataL NELKITIS, OR DTFLOOLiTION OF A XERVIL This is causeil by a bruise or wound of a nerve or by strangulation in a ligature when the nerve is includeLW OR TTMOR OF A XERTX. Xearoma may be from enlargement of the end of a ilivide*! nerve or dae to fflbrous degeneration of a nerve which has been bruisetl or wounded. Its most frequent occurrence is found after the operation of neurotomy for fwjt lameness. an«l it may appear after the lapse of months or even years. N"earoma usually develops within the sheath of the nerve with or without implicating the nerve fibers. It is oval, runn'- r ' — _-thwise with the direction of the nerve. Sij — Pain of the atfected limb or part is manifested, more especially after resting a while, and wh«i pressure is made upon the tumor it causes extreme suffering. THE JTEBVOCS STSTEM- 237 TretthngnJ-. — E ulmwhi •€ tiie tumor, inclmiin^ part of the nerve aaci h t h amj aad tt^ tvest ii ttJce- uir odier simple wotmd. ojoms TO !ronnES. ■my consist in wouitdin^. brnii^inj'. ^.i •t^rition. \s. etc Tbe s3rmptoms which ;ire proa ;»'imi \ ■ rui the extent, seat, and character of the injury. Recovery rmiy lay lead to neoritis. neuroma, or spinal or ;uay result in tetanns. paralysis, anil other In all diseases, whether pro r et i i y A«t w&k& otherwise wwiM resoit iit pcmumoit eviL Treat- FOKACX nStaCfBOSQ^ OK SO-CALLED CEKEUOOStTSAL XEXDi- Gms. This .iiieose prevwfe umamg iMrses in n^ I'niteii States. Its appcsraaee oi America is •>i!urren«*e. for Ae mdbdr was nty w t i wi by Large in IS47. hf m. 1850, and hf LaaniaH m 18C9 ~ . th id fwti i fans m. vKnmA oi tiie -^ ~ ice them the dbtaae Was ounite ii periodieally in many States in all sec- of dw coamtrr. awl kas bcca the iiufcj w A af i pdhHcirtiimg W a waaktr of tfe 1*^ vctcriaarj prmli mitm It is prevalent with more or less severity •»^»ry year ia certaia parts of the Usittd States, and durm^ the year L *!:: the Bareaa of A^i^a^l JmAmkij r«c«Ted argent requests for help from Colorado. Georpa, Iowa. Kansas, Kentuckr. Louisiana, Marrlaad. SfisEOsri. Xcbraska. Xew Jersey, Xorth -a. Ore^n, So«^ CaroiiBa. Soalh Dakota, Tirpnia, tfd Wcm _ nia. While IB 1912 the brvBt of the liiaawii memid to fall on Kansas and Xe- braafca, other States were aba ■■ i Fwwi ih afieted. la previoos years, for nstaace ia IS}^^ as weO as in ishfl. the horses of soatheastem Texas were reporteii to have died by the thoasaad. aad ca the foUow- iag year the bgrses of Iowa were said to hare ""died Khe rats,^ Haaeter, Kansas seeiK to have had aiore thaa her share of this troahie, as a severe oatbreak that extended ova- almost the entire State oecnrred in 1S91, while in 1909 aad apaia ia 190S the discasa recurred with c<|aal severity in varioas portioas of the State. 238 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. This condition consists in a poisoning and depression of the ner- vous system from eating or drinking feed or water containing poison generated by mold or bacteria. It has been shown to be owing to eating damaged ensilage, corn, brewers' grains, oats, etc., or to drink- ing stagnant pond water or water from a well contaminated by sur- face drainage. Horses at pasture may contract the disease when the growth of grass is so profuse that it mats together and the lower part dies and ferments or becomes moldy. In England a similar disease has been called " grass staggers," due to eating rye grass when it is ripening or when it is cut and eaten v.'hile it is heating and undergoing fermentation. In eastern Penn- sylvania it was formerly known by the name of " putrid sore throat " and " choking distemper." A disease similar in many respects which is very prevalent in Virgina, especially along the eastern border, is commonly known by the name of "blind staggers," and in many of the Southern States this has been attributed to the consumption of worm-eaten corn. Horses of all ages and mules are subject to this disease. SyTTh'pto'ms and lesions. — The symptoms which typify sporadic or epidemic cerebrospinal meningitis in man are not witnessed among horses, namely, excessive pain, high fever, and early muscular rigidity. In the recognition of the severity of the attack we may divide the symptoms into three grades. In the most rapidly fatal attacks the animal may first indicate it by weak, staggering gait, partial or total inability to swallow solids or liquids, impairment -of eyesight; twitching of the muscles and slight cramps may be ob- served. As a rule, the temperature is not elevated — indeed, it is sometimes below normal. This is soon followed by a paralysis of the whole body, inability to stand, delirium in which the animal sometimes goes through a series of automatic movements as if trot- ting or running; the delirium may become very violent and the un- conscious animal ma}^ bruise his head very seriously in his struggles ; but usually a deep coma renders him quiet until he expires. Death in these cases usually takes place in from 4 to 24 hours from the time the first symptoms become manifest. The pulse is variable during the progress of the disease ; it may be almost imperceptible at times, and then again very rapid and irregular; the respirations generally are quick and catching. In the next form in which this disease may develop it first becomes manifest by a difficulty in swallowing and slowness in mastication, and a weakness which may be first noticed in the strength of the tail ; the animal will be unable to switch it or to offer resistance when we bend it up over the croup. The pulse is often a little slower than normal. There is no evidence of pain ; the respirations are unchanged, and the temperature little less than nor- mal; the bowels may be somewhat constipated. These symptoms DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 239 may remain iiuchan«reil for t\Yo or three days aiul then gradual im- provement may take phice, or the power to swalhnv may become entirely lost and the weakness and uncertainty in gait more and more perceptible; then sleepiness or coma may appear; the pulse becomes depressed, slow, and weak, the breathing stertorous, and paroxysms of delirium develop, with inability to stand, and some rigidity of the spinal muscles or partial cramp of the neck and jaws. In such cases death may occur in from G to 10 days from the commencement of the attack. In many cases there is no evidence of pain, spasm, or fever at any time during the progress of the disease, and finally profound coma develops and death follows, painless and without a struggle. In the last or mildest form the inability of voluntary control of the limbs becomes but slightly marked, the power of swallowing never entirely lost, and the animal has no fever, pain, or unconscious move- ments. Generally the animal will begin to improve about the fourth day and recovers. In a few cases the spinal symptoms, manifested by paraplegia, may be the most prominent symptoms; in others they may be altogether ai)sent and the main symptoms may be difficulty in mastication and swallowing; rarely it ma}' affect one limb only. In all cases in which coma remains absent for six or seven days the animal is likely to recover. When changes toward recovery take place, the symptoms usually leave in the reverse order to that in which they developed, but local paralysis ma}' remain for some time, rarely persistent. On post-mortem the number of lesions observable to the naked eye is in marked contrast to the severity of the symptoms noted. The pharynx and larynx are inflamed in many cases, and sometimes coated with a yellowish-white glutinous deposit, extending at times over the tongue and occasionally a little way down the trachea. The lungs are normal, except from complications following drenching or. recumbence for a long period. The heart is usually normal in ai)pear- ance, except an occasional cluster of hemorrhagic points on the outer surface, while the blood is dark and firmly coagulated. The lining of the stomach inilicates a sul»aciit<' gastritis, while occasionally an erosion is noted. An edema is observed in the submucosa of such cases. The first few inches of the small intestines likewise may show slight inflauimation in certain cases, while in others it is (piite se- vere; otherwise the digestive tract appears normal, excluding the presence of varying numbers of bots, StrcrmjyluH rultjatun, and a few other nematodes. The liver is congested and swollen in .some cases, while it appeal's normal in other>. The spleen is, as a rule, normal, and at times the kidneys are slightly congested. The bladder is often distended with dark-colored uiine. and occasionallv a marked 240 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. cystitis has been observed. The adipose tissue throughout the carcass may show a pronounced icteric appearance in certain cases. On re- moving the bones of the skull the brain appears to be normal macro- scopically in a few instances, but in most cases the veins and capil- laries of the meninges of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and occasionally the medulla is distinctly dilated and engorged, and in a few cases there are pronoimced lesions of a leptomeningitis. An excessive quan- tity of cerebrospinal fluid is present in most of the cases. On the floor of the lateral ventricles of several brains there was noted a slight softening caused by hemorrhages into the brain substance. There is alwa^'s an abundance of. fluid in the subarachnoid spaces, ventricles, and at the base of the brain, usually of the color of diabetic urine, and containing a limited number of flocculi, but in a few cases it was slightly blood tinged. The spinal cord was not found involved in the few cases examined. Treatment. — One attack of the disease does not confer immunity. Horses have been observed which have recovered from two attacks, and still others that recovered from the first but died as a result of the second attack. Inasmuch as a natural immimity does not appear after an attack of cerebrospinal meningitis, it might be anticipated that serum of recovered eases would possess neither curative nor prophylactic qualities. Nevertheless, experiments have been made along these lines with serum from recovered cases, but without any positive results. Similar investigations have been conducted by others in Europe with precisely the same results. With the tendency of the disease to produce pathological lesions in the central nervous system, it seems scarcely imaginable that a medicinal remedy will be found to heal these foci, and even when recovery takes place considerable disturbance in the functions, as blindness, partial paralysis, dumb- ness, etc., is liable to remain. Indeed, when the disease once be- comes established in an animal, drugs seem to lose their physio- logical action. Therefore, with all the previously mentioned facts before us, it is evident that the first principle in the treatment of this disease is prevention, which consists in the exercise of proper care in feeding only clean, well-cured forage and grain and pure Avater. These measures when faithfully carried out check the de- velopment of additional cases of the disease upon the affected premises. While medicinal treatment has proved unsatisfactory in most cases, nevertheless the first indication is to clean out the digestive tract thoroughly, and to accomplish this prompt measures must be used early in the disease. Active and concentrated remedies should be given, preferably subcutaneously or intravenously, owing to the great difficulty in swallowing, even in the early stage. Arecolin in DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 241 one-half gvix'in doses, siil)cutaneously, has given as much satisfaction as any other tlrug. After purging the animal the treatment is mostly symptomatic. Intestinal disinfectants, particularly calomel, salol, anil salicylic acid, have been recommended, and mild, antiseptic mouth washes are advisable. Antipyretics are of doubtful value, as better results are obtained, if the temperature is high, b}' copious cold-water injections. An ice pack applied to the head is beneficial in case of marked psychic disturbance. One-ounce doses of chloral hydrate per rectum should be given if the patient is violent or if muscular spasms are severe. If the temperature becomes subnormal, the animal should be warmly blanketed, and if much weakness is shown this should be combated with stimulants, such as strychnin, camphor, alcohol, atropin, or aromatic spirits of ammonia. Early in the disease urotropin (hexamethylenamin) in doses of 25 grains, dissolved in water and given by the mouth every two hours, ap- peared to have been responsible for the recovery of some cases of the malady. During convalescence tonic treatment is indicated. Ill/'/ienic measures needful. — "Whenever this disease appears in a stable all the animals should be removed as soon as possible. They should be provided with clean, well-ventilated, and well-drained stables, and each animal should receive a laxative and be fed feed and given water from a new, clean source. The abandoned stable should be thoroughly cleansjed from all waste matters, receive a coat of whitewash containing 4 ounces of carbolic acid to the gallon of water and should have time to dry thoroughly before the horses are replaced. A complete change of feed is of the very greatest im- portance on account of the belief that the cause resides in diseased gi'ain, hay, and grass. TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. This disease is characterized by spasms affecting the muscles of the face. neck, body, and limbs and of all muscles supplied by the cerebrospinal nerves. Tiie spasms or muscular contractions are rigid and persistent, yet mixed with occasional more intense contractions of convulsive violence. Causes. — This disease is caused by a bacillus that is often found in the soil, in manure, and in dust. This germ forms spores at the end of the organism and grows only in the absence of oxygen. It pro- duces a powerful nerve poison, which causes the symptoms of tetanus. The germ itself multiplies at the point where it is introduced, but its poison is absorbed and is carried by the blood to all parts of the body, and thus the nervous system is poisoneil. Deep wounds infected by this germ are more dangerous than superficial wounds, because in them the germ is more remote from the oxygen of the air. Hence, 36444°— IG IG 242 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. nail pricks, etc., are especially dangerous. In the majority of in- stances the cause of tetanus can be traced to wounds, especially pricks and wounds of the feet or of tendinous structures. It sometimes fol- lows castration, docking, the introduction of setons, inclusion of a nerve in a ligature, etc. It may come on a long time after the wound is healed — three or four months. Horses with a nervous, excitable disposition are more predisposed than those of a more sluggish nature. Stallions are more subject to develop tetanus as the result of wounds than geldings, and geldings more than mares. Sym/ptoms. — The attacks may be acute or subacute. In an acute attack the animal usually dies within four days. The first symptoms which attract the attention of the owner is difficulty in chewing and swallowing, an extension of the head and protrusion over the inner part of the eye of the membrana nictitans, or haw. An examination of the mouth will reveal an inability to open the jaws to their full extent, and the endeavor to do so will produce great nervous excita- bility and increased spasm of the muscles of the jaw and neck. The muscles of the neck and along the spine become rigid and the legs are moved in a stiff manner. The slightest noise or disturbance throws the animal into increased spasm of all the affected muscles. The tail is usually elevated and held immovable; the bowels become consti- pated early in the attack. The temperature and pulse are not much changed. These symptoms in the acute type become rapidly aggra- vated until all the muscles are rigid — in a state of tonic spasm — with a continuous tremor running through them; a cold perspiration breaks out on the body; the breathing becomes painful from the spasm of the muscles used in respiration; the jaws are completely set, eyeballs retracted, lips drawn tightly over the teeth, nostrils di- lated, and the animal presents a picture of the most extreme agony until death relieves him. The pulse, which at first was not much affected, will become quick and hard, or small and thready when the spasm affects the muscles of the heart. In the subacute cases the jaws may never become entirely locked; the nervous excitability and rigid- ity of the muscles are not so great. There is, however, always some stiffness of the neck or spine manifest in turning ; the haw is turned over the eyeball when the nose is elevated. It is not uncommon for owners to continue such animals at their work for several days after the first symptoms have been observed. All the symptoms may grad- ually increase in severity for a period of ten days, and then gradually diminish under judicious treatment, or they may reach the stage wherein all the characteristics of acute tetanus become developed. In some cases, however, we find the muscular cramps almost solely con- fined to the head or face, perhaps involving those of the neck. In such cases Ave have complete trismus (lockjaw), and all the head symptoms are acutely developed. On the contrary, we may find the DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 243 head almost exempt in some cases, and have the body and limbs perfectly rigid and incapable of movement >vithout falling. Tetanus may possibly be confounded with spinal meningitis, but the character of the spasm-locked jaw, retraction of the eyeballs, the ditliculty in swallowing due to spasms of the muscles of the pharynx, and above all, the absence of paralysis, should serve to make the distinction. Prevention. — When a valuable horse has sustained a wound that it is feared may be followed by tetanus, it is well to administer a dose of tetanus antitoxin. This is injected beneath the skin with a hypoder- mic syringe. A very high degree of protection may in this way be afforded. This antitoxin should be administered only by a competent veterinarian. Treatnunt. — The animal should be placed in a box stall without bedding, as far as possible from other horses. If in a country dis- trict, the animal should be put into an outbuilding or shed, where the noise of other animals will not reach it ; if the place is moder- ately dark, it is all the better ; in fly time it should be covered with a light sheet. The attendant must be very careful and quiet to prevent all imnecessary excitement and increase of spasm. Tetanus antitoxin appears to be useful as a remedy in some cases, if given in very large quantities early in the disease; otherwise it is useless. Subcutaneous injections of carbolid acid in glycerin and water (carbolic acid 30 grains, glycerin and water each 1 ounce) appear to be useful in some cases. Injections should be given twice daily. A cathartic, composed of Barbados aloes G to 8 drams, with which may be mixed 2 drams of the solid extract of belladonna, should be given at once. This is best given in a ball form; if, however, the ani- mal is greatly excited by the attempt or can not swallow, the ball may be dissolved in 2 ounces of olive oil and thrown on the back of the tongue with a syringe. If the jaws are set, or nearly so, an attempt to administer medicine by the mouth should not be made. In such cases one-quarter of a grain of atropia, with 5 grains of sulphate of morphia, should be dissolved in 1 diam of pure water and injected under the skin. This should be repeated sufficiently often to keep the animal continually under its eff'ect. This will usually mitigate the severity of the spasmodic contraction of the affected muscles and lessen sensibility to pain. Good results may be obtained sometimes by the rectal injection of the fluid extract of belladonna and of can- nal)is indica, of each 1 dram, every four or six hours. This may be diluted with a quart of milk. When the animal is unable to swal- low licjuids, oatmeal gruel and milk .^houhl be given by injection per rectum to sustain the strength of the animal. A pailful of cool water should be constantly before him, placed high enough for him to reach it without special effort; even if drinking is impossible, the laving of 244 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the month is refreshing. Excellent success frequently may he obtained by clothing the upper part of the head, the neck, and greater part of' the body in woolen blankets kept saturated with very warm water. This treatment should be continued for six or eight hours at a time. It often relaxes the cramped muscles and gives them rest and the ani- mal almost entire freedom from pain; but it should be used every day until the acute spasms have permanently subsided in order to be of any lasting benefit. Eecently subcutaneous injections of brain emulsion have been rec- ommended. It is thought that the tetanus toxin will attach itself to the brain cells so injected and thus free the system of this poison. When it is due to a wound, the wound should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with carbolic acid. If from a wound which has healed, an excision of the cicatrix may be beneficial. In all cases it is not uncommon to have a partial recovery followed by relapse when the animal becomes excited from any cause. RABIES, HYDROPHOBIA, OR MADNESS. This disease does not arise spontaneously among horses, but is the result of a bite from a rabid animal — generally a dog or cat. The development of the disease follows the bite in from three weeks to three months — very rarely in two weeks. (See also p. 559.) /Symptoms. — The first manifestation of the development of this dis- ease may be an increased excitability and viciousness; very slight noises or the approach of a person incites the animal to kick, strike, or bite at any near object. Very often the horse will bite his own limbs or sides, lacerating the flesh and tearing the skin. The eyes appear staring, bloodshot; the ears are on the alert to catch all sounds; the head is held erect. In some cases the animal will con- tinually rub and bite the locality of the wound inflicted by the rabid animal. This S3'mptom may precede all others. Generally the bowels become constipated and the animal makes frequent attempts at urination, which is painful, and the urine very dark colored. The furious symptoms appear in paroxysms; at other times the animal may eat and drink, although swallowing appears to become painful toward the latter stage of the disease, and may cause renewed parox- ysms. The muscles of the limbs or back may be subject to intermittent spasms, or spasmodic tremors; finally, the hind limbs become para- lyzed, breathing very cliiRcult, and convulsions supervene, followed by death. The pulse and respirations are increased in frequency from the outset of the attack. Rabies may possibly be mistaken for tetanus. In the latter disease we find tonic spasms of the muscles of the jaws, or stiffness of the neck or back very early in the attack, and evidence of viciousness is absent. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 245 Treatment. — As soon as the true nature of the disease is ascertained the animal should be killed. Prevention. — When a horse is known to have been bitten by a rabid animal, iininediate cauterization of the wound with a red-hot iron may possibly destroy the virus before absorption of it takes 13 lace. PLUMBISM, OR LEAD POISONING. This disease is not of fretiuont occurrence. It ma}' be due to the habitual drinking of water which has been standing in leaden con- ductors or in old paint barrels, etc. It has been met with in enzootic form near smelting works, where, by the fumes arising from the works, lead in the form of oxid, carbonate, oi'' sulphate was deposited on the grass and herbage which the horses ate. Symptoms. — Lead poisoning produces derangement of the func- tions of digestion and locomotion, or it may allect the lungs princi- pally. In whatever system of organs the lead is mostly deposited there we have the symptoms of nervous debility most manifest. If in the lungs, the breathing becomes difficult and the animal gets out of breath very quickly when compelled to run. Roaring, also, is very frequently a .symptom of lead poisoning. When it affects the stomach, the animal gradually falls away in flesh, the hair becomes rough, the skin tight, and colicky symptoms develop. When the deposit is principally in the muscles, partial or complete paralysis gradually develops. When large (piantities of lead have been taken in and absorbed, symptoms resembling epilepsy may result, or coma and delirium develop and prove fatal. In lead poisoning there is seldom any increase in temperature. A blue line forms along the gimis of the front teetli. and the breath assumes a peculiarly offensive odor. Lead can always be detected in the urine by chemical tests. Treatment. — The administration of i2-dram doses of iodid of potas- sium three times a day is indicated. This will form iodid of lead in the system, which is rapidly excreted by the kidneys. If much muscular weakness or paralysis is present, sulphate of iron in 1-dram doses and strychnia in *2-grain do>es may l)e given twice a day. In all cases of suspected lead poisoning all utensils which have entered into the supply of feed or water should be examined for the presence of solul)le lead. If it occurs near li'ad works, great care must be given to the supply of uncontaminated fodder, etc. UREMIA. Uremic poisoning may atTect the brain in nephritis, acute albumi- nuria, or when, from any cause, the functions of the kidneys become impaired or suppressed and urea (a natural product) is no longer eliminated from these organs, causing it to accumulate in the system and give rise to uremic poismiing. 246 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Uremic poisoning is usually preceded by dropsy of the limbs or abdomen ; a peculiar, fetid breath is often noticed ; then drowsiness, attacks of diarrhea, and general debility ensue. Suddenly extreme stupor or coma develops ; the surface of the body becomes cold ; the pupils are insensible to light; the pulse slow and intermitting; the breathing labored, and death supervenes. The temperature through- out the disease is seldom increased, unless the disease becomes com- plicated with acute, inflammatory disease of the brain or respiratory organs, which often occur as a result of the urea in the circulation. Albumen and tube casts may frequently be found in the urine. The disease almost invariably proves fatal. Treatment must be directed to a removal of the cause. ELECTRIC SHOCK. Electric shock, from coming in contact with electric wires, is becom- ing a matter of rather frequent occurrence, and has a similar effect upon the animal system as a shock from lightning. Two degrees of electric or lightning shock may be observed, one producing temporary contraction of muscles and insensibility, from which recovery is pos- sible, the other killing directly, by producing a condition of nervous and general insensibility. In shocks which are not immediately fatal the animal is usually insensible, the respiration slow, labored, or gasp- ing, the pulse slow, feeble, and irregular, and the pupils dilated and not sensitive, or they may be contracted and sensitive. The tempera- ture is lowered. There may be a tendency to convulsions or spasms. The predominating symptoms are extreme cardiac and respiratory depression. Treatment. — Sulphate of atropia should be given hypodermically in one-quarter grain doses every hour or two hours until the heart beats are invigorated, the number and fullness of the respirations increased, and consciousness returns. Stimulating injections per rec- tum may also be useful in arousing the circulation ; for this purpose whisky or ammonia water may be used. DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. By M. R. Tkumboweb, V. S. [Revised l)y I.oouard rearson, 15. S., V. M. D.] ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. (Pis. XX and XXI.) The lieait is a hollow, muscular organ, situated a little to the left of the center of the chest. Its impulse is felt on the left side on account of its location and from the rotary movement of the organ in action. It is cone-shaped, with the base upward ; the apex points downward, backward, and to the left side. It extends from about the third to the sixth ribs, inclusive. The average weight is about 7 to 8 pounds. In hoi-ses used for speed the heart is relatively larger, according to the weight of the animal, than in hoi-ses used for slow work. It is suspended from the spine by the large blood vessels and held in position below by the attachment of the pericardium to the sternum. It is inclosed in a sac, the pericardium, which is com- posed of a dense fibrous membrane lined by a delicate serous mem- lirane, which is reflected over the heart; the inner layer is firmly adherent to the heart, tlie outer to the fibrous sac, and there is an intervening space, known as the pericardial space, in which a small amount of serum — a thin translucent liquid — is present constantly. Tlie heart is divided by a sliallow fissure into a right and left side; each of these is again subdivided by a transverse partition into two comjiartments which conmnniicate. Thus there are four cardiac cavities — the superior, or ujjper, ones called the aiuicles; the inferior, or lower, ones the ventricles. These divisions are marked on the outside by grooves, which contain the cardiac blood vessels, and are generally filled with fat. The right side of the heart may be called the venous side, the left the arterial side, named from the kind of blood whicli passes thiough them. The auricles are thin-walled cavities placed at tlie l)a,se, and are connected with the great veins — the venie cavae and pulmonary veins — through which they receive blocnl froui all jiarts of the body. The auricles comuumicate with the ventricles each by a large upev- 247 248 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. ture, the aiiriculo-ventricular orifice, which is furnished with a remarkable mechanism of valves, allowing the transmission of blood from the auricles into the ventricles, but preventing a reverse course. The ventricles are thick-walled cavities, forming the more massive portion of the heart toward the apex. They are separated by a par- tition, and are connected with the great arteries — ^the pulmonary artery and the aorta — by which they send blood to all parts of the body. At the mouth of the aorta and at the mouth of the pulmonary artery is an arrangement of valves in each case which prevents the reflux of blood into the ventricles. The anriculo-ventricular valve in the left side is composed of two -flaps, hence it is called the bicuspid valve; in the right side this valve has three flaps and is called the tricuspid valve. The flaps which form these valves are connected with a tendinous ring between the auricles and ventricles ; and each flap of the auriculo-ventricular valves is supplied with tendinous cords, which are attached to the free margin and under- surf ace, so as to keep the valves tense when closed — a condition which is produced by the shortening of muscular pillars with which the cords are connected. The arterial openings, both on the right and on the left side, are provided with three-flapped semilunar-shaped valves, to prevent the regurgitation of blood when the ventricles contract. The veins emptying into the auricles are not capable of closure, but the posterior vena cava has an imperfect valve at its aperture. The inner surface of the heart is lined by a serous membrane, the endocardium, which is smooth and firmly adherent to the muscular structure of the heart. This membrane is continuous with the lining membrane of the blood vessels, and it enters into the formation of the valves. The circulation through the heart is as follows : The venous blood is carried into the right auricle by the anterior and posterior venaj cavte. It then passes through the right auriculo-ventricular opening into the right ventricle, thence through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. It returns by the pulmonary veins to the left auricle, then is forced through the auriculo-ventricular opening into the left ven- tricle, which propels it through the aorta and its branches into the system, the veins returning it again to the heart. The circulation, therefore, is double, the pulmonary, or lesser, being performed by the right side, and the systemic, or greater, by the left side. As the blood is forced through the heart by forcible contractions of its muscular walls, it has the action of a force pump, and gives the impulse at each beat, which we call the pulse— the dilatation of the arteries throughout the system. The contraction of the auricles is quickly followed by that of the ventricles, and then a slight pause occurs ; this takes place in regular rhythmical order during health. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Diseases of the Horse. >' '< in' >■ yf '0 »>; * U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Diseases of the Horse. Plate xxi. c 5 ^ < > < :J: :S :S i. iy I- ? S R 5 £ i DISEASES OF HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. 249 The uction of the heart is g^overned aiul mainlainod hy the pneumo- gastric nerve (tenth pair of cranial nerves) ; it is the inhibitory nerve of the heart, and reguhites, slows, and governs its action. \\'hen the nerve is cut, the heartbeats increase rapidly, and, in fact, the organ works ■without control. When the nerve is unduly irritated the hoKlback, or inhibitory force, is increased, and the heart slows up in the same measure. The left cavities of the heart, the pulmonary veins, ami the aorta, or systemic artery, contain red or florid blood, fit to circulate through the body. The right cavities of the heart, with the vena3 cava?, or systemic veins, the pulmonary artery, contain dark blood, which must be transmitted through the hmgs for reno- vation. The arteries, commencing in two great trunks, the aorta and the pulmonary artery, undergo division, as in the branching of a tree. Their branches mostly come off at acute angles, and are commonly of imiform diameter in each case, but successively diminish after and in consequence of division, and in this manner gradually merge into the capillary system of blood vessels. As a general rule, the combined area of the branches is greater than that of the vessels from which they emanate, and hence the collective capacity of the arterial system is greatest at the capillary vessels. The same rule applies to the veins. The effect of the division of the arteries is to make the blooil move more slowly along their branches to the capillary vessels, and the effect of the union of the branches of the veins is to accelerate the speed of the blood as it returns from the capillary vessels to the venous trunks. In the smaller vessels a frequent running together, or anastomosis, occurs. This admits of a free communication between the currents of blood, and must tend to promote equability of distribution and of pressure, and to obviate the effects of local interruption. The arteries are highly elastic, being extensile and retractile both in length and breadth. During life they are also contractile, being provided with muscular tissue. Whpn cut across they present, although empty, an open oiifice; the veins, on the other hand, collai)se. In most parts of the body the arteries are inclosed in a sheath formed of connective tissue, but are connected so loosely that, wlu-ii the vessel is cut across, its ends readily retract some distance within the sheath. Independently of this sheath, arteries are usually de- scribed as being formed of three coats, named, from the relative positions, external, middle, and internal. This ai)plies to their struc- ture so far as it is discernible by the naked eye. The internal, serous, or tunica intima, is the thinnest, and is continuous with the lining membrane of the heart. It is made up of two layers — an inner, con- sisting of a layer of epithelial scales, and an outer, transparent, whitish, highly clastic, and perforated. The middle coat, tunica 250 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. media, is elastic, dense, and of a yellow color, consisting of nonstri- ated muscular and elastic fibers, thickest in the largest arteries and becoming thinner in the smaller. In the smallest vessels it is almost entirely muscular. The external coat, tunica adventitia, is composed mainly of fine and closely woven bundles of white con- nective tissue, which chiefly run diagonally or obliquely around the vessel. In this coat the nutrient vessels, the vasa vasorum, form a capillary network, from which a few penerate as far as the muscular coat. The veins differ from arteries in possessing thinner walls, less elastic and muscular tissue, and for the most part a stronger tunica adventitia. They collapse when cut across or when they are empty. The majority of veins are provided with valves; these are folds of the lining membrane, strengthened by fibrous tissue. They favor the course of the blood and prevent its reflux. The nerves which supply both the arteries and the veins come from the sympathetic system. The smaller arteries terminate in the system of minute vessels known as the capillaries, which are interposed between the termination of the arteries and the commencement of the veins. Their average diameter is about one three-thousandth of an inch. DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. In considering diseases of the heart we meet with many difficulties, depending much upon the position which this organ occupies in the animal. The shoulders cover so much of the anterior portion of the chest, and often in very heavy-muscled horses the chest walls are so thick that a satisfactory examination of the heart is attended with difficulty. Diseases of the heart are not uncommon among horses; the heart and its membranes are frequently involved in diseases of the respiratory organs, diseases of the kidneys, rheumatism, influ- enza, etc. Some of the diseases of this organ are never suspected by the ordinary observer during life, and are so difficult to diagnose with any degree of certainty that we will have to confine ourselves to a general outline, giving attention to such symptoms as may serve to lead to a knowledge of their existence, with directions for treat- ment, care, etc. Nervous affections often produce prominent heart symptoms by causing functional disturbance of that organ, which, if removed, will leave the heart restored to perfect vigor and normal action. Organic changes involving the heart or valves, however, usually grow worse and eventually prove fatal. Therefore it is necessary that we arrive at an appreciation of the true nature and causes so that we may be able to form a true estimate of the possibilities for recovery or en- courasrement for medical treatment. DISEASES OF HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. 251 Disease of the heart may occur at any an of the exudation, tlnis narrowing the passage. Valviilar obstruction and adhesions may occur or the tendinous cords may be lengthened or shortened, thus obstructing the orifices and permitting the regurgitation of l)lood. In protected cases the fibrous tissue of the valves may be transformed into fibro-cartilage or bone, or there may be deposits of salts of lime beneath the serous membrance. which may terminate in ulceration, rupture, or fissures. Sometimes the valves become cov- ered by fibrinous, fleshy, or hard vegetations, or excrescences. In cases of considerable dilatation of the heart there may be atrophy and siirinking of the valves. Symptams. — Valvular disease may be indicated by a venous pulse, jerking pulse, intermittent pidse. irregular ])ulse: jialpitation : con- stant abnoniuil fullness of the jugular veins: dilliculty of breathing when the animal becomes excited or is urged out of a walk or into a 36444"— 16 17 258 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. fast trot ; attacks of vertigo ; congestion of the brain ; dropsical swell- ing of the limbs. A blowing, cooing, or bubbling murmur may some- times be heard by placing the ear over the heart on the left side of the chest. Hypertrophy, or dilatation, or both, usually follow valvular disease. Treatment. — When the pulse is irregular or irritable, tonics, such as preparations of iron, gentian, and ginger, may be given. AVlien the action of the heart is jerking or violent, 20 to 30 drop doses of tincture of digitalis or of veratrum viride may be given until these symptoms abate. As the disease nearly always is the result of endo- carditis, the iodid of potassium and general tonics, sometimes stimu- lants, when general debility supervenes, may be of temporary benefit. Very few animals recover or remain useful for any length of time after once marked organic changes have taken place in the valvular structure of the heart. ADVENTrriOUS GROWTHS IN THE HEART. Fibrous, cartilaginous, and bony formations have been observed in some rare instances in the muscular tissue. Isolated calcareous masses have sometimes been embedded in the cardiac walls. Fibrinous coagula and polypous concretions may be found in the cavities of the heart. The former consist of coagulated fibrin, sepa- rated from the mass of blood, of a whitish or yellowish white color, translucent, of a jellylike consistence, and having a nucleus in the center. They may slightly adhere to the surface of the cavity, from which they can easily be separated without altering the structure of the endocardium. They probably result from an excess of coagu- lability of fibrin, which is produced by an organization of the lymph during exudation. They are usually found in the right auricle and ventricle. Polypous^ concretions are firmer than in the preceding, more opaque, of a fibrous texture, and may be composed of successive layers. In some instances they are exceedingly minute, while in others they almost fill one or more of the cavities. Their color is usually white, but occasionally red from the presence of blood. They firmly adhere to the endocardium, and when detached from it give it ? torn appearance. Occasionally, a vascular communication seems to exist between them and the substance of the heart. They may be the residt of fibrinous exudation from inflanmiation of the inner surface of the heart or the coagulation of a portion of the blood which afterwards contracts adhesion with the heart. These con- cretions prove a source of great inconvenience and often danger, no matter how formed. They cause a diminution in the cavity in which they are found, thus narrowing the orifice through which the DISEASES OF HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. 259 blood passes, or })reventiiim.t. — Syncope is characterized by a decrease or temporary suspension of the action of the heart and respiration, with partial or total loss of consciousness. It generally occurs suddenly, though there may be premonitory symptoms, as giddiness, or vertigo, dilated pupil, staggering, blanching of the visible mucous membranes, a rap- idly sinking pulse, and d!"oj)|iing to the ground. The jmlse is feeble or ceases to beat; the surface of the body turns cold; breathing is scarcely to be perceived, and the animal may be entirely unconscioiLs. This state is uncertain in duration — generally it lasts only a few minutes; the circulation becomes restored, breathing becomes more distinct, and consciousness and mu.scular strength return. In cases attended with much hemorrhage or organic di.seaso of the heart, the fainting fit may be fatal; otherwise it will prove but a transient occurrence. In paralysis of the heart the symptoms may be exactly similar to syncope. Syncope may be distinguished from apoplexy by 260 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the absence of stertorous breathing and lividity of the visible mu- cous membranes. Treatment. — Dash cold water on the head ; administer a stimu- lant — 4 ounces of whisky or half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia. Prevent the animal from getting up too soon, or the attack may immediately recur. Afterwards, if the attack was due to weakness from loss of blood, impoverished blood, or associated with debility, general tonics, rest, and nourishing food are indicated. HYPERTROPHY OF THE HEART, OR CARDIAC ENLARGEMENT. Hypertrophy of the heart implies augmentation of bulk in its muscular substance, with or without dilatation or contraction of its cavities. It may exist with or without other cardiac affections. In valvular disease or vah'ular insufficiency hypertrophy frequently re- sults as a consequence of increased demand for propelling power. The difficulties with which it is most frequently connected are dilata- tion and ossification of the valves. It may also occur in connection with atrophied kidneys, weak heart, etc. It may be caused by an increased determination of blood to the organ or from a latent form of myocarditis, and it may arise from a long-continued increase of action dependent upon nervous disease. All the cavities of the heart may have their walls hypertrophied or the thickening may involve one or more. AVhile the wall of a ventricle is thickened, its cavity may retain its normal size (simple hypertrophy) or be dilated (eccen- tric hypertrophy), or it may be contracted (concentric hypertrophy). Hypertrophy of both ventricles increases the length and breadth of the heart. Hypertrophy of the left ventricle alone increases its length; of the right ventricle {Jone increases its breadth toward the right side. Hj^pertrophy with dilatation may affect the chambers of the heart conjointly or separately. This form is by far the most frequent variety of cardiac enlargement. When the entire heart is affected, it assumes a globular appearance, the apex being almost obliterated and situated transversely in the chest. The bulk may become three or four times greater than the average heart. Symptoms. — In hypertrophy of the heart, in addition to the usual symptoms manifested in organic diseases of the heart, there is a pow- erful and heaving impulse at each beat, which may be felt on the left side, often also on the right. These pulsations are regular, and when full and strong at the jaw there is a tendency to active congestion of the capillary vessels, which frequently give rise to local inflamma- tion, active hemorrhage, etc. If the pulse is small and feeble at the jaw, we may conclude that there is some obstacle to the escape of the blood from the left ventricle into the aorta, which has given rise to the hypertrophy. In case of hypertrophy with dilatation, the im- pulse is not only powerful and heaving, but it is diffused over the DISEASES OF HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS 261 whole reo:ion of the heart, aiul the normal sounds of the heart are g^'eatly increased in intensity. Percussion reveals an enlar}z:ed area of dullness, while the impulse is usually much stronjrer than normal. Dropsy of the pericardium will give the same wide space of dull- ness, but the impulse and sound are lessened. An animal with a moderate degree of enlargement may possil)ly live a number of years and be capable of ordinaiv work; it depends largely upon con- comitant disease. As a rule, an animal affected with hypertrophy of the heart will soon be incapacitated for work, and becomes useless and incurable. Ttrafmcnf. — If the cause can be disco\ered and is removable, it should be done. The iodid of potassium, in cases of valvular thicken- ing, nuiy be of some benefit if continued for a sufiicient length of time: it may be given in '2-dram doses, twice a day, for a month or more. The tincture of digitalis may be given, in cases where the pulse is weak, in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls three times daily. This remedy should not be continued if the pulse becomes irregular. General tonics, freedom from excitement or fatigue, avoidance of bulky food, good ventilation, etc., are indicated. DILATATION' OF THE HEART. This is an enlargement, or stretching, of the cavities of the heart, and may be confined to one or extend to all. Two forms of dilata- tion may be mentioned — simple dilatation, where there is normal thickness of the walls, and passive, or attenuated, dilatation, where the walls are simply distended or stretched out without any addition of substance. Causes. — Anj^ cause producing constant and excessive exertion of the heart may lead to dilatation. Valvular disease is the most fre- quent cause. General anemia predisposes to it by producing relaxa- tion of muscular fiber. Changes in the muscular tissue of tiie heart walls, serous infiltration from {K'ricarditis, myocaiditis, fatty degen- eration and infiltration, and atrophy of the muscular fibers may all lead to dilatation. Syjjiptonis. — The movements of the lieart are feeble and pro- longed, a disposition to staggering or vertigo, dropsy of the limbs, very pale or very dark-colored membranes, and dillicult breathing on the slightest excitement. Treatment. — General tonics, rich ficd. and rest. FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE HEART. Fatty degeneration may involve the whole organ, or may be lim- ited to its walls, or even to circumscribed patches. The latter is situated at the exterior, and gives it a mottled appearance. When 262 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. generally involved it is flabby or flaccid, and in extreme cases col- lapses when emptied or cut. Upon dissection the interior of the ventricles is observed to be covered with buff-colored spots of a singular zigzag form. This appearance may be noticed beneath the pericardium, and pervading the whole thiclaiess of the ventricular walls, and in extreme cases those of the fleshy columns in the interior of the heart. These spots are found to be degenerated muscular fibers and colonies of oil globules. Fatty degeneration is often asso- ciated with other morbid conditions of the heart, such as obesity, dilatation, rupture, aneurism, etc. It may be connected with fatty diseases of other organs, such as the liver, kidneys, etc. Wlien it exists alone its presence is seldom suspected previous to death. It may be secondary to hypertrophy of the heart, to myocarditis, or to pericarditis. It may be due to deteriorated conditions of the blood in wasting diseases, excessive hemorrhages, etc., or to poisoning with arsenic and phosphorus. Symptoms. — The most prominent symptoms of fatty degeneration are a feeble action of the heart, a remarkably slow pulse, general debility, and attacks of vertigo. It may exist for a long time, but is apt to terminate suddenly in death upon the occurrence of other diseases, surgical operations, etc. It may involve a liability to sudden death from rupture of the ventricular walls. Treatm£nt. — Confinement in feed to oats, wheat or rye bran, and timothy hay. Twenty drops of sulphuric acid may be given in drinking water three times a day, and hypophosphite of iron in 2- dram doses, mixed with the feed, twice a day. Other tonics and stim- ulants as they may be indicated. RUPTURE OF THE HEART. This may occur as the result of some previous disease, such as fatty degeneration, dilatation with weakness of the muscular walls, etc. It may be caused by external violence, a crushing fall, pressure of some great weight, etc. Usually death follows a rupture very quickly, though an animal may live for some time when the rent is not very large. WEAKNESS OF THE HEART. This may arise from general debility, the result of exhausting dis- ease, ovei'work, or heart strain, or loss of blood. It is indicated by a small, feeble, but generally regular pulse, coldness of the body, etc. Treatment should be directed to support and increase the strength of the animal by tonics, rest, and nutritious feed. Carbonate of ammonia may be given to stimulate the heart's action and to prevent the formation of heart clot. DISEASES OF HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. 263 CONGESTION OF THE HEART. Congestion, or an accunuilation of the blood in the cavities of the heart, may occnr in consequence of fibrinous deposits interfering with the free movements of the valves, u.sually the product of endo- carditis or as a result of excessive umscular e.xertion. Symptoms are great difliculty of breathing, paleness of the visible mucous membranes, great anxiety, frecjuently accouipanied by a gen- eral tremor and cold perspiration, followed by death. It usually results in death very quickly. CYANOSIS OF NEWBORN FOALS. This is a condition sometimes found in foals immediately after birth, and is due to nonclosure of the foramen ovale, which allows a mixture of the venous with the arterial blood in the left cavities of the heart. It is characterized by a dark purple or bluish color of the visible mucous membranes, shortness of breath, and a general feeble- ness. Foals thus affected generally live only a few hours after birth. DISEASES OF ARTERIES. OR ARTERITIS AND ENDARTERITIS. Inflammation of arteries is rarely observed in the horse as a pri- mary affection. Direct injuries, such as blows, may produce a con- tusion and subse(|uent inflammation of the wall of an artery; severe muscular strain may involve an arterial trunk; hypertrophy of the heart, by increasing arterial tension, may result in the production of a general endarteritis. Septic infection may affect the inner coat and ultimately involve all three, or it may be the result of an inflam- mation in the vicinity of the vessels, etc. Inflammation of arteries, whatever the cause may be, often leads to very serious results in the development of secondary changes in their walls. Arteritis may be acute, subacute, or chronic; when the inner coat alone is affected it is known as endarteiitis. Si/mptoma. — Arteritis is characterized by a ])ainful swelling along the inflamed ves.sel, throbbing puLse, coldness of the parts su])plied by the inflamed vessel, sometimes the foiiuation of gangrenous sloughs, suppuration, abscess, etc. In an inflaniiuation of the iliac arteries we find coldness and excessive lameness or ])aralysis of one or both hind limbs. Pathoiof/if. — In acute arteritis we find swelling along the vessel, loss of ela.sticity, friability, and thickening of the walls; a roughness and loss of gloss of the inner coat, with the formation of congida or pus in the vessel. Subacute or chronic arteritis nuiy affect only the outer coat (periarteritis), both the outer and middle coat, or the inner coat alone (endarteritis) ; and by weakening the respective coats leads to rupture, aneuri.sm, or to degenerations, .such as bony, calcareous, fatty, atheromatous, etc. It may also lead to sclerosis or 264 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. increase of fibrous tissue, especially in the kidneys, when it may result in the condition known as arterio-capillary fibrosis. Chronic endar- teritis is fruitful in the production of thrombus and atheroma. Ar- teritis may be limited to single trunks or it may affect, more or less, all the arteries of the body. Arteries which are at the seat of chronic endarteritis are liable to suffer degenerative changes, consisting chiefly of fatty degeneration, calcification, or the breaking down of the degenerated tissue, and the formation of erosions or ulcerlike openings in the inner coat. These erosions are frequently called atheromatous ulcers, and fragments of tissue from these ulcers may be carried into the circulation, forming emboli. Fibrinous thrombi are apt to form upon the roughened surface of the inner coat or upon the surface of the erosions. Fatty degeneration and calcification of the middle and outer coats may occur, and large, hard, calcareous plates project inward, upon which thrombi may form or may exist in connection with atheroma of the inner coat. When there is much thickening and increase of new tissue in the wall of the affected artery it may encroach upon the capacity of the vessel, "and even lead to obliteration. This is often associated with interstitial inflammation of glandular organs. Treatment. — Carbonate of potassium in 1-dram doses, to be given in 4 ounces liquor acetate of ammonia every six hours ; scalded bran sufficient to produce loosening of the bowels, and complete rest; externally, applications of hot water or hot hop infusion. ATHEROMA. Atheroma is a direct result of an existing chronic endarteritis, the lining membrane of the vessels being invariably involved to a greater or less degree. It is most frequently found in the arteries, although the veins may develop an atheromatous condition when exposed to any source of prolonged irritation. Atheroma may affect arteries in any part of the body; in some instances almost every vessel is dis- eased, in others only a few, or even parts of one vessel. It is a very common result of endocarditis extending into the aorta, which we find perhaps the most frequent seat of atheroma. As a result of this condition the affected vessel becomes impaired in its contractile power, loses its natural strength, and, in consequence of its inability to sustain its accustomed internal pressure, undergoes in many cases dilatation at the seat of disease, constituting aneurism. In an atheromatous vessel, calcareous deposits soon occur, which render it rigid, brittle, and subject to ulceration or rupture. In such vessels the conti-actility is destroyed, the middle coat atrophied and beyond repair. Atheroma in the vessels of the brain is a frequent cause of cerebral apoplexy. No symptoms are manifested by which we can recognize this condition during life. DISEASES OF HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. 265 CONSTRICTION OF AN ARTERY. This is usually the result of arteritis, and may partly or wholly be impervious to the flow of blood. When this occurs in a large vessel it may be followed by gangi-ene of the parts; usually, however, col- lateral circulation will be established to nourish the parts previously supplied by the obliterated vessel. In a few instances constriction of the aorta has produced death. ANEURISM. Aneurism is usually described as true or false. True aneurism is a dilatation of the coats of an artery over a larger or smaller part of its course. Such dilatations are usually due to chronic endarteritis and atheroma. False aneurism is formed after a puncture of an artery by a dilatation of the adhesive lymph by which the puncture was united. Symptoms. — If the aneurism is seated along the neck or a limb it appears as a tumor in the course of an artery and pulsating with it. The tumor is round, soft, and compressible, and yields a peculiar fluctuation upon pressure. By applying the ear over it a peculiar purring or hissing sound may sometimes be heard. Pulsation, syn- chronous with the action of the heart, is the diagnostic symptom. It is of a slow, expansive, and heavy character, as if the whole tumor were enlarging under the hand. Aneurisms seated internally ma}' occupy the cavity of the cranium, chest, or abdomen. As regards the first, little is known during life, for all the symptoms which they pro- duce may arise from other causes. Aneurism of the anterior aorta may be situated very closely to the heart or in the arch, and it is very seldom that we can distinguish it from disease of the heart. The tumor may encroach upon the windpipe and produce difliculty in breathing, or it may produce pressure upon the vena cava or the thoracic duct, obstructing the flow of blood and lymph. In fact, whatever pails the aneurism may reach or subject to its pressure, may have their functions suspended or disturbed. When the tumor in the chest is large, we generally find mufh ii-regularity in the action of the heart; the superficial veins of the neck are distended, and there is usually dropsical swelling under the breast and of the limbs. There may be a very troublesome cough witliout any evidence of lung affec- tion. Sometimes pulsation of the tumor may be felt at the lower part of the neck where it joins the chest. AMien the aneurism occurs in the posterior aorta no diagnostic symptoms are appreciable; when it occurs in the internal iliac arteries an examination per rectum will reveal it. There is one form of aneurism which is not infrequently over- looked, affecting the anterior mesenteric artery, primarily induced by a worm — StrongyJus vulgaris. This worm produces an arteritis, with 266 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. atheroma, degeneration, and dilatation of tlie mesenteric arteries, associated with thrombus and aneurism. The aneurism gives rise to colic, which appears periodically in a very violent and often persis- tent type. Ordinary colic remedies have no effect, and after a time the animal succumbs to the disease. In all cases of animals which are habitually subject to colicky attacks, parasitic aneurism of the an- terior mesenteric artery may be suspected. (See p. 92.) Pathology. — Aneurisms may be diffuse or sacculated. The diffuse consists in a uniform dilatation of all the coats of an artery, so that it assumes the shape of a cjdindrical swelling. The wall of the aneu- rism is atheromatous, or calcified ; the middle coat may be atrophied. The sacculated, or circumscribed, aneurism consists either in a dila- tation of the entire circumference of an artery over a short portion of its length, or in a dilatation of only a small portion of one side of the wall. Aneurism may become very large ; as it increases in size it presses upon and causes the destruction of neighboring tissues. The cavity of the aneurismal sac is filled with fluid or clotted blood or with layers of fibrin which adhere closely to its wall. Death is pro- duced usually by the pressure and interference of the aneurism with adjoining organs or by rupture. In worm aneurism we usually find large thrombi within the aneurismal dilatation of the artery, which sometimes plug the whole vessel or extend into the aorta. Portions of this thrombus, or clot, may be washed away and produce embolism of a smaller artery. The effect in either case is to produce anemia of the intestinal canal, serous or bloody exudation in its walls, which leads to paralysis of the intestine and resultant colicky symptoms. Treatment. — The only treatment advisable is to extirpate or ligate the tumor above and below. RUPTURE OF AN ARTERY. Endarteritis, with its subsequent changes in the walls of arteries, is the primary cause of rupture in the majority of instances. The rup- ture may be partial, involving only one or two coats, and will then form an aneurism. If complete, it may produce death when it in- volves a large vessfel, especially if it is situated in one of the large cavities permitting an excessive escape of blood. Rupture may be produced by mechanical violence or accident. Symvtoms. — In fatal rupture, associated with profuse bleeding, the animal becomes weak, the visible mucous membranes become blanched, the breathing hurried or gasping, pupils dilated, stagger- ing in gait, syncope, death. When the hemorrhage is limited the symptoms may not become noticeable; if it is near the surface of the body a round or diffuse swelling or tumor may form, constituting a hygroma. If the rupture is associated with an external woimd, the bleeding artery should be ligated, or where a bandage is ap- DISEASES OF HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. 267 plicable, pressure may be jipplied by tight btinclugiug. As a sec- oiulary result of rupture of an artery we may have formation of abscess, gangrene of a part, etc. Treatment. — When rupture of a deep-seated artery is suspected, hirge doses of fluid extract of ergot nuiy be given to produce con- traction of the bh)()d vessels. Tannin and iron arc also useful. The animal should be allowed to have as nuich water as he desires. After- wards stimulants and nourishing feed are indicated. THROMBUS AND EMBOLISM. By thrombosis is generally understood the partial or complete clo- sure of a vessel by a morbid product developed at the site of the obstruction. The conguluin, which is usually fibrinous, is known as a thrombus. The term " embolism'' designates an obstruction caused by any body detached and transported from the interior of the heart or of some vessel. Thrombi occur as the result of an injury to the wall of the vessel or may follow its compression or dilatation; they may result from some alteration of the wall of the vessel by disease or by the retardation of the circulation. These fornuitions may occur during life, in the heart, arteries, veins, or in the portal system. When a portion of fibrin coagulates in one of the arteries and is carried along i)y the circulation, it will be arrested, of course, in the capillaries, if not before; when in the veins, it may not be stopped \mtil it reaches the lungs; and when in the portal system the capil- laries of the liver will prevent its further progress. The fornuition of thrombi may act primarily by causing partial or complete obstruc- tion, and, secondarily, either by larger or smaller fragments becom- ing detached from their end and by being carried along by the circulation of the blood to remote vessels, embolism; or by the coagu- lum becoming softened and converted into pus, constituting sup- purative phlebitis. These substances occur most frequently in those affections characterized by great exhaustion or debility, such as pneumonia, pur])ura hemorrhagica, endocarditis, phlebitis, puerperal fever, hemorrhages, etc. These concretions nuiy form suddenly and produce instantaneous death by retarding the blood current, or thoy nuiy arise gradually, in which case the thrombi may be organized and attached to the walls of the heart, or they nuiy soften, and frag- ments of them (emboli) may be carried away. The small, wartlike excrescences occurring sometimes in endocarditis nuiy occasionally form a foundation on which a thrombi may develop. Sijmpto-m^'<. — When heart clot, or thrombus, exists in the right side, the return of blood from the body and the aeration in the lungs is impeded, and if death occurs, it is owing to .syncope rather than to strangulation in pulmonary respiration. There will be hurried and 268 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. gasping breathing, paleness and coldness of the surface of the body, a feeble and intermittent or fluttering pulse, and fainting. When a fibrinous coagulum is carried into the pulmonary artery from the right side of the heart, the indications are a swelling and infiltration of the lungs and pulmonary apoplexy. Wlien the clot is situated in the left cavities of the heart or in the aorta, death, if it occurs, takes place either suddenly or at the end of a few hours from coma. Pathology. — When a coagulum is observed in the heart it may be- come a question whether it was formed during life or after death. The loose, dark coagula so often found after death are polypi. If the deposition has taken place during the last moments of life, the fibrin will be isolated and soft, but not adherent to the walls; if it be isolated, dense, and adherent or closely intertwined with the muscles of the papillae and tendinous cords, the deposition has oc- curred more or less remote from the act of dying. Occasionally the fibrin may be seen lining one of the cavities of the heart, like a false endocardium, or else forming an additional coat to the aorta or other large vessels without producing much obstruction. Thrombi, in some instances, soften in their centers, and are then observed to con- tain a puslike substance. If this softening has extended considerably, an outer shell, or cyst, only may remain. The sources of danger exist not only in the interruption of the circulation of the blood, but also in a morbid state of the system, produced by the disturbed nutrition of a limb or organ, as well as the mingling of purulent and gan- grenous elements with the blood. Treatment. — The urgent symptoms should be relieved by rest, stimulants, and the use of agents which will act as solvents to the fibrinous clots. Alkalis are specially useful for this purpose. Car- bonate of ammonia may be administered in all cases of thrombus, and should be continued for a long time in small doses several times a day. In cases of great debility associated with a low grade of fever, stimulants and tonics, and nitro-muriatic acid as an antiseptic, may be beneficial. DISEASES OF VEINS, OR PHLEBITIS. Inflammation of veins may be simple or diffuse. In simple phleb- itis the disease of the vein is confined to a circumscribed or limited portion of a vein ; in diffuse it involves the vein for a long distance ; it may even extend from a limb or foot to the heart. Causes. — Phlebitis may be induced by contusions or direct injuries, an extension of inflammation from surrounding tissue, such as in abscess, formation of tumor, or malignant growth. It is often due to embolism of infective material, gangi-enous matter, etc. Blood- letting from the jugular vein is occasionally followed by dangerous phlebitis. DISEASES OF HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. 269 Si/Tnptoms. — The symptoms vary according: to tho extent and sever- ity of the infhuuniation. In most cases the vein is swollen, thick- ened, and indurated to such a dep'ee as to resemble an artery. A diffused swelling, with great tenderness, may extend along the af- fected vessel and the animal manifest all the symptoms connected with acute fever and general functional disturbance. Paf?u>logi/. — The disease is only serious when large veins are affected. Tho coats undergo the same changes as in arteritis; clots of blood and lymph plug the inflamed vessel, and, if the inflannuatory process continues, these are converted into pus. which ruptures the vessel and produces a deep abscess; or it may be carried away in the circulation and produce metastatic abscess in the lungs or other i<»- mote organs. In mild cases the clots may become absorbed and the vessel restored to health. Phlebitis in the course of the veins of the limbs frequently leads to numerous abscesses, which may be mistaken for farcy ulcerations. A very common result of phlebitis is an oblit- eration o-f the affected portion of the vein, but as collateral circulation is readily established this is seldom of any material inconvenience. Trcafm-ciit. — Phlebitis should be treated by the application of a smart blister along the course of the inflamed vessel; early opening of any abscesses which may form; the animal should have complete rest, and the bowels be kept loose with bran mashes. TTlien the fever runs high, half-ounce doses of nitrate of potassium may be given in tlie drinking water, which may be changed in two or three days for 1-dram doses of the iodid of potassium. If the animal becomes de- i)ilitated. carbonat<^ of ammonia. 1 dram, and powdered gentian, 3 drams, may be given every six hours. VARICOSE VEINS, VARIX, OR DILATATION OF VEINS. This may be a result of weakening of the coats from inflammatoiy disease and degeneration. It may also be due to mechanical obstruc- tion from internal or external sources. It is sometimes found in the vein which lies superficial over the inside of the hock joint, and may be due to the ])ressure of a spavin. Occasionally it may be ol)sei-ved in stallions, which are more or less subject to varicocele, or dilatation of the veins of the testicular cord. Hemorrhoidal veins, or piles, are occasionally met with, generally in horses which run at pasture. Varicose veins may ulcerate and form an abscess in the surrounding tissues, or they may rupture from internal blood pressure and the blood form large tumors where the tissues are soft. Treatment, — Stallions which manifest a tendency to varicocele should wear suspensory bags when they are exercised. Piles may often bo reduced by astringent washes — tea nuide from white-oak bark or a saturated solution of alum. The lx>wels should be kept loose with bran mashes and the animal kept quiet in the stable. 270 DISEASES OF THE HORSE, When varicose veins exist superficially and threaten to produce incon- venience, they may be ligated above and below and thus obliterated. Sometimes absorption may be induced by constant bandages. AIR IN VEINS, OR AIR EMBOLISM. It was formerly supposed that the entrance of air into a vein at the time of the infliction of a wound or in blood-letting was extremely dangerous and very often produced sudden death by interfering with the circulation of the blood through the heart and lungs. Danger from air embolism is exceedingly doubtful, unless great quantities were forced into a large vein by artificial means. PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. Purpura hemorrhagica usually occurs as a sequel to debilitating diseases, such as strangles, influenza, etc. It may, however, arise in the absence of any previous disease in badly ventilated stables, among poorly fed horses, and in animals subject to exhausting work and extreme temperatures. The disease is probably due to some as yet undiscovered infectious principle. Its gi-avity does not depend so much upon the amount of blood extra vasated as it does upon the dis- turbance or diminished action of the vaso-motor centers. SyTnptovis. — This disease becomes manifested by the occurrence of sudden swellings on various parts of the body, on the head or lips, limbs, abdomen, etc. These swellings may be diffused or very mark- edly circumscribed, though in the advanced stages they cover large areas. They pit on pressure and are but slightly painful to the touch. The limbs may swell to a very large size, the nostrils may become almost closed, and the head and throat may swell to the point of suf- focation. The swellings not infrequently disappear from one portion of the body and develop on another, or may recede from the surface and invade the intestinal mucous membrane. The mucous lining of the nostrils and mouth show more or less dark-red or purple spots. There may be a discharge of blood-colored serum from the nostrils; the tongue may be swollen so as to prevent eating or closing of the jaws. In the most intense cases, within from twenty-four to forty- eight hours bloody serum may exude through the skin over the swollen parts, and finally large gangrenous sloughs may form. The temperature is never very high, the pulse is frequent and com- pressible, and becomes feebler as the animal loses strength. A cough is usually present. The urine is scanty and high colored, and when the intestines are much affected a bloody diarrhea may set in, with colicky pains. Some of the internal organs become implicated in the disease, the lungs may become edematous, extravasation may occur in the intestinal canal, or effusion of serum into the cavity of the DISEASES OF HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. 271 chest or abdomen; occasionally tlie brain becomes affected. A few cases run a mild course and recovery may connneiu-e in three or four days; generally, however, the outkwk is unfavorable. In severe cases septic poisoning is liable to occur, which soon brings the case to a fatal issue. Pathology. — On section we find the cai)illaries dilated, the connec- tive tissue filled with a coagulable or coagulateh j)as.ses into the lymph vesstds, which in their commencement can hardly l)e treated as independent structures, since their walls are so closely joined with the tissues through which they 272 niSKASKs ok iiik iiohsk. pass, being nothing nioio than spaces in the connectivo tissue until they reach the larger lymph vessels, which finally em])ty into lymph ginnils. These lymph glands are structures so placed that the lymph llowing toward the larger trunks passes through them, undergoing a sort of filtration. From the fact of this arrangement lymph glands are subject to inlhuumatory diseases in the vicinity of diseased struc- tures, because infective material being conveyed in the lymph sti'cam lodges in the glands and produces irritation. LOCAL INFLAMMATION AND ABSCESS OF LYMPHATIC GLANDS. Acute inthunmation id' tlie lymjih glands usually occurs in connec- tion with some inflammatory process in the region from whicli its? lym[ih is gathei'cd. Several or all of the glands in a cluster may become atl'ected, as in strangles, nasal catarrh, or nasal gleet, diseased or ulcerated teeth, the lymph glands between the branches of tho lower jaw almost in\ariably become alVected, which may lead to sup- puration or induration. Similar results obtain in other portions of the body; in pneumonia the bronchial glands become affected; in ]>haryngitis the postpharyngeal glands lying abo\o the trachea be- come all'ected, etc. Si/mptom^'. — The glands swell and become painful to the touch, the connective tissue surrounding them becomes involved, suppuration usually takes place, antl one or more abscesses form. If the inllam- nuition is of a milder tyi)e, resolution may take place and the swelling recede, the exmlative material i>cing absorbed, and the gland restoicd without the occurrence of suppuration. In the limbs a wlude chain of the glands along the lymphatic vessels may become affected, as \u farcy, phlebitis, or septic iM)isoning. Trcatnunt. — l'\>mentation with hot water ami the application of camphorateil soap iininieut or camphorated oil may produce a revul- sive action ami prcNcnt suppuration. If there is any indication of abscess forming, poultices of linseed meal ami bran made into a jniste with hot water should be apjdietl, or a mild blistering ointment rubbed in over the swollen glaiul. As soon as fluctuation can be felt a free opening must be n\ade f(U' the escape of the containeil pus. The wound may subsequently be washed out with a solution of chlorid of zinc. .'> grains to the ounce of water, three times a day. LYMPHANGITIS. Specilic inflanunation of the lymphatic structures usually affects the hind legs; very seldom a fore leg. This disease is very sudden in its attack, exceeilingly painful, accompanied by a high temperature and great general disturbance. DISELASES OF HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. 273 Causes. — Horses of lymphatic or sluggish temperament are predis- posed to this affection. It usually attark> wi'11-fcd animals, and in such cases may be due to an excess of nutritive elements in the blood- Sudden changes in work or in the habits of the animal may induce an attack. Symptoms. — It is usually ushered in by a chill, rise in temperature, and some uneasiness; in a very short time this is followed by lame- ness in one leg and swelling on the inside of the thigh. The swelling gradually surrounds the whole limb and continues on downward until it reaches the foot. The limb is excessively tender to the touch, the ani- mal perspires, the breathing is ucr?lerated. ])ul.se hard and quick, and llie tcmi>eraturc may reach 10G° F The bowels early become very con- stipated and urine scanty. The sj'mptoms usually are on the increase for about two days, then they remain stationary for the same length of time; the fever then abates; the swelling recedes and becomes less painful. It is very seldom, though, that all the swelling leaves the leg; generally it leaves some permanent enlargement, and the animal becomes subject to recurrent attacks. Occasionally the inguinal lymph- atic glands (in the groin) undergo suppuration, and pyemia may supervene and prove fatal. In severe cases the limb Ijecomes de- nuded of hair in patches, and the skin remains indurated with a fibrous growth, which is known by the name of elephantiasis. Treatment. — The parts should be bathed freely and fnMjuently with water as hot as the hand can bear and then fomented with vinegar and water, equal parts, to which add 2 ounces of nitrate of potassium for each gallon. This should be applied frequently, after the hot water, for the first day. Afterwards the leg may be dried with a woolen cloth and bathed with camphorated soap liniment. Internally administer artificial CarLsbad salts in 2 to 4 ounce doses three times daily. Feed lightly and give complete rest. This treatment, if insti- tuted ejirly in the attack, very freuf ^ (/, fff/tntf ; cCornm, I'.lti.s; f/.h. Ciliary rirrlc. ior lOju/iirnl J nrid pfocc^.fcs f/i^-i'ft ot'l'ffytitc '/m.-rjid thntit/fi refUT.scfUcc/ ir.ii'.x/latf'/ from it, in or'Ucr lo uirliratet/ifir li/iiitA- nrcrr clenrly. i, /n.fcriio.-i nt'lfic cifiary i^rc>cefi.-,es- on the cryMallinr len.s-: i,Cry.siiilU/ie ti'/is. /cOylfi/iinc aipsiifr ; I Mtrcou.'! Ixii/y; //i./i,.{/i/rri<>r (iiitl posuiior ilitiiahrr:s,- t.>,Th€o/TtH(il i/idtralton oi"l/i' rnr/iitiniiir of the aqueous I'litnoiin i>,f>.Tarsi ; !/,e),l''if)roti^ mcmOrattr of t/ic i-yi{ii(lf'rmii 'riyf-rof [lii-i rnctn!>r(i/ir co\-i'rui-, JubroiiA- ^/irtit/r qi'iiic orhii (or oit/itnl ineitiitrane i . tlel.iiisci lV,\rlK.«il i> DIAGRAMMMIC VEHTICAL SECTION THROUGH HORSE'S EYE. DISEASES OF THE EYE. 277 over it until the entire globe may be hidden from sight. This pro- trusion of the cartilage so as to cover tlie eye may be induced in the healthy eye by pressing the linger and tlnimb on tiie upper and lower lids, so as to cause retraction of the eyeball into the soclcet. When foreign bodies, such as sand, dust, and diaff, or otlier irritants, have fallen on the e3'eball or eyelids it is similarly projected to push them off, their expulsion being further favored by a profuse flow of tears. This is seen, to a lesser extent, in all painful indammations of the eye, and to a very marked ilegree in lockjaw, when the spasm of tlie nniscles of the eyeball draws the latter deeply into the orbit and pro- jects forward the masses of fat and the cartilage. The brutal prac- tice of cutting oil this apparatus whenever it is projected necessitates this explanation, which it is hoped may save to many a faithful serv- ant a most valuable appendage. That the cartilage and membrane nuiy become the seat of disease is undeniable, but so long as its edge is thin and even and its surface smooth and regular the mere fact of its projection over a portion or the mIioIc of the eyeball is no evi- dence of disease in its substance, nor any warrant for its removal. It is usually but the evidence of the presence of some pain in another part of the eye, which the suffering animal endoavoi-s to iissuage l)y the use of this beneficent provision. For the diseases of the cartilage itself, see "' Encephaloid cancer."' LACRIMAL APPARATUS. This consists, first, of a gland for the secretion of the tears, and, second, of a series of canals for the conveyance of the superfluous tears into the cavity of the nose. The gland is situated above the outer part of the eyeball, and the tears which have flowed over the eye and reached the inner angle are there directed by a small, conical papilla (lacrimal canuu-le) into two minute orifices, and thence by two ducts (lacrinud) to a snudl pouch (lacrimal sac) from which a canal leads through the bones of the face into the nose. Tliis opens in the lowei* part of the nose on the floor of the passage and a little outside the line of union of the skin which lines the fahse nostril with the mucous membrane of the nose. In the ass and nude this opening is situated on the roof instead of the floor of the nose, but still close to the extermil opening. EXAMINATION OF THE EYE. To avoid unnecessary ro])etiti«'n the following general «lii"octions are given for the examination of the eye : The cnc, and to a certain extent the mucous membrane lining the eyelids, may be exposed to view by gently parting the eyelids with the thuml) and forefinger pressed on the middle of the respective lids. The pressure, it is true, causes 278 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. the protrusion of the haw over a portion of the lower and inner part of the eye, but by gentleness and careful graduation of the pressure this may be kept within bounds, and oftentimes even the interior of the eye can be seen. As a rule it is best to use the right hand for the left eye, and the left hand for the right, the finger in each case being pressed on the upper lid while the thumb depresses the lower one. In cases in which it is desirable to examine the inner side of the eyelid further than is possible by the above means, the upper lid may be drawn down by the eyelashes with the one hand and then everted over the tip of the forefinger of the other hand, or over a probe laid flat against the middle of the lid. Wlien the interior of the eye must be examined it is useless to make the attempt in the open sunshine or under a clear sky. The worst cases, it is true, can be seen under such circumstances, but for the slighter forms the horse should be taken indoors, where all light from above will be shut off, and should be placed so that the light may fall on the eye from the front and side. Then the observer, placing himself in front of the animal, will receive the reflected rays from the cornea, the front of the lens and the back, and can much more easily detect any cloudiness, opacity, or lack of transparency. The examination can be made much more satisfactory by placing the horse in a dark chamber and illuminating the eye by a lamp placed forward and outward from the eye which is to be exam- ined. Any cloudiness is thus easily detected, and any doubt may be resolved by moving the lamp so that the image of the flame may be passed in succession over the w^hole surface of the transparent cornea and of the crystalline lens. Three images of the flame will be seen, the larger one upright, reflected from the anterior surface of the eye ; a smaller one upright, reflected from the anterior surface of the lens; and a second small one inverted from the back surface of the lens. So long as these images are reflected from healthy surfaces they, will be clear and perfect in outline, but as soon as one strikes on an area of opacity it will become diffused, cloudy, and indefinite. Thus, if the large, upright image becomes hazy and imperfect over a partic- ular spot of the cornea, that will be found to be the seat of disease and opacity. Should the large image remain clear, but the small upright one become diffuse and indefinite over a given point, it indi- cates opacity on the front of the capsule of the lens. If both upright images remain clear while the inverted one becomes indistinct at a given point, then the opacity is in the substance of the lens itself or in the posterior part of its capsule. If in a given case the pupil remains so closely contracted that the deeper parts of the eye can not be seen, the eyelids may be rubbed with extract of belladonna, and in a short time the pupil will be found widely dilated. I DISE^iSES OF THE EYE. 279 DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. CONGENITAL DISORDERS. . Some faulty conditions of the eyelids are congenital, as division of an eyelid in two. after the manner of harelii), al^nonnally .small openinir between the lids, often connected with imperfect devel(>i>- ment of the eye, and closure of the lids by adhesion. The first is to be remedied by paring the edges of the division and then bring- ing tliem together, as in torn lids. Tlie last two, if remediable at all. require separation by the knife, and subsequent treatment with a cooling astringent eyewash. NERVOUS DISORDERS. Spasm of eyt-.tjos may be owing to constitutional susceptibility, or to the presence of local irritants (insects, chemical irritants, sand, etc.) in tlie eye, to wounds or inflammation of the mucous membrane, or to disease of the brain. AMien due to local irritation it may be temporarily overcome by instilling a few drops of a 4 per cent solu- tion of cocaine into the eye, when the true cause may be ascertained and removed. The nervous or constitutional disease must be treated according to its nature. Drooping eyelids, ok ptosis. — This Ls usually present in the upper lid, or is at least little noticed in the lower. It is sometimes but a symptom of paralysis of one-half of tlie face, in which case the ear. lips, and nostrils on the same side will be found soft, drooping, and inactive, and even the half of the tongue may partake of the palsy. If the Siime condition exists on both sides, there is difficult, snuffling breathing, from the air drawing in the flaps of the nostrils in inspira- tion, and all feed is taken in by the teeth, as the Yips are useless. In both there is a free discharge of saliva from the mouth during mas- tication. This paralysis is a free often remedied, fir.st, by the removal of any remaining inflammation by a wet sponge worn be- neath the ear and kept in place by a bandage; secondly, wlien all in- flanmiation has passed, by a blister on the same region, or by rubbing 280 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. it daily with a mixture of olive oil and strong aqua ammonia in equal proportions. Improvement is usually slow, and it may be months before complete recovery ensues. In paralysis from blows above the eyes the same treatment may be applied to that part. Thickening of the lid may be treated by painting with tincture of iodin, and that failing, by cutting out an elliptical strip of the skin from the middle of the upper lid and stitching the edges together. INFLAMMATION OF THE EYELIDS. The eyelids suffer more or less in all severe inflammations of the eye, whether external or internal, but inasmuch as the disease some- times starts in the lids and at other times is exclusively confined to them, it deserves independent mention. Among the causes may be named: Exposure to/lrafts of cold air, or to cold rain or snow storms ; the bites or stings of mosquitoes, flies, or other insects; snake bites, pricks with thorns, blows of whip or club ; accidental bruises against the stall or ground, especially during the violent struggles of colic, enteritis, phrenitis (staggers), and when thrown for operations. It is also a result of infecting inocula- tions, as of erysipelas, anthrax, boil, etc., and is noted by Leblanc as especially prevalent among horses kept on low, marshy pastures. Finally, the introduction of sand, dust, chaff, beards of barley and seeds of the finest grasses, and the contact with irritant, chemical powders, liquids, and gases (ammonia from manure or factory, chlorin, strong sulphur fumes, smoke, and other products of com- bustion, etc.) may start the inflammation. The eyelids often imdergo extreme inflammatory and dropsical swelling in urticaria (nettle- rash, surfeit) and in the general inflammatory dropsj' known as purpura hemorrhagica. The affection will, therefore, readily divide itself into (1) inflam- mations due to constitutional causes; (2) those due to direct injury, mechanical or chemical ; and (3) such as are due to inoculation with infecting material. (1) Inflammations due to constitutional causes are distinguished by the absence of any local wound, and the history of a low, damp pasture, exposure, indigestion from unwholesome feed, or the pres- ence elsewhere on the limbs or body of the general, doughy swellings of purpura hemorrhagica. The lids are swollen and thickened; it may be slightly or it may be so extremely that the eyeball can not be seen. If the lid can be everted to show its mucous membrane, that is seen to be of a deep-red color, especially along the branching lines of the blood vessels. The part is hot and painful, and a profuse flow of tears and mucus escapes on the side of the face, causing irritation DISEASES OF TUE EYE. 281 and loss of the hair. If improvement follows, this discharge becomes more tenacious, and tends to cause adhesion to the edges of the upper and lower lids and to mat together the eyelashes in bundles. This gradually decreases to tlie natural amount, and the redness and con- gested appearance of the eye disappears, but swelling, thickening, and stiffness of the lids may continue for a time. There may bo more or less fever according to the violence of the inllammation, but so long as there is no serious disease of the interior of the eye or of other vital organ, it is usually moderate. The local treatment consists in astringent, soothing lotions (sugar « f lead 30 grains, laudanum 2 teaspoonfuls, rain water — l)oiled and cooled — 1 pint), applied with a soft cloth kei)t wet with the lotion, and hung over the eye by tying it to the headstall of the bridle on the two sides. If the mucous membrane lining of tlie lids is the seat of little red granular elevations, a drop of solution of 2 gi'ains of nitrate of silver in an ounce of distilled water should be applied with tlie soft end of a clean feather to the inside of the lid twice a day. The patient should be removed from all such conditions (pasture, faulty feed, exposure, etc.) as may have caused or aggravated the disease, and from dust and irritant fumes and gases. He should be fed from a manger high enough to favor the return of blood from the head, and should be kept from work, especially in a tight c(;llar which would prevent the descent of blood by the jugular veins. The diet should be laxative and nonstimulating (grass, bran mashes, carrots, turnips, beets, potatoes, or steamed hay), and any costiveness shouhl be corrected by a mild dose of raw linseed oil (1 to 1\ pints). In cold weather warm blanketing may be needful, and even loose flannel bandages to the limbs, but heat should never l^e souglit at the expense of pure air. (2) In inflanunations due to local in-itants of a noninfective kind a careful examination will ustially i-eveal their presence, and the first step must be their remo\ al with a paii- of blunt forceps or the point of a lead pencil. Sui)se(iuent treatment will be in tlie main the local treatment advi.»ed ai)ove. (3) In case of infective inflammation there will often be found a prick or tear by which the septic matter has entered, and in such case tiu^ inflammation will for a time be concentrated at that point. A round or conical swelling around an insect bite is especially character- istic. A snake l)ite is marked by the double prick made by the two teeth and by the violent and rapidly spreading inflannnation. Ery- sipelas is attended with much swelling, extending beyond the lids and causing the mu(C)\is membrane to protrude beyond the edge of the eyelid (chemosis). Tliis is characterized by a bright, uniform, rosy red, disappearing on pressure, or later by a dark, livid hue, but with less branching redness than in noninfecting inflammation and 282 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. less of the dark, dusky, brownish or yellowish tint of anthrax. Lit- tle vesicles may appear on the skin, and pus may be found without any distinct limiting membrane, as in abscess. It is early attended with high fever and marked general weakness and inappetence. An- thrax of the lids is marked by a firm swelling, surmounted b}' a blis- ter, with bloody serous contents, which tends to burst and dry up into a slough, while the surrounding parts become involved in the same way. Or it may show as a diffuse, dropsical swelling, with less of the hard, central sloughing nodule, but, like that, tending to spread quickly. In both cases alike the mucous membrane and the skin, if white, assumes a dusky-brown or j'ellowish-brown hue, which is largely characteristic. This may pass into a black color by reason of extravasation of blood. Great constitutional disturbance appears early, with much prostration and weakness and generalized anthrax sj'mptoms. Treatment. — The treatment will vary according to the severity. Insect bites may be touched with a solution of equal parts of glycerin and aqua ammonia, or a 10 i>er cent solution of carbolic acid in water. Snake bites may be bathed with aqua ammonia, and the same agent given in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls in a quart of water, or alcohol may be given in pint or quart doses, according to the size of the animal. In erysipelas the skin may be painted with tincture of chlorid of iron, or with a solution of 20 grains of iodin in an ounce of carbolic acid, and one-half an ounce of tincture of chlorid of iron may be given thrice daily in a bottle of water. In anthrax the swelling should be painted with tincture of iodin, or of the mixture of iodin and carbolic acid, and if very threatening it may have the tincture of iodin injected into the swelling with a hypodermic syringe, or the hard mass may be freely incised to its depth with a sharp lancet and the lotion applied to the exposed tissues. Internally, iodid of potas- sium may be given in doses of 2 drams thrice a day, or tincture of the chlorid of iron every four hours. STY, OR FURUNCLE (fiOIL) OF THE EYELID. This is an inflammation of limited extent, advancing to the forma- tion of matter and the sloughing out of a small mass of the natural tissue of the eyelid. It forms a firm, rounded swelling, usually near the margin of the lid, which suppurates and bursts in four or five days. Its course may be hastened by a poultice of camomile flowers, to which have been added a few drops of carbolic acid, the whole applied in a very thin muslin bag. If the swelling is slow to open after having become yellowish white, it may be opened by a lancet, the incision being made at right angles to the margin of the lid. DISEASES OF THE EVE. 283 ENTROPION AND ECTROPION, OR INVERSION AND EVERSION OF THE EYELID. These are respectively caused bv wouiuls, sluiiglis, ulcers, or other causes of loss of substance of the nuicous luenibiane on the inside of the lid and of the skin on the outside: also of tunu)rs, skin diseases, or paralysis which leads to displacement of the margin of the eyelid. As a rule, they ie(|uire a surjjica! operation, with lenioval of an ellip- tical portion of the mucous membrane or skin, as the case may be, but which requires the skilled and delicate hand of the surgeon. TRICHIASIS. This consists in the turning in of the eyelashes so as to irritate the front of the eye. If a single eyelash, it may be snipped olF with scis- sors close to the margin of the eyelid or pulled out by the root with a pair of flat-bladed forceps. If the divergent lashes are more numer- ous, the treatment may be as for entropion, by excising an elliptical portion of skin opposite the offending lashes and stitching the edges together, so as to draw outward the margin of the lid at that point. WARTS AND OTHER TUMORS OF THE EYELIDS. The eyelids form a favorite site for tumors, and above all, warts, which consist in a simple diseased overgrowth (hypertrophy) of the surface layers of the skin. If small, they may be snipped off with scissors or tied around the neck with a stout, waxed thread and left to drop off. the destruction being com[)leted, if necessary, by the daily application of a piece of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), until any unhealthy material has been removed. If more widely spread, the wart may still be clipped off with curved scissors or knife, and the caustic thoroughly applied day by day. A bleeding wart, or erectile tumor, is more liable to bleed, and is best removed by constricting its neck with the waxed cord or rubber baiul, or if too broad it may be transfixed through its base by a needle armed with a double thread, which is then to be cut in two and tied around the two portions of the neck of the tumor. If still broader, the armed needle may lie carried through the base of the tumor at regular intervals, so that the whole nuiy be tied in moder- ately sized .sections. In gray and in white horses black, pigmentary tumors (melanotic) are common on the black portions of skin, stub as the eyelids, and are to be removed by scissoi-s or knife, according to their size. In the horse they do not usually tend to recur when thoroughly removed, luit at time^ they prove cancerous (as is the rule in man), and then they tend to reap|)ear in the same site or in internal organs with, it mav be, fatal effect. 284 DISEASES OF THE HGBSE. Encysted, honeylike (meliceroiis), sebaceous, and fibrous tumors of the lids all require removal Avith the knife. TORN EYELIDS OR WOUNDS OF EYELIDS. The eyelids are torn by attacks with horns of cattle, or with the teeth, or by getting caught on nails in stall, rack, or manger, on the point of stumps, fences, or fence rails, on the barbs of wire fences, and on other pointed bodies. The edges should be brought together as promptly as possible, so as to effect union without the formation of matter, puckering of the skin, and unsightly distortions. Great care is necessary to bring the two edges together evenly without twisting or puckering. The simplest mode of holding them together is by a series of sharp pins passed through the lips of the wound at intervals of not more than a third of an inch, and held together by a thread twisted around each pin in the form of the figure 8, and carried obliquely from pin to i^in in two directions, so as to prevent gaping of the wound in the intervals. The points of the pins may then be c-ut off with scissors, and the wound may be wet twice a day with a weak solution of carbolic acid. TUMOR OF THE HAW, OR CARIES OF THE CARTILAGE. Though cruelly excised for alleged ''" hooks," when itself perfectly healthy, in the various diseases which lead to retraction of the eye into its socket, the haw may, like other bodily structures, be itself the seat of actual disease. The pigmentary, black tumors of white horses and soft (encephaloid) cancer may attack this part primarily or extend to it from the eyeball or eyelids ; hairs have been found grow- ing from its surface, and the mucous membrane covering it becomes inflamed in common with that covering the front of the eye. These inflammations are but a phase of the inflammation of the externa] structures of the eye, and demand no particular notice nor special treatment. The tumors lead to such irregular enlargement and dis- tortion of the haw that the condition is not to be confounded with the simple projection of the healthy structure over the eye when the lids are pushed apart with the finger and thumb, and the same re- mark applies to the ulceration, or caries, of the cartilage. In tlie latter case, besides the swelling and distortion of the haw, there is this peculiarity, that in the midst of the red inflamed mass there appears a white line or mass formed by the exposed edge of the ulcerating cartilage. The animal having been thrown and properly fixed, an assistant holds the eyelids apart while the operator seizes the haw with forceps or hook and carefully dissects it out with blunt- pointed scissors. The eye is then covered with a cloth, kept wet with an eyewash, as for external ophthalmia. DISEASES OF THE EYE. 285 OBSTRUCTION OF THE LACRIMAL APPARATUS, OR WATERING EYE. The escai)e of teaib on the tiicle of the cheek is a svinptoiu of exter- nal infhiuunation of the eye, but it nnxy also occur from any disease of the lacrimal apparatus Nvhich interferes^ Avith the normal prog- ress of the tears to the no>e; hence, in all cases when this symptom is not attended with special redness (ir swelling of the eyelids, it is well to examine the lacrimal ap[)aratus. In some instances the orilice of the lacrimal duct on the iloor of the nasal chamber and close to its anterior outlet will be found blocked by a i)ortion of dry muco- purulent matter, on the removal of which tears may begin to escape. This implies an inllammation of the canal, which may be helped by occasional sponging out of the nose with warm water, and the a})- plication of the same on the face. Another remedy is to feed warm mashes of wheat bran from a nosebag, so that the relaxing effects of the water vapor nuiy be secured. The two lacrimal openings, situated at the uiner angle of the eye, may fail to admit the tears by reason of their deviation outward in connection with the e version of the lower lid or b}' reason of their constriction in inflammation of the mucous membrane. The lacrimal sac, into which the lacrimal ducts open, may fail to discharge its contents by reason of constriction or closure of the duct leading to the nose, and it then forms a rounded swelling beneath the inner angle of the eye. The duct leading froui the sac to the nose may be compressed or obliterated by fractures of the bones of the face, and in disease of these bones (osteosarcoma, so-called osteoporosis, diseased teeth, glanders of the nasal sinuses, abscess of the same cavities). The narrowed or obstructed ducts may be made pervious by a fine, silver probe passed down to the lacrimal sac, and any existing inflam- mation of the passages may be counteracted by the use of steaming mashes of wheat bran, by fomentations or wet cloths over the face, and even by the use of astringent eyewashes and the injection of similar lifjuids into the lacriuial canal from its nasal opening. The ordinary eyewash may be used for this purpose, or it may be injected after dilution to half its strength. The fractures and diseases of the bones and teeth must be treated according to their special demands when, if the canal is still left ])ervif)ns. it may be again rendered useful. EXTERNAL OPHTHALMIA, OR CONJUNCTIVITIS. In inflammation of the outer parts of the eyeball the exposed vas- cular and sensitive mucous membrane (conjunctiva) which covers the ball, the eyelids, the haw, and the lacrimal apparatus, is usiuilly the most deeply involved, yet adjacent parts are more or less implicated, and when disease is concentrated on these contiguous parts it consti- 286 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. tutes a phase of external opththalmia which demands a special notice. These have accordingly been already treated of. Causes. — The causes of external opththalmia are mainly those that act locally — blows with whips, clubs, and twigs, the presence of for- eign bodies, like hayseed, chaff, dust, lime, sand, snuff, pollen of plants, flies attracted by the brilliancy of the eye, wounds of the bridle, the migration of the scabies (mange) insect into the eye, smoke, ammonia arising from the excretions, irritant emanations from drying marshes, etc. Road dust containing infecting microbes is a common factor. A very dry air is alleged to act injuriously by drying the eye as well as by favoring the production of irritant dust ; the undue exposure to bright sunshine through a window in front of the stall, or to the reflection from snow or water, also is undoubtedly injurious. The unprotected exposure of the eyes to simshine through the use of a very short overdraw check is to be condemned, and the keeping of the horse in a very dark stall, from which it is habitually led into the glare of full sunlight, intensified by reflection from snow or white limestone, must be set down among the locally acting causes. Exposure to cold and wet, to wet and snow storms, to cold drafts and wet lairs must also be accepted as causes of conjunctivitis, the gen- eral disorder which they produce affecting the eye, if that happens to be the weakest and most susceptible organ of the body, or if it has been subjected to any special local injury, like dust, irritant gases, or excess of light. Again, external opththalmia is a constant concom- itant of inflammation of the contiguous and continuous mucous mem- branes, as those of the nose and throat — hence the red, watery eyes that attend on nasal catarrh, sore throat, influenza, strangles, nasal glanders, and the like. In such cases, however, the affection of the eye is subsidiary and is manifestly overshadoAved by the primary and predominating disease. Symptoms. — The symptoms are watering of the eye, swollen lids, redness of the mucous membrane exposed by the separation of the lids — it may be a mere pink blush with more or less branching red- ness, or it may be a deep, dark red, as from effusion of blood — and a bluish opacity of the cornea, which is normally clear and translucent. Except when resulting from wounds and actual extravasation of blood, however, the redness is seen to be superficial, and if the opacity is confined to the edges, and does not involve the entire cornea, the aqueous humor behind is seen to be still clear and limpid. The fever is always less severe than in internal ophthalmia, and runs high only in the worst cases. The eyelids may be kept closed, the eyeball re- tracted, and the haw protruded over one-third or one-half of the ball, but this is due to the pain only and not to any excessive sensibility to light, as shown by the comparatively widely dilated pupil. In in- ternal ophthalmia, on the contrary, the narrow, contracted pupil is DISEASES OP THE EYE. 28*7 the measure of the pain caused by the falling of light on the inflamed and sensitive optic nerve (retina) and clioroid. If tlie all'ection luis resulted from a wound of the cornea, not only is that the point of greatest opacity, forming a white speck or fleecy cloud, but too often blood vessels begiu to extend from the adjacent vascular covering of the eye (sclerotic) to the white si)ot, and that portion of the cornea is rendered permanently opaque. Again, if the wound has been se\ere, though still short of cutting iuto tlie anterior layers of the cornea, the injury iiuiy lead to ulceration ihat nuiy pene- trate more or less deeply and leave a breach in the tissue which, if fdlcd up at all, is repaired by opaque fibrous tissue in place of the transparent cellular structure. Pus may form, and the cornea as- sumes a yellowish tinge and bursts, giving rise to a deep sore which is liable to extend as an ulcer, ami may be in its turn followed by bulging of the cornea at that point (staphyloma). This inflamma- tion of the conjunctiva nuiy be simply catarrhal, with profuse muco- purulent discharge: it may be granular, the surface being covered with minute reddish elevations, or it may become the seat of a false membrane (diphtheria ) . Treatment. — In treating external ophthalmia the first object i.^ the removal of the cause. Remove any dust, chart", thorn, or other for- eign body from the conjunctiva, purify the stable from all sources of ammoniacal or other irritant gas; keep the horse from dusty roads, and, above all, from the proximity of a leading wagon and its attend- ant cloud of dust: remove from pasture and feed from a rack which is neither so high as to drop seeds, etc.. into the eyes nor so low as to favor the accumulation of blood in the head : avoid equally excess of light from a sunny window in front of the stall and excess of darkness from the absence of windows; preserve from cold drafts and rains and wet bedding, and apply curative measures for inflammation of the adjacent mucous membranes or skin. If the irritant has been of a caustic nature, remove any remnant of it by persistent bathing with tepid water and a soft sponge, or with water mixed with white of egg, or a glass filled with the li(|uid may be inverted over the eye so that its contents may dilute and remove the irritant. If the sutFering is very severe, a lotion with a few grains of extract of Ixdladonna or of morphia in an ounce of water may be applied, or, if it is available, a few drops of 4 per cent solution of cocaine may be instilled into the eye. In strong, vigorous patients benefit will usually be obtained from a laxative, such as 2 tal)lespoonfuls of CJlauber's salt daily, and if the fever runs high from a daily dose of half an ounce of saltpeter. As local applications, astringent solutions are usually the l)est, as 30 grains of borax or of sulphate of zinc in a quart of water, to be ap- plied constantly on a cloth, as advised under " Inflammation of the 288 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE, eyelids." In the absence of anything better, cold water may serve every purpose. Above all, adhesive and oily agents (molasses, sugar, fats) are to be avoided, as only adding to the irritation. By way of suggesting agents that may be used with good effect, salt and sulphate of soda may be named, in solutions double the strength of sulphate of zinc, or 7 grains of nitrate of silver may be added to a quart of dis- tilled water, and will be found especially applicable in gi*anular con- junctivitis, diphtheria, or commencing ulceration. A cantharides blister (1 part of Spanish fly to -i parts lard) may be rubbed on the side of the face 3 inches below the eye, and washed off next morning M^ith soapsuds and oiled daily till the scabs are dropped. WHITE SPECKS AND CLOUDINESS OF THE CORNEA. As a result of external ophthalmia, opaque specks, clouds, or hazi- ness are too often left on the cornea and require for their removal that they be daily touched with a soft feather dipped in a solution of 3 gi'ains nitrate of silver in 1 ounce distilled water. This should be applied until all inflammation has subsided, and until its contact is comparatively painless. It is rarely successful with an old, thick scar following an ulcer, nor with an opacity having red blood vessels running across it. ULCERS OF THE CORNEA. These may be treated with nitrate of silver lotion of twice the strength used for opacities. Powdered gentian, one-half ounce, and sulphate of iron, one-fourth ounce, daily, may improve the general health and increase the reparatory power. INTERNAL OPHTHALMIA (IRITIS, CHOROIDITIS, AND RETINITIS). Although inflammations of the iris, choroid, and retina — the inner, vascular, and nervous coats of the eye — occur to a certain extent inde- pendently of ea?h other, yet one usually supervenes upon the other, and, as the symptoms are thus made to coincide, it will be best for our present purposes to treat the three as one disease. Causes. — The causes of internal ophthalmia are largely those of the external form only, acting with greater intensity or on a more suscep- tible eye. Severe blows, bruises, punctures, etc., of the eye, the penetration of foreign bodies into the eye (thorns, splinters of iron, etc.), sudden transition from a dark stall to bright sunshine, to the glare of snow or water, constant glare from a sunny window, abuse of the overdraw checkrein, vivid lightning flashes, drafts of cold, damp air ; above all. when the animal is perspiring, exposure in cold rain or snowstorms, swimming cold rivers; also certain general diseases like rheumatism, arthritis, influenza, and disorders of the DISEASES OP" THE EYE. 289 digestive organs, may bccouK' coniplicati'd by this affection. From the close relation between the brain and eye — alike in the blood ves- sels and nerves — disorders of the first lead to affection of the second, and the same remark applies to the persistent irritation to Avhich the jaws are subjected in the course of dentition. So potent is the last agency that we dread a recurrence of ophthalmia so long as dentition is incomplete, and hope for immunity if the animal completes its dentition without any permanent structural change in the eye. iSi/mptom^. — The symptoms will vary according to the cause. If the attack is due to direct physical injury, the inlhunmation of the eyelids and superficial structures nuiy be quite as marked as that of the interior of the eye. If, on the other hand, from general causes, or as a complication of some distant disease, the affection may be largely confined to the deeper structures, and the swelling, redness, and ten- derness of the superficial structures will be less marked. "When the external coats thus comparatively escape, the extreuie anterior edge of the white or sclerotic coat, Avhere it overlaps the border of the trans- parent cornea, is in a measure free from congestion, and, in the ab- sence of the obscuring dark pigment, forms a whitish ring arounil the cornea. This is partly due to the fact that a series of arteries (cili- ary) passing to the inflamed iris penetrate the sclerotic coat a short distance behind its anterior border, and there is therefore a uiaiked difference in color between the general sclerotic occupied between these congested vessels and the anterior rim from which they arc absent. Unfortunately, the pigment is often so abundant in the anterior part of the sclerotic as to hide this symptom. In internal ophthalmia the opacitv of the cornea may be confined to a zone around the outer inargin of the cornea, and even this may be a bluish haze rather than a deep, fleecy white. In consequence it becomes impos- .sible to see the intei'ior of the chauiber for the a(]ueous humor and the condition of the iris and pupil. The a(iueous humor is usually turbid, and has numerous yellowish-white flakes floating on its substance or deposited in the lower i)art of the chamber, so as to cut off the view of the lower portion of the iris. The still visible portion of the iris has lost its natural, clear, dark luster, which is replaced by a brownish or yellowish sere-leaf .color. This is more marked in ])roportion as the iris is inflamed, and less so as the inflannnaticm is confined to the choroid. The quantity of flocculent deposit in the chamber of the aqueous humor is also in direct ratio to the inflaunna- tion of the iris. Perhaps the most marked feature of internal ()ph- thalmia is the extreme and painful sensitiveness to light. On this account the lids are usually closed, but when opened the pupil is seen to be narrowly closed, even if the animal has been kept in a darkened stall. Exceptions to this are seen when inflammatory effu- 36444°— 10 19 290 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. sion has overfilled the globe of the eye. and by pressure on the retina has paralyzed it, or when the exudation into the substance of the retina itself has similarly led to its paralysis. Then the pupil may be dilated, and frequenth^ its margin loses its regular, ovoid outline and becomes uneven bv reason of the adhesions which it has con- tracted with the capsule of the lens, through its inflammatory exu- dations. In the case of excessive effusion into the globe of the eye that is found to have become tense and hard so that it can not be indented with the tip of the finger, paralysis of the retina is liable to result. "With such paralysis of the retina, vision is heavily clouded or entirely lost ; hence, in spite of the open pupil, the finger may be approached to the eye without the animal's becoming conscious of it until it touches the surface, and if the nose on the affected side is gently struck and a feint made to repeat the blow the patient makes no effort to evade it. Sometimes the edges of the contracted pupil become adherent to each other by an intervening plastic exudation, and the opening becomes virtually abolished. In severe inflamma- tions pus may form in the choroid or iris, and escaping into the cavity of the aqueous humor show as a yellowish-white stratum be- low. In nearly all cases there is resulting exudation into the lens or its capsule, constituting a cloudiness or opacity (cataract) , which in severe and old-standing cases appears as a white, fleecy ijiass be- hind a widely dilated pupil. In the slighter cases cataract is to be recognized by examination of the eye in a dark chamber, with an ob- lique side light, as described in the introduction to this article. Cata- racts that appear as a simple haze or indefinite, fleecy cloud are usually on the capsule (capsular), while those that show a radiating arrangement are in the lens (lenticular), the radiating fibers of which the exudate follows. Black cataracts are formed by the adhesion of the pigment on the back of the iris to the front of the lens, and by the subsequent tearing loose of the iris, leaving a portion of its pig- ment adherent to the capsule of the lens. If the pupil is so con- tracted that it is impossible to see the lens, it may be dilated by appljdng to the front of the eye with a feather some drops of a solu- tion of 4 grains of atropia in an ounce of water. Treatment. — The treatment of internal ophthalmia should embrace, first, the removal of all existing causes or sources of aggravation of the disease, which need not be repeated here. Special care to protect the patient against strong light, cold, wet weather, and active exer- tion must, however, be insisted on. A dark stall and a cloth hung over the eye are important, while cleanliness, warmth, dryness, and rest are equally demanded. . If the patient is strong and vigorous, a dose of 4 drams of Barbados aloes may be given, and if there is any reason to suspect a rheumatic origin one-half a dram powdered col- chicum and one-half ounce salicylate of soda may be given daily. DISEASES OF THE EYE. 291 Locally the astriniient lotions adviseil for I'Xtonml ophthalmin may be resorted to, espeeially when the superfieial inllaiuniatiou is well marked. Moi-e important, however, is to instill into the eye. a few drops at a time, a solution of 4 e kept in semidarknei=s. or taken out only with a dark shade over the eye. For the same reason heavy drafts and, rapid paces, which would cause congestion of the head, should be carefully avoided. RECURRENT OPHTHALMIA (PERIODIC OPHTHALMIA, OR MOON- BLINDNESS). This is an inflannnatory affection of the interior of the eye, inti- mately related to certain soils, climates, and systems, .showing a strong tetidencv to recur again and again, and usually ending in blindness from cataract or other .serious injury. ('cntses. — Its causes may be fundamentally attributed to soil. On dami> clays and marshy grounds, on the fn'(|uently overflowed river bottoms and deltas, on the coasts of seas and lakes alternately sub- merged and exposed, this disease prevails extensively, and in many instances in France (Keynal). Belgium. Als-jice (Zundel. Milten- berger), fiermany. and England it has \eiv largely decri-ased under land drainage and improved methods of culture. Other influences, more or less associated with such soil, are potent causativ<' fartors. Thus damp air and a cloudy, wet climate, so constantly associated 292 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. with wet lands, are universally charged with causing the disease. These act on the animal body to produce a lymphatic constitution Tzith an excess of connective tissue, bones, and muscles of coarse, open texture, thick skins, and gummy legs covered with a profusion of long hair. Hence the heavy horses of Belgium and southwestern France have suffered severely from the affection, while high, dry lands adjacent, like Catalonia, in Spain, and Dauphiny, Provence, and Languedoc. in Fiance, have in the main escaped. The rank, aqueous fodders grown on such soils are other causes, but these again are calculated to undermine the character of the nervous and sanguineous temperament and to superinduce the hmiphatic. Other feeds act by leading to constipation and other disorders of the digestive organs, thus impairing the general health. Hence in any animal joredisposed to this disease, heating, starchy feeds, such as maize, wheat, and buckwheat, are to be carefully avoided. It has been widely charged that beans, peas, vetches, and other Leguminosse are dangerous, but a fuller inquiry contradicts the statement. If these feeds are well grown, they invigorate and fortify the system, while, like, any other fodder, if grown rank^ aqueous, and deficient in assimilable principles, they tend to lower the health and open the way for the disease. The period of dentition and training is a fertile exciting cause, for though the malady may appear at any time from birth to old age, yet the great majority of victims are from 2 to 6 years old, and if a horse escapes the affection till after 6 there is a reasonable hope that he will continue to resist it. The irritation about the head during the eruption of the teeth, and while fretting in the unwonted bridle and collar, the stimulating grain diet and the close air of the stable all combine to rouse the latent tendency to disease in the eye, while direct injuries by bridle, whip, or hay seeds are not without their influence. In the same way local irritants, like dust, severe rain and snow storms, smoke, and acrid vapors are contributmg causes. It is evident, however, that no one of these is sufficient of itself to produce the disease, and it has been alleged that the true cause is a microbe, or the irritant products of a microbe, which is harbored in the marshy soil. The prevalence of the disease on the same damp soils which produce ague in man and anthrax in cattle has been quoted in support of this doctrine, as also the fact that, other things being equal, the malady is always more prevalent in basins sur- rounded by hills where the air is still and such products are concen- trated, and that a forest or simple belt of trees will, as in ague, at times limit the area of its prevalence. Another argument for the same view is found in the fact that on certain farms irrigated by town sewage this malady has become extremely prevalent, the sewage being assumed to form a suitable nidus for the growth of the germ. DISEASES OF THE EYE. 293 But on these sewage farms a livsh crop may be cut every fortnight, ami tlie ])r()(hict is precisely that aciueoii.s material which contributes to a lymphatic structure and a low tone <»!' health. The presence of u definite germ in the system has not yet been prcncd, and in the present state of our lvnowled«j;e we are only warranted in charging the disease to tiie deleterious emanations from the marshy soil in which bactei-ial ferments are constantly producing them. Heredity is one of the most potent causes. The lymi)hatic consti- tution is of course transmitted and with it the proclivity to recur- ring ophthalmia. This is notorious in the case of both parents, male and female. The teiulency apjioars to be stronger, however, if either parent has already sutfered. Thus a mare may have borne a number of sound foals, and then fallen a victim to the malady, and all foals subse> a high, diy location, l)Ut for this and malarious atl'ei-tions the inifirovrrncnt of the laud by drain- age and good cultivation should be the linal aim. 2'reatiiunt is not sjitisfactory. but is largely the .same as for com- mon internal oi)hthalmia. Some cases, like rheumatism, are l)euefited by l-scru})le closes of powdcied colchicum and "J-drain doses of sali- cylate of soda twice a day. In other cases, with marked hardness of the globe of the eye from intiaocular efl'usion. aseptic pnnctiire of the eye, or even the excision of a portion of the iiis, has helped. During recovery a course of tonics (2 drams oxid of iron, 10 grains nux vomica, and 1 ounce sulphate of soda daily) is desirable to invigorate the .system and help to ward off another attack. The vulgar resort to knocking out the wolf teeth and cutting out the haw can only be con- demned. The temporary recovery would take place in one or two weeks, though no such thing had been done, and the breaking of a small tooth, leaving its fang in the jaw. only increases the irritation. CATARACT. The common result of internal ophthalmia, as of the recurrent type, may be recognized as described under the first of these dis- eases. Its offensive appearance nuiy be obviated by extraction or depression of the lens, but as the rays of light would no longer be properly refracted, perfect visicm would not be restored, and the animal would be liable to prove an inveterate shyer. Tf jierfect blindness continued by reason of pressure on the nerve of sight, no shying would result. PALSY (W T?5E NERVE OF SIGHT, OK A.MAUROSIS. < >/?/.sr.s'.— i lie caii.MS of this affection are tunu)rs or other disea.se of the brain implicating the roots of the optic nerve, injury to the nerve between the brain and eye, and inflammation of the ojitic nerve within the eye (retina), or undue pressure on the same from drop- sical or inflammatory effusion. Tt may also occur fnmi overloaded stomach, from a profuse bleeding, and even from the pressure of the gravid womb in gestation. '^>/mptoms. — The symptoms are wide dilatation «)f the pupils, so as to expose fully the inteiior of the globe, the expansion remaining 296 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. the same in light and darkness. Ordinary eyes when brought to the light have the pupils suddenly contract and then dilate and contract alternately until they adapt themselves to the light. The horse does not swerve when a feint to strike is made unless the hand causes a current of air. The ears are held erect, turn quickly toward any noise, and the horse steps high to avoid stumbling over objects which it can not see. Treatment is only useful when the disease is symptomatic of some removable cause, like congested brain, overloaded stomach, or gravid womb. AVlien recovery does not follow the termination of these conditions, apply a blister behind the ear and give one-half dram doses of nux vomica daily. TUMORS OF THE EYEBALL. A variety of tumors attack the eyeball — dermoid, papillary, fatty, cystic, and melanotic — but perhaps the most frequent in the horse is encephaloid cancer. This may grow in or on the globe, the haw, the eyelid, or the bones of the orbit, and can be remedied, if at all, only by early and thorough excision. It may be distinguished from the less dangerous tumors by its softness, friability, and great vascu- larity, bleeding on the slightest touch, as well as by its anatomical structure. STAPHYLOMA. This consists in a bulging forward of the cornea at a given point by the sacculate yielding and distention of its coats, and it may be either transparent or opaque and vascular. In the last form the iris has become adherent to the back of the cornea, and the whole struc- ture is filled with blood vessels. In the first form the bulging cornea is attenuated ; in the last it ma}^ be thickened. The best treatment is by excision of a portion of the rise so as to relieve the intraocular pressure. PARASITES IN THE EYE. Acari in the qjq have been incidentally alluded to under inflamma- tion of the lids. Filaria faJpeljralh is a white worm, one-half to 1 inch long, which inhabits the lacrimal duct and the underside of the eyelids and haw in the horse, producing a verminous conjunctivitis. The first step in treatment in such cases is to remove the worm with forceps, then treat as for external inflammation. Setaria equina is a delicate, white, silvery-looking worm, which I have repeatedly found 2 inches in length (a length as great as 5 inches has been reported) . It invades the aqueous humor, where its constant active movements make it an object of great interest, and it is fre- DISEASES OF THE EYE. 297 queiitly exhibited as a '* suiike in t'ae eye."' When present in the eve it causes in(laiiiiiial.i()n ami has to be reniovi'd thi'oiijj^h an incision nuuk' Avith the hmcet in the ui)i)er border t)f the cornea ch)se to the sclerotic, the point of the instrument being directed slightly forwaid to avoid injury to the iris. Then cold watci- or astringent antiseptic lotions shouhl be api)lietl. Fihirla canjunetiivr, resembling Setaria equina very much in size juul general appearance, is another roundwoi-m wliich has l)een found in the eye of the hoi'se. The echinococcns. the cystic < r l:ir\ al stage of tlie ecliinococcus tai>ew<^i-m of tlie dog. has been found in tlie eve of the liorse. and a cysticercus is also reported. ' This worm is normally a parasite of the peritoneal canity, and Is probably transmitted from one horse to another by some biting Insect which becomes Infected by emiiryos in the blood. — M. C. IIall. LAMENESS: ITS CAUSES AND TREATMENT. By A. LiAUTARD, :M. D.. V. M.. Formerly principal of the A)ncrican Veterinary College, Xeio Yoi'Tc. [Revised by John R. Mohler, A. M., V. M. D.] It is as living, organized, locomotive machines that the horse, camel, ox, and their burden-bearing companions are of practical value to man. Hence the consideration of their usefulness and con- sequent value to their human masters ultimately and naturally re- solves itself into an inquiry concerning the condition of that special portion of their organism which controls their function of locomo- tion. This is especially true in regard to the members of the equine family, the most numerous and valuable of all the beasts of burden, and it naturally follows that with the horse for a subject of dis- cussion the special topic and leading theme of inquiry, by an easy lapse, will become an inquest into the condition and efficienc}?- of his power for usefulness as a carrier or traveler. There is a great deal of abstract interest in the study of that endowment of the animal economy which enables its possessor to change his place at will and convey himself whithersoever his needs or his moods may in- cline him; how much greater, however, the interest that attaches to the subject when it becomes a practical and economic question and includes within its purview the various related topics which belong to the domains of physiology, pathology, therapeutics, and the entire round of scientific investigation into which it is finalh^ merged as a subject for medical and surgical consideration — in a word, of actual disease and its treatment. It is not surprising that the intricate and complicated apparatus of locomotion, with its symmetry and harmony of movement and the perfection and beauty of its details and adjuncts, by students of creative design and attentive observers of nature and her marvelous contrivances and adaptations, should be admiringly denominated a living machine. Of all the animal tribe the horse, in a state of domesticity, is the largest sharer with his master in his liability to the accidents and dangers which are among the incidents of civilized life. From his exposure to the missiles of war on the battlefield to his chance of picking up a nail from the city pavement there is no hour when he is 298 lameness: its causes and treatment. 299 not in dan^rer of incurring injuries which for their repair may de- niiind the Ix'st skill of the veterinary practitioner. This is true not alone of casualties Nvhieh helonj; to the class (»f external aiul trau- matic cases, but includes as well those of a Uind perhaps more numerous, which may result in lesions of internal i)aits, frequently the most serious and ohscure of all in thi'ir nature ami ctfects. The horse is too important a factor in the practical details of human life and fills too lar»re a |)lace in the business and pleasure of tlie world to justify any inditl'erenre to his needs and physical com- fort or ne«j:lect in respect to the preservation of liis ])c<'uliar ])owers for usefulness. In enterinir somewhat lar<;ely, therefore, ujx)!! a review of the subject, anil treating in detail of the causes, the sym[)- toms, the prt»gress, the treatment, the results, and the consequences of lameness in the horse, we are performing a duty which needs no word of apology or justification. The subject explains and justifies itstdf, and is its own vindication and illustration, if any are needed. The function of locomotion is performed by the action of two prin- cipal systems of organs, known in anatomical and physiological terminology' as passive and active, the muscles i^erforming the active and the bones the passive portion of the movement. The necessary connection In'tween the coo})erating parts of the organism is effected by means of a vital contact by which the muscle is attached to the bone at certain determinate points on the surface of the latter. These points of attachment appear sonietimcs as an eminence, some- times as a depression, sometimes a border or an angle, or again as a mere roughness, but each i)erfectly fulfilling its purpose, while the necessary motion is provided for by the formation of the ends of the long bones into the requisite articulations, joints, or hinges. Every motion is the product of the contraction of one or more of the muscles, which, as it acts upon the bony lexers, gives rise to a move- ment of extension or flexion, abduction or adduction, rotation or cir- cumduction. Tlie movement of abduction is that which passes from an«l that of adductiim that which passes toward the median line, or the center of the body. The movements of flexion and extension are too well imderstood to need defining. Tt is the combination and raj^id alterations of these movements which produce the ditferent postures and various gaits of the animal, and it is their interruption and derangement, from whatever causes, which constitute the patho- logical condition known as lameness. A concise examination of the general anatomy of these organs, however, must preceile the consideration of the pathological (jues- tions i:)€rtaining to the subject. A statement, such as we have just given, containing only the briefest hint of matters which, though not necessarily in their ultimate s the voluntaiy muscles. ai)pear \n the form of fleshy struc- tures, red in color, and with fibei*s of various degrees of fineness, and are composed of fasciculi, or bundles of fibers, united by con- nective or cellular tissue, each fasciculus being composed of suialler ones but united in a similar manner to compose the larger forma- tions, each of which is enveloi)ed by a structure of similar nature known as the sarcolemma. Many of the muscles are imited to the bones by the direct contact of their fleshy fibers, but in other instances the body of the muscle is more or less gradually trans- formed into a cordy or membranous structure known as the tendon or sinew, and the attachment is made by the very short fibrous threads through the medium of a long tendinous band, which, pass- ing from a single ouc to sev(?ral others of the bones, effects its object at a point far distant from its original attachment. In thus carrying its action from one bone to another, or from one region of a limb to another, these tendons must necessarily have smooth surfaces over which to glide, either upcm the bones themselves or formed at their articulations, ami this need is supplied by the secretion of the syno- vial fluid, a yellowish, unctuous substance, furnished by a peculiar teudinous synovial sac designed for the purpose. Illustrations in point of the agency of the synovial fluid in assist- ing the sliding movements of the tendons may be found under their various forms at the shoulder joint, at the upper part of the bone of the arm, at the posterior part of the knee joint, and also at the fet- locks, on their posterior part. As the tendons, whether singly or in company witli others, pass ()ver these natural pulleys they are retained in place by strong, fibrous bands or sheaths, which are by no moans exempt from danger of injury, as will be readily inferred from a consideration of their important special use as supports and reenforcements of the tendons themselves, with which they must necessarily share the stress of whatever force or strain is brought to bear upon both or either. We have referred to that special formation of the external surface of a bone by which it is adapted to form a joint or articulation, either movable or fixed, and a concise examination of the formation and structure of the movable articulations will here be in place. These are formed generally by the extremities of the long bones, or may exist on the surfaces of the short ones. The points or regions where the contact occurs are denominated the articular surface.which assumes from this circumstance a considerable variety of aspect and 302 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. form, being in one case compuiiitively flat and another elevated; or as forming a protruding head or knob, with a distinct convexity; and again presenting a corresponding depression or cavity, accu- rately adapted to complete, by their coaptation, the ball-and-socket joint. The articulation of the arm and shoulder is an example of the first kind, while that of the hip with the thigh bone is a perfect exhibition of the latter. The structure whose office it is to retain the articulating surfaces in place is the ligament. This is usually a white, fibrous, inelastic tissue; sometimes, however, it is elastic in character and yellowish. In some instances it is funicular shaped or corded, serving to bind more firmly together the bones to which its extremities are attached ; in others it consists of a broad membrane, wholly or partially sur- rounding the broad articulations, and calculated rather for the pro- tection of the cavity from intrusion by the air than for other security. This latter form, known as capsular, is usually found in connection with joints which possess a free and extended movement. The capsular and funicular ligaments are sometimes associated, the cap- sular appearing as a membranous sac wholly or partially inclosing the joint, the funicular, here known as an interarticular ligament, occupying the interior, and thus securing the union of the several bones more firmly and effectively than would be possible for the cap- sular ligament unassisted. The universal need which pertains to all mechanical contrivances of motion has not been forgotten while providing for the perfect working of the interesting piece of living machinery which performs the function of locomotion, as we are contemplating it, and nature has consequently provided for obviating the evils of attrition and friction and insuring the easy play and smooth movement of its parts by the establishment of the secretion of the synovia, the vital lubricant of which we have before spoken, as a yellow, oil}'', or rather glairy secretion, which performs the indispensable office of facili- tating the play of the tendons over the joints and certain given points of the bones. This fluid is deposited in a containing sac, the lining (serous) membrane of which forms the secreting organ. This membrane is of an excessively sensitive nature, and while it lines the inner face of the ligaments, both capsular and fascicular, it is attached only upon the edges of the bones, without extending upon their length, or between the layers of cartilage which lie between the bones and their articular surfaces. Our object in thus partially and concisely reviewing the structure and condition of the essential organs of locomotion has been rather to outline a sketch which may seiwe as a reference chart of the gen- eral features of the subject than to offer a minute description of the parts referred to. Other points of interest will receive proper atten- lameness: its causes and treatment. 303 tion as we proceed with the illustration of our subject and examine tlif matters which it most concerns us to brin*^ under consideraticm. The fdundatiun of I'atts which we have thus far prepared will be found sufficiently broad, we trust, to include whatever may be neces- sary to insure a ready comprehension of the essential matters whicii are to follow as our review is carried forward to completion. What we have said touching these elementary truths will probably be suffi- cient to facilitate a clear understandinfi of the requirements essential to the j)erfection and reiruhirity which charucteri/e the normal per- formance of the various movements that result in the accomplish- ment of the action of locomotion. So lon^ as the bones, the nniscles and their tendons, the joints with their cartilages, their lioints occupied by the feet of the animal while staiuling at rest, foiiuing a sfjuare, the two fore legs are known as the anteiior biped; the two hinder, the posteiioi-; the two on one side, the latenil : and one of either the front oi- hind bii)ed with the opposite leg of the hind or front biped will foiin the diagonal bijHHl. Considering, as it is proper to do, that in a condition of health each separate biped and each individual leg is required to pei-foini an equal and uniform function and to carry an even or equal por- tion of the weight of the body, it will be readily a])preciatcd that the result of tliis distribution will be a regidar, evenly lialanced, and smooth displacement of the body thus supported by the four legs, and that therefore, according to the rapidit}'^ of the motion in dilTerent gaits, each single leg will be i-equii"ed at certain succes- sive moments to bear the weight which had rested upon its congener while it was itself in the air, in the act of moving; or, again, two different legs of a biped may be called upon to bear the weight of fhe two legs of the opposite bijied while also in the air in the act of moving. To simplify the matter by an illustration, the weight of an animal may be placed at 1.000 pounds, of which each leg, in a normal and healthy condition, supports while at rest 2r)0 pounds. AVhen one of the fore legs is in action, or in the aii', and carrying no weight, its "250 pounds share of the weight will be thrown upon its congener, or l)artner. to sustain. If the two legs of a biped are both in action and raised from the groimd, their congeners, still resting in inaction, will carry the total weight of the other two, or 500 pounds. And as the succession of movements continues, and the change from one leg to another or from one biped to another, as may be required by the gait, proceeds, there will result a smooth, even, and equal balancing of active movements, .shifting the weight fioni one leg or one biped to another, with symmetrical precision, and we shall be presented with an interesting example of the ]ilay of vital inachanics in a healthy organization. Much may be learned from the accurate study of the action of a single leg. Normally, its movements will be without variation or failure. When at rest it will easily sustain the weight assigned to it 36444"— IG 20 306 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. without showing hesitancy or betraying pain, and when it is raised from the ground in order to transfer the weight to its mate it will perform the act in such manner that Avhen it is again placed upon the ground to rest it will be with a firm tread, indicative of its ability to receive again the burden to be thrown back upon it. In planting it upon the ground or raising it again for the forward movement while in action, and again replanting it upon the earth, each move- ment will be the same for each leg and for each biped, whether the act is that of walking or trotting, or even of galloping. In shoi-t, the regular play of every part of the apparatus will testify to the existence of that condition of orderl}' soundness and efficient activity eloquently suggestive of the condition of vital integrity which is simply but comprehensively expressed by the terms health and soundness. But let some change, though slight and obscure, occur among the elements of the case; some invisible agency of evil intrude among the harmonizing processes going forward: any disorder occur in the relations of cooperating parts: anything appear to neutralize the efficiency of vitalizing forces: an}'' disabilitj' of a limb to accept and to throw back upon its mate the portion of the weight which belongs to it to sustain — present itself, whether as the effect of accident or otherwise; in short, let anything develop which tends to defeat the purpose of nature in organizing the locomotive apparatus and we are confronted at once by that which may be looked upon as a cause of lameness. , • Not the least of the facts which it is important to remember is that it is not sufficient to look for the manifestation of an existing discord- ance in the action of the affected limb alone, but that it is shared by the sound one and must be searched for in that as well as the halting member, if the hazard of an error is to be avoided. The mode of action of the leg which is the seat of the lameness will varj'' greatl}' from that which it exhibited when in a healthy condition, and the sound leg will also offer important modifications in the same three particulars before alluded to, to wit, that of resting on the ground, that of its elevation and forward motion, and that of striking the ground again when the full action of stepping is accomplished. Inability in the lame leg to sustain weight will imply excessive exer- tion by the sound one, and lack of facility' or disj)osition to rest the lame member on the ground will necessitate a longer continuance of that action on the sound side. Changes in the act of elevating the leg, or of carrying it forward, or in both, will present entirely oppo- site conditions between the two. The lame member will be elevated rapidly, moved carefully forward, and returned to the ground with caution and hesitancy, and the contact with the earth will be effected as lightly as possible, while the sound limb will rest longer on the LAMENESS: ITS CAUSES AND TREATMENT. 307 ground, move boldly and rapidly fotuuiil. and strike the ground promptly and forcibly. All this is due to the fact that the s(jund member carries more than its normal, healthy share of the weijjjht of the body, a share which may be in excess from 1 to 'J.-jO j)ounils, and thus bring its burden to a figure varying from 'jr>l to 500 pouuds, all depending upon the degree of the existing lameness, whether it is simply a slight tenderness or soreness, or whether the trouble has reached a stage which compels the patient to the awkwardness of traveling on three legs. That all this is not mere theory, but rests on a foundation of fact may be established by observing the manifestations attending a single alteration in ihe balancing of the botly. In health the support aud ecjuilibrium of that mass of the body which is borne by the fore legs is equalized and passes by regular alternations froui the right to the left side and vice versa. But if the left leg, becoming disabled, relieves itself by leaning, as it were, on the right, the latter becomes, conse available. He is to be examined from various positions — from Ijefore. from behiiul. and from each side. Watching him as he approaches, as he passes by. and as he recedes, the observer should carefully study that impoitunt action which we have sjx)ken of as the dropping of the body upon one extremity or the other, and this can readily be detected by attending closely to the motions of the head and of the hi[). The head drops on the same side on which the mass of the body will fall, dropping toward the right when the lameness is in the left fore leg, and the hip dropping in pos- terior lameness, also on the sound leg, the reversal of the conditions, 308 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. of course, producing reversed effects. In other words, ^vlien the ani- mal in trotting exhibits signs of irregrJarity of action, or himeness, and this irregularity is accompanied with dropping or nodding the head, or depressing the hip on the right side of the bodj^, at the time the feet of the right side strike the ground, the horse is lame on the left side. If the dropping and nodding are on the near side the lame- ness is on the off side. In a majority of cases, however, the answer to the first question re- lating to the lameness of a horse is, after all, not a very difficult task. There are two other problems in the case more difficult of solution and which often require the exercise of a closer scrutiny, and draw upon all the resources of the experienced practitioner to settle satis- factorily. That a horse is lame in a given leg may be easily deter- mined, but when it becomes necessary to pronounce upon the query as to what part, Avhat region, what structure is affected, the easy part of the task is over, and the more difficult and important, because more obscure, portion of the investigation has commenced — except, of course, in cases of which the features are too distinctly evident to the senses to admit of error. It is true th{it by carefully noting the manner in which a lame leg is performing its functions, and closely scrutinizing the motions of the whole extremity, and especially of the various joints which enter into its structure; by minutely ex- amining every part of the limb; by observing the outlines; by testing the change, if any, in temperature and the state of the sensibility — all these investigations may guide the surgeon to a correct locali- zation of the seat of trouble, but he must carefully refrain from the adoption of a hasty conclusion, and, above all, assure himself that he has not failed to make the foot, of all the organs of the horse the most liable to injury and lesion, the subject of the most thorough and minute examination of all the parts which compose the suffering extremity. The greater liability of the foot than of any other part of the extremities to injuiy from casualties, natural to its situation and use, should always suggest the beginning of an inquiry, especially in an obscure case of lameness at that point. Indeed the lameness may have an apparent location elscAvhere when that is the true seat of the trouble, and the surgeon who, Avhile examining his lame patient, discovers a ringbone, and convincing himself that he has encoun- tered the cause of the disordered action suspends his investigation without subjecting the foot to a close scrutiny, at a later day when regrets will avail nothing, may deeply regret his neglect and inad- vertence. As in human pathological experience, however, there are instances when inscrutable diseases will deliver their fatal messages, Avhile leaving no mark and making no sign by which they might be identified and classified., so it will happen that in the humbler ani- LAMENESS: ITS (.'Al'SES AND TREATMENT. 309 mals the onset and progress of mysterious iuul iinreeon^iizable ail- ments will at times halHe the most skilled veterinarian, and leave our burden-bearino: servants to siicrnmb to the inevitable, and siiU'er and perish in unrelieved distress. DISEASES OF BONES. PERIOSTITIS, OSTITIS, AND EXOSTOSIS. From the closeness and intimaev of the connection existing; between the two jirinoipal elements of the bony sti'uctnre while in health, it fre(iiiently becomes exceedingly dillicnlt, when a state of disease has supervened, to discriminate accurately- as to the part primarly af- fected and to determine positively whether the periosteum or the b< dy of the bone is originally implicated. Yet a knowledge of the fact is often of the first importance, in order to obtain a favorable I'esult from the treatment to be instituted. It is. however, quite evi- dent that in a majority of instances the bony growths which so fre- quently appear on the surface of their structure, to which the general term of exostosis is applied, have had their origin in an inflammation of the periosteum, or enveloping membrane, and known as periostitis. However this may be, we have as a frequent result, sometimes on the body of the bone, sometimes at the extremities, and sometimes in- volving the articulation itself, certain bony growths, or exostoses, known otherwise by the term of splint, ringbone, and spavin, all of which, in an imjwrtant sense, may be finally referred to the perios- teum as their nutrient source and support, at least after their forma- tion, if not for their incipient existence. Cmise. — It is certain that inflammation of the periosteum is fre- quently referable to wounds and bruises caused by external agencies, and it is also true that it may possibly result from the spreading inflammation of surrounding diseased tissues, but in any case the result is uniformly .seen in the deposit of a bony growth, moi-e or less diffuse, sometimes of irregular outline, and at others projecting dis- tinctly from the surface from which it springs, as so commonly pre- sented in the ringbone and the spavin. SyviptorriA. — This condition of periostitis is often diflicult to «leter- mine. The signs of inflammation are so ob.scure, the swelling of the parts so insignificant, any increase of heat so imperceptible, and the soreness so slight, that even the most acute observer may fail to find the point of its existence, and it is often long after the discovery of the disease itself that its location is positively revealed by the visible presence of the exostosis. Yet the first question had been resolved, in discovering the fart of the lameness, while the second and third remained unanswered, and the identification of the affected limb and the point of origin of the trouble remained unknown until their palpable revelation to the sense.s. 310 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Treatment. — \^lien, by careful scrutin}', the ailment has been located, a resort to treatment must be had at once, in order to pre- vent, if possible, any further deposit of the calcareous structuie and increase of the exostotic growth. With tliis view the application of water, either warm or cold, rendered astringent by the addition of alum or sugar of lead, will be beneficial. The tendency to the forma- tion of the bony growth, and the increase of its development after its actual formation, may oft^n be checked by the application of a severe blister of Spanish fly. The failure of these means and the establishment of the diseased process in the form of chronic perios- titis cause ^'arious changes in the bone covered by the disordered membrane, and the result may be softening, degeneration, or necro- sis, but more usually it is followed by the formation of the bony growths referred to. on the cannon bone, the coronet, the hock, etc. SPLINTS. We first turn our attention to the splint, as certain bony enlarge- ments that are developed on the cannon bone, between the knee or the hock and the fetlock joint, are called. (See Plate XXY.) Thej'^ are found on the inside of the leg. from the knee, near which they are frequently found, downward to about the lower third of the principal cannon bone. They are of various dimensions, and are readily per- ceptible both to the eye and to the touch. They vary considerably in size, ranging from that of a large nut downward to verj' small pro- portions. In searching for them they may be readily detected by the hand if they have attained sufficient development in their usual situ- ation, but must be distinguished from a small, bony enlargement that may be felt at the lower third of the cannon bone, which is neither a splint nor a pathological formation of any kind, but merely the but- tonlike enlargement at the lower extremity of the small metacarpal or splint bone. We have said that splints are to be found on the inside of the leg. This is true as a general statement, but it is not invariably so, for they occasionally appear on the outside. It is also true that they appear most commonly on the fore legs, but this is not exclusively the case, because they may at times be found on both the inside and out- side of the hind leg. Usually a splint forms only a true exostosis, or a single bony growth, with a somewhat diffuse base, but neither is this invariably the case. In some instances they assume more important dimensions, and pass from the inside to the outside of the bone, on its posterior face, between that and the suspensory ligament. This form is termed the pegged splint, and constitutes a serious and per- manent deformity, in consequence of its interference with the play- of the fibrous cord which passes behind it. becoming thus a source of continual irritation and consequently of permanent lameness. lameness: its causes axd treatment. 311 Symptoms. — A splint may thus frequently hecouie :i eause of lame- ness though not necessarily in every instance, but it is a lameness possessing features peculiar to itself. It is not always continuous, but at times assumes an intermittent character, and is more marked when the animal is warm than when cool. If the lameness is near the kneejoint. it is very liable to become aggravated when the animal is put to work, aiul the gait a(<|uires then a jieculiar charactei', aris- ing from the manner in which the limb is carried outward from tho knees downward, which is done by a kind of abducti(m of the lower part of the leg. Other symptoms, however, than the lameness and the presence of the splint, which is its cause, ma}' be looked for in the same connection as tho?;e which have been mentioned as ]>crtaining to certain e^'iden(■es of periostitis, in the increase of the temperature of the part, with swelling and probably pain on pressure. This last symptom is of no little importance, since it« presence or absence has in many cases formed the determining point in deciding a question of difficult diagnosis. Cause. — A splint being one of the rcssults of periostitis, and the latter one of the effects of external hurts, it naturally follows that the i^arts which aie most exposed to lilows and collisions will be those on which the splint will most commonly be found, and it may not be improper, therefore, to refer to hurts from without as among the common causes of the lesion. But other causes may also be pro- ductive of the evil, and among these may l)e mentioned the over- straining of an iinniatuie organism by the imposition of excessive lal)or upon a young animal at a too early period of his life. The bones whicli enter into the formation of the cannon are three in numlxT, one large and two smaller, which, during the youth of tho iinimal. are more or less articulated, with a limitiMl amount of mo- bility, but which become in niatuiity firndy joined by a rigid union and ossification of tlu'ir interarticular surface. If the immature animal is comi>elled. then, to perform exacting tasks beyond liis .strength, the inevit.d>le rcMilt will follow in the muscular straining, and perhaps tearing astmder of the fibers which unite the bones at their points of juncture, and it is diflicult to understand how inflam- mation or periostitis can fail to develop as the natuial conse(]uence of such local irritation. If the result were deliberately and intelli- gently designed, it could hardly be more effectually accomplished. The s]dint is an object of the commonest occurrence — so counnon, indeed, that in large cities a horse which can not exhibit one or more specimens upon some portion of his extremities is one of the rarest of .spectacles. Though it is in some in.stances a cause of lameness, and its discovery and cure are sometimes beyond the ability of the shrewdest and most exjierienced veterinarians, yet as a soiirce of vital danger to the general equine organization, or even of functional 312 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. disturbance, or of practical inconAenience, aside from the rare ex- ceptional cases Avhich exist as mere samples of possibility, it can not be considered to belong to the category of serious lesions. The worst stigma that attaches to it is that in general estimation it is ranked among eyesores and continues indefinitely to be that and nothing dif- ferent. The inflammation in M'hich they originated, acute at first, either subsides or assumes the chronic form, and the bony growth becomes a permanence — more or less established, it is true, but doing no positive harm and not hindering the animal from continuing his daily routine of labor. All this, however, requires a proviso against the occurrence of a subsequent acute attack, when, as with other ex- ostoses, a fresh access of acute symptoms may be followed by a new pathological activity, which shall again develop, as a natural result, a reappearance of the lameness. TreatTnent. — It is, of course, the consideration of the comparative harmlessness of splints that suggests and justifies the policy of non- interference, except as they become a positive cause of lameness. And a more positive argument for such noninterference consists in the fact that any active and irritating treatment may so excite the parts as to bring about a renewed pathological activity, which may result in a reduplication of the phenomena, with a second edition, if not a second and enlarged volume, of the whole story. For our part, our faith is firm in the impolicy of interference, and this faith is founded on an experience of many years, during which our practice has been that of abstention. Of course, there will be exceptional conditions which will at times indicate a different course. These will become evident when the occa- sions present themselves, and extraordinary forms and effects of inflammation and growth in the tumors offer special indications. But our conviction remains unshaken that surgical treatment of the oper- ative kind is usually useless, if not dangerous. "We have little faith in the method of extirpation except under very special conditions, among Avhich that of diminutive size has been named ; this seems in itself to constitute a sufficient negative argument. Even in such a rase a resort to the knife or the gouge could scarcely find a justifi- cation, since no operative procedure is ever without a degree of haz- ard, to say nothing of the considerations which are always forcibly negative in any question of the infliction of pain and the unnecessary use of the knife. If an acute periostitis of the cannon bone has been readil}^ discov- ered, the treatment we have already suggested for that ailment is at once indicated, and the astringent lotions may be relied upon to bring about beneficial results. Sometimes, however, preference may be given to a lotion possessing a somewhat different quality, the alter- ative consisting of tincture of iodin applied to the inflamed spot U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Diseases of the Horse. Plate XXV. f^^- \v > A^v .... yu>L. ^^\^ t y U. S. Dept of Agriculture, Diseases of the Horse. Plate xxvi. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Diseases of the Hors^ •%j '•yy-^'V ^^fik* ' ■ '^S.tf-n "^ - ^ ■ -• '-1!^ U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Diseases of the Horse. Plate XXVlil. U. S. Dept of Agriculture, Diseases of the Horse. 1 ■ I . \ I 1 . \ . I \ ^ / A,.. /. 'y^Jr% ' Ai y H(»NI-, SI'.W IN lameness: its causes and TttEATMr.N r. ;;i;] several times daily. 11' the lameness persists uiulor this uiiKl (ourse of treatment, it must, of course, be attacked l>v other methods, and wo must resort to tlie cantharides ointment oi* Spanisli-fly blister, as we have before recommended, pjcsidcs thi>, and producin<; an analogous effect, the compounils of biniodid di" nu rciiiv aic favorecl by some. It is prepared in the form of an ointment, consisliiii; of 1 diam of the biniodid to 1 ounce of either lard or vaseline. It forms an excellent blistering; and alterative application, and is of special advanta^ic in newly foiincd or recently discovered exostosis. It remains a pertinent (juerv. however, and one \vhi«h seems to bo easily answered, whether a tinnor so diminiitixc in size that it can be iletected only by diliuent seaich. and wjiich is neither a disfij^ure- nunt nor an obstruction to the motion of the limb, need receive any recogn^itiiin whatever. Other modes of treatment for splints are rec- ommended and ])racticed w hich belon«z strictly to the domain of oper- ative veterinary surjreiy: amon^ these are to be reckoned actual cauterization, or the application of the fire iron and the operati(m of periosteotcmy. These are frecpiently indicated in the treatment of splints which have resisted milder means. The nuxle of the development of their growth ; their intimacy, jrreater or le. their easy dis- 314 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. coveiy, their form when near the fetlock usually varying too much from the natural outlines of the part when compared with those of the opposite side to admit of error in the matter. (See also page 439.) A ringbone, when on the front of the foot, even when not very largely developed, assumes the form of a diffused convex swelling. If situated on the lower part, it will form a thick ring, encircling that portion of the foot immediately above the hoof ; when found on the posterior part, a small, sharp osseous growth somewhat project- ing, sometimes on the inside and sometimes on the outside of the coronet, may comprise the entire manifestation. Cause. — As with splints, ringbones may result from severe labor in early life, before the process of ossification has been fully perfected; or they may be referred to bruises, blows, sprains, or other violence ; injuries of tendons, ligaments, or joints also may be among the accountable causes. It is certain that they may commonly be traced to diseases and traumatic lesions of the foot, and their appearance may be reason- ably expected among the sequalae of an abscess of the coronet: or the cause may be a severe contusion resulting from callving. or a deep-punctured wound from picking up a nail or stepping upon any hard object of sufficiently irregular form to penetrate the sole. Moreover, a ringbone may originate in heredity. This is a fact of no little importance in its relation to questions connected with the extensive interests of the stock breeder and purchaser. That the hereditary transmission of constitutional idiosyncrasies is an active cause with regard to diseases in general, it would be absurd to assert, but we do say that a predisposition to contract ringbone through faulty conformation, such as long, thin pasterns with narrow joints and steep fetlocks, may be inherited in many cases, and in a smaller proportion of cases this predisposition may act as a secondary cause in the formation of ringbone. The importance of this point when considered in reference to the policy which should be observed in the selection of breeding stock is obvious, and, as the whole matter is within the control of the o^^ners and breeders, it will be their own fault if the unchecked transmission of ringbones from one equine generation to another is allowed to continue. It is our belief that among the diseases which are known for their tendency to perpetuate and repeat themselves by individual succession, those of the bony structures stand first, and the inference from such fact which would exclude every ani- mal of doubtful soundness in its osseous apparatus from the stud list and the brood farm is too plain for argument. Symptoms. — Periostitis of the phalanges is an ailment requiring careful exploration and minute inspection for its discovery, and is very liable to result in a ringbone of which lameness is the result. lameness: its causes and teeatment. 315 The mode of its innnifestation varies according to the state of de- veltJpment of tlie diseusod «ri<)Wth ns allVctiNl by tlie lirciiinstunfes of its locution and dimensionSi It is commonly of tlie kind which, in consequence of its intermittent character, is termed lameness when cool, having the peculiarity of exhibiting: itself when the animal starts from the stable and of diminishine oc- ro[)er .shoeing directed toward .straightening the axis of the foot as viewed from the side by making the wall of the hoof from the conmet to the toe continuous with the line formed by the front of the pastern. So long as inflammation of the periosteum and liga- ments remains, a .sharp blister of Itiniodid of mercury and canthari- des may do good if the animal is allowed to i*est for four or five weeks. If this fails, some .success may l>e accomplished by point firing in two or tluee lines over the ringbone. It is necessary to touch the hot iron well into the bone, as superficial firing does little good. When all these measures have failed to remove the lameness, or when 316 DISEASES OF THE IIOESE. the animal is not worth a long and uncertain treatment, a competent veterinarian should be engaged to perform double neurectomy, high or low, of the plantar nerves, or neurectomy of the median nerve as indicated by the seat of the lesion. SIDEBONES. On each side of the bone of the hoof — the cofRnbone — there are normally two supplementary organs which are called the cartilages of the foot. They are soft, and though in a degree elastic, yet some- what resisting, and are implanted on the lateral wings of the coffin- bone. Evidently their office is to assist in the elastic expansion and contraction of the posterior part of the hoof, and their healthy and normal action doubtless contributes in an important degree to the perfect performance of the functions of that part of the leg. These organs are, how^ever, liable to undergo a process of disease which re- sults in an entire change in their properties, if not in their shape, by which they acquire a character of hardness resulting from the de- posit of earthy substance in the intimate structure of the cartilage, and it is this change, when its consummation has been effected, that brings to our cognizance the diseased growth wdiich has received the desigTiation of sidebones. They are situated on one or both sides of the leg, bulging above the superior border of the hoof in the form of two hard bodies composed of ossified cartilage, irregularly square in shape and unyielding under the pressure of the fingers. Cause. — Sidebones may be the result of a low inflammatory condi- tion or of an acute attack as well, or may be caused by sprains, bruises, or blows; or they may have their rise in certain diseases affecting the foot proper, such as corns, quarter cracks, or quittor. The deposit of calcareous matter in the cartilage is not alwaj^s uniform, the base of that organ near its line of union with the coffinbone being in some .cases its limit, while at other times it is diffused throughout its sub- stance, the size and prominence of the growth varying much in consequence. Symptoms. — It would naturally be inferred that the degree of interference with the proper functions of the hoof which must result from such a pathological change would be proportioned to the size of the tumor, and that as the dimensions increase the resulting lame- ness would be the greater in degree. This, however, is not the fact. A small tumor while in a condition of acute inflammation during the formative stage may cripple a patient more severely than a much larger one in a later stage of the disease. In any case the lameness is never wanting, and with its intermittent character may usually be detected W'hen the animal is cooled off after labor or exercise. The class of animals in Avhich this feature of the disease is most fre- lameness: its causes and Tni:AT.MKNT. 317' quently seen is tluit of tlie lu':i\y draft liorsc aiid others similarly employed. There is a wide margin of diireiciice in re^