MAN 
 
 PAST AND PRESENT , 
 
 V 
 
 O. ' 
 
 u-^^' 
 
 BY 
 
 A. H. KEANE, F.R.G.S. 
 
 LATE VICE-PRES. ANTHROP. INSTITUTE : 
 
 CORRES. MEMBER FLORENTINE ROMAN AND WASHINGTON 
 
 ANTHROP. SOCIETIES: 
 
 EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF HINDUSTANI, UNIV. COLL. LONDON. 
 
 Author of Ethnology; The Indo'Chinese and Oceanic Races atid Languages ; 
 Ethnology of Egyptian Sndan, etc. , etc. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE: 
 AT ¥hE university PRESS. 
 
 1899 
 
 \_All Rights reserved. ^ 
 

 GENERAL 
 
 CambritJgE: 
 
 PRINTED BY J. AND C. F. CLAY, 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 
 ^H-O/^ 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In the preface to the Ethnology, which formed the first 
 volume of the Cambridge Geographical Series, a promise was held 
 out that it might be followed by another dealing more systemati- 
 cally with the primary divisions of mankind. The present volume 
 appears in part fulfilment of that promise. In the Ethnology were 
 discussed those more fundamental questions which concern the 
 human family as a whole — its origin and evolution, its specific 
 unity, antiquity and primitive cultural stages, together vn\h the 
 probable cradle and area of dispersion of the four varietal divisions 
 over the globe. Here these divisions are treated more in detail, 
 with the primary view of establishing their independent specialisa- 
 tion in their several geographical zones, and at the same time 
 elucidating the difficult questions associated with the origins and 
 inter-relations of the chief sub-groups, and thus bridging over the 
 breaks of continuity between '' Man Past and Present." 
 
 The work is consequently to a large extent occupied with that 
 hazy period vaguely called prehistoric, when most of the now 
 Hving peoples had already been fully constituted in their primeval 
 homes, and had begun those later developments and migratory 
 movements which followed at long intervals after the first peopfing 
 of the earth by pleistocene man. By such movements were 
 brought about great changes, displacements, and dislocations, 
 involving fresh ethnical groupings, with profound modifications, 
 or even total effacements of racial or linguistic characters, and 
 complete severance fi%m the original seats of the parent stocks. 
 In some cases the connecting ties are past recovery, so that the 
 ethnical, like the geological, record must always remain to some 
 extent a mutilated chapter in the history of the world and of 
 humanity. But in our times many of the more serious gaps have 
 
 114406 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 been often most unexpectedly made good by the combined efforts 
 of philologists, physical anthropologists, and especially archaeolo- 
 gists, who have come to the welcome aid of the palethnologist, 
 hitherto groping almost helplessly in this dark field of human 
 origins. Thus the questions dealing with the early seats, migra- 
 tions, and later inter-relations of the Caucasic peoples on both 
 sides of the Mediterranean— Hamitic Berbers and Egyptians, 
 Iberians, Picts, Ligurians and Pelasgians— may now be profitably 
 studied, thanks to the craniological measurements of Prof Sergi 
 and Dr Collignon, the Hnguistic inquiries of the late G. von der 
 Gabelenz, and the antiquarian researches of Schliemann, de Morgan, 
 Prof Flinders Petrie, and especially Mr A. J. Evans, in various 
 parts of this most interesting of all ethnical domains. 
 
 Availing myself of the results of their labours, I have here 
 endeavoured to show that the Berber and Basque races and 
 languages were originally one, that the Ligurians were not round- 
 headed Kelts but long-headed Afro-Europeans, and that the 
 Pelasgians belonged to the same pre- Hellenic stock, to which 
 must now be credited the ^^gean cultures of pre-Mykenaean and 
 Mykensean times. Should these conclusions be confirmed by 
 further investigation, modern research may claim to have recon- 
 structed the ethnical history of the wide-spread Mediterranean 
 peoples, who still form the substratum, and in some places even 
 the bulk, of the North African, Italian, Spanish, South French, 
 and British populations. 
 
 By analogous processes the dense clouds of ignorance have 
 been somewhat dissipated in which have hitherto been wrapped 
 the origins, early migrations, and present relations of the Bantu 
 Negroes, of the proto-Malayan and Malagasy members of the 
 Oceanic Mongol family, of the Koreans and Japanese, of the Jats 
 and Rajputs, of the Uigurs, Samoyads, and other less known 
 Finno-Turki groups, and, passing to the New World, of the 
 Dakotan Redskins, of the Aztecs, Mayas, Quechua-Aymaras, 
 Caribs and Arawaks. 
 
 Another no less important object has been the elucidation of 
 those general principles — scarcely more than formulated in the 
 Ethnology — which are concerned with the psychic unity, the social 
 institutions and religious ideas of primitive and later peoples. 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 From this point of view the present may be regarded as a con- 
 tinuous illustration of the first volume, and students of such 
 sociological subjects as the family, clan and tribe, totemic, matri- 
 archal and shamanistic usages, current views on primordial 
 promiscuity and group marriages, early philosophies, theogonies, 
 theories of the universe, assumed revelations involving sublime 
 concepts of a Supreme Being in savage peoples of low cranial 
 capacity, will here find some fresh materials not perhaps unworthy 
 of their consideration. 
 
 Special attention is given to the subject of coincidences in 
 mythologies, folklore tales, and popular superstitions, such as the 
 prevalent belief in the were-wolf (tiger, leopard, jaguar), and other 
 strange but common modes of thought which may now be followed 
 round the globe from Europe through Malaysia to Africa and the 
 New World. The references to these matters, which will be easily 
 found by consulting the index, may help the student in deciding 
 between the antagonistic views of Prof. Max Miiller, who still 
 holds that all such coincidences " have a reason if only we can 
 find it\" and of those anthropologists who think that, where 
 contact and outward influences are excluded by time and space, 
 such parallelisms are proofs rather of the common psychic nature 
 of man, everywhere acted upon by like causes during the early 
 struggle for existence. Certainly the fresh data here brought 
 together seem to lend strong support to the view that all these 
 manifestations of the dawning reasoning faculty have their root in 
 primitive economic conditions. They are associated in the first 
 instance with the question, not of spirit or ancestor- worship, which 
 comes later, but of the food supply, as shown by M. A. Bernard 
 for the taboo of the New Caledonians (pp. 142-3), and by Mr 
 W. E. Roth for the Australian class-marriage system (pp. 153-4). 
 It follows that, like the physical characters of man, such mental 
 phenomena, and especially those reflected in early social and religious 
 observances, can no longer be profitably studied apart from the 
 standpoint of evolutioitl. 
 
 1 Fo7'tnightly Review^ Oct. 1898. 
 
 2 See also Mr C. L. Henning's suggestive paper On the Origin of Religion, 
 in The Anier. Anthropologist iox Dec. 1898, which reached me too late to be 
 consulted during the progress of the work. 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 A few words will suffice on the general plan and arrangement 
 of the subject-matter. Two preliminary chapters, forming a close 
 link between the two volumes, deal in a summary way with the 
 cradle, origin, and migrations of the pleistocene precursor, with 
 the Stone and Metal Ages (where it was important to accentuate 
 the vast duration of the Neolithic period), and with the evolution 
 of writing systems, with which is ushered in the strictly historical 
 epoch. Then follow the chapters which are devoted seriatim to 
 the primary groups and chief sub-branches of the human family. 
 Each of the main sections is introduced with a general Conspectus^ 
 in which are briefly summarised the more salient features con- 
 nected with the primeval home, past and present distribution, 
 physical and mental characters, and chief sub-groups of the several 
 main divisions. With the view of making this volume a trust- 
 worthy book of reference on the multifarious subjects dealt with, 
 I have everywhere aimed at accuracy in the statement of facts, 
 which are as far as possible drawn from the best available sources, 
 and supported by careful reference to recognised authorities. But 
 in the handling of. such a body of scattered materials, errors both 
 of omission and commission can scarcely have been avoided, 
 and I can but hope that they will be found neither numerous 
 nor serious. 
 
 A. H. K. 
 
 Aram-Gah, 
 
 79, Broadhurst Gardens, N.W. 
 March, 1899. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 General Considerations i — 15 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 The Metal Ages— Historic Times and Peoples . 16—34 
 
 '^"^~"'"'""" CHAPTER III. 
 
 The African Negro: I. Sudanese .... 35—81 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The African Negro: II. Bantus — Negritoes — 
 
 Bushmen — Hottentots 82 — 125 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 J 
 
 V 
 
 126—168 Y 
 
 The Oceanic Negroes : Papuasians (Papuans and 
 Melanesians) ; Australians; Tasmanians ; Ne- 
 gritoes . . . 
 
 V* CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Southern Mongols 169—227 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 The Oceanic Mongols 228—264 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 The Northern Mongols 265—313 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The Northern Mongols {continued) .... 314 — 348 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 The American Aborigines 349 — 404 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 The American Aborigines {continued) .... 405 — 440 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The Caucasic Peoples . 441—489 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 The Caucasic Peoples {continued) . . . . 490 — 509 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 The Caucasic Peoples {continued) .... 510—564 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 {The Types are all from Photographs in the Collections of the British 
 Museum, the Anthropological Institute, the Royal Geographical Society and 
 the Author.) 
 
 1 . Position of Pithecanthropus Erectus ..... 
 
 2. Diagram of the Simian Stem showing Line of Human Ascent 
 
 3. Evolution of the Akkadian Cuneiform Script 
 
 Congo Native (Bantu Negro Type) 
 Zulu Girl (Bantu Negroid Type) 
 Nama Man (Hottentot Type) 
 New Caledonian (Melanesian Type) , 
 
 Mulgrave Native (Australian Type) 
 Aeta Woman (Negrito Type, Philippines) 
 Panyan Woman (Negrito Type, India) 
 Rotuma Girl (Sub -Melanesian Type) 
 
 Javanese Girl (Malayan Type) ^ 
 Bugis, Celebes I. (Malayan Type) I 
 Nicobarese (Sub- Malayan Type) [ 
 
 Plate I. 
 
 I. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 
 3- 
 
 
 4- 
 
 Plate XL 
 
 I. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 
 3- 
 
 
 4- 
 
 Plate III. 
 
 I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 164 
 
 232 
 
 Plate IV. i. Lao Woman (JShan Type) > 
 
 2. Kalmuk Woman, Full Face (W. Mongol Type) | 
 
 3. Kalmuk Woman, Profile ,, ,, | 
 
 4. Samllghir (East Mongol Type) J 
 
 Plate V. i . Gold of Amur River (South Tungus Type) \ 
 
 2. Gilyak Woman (N.E. Mongol Type) I 
 
 3. Korean (East Mongoloid Type) j 
 
 4. Liu-Kiuan (Sub-Japanese Type) J 
 
 284 
 
 302 
 
Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 3. Berber Woman, Biskra (Mediterranean Type) 
 
 15. Plate XIL i. Toda Man, S. India (Caucasic Type) \ 
 
 2. 
 
 3. Ainu, Sakhalin I. (Caucasic Type) 
 
 4. Ainu, Yezo I. (Caucasic Type) 
 
 PAGE 
 
 9. Plate VI. i. " Sitting Bull " (Dakotan Type) ^ 
 
 2. "Scorched Lightning" (Dakotan Type) I 
 
 3. Yankton Chief (Dakotan Type) j ' •'^94 
 
 4. Elizabeth Wynan (Dakotan Type) ) 
 
 10. Plate VII. i. Cree of Hudson Bay. (N. Algonquian Type)] 
 
 2. Spokan Warrior (Salishan Type) - . 416 
 
 3. Guatuso (Costa Rican Type) j 
 
 11. Plate VIII. i. Carib (Guiana Type) >| 
 
 3. Tehuelche (Patagonian Type) | * ' ' '^^'^ 
 4- M „ M j 
 
 12. Plate IX. 1. Bohemian (West Slav Type) \ 
 
 2. Egyptian Dancing Derwish (Hamito-Semitic 
 
 Type) 
 
 3. Egyptian Bedouin (Arab Type) 
 
 13. Plate X. i. Turco, Algeria (Hamitic Type) 
 
 468 
 
 470 
 
 'LATE XI. I. Persian of Shiraz (Iranian Type) 
 
 2. Baluchi (Lowland Tajik Type) 
 
 3. Kling Woman (Dravidian Type) [" ' ' ^^"^ 
 
 4. Igorrote, Luzon I. (Indonesian Type) 
 
 .S58 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 
 
 The World peopled by Migration from one Centre by Pleistocene Man — The 
 Primary Groups evolved each in its special Habitat — But all sprung from 
 the Pliocene Precursor — The "First Man" — The Human Cradle-land — 
 Characters of the First Man — The Transition from Pliocene to Pleistocene 
 Man — Uniform Character of Pleistocene Man and his Works — Progress 
 during the Stone Ages — The Primary Groups specialised in pre-Neolithic 
 Times — Duration of the New Stone Age — The early History of Man a 
 Geological Problem — The Human Varieties the Outcome of their several 
 Environments — Correspondence of Geographical with Racial and Cultural 
 Zones. 
 
 In order to a clear understanding of the many difficult ques- 
 tions connected with the natural history of the human family, 
 two cardinal points have to be steadily borne in 
 
 . J . .^ . . „ . . . . The World 
 
 mmd — the specinc unity of all existing varieties, peopled by mi- 
 and the dispersal of their generalised precursors one^Centre^ 
 over the whole world in pleistocene times. As both Pleistocene 
 points have elsewhere been dealt with by me some- 
 what fully', it will here suffice to show their direct bearing on the 
 general evolution of the human species from that remote epoch to 
 the present day. 
 
 It must be obvious that, if man is specifically one, though not 
 necessarily sprung of a single pair, he must have had, in homely 
 language, a single cradk-land, from which the peopling of the 
 earth was brought about by migration, not by independent 
 developments from different species in .so many independent 
 geographical areas. 
 
 1 Ethnology, Chaps. V. and VH. 
 K. I 
 
MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 I^ follows 'fufther,; ^ind this point is all-important, that, since 
 the world was pddpled' by pleistocene man, it was peopled by 
 a genlerulised pr/D^to-hurnan form, prior to all later racial differences. 
 The existing groups, "that is,' the four primary divisions — Ethiopic, 
 Mongolic, American and Caucasic, — have each had their pleistocene 
 ancestor, from whom each has sprung independently and diver- 
 gently by continuous adaptation to their several environments. 
 The Primary ^^ ^^^7 ^tiH cotistitute mere varieties, and not 
 Groups evolved distinct species, the reason is because all come of 
 
 each in its , . 
 
 special like plcistoceue ancestry, while the divergences have 
 
 **^** been confined to relatively narrow limits, that is, not 
 
 wide enough to be regarded zoologically as specific differences ^ 
 No doubt Dr R. Munro is right in suggesting that "during the 
 larger portion of the quaternary (pleistocene) period, if not, 
 indeed, from its very commencement, man had already acquired* 
 his human characters."^ But by "human characters" are here 
 to be understood, not those by which one race may be dis- 
 
 ^ Eth. Ch. VII. On the strength of this statement I have been claimed as 
 a polygenist both by Sergi and by Ehrenreich, the latter remarking that " niit 
 dieser jedenfalls naturgemassen Aufifassung bekennt sich Keane, so eifrig er den 
 Monogenismus verficht, doch im Grunde zum Polygenismus" {Anthropologische 
 Studien iiber die Urbewohner Brasiliens, Brunswick, 1897, p. 19). As well 
 charge a writer with polygenist views who should say that most of the Whites 
 born in " Greater Britain " are sprung from different groups of emigrants from 
 the British Isles. The founders of the British colonies, though different 
 individually, were of one stock, and so the pleistocene founders of the first 
 human groups were also different individually, but of one stock, from which 
 all mankind has sprung. As polygenist theories are again somewhat rife on 
 the Continent, it may here be pointed out that excessive polygenism tends to 
 discredit the very evolutionary teachings which its advocates profess to uphold. 
 Starting from several absolutely independent centres, it arrives at the same 
 results that are reached by the evolutionist starting from one absolute centre. 
 Hence it is not needed in any scheme of humar origins, while a little reflection 
 will show that, without doing any great violence to their principles, these 
 pluralists may readily accommodate their extreme views to the assumption that 
 the primary varietal groups have been developed in different geographical 
 areas (zoological zones) from so many undifferentiated groups of the generalised 
 pleistocene stock. Had they sprung from specifically different pliocene 
 anthropoids, as held by Sergi and others, the differences would now be not 
 merely specific, but generic, which nobody maintains. 
 
 2 Address, Anthrop. Section, Brit. Ass. 1893. 
 
I.] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 3 
 
 tinguished from another, but those more general qualities of 
 body and mind, by which man himself was already distinguished 
 from all the other anthropoid groups. 
 
 Till recently this statement must have been regarded as mere 
 speculation. But it acquires a large degree of probability, if not 
 absolute certainty, by the remains of Pithecanthropus eredus^ found 
 in 1892 by Dr Eugene Dubois in the pliocene beds of East Java\ 
 that is, the very region which more than one eminent naturalist 
 had pointed to as the probable original home of mankind. 
 
 Since their discovery these remains have been subjected to the 
 strictest scientific scrutiny, with the result that their „ 
 
 •' But all sprung 
 
 human character has been placed beyond reason- from the piio- 
 able doubt. They have, indeed, been described '^^ ^ recursor. 
 by some anatomists as rather pre-human than actually human* 3 
 'but nobody now denies that they at least represent a form inter- 
 mediate between man and the higher apes, or rather between man 
 and the generalised Simian prototype, which is practically the 
 same thing. They do not bridge over the impassable gap between 
 Man and Gorilla or Chimpanzee ; but they form, none the less, a 
 true link, which brings Man much nearer than before to the 
 common stem from which all have diverged^. 
 
 No one has studied the question more carefully than M. L. 
 Manouvrier, who concludes that Homo javaneiisis walked erect, was 
 about the medium height, and a true precursor, possibly a direct 
 ancestor, of man. Virchow's usual suggestion that 
 the skull was "pathological," such as might be mIh.^""^'"* 
 picked up anywhere, is severely handled; it is 
 
 1 Eth. p. 144. 
 
 2 O. C. Marsh, Amer. J. of Sc. June, 1896. 
 
 ^ They also supply some of the essential elements of a human prototype, so 
 that Virchow's assertion that " Noch ist kein einheitlicher Urtypus flir die 
 Menschen festgestellt " {Rassenbildtmg &C.J.+896, p. 5) no longer holds good. 
 So also is turned aside the shaft of the polygenists, whose theory " dispenses 
 with a cradle of mankind^vhich causes the monogenists so much brain- 
 cudgelling. We no longer need to find a single centre for man, and then start 
 him on hypothetical wanderings over the globe" (Ehrenreich, <?/. cit. p. 21). 
 The single centre, and the hypothetical wanderings, it may now be retorted, 
 no longer present any serious difficulties, while the objections to the polygenist 
 view remain unanswered and unanswerable {Eth. p. 156 sq.). 
 
MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 pointed out that the cranial capacity decreases with the antiquity 
 of all the skulls hitherto brought to light, and that this skull has a 
 capacity of from 900 to 1000 c.c, that is, "stands at the level of 
 the smallest which have been occasionally found amongst the 
 reputedly lowest savage peoples."^ An accompanying diagram 
 shows its position intermediate between Chimpanzee and the 
 Man of Spy^, and Manouvrier adds that it may perhaps be 
 more directly connected with the Australian race. " The differ- 
 entiation of the human races having probably been but slightly 
 
 Cro-Magnon 
 
 a. 
 
 POSITION OF P. ERECTUS. 
 (Manouvrier, Bui. Sac. d'Anthrop. 1896, p. 438.) 
 
 developed in the pliocene epoch, I may be permitted to suggest 
 that the race of Trinil [Java] was the common ancestor of many 
 
 ^ Bui. Soc. d'Anthrop. 1896, p. 419. 
 ^ Eth. p. 146. 
 
I.] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 5 
 
 human races, if not of all those that have been subsequently 
 specialised.'" 
 
 Dr D. Hepburn also^ declares that the femur is distinctly 
 human, and not merely ape-like, that it ante-dates all other human 
 remains hitherto discovered, and that of living races the nearest 
 akin are the AustraHans, Andamanese, Bushmen, thereby lending 
 support to the view that these low races spring from a common 
 primeval stock, which originally inhabited the now vanished Indo- 
 African Continent I 
 
 This pliocene inhabitant of Java may thus in a sense be taken 
 as the long sough t-for "First Man"; and as it is i 
 
 not very probable that he can have had any un- crld?e!^ai!id^" 
 doubtedly human precursors elsewhere, the Indo- 
 Malaysian inter-tropical lands may also with some confidence 
 be regarded as the cradle of the .human family. Ethnology thus 
 at last acquires a probable starting-point both for the dispersal of 
 early man over the globe, and for the subsequent evolution of the 
 human races in their respective zones of specialisation. 
 
 In support of this view comes the opportune discovery made 
 by Dr Noetling in 1894 of the works of pliocene man in 
 Upper Burma^. To the doubts raised by Mr R. D. Oldham* 
 as to the occurrence of these chipped flints in the original 
 deposit, suggesting that they may have been washed down 
 from the plateau over which such implements are scattered, the 
 finder has given a reply which seems to have satisfied everybody. 
 He shows that the flints were really found in situ associated with 
 the remains of such extinct fauna as Rhinoceros perimensis and 
 Hipparion antelopimtm, and assigns the beds to the Lower 
 Pliocene, adding that he has made another find in the same beds, 
 a femur and a humerus, worn and polished by human action ^ 
 
 This tropical Indo-Malaysian could therefore already use his 
 hands to fashion his rude stone implements; he characters of 
 could walk erect and had even occupied a tolerably *^^ ^"^^ '^^"• 
 
 1 Eth. p. 454. 
 
 2 The Trinil Fenncj' contrasted with the Femora of various savage and 
 civilised Races ^ in J. of Anat. and Physiol. 1896, xxxi. p. i sq. 
 
 3 Eth. p. 236. ^ Eth. p. 423—4. 
 
 ^ Natural Science, Sept. 1895. ^ Natural Science, April, 1897. 
 
6 
 
 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 wide domain, comprising at least the Sunda Islands and 
 Indo-China, regions at that time still connected by continuous 
 land across the shallow waters, nowhere over fifty fathoms deep, 
 which now flow between the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra 
 and Java. Lastly, he was about the average height, say, 5 feet 
 6 inches, and had a cranial capacity of perhaps 1000 c.c, that 
 is, double that of the highest apes (Gorilla, Orang, both 450 to 
 500), not greatly inferior to that often occurring amongst the 
 lowest present races (Australians, Negritoes, Bushmen, 1100 to 
 1300), and just midway between Gorilla and the highest present 
 races (Europeans 1500), as shown in the subjoined diagram. 
 
 European 1550 c.c 
 
 Low 
 
 P. erectus 
 
 1250 c.c. 
 
 SIMIAN STEM. 
 
 In an instructive paper " On the Intermediary Links between 
 Man and the Lower Animals," read before the Edinburgh Royal 
 
I.] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 7 
 
 Society (Jan. 4, 1897), Dr Munro remarked that the transition 
 probably took place in a limited area, so that the 
 chances of finding the intermediary links of this tion from piio- 
 stage were very small. On the other hand the ^ene Man'^*°" 
 probability of finding erect beings with skulls in all 
 grades of development, from a slightly changed Simian type up to 
 that of civiHsed man, was enormously greater. He regarded the 
 erect posture as the most conspicuous line of demarcation between 
 man and the lower animals. From this standpoint the Java 
 skeleton would come under the category of human ; but if this 
 line of distinction was to be dependent in any degree on mental 
 phenomena, Dr Dubois was perfectly justified in regarding it as a 
 transitional form, because it was a long time after the attainment 
 of the erect posture before his religious, moral and intellectual 
 faculties became human characters. Many fossil remains of man 
 were intermediary links, which marked different stages in the 
 history of mankind, and th'e further back such investigations were 
 carried, the more simian-like did the brain-case become. If the 
 geological horizon of the Java man were correctly defined as the 
 borderland between the PHocene and Quaternary [Pleistocene] 
 periods, one could form some idea how far back we had to travel 
 to reach the common stock from which men and anthropoids had 
 sprung. The lower races of to-day, he concluded, were also 
 survivals of intermediary links, which had been thrown into the 
 side eddies of the great stream of evolution. 
 
 This greatly strengthens the view always advocated by me that 
 man began to spread over the globe after he had acquired the 
 erect posture, but while in other physical and in mental respects 
 he still differed not greatly from his nearest akin. But no doubt 
 he already possessed the rudimentary organs, and consequently 
 the germs, of speech, and this^ combined with his other advan- 
 tages, enabled him soon to acquire sufficient supremacy over all 
 other animals to constitute himself the one universal species. 
 Hence the range of man\lone coincides with that of the habitable 
 world. Whether he had occupied the whole of this domain in the 
 
 1 " He gave man speech, and speech created thought, 
 
 Which is the measure of the universe." 
 
 Prometheus Unbound, ii. 4. 
 
8 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 pliocene age itself may well be doubted, and in the absence 
 of sufficient evidence must in any case be left for the present 
 an open question. Reasons have elsewhere been given ^ for 
 
 rejecting Sergi's tertiary Bominidce, assumed to 
 Migrations. ^^ already specialised in pliocene times, and the 
 
 more probable view seems still to be that the occu- 
 pation of the globe was not effected, or at least not completed, 
 before the early pleistocene epoch. In other words, the earth was 
 mainly peopled by the generalised pleistocene precursors, who 
 moved about, like the other migrating faunas, unconsciously, 
 everywhere following the lines of least resistance, advancing or 
 receding, and acting generally on blind impulse rather than of 
 any set purpose. 
 
 That such must have been the nature of the first migratory 
 movements will appear evident when we consider that they were 
 carried on by rude hordes, all very much alike, and differing not 
 greatly from other zoological groups, and further that these migra- 
 tions took place prior to the development of all cultural appliances 
 beyond the ability to wield a broken branch or a sapling, or else 
 chip or flake primitive stone implements". 
 
 Herein lies the explanation of the curious phenomenon, which 
 is such a stumbling-block to premature systematists, that all the 
 works, of early man, and man himself, everywhere present the 
 
 most startling resemblances, affordinsj absolutely no 
 
 Uniform , ^^,.^. '. ^ , . , 
 
 Character of elements for classification, for instance, during the 
 his'^wSs ^^^ times corresponding with the Chellian or first period 
 of the Old Stone Age. Years ago Virchow declared 
 that there was no distinguishing between the forms of palaeolithic 
 implements found in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, and 
 those who have examined the collections in Argentina, the United 
 States, and Europe will readily assent to that statement. 
 
 After referring to the identity of certain objects from the 
 Hastings kitchen-middens and a barrow near Sevenoaks, Mr 
 W. J. L. Abbot proceeds : "The first thing that would strike one 
 
 1 Eth. p. 37. 
 
 2 Thus Lucretius: — 
 
 "Arma antiqua manus, ungues, dentesque fuerunt, 
 Et lapides, et item silvarum fragmina rami." 
 
I.] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 9 
 
 in looking over a few trays of these implements is the remark- 
 able likeness which they bear to those of Dordogne. Indeed 
 many of the figures in the magnificent ' Reliquiae Aquitanicse ' 
 might almost have been produced from these specimens."^ And 
 Sir J. Evans, extending his glance over a wider horizon, discovers 
 implements in other distant lands "so identical in form and 
 character with British specimens that they might have been manu- 
 factured by the same hands... On the banks of the Nile, many 
 hundreds of feet above its present level, implements of the 
 European types have been discovered, while in Somaliland, in an 
 ancient river valley, at a great elevation above the sea, Mr Seton- 
 Karr has collected a large number of implements formed of flint 
 and quartzite, which, judging from their form and character, might 
 have been dug out of the drift-deposits of the Somme and the 
 Seine, the Thames or the ancient Solent." And on the very/ 
 strength of these identities Sir John re-echoes my theory that man' 
 originated in the East and migrated thence to Europe ^ 
 
 Certain skulls from South Australia seem cast in almost the 
 same mould as the Neanderthal, the oldest known in Central 
 Europe, and the palaeolithic crania hitherto discovered in the latter 
 region present without exception the same uniform long-headed 
 type. The same type persists, though not everywhere, well into 
 the New Stone Age, so that at first sight one might suppose that 
 but few or slight specialisations of the pleistocene precursors were 
 anywhere developed during the immensely long Old Stone Age, to 
 which M. Jules Peroche assigns a period of some 300,000 years 
 since the beginning of the Chellian epoch^. 
 
 But of course changes were always and everywhere going on, 
 although scarcely perceptible in the less favoured 
 regions, while in the later periods of the Old Stone during the 
 Age the progress in the arts was so great that in *°"^ ^^^' 
 some respects it was never afterwards surpassed or even equalled. 
 Some of the exquisitely-wrought flints of the Solutrian period 
 cannot now be reproduced, and many such objects ascribed by 
 
 1 yoiir. Anthrop. Inst. 1896, p. 133. 
 
 2 Inaugural Address^ Brit. Ass. Meeting, Toronto, 1897. See also Dr 
 F. Carlsen in Globus, 72, p. 67. 
 
 3 Les Temperatures quaternaires, Lille, 1897. 
 
lO MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 French archaeologists to the first would be assigned in England to 
 the second Stone Age. 
 
 With this advancement in culture, that of the physical man 
 must have gone on hand in hand. Hence it seems a reasonable 
 assumption to suppose that even before the close of palaeolithic 
 times all the great divisions of mankind had already 
 Div^sio^s"^^^^ been specialised in their several geographical areas, 
 specialised in In any case we may safely conclude that the existing 
 
 pre-Neolithic . ..... ' , . „ 
 
 Times. primary varieties had been everywhere fully consti- 
 
 tuted in that intermediate period between the Old 
 and New Stone Ages, which archaeologists have found it so 
 difficult accurately to determine, and in which some have even 
 imagined a complete break or " hiatus ", separating the two periods 
 by an undefined interval of time. 
 
 No such interval is conceivable everywhere, else we should 
 have to suppose, not only that the natural history of the human 
 species began again with the dawn of neolithic times, but also that 
 this fresh start from nothing was made not by one generalised but 
 by many highly specialised forms, not (on the creative assumption) 
 by one pair planted in one region, but by several pairs or groups 
 dotted in convenient localities over the face of the globe. Even 
 for Europe no break of continuity is now admitted by the best 
 observers, and Sir W. Turner, amongst others, assumes that 
 " when Neolithic man reached Western Europe he in all likeHhood 
 found his PalaeoHthic predecessor settled there, and a greater or 
 less degree of fusion took place between them."^ 
 
 Assuming therefore that the evolution of the human species 
 ^ , was practically completed in all its fulness some 
 
 Duration of , ^ ^ \ ^ 
 
 the New Stone time before the beginning of the New Stone Age, 
 ^^' . we may perhaps form some approximately accurate 
 
 notion of the date to which, not the pliocene and pleistocene 
 forerunners, but their speciaUsed late palaeolithic descendants 
 may be referred. I have already ventured to suggest a period of 
 about 100,000 years for the duration of the Post-Pleistocene 
 epoch, which largely coincides with the New Stone Age I 
 Those who may have felt inclined to look on this as a somewhat 
 
 .,1 Nature, Jan. 13, 1898, p. 259. '-^ Eth. p. 55. 
 
I.] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. II 
 
 wild conjecture are now invited to consider, first, the vast an- 
 tiquity of strictly historic times in the light of recent research, 
 and especially the still receding vista of Egyptian, Babylonian, and 
 Minaean origins as summarily referred to in the following pages ; 
 second, the inconceivably remote age assigned to the appearance 
 of Neolithic Man in Scotland by no less an authority than Sir 
 William Turner. After showing that there is undoubted evidence 
 of the presence of man in North Britain during the formation of 
 the Carse clays, this careful observer explains that the Carse 
 cliffs, now in places 45 to 50 feet above the present sea-level, 
 formed the bed of an estuary or arm of the sea, which in post- 
 glacial times extended almost, if not quite across the land from 
 east to west, thus separating the region south of the Forth from 
 North Britain. He even suggests, after the separation of Britain 
 from the Continent in earlier times, another land connection, a 
 "Neolithic land-bridge" by which the men of the New Stone Age 
 may have reached Scotland when the upheaved 100-foot terrace 
 was still clothed with the great forest growths that have since 
 disappeared \ 
 
 One begins to ask. Are even 100,000 years sufficient for such 
 oscillations of the surface, upheaval of marine beds, appearance of 
 great estuaries, renewed connection of Britain with the Continent 
 by a "Neolithic land-bridge"? In the Falkirk district Neolithic 
 kitchen-middens occur on, or at the base of, the bluffs which over- 
 look the Carse lands, that is, the old sea-coast. In the Carse of 
 Gowrie also a dug-out canoe was found at the very base of the 
 deposits, and immediately above the buried forest-bed of the Tay 
 valley^. 
 
 That the Neolithic period was also of long duration even in 
 Scandinavia has been made evident by Carl Wibling, who cal- 
 culates that the geological changes on the south-east coast of 
 Sweden (Province of Bleking), since its first occupation by the men 
 of the New Stone Age, must have required a period of " at least 
 10,000 years." ^ ^ 
 
 ^ Discourse at the R. histitute^ London, Nature, Jan. 6 and 13, 1 1 
 
 2 Nature, 1898, p. 235. 
 
 ^ Tiden for Blekings f'orsta bebyggande, Karlskrona, 1895, p. 5. 
 
12 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Still more startling are the results of the protracted researches 
 carried on by Herr J. Nuesch at the now famous station of 
 Schweizersbild, near Schaffhausen in Switzerland \ This station 
 was apparently in the continuous occupation of man during both 
 Stone Ages, and here have been collected as many as 14,000 objects 
 belonging to the first, and over 6ooo referred to the second period. 
 Although the early settlement was only post-glacial, a point about 
 which there is no room for doubt, Dr L. Laloy^ has estimated 
 "the absolute duration of both epochs together at from 24,000 to 
 29,000 years." We may, therefore, ask, if a comparatively recent 
 post-glacial station in Switzerland is about 29,000 years old, how 
 old may a pre- or inter-glacial station be in Gaul or Britain? 
 
 From all this we see how fully justified is Mr J. W, Powell's 
 
 remark that the natural history of early man be- 
 
 Histo^ry^of^ comcs morc and more a geological, and not merely 
 
 Man a Geoiog- an ethnolofifical problem ^. We also begin to under- 
 
 ical Problem. . . ^ ^ 
 
 stand how it is that, after an existence of some five 
 score millenniums, the first specialised human varieties have di- 
 verged greatly from the original types, which have thus become 
 almost "ideal quantities," the subjects rather of palaeontological 
 than of strictly anthropological studies. 
 
 And here another consideration of great moment presents 
 itself. During, these long ages some of the groups — 
 varieties^Sie" most African negroes south of the equator, most 
 Outcome of Occanic negroes (Melanesians and Papuans), all 
 Environ- Australian and American aborigines — have re- 
 
 mained in their original habitats ever since what 
 may be called the first settlement of the earth by man. Others 
 again, the more restless or enterprising peoples, such as the 
 Mongols, Manchus, Turks, Ugro-Finns, Arabs, and most Euro- 
 peans, have no doubt moved about somewhat freely ; but these 
 later migrations, whether hostile or peaceable, have for the 
 most part been confined to regions presenting the same or Hke 
 
 ^ Das Schweizersbild, eine Niederlassimg aits palceolithischer iind neolitischer 
 Zeit^ ill Nouveaux Memoires Soc. HelvHique des Sciences Naturelles, Vol. xxxv . 
 Zurich, 1896. 
 
 2 V Anthropologic, 1897, p. 350. 
 
 3 Forum, Feb. 1808. 
 
I.] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 1 3 
 
 physical and climatic conditions. Wherever different climatic 
 zones have been invaded, the intruders have failed to secure 
 a permanent footing, either perishing outright, or disappearing by 
 absorption or more or less complete assimilation to the aboriginal 
 elements. Such are some "black Arabs" in Egyptian Sudan, 
 other Semites and Hamites in Abyssinia and West Sudan (Himya- 
 rites, Fulahs and others), Finns and Turks in Hungary and the 
 Balkan Peninsula (Magyars, Bulgars, Osmanli), Portuguese and 
 Netherlanders in Malaysia, English in tropical or sub-tropical 
 lands, such as India, where Eurasian half-breeds alone are capable 
 of founding family groups. 
 
 The human varieties are thus seen to be, like all other zoo- 
 logical species, the outcome of their several environments. They 
 are what climate, soil, diet, pursuits and inherited characters have 
 made them, so that all sudden transitions are usually followed by 
 disastrous results ^ "To urge the emigration of women and 
 children, or of any save those of the. most robust health, to the 
 tropics, may not be to murder in the first degree, but it should 
 be classed, to put it mildly, as incitement to it."^ Acclimatiza- 
 tion may not be impossible, but in all extreme cases, it can be 
 effected only at great sacrifice of life, and by slow processes, 
 the most effective of which is perhaps Natural Selection. By 
 this means we may indeed suppose the world to have been first 
 peopled. 
 
 At the same time it should be remembered that the first migra- 
 tions were all completed in inter-glacial, if not in pre-glacial ages, 
 when the climate of the globe was everywhere much milder than 
 at present. Consequently the different zones of temperature were 
 less marked, and the passage from one region to another more 
 easily eft'ected than in later times. In a word the pleistocene 
 precursors had far less difficulty in adapting themselves to their 
 new surroundings than modern peoples have when they emigrate, 
 
 1 The party of Eskimo i^n and women brought back by Lieut. Peary 
 from his Arctic expedition in 1897 were unable to endure our temperate 
 climate. Many died of pneumonia, and the survivors were so enfeebled that 
 all had to be restored to their icy homes to save their lives. Even for the 
 Algonquians of Labrador a journey to the coast is a journey to the grave. 
 
 2 W. Z. Ripley, Acclimatizatiott^ New York, 1896, p. 24. 
 
14 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. ^ [CHAP. 
 
 for instance, from Southern Europe to Brazil and Paraguay, or 
 from the British Isles to Rhodesia and Nyassaland. 
 
 What is true of man must be no less true of his works ; from 
 
 which it follows that racial and cultural zones ^must 
 
 Correspond- coincide, while a correspondence must also exist 
 
 ence of Geogra- 
 phical with between these and the zones of temperature, except 
 
 turarzones." SO far as the latter may be modified by altitude, 
 
 marine influences, or other local conditions. A 
 
 glance at past and existing relations the world over will show 
 
 that such harmonies have at all times prevailed. No doubt the 
 
 overflow of the leading European peoples during the last 400 
 
 years has brought about divers dislocations, blurrings, and in 
 
 places even total effacements of the old landmarks. 
 
 But, putting aside these disturbances, it will be found that in 
 the eastern hemisphere the inter-tropical regions, hot, moist and 
 more favourable to vegetable than to animal vitality, have always ^ 
 been the home of savage, cultureless populations. Within the 
 same sphere are also comprised most of the extra- tropical southern 
 lands, all tapering towards the antarctic waters, and consequently 
 too contracted to constitute areas of higher specialisation. 
 
 Similarly the sub-tropical Asiatic peninsulas, the bleak Tibetan 
 tableland, the Pamir, and arid Mongolian steppes are fo^nd mainly 
 in possession of somewhat stationary communities, which present 
 every stage between sheer savagery and civilisation. , 
 
 In the same way the higher races and cultures are confined to 
 the more favoured north temperate zone, so that between the 
 parallels of 24° and 50° (but owing to local conditions falling in 
 the far East to 40° and under, and in the extreme West rising to 
 ■55°), are situated nearly all the great centres, past and present, of 
 human activities — the Egyptian, Babylonian, Mykengean (^gean), 
 Hellenic, Etruscan, Roman, and modern European. Almost the 
 only exceptions are the Minsean and Sabaean (Himyaritic) of 
 Yemen (Arabia Felix) and Abyssinia, where the low latitude is 
 neutralised by altitude and a copious rainfall. 
 
 Thanks also to altitude, to marine influences, and the con- 
 traction of the equatorial lands, the relations are almost completely 
 reversed in the New World. Here all the higher developments 
 took place, not in the temperate but in the tropical zone, within 
 
L] f GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 1 5 
 
 which lay the seats of the Peruvian, Chimu, Chibcha and Maya- 
 Quiche cultures ; the Aztec sphere alone ranged northwards a 
 little beyond the Tropic of Cancer. 
 
 Thus in both hemispheres the iso-cultural bands follow the 
 isothermal lines in all their deflections, and the human varieties 
 everywhere faithfully reflect the conditions of their several en- 
 vironments. 
 
( i6 ) 
 
 CHAPTER IT. 
 
 THE METAL AGES — HISTORIC TIMES AND PEOPLES. 
 
 Progress of Archaeological Studies — Sequence of the Metal Ages — The Copper 
 Age — The Bronze Age — The Iron Age — Hallstatt Culture — Man and his 
 Works in the Metal Ages — The Prehistoric Age in the West — And in 
 China — Historic Times — Evolution of Writing Systems — Hieroglyphs and 
 Cuneiforms — The Alphabet — The Persian and other Cuneiform Scripts — 
 The Mas-d'Azil Markings — Alphabetiform Signs on Neolithic Monuments 
 — Character and Consequences of the later historic Migrations — The 
 Race merges in the People — The distinguishing Characters of Peoples — 
 Elements of Classification. 
 
 If, as above seen, the study of human origins is largely 
 a geological problem, the investigation of the later develop- 
 ments, during the Metal Ages and prehistoric 
 Archffioiogicai times, belongs mainly to the field of Archaeology. 
 Hence it is that for the light which has in recent 
 years been thrown upon the obscure interval between the Stone 
 Ages and the strictly historic epoch, that is to say, the period 
 when in his continuous upward development man gradually 
 exchanged stone for the more serviceable metals, we are indebted 
 chiefly to the patient labours of such men as Worsaae, Steenstrup, 
 Forchhammer, Schliemann, Sayce, Layard, Lepsius, Mariette, 
 Maspero, Montelius, Brugsch, Petrie, Peters, Haynes, Sir J. 
 Evans, A. J. Evans and others, all archaeologists first, and 
 anthropologists only in the second instance. 
 
 From the researches of these investigators it is now clear that 
 
 copper, bronze, and iron were indeed successively introduced in 
 
 the order named, so that the current expressions, 
 
 thf Metal Ige. "Copper," -Bronze," and "Iron" Ages remain 
 
 still justified. But it also appears that overlap- 
 
II.] THE METAL AGES. 
 
 pings, already beginning in late Neolithic times, were everywhere 
 so frequent that in many localities it is quite impossible to draw 
 any well-marked dividing lines between the successive metal 
 periods. 
 
 That iron came last, a fact already known by vague tradition 
 to the ancients \ is beyond doubt, and it is no less certain that 
 bronze of various types intervened between copper and iron. 
 But much obscurity still surrounds the question of copper, which 
 occurs in so many graves of Neolithic and Bronze times, that this 
 metal has even been denied an independent position in the 
 sequence. 
 
 But we shall not be surprised that confusion should prevail on 
 this point, if we reflect that the metals, unlike stone, came to 
 remain. Once introduced they were soon found to be indis- 
 pensable to civilised man, so that in a sense the " Metal Ages " 
 still survive, and must last to the end of time. Hence it was 
 natural that copper should be found in prehistoric graves asso- 
 ciated, first with polished stone implements^, and then with bronze 
 and iron, just as, since the arrival of the English in Australia, 
 spoons, clay pipes, penknives, pannikins, and the like, are now 
 found mingled with stone objects in the graves of the aborigines. 
 
 But that there was a true Copper Age prior to that of Bronze, 
 though possibly of not very long duration, except 
 of course in the New World ^ has been placed Age.^^°^^^^ 
 beyond reasonable doubt by recent investigations. 
 Much attention has lately been paid to the subject by Dr 
 
 1 Thus Lucretius : — 
 
 " Posterius ferri vis est aerisque reperta, 
 Sed prior aeris erat quam ferri cognitus usus." 
 
 2 To indicate this association of stone and copper in pre-Aryan times and 
 before the close of the New Stone Age, Italian archaeologists have introduced 
 the compound term "eneolitico" {ceneus = copper, adj., and \l9ns, stone), of 
 which Prof. G. Sergi writes: — " Questa civilta denominata neolitica o eneo- 
 litica dair uso del rame, era caratterizzata dall' uso della pietra finamente 
 lavorata e del rame, dal rito funerario dell' inumazione con sepolture in grotte 
 artificiali, in tumuli, in dolmei%e quindi in forme e modi molto piu avanzati 
 deir uso degli Arii, quando giunsero in Europa, i quali avevano sepolture 
 misere e vasi rozzissimi per cinerari" {Arii e Italici, Turin, 1898, pp. 199, 200). 
 
 3 Eth., p. 335. 
 
 K. 2 
 
1 8 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 J. H. Gladstone, who finds that copper was worked by the 
 Egyptians in the Sinaitic Peninsula, that is, in the famous mines 
 of the Wadi Maghara, from the 4th to the 18th dynasty, perhaps 
 from 5000 to 3000 B.C. During that epoch tools were made of 
 pure copper in Egypt and Syria, and by the Amorites in Palestine, 
 often on the model of their stone prototypes \ 
 
 Probably from the same source was obtained the copper 
 which had already come into general use in Babylonia some 6000 
 years ago. After a careful analysis of the metal objects from 
 Tell-Loh^, M. Berthelot concludes that the employment of copper 
 in Chaldaea, about 4000 years before the new era, for the manu- 
 facture of arms and utensils, and for other purposes, is placed 
 beyond doubt ^ 
 
 Amongst the not over-numerous authentic documents attesting 
 a Copper Age in Western Europe must now be included the nest 
 or cache of pure copper ingots found at Tourc'h, west of the Aven 
 Valley, Finisterre, described by M. de Villiers du Terrage, and 
 comprising 23 pieces, with a total weight of nearly 50 Ibs.^ These 
 objects, which belong to "the transitional period when copper 
 was used at first concurrently with polished stone, and then 
 disappeared as bronze came into more general use^" came 
 probably from Hungary, at that time apparently the chief source 
 of this metal for most parts of Europe. Of over 200 copper 
 objects described by Dr Mathaeus Much^ nearly all were of 
 Hungarian or South German provenance^ five only being accredited 
 to Britain and eight to France. 
 
 The study of this subject has been greatly advanced by Herr 
 J. Hampel, who holds on solid grounds that in some regions, 
 especially Hungary, copper played a dominant part for many 
 centuries, and is undoubtedly the characteristic metal of a distinct 
 
 ^ Paper on " The Transition from Pure Copper to Bronze, &c.," read at 
 the Meeting of the Brit. Assoc. Liverpool, 1896. 
 
 "^ M. de Sarzec's finds, Eth.^ p. 301. 
 
 ' VAge du Cuivre en Chaldee, in La Nature, April 3, 1897. 
 
 * V Anthropologic, 1896, p. 526 sq. This antiquary aptly remarks that 
 " I'expression age de cuivre a une signification bien precise comme s'appliquant 
 a la partie de la periode de la pierre polie ou les metaux font leur apparition." 
 
 ^ V Anthropologie, 1896, p. 526 sq. 
 
 ^ In Die Kupferzeit in Europa, 1882. 
 
II.] THE METAL AGES. I9 
 
 culture. His conclusions are based on the study of about 500 
 copper objects found in Hungary and preserved in the Buda 
 Pesth collections. Reviewing all the facts attesting a Copper 
 Age in Central Europe, Egypt, Italy, Cyprus, Troy, Scandinavia, 
 North Asia, and other lands, he concludes that a Copper Age 
 may have sprung up independently wherever the ore was found, 
 as in the Ural and Altai Mountains, Italy, Spain, Britain, Cyprus, 
 Sinai; such culture being generally indigenous, and giving evi- 
 dence of more or less characteristic local features \ In fact we 
 know for certain that such an independent Copper Age was 
 developed not only in the region of the Great Lakes of North 
 America, but also amongst the Bantu peoples of Katanga and 
 other parts of Central Africa. Copper is not an alloy like bronze, 
 but a soft, easily-worked metal occurring in large quantities and 
 in a tolerably pure state near the surface in many parts of the 
 world. The wonder is, not that it should have been found and 
 worked at a somewhat remote epoch in several different centres, 
 but that its use should have been so soon superseded in so many 
 places by the bronze alloys. 
 
 From copper to bronze, however, the passage was slow and 
 progressive, the proper proportion of tin, which 
 was probably preceded in some places by an alloy ^^^^ Bronze 
 of antimony, having been apparently arrived at by 
 repeated experiments often carried out with no little skill by those 
 prehistoric metallurgists. 
 
 As suggested by Bibra in 1869, the ores of different metals 
 would appear to have been at first smelted together empirically, 
 and the process continued until satisfactory results were obtained. 
 Hence the extraordinary number of metals, of which percentages 
 are found in some of the earlier specimens, such as those of the 
 Elbing Museum, which on analysis yielded tin, lead, silver, iron, 
 antimony, arsenic, sulphur, nickel, cobalt, and zinc in varying 
 quantities ^. 
 
 ^ Neuere Studien iiber die Kupferzeit, in Zeitschr.f. Eth., 1896, No. 1. 
 
 '^ Otto Helm, Chemische Untersuchungen vorgeschichtlicher Bronzen, in 
 Zeitschr.f. Eth., 1897, No. 2. Vhis authority agrees with Hempel's view that 
 further research will confirm the suggestion that in Transylvania (Hungary) 
 " eine Kupfer-Antimonmischung vorangegangen, welche zugleich die Bronze- 
 kultur vorbereitete " {ib. p. 128). 
 
 2 — 2 
 
20 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Some bronzes from the pyramid of Medum analyzed by Prof. 
 J. H. Gladstone^ yielded the high percentage of 9*1 of tin, from 
 which we must infer, not only that bronze, but bronze of the finest 
 quality, was already known to the Egyptians of the 4th dynasty. 
 Yet M. J. de Morgan, who does not question this inference, 
 and thinks that copper was also known to the Egyptians about 
 5000 B.C., holds that nowhere in Africa was there either a distinct 
 Copper or a Bronze Age. In America the transition was from 
 stone to copper only, but the passage was in Africa everywhere 
 from stone to iron^ 
 
 On the other hand it is shown by M. Maspero that all the 
 Metal, as indeed also the Stone Ages, were successively passed 
 through in Babylonia, where metal implements, first of copper, 
 then of bronze, lastly of iron, abounded in immense variety from 
 remote times ^ Metal tools of fine temper were here certainly 
 needed for carving the extremely hard diorite statues found in 
 1 88 1 by M. de Sarzec at Sirgalla (Legash), which cannot be much 
 less than 6000 years old. 
 
 In Europe the transition from copper to bronze is supposed to 
 liave taken place everywhere much about the same time. But we 
 shall see that the date, about 2000 B.C., usually assigned to the 
 change, will have to be set back fully 1000 years, at least for some 
 localities. Indeed the narrow views hitherto current regarding the 
 chronology of the Metal Ages have already received a rude shock 
 from the fruitful researches especially of Mr A. J. Evans in the 
 Eastern Mediterranean. Warning notes are already heard in all 
 directions, and Chr. Blinkenberg amongst others remarks that, if 
 Mykengean culture had attained its bloom in the 15 th and follow- 
 ing centuries, pre-Mykenaean graves and their contents must be 
 dated back to the very beginning of the second, and even to the 
 latter part of the third millennium b.c.^ 
 
 ^ Proc. Soc. Bib. Archccol. 1892, pp. 223-6. 
 
 2 Recherches snr les Origines de PEgypte, &c., 1896. M. de Morgan here 
 overlooks the development of a copper industry above referred to m various 
 parts of Central Africa, apparently at a very early date. 
 
 '^ The Darvn of Civilization, 3rd ed. 1 8g8, passim. 
 
 4 Pramykeniske Oldsager; Bidrag til studiet af Grcekenlands celdeste KtdtM\ 
 Copenhagen, 1896. 
 
II.] . • THE METAL AGES. 21 
 
 If M. de Morgan be right in assuming a direct transition from 
 stone to iron everywhere in Africa, then the Iron 
 
 , , , ... The Iron Age, 
 
 Age must have been synchronous in that region 
 with those of the other metals in Europe and Asia. But trading 
 and other relations would appear to have been established between 
 North Africa — and especially Egypt — and the Mediterranean 
 peoples at a much earlier period than is generally supposed. 
 Thus may perhaps be explained the allusions to iron long before 
 it had come into common use amongst these peoples, and in fact 
 at a time when it was almost regarded as a " precious metal." 
 " Iron," writes Mr S. Laing, "was no doubt known at a very early 
 period, but it was extremely scarce, and even as late as Homer's 
 time was so valuable that a lump of it constituted one of the 
 principal prizes at the funeral games of Patroclus\" 
 
 From this it would seem evident that there could have been 
 no Iron Age in Europe, but only a slight knowledge of the metal, 
 when the Homeric rhapsodies are commonly supposed to have 
 taken shape, say, about looo B.C., or at most some 150 years 
 before the beginning of the Olympiads (884 b.c), that is, mostly 
 before the beginning of authentic history for the Greek world. 
 But archaeologists now distinguish not one, but two Iron Ages, the 
 first of which alone must have lasted a considerable time. It pre- 
 vailed in a large portion of Italy (Umbria.and Venetia) ; it had its 
 chief, or one of its chief, centres at Halstatt beyond Haiist tt 
 the Alps, and its domain extended thence eastwards and La T^ne 
 so as to embrace the present German and Slavonic 
 lands of Carniola, Styria, Carinthia, Istria, Bosnia, Herzegovina, 
 and other parts of the Danubian basin. 
 
 With this period Sergi even associates the pre-Phoenician or 
 old Italic script, which he has partly reconstructed from the signs 
 or characters occurring on the bronzes and earthenware of 
 Villanova, Bologna, and other parts of Umbria^ These characters 
 he connects on the one hand with those of the pre-Neolithic 
 Maz-d'Azil cave, described by M. Ed. Piette^ and on the other 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ Human Origins, p. 168. 
 2 Ariie Italici, p. 218 sq. 
 ^ U Anthropologies 1896, p. 385 sq. 
 
22 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 with Mr A. J. Evans' pre-Phcenician Cretan syllabary. On this 
 and other grounds Sergi joins the new school of archaeologists in 
 their demand for an extension of the Metal Ages, remarking that 
 " this script appears in its forms and variants to be extremely old, 
 and in my opinion it seems as if it ought to cause the all but 
 established chronology of the First Iron Age to be set back in 
 Italy and elsewhere'." 
 
 From Hallstatt Prof. W. Ridgeway- believes on good grounds 
 that the use of iron spread to Switzerland, Italy, France, Spain, 
 Greece, Eastern Germany, and in fact to the whole of Europe, 
 everywhere largely replacing the bronze tools and weapons which 
 we know from Tacitus were then in common use. 
 
 The Hallstatt period, which is supposed to have reached its 
 bloom about 800 B.C., was continued in Switzerland and some 
 other places quite into Roman times. But during the last 
 centuries of its existence it was replaced in Gaul by a later Iron 
 Age, which from its chief centre is usually referred to as the 
 La Thie period. It was to some extent of local origin, and in 
 great measure independently developed, though not uninfluenced 
 by southern, especially Massilian (Greek) forms. Eventually the 
 La Tbne culture superseded the Hallstatt in all the lands of Keltic 
 speech, and the somewhat abrupt transition from one to the other 
 is perceptible in Switzerland, where La Tene forms were intro- 
 duced by later immigrants, ^Iso no doubt of Keltic speech. 
 
 Notwithstanding their quite recent date, as compared with the 
 early rise of the Eastern civilisations, all these metal periods must 
 be regarded as strictly prehistoric for Central and Western Europe; 
 they are antecedent to all trustworthy historical records, which in 
 the West with one or two exceptions, such as the foundation of the 
 Greek colony of Massilia (Marseilles, 539 B.C.), go no further back 
 than Roman times. 
 
 That the peoples of those days were physically well developed, 
 
 Man and his ^"^ ^" ^ ^""^^^ P^^^ ^^ Europe and Asia already of 
 
 Works in the Aryan speech, there can be no reasonable doubt. A 
 
 Metal Ages. 
 
 skull of the early Hallstatt period, from a grave near 
 * Arii e Italici, p. 219. 
 
 ^ The Starting Point of the Iron Age in Europe, Paper read at the British 
 Assoc. Liverpool, 1896. 
 
il] the metal ages. 23 
 
 Wildenroth, Upper Bavaria, is described by Prof. Virchow as long- 
 headed, with a cranial capacity of no less than 1585 c.c, strongly 
 developed occiput, very high and narrow face and nose, and in 
 every respect a superb specimen of the regular-featured, long- 
 headed North European ^ 
 
 Their works, found in great abundance in the graves, especially 
 of the Bronze and Iron periods, but a detailed account of which 
 belongs to the province of archaeology, interest us in many ways. 
 The painted earthenware vases and incised metal-ware of all kinds 
 enable the student to follow the progress of the arts of design and 
 ornamentation in their upward development from the first tenta- 
 tive efforts of the prehistoric artist at pleasing efifects. Human and 
 animal figures, though rarely depicted, occasionally afford a curious 
 insight into the customs and fashions of the times. On a clay 
 vessel, found in 1896 at Lahse in Posen, is figured a regular hunt- 
 ing scene, where we see men mounted on horseback, or else on 
 foot, armed with bow and arrow, pursuing the quarry (nobly- 
 antlered stags), and returning to the penthouse after the chase ^ 
 The drawing is extremely primitive, but on that account all the 
 more instructive, showing in connection with analogous representa- 
 tions on contemporary objects, how in prehistoric art such figures 
 tend to become conventionalised and purely ornamental, as in 
 similar designs on the vases and textiles from the A neon Necro- 
 polis, Peru. " Most ornaments of primitive peoples, although to 
 our eye they may seem merely geometrical and freely-invented 
 designs, are in reality nothing more than degraded animal and 
 human figures^" 
 
 This may perhaps be the reason why so many of the drawings 
 of the metal period appear so inferior to those of the cave-dwellers 
 and of the present Bushmen''. They are often mere convention- 
 alised reductions of pictorial prototypes, comparable, for instance, 
 to the characters of our alphabets, which are known to be degraded 
 forms of earlier pictographs. 
 
 ^ Ein Schddel aus der dlteren Hallstattzeit, in Verhandl. Berlin. Ges. f. 
 Anthrop. 1896, pp. 243 — 6. 
 
 ■^ Dr Hans Seger, Figiirliche Darstellungen auf schlesischen Grdbgefdssen 
 der Hallstattzeit, Globus, Nov. %>, 1897. 
 
 ^ Ibid.^ p. 297. ^ Eth., pp. 88 and 249-50. 
 
24 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Of the so-called " Prehistoric Age " it is obvious that no strict 
 definition can be given. It comprises in a general 
 
 The Pre- . , . „ • j 
 
 historic Age in way that vague period prior to all written records, 
 the West, ^.^ memories of which — popular myths, folklore, 
 
 demi-gods', eponymous heroes^ traditions of real events^ — lingered 
 on far into historic times, and supplied ready to hand the copious 
 materials afterwards worked up by the early poets, founders of new 
 religions, and later legislators. 
 
 That letters themselves, although not brought into general use, 
 had already been invented, is evident from the mere fact that all 
 memory of their introduction beyond the vaguest traditions had 
 died out before the dawn of history. The works of man, while in 
 themselves necessarily continuous, stretched back to such an 
 inconceivably remote past, that even the great landmarks in the 
 evolution of human progress had long been forgotten by later 
 generations. 
 
 And so it was everywhere, in the New World as in the Old, 
 amongst Eastern as amongst Western Peoples. 
 
 and in China. t i ^i • i , ., . ^ , ll. 
 
 in the Chinese records the ''Age of the Five 
 -Emperors " — five, though nine are named — answers somewhat to 
 our prehistoric epoch. It had its eponymous hero, Fu Hi, reputed 
 founder of the empire, who invented nets and snares for fishing 
 and hunting, and taught his people how to rear domestic animals. 
 To him also is ascribed the institution of marriage, and in his time 
 Tsong Chi is supposed to have invented the Chinese characters, 
 symbols, not of sounds, but of objects and ideas. 
 
 Then came other benevolent rulers, who taught the people 
 agriculture, established markets for the sale of farm produce, 
 
 1 Homer's rjiud^uv yivos dvdpiov, 11. xii. 23, if the passage is genuine. 
 
 2 Such as the Greek Andreas, the " First Man," invented in comparatively 
 recent times, as shown by the intrusive d in Ai/5pe5 for the earlier &.vepe%, 
 •' men." Andreas was of course a Greek, sprung in fact from the river 
 Peneus and the first inhabitant of the Orchomenian plain (Pausanias, ix. 34, 5). 
 
 » For instance, the flooding of the Thessalian plain, afterwards drained by 
 the Peneus and repeopled by the inhabitants of the surrounding mountains 
 (rocks, stones), whence the myth of Deucalion and Pyrrha, who are told by the 
 oracle to repeople the world by throwing behind them the ''bones of their 
 grandmother," that is, the " stones " of mother Earth. 
 
II.] HISTORIC TIMES AND PEOPLES. 2$ 
 
 discovered the medicinal properties of plants, wrote treatises on 
 diseases and their remedies, studied astrology and astronomy, and 
 appointed "the Five Observers of the heavenly bodies." 
 
 But this epoch had been preceded by the " Age of the Three 
 [sixj Rulers," when people lived in caves, ate wild fruits and 
 uncooked food, drank the blood of animals and wore the skins of 
 wild beasts (our Old Stone Age). Later they grew less rude, 
 learned to obtain fire by friction, and built themselves habitations 
 of wood or foliage (our early Neolithic Age). Thus is everywhere 
 revealed the background of sheer savagery, which lies behind all 
 human culture, while the " Golden Age " of the poets fades with 
 the " Hesperides " and Plato's " Atlantis " into the region of the 
 fabulous. 
 
 Little need here be said of strictly historic times, the most 
 characteristic feature of which is perhaps the general 
 use of letters. By means of this most fruitful of Tim^es°"'^ 
 human inventions, everything worth preserving was 
 perpetuated, and thus all useful knowledge tended to become 
 accunmlative. It is no longer possible to say when or where the 
 miracle was wrought by which the apparently multifarious sounds 
 of fully-developed languages were exhaustively analysed and 
 effectively expressed by a score or so of arbitrary signs. But 
 a comparative study of the various writing-system.s in use in 
 different parts of the world has revealed the process by which the 
 transition was gradually brought about from rude pictorial repre- 
 sentations of objects to purely phonetical symbols. 
 
 As is clearly shown by the "winter counts " of the North Ameri- 
 can aborigines, and by the prehistoric rock carvings Evolution 
 in Upper Egypt, the first step was z. pictography the of Writing 
 actual figure, say, of a man, standing for a given ^^ ^^^' 
 man, and then for any man or human being. Then this figure, 
 more or less reduced or conventionaHsed, served to indicate not 
 only the term man, but the full sound 7nan, as in the word 
 manifest, and in the modern rebus. At this stage it becomes 
 a phonogram, or phonoglyph, which, when further reduced beyond 
 all recognition of its original form, may stand for the syllable ma 
 as in ma-ny, without anv further reference either to the idea 
 or the sound man. The phonogram has now become the symbol 
 
26 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 of a monosyllable, which is normally made up of two elements, a 
 consonant and a vowel, as in the Devan^gari, and other syllabic 
 systems. 
 
 Lastly, by dropping the second or vowel element the same 
 symbol, further modified or not, becomes a letter representing the 
 sound w, that is, one of the few ultimate elements of articulate 
 speech. A more or less complete set of such characters, thus 
 worn down in form and meaning, will then be available for indi- 
 cating more or less completely all the phonetic elements of any 
 given language. It will be a true alphabet, the wonderful nature 
 of which may be inferred from the fact that only two, or possibly 
 three, such alphabetic systems are known with absolute certainty 
 to have ever been independently evolved by human ingenuity ^ 
 From the above exposition we see how inevitably the Phoenician 
 parent of nearly all late alphabets expressed at first the conso- 
 nantal sounds only, so that the vowels or vowel marks are in all 
 cases later developments, as in Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, 
 the Italic group, and the Runes. 
 
 In primitive systems, such as the Egyptian, Akkadian, Chinese, 
 Maya-Quiche and Mexican, one or more of the various trans- 
 itional steps may be developed and used simultaneously, with 
 a constant tendency to advance on the lines above indicated, by 
 Hiero 1 hs g^^^^^^l Substitution of the later for the earlier 
 and Cunei- Stages. A comparison of the Akkadian cuneiform 
 
 and Egyptian hieroglyphic systems brings out some 
 curious results. Thus at an extremely remote epoch, say 6000 
 years ago^ the Akkadians had already got rid of the pictorial, 
 and to a great extent of the ideographic, but had barely reached 
 the alphabetic phase. Consequently their cuneiform groups, 
 
 * Such instances as George Guest's Cherokee system, and the crude attempt 
 of a Vei (West Sudanese) Negro, if genuine, are not here in question, as both 
 had the English alphabet to work upon. A like remark applies to the old 
 Irish and Welsh Ogham, which are more curious than instructive, the 
 characters, mostly mere groups of straight strokes, being obvious substitutes 
 for the corresponding letters of the Roman alphabet, hence comparable to the 
 cryptographic systems of Wheatstone and others. 
 
 "^ " We discovered written records no less than 6000 years old, and proved 
 that writing and civilisation were then by no means in their infancy." (J. P. 
 Peters, Expedition to Babylonia, &c.. Vol. i. Philadelphia, 1897.) 
 
II.] HISTORIC TIMES AND PEOPLES. 2/ 
 
 although possessing phonetic value, mainly express full syllables, 
 scarcely ever letters, and rarely complete words. Ideographs had 
 given place first to phonograms and then to mere syllables, 
 "complex syllables in which several consonants may be dis- 
 tinguished, or simple syllables composed of only one consonant 
 and one vowel or vice versa \" 
 
 The Egyptians, on the other hand, carried the system right 
 through the whole gamut from pictures to letters, but retained all 
 the intermediate phases, the initial tending to fall away, the final 
 to expand, while the bulk of the hieroglyphs represented in various 
 degrees the several transitional states. In many cases they " had 
 kept only one part of the syllable, namely a mute consonant; 
 they detached, for instance, the final ii from bu and /?/, and 
 gave only the values b and p to the human leg J and to the 
 
 mat ^. The peoples of the Euphrates stopped half way, and 
 admitted actual letters for the vowel sounds a, i and u only^." 
 
 In the process of evolution, metaphor and analogy of course 
 played a large part, as in the evolution of language itself. Thus 
 a lion might stand both for the animal and for courage, and so on. 
 The first essays in phonetics took somewhat the form of a modem 
 rebus, thus : O = khau = sieve, g =/// = mat ; <:3> = 7'u = mouth, 
 
 whence 1 = kho-pi-ru = to be, where the sounds and not the 
 
 meaning of the several components are alone attended to^. 
 
 By analogous processes was formed a true alphabet, in which, 
 however, each of the phonetic elements was repre- 
 sented at first by several different characters derived ^ p a et. 
 from several different words having the same initial syllable. 
 Here was, therefore, an embarras de richesses, which could be got 
 rid of only by a judicious process of elimination, that is, by dis- 
 carding all like-sounding symbols but one for the same sound. 
 When this final process of reduction was completed by the scribes, 
 in other words, when all the phonetic signs were rejected except 
 23, i.e., one for each of the 23 phonetic elements, the Phoe- 
 nician alphabet as we now have it was completed. Such may 
 
 \ 
 1 Maspero, op. «V., p. 728. 2 /^^-^^ 3 i^^i^^ p_ ^23. 
 
28 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 be taken as the real origin of this system, whether the scribes in 
 question were Akkadians, Egyptians, Minseans or Europeans, 
 that is, whether the Phoenician alphabet had a cuneiform, a hiero- 
 glyphic, a South Arabian, a Cretan (^gean), Ligurian or Iberian 
 origin, for all these and perhaps other peoples have been credited 
 with the invention. On this point there will be more to say 
 when we come to discuss Himyaritic, pre-Mykenaean, and Italic 
 origins. 
 
 But whatever be the source of the Phoenician, that of the 
 Persian system current under the Achsemenides 
 and other is clear enough. It is a true alphabet of 37 cha- 
 
 Scri^t^s*^"^ racters, derived by some selective process directly 
 
 from the Babylonian cuneiforms, without any at- 
 tempt at a modification of their shapes. Hence although simple 
 compared with its prototype, it is clumsy enough compared with 
 the Phoenician script, several of the letters requiring groups of as 
 many as four or even five "wedges" for their expression. None 
 of the other cuneiform systems also derived from the Akkadian 
 (the Assyrian, Elamite, Vannic, Medic) appear to have reached 
 the pure alphabetic state, all being still encumbered with numerous 
 complex syllabic characters. The subjoined table, for which I have 
 to thank Mr T. G. Pinches, will help to show the genesis of the 
 cuneiform combinations from the earliest known pictographs. 
 These pictographs themselves are already reduced to the merest 
 outlines of the original pictorial representations. But no earlier 
 forms, showing the gradual transition from the primitive picture 
 writing to the degraded pictographs here given, have yet come to 
 light. 
 
 Hete it may be asked, what is to be thought of the already- 
 
 ^^^ mentioned pebble-markings from the Mas-d'Azil 
 
 Mas-d'Azii Cave of the Madelenian (late Old Stone) Age ? If 
 
 Markings. ^i ^ i i • , 
 
 they are truly phonetic, then we must suppose that 
 Palaeolithic man- not only invented an alphabetic writing system, 
 but did this right off by intuition, as it were, without any previous 
 knowledge of letters. At least no one will suggest that the 
 Dordogne cave-dwellers were already in possession of pictographic 
 or other crude systems, from which the Mas-d'Azil "script" 
 might have been slowly evolved. Yet M. Piette, who groups 
 
II.] 
 
 HISTORIC TIMES AND PEOPLES. 
 
 29 
 
 Evolution of the Akkadian Cuneiforms. 
 
 1000 B.C. 
 and later. 
 
 About 2500 
 to 1500 B.C. 
 
 Oldest kno 
 3000 B.C 
 
 wn ime form 
 and earlier. 
 
 =, 
 
 
 HI 
 
 N 
 
 /t 
 
 ''bird." 
 
 "sheep" (pro- 
 bably a sheeo- 
 fold). 
 
 tT4 
 
 ^> 
 
 =0 
 
 ^ 
 
 "ox." 
 
 ^T 
 
 ^\ 
 
 cd 
 
 a 
 
 "to go," 
 " to stand." 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 E 
 
 — 
 
 "hand." 
 
 
 ISW 
 
 
 
 3&* I* 
 
 — "dagger." 
 
 — "fish. 
 
 <« ,.^^^ " 
 
 
 
 reed 
 
 reed. " 
 
 "corn" ("ear 
 of corn "). 
 
 "god," 
 "heaven." 
 
 "constellation," 
 
 Or -TLi.- r 
 
 THE 
 
 Ca ^'' 
 
3a • MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 these pebbles, painted with peroxide of iron, in the four cate- 
 gories of numerals, symbols, pictographs, and alphabetical cha- 
 j racters, states, in reference to these last, that "13 out of 23 
 Phoenician characters were equally Azilian graphic signs" {/oc. cit.). 
 He even suggests that there may be an approach to an inscription 
 in one group, where, however, the mark indicating a stop implies 
 a script running Semitic-fashion from right to left, whereas the 
 letters themselves seem to face the other way. 
 
 A possible connection has been suggested by Sergi between 
 
 the Mas-d'Azil signs and the markings that have 
 
 form'sivns^on t)een discovered on the megahthic monuments of 
 
 Neolithic North Africa, Brittany, and the British Isles. These 
 
 Monuments. 
 
 are all so rudimentary that resemblances are in- 
 evitable, and of themselves afford little ground for necessary 
 connections. Primitive man is but a child, and all children bawl 
 and scrawl much in the same way. Nevertheless M. Latourneau' 
 has taken the trouble to compare five such scrawls from " Libyan 
 inscriptions" now in the Bardo Museum, Tunis, with similar 
 or identical signs on Brittany and Irish dolmens. There is the 
 familiar circle plain and dotted O O, the cross in its simplest 
 form + , the pothook and segmented square p H , all of which 
 recur in the Phoenician, Keltiberian, Etruscan, Libyan or Tuareg 
 systems. Latourneau, however, who does not call them letters 
 but only " signes alphabetiformes," merely suggests that, if not 
 phonetic marks when first carved on the neolithic monuments, 
 they may have become so in later times. Against this it need 
 only be urged that in later times all these peoples were supplied 
 with complete alphabetic systems from the East as soon as they 
 required them. By that time all the peoples of the culture-zone 
 were well-advanced into the historic period, and had long forgotten 
 the rude carvings of their neoUthic forefathers. 
 
 ^ Bui. Soc. (TAnthrop. 1896, p. 319. 
 
II.] HISTORIC TIMES AND PEOPLES. 3 1 
 
 Armed with a nearly perfect writing system, and the correlated 
 cultural appliances, the higher races soon took a foremost place 
 in the general progress of mankind, and gradually acquired a 
 marked ascendancy, not only over the less cultured populations 
 of the globe, but in large measure over the forces of 
 
 . . Character 
 
 nature herself. With the development of naviga- and Conse- 
 tion and improved methods of locomotion, inland ^a^ter^historr.^ 
 seas, barren wastes, and mountain ranges ceased to cfi) Migra- 
 be insurmountable obstacles to their movements, 
 which within certain limits have never been arrested throughout 
 all recorded time. 
 
 Thus, during the long ages following the first peopling of the 
 earth by pleistocene man, fresh settlements and readjustments 
 have been continually in progress, although wholesale displace- 
 ments must be regarded as rare events. With few exceptions, the 
 later migrations, whether hostile or peaceful, were, for reasons 
 already stated*, generally of a partial character, while certain 
 insular regions, such as America and Australia, remained little 
 affected by such movements till quite recent times. But for 
 the inhabitants of the Eastern hemisphere the results were none 
 the less far-reaching. Continuous infiltrations could not fail ulti- 
 mately to bring about great modifications of early types, while the 
 ever-active principle of convergence tended to produce a general 
 uniformity amongst the new amalgams. Thus the great varietal 
 divisions, though undergoing slow changes from age to age, con- 
 tinued, like all other zoological groups, to maintain a distinct 
 regional character. 
 
 Prof. Flinders Petrie has acutely observed that the only mean- 
 ing the term "race" now can have is that of a ^^ ,.„ 
 
 ° The "Race" 
 
 group of human beings, whose type has become merges in the 
 unified by their rate of assimilation exceeding the ^°^ ^' 
 
 rate of change produced by foreign elements^. We are also 
 reminded by Gustavo Tosti that " in the actual state of science the 
 word ' race ' is a vague formula, to which nothing definite may be 
 found to correspond. On the one hand, the original races can 
 
 1 Eth., p. 342.^ 
 
 2 Address, Meetmg British Assoc. Ipswich, 1895. 
 
32 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 only be said to belong to palaeontology, while the more limited 
 groups, now called races, are nothing but peoples, or societies of 
 peoples, brethren by civilization more than by blood. The race 
 thus conceived ends by identifying itself with nationality \" Hence 
 it has been asked why, on the principle of convergence, a fusion of 
 variousk races, if isolated long enough in a given area, may not 
 eventually lead to a new racial type, without leaving any trace of 
 its manifold origin-. 
 
 Such new racial types would be normal for the later varietal 
 groups, just as the old types were normal for the earlier groups, 
 and a general application might be given to Topinard's famous 
 dictum that les peuples seuls sont des realites^, that is, peoples alone 
 — groups occupying definite geographical areas — have an objective 
 existence. Thus, the notion of race, as a zoological expression in 
 the sense of a pure breed or strain, falls still more into the back- 
 ground, and, as Virchow aptly -remarks, " this term, which always 
 implied something vague, has in recent times become in the 
 highest degree uncertain ^" 
 
 Hence Dr Ehrenreich treats the present populations of the 
 earth rather as zoological groups which have been 
 guishing cha- developed in their several geographical domains, 
 Peoples"^ and are to be distinguished not so much by their 
 
 bony structure as by their external characters, such 
 as hair, colour, and expression, and by their habitats and languages. 
 Relying on these essential factors, he proposes a general scheme 
 of the primary divisions, which largely agrees with that already 
 advanced in Ethnology, Part H. 
 
 Too much weight is no doubt given to language) which is 
 called the "main point," while peoples are said to be realities 
 '* only so far as they are characterised by their speech ; peoples 
 stand and fall with their speech ^" But with the general 
 principle little fault can be found, and the cogent remarks 
 on the intimate connection of peoples with their physical sur- 
 
 1 Ainej'. y. of Sociology, Jan. 1898, pp. 467-8. 
 
 2 A. Vierkandt, Globus, 72, p. 134. 
 
 ^ ^letnents iP Anthropologie Generale, p. 207. 
 
 ^ Rassenbildung u. Erblichkeit ; Bastian- Festschrift, [896, p. i. 
 
 ' Anthropologische Studten, &c., p. 14. 
 
II.] HISTORIC TIMES AND PEOPLES. 33 
 
 roundings are well worth the attention of those anthropologists 
 who attach little importance to anything except the osseous frame- 
 work. " We recognise the fact that each of these groups belongs 
 to a definite zone, a geographical province in which we have 
 to seek the centre of their origin, or rather of their present 
 specialised forms." He also quotes Bastian's remark that in order 
 to discover this centre we should not travel beyond the typical 
 geographical groups, lest in the search for absolute beginnings we 
 may again be plunged into the mythologies. 
 
 This fear has now been removed by Dr Dubois' discovery, and 
 in other respects Ehrenreich's essay may be accepted as a timely 
 corrective of the somewhat extravagant and contradictory views^ 
 current, especially in France and Italy, on the supreme and even 
 exclusive importance of the craniological factor. We shall have to 
 return to the battle of the long-heads and the round-heads. It 
 will then be seen that too much importance need not be attached 
 to discussions, which threaten again to involve ethnological studies 
 in the chaos from which they were rescued by the establishment of 
 evolutionary principles towards the middle of the nineteenth 
 century. 
 
 It seems obvious that in dealing with the difficult question of 
 '^ Man Past and Present " light should be sought in 
 all quarters. We cannot afford to neglect any of ciassificadonf 
 the factors entering into the problem of human 
 origins and later developments. Hence in the broad groupings, 
 which are here adopted, and which are based on the treatment of 
 the Primary Divisions in the second part of the Ethnology, 
 due weight is given to all available data — physical and mental 
 
 ^ How antagonistic they are may be judged from the attitude of Prof. 
 Sergi, leader of the Italian school, towards M. de Lapouge, founder of the 
 new French craniology, all of whose views regarding skull modifications are 
 summarily dismissed as "fantastic," while his own belief in the persistence of 
 skull types is reiterated in the strongest language. " Lapouge is unfortunately 
 bitten by the Ligurian brachycephalism [the theory that the Ligurians were 
 round-headed],.. but all the theories advanced by him on the development 
 of cranial forms from prehistoric to present time I hold without more ado 
 to be fantastic" {Ursprung des Mittelldndischen Sta??i??ies, Leipzig, 1897, 
 p. 63). % 
 
 K. 3 
 
34 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. II. 
 
 characters, usages, religion, speech, cultural features, history, and 
 geographical range. 
 
 Such, broadly speaking, are the elements of classification, and 
 wherever two or more groups are found agreeing in all, or at least 
 in the more essential, of such elements, they may be regarded as 
 branches of one stock. So far, and no further, is a strictly 
 zoological or genetic classification possible in the present state of 
 the multifarious inhabitants of the globe. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 
 
 Conspectus — The Negro- Caucasic "Great Divide" — The Negro Domain — 
 Negro Origins — Persistence of the Negro Type — Two Main Sections : 
 Sudanese and Bantus — Contrasts and Analogies — Sudanese and Bantu 
 Linguistic Areas — The "Drum Language" — West Sudanese Groups — 
 The Wolofs: Primitive Speech and Pottery; Religious Notions — The 
 Afandm_§^ans : Culture and Industries; History; the Guine and Mali 
 Empires — The Felups : Contrasts between the Inland and Coast Peoples ; 
 Felup Type and Mental Characters — Z'/wm ;— African Freemasonry — The 
 Sierra Leonese — Social Relations — The Liberians — The Krumen — The 
 Upper Guinea Peoples — Table of the Gold Coast and Slave Coast Tribes — 
 Ashanti Folklore — Fetishism ; its true inwardness — Ancestry Worship and 
 the "Customs" — The Benin Bronzes — The Mossi — African Agnostics — 
 Central Sudanese — General Ethical and Social Relations — The 
 Sonrhay — Domain — Origins — Egyptian Theories — Sonrhay Records — 
 The Haitsas—V)ovcy\n'3.x\\. Social Position — Speech and Mental Qualities — 
 Origins — Kane??ibu; Kamiri; Baghirmi ; Mosgti — Ethnical and Political 
 Relations in the Chad Basin — The Aborigines — Islam and Heathendom — 
 Slave-Hunting — Arboreal Strongholds — Mosgu Types and Contrasts — The 
 Cultured Peoples of Central Sudan — Kanem-Bornu Records — East 
 Sudanese — Range of the Negro in Eastern Sudan — The Mabas — Ethnical 
 Relations in Waday — The Nubas — The Nubian Problem — Nubian Origins 
 and Affinities — The Negro Peoples of the Nile-Congo watersheds — 
 Shilluks ; Dinkas; Bongos; Mangbattus; Niatn-Niams — Two Physical 
 Types — Linguistic Groups — Mental Qualities — Cannibalism — The African 
 Cannibal Zone — Arts and Industries — High Appreciation of Pictorial 
 Art — Sense of Humour. 
 
 Conspectus of Sudanese Negroes. 
 
 Primeval Home, Africa south of the Sahara. Distribu- 
 
 , . . tion in 
 
 Present Range, the Primeval Home less Abyssinia, Past and 
 
 ^ • 1^ • • Present 
 
 Galla, Somali and Masai Lands ; Tripohtana, Mauritania Times. 
 and Egypt sporadically ; several of the southern United 
 States ; West Indies ; Guiana ; parts of Brazil and Peru. 
 
 3—2 
 
36 
 
 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 Physical 
 Charac- 
 
 Mental 
 Charac- 
 ters. 
 
 Main 
 Divisions- 
 
 Hair, always black, rather shorty and crisp or frizzly^ 
 not woolly^ differing from other human hair only in being 
 fiat in transverse section ; colour, very dark brown or 
 chocolate and blackish, never quite black ; skull, generally 
 dolichocephalous {long, index No. 72) ; jaws, prognathous 
 {projecting, index No. 60) ; cheek-bone, rather small, 
 7?ioderately retreating, rarely prominent ; nose, very broad 
 at base, fiat, small {platyrrhine, No. 56); eyes, large, 
 roimd, prominent, black with yellowish cornea ; stature, 
 above the average, ^ ft. 10 in.; lips, tumid and everted ; 
 arms, disproportionately long ; legs, slender with small 
 calves ; feet, broad, fiat, with low instep and larkspur 
 heel. 
 
 Temperament, seiisuous, indolent, improvident ; fit- 
 ful, passioftate and cruel, though often affectionate and 
 faithful; little sense of dignity, and slight ^elf-consciousness, 
 hence easy acceptance of yoke of slavery ; musical. 
 
 Speech, almost everywhere in the agglutinating state, 
 generally with suffixes. 
 
 Religion, anthrop07norphic ; spirits endowed with 
 human attributes, mostly evil and more povuerful than 
 man; ancestry-worship, fetishism, and witchcraft very 
 prevalent ; human sacrifices to the dead a common 
 feature. 
 
 Culture, low; cannibalistn fortnerly rife, perhaps uni- 
 versal, still general in some regions ; no science or letters; 
 arts and industries confined mainly to agriculture, pottery, 
 wood-carving, weaving, and metallurgy; no perceptible 
 progress anywhere except under the infiuence of higher 
 races. 
 
 West Sudanese; Wolof ; Mandingan ; Felup ; 
 Tinmi ; Kru ; Sierra Leonese ; Liberian ; Tshi,Ewe,and 
 Yoruba ; Ibo ; Efik ; Borgu ; Mossi. 
 
 Central Sudanese: Sonrhay ; Hausa ; Mosgu ; 
 Kanembu ; Kanuri ; Baghirmi ; Yedina. 
 
 East Sudanese: Maba ; Fur; Nuba; Shilluk ; 
 Dinka ; Bari ; Abaka ; Bo7igo ; Janghey ; Mangbattu ; 
 Zandeh ; Momfu; Base; Barea. 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 37 
 
 From the anthropological standpoint Africa falls into two 
 distinct sections, where the highest (Caucasic) and 
 the lowest (Ethiopic) divisions of mankind have cauclsic^^°' 
 been conterminous throughout all known time, vide^"*^*" 
 Mutual encroachments and interpenetrations have 
 probably been continuous, and indeed are still going on. Yet so 
 marked is the difference between the two groups, and such is the 
 tenacity with which each cHngs to its proper domain, that, despite 
 any very distinct geographical frontiers, the ethnological parting 
 line may still be detected. Obliterated at one or two points, and 
 at others set back always in favour of the higher division, it may 
 be followed from the Atlantic coast along the course of the Senegal 
 river east by north to the great bend of the Niger at Timbuktu ; 
 then east by south to Lake Chad, beyond which it runs nearly due 
 east to Khartum, at the confluence of the White and Blue Niles. 
 
 From this point the now isolated Negro groups (Base and 
 Barea), on the northern slope of the Abyssinian plateau, show that 
 the original boundary was at first continued still east to the 
 Red Sea at or about Massowa. But for many ages the line 
 appears to have been deflected from Khartum along the White 
 Nile south to the Sobat confluence, then continuously south-east- 
 wards round by the Sobat valley to Lake Albert Nyanza, up the 
 Somerset Nile to the Victoria Nyanza, and thence with a consider- 
 able southern bend round Masailand eastwards to the Indian 
 Ocean at the equator. 
 
 All the land north of this irregular line belongs to the Hamito- 
 Semitic section of the Caucasic division, all south 
 of it to the western (African) section of the Ethiopic Domain. ^^'^° 
 division. Throughout this region — which comprises 
 the whole of Sudan from the Atlantic to the White Nile, and all 
 south of Sudan except Abyssinia, Galla, Somali and Masai lands — 
 the African Negro, clearly distinguished from the other main 
 groups by the above summarised physical^ and mental qualities, 
 
 ^ Graphically summed up in the classical description of the Negress : — 
 Afra genus, tota patriam testante figura, 
 Torta comam labroque tumens, et fusca colorem, 
 Pectore lata, jaca^s mammis, compressior alvo, 
 Cruribus exilis, spatiosa prodiga planta. 
 
38 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 largely predominates everywhere and in many places exclusively. 
 The route by which he probably reached these intertropical lands, 
 where he may be regarded as practically indigenous, has been 
 indicated in Ethnology, Chs. x. and xi. 
 
 That the occupation took place in pleistocene times, if not 
 
 even earlier, is made daily more evident from the 
 
 Negro researches of travellers in hitherto unvisited districts. 
 
 Origins. 
 
 . At the meeting of the Royal Society, April 30, 1896, 
 Sir John Evans stated that the numerous palaeoliths found by Mr 
 Seton-Karr on his second visit to Somaliland, which originally 
 formed part of the Negro domain, were in form absolutely 
 identical with some from the Somme and other places ; hence 
 there need be no hesitation in claiming them as palaeoliths, 
 despite the absence of a fossil fauna. The finds, he pointed out, 
 help to bridge over the interval between palaeolithic man in 
 Britain and in India, and add another link to the chain of evidence 
 by which the original cradle of man may eventually be identified, 
 tending to prove the unity of race between the inhabitants 
 of Asia, Africa, and Europe in palaeolithic times. Mr Seton-Karr 
 tells us that he obtained several thousands of such objects — spear- 
 heads, scrapers, knives, flakes, cores — in sites which presented the 
 appearance of having been regular workshops. Nearly all the 
 flints were either damaged or unfinished, while some were found 
 amid a mass of flakes and chips, "as though the people had 
 dropped their work, and, carrying with them all their perfect 
 weapons and belongings, had fled, never to return \" 
 
 Similar evidence has been collected from Upper Guinea, 
 
 Persistence Angola, and the extreme south, showing not only the 
 of the Negro early arrival but also the general dispersal of the 
 
 ^^^" Negro over his present domain during the first 
 
 Stone Age. Yet since that remote epoch the specialised Negro 
 type, as depicted on the Egyptian monuments some thousands of 
 years ago, has everywhere been maintained with striking uni- 
 formity. " Within this wide domain of the black Negro there is 
 a remarkably general similarity of type.... If you took a Negro 
 from the Gold Coast of West Africa and passed him off amongst a 
 
 ^ Some Implements in Somaliland, Paper read at Meeting of Brit. Assoc. 
 Ipswich, 1895. 
 
 I 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 39 
 
 number of Nyasa natives, and if he were not remarkably distin- 
 guished from them by dress or tribal marks, it would not be easy 
 to pick him out\" 
 
 Nevertheless considerable differences are perceptible to the 
 practised eye, and the contrasts are sufficiently 
 marked to justify ethnologists in treating the sections: Su- 
 Sudanese and the Bantus as two distinct sub- ^^"ese and 
 
 Bantus. 
 
 divisions of the family. In both groups the 
 relatively full-blood natives are everywhere very much alike, 
 and the contrasts are presented chiefly amongst the mixed or 
 Negroid populations. In Sudan the disturbing elements are 
 both Hamitic (Berbers and Tuaregs) and Semitic (Arabs) ; while in 
 Bantuland they are mainly Hamitic (Gallas) in all the central and 
 southern districts, and Arabs on the eastern seaboard from the 
 equator to Sofala beyond the Zambesi. To the varying propor- 
 tions of these several ingredients may perhaps be traced the often 
 very marked differences observable on the one hand between such 
 Sudanese peoples as the Wolofs, Mandingans, Hausas, Nubians, 
 Zandehs, and Mangbattus, and on the other between all these and 
 the Swahili, Waganda, Zulu-Xosas, Bechuanas, Ovahereros and 
 some other Negroid Bantus. 
 
 But the distinction is based on social, linguistic, and cultural, 
 as well as on physical grounds, so that, as at present constituted, the 
 Sudanese and Bantus really constitute two tolerably well-defined 
 branches of the Negro family. Thanks to Muham- 
 madan influences, the former have attained a much Anafoje? ^"^ 
 higher level of culture. They cultivate not only the 
 alimentary but also the economic plants, such as cotton and 
 indigo ; they build stone dwellings, walled towns, substantial 
 mosques and minarets ; they have founded powerful states, such 
 as those of the Hausas and Sonrhays, of Ghanah and Bornu, with 
 written records going back a thousand years, although these 
 historical peoples are all without exception half-breeds, often with 
 more Semitic and Hamitic than Ethiopic blood in their veins. 
 
 No such cultured peoples are anywhere to be found in Bantu- 
 land except on the east coast, where the " Moors " founded great 
 
 \ 
 1 Sir H. H. Johnston, British Central Afrita, 1897, p. 393. 
 
40 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 cities and flourishing marts centuries before the appearance of the 
 Portuguese in the eastern seas. To the Minaeans or Sabaeans, 
 kinsmen of the Moors, must also be credited the Zimbabwe monu- 
 ments and other ruins explored by Theodore Bent in the mining 
 districts south of the Zambesi. But in all the Negro lands free 
 from foreign influences no true culture has ever been developed, 
 and here cannibalism, witchcraft, and sanguinary "customs" are 
 either still rife, or have been but recently suppressed by the direct 
 action of European administrations. 
 
 Numberless authorities have described the Negro as un- 
 progressive, or, if left to himself, incapable of progress in his 
 present physical environment. Sir H. H. Johnston, who knows 
 him well, goes much further, and speaks of him as a fine animal, 
 who, "in his wild state, exhibits a stunted mind and a dull 
 content with his surroundings, which induces mental stagnation, 
 cessation of all upward progress, and even retrogression towards 
 the brute. In some respects I think the tendency of the Negro 
 for several centuries past has been an actual retrograde one. As 
 we come to read the unwritten history of Africa by researches into 
 languages, manners, customs, traditions, we seem to see a back- 
 ward rather than a forward movement going on for some thousand 
 years past— a return towards the savage and even the brute. I 
 can beheve it possible that, had Africa been more isolated from 
 contact with the rest of the world, and cut off from the immigra- 
 tion of the Arab and the European, the purely Negroid races, left 
 to themselves, so far from advancing towards a higher type of 
 humanity, might have actually reverted by degrees to a type 
 no longer human ' ". I do not say that this is so, but I give it as 
 the matured opinion of an administrator, who has had a wider 
 experience of the natives of Africa than almost any man living. 
 
 There is one point in which the Bantus somewhat unaccount- 
 ably compare favourably with the Sudanese. In all other regions 
 the spread of culture has tended to bring about linguistic unity, as 
 ^ ^ we see in the Hellenic world, where all the old 
 
 Sudanese , . 
 
 and Bantu idioms were gradually absorbed in the " common 
 
 Linguistic dialect" of the Byzantine empire, again in the 
 
 Roman empire, where Latin became the universal 
 ^ British Central Africa, p. 472. 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 4I 
 
 speech of the West, and lastly in the Muhammadan countries, 
 where most of the local tongues have nearly everywhere, except 
 in Sudan, disappeared before the Arabic, Persian, and Turkish 
 languages. 
 
 But in Negroland the case is reversed, and here the less 
 cultured Bantu populations all, without any known exception, 
 speak dialects of a single mother-tongue, while the greatest 
 linguistic confusion prevails amongst the semi-civiHzed as well as 
 the savage peoples of Sudani 
 
 Although the Bantu language may, as some suppose, have 
 originated in the north and spread southwards to the Congo, 
 Zambesi, and Limpopo basins, it cannot now be even remotely 
 affiliated to any one of the numerous distinct forms of speech 
 current in the Sudanese domain. Hence to allow time for its 
 diffusion over half the continent, the initial movement must be 
 assigned to an extremely remote epoch, and a corresponding 
 period of great duration must be postulated for the profound 
 linguistic disintegration that is everywhere witnessed in the region 
 between the Atlantic and Abyssinia. Here agglutination, both 
 with prefixed and postfixed particles, is the prevailing morphological 
 order ; as in the Mandingan, Fulah, Nubian, Dinkan, and Mang- 
 battu groups. But every shade of transition is also presented 
 between true agglutination and inflection of the Hamito-Semitic 
 types, as in Hausa, Kanuri, Kanem, Dasa or Southern and Teda 
 or Northern Tibu^ 
 
 Elsewhere, and especially in Upper Guinea, the originally 
 agglutinating tongues have developed on lines analogous to those 
 followed by Tibetan, Burmese, Chinese, and Otomi in other conti- 
 nents, with corresponding results. Thus the Tshi, Ewe, and 
 Yoruba, surviving members of a now extinct stock language, 
 formerly diffused over the whole region between Cape Palmas and 
 the Niger Delta, have become so burdened with monosyllabic 
 
 1 Eth. p. 272-3. 
 
 2 Even a tendency to polysynthesis occurs, as in Vei, and in Yoruba, where 
 the small-pox god Shakpanna is made up of the three elements shan, to 
 plaster, kpa to kill, and enia a person = one who kills a person by plastering 
 him (with pustules). Cf. 2l%o ^andilogun with Latin undevtginti=one-{rom- 
 twenty = nineteen ; and sa/si =sa.-lo-si (se lo sa), Purg. v. 135. 
 
42 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 homophones (like-sounding monosyllables), that to indicate their 
 different meanings several distinguishing tones have been evolved, 
 exactly as in the Indo-Chinese group. In Ewe (Slave Coast) the 
 root do^ according as it is toned may mean to put, let go, tell, 
 kick, be sad, join, change, grow big, sleep, prick, or grind. So 
 great are the ravages of phonetic decay, that new expedients have 
 been developed to express quite simple ideas, as in Tshi (Gold 
 Coast) addanmu^ room {addan house, mu interior); akwancherifo, 
 a guide {akwan road, cheri to show, fo person) ; ensahtsiabah, 
 finger {ensah hand, tsia small, abbah child = hand's-little-child) ; 
 but middle-finger = "hand's-Httle-chief" {ensahtsiahin^ where ehin 
 chief takes the place of abbah child). 
 
 Common both to Sudanese and Bantus, especially about the 
 
 western borderlands (Upper Guinea, Cameruns, 
 Languag^'^'^"^ ^^O ^^ ^^ "drum-languagc," which affords a striking 
 
 illustration of the Negro's musical faculty. "Two 
 or three drums are usually used together, each producing a 
 different note, and they are played either with the fingers or 
 with two sticks. The lookers-on generally beat time by clapping 
 the hands. To a European, whose ear and mind are untrained 
 for this special faculty, the rhythm of a drum expresses nothing 
 beyond a repetition of the same note at different intervals of 
 time ; but to a native it expresses much more. To him the drum 
 can and does speak, the sounds produced from it forming words, 
 and the whole measure or rhythm a sentence. . In this way, when 
 company drums are being played at an ehsddu [palaver], they are 
 made to express and convey to the bystanders a variety of 
 meanings. In one measure they abuse the men of another 
 company, stigmatising them as fools and cowards; then the 
 rhythm changes, and the gallant deeds of their own company 
 are extolled. All this, and much more, is conveyed by the beat- 
 ing of drums, and the native ear and mind, trained to select and 
 interpret each beat, is never at fault. The language of drums is as 
 well understood as that which they use in their daily life. Each 
 chief has his own call or motto, sounded by a particular beat 
 of his drums. Those of Amankwa Tia, the Ashanti general 
 who fought against us in the war of 1873-4, used to say 
 PMhuh^ hasten. Similar mottoes are also expressed by means 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 43 
 
 of horns, and an entire stranger in the locality can at once 
 translate the rhythm into words \" 
 
 Similar contrasts and analogies will receive due illustration 
 in the detailed account here following of the several more repre- 
 sentative Sudanese groups. 
 
 West Sudanese. 
 
 Wolofs. Throughout its middle and lower course the Senegal 
 river, which takes its name from the Zenaga Berbers, forms the ethni- 
 cal "divide" between the Hamites and the Sudanese Negroes. The 
 latter are here represented by the Wolofs, who with the kindred 
 Jolofs and Serers occupy an extensive territory between the Sene- 
 gal and the Gambia rivers. Whether the term "Wolof" means 
 "Talkers," as if they alone were gifted with the faculty of speech, 
 or "Blacks" in contrast to the neighbouring "Red" Fulahs, both 
 interpretations are fully justified by these Senegambians, at once 
 the very blackest and amongst the most garrulous tribes in the 
 whole of Africa. The colour is called "ebony," and they are 
 commonly spoken of as " Blacks of the Black." They are also 
 very tall even for Negroes, and the Serers especially may claim to 
 be " the Patagonians of the Old World," men six feet six inches 
 high and proportionately muscular being far from rare in the 
 coast districts about St Louis and Dakar. 
 
 Their language, which is widespread throughout Senegambia, 
 may be taken as a typical Sudanese form of speech, 
 unlike any other in its peculiar agglutinative struc- w^ioTsp^eech. 
 ture, and unaffected even in its vocabulary by the 
 Hamitic which has been current for ages on the opposite bank of 
 the Senegal. A remarkable feature is the so-called "article," always 
 postfixed and subject to a two-fold series of modifications, first in 
 accordance with the initial consonant of the noun, for which there 
 are six possible consonantal changes {iv^ m^ b, d^ s^ g), and then 
 
 ^ A. B. Ellis, TAe Tshi- speaking Peoples, &c., 1887, pp. 327-8. Only one 
 European, Herr R. Betz, long resident amongst the Dualas of the Cameruns 
 district, has yet succeeded in mastering the drum language ; he claims to 
 understand nearly all that is <|Jrummed and is also able to drum himself. 
 [AthentBtim, May 7, 1898, p. 611.) 
 
44 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 according as the object is present, near, not near, and distant, 
 for which there are again four possible vowel changes (/, u^ o, a), 
 or twenty-four altogether, a tremendous redundancy of useless 
 variants as compared with the single English form t/ie. Thus 
 this Protean particle begins with b, d or w to agree with bdye, 
 father, digene, woman, or fos^ horse, and then becomes bi^ bu, bo, 
 ba\ dij du, &c.; wi, wu &c. to express the presence and the 
 varying distances of these objects: bdye-bi = idSk\tx-\}!\Q.-\i^xQ\ bdye- 
 bu = father-the-there ; bdye-bo - father-the-yonder ; bdye-bd = father- 
 the-away in the distance. 
 
 All this is curious enough; but the important point is that 
 it probably gives us the clue to the enigmatic alliterative system of 
 the Bantu languages as explained in Ethnology, p. 273, the position 
 of course being reversed. Thus as in Zulu in- kose requires en- 
 kulu, so in Wolof <^^ye requires bi, ^/gene di, and so on. There 
 are other indications that the now perfected Bantu grew out of 
 analogous but less developed processes still prevalent in the 
 Sudanese tongues. 
 
 Equally undeveloped is the Wolof process of making earthen- 
 ware, as observed by M. F. Regnault amongst the 
 w^"oTpittery. ^^tives brought to Paris for the Exhibition of 1895. 
 He noticed how one of the women utilised a 
 somewhat deep bowl resting on the ground in such a way as to 
 be easily spun round by the hand, thus illustrating the transition 
 between hand-made and turned pottery. Kneading a lump of 
 clay, and thrusting it into the bowl, after sprinkling the sides 
 with some black dust to prevent sticking, she made a hollow in 
 the mass, enlarging and pressing it against the bowl with the 
 back of the fingers bent in, the hand being all the time kept in 
 a vertical position. At the same time the bowl was spun round 
 with the left palm, this movement combined with the pressure 
 exerted by the right hand causing the sides of the vessel to rise 
 and take shape. When high enough it was finished off by 
 thickening the clay to make a rim. This was held in the right 
 hand and made fast to the mouth of the vessel by the friction 
 caused by again turning the bowl with the left hand. This trans- 
 itional process appears to have been observed nowhere else \ 
 ^ Bui, Soc. cTAni/irop., FsLriSf 1895, p. 734 sq. 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 45 
 
 Most of the Wolofs profess themselves Muhammadans, the 
 rest CathoHcs, while all alike are heathen at heart ; 
 only the former have charms with texts from the Notions""^ 
 Koran which they cannot read, and the latter 
 medals and scapulars of the "Seven Dolours" or of the Trinity, 
 which they cannot understand. Many old rites still flourish, the 
 household gods are not forgotten, and for the Hzard, most popular 
 of tutelar deities, the customary milk-bowl is daily replenished. 
 Glimpses are thus afforded of the totemic system which still 
 survives in a modified form amongst the Bechuanas, the Man- 
 dingans, and several other African peoples, but has elsewhere 
 mostly died out in Negroland. The infantile ideas associated 
 with plant and animal totem tokens have been left far behind, 
 when a people like the Serers have arrived at such a lofty con- 
 ception as Takhar, god of justice, or even the more materialistic 
 Tiurakh, god of wealth, although the latter may still be appealed 
 to for success in nefarious projects which he himself might 
 scarcely be expected to countenance. But the harmony between 
 religious and ethical thought has scarcely yet been reached even 
 ariiongst some of the higher races. 
 
 Mandingans. In the whole of Sudan there is scarcely a 
 more numerous or wide-spread people than the 
 Mandingans, who — with their endless ramifications, oroups^^"^^" 
 Kassonke, Tallonke, Soninke, Bambara, Vet and Culture and 
 
 ' *^ ' , .' Industries. 
 
 many others — occupy most of the region between 
 the Atlantic and the Joliba (Upper Niger) basin, as far south as 
 about 9° N. latitude. Within these Hmits it is often difficult to 
 say who are, or who are not members of this great family, whose 
 various branches present all the transitional shades of physical 
 type and culture grades between the true pagan Negro and the 
 Muhammadan Negroid Sudanese. 
 
 Even hnguistic unity exists only to a limited extent, as the 
 numerous dialects of the Mande stock-language have often 
 diverged so greatly as to constitute independent tongues quite 
 unintelligible to the neighbouring tribes. The typical Mandin- 
 gans, however — Faidherbe's Malinka-Soninke group — may be dis- 
 tinguished from the su^ounding populations by their more 
 softened features, broader Torehead, larger nose, fuller beard, and 
 
46 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 lighter colour. They are also distinguished by their industrious 
 habits and generally higher culture, being rivalled by few as 
 skilled tillers of the soil, weavers, and workers in iron and copper. 
 They thus hold much the same social position in the west that 
 the Hausas do in the central region beyond the Niger, and 
 the French authorities think that "they are destined to take 
 a position of ever increasing importance in the pacified Sudan 
 of the future'." 
 
 Thus history brings about its revenges, for the Mandingans 
 proper of the Kong plateau may fairly claim, despite their late 
 servitude to the Fulah conquerors and their present ready accept- 
 ance of French rule, to be a historical people with a not inglorious 
 record of over looo years, as founders of the two great empires of 
 Melle and Guine, and of the more recent states of Moasina, 
 Bambara, Kaarta, Kong, and others about the water-parting be- 
 tween the headstreams of the Niger, and the rivers flowing south 
 to the Gulf of Guinea. Here is the district of Manding, which is 
 the original home of the Mandin^ke^ i.e. ''People of Manding," 
 as they are generally called, although Mande appears to be the 
 form used by themselves^. Here also was the famous city of 
 Mali or Melle, from which the Upper Niger group take the name 
 of MaWnke, in contradistinction to the SonVnke of the Senegal 
 
 ^ Dr E. T. Hamy, Les Races Negres in VAnthropologie, 1897, p. 257 sq. 
 
 '^ "Chaque fois que j'ai demande avec intention a un Mande, ' Es-tu 
 Peul, Mossi, Dafina?' il me repondait invariableihent, ^Je suis Mande.' 
 C'est pourquoi, dans le cours de ma relation, j'ai toujours designe ce peuple 
 par le nom de Mande, qui est son vrai nom," (Capt. Binger, Du Niger an 
 Golfe de Guinee, 1892, Vol. ii. p. 373.) At p. 375 this authority gives the 
 following subdivisions of the Mande family, named from their respective tenne 
 (idol, fetish, totem) : — 
 
 1. Baniba, the crocodile: Bammana, not Bambara, which means kafir or 
 infidel, and is applied only to the non- Moslem Mande groups. 
 
 2. Mali, the hippopotamus: MaWnki, including the Kagoros and the 
 Tagwas. 
 
 3. Sama, the elephant : Sama^nke. 
 
 4. Sa, the snake : Sa-mokho. 
 
 Of each there are several sub-groups, while the surrounding peoples call 
 them all collectively Wakore, Wangara, Sakhersi, and especially Diula. 
 Attention to this point will save the reader much confusion in consulting 
 Barth, Caillie, and other early books of travel. 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 47 
 
 river, the yaldnke of Futa-Jallon, and the Bammia of Bambara, 
 these being the more important historical and cultured groups. 
 
 According to native tradition and the annals of Ahmad Baba, 
 rescued from oblivion by Barth \ the first Man- 
 dingan state of Guine (Ghana, Ghanata), a name ^^ °'^^' 
 
 still surviving in the vague geographical term "Guinea," goes 
 back to pre-Muhammadan times. Wakayamangha, ^^^ Guin6 
 its legendary founder, is supposed to have flourished and Mali 
 300 years before the Hejira, at which date twenty- "^p'^'^s. 
 two kings had already reigned. Sixty years after that time the 
 Moslem Arabs or Berbers are said to have already reached West 
 Sudan, where they had twelve mosques in Ghana, first capital 
 of the empire, and their chief stronghold till the foundation of 
 Jinni on the Upper Niger (1043 a.d.). 
 
 Two centuries later (1235 — 60) the centre of the Mandingan 
 rule was transferred to Mali, which under the great king Mansa- 
 Musa (131 1 — 1331) became the most powerful Sudanese state 
 of which there is any authentic record. For a time it included 
 nearly the whole of West Sudan, and a great part of the western 
 Sahara, besides the Sonrhay State with its capital Gogo, and 
 Timbuktu. Mansa-Musa, who, in the language of the chronicler, 
 "wielded a power without measure or limits," entered into friendly 
 relations with the emperor of Morocco, and made a famous 
 pilgrimage to Mecca, the splendours of which still linger in the 
 memory of the Mussulman populations through whose lands the 
 interminable procession wound its way. He headed 60,000 men 
 of arms, says Ahmad Baba, and wherever he passed he was pre- 
 ceded by 500 slaves, each bearing a gold stick weighing 500 
 mitkals (14 lbs.), the whole representing a money value of about 
 ;£4,ooo,ooo (?). The people of Cairo and Mecca were dazzled 
 by his wealth and munificence; but during the journey a great 
 part of his followers were seized by a painful malady called in 
 their language tuat^ and this word still lives in the Oasis of Tuat, 
 where most of them perished. 
 
 Even after the capture of Timbuktu by the Tuaregs (1433), 
 Mali long continued to be the chief state in West Nigritia, and 
 
 ^ Ti'avels^ q\. iv. p. 579 sqq. 
 
48 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 carried on a flourishing trade, especially in slaves and gold. But 
 this gold was still supposed to come from the earlier kingdom of 
 Guind, which word consequently still remains associated with the 
 precious metal in the popular belief About the year 1 500 Mah was 
 captured by the Sonrhay king, Omar Askia, after which the empire 
 fell to pieces, and its memory now survives only in the ethnical 
 term MaWnke, 
 
 Felups. From the semi-civilised Muhammadan negroid Man- 
 
 dingans to the utterly savage full-blood negro 
 
 betwernVhe Fclups the transition is abrupt, but instructive. 
 
 Inland and j^ Other reefious the heterogeneous ethnical groups 
 
 Coast Peoples. ,,- ,ji, -i^ 
 
 crowded into upland valleys, as m the Caucasus, 
 have been called the "sweepings of the plains." But in 
 West Sudan there are no great ranges towering above the low- 
 lands, and even the " Kong Mountains " of school geographies 
 have now been wiped out by Capt. Binger^ Hence the rude 
 aborigines of the inland plateau, retreating before the steady 
 advance of Islam, found no place of refuge till they reached the 
 indented fjord-like Atlantic seaboard, where many still hold their 
 ground. This is the explanation of the striking contrasts now 
 witnessed between the interior and so many parts of the West 
 Coast; on the one hand powerful political organizations with 
 numerous, more or less homogeneous, and semi-civilised negroid 
 populations, on the other an infinite tangle of ethnical and 
 linguistic groups, all alike weltering in the sheerest savagery, or 
 in grades of barbarism even worse than the wild state. 
 
 Even the Felups^ whose territory now stretches from the 
 Gambia to the Cacheo, but formerly reached the 
 
 Felup Type ' ^ 
 
 and Mental Gcba and the Bissagos Islands, do not form a 
 single group. Originally the name of an obscure 
 coast-tribe, the term Felup or Fulup has been extended by the 
 Portuguese traders to all the surrounding peoples — Ayamats, 
 /olas, Jigushes, Vacas, /oats, Karo?is, Banyuns, Banjars, Fuhins, 
 Bayots and some others who amid much local diversity, presented 
 a sufficiently general outward resemblance to be regarded as a 
 
 1 "La chaine des Montagnes de Kong n'a jamais existe que dans 
 I'imagination de quelques voyageurs mal renseignes" [op. cit. i. p. 285). 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 49 
 
 single people by the first European settlers. The Felups proper 
 display the physical and mental characters of the typical Negro 
 even in an exaggerated form — black colour, flat nose, wide 
 nostrils, very thick and everted lips, red on the inner surface, stout 
 muscular frame, correlated with coarse animal passions, crass 
 ignorance, no arts industry or even tribal organization, so that 
 every little family group is independent and mostly in a state of 
 constant feud with its neighbours. All go naked, armed with 
 bow and arrow, and live in log huts which, though strongly built, 
 are indescribably filthy ^ 
 
 Matriarchal usages still prevail, rank and property being trans- 
 mitted in the female line. There is some notion of a superhuman 
 being vaguely identified with the sky, the rain, wind or thunder- 
 storm. But all live in extreme terror of the medicine-man, who 
 is openly courted, but inwardly detested, so that whenever it can 
 be safely done the tables are turned, the witch-doctor is seized 
 and tortured to death. 
 
 Timnt, Kru, Sierra- Leonese, Liberians. Somewhat similar 
 conditions prevail all along the seaboard from Sierra Leone to, 
 and beyond, Cape Palmas, disturbed or modified by the Liberian 
 intruders from the North American plantations, and by the 
 slaves rescued in the thirties and forties by the British cruisers 
 and brought to Sierra Leone, where their descendants now 
 live in settled communities under European influences. These 
 "coloured" citizens of Sierra Leone and Liberia, who are so 
 often the butt of cheap ridicule, and are themselves perhaps 
 too apt to scorn the kindred "niggers" of the bush, have to be 
 carefully distinguished from these true aborigines who have never 
 been wrenched from their natural environment. 
 
 In Sierra Leone the chief aboriginal groups on the coastlands 
 are the Timni of the Rokelle river, flanked north and south by two 
 branches of the Bulams^ and still farther south the Gallinas^ Veys 
 and Golas ; in the interior the Lokkos^ Limbas, Konos, and Kussas^ 
 with Kurankos, Mendis, Ilubus, and other Mandingans and Fulahs 
 everywhere in the Hinterland. 
 
 ■^ Bertrand-Bocande, Sur l^ Flotips ou Feloups, in Bui. Soc. de Geogr. 
 1849. ^ 
 
 K. A 
 
50 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Of all these the most powerful during the British occupation 
 
 have always been the Timni (Timani, Temne), who 
 B^iS"/ sold to the English the peninsula on which now 
 
 stands Freetown, but afterwards crying off the 
 bargain, repeatedly tried to drive the white and coloured intruders 
 into the sea. They are a robust people of softened Negro type, 
 and more industrious farmers than most of the other natives. 
 Like the Wolofs they believe in the virtue both of Christian and 
 Moslem amulets, but have hitherto lent a deaf ear to the preachers 
 of both these religions. Nevertheless the Protestant missionaries 
 have carefully studied the Timni language, which possesses an oral 
 literature rich in legends, proverbs, and folklore \ 
 
 The Timni district is a chief centre of the so-called porro 
 
 fraternity^, a sort of secret society or freemasonry 
 F^ematonry" widely diffused throughout the coastlands, and 
 
 possessing its own symbols, tattoo markings, pass- 
 words, and language. It presents curious points of contact with 
 the brotherhoods of the Micronesian islanders, but appears to be 
 even more potent for good and evil, a veritable religious and 
 political state within the state. "When their mandates are issued 
 all wars and civil strife must cease, a general truce is established, 
 and bloodshed stopped, offending communities being punished 
 by bands of armed men in masks. Strangers cannot enter the 
 country unless escorted by a member of the guild, who is recog- 
 nised by passwords, symbolic gestures, and the like. Their secret 
 rites are celebrated at night in the depths of the forest, all intruders 
 being put to death or sold as slaves ■\" 
 
 In studying the social conditions prevalent amongst the Sierra 
 
 Leonese proper, it should be remembered that they 
 Leonesel^'^*^* are sprung, not only from representatives of almost 
 
 1 A full account of this literature will be found in the Rev. C. F. Schlenker's 
 valuable work, A Collection of Temne Traditions^ Fables and Proverbs, London, 
 1 86 1. Here is given the curious explanation of the tribal name, from o-tem, 
 an old man, and ne, himself, because, as they say, the Temne people will exist 
 for ever. 
 
 2 There is also a sisterhood — the bondo — and the two societies work so far in 
 harmony that any person jxpelled from the one is also excluded from the other. 
 
 2 RecluSf Keane's English ed., xii. p. 203. 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 5 1 
 
 every tribe along the seaboard, and even in the far interior, 
 but also to a large extent from the freedmen and runaways of 
 Nova Scotia and London, besides many maroons of Jamaica, 
 who were settled here under the auspices of the Sierra Leone 
 Company towards the close of the eighteenth and beginning of 
 the nineteenth century. Others also have in recent years been 
 attracted to the settlements from the Timni and other tribes of 
 the neighbouring districts. The Sierra Leonese are consequently 
 not themselves a tribe, nor yet a people, but rather a people in 
 course of formation under the influence of a new environment 
 and of a higher culture. An immediate consequence of such a 
 sudden aggregation of discordant elements was the loss of all the 
 native tongues, and the substitution of EngHsh as the common 
 medium of intercourse. But English is the language of a people 
 standing on the very highest plane of culture, and could not 
 therefore be properly assimilated by the disjecta membra of tribes 
 at the lowest rung of the social ladder. The resultant form of 
 speech may be called ludicrous, so ludicrous that the Sierra 
 Leonese version of the New Testament had to be withdrawn from 
 circulation as verging almost on the blasphemous ^ 
 
 It has also to be considered that all the old tribal relations 
 were broken up, while an attempt was made to 
 merge these waifs and strays in a single community Relations, 
 based on social conditions to which each and all 
 were utter strangers. It is not therefore surprising that the 
 experiment has not proved a complete success, and that the 
 social relations in Sierra Leone leave something to be desired. 
 Although the freedmen and the rescued captives received free 
 gifts of land, their dislike for the labours of the field induced 
 many to abandon their holdings, and take to huckstering and 
 other more pleasant pursuits. Hence their descendants almost 
 
 ^ "Da Njoe Testament, translated into the Negro-English Language by the 
 Missionaries of the Unitas Fratrum," Brit, and For. Bible Soc, London, 1829. 
 Here is a specimen quoted by Ellis from The Artisan of Sierra Leone, Aug. 4, 
 1886, "Those who live in ceiled houses love to hear the pit-pat of the rain 
 overhead; whilst those whose houses leak are the subjects of restlessness and 
 anxiety, not to mention the chances of catching cold, that is so frequent a source 
 of leaky roofs ^ 
 
 4—2 
 
52 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 monopolise the petty traffic and even the " professions " in Free- 
 town and the other colonial settlements. Although accused of 
 laziness and dishonesty, they have displayed a considerable 
 degree of industrial as well as commercial enterprise, and the 
 Sierra Leone craftsmen — smiths, mechanics, carpenters, builders 
 — enjoy a good reputation in all the coast towns. All are 
 Christians of various denominations, and even show a marked 
 predilection for the " ministry." Yet below the surface the old 
 paganism still slumbers, and vodoo practices, as in the West Indies 
 and some of the Southern States, are still heard of 
 
 Morahty also is admittedly at a low ebb, and it is curious to 
 note that this has in part been attributed to the freedom enjoyed 
 under the British administration. "They have passed from the 
 sphere of native law to that of British law, which is brought to 
 this young community like an article of ready-made clothing. Is 
 it a wonder that the clothes do not fit ? Is it a wonder that kings 
 and chiefs around Sierra Leone, instead of wishing their people to 
 come and see how well we do things, dread for them to come to 
 this colony on account of the danger to their morals ? In passing 
 into this colony, they pass into a liberty which to them is 
 licensed" 
 
 An experiment of a somewhat different order, but with much 
 the same negative results, has been tried by the 
 Liberians. well-meaning founders of the Republic of Liberia. 
 
 Here also the bulk of the "civilised aristocrats" 
 are descended of emancipated plantation slaves, a first consign- 
 ment of whom was brought over by a philanthropic American 
 society in 1820-22. The idea was to start them well in hfe 
 under the fostering care of their white guardians, and then leave 
 them to work out their own redemption in their own way. All 
 control was accordingly withdrawn in 1848, and since then the 
 settlement has constituted an absolutely independent Negro state 
 in the enjoyment of complete self-government. Progress of a 
 certain material kind has undoubtedly been made. The original 
 "free citizens" had increased from 8000 in 1850 to about 20,00a 
 
 1 Right Rev. E. G. Ingham (Bishop of Sierra Leone), Sierra Leone after 
 a Hundred Years, London, 1894, p. 294. 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 53 
 
 in 1898 \ and the central administration, modelled on that of 
 the United States, has hitherto shown itself strong enough to 
 maintain some degree of order amongst the surrounding 
 aborigines, estimated at over one million within the limits of 
 the Republic. 
 
 But these aborigines have not benefited perceptibly by contact 
 with their " civilised " neighbours, who themselves stand at much 
 the same level intellectually and morally as their repatriated fore- 
 fathers. Since 1874 no interest has been paid on a debt of 
 ;£i 00,000 contracted in 1871; the budget generally shows a 
 deficit on the ordinary revenue^, and no railways or other useful 
 public works have yet been projected. Instead of attending to 
 these matters the " Weegee," as they are called, have constituted 
 themselves into two factions, the " coloured " or half-breeds, and 
 the full-blood negroes who, like the "Blancos" and "Neros" 
 of some South American States, spend most of their time in a 
 perpetual struggle for office. All are of course intensely patriotic, 
 but their patriotism takes a wrong direction, being chiefly 
 manifested in their insolence towards the English and other 
 European traders on the coast, and in their supreme contempt 
 for the "stinking bush-niggers," as they call the surrounding 
 aborigines. 
 
 Yet some of these aborigines are both physically and morally 
 scarcely inferior to the free citizens themselves. 
 The Krus (Kroomen, Krooboys^), whose numerous Krumen. 
 hamlets are scattered along the coast from below 
 Monrovia nearly to Cape Palmas, are assuredly one of the most 
 interesting people in the whole of Africa. Originally from the 
 interior, they have developed in their new homes a most un- 
 African love of the sea, hence are regularly engaged as crews 
 by the European skippers plying along those insalubrious coast- 
 lands. 
 
 1 This increase, however, appears to be due to a steady immigration from 
 the Southern States, but for which the Liberians proper would die out, or 
 become absorbed in the surrounding native populations. 
 
 2 Statesman's Year Book, 1898, p. 735-6. 
 
 ^ Possibly the English wor%"crew," but more probably an extension of 
 Kraoh, the name of a tribe near Settra-kru, to the whole group. 
 
54 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 In this service, in which they are known by such nicknames 
 as '' Bottle-of-Beer," " Mashed-Potatoes," " Bubble-and-Squeak," 
 " Pipe-of-Tobacco," and the like, their word may always be 
 depended upon. But it is to be feared that this loyalty, which 
 with them is a strict matter of business, has earned for them 
 a reputation for other virtues to which they have little claim. 
 Despite the many years that they have been in the closest contact 
 with the missionaries and traders, they are still at heart the same 
 brutal savages as ever. After each voyage they return to the 
 native village to spend all their gains and pilferings in drunken 
 orgies, and relapse generally into sheer barbarism till the next 
 steamer rounds the neighbouring headland. " It is not a 
 comfortable reflection," writes Bishop Ingham, whose testimony 
 will not be suspected of bias, "as we look at this mob on our 
 decks, that, if the ship chance to strike on a sunken rock and 
 become unmanageable, they would rise to a man, and seize all 
 they could lay hands on, cut the very rings off our fingers if they 
 could get them in no other way, and generally loot the ship. 
 Little has been done to Christianise these interesting, hard- 
 working, cheerful, but ignorant and. greedy people, who have so 
 long hung on the skirts of civilisation \" 
 
 The case is mentioned of a gang about to land at their own 
 village, one member of which is ailing. So they tell the captain — 
 "We no want that man; he go die." As however they want his 
 effects and cannot have them without the man himself, they agree 
 to take him ashore. But no sooner is the ship at a safe distance, 
 than they take their moribund kinsman by the head and feet, 
 and fling him overboard ^ And so is dissipated the mirage that 
 has hitherto hung round the reputation of the Kruboy for half 
 the virtues under heaven. 
 
 But the very worst "sweepings of the Sudanese plateau" seem 
 
 The Upper ^° ^^^^ gathered along the Upper Guinea Coast, 
 
 Guinea occupied by the already mentioned Ts/ii, Ewe, and 
 
 Yoruba groups. They constitute three branches of 
 
 one linguistic, and probably also of one ethnical family, of which, 
 
 ^ Sierra Leone after a Hundred Years, p. 280. 
 2 Op. cit. p. i%\. 
 
III.] 
 
 THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 
 
 55 
 
 owing to their historic and ethnical importance, the reader may- 
 be glad to have here subjoined a somewhat complete tabulated 
 scheme : 
 
 Tribes of Tshi 
 
 Tribes of Ewe 
 
 Tribes of Yoruba 
 
 AND Ga Speech 
 
 Speech 
 
 Speech 
 
 Gold Coast 
 
 Slave Coast West 
 
 Slave Coast East 
 and Niger Delta 
 
 Ashanti 
 
 Dahomi 
 
 Yoruba 
 
 Safwhi 
 
 Eweawo 
 
 Ibadan 
 
 Denkera 
 
 Agotine 
 
 Ketu 
 
 Bekwai 
 
 Anfueh 
 
 Egba 
 
 Nkoranza 
 
 Krepe 
 
 Jebu 
 
 Adansi 
 
 Avenor 
 
 Remo 
 
 Assin 
 
 Awuna 
 
 Ode 
 
 Was saw 
 
 Agbosomi 
 
 Ilorin 
 
 Ahanta 
 
 Aflao 
 
 Ijesa 
 
 Fanti 
 
 Ataklu 
 
 Ondo 
 
 Agona 
 
 Krikor 
 
 Mahin 
 
 Akwapim 
 
 Geng 
 
 Benin (Bini) 
 
 Akim 
 
 Attakpami 
 
 Kakanda 
 
 Akwamu 
 
 Aja 
 
 Wari 
 
 Kwao 
 
 Ewerai 
 
 Ibo 
 
 Ga 
 
 Appa 
 
 Efik 
 
 The Ga of the Volta delta are here bracketed with the Tshi 
 because the late Col. Ellis, our great authority on the Guinea 
 peoples \ considers the two languages to be distantly connected. 
 He also thinks there is a foundation of fact in the native traditions, 
 which bring the dominant tribes — Ashanti, Fanti, Dahomi, Yoruba, 
 Bini — from the interior to the coast districts at no very remote 
 period. Thus it is recorded of the Ashanti and Fanti, now 
 hereditary foes, that ages ago they formed one people who were 
 reduced to the utmost distress during a long war with some 
 
 ^ The services rendered to African anthropology by this distinguished officer 
 call for the fullest recognition, all the more that somewhat free and unacknow- 
 ledged use has been made of the rich materials brought together in his classical 
 works on The Tshi-speaking Pe^les {1887), The Ewe-speaking Peoples (1890), 
 and Z"^^ Yoruba-speaking Peoples {i^<^^. 
 
56 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 inland power, perhaps the conquering Muhammadans of the 
 Ghana or Mali empire. They were saved, however, some by 
 eating of the shan^ others of the fan plant, and of these words, 
 
 with the verb di^ "to eat," were made the tribal 
 F^Wore!' names Shan-di, Fan-di, now Ashanti^ Fanti. The 
 
 seppiriba plant, said to have been eaten by the 
 Fanti, is still called fan when cooked. 
 
 Other traditions refer to a time when all were of one speech, 
 and hved in a far country beyond Salagha, open, flat, with little 
 bush, and plenty of cattle and sheep, a tolerably accurate descrip- 
 tion of the inland Sudanese plateaux. But then came a red 
 people, said to be the Fulahs, Muhammadans, who oppressed 
 the blacks and drove them to take refuge in the forests. Here 
 they thrived and multiplied, and after many vicissitudes they 
 came down, down, until at last they reached the coast, with the 
 waves rolling in, the white foam hissing and frothing on the 
 beach, and thought it was all boiling water until some one 
 touched it and found it was not hot, and so to this day they call 
 the sea Eh-huru den o nni shew^ " BoiHng water not hot," but far 
 inland the sea is still " Boiling water \" 
 
 To Col. Ellis we are indebted especially for the true explana- 
 tion of the much used and abused term fetish, as applied to the 
 native beliefs. It was of course already known to be not an 
 Fetishism— African but a Portuguese word^ meaning a charm, 
 its true amulet, or even witchcraft. But Ellis shows how it 
 
 came to be wrongly applied to all forms of animal 
 and nature worship, and how the confusion was increased by 
 De Brosses' theory of a primordial fetishism, and by his statement 
 that it was impossible to conceive a lower form of religion than 
 fetishism, which might therefore be assumed to be the beginning 
 of all religion^. 
 
 ^ The Tshi-speaking Peoples, P- SS'Z sq- 
 
 2 Feitifo, whence also feiticeh'a, a witch, feiticeria, sorcery, &c., all from 
 feiti^o, artificial, handmade, from 'L.dX.facio 2svdifactitius. 
 
 2 Du Culte des Dieux Fetiches, 1760. It is generally supposed that the 
 word was invented, or at least first introduced, by De Brosses; but Ellis shows 
 that this also is a mistake, as it had already been used by Bosman in his 
 Description of Guinea, London, 1705.. 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 57 
 
 On the contrary it represents rather an advanced stage, as 
 Ellis discovered after four or five years of careful observation on 
 the spot. A fetish, he tells us, is something tangible and inani- 
 mate, which is believed to possess power in itself, and is wor- 
 shipped for itself alone. Nor can such an object be picked up 
 anywhere at random, as is commonly asserted, and he adds that 
 the belief " is arrived at only after considerable progress has been 
 made in religious ideas, when the older form of religion becomes 
 secondary and owes its existence to the confusion of the tangible 
 with the intangible, of the material with the immaterial ; to the 
 belief in the indwelling god being gradually lost sight of until the 
 power originally believed to belong to the god, is finally attributed 
 to the tangible and inanimate object itself." 
 
 But now comes a statement that may seem paradoxical to 
 most students of the evolution of religious ideas. We are assured 
 that fetishism thus understood is not specially or at all character- 
 istic of the religion of the Gold Coast natives, who are in fact 
 "remarkably free from it" and believe in invisible intangible 
 deities. Some of them may dwell in a tangible inanimate object, 
 popularly called a "fetish"; but the idea of the indwelling god is 
 never lost sight of, nor is the object ever worshipped for its own 
 sake. True fetishism, the worship of such material objects and 
 images, prevails, on the contrary, far more " amongst the Negroes 
 of the West Indies, who have been christianised for more than 
 half-a-century, than amongst those of West Africa. Hence the 
 belief in Obeah, still prevalent in the West Indies, which formerly 
 was a belief in indweUing spirits which inhabited certain objects, 
 has now become a worship paid to tangible and inanimate objects, 
 which of themselves are believed to possess the power to injure. 
 In Europe itself we find evidence amongst the Roman Catholic 
 populations of the South, that fetishism is a corruption of a former 
 culte, rather than a primordial faith. The lower classes there 
 have confused the intangible with the tangible, and believe that 
 the images of the saints can both see, hear and feel. Thus we find 
 the Italian peasants and fishermen beat and ill-treat their images 
 when their requests have not been complied with.... These appear 
 to be instances of true fe^shism^" 
 
 1 The Tshi-speaking Peoples, ch. xtt. p. ^ iy ^nd passim. 
 
 or THE 
 
58 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Another phase of religious belief in Upper Guinea is ancestry 
 
 worship, which has here been developed to a degree 
 
 w^rshfpTnd unknown elsewhere. As the departed have to be 
 
 the"Cus- maintained in the same social position beyond the 
 
 toms." , , , . , , , 
 
 grave that they enjoyed m this world, they must be 
 
 supplied with slaves, wives, and attendants, each according to his 
 rank. Hence the institution of the so-called " customs," or anni- 
 versary feasts of the dead, accompanied by the sacrifice of human 
 victims, regulated at first by the status and afterwards by the 
 whim and caprice of chiefs and kings. In the capitals of the 
 more powerful states, Ashanti, Dahomey, Benin, the scenes wit- 
 nessed at these sanguinary rites rivalled in horror those held in 
 honour of the Aztec gods. Details may here be dispensed with 
 on a repulsive subject, ample accounts of which are accessible 
 from many sources to the general reader. In any case these 
 atrocities teach no lesson, except that most religions have waded 
 through blood to better things, unless arrested in mid-stream by 
 the intervention of higher powers, as happily in Upper Guinea, 
 where the human shambles of Kumassi, Abomeh, Benin and most 
 other places have now been swept away. 
 
 On the capture of Benin by the English in 1897 a rare and 
 
 unexpected prize fell into the hands of ethnologists. 
 Bronze^!"'" Here was found a large assortment of carved 
 
 ivories, woodwork, and especially a series of about 
 300 bronze and brass plates or panels with figures of natives and 
 Europeans, armed and in armour in full relief, all cast by the cire 
 perdue process S some barbaric, others, and especially a head in 
 the round of a young negress, showing high artistic skill. These 
 remarkable objects are now mostly in the British Museum, where 
 they have been studied by Messrs C. H. Read and O. M. Dalton^, 
 who are evidently right in assigning the better class to the six- 
 teenth century, and to the aid, if not the hand, of some Portuguese 
 artificers in the service of the King of Benin. They add that 
 "casting of an inferior kind continues down to the present time " 
 
 1 That is, from a wax mould destroyed in the casting. After the operation 
 details were often filled in by chasing or executed in repousse work. 
 
 2 '• Works of Art from Benin City," Jour. Anthrop. Inst., February, 1898, 
 p. 362 sq. 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 59 
 
 and it may here be mentioned that armour has long been and is still 
 worn by the cavalry, and even their horses, in the Muhammadan 
 states of Central Sudan. *' The chiefs {Kashelldwd) who serve as 
 officers under the Sultan [of Bornu] and act as his bodyguard 
 wear jackets of chain armour and cuirasses of coats of mail\" It 
 is clear that metal casting in a large way has long been practised 
 by the semi-civihsed peoples of Sudan. 
 
 Within the great bend of the Niger the veil, first slightly raised 
 by Barth in the middle of the nineteenth century, 
 has now been drawn aside by Capt. Binger, Capt. 
 Lugard and later explorers. Here the Mossi, Borgu and others 
 have hitherto more or less successfully resisted the Moslem 
 advance, and are consequently for the most part little removed 
 from the savage state. Even the " Faithful " wear the cloak of 
 Islam somewhat loosely, and the level of their culture may be 
 judged from the case of the Imam of Diulasu, who pestered Capt. 
 Binger for nostrums and charms against ailments, war, and mis- 
 fortunes. What he wanted chiefly to know was the names of 
 Abraham's two wives. " Tell me these," he would say, " and my 
 fortune is made, for I dreamt it the other night; you must tell me; 
 I really must have those names or I'm lost^." 
 
 In some districts the ethnical confusion is considerable, and 
 when Binger arrived at the Court of the Mossi King, Baikary, he 
 was addressed successively in Mossi, Hausa, Sonrhay, and Fulah, 
 until at last it was discovered that Mandingan was the only native 
 language he understood. Waghadugu, capital of the chief Mossi 
 state, comprises several distinct quarters occupied respectively by 
 Mandingans, Marengas (Sonrhays), Zang-wer'os (Hausas), Chil- 
 migos (Fulahs), Mussulman and heathen Mossis, the whole popu- 
 lation scarcely exceeding 5000. However, perfect harmony pre- 
 vails, the Mossi themselves being extremely tolerant despite the 
 
 ^ A. Featherman, Social History of Mankind, The Nigritians, p. 281. See 
 also Redus, French ed., Vol. Xil. p. 718: "Les cavaliers portent encore la 
 
 cuirasse comme au moyen age Les chevaux sont reconverts de la meme 
 
 maniere." In the mythical traditions of Buganda also there is reference to the 
 fierce Wakedi warriors clad inJ'iron armour" (ch. iv.). 
 
 ■^ Dn Niger ait Golfe de Gtmiee, i. p- 377. 
 
6o MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 long religious wars they have had to wage against the fanatical 
 Fulahs and other Muhammadan aggressors \ 
 
 Religious indifference is indeed a marked characteristic of this 
 
 people, and the case is mentioned of a nominal 
 Agnostics Mussulman prince who could even read and write, 
 
 and say his prayers, but whose two sons "knew 
 nothing at all," or, as we should say, were "Agnostics." One of 
 them, however, it is fair to add, is claimed by both sides, the 
 Moslems asserting that he says his prayers in secret, the heathens 
 that he drinks dolo (palm-wine), which of course no true believer 
 is supposed ever to do. 
 
 Central Sudanese. 
 
 In Central Sudan, that is, the region stretching from the Niger 
 to Wadai, a tolerably clean sweep has been made 
 Ethn'iclfand ^^ ^'^^ aborigines, except along the southern fringe 
 Social Reia- ^nd in parts of the Chad basin. For many cen- 
 turies Islam has here been firmly established, and 
 in Negroland Islam is synonymous with a greater or less degree 
 of miscegenation. The native tribes who resisted the fiery Arab 
 or Tuareg or Tibu proselytisers were for the most part either 
 extirpated, or else driven to the southern uplands about the 
 Congo-Chad water-parting. All who accepted the Koran became 
 merged with the conquerors in a common negroid population, 
 which supplied the new material for the development of large 
 social communities and powerful political states. 
 
 Under these conditions the old tribal organisations were in 
 great measure dissolved, and throughout its historic period of 
 about a millennium Central Sudan is found mainly occupied by 
 peoples gathered together in a small number of political systems, 
 each with its own language and special institutions, but all alike 
 accepting Islam as the State religion. Such are or were the 
 
 ^ Early in the fourteenth century they were strong enough to carry the war 
 into the enemy's camp and make more than one successful expedition against 
 Timbuktu. At present the Mossi power is declining, and their territory has 
 already (1898) been parcelled out (on paper) between the British and French 
 Sudanese hinterlands. 
 
 \ 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 6l 
 
 Sonrhay Empire and the Hausa States ; such are the still inde- 
 pendent or at least autonomous kingdoms of Bornu with Kanem 
 and Baghirmi, and these jointly cover the whole of Central Sudan 
 as above defined. 
 
 Sonrhays^. How completely the tribe ^ has merged in the 
 people^ may be inferred from the mere statement that, although 
 no longer an independent nation ^ the Negroid Sonrhays form 
 a single ethnical group of about two million souls, 
 all of one speech and one religion, and all dis- Domain^^ 
 tinguished by somewhat uniform physical and 
 mental characters. This territory lies mainly about the border- 
 lands between Sudan and the Sahara, stretching from Timbuktu 
 east to the Asben oasis and along both banks of the Niger from 
 Lake Debo round to the Sokoto confluence, and also at some 
 points reaching as far as the Hombori hills within the great bend 
 of the Niger. 
 
 Here they are found in the closest connection with the Ireghe- 
 naten ("mixed") Tuaregs, and elsewhere with other Tuaregs, 
 and with Arabs, Fulahs or Hausas^, so that exclusively Sonrhay 
 communities are now somewhat rare. But the bulk of the race is 
 still concentrated in Gurma and in the district between Gogo and 
 Timbuktu, the two chief cities of the old Sonrhay empire. 
 
 They are a distinctly Negroid people, presenting various 
 shades of intermixture with the surrounding Hamites 
 
 1 o • 1 11 r 11 Sonrhay 
 
 and Semites, but generally of a very deep brown or Type and 
 blackish colour, with somewhat regular features and emperament. 
 that peculiar long, black, and ringletty hair, which is so charac- 
 teristic of Negro and Caucasic blends, as seen amongst the 
 
 ^ Also Songhay, gh and rh being interchangeable throughout North Africa ; 
 Ghat and Rhat^ Ghadames and Rhadames, &c. In the mouth of an Arab the 
 sound is that of the guttural p> ghain, which is pronounced by the Berbers and 
 Negroes somewhat like the Northumberland burr, hence usually transliterated 
 by rh in non-Semitic words. 
 
 2 It should be noticed that these terms are throughout used as strictly de- 
 fined in Eth. Ch. i. 
 
 2 Earth's account of Wulu (iv. p. 299), " inhabited by Tawarek slaves, who 
 are trilingues, speaking Temashight as well as Songhay and Fulfulde" is at 
 present generally applicable, mutatis mutandis, to most of the Sonrhay settle- 
 ments. ^ 
 
62 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Trarsas and Braknas of the Senegal, the Bejas, Danakils, and 
 many Abyssinians of the region between the Nile and the Red 
 Sea. Barth, to whom we still owe the best account of this his- 
 torical people, describes them as of a dull, morose temperament, 
 the most unfriendly and churHsh of all the peoples visited by him 
 in Negroland. 
 
 This writer's suggestion that they may have formerly had 
 
 relations with the Egyptians^ has been revived in 
 Orighis*^ an exaggerated form by M. FeHx Dubois, whose 
 
 views have received currency in England through 
 uncritical notices of his Timbouctou la Mysterieuse {VdiXis, 1897). 
 
 But there is no "mystery" in the matter. The 
 Theories.^" Sonrhay are a Sudanese people, whose exodus from 
 
 Egypt is a myth, and whose Kissur language, as it is 
 called, has not the remotest connection with any form of speech 
 known to have been at any time current in the Nile valley^ Such 
 dumping down of a whole people on the Niger bend, after travers- 
 ing some thousands of miles of sandy wastes or densely settled 
 plains, has naturally excited the ridicule of serious students, such 
 as Herr Brix Forster, whose caustic exposure of the myth may be 
 seen in Globus, 71, p. 193 sq.^ 
 
 The Sonrhay empire, like that of the rival Mandingans, claims 
 
 a respectable antiquity, its reputed founder Za-el- 
 Records^^ Yemeni having flourished about 680 a.d. Za Kasi, 
 
 fifteenth in succession from the founder, was the 
 
 1 As so much has been made of Earth's authority in this connection, it may- 
 be well to quote his exact words : " It would seem as if they (the Sonrhay) had 
 received, in more ancient times, several institutions from the Egyptians, with 
 whom, I have no doubt, they maintained an intercourse by means of the 
 energetic inhabitants of Aujila from a relatively ancient period " (iv. p. 426). 
 Barth, therefore, does not bring the people themselves, or their language, from 
 Egypt, but only some of their institutions, and that indirectly through the 
 Aujila Oasis in Cyrenaica, and it may be added that this intercourse with 
 Aujila appears to date only from about 1150 A.D. (iv. p. 585). 
 
 ^ Hacquard et Dupuis, Mamiel de la langue Songay, parUe de Tonibouctou 
 d. Say, dans la boucle dti Niger, 1897, passim. 
 
 ^ Of M. Dubois' theory this writer remarks that it " tragt entweder den 
 Stempel phantasiereicher Willkiir oder entbehrt des Ruhmes unser Wissen durch 
 neue Thatsachen bereichern zu konnen," p. 195. 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 63 
 
 first Muhammadan ruler (1009); but about 1326 the country was 
 reduced by the Mandingans, and remained throughout the 14th 
 and a great part of the 15th century virtually subject to the Mali 
 empire, although Ali Killun, founder of the new Sonni dynasty, 
 had acquired a measure of independence about 1335 — 6. But the 
 political supremacy of the Sonrhay people dates only from about 
 1464, when Sonni Ali, i6th of the Sonni dynasty, known in 
 history as " the great tyrant and famous miscreant," threw off the 
 Mandingan yoke, " and changed the whole face of this part of 
 Africa by prostrating the kingdom of Melle\" Under his suc- 
 cessor, Muhammad Askia^ " perhaps the greatest sovereign that 
 ever ruled over Negroland^" the Sonrhay Empire acquired its 
 greatest expansion, extending from the heart of Hausaland to the 
 Atlantic seaboard, and from the Mossi country to the Tuat Oasis, 
 south of Morocco. Although unfavourably spoken of by Leo 
 Africanus, Askia is described by Ahmed Baba as governing the 
 subject peoples "with justice and equity, causing well-being and 
 comfort to spring up everywhere within the borders of his exten- 
 sive dominions, and introducing such of the institutions of 
 Muhammadan civilisation as he considered might be useful to his 
 subjects^" 
 
 Askia also made the Mecca pilgrimage with a great show of 
 splendour. But after his reign (1492 — 1529) the Sonrhay power 
 gradually declined^ and was at last overthrown by Mulay Hamed, 
 Emperor of Morocco, in 1591 — 2. Ahmed Baba, the native 
 chronicler, was involved in the ruin of his people^ and since then 
 
 ^ Barth iv. p. 593-4. 
 
 2 The Ischia of Leo Africanus, who tells us that in his time the "linguaggio 
 detto Sungai" was current even in the provinces of Walata and Jinni (vi. ch. 2). 
 This statement, however, like others made by Leo at second hand, must be 
 received with caution. In these districts Sonrhay may have been spoken by 
 the officials and some of the upper classes, but scarcely by the people generally, 
 who were of Mandingan speech. 
 
 3 Barth iv. p. 414. ^ lb. p. 415. 
 
 ^ Carried captive into Marakesh, although later restored to his beloved 
 Timbuktu to end his days in perpetuating the past glories of the Sonrhay 
 nation ; the one Negroid man of letters, whose name holds a worthy place 
 beside those of Leo Africanus. Ibn Khaldun, El Tunsi, and other Hamitic 
 
 writprQ. ^ 
 
64 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 the Sonrhay nation has been broken intb fragments, subject here 
 to Hausas, there to Fulahs, elsewhere to Tuaregs, and, since the 
 French occupation of Timbuktu (1894), to the hated Giaur. 
 
 Hausas. In everything that constitutes the real greatness of a 
 
 nation, the Hausas may rightly claim preeminence 
 
 thiir romfnain amongst all the peoples of Negroland. No doubt 
 
 Social early in the nineteenth century the historical Hausa 
 
 Position. •' • , 1 , • , 
 
 States, occupymg the whole region between the 
 Niger and Bornu, were overrun and reduced by the fanatical Fulah 
 bands under Othman Dan Fodye. But the Hausas in a truer 
 sense than the Greeks, "have captured their rude conquerors','' 
 for they have even largely assimilated them physically to their own 
 type, and while the Fulah political ascendancy is already tottering, 
 the Hausa nationaUty is again under British auspices asserting its 
 natural social, industrial and commercial predominance through- 
 out Central and even parts of Western Sudan. 
 
 It could not well be otherwise, seeing that the Hausas form a 
 compact body of some twenty miUion peaceful and industrious 
 Sudanese, living partly in numerous farmsteads amid their well-tilled 
 cotton, indigo, pulse, and corn fields, partly in large walled cities 
 and great trading centres such as Kano^ Katsena, Yacoba, whose 
 intelligent and law-abiding inhabitants are reckoned by many tens 
 
 of thousands. Their melodious tongue, of which 
 Speech and the Rev. C. H. Robinsou has given us a far too 
 
 Mental Quali- ^ i i , , t 
 
 ties. meagre account , has long been the great medium 
 
 ^ Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artes 
 
 Intulit agresti Latio. Hor. Epist. 11. i, 156-7. 
 
 The epithet agrestis is peculiarly applicable to the rude Fulah shepherds, 
 who were almost barbarians compared with the settled, industrious, and even 
 cultured Hausa populations, and whose oppressive rule has at last been relaxed 
 by the intervention of England in the Niger-Benue lands. 
 
 2 " One of their towns, Kano, has probably the largest market-place in the 
 world, with a daily attendance of from 25,000 to 30,000 people. This same 
 town possesses, what in central Africa is still more surprising, some thirty 
 or forty schools, in which the children are taught to read and write " (Rev. 
 C. H. Robinson, Specimens of Hausa Literature, University Press, Cam- 
 bridge, 1896, p. x). 
 
 ^ This authority seems uncertain whether to class Hausa with the Semitic 
 or the Hamitic family, or in an independent group by itself, and it must be 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 65 
 
 of intercourse throughout Sudan from Lake Chad to and beyond 
 the Niger, and is daily acquiring even greater preponderance 
 amongst all the settled and trading populations of these regions. 
 
 But though showing a marked preference for peaceful pur- 
 suits, the Hausas are by no means an effeminate people. Largely 
 enlisted in the British service, they have at all times shown fighting 
 qualities of a high order under their English officers, and a well- 
 earned tribute has been paid to their military prowess amongst 
 others by Sir George Goldie and Lieut. Vandeleur^ With the 
 Hausas on her side England need assuredly fear no rivals to her 
 beneficent sway over the teeming populations of the fertile plains 
 and plateaux of Central Sudan, which is on the whole perhaps 
 the most favoured land in Africa north of the equator. 
 
 According to the national traditions, which go back to no very 
 remote period, the seven historical Hausa States 
 known as the "Hausa bokoy" ("the seven Hausas") origins^ 
 take their name from the eponymous heroes Biram, 
 Daura, Gober, Kano, Ra?io, Katsena and Zegzeg, all said to be 
 sprung from the Deggaras, a Berber tribe settled to the north of 
 Mtinyo. From Biram, the original seat, the race and its language 
 spread to seven other provinces — Zanfara, Kebbi, Nupe {Nyffi)^ 
 Gwari, Yauri, Yariba and Kororofa, which in contempt are called 
 
 admitted that some of its features are extremely puzzling. The question cannot 
 here be discussed, but I think further research will show that its affinities are 
 neither with the Semitic nor with the Hamitic, at least directly, but that Hausa 
 is fundamentally a Sudanese Negro language greatly modified by Tibu in- 
 fluences, that in fact it is an outlying member of Nachtigal's Teda-Daza 
 linguistic group. Some light may be thrown on the subject by the studies 
 of Dr G. A. Krause, who, however, starts with the curious and embarrassing 
 theory that Hausa is a combination of two Bantu dialects welded together by 
 people speaking a Hamitic language ! It may be incidentally mentioned that 
 Mr Robinson has been instrumental in establishing a Hausa Association " for 
 the purpose of promoting the study of the Hausa language and people" {1891). 
 ^ Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger, by Lt Seymour Vandeleur, 
 with an Introduction by Sir George Goldie, 1898. "In camp," writes Lt Van- 
 deleur, "their conduct was exemplary, while pillaging and ill-treatment of the 
 natives were unknown. As to their fighting qualities, it is enough to say that, 
 little over 500 strong (on the Bida expedition of 1897), they withstood for two 
 days 25,000 or 30,000 of the enemy; that, former slaves of the Fulahs, they 
 defeated their dreaded masters," e^c. 
 
 K. C 
 
66 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 the "Banza bokoy" ("The Seven Upstarts"). All form collec- 
 tively the Haiisa domain in the widest sense. 
 
 Authentic history is quite recent, and even Komayo, reputed 
 founder of Katsena, dates only from about the 14th century. 
 Ibrahim Maji, who was the first Moslem ruler, is assigned to the 
 latter part of the 15 th century, and since then the chief events 
 have been associated with the Fulah wars, ending in the absorp- 
 tion of all the Hausa States in the present unstable Fulah empire 
 of Sokoto, now a British protectorate. The Hausas were them- 
 selves never a conquering power, and their present expansion and 
 social supremacy seem almost entirely due to the natural intelli- 
 gence, industrial habits, and commercial enterprise of this remark- 
 able people. 
 
 Kanembu ; Kanuri ^ ; Baghirmi, Mosgu. Round about the 
 shores of Lake Chad are grouped three other 
 Political Reia- historical Muhammadan nations, the Kanembu 
 chadBal^in ("People of Kanem") on the north, the Kanuri of 
 Bornu on the west, and the Baghirmi on the south 
 side. The last named is, or has lately been, subject to the Sultan 
 of Waday farther east, and the whole region has been exposed to 
 the ravages of fierce Arab predatory tribes (Salamat and others) 
 from the north, and (since the Madhi's revolt) of Arabo-Nubian 
 armed bands from the east. In other respects these states have 
 hitherto maintained their poHtical independence, although now 
 gravitating towards the rival European powers (England, France, 
 Germany), whose hinterlands have already converged round the 
 Chad basin. 
 
 In this region the ethnical relations are considerably more 
 complex than in the Hausa States. Here Islam has had greater 
 obstacles to contend with than on the more open western plateaux, 
 and many of the pagan aborigines have been able to hold their 
 ground either in the archipelagos of Lake Chad ( Yedinas, Kurt), 
 or in the swampy tracts and uplands of the Logon- Shari basin 
 {Mosgu, Mandara, Makari &c.). 1 
 
 ^ By a popular etymology these are Ka-Niiri, " People of Light." But, 
 as they are somewhat lukewarm Muhammadans, the zealous Fulahs say it 
 should be JCa-Nari, " People of Fire," i.e. foredoomed to Gehenna ! 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 67 
 
 It was also the policy of the Muhammadans, whose system is 
 based on slavery, not to push their religious zeal too 
 far, for, if all the natives were converted, where could 7^^ Abori- 
 
 ' gines. 
 
 they procure a constant supply of slaves, those who 
 
 accept the teachings of the Prophet being ipso facto entitled to 
 
 their freedom? Hence the pagan districts were, and still are, 
 
 regarded as convenient preserves, happy hunting-grounds to be 
 
 raided from time to time, but not utterly wasted; to be visited by 
 
 organised razzias just often enough to keep up the supply in the 
 
 home and foreign markets. This system, controlled by the local 
 
 governments themselves, has long prevailed about 
 
 the borderlands between Islam and heathendom, as HeathTndom. 
 
 we know from Barth, Nachtigal, and one or two 
 
 other travellers, who have had reluctantly to accompany the 
 
 periodical slave-hunting expeditions from Bornu and Baghirmi to 
 
 the territories of the pagan Mosgu people with their numerous 
 
 branches {Margin Mandara, Makari^ Logon, Gamergu, Keribina) 
 
 and the other aborigines {Bede, Ngisem, So, Kerrikerri, Babir) on 
 
 the northern slopes of the Congo-Chad water-parting. As usual 
 
 on' such occasions, there is a great waste of life, 
 
 many perishing in defence of their homes or even .^||ave-Hunt- 
 
 through sheer wantonness, besides those carried 
 
 away captives. "A large number of slaves had been caught this 
 
 day," writes Barth, "and in the evening a great many more were 
 
 brought in ; altogether they were said to have taken one thousand, 
 
 and' there were certainly not less than five hundred. To our 
 
 utmost horror, not less than 170 full-grown men were mercilessly 
 
 slaughtered in cold blood, the greater part of them being allowed 
 
 to bleed to death, a leg having been severed from the body\" 
 
 There was probably just then a glut in the market. 
 
 A curious result of these relations is that in the wooded 
 districts some of the natives have reverted to ar- 
 boreal habits, taking refuge during the raids in the strongholds, 
 branches of huge bombax trees converted into tem- 
 porary strongholds. Round the vertical stem of these forest 
 giants is erected a breast-high look-out, while the higher horizontal 
 
 ^iii. p. 194. 
 
68 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 branches, less exposed to the fire of the enemy, support strongly- 
 built huts and store-houses, where the families of the fugitives 
 take refuge with all their effects, including, as Nachtigal assures 
 us\ their domestic animals, such as goats, dogs, and poultry. 
 During the siege of the aerial fortress, which is often successfully 
 defended, long light ladders of withies are let down at night, when 
 no attack need be feared, and the supply of water and provisions 
 is thus renewed from caches or hiding-places round about. In 
 1872 Nachtigal accompanied a predatory excursion to the pagan 
 districts south of Baghirmi, when an attack was made on one of 
 these tree-fortresses. Such citadels can be stormed only at a 
 heavy loss, and as the Gaberi (Baghirmi) warriors had no tools 
 capable of felling the great bombax-tree, they were fain to rest 
 satisfied with picking off a poor wretch now and then, and bar- 
 barously mutilating the bodies as they fell from the overhanging 
 branches. 
 
 Some of these aborigines disfigure their faces by the disk-like 
 Mos u lip-ornament, which is also fashionable in Nyassa- 
 
 Types and land, and even amongst the South American Boto- 
 
 cudos. The type often differs greatly, and while 
 some of the wide-spread Mosgu tribes are of a dirty black hue, 
 with disagreeable expression, wide open nostrils, thick lips, high 
 cheek-bones, coarse bushy hair, and disproportionate knock- 
 kneed legs, other members of the same family astonished Barth 
 " by the beauty and symmetry of their forms, and by the regularity 
 of their features, which in some had nothing of what is called the 
 Negro type. But I was still more astonished at their complexion, 
 which was very different in different individuals, being in some of 
 a glossy black, and in others of a light copper, or rather rhubarb 
 colour, the intermediate shades being almost entirely wanting. I 
 observed in one house a really beautiful female who, with her son, 
 about eight or nine years of age, formed a most charming group, 
 well worthy of the hand of an accomplished artist. The boy's 
 form did not yield in any respect to the beautiful symmetry of the 
 most celebrated Grecian statues. His hair, indeed, was very short 
 and curled, but not woolly. He, as well as his mother and the 
 
 ^ Sahara and Sudan, ii. p. 628. 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 69 
 
 whole family, were of a pale or yellowish-red complexion, like 
 rhubarb \" 
 
 There is no suggestion of albinoism, and the explanation of 
 such strange contrasts must await further exploration in the whole 
 of this borderland of Negroes and Bantus about the divide 
 between the Chad and the Congo basins. The country has 
 hitherto been traversed only by two or three French pioneers, 
 interested more in political than in anthropological matters. 
 
 Of the settled and more or less cultured peoples in the Chad 
 basin, the most important are the Kane77ibu^^ who ^j^^ Cultured 
 introduce a fresh element of confusion in this region, Peoples of 
 
 , . ... , . , , , ^^ . . Central Sudan. 
 
 being more allied in type and speech to the Hamitic 
 Tibus than to the Negro stock, or at least taking a transitional 
 position between the two; the Ka?iuri, the ruling people in Bornu, 
 of somewhat coarse Negroid appearance^; and the southern 
 Baghirmi^ also decidedly Negroid, originally supposed to have 
 come from the Upper Shari and White Nile districts^ Their 
 civilisation, such as it is, has been developed exclusively under 
 Moslem influences, but it has never penetrated much below the 
 surface. The people are everywhere extremely rude, and for the 
 most part unlettered, although the meagre and not altogether 
 trustworthy Kanem-Bornu records date from the time of Sef, 
 
 1 II. p. 382-3. 
 
 2 That is, "Kanem-men," the postfix bu^ be, as in Ti-bu, Fid-be, answering 
 to the Bantu prefix ba, wa, as in Ba-Suto, Wa-Swahili, &c. Here may possibly 
 be discovered a link between the Sudanese, Teda-Daza, and Bantu linguistic 
 groups. The transposition of the agglutinated particles would present no 
 difficulty; cf. Umbrian and Latin i^Eth. p. 214). 
 
 ^ Barth draws a vivid picture of the contrasts, physical and mental, between 
 the Kanuri and the Hausa peoples; " Here we took leave of Hausa with its 
 fine and beautiful country, and its cheerful and industrious population. It is 
 remarkable what a difference there is between the character of the ba-Haushe. 
 and the Kanuri — the former lively, spirited, and cheerful, the latter melancholic, 
 dejected, and brutal ; and the same difference is visible in their physiognomies — 
 the former having in general very pleasant and regular features, and more 
 graceful forms, while the Kanuri, with his broad face, his wide nostrils and 
 his large bones, makes a far less agreeable impression, especially the women, 
 %vho are very plain and certainly among the ugliest in all Negroland" (li. 
 p. 163-4). V 
 
 ^ See Nachtigal, ii. p. 690. 
 
7b MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 reputed founder of the monarchy about 800 a.d. Duku, second 
 in descent from Sef, is doubtfully referred to about 
 Bornu " 85 o A.D. Hamd, fouuder of a new dynasty, 
 
 Records. flourished towards the end of the nth century 
 
 (1086 — 1097), and Dunama, one of his successors, is said to 
 have extended his sway over a great part of the Sahara, in- 
 cluding the whole of Fezzan (1221 — 59). Under Omar (1394 
 — 1398) a divorce took place between Kanem and Bornu, and 
 henceforth the latter country has remained the chief centre of 
 political power in the Chad basin. 
 
 A long series of civil wars was closed by Ali (1472 — 1504), 
 who founded the present capital, Birni, and whose grandson, 
 Muhammad, brought the empire of Bornu to the highest pitch of 
 its greatness (1526 — 45). Under Ahmed (1793 — 1810) began 
 the wars with the Fulahs, who, after bringing the empire to the 
 verge of ruin, were at last overthrown by the aid of the Kanem 
 people, and since 18 19 Bornu has been ruled by the present 
 Kanemiyin dynasty, while Kanem itself has been wasted by the 
 lawless Tuaregs and made " the wild hunting-ground of continual 
 adventurous ghazzias from every quarter." In Barth's time 
 Barawa, at the eastern end of the Anglo-French border-line, 
 running from the Niger to Lake Chad, had to pay blackmail to 
 the Tuareg freebooters. 
 
 Eastern Sudanese. 
 
 As some confusion prevails regarding the expression "Eastern 
 Ran e of the ^^^^^'" ^ ^^Y ^^^^ explain that it bears a very 
 Negro in East- different meaning, according as it is used in a 
 political or an ethnical sense. Politically it is 
 practically synonymous with Egyptian Sudan, that is the whole 
 region from Darfur to the Red Sea which was ruled or misruled 
 by the Khedivial Government before the revolt of the Mahdi 
 (1883—4), and has been restored to Egypt by the British occu- 
 pation of Khartum in 1898. Ethnically Eastern Sudan comprises 
 all the lands east of the Chad Basin, where the Negro or Negroid 
 populations are predominant, that is to say, Waday, Darfur, and 
 Kordofan in the West, the Nile Valley from the frontier of Egypt 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. /I 
 
 proper south to Lake Albert Nyanza, both slopes of the Nile- 
 Congo divide (the western tributaries of the White Nile and the 
 Welle-Makua affluent of the Congo), lastly the Sobat Valley with 
 some Negro enclaves east of the White Nile, and even south of 
 the equator (Kavirondo, Semliki Valley). 
 
 Throughout the whole of this region the fusion of the aborigines 
 with the Arab, Tuareg, or Tibu Moslem intruders. The Mabas 
 wherever they have penetrated, has been far less 
 complete than in Central and Western Sudan. Thus in Waday 
 the dominant Maba people, whence the country is often called 
 Dar-Maba (" Mabaland"), are rather Negro than Ethnical 
 Negroid, with but a slight strain of Caucasic blood. Relations in 
 In the northern districts the Zoghdwa^ Gura'an^ ^ ^^' 
 Baele and Bulala Tibus keep quite aloof from the blacks, as do 
 elsewhere the Aramkas, as the Arabs are collectively called in 
 Waday. Yet the Mahamids and some other Bedouin tribes have 
 here been settled for over 500 years, and it was through their 
 assistance that the Mabas acquired the political supremacy they 
 haye enjoyed since the seventeenth century, when they reduced or 
 expelled the Tynjurs^^ the former ruling race, said to be Nubians 
 originally from Dongola. It was Abd-el-Kerim, founder of the 
 new Moslem Maba state, who gave the country its present name 
 in honour of his grandfather, Wadai. His successor Kharub I. 
 removed the seat of government to Wara, where Vogel was mur- 
 dered in 1856. Abeshr, the present capital, dates only from the 
 year 1850. 
 
 Waday has hitherto been visited by no other Europeans except 
 Nachtigal, who just crossed the frontier in 1873, and Massari and 
 Matteucei, who passed rapidly through under escort in 1879. 
 Hence we still await details of the ethnical conditions, most of our 
 information being in fact derived from the reports of El Tunsi 
 
 1 These are the same people as the Tunjurs {Tunzers) of Darfur, regarding 
 whose ethnical position so much doubt still prevails. Strange to say, they 
 themselves claim to be Arabs, and the claim is allowed by their neighbours, 
 although they are not Muhammadans. Lejean thinks they are Tibbus from the 
 north-west, while Nachtigal, who met some as far west as Kanem, concluded 
 from their appearance and spVch that they were really Arabs settled for 
 hundreds of years in the country {op. cit. 11. p. 256). 
 
72 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 (" The Tunisian ") who visited the country towards the close of 
 the 1 8th century. But of these reports I have no first-hand 
 knowledge. 
 
 Nubas. As in Waday, the intruding and native populations 
 
 have been either imperfectly or not at all assimilated 
 ProWem"^'^" in Darfur and Kordofan, where the Muhammadan 
 
 Semites still boast of their pure Arab descent \ and 
 form powerful confederacies of pastoral tribes, who with their 
 Nubian allies constitute the great disturbing element throughout 
 Egyptian Sudan. The Nubians themselves present one of the 
 hardest problems in the whole range of ethnological studies. 
 Having elsewhere discussed the question somewhat fully ^, I will 
 here confine myself to a statement of the general conclusions 
 which I have arrived at, and which have not been seriously 
 questioned. We have first of all to get rid of the " Nuba-Fulah " 
 family, which was introduced by Fr. Miiller and accepted by 
 some English writers, but has absolutely no existence. The two 
 languages, although both of the agglutinative Sudanese type, are 
 radically distinct in all their structural, lexical, and phonetic 
 
 ^ Yet some, such as the dominant Baggaras, are almost as dark as the 
 blackest Negroes, but with quite regular well-shaped features. " These Bag- 
 garas looked like the fiends they really are — of most sinister expression, with 
 murder and every crime speaking from their savage eyes. The Baggara were 
 ever known as a cruel, bloodthirsty people. Courage is their one good 
 quality" {Times Correspondent, July 28, 1896). Of the rival Jaalin {Jalin, 
 Jahalin) the same observer remarks that they are "a proud and religious people, 
 claiming descent from Abbas, the uncle of the Prophet. They have for a long 
 time been the principal slave-hunters in the Sudan (the famous Zubeir was of 
 this tribe), and were formerly among the most zealous Mahdists " {ib.), All 
 these Nilotic, Atbara, and Kordofan Bedouins (Baggara, Jaalin, Kababish, 
 Shukrieh, Robabat, Homran, Hassanieh, Dobeina, Yemanieh) speak Arabic, 
 but mostly as Chaucer's nun spoke P>ench, and the pronunciation, especially 
 of the Baggara and Kababish tribes, differs greatly from that of the true Arabs. 
 Many of the characteristic Semitic sounds have been replaced by others possibly 
 inherited from a now extinct language, which could scarcely be any other than 
 the Hamitic still current amongst the Bejas beyond the Nile. Baggara, 
 for instance, should be Baqqara, i.e. "cowherds," while many of the Jaalin 
 sub-tribes have the Beja patronymic ending ab\ Gebalab, Kaliab, Sadab, 
 Timerab, &c. 
 
 2 Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan, 1884, p. 12 sq. See also Eth. p. 270. 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 73 
 
 elements, and the two peoples are equally distinct. The Fulahs 
 belong originally to the Hamitic stock, although many have 
 in recent times been largely assimilated to their black Sudanese 
 subjects. The Nubians on the contrary belong originally to the 
 Negro stock, although many have long been assimilated to the 
 Hamitic type through secular intermingUngs in that part of the 
 Nile Valley which from them takes the relatively modern name of 
 Nubia. 
 
 But rightly to understand the question we have carefully to 
 distinguish between these half-caste Nubians and the full-blood 
 Negro Nubas, who give their name to the Nuba Mountains, 
 Kordofan, true cradle of the race, where most of the aborigines 
 {Kargo, Kulfan, Kolaji, Tu?nali^ still belong to this connection. 
 From Kordofan, which is itself a Nuba word meaning ''Land of 
 the Kordo" (/i;2 = Arab. ddr, land, country), they spread in 
 remote times west to Darfur and Waday — where they are now 
 represented by the Furs^ Kunjaras^ and Tynjurs — and in historic 
 times along the Nile north to the Egyptian frontier. Here they 
 ar^ represented by the three groups of Matokki {Kenus) between 
 the first Cataract and Wadi-el-Arab, the Mahai {Martsi) between 
 Korosko and Wadi-Halfa, at the second Cataract, and the Dongo- 
 lawi, of the province of Dongola between Wadi-Halfa and Jebel 
 Deja near Meroe. 
 
 These three groups, all now Muhammadans, but formerly 
 Christians, constitute collectively the so-called Nubian 
 "Nubians" of European writers, but call themselves Origins and 
 
 ii/-7-,7-. /--n.! Affinities. 
 
 Barabra, plural of Berberi^ i.e. people of Berber, 
 
 although they do not at present extend so far up the Nile as that 
 
 town\ They are unquestionably Strabo's " Noubai, who dwell 
 
 ^ This term, however, has by some authorities been identified with the 
 Barabara, one of the 113 tribes recorded in the inscription on a gateway 
 of Thutmes, by whom they were reduced about 1700 B.C. In a later inscription 
 of Rameses XL at Karnak (1400 B.C.) occurs the form Beraberata, name of a 
 southern people conquered by him. Hence Brugsch [Reisebericht aus ^gypten 
 pp. 127 and 155) is inclined to regard the modern Barabra as a true ethnical 
 name confused in classical times with the Greek and Roman Barbarus, but 
 revived in its proper sense since the Moslem conquest. See also the editorial 
 note on the term Berber, in t^ new English ed. of Leo Africanus, Vol. i. 
 p. 199. 
 
74 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 on the left bank of the Nile in Libya [Africa], a great nation &c.'"; 
 and are also to be identified with the Nobatce, who in Diocletian's 
 time were settled, some in the Kargey oasis, others in the Nile 
 valley about Meroe, to guard the frontiers of the empire against 
 the incursions of the restless Blemmues. But after some time 
 they appear to have entered into peaceful relations with these 
 Hamites, the present Bejas, even making common cause with 
 them against the Romans ; but the confederacy was crushed by 
 Maximinus in 451, though perhaps not before crossings had taken 
 place between the black Nubas and the Caucasic Bejas. Then 
 these Bejas withdrew to their old homes, which they still occupy, 
 between the Nile and the Red Sea above Egypt, while the Nobat?e, 
 embracing Christianity, as- is said, in 545, established the powerful 
 kingdom of Dongola which lasted over 800 years, and was finally 
 overthrown by the Arabs in the 14th century, since which time 
 the Nile Nubians have been Muhammadans. 
 
 But they still retain their old Nuba speech, which, as shown 
 by Lepsius^, differs but slightly from that now current amongst 
 the Kordofan Nubas. This is one of those cases where language 
 renders indispensable service to ethnology ^ Taken in connection 
 
 ^ 'E^ dpLarepQv 8k piaeojs rod "NelXov Nou/Sai KaroiKovcnv ev rrj Ai^^rj, fiiya 
 idvos 8ic. (Book XVII. p. 1117, Oxford ed. 1807). Sayce, therefore, is quite 
 wrong in stating that Strabo knew only of " Ethiopians," and not Nubians, 
 "as dwelling northward along the banks of the Nile as far as Elephantine" 
 {Academy, April 14, 1894). 
 
 2 Nubische Grammatik, 1881, passim. In this classical work Lepsius, after 
 referring to the "dark bronze colour" of the present Nilotic Nubians, "darker 
 than that of the Abyssinians," adds : — " Der alte Negertypus bricht nicht selten 
 wieder ziemlich deutlich durch ; namentlich ist das Wollhaar ziemlich haufig " 
 (p. 74). On these grounds Prichard had already grouped the Nubians not with 
 the Arabs or Hamites, but with the Sudanese Blacks. All the more surprising 
 is Sergi's contention that they are di stirpe camitica, " of Hamitic stock." 
 
 3 Even Prof Sergi, despite his almost exclusive faith in cranial characters 
 as racial tests, admits this : " La traccia e la persistenza del linguaggio attra- 
 verso secoli e malgrado il dominio di altra gente e il mutamento di religione, 
 spesso h. simile alia persistenza dei caratteri fisici umani ; ed allora la lingua e 
 un argomento di molto valore antropologico " {Africa, Antropologia della Stirpe 
 Camitica, Turin, 1897, p. 97). But in this case he declines to deal with the 
 linguistic factor (" Non sono io che posso risolvere i problemi linguistici "), and 
 is therefore able still to hold that the Nile Nubians are Hamites ("I Nubi della 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 75 
 
 with the historic data, it solves the Nubian problem ; for it is 
 impossible to suppose that the cultured Nile-Nubians could have 
 ever adopted or acquired the speech of the savage Kordofan 
 Nubas, unless it had always been their own mother-tongue ; in 
 other words, unless they were themselves originally Kordofan 
 Nubas. They were Christians, it should be remembered, for 
 many centuries, and although the flourishing Christian Empire of 
 Nubia, with its seventeen bishoprics and its thirteen viceroyalties, 
 all governed by priests, was not founded, as is commonly sup- 
 posed, by the renowned Silco, " King of the Noubads and of all 
 the Ethiopians," it was strong enough frequently to invade Egypt 
 in defence of their oppressed Greek and Koptic fellow-Christians. 
 So early as 640 a combined army of Niibas and Bejas, said to 
 have numbered 50,000 men with 1500 elephants, penetrated as 
 far north as Oxyrhynchus (the Arab Bahnosd) where such a sur- 
 prising store of Greek and other documents was discovered in 
 1897. Cultured peoples with such glorious records, and traditions 
 going back even to pre-Christian times (Silco and Queen Candace, 
 contemporary of Augustus), do not borrow their language from 
 the rude untutored aborigines on the distant frontiers of their 
 empire. Nevertheless Sayce may be right in conjecturing that 
 the old language of the Meroitic inscriptions was not the present 
 Nubian, but a Hamitic tongue akin to Berber. These inscriptions 
 ante-date the arrival of the Nubians from Kordofan by perhaps 
 1000 years, and must be referred to the pre-Nuba Hamites of the 
 Nile valley, whom Sayce, I think rightly, identifies with the Berbers. 
 "Two of the Ethiopian deities known to us have a strikingly 
 Libyan (Berber) appearance. One of them is Dudun, a name 
 which bears a remarkable resemblance to that of Dtdi, one of the 
 Libyan enemies of Ramses 1 11.^" All this harmonises completely 
 with my view that the present Nubians are late intruders in the 
 Nile Valley below Khartum, where they displaced the original 
 Hamitic inhabitants probably not more than 2500 years ago. 
 
 valle del Nilo da Asmara a Dongola sono di stirpe camitica" {ib. p. 107). But 
 ethnical problems are like algebraic equations ; they cannot be solved if some 
 of the necessary factors be ov%rlooked. 
 ^ Academy, Ap. 14, 1894. 
 
yd MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. ^ [CHAP. 
 
 Before the incursions of the Nubo-Arab traders and raiders, 
 who began to form settlements {zeribas, fenced 
 Peopie^of the Stations) in the Upper Nile regions above Khartum 
 Watersheds ^bout the middle of the nineteenth century, most 
 of the Nile-Congo divide (White Nile tributaries 
 and Welle-Makua basin) belonged in the strictest sense to 
 the Negro domain. Sudanese tribes, and even great nations 
 reckoned by millions, had been for ages in almost undisturbed 
 possession, not only of the main stream from the equatorial lakes 
 to and beyond the Sobat junction, but also of the Sobat valley 
 itself, and of the numerous south-western head-waters of the 
 White Nile converging about Lake No above the Sobat junction. 
 Nearly all the Nilotic peoples — the Shilluks and Dinkas about 
 the Sobat confluence, the Bari and Nuers of the Bahr-el-Jebel, 
 the Bongos {Dors), Rols, Golos, Mittus, Madis^ Makarakas, 
 Abakas, Mundus, and many others about the western affluents, as 
 well as the FunJ of Senaar — had been brought under the Khedivial 
 rule before the revolt of the Mahdi. 
 
 The same fate had already overtaken or was threatening the 
 formerly powerful Mombuttu {Mangbatiu) and Zandeh {Mam- 
 Niain) nations of the Welle lands, as well as the Krej and others 
 about the low watersheds of the Nile-Congo and Chad basins. 
 Since then the Welle groups have been subjected to the jurisdic- 
 tion of the Congo Free State, while the poHtical 
 Political destinies of the Nilotic tribes must henceforth be 
 
 Relations. 
 
 controlled by the British masters of the Nile lands 
 from the Great Lakes to the Mediterranean. 
 
 Although grouped as Negroes proper, very few of the Nilotic 
 peoples present the almost ideal type of the blacks, such as those 
 of Upper Guinea and the Atlantic coast of West Sudan. The 
 complexion is in general less black, the nose less broad at the 
 base, the lips less everted (Shilluks and one or two others 
 excepted), the hair rather less frizzly, the dolichocephaly and 
 prognathism less marked. 
 
 Apart from the more delicate shades of transition, due to 
 
 diverse interminghngs with Hamites and Semites, 
 cai Types. ^^'' ^^^ distinct typcs may be plainly distinguished — 
 
 one black, often very tall and long-headed {Shilluks, 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 77 
 
 Dinkas, Bart, Ntiers, Mittus), the other reddish or ruddy brown, 
 more thick-set, and short-headed {Bongos, Golos, Makarakas, with 
 the kindred Zandehs of the Welle region). The complexion of 
 the latter, as has been suggested by Schweinfurth \ may possibly, 
 though not probably, be due to the properties of the red, ferru- 
 ginous soil prevalent in their districts. But no explanation has 
 been offered of their brachycephaly, which is all the more difficult 
 to account for, inasmuch as it is characteristic neither of the abori- 
 ginal Negro nor of the intruding Hamitic and Semitic elements. 
 Have we here an indication of the transition suspected by many 
 between the true long-headed Negro and the round-headed Negrito, 
 who is also brownish, and formerly ranged as far north as the Nile 
 head-streams, as would appear from the early Egyptian records 
 (Chap. IV.)? Schweinfurth found that the Bongos were " hardly re- 
 moved from the lowest grade of brachycephaly^," and the same is 
 largely true of the Zandehs and their Makaraka cousins, as noticed 
 by Junker : " The skull also in many of these peoples approaches 
 the round form, whereas the typical Negro is assumed to be long- 
 headed^" But so great is the diversity of appearance throughout 
 the whole of this region, including even "a striking Semitic type," 
 that this observer was driven to the conclusion that " woolly hair, 
 common to all, forms in fact the only sure characteristic of the 
 Negro^" 
 
 More uniformity appears to prevail amongst the languages 
 of the Nile-Welle lands, and from the rather 
 scanty materials collected by Junker, Dr Fr. Miiller Groups!*^*^*^ 
 was able to construct an " Equatorial Linguistic 
 Family," including the Mangbattu, Zandeh, Barmbo, Madi, 
 Bangba, Krej, Golo and others, on both sides of the water-parting. 
 Prof. Leo Reinisch, however, was not convinced, and in a letter 
 addressed to the author declared that " in the absence of sen- 
 tences it is impossible to determine the grammatical structure of 
 Mangbattu and the other languages. At the same time we may 
 detect certain relations, not to the Nilotic, but the Bantu tongues. 
 
 1 Heart of Africa, passim. ^ Op. cit. I. p. 263. 
 
 Travels in Africa, Keane's English ed., Vol. ill. p. 247 
 
 •* Ibid. p. 246. 
 
78 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 It may therefore be inferred that Mangbattu and the others have 
 a tolerably close relationship to the Bantu, and may even be 
 remotely akin to it, judging from their tendency to prefix forma- 
 tions'." Future research will show how far this conjecture is 
 justified. 
 
 Although Islam has made considerable progress, especially 
 
 amongst the Funj of Senaar, the Shilluks, Dinkas, 
 Qu&mlel ^"^ other Nilotic tribes, the bulk of the people are 
 
 still practically nature-worshippers. Witchcraft con- 
 tinues to flourish amongst the equatorial peoples, and important 
 events are almost everywhere attended by sanguinary rites. When 
 preparing for battle the "medicine-man" flays an infant and 
 places the bleeding victim on the war-path, to be trampled by 
 the warriors marching to victory. 
 
 Cannibalism also, in some of its most repulsive forms, prevails 
 
 amongst the Zandehs, who barter in human fat as a 
 a ism. uj^iygj-sa^i staple of trade, and amongst the Mang- 
 battu, who cure for future use the bodies of the slain in battle and 
 " drive their prisoners before them, as butchers drive sheep to the 
 shambles, and these are only reserved to fall "victims on a later 
 day to their horrible and sickly greediness ^" 
 
 In fact here we enter the true "cannibal zone," which, as 
 
 I have elsewhere shown, was in former ages difl"used 
 zone^.^^""'^^^ all over Central and South Africa, or, it would be 
 
 more correct to say, over the whole continent^, 
 but has in recent times been mainly confined to "the region 
 stretching west and east from the Gulf of Guinea to the western 
 head-streams of the White Nile, and from below the equator 
 northwards in the direction of Adamawa, Dar-Banda and Dar- 
 
 ^ Travels in Africa^ ibid. p. 279. Thus the Bantu i?a, Wa, Ania, Sec, 
 correspond to the A of the Welle lands, as in A-Zandeh, A-Barmbo, A-Madi, 
 A-Bangba, i.e. Zandeh people, Barmbo people, &c. Cf. also Kanem^z^, T'xbu, 
 Ful^^, &c., where the personal particle {bu, be) is postfixed. It would almost 
 seem as if we had here a transition between the northern Sudanese and the 
 southern Bantu groups in the very region where such transitions might be 
 looked for. 
 
 2 Schweinfurth, of. cit. II. p. 93. 
 
 '^ Prof. Flinders Petrre has come upon undoubted traces of cannibalism in 
 the Negadah district, Egypt. 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 79 
 
 Fertit. Wherever explorers have penetrated into this least-known 
 region of the continent they have found the practice fully estab- 
 lished, not merely as a religious rite or a privilege reserved foi 
 priests, but as a recognised social institution \" 
 
 Yet many of these cannibal peoples, especially the Mangbattus 
 and Zandehs, are skilled agriculturists, and cultivate 
 some of the useful industries, such as iron and indus^tde^. 
 copper smelting and casting, weaving, pottery and 
 wood-carving, with great success. The form and ornamental 
 designs of their utensils display real artistic taste, while the 
 temper of their iron implements is often superior to that of the 
 imported European hardware. Here again the observation has 
 been made that the tribes most addicted to cannibalism also 
 excel in mental qualities and physical energy. Nor are they 
 strangers to the finer feelings of human nature, and above all 
 the surrounding peoples the Zandeh anthropophagists are distin- 
 guished by their regard and devotion for their women and 
 children. 
 
 In one respect all these peoples show a higher degree of 
 intelligence even than the Arabs and Hamites. 
 " My later experiences," writes Junker, " revealed Appreciation 
 the remarkable fact that certain negro peoples, °^ Pictorial 
 such as the Niam-Niams, the Mangbattus and the 
 Bantus of Uganda and Unyoro, display quite a surprising under- 
 standing of figured illustrations or pictures of plastic objects, 
 which is not as a rule exhibited by the Arabs and Arabised 
 
 1 Africa, 1895, Vol. ii. p. 58. In a carefully prepared monograph on 
 " Endocannibalismus," Vienna, 1896, Dr Rudolf S. Steinmetz brings together 
 a great body of evidence tending to show "dass eine hohe Wahrscheinlichkeit 
 dafiir spricht den Endocannibalismus (indigenous anthropophagy) als standige 
 Sitte der Urmenschen, sowie der niedrigen Wilden anzunehmen " (pp. 59, 60). 
 It is surprising to learn from the ill-starred Bottego-Grixoni expedition of 
 1892-3 that anthropophagy is still rife even in Gallaland, and amongst the 
 white ("floridi") Cormoso Gallas. Like the Fans, these prefer the meat 
 "high," and it would appear that all the dead are eaten. Hence in their 
 country Bottego found no graves, and one of his native guides explained that 
 " questa gente sepellisce i suoi cari nel ventre, invece che nella terra," i.e. these 
 people bury their dear ones in their stomach instead of in the ground ( Vittorio 
 Bottego, Viag-^i di ScoJ>e7'ta, &c., Rome, i8gS)), 
 
80 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Hamites of North-east Africa. Thus the Unyoro chief, Riongo, 
 placed photographs in their proper position, and was able to 
 identify the negro portraits as belonging to the Shuli, Lango, or 
 other tribes, of which he had a personal knowledge. This I have 
 called a remarkable fact, because it bespoke in the lower races a 
 natural faculty for observation, a power to recognise what for 
 many Arabs or Egyptians of high rank was a hopeless puzzle. 
 An Egyptian pasha in Khartum could never make out how a 
 human face in profile showed only one eye and one ear, and he 
 took the portrait of a fashionable Parisian lady in extremely low 
 dress for that of the bearded sun-burnt American naval officer 
 who had shown him the photograph \" From this one is almost 
 tempted to infer that, amongst Moslem peoples, all sense of 
 plastic, figurative, or pictorial art has been deadened by the 
 Koranic precept forbidding the representation of the human form 
 in any way. 
 
 The Welle peoples show themselves true Negroes in the 
 
 possession of another and more precious quaHty, 
 Humour° ^^^ scnsc of humour, although this is probably a 
 
 quality which comes late in the life of a race. Any- 
 how it is a distinct Negro characteristic, which Junker was able 
 to turn to good account during the building of his famous 
 Ldcrima station in Ndoruma's country. " In all this I could 
 again notice how like children the Negroes are in many respects. 
 Once at work they seemed animated by a sort of childlike sense 
 of honour. They delighted in praise, though even a frown or a 
 word of reproach could also excite their hilarity. Thus a loud 
 burst of laughter would, for instance, follow the contrast between 
 a piece of good and bad workmanship. Like children, they would 
 point the finger of scorn at each other^" 
 
 One morning Ndoruma, hearing that they had again struck 
 work, had the great war-drum beaten, whereupon they rushed to 
 arms and mustered in great force from all quarters. But on 
 finding that there was no enemy to march against, and that they 
 had only been summoned to resume operations at the station, 
 they enjoyed the joke hugely, and after a general explosion of 
 
 ^ I. p- 245. 2 ji, p^ j^Q 
 
III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 8 1 
 
 laughter at the way they had been taken in, laid aside their weapons 
 and returned cheerfully to work. Some English overseers have 
 already discovered that this characteristic may be utilised far 
 more effectively than the cruel kurbash. Ethnology has many 
 such lessons to teach. 
 
 K. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE AFRICAN NEGRO: 11. BANTUS — NEGRITOES — 
 BUSHMEN — HOTTENTOTS. 
 
 The Sudanese- Bantu Divide — Frontier Tribes — The Bonjo Cannibals — The 
 Baya Nation — A "Red People" — The Nprth-East Door to Bantuland — \ 
 Semitic Elements of the Bantu Amalgam — Malay Elements in Madagascar 
 only — Hamitic Element everywhere — The Wahu??ias — The Bantus mainly 
 a Negro-Hamitic Cross — The Lacustrians — Their Traditions — The Kintu 
 Legend — The Waganda, Past and Present — Political and Social Institu- 
 tions — Totemic System— Bantu Peoples between Lake Victoria and the 
 Coast — The lVagiiya??ia — Primitive Ancestry- Worship — Mulungu — The 
 Waswahili — The Zang Empire — The Zulu-Xosas — Former and Present 
 Domain — Patriarchal Institutions — Genealogies — Physical Type — 
 Social Organization — "Common Law" — Mashonas and Makalakas 
 — The mythical Monomotapa Empire — The Zimbabwe Ruins — The 
 Bechuanas — The Barotse Empire — The Makololo Episode — Spread of 
 Christianity amongst the Southern Bantus — King Khama — The Ova- 
 Herero — Cattle ajtd Hill Dainaras — The Kongo People— Oldi Kongo 
 Empire — The Kongo Language — The Kongo Aborigines— Perverted 
 Christian Doctrines — The Kabindas and ^^ Black Jews'" — The Tushilange 
 Bhang-smokers — The Balolo "Men of Iron" — The West Equatorial 
 Bantus — Bakalai — The Cannibal Fans — Migrations, Type, Origin — The 
 Camertm j^aw//^^— ^Bantu-Sudanese Borderland— Early Bantu Migrations 
 — Eastern Ancestry and Western Nature- worshippers — Conclusion. — 
 The Negrito Dojtiain, Past and Present — Negritoes at the Courts of 
 the Pharaohs— Negritoes and Pygmy Folklore — 7he Dume and Doko 
 reputed Dwarfs — The Wandorobbo Hunters — The Wochna Mimics — The 
 Bushmen and Hottentots — Former and Present Range — llie Wasandazvi — 
 Hottentot Geographical Names in Bantuland — Hottentots disappearing — 
 Bushman Folklore Literature— Bushman-Hottentot Language and Clicks 
 — Bushman Mental Characters— Bushman Race-Names. 
 
 Conspectus. 
 
 Distribu- Primeval Home. Bantu : between the Equatorial 
 Past and Lakes and Indian Ocean ; Negrito : all the inter-tropical 
 Times. forest zoncs ; Bushman-Hottentot : from Lake Tanganyika 
 to the Cape. 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : 11. 83 
 
 Present Range. Bantu : S. Africa f mm the Sudanese 
 frontier to the Cape ; Negrito : West Equatorial and Co?tgo 
 forest zones; Bush. -Hot. : Namaqualands ; Kalahari; 
 Lake Ngami and Orange basins. 
 
 Hair. Bantu : same as Sudanese, but often rather Physical 
 longer; Negrito: short, frizzly or crisp, rusty brown ; t&rs. 
 Bush. -Hot.: much the same as Sudanese, but tufty, simu- 
 lating bald partings. Colour. Bantu : all shades of 
 dark brown, sometimes almost black ; Negrito and Bush.- 
 Hot. : yellowish brown. Skull. Bantu : generally dolicho^ 
 but variable; Negrito : almost uniformly brachy ; Bush.- 
 Hot. : dolicho. Jaws. Bantu : moderately prognathous 
 and even orthognathous ; Negrito and Bush.-Hot. : highly 
 prognathous. Cheek-bones. Bantu : fnoderately or not 
 at all prominent ; Negrito and Bush.-Hot. : very pro- 
 minent, often extremely so, forming a triangular face with 
 apex at chin. Nose. Bantu : variable, rangi7ig from 
 platyrrhine to leptorrhine (index, 56 to 46); Negrito and 
 Bush.-Hot.: short, broad at base, depressed at root, always 
 platyrrhi?ie. Eyes, Bantu : generally large, black, and 
 prominent, but also of regular Hamitic type ; Negrito and 
 Bush.-Hot. : rather sinall, deep brown and black. Stature. 
 Bantu: tall, from ^ft. Z in. to 6 ft.: Negrito: always 
 much U7ider $ft., mean about 4ft.; Bushman: short, with 
 rather wide ra7ige, from 4 ft. ^ in. to ^ ft. 2 in.; Hot.: 
 undersized, fnean ^ft. 5 in. 
 
 Temperament. Bantu : mainly like the Negroid Mental 
 Sudanese, far more intelligent than the true Negro, equally ters. 
 cruel, but less fitful and tfiore trustworthy ; Negrito: bright, 
 active and quick-witted, but vindictive atid treacherous, 
 apparently not cruel to each other, but rather gentle and 
 kindly; Bushman: in all these respects very like the 
 Negrito, but more intelligent ; Hot. : rather dull and 
 sluggish, but the full-blood {Nama) much less so than the 
 half-caste {Griqua) tribes. 
 
 Speech. Bantu: as absolutely uniform as the physical 
 type is variable, one stock lan^age only, of the agglutinating 
 order, with both class prefixes, alliteration and postfixes; 
 L 6—2 
 
84 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 shows vague Sudanese, but no Hamitic affinities, hence 
 is originally a Negro language ; Negrito : unkiiown ; 
 Bush.-Hot. : agglutiftating with postfixes only, with gratn- 
 matical gender and other remarkable features ; is a stock 
 language radically distinct from all others. 
 
 Religion. Bantu : ancestor-worship mainly in the 
 east, spirit-worship mainly in the west, intermingling in 
 the centre, with witchcraft and gross superstitions every- 
 where; Negrito: unknown; Bush.-Hot: incipient animism 
 and nature-worship, but the religious sentiment scarcely 
 developed. 
 
 Culture. Bantu: much lower than the Negroid 
 Sudanese, but higher than the true Negro, capacity for 
 progress more evident than actual achievement ; Negrito 
 and Bush. : lowest grade {hunting) ; Hot. : incipient 
 {pastoral). 
 Main Baiitus : Bo7ijo; Bay a; Waganda; Wanyoro ; Wapo- 
 
 komo ; Wagiryama; Waswahili ; Zulu-Xosa ; Mashona; 
 Bechuana; Ova-Herero ; E s hi- Kongo ; Bashilange ; Ba- 
 lolo ; Manyuema ; Bakalai ; Fan; Mpongwe ; Dwala ; 
 Batanga. 
 
 Negritoes; Akka ; Wochua ; Dume {?) ; Wando- 
 robbo{?); Doko{?); O bongo ; Batwa. 
 
 Bushmen : Family Groups ; no known tribal names. 
 
 Hottentots: Wasandawi {?); Namaqua ; Griqua ; 
 Gonaqua ; Koraqua ; Hill Damaras. 
 
 In ethnology the only intelligible definition of a Bantu is a 
 full-blood or a half-blood Negro of Bantu speech ^; and, as special 
 anthropology takes no account of language, it follows that from 
 the physical standpoint no very hard and fast line can be drawn 
 between the northern Sudanese and southern Bantu groups, 
 considered as two ethnical units. But these units are made 
 up of endless details, and it is in the study of these details 
 that such physical differences as do exist are discovered and 
 explained. 
 
 1 Eth. ch. XI. 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. 85 
 
 Thanks to recent political developments in the interior, the 
 linguistic divide may now be traced with some ac- 
 curacy right across the continent. In the extreme Sudanese- 
 west, Sir H. H. Johnston has shown that it coincides ^^"*" ^'"'''^''^ 
 with the lower course of the Rio del Rey, while farther east the 
 French expedition of 1891 under M. Dybowski found that it ran 
 at about the same parallel (5° N.) along the elevated plateau 
 which here forms the water-parting between the Congo and the 
 Chad basin. From this point the line takes a south-easterly 
 trend along the southern borders of the Zandeh and Mangbattu 
 territories to the Semliki valley between Lakes Albert Edward 
 and Albert Nyanza, near the equator. Thence it pursues a some- 
 what irregular course, first north by the east side of Lake Albert 
 Nyanza to the mouth of the Somerset Nile, then up that river to 
 Mruli and round the east side of Usoga and the Victoria Nyanza 
 to Kavirondo Bay, where it turns nearly east to the sources of 
 the Tana, and down that river to its mouth in the Indian Ocean. 
 
 At some points the line traverses debatable territory, as in 
 the^ Semliki valley, where there are Sudanese and Negrito over- 
 lappings, and again beyond Lake Victoria, where the frontiers 
 are broken by the Hamitic Masai nomads and their Wandorobbo 
 allies. But, speaking generally, everything south of the line here 
 traced is Bantu, everything north of it Sudanese Negro in the 
 western and central regions, and Hamitic in the eastern section 
 between Lake Victoria and the Indian Ocean. 
 
 In some districts the demarcation is not quite distinct, as in 
 the Tana basin, where some of the Galla and 
 Somali Hamites from the north have encroached Tribes— 
 on the territory of- the Wapokomo Bantus on the J^nnfbaTs" 
 south side of the river. But on the central plateau 
 M. Dybowski passed abruptly from the territory of the Bonjos, 
 northernmost of the Bantu tribes, to that of the Sudanese Band- 
 ziri, a branch of the wide-spread Zandeh people. In this region, 
 about the crest of the Congo-Chad water-parting, the contrasts 
 appear to be all in favour of the Sudanese and against the Bantus, 
 probably because here the former are Negroids, the latter full- 
 blood Negroes. Thus D^y^owski' found the Bonjos to be a 
 ^ Le Naturaliste^ Jan. 1894. 
 
86 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 distinctly Negro tribe with pronounced prognathism, and al- 
 together a rude, savage people, trading chiefly in slaves, who 
 are fattened for the meat market, and when in good condition 
 will fetch about twelve shillings. On the other hand the Bandziri, 
 despite their Niam-Niam connection, are not cannibals, but a 
 peaceful, agricultural people, friendly to travellers, and of a 
 coppery-brown complexion, with regular features, hence perhaps 
 akin to the light-coloured people met by Barth in the Mosgu 
 country. 
 
 Possibly the Bonjos may be a degraded branch of the Bay as 
 
 or Nderes^ a large nation, with many subdivisions 
 NaUon. ^^^ widely diffused throughout the Sangha basin, where 
 
 they occupy the whole space between the Kadei 
 and the Mambere affluents of the main stream (3° to 7° 30' N. ; 
 14° to 17° E.). They are described by M. F. J. ClozeP as of tall 
 stature, muscular, well-proportioned, with flat nose, slightly tumid 
 lips, and of black colour, but with a dash of copper-red in the 
 upper classes. Although cannibals, like the Bonjos, they are 
 in other respects an intelligent, friendly people, who, under the 
 influence of the Muhammadan Fulahs, have developed a com- 
 plete political administration, with a Royal Court, a Chancellor, 
 Speaker, Interpreter, and other officials, bearing sonorous titles 
 taken chiefly from the Hausa language. Their own Bantu tongue 
 is widespread and spoken with slight dialectic differences as far as 
 the Nana affluents. 
 
 M. Clozel, who regards them as mentally and morally superior 
 
 to most of the Middle and Lower Congo tribes. 
 People." tells us that the Bayas, that is, the " Red People," 
 
 came at an unknown period from the east, " yield- 
 ing to that great movement of migration by which the African 
 populations are continually impelled westwards." The Yangere 
 section were still on the move some twelve years ago, but the 
 general migration has since been arrested by the Fulahs of 
 Adamawa. Human flesh is now interdicted to the women ; they 
 have domesticated the sheep, goat, and dog, and believe in a 
 
 1 Tour du Monde, 1896, i. p. i sq. ; and Les Bayas; Notes Ethno- 
 graphiques et Linguistiques^ Paris, 1896. 
 
I 
 
 IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. 8/ 
 
 supreme being called So, whose powers are manifested in the 
 
 dense woodlands, while minor deities preside over the village 
 
 and the hut, that is, the whole community and each separate 
 
 family group. Thus both their religious and political systems 
 
 present a certain completeness, which recalls those prevalent 
 
 amongst the semi-civilised peoples of the equatorial lake region, 
 
 and is evidently due to the same cause — long contact or association 
 
 with a race of higher culture and intelligence. 
 
 In order to understand all these relations, as well as the general 
 
 constitution of the Bantu populations, we have to ^. 
 
 '^ ^ ' The North- 
 
 consider that the already-described Black Zone, East Door to 
 
 running from the Atlantic seaboard eastwards, has 
 for countless generations been almost everywhere arrested north 
 of the equator by the White Nile. Probably since the close of 
 the Old Stone Age the whole of the region between the main 
 stream and the Red Sea, and from the equator north to the 
 Mediterranean, has formed an integral part of the Hamitic 
 domain, encroached upon in prehistoric times by Semites and 
 others in Egypt and Abyssinia, and in historic times chiefly by 
 Semites (Arabs) in Egypt, Upper Nubia, Senaar, and Somaliland. 
 Between this region and Africa south of the equator there are no 
 serious physical obstructions of any kind, whereas farther west the 
 Hamitic Saharan nomads were everywhere barred access to the 
 south by the broad, thickly-peopled plateaux of the Sudanese 
 Black-Zone. All encroachments on this side necessarily resulted in 
 absorption in the multitudinous Negro populations of Central 
 Sudan, with the modifications of the physical and mental charac- 
 ters which are now presented by the Kanuri, Hausas, Sonrhays 
 and other Negroid nations of that region, and are at present 
 actually in progress amongst the conquering Fulah Hamites 
 scattered in small dominant groups over a great part of Sudan 
 from Senegambia to Waday. 
 
 It follows that the leavening element, by which the southern 
 Negro populations have been diversely modified 
 
 ,,,x^ ,j iju u J Semitic Ele- 
 
 throughout the Bantu lands, could have been drawn ments of the 
 only from the Hamitic and Semitic peoples of the g^^^*"^""^^' 
 north-east. But in this i^onnection the Semites 
 themselves must be considered as almost tme quantite 7iegligeable^ 
 
88 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 partly because of their relatively later arrival from Asia, and partly 
 because, as they arrived, they became largely assimilated to the 
 indigenous Hamitic inhabitants of Egypt, Abyssinia, and Somali- 
 land. No doubt other Semites (Minaeans, Sabseans, and Himya- 
 rites generally) almost certainly reached the east coast below the 
 equator in early historic times. But they appear to have arrived 
 chiefly as traders and miners, and never to have penetrated far 
 inland except in the auriferous regions south of the Zambesi, 
 where their still extant monuments in the Zimbabwe and other 
 districts show that they held the country by miHtary tenure and 
 mixed but slightly with the Negro aborigines. 
 
 Still later in Muhammadan times, other Semites also from 
 Arabia did arrive and form permanent settlements along the 
 eastern seaboard as far south as Sofala, and these intermingled 
 more freely with the converted coast peoples ( Waswahili, from 
 .f^>^^/ = -''coast"), but not with the Kafirs^ or "Unbelievers," farther 
 south and in the interior. In our own days these Swahili half- 
 breeds, with a limited number of full-blood Arabs \ have pene- 
 trated beyond the Great Lakes to the Upper and Middle Congo 
 basin, but rather as slave-hunters and destroyers than as peaceful 
 settlers, and contracting few alliances, except perhaps amongst the 
 Wayao and Magwangara tribes of Mozambique, and the cannibal 
 Manyuemas farther inland. 
 
 To this extent Semitism may be recognised as a factor in the 
 
 constituent elements of the Bantu populations. 
 Elements in Malays have also been mentioned, and some ethno- 
 Madagascar logists have even brought the Fulahs of Western 
 
 Sudan all the way from Malaysia. Certainly if they 
 reached and formed settlements in Madagascar, there is no intrin- 
 sic reason why they should not have done the same on the main- 
 land. But I have- failed to find any evidence of the fact, and if 
 they ever at any time estabUshed themselves on the east coast 
 they have long disappeared, without leaving any clear trace of 
 their presence either in the physical appearance, speech, usages or 
 industries of the aborigines, such as are everywhere conspicuous 
 in Madagascar. 
 
 1 Even Tipu Tib, their chief leader and "Prince of Slavers," was a half- 
 caste with distinctly Negroid features. 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. 89 
 
 There remain the north-eastern Hamites, and especially the 
 Galla branch, as the essential extraneous factor in „ . . 
 
 ' Hamitic 
 
 this obscure Bantu problem. To the stream of Element 
 migration described by M. Clozel as setting east ^^^'"^^ 
 and west, corresponds another and an older stream, which ages 
 ago took a southerly direction along the eastern seaboard to the 
 extremity of the continent, where are now settled the Zulu-Xosa 
 nations, almost more Hamites than Negroes. 
 
 The impulse to two such divergent movements could have 
 come only from the north-east, where we still find the same ten- 
 dencies in actual operation. During his exploration of the east 
 equatorial lands, Capt. Speke had already observed that the 
 rulers of the Bantu nations about the Great Lakes (Karagwe, 
 Waganda, Wanyoro, &c.) all belonged to the same 
 race, known by the name of Wahuma, that is, TheWahu- 
 
 ' -^ mas. 
 
 *' Northmen," a pastoral people of fine appearance, 
 who were evidently of Galla stock, and had come originally from 
 Gallaland. Since then Schuver found that the Negroes of the 
 Afilo country are governed by a Galla aristocracy \ and we now 
 know that several Wahuma communities bearing different names 
 live interspersed amongst the mixed Bantu nations of the lacus- 
 trian plateaux as far south as Lake Tanganyika and Unyamwezi- 
 land. Here the Watusi, Wahha, and Waruanda are or were all 
 of the same Hamitic type, and M. Lionel Decle "was very much 
 struck by the extraordinary difference that is to be found between 
 them and their Bantu neighbours^." Then this observer adds : 
 " Pure types are not common, and are only to be found amongst 
 the aristocracy, if I may use such an expression for Africans. The 
 mass of the people have lost their original type through intermix- 
 ture with neighbouring tribes ^" 
 
 With these words M. Decle put his finger on the key 
 of the whole situation. From these indications and many others 
 
 ^ " Afilo wurde mir voni Lega-Konig als ein Negerland bezeichnet, welches 
 von einer Galla- Aristokratie beherrsch wird" {Petermann's Mitt. 1883, v. p. 
 194). 
 
 2 Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1895, p. 424. For details of the Wahuma type see 
 Eth. p. 389. N 
 
 3 Ibid. 
 
90 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 that might easily be adduced, it may be concluded with some 
 confidence that the great mass of the Bantu popu- 
 main!y a Ne^ lations are essentially Negroes, leavened in diverse 
 gro-Hamitic proportions for the most part by Wahuma, that 
 is, Galla or Hamitic elements percolating for thou- 
 sands of generations^ from the north-eastern section of the 
 Hamitic domain into the heart of Bantuland. 
 
 No doubt all now speak various forms of the same organic 
 Bantu mother-tongue. But this linguistic uniformity is strictly 
 analogous to that now prevailing amongst the multifarious peoples 
 of Aryan speech in Eurasia, and is due to analogous causes — the 
 diffusion in extremely remote times of a mixed Hamito-Ethiopic 
 people of Bantu speech in Africa south of the equator. It might 
 perhaps be objected that the present Wahuma pastors are of 
 Hamitic speech, because we know from Stanley that the late king 
 M'tesa of Buganda was proud of his Galla ancestors, whose lan- 
 guage he still spoke as his mother-tongue. But he also spoke 
 Luganda, and every echo of Galla speech has already died out 
 amongst most of the Wahuma communities in the equatorial 
 regions. So it was with what I may call the " Proto-Wahumas," 
 the first conquering Galla tribes, Schuver's and Decle's "aristo- 
 cracy," who were gradually blended with the aborigines in a new 
 and superior nationality of Bantu speech, because " there are 
 many mixed races,... but there are no mixed languages'." 
 
 These views are confirmed by the traditions and folklore still 
 current amongst the " Lacustrians," as the great nations may be 
 called, who are now grouped round about the shores of Lakes 
 
 1 I have elsewhere shown that the recent date assigned by Sir H. H. John- 
 ston {^British Central Africa, p. 480) to the Bantu migrations, as imagined 
 by him, is not warranted by his facts, while it is quite untenable on other 
 grounds. {Academy, Aug. 21, 1897, p. 145.) Cf. also Karl Ritter (French 
 ed. I. p. 127): "De meme que les Goths et les Vandales se repandirent sur 
 une grande partie de I'Europe, les Galla s'etendirent successivement sur ces 
 contrees de I'Afrique a mesure qu'ils trouvaient des lieux propres a s'etablir ; 
 comme les Goths et les Vandales, ils se sont naturalises en peu de temps sur 
 le sol qu'ils avaient envahi, et ont pris la langue, les coutumes, et les moeurs 
 des peuples vaincus." 
 
 ^ Ethnology, p. 199. 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. 9 1 
 
 Victoria and Albert Nyanza. At present, or rather before the 
 recent extension of the British administration to 
 East Central Africa, these peoples were constituted trians ^^^^^' 
 in a number of separate kingdoms, the most power- 
 ful of which were Buganda (Uganda), Bunyoro (Unyoro), and 
 Karagwe. But they remember a time when all these now scat- 
 tered fragments formed parts of a mighty monarchy, the vast 
 Kitwara Empire, which comprised the whole of the lake-studded 
 plateau between the Ruwenzori range and Kavirondoland. 
 
 The story is differently told in the different States, each nation 
 being eager to twist it to its own glorification ; but 
 all are agreed that the founder of the empire was Traditions— 
 Kintu, "The Blameless," at once priest, patriarch The Kintu 
 and ruler of the land, who came from the north 
 hundreds of years ago, with one wife, one cow, one goat, one 
 sheep, one chicken, one banana-root, and one sweet potato. At 
 first all was waste, an uninhabited wilderness, but it was soon 
 miraculously peopled, stocked, and planted with what he had 
 brought with him, the potato being apportioned to Bunyoro, the 
 banana to Buganda, and these form the staple food of those lands 
 to this day. 
 
 Then the people waxed wicked, and Kintu, weary of their 
 evil ways and daily bloodshed, took the original wife, cow, and 
 other things, and went away in the night and was seen no more. 
 But nobody believed him dead, and a long line of his mythical 
 successors appear to have spent the time they could spare from 
 strife and wars and evil deeds in looking for the lost Kintu. 
 Kimera, one of these, was a mighty giant of such strength and 
 weight that he left his footprints on the rocks where he trod, as 
 may still be seen on a cliff not far from Ulagalla, the old capital 
 of Buganda. There was also a magician, Kibaga, who could fly 
 aloft and kill the Banyoro people (this is the Buaganda version) by 
 hurhng stones down upon them, and for his services received in 
 marriage a beautiful Banyoro captive, who, another Delilah, found 
 out his secret, and betrayed him to her people. 
 
 At last came king Ma'anda, who pretended to be a great 
 hunter, but it was only^to roam the woodlands in search of 
 Kintu, and thus have tidings of him. One day a peasant, obeying 
 
92 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 the directions of a thrice-dreamt dream, came to a place in the 
 forest, where was an aged man on a throne between two rows of 
 armed warriors, seated on mats, his long beard white with age, and 
 all his men fair as white people and clothed in white robes. Then 
 Kintu, for it was he, bid the peasant hasten to summon Ma'anda 
 thither, but only with his mother and the messenger. At the Court 
 Ma'anda recognised the stranger whom he had that very night 
 seen in a dream, and so believed his words and at once set out 
 with his mother and the peasant. But the Katikiro, or Prime- 
 Minister, through whom the message had been delivered to the 
 king, fearing treachery, also started on their track, keeping them 
 just in view till the trysting-place was reached. But Kintu, who 
 knew everything, saw him all the time, and when he came forward 
 on finding himself discovered the enraged Ma'anda pierced his 
 faithful minister to the heart and he fell dead with a shriek. 
 Thereupon Kintu and his seated warriors instantly vanished, and 
 the king with the others wept and cried upon Kintu till the deep 
 woods echoed Kintu, Kintu-u, Kintu-u-u. But the blood-hating 
 Kintu was gone, and to this day has never again been seen or 
 heard of by any man in Buganda. The references to the north 
 and to Kintu and his ghostly warriors "fair as white people" 
 need no comment'. It is noteworthy that in some of the Nyassa- 
 land dialects Kintu {Chintu) alternates with Mulungu as the name 
 of the Supreme Being, the great ancestor of the tribe^ 
 
 Then follows more traditional or legendary matter, including 
 
 The wa- ^"^ account of the wars with the fierce Wakedi, who 
 
 ganda, past wore iron armour, until authentic history is reached 
 
 with the atrocious Suna II. (1836 — 60), father of 
 
 the scarcely less atrocious M'tesa. After his death in 1884 
 
 . Buganda and the neighbouring states passed rapidly through a 
 
 series of astonishing political, religious, and social vicissitudes, 
 
 1 The legend is given with much detail by H. M. Stanley in Through the 
 Dark Continent, Vol. i. p. 344 sq. Another and less mythical account of the 
 migrations of " the people with a white skin from the far north-east " is quoted 
 from Emin Pasha by the Rev. R. P. Ashe in Two Kings of Uganda, p. 336. 
 Here the immigrant Wahuma are expressly stated to have "adopted the 
 language of the aborigines" (p. 337). 
 
 2 Sir H. H. Johnston, op. cit. p. 514. 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. 93 
 
 resulting in the present pax Britannka, and the conversion of 
 large numbers, some to Islam, others to one form or another 
 of Christianity. At times it might have been difficult to see 
 much religion in the ferocity of the contending factions; but 
 since the establishment of harmony by the secular arm, real 
 progress has been made, and the Waganda especially have dis- 
 played a remarkable capacity as well as eagerness to acquire 
 a knowledge of letters and of religious principles, both in the 
 Protestant and the Roman Cathohc communities. Printing- 
 presses, busily worked by native hands, are needed to meet the 
 steadily increasing demand for a vernacular hterature, in a region 
 where blood had flowed continually from the disappearance of 
 " Kintu " till the British occupation. 
 
 To the admixture of the Hamitic and Negro elements 
 amongst the Lacustrians may perhaps be attributed 
 the curious blend of primitive and higher institu- and Social 
 tions in these communities. At the head of the "^titutions. 
 State was a Kabaka, king or emperor, although the title was also 
 borne by the queen-mother and the queen-sister. This autocrat 
 iiad his Lutiko, *^ Privy Council," of which ex officio members 
 were the already mentioned Katikiro, Prime Minister or Chan- 
 cellor, the Balangira and Bambaja, royal princes and princesses, 
 the Chief Butler and Chief Baker, and others of high rank, such 
 as the Lord High Admiral and Commander-in-Chief, who attended 
 the grand levees in fine, gold-embroidered cloth robes. The 
 whole State was thoroughly organised with " Earls," great feudal 
 lords at the head of the five provinces, and three distinct social 
 classes, the Bataka, or landed gentry, the Batopi^ peasants or 
 serfs, and the Badu, slaves or helots without any rights. 
 
 Yet beneath all this parade of higher political and social 
 institutions, the people are still to some extent in 
 the tribal state, being divided into ebyika, or clans, system!^'^ 
 each with its animal crest or totem, which may not 
 be eaten by them, and with their exogamous (extra-tribal) marriage 
 rites and restrictions, just as amongst the Australian savages. 
 There are the Ensenane or "Grasshoppers," the Endiga, "Sheep," 
 the Engonya, " Crocodiles," while the king's clan is the royal tribe 
 of the Balangira, " Princes," that is, the Wahuma, as the term is 
 
94 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 understood in Buganda. Although despised by the masses as 
 being wandering herdsmen, these "princes" enjoy royal privileges, 
 such as that of wearing brass and copper anklets, and their social 
 position supplies another proof that their Galla forefathers entered 
 the land as conquerors, and only gradually merged with the black 
 aborigines, a process, as we have seen, still everywhere going on 
 throughout East Central Africa. 
 
 No direct relations appear to exist between the Lacustrians 
 Bantu and the Wakikuyu, the Wakamba, Wapokomo, 
 
 P^°P^^^ IVagweno, IVac/iaga, Wateita, Wafaveita, and 
 
 L. Victoria Others, who occupy the region east of Lake 
 
 Victoria, between the Tana, north-east frontier 
 of Bantuland, and the southern slopes of Kilimanjaro. Their 
 affinities seem to be rather with the Wanyika, Wabont, Waduruma^ 
 Wagiryama, and the other coast tribes between the Tana and 
 Mombasa. 
 
 We learn from Sir A. Hardinge^ that in the British East 
 African Protectorate there are altogether as many as twenty-five 
 distinct tribes, generally at a low stage of culture, with a loose 
 tribal organisation, a fully-developed totemic system, and a 
 universal faith in magic ; but there are no priests, idols or temples, 
 or even distinctly recognised hereditary chiefs or communal 
 councils. The Gallas, who have crossed the Tana and here 
 encroached on Bantu territory, have reminiscences of a higher 
 civilisation and apparently of Christian traditions and observances, 
 derived no doubt from Abyssinia. They tell you that they had 
 once a sacred book, the observance of whose precepts made 
 them the first of nations. But it was left lying about, and so got 
 eaten by a cow, and since then when cows are killed their entrails 
 are carefully searched for the lost volume. 
 
 Exceptional interest attaches to the Wagiryama, who are the 
 chief people between Mombasa and Melindi, the first trust- 
 worthy accounts of whom have been supplied by the Rev. W. E. 
 Taylor ^ and Mr W. W. A. Fitzgerald ^ Here again Bantus and 
 Gallas are found in close contact, and we learn that the Wagir- 
 
 ^ Official Report on the East African Protectoi-ate, 1897. 
 
 2 Vocabulary of the Giryama Language^ S. P. C. K. 1897. 
 
 ^ Travels in the Coastlands of British East Africa^ London, 1898, p. 103 sq. 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. 95 
 
 yama, who came originally from the Mount Mangea district in 
 
 the north-east, occupied their present homes only about a century 
 
 ago " upon the withdrawal of the Gallas." The language, which 
 
 is of a somewhat archaic type, appears to be the chief member of 
 
 a widespread Bantu group, embracing the Ki-nyika and Ki- 
 
 pokomo in the extreme north, the Ki-swahili of the 
 
 Zanzibar coast, and perhaps the Ki-kamba, the vvagiryama 
 
 Ki-teita, and others of the interior between the 
 
 coastlands and Lake Victoria. These inland tongues, however, 
 
 have greatly diverged from the primitive Ki-giryama, which stands 
 
 in somewhat the same relation to them and to the still more 
 
 degraded and Arabised Ki-swahili^ that Latin stands to the 
 
 Romance languages. 
 
 But the chief interest presented by the Wagiryama is centred 
 
 in their rehgious ideas, which are mainly connected with 
 
 ancestry-worship, and afford an unexpected insight 
 
 into the origin and nature of that perhaps most Primitive 
 
 . . . . Ancestry- 
 
 primitive of all forms of belief. There is, of worship. 
 
 course, a vague entity called a "Supreme Being" 
 in ethnographic writings, who, like the Algonquian Manitu, crops 
 up under various names (here Mulungu) all over east Bantuland, 
 but on analysis generally resolves itself into some dim notion 
 growing out of ancestry-worship, a great or aged person, epony- 
 mous hero or the like, later deified in diverse ways as the 
 Preserver, the Disposer, and especially the Creator. These 
 Wagiryama suppose that from his union with the 
 Earth all things have sprung, and that human Muiungu 
 beings are Mulungu's hens and chickens. But there Shades, 
 is also an idea that he may be the manes of their 
 fathers, and thus everything becomes merged in a kind of 
 apotheosis of the departed. They think "the disembodied 
 spirit is powerful for good and evil. Individuals worship the 
 
 1 Having become the chief medium of intercourse throughout the southern 
 Bantu regions, Ki-swahili has been diligently cultivated, especially by the 
 English missionaries, who have wisely discarded the Arab for the Roman 
 characters. There is already an extensive literature, including grammars, 
 dictionaries, translations of th^ible and other works, and even A History of 
 Rome issued by the S. P. C. K. in 1898. 
 
96 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 shades of their immediate ancestors or elder relatives; and the 
 k'omas [souls ?] of the whole nation are worshipped on public 
 occasions." 
 
 Although the European ghost or "revenant" is unknown, 
 the spirits of near ancestors may appear in dreams, and express 
 their wishes to the living. They ask for sacrifices at their graves 
 to appease their hunger, and such sacrifices are often made with 
 a little flour and water poured into a coconut shell let into the 
 ground, the fowls and other victims being so killed that the blood 
 shall trickle into the grave. At the offering the dead are called 
 on by name to come and partake, and bring their friends with 
 them, who are also mentioned by name. But whereas Christians 
 pray to be remembered of heaven and the saints, the Wagiryama 
 pray rather that the new-born babe be forgotten of Mulungu, and 
 so live. " Well ! " they will say on the news of a birth, " may 
 Mulungu forget him that he may become strong and well." This 
 is an instructive trait, a reminiscence of the time when Mulungu, 
 now almost harmless or indifferent to mundane things, was the 
 embodiment of all evil, hence to be feared and appeased in 
 accordance with the old dictum Timor fecit deos. 
 
 At present no distinction is drawn between good and bad 
 spirits, but all are looked upon as, of course, often, though not 
 always, more powerful than the living, but still human beings 
 subject to the same feelings, passions, and fancies as they are. 
 Some are even poor weaklings on whom offerings are wasted. 
 " The Shade of So-and-so's father is of no use at all ; it has finished 
 up his property, and yet he is no better," was a native's comment 
 on the result of a series of sacrifices a man had vainly made to 
 his father's shade to regain his health. They may also be duped 
 and tricked, and when ponibe (beer) is a-brewing, some is poured 
 out on the graves of the dead, with the prayer that they may 
 drink, and when drunk fall asleep, and so not disturb the living 
 with their brawls and bickerings, just like the wrangling fairies in 
 A Midsummer Nighfs Dream. 
 
 Far removed from such crass anthropomorphism, but not 
 morally much improved, are the kindred Waswa- 
 hili, who by long contact and interminglings wilwahiii. 
 have become largely Arabised in dress, religion. 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. 97 
 
 and general culture. They are graphically described by Mr Taylor 
 as "a seafaring, barter-loving race of slave-holders and slave- 
 traders, strewn in a thin line along a thousand miles of creeks 
 and islands ; inhabitants of a coast that has witnessed incessant 
 political changes, and a succession of monarchical dynasties in 
 various centres; receiving into their midst for ages past a con- 
 tinuous stream of strange blood, consisting not only of serviles 
 from the interior, but of immigrants from Persia, Arabia, and 
 Western India ; men that have come to live, and often to die, as 
 resident aliens, leaving in many cases a hybrid progeny. Of one 
 section of these immigrants — the Arabs — the religion has become 
 the master-religion of the land, overspreading, if not entirely 
 supplanting, the old Bantu ancestor-worship, and profoundly 
 affecting the whole family life." 
 
 The Waswahili are in a sense a historical people, for they 
 formed the chief constituent elements of the re- 
 nowned Zang (Zeng) empire ^ which in Edrisi's Empire.^"^ 
 time (i2th century) stretched along the seaboard 
 from Somaliland to and beyond the Zambesi. When the 
 Portuguese burst suddenly into the Indian Ocean it was a great 
 and powerful state, or rather a vast confederacy of states, with 
 many flourishing cities — Magdoshu, Brava, Mombasa, Melindi, 
 Kilwa, Angosha, Sofala — and widespread commercial relations 
 extending across the eastern waters to India and China, and up 
 the Red Sea to Europe. How these great centres of trade and 
 eastern culture were one after the other ruthlessly destroyed by 
 the Portuguese corsairs cd ferro e fogo ("with sword and fire," 
 Camoens) is told by Duarte Barbosa, who was himself a Portu- 
 guese and an eye-witness of the havoc and the horrors that 
 not infrequently followed in the trail of his barbarous fellow- 
 countrymen ^ 
 
 ^ The name still survives in Zangue-bar {" Zang-land ") and the adjacent 
 island of Zanzibar (an Indian corruption). Zang is "black," and bar is 
 the same Arabic word, meaning dry land, that we have in Mala-bar on the 
 opposite side of the Indian Ocean. Cf. also barran wa bahran, " by land and 
 by sea." 
 
 ■^ Viage por Malabar y Cqsias de Africa, 1512, translated by the Hon. 
 Henry E. J. Stanley, Hakluyt Society, i868. 
 
 K. 7 
 
98 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Beyond Sofala we enter the domain of the Ama-Zulu, the 
 Ama-Xosa, and others whom I have collectively 
 xJsas ^"^"" called Zulu-Xosas\ and who are in some respects 
 the most remarkable ethnical group in all Bantu- 
 land. Indeed they are by common consent regarded as Bantus 
 in a preeminent sense, and this conventional term Bantu itself 
 is taken from their typical Bantu language^. There is clear 
 evidence that they are comparatively recent arrivals, necessarily 
 from the north, in their present territory, which was still occupied 
 by Bushman and Hottentot tribes probably within the last 
 thousand years or so. Before the Kafir wars 
 
 Former and ■ ^ , \ ^ • 
 
 Present With the English (1811 — 77) this territory extended 
 
 Domain. much farther round the coast than at present, and 
 
 for many years the Great Kei River has formed the frontier 
 between the white settlements and the Xosas. 
 
 But what they have lost in this direction the Zulu-Xosas, or at 
 least the Zulus, have recovered a hundredfold by their expansion 
 northwards during the 19th century. After the establishment of 
 the Zulu military power under Dingiswayo and his successor 
 Chaka (1793 — 1828), half the continent was overrun by organised 
 Zulu hordes, who ranged nearly as far north as Lake Victoria, 
 and in many places founded more or less unstable kingdoms or 
 chieftaincies on the model of the terrible despotism set up in 
 Zululand. Such were, beyond the Limpopo, the states of Gaza- 
 land and Matabililand, the latter estabhshed about 1838 by 
 
 ^ In preference to the more popular form Zulu-Kafir, where Kafir is 
 merely the Arabic " Infidel " applied indiscriminately to any people rejecting 
 Islam; hence the Siah Posh Kafirs ("Black-clad Infidels") of Afghanistan ; 
 the Kufra oasis in the Sahara, where Kiifra, plural of Kafir, refers to the 
 pagan Tibus of that district and the Kafirs generally of the East African 
 seaboard. But according to English usage Zulu is applied to the northern 
 part of the territory, mainly Zululand proper and Natal, while Kafirland or 
 Kaffraria is restricted to the southern section between Natal and the Great 
 Kei River. The bulk of these southern •' Kafirs " belong to the Xosa connec- 
 tion ; hence this term takes the place of Kafir, in the compound expression 
 Zulu-Xosa. Ama is explained in Eth. p. 272, and the X oi Xosa represents 
 an unpronounceable combination of a guttural and a lateral click, this with two 
 other clicks (a dental and a palatal) having infected the speech of these Bantus 
 during their long prehistoric wars with the Hottentots. 
 
 2 Eth. p. 271. 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. 99 
 
 Umsilikatzi, father of Lobengulu, who perished in a hopeless 
 struggle with the English in 1894. Gungunhana, last of the 
 Swazi (Zulu) chiefs in Gazaland, was similarly dispossessed by 
 the Portuguese in 1896. 
 
 North of the Zambesi the Zulu bands — Mazitu, Maviti, 
 Mangoni (Angoni), and others — nowhere developed large political 
 states except for a short time under the ubiquitous Mirambo in 
 Unyamweziland. But some, especially the Angoni', were long 
 troublesome in the Nyassa district, and others about the Lower 
 Zambesi, where they are known to the Portuguese as " Landins." 
 The Angoni power was finally broken by the English early in 
 1898, and the reflux movement has now entirely subsided, and 
 cannot be revived, the disturbing elements having been extin- 
 guished at the fountain-head by the absorption of Zululand itself 
 in the British Colony of Natal (1895). 
 
 Nowhere have patriarchal institutions been more highly 
 developed than among the Zulu-Xosas, all of 
 whom, except perhaps the Ama-Fingus and some ofn^Jri'ogks^ 
 other broken groups, claim direct descent from 
 some eponymous hero or mythical founder of the tribe. Thus 
 in the national traditions Chaka was seventh in descent from a 
 legendary chief Zulu, from whom they take the name of Abantu 
 ba-Kwa-Zulu, that is " People of Zulu's Land," although the true 
 mother-tribe appear to have been the now extinct Ama-Ntombela. 
 Once the supremacy and prestige of Chaka's tribe was estabHshed, 
 all the others, as they were successively reduced, claimed also to 
 
 ^ Mr Robert Codrington tells us that these Angoni (Abangoni) spring from 
 a Zulu tribe which crossed the Zambesi about 1825, and established themselves 
 south-east of L. Tanganyika, but later migrated to the uplands west of 
 L. Nyassa, where they founded three petty states. Others went east of the 
 Livingstone range, and are here still known as Magwangwara. But all 
 became gradually assimilated to the surrounding populations. Intermarrying 
 with the women of the country they preserve their speech, dress, and usages 
 for the first generation in a slightly modified form, although the language of 
 daily intercourse is that of the mothers. Then this class becomes the aristo- 
 cracy of the whole nation, which henceforth comprises a great part of the 
 aborigines ruled by a privileged caste of Zulu origin, " perpetuated almost 
 entirely among themselves" {Ceutral Angoniland, Geograph. Jour. May 1898, 
 p. 512). 
 
 7—2 
 
lOO 
 
 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 be true Zulus, and as the same process went on in the far north, 
 the term Zulu has now m many cases come to imply political 
 rather than blood relationship. Here we have an object lesson, 
 by which the ethnical value of such names as "Aryan," " Kelt," 
 " Briton," " Slav," &c. may be gauged in other regions. 
 
 So also most of the southern section claim as their founder 
 and ancestor a certain Xosa^ sprung from Zuide, who may have 
 flourished about 1500, and whom the Ama-Tembus and Ama- 
 Mpondos also regard as their progenitor. Thus the whole section 
 is connected, but not in the direct hne, with the Xosas, who trace 
 their Hneage from Galeka and Khakhabe, sons of Palo, who is 
 said to have died about 1780, and was himself tenth in direct 
 descent from Xosa. We thus get a genealogical table as under, 
 which gives his proper place in the Family Tree to nearly every 
 historical " Kafir" chief in Cape Colony, where ignorance of these 
 relations caused much bloodshed during the early Kafir wars : — 
 
 Zuide (1500?) 
 
 Tembu 
 
 I 
 Ama-Tembus 
 (Tembookies) 
 
 Xosa (1530?) 
 Palo (1780'?) 
 
 ! 
 
 Mpondo 
 I 
 
 Mpondumisi (Mpondos) 
 
 Galeka 
 
 I 
 Klanta 
 
 I 
 Hinza 
 
 I 
 Kreli 
 
 Khakhabe 
 
 I 
 
 Ama-Galekas 
 
 Omlao 
 
 I 
 Gika (ob. 1828) 
 
 I 
 Macomo 
 
 I 
 Sandili 
 
 Ama-Gaikas 
 
 Mbalu 
 
 i 
 Gwali 
 
 I 
 Velelo 
 
 I 
 Baxa 
 
 Ama-Mbalus 
 
 Ndhlambe 
 
 Ama-Ndhlambes 
 (Tslambies) 
 
 Physical 
 Type. 
 
 But all, both northern Zulus and southern Xosas, are essenti- 
 ally one people in speech, physique, usages and 
 social institutions. The hair is uniformly of a 
 somewhat frizzly texture, the colour of a light or 
 clear brown amongst the Ama-Tembus, but elsewhere very dark, 
 the Swazis being almost " blue-black " ; the head decidedly long 
 (72-54°) and high (195-8°); nose variable, both Negroid and 
 perfectly regular; height above the mean (5 ft. 9 to 11 in.); 
 figure shapely and muscular, though Fritsch's measurements show 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. lOI 
 
 that it is sometimes far from the almost ide.il Is^andafd . of beapty 
 with which some early observers have credited' thehi. •' •" '> 
 
 Mentally the Zulu-Xosas stand much' higher .tttan" -tlje; irue; 
 Negro, as shown especially in their poHtital organi-* * '•' *'"' ' *• ^ 
 sation, which, before the development of Dingis- oSanfsation 
 wayo's military system under European influences, 
 was a kind of patriarchal monarchy controlled by a powerful 
 aristocracy. The nation was grouped in tribes connected by the 
 ties of blood and ruled by the hereditary inkose, or feudal chief, 
 who was supreme, with power of Hfe and death, within his own 
 jurisdiction. Against his mandates, however, the nobles could 
 protest in council, and it was in fact their decisions that estab- 
 lished precedents and the traditional code of common 
 law. "This common law is well adapted to a people Law.°'"™°" 
 in a rude state of society. It holds everyone accused 
 of crime guilty unless he can prove himself innocent ; it makes 
 the head of the family responsible for the conduct of all its 
 branches, the village collectively for all resident in it, and the 
 cl^n for each of its villages. For the administration of the law 
 there are courts of various grades, from any of which an appeal 
 may be taken to the Supreme Council, presided over by the 
 paramount chief, who is not only the ruler but also the father 
 of the peopled" 
 
 In the interior, between the southern coast ranges and the 
 Zambesi, the Hottentot and Bushman aborigines 
 
 ^ Mashonas 
 
 were in prehistoric ages almost everywhere dis- and Maka- 
 placed or reduced to servitude by other Bantu 
 peoples, such as the Makalakas and Mashonas, the Bechuanas 
 and the kindred Basutos. Of these the first arrivals (from the 
 north) appear to have been the Mashonas and Makalakas, 
 who were being slowly "eaten up" by the Matabili when the 
 process was arrested by the timely intervention of the Enghsh in 
 Rhodesia. 
 
 Both nations are industrious tillers of the soil, skilled in metal- 
 work and in mining operations, being probably the 
 direct descendants of the natives, whose great chief motap^M^yth. 
 Monomotapa, i.e» "Lord of %e Mines," as I interpret 
 ^ Rev. J. Macdonald, Light in Africa, p. 194. 
 
102 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 t|ic''Vvord'V lulled: (?vcr the Manica and surrounding auriferous 
 districts when 'the* l^cJrtuguese first reached Sofala early in the i6th 
 .chfii\>r.y:.:' 'Xp.p,2ir&[ify for. political reasons^ this Monomotapa was 
 later transformed* by tHem from a monarch to a monarchy, the 
 vast empire of Monomotapaland, which was supposed to comprise 
 pretty well everything south of the Zambesi, but, having no 
 existence, has for the last two hundred years eluded the diligent 
 search of historical geographers. 
 
 But ages before Portuguese or Monomotapas were heard of, 
 the Makalakas with the kindred Banyai, Basenga and others, may 
 well have been at work in the mines of this auriferous region, in 
 
 the service of the builders of the Zimbabwe ruins 
 babwel^'i^ns. explored and described by the late Theodore Bent^ 
 
 and by him rightly, I think, attributed to some 
 ancient cultured people of South Arabia. He mentions the 
 Sabaeans, but there is no reason to exclude the still more ancient 
 Minaeans, both being closely allied members of the Semitic 
 Himyarite family. It is to be noticed that similar ruins occur 
 also in the Benningwa Hills and various other parts of Mata- 
 bililand, all apparently connected with long-abandoned gold- 
 mines. 
 
 Even Barros* was aware that all these remains were prior 
 
 ^ From M7vana, lord, master, and /«/«, to dig, both common Bantu words. 
 
 ^ The point was that Portugal had made treaties with this mythical State, 
 in virtue of which she claimed in the "scramble for Africa" all the hinterlands 
 behind her possessions on the east and west coasts (Mozambique and Angola), 
 in fact all South Africa between the Orange and Zambesi rivers. Further 
 details on the " Monomotapa Question " will be found in my monograph on 
 •' The Portuguese in South Africa " in Murray's South Africa, from Arab 
 Domination to British Rule, 1891, pp. i [ sq. Five years later Mr G. McCall 
 Theal also discovered, no doubt independently, the mythical character of 
 Monomotapaland in his book on The Portuguese in South Africa, 1896. 
 
 ^ Proc. R. Geogr. Soc. May 1892, and The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland. 
 Sir H. H. Johnston, however, who in my opinion assigns the Bantu migrations 
 to a far too recent date, thinks that "those earlier settlers from Southern 
 Arabia, who mined for gold some 2000 years ago and less in South Africa, 
 were only acquainted with native inhabitants of a Bushman-Hottentot type, to 
 judge by the drawings, engravings, and models they have left, intended to 
 depict natives engaged in the chase" {British Central Africa, p. 54). 
 
 * Asia, First Decade, I. i. Lisbon, 1777. 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. IO3 
 
 both to the Portuguese and Moslem Arabs, and those who object 
 
 to the Himyarites should at least be prepared with a reasonable 
 
 alternative. There are, of course, the Axumites of Abyssinia, 
 
 with their seaport of Adulis at the head of the Arabian Gulf; but 
 
 they also were Himyarites, so that it would only be 
 
 a question of dates. In any case the Christian Him°^^tic 
 
 Axumites are excluded, because the emblems on 
 
 the monuments are distinctly pagan, and point to Semitic rites, 
 
 such as those later revealed to the western world by the Phoenicians, 
 
 who were themselves possibly sprung from a Minaean ancestry. 
 
 With the Bechuanas, whose territory extends from the Orange 
 river to Lake Ngami and includes Basutoland with a great part of 
 the two Boer states, we again meet a people at the totemic stage 
 of culture. Here the eponymous heroes of the 
 Zulu-Xosas are replaced by baboons, fishes, ele- ^^^^ Bechu- 
 phants, and other animals from which the various 
 tribal groups claim descent. The origin of the collective national 
 name has been much discussed ever since the Bechuanas were 
 fir^t visited by Lichtenstein early in the nineteenth century ^ But 
 there seems little doubt that it is a slightly modified form of Ba- 
 C/iuene, "People of the C/iuene" i.e. of the Cape baboon, this 
 animal being the totem of the Barotse, who are recognised by all 
 the others as the elder branch or mother-tribe of the family. 
 
 With these Barotse is connected one of the most remarkable 
 episodes in the turbulent history of the South 
 African peoples during the nineteenth century. Empire.^'^^°*^*- 
 Many years ago a section of the tribe migrated to 
 the Middle Zambesi above the Victoria Falls, where they founded 
 a powerful state, the " Barotse (Marotse) Empire," which despite a 
 temporary eclipse still exists as a British protectorate (1898). The 
 eclipse was caused by another migration northwards 
 of a great body of Makololos, a branch of the kin- jqIq Episode' 
 dred Basutos, who under the renowned chief 
 Sebituane reached the Zambesi about 1835 ^.nd overthrew the 
 Barotse dynasty, reducing the natives to a state of servitude. 
 
 1 Reisen, &c., 1803-6, BerHn, 181 1. This writer already speaks of the 
 " Beetjuana race" in a collective sense, and he was the first to divine the vast 
 range of the Bantu Linguistic Family, as it was afterwards called. 
 
I04 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 But after the death of Sebituane's successor, Livingstone's 
 Sekeletu, the Barotse, taking advantage of their oppressors' 
 dynastic rivalries, suddenly revolted, and after exterminating the 
 Makololos almost to the last man, reconstituted the empire on a 
 stronger footing than ever. It now comprises an area of some 
 250,000 square miles between the Chobe and the Kafukwe 
 affluents, with a population vaguely estimated at over 1,000,000, 
 including the savage Bashukulumbwe tribes of the Kafukwe basin 
 reduced in 1891. 
 
 Yet, short as was the Makololo rule (1835 — 70), it was long 
 enough to impose their language on the vanquished Barotse. 
 Hence the curious phenomenon now witnessed about the Middle 
 Zambesi, where the Makololo have disappeared, while their Sesuto 
 speech remains the common medium of intercourse throughout the 
 Barotse empire. How often have analogous shiftings and disloca- 
 tions taken place in the course of ages in other parts of the world ! 
 And in the light of such lessons how cautious ethnographists 
 should be in arguing from speech to race, and drawing conclu- 
 sions from these or similar surface relations ! 
 
 Referring to these stirring events, Mr Mackenzie writes : 
 "Thus perished the Makololo from among the number of South 
 African tribes. No one can put his finger on the map of Africa 
 and say, 'Here dwell the Makololo^'." This will puzzle many 
 who since the middle of the nineteenth century have repeatedly 
 heard of, and even been in unpleasantly close contact with, 
 Makololo so called, not indeed in Barotseland, but lower down 
 the Zambesi about its Shire affluent. 
 
 The explanation of the seeming contradiction is given by 
 another incident, which is also not without ethnical significance. 
 From h'ly'mgstone^s /ourna/s we learn that in 1859 he was accom- 
 panied to the east coast by a small party of Makololos and others, 
 sent by his friend Sekeletu in quest of a cure for leprosy, from 
 which the emperor was suffering. These Makololos, hearing of 
 the Barotse revolt, wisely stopped on their return journey at the 
 Shire confluence, and through the prestige of their name have here 
 succeeded in founding several so-called " Makololo States," which 
 
 ^ Ten Years North of the Orange River. 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. IO5 
 
 Still exist, and have from time to time given considerable trouble 
 to the administrators of British Central Africa. But how true 
 are Mr Mackenzie's words, if the political be separated from the 
 ethnical relations, may be judged from the fact that of the original 
 founders of these petty Shire states only two were full-blood 
 Makololos. All the others were, I believe, Barotse, Batoka, or 
 Batonga, these akin to the savage Bashukulumbwe. 
 
 Thus the Makololos live on, in their speech above the Victoria 
 Falls, in their name below the Victoria Falls, and Death with 
 it is only from history we know that since about o"t Extinc- 
 1870 the whole nation has been completely wiped 
 out everywhere in the Zambesi valley. But even amongst cultured 
 peoples history goes back a very little way, 10,000 years at most 
 anywhere. What changes and shiftings may, therefore, have else- 
 where also taken place during prehistoric ages, all knowledge of 
 which is now past recovery ! 
 
 Few Bantu peoples have lent a readier ear to the teachings of 
 Christian propagandists than the Xosa, Basuto, and Bechuana 
 natives. Several stations in the heart of Kafirland — Blythswood, 
 Somerville, Lovedale, and others — have for some time been self- 
 supporting, and prejudice alone would deny that 
 thev have worked for good amongst the surrounding Spread of 
 
 •' , Christianity 
 
 Gaika, Galeka, and Fmgo tribes. Soga, a member among the 
 of the Blythswood community, has produced a |antus!" 
 translation of the Pilgrim's Progress, described by 
 the Rev. J. Macdonald as "a marvel of accuracy and lucidity of 
 expression'"; numerous village schools are eagerly attended, and 
 much land has been brought under intelligent cultivation. 
 
 The French and Swiss Protestant teachers have also achieved 
 great things in Basutoland, which may now be regarded as an 
 integral part of Christendom. Here the old tribal system has 
 yielded to a higher social organisation, and the Batau, Baputi and 
 several other tribal groups have been merged in industrious pas- 
 toral and agricultural communities professing a somewhat strict 
 form of Protestant Christianity, and entirely forgetful of the former 
 heathen practices associated with witchcraft and ancestry-worship. 
 \ 
 1 Op. cit. p. 47. 
 
I06 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT, [CHAP. 
 
 In Bechuanaland one great personality dominates the social 
 horizon. Khama, king of the Bamangwato nation, 
 
 Khama. • -r. r t • r ^ 
 
 next to the Barotse the most powerful section of the 
 Bechuanas, has for several decades been a true father of his 
 people, a Christian legislator in the better sense of the term, 
 and an enlightened reformer even from the secular point of 
 view. 
 
 When these triumphs, analogous to those witnessed amongst 
 the Lacustrians and in other parts of Bantuland, are contrasted 
 with the dull weight of resistance everywhere opposed by the full- 
 blood Negro populations to any progress beyond their present 
 low level of culture, we are the better able to recognise the 
 marked intellectual superiority of the negroid Bantu over the 
 pure black element. 
 
 West of Bechuanaland the continuity of the Bantu domain is 
 arrested in the south by the Hottentots, who still 
 Herero?^^" ^^^^ ^^^^^ ground in Namaqualand, and farther 
 north by the few wandering Bushman groups of the 
 Kalahari desert. Even in Damaraland, which is mainly Bantu 
 territory, there are interminglings of long standing that have given 
 rise to much ethnical confusion. The Ova-Iferero, who are here 
 dominant, and the kindred Ova-Mpo of Ovampoland bordering 
 on the Portuguese possessions, are undoubted 
 HufDamaras. Bautus of somewhat fine physique, though intellec- 
 tually not specially distinguished. Owing to the 
 character of the country, a somewhat arid, level steppe between 
 the hills and the coast, they are often collectively called 
 *' Cattle Damaras," or " Damaras of the Plains," in contradistinc- 
 tion to the " Hill Damaras " of the coast ranges. To this popular 
 nomenclature is due the prevalent confusion regarding these 
 aborigines. The term "Damara" is of Hottentot origin, and is 
 not recognised by the local tribes, who all call themselves Ova- 
 Herero, that is, "Merry People." But there is a marked differ- 
 ence between the lowlanders and the highlanders, the latter, that 
 is, the "Hill Damaras," having a strong strain of Hottentot blood, 
 and being now of Hottentot speech. 
 
 The whole region is a land of transition between the two 
 races, where the struggle for supremacy has scarcely yet been 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. 10^ 
 
 arrested by the intervention of the German administrators ^ 
 Clearness would be gained by replacing the term " Damaraland," 
 a distinct misnomer, by the German " Hereroland," for the whole 
 territory north of Walvisch Bay, and by substituting for Hill 
 Damaras the expression Ova-Zorotu, or " Hillmen," as they are 
 called by their neighbours of the plains, who should of course be 
 called Hereros to the absolute exclusion of the expression "Cattle 
 Damaras." These Hereros show a singular dislike for salt ; the 
 peculiarity, however, can scarcely be racial, as it is shared in also 
 by their cattle, and may be due to the heavy vapours, perhaps 
 slightly charged with saline particles, which hang so frequently over 
 the coastlands. 
 
 No very sharp ethnical line can be drawn between Portuguese 
 West Africa and the contiguous portion of the Congo Free State 
 south and west of the main stream. In the coastlands between 
 the Cunene and the Congo estuary a few groups, such as the 
 historical Eshi-Kongo and the Kabindas, have developed some 
 marked characteristics under European influences, just as have the 
 cannibal Manyuejnas of the Upper Congo through association with 
 the Nubo-Arab slave-raiders. But with the exception of the Tu- 
 Shtlange, the Ba-Lolo and one or two others, much the same 
 physical and mental traits are everywhere presented by the 
 numerous Bantu populations within the great bend of the 
 Congo. 
 
 The people who give their name to this river present some 
 points of special interest. It is commonly supposed 
 that the old "Kongo Empire" was a creation of _TheOid 
 the Portuguese. But Mbanza, afterwards re- Empire, 
 christened " San Salvador," was already tlie capital 
 of a powerful State when it was first visited by the expedition of 
 1491, from which time date its relations with Portugal. At first 
 the Catholic missionaries had great success, thousands were at 
 least baptized, and for a moment it seemed as if all the Congo 
 lands were being swept into the fold. There were great rejoicings 
 on the conversion of the Mfumu (" Emperor") himself, on whom 
 
 ^ So recently as October, 1890, the famous Hottentot chief Witbooi gained 
 a great victory over the Her^os, killing their chief Epias, and carrying off 
 much plunder. 
 
I08 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 were lavished honours and Portuguese titles still borne by his 
 present degenerate descendant, the Portuguese State pensioner, 
 " Dom Pedro V., Catholic King of Kongo and its Dependencies." 
 But Christianity never struck very deep roots, and, except in the 
 vicinity of the Imperial and vassal Courts, heathenish practices 
 of the worst description were continued down to the middle of 
 the nineteenth century. About 1870 fresh efforts were made 
 both by Protestant and Catholic missionaries to re-convert the 
 people, who had little to remind them of their former faith except 
 the ruins of the cathedral of San Salvador, crucifixes, banners, 
 and other rehgious emblems handed down as heirlooms and 
 regarded as potent fetishes by their owners. A like fate, it may 
 be incidentally mentioned, has overtaken the efforts of the Portu- 
 guese missionaries to evangelise the natives of the east coast, 
 where little now survives of their teachings but snatches of un- 
 intelligible songs to the Blessed Virgin, such as that still chanted 
 by the Lower Zambesi boatmen and recorded by Mrs Pringle: — 
 
 Sina matna, sina mamai, 
 
 Sina mama Maria, sina mamai... 
 
 Mary, I'm alone, mother I have none, 
 
 Mother I have none, she and father both are gone, &c.^ 
 
 It is probable that at some remote period the ruling race 
 reached the west coast from the north-east, and 
 Lang^uage"^° imposcd their Bantu speech on the rude aborigines, 
 by whom it is still spoken over a wide tract of 
 country on both sides of the Lower Congo. It is an extremely 
 pure and somewhat archaic member of the Bantu family, and the 
 Rev. W. Holman Bentley, our best authority on the subject, is 
 enthusiastic in praise of its "richness, flexibility, exactness, 
 subtlety of idea, and nicety of expression," a language superior to 
 the people themselves, "illiterate folk with an elaborate and 
 regular grammatical system of speech of such subtlety and exact- 
 ness of idea that its daily use is in itself an education ^" Kishi- 
 Kongo has the distinction of being the first Bantu tongue ever 
 reduced to written form, the oldest known work in the language 
 being a treatise on Christian Doctrine published in Lisbon in 
 
 1 Towards the Mountains of the Moon, 1884, p. 128. . 
 
 2 Dictionary and Grammar of the Kongo Language, 1887, p. xxiii. 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. IO9 
 
 1624. Since that time the speech of the " Mociconghi," as 
 Pigafetta calls them', has undergone but slight phonetic or other 
 change, which is all the more surprising when we 
 consider the extreme rudeness of the present Mushi- ^"^^^^ fne'?° 
 Kongos and others by whom it is still spoken with 
 considerable uniformity. Some of these believe themselves 
 sprung from trees, as if they had still reminiscences of the 
 arboreal habits of a pithecoid ancestry. 
 
 Amongst the neighbouring Bamdas, whose sobas were formerly 
 ex officio Commanders-in-chief of the Empire, still dwells a 
 potent being, who is invisible to everybody, and although mortal 
 never dies, or at least after each dissolution springs again into life 
 from his remains gathered up by the priests. All 
 the young men of the tribe undergo a similar trans- christfaT'^ 
 formation, being thrown into a death-like trance by Doctrines, 
 the magic arts of the medicine-man, and then re- 
 suscitated after three days. The power of causing the cataleptic 
 sleep is said really to exist, and these strange rites, unknown 
 elsewhere, are probably to be connected with the resurrection of 
 Christ after three days and of everybody on the last day as 
 preached by the early Portuguese evangelists. A volume might 
 be written on the strange distortions of Christian doctrines 
 amongst savage peoples unable to grasp their true inwardness. 
 
 In Angola the Portuguese distinguish between the Pretos, that 
 is, the "civilised," and the Negros, or unreclaimed 
 natives. Yet both terms mean the same thing, as Kabindas and 
 also does Ba-Nof, "Black People," which is applied ''^f^^^^ 
 in an arbitrary way both to the Eshi-Kongos and 
 their near relations, the Kabindas of the Portuguese enclave north 
 of the Lower Congo. These Kabindas, so named from the 
 seaport of that name on the Loango coast, are an extremely 
 intelligent, energetic, and enterprising people, daring seafarers, 
 
 1 "Li Mociconghi cosi nomati nel suo proprio idioma gli abitanti del 
 reame di Congo" {Relatione he, Rome, 1591, p. 68). This form is remark- 
 able, being singular {Moci=Mttshi) instead of plural {Eshi)\ yet it is still 
 currently applied to the rude " Mushi-Kongos " on the south side of the 
 estuary. \ 
 
 2 Often written Ba-Fiort with an intrusive r. 
 
no MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 and active traders. But they complain of the keen rivalry of 
 another dark people, the Judeos Fretos, or " Black Jews," who 
 call themselves Ma- Vambu, and whose hooked nose combined with 
 other peculiarities has earned for them their Portuguese name. 
 The Kabindas say that these "Semitic Negroes" were specially 
 created for the punishment of other unscrupulous dealers by their 
 ruinous competition in trade. 
 
 A great part of the vast region within the bend of the Congo 
 is occupied by the Baluba people, whose numerous branches — 
 Basange and Basonge about the sources of the Sankuru, Bashilange 
 (Tushilange) about the Lulua-Kassai confluence, and many others 
 — extend all the way from the Kwango basin to Manyuemaland. 
 Most of these are Bantus of the average type, fairly intelligent, 
 industrious and specially noted for their skill in iron and copper 
 work. Iron ores are widely diffused and the copper comes from 
 the famous mines of the Katanga district, of which King Mzidi and 
 his Wanyamwezi followers were dispossessed by the Congo Free 
 State in 1892. 
 
 Special attention is claimed by the Tushilange nation, for our 
 knowledge of whom we are indebted chiefly to Capt. 
 Tushilange C- S. Latrobc Batcman^ These are the people 
 Sirfk^rs whom Wissmann had already referred to as "a 
 
 nation of thinkers with the interrogative *why' 
 constantly on their lips." Bateman also describes them as 
 *' thoroughly honest, brave to foolhardiness, and faithful to each 
 other. They are prejudiced in favour of foreign customs and 
 spontaneously copy the usages of civilisation. They are the 
 only African tribe among whom I have observed anything 
 like a becoming conjugal afl"ection and regard. To say 
 nothing of such recommendations as their emancipation from 
 fetishism, their ancient abandonment of cannibalism, and their 
 national unity under the sway of a really princely prince 
 (Kalemba), I believe them to be the most open to the best 
 influences of civilisation of any African tribe whatsoever ^" 
 
 1 The First Ascent of the Kassai, 1889, p. 20 sq. See also my commu- 
 nication to the Academy, April 6, 1889, and Africa (Stanford's Compendium), 
 1895, Vol. II. p. 117 sq. 
 
 ^ Op. cit. p. 20. 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. Ill 
 
 Their territory about the Lulua affluent of the Kassai is the 
 so-called Lubuka, or land of " Friendship," the theatre of a re- 
 markable social revolution, carried out independently of all 
 European influences, in fact before the arrival of any whites on 
 the scene. It was initiated by the secret brotherhood of the 
 Bena-Riamba^ or "Sons of Hemp," established about 1870, when 
 the nation became divided into two parties over the 
 question of throwing the country open to foreign ..pro.*" 
 trade. The king having sided with the "Pro- gressives." 
 gressives," the " Conservatives " were worsted with 
 much bloodshed, whereupon the barriers of seclusion were swept 
 away. Trading relations being at once established with the outer 
 world, the custom of riamba (bhang) smoking was unfortunately 
 introduced through the Swahili traders from Zanzibar. The 
 practice itself soon became associated with mystic rites, and was 
 followed by a general deterioration of morals throughout Tushi- 
 langeland. 
 
 North of the Balubas follows the great Balolo nation, whose 
 domain comprises nearly the whole of the region 
 between the equator.and the left bank of.the Congo, " Men of 
 and whose Kilolo speech is still more widely dif- '^°"* 
 fused, being spoken by perhaps 10,000,000 within the horseshoe 
 bend. These " Men of Iron " in the sense of Cromwell's " Iron- 
 sides," or "Workers in Iron," as the name has been diversely 
 interpreted (from lolo^ iron), may not be all that they have been 
 depicted by the glowing pen of Mrs H. Grattan Guinness^; but 
 nobody will deny their claim to be regarded as physically, if not 
 mentally, one of the finest Bantu races. But for the strain of 
 Negro blood betrayed by the tumid under lip, frizzly hair, and wide 
 nostrils, many might pass for average Hamites with high forehead, 
 straight or aquiline nose, bright eye, and intelligent expression. 
 They appear to have migrated about a hundred years ago from 
 the east to their present homes, where they have cleared the land 
 both of its forests and the aborigines, brought extensive tracts under 
 cultivation, and laid out towns in the American chessboard 
 fashion, but with the houses so wide apart that it takes hours to 
 
 ^ The New World of Central Africa, 1890, p. 466 sq. 
 
112 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 traverse them. They are skilled in many crafts, and understand 
 the division-of-labour principle, " farmers, gardeners, smiths, boat- 
 builders, weavers, cabinet-makers, armourers, warriors, and speakers 
 being already differentiated amongst them '." 
 
 From the east or north-east a great stream of migration has 
 also for many years been setting right across the 
 
 The West -, , , i 
 
 Equatorial Cannibal zone to the west coast between the 
 
 Bantus. Ogowai and Cameriins estuary. Some of these 
 
 cannibal bands, collectively known as Fans^ Fahuins, Mpangwes^ ^ 
 Oshyebas and by other names, have already swarmed into the 
 Gabiin.and Lower Ogowai districts, where they have caused a 
 considerable dislocation of the coast tribes. They are at present 
 the dominant, or at least the most powerful and dreaded, people in 
 West Equatorial Africa, where nothing but the intervention of the 
 French administration has prevented them from sweeping the 
 Mpongwes, Mbengas^ Okandas, Ashangos, Ishogos, Batekes^ and the 
 other maritime populations into the Atlantic. Even the great 
 
 Bakalai nation, who are also immigrants, but from 
 
 the south-east, and who arrived some time before 
 the Fans, have been hard pressed and driven forward by those 
 fierce anthropophagists. They are still numerous, certainly over 
 100,000, but confined mainly to the left bank of the Ogowai, 
 where their copper and iron workers have given up the hopeless 
 struggle to compete with the imported European wares, and have 
 consequently turned to trade. The Bakalai are now the chief 
 brokers and middlemen throughout the equatorial coastlands, 
 and their pure Bantu language is encroaching on the Mpongwe 
 in the Ogowai basin. 
 
 When first heard of by Bowdich in 18 19, the Paamways, as 
 
 he calls the Fans, were an inland people presenting 
 baT F^ns.""'" s^^^ marked Hamitic or Caucasic features that he 
 
 allied them with the West Sudanese Fulahs. Since 
 then there have been inevitable interminglings, by which the type 
 has no doubt been modified, though still presenting distinct non- 
 
 ^ Op. at. p. 471. 
 
 2 These Mpangwe savages are constantly confused with the Mpongwes of 
 the Gabiin, a settled Bantu people who have been long in close contact, and 
 on friendly terms, with the white traders and missionaries in this district. 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. II3 
 
 Bantu or non-Negro characters. Burton, Winwood Reade, Oscar 
 Lenz and most other observers separate them altogether from the 
 Negro connection, describing them as "well-built, 
 tall and slim, with a light brown complexion, often Typlf ori°?n' 
 inclining to yellow, well-developed beard, and very 
 prominent frontal bone standing out in a semicircular protuber- 
 ance above the superciliary arches. Morally also, they differ 
 greatly from the Negro, being remarkably intelligent, truthful, and 
 of a serious temperament, seldom laughing or indulging in the 
 wild orgies of the blacks \" 
 
 The language also, says Lenz, is "entirely different from those 
 of the other Negro peoples ^" Yet many ethnologists have sug- 
 gested affinities with the Zandehs and Mangbattus of the Welle 
 region, chiefly on the ground of their common fondness for 
 human flesh. On this point the Fans certainly yield to none, and 
 although amongst the coast tribes the practice is now restricted 
 to solemn occasions, those untouched by European influences 
 abstain only from their "nearest and dearest," and even these may 
 be disinterred and bartered for others not coming within the pro- 
 hibited degrees of cansanguinity^ 
 
 Still the taste is too universal in the cannibal zone to serve 
 as a racial test, and we are not helped by it to a solution of 
 the difficult Fan problem. Were one to venture on a conjecture, 
 I should suggest that these mysterious hordes are not Fulahs, 
 as supposed by Bowdich, but "belated Hamites," lost like the 
 Fulahs in the seething mass of negrodom. If the language is 
 really not Bantu, as stated by Lenz, it will perhaps prove to be 
 an outlying member of the Hamitic Tibu or Masai group. 
 
 In the Cameriln region, which still lies within Bantu territory. 
 Sir H. H. Johnston'' divides the numerous local 
 tribes into two groups, the aborigines, such as the run^Bant^!' 
 Bayongs, Balongs, Basas, Abos and Wuri ; and the 
 later intruders — Bakufidu, Bakwiri, Dwala, " Great Batanga " and 
 
 1 My Africa, ii. p. 58. Oscar Lenz, who perhaps knew them best, says : 
 " Gut gebaut, schlank und kraftig gewachsen, Hautfarbe viel lichter manchmal 
 stark ins Gelbe spielend, Haar und Bartwuchs auflfallend stark, sehr grosse 
 Kinnbarte" {Skizzen aus West-J^rika, 1878, p. 73). ^ /^. P- 74- 
 
 3 Schweihfurth, Heart 0/ Africa, 11. p. 18. ^ Official Report, 1886. 
 
 K. 8 
 
114 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Ibea — chiefly from the east and south-east. Best known are the 
 Dwalas of the Cameriin estuary, physically typical Bantus with 
 almost European features, and well-developed calves, a character 
 which would alone suffice to separate them from the true Negro. 
 Nor are these traits due to contact with the white settlers on the 
 coast, because the Dwalas keep quite aloof, and are so proud of 
 their "blue blood," that till lately all half-breeds were "weeded out," 
 being regarded as monsters who reflected discredit on the tribe. 
 Socially the Cameriin natives stand at nearly the same low 
 level of culture as the neighbouring full-blood 
 Sudanese Ncgroes of the Calabar and Niger delta. Indeed' 
 
 Borderland. , ... , . . . ,, 
 
 the transition in customs and institutions, as well 
 as in physical appearance, is scarcely perceptible between the 
 peoples dwelling north and south of the Rio del Rey, here the 
 dividing line between the Negro and Bantu lands. The Bakish 
 of the Meme river, almost last of the Bantus, differ little except in 
 speech from the Negro Efiks of Old Calabar, while witchcraft and 
 other gross superstitions were till lately as rife amongst the Bak- 
 wiri and Bakundu tribes of the western Cameriin as anywhere in 
 negroland. It is not long since one of the Bakwiri, found guilty 
 of having eaten a chicken at a missionary's table, was himself 
 eaten by his fellow clansmen. The law of blood for blood was 
 pitilessly enforced, and charges of witchcraft were so frequent 
 that whole villages were depopulated, or abandoned by their 
 terror-stricken inhabitants. The island of Ambas in the inlet of 
 like name remained thus for a time absolutely deserted, " most of 
 the inhabitants having poisoned each other off with their ever- 
 lasting ordeals, and the few survivors ending by dreading the very 
 air they breathed \" 
 
 Having thus completed our survey of the Bantu populations 
 
 from the central dividing line about the Congo- 
 Early Bantu Chad water-partinsr round by the east, south, and 
 
 Migrations— r cs .; 75 
 
 a Clue to west coastlauds, and so back to the Sudanese zone,' 
 
 their Direc- , , ^ ,, -. , 
 
 tion. we may pause to ask, what routes were followed by 
 
 the Bantus themselves during the long ages required 
 
 to spread themselves over an area estimated at nearly six million 
 
 square niiles ? I have estabHshed, apparently on solid ground?, 
 
 * Reclus, English ed'. xii. p. 376. 
 
IV.] 
 
 THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. 
 
 115 
 
 a fixed point of initial dispersion in the extreme north-east, and 
 allusion has firequently been made to migratory movements, some 
 even now going on, generally from east to west, and, on the east side 
 of the continent, from north to south, with here an important but 
 still quite recent reflux from Zululand back nearly to Lake Victoria. 
 If a parallel current be postulated as setting on the Atlantic side 
 in prehistoric times from south to north, from Hereroland to the 
 Cameriins, or possibly the other way, we shall have nearly all the 
 factors needed to explain the general dispersion of the Bantu 
 peoples over their vast domain. 
 
 Support is given to this view by the curious distribution of 
 the two chief Bantu names of the "Supreme Being," to which 
 incidental reference has already been made. As first pointed out 
 I think by Dr Bleek, {M)unkiilunkulu with its 
 numerous variants prevails along the eastern sea- 
 board, Nzambi along the western, and both in 
 many parts of the interior; while here and there 
 the two meet, as if to indicate prehistoric inter- 
 minglings of two great primeval migratory movements. From 
 the subjoined table a clear idea may be had of the general 
 distribution :— 
 
 Eastern 
 Ancestry and 
 Western Na- 
 ture Worship- 
 pers. 
 
 W 
 
 MUNKULUNKULU 
 
 ( Mpondo : Ukulukulu 
 Zulu : Unkulunkulu 
 Inhambane : Mulungulu 
 Sofala : Murungu 
 Bechuana : Mulungulu 
 Lake Moero : Mulungu 
 Lake Tanganyika : Mulungu 
 Makua : Moloko 
 Quillimane : Mlugu 
 
 \ Lake Bangweolo : Mungu 
 Tete, Zambesi : Muungu 
 Nyasaland : Murungu 
 Swahili : Muungu 
 Giryama: Mulungu 
 Pokomo : Mungo 
 Nyika : Mulungu 
 Kamba : Mulungu 
 Yanzi : Molongo \ 
 
 Herero : Mukuru 
 
 Nzambi 
 Eshi- Kongo : Nzambi 
 Kabinda : Nzambi Pongo 
 Lunda: Zambi 
 Bateke: Nzam 
 Barotse: Nyampe 
 Bihe : Nzambi 
 Loango: Zambi, Nyambi 
 Bunda: Onzambi 
 Bangala : Nsambi 
 Bakele: Nshanibi 
 Rungu : Anyambi 
 Ashira: Anienibie 
 M pong we : Njambi 
 Benga : Anyambi 
 Dwala: Nyambi 
 Yanzi : Nyambi 
 Herero : Ndyambi 
 
 ^1 
 
Il6 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Of Munkulunkulu the primitive idea is clear enough from its 
 best preserved form, the Zulu Unkulunkulu^ which is a repetitive 
 of the root inkulu, great, old, hence a deification of the great 
 departed, a direct outcome of the ancestry-worship so universal 
 amongst Negro and Bantu peoples \ Thus Unkulunkulu becomes 
 the direct progenitor of the Zulu-Xosas : Unkulunkulu ukobu wetu. 
 But the fundamental meaning of Nzambi is unknown. The root 
 does not occur in Kishi-Kongo, and Mr Bentley rightly rejects 
 Kolbe's far-fetched explanation from the Herero, adding that "the 
 knowledge of God is most vague, scarcely more than nominal. 
 There is no worship paid to God^." 
 
 More probable seems Mr W. H. Tooke's suggestion that 
 Nzambi is "a Nature spirit like Zeus or Indra," and that, while 
 the eastern Bantus are ancestor-worshippers, " the western ad- 
 herents of Nzambi are more or less Nature-worshippers. In this 
 respect they appear to approach the Negroes of the Gold, Slave, 
 and Oil Coasts^" No doubt the cult of the dead prevails also 
 in this region, but here it is combined with naturalistic forms of 
 belief, as on the Gold Coast, where Bobowissi, chief god of all the 
 southern tribes, is the "Blower of Clouds," the "Rain-maker,'' 
 and on the Slave Coast, where the Dahoman Mawu and the 
 Yoruba Olorun are the Sky or Rain, and the "Owner of the Sky" 
 (the deified Firmament), respectively^ 
 
 It would therefore seem probable that the Munkulunkulu 
 peoples from the north-east gradually spread by the indicated 
 routes over the whole of Bantuland, everywhere imposing their 
 speech, general culture, and ancestor-worship on the pre-Bantu 
 
 1 So also in Minahassa, Celebes, Empung, "Grandfather," is the generic 
 name of the gods. "The fundamental ideas of primitive man are the same 
 all the world over. Just as the little black baby of the Negro, the brown 
 baby of the Malay, the yellow baby of the Chinaman are in face and form, in 
 gestures and habits, as well as in the first articulate sounds they mutter, very 
 much alike, so the mind of man, whether he be Aryan or Malay, Mongolian 
 or Negrito, has in the course of its evolution passed through stages which are 
 practically identical." (Sydney J, Hickson, A NaUiralist in North Celebes, 
 1889, p. 240.) 
 
 2 Op. cit. p. 96. 
 
 * The God of the Ethiopians, in Nature, May 26, 1892. 
 ■* E. B. Ellis, Tshi, p. 23 ; Ewe, p. 31 ; Yoruba, p. 36. ' 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: IT. II7 
 
 aborigines, except along the Atlantic coastlands and in parts of 
 the interior. Here the primitive Nature-worship, embodied in 
 Nzambi, held and still holds its ground, both meeting on equal 
 terms — as shown in the above Table — amongst the Bayanzi, 
 the Ova-Herero, and the Bechuanas {Mulungulu generally, but 
 Nyanipe in Barotseland), and no doubt in other inland regions. 
 But the absolute supremacy of one on the east, 
 and of the other on the west, side of the continent, 
 seems conclusive as to the general streams of migration, while the 
 amazing uniformity of nomenclature is but another illustration of 
 the almost incredible persistence of Bantu speech amongst these 
 multitudinous illiterate populations for an incalculable period of 
 time. 
 
 The Negritoes. 
 
 Yet, during the whole of this period, a substratum of non-Bantu 
 Negrito, Bushman, and Hottentot elements has also 
 
 ^ . . . The Negrito 
 
 persisted throughout the same ethnical domain. Domain past 
 The affinities of these primitive peoples, both to ^" presen . 
 each other and collectively to the true Negro, have already been 
 discussed \ The proper domain of the African Negritoes is the 
 inter-tropical forest-land, although they appear to be at present 
 confined to somewhat narrow limits, between about six degrees 
 of latitude north and south of the equator, unless the Bushmen be 
 included. But formerly they probably ranged much farther north, 
 possibly in Neolithic times accompanying their "big brothers" 
 into ^central Europe (Switzerland), and in historic times finding 
 their way down the Nile valley to Egypt, where they were certainly 
 known some 4000 or 5000 years ago. This is evident from the 
 frequent references to them in the " Book of the Dead " as far 
 back as the 6th Dynasty. Like the dwarfs in mediaeval times, 
 they were in high request at the courts of the .^^^^ ^^ 
 
 Pharaohs, who sent expeditions to fetch these the courts of 
 Danga {Tank) from the "Island of the Double," ^ ^ ^^^° ^' 
 that is, the fabulous region of Shade Land beyond Punt, where 
 they dwelt. The first of whom there is authentic record was 
 brought from this region,\apparently the White Nile, to King 
 
 1 Eth. Chap. XI. 
 
Il8 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Assa (3300 B.C.) by his officer, Baurtet. Some 70 years later 
 Heru-Khuf, another officer, was sent by Pepi II "to bring back 
 a pygmy alive and in good health," from the land of great trees 
 away to the south'. That the Danga came from the south we 
 know from a later inscription at Kartrak, and that the word 
 meant dwarf is clear from the accompanying determinative of 
 a short person of stunted growth. 
 
 It is curious to note in this connection that the limestone 
 statue of the dwarf Nem-hotep, found in his tomb at Sakkara 
 and figured by Ernest Grosse, has a thick elongated head suggest- 
 ing artificial deformation, unshapely mouth, dull expression, strong 
 full chest, and small deformed feet, on which he seems badly 
 balanced. It will be remembered that Schweinfurth's Akkas from 
 Mangbattuland were also represented as top-heavy, although the 
 best observers. Junker and others, describe those of the Welle and 
 Congo forests as shapely and by no means ill-proportioned. 
 
 Prof. Kollmann also, who has examined the remains of the 
 
 Ne rit Neolithic pygmies from the Schweizersbild Station, 
 
 and Pygmy Switzerland, "is quite certain that the dwarf-Hke 
 
 Folklore. - c ^ \ ^ ^ ■ • 
 
 proportions 01 the latter have nothing in common 
 with diseased conditions. This, from many points of view, is 
 a highly interesting discovery. It is possible, as Dr Niiesch 
 suggests, that the widely-spread legend as to the former existence 
 of little men, dwarfs and gnomes, who were supposed to haunt 
 caves and retired places in the mountains, may be a reminiscence 
 of these NeoHthic pygmies I" 
 
 This is what may be called the picturesque aspect of the 
 Negrito question, which it seems almost a pity to spoil by too 
 severe a criticism. But "ethnologic truth" obliges us to say 
 that the identification of the African Negrito with KoUmann's 
 European dwarfs still lacks scientific proof Even craniology fails 
 us here, and although the Negritoes are in great majority round- 
 headed, Dr R. Verneau has shown that there may be exceptions^, 
 
 ^ Schiaparelli, Una Toniba Egiziana^ Rome, 1893. 
 
 ^ Prof. James Geikie, Scottish Geogr. Mag. Sept. 1897. 
 
 ■^ Thus he finds {U Anthropologic, 1896, p. 153) a presumably Negrito 
 skull from the Babinga district, Middle Sangha river, to be distinctly long- 
 headed (73'2) with, for this, race, the enormous cranial capacity of about 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: 11. lig 
 
 while the theory of the general uniformity of the physical type has 
 broken down at some other points. Thus the jDume, 
 south of Gallaland, discovered by Dr Donaldson and^DSo?"^ 
 Smith ^ in the district where the Z>oko Negritoes reputed 
 
 ° Dwarfs. 
 
 had long been heard of, and even seen by Antoine 
 d'Abbadie in 1843, were found to average five feet, or more than 
 one foot over the mean of the true Negrito. D'Abbadie in fact 
 declared that his "Dokos" were not pygmies at alP, while 
 Donaldson Smith now tells us that "doko" is only a term of 
 contempt applied by the local tribes to their "poor relations." 
 "Their chief characteristics were a black skin, round features, 
 woolly hair, small oval-shaped eyes, rather thick lips, high cheek 
 bones, a broad forehead, and very well formed bodies" (p. 273). 
 
 The expression of the eye was canine, " sometimes timid and 
 suspicious-looking, sometimes very amiable and merry, and then 
 again changing suddenly to a look of intense anger." Pygmies, 
 he adds, "inhabited the whole of the country north of Lakes 
 Stephanie and Rudolf long before any of the tribes now to be 
 foAind in the neighbourhood ; but they have been gradually killed 
 off in war, and have lost their characteristics by inter-marriage 
 with people of large stature, so that only this one little remnant, 
 the Dume, remains to prove the existence of a pygmy race. 
 Formerly they lived principally by hunting, and they still kill a 
 great many elephants with their poisoned arrows" (p. 274 — 5). 
 
 Some of these remarks apply also to the Wandorobbo, another 
 small people who range nearly as far north as the 
 Dume, but are found chiefly farther south all over robboH^nt«-t" 
 Masailand, and belong, I have little doubt, to the 
 same connection. They are the henchmen of the Masai nomads, 
 whom they provide with big game in return for divers services, 
 and hold with them much the same amicable relations as the 
 little Neolithic folk held with their tall neighbours in central 
 Europe. 
 
 Those met by Mr W. Astor Chanler were also "armed with 
 
 1440 c.c. Cf. the Akka measured by Sir W. Flower (1372 c.c), and his 
 Andamanese (11 28), the highest hitherto known being 1200 (Virchow). 
 
 ^ Through Unknown Afric^t Countries, ^c, 1897. 
 
 2 Bui. Soc. Geogr. xix. p. 440. 
 
120 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 bows and arrows, and each carried an elephant-spear, which they 
 called bonaii. This spear is six feet in length, thick at either end, 
 and narrowed where grasped by the hand. In one end is bored 
 a hole, into which is fitted an arrow two feet long, as thick as 
 one's thumb, and with a head two inches broad. Their method 
 of killing elephants is to creep cautiously up to the beast, and 
 drive a spear into its loin. A quick twist separates the spear 
 from the arrow, and they make off as fast and silently as possible. 
 In all cases the arrows are poisoned ; and if they are well intro- 
 duced into the animal's body, the elephant does not go far^" 
 
 From some of the peculiarities of the Achua (Wochua) 
 Negritoes met by Junker south of the Welle one 
 MTmicr°''^"* can understand why these little people were such 
 favourites with the old Egyptian kings. These 
 were "distinguished by sharp powers of observation, amazing 
 talent for mimicry, and a good memory. A striking proof of this 
 was afforded by an Achua whom I had seen and measured four 
 years previously in Rumbek, and now again met at Gambari's. 
 His comic ways and quick nimble movements made this little 
 fellow the clown of our society. He imitated with marvellous 
 fidelity the peculiarities of persons whom he had once seen ; for 
 instance, the gestures and facial expressions of Jussuf Pasha esh- 
 Shelahis and of Haj Halil at their devotions, as well as the address 
 and movements of Emin Pasha, ' with the four eyes ' (spectacles). 
 His imitation of Hawash Effendi in a towering rage, storming and 
 abusing everybody, was a great success ; and now he took me off 
 to the life, rehearsing after four years, down to the minutest 
 details, and with surprising accuracy, my anthropometric perform- 
 ance when measuring his body at Rumbek^." 
 
 A somewhat similar account is given by Dr Ludwig Wolf of 
 the Batwa pygmies visited by him and Herr Wissmann in the 
 Kassai region. Here are whole villages in the forest-glades 
 inhabited by httle people with an average height of about 4 feet 
 3 inches. They are nomads, occupied exclusively with hunting and 
 the preparation of palm-wine, and are regarded by their Bakubu 
 neighbours as benevolent little people, whose special mission is 
 
 ^ Throicgh Jungle and Desert., 1896, p. 358 — Q* 
 2 Travels, ill. p. 86. 
 
Plate I. 
 
 I. Congo Native. 
 (Bantu Negro Type.) 
 
 2. Zulu Girl. 
 (Bantu Negroid Type.) 
 
 w 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 'V •■%*' ^;*«> 
 
 ^^^H 
 
 ^K^ 
 
 *?-| 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 3. Nam A Man. 
 (Hottentot Type.) 
 
 4. New Caledonian. 
 (Melanesian Type.) 
 
 To face page 1 20] 
 

 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. 121 
 
 to provide the surrounding tribes with game and palm-wine in 
 exchange for manioc, maize, and bananas \ 
 
 Despite the above-mentioned deviations, occurring chiefly 
 about the borderlands, considerable uniformity both of physical 
 and mental characters is found to prevail amongst the typical 
 Negrito groups scattered in small hunting communities all over 
 the Welle, Semliki, Congo, and Ogowai woodlands. These groups 
 must therefore be regarded as the fragments of a homogeneous 
 dwarfish race, who have an authentic historical record going back 
 to the early Egyptian dynasties, and still persist in a great part 
 of inter-tropical Africa, 
 
 The Bushmen and Hottentots. 
 
 Towards the south the Negrito domain was formerly conter- 
 minous with that of the Bushmen, of whom traces 
 were discovered by Sir H. H. Johnston^ as far north an^'n'ouen- 
 as Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika, and who, it is ^°^^- Former 
 
 ■' s> J } j^nd Present 
 
 reasonable to suppose, belong to the same primitive Range, 
 stock. The differences mental and physical now 
 separating the two sections of the family may easily be explained 
 by the different environments — hot, moist and densely wooded in 
 the north, and open steppes in the south. 
 
 But evidence has now been produced of the presence of a 
 belated Hottentot or Hottentot-Bushman group 
 as far north as the Kwa-Kokue district, between wJsandawi. 
 Kilimanjaro and Lake Victoria. The Wasandaivi 
 people here visited by Herr Oskar Neumann are not Bantus, and 
 speak a language radically distinct from that of the neighbouring 
 
 ^ //// Innern Afrika's, p. 259 sq. As stated in Eth. p. 248, Dr Wolf 
 connects all these Negrito peoples with the Bushmen south of the Zambesi, 
 and I really think this generalisation may now be accepted. 
 
 - " It would seem as if the earliest known race of man inhabiting what is 
 now British Central Africa was akin to the Bushman-Hottentot type of Negro. 
 Rounded stones with a hole through the centre, similar to those which are 
 used by the Bushmen in the south for weighting their digging- sticks, have 
 been found at the south end of Lake Tanganyika. I have heard that other 
 examples of these * Bushman^stones have been found nearer to Lake Nyasa, 
 &c." {Op. cit. p. 52.) 
 
122 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Bantus, but full of clicks like that of the Bushmen. Two 
 Sandawi skulls examined by Virchow ^ showed distinct Hottentot 
 characters, with a cranial capacity of 1250 and 1265 c.c, pro- 
 jecting upper jaw and orthodolicho head^ The geographical 
 prefix Kwa, common in the district (Kwa-Kokue, Kwa-Mtoro, 
 Kwa-Hindi), is pure Hottentot, meaning "people," like the 
 postfix qua {Kwa) of Kora-^?/«, Nama-^?/^ &c. in the present 
 Hottentot domain. The transposition of prefixes and postfixes 
 is a common linguistic phenomenon, as seen in the Sumero- 
 Akkadian of Babylonia, in the Neo-Sanskritic tongues of India, 
 and the Latin, Oscan, and other members of the Old Italic 
 group. 
 
 Farther south a widely-diffused Hottentot-Bushman geo- 
 graphical terminology attests the former range of 
 geographical this primitive race all over South Africa, as far 
 Names in north as the Zambesi. Lichten stein had already 
 
 Bantuland. , ■' 
 
 discovered such traces in the Zulu country'', and 
 Vater points out that "for some districts the fact has been 
 fully established; mountains and rivers now occupied by the 
 Koossa [Ama-Xosa] preserve in their Hottentot names the certain 
 proof that they at one time formed a permanent possession of this 
 peopled" 
 
 Thanks to the custom of raising heaps of stones or cairns over 
 the graves of renowned chiefs, the migrations of the Hottentots 
 may be followed in various directions to the very heart of South 
 Zambesia. Here the memory of their former presence is per- 
 petuated in the names of such water-courses as Nos-ob, Up, 
 Mol-opo, Hyg-ap, Gar-ib, in which the syllables ob^ up, ap, ib and 
 others are variants of the Hottentot word ib, ip, water, river, as 
 in Gar-ib, the " Great River," now better known as the Orange 
 
 1 Verhandl. Berliner Gcsellsch.f. Anthrop. 1895, p. 59. 
 
 2 Of another skull undoubtedly Hottentot, from a cave on the Transvaal 
 and Orange Free State frontier, Dr Mies remarks that "seine Form ist 
 orthodolichocephal wie bei den Wassandaui," although differing in some other 
 characters {Centralbl. f. Anthrop. 1896, p. 50). 
 
 ^ From which he adds that the Hottentots ' ' schon lange vor der Portu- 
 giesischen Umschiffung Afrika's von Kaffer-Stammen wieder zuriickgedrangt 
 wurden" {Reisen, i. p. 400). 
 
 ^ Adelung und Vater, Berlin, 18 12, ill. p. 290. 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. I23 
 
 River. The same indications may be traced right across the 
 continent to the Atlantic, where nearly all the coast streams — even 
 in Hereroland, where the language has long been extinct — have 
 the same ending \ 
 
 On the west side the Bushmen are still heard of as far north 
 as the Cunene, and in the interior beyond Lake Ngami nearly to the 
 right bank of the Zambesi. But the Hottentots are now confined . 
 mainly to Great and Little Namaqualand. Elsewhere there 
 appear to be no full-blood natives of this race, the 
 Koraquas, Gonaquas, Griquas &c. being all Hotten- disappearing. 
 tot-Boer or Hottentot-Bantu half-castes of Dutch 
 speech. In Cape Colony the tribal organisation ceased to exist 
 in 1 8 10, when the last Hottentot chief was replaced by a 
 European magistrate. Still the Koraquas keep themselves some- 
 what distinct about the Upper Orange and Vaal Rivers, and 
 the Griquas in Griqualand East, while the Gonaquas, that is, 
 " Borderers," are being gradually merged in the Bantu populations 
 of the Eastern Provinces. There are at present scarcely 180,000 
 sputh of the Orange River, and of these the great majority are 
 half-breeds. 
 
 Despite their extremely low state of culture, or, one might 
 say, the almost total lack of culture, the Bushmen are dis- 
 tinguished by two remarkable qualities, a certain sense of pictorial 
 or graphic art^, and a rich imagination displayed 
 in a copious oral folklore, much of which, col- p^JJf^"™^" 
 lected by Bleek, is preserved in manuscript form Literature, 
 in Sir George Grey's library at Cape Town. The 
 materials here stored for future use, perhaps long after the 
 race itself has vanished for ever, comprise no less than 84 thick 
 volumes of 3600 double-column pages, besides an unfinished 
 Bushman dictionary with 11,000 entries. There are two great 
 sections, (i) Myths, fables, legends and poetry, with tales about 
 the sun and moon, the stars, the Mantis and other animals, 
 legends of peoples who dwelt in the land before the Bushmen, 
 songs, charms, and even prayers ; (2) Histories, adventures of 
 
 1 Such are, going north ^rom below Walvisch Bay, Chuntop, Kuisip, 
 Swakop, Ugab, Huab, Uniab, Hoanib, Kaurasib, and Khomeb. 
 - Eth. p. 249. 
 
124 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 men and animals, customs, superstitions, genealogies, and 
 so on. 
 
 In the tales and myths the sun, moon, and animals speak 
 
 either with their own proper clicks, or else use the 
 
 Hotte'Iltot ordinary clicks in some way peculiar to themselves. 
 
 Language ^f j^^s Bleck tells US that the tortoise changes clicks 
 
 and Clicks. , , i T • i i 
 
 in labials, the ichneumon in palatals, the jackal 
 substitutes Hnguo-palatals for labials, while the moon, hare, and 
 ant-eater use "a most unpronounceable click" of their own. 
 How many there may be altogether, not one of which can be 
 properly uttered by Europeans, nobody seems to know. But 
 grammarians have enumerated nine, indicated each by a graphic 
 sign as under : — 
 
 Cerebral ! Palatal... \ 
 
 Dental | Lateral (Faucal) i| 
 
 Guttural ] Labial [] 
 
 Spiro-dental 7 Linguo-palatal Q 
 
 Undefined x 
 
 From Bushman — a language in a state of flux, fragmentary as 
 the small tribal or rather family groups that speak it — these strange 
 inarticulate sounds passed to the number of four into the remotely 
 related Hottentot, and thence to the number of three into the 
 wholly unconnected Zulu-Xosa. But they are heard nowhere else 
 to my knowledge except amongst the newly-discovered Wasan- 
 dawi people of South Masailand. At the same time we know 
 next to nothing of the Negrito tongues, and it would be strange if 
 clicks did not form an element in their phonetic system also, at 
 least on the assumption of a common origin of all these dwarfish 
 races. 
 
 M. G. Bertin, to whom we are indebted for an excellent 
 
 monograph on the Bushman^, rightly remarks that 
 
 Bushman \^q [^ j^qj- j^^ Iq^^^ mentally, so debased as he has 
 
 mental . •" 
 
 Characters. been described by the early travellers and by the 
 
 neighbouring Bantus and Boers, by whom he has 
 
 always been despised and harried. ''His greatest love is for 
 
 freedom, he acknowledges no master, and possesses no slaves. 
 
 ^ The Btishmen and their Language, in Jour. R. Asiatic Soc. xviil. Part I. 
 
IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. 1 2$ 
 
 It is this love of independence which made him prefer the 
 wandering life of a hunter to that of a peaceful agriculturist or 
 shepherd, as the Hottentot. He rarely builds a hut, but prefers 
 for abode the natural caves he finds in the rocks. In other 
 localities he forms a kind of nest in the bush — hence his name of 
 Bushman — or digs with his nails subterranean caves, from which 
 he has received the name of ' Earthman.' His garments consist 
 only of a small skin. His weapons are still the spear, arrow and 
 bow in their most rudimentary form. The spear is a mere branch 
 of a tree, to which is tied a piece of bone or flint ; the arrow is 
 only a reed treated in the same way. The arrow and spear-heads 
 are always poisoned, to render mortal the slight wounds they 
 inflict. He gathers no flocks, which would impede his movements, 
 and only accepts the help of dogs as wild as himself. The 
 Bushmen have, however, one implement, a rounded stone per- 
 forated in the middle, in which is inserted a piece of wood ; with 
 this instrument, which carries us back to the first age of man, 
 they dig up a few edible roots growing wild in the desert. To 
 produce -fire, he still retains the primitive system of rubbing two 
 pieces of wood — another prehistoric survival." 
 
 Touching their name, it is obvious that these scattered groups, 
 without hereditary chiefs or social organisation of 
 any kind, could have no collective designation. Race-names. 
 The term Khuai, of uncertain meaning, but pro- 
 bably to be equated with the Hottentot Khoi, "Men," is the 
 name only of a single group, though often applied to the whole 
 race. Saan, their Hottentot name, is the plural of Sa, a term 
 also of uncertain origin ; Ba-roa, current amongst the Bechuanas, 
 has not been explained, while the Zulu Abatwa would seem to 
 connect them even by name with Wolf's and Stanley's Batwa of 
 the Congo forest region. Other so-called tribal names (there are 
 no " tribes " in the strict sense of the word) are either nicknames 
 imposed upon them by their neighbours, or else terms taken from 
 the localities, as amongst the Fuegians\ 
 
 1 Eth. p. 9. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE OCEANIC NEGROES: PAPUASIANS (PAPUANS AND 
 MELANESIANS); AUSTRALIANS; TASMANIANS; NEGRITOES. 
 
 General Ethnical Relations in Oceania— The terms Papuan, Melanesian 
 and Papuasian defined — The Papuasian Domain Past and Present — 
 Primitive Culture — Totemic Myths — Temperament — Cannibalism — 
 Aquatic, Arboreal, and Communal dwellings — Religious ideas — The Mela- 
 nesian Spirit World —Social Institutions — Cannibalism and Head-hunting 
 — Freemasonry — The Neiv Caledonians — Physical Characters — The Stone 
 Age — Early Migrations — The Food Question — Transmigration and Pes- 
 simism — Western Papuasia — Ethnical Elements — Table of the Islands 
 ethnically disposed^A region of Transition by Displacements and Cross- 
 ings—Papuan and Malay Contrasts — Ethnical and Biological Divides — 
 Australians and Tasmanians — A Region of long Isolation and Ethnical 
 Uniformity — Early peopling of Australia — Unity of Australian Speech — 
 Numeral System — A Typical Hunting Race — Gesture-Speech — Mental 
 Capacity — Religious Ideas— Mythical Heroes^Treatment of the Women 
 — Class Marriages — Communal Marriage System— -Australian Humour 
 and Mimicry — The Tasmanians — Undeveloped Speech — The Fire Myth 
 — Rude Implements — Diet — Dwellings — Temperament — The Oceanic 
 Negritoes — The Andamanese — Stone Age — Religious Beliefs — Cosmo- 
 gony — Speech — The Negritoes of the Malay Peninsula : Semangs, 
 Sakais — Myths — Physical Appearance — Usages — Speech — Stone Age in 
 the Malay Peninsula — The Negritoes of the Philippines — The Aetas — 
 Head-hunters — Untameable Aborigines — The Family everywhere the 
 Social Unit in Negritoland. 
 
 Conspectus. . 
 
 Distribu. Primeval Home. Papuasian : Malaysia, Neiv 
 
 tion in /-^ • n;r i • n ■ 
 
 Past and Gtiinca, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia.; Australian 
 
 Times. atid Tasmanian : the whole of Australia and Tasmania 
 
 respectively; Negrito : 7;/^/^ (.?), Andamans, Malay 
 
 Peninsula, Java, the Philippines, parts of New Guinea, 
 
 Timor {?). 
 
CH. v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES. 12/ 
 
 Present Range. Papuasian : East Malaysia, New 
 Guinea, Melanesia ; Australian : the unsettled parts of 
 Australia and Reservations ; Tasmanian : extinct; Ne- 
 grito : Andamans, Malay Petiinsula, Philippines. 
 
 Hair. Papuasian : black, frizzly, 7nop-like (^'Mop- Physical 
 heads "), beard scanty or absent ; Australian : pitch-black, ters. 
 very wavy or shaggy, though ofte?t nearly straight, not 
 coarse, abundant on face and chest, beard often very full; 
 Tasmanian : black, closely curled, but shorter a?id less 
 mop-like than Papuasian ; Negrito : short and tufty, like . 
 Bushman, but always jet black. 
 
 Colour. All : very deep shades of chocolate brown, 
 often verging on black, a very constant character, lighter 
 shades showing mixture. 
 
 Skull. Papuasian: extremely dolicho (68° — 72°) a7id 
 high {hypsistenocephalic), but very variable in areas of 
 mixture (70° — 84°) ; Australian and Tasmanian : dolicho 
 (70° — 72°.) and low (Neanderthal type) ; Negrito : brachy 
 
 (80-85°). 
 
 ' Jaws. Papuasian : moderately or not at all progna- 
 thous ; Australian, Tasmanian, and Negrito : generally 
 prognathous, some {Semang) in the highest degree. Cheek- 
 bones. All : slightly pro7tiinent or eveti retreating, but 
 Australian often rather high. Nose. Papuasian : large, 
 straight, even aquiline in true Papuans; Australian, 
 Tasmanian, and Negrito : triangular, very short, flat^ 
 broad at base and deep-rooted, wide nostrils (platyrrhine) 
 with large thick cartilage. Eyes. All : moderately large, 
 round and black or very deep brown, with dirty yellow- 
 ish cornea, generally deep-set with strong overhanging 
 arches ; Australian : very close-set a?td often bloodshot^ 
 giving a savage^ expression. 
 
 Stature. Papuasian, Australian, and Tasmanian : 
 above the average, but variable, with rather wide range 
 frofn K^ft. 4 in. to 5//. 10 in. or 6ft.; Negrito: tmder- 
 sized, but taller than African Negrito {\ft. 6 in. to sfi-)- 
 
 Temperament. Paouasian : very excitable, voluble Mental 
 
 C 1 ' • • r J. Charac- 
 
 ajid laughter-loving, fairly intelligent and imaginative, but ters. 
 
128 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 even more cruel than the African Negro ; Australian and 
 Tasmanian : distinctly less excitable and intelligent^ but also 
 far less cruel, captives never tortured ; Negrito : active, 
 quick-witted or cunning within narrow limits, naturally 
 kind and gentle. 
 
 Speech. Papuasian, Australian, and Tasmanian : 
 agglutinating with postfixes, many stock languages in West 
 Papuasia, apparently one only in East Papuasia {Mela- 
 nesian), and in Australia; Negrito : scarcely known 
 except in Andamans, where agglutination both by class 
 prefixes and by postfixes has acquired a phenomenal de- 
 velopmefit. 
 
 Religion. Everywhere except i7i East Papuasia {spirit- 
 worship, animism) almost absent, or at an extremely low 
 stage of evolution ; sacrificial rites and priestcraft, but not 
 witchcraft, entirely absent. 
 
 Culture, Papuasian : slightly developed ; agriculture 
 somewhat advanced {N. Guinea, N. Caledonia); consider- 
 able ai'tistic taste and fancy shown in the wood-carving of 
 houses, canoes, outriggers, &'C. All others at the lowest 
 huntifig stage, without arts or industries of any kind ; the 
 Australian boomerang a possible exception. 
 DW^ions Papuasian; i. Western Papuasians (/rz^<? /^^/^/dr^j-) : 
 
 nearly all the New Guinea natives ; Aru and other insular 
 groups thence westwards to Flores ; Torres Straits and 
 Louisiade Islands. 2. Eastern Papuasians : 7iearly all 
 the natives of Melanesia from Bismarck Archipelago to 
 New Caledonia, zvith mostofY\]\. 
 
 Australians : hundreds of tribal groups, without any 
 characters sufficiently marked to constitute distinct eth?iical 
 divisions anyivhere. 
 
 Negritoes: i. Andamanese Zf/^/z^^rj. 2. Semangs, 
 Sakais and other scattered groups in the Malay Peninsula. 
 3. Aetas, surviving in most of the Philippine Isla?ids. 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: PAPUASIANS. 1 29 
 
 Papuasians. 
 
 From the data supplied in Ethnology^ Chap. xi. a reconstruction 
 may be attempted of the obscure ethnical relations 
 in Australasia on the following broad lines. Ethmca?^ 
 
 1. The two main sections of the Ethiopic Relations in 
 division of mankind, now separated by the inter- 
 vening waters of the Indian Ocean, are fundamentally one. 
 
 2. To the Sudanese and Bantu sub-sections in Africa corre- 
 spond, 7nutatis mutandis, the Papuan and Australian sub-sections 
 in Oceania, the former being distinguished by great linguistic 
 diversity, the latter by considerable linguistic uniformity, and 
 both by a rather wide range of physical variety within certain 
 well-marked limits. 
 
 3. In Africa the physical varieties are due mainly to Semitic 
 and Hamitic grafts on the Negro stock ; in Oceania mainly to 
 Mongol (Malay) and Caucasian (Indonesian) grafts on the same 
 Negro stock. 
 
 4. The Negrito element in Africa has its counterpart in 
 ari analogous Negrito element in Oceania (Andamanese, Sakais, 
 Aetas). 
 
 5. In both regions the linguistic confusion is mainly confined 
 to a single compact area (Sudan and New Guinea), and in both 
 presents similar features — a large number of languages differing 
 profoundly in their grammatical structure and vocabularies, but all 
 belonging to the same agglutinative order of speech, and also more 
 or less to the same phonetic system. 
 
 6. In both regions the linguistic uniformity is similarly con- 
 fined to one or two geographical areas (Bantuland in Africa; 
 Australia and Melanesia in Oceania) ; but while the uniformity 
 is almost absolute in Bantuland and Melanesia, it is limited in 
 Australia to identical agglutinative and phonetic systems with 
 more or less grammatical and lexical diversity \ 
 
 7. In Bantuland and Australia the two respective linguistic 
 
 ^ Yet the late Horatio Hale, who had given much attention to the subject, 
 held that all the Australian tongues sprang from one stock, which was itself 
 of Dravidian origin. {Languages a Test of Mental Capacity, in Transactions 
 R. Sac. of Canada, 1891.) 
 
130 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 systems show but faint if any resemblances to any other known 
 tongues, whereas the Melanesian group is but one branch, though 
 the most archaic, of the vast Malayo-Polynesian Family, diffused 
 over the Indian and Pacific Oceans. 
 
 8. Owing to their linguistic, geographical, and to some extent 
 
 their physical and social differences, it is desirable to 
 The terms ^rcat the Papuans and Melanesians as two distinct 
 
 Papuan, ' 
 
 Melanesian though closely related sub-groups, and to restrict 
 defined!""^^^*" the use of the terms Papuan and Melanesian 
 accordingly, while both may be conveniently com- 
 prised under the general or collective term Papuasian. 
 
 9. Here, therefore, by Papuans will be understood the true 
 aborigines of New Guinea with its eastern Louisiade dependency \ 
 and in the west many of the Malaysian islands as far as Flores 
 inclusive, where the black element and non-Malay speech pre- 
 dominate ; by Melanesians, the natives of Melanesia as commonly 
 understood, that is, the "Bismarck" Archipelago (New Britain, 
 New Ireland and Duke of York) ; the Solomon Islands ; Santa 
 Cruz ; the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, Loyalty, and Fiji, where 
 the black element and Malayo-Polynesian speech prevail almost 
 exclusively. Papuasia will thus comprise the insular world from 
 Flores to New Caledonia, forming geologically a northern and 
 north-eastern extension of the Australian Continent. 
 
 Such appear to be the present limits of the Papuasian 
 domain, which formerly included Micronesia also 
 sian Domrii^' (^^e Marianne, Pelew, and Caroline groups), and 
 Present'^ possibly extended over the whole of Polynesia as 
 
 far as Easter Island. The results of the Funafuti 
 boring (1897) "indicate almost without doubt that Polynesia 
 is an area of comparatively recent subsidence V' so that the 
 insular remnants of that drowned continent may still have been 
 
 ^ That is, the indigenous Papuans, who appear to form the great bulk of 
 the New Guinea populations, in contradistinction to the immigrant Melane- 
 sians (Motu and others), who are numerous especially along the south-east 
 coast of the mainland and in the neighbouring Louisiade and D'Entrecasteaux 
 Archipelagoes. {Et/i. p. 287 sq.) But even here the Papuans form the 
 substratum, and despite present overlappings are no doubt the true aborigines. 
 
 - R. Lydekker, Knowledge, Jan. i, 1898. 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: PAPUASIANS. 131 
 
 contiguous enough to have been reached by the early Papuasian 
 wanderers from Malaysia. 
 
 The theory of the comparatively recent occupation of the 
 insular world by the dark races must now be abandoned. A 
 prolonged study, remarks Dr E. T. Hamy, conveys the impression 
 that the Melanesians [Papuasians] are a very old ethnic group, 
 here and there modified on the spot by crossings with populations 
 always on the move (Malays, Bugis, &c.). Everywhere the priority 
 of the Melanesians is manifest ; their origins are lost in the depths 
 of an unfathomable past^ and this vast antiquity is attested also 
 by the multitude of languages often unintelligible outside a narrow 
 district, and by the highly differentiated usages of the insular groups. 
 
 Yet there are indications that before their dispersion from the 
 Malaysian cradleland eastwards, the Papuasians had 
 reached a stage of culture high enough to at least cuiture!^^* 
 build canoes and houses, these terms {waka, rumd) 
 having an immense range in endless dialectic form from the 
 Malay Peninsula through the Eastern Archipelago to the Loyalty 
 group at the southern extremity of Melanesia. They do not occur 
 aniongst the peoples of non-Malay speech in New Guinea, and 
 these aborigines, the true Papuans, stand in some respects almost 
 on the lowest rung of the social ladder. Miklukho-Maclay found 
 the natives of the north-west coast near Astrolabe Bay at the 
 lowest stage of culture, with no knowledge of the metals, all their 
 implements being of stone, wood, or bones. They could not even 
 kindle a fire, which when extinguished in a hut had to be brought 
 from the nearest hearth, and if in all the huts then from the 
 nearest friendly village. Their grandfathers remembered a time 
 when they had no fire, and ate their food quite raw. The dead 
 were not buried if a fire could be kept up for two or three weeks 
 to dry the body, which was placed near it in a sitting posture, 
 covered with coco-palm leaves and guarded by the wife^ 
 
 1 " Leurs origines se perdent dans les profondeurs d'un insondable passe " 
 {Les Races iiegres, in V Anthropologic, 1897, p. 257 sq.) See also W. Volz, 
 Beitrdge zur Anthrop. der Siidsee, in Archiv f. Anthrop. Nov. 1894, where it 
 is contended that the Melanesians formerly occupied all the Pacific Ocean, 
 having reached it from Malaysij^n pre- Malay times. 
 
 '^ Nature, Dec. 7, 1882, p. 137. 
 
 1 9 -2 
 
132 man: past and present. [chap. 
 
 Almost everywhere the tribal organization is extremely loose', 
 their social institutions primitive and barbarous to 
 Myths'!"^'^ the last degree, and their religious notions, if the 
 
 expression can be used at all, crude almost beyond 
 belief. Even the totemic systems are undeveloped, as we see 
 from the attitude of the Masingaramu people of the south-east 
 coast towards their "god," the sible (crocodile), who maybe killed 
 but not eaten. 
 
 They have a myth about one Usai, who once heard singing 
 and talking in his own language, and found it was a crocodile 
 playing with his two little ones. He therefore concluded it must 
 be a god, who ought to be secured for the tribe. Next day all 
 the people went and asked him to be their god, but although they 
 promised to keep him in food, he declined the honour. So Nugu, 
 as he was called, was seized with Ulbe, one of his sons, and 
 brought to the village, where, in the absence of their parents, 
 some of the children disappeared every now and then. When 
 their loss was traced to Nugu, it was agreed to supply him with 
 pigs on his giving his Avord to leave the children alone. The 
 effigies of Nugu and Ulbe are still preserved, and at the hunting 
 feasts are set up in the circle of dancers, refreshed with libations 
 and greased with pig's fat. "The memory of Nugu is also per- 
 petuated in the figure of a man which is kept in the Chief's house, 
 and is the great totem of the tribe ^." 
 
 Like all true Negroes the New Guinea people pass readily from 
 comedy to tragedy, displaying in their temperament 
 ment"^"*' ^ Strange blend of boisterous animal spirits and 
 fiendish cruelty. When a neighbouring coast village 
 has to be raided for blood vengeance, the warriors in the canoes 
 get up a tremendous din, shouting and singing to Eaboahine, 
 " the man in the moon," banging the sides of the canoes, beating 
 the drums, and blowing the conch-shell. If the attack is successful 
 the kilHng and plundering is " accompanied by the most infernal 
 yelling and shouting," which is renewed on reaching the canoes 
 
 1 No priestcraft or statecraft, no totemistic clans except in Torres Straits {?), 
 no hereditary chiefs except in the Trobriand Group (Ray and Haddon). 
 
 2 B. A. Healy, Official Report, British New Guinea, 1895, Appendix T, 
 pf! 58 sq. 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: PAPUASIANS. 133 
 
 with more hilarious jubilation, dancing, drum-beating, conch- 
 blowing, and so on. 
 
 Then the wretched captives' palms are pierced, a string 
 passed through the holes and the hands tied together at the 
 back. On the return voyage they are jeered at and taunted 
 with the prospect of torture, and when the flotilla arrives they 
 are thrown into the water and fished out by those on the 
 beach, sticking barbed spears into the less vulnerable fleshy 
 parts, the use of hands being barred by custom. In the village 
 they are put on mats, a rope secured to a tree is passed round 
 their necks to make them sit with head erect, and their hands 
 held down, while the nearest female relative of the man to be 
 avenged steps forward armed with a sharp-pointed stick. "Is 
 it with this right eye," she asks, "that you have seen my son 
 [or brother, &c.] captured? Is it with this right eye you 
 saw him cut to pieces, cooked and eaten? Well, this is the 
 payment for it," thrusting the stick into his right eye. All the 
 other female relatives then follow, each in her turn inflicting some 
 fresh but not deadly gash, after which he is wrapped in dry coco- 
 nut leaves, hoisted some six feet from the ground, and slowly 
 roasted with firesticks. " When the rope by which the body is 
 hung is burnt and the body falls to the ground the wildest and 
 most savage scene takes place. The natives rush with knives in 
 their hands, each slashing a piece off the body, which may be still 
 alive, in the midst of diabolical noise and yells of rejoicing^" 
 
 It is to be feared that such scenes are still rife in many parts 
 of the interior, which lie beyond the reach of the 
 
 . . . Cannibalism. 
 
 Bntish, German, and Dutch admmistrations. Even 
 in some of the coast districts cannibalism in its most repulsive 
 form was universally practised before the British occupation, and 
 the Rev. James Chalmers tells us that at a periodical feast, which 
 he had been invited to attend, he found the guests strutting about 
 " with pieces of human flesh dangling from their neck and arms.' 
 A child destined for this banquet " was spared for a future time, 
 it being considered too small-." 
 
 These and many other shortcomings are redeemed by scarcely 
 
 1 Dr Lamberto Loria, Officiat Report, 1895, Appendix S, p. 44 sq. 
 ^ Work and Adventure in Nexo Guinea^ 1885. 
 
134 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 any good qualities, at least amongst the S.E. coast peoples, and 
 Mr H. H. Romilly was inclined, after diligent inquiry, to conclude 
 that "they possess no virtues whatever^" It should, however, be 
 stated that intelligent, peaceful, and friendly tribes were met both 
 by the British and German expeditions to the interior in 1896 — 8. 
 Dr Lauterbach speaks of an upland district in the Bismarck 
 Range thickly inhabited by a settled people " very friendly and 
 communicative," who Hved in very long pile buildings in the 
 midst of coconut palm groves^; and Sir W. Macgregor met on the 
 Mount Scratchley slopes an isolated community of true Papuans 
 with frizzled hair and of dark bronze colour, who " showed 
 themselves amiable and peaceful, and the state of their arms 
 indicated that they had not been engaged in any warlike under- 
 taking for years ^." Certainly the worst accounts hitherto received 
 have been of coast tribes, such as the piratical Tarungares and 
 Wandamens of Geelvink Bay, and especially the ferocious Tugara 
 cannibals of the south coast. Even Mr Romilly speaks favourably 
 of some of their physical qualities, keen sight which detects 
 footsteps over rocky ground or through dense scrub, when to the 
 European eye no trace whatever has been left, and an almost 
 equally acute sense of hearing. 
 
 In some parts of New Guinea the local conditions and tribal 
 
 usage have given rise to a considerable variety of 
 
 Arboreau'and house architecture, comprising aquatic stations like 
 
 Communal those of prehistoric Switzerland, huge communal 
 
 Dwellings, ^ . 
 
 Structures of too primitive a type to be com- 
 pared with the casas grandes of the Pueblo Indians, and 
 arboreal dwellings perched in the forks of trees a hundred feet 
 high, provisioned to stand a siege, like those of the Central 
 Sudanese aborigines. Mr J. P. Thompson describes some of the 
 south-east coast villages as "raised upon long piles in the sea 
 from 100 to 300 yards from the beach, encompassed by water of 
 varying depths. Some of these houses are surrounded by fences, 
 and accessible by primitive steps, while others are unprotected 
 
 ^ From my Verandah in New Guinea, 1889, p. 51. 
 ^ Geogr. Jour. Jan. 1897, p. 94. 
 ^ lb. April, 1897, p. 449. 
 
v.] 'the oceanic NEGROES: PAPUASIANS. 1 35 
 
 and present most curious architectural forms with their grotesque 
 top structures perched upon long piles \" 
 
 About the lower Fly River and the Gulf of Papua this observer 
 tells us that each village usually possesses one house over 500 feet 
 in length, usually divided by great passages running right through 
 the centre, with lateral subdivisions, "so that the interior section 
 resembles that of a stable with its numerous stalls. These sub- 
 divisions possess fire-places, which are used for cooking the 
 family food. The fire is usually kept burning day and night to 
 keep away mosquitoes and other obnoxious insects^." Although 
 provided with end and several side doors, these buildings, which 
 stand on piles above the surface of the ground, are always dark 
 and cheerless, while the arboreal structures are at least bright and 
 breezy. " These aerial dwellings are constructed in the highest 
 trees about 100 feet above the ground, and approached by almost 
 perpendicular ladders constructed of long spliced saplings lashed 
 18 inches apart by cross-bars at every 15 inches. These houses, 
 supplemented by detached platforms, are stocked with food and 
 weapons of defence, and constantly occupied by their owners, 
 who are so intimidated by the raids of their slayers that they 
 leave their dwellings no longer than they can possibly help for the 
 purpose of procuring their necessary food ^" 
 
 To Mr Romilly's book is prefixed an introduction on " New 
 Guinea Folklore" by Mr Andrew Lang, who 
 questions the author's statement that ''the super- ideai!^'°"^ \ 
 stitions of the Papuans can hardly be said to 
 resemble any form of religion," adding that " we know from other 1 
 sources that Papuans in Melanesia have the general elements of ; 
 religion, like other people ^" This is a good illustration of the 
 necessity of restricting the use of the term Papuan to the 
 aborigines of New Guinea and neighbouring islands, and main- 
 taining the distinction between them and the true Melanesians of 
 
 ^ British New Guinea, 1892, p. 56. For the raison d'etre of these aquatic 
 stations see Eth. p. 120 — i. 
 
 2 Ib.^. 121. Ahnost exactly similar dwellings occur in Geelvink Bay on 
 the north-west coast {Cruise ofMarchesa, p. 279). 
 
 3 lb. p. 51. ^ 
 ■* P. xvi. 
 
136 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Malayo-Polynesian speech. Had Mr Lang not overlooked this 
 point, he would have seen that the New Guinea natives, the true 
 Papuans, may well be without any intelligible form of religion, 
 while the Melanesian Papuans, as he calls them, have the elements 
 of religion " like other people." Their Malayo-Polynesian speech 
 alone shows that they must for ages have been in close contact 
 with the Indonesians, from whom they have acquired something 
 more than " the elements of religion." 
 
 Convincing proof of this is supplied by such works as Mr 
 
 C. M. Woodford's A Naturalist amofig the Head- 
 Mlwsian Hunters (1890), Dr H. B. Guppy's The So/ojnon 
 Spirit World. Islands afid their Natives (1887), and especially the 
 
 Rev. Mr Codrington's The Melanesians (1891). 
 The last named shows that, although for lack of an adequate 
 native term the Melanesian Mission has had everywhere to use 
 the English word God, all the Melanesians have a religious system 
 developed enough to distinguish between spirits, i.e. " super- 
 natural beings that never were in a human body," and ghosts, 
 i.e. "men's spirits that have left the body^" There is moreover 
 the universal belief in mana, a supernatural power or influence, 
 which, though impersonal, is always connected with some persons, 
 spirits or ghosts, who direct or control it. As far as I can under- 
 stand Mr Codrington's explanation, this mana is a kind of 
 spiritual force or virtue, somewhat analogous to the Augustinian 
 grace, transmitted from the higher powers to man either directly, 
 or through some material object — a stone of peculiar shape, a 
 tuft of leaves or the like — the possession of which secures luck 
 and success in this life, just as the material water of baptism 
 opens the way to happiness in the next. In any case such a 
 metaphysical conception reveals an immense advance on the 
 gross anthropomorphism of the New Guinea Papuans. 
 
 A similar subtle line of thought is manifested in the ideas 
 associated with sacrifice, prayer, invocation, dreams, prophecy, 
 omens, death and burial rites. Lolomboetogitogi, abode of the 
 dead, shows curious analogies with the Hades of the ancients. 
 In Lepers' Island it is reached, like Avernus, by descent through 
 a volcanic vent near a lake, where ghosts assemble, and where the 
 
 1 P. 121. 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: PAPU ASIANS. 1 37 
 
 new-comers are received by Nggalevu, the ghostly ruler of the 
 place. On the far side of the lake, whither no man is known to 
 have come, clouds of steam rise through another cleft, a proof 
 that Nggalevu has heard the cries of the shades who have climbed 
 an overhanging tree and called aloud to him for a sign that he is 
 there. In shade-land are trees and houses where dwell the dead, 
 though they may still visit the gUmpses of the moon, and are seen 
 like fire at night, or like dead tree-fern trunks right in the path of 
 the wayfarer, who fears to go farther into the gloomy woodlands. 
 Some of these apparitions are evil-minded, and prey on the living 
 to carry them away to Lolomboetogitogi, where all live a happy if 
 an empty life, free at least from sorrow and earthly woes. 
 
 Yet most of these Melanesians, capable of assimilating if not 
 inventing such dreams and even sublime fancies, 
 are utter savages, less cruel perhaps than some of ^ ^°5^^,l 
 
 =• ' r r- Institutions. 
 
 the full-blood Papuans, but in many respects not 
 appreciably superior to the average New Guinea native. The 
 most careful observers are unable to free them from the charge of 
 extreme treachery, head-hunting, and other atrocious practices, 
 although some allowance may still be made for these islanders, 
 long exposed to the sudden raids of white kidnappers in quest of 
 "contract" labour for the Peruvian and (formerly) the Queens- 
 land plantations. 
 
 The extent to which cannibalism prevailed till lately in Fiji 
 may be judged from the fact that, for some offence cannibalism 
 against the paramount chief, a whole tribe in Viti and Head- 
 Levu was condemned to be cooked alive in ovens 
 and eaten by batches at each recurrent taro feast. A great part 
 of the population, bound by the oral common law to bide their 
 time, had thus been consumed, when the survivors were rescued 
 by the British occupation of the Archipelago in 1874. Now the 
 Fijians all profess Christianity, Protestant or Roman Catholic, 
 and the dethroned king Thakombau, who had in his time devoured 
 no inconsiderable number of his heathen subjects, became a devout 
 member of the Wesleyan congregation. 
 
 Head-hunting, popularly supposed to be peculiar to the 
 Bornean Dyaks, has on ^e contrary a very wide range, from the 
 eastern Himalayas right through Malaysia to the utmost limits of 
 
138 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Papuasia. It is rife in the Solomon group, where Dr Guppy tells 
 us that " the chiefs of New Georgia or Rubiana extend their raids 
 to Ysabel, Florida, and Guadalcanar, and thus perform voyages 
 over a hundred miles in length. Within the radius of these raids 
 no native can be said to enjoy the security of his own existence 
 for a single day. In the villages of Rubiana may be seen heaps 
 of skulls testifying to the success of previous expeditions. Capt. 
 Cheyne, when visiting Simbo or Eddystone Island in 1844, found 
 that the natives had just returned from a successful expedition, 
 bringing with them ninety-three heads of men, women, and 
 children'." 
 
 As in Borneo, the practice is not necessarily associated with 
 cannibalism, and heads are often sought either for the honour 
 of the prize, or in proof of prowess, or for some ceremonial 
 purpose. Thus a new canoe has in some places to be baptized 
 in blood before it can be endowed with the efficacious grace of 
 mana. Human sacrifices have also to be provided for, and not 
 only heads but living captives are often carried off and kept in 
 reserve for some great occasion, such as the death of a chief, the 
 foundation of a house, or the launching of a war canoe. 
 
 That indifference to physical pain when inflicted on others, 
 so characteristic of all Papuasians, is seen in a method of scarifying 
 which is not, however, pecuhar to the Solomon group. "The 
 faces of both men and women," writes Mr Woodford, "are fre- 
 quently ornamented all over with cicatrices either circular or 
 chevron-shaped. The operation is a painful and costly one, as 
 the professional tattooer has to be highly paid for his trouble, 
 and not every child's friends can afford the fee demanded. The 
 instrument used is the claw of the flying-fox. The unfortunate 
 patient is not allowed to sleep for two or three nights before 
 the operation is performed, and then, when he is ready to drop 
 from weariness, the tattooer begins his work, and completes it at 
 one sitting.... A child was brought for my inspection whose face 
 had just been finished off. It was in a painful state of nervous 
 irritation, and the face swelled to an enormous size. A hole was 
 scraped for it at the edge of the sea, where it could lie on its 
 
 1 Op. cit. p. 16. 
 
 I 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: PAPU ASIANS. 1 39 
 
 Stomach and from time to time dip its fevered face into the 
 water. In a day or two it had quite recovered \" 
 
 In Guadalcanar Mr Woodford discovered a wide-spread system 
 of what for lack of a better term he calls "castes," 
 but which seems to be a kind of freemasonry with rnasonr 
 several "lodges" in that and some of the adjacent 
 islands. The Kema, Ravu, or Kua, as they are variously called 
 by the natives in a general way, have each its proper name, such 
 as Gambata^ the largest and most powerful, in Guadalcanar ; 
 Kiki in Gela ; Lakoli^ Kakau and elsewhere. Tribes of different 
 speech may be members of the same lodge, and it is owing to 
 the protection afforded by them that the associates are able to 
 pass freely from village to village even when war is raging between 
 them. Mr S. H. Ray refers somewhere to the Supwe, a similar 
 institution widely diffused throughout the New Hebrides and the 
 Banks group, a kind of social club, which gives a certain prestige 
 or influence to its members, and has a ^^;;/^/(" lodge") in every 
 village, accessible only to the associates. It is interesting to note 
 that the Motu people of British New Guinea, originally from 
 Melanesia^ call the large communal house in the village dtilm, 
 probably the same word as supwe, d and s being interchangeable, 
 as in Motu dala = Fiji and Rotuma sala, and Sesake mafa ki sola. 
 I do not know whether the club exists as an institution in Motu- 
 land, but the name might have been transferred to the separate 
 communal building. 
 
 Such protection is much needed in a region where the main 
 object of their existence " is to take each other's heads. They 
 are like wild beasts always prowling about for prey, but rarely 
 attacking unless they feel that they have their victim in their power 
 without risk to themselves. Theirs is the same motive that animated 
 the native clergyman whom I once saw in Fiji take a live rat, de- 
 liberately chop off its four feet with his knife, and then allow it to 
 struggle, maimed, away. The same motive that animates school- 
 boys to torture frogs, that inspires the Englishman's inquiry, ' What 
 shall we kill to-day ? ' — the destructive instinct that, after centuries 
 of civilisation, still lurks in our nature^" 
 
 1 Op. cit. p.^i. ^ Eth. p. 287. 
 
 . 3 11^ p. 43—4. 
 
140 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 The " Kanakas," as the natives of New Caledonia and the 
 Loyalty group are wrongly ' called by their present 
 Csaedonians. rulers, have been carefully studied by some French 
 anthropologists. Perhaps the best account of them 
 is that of M. Augustin Bernard^ based on the observations of 
 de Rochas, Bourgard, Vieillard, Bertillon, Meinicke, and Keane. 
 Apart from several sporadic Polynesian groups in the Loyalties^, 
 all are typical Melanesians, long-headed with very 
 chl^racterL broad face at least in the middle, narrow boat- 
 shaped skull (Ceph. Index 70)'', large, massive lower 
 jaw, often with two supplementary molars ^ colour a dark chocolate, 
 often with a highly characteristic purple tinge; but de Rochas' 
 statement that for a few days after birth infants are of a hght 
 reddish yellow hue lacks confirmation ; hair less woolly but much 
 longer than the Negro; beard also longish and frizzly, the pepper- 
 corn tufts with simulated bald spaces being an effect due to the 
 assiduous use of the comb*^; very prominent superciliary arches 
 and thick eyebrows, whence their somewhat furtive look ; mean 
 
 ^ Kanaka is a Polynesian word meaning "man," and should therefore be 
 restricted to the brown Indonesian group, but it is indiscriminately applied by 
 French writers to all South Sea Islanders, whether black or brown. This 
 misuse of the term has found its way into some English books of travel even 
 in the corrupt French form "canaque." 
 
 - UArchipel de la Nouvelle Caledonie, Paris, i!^95. 
 
 ^ Lifu, Mare, Uvea, and Isle of Pines. These Polynesians appear to have 
 all come originally from Tonga, first to Uvea Island (Wallis), and thence in 
 the 1 8th century to Uvea in the Loyalties, cradle of all the New Caledonian 
 Polynesian settlements. 
 
 ^ This low index is characteristic of most Papuasians, and reaches the 
 extreme of dolichocephaly in the extinct Kai-Colos of Fiji (65°), and amongst 
 some coast Papuans of New Guinea measured by Miklukho-Maclay. But this 
 ■ observer found the character so variable in New Guinea that he was unable to 
 use it as a racial test. In the New Hebrides, Louisiades, and Bismarck group 
 also he found many of the natives to be round-headed, with indices as high as 
 80 and 85 ; and even in the Solomon Islands Dr Guppy records cephalic 
 indices ranging from 73 to 82 with a mean of 81 in Treasury Island {iVature, 
 April 26, 1883). Thus this feature is no more constant amongst the Oceanic 
 than it is amongst the African Negroes. (See also M. Maclay's paper in Proc. 
 Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 1882, p. 171 sq.) 
 
 5 Eth. p. 184. 
 
 *' Eth. pp. 170, 425. 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: PAPUASIANS. I4I 
 
 height 5 ft. 4 in. ; speech Melanesian with three marked varieties, 
 that of the south-eastern districts being considered the most rudi- 
 mentary member of the whole Melanesian group \ 
 
 New Caledonia is one of the few places in the Pacific where 
 distinct evidence has been found of an early Stone 
 Age corresponding to that of Palaeolithic times in ^J^^^ ^*°"^ 
 the northern hemisphere. Serpentine hatchets have 
 from time to time been brought to light in pleistocene beds^ 
 one at Kutomo in the coralline limestone associated with 
 Buli??ius senilis and other fossil or sub-fossil shells, and at 
 Bonrail M. Glaumont discovered some hearths under 5 feet of 
 alluvia, and at a depth of 20 feet four clay cooking-vessels Hke 
 those still in use. Alluvial matter, however, accumulates rapidly 
 in this district I 
 
 The present natives, if not the direct descendants of the 
 people of the Stone Age, must still have arrived 
 at a very remote period, probably following the jvifg^iSons. 
 general movement of migration from Malaysia. 
 The direction of the winds offers no obstacle, nor are the trades 
 of the Pacific regular enough to prevent such migratory move- 
 ments from west to east. The land connections were also, as 
 seen, more continuous than at present, while the taro and yam — 
 apparently of South Asiatic origin, but now widely diffused over 
 the Pacific islands — would seem to indicate the route followed 
 by the early human immigrants. 
 
 From the state of their industries, in some respects the rudest, 
 in others amongst the most advanced in Melanesia, it may be 
 inferred that after their arrival the New Caledonians, like tire 
 Tasmanians, the Andamanese, and some other insular groups, 
 remained for long ages almost completely secluded from the rest 
 of the world. Owing to the poverty of the soil 
 the struggle for food must always have been severe. Question.° 
 Hence the most jealously guarded privileges of the 
 chiefs were associated with questions of diet, while the paradise 
 of the dead was a region where they had abundance of food and 
 could gorge on yams. Their stomach, like that of the Bushmen, 
 
 1 Bernard, p. 262.^ " P- 270. 
 
 3 Rev. (VEthnogr. 1889, p. 714. 
 
142 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 seems to have acquired an exceptional power of expansion and 
 contraction, enabling them at one time to consume incredible 
 quantities of food, at another to go fasting for days together 
 without feeling any ill effects from such violent oscillations 
 between want and surfeit. They were also earth-eaters, while 
 cannibalism and the institution of taboo, if originally associated 
 with religion, had certainly lost that character in New Caledonia, 
 where they are mainly connected with the eternal food question. 
 
 In the absence of game and cattle the natives could become 
 neither hunters nor pastors, and were driven to fishing and 
 agriculture to supplement the scanty resources of the land flora 
 and fauna. Hence it is as fishers and husbandmen that they 
 became one of the most advanced peoples in the Oceanic world. 
 The skill displayed in the irrigation of their taro fields was rivalled 
 only by the natives of Fiji. 
 
 Like the Levites amongst the Jews, the office of takata (priest 
 
 or wizard) was hereditary, and the chief feature of 
 
 Trans- their religion was the cult of the dead. In fact the 
 
 migration and 
 
 Pessimism. gods, all evil, wcrc, as in Bantuland, the souls of 
 the departed, and especially of the chiefs, who 
 acquired increased power of working harm by migrating into 
 sharks, the winds, or thunder-storms. Thus the spirits of their 
 forefathers that oppressed them in life bestride the whirlwind in 
 death, and continue to harry the living by disturbing the order of 
 nature. All this developed a gloomy, sullen temperament, a 
 pessimistic mood and the ferocity of despair, as displayed especially 
 at the tribal gatherings [piln-pilu), and in the orgies after the taro 
 fe^st, which often ended in massacres and hideous scenes of 
 cannibalism. 
 
 Returning to the Papuan lands proper, in the insular groups 
 west of New Guinea we enter one of the most en- 
 p^ualfa" tangled ethnical regions in the world. Here are, no 
 
 doubt, a few islands such as the Aru group, mainly 
 inhabited by full-blood Papuans, men who furnished Wallace with 
 the models on which he built up his true Papuan type, which 
 has since been vainly assailed by so many later observers. But 
 in others — Ceram, Buru, Timor, and so on to Flores — diverse 
 ethnical and linguistic elements are intermingled in almost 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: PAPUASIANS. 143 
 
 hopeless confusion. Discarding the term "Alfuro" as of no 
 ethnical valued we find the whole area west to about 
 120° E. longitude^ occupied in varying proportions Ei^ments^ 
 by pure and mixed representatives of three distinct 
 stocks : Negro (Papuans), Mongol (Malayans), and Caucasic 
 (Indonesians). From the data supplied by Crawfurd, Wallace, 
 Forbes, Ten Kate and other trustworthy observers, I have con- 
 structed the subjoined table, in which the east Malaysian islands 
 are disposed according to the constituent elements of their in- 
 habitants^ : — 
 
 Aru Group — True Papuans dominant ; Indonesians (Korongo- 
 ei) in the interior. 
 
 Kei Group — Malayans; Indonesians; Papuan strain every- 
 where. 
 
 Timor ; Wetta ; Timor Laut — Mixed Papuans, Malayans and 
 Indonesians : no pure type anywhere. 
 
 Senvatti Group — Malayans with slight trace of black blood 
 (Papuan or Negrito). 
 
 Roti and Sumba — Malayans. 
 
 Savu — Indonesians. 
 
 Flores ; Solor ; Adofiera; Lomblen ; Pantar ; Allor — Papuans 
 pure or mixed dominant ; Malayans in the coast towns. 
 
 Bum — Malayans on coast; reputed Papuans, but more pro- 
 bably Indonesians in interior. 
 
 Ceram — Malayans on coast; mixed Malayo-Papuans inland. 
 
 Amboina; Banda — Malayans; Dutch-Malay half-breeds ("Per- 
 keniers"). 
 
 Goram — Malayans with slight Papuan strain. 
 
 Matabello ; Tior ; Nuso Telo ; Tionfoloka — Papuans with 
 Malayan admixture. 
 
 Misol — Malayo-Papuans on coast ; Papuans inland. 
 
 Tidor; Ternate; Sulla; Makian — Malayans. 
 
 Batjan — Malayans ; Indonesians. 
 
 1 Eth. p. 328. 
 
 2 But excluding Celebes, where no trace of Papuan elements has been 
 discovered. 
 
 3 For details see Dr F.^H. H. Guillemard, Australasia, Vol. ii. and 
 Reclus, Vol. XIV. 
 
144 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Gilolo — Mixed Papuans ; Indonesians in the north. 
 Waigiu ; Sahvatti ; Batanta — Malayans on the coast; 
 Papuans inland. 
 
 From this apparently chaotic picture, which in some places, 
 such as Timor, presents every gradation from the full-blood 
 Papuan to the typical Malay, Crawfurd concluded that the eastern 
 section of Malaysia constituted a region of transition 
 Tran^ftfin"by^ between the yellowish -brown lank- haired and the 
 Displacements darkbrown or black mop-headed stocks. In a 
 
 and Crossings. 
 
 sense this is true, but not in the sense intended by 
 Crawfurd, who by "transition" meant the actual passage by some 
 process of development from type to type independently of 
 interminglings. But such extreme transitions have nowhere taken 
 place spontaneously, so to say, and in any case could never have 
 been brought about in a small zoological area presentmg every- 
 where the same climatic conditions. Biological types may be, and 
 have been, modified in different environments, arctic, temperate, or 
 tropical zones, but not in the same zone, and if two such marked 
 types as the Mongol and the Negro are now found juxtaposed in the 
 Malaysian tropical zone, the fact must be explained by migrations 
 and displacements, while the intermediate forms are to be at- 
 tributed to secular intermingling of the extremes. Why should a 
 man, passing from one side to another of an island lo or 20 miles 
 long, be transformed from a sleek-haired brown to a frizzly- haired 
 black, or from a mercurial laughter-loving Papuan to a Malayan 
 " slow in movement and thoroughly phlegmatic in disposition, 
 rarely seen to laugh or become animated in conversation, with ex- 
 pression generally of vague wonder or weary sadness "^ ? 
 
 Wallace's classical description of these western Papuans, who 
 
 are here in the very cradleland of the race, can 
 
 Papuan and never losc its chami, and Us accuracy has been fully 
 
 Contrasts. Confirmed by all later observers. " The typical 
 
 Papuan race," he writes, "is in many respects the 
 very opposite of the Malay. The colour of the body is a deep 
 sooty-brown or black, sometimes approaching, but never quite 
 equalling, the jet-black of some negro races. The hair is very 
 
 ^ Dr S. J. Hickson, A Naturalist in North Celebes, 1889, p. 203. 
 
v.] THE .OCEANIC NEGROES: PAPU ASIANS. I45 
 
 peculiar, being harsh, dry, and frizzly, growing in little tufts or 
 curls, which in youth are very short and compact, but afterwards 
 grow out to a considerable length, forming the compact, frizzled 
 mop which is the Papuan's pride and glory.... The moral charac- 
 teristics of the Papuan appear to me to separate him as distinctly 
 from the Malay as do his form and features. He is impulsive 
 and demonstrative in speech and action. His emotions and 
 passions express themselves in shouts and laughter, in yells and 
 frantic leapings....The Papuan has a greater feeling for art than 
 the Malay. He decorates his canoe, his house, and almost every 
 domestic utensil with elaborate carving, a habit which is rarely 
 found among tribes of the Malay race. In the affections and 
 moral sentiments, on the other hand, the Papuans seem very 
 deficient. In the treatment of their children they are often 
 violent and cruel, whereas the Malays are almost invariably kind 
 and gentled" 
 
 The ethnological parting-line between the Malayan and 
 Papuasian races, as first laid down by Wallace, , , 
 
 ^ . . , ^ Ethnical and 
 
 nearly coincides with his division between the Biological 
 
 Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan floras and faunas, 
 
 the chief differences being the positions of Sumbawa and Celebes. 
 
 Both of these islands are excluded from the Papuasian realm, 
 
 but included in the Austro-Malayan zoological and botanical 
 
 regions. 
 
 Australians and Tasmanians. 
 
 Both Australians and Tasmanians are, or were, absolutely 
 conterminous with their respective insular domains, where they 
 had, till the British occupation, remained practically secluded 
 from the outer world throughout the whole course 
 
 r 1 • , , , . 1 r ^^ A Region of 
 
 01 their natural development since the first peopnng long isolation 
 of the land in the Stone Ages. Similar conditions unlform^ly^' 
 have prevailed in a large way elsewhere only in 
 America. Hence it is that the inhabitants of these isolated 
 ethnical zones alone present a certain degree of uniformity in 
 their physical and mental characters. The modifications are 
 \ 
 ^ T/ie Malay Archipelago, Chap. XL. 
 
 K. «0 
 
146 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 here everywhere such as may be accounted for on the hypothesis 
 that the present aborigines represent a blend of two, or at most 
 three ^ different elements in extremely remote times, with later 
 interminglings and fresh groupings of these same elements 
 ■ through inevitable local shiftings and disturbances, but without 
 any serious addition of further foreign elements after the first 
 settlements. 
 
 To the observer arriving on the north coast of Australia from 
 New Guinea this homogeneous character of the aborigines is 
 very striking. From a region of considerable ethnical confusion, 
 presenting all shades of transition from the full-blood Papuan to 
 the variable Melanesian, he enters a continent in which a strong 
 family likeness is at once detected between all the scattered 
 groups of its primitive inhabitants. This family likeness is more- 
 over so marked that, amid all the local differences, the natives are 
 everywhere instantly recognised as members of a single ethnical 
 division, and we at once realise the vast period of time needed for 
 the development of their highly specialised type. Their arrival is 
 referred by Mr A. W. Howitt to a time anterior to 
 
 Early ^ 
 
 Peopling of the prcscnt distribution of land and water, as they 
 must have reached their present homes by some 
 now submerged land-connection, or at all events across narrow 
 channels navigable by frail canoes or catamarans. An immense 
 period of time, he contends, is " one of the elements of any 
 solution of the problem," and during that period the natives have 
 been completely isolated within a continental area of develop- 
 ment. They arrived, he thinks, by a land-bridge either connecting 
 with the Indo-Asiatic continent, or by a land extension of the 
 Austral continent towards the north-west, or over some shallow 
 channels between Australia and those lands^. 
 
 ^ Dr O. Finsch, who studied specimens from regions as wide apart as South 
 Queensland, the Gulf of Carpentaria and West Australia, is satisfied with one : 
 " Auf Grund dieser Untersuchungen liberzeugte ich niich, dass die Australier 
 eine eigene Rasse bilden, welche den Melanesiern oder Papuas entfernter 
 stehen als letztere reinen Afrikanischen Negern " {Reise in der Siidsee, 1884, 
 p. 66). 
 
 2 Paper read at the Meeting of the Australian Ass. for the Adv. of Science, 
 Sydney, Jan. 1898. I need scarcely point out how completely these views 
 harmonise with those advanced in Eth. Chap. XI. 
 
THE OCEANIC NEGROES : AUSTRALIANS. I47 
 
 Strong support is given to this assumption by the absolutely 
 independent and uniform character of Australian 
 
 Unity of 
 
 speech. The divergences from a common aggluti- Australian 
 native form, radically distinct from any other, are ^p^^'^^' 
 far less than the divergences of the American tongues from a 
 common polysynthetic form, while the phonetic system may be 
 described as everywhere identical. A few traces of sibilants have 
 been noticed, but practically these sounds are unknown to all 
 the Australian dialects. Here we have complete accord between 
 linguistic and anatomical characters, both alike arguing for a 
 common racial origin ^ All attempts to affiliate this group to 
 the Dravidian of Southern India, or to any other, have signally 
 failed, as we see from the " proofs " of affinity with " words used 
 by the Aryan race " put forward by Mr S. Bennett, Mr Taplin and 
 others^. Thus ktradjee, a doctor, is equated with the Greek 
 X€tpovpyo9, whereas the comparison, to prove anything, should be 
 with the Greek x^^P^ ^ hand, and epyov, work, terms not found in 
 any Australian dialect. So ma/i, to strike = Hindi mak, which 
 should be mar, as mdA means month, and mah nothing at all ; and 
 it will hardly be credited that cobbera, head, is collated with English 
 cob, and Spanish cobra, y^\i\Qh. should be Portuguese, only in that 
 language cobra does not mean head, but snake. And the whole 
 process is unscientific, all the native dialects being ransacked for 
 likely words, which are then compared, not with a particular Aryan 
 tongue, but with all of them, ancient and modern, and even with 
 Hebrew, or Arabic, or "Moorish" {gibber =^ Gibr-SLltSir), which are 
 not Aryan, but Semitic. Hence, if the comparisons could be 
 established, the logical inference would be that the Australians 
 are proved by their languages to be an amalgam of Aryans and 
 Semites, living and dead, from all parts of Europe, Asia, and 
 Africa. For this reason the comparisons made by Mr Curr 
 with African Negro languages^ must also be pronounced worth- 
 less. 
 
 ^ The absence of sibilant sounds is attributed by Prof. Macalister to the 
 macrodont alveolar arch and corresponding modified tongue, which make their 
 utterance a difficult feat to accomplish {Paper, Brit. Ass. Edinburgh, 1891). 
 
 2 In R. Brough Smyth's Af^igities of Victoria, 1878, Vol. Ii. p. 5 sq. 
 
 ^ I. p. 171 sq. 
 
 10 — 2 
 
148 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 It is more profitable to note, as an indication of the level 
 of the Australian intellect, that in none of these 
 
 Sy^tem!*^*^ dialects are there any words for the numerals 
 higher than one and two, or here and there three^^ 
 beyond which y^?/r= 2 + 2, ^z;^ = many, lots, heaps, and so on. 
 Even bida, a common word for two, is used in some places for 
 three, and in others for viaiiy, as if the numerical relation were 
 altogether beyond the grasp of the native mind^ In any case 
 '* no Australian Black in his wild state can, I believe, practically 
 count as high as seven. If you lay seven pins on a table for a 
 Black to reckon, and then abstract two, he would not miss them. 
 If one were removed, he would miss it, because his manner of 
 counting by ones and twos amounts to the same as if he reckoned 
 by odds and evens^." In fact the Australian stands practically at 
 the binary stage, and has nowhere yet reached the first of the 
 three natural systems — quinary with a 5 base, decimal with 10, 
 and vigesimal with 20. 
 
 Nor can it be said that they had no need of a more highly 
 developed arithmetic system, for it would be con- 
 
 Hunters^ venient to reckon at least the number of their 
 children and wives, and (as hunters) of the contents 
 of successful "bags." Professor Richard Simon^ rightly regards 
 them as the typical hunters, in this respect unapproached by the 
 Canadian trapper, the South African Bushman, or any other 
 people savage or civiHzed. Hence in the wild state the Australian 
 is the most independent of mortals, but at the same time is 
 prevented from making any progress in culture beyond a certain 
 very low level. The difficulty of capturing game with his primitive 
 methods compels him to give his whole time to the quest 
 of food, and spend his days in roaming restlessly over wide 
 
 ^ Thus karbo = i in the Herbert Vale dialect ; but radicals beyond 2 are 
 very rare. 
 
 '^ Here we are reminded by Dr L. L. Conant that a few languages are 
 absolutely destitute of pure numerical terms. Thus the Bolivian Chiquito has 
 no true word for one, and etania, so used, really means "alone " {The Numeral 
 Concept: Its Origin and Development, 1896). 
 
 ^ E. M. Curr, The Australian Race, Melbourne, 1886, Vol. i. p. 32. 
 
 * Reiseerlebnisse, &c. in Australien, &c., Leipzig, iS()6, passim. 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: AUSTRALIANS. I49 
 
 hunting-grounds, and devising all sorts of artificial methods and 
 precautions for preventing these preserves from becoming over- 
 peopled. As in New Caledonia, the food question was at the 
 base of most social institutions. 
 
 That some system of gesture-language is current amongst the 
 natives has long been known, and Mr A. H. Howitt 
 figures in Brough Smyth ^ a few of the signs of which s^ech!*^*" 
 he had acquired a knowledge amongst the tribes of 
 Cooper's Creek. On this subject Mr Smyth himself writes : " It 
 is believed that they have several signs, known only to themselves 
 or to those amongst the whites who have had intercourse with 
 them for lengthened periods, which convey information readily 
 and accurately ^" This statement is now fully confirmed by 
 Dr Walter E. Roth, who, during his long residence amongst the 
 Queensland natives, has discovered and become proficient in a 
 tolerably complete gesture-system ranging over a wide area. It 
 seems fully as effective as the West African drum-language, 
 which has also now been mastered by Herr R. Betz in the 
 Cameriins district. Dr Roth has determined the value of no less 
 than 213 manual signs, which are in use amongst a large number 
 of tribes in the North-west-central Queensland district, and serve 
 all the purposes of a lingua franca, and, thanks to the keen vision 
 of the natives, have the further advantage of being intelligible at 
 considerable distances. These signs, which he describes and 
 figures^ are, like those taught in our deaf and dumb schools, 
 capable of expressing a wide range of thought, different plants, 
 animals, natural objects, persons, events, conditions, feelings, and 
 so forth. This gesture- speech thus differs from articulate speech 
 "only in this, that the one appeals to the sense of vision, the 
 other to that of hearing'*," and should be a complete reply to 
 those philosophers who argue that thought and spoken language 
 are one. 
 
 ^ R. Brough Smyth's Aborigines of Victoria, 1878, ii. p. 308. 
 - II. p. 4. 
 
 3 Ethnological Studies among the North- West- Central Queensland Ab- 
 origines, Brisbane, 1898, Chap.HV. with appended ilhistrations. 
 ■» Eth. p. 195. 
 
I50 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Great efforts have been made by believers in the natural 
 equality of all mankind to present the native insti- 
 
 cipacky. tutions, religious ideas, and general capacity in as 
 favourable a light as possible. Brough Smyth 
 shows plainly enough that children in the schools of Victoria are 
 capable of assimilating a certain amount of teaching, and appeal 
 is especially made to their artistic sense and power of delineation, 
 even in the wild state, as shown by the pictorial representations 
 in their caves and rock shelters. Favourite "motives" of this 
 primitive " School of Art," which compares badly with those of the 
 Bushmen and Palaeolithic cave-men, are the human hand and 
 the snake, and this is the account given of the "technique" by 
 Mr Ernest Giles: "The drawing [of the hand] is done by filling the 
 mouth with charcoal powder if the device is to be black, if red 
 with red ochre powder, damping the wall where the mark is to be 
 left, and placing the palm of the hand against it, with the fingers 
 stretched out; the charcoal or ochre powder is then blown 
 against the back of the hand; when it is withdrawn, it leaves 
 the space occupied by the hand and fingers clean, while the 
 surrounding portions of the wall are all black or red, as the case 
 may be. One device represents a snake going into a hole ; the 
 hole is actually in the rock, while the snake is painted on the 
 wall, and the spectator is to suppose that its head is just inside 
 the hole. The body of the reptile is curled round and round the 
 hole, though its breadth is out of all proportion to its length, 
 being 7 or 8 inches thick and only 2 to 3 feet long. It is painted 
 with charcoal ashes which had been mixed up with some animal's 
 or reptile's fat\" The process resembles that of our sand-engraving 
 on glass-ware. 
 
 Their sense of right and wrong Mr Giles describes as hazy, 
 
 and he is uncertain whether they have any know- 
 
 ideas!^*°"^ ledge of a Supreme Being, allowing, however, that 
 
 " nothing of the nature of worship, prayer, or 
 
 sacrifice has been observed^" Elsewhere he argues that they 
 
 1 Australia Tivice Traversed^ 1889, Vol. i. p. 78. For other processes see 
 Mr R. H. Mathews' Paper on The Rock Paintings and Carvings of the Aus- 
 tralian AlwHgines, in your. Anthrop. Inst. 1896, p. 145. 
 
 2 lb. I. p. 44. 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: AUSTRALIANS. 151 
 
 have no beliefs on the subject of God or an after-life, and that 
 those who credit them with such notions "have been imposed 
 upon, and that, until they had learnt something of Christianity 
 from missionaries and others, the Blacks had no beliefs or practices 
 of the sort'." 
 
 That this is the only possible view seems evident from the 
 crude myths and legends associated with Pundgyl, who is known 
 in various forms to many tribes, and has been selected by the 
 missionaries from the native "theogonies" as the nearest approach 
 to a deity in their religious texts ^. The Pundgyl (Bunjil) of the 
 Wawurongs of the Yarra River, has a wife, Boiboi, whose face he 
 has never seen, a son Bin-beal and a brother Pal-ly-yan, by whose 
 help he made most things. He is provided with a large knife, 
 and after making the earth he went all over it, cutting and slashing 
 it into rivers and creeks, mountains and valleys. Then, after 
 contact with the whites, there is a curious adaptation of Bunjil to 
 Biblical legends, as when people grow wicked he waxes angry, 
 raises storms and fierce winds which shake the big trees on the 
 hilltops. Thereupon he again goes about with his big knife, 
 cutting this way and that way, and men, women, and children are 
 all cut into very little pieces. But the pieces are alive, and wriggle 
 about like worms, when great storms come, and they are blown 
 about hke snowflakes. They are wafted into the clouds, and by 
 the clouds borne hither and thither all over the earth, and thus is 
 mankind dispersed. But the good men and women are carried 
 upwards and become stars, which still shine in the heavens. 
 
 But other myths point at an incipient state of ancestor- worship, 
 and Nurunderi^ the wonderful god or eponymous 
 hero of the Narringeri tribe on the Lower Murray HeJoes.**^* 
 River, is described as originally coming down the 
 Darling River, and sending back two messengers to report his 
 
 1 I. p. 45. So also Carl Lumholtz, one of our safest guides in all that 
 concerns the mental state and usages of the natives: "At all events it is certain 
 that neither idolatry nor sacrifices are to be found in Australia. Nor have the 
 natives so far as 1 know, ever been seen to pray" {Among Cannibals^ 1889, 
 p. 284). 
 
 2 Thus, Gen. l. i, GaJibro%in Pundgyl Marman monguit woorworer bar 
 beek, in a Victoria dialect (Brough Smyth, II. p. 130). 
 
152 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 arrival to the up-country people. They cross over to Lake Albert, 
 where they meet hostile tribes, and marvellous contests ensue. 
 Nurunderi throws flat stones into Lake Alexandrina, which 
 become bream, and he goes up to the Coorong, where he slays 
 a chief who has kidnapped his children. When he reaches 
 Encounter Bay his wives forsake him, but he calls upon the sea to 
 overflow, and they are all swallowed up in the waves. In the 
 end he goes up to Wyirrewarri, i.e. Cloudland, where he now 
 dwells. 
 
 Although the practice of cannibalism has been questioned, 
 Lumholtz shows that the aborigines are omnivorous in the 
 strictest sense of the word, devouring everything at all digestible, 
 from vermin and insects to man. He mentions live beetles 
 and their larvae, fleas, pediculi, grasshoppers, children (by their 
 mothers), captives, and people generally. "The Australians 
 are cannibals. A fallen foe, be it man, woman, or child, is 
 eaten as the choicest delicacy ; they know no greater luxury 
 than the flesh of a blackman^" Religious rites and ceremonial 
 customs do not apply here, the natives knowing nothing of such 
 observances. 
 
 A common test of a people's culture is the treatment of their 
 women, and in this respect the Australians must, as 
 ofThe^Wcfmen Pi"0^- R- Scmou shows ^, be ranked below the Bushman 
 and on a level with the Fuegians. When we read 
 the accounts of the barbarous treatment to which the Australian 
 lubra is habitually subjected, all our preconceived notions of the 
 "noble savage" are quickly dispelled, and we begin to wonder 
 how mankind ever succeeded in struggling upward to a higher 
 state. Brough Smyth gives us a truly pathetic account of the 
 marriage customs in vogue among the Victorian tribes : " A man 
 having a daughter of 13 or 14 years of age arranges with some 
 elderly person for the disposal of her; and, when all are agreed, she 
 is brought out and told that her husband wants her. Perhaps she 
 has never seen him but to loathe him. The father carries a spear 
 and a waddy, or a tomahawk, and, anticipating resistance, is thus 
 prepared for it. The poor girl, sobbing and sighing, and muttering 
 
 ^ Op. cit. p. roi. 
 
 ^■Die Natiir, 1896, No. 20. 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: AUSTRALIANS. 1 53 
 
 words of complaint, claims pity from those who will show none. 
 If she resists the mandates of her father, he strikes her with his 
 spear ; if she rebels and screams, the blows are repeated ; and if 
 she attempts to run away, a stroke on the head from the waddy 
 or tomahawk quiets her. The mother screams and scolds and 
 beats the ground with her kan-nan (fighting-stick) ; the dogs bark 
 and whine ; but nothing interrupts the father, who, in the per- 
 formance of his duty, is strict and mindful of the necessity of not 
 only enforcing his authority, but of showing to all that he has the 
 means to enforce it. Seizing the bride by her long hair he drags 
 her to the home prepared for her by her new owner. Further 
 resistance often subjects her to bmtal treatment. If she attempts 
 to abscond, the bridegroom does not hesitate to strike her savagely 
 on the head with his waddy, and the bridal screams and yells 
 make the night hideous'." 
 
 But the aborigines are at least exonerated by Mr Curr from 
 the charge of present or former promiscuity, in- 
 volved in the current theories on the complicated Marr^ges. 
 questions connected with the marriage-systems of 
 the Australians and other lower races. Here it is necessary to 
 distinguish carefully between i;/<^ji'-marriages and the so-called 
 "communal" or "group" marriages; the former having for their 
 sole object, not, as is commonly supposed, the prevention of 
 close consanguineous unions but the proper disposal of the stock 
 of available food^ the latter implying on the contrary absolute 
 
 1 Op. cit. I. p. 76. 
 
 2 This point seems fairly well established, and for the first time, by 
 Dr W. E. Roth {op. cit. Chap, iii.) who, thanks to his thorough knowledge 
 of the local dialects, has been able to penetrate the secret, and to show that 
 unions with near relations are not necessarily barred by the class system, while 
 marriage may be prevented between persons unconnected by any ties of blood. 
 His conclusion is that the whole intricate process is based on the food supply, 
 being developed by a kind of natural selection, with a view to make the most 
 of the total quantity at the disposal of the tribe. As in New Caledonia 
 certain items are reserved for the chiefs, so in Australia husband and wife fare 
 differently from each other, and both from their children, and the classes that 
 thus arise have to be kept up by strict marriage laws, which have in principle 
 nothing to do with degrees V consanguinity. The weak point of the current 
 theory is that it implies an interest in the permanent good of the community, 
 
154 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 promiscuity within certain wide limits in the past, and sanctioning 
 the same within narrower limits in the present. About the class- 
 marriages there is no difificulty. Their general existence is 
 established beyond all question both amongst exogamous and 
 endogamous tribes in Australia, North America, and other regions. 
 Indeed their special importance is due to the fact that strikingly 
 analogous systems still prevail in so many other remote lands, 
 "a circumstance which should go far to uphold the doctrine of 
 the unity of the human race ^" 
 
 But in the present connection their interest lies in the fact 
 that they exclude the idea of community of women, so that, were 
 class-marriages universal in Australia, Mr Curr would be right in 
 asserting that " the husband is the absolute owner of his wife 
 (or wives)^," and there would be no room for any form of legalised 
 promiscuity. This is seen from the very conditions of the class- 
 system, the chief points of which are: — i. All male and female 
 members of a class belong each to a special class determined 
 by parentage ; 2. Marriage within the several classes is barred 
 to their several members, so that no one of, say. Class A, can 
 marry anyone of that class ; 3. Marriage is restricted to certain 
 prescribed classes, so that no one of Class A can marry into any 
 other class, but only into Class B or other prescribed class. 
 4. Except in one doubtful case (the Kurnai) the children belong 
 to a class, which is not that of either parent, but results neverthe- 
 less from parentage. This leads to complications, developing 
 into a system " which seems too intricate to have been the in- 
 vention of tribes so low down in the scale of mental capacity^" 
 and leads eventually to disintegration. 
 
 But although general, the system is not universal, so that 
 
 theoretically room might be made for the group or 
 
 Marriage^"^ commuual System, first described by the Rev. Lorimer 
 
 System Fison"*, then accepted by the late Lewis H. Morgan ^ 
 
 Pretended. , , • ,^ , , . • , i 
 
 and despite Mr Curr s crushmg exposure, still taken 
 
 of which, as pointed out in Ethnology^ p. 9, primitive man can have no thought, 
 though fully alive to the necessity of providing for his daily bread. 
 
 ^ Curr, op. cit. i. p. iir. ^ lb. p. 109. ^ lb. p. 118. 
 
 * In Katnilaroi and ICiirnai, 1880. Mr A. W. Howitt, joint author of 
 this work, does not commit himself to the theory ; but Prof. Morgan, who 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: AUSTRALIANS. 1 55 
 
 for granted probably by most ethnologists. Mr Fison assumes 
 that formerly there was no individual marriage, but that the class 
 formed two or more *' groups," in which the males of one had 
 as wives the females of the other or of some other, but that later 
 this promiscuous arrangement gave way — in some measure in 
 practice though not in theory — to individual marriage, the man 
 still retaining a more or less exclusive right to certain women, 
 who stand to him in the relation of wives. In fact " marriage is 
 theoretically communal," the relation being not of one individual 
 to another, but of one group to another, while the ancient assumed 
 rule underlies the present assumed lax usage. Without entering 
 into details, it will suffice here to state generally that, after a 
 careful enquiry into the whole subject on the spot, Mr Curr 
 sweeps all these assumptions away, disproves the "facts" on which 
 they are based, and shows convincingly that the promiscuity here 
 in question neither did nor does exist in any part of Australia. 
 Is it too much to hope that visionary group or communal systems, 
 supposed to be survivals of an equally visionary state of pro- 
 miscuity, may be henceforth banished from works dealing with 
 the primitive social institutions of mankind? 
 
 Another redeeming quality of the natives is their high sense 
 of humour, and mimetic powers comparable to Australian 
 those of the African Negritoes. " What is comic to Humour and 
 the blacks strikes them at once, and makes them 
 laugh immediately. They are very humorous, have a decided 
 talent for drollery, and are skilful mimics. I once saw a 
 young Australian receive an order from his master, whereupon 
 
 contributes a Prefatory Note, fully accepts it with all its logical consequences : 
 "Amongst the Australian savages, as this memoir fully shows, groups of males 
 are found united to groups of females, not by any ceremony of a formal 
 marriage to which the groups are parties, but by an organic law, respected by 
 tribal usage, recognized over large areas, and followed in actual practice by 
 the cohabitation of the parties. A woman is found one day living with one 
 man in the marriage relation, and on the next day with another man of the 
 same group in the same relation, and perhaps several women with several 
 men at the same time " (p. 10). Of course Prof. Morgan's great authority, 
 as author of the now somewhat discredited Systems of Consanguinity and 
 Affinity of the Human Fajnky, made the fortune of this absolutely baseless 
 theory. 
 
156 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 he immediately went to his companions and imitated his master's 
 manner of speaking and acting, to the great amusement of the 
 whole camp. In their dances they imitate in a striking manner 
 the hopping of the kangaroo and the solemn movements of the 
 emu, and never fail to make the spectators laugh ^" But they 
 will never "laugh the sense of misery far away," for it is always 
 with them, and surely killing them as it has already killed their 
 Tasmanian kinsmen. 
 
 These " eolithic Tasmanians ^ " stood even at a lower level of 
 
 culture than the AustraHans. x'\t the occupation 
 mani^i^^^' ^^^ Scattered bands, with no hereditary chiefs or 
 
 social organization, numbered altogether 2000 souls 
 at most, speaking several distinct dialects, whether of one or 
 more stock languages is uncertain. In the absence of sibilants 
 and some other features they resembled the Australian, but 
 were of ruder or less developed structure, and so imperfect that 
 according to Joseph Milligan, our best authority on the subject, 
 " they observed no settled order or arrangement of words in the 
 
 construction of their sentences, but conveyed in a 
 Spee^h.^^^°^^^ supplementary fashion by tone, manner, and gesture 
 
 those modifications of meaning which we express 
 by mood, tense, number, &c.l" Abstract terms were rare, and 
 for every variety of gum-tree or wattle-tree there was a name, but 
 no word for " tree " in general, or for qualities, such as hard, soft, 
 warm, cold, long, short, round, &c. Anything hard was "like a 
 stone," round, " like the moon," and so on, " usually suiting the 
 action to the word, and confirming by some sign the meaning to 
 be understood." 
 
 Though they carried fire-sticks about, it is doubtful whether 
 
 they possessed the art of making fire by friction 
 Myth. "^^ °^ otherwise. But they remembered a time when 
 
 there was no fire at all, until two blackfellows 
 standing on a hill-top threw it about like stars; at which the 
 people were frightened and ran away, but came back and made 
 
 ^ Lumholtz, op. cit. p. 291. 
 
 2 Ethnology, p. 294. 
 
 '^ Paper in Brough Smyth's work, 11. p. 413. 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: TASMANIANS. 1 57 
 
 a fire of wood, after which '' no more was fire lost in our land. 
 The two blackfellows are in the clouds ; in the clear night you 
 see them like stars. These are they who brought fire to our 
 fathers \" 
 
 During the disgraceful colonial wars of extermination, a few 
 weapons of a better type appear to have been 
 introduced from the mainland. But before that implements, 
 time they possessed neither the boomerang nor the 
 throwing-stick, nor the shield of the Australians, nothing in fact 
 except the waddy, not unlike the Irish shillelagh, and two kinds 
 of primitive spears, one a mere sapling some 1 5 feet long, pointed 
 and hardened by fire, the other about 10 feet long and lighter. 
 As neither had any stone or bone attachments, these rude weapons 
 were really inferior to those of the Old Stone Age, to which were 
 fixed some of those flint or other spear-heads now found in such 
 abundance in the caves and pleistocene beds of the northern 
 hemisphere. 
 
 In the native diet were included " snakes, lizards, grubs and 
 worms," besides the opossum, wombat, kangaroo, 
 birds and fishes, roots, seeds and fruits, but not 
 human flesh, at least normally. Like the Bushmen, they were 
 gross feeders, consuming enormous quantities of food when they 
 could get it, and the case is mentioned of a woman who was seen 
 to eat from 50 to 60 eggs of the sooty petrel (larger than a duck's), 
 besides a double allowance of bread, at the station on Flinders 
 Island. They had frail bark canoes made fast with thongs or 
 rushes, besides rafts like those of Torres Straits, openings, 
 but no permanent abodes or huts, beyond branches 
 of trees lashed together, supported by stakes, and disposed 
 crescent-shape with the convex side to windward. On the 
 uplands and along the sea-shore they took refuge in caves, 
 rock-shelters and natural hollows. Usually the men went naked, 
 the women wore a loose covering of skins, and personal orna- 
 mentation was limited to cosmetics of red ochre, plumbago, and 
 powdered charcoal, with occasionally a necklace of shells strung 
 on a fibrous twine. 
 
 \ 
 1 Op. cit. II. p. 461. 
 
158 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 During the hopeless struggle with the early settlers, the natives 
 
 developed a degree of ferocity equal to that of 
 
 ment"^^'^* their exterminators. But when first encountered by 
 
 Cook, Peron and other navigators, they appeared 
 
 to be a mild, inoffensive people, disposed to be friendly or at 
 
 least not hostile, diffident rather than distrustful. Little or no 
 
 reference is made to atrocious tribal practices, mutilations and 
 
 other horrors, which make detailed accounts of the Australian 
 
 peoples such unpleasant reading. The reason is obvious enough. 
 
 The Tasmanians had not yet passed from the rude primitive state 
 
 of the family life to the social condition of the clan and tribe, 
 
 when complications arise, and the " commonweal " has to be 
 
 safeguarded by all manner of drastic measures. In the general 
 
 evolution of human progress the intermediate stages will often be 
 
 found more unpleasant than either extreme. 
 
 The Oceanic Negritoes. 
 In Africa the Negrito substratum, partly sheltered by trackless 
 tropical woodlands, may still be traced in scattered fragments from 
 Mangbattuland to the Cape. In Oceania the Negrito substratum, 
 formerly diffused throughout the Malayan lands, survives only in 
 four widely separated enclaves — the Andaman Islands, the Malay 
 Peninsula, the Philippines, and parts of New Guinea. 
 
 The " Mincopies," as the Andamanese used to be called, no- 
 body seems to know why, were visited in 1893 by 
 manes^"'^^" ^^ Louis Lapiquc, who examined a large kitchen- 
 midden near Port Blair, but some distance from 
 the present coast, hence of great age\ Nevertheless he failed to 
 find any worked stone implements, although flint occurs in the 
 island. Indeed, chipped or flaked flints, now replaced by broken 
 glass, were formerly used for shaving and tattooing. But, as the 
 present natives use only fishbones, shells, and wood, Dr Lapique 
 somewhat hastily concluded that these islanders, like some other 
 primitive groups, have never passed through a Stone 
 Age at all. The shell-mounds have certainly yielded 
 arrow-heads and polished adzes "indistinguishable from any of the 
 
 1 A la Recherche des Negritos^ &c. in Tour du Monde, New Series, Livr. 
 35 — 38. The midden was 150 ft. round, and over 12 ft. high. 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: NEGRITOES. 1 59 
 
 European or Indian celts of the so-called Neolithic period \" 
 But there is no reason to think that the archipelago was ever 
 occupied by a people different from its present inhabitants. 
 Hence we may suppose that their ancestors arrived in the Stone 
 Ages, but afterwards ceased to make stone implements, as less 
 handy for their purposes and more difficult to make than the 
 shell or bone-tipped darts, arrows, and nets with which they 
 capture game and fish "more readily than the most skilful 
 fisherman with hook and line^." Similarly they would seem to 
 have long lost the art of making fire, having once obtained it from 
 a still active volcano in the neighbouring Barren Island^. 
 
 Many wild statements regarding this primitive Negrito race, 
 due chiefly to the careless observations of passing navigators, but 
 still current in popular ethnographic works, have been dispelled by 
 Mr Man, who shows that they do not make holes in the sand to 
 burrow in like rabbits, that there are no so-called ** oven -trees" where 
 pigs are roasted, no cannibalism, nor any bow-traps, boomerangs, 
 wameras (Australian throwing-sticks), or blow-pipes, useless with- 
 out poison, of which they make no use whatsoever. But they do 
 possess two kinds of boats, one a very rude outrigger of primitive 
 type, just as they have two or three kinds of dwellings, one also 
 very frail and primitive — mere leafy shelters like those of the 
 Brazilian Puri, but usually erected only on temporary camping- 
 grounds. 
 
 In temperament they resemble the Papuans and other dark 
 peoples, "being merry, talkative, petulant, inquisitive, and restless; 
 their speech is rapid, with a constant repetition of the same idea ; 
 a joke, if it does not take too practical a form, is heartily appre- 
 ciated, while all insults or injuries are promptly resented''." A 
 pleasing characteristic is the attitude of the men towards their 
 wives, who, though necessarily doomed to much drudgery, are 
 treated as real helpmates on a footing of perfect equality. Despite 
 
 1 E. H. Man, Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1881, p. 271. 
 
 ^ lb. p. 279. 
 
 3 Close to Barren is the extinct crater of Narcondam, i.e. Narak-andam 
 {Narak=Yi.€i\), from which the Andaman group may have taken its name 
 (Sir H. Yule, Marco Polo). \ 
 
 * lb. p. 284. 
 
l60 . MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 the misrepresentations of some explorers, marriage is a permanent 
 tie, divorce being unknown, and "conjugal fidelity till death the 
 rule and not the exception \" 
 
 No forms of worship have been noticed, though there is a 
 
 vague behef in Puluga, an immortal, invisible being, 
 Beifefr^"^ who lives in a large stone house in the sky, knows 
 
 everything, even the thoughts of men, in the daylight, 
 but not in the dark, and has made all things except three or four 
 evil spirits, for whose misdeeds he is not accountable. He pities 
 the victims, sometimes affords them relief, and shows in the 
 thunderstorm his anger at certain crimes and offences. But 
 nothing can lessen their dread of the evil one, to whose machin- 
 ations nearly all deaths, sickness, and other calamities are 
 attributed. There is a curious notion about wax-burning, which, 
 being distasteful to Piiluga, is often secretly done when the enemy 
 is a-hunting or a-fishing, in order to stir his wrath and thus spoil 
 the sport. Hence in the criminal code, after falsehood, theft, 
 assault, murder, and adultery, follows wax-burning, the greatest 
 crime of all, equivalent to our sacrilege ! 
 
 Original also is the native cosmogony, which teaches that the 
 
 earth ^, flat as a plate, rests on the top of a very 
 
 Cosmogony. ' r ' r j 
 
 tall tree, and is doomed one day to be upset by a 
 great earthquake. Then the living and the dead will change 
 places, and the latter, to hasten the consummation, every now 
 and then combine to shake the tree and so displace the wicker 
 ladder by which it is connected with heaven, but this must be 
 done only in the rainy season, as at other times the parched 
 earth might crumble and crush them all. 
 
 Mr Man has carefully studied and reduced to writing the 
 ^^^ Andamanese language, of which there are at least 
 
 nine distinct varieties, corresponding to as many 
 
 ^ Man, lb. p. 237. 
 
 2 That is, the Andaman Islands, which they supposed to comprise the 
 whole world. Hence the few strangers that occasionally arrived were their 
 deceased forefathers, who dwelt on a neighbouring islet and were allowed 
 now and then to revisit the erema, or world. Hence also the natives of 
 India who now come regularly are still called chaugala, i.e. "departed 
 spirits." 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: NEGRITOES. l6l 
 
 tribal groups. It has no clear affinities to any other tongue ', the 
 supposed resemblances to Dravidian and Australian being ex- 
 tremely slight, if not visionary. Its phonetic system is astonish- 
 ingly rich (no less than 24 vowels and 17 consonants, but no 
 sibilants), while the arithmetic stops at two. Nobody ever attempts 
 to count in any way beyond ten^ which is reached by a singular 
 process. First the nose is tapped with the finger-tips of either 
 hand, beginning with the little finger, and saying 
 ubatul (one), then ikpbr (two) with the next, after co^nti'ng."^ 
 which each successive tap makes ankd^ "and 
 this." When the thumb of the second hand is reached, making 
 ten, both hands are brought together to indicate 5 + 5, and the 
 sum is clenched with the word arduru = " all." But this feat is 
 exceptional, and usually after two you get only words answering 
 to several, many, numerous, countless, which flight of imagination 
 is reached at about 6 or 7. 
 
 Yet with their infantile arithmetic these paradoxical islanders 
 have contrived to develop an astonishingly intricate form of speech 
 characterised by an absolutely bewildering superfluity of pro- 
 nominal and other elements. Thus the possessive pronouns have 
 as many as sixteen possible variants according to the class of 
 noun (human objects, parts of the body, degrees of kinship, &c.) 
 with which they are in agreement. For instance, my is dia^ dbt^ 
 dong, dig, dab, dar, ddkd, dbto, dai, ddr, ad, ad-eii, 
 deb, with man, head, wrist, mouth, father , son, step- structure^**^* 
 son, wife, &c. &c. ; and so with thy, his, our, your, 
 their/ This grouping of nouns in classes is analogous to the 
 Bantu system, and it is curious to note that the number of classes 
 is about the same. On the other hand there is a wealth of post- 
 fixes attached as in normal agglutinating forms of speech, so that 
 " in adding their affixes they follow the principles of the ordinary 
 agglutinative tongues; in adding their prefixes they follow the 
 well-defined principles of the South African tongues. Hitherto, 
 as far as I know, the two principles in full play have never been 
 found together in any other language... In Andamanese both are 
 
 ^ "The Andaman languages are one group; they have no affinities by 
 which we might infer their co^ection with any other known group" (Lieut. 
 R. C. Temple, quoted by Mr Man, Antkrop. Jour. 1882, p. 123). 
 
 K. II . 
 
l62 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 fully developed, so much so as to interfere with each other's gram- 
 matical functions \" The result often is certain sesquipedalia 
 verba comparable in length to those of the American polysynthetic 
 languages. A savage people, who can hardly count beyond two, 
 possessed of about the most intricate language spoken by man, is 
 a pyschological puzzle which I cannot profess to fathom. 
 
 In the Malay Peninsula the indigenous element is certainly 
 the Negrito, who, known by many names — Semang, 
 Sakai, Dina, Liar, Senoi, Mantra, Jakun — forms 
 a single ethnical group presenting some striking analogies with 
 the Andamanese. But, surrounded from time out of mind by 
 Malay peoples, some semi-civilised, some nearly as wild as 
 themselves, but all alike slowly crowding them out of the land, 
 these aborigines have developed defensive qualities unneeded by 
 the more favoured insular Negritoes, while their natural develop- 
 ment has been arrested at perhaps a somewhat lower plane of 
 culture. In fact, doomed to extinction before their time came, 
 they never have had a chance in the race, as Mr Hugh Clifford 
 sings in The Song of the Last Semangs : — 
 
 "The paths are rough, the trails are blind 
 
 The Jungle People tread ; 
 The yams are scarce and hard to find 
 
 With which our folk are fed. 
 We suffer yet a little space 
 
 Until we pass away, 
 The relics of an ancient race 
 
 That ne'er has had its day." 
 
 These particular Semangs, who have hitherto succeeded in 
 ^ ^^^ maintaining their independence, have a weird legend 
 
 of a mysterious nation of great Amazons destined 
 one day to come and smite the faithless Sakai people, who have 
 gone over to the enemy's camp, and now join with them in 
 tracking and hunting down their own kinsfolk. These female 
 warriors — who dwell in the depths of the dark woodlands beyond 
 the Gunong Korbu heights, and are stronger, taller, bolder, and of 
 paler colour than any men — have even been seen, and their bows 
 and blow-pipes also, larger and truer and better carved than any 
 
 ^ Lieut. R. C. Temple, quoted by Mr Man, Anthrop. Jour. 1882, p. 123. 
 
Physical 
 jearance. 
 
 v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: NEGRITOES. 163 
 
 Others, are found now and then in the deep recesses of the forests. 
 A Semang chief tells how " many moons ago " he and his two 
 brothers, when following the trail of a wounded stag, found it 
 lying by a brook, killed by a larger arrow than theirs, and that 
 instant looking up, on hearing a loud threatening cry in a strange 
 tongue, he beheld a gigantic pale-skinned woman breaking through 
 the jungle, and then his elder brother fell pierced by an arrow. 
 He escaped by flight, and alone lived to tell the tale, for the two 
 brothers were never seen again. 
 
 Mr Clifford, who relates this story^, and has perhaps been more 
 intimately associated with the "Orang-utan" (Wild men) as the 
 Malays often call them, than any other white man, 
 describes those of the Plus River valley as "like ^p^^ 
 African Negroes seen through the reverse end of a 
 field-glass. They are sooty-black in colour; their hair is short 
 and woolly, clinging to the scalp in little crisp curls ; their noses 
 are flat, their lips protrude, and their features are those of the 
 pure negroid type. They are sturdily built and weU set upon 
 their legs, but in stature little better than dwarfs. They live by 
 hunting, and have no permanent dwellings, camping in little 
 family groups wherever, for the moment, game is most plentiful ^" 
 
 Their shelters — huts they cannot be called — are exactly 
 like the frailest of the Andamanese, mere lean-to's 
 
 ' Usages. 
 
 of matted palm-leaves crazily propped on rough 
 uprights; clothes they have next to none, and their food is 
 chiefly yams and other jungle roots, fish from the stream, and 
 sun-dried monkey, venison and other game, this term having an 
 elastic meaning. Salt, being rarely obtainable, is a great luxury, 
 as amongst almost all wild tribes. Some Chinese rock-salt, once 
 brought to an encampment by Mr Clifford, was eagerly clutched 
 and swallowed in handfuls. "This coarse stuff would take the 
 skin off the tongues of most human beings who attempted 
 to eat it in this way, but I suppose that nature gives the Semang 
 the power to take in abnormally large quantities at one time, 
 because his opportunities of eating it in small daily instalments 
 
 1 In Court am Kampong, 1897, p. 179 sq. 
 ^ Op. cit. p. 172. 
 
 II 2 
 
164 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 are few and far between \" Such a picture will help to explain 
 the large part played by salt in the folklore and superstitions of 
 so many civilised peoples. " The Romans began their feasts by 
 prayers and libations to the gods. The table was consecrated by 
 placing upon it the images of the Lares and saltcellars. A family 
 salt-holder was kept with great care, and to spill the salt at table 
 was esteemed ominous. The prominence of salt as a religious 
 and social symbol is doubtless due to the fact that it became a 
 necessity to most nations at an early stage of civihzation, and 
 that it was a luxury very hard for primitive man to obtain in many 
 parts of the world I" 
 
 All the faculties are sharpened mainly in the quest of food, 
 and of means to elude the enemy now closing round their farthest 
 retreats in the upland forests. When hard pressed and escape seems 
 impossible, they will climb trees and stretch rattan ropes from 
 branch to branch where these are too wide apart to be reached at 
 a bound, and along such frail aerial bridges women and all will pass 
 with their cooking-pots and other effects, with their babies also 
 at the breast, and the little ones clinging to their mothers' heels. 
 For like the Andamanese they love their women-folk and children, 
 and in this way rescue thern from the Malay raiders and slavers. 
 But unless the British raj soon intervenes their fate is sealed. 
 They may slip from the Malays, but not from their own traitorous 
 kinsmen, who often lead the hunt, and squat all night long on the 
 tree-tops, calling one to another and signalling from these look- 
 outs when the leaves rustle and the rattans are heaved across, 
 so that nothing can be done, and another family group is swept 
 away into bondage. 
 
 From their physical resemblance, undoubted common de- 
 
 ^^ scent, and geographical proximity, one might also 
 
 expect to find some affinity in the speech of the 
 
 Andaman and Malay Negritoes. But Mr Clifford, almost the only 
 
 European who has made a special study of the dialects on the 
 
 1 Op.cit. p. 174. 
 
 2 Marie Goldsmith West, T/ic Symbolism of Salt, in Popular Science 
 Monthly, December, 1897, p. 241. The writer refers to Hor. Od. ii. 16. 14. 
 A more significative though less known passage occurs in Arnob. il. : Sacras 
 facitis viensas salinonwi appositu, et siviulacris Deorum. 
 
Plate II. 
 
 MuLGRAVE Native. 
 (Australian Type.) 
 
 2. A ETA Woman. 
 
 (Negrito Type, Philippines. 
 
 3. Pan VAN Woman. 
 (Negrito Type, India.) 
 
 4. RoTUMA Girl. 
 (Sub-Melanesian Type. 
 
 To face page 164] 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES : NEGRITOES. 165 
 
 mainland, can discover no points of contact between them and 
 any other linguistic group \ This, however, need cause no 
 surprise, being in no discordance with recognised principles I 
 As in the Andamans, stone implements have been 
 found in the Peninsula, and specimens are now 
 in the Pitt-Rivers collection at Oxford I But the present 
 aborigines do not make or use such tools, and there is good 
 reason for thinking that they were the work of their ancestors 
 arriving, as in the Andamans, during the Stone Ages. Hence 
 the two groups have been separated for many thousands of years, 
 and their speech has diverged too widely to be now traced 
 back to a common source. 
 
 With the Negritoes of the Philippines we enter a region of 
 almost hopeless ethnical complications ^, amid ^^^ ^^^^^ 
 which, however, the dark dwarfish Aeta peoples 
 crop out almost everywhere as the indigenous element, and 
 in many places as even the recognised owners of the soil 
 long after the arrival of the Malayan intruders. This curious 
 point, hitherto scarcely noticed, has been brought out by Mr 
 John Foreman, one of the best observers of the social relations in 
 the archipelago ^ After a graphic description of these aborigines, 
 "black as African Negroes," with "curly matted hair like 
 Astrakhan fur," and still widely diffused in small bands "over 
 the whole group of islands," he writes : " For a long time they 
 were the sole masters of Luzon Island, where they exercised 
 seignorial rights over the Tagalogs and other immigrants, until 
 
 ^ Senoi grammar and glossary in jbtir. Straits Branch R. Asiat. Soc. 1892, 
 No. 24. 
 
 ^ See Ethnology, Chap. ix. 
 
 '^ See Mr L. Wray's Paper On The Cave Dxuellers of Perak, in Jour. 
 Anthrop. Inst. 1897, p. 36 sq. This observer thinks " the earliest cave 
 dwellers were most likely the Negritoes " (p. 47), and the great age of the 
 deposits is shown by the fact that ' * in some of the caves at least 1 2 feet of a 
 mixture of shells, bones, and earth has been accumulated and subsequently 
 removed again in the floors of the caves. In places two or three layers of solid 
 stalagmite have been formed and removed, some of these layers having been 
 five feet in thickness" (p. 45). 
 
 •* See on this point Prof. Blumentritt's Paper on the Manguians of Min- 
 doro in Globus, LX. No. 14.'^. 
 
 5 The Philippine Islands, Sec, London and Hongkong, 1890. 
 
l66 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 these arrived in such numbers, that the Negritoes were forced to 
 the highlands. 
 
 The taxes imposed upon the primitive Malay settlers by 
 the Negritoes were levied in kind, and, when payment was 
 refused, they swooped down in a posse, and carried off the head 
 of the defaulter. Since the arrival of the Spaniards terror of 
 the white man has made them take definitely to the mountains, 
 where they appear to be very gradually decreasing \" 
 
 At first sight it may seem unaccountable that a race of such 
 extremely low intellect should be able to assert their supremacy 
 in this way over the intruding Malayans, assumed to be so much 
 their superiors in physical and mental qualities. But it has to be 
 considered that the invasions took place in very remote times, 
 ages before the appearance on the scene of the semi-civilised 
 Muhammadan Malays of history. Whether of Indonesian or 
 of what is called " Malay " stock, the intruders were rude Oceanic 
 peoples, who in the prehistoric period, prior to the spread of 
 civilising Hindu or Moslem influences in Malaysia, had scarcely 
 advanced in general culture much beyond the indigenous Papuan 
 and Negrito populations of that region. Even at present the 
 Gaddanes, Itaves, Igorrotes and others of Luzon 
 hunters' ^^^ "''^^^ savagcs, at the head-hunting stage, quite 
 
 as wild as, and perhaps even more ferocious 
 than any of the Aetas. Indeed we are told that in some 
 districts the Negrito and Igorrote tribes keep a regular Debtor 
 and Creditor account of heads. Wherever the vendetta still 
 prevails, all alike live in a chronic state of tribal warfare; 
 periodical head-hunting expeditions are organised by the young 
 men, to present the bride's father with as many grim trophies 
 as possible in proof of their prowess, the victims being usually 
 taken by surprise and stricken down with barbarous weapons, 
 such as a long spear with tridented tips, or darts and arrows 
 carrying at the point two rows of teeth made of flint or sea-shells. 
 To avoid these attacks some, like the Central Sudanese Negroes, 
 live in cabins on high posts or trees 60 to 70 feet from the 
 ground, and defend themselves by showering stones on the 
 marauders. 
 
 ^ Op. cit. p. -2 to. 
 
v.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: NEGRITOES. 167 
 
 A physical peculiarity of the full-blood Negritoes, noticed by 
 Dr J. Montano\ is the large, clumsy foot, turned slightly inwards, 
 a trait characteristic also of the African Negritoes ; but in the 
 Aeta the effect is exaggerated by the abnormal divergence of the 
 great toe, as amongst the Annamese. 
 
 The main feature of their character, says this observer, is a 
 deep, inextinguishable love of freedom and personal 
 independence. They are happy only in the midst AwJhJes.^^^ 
 of their upland forests ; they neither keep slaves 
 themselves, nor endure the yoke of servitude, or even of domestic 
 service, and are in fact as untameable as wild beasts. In Luzon 
 all attempts to bring up their children at the stations have failed, 
 no matter at what age they may have been captured. The case is 
 mentioned of a young Negrito brought to Madrid, educated, and 
 ordained priest, who on his return to the Philippines immediately 
 escaped to the mountains. 
 
 But their social state varies greatly according as they are more 
 or less exposed to the attacks of the surrounding populations. 
 Under certain influences they may even to some extent give 
 up the nomad Hfe, form settlements in the forest glades, build 
 permanent abodes and raise crops of rice or maize, varying this 
 quiet existence, however, with occasional hunting excursions, when 
 the game is captured with snares and the bow and arrow, their 
 chief weapon. They have also developed a barter trade with their 
 neighbours, exchanging edible roots and medicinal plants, said 
 to be of extraordinary efficacy, for tobacco, textiles, and scraps 
 of iron with which to tip their darts. 
 
 The social system even amongst the pure nomads is much 
 better developed than has been supposed, and is 
 based on the family and personal property. To everywhere 
 the tribal chief, elected for life, but not hereditary, unit^°*^'*^ 
 are referred all disputes, and he also punishes 
 misdeeds in accordance with traditional usage. The Aetas are 
 strict monogamists, and do not appear to be quite destitute of 
 religious notions, as is commonly asserted, judging at least from 
 certain allegorical dances, as amongst the Pueblo Indians, and 
 \ 
 ^ Voyage aiix Philippines, &.C., Paris, 1886. 
 
l68 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. V. 
 
 from the ceremonies associated with marriage, births, and deaths. 
 But on this subject we await further information, and the 
 chief point so far estabhshed beyond doubt is the existence of 
 the family in the strictest sense of the term. Thus the family is 
 found to be everywhere the social unit amongst Australians, 
 Tasmanians, Andamanese, Semangs and Aetas, all of whom stand 
 at about the lowest grade of human culture. The more the 
 matter is investigated, the more current theories about group or 
 communal marriage based upon the assumption of the "primitive 
 human herd" and primordial promiscuity recede into the back- 
 ground'. 
 
 In the sumptuous volume on The Philippines, Part ii. Negritoes^ 
 one of the Dresden Ethnographic Museum series (1896), the 
 editor, Dr A. B. Meyer, describes the Negrito hair as fine and 
 woolly, disposed in close spirals varying from a deep seal- brown 
 to black, and diffused evenly over the scalp, not in separate tufts 
 with intervening bald spaces. 
 
 In this publication Prof. Kern brings together various speci- 
 mens of Negrito speech, all of pure Malayo-Polynesian type 
 and nearly aUied to the Tagalog and Visayan of the Northern and 
 Central Philippines. But the specimens are all from districts under 
 Malayan influences, so that they leave untouched the question 
 of an original Aeta language corresponding to that of the Anda- 
 manese. The present Negrito population is here estimated at no 
 more than 20,000, distributed in small groups over the islands of 
 Luzon, Alabat, Mindoro, Panay, Negros, Mindanao, Tablas, Cebu 
 and Palawan, mostly full- blood, but forming half-breed communities 
 in Negros and other places. 
 
 ^ Ethnology, pp. 13, 14. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 
 
 South Mongol Domain — Tibet, the Mongol Cradleland — Stone Age in Tibet — 
 The Primitive Mongol Type — The Balti and Ladakhi — Balti Type and 
 Origins — The Tibetans Proper — Type — The Bhotiyas — Prehistoric Ex- 
 pansion of the Tibetan Race — Sub-Himalayan Groups : the Gurkhas — 
 Mental Qualities of the Tibetans — Lamaism — The Horsoks — The Tanguts 
 — Polyandry — The Bonbo Religion — Buddhist and Christian Ritualism — 
 The Prayer-Wheel — Language and Letters — Diverse Linguistic Types — 
 Lepcha — Angami-Naga and Kuki-Lushai speech — Kuki Creation Legend 
 — General Ethnic Relations in Indo-China — Aboriginal and Cultured 
 Peoples — The Talaings — The Manipuri — Head-hunting — The Game of 
 Polo— The Khel System— The Chins— Mental and Physical Qualities- 
 Gods, Nats, and the After-Life — The Kakhyens — Caucasic elements — 
 The Karens — Type — Temperament — Christian Missions — The Burmese 
 — Type — Character — Buddhism— Position of Woman — Tattooing — The 
 Tai-Shan Peoples — The Ahom, Khamti and Chinese Shans — Shan 
 / Cradleland and Origins — Caucasic Contacts — Tai-Shan Toned Speech — 
 Shan, Lolo, and Mosso Writing Systems — Mosso Origins — Aborigines of 
 South China and Annam — Man-tse Origins and Affinities — Caucasic 
 Aborigines in South-East Asia — The Siamese Shans — Origins and Early 
 Records — Social System — Buddhism — The Annamese — Origins — Physical 
 and Mental Characters — Language and Letters — Social Institutions — 
 Religious Systems — The Chinese — Origins — The Babylonian Theory — 
 Persistence of Chinese Culture and Social System — Letters and Early 
 Records — Traditions of the Stone and Metal Ages — Chinese Cradle and 
 Early Migrations — Absorption of the Aborigines — Survivals: Hok-lo, 
 Hakka, Pun-ti — Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism — Fung-shui and An- 
 cestry Worship— Islam and Christianity— The Mandarin Class. 
 
 Conspectus. 
 
 Primeval Home. The Tibetan Plateau. Distribu- 
 
 Present Range. Tibet; S. Himalayan slopes; Past and 
 Indo-China to the Isthmus of Kra ; China ; Formosa; Times. 
 Parts of Malaysia. 
 
 Hair, uniformly black, lank, round in transverse ^^'^^} 
 section; sparse or no beard, moustache common. Colour, ters. 
 generally a dirty yellowish brown, shading off to olive 
 and coppery bro7vn in th^outh, and to le??ion or 7vhitish 
 in N. China. Skull, normally brachy (80° — 84"), but 
 
JO xMAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 in China sub-doiicho ■{^']^) and high. Jaws, slightly 
 prognathous. Cheek-bones, very high and pro?ninent 
 laterally. Nose, very small, and concave, with ividish 
 nostrils {fnesorrhine 52°), but often large and straight 
 ajnongst the upper classes. Eyes, small, black, and 
 oblique {outer ^ angle slightly elevated), vertical fold of skin 
 over inner canth us. Stature, below the average {$ft. 4 i7t. ) , 
 but in JV. China often tall {$ ft. to in. to d ft.). Lips, 
 rather thin, sometimes slightly protruding. Arms, legs, 
 and feet, of normal proportions, calves rather small, and 
 feet of Chinese women artificially deformed. 
 Mental Temperament. Somewhat sluggish, with little 
 
 ters. initiative, but great endurance; cunning rather than 
 
 intelligent: generally thrifty and industrious, but mostly 
 indolent in Siam and Burma ; nioral standard low, with 
 slight sense of right and wrong. 
 
 Speech. Mainly isolating and monosyllabic, due to 
 phonetic decay ; loss of formative elements compensated by 
 tone; some (south Chinese, Annamese) highly tonic, but 
 others {in Himalayas and North Bwma) highly agglu- 
 tinating and consequently toneless. 
 
 Religion. Ancestry and spirit-worship, ujiderlying 
 various kinds of Buddhism ; religious sentii7ient weak in 
 Annam, stro?ig in Tibet; thinly diffused in China. 
 
 Culture. Ra7iges from sheer savagery {Indo-Chinese 
 abongines) to a low phase of civilization ; some mechanical 
 arts {ceramics, metallurgy, weaving), and agriculture well 
 developed; painting, sculpture, and architecture mostly 
 in the barbaric stage ; letters wide-spread, but true literature 
 and science slightly developed; stagnation very general. 
 ^Wsions Bod-pa. Tibetan; Tafigut ; Horsok; Si-fan; Balti; 
 
 Ladakhi; Gurkha; Bhotiya; Miri ; Misht?ii; Abor. 
 
 Burmese. Naga; Kuki-Lushai ; Chin; Kakhyeti ; 
 Manipuri ; Karen; Talaing ; Arakanese ; Burmese 
 proper. 
 
 Tai-Shan. Ahojn; Khamti; Ngiou; Lao; Sia^nese. 
 
 Giao-Shi. Anjiamese; Cochin- Chinese. 
 
 Chinese. Chinese proper ; Hakka ; Hok-lo; Fun-ti. 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. I/I 
 
 In the Family Tree of Homo Mongolicus^ the common stem 
 is seen to ramify into two main branches : the Mongolo-Tatar to 
 the left, and the Tibeto-lndo-Chi7iese with a secondary branch, 
 Oceanic Mongols, to the right. These two, that is, the main and 
 secondary branch to the right, which jointly occupy the greater 
 part of south-east Asia with most of Malaysia, Madagascar, the 
 Philippines and Formosa, will form the subject of 
 the present chapter. Allowing for encroachments go^°Domifn°" 
 and overlappings, especially in Manchuria and 
 North Tibet, the northern " divide " towards the Mongolo-Tatar 
 domain is roughly indicated by the Great Wall and the Kuen-lun 
 range westwards to the Hindu-Kush, and towards the south-west 
 by the Himalayas from the Hindu-Kush eastwards to Assam. 
 The Continental section thus comprises the whole of China proper 
 and Indo-China, together with a great part of Tibet with Little 
 Tibet (Baltistan and Ladakh), and the Himalayan uplands includ- 
 ing their southern slopes. This section is again separated from 
 the Oceanic section by the Isthmus of Kra — the Malay Peninsula 
 belonging ethnically to the insular Malay world. " I believe," 
 writes Mr Warington Smyth, " that the Malay never really ex- 
 tended further north than the Kra isthmus ^" 
 
 From the considerations advanced in Ethnology, Chap, xii., 
 it seems a reasonable assumption that the lacustrine Tibetan 
 tableland with its Himalayan escarpments, all standing in pleisto- 
 cene times at a considerably lower level than at 
 
 ■' _ _ Tibet, the 
 
 present, was the cradle of the Mongol division Mongol 
 of mankind. Here were found all the natural 
 conditions favourable to the development of a new variety of the 
 species moving from the tropics northwards — ample space such 
 as all areas of marked specialisation seem to require ; a different 
 and cooler climate than that of the equatorial region, though, 
 thanks to its then lower elevation, warmer than that of the bleak 
 and now barely inhabitable Tibetan plateau ; extensive plains, 
 nowhere perhaps too densely wooded, intersected by ridges of 
 
 ^ Ethnology, p. 300. 
 
 ■- Geograph. Jotirn., May. 1898, p. 491. This statement must of course be 
 taken as having reference only to the historical Malays and their comparatively 
 late migrations. 
 
172 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 moderate height, and diversified by a lacustrine system far more ex- 
 tensive than that revealed by the explorations of modern travellers. 
 
 Under these circumstances, which are not matter of mere 
 speculation, but to be directly inferred from the observations 
 of intelligent explorers and of trained Anglo-Indian surveyors, 
 it would seem not only probable but inevitable that the pleistocene 
 Indo-Malayan should become modified and improved in his new 
 and more favourable Central Asiatic environment. 
 
 Later, with the gradual upheaval of the land to a mean 
 altitude of some 14,000 feet above sea-level, the climate deterio- 
 rated, and the present somewhat rude and rugged inhabitants 
 of Tibet are to be regarded as the outcome of slow adaptation to 
 their slowly changing surroundings since the occupation of the 
 country by the Indo-Malayan pleistocene precursor. To this 
 precursor Tibet was accessible either from India 
 in Tibet. ^^ ^^ ^^^^^ Indo-China, and although few of his imple- 
 ments have yet been reported from the plateau, it 
 is certain that Tibet has passed through the Stone as well as the 
 Metal Ages. In Bogle's time "thunder-stones" were still used 
 for tonsuring the lamas, and even now stone cooking-pots are 
 found amongst the shepherds of the uplands, although they are 
 acquainted both with copper and iron. In India also and Indo- 
 China- palaeoliths of rude type occur at various points — Arcot, the 
 Narbada gravels, Mirzapur', the Irawadi Valley and the Shan 
 territory — as if to indicate the routes followed by early man in his 
 migrations from Indo-Malaysia northwards. 
 
 Thus, where man is silent the stones speak, and so old are 
 these links of past and present that amongst the Shans, as in 
 ancient Greece, their origin being entirely forgotten, they are 
 often mounted as jewellery and worn as charms against mishaps. 
 
 Usually the Mongols proper, that is, the steppe nomads who 
 
 have more than once overrun half the eastern hemisphere, are 
 
 taken as the typical and original stem of Hofuo Mongolicus. But 
 
 The Primi ^^ ^^* ^^ Ujfalvy's views can be accepted this 
 
 tive Mongol honour will now have to be transferred to the 
 
 ^^*' Tibetans, who in any case still occupy the cradle 
 
 ^ See Mr J. Cockburn's paper "On Palaeolithic Implements, &c." in Journ. 
 Anthrop. Inst.^ 1887, pp. 57 sq. ; and Eth. p. 424. 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 1 73 
 
 of the race. This veteran student of the Central Asiatic peoples 
 describes two Mongol types, a northern round-headed and a 
 southern long-headed, and thinks that the latter, which includes 
 "the Ladakhi, the Champas and Tibetans proper," was "the 
 primitive Mongol type'." Thus is transfeiTed to Central Asia 
 the burning question of the long-heads and the round-heads, 
 which, as raised by M. de Lapouge, has for the moment plunged 
 European ethnology into a state of chaos. But the discussion of 
 this subject must be reserved for later treatment. 
 
 Owing to the political seclusion of Tibet, the race has hitherto 
 been studied chiefly in outlying provinces beyond the frontiers, 
 such as Ladakh, Baltistan, and Sikkim^, that is, in 
 districts where mixture with other races may be ^nd Ladakhi. 
 suspected. Indeed de Ujfalvy, who has made a 
 careful survey of Baltistan and Ladakh, assures us that, while the 
 Ladakhi represent two varieties of Homo Asiaticus with ceph. 
 index 77, the Balti are not Tibetans or Mongols at all, but 
 descendants of the historical Sacae, although now of Tibetan 
 speech and Moslem faith ^. They are of the mean height or 
 slightly above it, with rather low brow, very 
 prominent superciliary arches, deep depression at and^Origins^ 
 nasal root, thick curved eyebrows, long, straight 
 or arched nose, thick lips, oval chin, small cheek-bones, small 
 flat ears, straight eyes, very black and abundant ringletty {boucle) 
 hair, full beard, usually black and silky, robust hairy body, small 
 hands and feet, and long head (index 72). In such characters 
 it is impossible to recognise the Mongol, and the contrast is most 
 striking with the neighbouring Ladakhi, true Mongols, as shown 
 by their slightly raised superciliary arches, spare and scarcely 
 curved eyebrows, slant eyes, large prominent cheek-bones, lank 
 and coarse hair, yellowish and nearly hairless body. 
 
 1 " Le type primitif des Mongols est pour nous dolichocephale" {Les Aryens 
 an Nord et an Slid de VHindoti-Kouch, 1896, p. 50). 
 
 - Thus Risley's Tibetan measurements are all of subjects from Sikkim and 
 Nepal {THbes and Castes of Bengal, Calcutta, 1891, passim). In the East, 
 however, Desgodins and other French missionaries have had better opportunities 
 of studying true Tibetans amongst the Si-fan ("Western Strangers") as the 
 frontier populations are called u^ the Chinese. 
 
 •' Op. cit. p. 319. 
 
174 ^iAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Doubtless there has been a considerable intermingling of 
 Baltis and Ladakhis, and in recent times still more of Baltis and 
 Dards (Hindu-Kush "Aryans"), whence Leitner's view that the 
 Baltis are Dards at a remote period conquered by the Bhots 
 (Tibetans), losing their speech with their independence. But 
 of all these peoples the Baltis were in former times the most 
 civilised, as shown by the remarkable rock-carvings still found in 
 the country, and attributed by the present inhabitants to a long 
 vanished race. Some of these carvings represent warriors mounted 
 and on foot, the resemblance being often very striking between 
 them and the persons figured on the coins of the Sacae kings both 
 in their physical appearance, attitudes, arms, and accoutrements. 
 The Baltis are still famous horsemen, and with them is said to 
 have originated the game of polo, which has thence spread to 
 the surrounding peoples as far as Chitral and Irania. 
 
 From all these considerations it is inferred that the Baltis are 
 the direct descendants of the Sac3e, who invaded India about 
 90 B.C., not from the west (the Kabul Valley) as generally stated, 
 but from the north over the Karakorum Passes leading directly 
 to Baltistan\ Thus lives again a name renowned in antiquity, 
 and another of those links is established between the past and 
 the present, which it is the province of the historical ethnologist 
 to rescue from oblivion. 
 
 In Tibet proper the ethnical relations have been confused by 
 
 the loose way tribal and even national names are 
 
 Prope^'^^*^"^ referred to by Prjevalsky and some other modern 
 
 explorers. It should therefore be explained that 
 
 three somewhat distinct branches of the race have to be carefully 
 
 distinguished: i. The Bod-pa\ "Bod-men," the settled and 
 
 1 Op. cit. p. 327. Here we are reminded that, though the Sacae are called 
 " Scythians" by Herodotus and other ancient writers, under this vague expres- 
 sion were comprised a multitude of heterogeneous peoples, amongst whom were 
 types corresponding to both varieties of Hovio Asiaticus, as well as homologues 
 of H. Europicus and even o{ H. Mediterranensis . "Aujourd'hui I'ancien type 
 sace, adouci parmi les melanges, reparait et constitue le type si caracteristique, si 
 complexe et si different de ses voisins que nous appelons le type balti" (p. 328). 
 
 ^ Mr W. W. Rockhill, our best living authority, accepts none of the current 
 explanations of the widely diffused term bod {bhdt, bhot), which appears to form 
 the second element in the word Tibet {Stod-Bod, pronounced Tm-Bcu, "Upper 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 175 
 
 more or less civilised section, who occupy most of the southern 
 and more fertile provinces of which Lhasa is the 
 
 Bod-pa, 
 
 capital, who till the land, live in towns, and have Dru-pa, Tan- 
 passed from the tribal to the civic state. 2. The ^"*^' 
 Dru-pa^ ^ peaceful though semi-nomadic pastoral tribes, who live 
 in tents on the northern plateaux, over 15,000 feet above sea-level. 
 3. The Tanguts^, restless, predatory tribes, who hover about the 
 north-eastern borderland between Koko-nor and Kansu. 
 
 All these are true Tibetans, speak the Tibetan language, and 
 profess one or other of the two national religions, Bonbo and 
 Lamaism (the Tibetan form of Buddhism). But the original 
 type is best preserved, not amongst the cultured Bod-pa, who 
 in many places betray a considerable admixture both of Chinese 
 and Hindu elements, but amongst the Dru-pa, who on their 
 bleak upland steppes have for ages had little contact with 
 the surrounding Mongolo-Turki populations. They are described 
 by Mr Rockhill from personal observation as about 5 feet 
 5 inches high, and round-headed, with wavy hair, clear-brown 
 and even hazel eye, cheek-bone less high than the Mongol, 
 thick nose, depressed at the root, but also prominent and even 
 aquiline and narrow but with broad nostrils, large-lobed ears 
 standing out to a less degree than the Mongol, broad mouth, long 
 black hair, thin beard, generally hairless body, broad shoulders, 
 very small calves, large foot, coarse hand, skin coarse and greasy 
 and of light brown colour, though "frequently nearly white, but 
 
 Bod," i. e. the central and western parts in contradistinction to Man- Bod, 
 "Lower Bod," the eastern provinces {Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet, 
 Washington, 1895, p. 669). This writer finds the first mention of Tibet in 
 the form Tobbat (there are many variants) in the Arab Istakhri's works, about 
 590 A.H. while the late T. de Lacouperie M^ould connect it with the Tatar 
 kingdom of Tu-bat (397 — 475 A.D.). This name might easily have been ex- 
 tended by the Chinese from the Tatars of Kansu to the neighbouring Tanguts, 
 and thus to all Tibetans. 
 
 ^ Hbrog-pa, Drok-pa, pronounced Dru-pa. 
 
 ■^ The Mongols apply the name Tangut to Tibet and call all Tibetans 
 Tangutu, *' which should be discarded as useless and misleading, as the people 
 inhabiting this section of the (^untry are pure Tibetans " (Rockhill, p. 670). 
 It is curious to note that the Mongol Tangutu is balanced by the Tibetan 
 Sok-pa, often applied to all Mongolians. 
 
176 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 when exposed to the weather a dark brown, nearly the colour of 
 our American Indians. Rosy cheeks are quite common amongst 
 the younger women \" 
 
 Some of these characters — wavy hair, aquiline nose, hazel eye, 
 rosy cheeks — are not Mongolic, and despite Mr Rockhill's certi- 
 ficate of racial purity, one is led to suspect a Caucasic strain, 
 perhaps through the neighbouring Salars. These are no doubt some- 
 times called Kara-Tangutans, "Black Tangutans," from the colour 
 of their tents, but we learn from Potanin, who visited them in 1885^, 
 that they are Muhammadans of Turki stock and speech, and we 
 already know^ that from a remote period the Turki people were in 
 close contact with Caucasians. The Salars pitch their tents on 
 the banks of the Khitai and other Yang-tse-Kiang head streams. 
 
 That the national name Bod-pa must be of considerable anti- 
 quity is evident from the Sanskrit expression Bho- 
 o lyas. ^^^^^ derived from it, and long applied by the 
 Hindus collectively to all southern Tibetans, but especially to 
 those of the Himalayan slopes, such as the Rongs (Lepchas) of 
 Sikkim and the Lho-pa dominant in Bhutan, properly Bhbt-dnt, 
 that is, "Land's End" — the extremity of Tibet. Eastwards also the 
 Tibetan race stretches far beyond the political frontiers into the 
 Koko-nor region (Tanguts), and the Chinese province of Se-chuan, 
 where they are grouped with all the other Si-fan aborigines. To- 
 wards the south-east are the kindred Tawangs, Mishtnt, Miri^ 
 Fadanis {Abor)\ Daflas^ and others about the Assam borderlands, 
 all of whom may be regarded as true Bhotiyas in the wild state. 
 
 Through these the primitive Tibetan race extends into Burma, 
 
 where however it has become greatly modified and 
 
 Ex'^ansion'^crf again civiUsed under different climatic and cul- 
 
 the Tibetan tural influences. Thus we see how, in the course 
 
 Race. 
 
 of ages, the Bhot-pa have widened their domain, 
 
 1 Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet, 1895, p. 675. 
 . 2 Jsvestia, XXI. 3. ^ Ethnology, p. 305. 
 
 * Abor, i.e. "independent," is the name applied by the Assamese to the 
 East Himalayan hill tribes who call themselves Padam and Hrasso, and are the 
 Slo of the Tibetans. These are all affiliated by Desgodins to the Lho-pa of 
 Bhutan {BuL Sec. Geogr., October, 1877, p. 431), and are to be distinguished 
 from the Bori (i.e. "dependent") tribes of the plains, all more or less Hinduized 
 BhoXiy^^ {p^iXion, Ethnology of Bengal, T^-^^. 22 ?,c^.). ,, 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. I77 
 
 radiating in all directions from the central cradleland about the 
 Upper Brahmaputra (San-po) valley westwards into Kashmir, 
 eastwards into China, southwards down the Himalayan slopes to 
 the Gangetic plains, south-eastwards to Indo-China. In some 
 places they have come into contact with other races and disap- 
 peared either by total extinction or by absorption (India, Hindu- 
 Kush), or else preserved their type while accepting the speech, 
 religion, and culture of later intruders. Such are the Garhwali, 
 and many groups in Nepal, especially the dominant Gurkhas 
 (Ji/ias^), of whom there are twelve branches, all Aryanised and 
 since the 12th century speaking the Parbattia Bhasha^ a Prakrit 
 or vulgar Sanskrit tongue current amongst an extremely mixed 
 population of about 2,000,000. 
 
 In other directions the migrations took place in remote pre- 
 historic times, the primitive proto-Tibetan groups becoming more 
 and more specialised as they receded farther and farther from the 
 cradleland into Mongolia, Siberia, China, Farther India, and 
 Malaysia. This is at least how I understand the peopling of a 
 grpat part of the eastern hemisphere by an original nucleus of 
 Mongolic type first differentiated from a pleistocene precursor on 
 the Tibetan tableland. 
 
 Strangely contradictory estimates have been formed of the 
 temperament and mental characters of the Bod-pa, some, such as 
 that of Turner-, no doubt too favourable, while 
 others err perhaps in the opposite direction. Thus mJnt'"^^"' 
 Desgodins, who nevertheless knew them well, de- 
 scribes the cultured Tibetan of the south as " a slave towards the 
 great, a despot towards the weak, knavish or treacherous according 
 to circumstances, always on the look-out to defraud, and lying 
 impudently to attain his end," and much more to the same effect^ 
 
 1 Not to be confused with the Khas, as the wild tribes of the Lao country 
 (Siani) are collectively called. Capt. Eden Vansittart thinks in Nepal the term 
 is an abbreviation of Kshatriya, or else means "fallen." This authority tells 
 us that, although the Khas are true Gurkhas, it is not the Khas who enUst in 
 our Gurkha regiments, but chiefly the Magars and Gurungs, who are of purer 
 Bhotiya race and less completely Hinduized (" The Tribes, Clans, and Castes 
 of Nepal," in Jotirn. As. Soc. Bengal, LXiii. i, No. 4). 
 
 - Embassy to the Court oft% Teshoo Lama, pp. 350 sq. 
 
 '^ " Voila je crois, le vrai Tibetain des pays cultives du sud, qui se regarde 
 K. . 12 
 
178 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Mr Rockhill, who is less severe, thinks that "the Tibetan's 
 character is not as black as Horace della Penna and Desgodins 
 have painted it. Intercourse with these people extending over 
 six years leads me to believe that the Tibetan is kindhearted, 
 affectionate, and law-abiding \" He concludes, however, with a 
 not very flattering native estimate deduced from the curious 
 national legend that " the earliest inhabitants of Tibet descended 
 from a king of monkeys and a female hobgoblin, and the character 
 of the race perhaps from those of its first parents. From the king of 
 monkeys [he was an incarnate god] they have religious faith and 
 kindheartedness, intelligence and application, devotion to religion 
 and to religious debate ; from the hobgoblin they get cruelty, 
 fondness for trade and money-making, great bodily strength, lust- 
 fulness, fondness for gossip, and carnivorous instinct'-." 
 
 While they are cheerful under a depressing priestly regime, all 
 allow that they are vindictive, superstitious, and cringing in the pre- 
 sence of the lamas, who are at heart more dreaded 
 L^ais*m°on than rcvcrcd. In fact the whole religious world 
 c^h '^^\^*^" is one vast organised system of hypocrisy, and 
 above the old pagan beliefs common to all primitive 
 peoples there is merely a veneer of Buddhism, above which 
 follows another and most pernicious veneer of lamaism (priest- 
 craft), under the yoke of which the natural development of the 
 people has been almost completely arrested for several centuries. 
 The burden is borne with surprising endurance, and would be 
 intolerable but for the relief found in secret and occasionally even 
 open revolt against the more oppressive ordinances of the eccle- 
 siastical rule. Thus, despite the prescriptions regarding a strict 
 vegetarian diet expressed in the formula " eat animal flesh eat thy 
 brother," not only laymen but most of the lamas themselves 
 supplement their frugal diet of milk, butter, barley-meal, and fruits 
 with game, yak, and mutton — this last pronounced by Turner the 
 
 comme bien plus civilise que les pasteui-s ou bergers du nord" [Le Thibet, 
 
 p. 253)- 
 
 ^ Notes on the Ethnology, &c. p. 677. It may here be remarked that the 
 unfriendliness of which travellers often complain appears mainly inspired by 
 the Buddhist theocracy, who rule the land and are jealous of all "interlopers." 
 
 2 Ibid. p. 678. 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 179 
 
 best in the world. The public conscience, however, is saved by 
 a few extra turns of the prayer-wheel at such repasts, and by the 
 general contempt in which is held the hereditary caste of butchers, 
 who like the Jews in mediaeval times are still confined to a 
 " ghetto " of their own in all the large towns. 
 
 These remarks apply more particularly to the settled southern 
 communities living in districts where a little agriculture is possible. 
 Elsewhere the religious cloak is worn very loosely, and the nomad 
 Horsoks of the northern steppes, although all nomi- 
 nal Buddhists, pay but scant respect to the decrees 
 supposed to emanate from the Dalai Lama enshrined in Lhasa. 
 Horsok is an almost unique ethnical term\ being a curious com- 
 pound of the two names applied by the Tibetans to the Hor-pa 
 and the Sok-pa who divide the steppe between them. The Hor-pa, 
 who occupy the western parts, are of Turki stock, and are the 
 only group of that race known to me who profess Buddhism'', all 
 the rest being Muhammadans with some Shamanists (Yakuts) in 
 the Lena basin. The Sok-pa, who roam the eastern plains and 
 valleys, although commonly called Mongols, are true Tibetans or 
 more strictly speaking Tanguts, of whom there are here two 
 branches, the Goliki and the Yegrai, all, like the Hor-pa, of 
 Tibetan speech. The Yegrai, as described by Prjevalsky, closely 
 resemble the other North Tibetan tribes, with their 
 long, matted locks falling on their shoulders, their 
 scanty whiskers and beard, angular head, dark complexion and 
 dirty garb^ 
 
 Besides stock-breeding and predatory warfare, all these groups 
 follow the hunt, armed with darts, bows, and matchlock guns ; 
 the musk-deer is ensnared, and the only animal spared is the stag, 
 "Buddha's horse." The taste of these rude nomads for liquid 
 blood is insatiable, and the surveyor, Nain Singh, often saw them 
 fall prone on the ground to lick up the blood flowing from a 
 wounded beast. As soon as weaned, the very children and even 
 the horses are fed on a diet of cheese, butter, and blood, kneaded 
 
 1 With it may be compared the Chinese province of Kan-su, so named from 
 its two chief towns A'^w-chau ai^5'z^-chau (Yule's Marco Polo, i. p. 222). 
 ' "Buddhist Turks," says Sir H. H. Howorth [Geogr. yourn., 1887, p. 230). 
 ^ E. Delmar Morgan, Geogr. Journ., 1887, p. 226. 
 
 12 — 2 
 
l8o MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 together in a horrible mess, which is greedily devoured when the 
 taste is acquired. On the other hand alcoholic drinks are little 
 consumed, the national beverage being coarse Chinese tea im- 
 ported in the form of bricks and prepared with tsampa (barley- 
 meal) and butter, and thus becoming a food as well as a drink. 
 The lamas have a monopoly of this tea-trade, which could not 
 stand the competition of the Indian growers; hence arises the 
 chief objection to removing the barriers of seclusion. 
 
 Tibet is one of the few regions where polyandrous customs, 
 intimately associated with the matriarchal state, 
 Polyandry. ^^'^^ persist almost in their pristine vigour. The 
 
 husbands are usually but not necessarily all brothers, 
 and the bride is always obtained by purchase. Unless otherwise 
 arranged, the oldest husband is the putative pata' familias^ all the 
 others being considered as " uncles." An inevitable result of the 
 institution is to give woman a dominant position in society; hence 
 the "queens" of certain tribes, referred to with so much astonish- 
 ment by the early Chinese chroniclers. Survivals of this " petticoat 
 government" have been noticed by travellers amongst the Lolos, 
 Mossos, and other indigenous communities about the Indo- 
 Chinese frontiers. But it does not follow that polyandry and 
 a matriarchal state always and necessarily preceded polygamy 
 and a patriarchal state. On the contrary, it would appear that 
 polyandry never could have been universal, being the outcome of 
 special conditions arising in particular regions, where the struggle 
 for existence is severe, and the necessity of imposing limits to 
 the increase of population more urgent than elsewhere'. Hence 
 to me it seems as great a mistake to assume a matriarchate as it 
 is to assume promiscuity as the universal antecedent of all later 
 family relations. In Tibet itself polygamy exists side by side with 
 polyandry amongst the wealthy classes, while monogamy is the 
 rule amongst the poor pastoral nomads of the northern steppe. 
 
 ^ " Whatever may have been the origin of polyandry, there can be no doubt 
 that poverty, a desire to keep down population, and to keep property undivided 
 in families, supply sufficient reason to justify its continuance. The same motives 
 explain its existence among the lower castes of Malabar, among the Jat (Sikhs) 
 of the Panjab, among the Todas, and probably in most other countries in which 
 this custom prevails " (Rockhill, p. 7a6). 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. l8l 
 
 Great ethnical importance has been attached by some distin- 
 guished anthropologists to the treatment of the dead. 
 But, as in the New Stone and Metal Ages crema- t^^""^^ ^"^" 
 tion and burial were undoubtedly practised by the 
 same race, so in Tibet the dead are now simultaneously disposed 
 of in diverse ways. It is a question not so much of race as of 
 caste or social classes, or of the lama's pleasure, who, when the 
 head has been shaved to facilitate the transmigration of the soul, 
 may order the body to be burnt, buried, cast into the river, or even 
 thrown to carrion birds or beasts of prey. Strange to say, the last 
 method, carried out with certain formalities, is one of the most 
 honourable, although the lamas are generally buried in a seated 
 posture, and high officials burnt, and (in Ladakh) the ashes, mixed 
 with a little clay, kneaded into much venerated effigies — doubtless 
 a survival of ancestry-worship. 
 
 Reference was above made to the primitive Shamanistic ideas 
 which still survive beneath the Buddhist and the later lamaistic 
 systems. In the central and eastern provinces of 
 Ui and Tsang this pre-Buddhist religion has again R^j'g^io^""^" 
 struggled to the surface, or rather persisted under the 
 name of Boiibo {Boa-ho) side by side with the national creed, from 
 which it has even borrowed many of its present rites. From the 
 colour of the robes usually worn by its priests, it is known as the 
 sect of the " Blacks," in contradistinction to the orthodox " Yel- 
 low " and dissenting " Red " lamaists, and as now constituted, its 
 origin is attributed to Shen-rab (Gsen-rabs), who flourished about 
 the fifth century before the new era, and is venerated as the equal 
 of Buddha himself His followers, who were powerful enough to 
 drive Buddhism from Tibet in the loth century, worship i8 chief 
 deities, the best known being the red and black demons, the snake 
 devil, and especially the fiery tiger-god, father of all the secondary 
 members of this truly ^' diabolical pantheon." It is curious to 
 note that the sacred symbol of the Bonbo sect is the ubiquitous 
 svastika, only with the hooks of the cross reversed, p=t=! instead 
 of IzzPi. This change, which appears to have escaped the difi- 
 gent research of Mr Thomas Wilson \ was caused by the practice 
 
 1 At least no reference is made to the Bonbo practice in his almost ex- 
 haustive monograph on The Szvastika, Washington, 1896. The reversed fonn, 
 
1 82 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 of turning the prayer-wheel from right to left as the red lamas do, 
 instead of from left to right as is the orthodox way. The common 
 Buddhist formula of six syllables — 07?i-ma-ni-pad-??ie-hum — is also 
 replaced by one of seven syllables — ma-tri-mon-tre-sa-la-dzun^ . 
 Buddhism itself, introduced by Hindu missionaries, is more 
 recent than is commonly supposed. Few conver- 
 and^LamaSm. sions Were made before the 5 th century of our era, 
 and the first temple dates only from the year 698. 
 Reference is often made to the points of contact or ''coincidences" 
 which have been observed between this system and that of the 
 Oriental and Latin Christian Churches. There is no question 
 of a common dogma, and the numerous resemblances are con- 
 cerned only with rituaHstic details, such as the cross, the mitre, 
 dalmatica, and other distinctive vestments, choir singing, exor- 
 „ ,^, . cisms, the thurible, benedictions with outstretched 
 
 Buddhist ' . ' 
 
 and Christian hand, cclibacy, the rosary, fasts, processions, litanies, 
 spiritual retreats, holy water, scapulars or other 
 charms, prayer addressed to the saints, relics, pilgrimages, music 
 and bells at the service, monasticism ; this last being developed 
 to a far greater extent in Tibet than at any time in any Christian 
 land, Egypt not excepted. The lamas, representing the regular 
 clergy of the Roman Church, hold a monopoly of all " science," 
 letters, and arts. The block printing-presses are all kept in 
 the huge monasteries which cover the land, and from them are 
 consequently issued only orthodox works and treatises on magic. 
 Religion itself is little better than a system of magic, and the 
 sole aim of all worship, reduced to a mere mechanical system 
 of routine, is to baffle the machinations of the demons who at 
 every turn beset the path of the wayfarer through this " vale of 
 tears." 
 
 For this purpose the prayer-wheels — an ingenious contri- 
 vance by which innumerable supplications, not less 
 wheel. ^^^^^' efficacious because vicarious, may be offered up 
 night and day to the powers of darkness — are 
 
 however, mentioned by Max Miiller and Burnouf, is figured at p. 767 and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 1 Sarat-Chandra-Das, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, 1881-2. 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 1 83 
 
 incessantly kept going all over the land, some being so cleverly 
 arranged that the sacred formula may be repeated as many as 
 40,000 times at each revolution of the cylinder. These machines, 
 which have also been introduced into Korea and Japan, have 
 been at work for several centuries without any appreciable 
 results, although fitted up in all the houses, by the river banks 
 or on the hill-side, and kept in motion by the hand, wind, and 
 water; while others of huge size, 30 to 40 feet high and 15 to 20 
 in diameter, stand in the temples, and at each turn repeat the 
 contents of whole volumes of liturgical essays stowed away in 
 their capacious receptacles. But despite all these everlasting 
 revolutions, stagnation reigns supreme throughout the most priest- 
 ridden land under the sun. 
 
 With its religion Tibet imported also its letters from India by 
 the route of Nepal or Kashmir in the 7th century. 
 Since then the language has undergone great arJd^Llti^s. 
 changes always, like other members of the Indo- 
 Chinese family, in the direction from agglutination towards 
 monosyllabism\ But the orthography, apart from a few feeble 
 efforts at reform, has remained stationary, so that words are still 
 written as they were pronounced 1200 years ago. The result 
 is a far greater discrepancy between the spoken and written 
 tongue than in any other language, English not excepted. Thus 
 the province of Ui has been identified by Sir A. Cunningham 
 with Ptolemy's Debasce. through its written form Dbus, though 
 now always pronounced U^. This bears out de Lacouperie's view 
 that all words were really uttered as originally spelt, although 
 often beginning with as many as three consonants. Thus spra 
 (monkey), is now pronounced deu in the Lhasa dialect, but still 
 streu-go in that of the province of Kham. The phonetic dis- 
 integration is still going on, so that, barring reform, the time must 
 come when there will be no correspondence at all between sound 
 and its graphic expression. 
 
 ^ This point, so important in the history of linguistic evolution, has I think 
 been fairly established by T. de Lacouperie in a series of papers in the Orietttal 
 and Babylonian Record, r 888 — gb. 
 
 - Laddk, London, 1854. 
 
184 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 On the other hand it is a mistake to suppose that all languages 
 in the Indo-Chinese linguistic zone have undergone 
 
 guTstit'^Type'^' ^^^^ enormous extent of phonetic decay. The in- 
 defatigable B. H. Hodgson has made us acquainted 
 
 with several, especially in NepaP, which are of a highly conserva- 
 tive character. Farther east the Lepcha (properly 
 
 Lepchs.. 
 
 Roiig) of Sikkim presents the remarkable pecuHarity 
 of distinct agglutination of the Mongolo-Turki, or perhaps I should 
 say of the Kuki-Lushai type, combined with numerous homo- 
 phones and a total absence of tone. Thus pano-sa, of a king, 
 pano-sang, kings, and pano-sang-sa, of kings, shows pure agglutina- 
 tion, while mat yields no less than twenty-three distinct meanings', 
 which should necessitate a series of discriminating tones, as in 
 Chinese or Siamese. Their absence, however, is readily explained 
 by the persistence of the agglutinative principle, which renders 
 them unnecessary. 
 
 A somewhat similar feature is presented by the Angami Naga, 
 
 the chief language of the Naga Hills, of which 
 Naga^s^i'ech. Mr R. B. McCabe writes that it is "still in a very 
 
 primitive stage of the agglutinating class," and 
 "peculiarly rich in intonation," although "for one Naga who 
 clearly marks these tonal distinctions twenty fail to do so"\" It 
 follows that it is mainly spoken without tones, and although said 
 to be "distinctly monosyllabic^" it really abounds in polysyllables, 
 such as merenama, orphan, kehuisaporiuw^ nowhere, dnkriwdche, 
 
 ^ Ethnology, p. 3 ■a 5. 
 
 2 Col. G. B, Mainwaring, A Grammar of the Rong [Lepcha) Language, Sec, 
 Calcutta, 1876, pp. 128, 9. 
 
 ^ Outline Grammar of the Angami-N^aga Language, Calcutta, 1887, pp. 4, 5. 
 It may be mentioned that Khassi also, which may be regarded as a stock 
 language with no clear affinities, structural or lexical, to any of the surrounding 
 Assamese tongues, is an isolating form of speech with prefixed formative ele- 
 ments and aspirates, but no tones. " The percentage of words common to the 
 Khassi and the rest of these mountain dialects is extremely small," while 
 " equally great is the dissimilarity in many other points of grammatical detail, " 
 says Mr H. RoVjerts, author of a good Granifiiar of the Khassi Language, Kegan 
 Paul Series, 1893, On the astonishing number of distinct languages in the 
 whole of this region see Gertrude M. Godden's paper " On the Naga and other 
 Frontier Tribes of North-East India," in Journ. Anthrop.,Inst. 1897, pp. 165, 6. 
 
 ^ Lbid. p. 4. 
 
r 
 
 VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 1 85 
 
 to kill, &c. There are also numerous verbal formative elements 
 given by Mr McCabe himself, so that Angami must clearly be 
 included in the agglutinating order. To this order also belongs 
 beyond all doubt the Kuki-Lushai of the neighbouring North 
 Kachar Hills and parts of Nagaland itself, the 
 common speech in fact of the Rangkhols, Jansens, L^^n^u^age"^^*^ 
 Lushai, Roeys and other hill peoples, collectively 
 called Kuki by the lowlanders, and Dzo by themselves ^ The 
 highly agglutinating character of this language is evident from 
 the numerous conjugations given by Mr Soppitt^ for some of 
 which he has no names, but which may be called Acceleratives, 
 Retardatives^ Complementaiives, and so on. Thus with the root 
 aho?ig, come, and infix Jdjn, slow, is formed the retardative ndng 
 ahongjdjfirangmoh, " will-you-come-slowly ? " {rang, future, moh, 
 interrogative particle). 
 
 These Kuki people have a curious theory of the Creation, 
 according to which the face of the earth was 
 originally covered with one vast sea, inhabited by L^gend.°" 
 a. gigantic worm. One day the Creator, passing 
 over this worm, dropped a small piece of clay, saying, " Of this 
 I mean to make a land and people it." The worm replied, 
 " What ! you think to make a habitable land of a small piece 
 like this ! Why, it is absurd. Look here, I can swallow it ! " 
 But the lump immediately passing out of his body grew and grew 
 until it became the world we now see. Then man sprang out of 
 the ground by the will of the gods, of whom there are three at the 
 head of the Kuki pantheon, Lambra, the creator, without whose 
 consent nothing can be done by the others; Golarai, god of 
 
 1 Almost hopeless confusion continues to prevail in the tribal nomenclature 
 of these multitudinous hill peoples. The official sanction given to the terms 
 Kuki and Ltishai as collective names may be regretted, but seems nosv past 
 remedy. Ktcki is unknown to the people themselves, while Ltishai is only the 
 name of a single group proud of their head-hunting proclivities, hence they call 
 themselves, or perhaps are called Lu-Shai, "Head-Cutters," from In head, 
 sha to cut (G. H. Damant). Other explanations suggested by Mr C. A. Soppitt 
 {Kuki-Lushai Tribes, %vith Ofz Outline Grammar of the Rangkhol-Lushai 
 I^anguage, Shillong, 1887) cannot be accepted. 
 
 2 Op. cit. 
 
1 86 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 death, and Dudukal, generally benevolent, operating through his 
 wife Fapite. 
 
 "The other Kuki tribes," writes Mr Soppitt, "have much the 
 
 same religious belief, though the head gods are 
 
 RSiSo^s^Be- differently named. In fact in those of all the semi- 
 
 liefs no Proof savage tribes a sfreat similarity is invariably found 
 
 of Affinity. f -, J , • • 1 r , J • • 
 
 — a head god, his assistants, other powerful deities, 
 working for the good and evil of mankind, and their aids minor 
 gods ; means of propitiation, sacrifice. This similarity cannot be 
 said to carry much weight in an argument in favour of a common 
 origin of many of these tribes, for the reason that the beHefs and 
 superstitions are those that would naturally be acquired by a 
 people living in the same way, more or less in the same kind 
 of country, and subject to the same diseases, epidemical visitations 
 and calamities.... A tribe settling in a new country would soon 
 change its belief, especially when that belief was a crude and 
 more or less unformed one. Thus removing to a part of a 
 province where storms were unusually severe, a people would 
 naturally adopt a 'god of storms '\" These views, confirming 
 those advanced in Ethnology^ p. 216 sq., may be recommended to 
 those ethnologists who still contend for the common origin of 
 widely separated branches of mankind, the American for instance 
 and the Mongol or Japanese, on the ground of resemblances in 
 their religious beliefs., All this will never prove anything but 
 the common psychic unity of all members of the human family. 
 Through these Naga and Kuki aborigines we pass without any 
 
 break of continuity from the Bh6tiya populations 
 Ethnkat^Reta- ^^ ^^ Himalayan slopes to those of Indo-China. 
 tions in indo- Here also, as indeed in nearly all semi-civiUsed 
 
 China. ^ •' 
 
 lands, peoples at various grades of culture are 
 found dwelling for ages side by side — rude and savage groups 
 on the uplands or in the more dense wooded tracts, settled 
 communities with a large measure of political unity (in fact 
 nations and peoples in the strict sense of those terms), on the 
 lowlands, and especially along the rich alluvial riverine plains of 
 this well watered region. The common theory is that the wild 
 
 ^ Op. cit. p. 13. 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 1 8/ 
 
 tribes represent the true aborigines driven to the hills and wood- 
 lands by civilised invaders from India and other lands, who are 
 now represented by the settled communities. 
 
 Whether such movements and locations have elsewhere taken 
 place we need not here stop to inquire ; indeed their probability, 
 and in some instances their certainty may be frankly admitted. 
 But I cannot think that the theory expresses the true relations in 
 most parts of Farther India. Here the civilised peoples, and ex 
 hypothesi the intruders, are the Manipuri, Burmese, 
 Arakanese, and the nearly extinct or absorbed and cuitlTred 
 Takings or Mons in the west ; the Siamese, Shans stTck.^^ °^ °"^ 
 or Laos, and Khamti in the centre ; the Annamese 
 (Tonkinese and Cochin-Chinese), Cambojans, and the almost 
 extinct Champas in the east. Nearly all of these I hold to be 
 quite as indigenous as the hillmen, the only difference being that, 
 thanks to their more favourable environment, they emerged at an 
 early date from the savage state and thus became more receptive 
 to foreign civilising influences, mostly Hindu, but also Chinese 
 (in Annam). All without exception are either of Mongolic or 
 Indonesian type, and all speak toned Indo-Chinese languages, 
 except the Cambojans and Champas, whose linguistic relations are 
 with the Oceanic peoples, who are not here in question. The 
 cultivated languages are no doubt full of Sanskrit or Prakrit 
 terms in the West and Centre, and of Chinese in the East, and 
 all, except Annamese, which uses a Chinese ideographic system, 
 are written with alphabets derived through the square Pali 
 characters from the Devanagari. It is also true that the vast 
 monuments of Burma, Siam, and Camboja all betray Hindu 
 influences, many of the temples being covered with Brahmanical 
 or Buddhist sculptures and inscriptions. But precisely analogous 
 phenomena are reproduced in Java, Sumatra, and other Malaysian 
 lands, as well as in Japan and partly in China itself Are we then 
 to conclude that there have been Hindu invasions and settlements 
 in all these regions, the most populous on the globe ? 
 
 During the historic period a few Hinduized Dravidians, 
 especially Telingas (Telugus) of the Coromandel 
 coast, have from time tc\time emigrated to Indo- Taiaings. 
 China (Pegu), where the name survives amongst 
 
1 88 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 the " Talaings," that is, the Mons, by whom they were absorbed, 
 just as the Mons themselves are now being absorbed by the 
 Burmese. Others of the same connection have gained a footing 
 here and there in Malaysia, especially the Malacca coastlands, 
 where they are called "KlingsV' i-^- Telings, Telingas. 
 
 But beyond these partial movements, without any kind of 
 influence on the general ethnical relations, I know of no Hindu 
 (some have even used the term "Aryan," and have brought 
 Aryans to Camboja) invasions except those of a moral order — 
 the invasions of the zealous Hindu missionaries, both Brahman 
 and Buddhist, which, however, amply suffice to account for all 
 the above indicated points of contact between the Indian, the 
 Indo-Chinese, and the Malayan populations. 
 
 That the civilised lowlanders and rude highlanders are gene- 
 rally of the same aboriginal stocks is well seen in 
 Minipuri. ^^^ Mauipur district with its fertile alluvial plains 
 
 and encircling Naga and Lushai Hills on the north 
 and south. The Hinduized Manipuri of the plains, that is, the 
 politically dominant Meithis, as they call themselves, are con- 
 sidered by Dr George Watt to be "a mixed race between the 
 Kukies and the Nagas^." This observer aptly remarks that in 
 this region the superiority of the rich bottom-lands over those 
 laboriously formed by terracing the hill slopes, as in Angamiland, 
 " must have been the reward ever kept in view by tribes rising 
 into importance and power. The conquest of one race over 
 another most probably led to the valleys passing time after time 
 into new hands. Many of the hill tribes have traditions that they 
 once held the great valley of Manipur. Modern history fully 
 supports this also, for in perhaps no other part of India have 
 greater or more cruel struggles taken place than amongst the 
 tribes of Manipur." 
 
 Memories even still survive of the head-hunting practices 
 associated with those lawless times, as in the legend or tradition 
 
 ^ It is a curious phonetic phenomenon that the combinations /•/ and tl are 
 indistinguishable in utterance, so that it is immaterial whether this term be 
 written /Cling or Tling, though the latter form M^ould bfe preferable, as shewing 
 its origin from Telinga. 
 
 2 The Aboriginal Tribes of Manipur, in Jotirn. Anthrop., Inst. 1887, p. 350. 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 1 89 
 
 by which the Murram Nagas explain the fact that they alone 
 have two hereditary chiefs, a greater and a lesser. 
 A former chief had two sons, the younger of whom, ing iTe'^gl^nd"*.' 
 being the greater warrior, wanted his father to give 
 him the succession. But, being afraid of the younger and unable 
 to deprive the elder of his birthright, the aged chief bethought him 
 of a way out of the dilemma. Having first instructed the elder 
 to go and secretly bring home the head of some foe, he summoned 
 both and sent them on a similar expedition, on the understanding 
 that he who brought in the first head should be heir. The elder 
 of course came back first with the head he had already secured 
 and hidden in the neighbouring bush. But the younger still 
 insisting on his claim, a compromise had to be made by which 
 both should succeed, one as the big, the other as the little chief 
 and so it has been ever since. 
 
 It is noteworthy that the Manipuri are also devoted to the 
 game of polo, which Capt. R. C. Temple tells us they play much 
 in the same way as do the Baltis and Ladakhis at the opposite 
 extremity of the Himalayas. Another remarkable link with the 
 ''Far West" is the term Khel^ which has travelled 
 all the way from Persia or Parthia through Afghani- sy^ster^^^ 
 Stan to Nagaland, where it retains the same meaning 
 of clan or section of a village, and produces the same disinte- 
 grating effects as amongst the Afghans. In Angamiland each 
 village is split into two or more Khels, and "it is no unusual 
 state of affairs to find Khel A of one village at war with Khel B 
 of another, while not at war with Khel B of its own village. The 
 Khels are often completely separated by great walls, the people 
 on either side living within a few yards of each other, yet having 
 no dealings whatever. Each Khel has its own headman, but 
 little respect is paid to the chief; each Khel may be described 
 as a small republic \" There appears to be no trace even of a 
 iirga, or council of elders, by which some measure of cohesion is 
 imparted to the Afghan Khel system. 
 
 From the Kuki-Nagas the transition is unbroken to the large 
 group of Chins of the Chindwin valley, named from 
 
 ° ^ •' The Chins. 
 
 them, and thence northw^ds to the rude Kakhyens 
 1 Dr Watts, loc. cit., p. 362. 
 
igO MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 {Kachins) about the Irawadi headstreams and southwards to the 
 numerous Kareh tribes, who occupy the ethnical parting-line 
 between Burma and Siam all the way down to Tenasserim^ 
 
 For the first detailed account of the Chins we are indebted to 
 Messrs S. Carey and H. N. Tuck^, who accept Mr B. Houghton's 
 theory that these tribes, as well as the Kuki-Lushai, " originally 
 lived in what we now know as Tibet, and are of one and the 
 same stock ; their form of government, method of cultivation, 
 manners and customs, beliefs and ' traditions, all point to one 
 origin." The term Chin, said to be a Burmese form of the 
 Chinese Jin, " men," is unknown to these aborigines, who call 
 themselves Yo in the north and Lai in the south, while in Lower 
 Burma they are Shit. 
 
 In truth there is no recognised collective name, and Shendu 
 (Sindhu) often so applied is proper only to the 
 Tribal Nomen- once formidable Chittagong and Arakan frontier 
 c ature. tribes, Klangklangs and Hakas, who with the Sokte, 
 
 Tashofts, Siyirs, and others are now reduced and administered 
 from Falam. Each little group has its own tribal name, and 
 often one or two others, descriptive, abusive and so on, given 
 them by their neighbours. Thus the Nwengals {Nun, river, ngal, 
 across) are only that section of the Soktes now settled on the 
 farther or right bank of the Manipur, while the Soktes themselves 
 {Sok, to go down, te, men) are so called because they migrated 
 from Chin Nwe (9 miles from Tiddim), cradle of the Chin race, 
 down to Molbem, their earliest settlement, which is the Mobingyi 
 of the Burmese. So with Siyin, the Burmese form of Sheyante 
 {she, alkali, yan, side, te, men), the group who settled by the 
 alkali springs east of Chin Nwe, who are the Taute ("stout" or 
 " sturdy " people) of the Lushai and southern Chins. Let these 
 few specimens suffice as a slight object-lesson in the involved 
 tribal nomenclature which prevails, not only amongst the Chins, 
 but everywhere in the Tibeto-Indo-Chinese domain, from the 
 north-western Himalayas to Cape St James at the south-eastern 
 
 1 " The Karens of Burma are related to the Angami Nagas, north of 
 Manipur, and to the allied tribes of Khyens [Chins] and Kakhyens of Burma" 
 (Capt. Temple, loc. cit., p. 368). 
 
 2 The Chin Hills, &c., Vol. 1., Rangoon, 1896. 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. I9I 
 
 extremity of Farther India. I have myself collected nearly a 
 thousand such names of clans, septs, and fragmentary groups 
 within this domain, and am well aware that the Hst neither is, 
 nor ever can be, complete, the groups themselves often being 
 unstable quantities in a constant state of fluctuation. 
 
 Most of the Chin groups have popular legends to explain 
 either their origin or their present reduced state. 
 Thus the Tawyans, a branch of the Tashons, claim Legends*" 
 to be Torrs, that is, the people of the Rawvan 
 district, who were formerly very powerful, but were ruined by 
 their insane efforts to capture the sun. Building a sort of Jacob's 
 ladder, they mounted higher and higher; but growing tired, 
 quarrelled among themselves, and one day, while half of them 
 were clambering up the pole, the other half below cut it down 
 just as they were about to seize the sun. So the Whenohs, 
 another Tashon group, said to be Lushais left behind in a district 
 now forming part of Chinland, tell a different tale. They say 
 they came out of the rocks at Sepi, which they think was their 
 original home. They share, however, this legend of their under- 
 ground origin with the Sokte's and several other Chin tribes. 
 
 Amid much diversity of speech and physique the Chins pre- 
 sent some common mental qualities, such as "slow 
 
 ^ ' Mental and 
 
 speech, serious manner, respect for birth and know- physical Quaii- 
 ledge of pedigrees, the duty of revenge, the taste 
 for a treacherous method of warfare, the curse of drink, the virtue 
 of hospitality, the clannish feeling, the vice of avarice, the filthy 
 state of the body, mutual distrust, impatience under control, the 
 want of power of combination and of continued effort, arrogance 
 in victory, speedy discouragement and panic in defeat \" 
 
 Physically they are a fine race, taller and stouter than the 
 surrounding lowlanders, men 5 feet 10 or 11 inches being common 
 enough among the independent southerners. There are some 
 '•'perfectly proportioned giants with a magnificent development 
 of muscle." Yet dwarfs are met in some districts, and in others 
 "the inhabitants are a wretched lot, much afflicted with goitre, 
 amongst whom may be seen cretins who crawl about on all fours 
 \ 
 1 Op. cit. p. 165. 
 
192 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 with the pigs in the gutter. At Dimlo, in the Sokte tract, leprosy 
 has a firm hold on the inhabitants." 
 
 Although often described as devil-worshippers, the Chins really 
 worship neither god nor devil. The northerners 
 
 Gods, Nats, ^ ° 
 
 and the after beHeve there is no Supreme Being, and although 
 the southerners admit a "Kozin" or head god, to 
 whom they sacrifice, they do not worship him, and never look to 
 him for any grace or mercy, except that of withholding the plagues 
 and misfortunes which he is capable of working on any in this 
 world who offend him. Besides Kozin, there are nafs or spirits 
 of the house, family, clan, fields ; and others who dwell in par- 
 ticular places in the air, the streams, the jungle, and the hills. 
 None can bestow blessings, but all can and will do harm unless 
 propitiated ^ 
 
 The departed go to Mitltikwa^ "Dead Man's Village," which 
 is divided into Pwethikiua, the pleasant abode, and Sathikwa, the 
 wretched abode of the unavenged. Good or bad deeds do not 
 affect the future of man, who must go to Pweithikwa if he dies a 
 natural or accidental death, and to Sathikwa if killed, and there 
 bide till avenged by blood. Thus the vendetta receives a sort of 
 religious sanction, strengthened by the belief that the slain 
 becomes the slave of the slayer in the next world. "Should the 
 slayer himself be slain, then the first slain is the slave of the 
 second slain, who in turn is the slave of the man who killed him." 
 
 "Whether a man has been honest or dishonest in this world is 
 of no consequence in the next existence; but, if he has killed 
 many people in this world, he has many slaves to serve him in 
 his future existence; if he has killed many wild animals, then 
 he will start well-supplied with food, for all that he kills on earth 
 are his in the future existence. In the next existence hunting and 
 drinking will certainly be practised, but whether fighting and 
 raiding will be indulged in is unknown^." 
 
 Cholera and small-pox are spirits, and when cholera broke out 
 among the Chins who visited Rangoon in 1895 they carried their 
 da/is (knives) drawn to scare off the nat, and spent the day hiding 
 under bushes, so that the spirit should not find them. Some even 
 
 1 Op. cit. p. 196. 2 ij^ifi^ 
 
193 
 
 VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 
 
 wanted to sacrifice a slave boy, but were talked over to substitute 
 some pariah dogs. They firmly believe in the evil eye, and the 
 Hakas think the Sujins and others are all wizards, whose single 
 glance can bewitch them, and may cause lizards to enter the body 
 and devour the entrails. A Chin once complained to Surgeon- 
 Major Newland that a nat had entered his stomach at the glance 
 of a Yahow, and he went to hospital quite prepared to die. But 
 an emetic brought him round, and he went off happy in the belief 
 that he had vomited the nat. 
 
 Ethnically connected with the Kuki-Naga groups are the 
 Kakhyens of the Irawadi head-streams, and the 
 Karens^ who form numerous village communities ^^® Kakh- 
 about the Burma-Siamese borderland. The Kakh- 
 yens, so called abusively by the Burmese, are the Cacobees of the 
 early writers \ whose proper name is Singpho {Chingpaw), i.e. 
 "MenV' and' whose curious semi-agglutinating speech, spoken in 
 an ascending tone, each sentence ending in a long-drawn Hn a 
 higher key (Bigandet), shows affinities rather with the Mishmi 
 and other North Assamese tongues than with the cultured Bur- 
 mese. They form a very wide-spread family, stretching from the 
 Eastern Himalayas right into Yunnan, and presenting two some- 
 what marked physical types: (i) the true Ching- 
 paws, with short round head, low forehead, prominent Ei^ment^s*^ 
 cheek-bones, slant eye, broad nose, thick protruding 
 lips, very dark brown hair and eyes, dirty buff colour, mean height 
 (about 5 ft. 5 or 6 in.) with disproportionately short legs; (2) a 
 much finer race, with regular Caucasic features, long oval face, 
 pointed chin, aquiline nose. One Kakhyen belle met with at 
 Bhamo, " with large lustrous eyes and fair skin, might almost have 
 passed for a European ^" 
 
 It is important to note this Caucasic element, which we first 
 meet here going eastwards from the Himalayas, but which is 
 
 ^ Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 9. 
 
 2 Prince Henri d'Orleans writes "que les Singphos et les Katchins 
 [Kakhyens] ne font qu'un, que le premier mot est thai et le second birman " 
 {Die Tonkin aiix Indes, 1898, p. 311). This is how the ethnical confusion in 
 these borderlands gets perpetuated. Singpho is not Thai, i.e. Shan or Siamese, 
 but a native word as here explainwi. 
 
 ^ Dr John Anderson, Mandalay to Moinein, 1876, p. 131. 
 
 K. 13 
 
194 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 found either separate or interspersed amongst the Mongoloid 
 populations all over the south-east Asiatic uplands, from Tibet 
 to Cochin-China, and passing thence into Oceanica. 
 
 The kinship of the Kakhyens with the still more numerous 
 Karens is now generally accepted, and it is no longer 
 
 The Karens. ^ , , • , , i, , 
 
 found necessary to brmg the latter all the way from 
 Turkestan. They form a large section, perhaps one- sixth, of 
 the whole population of Burma, and overflow into the west 
 Siamese borderlands. Their subdivisions are endless, though all 
 may be reduced to three main branches^, Sgaivs, Pwos and 
 Bwais, these last including the somewhat distinct group of Ka- 
 renni, or "Red Karens." Although Mr D. M. Smeaton calls the 
 language "monosyllabic," it is evidently agglutinating, of the 
 normal sub-Himalayan type. 
 
 The Karens are a short, sturdy race, with straight black and 
 also brownish hair, black, and even hazel eyes, and 
 light or yellowish brown complexion, so that here 
 also a Caucasic strain may be suspected. 
 
 Despite the favourable pictures of the missionaries, whose 
 propaganda has been singularly successful amongst these aborigi- 
 nes, the Karens are not an amiable or particularly 
 m'^nt"^^'^*" friendly people, but rather shy, reticent and even 
 surly, but trustworthy and loyal to those chiefs and 
 guides who have once gained their confidence. In warfare they 
 are treacherous rather than brave, and strangely cruel even to 
 Httle children. Their belief in a divine Creator who has deserted 
 them resembles that of the Kuki people, and to the nats of the Kuki 
 correspond the la of the Karens, who are even more numerous, 
 every mountain, stream, rapid, crest, peak or other conspicuous 
 object having its proper indwelling la. There are also seven 
 Fiourishin Specially baneful spirits, who have to be appeased 
 Christian Mis- by family offerings. "On the whole their belief in 
 a personal god, their tradition as to the former 
 possession of a 'law,' and their expectation of a prophet have 
 made them susceptible to Christianity to a degree that is almost 
 unique. Of this splendid opportunity the American mission has 
 
 . 1 The Loyal Karens of Burma, 1887. 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. I95 
 
 taken full advantage, educating, civilising, welding together, and 
 making a people out of the downtrodden Karen tribes, while 
 Christianizing them\'"' 
 
 In the Burmese division proper are comprised several groups, 
 presenting all grades of culture, from the sheer 
 savagery of the Mros, Kheongs, and others of the Bur^^^ese 
 Arakan Yoma range, and the agricultural Mugs of 
 the Arakan plains, to the dominant historical Burmese nation of 
 the Irawadi valley. Here also the terminology is perplexing, 
 and it may be well to explain that Yoma^ applied by Logan 
 collectively to all the Arakan Hill tribes, has no „ , . 
 
 . . . Perplexing 
 
 ethnic value at all, simply meaning a mountain tribal Nomen- 
 range in Burmese ^ 7}?z/«^^-^w/, one of Dr Mason's *= ^^"'■^• 
 divisions of the Burmese family, was merely a petty state founded 
 by a younger branch of the Royal House, and "has no more 
 claim to rank as a separate tribe than any other Burman town^" 
 Tavoyers are merely the people of the Tavoy district, Tenasserim, 
 originally from Arakan, and now speaking a Burmese dialect 
 largely affected by Siamese elements; Timgthas, like Yoma, 
 means "Highlander," and is even of wider apphcation; the 
 Tipperahs, Mrungs, Kumi, Mros, Khemis, and Khyengs are all 
 Tungthas of Burmese stock, and speak rude Burmese dialects. 
 
 The correlative of Tungthas is Khyungthas^ ''River People," 
 that iS; the x-^rakan Lowlanders comprising the more civiUsed 
 peoples about the middle and lower course of the rivers, who are 
 improperly called Mugs {Maghs) by the Bengali, and whose real 
 name is Rakhahigtha, i.e. people of Rakhaing (Arakan). They are 
 undoubtedly of the same stock as the cultured Burmese, whose 
 traditions point to Arakan as the cradle of the race, and in 
 whose chronicles the Rakhaingtha are called M^ranindkrih^ "Great 
 M'ranmas," or "Elder Burmese." Both branches call themselves 
 3rrafi7na, M^rama (the correct form of Banna, Burma, but now 
 usually pronounced Myamma), probably from a root tfiro, myo, 
 "man," though connected by Burhouf with Brahma, the Brahmani- 
 cal having preceded the Buddhist religion in this region. In any 
 
 < ^ Capt. R. C. Temple, Academy, Jan. 29, 1887, p. 72. 
 j '^ Capt. Forbes, LanguagS of Further India, p. 61. 
 i ^ ibid. p. 55. 
 
 i 13—2 
 
 5 
 
196 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 case the M'rama may claim a respectable antiquity, being already 
 mentioned in the national records so early as the first century of 
 the new era, when the land "was said to be overrun with fabulous 
 monsters and other terrors, which are called to this day by the 
 superstitious natives, the five enemies. These were a fierce tiger, 
 an enormous boar, a flying dragon, a prodigious man-eating bird, 
 and a huge creeping pumpkin, which threatened to entangle the 
 whole country'." 
 
 The Burmese type has been not incorrectly described as inter- 
 mediate between the Chinese and the Malay, more 
 ^^^' refined, or at least softer than either, of yellowish 
 brown or olive complexion, often showing very dark shades, full 
 black and lank hair, no beard, small but straight nose, weak 
 extremities, pliant figure, and a mean height. 
 
 Most Europeans speak well of the Burmese people, whose 
 bright genial temperament and extreme friendliness 
 towards strangers more than outweigh a natural 
 indolence which hurts nobody but themselves, and a little 
 arrogance or vanity inspired by the still remembered glories of a 
 nation that once ruled over a great part of Indo- China. Perhaps 
 the most remarkable feature of Burmese society is the almost 
 democratic independence and equality of all classes developed 
 under an exceptionally severe Asiatic autocracy. " They are 
 perfectly republican in the freedom with which all ranks mingle 
 together and talk with one another, without any marked distinc- 
 tion in regard to difference of rank or wealth.^" Mr Scott 
 attributes this trait, I think rightly, to the great leveller, 
 BucidSsm. Buddhism, the true spirit of which has perhaps been 
 better preserved in Burma than in any other land. 
 
 The priesthood has not become the privileged and oppressive 
 class that has usurped all spiritual and temporal functions in 
 Tibet, for in Burma everybody is or has been a priest for some 
 period of his life. All enter the monasteries — which are the 
 national schools — not only for general instruction, but actually as 
 members of the sacerdotal order. They submit to the tonsure, 
 take " minor orders," so to say, and wear the yellow robe, if only 
 
 1 G. W. Bird, IVaitderings in Burma, 1897, p. 335. 
 
 2 J. G. Scott, Burma, etc., 1886, p. 115. 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. I97 
 
 for a few months or weeks or days. But for the time being they 
 must renounce "the world, the flesh and the devil," and must 
 play the mendicant, make the round of the village at least once 
 with the begging-bowl hung round their neck in company with 
 the regular members of the community. They thus become 
 initiated, and it becomes no longer possible for the confraternity 
 to impose either on the rulers or on the ruled. " Teaching is all 
 that the brethren of the order do for the people. They have no 
 spiritual powers whatever. They simply become members of a 
 holy society that they may observe the precepts of the Master 
 more perfectly, and all they do for the alms lavished on them by 
 the pious laity is to instruct the children in reading, writing, and 
 the rudiments of religion \" 
 
 How purely formal are the ceremonial rites, and how empty 
 the devotion, prayers, and offerings even at the most venerated 
 shrines appears from the fact that the so-called fabulous treasures 
 of the renowned temple of Mingun were found on inquiry to be 
 almost worthless and their "gold and silver" images of base 
 metal. 
 
 Nor is the personal freedom here spoken of confined to 
 the men. In no other part of the world do the Position of 
 women enjoy a larger measure of independent ^°"^^"- 
 action than in Burma, with the result that they are acknowledged 
 to be far more virtuous, thrifty, and intelligent than those of all 
 the surrounding lands. Their capacity for business and petty 
 dealings is rivalled only by their Gallic sisters; and Mr H. S. 
 Hallett tells us that in every town and village "you will see 
 damsels squatted on the floor of the verandah with diminutive, or 
 sometimes large, stalls in front of them, covered with vegetables, 
 fruit, betel-nut, cigars and other articles. However numerous 
 they may be, the price of everything is known to them ; and such 
 is their idea of probity, that pilfering is quite unknown amongst 
 them. They are entirely trusted by their parents from their 
 earliest years ; even when they blossom into young women, 
 chaperons are never a necessity; yet immorality is far less 
 customary amongst them, I am led to believe, than in any 
 country in Europe^" ^ 
 
 ^ Op. cit. p. I J 8. - Amongst the Shans, etc., 1885, p. 233. 
 
198 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 This observer quotes Bishop Bigandet, a forty years' resident 
 amongst the natives, to the effect that " in Burmah and Siam the 
 doctrines of Buddhism have produced a striking, and to the lover 
 of true civilization a most interesting result — the almost complete 
 equality of the condition of the women with that of the men. 
 In these countries women are seen circulating freely in the streets ; 
 they preside at the comptoir^ and hold an almost exclusive 
 possession of the bazaars. Their social position is more elevated, 
 in every respect, than in the regions where Buddhism is not the 
 predominating creed. .They may be said to be men's companions, 
 and not their slaves." 
 
 Burma is one of those regions where tattooing has acquired 
 the rank of a fine art. Indeed the intricate designs 
 and general pictorial effect produced by the Burmese 
 artists on the living body are rivalled only by those of Japan, 
 New Zealand, and some other Polynesian groups. Mr Hallett, 
 who states that " the Burmese, the Shans, and certain Burmanized 
 tribes are the only peoples in the south of Asia who are known 
 to tattoo their body," tells us that the elaborate operation is 
 performed only on the male sex, the whole person from waist to 
 knees, and amongst some Shan tribes from neck to foot, being 
 covered with heraldic figures of animals, with intervening 
 traceries, so that at a little distance the effect is that of a pair of 
 dark-blue breeches \ The pigments are lamp-black or vermilion, 
 and the pattern is usually first traced with a fine hair pencil and 
 then worked in by a series of punctures made by a long pointed 
 brass styled 
 
 East of Burma we enter the country of the Shans, one of the 
 most numerous and widespread peoples of Asia, who call them- 
 selves Tat {Thai) "Noble" or "Free," although 
 Shan^Peopies. slavery in various forms has from time immemorial 
 been a social institution amongst all the southern 
 groups. Here again tribal and national terminology is somewhat 
 
 ^ Cf. the Shans of Yunnan, who are nearly all " tatoues, depuis la ceinture 
 jusqu'au genou, de dessins bleus si serres qu'ils paraissent former une vraie 
 culotte " (Pr. Henri, op. cit. p. 83). 
 
 2 Ibid. p. 212. 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 1 99 
 
 bewildering; but it will help to notice that Shan^ said to be 
 of Chinese origin \ is the collective Burmese name, and therefore 
 corresponds to Lao^ the collective Siamese name. These two 
 terms are therefore rather political than ethnical, Shan denoting 
 all the Tai peoples formerly subject to Burma and now mostly 
 British subjects, Lao all the Tai peoples formerly subject to Siam, 
 and now (since 1896) mostly French subjects. The Siamese 
 group them all in two divisions, the Lau-pang-dun, "Black-paunch 
 Lao," so called because they clothe themselves as it were in a dark 
 skin-tight garb by the tattooing process ; and the Lau-pang-Kah, 
 " White-paunch Lao," who do not tattoo. The Burmese groups 
 call themselves collectively i\^/<?2^^ while the most general Chinese 
 name is Pat {Pa-y). Prince Henri d'Orl^ans, who is careful to 
 point out that Pai is only another name for Lao^ constantly met 
 Pai groups all along the route from Tonking to Assam, and the 
 bulk of the lowland population in Assam itself belongs origin- 
 ally" to the same family, though now mostly assimilated to the 
 Hindus in speech, religion, and general culture. Assam in fact 
 
 1 Probably for Shan-tsc, Shan-yen, " highlanders " [Shan, mountain), Shan 
 itself being the same word as Siam, a form which comes to us through the 
 Portuguese Siao. 
 
 2 Carl Bock, MS. note. This observer notes that many of the Ngiou have 
 been largely assimilated in type to the Burmese, and in one place goes so far 
 as to assert that " the Ngiou are decidedly of the same race as the Burmese. 
 I have had opportunities of seeing hundreds of both countries, and of closely 
 watching their features and build. The Ngiou wear the hair in a topknot in 
 the same way as the Burmese, but they are easily distinguished by their 
 tattooing, which is much more elaborate" {Temples and Elephants, 1884, 
 p. 297). Of course all spring from one primeval stock, but they now constitute 
 distinct ethnical groups, and, except about the borderlands, where blends may 
 be suspected, both the physical and mental characters differ considerably. 
 Bock's Ngiou is no doubt the same name as Ngnio, which Mr H. S. Hallett 
 applies in one place to the Mosse Shans north of Zimme, and elsewhere to the 
 Burmese Shans collectively {A Thousand Miles on an Elephant, 1890, pp. 158 
 and 358). 
 
 ^ " Les Pai ne sont autres que des Laotiens " (Prince Henri, p. 42). 
 
 •* One Shan group, the Deodhaings, still persist, and occupy a few villages 
 near Sibsagar (S. E. Peal, ^ature, June 19, 1884, p. 169). Dalton also 
 mentions the Kamja^tgs, a KhlKnti (Tai) tribe in the Sadiya district, Assam 
 {Ethnology of Bengal, p. 6). 
 
200 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 takes its name from the Ahoms, the "peerless," the title first 
 TheAhom, adopted by the Mau Shan chief, Chukupha, who 
 ChkiTse ^"'^ invaded the country from north-east Burma, and 
 Shans. jj^ J 228 A.D. founded the Ahom dynasty, which 
 
 was overthrown in 1810 by the Burmese, who were ejected in 1827 
 by the English \ 
 
 These Ahoms came from the Khamti (Kampti) district about 
 the sources of the Irawadi, where Prince Henri was surprised to 
 find a civilised and lettered Buddhist people of Pai (Shan) speech 
 still enjoying political autonomy in the dangerous proximity of k 
 leopard britannique. They call themselves Fadao, and it is 
 curious to note that both Padam and Assami are also tribal 
 names amongst the neighbouring Abor Hillmen. The French 
 traveller was told that the Padao, who claimed to be T'hais (Tai) 
 like the Laotians^, were indigenous, and he describes the type as 
 also Laotian — straight eyes rather wide apart, nose broad at base, 
 forehead arched, superciliary arches prominent, thick lips, pointed 
 chin, olive colour, slightly bronzed and darker than in the Lao 
 country; the men ill-favoured, the young women with pleasant 
 features, and some with very beautiful eyes. 
 
 Passing into China we are still in the midst of Shan peoples, 
 Shan Cradle- ^^hose range appears formerly to have extended up 
 land and to the right bank of the Yang-tse-kiang, and whose 
 
 "gins. cradle has been traced by de Lacouperie to "the 
 
 Kiu-lung mountains north of Sechuen and south of Shensi in 
 China proper^" This authority holds that they constitute a chief 
 element in the Chinese race itself, which, as it spread southwards 
 beyond the Yang-tse-kiang, amalgamated with the Shan aborigines, 
 and thus became profoundly modified both in type and speech, 
 the present Chinese language comprising over thirty per cent, of 
 
 1 Much unexpected light has been thrown upon the early history of these 
 Ahoms by Mr E. Gait, who has discovered and described in the Journ. As. 
 Soc. Bengal, 1894, a large number of puthis^ or MSS. (28 in the Sibsagar 
 district alone), in the now almost extinct Ahom language, some of which give 
 a continuous history of the Ahom rajas from 568 to 1795 A.D. Most of the 
 others appear to be treatises on religious mysticism or divination, such as " a 
 book on the calculation of future events by examining the leg of a fowl " {ib.). 
 
 2 Op, cit. p. 309. 
 
 ^ A. R. Colquhoun, Among the Shans, Introduction, p. Iv. . 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 20I 
 
 Shan ingredients. Mr Colquhoun also, during his explorations 
 in the southern provinces, found that "rnost of the aborigines, 
 although known to the Chinese by various nicknames, were 
 Shans; and that their propinquity to the Chinese was slowly 
 changing their habits, manners, and dress, and gradually in- 
 corporating them with that peopled" 
 
 This process of fusion has been in progress for ages, not only 
 between the southern Chinese and the Shans, but „. 
 
 ^ Shan and 
 
 also between the Shans and the Caucasic aborigines, Caucasic 
 whom we first met amongst the Kakhyens, but who 
 are found scattered mostly in small groups over all the uplands 
 between Tibet and the Cochin-Chinese coast range. The result 
 is that the Shans are generally of finer physique than either the 
 kindred Siamese and Malays in the south, or the more remotely 
 connected Chinese in the north. The colour, says Mr Bock, 
 "is much lighter than that of the Siamese," and "in facial 
 expression the Laotians are better-looking than the Malays, 
 having good high foreheads, and the men particularly having 
 regular well-shaped noses, with nostrils not so wide as those of 
 their neighbours^" Still more emphatic is the testimony of 
 Dr Kreitner of the Szechenyi expedition, who tells us that the 
 Burmese Shans have " a nobler head than the Chinese ; the dark 
 eyes are about horizontal, the nose is straight, the whole expression 
 approaches that of the Caucasic race^." 
 
 Notwithstanding their wide diffusion, interminghngs with other 
 races, varied grades of culture, and lack of political 
 cohesion, the Tai-Shan groups acquire a certain toned"spee"ch. 
 ethnical and even national unity from their gene- 
 rally uniform type, social usages, Buddhist rehgion, and common 
 Indo-Chinese speech. Amidst a chaos of radically distinct idioms 
 current amongst the surrounding indigenous populations, they 
 have everywhere preserved a remarkable degree of linguistic 
 uniformity, all speaking various more or less divergent dialects 
 of the same mother-tongue. Excluding a large percentage of 
 Sanskrit terms introduced into the literary language by their 
 
 1 Op. cit. p. 328. ^ Temples and Elephants, p. 320. 
 
 3 "Der Gesichtsausdruck \Tberhaupt nahert sich der Kaukasischen Race " 
 {Itnfernen Osten, p. 959) • 
 
202 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Hindu educators, this radical mother-tongue comprises about 
 i860 distinct words or rather sounds, which have been reduced 
 by phonetic decay to so many monosyllables, each uttered with 
 five tones, the natural tone, two higher tones, and two lower \ 
 Each term thus acquires five distinct meanings, and in fact 
 represents five different words, which were phonetically distinct 
 dissyllables, or even polysyllables in the primitive language. 
 
 The same process of disintegration has been at work through- 
 out the whole of the Indo-Chinese linguistic area, where all the 
 leading tongues — Chinese, Annamese, Tai-Shan, Burmese — be- 
 long to the same isolating form of speech, which, as explained in 
 Ethnology^ Chap, ix., is not a primitive condition, but a later 
 development, the outcome of profound phonetic corruption. 
 
 The remarkable uniformity of the Tai-Shan member of this 
 Shan and ordcr of spccch may be in part due to the con- 
 other indo- servative effects of the literary standard. Probably 
 
 Chinese ^ , r. 
 
 Writing ovcr 2 000 years ago most of the Shan groups were 
 
 ystems. brought Under Hindu influences by the Brahman, 
 
 and later by the Buddhist missionaries, who reduced their rude 
 speech to written form, while introducing a large number of 
 Sanskrit terms inseparable from the new religious ideas. The 
 writing systems, all based on the square Pali form of the De- 
 vanagari syllabic characters, were adapted to the phonetic 
 requirements of the various dialects, with the result that the 
 Tai-Shan linguistic family is encumbered with four different 
 scripts. " The Western Shans use one very like the Burmese ; 
 the Siamese have a character of their own, which is very like 
 Pali ; the Shans called Lii have another character of their own ; 
 and to the north of Siam the Lao Shans have another^." 
 
 These Shan alphabets of Hindu origin are supposed by 
 de Lacouperie to be connected with the writing-systems which 
 have been credited to the Mossos, Lolos, and some other hill 
 peoples about the Chinese and Indo-Chinese borderlands. At 
 Lan-Chu in the Lolo country Prince Henri found that MSS. 
 were very numerous, and he was shown some very fine specimens 
 
 1 Low's Siamese Grammar, p, 14. 
 
 2 Col. R. G. Woodthorpe, The Shans and Hill Tribes of the Mekong, in 
 Jotirn. Anthrop., Inst. 1897, p. 16. 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 203 
 
 " enlumines." Here, he tells us, the script is still in use, being 
 employed jointly with Chinese in drawing up legal documents 
 connected with property. He was informed that this Lolo 
 script comprised 300 characters, read from top to bottom and 
 from left to right \ although other authorities say from right to 
 left. 
 
 Of the Lolo he gives no specimens ^ but reproduces two or 
 three pages of a Mosso book with transliteration and translation. 
 Other specimens, but without explanation, were already known 
 through Gill and Desgodins, and their decipherment had exercised 
 the ingenuity of several Chinese scholars. Their failure to interpret 
 them is now accounted for by Prince Henri, who declares that, 
 "strictly speaking the Mossos have no writing- system. The 
 magicians keep and still make copy-books full of hieroglyphics ; 
 each page is divided into little sections {cahiers) following hori- 
 zontally from left to right, in which are inscribed one or more 
 somewhat rough figures, heads of animals, men, houses, con- 
 ventional signs representing the sky or lightning, and so on." 
 Some of the magicians expounded two of the books, which 
 contained invocations, beginning with the creation of the world, 
 and winding up with a catalogue of all the evils threatening 
 mortals, but to be averted by being pious, that is, by making 
 gifts to the magicians. The same ideas are always expressed by 
 the same signs ; yet the magicians declared that there was no 
 
 1 Op. cit. p. 55. 
 
 2 This omission, however, is partly supplied by T. de Lacouperie, who gives 
 us an account of a wonderful Lolo MS. on satin, red on one side, blue on the 
 other, containing nearly 5750 words written in black, "apparently with the 
 Chinese brush." The MS. was obtained by Mr E. Colborne Baber from 
 a Lolo chief, forwarded to Europe in 1881, and described by de Lacouperie 
 Jotirn. R.As.Soc, Vol. xiv. Part i. "The writing runs in lines from top to 
 bottom and from left to right, as in Chinese" (p. i), and this authority regards 
 it as the link that was wanting to connect the various members of a widely 
 diffused family radiating from India (Harapa seal, Indo-Pali, Vatteluttu) to 
 Malaysia (Batta, Rejang, Lampong, Bugis, Makassar, Tagal), to Indo-China 
 (Lao, Siamese, Lolo), Korea and Japan, and also including the Siao-chuen 
 Chinese system " in use a few centuries B.C." (p. 5). It would be premature 
 to say that all these connections are established; but the Indian origin and 
 affinities of all the members o^ the Malayan branch are now placed beyond 
 doubt (see next Chapter). 
 
204 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 alphabet, the hieroglyphs being handed down bodily from one 
 expert to another. Nevertheless Prince Henri looks on this as 
 one of the first steps in the history of writing ; " originally many 
 of the Chinese characters were simply pictorial, and if the Mossos, 
 instead of being hemmed in, had acquired a large expansion, 
 their sacred books might also perhaps have given birth to true 
 characters \" 
 
 Although now "hemmed in," the Mossos are a historical and 
 
 somewhat cultured people, belonging to the same 
 Orig?ns° g^o^P ^s the lungs {Nju7igs), who came from the 
 
 regions north-east of Tibet, and appeared on the 
 Chinese frontiers about 600 b.c. They are referred to in the 
 Chinese records of 796 a.d. when they were reduced by the king 
 of Nanchao. After various vicissitudes they recognised the 
 Chinese suzerainty in the 14th century, and were finally subdued 
 in the i8th. De Lacouperie^ thinks they are probably of the 
 same origin as the Lolos, the two languages having much in 
 common, and the names of both being Chinese, while the Lolos 
 and the Mossos call themselves respectively Nossu (Nesu) and 
 Nashi (Nashri). 
 
 Everywhere amongst these border tribes are met groups of 
 
 Abori ines aborigines, who present more or less regular features 
 
 of South China which are described by various travellers as ''Cau- 
 
 casic" or "European." Thus the Kiu-tse, who are 
 the Khanungs of the English maps, and are akin to the large 
 Lu-tse family {Melafu, A?iu, Diasii &c.), reminded Prince Henri 
 of some Europeans of his acquaintance^ and he speaks of the 
 light colour, straight nose and eyes, and generally fine type of the 
 Yayo (Yao), as the Chinese call them, but whose real name is 
 Lin-tin-yu. 
 
 The same Caucasic element reappears in a pronounced form 
 amongst the indigenous populations of Tonking, to whom 
 Dr A. Billet has devoted an instructive monograph ^ This 
 
 ^ Op. cit. p. 193. 
 
 2 Beginnings of Writing in Central and Eastern Asia., passim. 
 ^ " Quelques-uns de ces Kiou-tses me rappellent des Europeens que je 
 connais " {Op. cit. p. ^f)^). 
 
 * Denx Ans dans le Hant-Tonkin^ etc., Paris, 1896. 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 205 
 
 observer, who declares that these aborigines are quite distinct both 
 from the Chinese and the Annamese, groups them in three main 
 divisions — Tho^ ^ong, and Ma?i^ — all collectively called Mot, 
 Muong, and Myong by the Annamese. The Thos, who are the 
 most numerous, are agriculturists, holding all the upland valleys 
 and thinning off towards the wooded heights. They are tall com- 
 pared to the Mongols (5 ft. 6 or 7 in.), lighter than the Annamese, 
 round-headed, with oval face, deep-set straight eyes, low cheek- 
 bones, straight and even slightly aquiline nose not depressed at 
 root, and muscular frames. They are a patient, industrious, and 
 frugal people, now mainly subject to Chinese and Annamese in- 
 fluences in their social usages and religion. Very peculiar never- 
 theless are some of. their surviving customs, such as the feast of 
 youth, the pastime of swinging, and especially chess played with 
 living pieces, whose movements are directed by two players. 
 The language appears to be a Shan dialect, and to this family 
 the writer affiliates both the Thos and the Nongs. The latter 
 are a much more mixed people, now largely assimilated to 
 the Chinese, although the primitive type still persists, especially 
 amongst the women, as is so often the case. Dr Billet tells us 
 that he often met Nong women "with light and sometimes even 
 red hairl" 
 
 It is extremely interesting to learn that the Mans came tra- 
 ditionally "from a far-off" western land where their ^^^ ^^^ 
 forefathers were said to have lived in contact with Origins and 
 peoples of white blood thousands of years ago." 
 
 1 With regard to Man {Man-tse) it should be explained that in Chinese it 
 means " untameable worms," that is, zuild or barbarous, and we are warned by 
 Desgodins that " il ne faut pas prendre ces mots comme des noms propres de 
 tribus" [Bui. Soc. Geogr., xii. p. 410). In 1877 Capt. W. Gill visited a large 
 nation of Man-tse with 18 tribal divisions, reaching from West Yunnan to the 
 extreme north of Sechuen, a sort of federacy recognising a king, with Chinese 
 habits and dress, but speaking a language resembling Sanskrit (?). These were 
 the Sumu, or "White Man-tse," apparently the same as those visited in 1896 
 by Mrs Bishop, and by her described as semi-independent, ruled by their own 
 chiefs, and in appearance " quite Caucasian, both men and women being very 
 handsome," strict Buddhists, friendly and hospitable, and living in large stone 
 houses (Letter to Times, Aug. 18, 1896). 
 
 ^ " Des paysannes nongs c!lhit les cheveux etaient blonds, quelquefois meme 
 roux" {Op. cit.). 
 
206 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 This tradition, which would identify them with the above-men- 
 tioned Man-tse, is supported by their physical appearance — long 
 head, oval face, small cheek-bones, eyes without the Mongol fold, 
 skin not yellowish but rather "browned by the sun," regular 
 features — in nothing recalling the traits of the yellow races. 
 
 Let us now turn to M. R. Verneau's comments on the rich 
 
 materials brought together by Dr Billet, in whom, 
 
 Aborigines in "being not Only a medical man, but also a graduate 
 
 ^Asia " ^^ ^^ ^^^^ natural sciences, absolute confidence may be 
 
 placed \" 
 
 "The Mans-Tien, the Mans-Coc, the Mans-Meo (Miao, Miao- 
 tse, or Mieu) present a pretty complete identity with the Pan-y 
 and the Pan-yao of South Kwang-si; they are the debris of a very 
 ancient race, which with T. de Lacouperie may be called pre- 
 Chinese. This early race, which bore the name of Pan-hu or Ngao^ 
 occupied Central China before the arrival of the Chinese. Accord- 
 ing to M. d'Hervey de Saint-Denys, the mountains and valleys of 
 Kwei-chau where these Miao-tse still survive were the cradle of 
 the Pan-hu. In any case it seems certain that the T'hai and the 
 Man race came from Central Asia, and that, from the anthropo- 
 logical standpoint, they differ altogether from the Mongol group 
 represented by the Chinese and the Annamese. The Man especi- 
 ally presents striking affinities with the Aryan type." 
 
 Thus is again confirmed by the latest investigations, and by 
 the conclusions of some of the leading members of the French 
 school of anthropology, the view first advanced by me in 1879, 
 that peoples of the Caucasic (here called ''Aryan") division had 
 already spread to the utmost confines of south-east Asia in 
 remote prehistoric times, and had in this region even preceded 
 the first waves of Mongolic migration radiating from their cradle- 
 land on the Tibetan plateau ^ 
 
 Reference was above made to the singular lack of political 
 
 The Siamese cohcsion at all tinics betrayed by the Tai-Shan 
 
 Shans. peoples. The only noteworthy exception is the 
 
 1 V Anthropologie, 1896, p. 602 sq. 
 
 2 On the Relations of the Indo-Chinese and Inter- Oceanic Races and Lan- 
 guages, Paper read at the Meeting of the Brit. Association, Sheffield, 1879, and 
 printed in the J own. Anthrop. Inst. February, 1880. See also Eth. p. 326 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 20/ 
 
 Siamese branch, which forms the bulk of the population in 
 the Menam basin. In this highly favoured region of vast hill- 
 encircled alluvial plains of inexhaustible fertility, traversed by 
 numerous streams navigable for light craft, and giving direct 
 access to the inland waters of Malaysia, the Southern Shans were 
 able at an early date to merge the primitive tribal groups in a 
 great nationality, and found a powerful empire, which at one time 
 dominated most of Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula. 
 
 Siam, alone of all the Shan states, even still maintains a pre- 
 carious independence, although now again reduced by European 
 aggression to little more than the natural limits of the fluvial 
 valley, which is usually regarded by the Southern Shans as the 
 home of their race. Yet they appear to have been here pre- 
 ceded by the Caucasic Khmers (Cambojans), whose advent is 
 referred in the national chronicles to the year 543 B.C. and who, 
 according to the Hindu records, were expelled about 443 a.d. 
 It was through these Khmers, and not directly from India, that 
 the "Sayamas" received their Hindu culture, and the Siamese 
 annals, mingUng fact with fiction, refer to the miraculous birth of 
 tlie national hero, Phra-Ruang, who threw off the foreign yoke, 
 declared the people henceforth T'hai, "Freemen," invented the 
 present Siamese alphabet, and ordered the Khom (Cambojan) to 
 be reserved in future for copying the sacred writings. 
 
 The introduction of Buddhism is assigned to the year 638 a.d., 
 one of the first authentic dates in the native records. The ancient 
 city of Labong had already been founded (575), and other settle- 
 ments now followed rapidly, always in the direction of the south, 
 according as the Shan race steadily advanced towards the sea- 
 board, driving before them or mingling with Khmers, Lawas, 
 Karens, and other aborigines, some now extinct, some still sur- 
 viving on the wooded uplands and plateaux encircling the Menam 
 valley. Ayuthia, the great centre of national life in later times, 
 dates only from the year 1350, when the empire had received its 
 greatest expansion, comprising the whole of Camboja, Pegu, 
 Tenasserim, and the Malay Peninsula, and extending its conquer- 
 ing arms across the inland waters as far as Java\ Then followed 
 
 1 In the Javanese annals tl^ invaders are called "Cambojans," but at this 
 time (about 1 340) Camboja had already been reduced, and the Siamese conquerors 
 
208 - MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 the disastrous wars with Burma, which twice captured and finally 
 destroyed Ayuthia (1767), now a picturesque elephant-park visited 
 by tourists from the present capital, Bangkok, founded in 1772 
 a little lower down the Menam. 
 
 But the elements of decay existed from the first in the institu- 
 tion of slavery or serfdom, which was not restricted 
 So^cS"system. ^^ ^ particular class, as in other lands, but, before 
 the modern reforms, extended in principle to all the 
 kings' subjects in mockery declared "Freemen" by the founders of 
 the monarchy. This, however, may be regarded as perhaps little 
 more than a legal fiction, for at all times class distinctions were 
 really recognised, comprising the members of the royal family — 
 a somewhat numerous group — the nobles named by the king, the 
 leks or vassals, and the people, these latter being again subdivided 
 into three sections, those liable to taxation, those subject to forced 
 labour, and the slaves proper. But so little developed was the 
 sentiment of personal dignity and freedom, that anybody from 
 the highest noble to the humblest citizen might at any moment 
 lapse into the lowest category. Like most Mongoloid peoples, 
 the Siamese are incurable gamblers, and formerly it was an every- 
 day occurrence for a freeman to stake all his goods and chattels, 
 wives, children, and self, on the hazard of the die. 
 
 Yet the women, like their Burmese sisters, have always held 
 
 a somewhat honourable social position, being free 
 
 vvfom*an.°^ to walk abroad, go shopping, visit their friends, see 
 
 the sights, and take part in the frequent public 
 
 feastings without restriction. Those, however, who brought no 
 
 dower and had to be purchased, might again be sold at any 
 
 time, and many thus constantly fell from the dignity of matrons 
 
 to the position of the merest drudges without rights or privileges 
 
 of any kind. These strange relations were endurable, thanks to 
 
 the genial nature of the national temperament, by which the hard 
 
 lot of the thralls was softened, and a little light allowed to 
 
 had brought back from its renowned capital, Angkor Wat, over 90,000 captives. 
 These were largely employed in the wars of the period, which were thus attri- 
 buted to Camboja instead of to Siam by foreign peoples ignorant of the changed 
 relations in Indo-China. 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 209 
 
 penetrate into the darkest corners^ of the social system. The 
 open slave -markets, which in the vassal Lao states fostered 
 systematic raiding-expeditions amongst the unreduced aborigines, 
 were abohshed in 1873, and since 1890 all born in slavery are free 
 on reaching their 21st year. 
 
 Siamese Buddhism is a slightly modified form of that prevail- 
 ing in Ceylon, although strictly practised but by few. 
 There are two classes or '' sects," the reformers who 
 attach more importance to the observance of the canon law than 
 to meditation, and the old believers, some devoted to a contem- 
 plative life, others to the study of the sunless wilderness of 
 Buddhist writings. But, beneath it all, spirit or devil-worship is 
 still rife, and in many districts pure animism is practically the 
 only religion. Even temples and shrines have been raised to the 
 countless gods of land and water, woods, mountains, villages and 
 households. To these gods are credited all sorts of calamities, 
 and to prevent them from getting into the bodies of the dead the 
 latter are brought out, not through door or window, but through 
 a breach in the wall, which is afterwards carefully built up. Simi- 
 lar ideas prevail amongst many other peoples, both at higher and 
 lower levels of culture, for nothing is more ineradicable than such 
 popular beliefs associated with the relations presumed to exist 
 between the present and the after life. 
 
 Incredible sums are yearly lavished in offerings to the spirits, 
 which give rise to an endless round of feasts and revels, and also 
 in support of the numerous Buddhist temples, convents, and their 
 inmates. The treasures accumulated in the "royal cloisters" 
 and other shrines represent a great part of the national savings — 
 
 ^ How very dark some of these corners can be may be seen from the sad 
 picture of maladministration, vice, and corruption still prevalent so late as 1890, 
 given by Mr Hallett in A Thousand Miles on an Elephant, ch. xxxv. ; and 
 even still later by Mr H. Warington Smyth in Five Years in Siam, from 1891 
 to 1896 (1898). This observer credits the Siamese with an undeveloped sense 
 of right and wrong, so that they are good only by accident. "To do a thing 
 because it is right is beyond them ; to abstain from a thing because it is against 
 their good name, or involves serious consequences, is possibly within the power 
 of a few; the question of right and wrong does not enter the calculation.'* 
 But he thinks they may possess a\igh degree of intelligence, and mentions the 
 case of a peasant, who from an atlas had taught himself geography and politics. 
 
 or THE 
 
2IO MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 investments for the other world, among which are said to be 
 numerous gold statues glittering with rubies, sapphires, and other 
 priceless gems. But in these matters the taste of the talapoins^, as 
 the priests were formerly called, is somewhat catholic, including 
 pictures of reviews and battle-scenes from the European illustrated 
 papers, and sometimes even statues of Napoleon set up by the 
 side of Buddha. 
 
 So numerous, absurd, and exacting are the rules of the 
 monastic communities that, but for the aid of the 
 
 Monasticism 
 
 and Pessim- temple servauts and novices, existence would be im- 
 ^^^' possible. A list of such puerilities occupies several 
 
 pages in Mr Colquhoun's work Amongst the Shans (219-231), and 
 from these we learn that the monks must not dig the ground, so 
 that they can neither plant nor sow; must not boil rice, as it 
 would kill the germ ; eat corn for the same reason ; climb trees 
 lest a branch get broken ; kindle a flame, as it destroys the fuel ; 
 put out a flame, as that also would extinguish life ; forge iron, as 
 sparks would fly out and perish; swing their arms in walking; 
 wink in speaking ; buy or sell ; stretch the legs when sitting ; 
 breed poultry, pigs, or other animals ; mount an elephant or 
 palanquin ; wear red, black, green, or white garments ; mourn for 
 the dead, &c., &c. In a word all might be summed up by a 
 general injunction neither to do anything, nor not to do anything, 
 and then despair of attaining Nirvana ; for it would be impossible 
 to conceive of any more pessimistic system in theory I Practically 
 it is otherwise, and in point of fact the utmost religious indifference 
 prevails amongst all classes. 
 
 Within the Mongolic division it would be difficult to imagine 
 any more striking contrast than that presented by the gentle, 
 kindly, and on the whole not ill-favoured Siamese, and their 
 hard-featured, hard-hearted, and grasping Annamese neighbours. 
 
 ^ Probably a corruption of talapat, the name of the palm-tree which yields 
 the fan-leaf constantly used by the monks. 
 
 2 " In conversation with the monks Dr M'^Gilvary was told that it would 
 most likely be countless ages before they would attain the much wished for 
 state of Nirvana, and that one transgression at any time might relegate them to 
 the lowest hell tobeginagain their melancholy pilgrimage" (Hallett, A Thousand 
 Miles on an Elephant, p. 337). 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 211 
 
 Let anyone, who may fancy there is little or nothing in blood, 
 pass rapidly from the bright, genial — if somewhat 
 listless and corrupt — social life of Bangkok to the Annamese 
 dry, uncongenial moral atmosphere of Ha-noi or 
 Saigon, and he will be apt to modify his views on that point. 
 Few observers have a good word to say for the Tonkingese, the 
 Cochin-Chinese, or any other branch of the Annamese family, 
 and some even of the least prejudiced are so outspoken that we 
 must needs infer there is good ground for their severe strictures 
 on these strange, uncouth materialists. Buddhists of course they 
 are nominally ; but of the moral sense they have little, unless it 
 be (amongst the lettered classes) a pale reflection of the pale 
 Chinese ethical code. The whole region in fact is a sort of 
 attenuated China, to which it owes its arts and industries, its 
 letters, moral systems, general culture, and even a large part of 
 its inhabitants. Giao-shi {Ktao-shi), the name of 
 the aborigines, said to mean "Bifurcated," or 
 " Cross-toes S" in reference to the wide space between the great 
 toe and the next, occurs in the legendary Chinese records so 
 far back as 2285 B.C., since which period the two countries 
 are supposed to have maintained almost uninterrupted relations, 
 whether friendly or hostile, down to the present day. At first the 
 Giao-shi were confined to the northern parts of Lu-kiang, the 
 present Tonking, all the rest of the coast lands being held by the 
 powerful Champa (Tsiampa) people, whose affinities are with the 
 Oceanic populations. But in 218 B.C., Lu-kiang having been re- 
 duced and incorporated with China proper, a large number of 
 Chinese emigrants settled in the country, and gradually merged 
 with the Giao-shi in a single nationality, whose twofold descent 
 is still reflected in the Annamese physical and mental characters. 
 This term Annam^, however, did not come into use till the 
 7th century, when it was officially applied to the frontier river 
 
 ^ " Le gros orteil est tres developpe et ecarte des autres doigts du pied. 
 A ce caractere distinctif, que Ton retrouve encore aujourd'hui chez les indigenes 
 de race pure, on peut reconnaitre facilement que les Giao-chi sont les ancetres 
 des Annamites " {La Cochinchui^ran^aise en 1878, p. 23 1). See also a note on 
 the subject by C. F. Tremlett x^ourn. Anthrop. Inst. 1879, p. 460. 
 
 ^ Properly An-nan, a modified form of ngan-nan^ " Southern Peace." 
 
 14—2 
 
212 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 between China and Tonking, and afterwards extended to the 
 whole of Tonking and Cochin-China. Tonking itself, meaning 
 the "Eastern Court V' was originally the name only of the city of 
 Ha-noi when it was a royal residence, but was later extended to 
 the whole of the northern kingdom, whose true name is Yileh-nan. 
 To this corresponded the southern Kwe-Chen-Ching, " Kingdom 
 of Chen-Ching," which was so named in the 9th century from its 
 capital Chen-Ching, and of which our Cochin-China appears to be 
 a corrupt form. 
 
 But, amid all this troublesome poUtical nomenclature, the 
 dominant Annamese nation has faithfully preserved its homo- 
 geneous character, spreading, like the Siamese Shans, steadily 
 southwards, and gradually absorbing the whole of the Champa 
 domain to the southern extremity of the peninsula, as well as a 
 large part of the ancient kingdom of Camboja about the Mekhong 
 delta. They thus form at present the almost exclusive ethnical 
 element throughout all the lowland and cultivated parts of Ton- 
 king, upper and lower Cochin-China and south Camboja, with a 
 total population in 1898 of about twenty millions. 
 
 The Annamese are described in a semi-official report^ as 
 characterised by a high broad forehead, high cheek 
 
 Physical and , , , • , ,• i , , 
 
 Mental bones. Small crushed nose, rather thick lips, black 
 
 arac ers. hair, scaut beard, mean height, coppery complexion, 
 
 deceitful {rush) expression, and rude or insolent bearing. The 
 head is round (index 83 to 84) and the features are in general flat 
 and coarse, while to an ungainly exterior corresponds a harsh un- 
 sympathetic temperament. The Abbe Gagelin, who lived years in 
 their midst, frankly declares that they are at once arrogant and 
 dishonest, and dead to all the finer feelings of human nature, 
 so that after years of absence the nearest akin will meet without 
 any outward sign of pleasure or affection. Others go further, and 
 Mr J. G. Scott summed it all up by declaring that "the fewer 
 Annamese there are, the less taint there is on the human race." 
 No doubt Lord Curzon gives a more favourable picture, but this 
 traveller spent only a short time in the country, and even he 
 
 1 Cf. Nan-king, Pe-king, " Southern " and " Northern " Courts (Capitals). 
 
 2 La Gazette Giographique, March 12, 1885. 
 
yi.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 213 
 
 allows that they are ''tricky and deceitful, disposed to thieve 
 when they get the chance, mendacious, and incurable gamblers'." 
 
 Yet they have one redeeming quality, an intense love of 
 personal freedom, strangely contrasting with the almost abject 
 slavish spirit of the Siamese. The feeling extends to all classes, 
 so that servitude is held in abhorrence, and, as in Burma, a demo- 
 cratic sense of equality permeates the social system ^ Hence, 
 although the State has always been an absolute monarchy, each 
 separate commune constitutes a veritable little oligarchic common- 
 wealth. This has come as a great surprise to the present French 
 administrators of the country, who frankly declare that they cannot 
 hope to improve the social or political position of the people 
 by substituting European for native laws and usages. The Anna- 
 mese have in fact little to learn from western social institutions. 
 
 Their language, spoken everywhere with remarkable uni- 
 formity, is of the normal Indo-Chinese isolating 
 type, possessing six tones, three high and three low, and^Lettefs 
 and written in ideographic characters based on the 
 Chinese, but with numerous modifications and additions. But,- 
 although these are ill-suited for the purpose, the attempt made by 
 the early Portuguese missionaries to substitute the so-called qtioc- 
 ngii, or Roman phonetic system, has been defeated by the con- 
 servative spirit of the people. Primary instruction has long been 
 widely diffused, and almost everybody can read and write as 
 many of the numerous hieroglyphs as are needed for the ordinary 
 purposes of daily intercourse. Every village has its free school, 
 and a higher range of studies is encouraged by the public exami- 
 nations to which, as in China, all candidates for government 
 appointments are subjected. Under such a scheme surprising 
 results might be achieved, were the course of studies not based 
 exclusively on the empty formulas of Chinese classical literature. 
 The subjects taught are for the most part puerile, and true 
 science is replaced by the dry moral precepts of Confucius. One 
 result amongst the educated classes is a scoffing, sceptical spirit, 
 
 1 Geogr. Journ., Sept. 1893, p. 194. 
 
 2 " Parmi les citoyens regne la plus parfaite egalite. Point d'esclavage, 
 la servitude est en horreur. Assi tout homme peut-il aspirer aux emplois, se 
 plaindre aux memes tribunaux que son adversaire " {op. cit. p. 6). 
 
214 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 free from all religious prejudice, and unhampered by theological 
 creeds or dogmas, combined with a lofty moral tone, not always 
 however in harmony with daily conduct. 
 
 Even more than in China, the family is the true base of 
 the social system, the head of the household 
 s^stlms!^^ being not only the high-priest of the ancestral 
 
 cult, but also a kind of patriarch enjoying almost 
 absolute control over his children. In this respect the rela- 
 tions are somewhat one-sided, the father having no recognised 
 obhgations towards his offspring, while these are expected to 
 show him perfect obedience in life and veneration after death. 
 Besides this worship of ancestry and the Confucian ethical 
 philosophy, a national form of Buddhism is prevalent. Some 
 even profess all three of these so-called "religions," beneath which 
 there still survive many of the primitive superstitions associated 
 with a not yet extinct belief in spirits and the supernatural power 
 of magicians. While the Buddhist temples are neglected and the 
 few bonzes' despised, offerings are still made to the genii of agri- 
 culture, of the waters, the tiger, the dolphin, peace, war, diseases, 
 and so forth, whose rude statues in the form of dragons or other 
 fabulous monsters are even set up in the pagodas. Since the 
 early part of the 17th century Roman Catholic missionaries have 
 laboured with considerable success in this unpromising field, 
 where the congregations were estimated in 1898 at about 900,000. 
 
 From Annam the ethnical transition is easy to China^ and its 
 teeming multitudes, regarding whose origins, racial 
 
 TheChinese. j,, ^. . ,ij 
 
 and cultural, two opposite views at present hold 
 
 ^ From bonzo, a Portuguese corruption of the Japanese busso, a devout 
 person, applied first to the Buddhist priests of Japan, and then extended to 
 those of China and neighbouring lands. 
 
 2 This name, probably the Chinese jin^ men, people, already occurs in 
 
 Sanskrit writings in its present form: nT*T, China, whence the Hindi O"*^' 
 Chin, and the Arabo-Persian 0'*j«^, Sin, which gives the classical Sinae. 
 
 The most common national name is Chung-kiie, '^middle kingdom" (presumably 
 the centre of the universe), whence Chung-kue-Jin, the Chinese people. Some 
 have referred China to the Chin (Tstn) dynasty (909 B.C.), while Marco Polo's 
 Kataia (Russian Kitai) is the Khata (North China) of the Mongol period, 
 from the Manchu KH-tan, founders of the Liao dynasty, which was overthrown 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 21 5 
 
 the field. What may be called the old, but by no means the 
 obsolete school, regards the Chinese populations as the direct 
 descendants of the aborigines who during the Stone Ages entered 
 the Hoang-ho valley probably from the Tibetan plateau, there 
 developed their peculiar culture independently of foreign in- 
 fluences, and thence spread gradually southwards to the whole of 
 China proper, extirpating, absorbing, or driving to the encircling 
 western and southern uplands the ruder aborigines of the Yang- 
 tse-Kiang and Si-Kiang basins. 
 
 In direct opposition to this view the new school, championed 
 especially by the late T. de Lacouperie^ holds that 
 the present inhabitants of China are late intruders loli^n th^'o^y. 
 from south-western Asia, and that they arrived, not 
 as rude aborigines, but as a cultured people with a considerable 
 knowledge of letters, science, and the arts, all of which they 
 acquired either directly or indirectly from the civilised Akkado- 
 Sumerian inhabitants of Babylonia. 
 
 Not merely analogies and resemblances, but what are called 
 ac):ual identities, are pointed out between the two cultures, and 
 even between the two languages, sufficient to establish a common 
 origin of both, Mesopotamia being the fountain-head, whence the 
 stream flowed by channels not clearly defined to the Hoang-ho 
 valley. Thus the Chin, yu, originally go, is equated with Akkad 
 gu, to speak; ye with ge, night, and so on. Then the astronomic 
 and chronologic systems are compared, Berosus and the cunei- 
 form tablets dividing the prehistoric Akkad epoch into 10 periods 
 of 10 kings, lasting 120 Sari, or 432,000 years, while the corre- 
 sponding Chinese astronomic myth also comprises 10 kings (or 
 dynasties) covering the same period of 432,000 years. The 
 astronomic system credited to the emperor Yao (2000 b.c.) 
 similarly corresponds with the Akkadian, both having the same 
 
 1 1 15 A. D. by the Nil-Chan Tatars. Ptolemy's Thinae is rightly regarded by 
 Edkins as the same word as Sinae, the substitution of t for s being normal in 
 Annam, whence this form may have reached the west through the southern 
 seaport of Kattigara. 
 
 ^ Western Origin of the EarlvChinese Civilization, from 2300 B.C. to -200 A.D., 
 or Chapters on the Elements Derived from the Old Civilizations of West Asia 
 in the Formation of the Ancient Chinese Culture, London, 1894. 
 
2l6 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 five planets with names of like meaning, and a year of 1 2 months 
 and 30 days, with the same cycle of intercalated days, while 
 several of the now obsolete names of the Chinese months answer 
 to those of the Babylonians. Even the name of the first 
 Chinese emperor who built an observatory, Nai-Kwang-ti, some- 
 what resembles that of the Elamite king, Kuder-na-hangti, who 
 conquered Chaldaea about 2280 B.C. 
 
 All this can hardly be explained away as a mere series of 
 coincidences ; nevertheless neither Sinologues nor Akkadists are 
 quite convinced, and it is obvious that many of the resemblances 
 may be due to trade or intercourse both by the old overland caravan 
 routes, and by the seaborne traffic from Eridu at the head of 
 the Persian Gulf, which was a flourishing emporium 4000 or 5000 
 years ago. 
 
 But, despite some verbal analogies, an almost insurmountable 
 difficulty is presented by the Akkadian and Chinese languages, 
 which no philological ingenuity can bring into such relation as is 
 required by the hypothesis. Mr T. G. Pinches has shown that 
 at a very early period, say some 5000 years ago, Akkadian already 
 consisted, "for the greater part, of words of one syllable," and was 
 "greatly affected by phonetic decay, the result being that an 
 enormous number of homophones were developed out of roots 
 originally quite distinct'." This Akkadian scholar sends me a 
 number of instances, such as fu for ttira, to enter; ^i for ///«, 
 to live 3 du for dumu, son; du for di/gu, good, as in Eridu^ for 
 Gurudugu, ''the good city," adding that "the list could be ex- 
 tended indefinitely^." But de Lacouperie's Bak tribes, that is, 
 the first immigrants from south-west Asia, are not supposed to 
 have reached North China till about 2500 or 3000 B.C., at which 
 time the Chinese language was still in the untoned agglutinating 
 state, with but few monosyllabic homophones, and consequently 
 quite distinct from the Akkadian, as known to us from the 
 Assyrian syllabaries, bilingual lists, and earlier tablets from Nippur 
 or Lagash. 
 
 Hence the linguistic argument seems to fail completely, while 
 
 ^ " Observations upon the Languages of the Early Inhabitants of Mesopo- 
 tamia," in Journ. R. As. Soc. xvi. Part 2. 
 2 MS. note, May 7, 1896. 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 217 
 
 the Babylonian origin of the Chinese writing-system, strenuously 
 advocated by the Rev. C. J. Ball, has not been accepted by those 
 specialists who are most competent to judge. Many of the 
 Chinese and Akkadian ** line forms " collated by Mr Ball are so 
 simple and, one might say, obvious, that they seem to prove 
 nothing. They may be compared with such infantile utterances 
 as pa^ ma, da, ta, occurring in half the languages of the world, 
 without proving a connection or affinity between any of them. 
 But even were the common origin of the two scripts established, 
 it would prove nothing as to the common origin of the two 
 peoples, but only show cultural influences, which need not be 
 denied. 
 
 But if Chinese origins cannot be clearly traced back to 
 Babylonia, Chinese culture may still, in a sense, 
 claim to be the oldest in the world, inasmuch as Culture and 
 it has persisted with little change from its rise °^^^ ystem, 
 some 4,500 years ago down to present times. All other early 
 civilisations — Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Hel- 
 lenic — have perished, or live only in their monuments, traditions, 
 oral or written records. But the Chinese, despite repeated political 
 and social convulsions, is still as deeply rooted in the past as ever, 
 showing no break of continuity from the dim echoes of remote 
 prehistoric ages down to the last Taiping rebellion, or the last 
 disastrous foreign war. These things touch the surface only of 
 the great ocean of Chinese humanity, which is held together, not 
 by any general spirit of national sentiment (all sentiment is alien 
 from the Chinese temperament), nor by any community of speech, 
 for many of the provincial dialects differ profoundly from each 
 other, but by a prodigious power of inertia, which has hitherto 
 resisted all attempts at change either by pressure from without, or 
 by spontaneous impulse from within. 
 
 What they were thousands of years ago, the Chinese still are, 
 a frugal, peace-loving, hard-working people, occupied mainly with 
 tillage and trade, cultivating few arts beyond weaving, porce- 
 lain and metal work, but with a widely diffused 
 knowledge of letters, and a writing system which g^riy Records, 
 still remains at the cui^lbrous ideographic stage, 
 needing as many different symbols as there are distinct concepts 
 
21 8 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 to be expressed. Yet the system has one advantage, enabling 
 those who speak mutually unintelligible idioms to converse 
 together, using the pencil instead of the tongue. For this very 
 reason the attempts made centuries ago by the government to 
 substitute a phonetic script had to be abandoned. It was found 
 that imperial edicts and other documents so written could not be 
 understood by the populations speaking dialects different from the 
 literary standard, whereas the hieroglyphs, like our ciphers i, 2, 3..., 
 could be read by all educated persons of whatever aUied form of 
 speech. 
 
 Originally the Chinese system, whether developed on the spot 
 or derived from Akkadian or any other foreign source, was of 
 course pictographic or ideographic, and it is commonly supposed 
 to have remained at that stage ever since, the only material changes 
 being of a graphic nature. The pictographs were conventionalised 
 and reduced to their present form, but still remained ideograms 
 supplemented by a limited number of phonetic determinants. 
 But de Lacouperie has shown that this view is a mistake, and 
 that the evolution from the pictograph to the phonetic symbol 
 had been practically completed in China many centuries before 
 the new era. The Ku-wen style current before the 9th century B.C. 
 "was really the phonetic expression of speech \" But for the 
 reason stated it had to be discontinued, and a return made to 
 the earlier ideographic style. The change was effected about 
 820 B.C. by She Chou, minister of the Emperor Siien Wang, who 
 introduced the Ta-chuen style, in which "he tried to speak to the 
 eye and no longer to the ear," that is, he reverted to the earlier 
 ideographic process, which has since prevailed. It was simplified 
 about 227 B.C. {Siao Chuen style), and after some other modifi- 
 cations the present caligraphic form {Kiai Shu) was introduced 
 by Wang Hi in 350 a.d. Thus one consequence of the "Expan- 
 sion of China" was a reversion to barbarism, in respect at least 
 of the national graphic system, by which Chinese thought and 
 literature have been hampered for nearly 3000 years. 
 
 Written records, though at first mainly of a mythical character, 
 date from about 3000 b.c.^ Reference is made in the early 
 
 1 History of the Archaic Chinese Writing and Texts, 1882, p. 5. 
 
 2 The first actual date given is that of Tai Hao (Fu Hi), 2953 B.C., but this 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 219 
 
 documents to the rude and savage times, which in China as 
 elsewhere certainly preceded the historic period. Three different 
 prehistoric ages are even discriminated, and tradition relates how 
 Fu-hi introduced wooden, Thin-ming stone, and Shi-yu metal 
 implements \ Later, when their origin and use were forgotten, 
 the jade axes, like those from Yunnan, were looked on as bolts 
 hurled to the earth by the god of thunder, while the arrow-heads, 
 supposed to be also of divine origin, were endowed in the 
 popular fancy with special virtues and even regarded as emblems 
 of sovereignty. Thus may perhaps be explained the curious fact 
 that in early times, before the 12th century B.C., tribute in flint 
 weapons was paid to the imperial government by some of the 
 reduced wild tribes of the western uplands. 
 
 These men of the Stone and Metal Ages are no doubt still 
 largely represented, not only amongst the rude hill 
 tribes of the southern and western borderlands, but J'^^^y Migra- 
 
 ' tions. 
 
 also amongst the settled and cultured lowlanders 
 of the great fluvial valleys. The "Hundred Families," as the 
 first immigrants called themselves, came traditionally from the 
 north-western regions beyond the Hoang-ho. According to the 
 
 ruler belongs to the fabulous -period, and is stated to have reigned 115 years. 
 The first certain date would appear to be that of Yau, first of the Chinese sages 
 and reformer of the calendar (2357 B.C.). The date 2254 B.C. for Confucius's 
 model king Shun seems also established. But of course all this is modern 
 history compared with the now determined Babylonian and Egyptian records. 
 
 ^ Amongst the metals reference is made to iron so early as the time of the 
 Emperor Ta Yii (2200 B.C.), when it is mentioned as an article of tribute in the 
 Shu-King. Prof. F. Hirth, who states this fact, adds that during the same 
 period, if not even earlier, iron was already a flourishing industry in the Liang 
 district (Paper on the History of Chinese Culture, Munich Anthropological 
 Society, April, 1898). At the discussion which followed the reading of this 
 paper Prof. Montelius argued that iron was unknown in Western Asia and 
 Egypt before 1500 B.C., although the point was contested by Prof. Hommel, 
 who quoted a word for iron in the earliest Egyptian texts. Montelius, however, 
 explained that terms originally meaning "ore" or "metal" were afterwards 
 used for " iron." Such was certainly the case with the Gk x«^'f<^J> at first 
 '* copper," then metal in general, and used still later for (rldripos, "iron"; 
 hence xa^f«5s= coppersmith, blacksmith, and even goldsmith. So also with 
 the Lat. aes (Sanskrit ayas, akin to aurora, with simple idea of brightness), 
 used first especially for copper {aes cyprium, cuprtcvi), and then for bronze 
 (Lewis and Short). 
 
220 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Yu-kung their original home lay in the south-western part of 
 Eastern Turkestan, whence they first migrated east to the oases 
 north of the Nan-Shan range, and then, in the fourth millennium 
 before the new era, to the fertile valleys of the Hoang-ho and its 
 Hoei-ho tributary. Thence they spread slowly along the other 
 great river valleys, partly expelling, partly intermingling with the 
 Absor tion aborigines, but so late as the 7th century B.C. were 
 of the still mainly confined to the region between the 
 
 Pei-ho and the lower Yang-tse-kiang. Even here 
 several indigenous groups, such as the Hoei, whose name sur- 
 vives in that of the Hoei river, and the Lai of the Shantong 
 Peninsula, long held their ground, but all were ultimately absorbed 
 or assimilated throughout the northern lands as far south as the 
 left bank of the Yang-tse-kiang. 
 
 Beyond this river many were also merged in the dominant 
 
 people continually advancing southwards; but 
 Hok^ol^ ^~ others, collectively or vaguely known as Sifans, 
 PunS' Mans, Miao-tse, Pa-i, Tho, Y-jen\ Lolo, etc., were 
 
 driven to the south-western highlands which they 
 still occupy. Even some of the populations in the settled districts, 
 such as the ffok-los^ and Hakkas^ of Kwang-tung, and the Pun-W^ 
 of the Canton district, are scarcely yet thoroughly assimilated. 
 They differ greatly in temperament, usages, appearance, and speech 
 from the typical Chinese of the Central and Northern provinces, 
 whom in fact they look upon as "foreigners," and with whom they 
 
 ^ This term Y-jen { Yi-jen) meaning much the same as Ma7i, Man-tse, 
 savage, rude, untameable, has acquired a sort of diplomatic distinction. In the 
 treaty of Tien-tsin (1858) it was stipulated that it should no longer, as hereto- 
 fore, be applied in official documents to the English or to any subjects of the 
 Queen. 
 
 2 See Rev. J. Edkins, China's Place in Philology, p. 117. The Hok-los 
 were originally from Fo-kien, whence their alternative name, Fo-lo. The to 
 appears to be the same word as in the reduplicated Lo-lo, meaning something 
 like the Greek and Latin Bar-bar, stammerers, rude, uncultured. 
 
 3 The Hakkas, i.e. " strangers," speak a well-marked dialect current on the 
 uplands between Kwang-tung, Kiang-si, and Fo-kien (Dyer Ball, Easy Lessons 
 in the Hakka Dialect, 1884). 
 
 ^ Numerous in the western parts of Kwang-tung and in the Canton district 
 (Dyer Ball, Crtw/^w^j^il/a^^? ZfrtJ^, Hongkong, 1884). 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 221 
 
 hold intercourse through "Pidgin EngUsh','' the lingua franca of 
 the Chinese seaboard. 
 
 Nevertheless a general homogeneous character is imparted to 
 the whole people by their common poHtical, social, and religious 
 institutions, and by that principle of convergence in virtue of 
 which different ethnical groups, thrown together in the same area 
 and brought under a single administration, tend to merge in a uni- 
 form new national type. This general uniformity is conspicuous 
 especially in the religious ideas which, except in the sceptical 
 lettered circles, everywhere underlie the three recognised national 
 religions, or " State Churches," as they might almost be called : 
 ju-kiao, Confucianism ; tao-kiao, Taoism, and fo-kiao^ Buddhism 
 (Fo = Buddha). The first, confined mainly to the educated upper 
 classes, is not so much a religion as a philosophic system, a frigid 
 ethical code based on the moral and matter-of-fact 
 teachings of Confucius I Confucius was essentially ism!"^""*"" 
 a social and political reformer, who taught by ex- 
 ample and precept ; the main inducement to virtue being, not 
 rewards or penalties in the after-life, but well or ill-being in the 
 present. His system is summed up in the expression "worldly 
 wisdom," as embodied in such popular sayings as : A friend is 
 hardly made in a year, but unmade in a moment; When safe 
 remember danger, in peace forget not war ; Filial father, filial son, 
 unfihal father, unfilial son ; In washing up, plates and dishes may 
 get broken ; Don't do what you would not have known ; Thatch 
 your roof before the rain, dig the well before you thirst; The 
 gambler's success is his ruin ; Money goes to the gambling den 
 as the criminal to execution (never returns) ; Money hides many 
 faults ; Stop the hand, stop the mouth (stop work and starve) ; 
 To open a shop is easy, to keep it open hard ; Win your lawsuit 
 and lose your money. 
 
 1 In this expression "Pidgin" appears to be a corruption of the word 
 business taken in a very wide sense, as in such terms as talkee pidgin = a con- 
 versation, discussion; sitigsong pidgin = ■&. concert, &c. It is no unusual occur- 
 rence for persons from widely separated Chinese provinces meeting in England 
 to be obliged to use this common jargon in conversation. 
 
 2 Kung-tse, "Teacher Kii^g," or more fully Kung-fii-tse, "the eminent 
 teacher Kung," which gives the Latinised form Confucius. 
 
222 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Although he instituted no religious system, Confucius never- 
 theless enjoined the observance of the already existing forms of 
 worship, and after death became himself the object of a wide- 
 spread cult, which still persists. "In every city there is a temple, 
 built at the public expense, containing either a statue of the 
 philosopher, or a tablet inscribed with his titles. Every spring and 
 autumn worship is paid him in these temples by the chief official 
 personages of the city. In the schools also, on the first and 
 fifteenth of each month, his title being written on red paper and 
 affixed to a tablet, worship is performed in a special room by 
 burning incense and candles, and by prostrations \" 
 
 Taoism, a sort of pantheistic mysticism, called by its founder, 
 _ . Lao-tse (600 b.c), the Tao, or "way of salvation," was 
 
 laoism. ^ ' •' ' 
 
 embodied in the formula "matter and the visible 
 world are merely manifestations of a sublime, eternal, incom- 
 prehensible principle." It taught, in anticipation of Sakya-Muni, 
 that by controlling his passions man may escape or cut short an 
 endless series of transmigrations, and thus arrive by the Tao at 
 everlasting bliss — sleep? unconscious rest or absorption in the 
 eternal essence? Nirvana? It is impossible to tell from the lofty 
 but absolutely unintelligible language in which the master's teach- 
 ings are wrapped. 
 
 But it matters little, because his disciples have long forgotten 
 the principles they never understood, and Taoism has almost 
 everywhere been transformed to a system of magic associated 
 with the never-dying primeval superstitions. Originally there was 
 no hierarchy of priests, the only specially religious class being the 
 Ascetics, who passed their lives absorbed in the contemplation of 
 the eternal verities. But out of this class, drawn together by their 
 common interests, was developed a kind of monasticism, with an 
 organised brotherhood of astrologers, magicians, Shamanists, 
 somnambuhsts, "mediums," "thought-readers," charlatans and 
 
 1 Kwong Ki Chili, 1881, p. 875. Confucius was born in 550 and died in 
 477 B.C., and to him are at present dedicated as many as 1560 temples, in which 
 are observed real sacrificial rites. For these sacrifices the State yearly supplies 
 26,606 sheep, pigs, rabbits and other animals, besides 27,000 pieces of silk, 
 most of which things, however, become the " perquisites " of the attendants in 
 the sanctuaries. 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 223 
 
 impostors of all sorts, sheltered under a threadbare garb of 
 religion. 
 
 Buddhism also, although of foreign origin, has completely 
 conformed to the national spirit, and is now a 
 curious blend of Hindu metaphysics with the 
 primitive Chinese belief in spirits and a deified ancestry. In 
 every district are practised diverse forms of worship between 
 which no clear dividing line can be drawn, and, as in Annam, the 
 same persons may be at once followers of Confucius, Lao-tse, and 
 Buddha. In fact such is the position of the Emperor, who 
 belongs ex officio to all three of these State religions, and scrupu- 
 lously takes part in their various observances. There is even 
 some truth in the Chinese view that ''all three make but one 
 religion," the first appealing to man's moral nature, the second to 
 the instinct of self-preservation, the third to the higher sphere of 
 thought and contemplation. 
 
 But behind, one might say above it all, the old animism still 
 prevails, manifested in a multitude of superstitious ^^^ ^^^ . 
 practices, whose purport is to appease the evil and and ancestry 
 secure the favour of the good spirits, the Feng-shut ^ 
 or Fung-shui, "air and water" genii, who have to be reckoned 
 with in all the weightiest as well as the most trivial occurrences of 
 daily life. These with the ghosts of their ancestors, by whom the 
 whole land is haunted, are the bane of the Chinaman's existence. 
 Everything depends on maintaining a perfect balance between 
 the Fung-shui, that is, the two principles represented by the 
 "White Tiger" and the "Azure Dragon," who guard the ap- 
 proaches of every dwelling, and whose opposing influences have 
 to be nicely adjusted by the well-paid professors of the magic 
 arts. At the death of the late emperor Tung Chih (1875) ^ great 
 difficulty was raised by the State astrologers, who found that the 
 realm would be endangered if he were buried, according to rule, 
 in the imperial cemetery 100 miles west of Pekin, as his father 
 reposed in the other imperial cemetery situated the same distance 
 east of the capital. For some subtle reason the balance would 
 have been disturbed between Tiger and Dragon, and it took nine 
 months to settle the p^int, during which, as reported by the 
 American Legation, the whole empire was stirred, councils of 
 
224 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 State agitated, and ;£5o,ooo expended to decide where the 
 remains of a worthless and vicious young man should be interred. - 
 
 Owing to the necessary disturbance of the ancestral burial 
 places, much trouble has been anticipated in the construction of the 
 railways, for which concessions have now been granted to European 
 syndicates. But an Englishman long resident in the country has 
 declared that there will be no resistance on the part of the 
 people. " The dead can be removed with due regard to Fung 
 Shui ; a few dollars will make that all right." This is fully in 
 accordance with the thrifty character of the Chinese, which over- 
 rides ail other considerations, as expressed in the popular saying : 
 "With money you may move the gods; without it you cannot 
 move men." But the gods may even be moved without money, 
 or at least with spurious paper money, for it is a fixed belief of 
 their votaries that, like mortals, they may be outwitted by such 
 devices. When rallied for burning flash notes at a popular shrine, 
 since no spirit-bank would cash them, a Chinaman retorted: 
 "Why me burn good note? Joss no can savvy." In a similar 
 spirit the god of war is hoodwinked by wooden boards hung on 
 the ramparts of Pekin and painted to look like heavy ordnance. 
 
 In fact appearance, outward show, observance of the "eleventh 
 commandment," in a word "face," as it is called, is everything in 
 China. "To understand, however imperfectly, what is meant by 
 'face,' we must take account of the fact that as a race the Chinese 
 have a strong dramatic instinct. Upon very slight provocation 
 any Chinese regards himself in the light of an actor in a drama. 
 A Chinese thinks in theatrical terms. If his troubles are adjusted 
 he speaks of himself as having 'got off" the stage' with credit, and 
 if they are not adjusted he finds no way to 'retire from the stage.' 
 The question is never of facts, but always of form. Once rightly 
 apprehended, 'face' will be found to be in itself a key to the 
 combination-lock of many of the most important characteristics of 
 the Chinese \" 
 
 1 Arthur H. Smith, Chinese Characteristics, New York, 1895. The good, 
 or at least the useful, qualities of the Chinese are stated by this shrewd observer 
 to be a love of industry, peace, and social order, a matchless patience and for- 
 bearance under wrongs and evils beyond cure, a happy temperament, no nerves, 
 and " a digestion like that of an ostrich." 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 225 
 
 Of foreign religions Islam, next to Buddhism, has made most 
 progress. Introduced by the early Arab and Persian 
 traders, and zealously preached throughout the chrisSnity. 
 Jagatai empire in the 12th century, it has secured 
 a firm footing especially in Kan-su, Shen-si, and Yunnan, and is of 
 course dominant in Eastern (Chinese) Turkestan. Despite the 
 wholesale butcheries that followed the repeated insurrections 
 between 1855 and 1877, the Hoei-Hoe'i, Pant hays, or DunganSy as 
 the Muhammadans are variously called, were still estimated, in 
 1898, at about 22,000,000 in the whole empire. 
 
 Islam was preceded by Christianity, which, as attested by the 
 authentic inscription of Si-ngan-fu, penetrated into the western 
 provinces under the form of Nestorianism about the 7th century. 
 The famous Roman Catholic missions with headquarters at Pekin 
 date from the close of the i6th century, and despite internal dis- 
 sensions have had a fair measure of success, the congregations 
 numbering (1898) altogether over one million. This contrasts 
 favourably with the 30,000 to 50,000 Protestants of all denomi- 
 nations claimed collectively by the London Missionary Society , the 
 China Inland Mission, and the American Methodist Episcopal Society. 
 Indeed the Protestant propaganda is almost an admitted failure. 
 
 The above-mentioned dissensions arose out of the practices 
 associated with ancestry-worship, offerings of flowers, fruits and 
 so forth, which the Jesuits regarded merely as proofs of filial 
 devotion, but were denounced by the Dominicans as acts of 
 idolatry. After many years of idle controversy, the question was 
 at last decided against the Jesuits by Clement XL in the famous 
 Bull, Ex ilia die (17 15), and since then, neophytes having to 
 renounce the national cult of their forefathers, conversions have 
 mainly been confined to the lower classes, too humble to boast of 
 any family tree, or too poor to commemorate the dead by ever- 
 recurring costly sepulchral rites. 
 
 In China there are no hereditary nobles, indeed no nobles 
 at all, unless it be the rather numerous descendants of Confucius 
 who dwell together and enjoy certain social privileges, in this 
 somewhat resembling the Shorfa (descendants of the Prophet) in 
 Muhammadan lands. If afly titles have to be awarded for great 
 deeds they fall, not on the hero, but on his forefathers, and thus 
 
 K. 15 
 
226 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 at a stroke of the vermilion pencil are ennobled countless past 
 generations, while the last of the line remains unhonoured until 
 he goes over to the majority. Between the Emperor, "patriarch 
 of his people," and the people themselves, however, 
 rin clas^^"*^^ there stands an aristocracy of talent, or at least of 
 Chinese scholarship, the governing Mandarin^ class, 
 which is open to the highest and the lowest alike. All nominations 
 to office are conferred exclusively on the successful competitors 
 at the public examinations, so that, like the French conscript 
 with the hypothetical Marshal's baton in his knapsack, every 
 Chinese citizen carries the buttoned cap of official rank in his 
 capacious sleeve. Of these there are nine grades, indicated re- 
 spectively in descending order by the ruby, red coral, sapphire, 
 opaque blue, crystal, white shell, gold (two), and silver button, or 
 rather little globe, on the cap of office, with which correspond the 
 nine birds — manchu crane, golden pheasant, peacock, wild goose, 
 silver pheasant, egret, mandarin duck, quail, and jay — embroidered 
 on the breast and back of the State robe. 
 
 Theoretically the system is admirable, and at all events is 
 better than appointments by Court favour. But in practice 
 it is vitiated, first by the narrow, antiquated course of studies in 
 the dry Chinese classics, calculated to produce pedants rather 
 than statesmen, and secondly by the monopoly of preference 
 which it confers on a lettered caste to the exclusion of men of 
 action, vigour, and enterprise. Moreover, appointments being 
 made for life, barring crime or blunder, the Mandarins, as long 
 as they approve themselves zealous supporters of the reigning 
 dynasty, enjoy a free hand in amassing wealth by plunder, and 
 the wealth thus acquired is used to purchase further promotion 
 and advancement, rather than to improve the welfare of the 
 people. 
 
 They have the reputation of being a courteous people, as 
 punctilious as the Malays themselves; and they are so amongst 
 each other. But their attitude towards strangers is the embodiment 
 
 ^ A happy Portuguese coinage from the Malay mantri^ a state minister, 
 which is the Sanskrit tnantrin, a counsellor, from mantra, a sacred text, 
 a counsel, from Aryan root man, to think, know, whence also the English 
 mind. 
 
 
VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 22/ 
 
 of aggressive self-righteousness, a complacent feeling of superiority 
 which nothing can disturb. Even the upper classes, with all 
 their efforts to be at least polite, often betray the feeling in 
 a subdued arrogance which is not always to be distinguished 
 from vulgar insolence. "After the courteous, kindly Japanese, 
 the Chinese seem indifferent, rough, and disagreeable, except the 
 well-to-do merchants in the shops, who are bland, complacent, 
 and courteous. Their rude stare, and the way they hustle you 
 in the streets and shout their 'pidjun' EngUsh at you is not 
 attractive ^" 
 
 ^ Miss Bird (Mrs Bishop), The Golden Chersonese, 1883, p. 37. 
 
 15- 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 
 
 Range of the Oceanic Mongols — The term " Malay " — The Historical Malays 
 — Malay Cradle — Migrations and present Range — The Malayans — The 
 Javanese — Balinese and Sassaks — Hindu Legends in Bali — The Malayan 
 Seafarers and Rovers — Malaysia and Pelasgia: a Historical Parallel — 
 Malayan Folklore — Malayans in Borneo — The Dyak Aborigines— Head- 
 hunting — Cannibalism — Human Sacrifices — Indonesian Elements in Borneo 
 — Early Man and his Works in Sumatra — The Mentawi Islanders — 
 Javanese and Hindu Influences— The Malaysian Alphabets — The Battas : 
 Cultured Cannibals — Hindu and Primitive Survivals — The Achinese — 
 Early Records — Islam and Hindu Reminiscences — Ethnical Relations 
 in Madagascar — Oceanic Immigrants — Malagasy Speech — The Negro 
 Element — Hova Type — Mental Qualities of the Malagasy — Spread of 
 Christianity — Malagasy Folklore — The Philippine Natives — Effects of a 
 Christian Theocratic Government on the National Character — Social 
 Groups : the Indios, the Infieles, and the Moros — Malayans and Indone- 
 sians in Formosa — The Chinese Settlers — Racial and Linguistic Affinities 
 — Formosa a Connecting Link between the Continental and Oceanic Popu- 
 lations — The Nicobarese. 
 
 Conspectus. 
 
 Distribu- Prime val Home. Indo- China and Malay Penin- 
 
 tion in , 
 
 Past and SUla. 
 
 Times. Present Range. Malaysia^ Philippines^ Formosa^ 
 
 Nicobar Is., Madagascar. 
 
 Physical Hair, same as Southern Mongols, scant or no beard. 
 
 ters. Colour, yellowish or olive broivn, yellow tint sometimes 
 
 very faint or absent, light leathery hue common in Mada- 
 gascar. 
 
 Skull, brachy or sub-brachy (78° to 85°). Jaws 
 slightly projecting. Chee^-hones, prominent, but less so 
 
CH. VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 229 
 
 thati true Mongol. Nose, rather small, often straight with 
 widish nostrils {inesorrhine). Eyes, black, medium size^ 
 horizontal or slightly oblique, with the Mongol fold. Sta- 
 ture, undersized, from ^j ft. to ^ ft. 4 or ^ in. Lips, 
 thickish, slightly protruding, and kept a little apart in 
 repose. Arms and legs, rather small, slender and deli- 
 cate; feet small. 
 
 Temperament. Normally quiet, reserved and taci- JJfa"?^. 
 turn^ but under excitement subject to fits of blind fury ; ^^''s- 
 fairly intelligent, polite and ceremonious, but uncertain, un- 
 trustworthy, and even treacherous; daring, adventurous 
 and reckless ; musical; not distinctly cruel ^ though indifferent 
 to physical suffering in others. 
 
 Speech. Various branches of a single stock language 
 — the Oceanic or Malay o -Polynesian, at different 
 stages of agglutination. 
 
 Religion, of the primitive Malayans somewhat unde- 
 veloped — a vague dread of ghosts and other spirits^ but rites 
 and ceremonies mainly absent, although human sacrifices to 
 the departed common in Borneo; the cultured Afalayans 
 formerly Hindus {Brahman and Buddhist)^ now 7nostly 
 Moslem, but in the Philippines and Madagascar Christian; 
 gross superstitions, belief in witchcraft, charms, and spells 
 everywhere prevalent. 
 
 Culture, of the primitive Malayans very low — head- 
 hunting, cannibalism^ mutilation common in Borneo ; 
 hunting and fishing ; no agriculture, arts, or industries ; 
 the Moslem and Christian Malayans semi-civilized ; the 
 industrial arts — weaving, dyeing, pottery, metal-work, also 
 trade, navigation, house and boat-building — imll developed; 
 architecture formerly flourishing in Java under Hindu 
 influences; letters wide- spread even aniongst some of the 
 rude Malayans, but literature and science rudimentary; 
 rich oral folklore in Madagascar and perhaps elsetuhere. 
 
 Malayans (Proto-Malays) : Lampongs, Rejangs, j^^^^jQ^g 
 Battas, Achinese, and Palembangs in Swnatra ; Sun- 
 danese, Javanese proper, arm Madurese in Java; Dyaks 
 in Borneo; Balinese ; Sassaks {Lombok) ; Bugis and 
 
230 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Mangkassaras in Celebes ; Tagalas, Bisayans^ Bkols, 
 llocanos and Pangasinanes in Philippines ; Aborigines of 
 Formosa; Nicobar Islanders; Hovas, Betsimisarakas^ and 
 Sakalavas in Madagascar. 
 
 Malays Proper (^Historical Malays): Menangkabau 
 {Sumatra); Malay Peninsula; Pinang, Singapore, Lingga, 
 Bangka; Borneo Coastlands ; Tidor, Ternate; Amboina; 
 Parts of the Sulla Archipelago. 
 
 In the Oceanic domain, which for ethnical purposes begins 
 f h ^^ ^^ "^^^ °^ ^^^ Malay Peninsula, the Mongol 
 Oceanic peoples range from Madagascar eastwards to For- 
 
 ongos. niosa and Mikronesia, but are found in compact 
 
 masses chiefly on the mainland, in the Sunda Islands (Sumatra, 
 Java, Bali, Lombok, Borneo, Celebes) and in the Philippines. 
 Even here they have mingled in many places with other popula- 
 tions, forming fresh ethnical groups, in which the Mongol element 
 is not always conspicuous. Such fusions have taken place with 
 the Negrito aborigines in the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines ; 
 with Papuans in Mikronesia, Flores, and other islands east of 
 Lombok; with Caucasic Indonesians in Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, 
 Halmahera (Jilolo), parts of the Philippines \ and perhaps also 
 Timor and Ceram ; and with African negroes (Bantus) in Mada- 
 gascar. To unravel some of these racial entanglements is one of 
 the most difficult tasks in anthropology, and in the absence of 
 detailed information cannot yet be everywhere attempted with 
 any prospect of success. 
 
 The problem has been greatly, though perhaps inevitably 
 
 complicated by the indiscriminate extension of the 
 "Maia^^^'*^ term "Malay" to all these and even to other 
 
 mixed Oceanic populations farther east, as, for 
 instance, in the expression " Malayo-Polynesian," applied by 
 many writers not only in a linguistic, but also in an ethnical 
 
 1 Here Dr E. T. Hamy finds connecting links between the true Malays and 
 the Indonesians in the Bicols of Albay and the Bisayas of Panay {Les Races 
 Malaiques et Aniericaines, in V Anthropologies 1896, p. 136). Used in this 
 extended sense, Hamy's Malaique corresponds generally to our Malayan, as 
 defined presently. 1 
 
VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 23 1 
 
 sense, to most of the insular peoples from Madagascar to Easter 
 Island, and from Hawaii to New Zealand. It is now of course 
 too late to hope to remedy this misuse of terms by proposing 
 a fresh nomenclature. But much of the consequent confusion 
 will be avoided by restricting Malayo-Polynesian^ altogether to 
 linguistic matters, and carefully distinguishing between Iftdonesian, 
 the pre-Malay Caucasic element in Oceania, Malayan or Froto- 
 MalayaUj collective name of all the Oceanic Mongols, and Malay, 
 a particular branch of the Malayan family, as fully explained in 
 Ethnology, pp. 326-30. 
 
 The essential point to remember is that the true Malays — who 
 call themselves Orang-Maldyu, speak the standard 
 but quite modern Malay language, and are all caT^Ma?iyl°"' 
 Muhammadans — are a historical people who appear 
 on the scene in relatively recent times, ages after the insular 
 world had been occupied by the Mongol peoples to whorh their 
 name has been extended, but who never call themselves Malays. 
 The Orang-Malayu, who have acquired such an astonishing pre- 
 dominance in the Eastern Archipelago, were originally an obscure 
 tribe who rose to power in the Menangkabau district, Sumatra, 
 not before the 1 2th century, and whose migrations date only from 
 about the year 1160 a.d. At this time, according to the native 
 records ^ was founded the first foreign settlement, Singapore, a 
 pure Sanskrit name meaning the " Lion City," from which it 
 might be inferred that these first settlers were not Muhammadans, 
 as is commonly assumed, but Brahmans or Buddhists, both these 
 forms of Hinduism having been propagated throughout Sumatra 
 and the other Sunda Islands centuries before this time. It is 
 
 also noteworthy that the early settlers on the main- 
 Migrations 
 land are stated to have been pagans, or to have and present 
 
 professed some corrupt form of Hindu idolatry, ^"^^' 
 
 till their conversion to Islam by the renowned Sultan Mahmud 
 
 ^ Ethnically Malayo- Polynesian is an impossible expression, because it 
 links together the Malays, who belong to the Mongol, and the Polynesians, 
 who belong to the Caucasic division. But as both undoubtedly speak lan- 
 guages of the same linguistic^tock the expression is justified in philology, 
 although even here Indo- Pacific or Inter- Oceanic might be preferable terms. 
 
 2 Dr J. Leyden, Malay Annals, 1821, p. 44. 
 
232 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Shah about the middle of the 13th century. It is therefore 
 probable enough that the earlier movements were carried out 
 under Hindu influences, and may have begun long before the 
 historical date 1160. Menangkabau, however, was the first 
 Mussulman State that acquired political supremacy in Sumatra, 
 and this district thus became the chief centre for the later 
 diffusion of the cultured Malays, their language, usages, and 
 religion, throughout the Peninsula and the Archipelago. Here 
 they are now found in compact masses chiefly in south Sumatra 
 (Menangkabau, Palembang, the Lampongs) ; in all the insular 
 groups between Sumatra and Borneo ; in the Malay Peninsula 
 as far north as the Kra Isthmus, here intermingling with the 
 Siamese as "Sam-Sams," partly Buddhists, partly Muhammadans; 
 round the coast of Borneo and about the estuaries of that island ; 
 in Tidor, Ternate, and the adjacent coast of Jilolo ; in the Banda, 
 Sula, and Sulu groups ; in Batavia, Singapore, and all the other 
 large seaports of the Archipelago. In all these lands beyond 
 Sumatra the Orang-Malayu are thus seen to be comparatively 
 recent arrivals', and in fact intruders on the other Malayan 
 populations, with whom they collectively constitute the Oceanic 
 branch of the Mongol division. Their diffusion was everywhere 
 brought about much in the same way as in Ternate, where 
 Mr Wallace tells us that the ruling people "are an intrusive 
 Malay race somewhat allied to the Macassar people, who settled 
 in the country at a very early epoch, drove out the indigenes, 
 who were no doubt the same as those of the adjacent island 
 of Gilolo, and established a monarchy. They perhaps obtained 
 many of their wives from the natives, which will account for 
 the extraordinary language they speak — in some respects closely 
 allied to that of the natives of Gilolo, while it contains much that 
 points to a Malayan [Malay] origin. To most of these people the 
 Malay language is quite unintelligible ^" 
 
 1 In some places quite recent, as in Rembau, Malay Peninsula, whose 
 inhabitants are mainly immigrants from Sumatra in the 1 7th century ; and in 
 the neighbouring group of petty Negri Sembilan States, where the very tribal 
 names, such as Anak Acheh, and Si'i Leniak Menangkabau, betray their late 
 arrival from the Sumatran districts of Achin and Menangkabau. 
 
 2 The Malay Archipelago,^. l\o. 
 
VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 233 
 
 The Malayan populations, as distinguished from the Malays 
 proper, form socially two very distinct classes — the 
 Orang Benua^ " Men of the Soil," rude aborigines, Malayans- 
 numerous especially in the interior of the Malay nlidean^d^^' 
 Peninsula, Borneo, Celebes, Jilolo, Timor, Ceram, Cultured, 
 the Philippines, Formosa, and Madagascar; and the cultured 
 peoples, formerly Hindus but now mostly Muhammadans, who 
 have long been constituted in large communities and nation- 
 alities with historical records, and flourishing arts and industries. 
 They speak cultivated languages of the Malayo-Polynesian family, 
 generally much better preserved and of richer grammatical struc- 
 ture than the simplified modern speech of the Orang-Malayu. 
 Such are the Achinese, Rejangs, and Passumahs of Sumatra; 
 the Bugis, Mangkassaras and some Minahasans of Celebes ; the 
 Tagalas and Bisayas of tlie Philippines ; the Sassaks and Balinese 
 of Lombok and Bali (most of these still Hindus) ; the Madurese 
 and Javanese proper of Java ; and the Hovas of Madagascar. 
 To call any of these " Malays V is hke calling the Italians 
 V French," or the Germans " English," because of their respec- 
 tive Romance and Teutonic connections. 
 
 Preeminent in many respects amongst all the Malayan peoples 
 are the Javanese— Sundanese in the west, Javanese 
 proper in the centre, Madurese in the east — who Javanese, 
 were a highly civilised nation while the Sumatran 
 Malays were still savages, perhaps head-hunters and cannibals 
 like the neighbouring Battas. Although now almost exclusively 
 Muhammadans, they had already adopted some form of Hinduism 
 probably over 2000 years ago, and under the guidance of their 
 
 ^ In 1898 a troop of Javanese minstrels visited London, and one of them, 
 whom I addressed in a few broken Malay sentences, resented in his sleepy 
 way the imputation that he was an Orang Malayu, explaining that he was 
 Orang Java, a Javanese, and (when further questioned) Orang Solo, a native 
 of the Solo district, East Java. It was interesting to notice the very marked 
 Mongolic features of these natives, vividly recalling the remark of Mr A. R. 
 Wallace, on the difficulty of distinguishing between a Javanese and a Chinaman 
 when both are dressed alike. The resemblance may to a small extent be due 
 to "mixture with Chinese blood " (Dr B. Hagen, Jour. Anthrop. Soc. 
 Vienna, 1889) ; but occurs ^ver such a wide area that it must mainly be 
 attributed to the common origin of the Chinese and Javanese peoples. 
 
234 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Indian teachers had rapidly developed a very advanced state 
 of culture. "Under a completely organised although despotic 
 government, the arts of peace and war were brought to consider- 
 able perfection, and the natives of Java became famous throughout 
 the East as accomplished musicians and workers in gold, iron and 
 copper, none of which metals were found in the island itself. 
 They possessed a regular calendar with astronomical eras, and a 
 metrical literature, in which, however, history was inextricably 
 blended with romance. Bronze and stone inscriptions in the 
 Kavi, or old Javanese language, still survive from the nth or 
 1 2th century, and to the same dates may be referred the vast 
 ruins of Brambanam and the stupendous temple of Boro-budor in 
 the centre of the island. There are few statues of Hindu divinities 
 in this temple, but many are found in its immediate vicinity, and 
 from the various archaeological objects collected in the district 
 it is evident that both the Buddhist and Brahmanical forms of 
 Hinduism were introduced at an early date. 
 
 But all came to an end by the overthrow of the chief Hindu 
 power in 1478, after which event Islam rapidly spread over the 
 whole of Java and Madura. Brahmanism, however, still holds its 
 ground in Bali and Lombok, the last strongholds of Hinduism in 
 the Eastern Archipelago ^" 
 
 On the obscure religious and social relations in these Lesser 
 
 Sundanese Islands much light has been thrown by 
 sa^saks"' ^"'^ Capt. W. Cool, an English translation of whose 
 
 work With the Dutch in the East was issued by 
 Mr E. J. Taylor in 1897. Here it is shown how Hinduism, 
 formerly dominant throughout a great part of Malaysia, gradually 
 yielded in some places to a revival of the never extinct primitive 
 nature-worship, in others to the spread of Islam, which in Bali 
 alone failed to gain a footing. In this island a curious mingling 
 of Buddhist and Brahmanical forms with the primordial heathen- 
 dom not only persisted, but was strong enough to acquire the 
 
 political ascendancy over the Mussulman Sassaks 
 aJd"iTter^ of the neighbouring island of Lombok. Thus while 
 Religions and Islam reign s exclusively in Java — formerly the chief 
 
 domain of Hinduism in the Archipelago — Bali, 
 ^ A. H. Keane, Eastern Geography, 2nd ed. 1892, p. 121. 
 
VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 235 
 
 Lombok, and even Sumbawa, present the strange spectacle of 
 large communities professing every form of belief, from the grossest 
 heathendom to pure monotheism. 
 
 As I have elsewhere pointed out\ it is the same with the 
 cultures and general social conditions, which show an almost 
 unbroken transition from the savagery of Sumbawa to the relative 
 degrees of refinement reached by the natives of Lombok and 
 especially of Bali. Here, however, owing to the unfavourable 
 political relations, a retrograde movement is perceptible in the 
 crumbling temples, grass-grown highways, and neglected home- 
 steads. But it is everywhere evident enough that "just as 
 Hinduism has only touched the outer surface of their religion, 
 it has failed to penetrate into their social institutions, which, like 
 their gods, originate from the time when Polynesian heathendom 
 was all powerful^" 
 
 A striking illustration of the vitality of the early beliefs is 
 presented by the local traditions, which relate how Hindu 
 these foreign gods installed themselves in the Lesser Legends in 
 Sundanese Islands after their expulsion from Java 
 by the Muhammadans in the 15th century. Being greatly 
 incensed at the introduction of the Koran, and also anxious to 
 avoid contact with the " foreign devils," the Hindu deities moved 
 eastwards with the intention of setting up their throne in Bali. 
 But Bali already possessed its own gods, the wicked Rakshasas, 
 who fiercely resented the intrusion, but in the struggle that ensued 
 were annihilated, all but the still reigning Mraya Dewana. Then 
 the new thrones had to be erected on heights, as in Java ; but at 
 that time there were no mountains in Bali, which was a very flat 
 country. So the difficulty was overcome by bodily transferring 
 the four hills at the eastern extremity of Java to the neighbouring 
 island. Gunong Agong, highest of the four, was set down in 
 the east, and became the Olympus of Bali, while the other three 
 were planted in the west, south, and north, and assigned to the 
 different gods according to their respective ranks. Thus were 
 at once explained the local theogony and the present physical 
 features of the island. 
 
 1 Acaaemy, May i, 1897, p. 469. 
 
 2 Cool, p. 139. 
 
236 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Despite their generally quiet, taciturn demeanour, all these 
 
 Sundanese peoples are just as liable as the Orang- 
 Amok"^"^ Malayu himself, to those sudden outbursts of 
 
 demoniacal frenzy and homicidal mania called by 
 them meng-dmok, and by us "running amok." Indeed Mr Wallace 
 tells us that such wild outbreaks occur more frequently (about 
 one or two every month) amongst the civilised Mangkassaras and 
 Bugis of south Celebes than elsewhere in the archipelago. " It 
 is the national and therefore the honourable mode of committing 
 suicide among the natives of Celebes, and is the fashionable way 
 of escaping from their difficulties. A Roman fell upon his sword, 
 a Japanese rips up his stomach, and an Englishman blows out 
 his brains with a pistol. The Bugis mode has many advantages 
 to one suicidically inclined. A man thinks himself wronged by 
 society — he is in debt and cannot pay — he is taken for a slave or 
 has gambled away his wife or child into slavery — he sees no way 
 of recovering what he has lost, and becomes desperate. He will 
 not put up with such cruel wrongs, but will be revenged on man- 
 kind and die like a hero. He grasps his kris-handle, and the 
 next moment draws out the weapon and stabs a man to the heart. 
 He runs on, with bloody kris in his hand, stabbing at everyone 
 he meets. * Amok ! Amok ! ' then resounds through the streets. 
 Spears, krisses, knives and guns are brought out against him. 
 He rushes madly forward, kills all he can — men, women, and 
 children — and dies overwhelmed by numbers amid all the excite- 
 ment of a battled" 
 
 Possibly connected with this blind impulse may be the strange 
 
 nervous affection called idtah, which is also pre- 
 Malady. valent amongst the Malayans, although only now 
 
 first clearly described by the distinguished Malay 
 scholar, Mr Frank Athelstane Swettenham^. No attempt has yet 
 been made thoroughly to diagnose this uncanny disorder, which 
 would seem so much more characteristic of the high-strung or 
 shattered nervous system of ultra-refined European society, than 
 of that artless unsophisticated child of nature, the Orang-Malayu. 
 Its effects on the mental state are -such as to disturb all normal 
 
 ^ The Malay Archipelago^ P* ^75* 
 ^ In Malay Sketches, 1895. 
 
VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 237 
 
 cerebration, and Mr Swettenham mentions two latah-struck Malays, 
 who would make admirable " subjects " at a seance of theosophic 
 psychists. Any simple device served to attract their attention, 
 when by merely looking them hard in the face they fell helplessly 
 in the hands of the operator, instantly lost all self-control, and 
 went passively through any performance either verbally imposed 
 or even merely suggested by a sign. 
 
 Herein may perhaps be recognised a manifestation of that 
 pecuHar feminine strain, which has so often been imputed to the 
 Malay temperament. Yet, as if to confound the speculations 
 of the rising school of German psychological anthropologists, 
 this same Oceanic people displays in many respects a curiously 
 kindred spirit with the nerveless Englishman, as, for instance, 
 in his love of gambling, boxing, cock-fighting, field sports', and 
 adventure. No more fearless explorers of the high seas, for- 
 merly rovers and corsairs, at all times enterprising traders, are 
 anywhere to be found than the Menangkabau Ma- 
 
 ^ ° . The Malayan 
 
 lays and their near kinsmen, the renowned Bugis seafarers and 
 " Merchant Adventurers " of south Celebes. Their 
 clumsy but seaworthy praus are met in every seaport from Sumatra 
 to the Aru Islands, and they have established permanent trading 
 stations and even settlements in Borneo, the Philippines, Timor, 
 and as far east as New Guinea. On one occasion Wallace sailed 
 from Dobbo in company with fifteen large Makassar praus, each 
 with a cargo worth about ;£"iooo, and as many of the Bugis 
 settle amongst the rude aborigines of the eastern isles, they thus 
 cooperate with the Sumatran Malays in extending the area of 
 civilising influences throughout Papuasia. 
 
 Formerly they combined piracy with legitimate trade, and 
 long after the suppression of the North Bornean corsairs by 
 Sir James Brooke, the inland waters continued to be infested 
 especially by the Bajaii rovers of Celebes, and by the Balagnini 
 of the Sulu Archipelago, most dreaded of all the orang-laut, 
 " Men of the Sea," the " Sea Gypsies," of the EngHsh. These 
 were the "Cellates" {Orang-Selat, "Men of the Straits") of the 
 
 1 On these national pastir% see Mr Hugh Clifford, In Court and Kampong, 
 1897, p. 46 sq. 
 
238 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 early Portuguese writers, who described them as from time 
 immemorial engaged in fishing and plundering on the high 
 seas\ 
 
 In those days, and even in comparatively late times, the 
 
 relations in the Eastern Archipelago greatly re- 
 
 an^ Pefa^sgia- scmblcd those prevailing in the ^gean Sea at the 
 
 a Historic dawn of Greek history, while the restless seafaring 
 
 Parallel. , '. . 
 
 populations were still in a state of flux, passing 
 from island to island in quest of booty or barter before perma- 
 nently settling down in favourable sites ^. With the Greek 
 historian's philosophic disquisition on these Pelasgian and proto- 
 Hellenic relations may be compared Mr Wallace's account of 
 the Batjan coastlands when visited by him in the late fifties. 
 "Opposite us, and all along this coast of Batchian, stretches a 
 row of fine islands completely uninhabited. Whenever I asked 
 the reason why no one goes to live in them, the answer always 
 was, 'For fear of the Magindano pirates^.' Every year these 
 scourges of the Archipelago wander in one direction or another, 
 making their rendezvous on some uninhabited island, and carrying 
 devastation to all the small settlements around ; robbing, destroy- 
 ing, killing, or taking captive all they meet with. Their long, 
 well-manned praus escape from the pursuit of any sailing vessel 
 by pulling away right in the wind's eye, and the warning smoke 
 of a steamer generally enables them to hide in some shallow bay, 
 or narrow river, or forest-covered inlet, till the danger is passed''." 
 Thus, like geographical surroundings, with corresponding social 
 conditions, produce like results in all times amongst all peoples. 
 
 ^ Cii/o officio he rubar e pes car ^ "whose business it is to rob and fish" 
 (Barros). Many of the Bajaus lived entirely afloat, passing their lives in boats 
 from the cradle to the grave, and praying Allah that they might die at sea. 
 
 2 Thucydides, Pel. War, i. 1-16. 
 
 ^ These are the noted Illanuns, who occupy the south side of the large 
 Philippine island of Mindanao, but many of whom, like the Bajaus of 
 Celebes and the Sulu Islanders, have formed settlements on the north-east 
 coast of Borneo. "Long ago their warfare against the Spaniards degenerated 
 into general piracy. Their usual practice was not to take captives, but 
 to murder all on board any boat they took. Those with us [British North 
 Borneo] have all settled down to a more orderly way of life" (W. B. Pryer, 
 Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1886, p. 231). 
 
 ^ The Malay Archipelago ^ p. 341. 
 
VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 239 
 
 This fundamental truth receives further ilkistration from the 
 ideas prevalent amongst the Malayans regarding 
 witchcraft, the magic arts, charms and spells, and Folklore— The 
 especially the belief in the power of certain male- ^^^^-^^s^^- 
 volent human beings to transform themselves into wild beasts 
 and prey upon their fellow-creatures. Such superstitions girdle 
 the globe, taking their local colouring from the fauna of the 
 different regions, so that the were-wolf of medieval Europe finds 
 its counterpart in the human jaguar of South America, the human 
 lion or leopard of Africa \ and the human tiger of the Malay 
 Peninsula. Mr H. Clifford, who relates an occurrence known to 
 himself in connection with a " were-tiger " story of the Perak 
 district, aptly remarks that " the white man and the brown, the 
 yellow and the black, independently, and without receiving the 
 idea from one another, have all found the same explanation for 
 the like phenomena, all apparently recognising the truth of the 
 Malay proverb, that we are like unto the tdman fish that preys 
 upon its own kind^" The story in question turns upon a young 
 bride, whose husband comes home late three nights following, 
 and the third time, being watched, is discovered by her in the 
 form of a full-grown tiger stretched on the ladder, which, as in all 
 Malay houses, leads from the ground to the threshold of the door. 
 " Patimah gazed at the tiger from the distance of only a foot or 
 two, for she was too paralysed with fear to move or cry out, and 
 as she looked a gradual transformation took place in the creature 
 at her feet. Slowly, as one sees a ripple of wind pass over the 
 surface of still water, the tiger's features palpitated and were 
 changed, until the horrified girl saw the face of her husband come 
 up through that of the beast, much as the face of a diver comes 
 up to the surface of a pool. In another moment Patimah saw 
 that it was Haji Ali who was ascending the ladder of his house, 
 and the spell that had hitherto bound her was snapped." 
 
 1 In Central Africa " the belief in ' were ' animals, that is to say in human 
 beings who have changed themselves into lions or leopards or some such 
 harmful beasts, is nearly universal. Moreover there are individuals who 
 imagine they possess this power of assuming the form of an animal and killing 
 human beings in that shape " (Sir H. H. Johnston, British Central Africa, 
 
 P- 439)- \ 
 
 2 In Court and Kampong, p. 63. See also Eth. p. 216. 
 
240 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. ' [CHAP. 
 
 These same Malays of Perak, H. H. Rajah Dris tells us, are 
 still specially noted for many strange customs and superstitions 
 "utterly opposed to Muhammadan teaching, and savouring 
 strongly of devil-worship. This enormous belief in the super- 
 natural is possibly a relic of the pre-Islam Stated" 
 
 In Borneo, which has been defined as " 300,000 square miles 
 of savagery," worse practices prevail even than this 
 Bo^neo^^"' '" " devil-worship." The periphery of the island has for 
 many centuries been occupied by true Malays from 
 Sumatra, especially along the north-western seaboard (Brunei, 
 Sarawak, Pontianak) ; by Javanese on the south coast (Bangir- 
 masin), who here introduced Hinduism at an early date, but are 
 now mostly assimilated to the Orang-Malayu • by other Malays 
 on the east side (Kutai); by the already mentioned Bajaus, Sulus, 
 and Illanuns in the north-east; and by Chinese in large numbers 
 almost everywhere^. Later came the Dutch in the south, and in 
 the north the English, who despite their quite recent arrival 
 (Sarawak, 1842; British North Borneo and Brunei, 188 1-8), 
 have already effected a great improvement in the rude manners 
 of the natives under their jurisdiction. 
 
 ^ But within this variegated fringe of culture and semi-barbarism, 
 
 the great mass of the aborigines is still emphatically 
 
 AborigSes^ in the wild state. Whether grouped as Dyaks 
 
 (Dayaks)^, the most general name, Dusuns in 
 
 British North Borneo, Kayans farther south, or other conventional 
 
 ^ Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1886, p. 227. The Rajah gives the leading features 
 of the character of his countrymen as "pride of race and birth, extraordinary 
 observance of punctilio, and a bigoted adherence to ancient custom and tradi- 
 tion." 
 
 ^ Too much influence, how^ever, must not be credited to the Chinese 
 element, and M. L. Rousselet points out that the North Bornean Dusuns, for 
 instance, *'ne sont nullement melanges aux Chinois, comme on I'a cru jusqu'a 
 ces derniers temps" {Nouv. Diet. Supplement, 1897, Art. Dayak). 
 
 ^ Dayak, unheard oT before about 1780, is a term of unknown origin or 
 meaning, though by some referred to a Sarawak word dayak, a tribal name 
 meaning ** Man." The final k is often dropped in Malay words, as in Perak, 
 pronounced Perah ; Suhi and Solo for Suluk, Solok, &c. But " es bleibt die 
 Herkunft dieses Wortes bis jetzt unklarer als diejenige von ' Papua ' und 
 ' Alfuren ' " (A. B. Meyer, Ueber die Namen Papua, Dajak und Alfuren, 
 Vienna, 1882, p. 18). 
 
VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 24 1 
 
 collective designations mostly unknown to the tribes themselves, 
 all stand very near the lowest rung of the social ladder, practising 
 various forms of self-mutilation, distending the 
 ear-lobes often down to the shoulders', plucking cus^toms. 
 out the eyebrows, filing or perforating the teeth, 
 exposing the dead on trees or platforms, or smoking them 
 dry, or else burying and then disinterring the bones to be pre- 
 served near the haunts of the living. Head-hunting has always 
 been a standing institution, introduced with the first Malayan 
 arrivals from the mainland, and most houses of the forest and 
 up-river Dyaks are adorned with the ghastly trophies furnished by 
 the victims of this immemorial custom. Cannibalism, also, and 
 human sacrifices to the ancestral shades are far more common 
 than is generally supposed. Mr Bock describes and figures a 
 "priestess," who informed him that the palms, the knees, and 
 brains "are considered the best eating." He also visited a 
 cannibal chief of the comparatively settled Tring district, "an 
 utter incarnation of all that is most repulsive and horrible in the 
 hyman form," who " had fresh upon his head the blood of no less 
 than seventy victims, men, women, and children, whom he and his 
 followers had just slaughtered, and whose hands and brains he had 
 eatenl" 
 
 "Surmungup," as the custom of human sacrifice is called, 
 must have formerly ranged over most of the island, 
 for it has ceased to be practised even amongst the sacrifices. 
 Dusuns only since the British occupation of the 
 northern districts. The ostensible reason seems to have been to 
 send messages to dead relatives, and to this end a slave was 
 procured, tied up, and bound round with cloths, and then " after 
 some preliminary dancing and singing, one after another they 
 would stick a spear a little way — an inch or so — into his body, 
 each one sending a message to his deceased friend as he did so^." 
 
 1 "The lobes of the ears were pierced sometimes in no less than three 
 places, in addition to the large central slit, the principal holes being enor- 
 mously enlarged by the weighty tin rings hanging in them" (Carl Bock, 
 Headhwiters of Borneo, p. 133). 
 
 2 Ibid. pp. 134-5. ^ 
 
 3 W. B. Pryer, Jour. Aiithrop. Inst. 1886, p. 234. Elsewhere the victim 
 
 K. 16 
 
242 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Most of the aborigines dispense with all clothing except the 
 universal sarong, which amongst some of the east coast Dusuns 
 bears a curious resemblance to the Scotch kilt, both in its pattern 
 and the way it is worn. All, even the inland river and forest 
 tribes, live in pile dwellings often of picturesque design, the space 
 underneath serving as pigstyes. The balai, or Council-house, 
 occupied by the young men at night, is generally of immense 
 size, several hundred feet long or round, for both forms are 
 affected. Even the benatong, or ordinary dwelling of long shape, 
 will often accommodate twenty or more families, "each family 
 having its separate apartments, the doors opening on to a sort 
 of covered corridor." 
 
 Mr Pryer finds that it is difficult to say where Dusun ends 
 and Dyak proper begins, adding that as we pene- 
 
 Indonesian / \ ^ ., ,7^ ., . 
 
 Element in tratc from the east coast mland the first tribe met is 
 
 Borneo. ^j^^ Buludupi, many of whom have " strangely Cau- 
 
 casian features, or at all events departing largely from the ordinary 
 Mongolian type'." This points at the presence of an Indonesian 
 element, which is supported by other evidence, such as the 
 account given us by Mr Creagh of the so-called "Dusuns" of 
 Banguey Island, visited by him in 1892, and described as differing 
 widely in speech, religion, and customs from all other Dusun 
 tribes. Like others met by Mr Bock in the interior, these is- 
 landers have a priestess, who is able to keep the numerous spirits 
 in Banguey in order, " for she is acquainted with their ways and 
 knows the future as well as the past." She nominates and trains 
 her successors, but all must be widows, and wear black robes, and 
 wooden knives, these last being used for making the incisions in 
 the calves of bride and bridegroom, when a drop of blood has to 
 be transferred from one to the other at the wedding ceremony^. 
 Amongst the tribes of the neighbouring mainland the notion of 
 the after-life is that the dead have to clamber up the rugged slopes 
 of Kina Balu, highest peak in Borneo (nearly 14,000 feet), so high 
 
 is despatched more expeditiously, all subscribers to the purchase grasping a 
 long spear simultaneously, and thrusting it through him at once {ib.). 
 
 ^ Pryer, p. 232. 
 
 ^ British North Borneo Herald, Dec. 1892. 
 
VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 243 
 
 in fact that " it is said to be within a trifle of reaching heaven." 
 The good people have little difficulty in getting to the top, from 
 which they are ushered into heaven, while the wicked are doomed, 
 somewhat like Sisyphus, to be for ever hopelessly struggling and 
 scrambling up the rocky sides of the mountain'. 
 
 The good of course are those who have collected most human 
 heads in this world for provision in the next ; but in other parts 
 of the island, where the mountains are not so high, even the elect 
 have to undergo many adventures during their long peregrinations 
 up hill and down dale, across rivers, through fire and water, in 
 one place meeting a woman with ears large enough to shelter 
 them from the rain, until " at last they are safely landed in the 
 heaven of their tribe I" Some of these fancies are so full of 
 horrors, and at the same time so widely diffused, that they 
 may well be regarded as reminiscences of the early Javanese 
 missionaries, whose presence in Borneo is attested by the Hindu 
 ruins still to be seen in some of the southern districts. 
 
 In Sumatra also occur some remains of Hindu temples ^ as 
 well as other mysterious monuments in the Passumah lands inland 
 from Benkulen, relics of a former culture, which goes back to 
 prehistoric times. They take the form of huge 
 monoliths, which are roughly shaped to the likeness and his Works 
 of human figures, with strange features very different '" ^"^^ ^^' 
 from the Malay or Hindu types. The present Sarawi natives of 
 the district, who would be quite incapable of executing such 
 works, know nothing of their origin, and attribute them to certain 
 legendary beings who formerly wandered over the land, turning 
 all their enemies into stone. Further research may possibly 
 discover some connection between these relics of a forgotten past 
 
 1 Pryer, p. 233. 
 
 2 Bock, p. 223. 
 
 ^ Not only in the southern districts for centuries subject to Javanese 
 influences, but also in Battaland, where they were first discovered by H. von 
 Rosenberg in 1853, and figured and described in Der Malayische Archipel, 
 Leipzig, 1878, vol. i. p. 27 sq. "Nach ihrer Form und ihren Bildwerken zu 
 urtheilen, waren die Gebaude Tempel, worin der Buddha-Kultus gefeiert 
 wurde" (p. 28). These are all the more interesting since Hindu ruins are 
 otherwise rare in Sumatra, whAe there is nothing comparable to the stupendous 
 monuments of Central and East Java. 
 
 16—2 
 
244 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 and the numerous prehistoric monuments of Easter Island and 
 other places in the Pacific Ocean. Of all the Indonesian peoples 
 
 still surviving in Malaysia, none present so many 
 Mentawi points of contact with the Eastern Polynesians, as 
 
 do the natives of the Mentawi Islands which skirt 
 the south-west coast of Sumatra. "On a closer inspection of 
 the inhabitants the attentive observer at once perceives that the 
 Mentawi natives have but little in common with the peoples and 
 tribes of the neighbouring islands, and that as regards physical 
 appearance, speech, customs, and usages they stand almost 
 entirely apart. They bear such a decided stamp of a Polynesian 
 tribe that one feels far more inclined to compare them with the 
 inhabitants of the South Sea Islands \" 
 
 The survival of an Indonesian group on the western verge of 
 Malaysia is all the more remarkable since the JVias islanders, a 
 little farther north, are of Mongol stock, like most if not all of the 
 inhabitants of the Sumatran mainland. Here the typical Malays 
 
 of the central districts (Menangkabau, Korinchi, and 
 
 Javanese . . , 
 
 and Hindu Siak) merge southwards in the mixed Malayo-Java- 
 
 nese peoples of the Rejang^ Falembang, and Lainpong 
 
 districts. Although Muhammadans probably since the thirteenth 
 
 century, all these peoples had been early brought under Hindu 
 
 influences by missionaries and even settlers from Java, and these 
 
 influences are still apparent in many of the customs, popular 
 
 traditions, languages, and letters of the South Sumatran settled 
 
 communities. Thus the Lampongs, despite their profession of Islam, 
 
 employ, not the Arabic characters, like the Malays 
 
 of the^" "^^" proper, but a script derived from the peculiar Java- 
 
 Ai^lf^h*^" nese writing-system. This system itself, originally 
 
 introduced from India probably over 2000 years ago, 
 
 ^ Von Rosenberg, op. cit. vol. i. p. 189. Amongst the points of close 
 resemblance may be mentioned the outriggers, for which Mentawi has the 
 same word {abak) as the Samoan (^a''a = vaka)\ the funeral rites; taboo; the 
 facial expi'ession; and the language, in which the numeral systems are identical; 
 cf. Ment. limongapula with Sam. limagafulu, the Malay being limapulah 
 (fifty), where the Sam. infix ga (absent in Malay) is pronounced gna, exactly 
 as in Ment. Here is a case of cumulative evidence, which should establish 
 not merely contact and resemblance but true affinity, the vast liquid inter- 
 vening area presenting no obstacle. 
 
 1 
 
VII.] , THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 245 
 
 is based on some early forms of the Devanagari, such as those 
 occurring in the rock inscriptions of the famous Buddhist king 
 As'oka (third century b.c.)\ From Java, which is now shown 
 beyond doubt to be the true centre of dispersion^, the parent 
 alphabet was under Hindu influences diffused in pre-Muhammadan 
 times throughout Malaysia, from Sumatra to the Philippines. 
 
 But the thinly-spread Indo-Javanese culture, in few places 
 penetrating much below the surface, received a rude shock from 
 the Muhammadan irruption, its natural development being almost 
 everywhere arrested, or else either effaced or displaced by Islam. 
 No trace can any longer be detected of graphic signs in Borneo, 
 whose Dyak aborigines have reverted to the savage state even in 
 those southern districts where Buddhism or Brahmanism had 
 certainly been propagated long before the arrival of the Muham- 
 madan Malays. But elsewhere the Javanese stock alphabet has 
 shown extraordinary vitality, persisting under diverse forms down 
 to the present day, not only amongst the semi-civilised Mussul- 
 man peoples, such as the Sumatran Rejangs^ Korinchi, and 
 Lampongs, the Bugis and Mangkassaras of Celebes, and the (now 
 Christian) Tagals and Bisayans of the Philippines, but even 
 amongst the somewhat rude and pagan Palawan natives, the wild 
 Manguianes of Mindoro, and the cannibal Battas"* of North 
 Sumatra. 
 
 1 See Fr. Mliller, Ueber den Ursprung der Schrift der Malaiischen Volker, 
 Vienna, 1865; and ray Appendix to Stanford's Australasia, First Series, 1879, 
 p. 624. 
 
 2 Die Mangianenschrift von Mindoro, herausgegeben von A. B. Meyer tc. 
 A. Schadenberg, speciell bearbeitet von W. Foy, Dresden, 1895; see also my 
 remarks in Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1896, p. 277 sq. 
 
 •* The Rejang, which certainly belongs to the same Indo-Javanese system 
 as all the other Malaysian alphabets, has been regarded by Sayce and Renan 
 as "pure Phoenician," while Dr Neubauer has compared it with that current 
 in the 4th and 5th centuries B.C. The suggestion that it may have been intro- 
 duced by the Phoenician crews of Alexander's admiral, Nearchus {Archaol. 
 Oxon. 1895, No. 6), could not have been made by anyone aware of its close 
 connection with the Lampong of South, and the Batta of North Sumatra (see 
 also Prof. Kern, Globus 70, p. 1 16). 
 
 ■* Sing. Batta, pi. Battak, hence the current form Battaks is a solecism, 
 and we should write either Bahas or Battak. Lassen derives the word from 
 the Sanskrit b^hdta, "savage." 
 
246 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 These Battas, however, despite their undoubted cannibalism \ 
 cannot be called savages, at least without some 
 
 The Battas— ° 
 
 cultured reserve. They are skilful stock-breeders and agri- 
 
 culturists, raising fine crops of maize and rice ; they 
 dwell together in large, settled communities with an organised 
 government, hereditary chiefs, popular assemblies, and a written 
 civil and penal code. There is even an effective postal system, 
 which utiUses for letter-boxes the hollow tree-trunks at all the 
 cross-roads, and is largely patronised by the young men and 
 women, all of whom read and write, and carry on an animated 
 correspondence in their degraded Devanagari script, which is 
 written on palm-leaves in vertical lines running upwards and from 
 right to left. The Battas also excel in several industries, such as 
 pottery, weaving, jewellery, iron work, and house-building, their 
 picturesque dwellings, which resemble Swiss chalets, rising to two 
 stories above the ground-floor reserved for the live stock. For 
 these arts they are no doubt largely indebted to their Hindu 
 teachers, from whom also they have inherited some of their 
 religious ideas, such as the triune deity — Creator, Preserver, and 
 Destroyer — besides other inferior divinities collectively called 
 diebata, a modified form of the Indian devatP. 
 
 ^ Again confirmed by Dr Volz and H. von Autenrieth, who explored 
 Battaland early in 1898, and penetrated to the territory of the "Cannibal 
 Pakpaks" {Geogr. your. June 1898, p. 672); not however "for the first 
 time," as here stated. The Pakpaks had already been visited in 1853 by 
 Von Rosenberg, who found cannibalism so prevalent that " Niemand Anstand 
 nimmt das essen von Menschenfleisch einzugestehen " {op. cit. i. p. 59). 
 
 2 It is interesting to note that by the aid of the Lampongs alphabet, South 
 Sumatra, the Rev. John Mathew reads the word Daihattah in the legend on 
 the head-dress of a gigantic figure seen by Sir George Grey on the roof of a 
 cave on the Glenelg River, North-west Australia {The Cave Paintings of 
 Australia, &c. in Jour. Anthrop. hist. 1894, p. 44 sq.). He quotes from 
 Coleman's Mythology of the Hindus the statement that "the Battas of Sumatra 
 believe in the existence of one supreme being, whom they name Debati Hasi 
 Asi. Since completing the work of creation they suppose him to have remained 
 perfectly quiescent, having wholly committed the government to his three 
 sons, who do not govern in person, but by vakeels or proxies." Here is 
 possibly another confirmation of the view that early Malayan migrations or 
 expeditions, some even to Australia, took place in pre-Muhammadan times, 
 long before the rise and diffusion of the Orang Malayu in the Archipelago. 
 
VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 247 
 
 In the strangest contrast to these survivals of a foreign culture 
 which had probably never struck very deep roots, stand the 
 savage survivals from still more ancient times. Conspicuous 
 amongst these are the cannibal practices, which if not now 
 universal still take some peculiarly revolting forms. Thus captives 
 and criminals are, under certain circumstances, condemned to be 
 eaten alive, and the same fate is or was reserved for 
 those incapacitated for work by age or infirmities. 
 When the time came, we are told by the early European observers 
 and by the reports of the Arabs, the "grandfathers" voluntarily 
 suspended themselves by their arms from an overhanging branch, 
 while friends and neighbours danced round and round, shouting, 
 " when the fruit is ripe it falls." And when it did fall, that is, as 
 soon as it could hold on no longer, the company fell upon it with 
 their krisses, hacking it to pieces, and devouring the remains 
 seasoned with lime-juice, for such feasts were generally held when 
 the limes were ripe\ 
 
 Grouped chiefly round about Lake Toba, the Battas occupy 
 a, very wide domain, stretching south to about the 
 parallel of Mount Ophir, and bordering northwards AJhlnese. 
 on the territory of the Achin people. These valiant 
 natives, who have hitherto so stoutly maintained their political 
 independence against the Dutch, were also at one time Hinduized, 
 as is evident from many of their traditions, their Malayan language 
 largely charged with Sanskrit terms, and even their physical 
 appearance, suggesting a considerable admixture of Hindu as well 
 as of Arab blood. With the Arab traders and 
 settlers came the Koran, and the Achinese people R^ords. 
 have been not over-zealous followers of the Prophet 
 since the close of the 12th century. The Muhammadan State, 
 founded in 1205, acquired a dominant position in the Archipelago 
 early in the i6th century, when it ruled over about half of 
 Sumatra, exacted tribute from many vassal princes, maintained 
 powerful armaments by land and sea, and entered into political 
 and commercial relations with Egypt, Japan, and several European 
 States. 
 
 There are two somewllat distinct ethnical groups, the Orang- 
 1 Memoir of the Life dfc. of Sir T. S. Raffles, by his widow, 1830. 
 
248 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Tunong of the uplands, a comparatively homogeneous Malayan 
 people, and the mixed Orang-Baruh of the lowlands, who are 
 described by Dr A. Lubbers^ as taller than the average Malay 
 (5 feet 5 or 6 in.), also less round-headed (index 80-5), with 
 prominent nose, rather regular features, and muscular frames ; 
 but the complexion is darker than that of the Orang-Malayu, 
 a trait which has been attributed to a larger infusion of Dravidian 
 blood (Klings and Tamuls) from southern India. The charge 
 of cruelty and treachery brought against them by the Dutch may 
 be received with some reserve, such terms as " patriot " and 
 "rebel" being interchangeable according to the standpoints from 
 which they are considered. In any case no one denies them the 
 virtues of valour and love of freedom, with which are associated 
 industrious habits and a remarkable aptitude for such handi- 
 crafts as metal work, jewellery, weaving, and ship-building. The 
 Achinese do not appear to be very strict Muhammadans \ poly- 
 gamy is little practised, their women are free to go 
 Hindu re- abroad unveiled, nor are they condemned to the 
 
 miniscences. , . c ^\^ \. j i • • i 
 
 seclusion of the harem, and a pleasmg survival 
 from Buddhist times is the Kanduri^ a solemn feast, in which the 
 poor are permitted to share. Another reminiscence of Hindu 
 philosophy may perhaps have been an outburst of religious fervour, 
 which took the form of a pantheistic creed, and was so zealously 
 preached, that it had to be stamped out with fire and sword by 
 the dominant Moslem monotheists. 
 
 Since the French occupation of Madagascar, the Malagasy 
 
 problem has naturally been revived. But it may be 
 
 Relations in regretted that so much time and talent has been 
 
 agascar. gpent on a somewhat thrashed-out question by a 
 number of writers, who did not first take the trouble to read up 
 the literature of the subject. Had they done so, they must have 
 seen that most of the factors in the problem are really known 
 quantities, and that it is at this date somewhat of an anachronism 
 to suggest, for instance, that the Malayan migrations to Mada- 
 gascar are quite recent^, or that the migrations were not from 
 
 ^ Anthropologie des Atjehs, in Rev. Med. Batavia, xxx. 6, 1890. 
 2 A. Oppel, Globus, 70, p. 384. This writer, who scarcely understands 
 the elementary conditions of the question, thinks that **der Zeitpunkt der 
 
yil.J THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 249 
 
 Malaysia at all, but from Melanesia, that the Hovas were all 
 originally black, that their olive colour is due to the environment', 
 that the points of resemblance between the Malayan and Malagasy 
 languages may be due to the influence of Arab {sic) traders, and 
 that the North African Libyans may be the remote ancestors of 
 the Hovas, whose type in more than one respect resembles that 
 of the present Kopts^. The extent to which Malagasy ethnology 
 has lapsed into chaos may be judged from the contradictory views 
 now current on the origin, type, and affinities of the dominant 
 and presumably well-known Hovas, as, for example : — 
 
 Collignon. Block. 
 
 The Hovas differ in no The Hovas appear to repre- 
 
 important respect from the sent a now extinct red race, 
 true Malays ; showing close who were originally Melanesians 
 affinity to the Javanese and or Oceanic Negritoes; are quite 
 Madurese, most typical of Ma- distinct from the Malays ; their 
 layans. common speech proves nothing, 
 
 as it is common also to the 
 Melanesians. 
 Malayenauswanderung als etwa um das Jahr 1000 n. Chr. vollig ausreichend 
 ist etc. etc." 
 
 1 Dr Adolphe Bloch, Bui. Soc. cTAnthrop. 1896, p. 498 sq. Here it is 
 argued that all the Hovas "sont issus de cette race primitive [les Negres 
 oceaniens], comme toutes les autres populations de Madagascar," and that 
 " les Malegaches jaunes ont du se former comme se forment toutes les 
 varietes de I'espece humaine, c'est a dire sous I'influence de la variabilite qui 
 caracterise tous les etres vivants " (p. 511). But the prototypes of these Hovas 
 are already found in Malaysia; consequently they did not need to be again 
 specialised in Madagascar from a black precursor, an evolution which, as I 
 hold, never took place. At all events it should not be assumed without 
 necessity, and here there is no necessity. 
 
 - M. Ch. Letoumeau in Bui. Soc. d'Anthrop. 1896, p. 521 sq. This case 
 is characteristic, the source appealed to for some very rash statements, as, for 
 instance, that the linguistic analogies between Malay and Malagasy are " aussi 
 peu frappantes que possible," being the antiquated History of Madagascar 
 by W. Ellis, with J. J. Freeman's Appendix, 1838. M. Letoumeau, who has 
 done such excellent work in other fields, might surely have reflected that the 
 Malagasy question was scarcely understood in the thirties, and that since then 
 the "analogies " so far from being slight, have been proved to be identities by 
 Marre, Last, Dahle, Richa^^son, Cousins, and in fact all philologists who 
 have given serious attention to the subject. 
 
250 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 By what race Madagascar was first peopled it is no longer 
 
 possible to say. The local reports or traditions of 
 p^^igs^^""*^ primitive peoples, either extinct or still surviving 
 
 in the interior, belong rather to the sphere of 
 Malagasy folklore than to that of ethnological research. In these 
 reports mention is frequently made of the Kh?ws, said to be now 
 or formerly living in the Bara country, and of the Vazimbas, who 
 are by some supposed to have been Gallas {Ba-Simba) — though 
 they had no knowledge of iron — whose graves are supposed to be 
 certain monolithic monuments which take the form of menhirs 
 disposed in circles, and are beheved by the present inhabitants of 
 the land to be still haunted by evil spirits, that is, the ghosts of the 
 long extinct Vazimbas. 
 
 Much of the confusion prevalent regarding the present 
 
 ethnical relations is due to the failure to distinguish 
 imrn!gra"ts"^'^ between the historic Malays of Menangkabau and 
 Maia^°ans ^^^ Malayan aborigines of the Eastern Archipelago. 
 
 That some of the historic Malays (the Orang- 
 Malayu) have found their way to the island from time to time 
 need not be denied. But it may now be asserted with some 
 confidence that they could never have been very numerous, that 
 they may almost be regarded in the present connection as une 
 quantite negligeable, and that the Malayan settlement of Mada- 
 gascar took place in remote prehistoric times, not only long 
 Mala as before the diffusion of the Sumatran Malays over 
 
 Speech not the Archipelago, but also long before the appear- 
 
 Malay, but . __. , . . . .... 
 
 Maiayo- ance of Hmdu missionaries or colonists in the 
 
 Polynesian. same region. This is no matter of speculation, 
 but a direct and necessary inference from facts now established, 
 such as the total absence of Sanskrit and largely of late Arabic 
 terms in Malagasy, and the general structure of that language, 
 which is not a Malay dialect, but very much older than Malay 
 — in fact an independent and somewhat archaic member of the 
 Malayo-Polynesian (Oceanic) linguistic family. There is a con- 
 siderable percentage of Sanskrit words in Malay, Javanese, and 
 Bugis, in fact in all the cultivated, and in many even of the 
 uncultivated languages of Malaysia, introduced with Hinduism 
 probably some two or three centuries before the new era. But 
 
VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 2$ I 
 
 these words, many of them quite ordinary terms in daily use, 
 could not all have been left behind by the Malayan settlers in 
 Madagascar had the migrations taken place within the last 2000 
 years or so. But none, absolutely none, are found in Malagasy, 
 which language must therefore have crossed the Indian Ocean in 
 pre-Hindu, that is, remote prehistoric times. 
 
 The same inference follows from a critical study of the Arabic 
 elements in Malagasy, which have misled so many 
 observers, and even given rise to the theory that Elements 
 "the Madagascar tongue is a corruption of the 
 Arabic \" A less extravagant, but no less mistaken view, still 
 prevailing in some quarters, assumes that the Arabic words were 
 all introduced either directly through the Muhammadan Arabs, 
 or indirectly through the Muhammadan Malays, from which it 
 would follow that the immigrants from Malaysia were after all 
 the historical Malays arriving since 1000 B.C. (Oppel), or even 
 "probably not over 200 years ago^" But Mr J. T. Last, who, 
 I think rightly, identifies Madagascar with the island of Menuthias 
 described by Arrian in the third century a.d.^ suggests the 
 " possibility that Madagascar may have been reached by Arabs 
 before the Christian era." This "possibility" is converted 
 almost into a certainty by the analysis of the Arabo- Malagasy 
 terms made by Dahle, who clearly shows that such terms "are 
 comparatively very few," and also " very ancient," in fact that, as 
 already suggested by Prof Fleischer of Leipzig, many, perhaps 
 the majority of them, "may be traced back to Himyaritic 
 influence^" that is, not merely to pre- Muhammadan, but to 
 
 ^ Dr Vanderkamp quoted by the Rev. L. Dahle, AntananaHvo Annual^ 
 1876, p. 75. 
 
 - Col. Maude, Jotir. Anthrop. Inst. 1896, p. 71. 
 
 ^ "His remarks would scarcely apply to any other island off the East 
 African coast, his description of the rivers, crocodiles, land-tortoises, canoes, 
 sea-turtles, and wicker-work weirs for catching fish, apply exactly to Mada- 
 gascar of the present day, but to none of the other islands " {Jotir. Anthrop. 
 Inst. 1896, p. 47). 
 
 ^ Loc. cit. p. 77. Thus, to take the days of the week, we have: — Malagasy 
 alahady, alatsinainy \ old Arab. (Himyar.) al-ahadu, al-itsndni ; modern 
 Arab, el-dhad, el-etnen (Sund^, Monday), where the Mai. forms are obviously 
 derived not from the presentTbut from the ancient Arabic. From all this it 
 seems reasonable to infer that the early Semitic influences in Madagascar may 
 
252 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 pre-Christian times, just like the Sanskritic elements in the 
 Oceanic tongues. 
 
 The evidence that Malagasy is itself one of these Oceanic 
 
 tongues, and not an offshoot of the comparatively 
 of the Ian- recent standard Malay is overwhelming, and need 
 
 guage. not here detain us \ The diffusion of this Malayo- 
 
 Polynesian language over the whole island — even amongst dis- 
 tinctly Negroid Bantu populations, such as the Betsileos and 
 Tanalas — to the absolute exclusion of all other forms of speech, 
 is an almost unique linguistic phenomenon more easily proved 
 than explained. There are, of course, provincialisms and even 
 what may be called local dialects, such as that of the Antan- 
 karana people at the northern extremity of the island who, 
 although commonly included in the large division of the western 
 Sakalavas, really form a separate ethnical group, speaking a some- 
 what marked variety of Malagasy. But even this differs much 
 less from the normal form than might be supposed by comparing, 
 for instance, such a term as maso-makamay, sun, with the Hova 
 maso-andro, where maso in both means *' eye," mahamay in both 
 = "burning," and andro in both = "day." Thus the only difference 
 is that one calls the sun " burning eye," while the Hovas call it 
 the "day's eye," as do so many peoples in Malaysia^ 
 
 So also the fish-eating Anorohoro people, a branch of the 
 Sihanakas in the Alaotra valley, are said to have " quite a different 
 
 dialect from them^" But the statement need not 
 oAhamltes. ^^ taken too seriously, because these rustic fisherfolk, 
 
 who may be called the Gothamites of Madagascar, 
 are supposed, by their scornful neighbours, to do everything 
 
 be due to the same Sabasan or Mingean peoples of South Arabia, to whom the 
 Zimbabwe monuments in the auriferous region south of the Zambesi have been 
 accredited by the late Theodore Bent. 
 
 ^ Those who may still doubt should consult M. Aristide Marre, Les 
 Affinites de la Langue Alalgache, Leyden, 1884; Mr Last's above quoted Paper 
 in \\veyour. Anthrop. Inst, and Dr R. H. Codrington's Melanesian Languages^ 
 Oxford, 1885. See also Eth. pp. 331-2. 
 
 2 Malay, mata-ari', Bajau, inata-lon; Menado mata-roi'r, Salayer, mato-allo, 
 all meaning literally "day's eye" {mata, ;//a/i? = Malagasy inaso — eyQ; dri^ 
 alio &c. = day, with normal interchange of r and /). 
 
 ^ Rev. J. Sibree, Antananarivo Annual^ 1877, p. 62. 
 
VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 253 
 
 " contrariwise." Of them it is told that once when cooking eggs 
 they boiled them for hours to make them soft, and then finding 
 they got harder and harder threw them away as unfit for food. 
 Others having only one slave, who could not paddle the canoe 
 properly, cut him in two, putting one half at the prow the other at 
 the stern, and were surprised at the result. It was not to be 
 expected that such simpletons should speak Malagasy properly, 
 which nevertheless is spoken with surprising uniformity by all the 
 Malayan and Negro or Negroid peoples alike. 
 
 Of these two races, who have occupied the island from time 
 immemorial, the Malayans probably arrived first, 
 and, the way once found, were afterwards joined Eiement^^'^° 
 at different times by other seafaring bands from the 
 Eastern Archipelago. The Bantus of the opposite coastlands, not 
 being navigators, could scarcely have themselves crossed the 
 swift-flowing and choppy Mozambique Channel, which is nowhere 
 less than 240 miles wide, and is moreover swept by the great 
 current setting steadily from Madagascar south-westwards to the 
 Cape. Thus the stream that helped the Oceanic Mongols would 
 arrest the African Negroes, who were probably brought over in 
 small bands at intervals by the slavers, at all times active in these 
 waters. 
 
 Arriving in this way not as free settlers, but as domestic slaves, 
 the Negroid Bantus would necessarily become assimilated in 
 speech and usages to their Malayan masters, as they have else- 
 where been assimilated to their Hamitic, Egyptian, Arab, Persian, 
 and Turkish masters. Thus may perhaps best be explained the 
 absolute predominance of the Malagasy language, to the exclusion 
 of all rivals, and the relations now prevailing in Madagascar may 
 be taken as a striking illustration of the fundamental principle 
 that different races may merge in a new type, but their languages 
 will not mix, and in the struggle all perish but one '. 
 
 In Madagascar, however, the fusion of the two races is far less 
 complete than is commonly supposed. Various 
 shades of transition between the two extremes are Fusion of the 
 no doubt presented by the Sakalavas of the west, Negro^Races. 
 and the Betsimisarakas^^itanakas^ and others of 
 1 Eth. Ch. IX. 
 
254 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 the east coast. But, strange to say, on the central tableland the 
 two seem to stand almost completely apart, so that here the 
 politically dominant Hovas still present all the essential charac- 
 teristics of the Oceanic Mongol, while their southern neighbours, 
 the Betsileos, as well as the Tanalas and Ibaras, are described as 
 "African pure and simple, allied to the south-eastern tribes of 
 that continent \" 
 
 Specially remarkable is the account given by a careful observer, 
 the Rev. G. A. Shaw, of the Betsileos, whose " average height is 
 not less than six feet for the men, and a few inches less for the 
 women. They are large-boned and muscular, and their colour is 
 several degrees darker than that of the Hovas, approaching very 
 close to a black. The forehead is low and broad, the nose flatter, 
 and the lips thicker than those of their conquerors, whilst their 
 hair is invariably crisp and woolly. No pure Betsileo is to be 
 met with having the smooth long hair of the Hovas. In this, as 
 in other points, there is a very clear departure from the Malayan 
 type, and a close approximation to the Negro races of the adja- 
 cent continent^" 
 
 Now compare these brawny African giants with the wiry under- 
 sized Malayan Hovas. As described by Dr A. 
 
 Hova type. '' 
 
 Vouchereau , their type closely resembles that of 
 the Javanese — short stature, yellowish or light leather complexion, 
 long, black, smooth and rather coarse hair, round head (85*25), 
 flat and straight forehead, flat face, prominent cheek bones, small 
 straight nose, tolerably wide nostrils, small black and slightly 
 oblique eyes, rather thick lips, sHm Hthesome figure, small ex- 
 tremities, dull restless expression, cranial capacity 15 16 cc, 
 superior to both Negro and Sakalava^ 
 
 ^ Rev. W. D. Cowan, The Bar a Land, Antananarivo, 1881, p. 67. 
 
 ^ The Betsileo, Country and People-, Antananarivo Annual, 1877, p. 79. 
 
 '^ Note sur V Anthropologie de Madagascar &c., in PAnthropologie, 1897, 
 p. 149 sq. 
 
 ■* The contrast between the two elements is drawn in a few bold strokes by 
 Mrs Z. Col vile, who found that in the east coast districts the natives (Betsi- 
 misarakas chiefly) were black "with short, curly hair and negro type of 
 feature, and showed every sign of being of African origin. The Hovas, on 
 the contrary, had complexions little darker than those of the peasantry of 
 Southern Europe, straight black hair, rather sharp features, slim figures, and 
 
VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 255 
 
 Except in respect of this high cranial capacity, the measure- 
 ments of three Malagasy skulls in the Cambridge University 
 Anatomical Museum studied by MrW. L. H. Duckworth \ corre- 
 spond fairly well w^th these descriptions. Thus the cephalic index 
 of the reputed Betsimisaraka (Negroid) and that of the Betsileo 
 (Negro) are respectively 71 and 72-4, while that of the Hova is 
 82-1 ; the first two, therefore, are long-headed, the third round- 
 headed, as we should expect. But the cubic capacity of the Hova 
 (presumably Mongoloid) is only 131 5 as compared 
 with 1450 and 1480 of two others, presumably Element from 
 African Negroes. Mr Duckworth discusses the 
 question whether the black element in Madagascar is of African or 
 Oceanic (Melanesian-Papuan) origin, about which much diversity 
 of opinion still prevails, and on the evidence of the few cranial 
 specimens available he decides in favour of the African. How 
 the advocates of the Oceanic view proposed to bring Mela- 
 nesians from the Pacific Ocean to Madagascar, at least after the 
 subsidence of the Indo-African Continent, was never made quite 
 clear. 
 
 Despite the low cubic capacity of Mr Duckworth's Hova, the 
 mental powers of these, and indeed of the Malagasy 
 generally, are far from despicable. Before the Qualities of the 
 French occupation the London Church Missionary Malagasy. 
 Society had succeeded in disseminating Christian principles and 
 even some degree of culture among considerable numbers both in 
 the Hova capital and surrounding districts. The 
 local press had been kept going by native com- rh^^i^f 
 positors, who had issued quite an extensive literature 
 both in Malagasy and English. Agricultural and industrial 
 methods had been improved, some engineering works attempted, 
 and the Hova craftsmen had learnt to build but not to complete 
 houses in the European style, because, although they could master 
 European processes, they could not, Christians though they were, 
 
 were unmistakably of the Asiatic type " {Rotmd the Black Man's Garden, 
 1893, p. 143). But even amongst the Hovas a strain of black blood is 
 betrayed in the generally rather thick lips, and in the lower classes wavy hair 
 and dark skin. \ 
 
 ^ Jotir. Anthrop. Inst. 1897, p. 285 sq. 
 
256 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 get the better of the old superstitions, one of which is that the 
 owner of a house always dies within a year of its completion. 
 Longevity is therefore ensured by not completing it, with the 
 curious result that the whole city looks unfinished or dilapidated. 
 In the house where Mrs Colvile stayed, " one window was framed 
 and glazed, the other nailed up with rough boards ; part of the 
 stair-banister had no top-rail ; outside only a portion of the roof 
 had been tiled ; and so on throughout \" 
 
 A good deal of fancy is displayed in the oral literature, com- 
 prising histories, or at least legends, fables, songs, riddles, and a 
 great mass of folklore, much of which has already 
 FoUdm-e^^^ been rescued from oblivion by the "Malagasy Folk- 
 lore Society." Some of the stories present the 
 usual analogies to others in widely separated lands, stories which 
 seem to be perennial, and to crop up wherever the surface is a 
 little disturbed by investigators. One of those in Mr Dahle's 
 extensive collection, entitled the "History of Andrianarisainabo- 
 niamasoboniamanoro," might be described as a variant of our 
 " Beauty and the Beast." Besides this prince with the long name, 
 called Bonia "for short," there is a princess "Golden Beauty," 
 both being of miraculous birth, but the latter a cripple and 
 deformed, until found and wedded by Bonia. Then she is so 
 transfigured that the " Beast" is captivated and contrives to carry 
 her off. Thereupon follows an extraordinary series of adventures, 
 resulting of course in the rescue of Golden Beauty by Bonia, 
 when everything ends happily, not only for the two lovers, but for 
 all other people whose wives had also been abducted. These are 
 now restored to their husbands by the hero, who vanquishes and 
 slays the monster in a fierce fight, just as in our nursery tales of 
 knights and dragons. 
 
 In the Philippines, where the ethnical confusion is probably 
 greater than in any other part of Malaysia ^ the 
 pil^Nrtives' g^^^^ ^^^^ of ^^ inhabitants appear to be un- 
 doubtedly of proto- Malayan stock. Except in the 
 southern island of Mindanao, which is still mainly Muhammadan 
 or heathen, most of the settled populations have long been 
 
 1 Op. cit. p. 153. 
 
 2 Eth. p. 333. 
 
VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 257 
 
 nominal Roman Catholics under a curious theocratic admini- 
 stration, in which the true rulers are not the civil functionaries, 
 but the priests, and especially the regular clergy'. One result 
 has been over three centuries of unstable political and social 
 relations, ending in the occupation of the archipelago by the 
 United States (1898). Another, with which we are here more 
 concerned, has been such a transformation of the subtle Malayan 
 character that those who have lived longest amongst the natives 
 pronounce their temperament unfathomable. Having to comply 
 outwardly with the numerous Christian observances, they seek 
 relief in two ways, first by making the most of the Catholic 
 ceremonial and turning the many feast-days of the calendar into 
 occasions of revelry and dissipation, connived at if not even 
 shared in by the padres^; secondly by secretly cherishing the old 
 beliefs and disguising their true feelings, until the opportunity 
 is presented of throwing off the mask and declaring themselves 
 in their true colours. A Franciscan friar, who had spent half 
 his life amongst them, left on record that " the native is an 
 incomprehensible phenomenon, the mainspring of whose line of 
 thought and the guiding motive of whose actions have never 
 yet been, and perhaps never will be, discovered. A native will 
 serve a master satisfactorily for years, and then suddenly abscond, 
 or commit some such hideous crime as conniving with a brigand 
 band to murder the family and pillage the house'*." 
 
 In fact nobody can ever tell what a Tagal, and especially a 
 Bisayan, will do at any moment. His character is a succession of 
 surprises ; " the experience of each year brings one to form fresh 
 conclusions, and the most exact definition of such a kaleidoscopic 
 creature is, after all, hypothetical." 
 
 After centuries of misrule, it is perhaps not surprising that no 
 kind of sympathy has been developed between the natives and the 
 whites. Mr Foreman tells us that everywhere in the Archipelago 
 he found mothers teaching their little ones to look on their white 
 
 ^ Augustinians, Dominicans, Recollects (Friars Minor of the Strict Ob- 
 servance), and Jesuits. 
 
 ^ In fact there is no great parade of morality on either side, nor is it any 
 reflection on a woman to have children by the priest. 
 
 3 J. Foreman, op. cit. p. 181. 
 
 K. . . 17 
 
258 
 
 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 rulers as demoniacal beings, evil spirits, or at least something to 
 be dreaded. " If a child cries, it is hushed by the exclamation, 
 Castila 1 (Spaniard) ; if a white man approaches a native dwelling, 
 the watchword always is Castila! and the children hasten to 
 retreat from the dreadful object." 
 
 By the administration the natives are classed in three social 
 divisions — Indtos, Infieles, and Moros — which, as 
 aptly remarked by Dr F. H. H. Guillemard, is 
 "an ecclesiastical rather than a scientific classifica- 
 Indios are the christianized and more or less 
 cultured populations of all the towns and of the 
 settled agricultural districts, forming eight ethnical 
 groups, each speaking a distinct Malayo-Polynesian language of 
 much more archaic type than the standard Malay, with a total 
 population of about 5,300,000 distributed over the Archipelago 
 as under ^: — 
 
 Three Social 
 Groups. 
 
 tion'.^ 
 
 The 
 
 The Indios. 
 
 Nation. Islands. Population. 
 
 ^. rNearly all between Mindoro exclu-") 
 
 Bisayans. \ • j ^r- ^ • , • r 2,500,000 
 ^ I sive and Mmdanao mclusive J 
 
 (Luzon; Mindoro, Polillo;! 
 
 ■I v . . 1,2150,000 
 
 i Lubang; Marinduque J 
 
 Parts of Luzon ..... 460,000 
 
 Luzon, Burias, Masbate (?) . . 380,000 
 
 Parts of Luzon ..... 300,000 
 
 Parts of Luzon. . . . . 250,000 
 
 Luzon ; Babuyanes : Batanes . . 90,000 
 
 Parts of Luzon ..... 70,000 
 
 Total " Christianos CiviHzados" in the Philippines . 5,300,000 
 
 By 
 
 Tagalas. 
 
 Ilocanos. 
 
 Bicols. 
 
 Pangasinanes, 
 
 Pampangos. 
 
 Cagayanes. 
 
 Zambales. 
 
 The Infieles. 
 
 ^^ Infieles'' are understood all the aborigines who are 
 
 neither Christians nor Muhammadans, that is, 
 
 pagans generally in the wild state, and variously 
 
 described as "savage," "degraded," "warlike," "sanguinary," 
 
 "wild but timid," "peaceful," "poor," "docile and harmless," 
 
 "treacherous," — terms which indicate more or less accurately 
 
 ^ Australasia, 1894, ii. p. 49. 
 
 '^ These and further details are from F. Blumentritt's Vademecum etnografico 
 de Filipinas, in Bol. Soc. Geogr. Madrid, 1889, p. 246 sq. 
 
VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 259 
 
 the various attitudes of these independent hillmen towards the 
 administration. Many, especially those in the more inaccessible 
 upland tracts, appear to be undoubtedly Caucasic Indonesians, 
 others are Orang Beniia (primitive Malayans), and a few true 
 Negritos. But all may be described as absolutely uncivilised, 
 while many are certainly savages in the strictest sense of the term. 
 Under the general category of "■ Infieles'' Blumentritt enumerates 
 as many as seventy-four tribes, or even nations, ranging over all 
 the islands in groups of from 500 or less up to 40,000 {IgorroteSy 
 Buqutfnons), and even 80,000 doubtfully {Manguangas), with a 
 total estimated population of from 220,000 to 250,000. 
 
 Under Moros ("Moors") are comprised the Muhammadans 
 exclusively, some of whom are Malayans (chiefly in 
 Mindanao, Basilan, and Palawan), some true Malays 
 (chiefly in the Sulu archipelago). Many of these are still inde- 
 pendent, and not a few, if not actually wild, are certainly but 
 little removed from the savage state. Yet, like the Sumatran 
 Battas, they possess a knowledge of letters, the Sulu people using 
 the Arabic script, as do all the Orang Malayu, while the Palawan 
 natives employ a variant of the Devanagari prototype derived 
 directly from the Javanese, as above explained. No census has 
 ever been taken of the Philippine Muhammadans, who are roughly 
 estimated by Blumentritt at from 200,000 to 500,000, including 
 the 60,000 of the Sulu archipelago. 
 
 Some of these Sulu people, till lately fierce sea-rovers, get 
 baptized now and then ; but, says Mr Foreman, " they appeared 
 to be as much Christian as I was Mussulman \" They keep their 
 harems all the same, and when asked how many gods there are, 
 answer "four," presumably Allah plus the Athanasian Trinity. 
 So the Ba-Fiots of Angola add crucifying to their " penal code," 
 and so in King M'tesa's time the Baganda scrupulously kept two 
 weekly holidays, the Mussulman Friday, and the Christian Sunday. 
 Lofty creeds superimposed too rapidly on primitive beliefs are apt 
 to get " mixed " ; they need time to become assimilated. 
 
 That in the aborigines of Formosa are represented both 
 Mongol (proto-Malayan) and Indonesian (proto-Caucasic) ele- 
 
 1 Op. cit. p. 247. 
 
260 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 ments may now be accepted as an established fact. The long- 
 standing reports of Negritoes also, like the Phi- 
 andindcT-"^ Uppine Aetas, have never been confirmed, and 
 Formosa" "^^^ ^^ dismissed from the present consideration. 
 Probably five-sixths of the whole population are 
 Chinese immigrants, amongst whom are a large number of 
 Hakkas and Hok-los from the provinces of Fo- 
 Seu^ierJ!^'"^^^ Kieu and Kwang-tung\ They occupy all the 
 cultivated western lowlands, which from the ethno- 
 logical standpoint may be regarded as a seaward outpost of the 
 Chinese mainland. The rest of the island, that is, the central 
 highlands and precipitous eastern slopes, may similarly be looked 
 on as a north-eastern outpost of Malaysia, being almost ex- 
 clusively held by Indonesian and Malayan aborigines from 
 Malaysia (especially the Philippines), with possibly some early 
 intruders both from Polynesia and from the north (Japan). All 
 are classed by the Chinese settlers after their usual fashion in 
 three social divisions : — 
 
 1. The Pepohwans of the plains, who although called 
 *' Barbarians." are sedentary agriculturists and quite as civiHsed as 
 their Chinese neighbours themselves, with whom they are gradually 
 merging in a single ethnical group. The Pepohwans are described 
 by M. Ibis as a fine race, very tall, and "fetishists," though the 
 mysterious rites are left to the women. Their national feasts, 
 dances, and other usages forcibly recall those of the Micronesians 
 and Polynesians. They may therefore, perhaps, be regarded as 
 early immigrants from the South Sea Islands, distinct in every 
 respect from the true aborigines. 
 
 2. The Sekhwans, "Tame Savages V' who are also settled 
 agriculturists, subject to the Chinese (since 1895 to the Japanese) 
 administration, but physically distinct from all the other For- 
 mosans — light complexion, large mouth, thick lips, remarkably 
 long and prominent teeth, weak constitution. M. Ibis suspects 
 
 1 Girard de Rialle, Rev. d'Anthrop. Jan, and April 1885. These studies 
 are based largely on the data supplied by M. Paul Ibis and earlier travellers 
 in the island. Nothing better has since appeared except Mr G. Taylor's 
 valuable contributions to the China Reviezu (see below). 
 
 2 Lit. "ripe barbarians" {barbaixs inurs, Ibis). 
 
VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 261 
 
 a strain of Dutch blood dating from the 17th century. This 
 is confirmed by the old books and other curious documents 
 found amongst them, which have given rise to so much specula- 
 tion, and, it may be added, some mystification, regarding a 
 peculiar writing-system and a literature formerly current amongst 
 the Formosan aborigines \ 
 
 3. The Chinhwans, " Green Barbarians " — that is, utter 
 savages, — the true independent aborigines, of whom there are an 
 unknown number of tribes, but regarding whom the Chinese 
 possess but little definite information. Not so their Japanese 
 successors, one of whom, Mr Kisak Tamai^, tells us that the 
 Chinhwans show a close resemblance to the Malays of the 
 Malay Peninsula and also to those of the Philippines, and in 
 some respects to the Japanese themselves. When dressed like 
 Japanese and mingling with Japanese women, they can hardly 
 be distinguished from them. The vendetta is still rife amongst 
 many of the ruder tribes, and such is their traditional hatred of 
 the Chinese intruders that no one can either be tattooed or 
 permitted to wear a bracelet until he has carried off a Celestial 
 head or two. In every household there is a frame or bracket on 
 which these heads are mounted, and some of their warriors can 
 proudly point to over seventy of sucli trophies. It is a relief to 
 hear that with their new Japanese masters they have sworn friend- 
 ship, these new rulers of the land being their "brothers and 
 sisters." The oath of eternal alliance is taken by digging a hole 
 in the ground, putting a stone in it, throwing earth at each other, 
 then covering the stone with the earth, all of which means that 
 "as the stone in the ground keeps sound, so do we keep our 
 word unbroken." 
 
 It is interesting to note that this Japanese ethnologist's remarks 
 on the physical resemblances of the aborigines are 
 fully in accord with those of European observers. Affinities. 
 Thus to Dr Hamy they recalled the Igorrotes of 
 
 1 See facsimiles of bilingual and other MSS. from Formosa in T. de 
 Lacouperie's Formosa Notes on MSS., Languages, and Races, Hertford, 1887. 
 The whole question is here fully discussed, though the author seems unable to 
 arrive at any definite conclusi^i even as to the bona or mala fides of the noted 
 impostor George Psalmanazar. 
 
 ^ Globus, 70, p. 93 sq. 
 
262 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 North Luzon, as well as the Malays of Singapore \" Mr G. Taylor 
 also, who has visited several of the wildest groups in the 
 southern and eastern districts^ {Tipuns, Paiwans, Diaramocks, 
 Nickas^ Amias and many others), traces some "probably" to 
 Japan (Tipuns) ; others to Malaysia (the cruel, predatory Paiwan 
 head-hunters); and others to the Liu-Kiu archipelago (the Pepoh- 
 wans now of Chinese speech). He describes the Diaramocks as 
 the most dreaded of all the southern groups, but doubts whether 
 the charge of cannibalism brought against them by their neigh- 
 bours is quite justified. 
 
 Whether the historical Malays from Singapore or elsewhere, 
 as above suggested, are really represented in Formosa may be 
 doubted, since no survivals either of Hindu or Muhammadan 
 rites appear to have been detected amongst the aborigines. It is 
 of course possible that they may have reached the island at some 
 remote time, and since relapsed into savagery, from which the 
 Orang-laut were never very far removed. But in the absence 
 of proof, it will be safer to regard all the wild tribes as partly of 
 Indonesian, partly of proto- Malayan origin. 
 
 This view is also in conformity with the character of the 
 numerous Formosan dialects, whose affinities are 
 AffiniSes^***^ either with the Gyarung and others of the Asiatic 
 Indonesian tongues, or else with the Malayo- 
 Polynesian organic speech generally, but not specially with any 
 particular member of that family, least of all with the com- 
 paratively recent standard Malay. Thus Dr Arnold Schetelig 
 points out that only about a sixth part of the Formosan vocabulary 
 taken generally corresponds with modern Malay^ The analogies 
 of all the rest must be sought in the various branches of the 
 
 ^ Les Races Malaiqiies etc., in V Anthropologies 1896. 
 
 ^ The Aborigines of Formosa, in China Review, XI v. p. 198 sq., also xvi. 
 No. 3. {A Ramble Through Southern Formosa^ The services rendered by 
 this intelligent observer to Formosan ethnology deserve more general recogni- 
 tion than they have hitherto received. 
 
 ^ Sprachen der Ureinwohner Formosa^ s in Zeitschr.f. Volkerpsychologie etc. 
 v. p. 437 sq. This anthropologist found to his great surprise that the Poly- 
 nesian and Maori skulls in the London College of Surgeons presented striking 
 analogies with those collected by himself in Formosa. Here at least is a 
 remarkable harmony between speech and physical characters. 
 
VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 263 
 
 Oceanic stock language, and in the Gyarung and the non-Chinese 
 tongues of Eastern China \ Formosa thus presents a curious 
 ethnical and linguistic connecting link between the Continental 
 and Oceanic populations. 
 
 In the Nicobar archipelago are distinguished two ethnical 
 groups, the coast people, i.e. the Ntcobarese^ proper, 
 and the Shorn Fen, aborigines of the less accessible Nkobarese 
 inland districts in Great Nicobar. But the dis- 
 tinction appears to be rather social than racial, and we may now 
 conclude with Mr E. H. Man that all the islanders belong 
 essentially to the Mongolic division, the inlanders representing 
 the pure type, the others being "descended from a mongrel 
 Malay stock, the crosses being probably in the majority of cases 
 with Burmese and occasionally with natives of the opposite coast 
 of Siam, and perchance also in remote times with such of the 
 Shom Pen as may have settled in their midst ^" 
 
 Among the numerous usages which point to an Indo-Chinese 
 and Oceanic connection are pile-dwellings ; the chewing of betel, 
 \yhich appears to be here mixed with some earthy substance 
 causing a dental incrustation so thick as even to prevent the 
 closing of the lips; distention of the ear-lobe by wooden cylinders; 
 aversion from the use of milk ; and the coiivade, as amongst some 
 Bornean Dyaks. The language, which has an extraordinarily rich 
 phonetic system (as many as 25 consonantal and 35 vowel 
 sounds), is polysyllabic and untoned, like the Malayo-Polynesian, 
 and the type also seems to resemble the Oceanic more than the 
 Continental Mongol subdivision. Mean height 5 ft. 3 in, (Shom 
 Pen one inch less) ; nose wide and flat ; eyes rather obliquely 
 set ; cheek-bones prominent ; features flat, though less so than in 
 the normal Malayan ; complexion mostly a yellowish or reddish- 
 brown (Shom Pen dull brown); hair a dark rusty brown, rarely 
 quite black, straight, though not seldom wavy and even ringletty, 
 but Shom Pen generally quite straight. 
 
 ^ De Lacouperie, op. cit. p. 73. 
 
 ^ The natives of course know nothing of this word, and speak of their 
 island homes as Mattai, a vague term applied equally to land, country, village, 
 and even the whole world. 
 
 ^ The Nicobar Islanders^ in Jour. Anthrqp. Inst. 1889, p. 354 sq. 
 
264 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. VII. 
 
 On the other hand they approach nearer to the Burmese in 
 their mental characters; in their frank, independent spirit, inquisit- 
 iveness, and kindness towards their women, who enjoy complete 
 social equality, as in Burma ; and lastly in their universal belief in 
 spirits called iwi or siya, who, like the nats of Indo-China, cause 
 sickness and death unless scared away or appeased by offerings. 
 Like the Burmese, also, they place a piece of money in the mouth 
 or against the cheek of a corpse before burial, to help in the 
 other world. 
 
 One of the few industries is the manufacture of a peculiar 
 kind of rough painted pottery, which is absolutely confined to 
 the islet of Chowra, 5 miles north of .Teressa. The reason of 
 this restriction is explained by a popular legend, according to 
 which in remote ages the Great Unknown decreed that, on pain 
 of sudden death, an earthquake, or some such calamity, the 
 making of earthenware was to be carried on only in Chowra, 
 and all the work of preparing the clay, moulding and firing the 
 pots, was to devolve on the women. Once, a long time ago, 
 one of these women, when on a visit in another island, began, 
 heedless of the divine injunction, to make a vessel, and fell dead 
 on the spot. Thus was confirmed the tradition, and no attempt 
 has since been made to infringe the "Chowra monopoly'." 
 
 All things considered, it may be inferred that the archipelago 
 was originally occupied by primitive peoples of Malayan stock 
 now represented by the Shom Pen of Great Nicobar, and was after- 
 wards re-settled on the coastlands by Indo-Chinese and Malayan 
 intruders, who intermingled, and either extirpated or absorbed, 
 or else drove to the interior the first occupants. Nicobar thus 
 resembles Formosa in its intermediate position between the 
 continental and pelasgian Mongol populations. Another point 
 of analogy is the absence of Negritoes from both of these insular 
 areas, where anthropologists had confidently anticipated the 
 presence of a dark element like that of the Andamanese and 
 Philippine Aetas. 
 
 1 E. H. Man, J our. Anthrop. Inst. 1894, p. 21. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 
 
 Domain of the Mongolo-Turki Section — Early Contact with Caucasic Peoples — 
 Primitive Man in Siberia — and Mongolia — Early Man in Korea and 
 Japan — in Finland and East Europe — Early Man in Babylonia — Akkado- 
 Sumerian Origins — Relations to the Semites and Aryans — Elamite 
 Origins — Historical Records — Babylonian Religion — Social System — 
 General Culture — The Mongols Proper — Physical Type — Ethnical and 
 Admini^ative Divisions — Buddhism — The Tunguses — Cradle and Type 
 — Mental Characters — Shamanism — The Manchus — Origins and Early 
 Records — Type — The Dauri — Mongolo-Turki Speech — Language and 
 Racial Characters — Mongol and Manchu Script — The Yukaghirs— 
 A Primitive Writing System — Chukchis and Koryaks — Chukchi and 
 Eskimo Relations— Type and Social State — Koryaks and Kamchadales — 
 The Gilyaks — The Koreans — Ethnical Elements — Korean Origins and 
 Records — Religion — The Korean Script — The Japanese — Origins — 
 Constituent Elements — The Ebisu Aborigines— Japanese and Liu-kiu 
 Islanders — Their Languages and Religions — Cult of the Dead — Shintoism 
 and Buddhism. 
 
 Conspectus. 
 
 Primeval Home. The Central Asiatic Steppe between ti^^'f*"^"' 
 the Kuen-lun and Altai Mountains. Prlsent*^ 
 
 Present Range. The Northern Heinisphere from Times. 
 Japan to Lapland^ and from the Arctic Ocean to the 
 Great Wall and Tibet \ Aralo- Caspian Basin; Parts of 
 Irania; Asia Minor ; Parts of East Russia, Balkan 
 Peninsula, and Lower Danube. 
 
 Hair, generally the same as South Mongol, but in ^l^:^^^^^^ 
 Mongolo-Caucasic transitional groups brown, chestnut, and t^rs. 
 even towy or light flaxen, also wavy and ringletty ; beard 
 mostly absent except amorist the Western Turks and some 
 Koreans. 
 
266 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Colour. Light or dirty yellowish amongst all true 
 
 Mongols and Siberians; very variable {white, sallow^ 
 swarthy^ in the transitional groups {Finns, Lapps, 
 Magyars, Bulgars, Western Turks), and many Manchus 
 and Koreans ; in Japan the uiiexposed parts of the body 
 also white. 
 
 Skull, highly brachy in the true Mongol (80° to 85°); 
 variable {sub-brachy and sub-dolicho) in fnost transitional 
 groups and even some Siberians {Ostyaks and Voguls 77°). 
 Jaws, Cheek-bones, Nose, and Eyes much the same 
 as in South Mongols ; but nose ofte?t large and straight, and 
 eyes straight, greyish, or even blue in Fifins, Manchus, 
 Koreans, and some other Mongolo- Caucasians. 
 
 Stature, usually short {below ^ft. 6 in.), but many 
 Manchus and Koreans tall {^ ft. S or 10 in. and even d ft.). 
 Lips, Arms, Legs, and Feet usually the same as South 
 Mongols ; but Japanese legs disproportionately short. 
 Mental Temperament, of all true Mongols and fnany 
 
 ters. Mongoloids, dull, reserved, somewhat sullen and apathetic ; 
 
 but in some groups {Finns, Japanese) active and energetic; 
 nearly all brave, warlike, even fierce^ and capable of great 
 atrocities, though not normally cruel; within the histoi'ic 
 period the character has ahnost everywhere undergone a 
 marked change from a rude and ferocious to a milder and 
 more humane disposition ; ethical tone higher than South 
 Mongol, with more developed sense of right and wrong. 
 
 Speech very uniform; apparently only one stock 
 language (Finno-Tatar or Ural-Altaic Family), a 
 highly typical agglutinating form with no prefixes, but 
 numerous postfixes attached loosely to an unchangeable root, 
 by which their vowels are modified in accordance , with 
 sicbtle laws of vocalic harmony ; the chief members of the 
 family {Finnish, Magyar, Turkish, Mo?igol, and especially 
 Korean and Japanese) diverge greatly from the common 
 prototype. 
 
 Religion, originally spirit-worship through a mediator 
 {^\\2Si\2Ln), perhaps everywhere, and still exclusively preva- 
 lent amongst Siberian and all other uncivilized groups ; 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 267 
 
 all Mongols proper, Manchus, and Koreans nominal 
 Buddhists; all Turki peoples Moslem; Japanese Buddhists 
 and Shintoists; Fiftns, Lapps, Bulgars, Magyars, and 
 some Siberians real or nominal Christians. 
 
 Culture, rude and barbaric rather than savage 
 amongst the Siberian aborigines, who are nearly all 
 nomadic hunters and fishers with half-wild reindeer herds 
 but scarcely any industries; the Mongols proper, Kirghiz, 
 Uzbegs and Turkomans semi-nomadic pastors ; the Ana- 
 tolian and Balkan Turks, Manchus, and Koreans settled 
 agriculturists, with scarcely any arts or letters and no 
 science; Japanese, Finns, Bulgars, and Magyars civilized 
 up to, and in some respects beyond the European average 
 {Magyar and Finnish literature, Japanese art). 
 
 Mongol Proper. Sharra (Eastern), Kalmak ( West- Main 
 
 ^ Divisions. 
 
 em), Buryat {Siberian) Mongol. 
 
 Tungus. Tungus proper, Manchu, Gold, Oroch, 
 Lamut. 
 
 Korean ; Japanese and Liu-Kiu. 
 
 Turki. Yakut; Kirghiz; Uzbeg; Taranchi; Kara- 
 Kalpak; Nogai; Turkoman ; Anatolian; Osmanli. 
 
 Finno-ugrian. Baltic Finn; Lapp; Samoyad; 
 Cheremiss; Votyak; Vogul; Ostyak; Bulgar; Magyar. 
 
 East Siberian. Yukaghir; Chukchi; Koryak; 
 Kamchadale; Gilyak. 
 
 By " Northern Mongols" are here to be understood all those 
 branches of the Mongol Division of mankind which are usually 
 comprised under the collective geographical expression Ural- 
 Altaic, to which corresponds the ethnical designation Mongolo- 
 Tatar, or more properly Mongolo-Turki\ Their 
 
 • • , r 1 r 1 r 1 Domain of 
 
 Qomam is roughly separated from that of the the Northern 
 Southern Mongols (Chap, vi.) by the Great Wall Mongols, 
 and the Kuen-lun range, beyond which it spreads out westwards 
 over most of Western Asia, and a considerable part of North 
 Europe, with many scattered groups in Central and South Russia, 
 the Balkan Peninsula, ^d the Middle Danube basin. In the 
 ^ As fully explained in Eth. p. 303. 
 
268 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 extreme north their territory stretches from the shores of the 
 Pacific with Japan and parts of Sakhalin continuously westwards 
 across Korea, Siberia, Central and North Russia to Finland and 
 Lapland. But its southern limits can be indicated only approxi- 
 mately by a line drawn from the Kuen-lun range westwards 
 along the northern escarpments of the Iranian plateau, and round 
 the southern shores of the Caspian to the Mediterranean. This 
 line, however, must be drawn in such a way as to include Afghan 
 Turkestan, much of the North Persian and Caucasian steppes, 
 and nearly the whole of Asia Minor, while excluding Armenia, 
 Kurdestan, and Syria. 
 
 Nor is it to be supposed that even within these limits the 
 
 North Mongol territory is everywhere continuous. 
 
 Contact with In East Europe especially, where they are for the 
 
 Peo'^fer most part comparatively recent intruders, the 
 
 Mongols are found only in isolated and vanishing 
 
 groups in the Lower and Middle Volga basin, the Crimea, and 
 
 the North Caucasian steppe, and in more compact bodies in 
 
 Rumelia, Bulgaria, and Hungary. Throughout all these districts, 
 
 however, the process of absorption or assimilation to the normal 
 
 European physical type is so far completed that many of the 
 
 Nogai and other Russian " Tartars," as they are called, the Volga 
 
 and Baltic Finns, the Magyars, Bulgars, and Osmanli Turks, 
 
 would scarcely be recognised as members of the North Mongol 
 
 family but for their common Finno-Turki speech, and the historic 
 
 evidence by which their original connection with this division is 
 
 established beyond all question. 
 
 In Central Asia also (North Irania, the Aralo-Caspian and 
 Tarim basins) the Mongols have been in close contact with 
 Caucasic peoples probably since the New Stone Age, and here 
 intermediate types have been developed, by which an almost 
 unbroken transition has been brought about between the yellow 
 and the white races. 
 
 It is often assumed that these Central Asiatic lands could not 
 
 have been occupied by Neolithic man, because of 
 
 Man i^'siberia ^^^^ great inland seas, which formerly flooded the 
 
 and Mongolia, wholc region, and drained through the Obi north to 
 
 the Arctic Ocean, till a new outlet was found to the Mediterranean 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 269 
 
 through the Bosphorus and the Hellespont. But these inland 
 waters belonged to an earlier period, and the presence of primitive 
 peoples in Western Asia is now placed beyond reasonable doubt, 
 especially by the explorations of Prof. N. Th. Kashchenko in the 
 Tomsk district. Here were brought to light in 1896 the remains 
 of a mammoth 12 feet below the surface of a cliff which stands 
 136 feet above the present level of the river Tom. Only a few 
 small bones of the skeleton were missing, and with it were 
 associated thirty flint knives, besides scrapers and about 100 
 flakes. The large bones were split in the usual way for the ex- 
 traction of the marrow, and there were other clear indications of 
 the presence of man\ No doubt the mammoth, as many hold, 
 may have survived till comparatively late times in Siberia, but the 
 position, and various other circumstances exclude any recent 
 date for the present find. 
 
 But, with the progress of archaeological research, it becomes 
 daily more evident that the whole of the North Mongol domain, 
 from Finland to Japan, has passed through the Stone and Metal 
 .Ages, like most other habitable parts of the globe. During his 
 wanderings in Siberia and Mongolia in the early nineties, Herr 
 Hans Leder^ came upon countless prehistoric stations, kurgans 
 (barrows), stone circles, and many megalithic monuments of 
 various types. In "West Siberia the barrows, ^ which consist solely 
 of earth without any stone-work, are by the present inhabitants 
 called Chudskiye Kurgani^ " .Chudish Grave s," and, as in North 
 Russia, this term * 'Chude" is ascribed to a now vanished un^ 
 known race which formerly inhabited the land. To them, as to 
 the "Toltecs" in Central America, all ancient monuments are 
 credited, and while some regard them as prehistoric Finns^, others 
 
 ^ The finder thinks "dass vvir hier die Reste eines zufalligen Mahles vor 
 uns haben " (Paper read at the Congress of Russian Archaeologists, Riga, 
 August, 1896). See also S. K. Kuznesov : Fund eines Mammutskelettes &c. 
 in Mitt. d. Atithrop. Ges. Vienna, 1896, xvi. p. 186. On the strength of this 
 find Herr Kuznesov infers rather prematurely that the cradle of the European 
 Paleolithic Man is now to be sought in Siberia. 
 
 2 Ueber Alte Grabstditen in Sibirien nnd der Mongolei, in Mitt. d. Anthrop. 
 Ges. Vienna, 1895, xxv. 9. ^ 
 
 ^ This seems to be the view of Stephen Sommier, who calls them "certa- 
 mente un popolo permiano," that is, Alfred's Beormas^ who seemed to speak 
 
270 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 identify them with the historic Scythians, the Scythians of 
 Herodotus. 
 
 There are reasons, however, for thinking that the Chudes 
 may represent an earher race, th e men of the Stone Age , who, 
 migrating from north Europe eastwards, had reached the Tom 
 valley (which drains to the Obi) before the extinction of the 
 mammoth, and later spread over the whole of northern Asia, 
 leaving everywhere evidence of their presence in the megalithic 
 monuments now being daily brought to light in East Siber i a , 
 Mongolia, Korea, and Japan . This view receives support from 
 the characters of two skulls found in 1895 by A. P. Most itz in 
 one of the five prehistoric stations on the left bank of the Sava 
 affluent of the Selenga river, near Ust-Kiakta i p Trans-Baikali a. 
 They differ markedly from the normal P.nn'nf j^Siberian Mong ol) 
 type, recalling rather the long-shaped skulls of the South Russian 
 kurgans, with cephalic indexes 73-2 and 73*5, as measured by 
 M. J. D. Talko-Hryncewicz\ Thus, in the very heart of the 
 Mongol domain, the characteristically round-headed race would 
 appear to have been preceded, as in Europe, by a long- 
 headed type, presumably that of early Neolithic man every- 
 where. 
 
 In East Siberia, and especially in the Lake Baikal region, 
 Herr Leder found extensive tracts strewn with kurgans, many 
 of which have already been explored, and their contents deposited 
 in the Irkutsk museum. Amongst these are great numbers of 
 stone implements, and objects made of bone and mammoth tusks, 
 besides carefully worked copper ware, betraying technical skill 
 and some artistic taste in the designs. In Trans-Baikalia, still 
 farther east, with the kurgans are associated the so-called Kameni 
 Babi, '* Stone Women," monoUths rough-hewn in the form of 
 human figures. Many of these monoliths bear inscriptions, 
 
 nearly the same language as the Finns: "pa Finnas, him hihte, and >a 
 Beormas sprsecon neah an ge^eode" (Oros. I. Ch. i. 14). But these extreniely 
 rude nomads could scarcely have been the somewhat cultured Chudes, that 
 "popolo mitico al quale si attribuiscono tutte le reliquie archeologiche in 
 quelle parti della Siberia e nel settentrione della Russia d' Europa" (Sommier, 
 Sirieni, Ostiacchi e Samoiedi delV Ob. Florence, 1887, p. 49). 
 1 Th. Volkov, in UAnthropologie, 1896, p. 82. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 2/1 
 
 which, however, appear to be of recent date (mostly Buddhist 
 prayers and formularies), and are not to be confounded with the 
 much older rock inscriptions deciphered by W. Thomsen through 
 the Turki language. 
 
 Continuing his investigations in Mongolia proper, Herr Leder 
 here also discovered earthen kurgans, which, however, differed 
 from those of Siberia by being for the most part surmounted 
 either with circular or rectangular stone structures, or else with 
 monoliths. They are called Kiirilktsur by the present inhabitants, 
 who hold them in great awe, and never venture to touch them. 
 Unfortunately strangers also are unable to examine their contents, 
 all disturbance of the ground with spade or shovel being forbidden 
 under pain of death by the Chinese officials, for fear of awakening 
 the evil spirits, now slumbering peacefully below the surface. But 
 so far as may be inferred from the absence of bronze in the 
 Sibe rian mounds, al l these ancient burial places would appear to 
 belong to the N ew Stone and Coppe r Period s. This alone would 
 imply an antiquity of several thousand years, because bronze, 
 .usually assumed to be of Asiatic origin, is now supposed to have 
 reached Europe not later than about 3000 B.C., possibly much 
 earlier. 
 
 Such an antiquity is indeed required to explain the spread 
 of neolithic remains to the Pacific seaboard, and ^ , „ . 
 
 Jbarly Man in 
 
 especially to Korea and Japan. In Korea Mr W. Korea and 
 Gowland examined a dolmen 30 miles from Seul, 
 which he describes and figures \ and which is remarkable 
 especially for the disproportionate size of the capstone, a 
 huge undressed megalith 14^ by over 13 feet . He refers to four 
 or five others, all in the northern part of the peninsula, and 
 regards them as "intermediate in form between a cist and a 
 dolmen." But he thinks it probable that they were never covered 
 by mounds, but always stood as monuments above ground, in this 
 respect differing from the Japanese, "which without exception are 
 all buried in tumuH." In some of their features these present 
 a curious resemblance to the Brittany structures, having either 
 " a distinct chamber which is approached by a gallery of greater 
 S 
 1 Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1895, p. 318 sq. 
 
2/2 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 or less length, and narrower than the chamber itself, or more 
 rarely, they are of the form known as allee couverte, in which 
 the space enclosed by the side stones resembles a long gallery 
 of considerable dimensions." 
 
 Besides these dolmens Japan contains many other memorials 
 of a remote past — shell mounds, cave-dwellings, and in Yezo 
 certain pits, which are not occupied by the present Ainu popula- 
 tion, but are by them attributed to the Koro-_pok-guru, " People 
 of the Hollows," who occupied the land before their arrival, and 
 lived in huts built over these pits. Similar remains on an islet 
 near N emu rf^ nr> \he - nor th-east coast o f Yezo are said by the 
 Japanese to have belonged to the Kobiip, a dwarfish race ex- 
 terminated by the Ainu, hence apparently identical with the 
 Koro-pok-guru. They are associated by Mr John Milne with 
 some primitive peoples of the Kurile I slands, Sakh alin, and 
 Kamchatka, who, like the Eskimo of the American coast, had 
 extended formerly much farther south than at present. 
 
 In a kitchen-midden, 330 by 200 feet, near Shiidzuka in 
 the province of Ibaraki, the Japanese antiquaries S. Vagi and 
 M. Shinomura^ have found numerous objects belonging to the 
 Stone Age of Japan. Amongst them were flint implements, 
 worked bones, ashes, pottery, and a whole series of clay figures 
 of human beings. The finders suggest that these remains may 
 have belonged to a homogeneous, race of the Stone Period, who, 
 however, were not the ancestors of the Ainu — hitherto generally 
 regarded as the first inhabitants of Japan. In the national 
 records vague reference is made to other aborigines, such as the 
 ''Long-Legs," and the "Eight Wi ld Tribes ," described as the 
 enemies of the first Japanese settlers^in Kiu-shiu, and reduced 
 by Jimmu Tenno, the semi-mythical founder of the present 
 dynasty; the Ebisu, who are probably to be identified with the 
 Ainu; and the Seki-Manzi, "Stone Men," also located in the 
 southern island of Kiu-shiu. The last-mentioned, of whom, 
 however, little further is known, seem to have the best claim 
 to be associated with the above described remains of early man 
 in Japan. 
 
 ^ Ztir Prdhistorik Japans., Globus, 1896, No. 10. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 273 
 
 In the extreme west the present Mongol peoples, being quite 
 recent intruders, can in no way be connected with 
 
 T • • 1- , ., , , Early Man 
 
 the abundant prehistoric relics daily brought to in Finland and 
 light in that region (South Russia, the Balkan ^^^^ Europe. 
 Peninsula, Hungary). The same remark applies even to Finland 
 itself, which was at one time supposed to be the cradle of the 
 Finnish people, but is now shown to have, been first occupied by 
 Germanic tribes. From an exhaustive study of the bronze- 
 yielding tumuli A. Hackman^ concludes that the population of 
 the Bronze_P£ri 2d was Teutonic, a nd in this he agrees both with 
 Montelius and with W. Thomsen. The latter holds on linguistic 
 grounds that at the beginning of the new era the Finns still dwelt 
 east of the Gulf of Finland, whence they moved west in later times. 
 With regard to Babylonia, where, as already shown, the 
 remains of the Stone and Metal Ages date back 
 to remote times, the question of their origin is in^^a^'^i^jfi" 
 intimately bound up with that of the Finno-Turki 
 origin of the Akkado-Sumerians. Although no general consensus 
 has yet been reached on this obscure subject, it has been some- 
 what advanced by Dr K. A. Hermann^, who endeavours to show 
 that the language of the early cuneiform texts has strong affinities 
 with the Ural-Altaic, and more particularly with the Ugro-Finnish 
 member of that family. There are the same phonesis and vowel 
 harmony ; similar forms of nouns, numerals, pronouns, and verbs ; 
 and a large number of identical words, all of which cannot be 
 accidental. Hence the conclusion that the views of Lenormant 
 and the other " Ural-Altaists " are " well grounded." 
 
 1 Die Bronzezeit Finnlands, Helsingfors, 1897. 
 
 ^ Ueber die Summerische Sprache, Paper read at the Russian Archaeological 
 Congress, Riga, 1896. It may be mentioned that the Mongol connection is 
 upheld by Honimel, Oppert, Lenormant, Rawlinson, and G. Smith, and denied 
 by Halevy, Paul Haupt, and Donner, while Pinches, Sayce, Almquist and many 
 others reserve their judgment. Dr Hommel, who gives up the European 
 hypothesis of Aryan origins {Augsburger Zeitung, Aug. 28, 1895) now suggests 
 that Akkado-Sumerian holds an intermediate position between the Aryan and 
 the Mongolo-Turki languages. The arguments of Prof. Haupt and Dr Donner 
 on the other side will be found in Die Akkadische Sprache, reprint of a paper 
 read before the Fifth Oriental Congress, 1883. In the Appendix Dr Donner 
 sums up strongly against the Ugro- Altaic theory. 
 
 K. 18 • 
 
274 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 But even so, therejsnoclear racial continuit y between these 
 eari y^Bab Wonian'Mongolsan d the present M ongol peop les of 
 ^^esterrL-Askr-^Some 6000 years^ ago the Akkado-Sumerians had 
 already been in close contact with the Semitic Assyrians of 
 Mesopotamia \ and merged with them and the Amorites in a 
 single nationality, the Semitic element of which was afterwards 
 strengthened both by Israelites and Jews, and still later by pre- 
 and post-Muhammadan Arabs. Hence the assumed origin^ 
 Mongol_sabstr atum has long been effaced th ro^ighnnt thp Tigris- 
 Euphrates basin. 
 
 Most authorities agree in locating the Akkads on the northern 
 heights, and the Sumerians on the lowland plains 
 
 7Vkk£icio-" 
 
 sumerian of Chaldsea. But while R. von Ihring, following 
 Origins. Honimel, brings both of these Turki tribes, as he 
 
 calls them, from " their original home in the mountainsV' others 
 are inclined to the view that they came, not from the north, but 
 by sea from the south, most probably from Minaea in Arabia. 
 Certainly the earliest known settlements — Lagash, Nippur, Erech, 
 Uru, Uruk — lay about or near the head of the Persian Gulf, 
 where Babylonian culture would therefore seem to have first 
 taken root, spreading thence northwards to Akkad, Elam, and 
 Assyria. The Semitic Assyrians themselves, formerly supposed 
 to have come from the northern highlands, are now beHeved on 
 good grounds to have reached Mesopotamia from South Arabia^ 
 Of the two Babylonian dialects also, the Sumerian of the southern 
 
 1 "The Sumerians had already mingled closely with the Semites when we 
 first hear of them. Their language gave way to the Semitic and tended 
 gradually to become a language of ceremony and ritual. Their religion 
 became assimilated to the religion, and their gods identified with the gods of 
 the Semites. The process of fusion commenced at such an early date that 
 nothing has really come down to us from the time when the two races were 
 strangers to each other" (Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 551). As regards 
 the Amorites (Aramaeans, Syrians) Mr Pinches has shown that this branch of 
 the Semitic family had already founded settlements in Babylonia at least so far 
 back as the time of Khammurabi. 
 
 2 Vorgeschichte der Indo-Europder, English ed. [Evolution of the Aryan)^ 
 1897, p. 79- 
 
 ^ Sayce, Assyrian Gram., Schrader, Die Ursitze der Semiten in Zeitsch. d. 
 D. M. Ges. XXVII. p. 397. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 2^$ 
 
 plains is purer and more archaic than the northern Akkad, which 
 is largely affected by foreign elements ; and the Akkads themselves 
 believed that their first settlements lay about the shores of the 
 Persian Gulf, which formerly extended much farther inland than 
 at present. 
 
 All this favours a Semitic source of Babylonian culture, the 
 germs of which might well have been supplied by the proto- 
 Minaeans of South Arabia, a region already regarded by some as 
 possibly the seat of the first civilisation in the world \ On this 
 assumption the honour of having laid the founda- 
 
 ^ ° Relations to 
 
 tions of all human progress would have to be the Semites 
 transferred from the Mongol to the Semite, and ^" ryans. 
 Prof. E. D. Cope^ now comes forward with a theory dethroning 
 both Mongol and Semite in favour of the Aryan. He argues 
 that Enshagsagana, the oldest known Akkadian king^ (4500 B.C. 
 Hilprecht), shows a fine symmetrical figure, large, straight eyes, 
 a large, straight or slightly curved nose, thin lips, and — most 
 significant — a long head. Still it might be asked, was he a proto- 
 Semite? But, apart from physical differences, he spoke a 
 
 ^ Prof, Sayce thinks that "from Southern Arabia" may have come the 
 dynasty to which belonged Khamraurabi (the Amraphel of Genesis), and 
 " which made Babylon for the first time the capital of a united Babylonia " 
 {Academy i Aug. i, 1896, p. 84). Khammurabi (Hummurabi) flourished about 
 2000 B.C. and he claimed lineal descent from Ur-bau and Dungi, who had 
 reigned at Ur over the united kingdoms of Summer and Akkad (Lowlands and 
 Highlands) about 2800 B.C. 
 
 2 The Oldest Civilized Man, in TTie American Naturalist for August, 1896. 
 It may be stated that with this view L. Wilser is inclined to agree {Globus, 
 
 70. P- 355)- 
 
 ^ He called himself "lord" of Kengi, the name by which Babylonia was 
 known in pre-Semitic times, — its religious centre being the great temple 
 of Nippur, dedicated to Mul-lil, whom the Semites later transformed into 
 their god Bel. To Nippur succeeded Erech, the " city " in a preeminent 
 sense, whose theocratic ruler {patesi), Lugal-zaggisi, son of Ukus, subdued the 
 whole of Kengi, and established his sway over all the land from the Persian 
 Gulf to the Mediterranean. Erech yielded in its turn to Ur (the Ur of 
 Genesis), which under Lugal-kigubnidudu became the capital of Chaldaea. 
 Then followed a revival of the glories of Nippur under Sargon I., founder of 
 the first great Semitic empir^and about 1000 years later (2800 B.C.?) the 
 restoration of Ur under Ur-Bau (Ur-Gar) and his son Dungi, who reduced 
 Syria and Palestine. 
 
 18—2 
 
276 • MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 non-Semitic language, and other not very convincing reasons 
 are advanced to make him out an "Aryan" of the North 
 European type. That men of this type may have penetrated 
 into Mesopotamia at an early date is possible ; but if so, a shorter 
 route than North Europe would have been the Eurasian steppe, 
 and they would have come, not as settlers, but as conquerors 
 who, as in so many other places (France, Lombardy, the Deccan), 
 became assimilated in speech and culture to their Akkado- 
 Sumerian subjects. But there are no records of such a conquest, 
 and Enshagsagana was far more probably a proto-Semite than a 
 North European "Aryan." 
 
 There is, however, nothing improbable in the early date 
 assigned to this ruler. " We found," writes Dr J. P. Peters, 
 "that Nippur was a great and flourishing city, and its temple, 
 the temple of Bel, the religious centre of the dominant people 
 of the world at a period as much prior to the time of Abraham as 
 the time of Abraham is prior to our day. We discovered written 
 records no less than 6000 years old, and proved that writing and 
 civiHsation were then by no means in their infancy. Further 
 than that, our explorations have shown that Nippur possessed a 
 history extending backward of the earliest written documents 
 found by us, at least 2000 years \" 
 
 These discoveries long antedate the time of Sargon I. and his 
 son Naram-Sin, whose chronology was the earliest hitherto deter- 
 mined (about 3800 B.C.). Despite the legendary matter asso- 
 ciated with his memory, Sargon, the Semite, was beyond question 
 a historical person. At Agade were found not only his statue, 
 but also his cylinder, with an inscription beginning : " Sharrukin 
 the mighty king am I," and recording how his mother, a royal 
 princess, concealed his birth by placing him in a rush basket 
 closed with bitumen and sending him adrift on the stream, from 
 which he was rescued by Akki the water-carrier, who brought him 
 up as his own child. The incident, about which there is nothing 
 miraculous, presents a curious parallel, if it be not the source of, 
 similar tales related of Moses, Cyrus, and other ancient leaders of 
 men. Sargon also tells us that he ruled from his capital, Agade, 
 
 ^ Nippur^ The Narrative of the University of Pennsylvania^ s Expedition to 
 Babylonia in the years 1888-96, Philadelphia, 1896-8. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 277 
 
 for 45 years over Upper and Lower Mesopotamia, governed the 
 black-heads, as the Akkads are constantly called, rode in many 
 bronze chariots over rugged lands, and made expeditions thrice to 
 the sea-coast. The expeditions are confirmed by inscriptions firom 
 Syria, and by the cylinder of his son, Naram-Sin, found by Cesnola 
 in Cyprus. As they also penetrated to Sinai their sway would 
 appear to have extended over the whole of Syria and North Arabia, 
 with Cyprus and perhaps other islands. They erected great struc- 
 tures at Nippur, which was at that time so ancient that Naram- 
 Sin's huge brick platform stood on a mass 30 feet thick of the 
 accumulated debris of earlier buildings. It was from the results 
 of the explorations especially of Dr Peters and Mr Haynes in 
 these debris that Dr Hilprecht wrote: "I do not hesitate to date 
 the founding of the temple of Bel and the first settlements in 
 Nippur somewhere between 6000 and 7000 B.C., and possibly 
 earlier^" We come thus within measurable distance of the 
 10,000 years assigned to the duration of the Historic Period in 
 Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley^. 
 
 Sennacherib's grandson, Ashurbanipal, who belongs to the late 
 Assyrian empire when the centre of power had been 
 shifted from Babylonia to Nineveh, has left recorded orig?^!*^ 
 on his brick tablets how he overran Elam and 
 destroyed its capital, -Susa (645 B.C.). He states that from this 
 place he brought back the effigy of the goddess Nana, which had 
 been carried away from her temple at Erech by an Elamite king 
 by whom Akkad had been conquered 1635 years before, i.e. 2280 
 B.C. Over Akkad Elam ruled 300 years, and it was a king of 
 this dynasty, Khudur-Lagamar, who has been identified by Mr 
 Pinches with the " Chedorlaomer, king of Elam " routed by 
 Abraham (Gen. xiv. 14 — lyf. Thus is explained the presence 
 of Elamites at this time so far west as Syria, their own seat being 
 amid the Kurdish mountains in the Upper Tigris basin. 
 
 The Elamites were probably of the same stock as their Akkad 
 neighbours, a short, robust people with coarse black hair, peaceful, 
 
 ^ Quoted in Academy, April 30, 1898, p. 465. 
 
 2 Ethnology, p. 56. \ 
 
 3 Babylonia and Elam Four Thousand Years Ago, in Knowledge, May i, 
 1896, p. 116 sq. and elsewhere. 
 
2/8 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 industrious, and skilful husbandmen, with a surprising knowledge 
 of irrigating processes. Even the term " Elam " is said to have 
 the same meaning as "Akkad" {i.e. Highland) in contradistinction 
 to "Sumer " (Lowland)*. Yet the type would appear to be on the 
 whole rather Semitic, judging at least from the large arched nose 
 
 and thick beard of the Susian god, Ramman, 
 Rwlfrd's"*^^^ brought by Ashurbanipal out of Elam, and figured 
 
 in Layard's Monu?nents of JVineveh, ist series, Plate 
 65. This, however, may be explained by the fact that the Elamites 
 were subdued at an early date by intruding Semites, although they 
 afterwards shook off the yoke and became strong enough to 
 conquer Mesopotamia and extend their expeditions to Syria and 
 the Jordan more than 2000 years before the new era. Of Elam, 
 properly Anshad, the capital was the renowned city of Susa 
 (Shushan), whence Susiana, the modern Khuzistan. 
 
 Even after the capture of Susa by Ashurbanipal, Elam again 
 rose to great power under Cyrus the Great, who, however, was no 
 Persian adventurer, as stated by Herodotus, but the legitimate 
 Elamite ruler, as inscribed on his cylinder and tablet now in the 
 British Museum : — " Cyrus, the great king, the king of Babylon, 
 the king of Sumir and Akkad, the king of the four zones, the son 
 of Kambyses, the great king, the king of Elam, the grandson of 
 Cyrus the great king," who by the favour of Merodach has 
 overcome the black-headed people {i.e. the Akkads) and at last 
 entered Babylon in peace. On an earlier cylinder Nabonidus, 
 last king of Babylon, tells us how this same Cyrus subdued the 
 Medes — here called Mandas^ " Barbarians " — and captured their 
 king Astyages and his capital Ekbatana. But although Cyrus, 
 hitherto supposed to be a Persian and a Zoroastrian monotheist, 
 here appears as an Elamite and a polytheist, "it is pretty certain 
 that although descended from Elamite kings, these were [at that 
 
 1 It should be noted that neither Akkad nor Sumer occurs in the oldest 
 texts, where Akkad is called Kish from the name of its capital, and Sumer 
 Kiengi (Kengi), said to mean the "land of reeds and canals." Kish has 
 been identified with the Kush of Gen. x., one of the best abused words in 
 Palethnology. For this identification, however, there is some ground, seeing 
 that Kush is mentioned in the closest connection with '* Babel, and Erech, and 
 Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar " (Mesopotamia) v. 10. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 279 
 
 time] kings of Persian race, who, after the destruction of the old 
 [Elamite] monarchy by Ashurbanipal, had established a new 
 dynasty at the city of Susa. Cyrus always traces his descent from 
 Achsemenes, the chief of the leading Persian clan of Pasargadae^" 
 Hence although wrong in speaking of Cyrus as an adventurer, 
 Herodotus rightly calls him a Persian, and at this late date Elam 
 itself may well have been already Aryanised in speech 2, while still 
 retaining its old Akkadian religion. The Babylonian pantheon 
 survived, in fact, till the time of Darius Hystaspes, who introduced 
 Zoroastrianism with its supreme gods, Ahura-Mazda, creator of all 
 good, and Ahriman, author of all evil. 
 
 The Akkadian deities, thus superseded by the eternal principles 
 of light and darkness, had themselves "begun by 
 being the actual material of the element which was Rfugi^^n."'^" 
 their attribute," and of which they successively be- 
 came the spirit and the ruler. They continued at first to reside 
 in this element, but in course of time were separated from it, each 
 being free to enter a rival's domain, dwell in, and even rule the 
 ^world from it, till at last most of them came to be identified with 
 the firmament. Bel, the lord of the earth, and Ea, ruler of the 
 waters, passed into the heavens, which did not originally belong 
 to them. Here they took their place beside Ana-Anu, who, at 
 first the material heaven itself, the starry vault encompassing the 
 earth, became successively the spirit of heaven (Zi-Ana) and 
 the supreme ruler of the universe. This transformation of 
 the primitive spirit into a personal god-king was, according to 
 
 1 S. Laing, Human Origins, p. 74. 
 
 2 And it has remained so ever since, the present Lur and Bakhtiari inhabit- 
 ants of Susiana speaking, not the standard Neo- Persian, but dialects of the 
 ruder Kurdish branch of the Iranian family, as if they had been Aryanised 
 from Media, the capital of which was Ekbatana. We have here, perhaps, 
 a clue to the origin of the Medes themselves, who were certainly the above- 
 mentioned Mandas of Nabonidus, their capital being also the same Ekbatana. 
 Now Sayce {Academy, Sept. 7, 1895, p. 189) identified the Kimmerians 
 with these Manda nomads, whose king Tukdamme (Tugdamme) was the 
 Lygdanis of Strabo (i. 3, 16), who led a horde of Kimmerians into Lydia and 
 captured Sardis. We know from Esar-haddon's inscriptions that by the 
 Assyrians these Kimmerians were called Manda, their prince Teupsa (Teispe) 
 being described as **of the people of the Manda." An oracle given to 
 
280 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Lenormant, due specially to the Semites \ but neither the 
 Chaldseans nor the Egyptians ever evolved the conception of an 
 absolutely supreme being. The supreme god, whose existence 
 the early Assyriologists thought they had discovered (H. and G. 
 Rawlinson), was as much a being of their own invention as the 
 supreme god imagined by Egyptologists to occupy the highest 
 position in the Egyptian pantheon {ib.y. Indeed much of the 
 Chaldaean system passed into a condition hardly to be distinguished 
 from the fetishism of the African negro. "The spirit of the god 
 inspired whatever seemed good to him, and frequently entered 
 into objects where we should least have expected to find it. It 
 animated stones, particularly such as fall from heaven, also trees, 
 as, for example, the tree of Eridhu, which uttered oracles. Such 
 objects, when it was once ascertained that they were imbued with 
 the divine spirit, were placed upon the altar and worshipped with 
 as much veneration as were the statues themselves. Animals, 
 however, never became objects of habitual worship as in Egypt^." 
 As in all primitive beliefs, morality is found still entirely 
 dissociated from religion. Thus in Aralu, the Chaldaean Hades, 
 
 Esar-haddon begins: "The Kimmerian in the mountains has set fire in the 
 land of EUip," i.e. the land where Ekbatana was afterwards founded, which is 
 now shown to have already been occupied by the Kimmerian or Manda 
 hordes. It follows that Kimmerians, Mandas, Medes with their modern 
 Kurd and Bakhtiari representatives, were all one people, who were almost 
 certainly of Aryan speech, if not actually of proto- Aryan stock. 
 
 1 La Magie chez les Chaldeens, p. 144 sq.; quoted by Maspero, Dawn of 
 Civ. p. 644. 
 
 '^ As the idea of a primitive universal revelation, from which that of a 
 supreme being cannot be separated, seems to be at least suggested as possible 
 by Mr A. Lang in The Making of Religion (1898), it may be again pointed 
 out that such a sublime notion is immeasurably beyond the power of early 
 man, whose cranial capacity did not greatly exceed that of the Javanese 
 precursor (see diagram p. 6). The monotheistic conception could never have 
 been the starting point, and was in fact arrived at in quite late times by a 
 continuous process of elimination. In his Mythologie des Slaves et des Finnois 
 {Rev. Mens, de VEcole d'Anthrop. 1897, p. 225 sq.), M. A. Lefevre shows 
 that even Bogy supposed to be the Deus of the proto-Slavs, and the dualism 
 represented by Cernobog and Belbog, are all later developments of the Slav 
 pantheon. 
 
 ^ Dawn of Civilization, p. 642. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 28 1 
 
 all are judged by the goddess Beltis-AUat, who, however, is little 
 influenced by the good or bad lives led by the departed. Almost 
 everything depends on their attitude towards the gods, including 
 AUat herself; they are punished for having neglected the service 
 of the temples, and rewarded in proportion to the sacrifices and 
 offerings made at the shrines of the gods. 
 
 How the family expands through the clan and tribe into the 
 nation, is clearly seen in the Chaldsean social system, 
 in which the inhabitants of each city were still tem°.'^^^^ ^^^ 
 " divided into clans, all of whose members claimed 
 to be descended from a common ancestor who had flourished at a 
 more or less remote period. The members of each clan were by 
 no means all in the same social position, some having gone down 
 in the world, others having raised themselves ; and amongst them 
 we find many different callings — from agricultural labourers to 
 scribes, and from merchants to artisans. No natural tie existed 
 among the majority of these members except the remembrance 
 of their common origin, perhaps also a common religion, and 
 .eventual rights of succession or claims upon what belonged to 
 each one individually \" The god or goddess, it is suggested, 
 who watched over each man, and of whom each was the son, was 
 originally the god or goddess of the clan (its totem). So also in 
 Egypt, the members of the community were all supposed to come 
 of the same stock {pdit\ and to belong to the same family {pditu), 
 whose chiefs {ropditu) were the guardians of the family, several 
 groups of such families being under a ropditii-hd^ or head chiefs. 
 
 Amongst the local institutions, it is startling to find a fully 
 developed ground-landlord system, though not quite so bad as 
 that still patiently endured in England, already flourishing ages 
 ago in Babylonia. "The cost of repairs fell usually on the lessee, 
 who was also allowed to build on the land he had leased, in which 
 case it was declared free of all charges for a period of about ten 
 years ; but the house and, as a rule, all he had built, then reverted 
 to the landlord ^" 
 
 In many other respects great progress had been made, and it 
 
 ^ Dawn of Civilization, p. 733. 
 2 ibid\ 71. 
 2 Ibid. p. 752. 
 
282 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 is the belief of von Ihring\ Hommel^ and others that from 
 
 Babylonia was first diffused a knowledge of letters, 
 
 CuiturT.^^ astronomy, agriculture, navigation, architecture, and 
 
 other arts, to the Nile valley, and mainly through 
 
 Egypt to the Western World, and through Irania to China and 
 
 India. In this generalisation there is probably a large measure 
 
 of truth, although it will be seen farther on that the Asiatic origin 
 
 of Egyptian culture is still far from being proved. 
 
 One element the two peoples certainly had in common — a 
 highly developed agricultural system, which formed the foundation 
 of their greatness, and was maintained in a rainless climate by a 
 stupendous system of irrigation works. Such works were carried 
 out on a prodigious scale by the ancient Babylonians six or eight 
 thousand years ago. The plains of the Lower Euphrates and 
 Tigris, since rendered desolate under Turkish misrule, are inter- 
 sected by the remains of an intricate network of canalisation 
 covering all the space between the two rivers, and are strewn 
 with the ruins of many great cities, whose inhabitants, numbering 
 scores of thousands, were supported by the produce of a highly 
 cultivated region, which is now an arid waste varied only by 
 crumbling mounds, stagnant waters, and the camping-grounds of 
 a few Arab tent-dwellers. 
 
 Those who attach weight to distinctive racial quaUties have 
 
 always found a difficulty in attributing this won- 
 
 goTi'pr^pe"" ^^''f^l civilisation to the same Mongolic people, 
 
 who in their own homes have scarcely anywhere 
 
 advanced beyond the hunting, fishing, or pastoral states. But it 
 
 has always to be remembered that man, like all other zoological 
 
 forms, necessarily reflects the character of his environment. 
 
 The Akkads, if Mongols, naturally became husbandmen in the 
 
 alluvial Mesopotamian lands, while the kindred people who give 
 
 their name to the whole ethnical division and present its physical 
 
 characters in an exaggerated form, still remain tented nomads on 
 
 the dry Central Asiatic steppe, which yields little but herbage, 
 
 and is suitable for tillage only in a few more favoured districts. 
 
 ^ Vorgeschichte &c., Book ii. passim. 
 '^ Geschichte Babyloniens u. Assyriens. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 283 
 
 Here the typical Mongols, cut oft" from the arable lands of South 
 Siberia by the Tian-shan and Altai ranges, and to some extent 
 denied access to the rich fluvial valleys of the Middle Kingdom 
 by the barrier of the Great Wall, have for ages led a pastoral life 
 in the inhabitable tracts and oases of the Gobi wilderness and 
 the Ordos region within the great bend of the Hoang-ho. During 
 the historic period these natural and artificial ramparts have been 
 several times surmounted by fierce Mongol hordes, pouring like 
 irresistible flood-waters over the whole of China and many parts 
 of Siberia, and extending their predatory or conquering expedi-' 
 tions across the more open northern plains westwards nearly to 
 the shores of the Atlantic. But such devastating torrents, which 
 at intervals convulsed and caused dislocations amongst half the 
 settled populations of the globe, had little effect on the tribal 
 groups that remained behind. These continued and continue to 
 occupy the original camping-grounds, as changeless and uniform 
 in their physical appearance, mental characters, and social usages 
 as the Arab bedouins and all other inhabitants of monotonous 
 undiversified steppe lands. 
 
 De Ujfalvy's su ggestion that the typical M r^ngo^'^ nf i-V>p plQing, 
 with w hom we are now dealing, were originally a 
 lon g-headed race, can scarcely be taken seriously. Ty*pe^^*'^^ 
 At present and, in fact, throughout historic times, 
 all true Mongol peoples are and have been distinguished by 
 a high de gree of brachycephaly, with cephalic index generally 
 from 87 upwards, and it may be remembered that the highest 
 known index of any undeformed skull was that of Huxley's 
 Mongol (98-21). But, as already noticed, those recovered from 
 prehistoric, or neolithic kurgans, are found to be dolichocephalnns 
 like those of palaeolithic and early neolithic man in Europe. 
 
 Taken in connection with the numerous prehistoric remains 
 above recorded from all parts of Central Asia and Siberia, this 
 fact may perhaps help to bring de Ujfalvy's view into harmony 
 with the actual conditions. Everything will be explained by 
 assuming that the pro to-Mongolic trib es, spreading from the 
 Tibetan plateau over the plains now bearing their name, found 
 that region already occupied by the long-headed Cauca sic peoples 
 of the Stone Ages, whom they either exterminated or drove north 
 
284 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 to the Altai uplands, and east to Manchuria and Korea, w here a 
 strong Caucasic strain still persists^ De Ujfalvy's long-heads 
 would thus be, no t the proto-Mon p ;ols who were always round- 
 headed, but the long-he aded neolithic pre-Mongol race expe lled 
 by them from Mongolia. 
 
 That this region has been their true home since the first 
 „^, . , , migrations from the south there can be no doubt. 
 
 Ethnical and o 
 
 Administra- Here land and people stand in the closest relation 
 
 tive Divisions. . i • 1 
 
 one to the other ; here every conspicuous physical 
 feature recalls some popular memory ; every rugged crest is 
 associated with the name of some national hero, every lake or 
 stream is still worshipped or held in awe as a local deity, or else 
 the abode of the ancestral shades. Here also the Mongols 
 proper form two main divisions, Sharra in the east and Kalrmik 
 in the west, while a third group, the somewhat mixed Buryats, 
 have long been settled in the Siberian provinces of Irkutsk and 
 Trans-Baikalia. Under the Chinese semi-military administration 
 all except the Buryats, who are Russian subjects, are constituted 
 since the 17th century in 41 Aimaks (large tribal groups or 
 principalities with hereditary khans) and 226 Koshungs, "Banners," 
 that is, smaller groups whose chiefs are dependent on the khans 
 of their respective Aimaks, who are themselves directly responsible 
 to the imperial government. Su!) joined is a table of these ad- 
 ministrative divisions, which present a curious but effective com- 
 bination of the tribal and political systems, analogous to the 
 arrangement in Pondoland and some other districts in Cape 
 Colony, where the hereditary tribal chief assumes the functions of 
 a responsible British magistrate. 
 
 Tribal or Territorial 
 
 Aimaks 
 
 Koshungs 
 
 Divisions 
 
 (Principalities) 
 
 (Banners) 
 
 Khalkas 
 
 4 
 
 86 
 
 Inner Mongolia with Ordos 
 
 25 
 
 51 
 
 Chakars 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 Ala-Shan 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 Koko-nor and Tsaidam 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 Zungaria 
 
 4 
 
 32 
 
 Uriankhai 
 
 I 
 
 17 
 
 
 41 
 
 226 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 285 
 
 Since their organization in Aimaks and Koshungs, the Mongols 
 have ceased to be a terror to the surrounding peoples. The in- 
 cessant struggles between these tented warriors and the peaceful 
 Chinese populations, which began long before the dawn of history, 
 were brought to a close with the overthrow of the Zungarian 
 power in the i8th century, when their political cohesion was 
 broken, and the whole nation reduced to a state of abject help- 
 lessness, from which they cannot now hope to recover. The 
 arm of Chinese rule could be replaced only by the firmer grip 
 of the northern autocrat, whose shadow already lies athwart the 
 Gobi wilderness. 
 
 Thus the only escape from the crushing monotony of a 
 purely pastoral life, no longer relieved by intervals of warlike 
 or predatory expeditions, lies in a survival of the old Shamanist 
 superstitions, or a further development of the degrading Tibetan 
 lamaism represented at Urga by the Kutukhtu, an „ ,,^, 
 
 ^ o y Buddhism. 
 
 incarnation of the Buddha only less revered than 
 the Dalai Lama himself \ Besides this High Priest at Urga, 
 ^there are over a hundred smaller incarnations — Gigens^ as they 
 are called — and these saintly beings possess unlimited means of 
 plundering their votaries. The smallest favour, the touch of their 
 garments, a pious ejaculation or blessing, is regarded as a priceless 
 spiritual gift, and must be paid for with costly offerings. Even 
 the dead do not escape these exactions. However disposed of, 
 whether buried or cremated, like the khans and lamas, or exposed 
 to beasts and birds of prey, as is the fate of the common folk, 
 ''masses," which also command a high price, have to be said for 
 forty days to relieve their souls from the torments of the Buddhist 
 purgatory. 
 
 It is a singular fact, which, however, may perhaps admit 
 of explanation, that nearly all the true Mongol peoples have 
 been Buddhists since the spread of Sakya Muni's teachings 
 
 ^ It is noteworthy that Dalai, " Ocean," is itself a Mongol word, though 
 Lama, "Priest," is Tibetan. The explanation is that in the 13th century a 
 local incarnation of Buddha was raised by the then dominant Mongols to the 
 first rank, and this title oi Dalai Lama, the " Ocean Priest," i.e. the Priest of 
 fathomless wisdom, was bestowed on one of his successors in the i6th century, 
 and still retained by the High Pontiff at Lhasa. 
 
286 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 throughout Central Asia, while their Turki kinsmen are zealous 
 followers of the Prophet. Thus is seen, for instance, the strange 
 spectacle of two Mongolic groups, the Kirghiz of the Turki 
 branch and the Kalmuks of the West Mon£ ol_branch. encamped 
 side by side on the Lower Volga plains, the former all under 
 the banner of the Crescent, the latter devout worshippers of 
 all the incarnations of Buddha. But analogous phenomena 
 occur amongst the European peoples, the Teutons being mainly 
 Protestants, those of neo-Latin speech mainly Roman Catholics, 
 and the Easterns Orthodox. From all this, however, nothing 
 more can be inferred than that the religions are partly a question 
 of geography, partly determined by racial temperament and 
 political conditions; while the religious sentiment, being universal, 
 is above all local or ethnical considerations. 
 
 Under the first term of the expression Monzolp- T urki (p. 267) 
 are comprised, besides the Mongols proper, nearly all those 
 branches of the division which He to the east and north-east 
 of Mongolia, and are in most respects more closely allied with 
 the Mongol than with the Turki section. Such are the Tunguses, 
 with the kindred Manchus, Golds, Orochons, Lamuts, and others 
 of the Amur basin, the Upper Lena head-streams, the eastern 
 affluents of the Yenisei, and the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk; 
 the Gilyaks about the Amur estuary and in the northern parts 
 of Sakhalin; the Kainchadales in South Kamchatka; in the 
 extreme north-east the Koryaks, Chukchis, and Yukaghirs; lastly 
 the Koreans, Japanese, and Liu-Kiu {Lu-Chii) Islanders. To the 
 Mongol section thus belong nearly all the peoples lying between 
 the Yenisei and the Pacific (including most of the adjacent archi- 
 pelagos), and between the Great Wall and the Arctic Ocean. 
 The only two exceptions are the Yakuts of the middle and lower 
 Lena and neighbouring arctic rivers, who are of Turki stock ; and 
 the Ainus of Yezo, South Sakhalin, and some of the Kurile Islands, 
 who belong to the Caucasic division. 
 
 A striking illustration of the general statement that the various 
 
 c^ultuial^states are a question not of race, but of 
 
 Tunguses. environment \ is afforded by the varying social 
 
 conditions of the wide-spread Tungus family, who 
 
 ^ Ethnology, p. 215. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 287 
 
 are fishers on the Arctic coast, hunters in the East Siberian 
 woodlands, and for the most part sedentary tillers of the soil 
 and townspeople in the rich alluvial valleys of the Amur and its 
 southern affluents. The Russians, from whom we get the term 
 Tungus\ recognise these various pursuits, and speak of Horse, 
 Cattle^ Reindeer, Dog, Steppe, and Forest Tunguses, besides the 
 settled farmers and stock-breeders of the Amur. Their original 
 home appears to have been the Shan-Alin up- 
 lands, where they dwelt with the kindred Niu-Ch i Type.'^^^ *"^ 
 (Manchus) till the 13th century, when the disturb- 
 ances brought about by the wars and conquests of Jenghiz Khan 
 drove them to their present seat in East Siberia. The type, 
 although essen tiallv Mongolic in the somewhat flat features, very 
 prominent cheek-bones, slant eyes, long lank hair, yellowish brown 
 colour and low stature, seems to show admixture with a higher 
 race in the sha pely fram e, the nimble , active fignrp, nnd gmVk, 
 inteU igent expression, and especially in the vg Hahlp glrnll While 
 generally ro und (indices 80° to 84°), the head is sometimes flat 
 .on tjiejo p, like that of the true Mongol, sometimes high and short, , 
 which, as Dr Hamy tells us, is specially characteristic of the 
 Turki race I 
 
 ^ Either from the Chinese Tunghti, '* Eastern Barbarians," or from the 
 Turki Tinghiz, as in Isaac Massa : per interpretes se Tingoesi vocari dixenmt 
 {Descriptio etc., Amsterdam, 161 2). But there is no collective national name, 
 and at present they call themselves Don-ki, Boia, Bote, etc., terms all meaning 
 "Men," "People." In the Chinese records they are referred to under the 
 name of I-lu so early as 263 A.D., when they dwelt in the forest region between 
 the Upper Temen and Yalu rivers on the one hand and the Pacific Ocean on 
 the other, and paid tribute in kind — sable furs, bows, and stone arrow-heads. 
 Arrows and stone arrow-heads were also the tribute paid to the emperors of 
 the Shang dynasty (1766-1154 B.C.) by the Su-shen, who dwelt north of the 
 Liao-tung peninsula, so that we have here official proof of a Stone Age of long 
 duration in Manchuria. Later, the Chinese chronicles mention the U-ki or 
 Mo-ho, a warlike people of the Sungari valley and surrounding uplands, who 
 in the 7th century founded the kingdom of Pu-ha'i, overthrown in 925 by the 
 Khitans of the Lower Sungari below its Noni confluence, who were themselves 
 Tunguses and according to some Chinese authorities the direct ancestors of 
 the Manchus (Howorth,/ajj/w). 
 
 2 " C'est la tendance de la tete a se developper en hauteur, juste en sens 
 inverse de I'aplatissement ve^cal du Mongol. La tete du Turc est done a 
 la fois plus haute et plus courte " (U Anthropologic, vi. 3, p. 8). 
 
288 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 All observers speak in enthusiastic language of. the tempera- 
 ment and moralqualitki ^of the Tungus^ s^ and 
 Ch^r^cirs. particiJIarly ot'tHose gro ups that ro am the forests 
 al^otrf the Tun^u5k 5r"lrrbutaries; of the Yen isei , 
 which take their"name fromThese daring hunters and trappe rs. 
 " Full of ani mation and natural impulse , a lways cheerful ev en in 
 t he deepes t misery, holdin g themselves ar id others in like resp ect, 
 of gentle manners and poetic speech, obliging without servility, 
 unaffectedly proud, scorning falsehood, and indifferent to suffering 
 and death, the Jungu^ses are unquestionably an heroic peopled " 
 A few have been brought within the pale of the Orthodox 
 Church, and in the extreme south some are classed 
 as Btiddhists. But the great bulk of the Tungus 
 nation are still Shamanists. Indeed the very word Shaman is of 
 Tungus origin, though current also amongst the Buryats and 
 Yakuts. It is often taken to be the equivalent of priest ; but in 
 point of fact it represents a stage in the development of natural 
 religion which has scarcely yet reached the sacerdotal state. 
 "Although in many cases the shamans act as priests, and take 
 part in popular and family festivals, prayers, and sacrifices, their 
 chief importance is based on the performance of duties which 
 distinguish them sharply from ordinary priestsl" Their functions 
 are threefold, those of the medicine-man (the leech, or healer by 
 supernatural means) ; of the soothsayer (the prophet through 
 communion with the invisible world) ; and of the priest, especially 
 in his capacity as exorcist, and in his general power to influence, 
 control, or even coerce the good and evil spirits on behalf of 
 their votaries. But as all spirits are, or were originally, identi- 
 fied with the souls of the departed, it follows that in its ultimate 
 analysis Shamanism resolves itself into a form of ancestry-worship. 
 The system, of which there are many phases reflecting the 
 different cultural states of its adherents, still prevails amongst all 
 the Siberian aborigines, and generally amongst all the uncivilised 
 Ural-Altaic populations, so that here again the religions strictly 
 reflect the social condition of the peoples. Thus the somewhat 
 
 ^ Reclus, VI. ; Eng. ed. p. 360. 
 
 ^ V. M. Mikhailovskii, Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia, 
 Translated by Oliver Wardrop, Jotir. Atithrop. Inst. 1895, p. 91. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 289 
 
 cultured Finns, Turks, Mongols, and Manchus are all either 
 Christians, Muhammadans, or Buddhists ; while the uncultured 
 but closely related Samoyads, Ostyaks, Orochons, Tunguses, 
 Golds, Gilyaks, Koryaks, and Chukchi, are almost without ex- 
 ception Shamanists. 
 
 The shamans do not appear to constitute a special caste or 
 sacerdotal order, like the hierarchies of the Christian Churches. 
 Some are hereditary, some elected by popular vote, so to say. 
 They may be either men, or women {shamaiika), married or single; 
 and if "rank" is spoken of, it simply means greater or less 
 proficiency in the performance of the duties imposed on them. 
 Everything thus depends on their personal merits, which naturally 
 gives rise to much jealousy between the members of the craft. 
 Thus amongst the "whites" and the "blacks," that is, those 
 whose dealings are with the good and the bad spirits respectively, 
 there is in some districts a standing feud, often resulting in fierce 
 encounters and bloodshed. The Buryats tell how the two factions 
 throw axes at each other at great distances, the struggle usually 
 ending in the death of one of the combatants. The blacks, who 
 serve the evil spirits, bringing only disease, death, or ill-luck, and 
 even killing people by eating up their souls, are of course the 
 least popular, but also the most dreaded. Many are credited 
 with extraordinary and even miraculous powers, and there can be 
 no doubt that they often act up to their reputation by performing 
 almost incredible conjuring tricks in order to impose on the 
 credulity of the ignorant, or outbid their rivals for the pubHc 
 favour. Old Richard Johnson of Chancelour's expedition to 
 Muscovy records how he saw a Samoyad shaman stab himself 
 with a sword, then make the sword red hot and thrust it through 
 his body, so that the point protruded at the back, and Johnson 
 was able to touch it with his finger. They then bound the wizard 
 tight with a reindeer-rope, and went through some performances 
 curiously like those of the Davenport Brothers and other modern 
 conjurers ^ 
 
 To the much -discussed question whether the shamans are 
 impostors, the best answer has perhaps been given by Castren, 
 
 N 
 
 1 Hakluyt, 1809 ed. I. p. 317 sq. 
 
 K. 19 
 
290 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 who, speaking of the same Samoyad magicians, remarks that if 
 they were merely cheats, we should have to suppose that they did 
 not share the religious beliefs of their fellow-tribesmen, but were 
 a sort of rationalists far in advance of the times. Hence it would 
 seem much more probable that they deceived both themselves 
 and others^, while no doubt many bolster up a waning reputation 
 by playing the mountebank where there is no danger of detection. 
 "Shamanism amongst the Siberian peoples," concludes our 
 Russian authority, " is at the present time in a moribund condi- 
 tion ; it must die out with those beliefs among which alone such 
 phenomena can arise and flourish. Buddhism on the one hand, 
 and Muhammadanism on the other, not to mention Christianity, 
 are rapidly destroying the old ideas of the tribes among whom 
 the shamans performed. Especially has the more ancient Black 
 Faith suffered from the Yellow Faith preached by the lamas. But 
 the shamans, with their dark mysterious rites, have made a good 
 struggle for life, and are still frequently found among the native 
 Christians and Muhammadans. The mullahs and lamas have 
 even been obliged to become shamans to a great extent, and 
 many Siberian tribes, who are nominally Christians, believe in the 
 shamans, and have recourse to them." 
 
 Of all members of the Tungusic family t hp lyranrhnq glnnp 
 
 can be called a historics il ppnplp. If they were 
 
 Manchus. really descended from the Khitans of the Sungari 
 
 valley, then their authentic records will date from 
 
 the ^ioth_century a.d., when these renown ed warriors, ajter ove r- 
 
 throwing thePi^Hai {025)^ founded the Liao dynasty and reduced 
 
 a great part of north China and surrounding lands. The Khitans, 
 
 from whom China was known to Marco Polo as Khitai (Cathay), 
 
 as it still is to the Russians, were conquered in 1125 by the Niu- 
 
 chi ( Yu-cht, Nu-chifi) of the Shan-alin uplands, reputed cradle of 
 
 _ . . , the Manchu race. These Niu-chi, direct ancestors 
 
 Origins ana ' 
 
 Early of the Manchu, founded (iiic;) the State known as 
 
 Records \ ^/ 
 
 that of the " GQld£nJ[artars," from Kin^ " gold," 
 the title adopted by their chief Aguta, " because iron (in reference 
 to the Liao^ 'Iron' dynasty) may rust, but gold remains ever 
 
 ^ Quoted by Mikhailovskii, p. 144. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 29 1 
 
 pure and bright." The Kins, however, retained their brightness 
 only a Httle over a century, having been edipsed by Jenghiz- 
 Khan in 1234. But about the middle of the . 14th c entury the 
 Niu-chi again rose to power under Aishiu-Gioro, who , f^hhnug L 
 of miraculous birth and surrounded by other legendary matter, 
 appears to have been a historical person. He may be regarded 
 as the true founder of the Manchu dynasty, for it was in his time 
 that this name came into general use. Sing-tsu, one of his 
 descendants, constructed the palisade, a feeble imitation of the 
 Great Wall, sections of which still exist. Thai-tsu, a still more 
 famous member of the family, greatly extended the Manchu 
 kingdom (1580-1626), and it was his son Tai-dsung who first 
 assumed the imperial dignity under the title of Tai-Tsing. After 
 his death, the Ming dynasty having been overthrown by a rebel 
 chief, the Manchus were invited by the imperialists to aid in 
 restoring order, entered Peking in triumph, and, finding that the 
 last of the Mings had committed suicide, placed Tai-dsung's 
 nephew on the throne, thus founding the still reigning Manchu 
 dynasty (1644). 
 
 Such has been the contribution of the M^rhn pgnplp fn 
 history; their contributions to arts ^etters. scie nce, in a word, to 
 the general progress of mankind, haveii ggn n// . They found the 
 Middle Kingdom, after ages of a sluggish growth, in a state of 
 absolute stagnation, and there they have left it. On the other 
 hand their assumption of the imperial administration has brought 
 about their own ruin, their effacement, and almost their very 
 extinction as a separate nationality. Manchuria, like Mongolia, 
 is organisejd j,n a number of half military, half civil divisions, the 
 so-called_^^<«^/, or "Eight Banners," and the constant demand 
 made on these reserves, to support the dynasty and supply trust- 
 worthy garrisons for all the strongholds of the empire, has drawn 
 off the best blood of the people, in fact sapped its vitality at the 
 fountain-head. Then the rich arable tracts thus depleted were 
 gradually occupied by agricultural settlers from the south, with 
 the result that the Manchu race has nearly disappeared. From 
 the ethnical standpoint the whole region beyond the Great Wall 
 as far north as the Aniwr has practically become an integral 
 part of China, and from the political standpoint since 1898 an 
 
 19 — 2 
 
292 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 integral part of the Russian empire. Towards the middle of the 
 19th century the Eight Banners numbered scarcely more than a 
 quarter of a milHon, and about that time the Abbe Hue declared 
 that " the Manchu nationality is destroyed beyond recovery. At 
 present we shall look in vain for a single town or a single village 
 throughout Manchuria which is not exclusively inhabited by 
 Chinese. The local colour has been completely effaced, and 
 except a few nomad groups nobody speaks Manchu \" 
 
 Similar testimony is afforded by later observers, and the 
 Rev. Henry Lansdell, amongst others, remarks that "the Manchu, 
 during the two centuries they have reigned in China, may be said 
 to have been working out their own annihilation. Their manners, 
 language, their very country has become Chinese, and some 
 maintain that the Manchu proper are now extinctl" 
 
 But the type, so far from being extinct, may be said to 
 have received a considerable expansion, especially 
 ^ ' amongst the populations of north-east China. The 
 
 taller stature and greatly superior physical appearance of the 
 inhabitants of Tien-tsin and surrounding districts^ over those 
 of the southern provinces (Fokien, Kwang-tung), who are the 
 chief representatives of the Chinese race abroad, seems best 
 explained by continual crossings with the neighbouring Manc hu 
 2eople, atleast_since the 12 th c entury, i f_ 
 
 Closely related to the Manchils (of the same stock says Sir H. H. 
 
 D • Howorth, the distinction being purely political) are 
 
 the ^Qauri^ who give their name to the extensive 
 
 Dau^_p]ateaiv-a«<i formerly occupied both sides of the Upper 
 
 ^ Sotivenirs (Vwi voyage dans la Tartaric , 1853, !• ^^'^- 
 
 2 Throttgh Siberia, 1882, Vol. ii. p. 172. 
 
 ^ European visitors often notice with surprise the fine physique of these 
 natives, many of whom average nearly six feet in height. But there is an 
 extraordinary disparity between the two sexes, perhaps greater than in any 
 other country. The much smaller stature and feebler constitution of the 
 women is no doubt due to the detestable custom of crippling the feet in child- 
 hood, thereby depriving them of natural exercise during the period of growth. 
 It may be noted that an anti-foot-bandaging movement is now in progress 
 throughout China, the object being to abolish the cruel practice by making 
 the kin lien ("golden lilies") unfashionable, and the ti mien, the "heavenly 
 feet," — i.e. the natural — popular in their stead. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 293 
 
 Amur. Daur is, in fact, the name applied by the Buryats to all 
 the T ungus peoples of the Amur basin . The Dauri proper, who 
 are now perhaps t he best representatives of the original Man cha_ 
 type, would seem to have i ntermingled a t a remot e time with the 
 long-he aded pre-Mongol populations of central Asia . They are 
 "taller and^t-rpngpr tha^ f the Oronchons j Tungus groups lower 
 down the Amur] ; t he countenance i s oval and more intellectual, 
 and th e cheeks are less broad.. The nose is rather prominen t, 
 and the ey ebrow s_ straight. The skin is tawny.and__th e^ hair , 
 brown\" Most of these characters are such as we should expect 
 to find in a people of mixed Mongolo-Caucasic descent, the latter 
 element being derived from the long-headed race who had already 
 reached the present Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, and the adjacent 
 island s during neolithic time s. Thus may be explained the talj 
 stature ^omewhat regular features^ brown hair, light eyes, and even 
 florid comjilexi on so ofte n ohs^rvftd fimnngst t he present inhabit - 
 ants of M anchuria, K orea ^nnd p^rtg r>f Mnrth PViina 
 
 But no admixture, except of Chinese literary terms, is seen in 
 ^he Manchu language, which, like Mongolic, is a 
 typical member of the agglutinating Ural-Altaic T^kTspeech. 
 family. Despite great differences, lexical, phonetic, 
 and even structural, all the members of this widespread order 
 of speech have in common a number of fundamental features, 
 which justify the assumption that all spring from an original stock 
 language, which has long been extinct, and the germs of which 
 were perhaps first developed on the Tibetan plateau. The 
 essential characters of the system are: — (i) a "root" or notional 
 term, generally a closed syllable, nominal or verbal, with a vowel 
 or diphthong, strong or weak (hard or soft) according to the mean- 
 ing of the term, hence incapable of change; (2) a number of 
 particles or relational terms somewhat loosely postfixed to the 
 root, but incorporated with it by the principle of (3) vowel 
 harmony, a kind of vocal concordance, in virtue of which the 
 vowels of all the postfixes must harmonise with the unchangeable 
 vowel of the root. If this is strong all the following vowels of the 
 combination, no matter what its length, must be strong ; if weak 
 
 1 Lansdell, ii. p. 172. 
 
294 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CIIAP. 
 
 they must conform in the same way. With nominal roots the 
 postfixes are necessarily limited to the expression of a few 
 simple relations; but with verbal roots they are in principle 
 unlimited, so that the multifarious relations of the verb to its 
 subject and object are all incorporated in the verbal compound 
 itself, which may thus run at times to inordinate lengths. Hence 
 we have the expression "incorporating," commonly applied to this 
 agglutinating system, which sometimes goes so far as to embody 
 the notions of causality, possibility, passivity, negation, intensity, 
 condition, and so on, besides the direct pronominal objects, in 
 one interminable conglomerate, which is then treated as a simple 
 verb, and run through all the secondary changes of number, 
 person, tense, and mood. The result is an endless number of 
 theoretically possible verbal forms, which, although in practice 
 naturally Hmited to the ordinary requirements of speech, are far 
 too numerous to allow of a complete verbal paradigm being 
 constructed of any fully developed member of the Ural-Altaic 
 group, such, for instance, as Yakut, Tungus, Turki, Mordvinian, 
 Finnish, or Magyar. 
 
 In this system the vowels are classed as strong or hard {a, o^ u)^ 
 weak or soft (the same umlauted: a, o, u), and neutral (generally 
 e, /), these last being so called because they occur indifferently 
 with the two other classes. Thus, if the determining root vowel 
 is a (strong), that of the postfixes may be either a (strong), e or / 
 (neutral); if ^* (weak), that of the postfixes may be either a (weak), 
 or e or z as before. The postfixes themselves no doubt were 
 originally notional terms worn down in form and meaning, so as to 
 express mere abstract relation, as in the Magyar ve/ = with, from 
 ve/i- companion. Tacked on to the root fa = tree, this will give 
 the ablative case, first unharmonised : fa-vel\ then harmonised: 
 fa-val = tree-with, with a tree. In the early Magyar texts of the 
 1 2th century inharmonic compounds, such as haldl-jiek^ later 
 haldl-nak = 2i\. death, are numerous, from which it has been inferred 
 that tjhe principle of vowel harmony is not an original feature of 
 the Ural-Altaic languages, but a later development, due in fact to 
 phonetic decay, and still scarcely known in some members of the 
 group, such as Votyak and Highland Cheremissian (Volga Finn). 
 But M. Lucien Adam holds that these idioms have lost the principle 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 295 
 
 through foreign (Russian) influence, and that the few traces still 
 perceptible are survivals from a time when all the Ural-Altaic 
 tongues were subject to progressive vowel harmony \ 
 
 But however this be, Dean Byrne is disposed to regard the 
 alternating energetic utterance of the hard, and ^^^ 
 indolent utterance of the soft vowel series, as an and Racial 
 expression of the alternating active and lethargic 
 temperament of the race, such alternations being themselves due 
 to the climatic conditions of their environment. " Certainly the 
 life of the great nomadic races involves a twofold experience of 
 this kind, as they must during their abundant summer provide for 
 their rigorous winter, when little can be done. Their character, 
 too, involves a striking combination of intermittent indolence and 
 energy ; and it is very remarkable that this distinction of roots is 
 peculiar to the languages spoken originally where this great dis- 
 tinction of seasons exists. The fact that the distinction [between 
 hard and soft] is imparted to all the suffixes of a root proves that 
 the radical characteristic which it expresses is thought with these ; 
 and consequently that the radical idea is retained in the con- 
 sciousness while these are added to it^" 
 
 This is a highly characteristic instance of the methods followed 
 by Dean Byrne in his ingenious but hopeless attempt to explain 
 the subtle structure of speech by the still more subtle temperament 
 of the speaker, taken in connection with the alternating nature of 
 the climate. The feature in question cannot be due to such 
 alternation of mood and climate, because it is persistent through- 
 out all seasons, while the hard and soft elements occur simulta- 
 neously, one might say, promiscuously, in conversation under all 
 mental states of those conversing. 
 
 The true explanation is given by Schleicher, who points out 
 that progressive vocal assimilation is the necessary result of 
 
 ^ De r Harmonie des Voyelles dans les Langues Uralo-Altaiques, 1874, p. 
 67 sq. 
 
 - General Principles of the Structure of Language , 1885, Vol. I. p. 357. 
 The evidence here chiefly relied upon is that afforded by the Yakutic, a pure 
 Turki idiom, which is spokeri in the region of extremest heat and cold (Middle 
 and Lower Lena basin), and m which the principle of progressive assonance 
 attains its greatest development. 
 
 * 
 
296 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 agglutination, which by this means binds together the idea and 
 its relations in their outward expression, just as they are already 
 inseparately associated in the mind of the speaker. Hence it is 
 that such assonance is not confined to the Ural-Altaic group, 
 analogous processes occurring at certain stages of their growth in 
 all forms of speech, as in Wolof, Zulu-Xosa, Keltic (expressed by 
 the formula of Irish grammarians : " broad to broad, slender to 
 slender "), and even in Latin, as in such vocalic concordance as : 
 annus ^ perettnis ; ars, iners ; kgo, diligo. In these examples the 
 root vowel is influenced by that of the prefix, while in the 
 Mongolo-Turki family the root vowel, coming first, is unchange- 
 able, but, as explained, influences the vowels of the postfixes, the 
 phonetic principle being the same in both systems. 
 
 Both Mongol and Manchu are cultivated languages, employ- 
 Mon oi nd ^"^ modified forms of the Uiguric (Turki) script, 
 Manchu which is bascd on the Syriac introduced by the 
 
 '^"^ ■ Christian (Nestorian) missionaries in the 7th cen- 
 
 tury. It was first adopted by the Mongols about 1280, and 
 perfected by the scribe Tsorji Osir under Jenezek Khan (1307- 
 131 t). The letters, connected together by continuous strokes, 
 and slightly modified, as in Syriac, according to their position at 
 the beginning, middle, or end of the word, are disposed in ver- 
 tical columns from left to right, an arrangement due no doubt to 
 Chinese influence. This is the more probable since the Manchus, 
 before the introduction of the Mongol system in the i6th century, 
 employed the Chinese characters ever since the time of the Kin 
 dynasty. 
 
 None of the other Tungusic or north-east Siberian peoples 
 
 possess any writing system except the Yukaghirs of 
 
 YuWhirs ^^ Yasachuaya afiluent of the Kolyma river, who 
 
 were visited in 1892 by the Russian traveller, 
 
 S. Shargorodsky. From his report \ it appears that this symbolic 
 
 writing is carved with a sharp knife out of soft fresh birch-bark, 
 
 these simple materials sufficing to describe the tracks followed on 
 
 hunting and fishing expeditions, as well as the sentiments of the 
 
 young women in their correspondence with their sweethearts. 
 
 ^ Explained and illustrated by General Krahmer in Globus, 1896, p. 208 sq 
 
 I 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 297 
 
 Specimens are given of these curious documents, some of which 
 are touching and even pathetic. " Thou goest hence, and I bide 
 alone, for thy sake still to weep and moan," writes one discon- 
 solate maiden to her parting lover. Another with a touch of 
 jealousy; "Thou goest forth thy Russian flame to seek, who 
 stands 'twixt thee and me, thy heart from me apart to keep. In 
 a new home joy wilt thou find, while I must ever grieve, as thee 
 I bear in mind, though another yet there be who loveth me." 
 Or again : *' Each youth his mate doth find ; my fate alone it is 
 of him to dream, who to another wedded is, and I must fain 
 contented be, if only he forget not me." And with a note of 
 wail : " Thou hast gone hence, and of late it seems this place for 
 me is desolate ; and I too forth must fare, that so the memories 
 old I may forget, and from the pangs thus flee of those bright 
 days, which here I once enjoyed with thee." 
 
 Details of domestic hfe may even be given, and one accom- 
 plished maiden is able to make a record in her note-book of the 
 combs, shawls, needles, thimble, cake of soap, lollipops, skeins of 
 - wool, and other sundries, which she has received from a Yakut 
 packman, in exchange for some clothes she has made him. 
 Without illustrations no description of the process would be 
 intelligible. Indeed it would seem these primitive documents 
 are not always understood by the young folks themselves. They 
 gather at times in groups to watch the process of composition by 
 some expert damsel, the village "notary," and much merriment, 
 we are told, is caused by the blunders of those who fail to read 
 the text aright. 
 
 It is not stated whether the system is current amongst the 
 other Yukaghir tribes, who dwell on the banks of the Indigirka, 
 Yana, Kerkodona, and neighbouring districts. They thus skirt 
 the Frozen Ocean from near the Lena delta to and beyond the 
 Kolyma, and are conterminous landwards with the Yakuts on the 
 south-west and the Chukchi on the north-east. With the Chukchi, 
 the Koryaks, the Kamchadales, and the Gilyaks they form a 
 separate branch of the Mongolic division sometimes grouped 
 together as " Hyperboreans," but distinguished from other Ural- 
 Altaic peoples perhaps krictly on linguistic grounds. Although 
 now reduced to scarcely 1500, the Yukaghirs were formerly a 
 
298 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 numerous people, and the popular saying that their hearths on 
 the banks of the Kolyma at one time outnumbered the stars 
 in the sky seems a reminiscence of more prosperous days. But 
 great inroads have been made by epidemics, tribal wars, the 
 excessive use of coarse Ukraine tobacco and of bad spirits, 
 indulged in even by the women and children. "A Yukaghir, 
 it is said, never intoxicates himself alone, but calls upon his 
 family to share the drink, even children in arms being supplied 
 with a portion'." Their language, which A. Schiefner regards 
 as radically distinct from all others^, is disappearing even more 
 rapidly than the people themselves, if it be not already quite ex- 
 tinct. In the eighties it was spoken only by about a dozen old 
 persons, its place being taken almost everywhere by the Turki 
 dialect of the Yakuts. 
 
 There appears to be a curious interchange of tribal names 
 
 between the Chukchi and their Koryak neighbours, 
 an^^Koryaks. ^^^ ^^^"^ Koryak being the Chukchi Khorana, 
 
 " Reindeer," while the Koryaks are said to call 
 themselves Chauchau^ whence some derive the word Chukchi. 
 Hooper, however, tells us that the proper form of Chukchi is 
 Tuski, "Brothers," or " Confederates V' and in any case the 
 point is of little consequence, as Dittmar is probably right in 
 regarding both groups as closely related, and sprung originally 
 from one stocks Jointly they occupy the north-east extremity 
 of the continent between the Kolyma and Bering Strait, together 
 with the northern parts of Kamchatka ; the Chukchi lying to the 
 north, the Koryaks to the south, mainly round about the north- 
 eastern inlets of the Sea of Okhotsk. Reasons have already been 
 advanced for supposing that the Chukchi were a Tungus people 
 vyho came originally from the Amur basin. In their arctic 
 homes they appear to have waged long wars with the Onkilon 
 (Ang-kali) aborigines, gradually merging with the survivors and 
 
 ^ Lansdell, i. p. 299. 
 
 2 i/^lfgr die Sprache der Jukagiren in Melanges Asiatiqties, 1859, ^^^' P- 
 595 sq. 
 
 3 Ten Months among the Tents of the Tuski. 
 
 ^ Ueber die Koriaken u. ihnen nahe verwandten Tchonktchen^ in BuL Acad. 
 Sc. St Petersburg, xii. p. 99. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 299 
 
 also mingling both with the Koryaks and Chuklukmiut Eskimo 
 settled on the Asiatic side of Bering Strait. 
 
 But their relations to all these peoples are involved in great 
 obscurity, and while some connect them with the 
 Itelmes of Kamchatka^ by others they have been Eskimo 
 affiliated to the Eskimo, owing to the Eskimo dialect ^^'^^^°"^- 
 said to be spoken by them. . But this " dialect " is only a trading 
 jargon, a sort of "pidgin Eskimo" current all round the coast, 
 and consisting of Chukchi, Innuit, Koryak, Enghsh, and even 
 Hawaii elements, mingled together in varying proportions. The 
 true Chukchi language, of which Nordenskiold collected 1000 
 words, is quite distinct from Eskimo, and probably akin to 
 Koryak^, and the Swedish explorer aptly remarks that "this race, 
 settled on the primeval route between the Old and New World, 
 bears an unmistakable stamp of the Mongols of Asia and the 
 Eskimo and Indians of America." He was much struck by the 
 great resemblance of the Chukchi weapons and household utensils 
 to those of the Greenland Eskimo, while Signe Rink shows that 
 . even popular legends have been diffused amongst the populations 
 on both sides of Bering Strait ^ Such common elements, how- 
 ever, prove little for racial affinity, which seems excluded by the 
 extremely round shape of the Chukchi skull, as compared with 
 the long-headed Eskimo. But the type varies 
 considerably both amongst the so-called "Fishing so^SaVtate. 
 Chukchi," who occupy permanent stations along 
 the seaboard, and the " Reindeer Chukchi," who roam the inland 
 districts, shifting their camping-grounds with the seasons. There 
 are no hereditary chiefs, and little deference is paid to the 
 authority even of the owner of the largest reindeer herds, on 
 whom the Russians have conferred the title of Jerema, regarding 
 him as the head of the Chukchi nation, and holding him re- 
 sponsible for the good conduct of his rude subjects. Although 
 nominal Christians, they continue to sacrifice animals to the 
 
 ^ Pescliel, Races of Man, p. 391, who says the Chukchi are "as closely 
 related to the Itelmes in speech as are Spaniards to Portuguese." 
 
 ^ PetermantC s Mitt.., Vol^^j, 1879, p. 138. 
 
 2 The Girl and the Dogs, an Eskimo Folk-tale, Anier. Anthropologist, 
 June, 1898, p. i8r sq. 
 
300 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 spirits of the rivers and mountains, and also to practise Shamanist 
 rites. They believe in an after life, but only for those who die a 
 violent death. Hence the resignation and even alacrity with 
 which the hopelessly infirm and the aged submit, when the time 
 comes, to be despatched by their kinsfolk, in accordance with the 
 tribal custom of kainitok^ which still survives in full vigour amongst 
 the Chukchi, as amongst the Sumatran Battas, and formerly pre- 
 vailed even amongst our Aryan forefathers. 
 
 "The doomed one," writes Mr Harry de Windt, "takes a 
 lively interest in the proceedings, and often assists in the prepara- 
 tion for his own death. The execution is always preceded by a 
 feast, where seal and walrus meat are greedily devoured, and 
 whisky consumed till all are intoxicated. A spontaneous burst 
 of singing and the muffled roll of walrus-hide drums then herald 
 the fatal moment. At a given signal a ring is formed by the 
 relations and friends, the entire settlement looking on from the 
 background. The executioner (usually the victim's son or brother) 
 then steps forward, and placing his right foot behind the back of 
 the condemned, slowly strangles him to death with a walrus- 
 thong. A kamitok took place during the latter part of our 
 stay\" 
 
 This traveller also fully confirms previous accounts of the 
 indescribable moral and bodily filth in which these debased 
 aborigines are content to welter through their lives. But those 
 who care for such nauseous details must be referred to the work 
 just quoted. 
 
 Most recent observers have come to look upon the Chukchi 
 and Koryaks as essentially one and the same 
 K^mchadlies!^ people, the chief difference being that the latter are 
 if possible even more degraded than their northern 
 neighbours I Like them they are classed as sedentary fisher- 
 folk or nomad reindeer-owners, the latter, who call themselves 
 Tumugulu, "Wanderers," roaming chiefly between Ghiyiginsk 
 Bay and the Anadyr river. Through them the Chukchi merge 
 
 ^ Throitgh the Gold Fields of Alaska to Bering Strait, 1898. 
 
 2 This, however, applies only to the fishing Koryaks, for Mr Kennan 
 speaks highly of the domestic virtues, hospitality, and other good qualities of 
 the nomad groups {Tent Life in Siberia, 1871). 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 3OI 
 
 gradually in the Itelmes, who are better known as Kamchadales, 
 from the Kamchatka river, where they are now chiefly concen- 
 trated. Most of the Itelmes are already Russified in speech and 
 — outwardly at least — in religion ; but they still secretly immolate 
 a dog now and then, to propitiate the malevolent beings who throw 
 obstacles in the way of their hunting and fishing expeditions. Yet 
 their very existence depends on their canine associates, who are 
 of a stout, almost wolfish breed, inured to hunger and hardships, 
 and excellent for sledge work. 
 
 Somewhat distinct both from all these Hyperboreans and from 
 their neighbours, the Orochons, Golds, Manegrs and 
 
 ,^•77/- 1 The Gilyaks. 
 
 Other lungus peoples, are the Gilyaks, formerly 
 wide- spread, but now confined to the Amur delta and the 
 northern parts of Sakhalin. Some observers have connected them 
 with the Ainu and the Korean aborigines, while Dr A. Anuchin 
 detects two types — a Mongoloid with sparse beard, high cheek- 
 bones, and flat face, and a Caucasic with bushy beard and more 
 regular features \ The latter traits have been attributed to 
 Russian mixture, but, as conjectured by H. von Siebold, are 
 more probably due to a fundamental connection with their Ainu 
 neighbours^. 
 
 Mentally the Gilyaks take a low position — Mr Lansdell 
 thought the lowest of any people he had met in Siberia^ 
 Despite the zeal of the Russian missionaries, and the inducements 
 to join the fold, they remain obdurate Shamanists, and even 
 fatalists, so that "if one falls into the water the others will, not 
 help him out, on the plea that they would thus be opposing 
 a higher power, who wills that he should perish.... The soul of 
 the Gilyak is supposed to pass at death into his favourite dog, 
 which is accordingly fed with choice food; and when the spirit 
 has been prayed by the shamans out of the dog, the animal 
 is sacrificed on his master's grave. The soul is then represented 
 as passing underground, lighted and guided by its own sun and 
 
 1 Mem. Imp. Soc. Nat. Sc. xx. Supplement, Moscow, 1877. 
 
 2 "Scheinen grosse Aenlichkeit in Sprache, Gesichtsbildung unci Sitten 
 mit den Aino zu haben" {Umr die Aino, Berlin, 1881, p. 12). 
 
 2 Through Siberia, li. p. 227. 
 
302 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 moon, and continuing to lead there, in its spiritual abode, the 
 same manner of life and pursuits as in the flesh^" 
 
 A speciality of the Gilyaks, as well as of their Gold neighbours, 
 is the fish-skin costume, made from the skins of two kinds of salmon, 
 and from this all these aborigines are known to the Chinese as 
 Yiipitatse^ "Fish-skin-clad People." ''They strip it off with great 
 dexterity, and by beating with a mallet remove the scales, and so 
 render it supple. Clothes thus made are waterproof. I saw a 
 travelling-bag, and even the sail of a boat, made of this materiaP." 
 Like the Ainu, the Gilyaks may be called bear-worshippers. 
 At least this animal is supposed to be one of their chief gods, 
 although they ensnare him in winter, keep him in confinement, 
 and when well fattened tear him to pieces, devouring his mangled 
 remains with much feasting and jubilation. 
 
 Since the opening up of Korea, some fresh light has been 
 
 thrown upon the origins and ethnical relations of 
 Koreans. ^^^ present inhabitants. In his monograph on the 
 
 Yellow Races^ Dr Hamy had included them in the 
 Mongol division, but not without reserve, adding that "while 
 some might be taken for Tibetans, others look like an Oceanic 
 cross ; hence the contradictory reports and theories of modern 
 travellers." Since then the study of some skulls forwarded to 
 Paris has enabled him to clear up some of the confusion, which is 
 obviously due to interminglings of different elements dating from 
 remote (neolithic) times. On the data suppHed by these skulls 
 Hamy classes the Koreans in three groups: — i. The natives of the 
 northern provinces (Ping-ngan-tao and Hien-king-tao), strikingly 
 
 like their Mongol [Tangus] neighbours ; 2. Those 
 Ei^ments.^ of the Southern provinces (Kling-chang-tao and 
 
 Thsiusan-lo-tao), descendants of the ancient Chin- 
 hans and Pien-hans, showing Japanese affinities ; 3. Those of the 
 inner provinces (Hoang-hae-tao and Ching-tsing-tao), who present 
 a transitional form between the northerns and southerns, both in 
 their physical type and geographical position ^ 
 
 1 Through Siberia, ii. p. 235. 
 
 2 Ibid. p. 221. 
 
 2 VAnthropologie, vi. No. 3. 
 
 4 Bui. du Mtishim d'Hist. Nat. 1896, No. 4. All the skulls were brachy 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 303 
 
 On the whole he considers that, as at present constituted, 
 their affinities are less with the Continental than with the Oceanic 
 Mongols, meaning by this expression Lesson's "Pelasgo-Mongols," 
 that is, both the Malayan and the P olynesia n groups of the 
 Oceanic peoples. As the ti :ue Polynesians, i.e. the Indonesi a ns, 
 
 hplrmpr phyt^iV^^Try^n tVip T aucasJC division, Hamy 's_yi^w arrnrds 
 
 very well with the now established fact that Caucasic features — 
 light eyes, large nose, hair often brown, full beard, fair and even 
 white skin, tall stature — are conspicuous, especially amongst the 
 upper classes and many of the southern Koreans \ The round 
 form of Dr Hamy's skulls no longer presents any difficulty, 
 since multitudes of other Caucasic peoples — the Slavs, the South 
 Germans, the Swiss and Tyrolese for instance — are also charac- 
 terised by distinctly round heads; and if it be said that this is 
 due to mixture in the West, the same cause applies witJi equal 
 force in the East, where the Koreans are now shown to be a mixed 
 race, the Mongol element dominating in the north, as might be 
 expected, and the Caucasic in the south. 
 
 These conclusions seem to be confirmed by what is known 
 of the early movements, migrations, and dis- 
 placements of the populations in North-east Asia Origins and 
 about the dawn of history. In these vicissitudes 
 the Koreans, as they are now called^, appear to have first taken 
 
 or sub-brachy, varying from 81 to 83*8 and 84*8. The author remarks 
 generally that " photographes et cranes different, du tout au tout, des choses 
 similaires venues jusqu'a present de Mongolie et de Chine, et font plutot 
 penser au Japon, a Formose, et d'une maniere plus generale a ce vaste 
 ensemble de peuples maritimes que Lesson designait jadis sous le nom de 
 ' Mongols-pelasgiens ' " p. 3. 
 
 ^ On this juxtaposition of the yellow and blond types in Korea V. de Saint- 
 Martin's language is highly significative : " Cette dualite de type, un type 
 tout a fait caucasique a cote du type mongol, est un fait commun a toute la 
 ceinture d'iles qui couvre les cotes orientales de I'Asie, depuis les Kouriles 
 jusqu'a Formose, et meme jusqu'a la zone orientale de I'lndo-Chine " {Art. 
 Cor^e, p. 800). 
 
 ^ From Kora'i, in Japanese Kome (Chinese A"atf/?), name of a petty state, 
 which enjoyed political predominance in the peninsula for about 500 years 
 (loth to 14th century A.D.). An older designation still in official use is 
 Tsio-sien, that is, the Ch.\nts,^Chao-sieti, "Bright Dawn" (Klaproth, Asia 
 Polyglotta, p. 334 sq.). 
 
304 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 part in the 12th century B.C., when the peninsula was already 
 occupied, as it still is, by Mongols, the Sien-pi, in the north, and 
 in the south by several branches of the Ha^is {San-San), of whom 
 it is recorded that they spoke a language unintelligible to the 
 Sien-pi, and resembled the Japanese in appearance, manners, and 
 customs. From this it may be inferred that the Hans were the 
 true aborigines, probably direct descendants of the Caucasic 
 peoples of the New Stone Age, while the Sien-pi were Mongolic 
 (Tungusic) intruders from the present Manchuria. For some 
 time these Sien-pi played a leading part in the poHtical convul- 
 sions prior and subsequent to the erection of the Great Wall by 
 Shih Hwang Ti, founder of the Tsin dynasty (221-209 B.c.)^ 
 Soon after the completion of this barrier, the Uiung-nu, no longer 
 able to scour the fertile plains of the Middle Kingdom, turned 
 their arms against the neighbouring Yue-chi, whom they drove 
 westwards to the Zungarian valleys. Here they were soon dis- 
 placed by the Usuns ( Wu-sun), a fair, blue-eyed people of 
 unknown origin, who have been called "Aryans," and even 
 ** Teutons," and whom Ch. de Ujfalvy identifies with the tall 
 long-headed western blonds (de Lapouge's Homo Europceus), 
 mixed with brown round-headed hordes of white complexion ^ 
 
 ^ This stupendous work, on which about 1,000,000 hands are said to have 
 been engaged for five years, possesses great ethnical as well as political import- 
 ance. Running for over 1 500 miles across hills, valleys, and rivers along the 
 northern frontier of China proper, it long arrested the southern movements of 
 the restless Mongolo-Turki hordes, and thus gave a westerly direction to their 
 incursions many centuries before the great invasions of Jenghiz-Khan and his 
 successors. It is strange to reflect that the ethnological relations were thus 
 profoundly disturbed throughout the eastern hemisphere by the work of a 
 ruthless despot who reigned only twelve years, and in that time waged war 
 against all the best traditions of the empire, destroying the books of Confucius 
 and the other sages, and burying alive 460 men of letters for their efforts to 
 rescue those writings from total extinction. 
 
 2 Les Aryens au Nord et au Stid de VHindou-Kotich, 1896, p. 25. This 
 writer does not think that the Usuns should be identified with the tall race of 
 horse-like face, large nose, and deep-set eyes mentioned in the early Chinese 
 records, because no reference is made to "blue eyes," which would not have 
 been omitted had they existed. But, if I remember, ''green eyes" are spoken 
 of, and we know that none of the early writers use colour terms with strict 
 accuracy. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 305 
 
 Accepting this view, we may go further, and identify the Usuns, 
 as well as the other white peoples of the early Chinese records, 
 with the already described Central Asiatic Caucasians of the 
 
 Stone Ages, whose osseous remains we now possess, and who 
 come to the surface in the very first Chinese documents dealing 
 with the turbulent populations beyond the Great Wall. The 
 white element, with all the correlated characters, existed beyond 
 all question, for it is continuously referred to in those documents. 
 How is its presence in East Central Asia, including Manchuria 
 and Korea, to be explained? Only on two assumptions — proto- 
 historic migrations from the Far West, barred by the proto-historic 
 migrations from the Far East, as largely determined by the 
 erection of the Great Wall ; or pre-historic (neolithic) migrations, 
 also from the Far West, but barred by no serious obstacle, because 
 antecedent to the arrival of the proto-Mongolic tribes from the 
 Tibetan plateau. The true solution of the endless ethnical 
 complications in the extreme East, as in the Oceanic world, will 
 still be found in the now-demonstrated presence of a Caucasic 
 ~ element antecedent to the Mongol in those regions. 
 
 When the Hiung-nu^ power was weakened by their westerly 
 migrations to Zungaria and South-west Siberia (Upper Irtish and 
 Lake Balkash depression), and broken into two sections during 
 their wars with the two Han dynasties (201 B.C. — 220 a.d.), the 
 Korean Sien-pi became the dominant nation north of the Great 
 Wall. After destroying the last vestiges of the unstable Hiung-nu 
 empire, and driving the Mongolo-Turki hordes still westwards, 
 the Yuan-yuans, most powerful of all the Sien-pi tribes, remained 
 
 ^ I have not thought it desirable to touch on the interminable controversy 
 respecting the ethnical relations of the Hiung-nu, regarding them, not as a 
 distinct ethnical group, but like the Huns, their later western representatives, 
 as a heterogeneous collection of Mongol, Tungus, Turki, and perhaps even 
 Finnish hordes under a Mongol military caste. At the same time I have little 
 doubt that Mongolo -Tungus elements greatly predominated in the eastern 
 regions (Mongolia proper, Manchuria) both amongst the Hiung-nu and 
 their Yuan-Yuan (Sien-pi) successors, and that all the founders of the first great 
 empires prior to that of the Turki Assena in the Altai region (6th century a.d.) 
 were full-blood Mongols, as im^eed recognised by Jenghiz-Khan himself. This 
 seems also the view of Sir H. H. Howorth, who returned to the subject at the 
 6th Congress of Orientalists, Leyden, 1883 {Actes^ Part iv, p. 177-95). 
 K. 20 
 
306 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 masters of East Central Asia for about 400 years and then dis- 
 appeared from history ^ At least after the 6th century a.d. no 
 further mention is made of the Sien-pi principalities either in 
 Manchuria or in Korea. Here, however, they appear still to 
 form a dominant element in the northern (Mongol) provinces, 
 calling themselves Ghirin (Khirin), from the Khirin (Sungari) 
 valley of the Amur, where they once held sway. 
 
 Since those days Korea has been alternately a vassal State 
 and a province of the Middle Kingdom, with interludes of 
 Japanese ascendancy, interrupted only by the four centuries of 
 Korai ascendancy (934 — 1368). This was the most brilliant 
 epoch in the national records, when Korea was rather the ally 
 than the vassal of China, and when trade, industry, and the arts, 
 especially porcelain and bronze work, flourished in the land. 
 But by centuries of subsequent misrule, a people endowed with 
 excellent natural qualities have been reduced to the lowest state 
 of degradation. Before the reforms introduced by the political 
 events of 1895-96, "the country was eaten up by officialism. It 
 is not only that abuses without number prevailed, but the whole 
 system of government was an abuse, a sea of corruption, with- 
 out a bottom or a shore, an engine of robbery, crushing the 
 life out of all industry^" But an improvement is already per- 
 ceptible. " The air of the men has undergone a subtle and real 
 change, and the women, though they nominally keep up their 
 habits by seclusion, have lost the hang-dog air which distinguishes 
 them at home. The alacrity of movement is a change also, and 
 has replaced the conceited swing of the yang-ban [nobles] and the 
 
 ^ On the authority of the Wei- Shu documents contained in the Wei-Chi, 
 Mr E. H. Parker gives (in the China Review and A 77iousand Years of the 
 Tartars^ Shanghai, 1895) the dates 386-556 a.d. as the period covered by the 
 "Sien-pi Tartar dynasty of Wei." This is not to be confused with the Chinese 
 dynasty of Wei (224—264, or according to Kwong Ki-Chiu 234-274 a.d.). 
 The term "Tartar" (Ta-Ta), it may be explained, is used by Mr Parker, as 
 w^ell as by the Chinese historians generally, in a somewhat wide sense, so as to 
 include all the nomad populations north of the Great Wall, whether of Tungus 
 (Manchu), Mongol, or even Turki stock. The original tribes bearing the name 
 were Mongols, and Jenghiz-Khan himself was a Tata on his mother's side 
 {Eth. p. 303). 
 
 2 Mrs Bishop, Korea and Her Neighbours, 1898. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 307 
 
 heartless lounge of the peasant." It should also be mentioned 
 to their credit that, amid much moral and material squalor, coarse 
 and repulsive habits, they at least possess the sterling quality of. 
 honesty. Baron von Griinau tells us that in the villages along 
 his route his effects had to remain on the highway for want of 
 room in the wretched hovels, but he never lost anything, and his 
 watch, after passing from hand to hand for general inspection, was 
 always returned to the owner \ 
 
 The religious sentiment is perhaps less developed than among 
 any other Asiatic people. Buddhism, introduced 
 about 380 A.D., never took root, and while the 
 literati are satisfied with the moral precepts of Confucius, the 
 lower classes seem to live in a state of complete religious indiffer- 
 ence. Some make offerings to the spirits of the forests and 
 mountains, and there is a " Children's Feast," when all put on 
 new clothes, probably a reminiscence of Buddhism. Seul, the 
 capital, is perhaps the only city in the world outside Korea which 
 possesses neither temple nor church of any kind. 
 
 Philologists now recognise some affinity between the Korean 
 and Japanese languages, both of which appear to 
 be remotely connected with the Ural-Altaic family, scritft ^^'^^^^ 
 The Koreans possess a true alphabet of 28 letters, 
 which, however, is not a local invention, as is sometimes asserted. 
 It appears to have been introduced by the Buddhist monks about 
 or before the icth century, and to be based on some cursive form 
 of the Indian (Devanagari) system^, although scarcely any re- 
 semblance can now be traced between the two alphabets. This 
 script is little used except by the lower classes and the women, 
 the literati preferring to write either in Chinese, or else in the 
 so-called nido, that is, an adaptation of the Chinese symbols to 
 the phonetic expression of the Korean syllables. The 7iido is 
 exactly analogous to the Japanese Katakana script, in which 
 modified forms of Chinese ideographs are used phonetically to 
 
 1 Globus, Nov. -27, 1897, p. 322. 
 
 2 T. de Lacouperie says on "a Tibeto-Indian base" {Beginnings of Writifig 
 in Central and Eastern Asia,i8g^, p. 148); and Mr E. H. Parker: "It is 
 demonstrable that the Korean letters are an adaptation from the Sanskrit," i.e. 
 the Devanagari [Academy, Dec. 21, 1895, p. 550). 
 
 20 — 2 
 
3o8 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 express 47 syllables (the so-called I-ro-fa syllabary), raised to 73 
 b) the nigori and maru diacritical marks. 
 
 Passing to Japan, we find that to Chinese influence is also 
 due the present national name Nippon, which was 
 
 Japanese. adopted about the 7th century a.d., and is etymo- 
 
 logically the same word as /apa?i\ After the first 
 
 settlement by neoHthic Caucasians, now represented by the "hairy 
 
 Ainu " of Yezo, the archipelago was occupied at long intervals 
 
 o • n — both by Continental Mongols from Korea, and by 
 Constituent Occanic Mougols and Indonesians from Malaysia. 
 From the fact that the Japanese language shows 
 radical affinities with Korean, but none with Malayo-Polynesian, 
 it may perhaps be inferred that the Korean element arrived first, 
 and also outnumbered the later Malayan intruders sufficiently to 
 impose their Mongol speech on them, and gradually merge with 
 them in the present composite Japanese nationality. This ethnical 
 fusion must have taken place long before the establishment of po- 
 litical unity, which is, comparatively speaking, quite a recent event. 
 Even for the legendary Jimmu Tenno, reputed founder of the 
 empire, no greater antiquity is claimed than 660 B.C. No doubt 
 he is represented as being fifth in descent from Amaterasu, the 
 Sun-Goddess, and the great divinity of the Shinto religion^. But 
 even were his predecessors endowed with the longevity of the 
 antediluvian patriarchs, they would not require the beginnings 
 
 ^ Both forms come from the Chinese Nit-pon, the "Rising Smi" {Nit, sun, 
 pon, origin), from which the Chinese made first Ni-pett, then through Mongol 
 influence Ji-pen, whence Marco Polo's Zipangu, and the European variants 
 {Giappone, J upon, Japan, etc.). But in Japan, by assimilation of /, Nitpon 
 became Nippon {Nip-hon, Nif-hon), the name,, not merely of the large island 
 of Hondo, as shown on some maps, but of the whole archipelago. Thus Chin. 
 Ji-pen=Jap. Nippon =: Japan. There is also a fanciful national name, Akizu- 
 no-Sinia, " Mermaid Isle." 
 
 '^ "The reigning House of Japan descends from the Sun-Goddess Amate- 
 rasu" (J. J. Rein, yapan nach Reisen ti. Stttdien, 1881, p. 245). The veracious 
 native chroniclers made out that the present Mikado is the 121st in direct 
 descent from Jimmu Tenno. In any case the contrast is striking between the 
 impassive Chinese with their 28 or 30 dynasties, and the mercurial Japanese, 
 who have been contented to live under a single dynasty since the appearance of 
 the "Sun-Goddess" on earth. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 309 
 
 of terrestrial rule in Japan to be set so far back by one or two 
 millenniums as in Babylonia or Egypt. 
 
 After the formation of the Japanese people and the establish- 
 ment of orderly government, apparently first in 
 the smaller southern islands \ the Ebisu (Ainu) Abo^rigfn^er 
 aborigines of Hondo had still to be dealt with. It 
 is now generally admitted that the Ainu formerly dwelt in those 
 districts where shell-mounds and other remains like those of Yezo 
 are still found. And this is confirmed by tradition and history, 
 according to which the present Japanese, on arriving in Nippon, 
 "found it tenanted by Ebisu or barbarians, whom they recognise 
 as the ancestors of the modern Ainus. Year by year the aborigines 
 were driven step by step towards the north. About the year 800 
 they were struggling near Morioka, and by the year 1200 they 
 seem to have been practically exterminated from Nippon, and 
 those who remained or had taken refuge farther to the north of 
 Yezo were completely subjugated"." 
 
 Apart from some exceptionally tall and robust persons amongst 
 the upper classes, and the famous athletes, acrobats, and wrestlers, 
 the general impression that the Japanese are on the whole a 
 short race with rather weak frames is fully borne out by the now 
 regularly recorded military measurements of recruits, showing for 
 height an average of 5 ft. 4J in., for chest ;^;^ in., and dispro- 
 portionately short legs. Other distinctive characters, all tending 
 to stamp a certain individuality on the people, taken as a whole 
 and irrespective of local peculiarities, are a flat forehead, great 
 distance between the eyebrows, a very small nose with raised 
 nostrils, no glabella, no perceptible nasal root^ ; an active, wiry 
 figure ; the exposed skin less yellow than the Chinese, and rather 
 inclining to a light fawn, but the covered parts very light, some 
 
 ^ So Prof. B^sil Hall Chamberlain; who thinks "the common ancestors of 
 the present Japanese and Luchuan [Liu-kiuan] nations entered Japan from the 
 South-west, crossing the Korean Channel with the island of Tsushima as a 
 stepping-stone, and landing in Kyushu, the southernmost great island of Japan. 
 This is rendered probable, alike by geography, by the trend of legend, and by 
 the grammatical affinities connecting Japanese and Luchuan with Korean and 
 Mongol" [Geogr. Journ. 1895^. 316), 
 
 " Prof. J. Milne, quoted in Asia, Vol. i. p. 474. 
 
 ^ G. Baudens, Bid. Soc. Geogr. x. p. 419. 
 
3IO MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 say even white ; the eyes also less oblique, and all other character- 
 istically Mongol features generally softened, except the black lank 
 hair, which in transverse section is perhaps even rounder than that 
 of most other Mongol peoples'. 
 
 With this it will be instructive to compare Dr Guillemard's 
 graphic account of the Liu-Kiu islanders, whose Koreo- Japanese 
 affinities are now placed beyond all doubt : " They are a short 
 race, probably even shorter than the Japanese, but much better 
 proportioned, being without the long bodies and short legs of the 
 latter people, and having as a rule extremely well-developed 
 chests. The colour of the skin varies of course with the social 
 position of the individual. Those who work in the fields, clad 
 only in a waist-cloth, are nearly as dark as a Malay, but the upper 
 classes are much fairer, and are at the same time devoid of any 
 of the yellow tint of the Chinaman. To the latter race indeed 
 they cannot be said to bear any resemblance, and though the 
 type is much closer to the Japanese, it is nevertheless very distinct. 
 ...In Liu-Kiu the Japanese and natives were easily recognised by 
 us from the first, and must therefore be possessed 
 
 Japanese 
 
 and Liu-Kiu of vcry Considerable differences. The Liu-Kiuan 
 s an ers. ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ j^^^ flattened, the eyes are more deepjy 
 set, and the nose more prominent at its origin. The forehead 
 is high and the cheek-bones somewhat less marked than in the 
 Japanese ; the eyebrows are arched and thick, and the eyelashes 
 long. The expression is gentle and pleasing, though somewhat 
 sad, and is apparently a true index of their character^." 
 
 This description is not accepted without some reserve by Mr 
 Chamberlain, who in fact holds that "the physical type of the 
 Luchuans resembles that of the Japanese almost to identity^" 
 In explanation however of the singularly mild, inoffensive, and 
 "even timid disposition" of the Liu-Kiuans, this observer suggests 
 "the probable absence of any admixture of Malay blood in the 
 race^" But everybody admits a Malay element in Japan. It 
 
 ^ See especially Dr E. Balz, Die korperlichen Eigenschaften der Japaner, 
 in Mitt, der Deutschen Ges. f. Natur. ti. Volkerkmide Ostasiens, 28 and 32. 
 2 Cruise of the Marchesa, 1886, i. p. 36. 
 ^ Geogr. Journ. 1895, 11. p. 318. 
 •* Ibid. p. 460. 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 31I 
 
 would therefore appear that Guillemard must be right, and that, 
 as even shown by all good photographs, differences do exist, due 
 in fact to the presence of this very Malay strain in the Japanese 
 race^- 
 
 Elsewhere' Mr Chamberlain has given us a scholarly account 
 of the Liu-Kiu language, which is not merely a 
 " sister," as he says, but obviously an elder sister, guages and 
 more archaic in structure and partly in its pho- ^^^^e'°"s- 
 netics, than the oldest known form of Japanese. In the verb, for 
 instance, Japanese retains only one past tense of the indicative, 
 with but one grammatical form, whereas Liu-Kiuan preserves the 
 three original past tenses, each of which possesses a five-fold 
 inflection. All these racial, linguistic, and even mental resem- 
 blances, such as the fundamental similarity of many of their 
 customs and ways of thought, he would explain with much 
 probability by the routes followed by the first emigrants from the 
 mainland. While the great bulk spread east and north over the 
 great archipelago, everywhere " driving the aborigines before 
 .them," a smaller stream may have trended southwards to the Httle 
 southern group, whose islets stretch like stepping-stones the whole 
 way from Japan to Great Liu-Kiu"^. 
 
 Amongst the common mental traits, mention is made of the 
 Shinto religion, "the simplest and most rustic form" 
 of which still survives in Liu-Kiu. Here, as in D^a"d.^°^*^^ 
 Japan, it was originally a rude system of nature- 
 worship, the normal development of which was arrested by 
 Chinese and Buddhist influences. Later it became associated 
 with spirit-worship, the spirits being at first the souls of the dead, 
 and although there is at present no cult of the dead, in the strict 
 sense of the expression, the Liu-Kiu islanders probably pay more 
 respect to the departed than any other people in the world. 
 
 In Japan, Shintoism, as reformed in recent times, has become 
 much more a political institution than a religious 
 system. The Kami-no-7fiichi, that is, the Japanese 
 form of the Chinese Shin-to, "way of the Gods," or "spirits," is 
 
 ^ your. Anthrop. Soc. 1897, p. 47 sq. 
 2 Ibid. p. 58. 
 
312 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. . [CHAP. 
 
 not merely the national faith, but is inseparably bound up with 
 the interests of the reigning dynasty, holding the Mikado to be 
 the direct descendant of the Sun-goddess. Hence its three 
 cardinal precepts now are: — i. Honour the Kami (spirits), of 
 whom the emperor is the chief representative on earth ; 2. Revere 
 him as thy sovereign ; 3. Obey the will of his Court, and that is 
 the whole duty of man. There is no moral code, and loyal expo- 
 sitors have declared that the Mikado's will is the only test of right 
 and wrong. 
 
 But apart from this political exegesis, Shintoism in its higher 
 form may be called a cultured deism, in its lower a "Wind 
 obedience to governmental and priestly dictates \" There are 
 dim notions about a supreme creator, immortality, and even 
 rewards and penalties in the after-life. Some also talk vaguely, 
 as a pantheist might, of a sublime being or essence pervading all 
 nature, too vast and ethereal to be personified or addressed in 
 prayer, identified with the tenka^ "heavens," from which all things 
 emanate, to which all return. Yet, although a personal deity 
 seems thus excluded, there are Shinto temples, apparently for the 
 worship of the heavenly bodies and powers of nature, conceived as 
 self-existing personalities — the so-called Kami, "spirits," "gods," 
 of which there are "eight milhons," that is, they are countless. 
 
 One cannot but suspect that some of these notions have been 
 grafted on the old national faith by Buddhism, which 
 
 Buddhism. .J,, J. .,j 
 
 was mtroduced about 550 a.d. and for a time had 
 great vogue. It was encouraged especially by the Shoguns, or 
 military usurpers of the Mikado's "^ functions, obviously as a set-off 
 against the Shinto theocracy. During their tenure of power 
 (i 192-1868 A.D.) the land was covered with Buddhist shrines and 
 temples, some of vast size and quaint design, filled with hideous 
 idols, huge bells, and colossal statues of Buddha. 
 
 But with the fall of the Shogun the little prestige still enjoyed 
 by Buddhism came to an end, and the temples, spoiled of their 
 
 1 Ripley and Dana, Avicr. Cyc. ix. 538. 
 
 2 Shogun from 6'//(7 = general and ^//« = army, hence Commander-in-chief; 
 Mikado from »//= sublime, and kado = g?iXii, with which cf. the "Sublime 
 Porte" (Rein, op. cit. i. p. 245). But Mikado has become somewhat anti- 
 quated, being now generally replaced by the title Kotei, "Emperor." 
 
VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 313 
 
 treasures, have more than ever become the resort of pleasure- 
 seekers rather than of pious worshippers. "To all the larger 
 temples are attached regular spectacles, playhouses, panoramas, 
 besides lotteries, games of various sorts, including the famous 
 'fan-throwing,' and shooting-galleries, where the bow and arrow 
 and the blow-pipe take the place of the rifle. The accumulated 
 wealth of the priests has been confiscated, the monks driven from 
 their monasteries, and many of these buildings converted into 
 profane uses. Countless temple bells have already found their 
 way to America, or have been sold for old metaP." 
 
 Besides these forms of belief, there is a third religious, or 
 rather philosophic system, the so-called Siza^ based on the ethical 
 teachings of Confucius, a sort of refined materialism, such as 
 underlies the whole religious thought of the nation. Siza, always 
 confined to the literati, has in recent years found a formidable 
 rival in the "English Philosophy," represented by such writers 
 as Buckle, Mill, Herbert Spencer, Darwin, and Huxley, most of 
 whose works have already been translated into Japanese. 
 
 Thus this highly gifted people, whose best qualities may perhaps 
 be traced back to the Caucasic substratum dating from the Stone 
 Ages, are being rapidly — sonie fear too rapidly — assimilated to the 
 western world in their social and religious, as well as their political 
 institutions. Their intellectual powers, already tested in the fields of 
 war, science, diplomacy, and self-government, are certainly superior 
 to those of all other Asiatic peoples, and this is perhaps the best 
 guarantee for the stability of the stupendous transformation that 
 a single generation has witnessed from an exaggerated form of 
 mediaeval feudalism to a political and social system in harmony 
 with the most advanced phases of modern thought. The system 
 has doubtless not yet penetrated to the lower strata, especially 
 amongst the rural populations. But their natural receptivity, 
 combined with a singular freedom from "insular prejudice," must 
 ensure the ultimate acceptance of the new order by all classes of 
 the community. 
 
 1 Keane's Asia^ i. p. 487. 
 
 \ 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE NORTHERN MONGOLS {continued). 
 
 The Finno-Turki Peoples — Assimilation to the Caucasic Type — Turki Cradle 
 — Origins and early Records — The Scythians — Parthians and Turkomans — 
 Massagetee and Yue-chi — Indo-Scythians and Gra^co-Baktrians^— Dahae, 
 Jat, and Rajput Origins — The "White Huns" — The Uigurs — Orkhon 
 Inscriptions — The Assena Turki Dynasty — Toghuz-Uigur Empire — Kash- 
 garian and Zungarian Populations — The Oghuz Turks and their Migrations 
 — Seljuks and Osmanli— The Yakuts — The Kirghiz — Kazak and Kossack 
 — The Kara-Kirghiz — The Finnish Peoples — Former and Present Domain 
 — Late Westward Spread of the Finns — The Bronze and Iron Ages in the 
 Finnish lands — The Baltic Finns — Relations to Goths, Letts, and Slavs — 
 Finno-Russ Origins — Tavastian and Karelian Finns — The Kwsens-^The 
 Lapps — Samoyads and Permian Finns — Lapp Origins and Migrations — 
 Temperament — Religion — The Volga Finns — The Votyak Pagans — 
 Human wSacrifices — The Bulgars — Origins and Migrations — An Ethnical 
 Transformation — Great and Little Bulgaria — Avars and Magyars — Magyar 
 Origins and early Records — Present Position of the Magyars — Ethnical 
 and Linguistic Relations in Eastern Europe. 
 
 In a very broad way all the western branches of the North 
 Mongol division may be comprised under the 
 T^rkt Peoples. Collective designation of Finno-Turki Mongols. 
 Jointly they constitute a well-marked section of the 
 family, being distinguished from the eastern section by several 
 features which they have in common, and the most important of 
 which is unquestionably a much larger infusion of Caucasic blood 
 than is seen in any of the Mongolo-Tungusic groups. So pro- 
 nounced is this feature amongst many Finnish as well as Turkish 
 peoples, that some anthropologists have felt inclined to deny any 
 direct connection between the eastern and western divisions of 
 Homo Mongoliais^ and to regard the Baltic Finns, for instance. 
 
CHAP. IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 315 
 
 rather as "Allophylian Whites" than as original members of the 
 yellow race. Prichard, to whom we owe this now , . ., . 
 
 ^ , , . . Assimilation 
 
 nearly obsolete term "Allophylian," held this view\ totheCaucasic 
 and even Prof. Sayce is " more than doubtful whether ' ^^^' 
 we can class the Mongols physiologically with the Turkish-Tatars 
 [the Turki peoples], or the Ugro-Finns"." 
 
 It may, indeed, be allowed that at present the great majority 
 of the Finno-Turki populations occupy a position amongst the 
 varieties of mankind which is extremely perplexing for the strict 
 systematist. When the whole division is brought under survey, 
 every shade of transition is observed between the Siberian Sa- 
 moyads of the Finnic branch and the steppe Kirghiz of the Turki 
 branch on the one hand, both of whom show Mongol characters 
 in an exaggerated form, and on the other the Osmanli Turks and 
 Hungarian Magyars, most of whom may be regarded as typical 
 Caucasians. Moreover, the difficulty is increased by the fact, 
 already pointed out, that these mixed Mongolo-Caucasic charac- 
 ters occur not only amongst the late historic groups, but also 
 -amongst the earliest known groups — "Chudes," Usuns, Uigurs 
 and others — who may be called Proto-Fmnish and Proto-Turki 
 peoples. But precisely herein lies the solution of the problem. 
 Most of the region now held by Turki and Finnish nations was 
 originally occupied by long-headed Caucasic men of the late Stone 
 Ages (see above). Then followed the Proto-Mongol intruders from 
 the Tibetan tableland, who partly submerged, partly intermingled 
 with their Neolithic forerunners, many thus acquiring those mixed 
 characters by which they have been distinguished from the earliest 
 historic times. Later, further interminglings took place according 
 as the Finno-Turki hordes, leaving their original seats in the Altai 
 and surrounding regions, advanced westwards and came more and 
 more into contact with the European populations of Caucasic type. 
 
 We may therefore conclude that the majority of the Finno- 
 Turks were almost from the first a somewhat mixed race, and that 
 during historic times the original Mongol element has gradually 
 yielded to the Caucasic in the direction from east to west. Such 
 is the picture now presented by these heterogeneous populations, 
 
 1 Natural History of Man, 1865 ed. pp. 185-6. 
 - Science of Language, II. p. iqo. 
 
3l6 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 who in their primeval eastern seats are still mostly typical Mon- 
 gols, but have been more and more assimilated to the European 
 type in their new Anatolian, Baltic, Danubian, and Balkan homes. 
 
 Observant travellers have often been impressed by this pro- 
 gressive conformity of the Mongolo-Turks to Europeans. During 
 his westward journey through central Asia Capt. Younghusband, 
 on passing from Mongolia to Eastern Turkestan, found that the 
 people, though tall and fine-looking, had at first more of the 
 Mongol caste of feature than he had expected. "Their faces, 
 however, though somewhat round, were slightly more elongated 
 than the Mongol, and there was considerably more intelligence 
 about them. But there was more roundness, less intelligence, 
 less sharpness in the outlines than is seen in the inhabitants of 
 Kashgar and Yarkand." Then he adds : "As I proceeded westwards 
 I noticed a gradual, scarcely perceptible, change from the round of 
 a Mongolian type to a sharper and yet more sharp type of feature. 
 ...As we get farther away from Mongolia, we notice that the 
 faces become gradually longer and narrower; and farther west still, 
 among some of the inhabitants of Afghan Turkestan, we see that 
 the Tartar or Mongol type of feature is almost entirely lost'." To 
 complete the picture it need only be added that still further west, 
 in Asia Minor, the Balkan Peninsula, Hungary, and Finland, the 
 Mongol features are often entirely lost. "The Turks of the west 
 have so much Aryan and Semitic blood in them, that the last 
 vestiges of their original physical characters have been lost, and 
 their language alone indicates their previous descent ^" 
 
 Before they were broken up and dispersed over half the 
 northern hemisphere by Mongol pressure from the 
 
 Turki Cradle. , . . .^ ,^ /. ., , , 
 
 east, the prmiUive 1 urki tribes dwelt, according to 
 Howorth, mainly between the Ulugh-dagh mountains and the 
 Orkhon river in Mongoha, that is, along the southern slopes and 
 spurs of the Altai-Sayan system from the headwaters of the Irtysh 
 to the valleys draining north to Lake Baikal. But the Turki cradle 
 is shifted farther east by Richthofen, who thinks that their true 
 home lay between the Amur, the Lena, and the Selenga, where 
 at one time they had their camping-grounds in close proximity 
 
 ^ The Heart of a Continent, 1896, p. ir8. 
 - O. Peschel, Races of Matt, p. 380. 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 317 
 
 to their xMongol and Tungus kinsmen. There is nothing to show 
 that the Yakuts, who are admittedly of Turki stock, ever migrated 
 to their present northern homes in the Lena basin, which has more 
 probably always been their native land^ 
 
 But when they come within the horizon of history the Turks 
 are already a numerous nation, with a north-western and south- 
 eastern division-, which may well have jointly occupied the whole 
 region from the Irtysh to the Lena, and both views may thus be 
 reconciled. In any case the Turki domain lay west of the 
 Mongol, and the Altai uplands, taken in the widest sense, may 
 still be regarded as the most probable zone of specialisation for 
 the Turki physical type, which in the new nomenclature intro- 
 duced or revived by De Lapouge, was formed by a fusion of Homo 
 Asiaticus and H. Europceus with his ubiquitous H. Acrogonus. 
 Of these elements is constituted the characteristic Turki head, 
 which is noted for its cuboid aspect, due to the parieto-occipital 
 flattening, as observed especially among the Yakuts, and some 
 Turkomans (Yomuds, Goklans). 
 
 Intermediate between these typical Turks and the Mongols 
 Dr Hamy places the Usbegs, Kirghiz, Bashkirs, and Nogais; and 
 between the Turks and Finns those extremely mixed groups of 
 East Russia commonly but wrongly called " Tartars," as well as 
 other transitions between Turk, Slav, Greek, Arab, Osmanli of 
 Constantinople, Kurugli of Algeria and others, whose study shows 
 the extreme difficulty of accurately determining the limits of the 
 Yellow and the White races'''. 
 
 Analogous difficulties recur in the study of the Northern 
 (Siberian) groups — Samoyads, Ostyaks, Voguls and other Ugrians 
 — who present great individual variations, leading almost without 
 a break from the Mongol to the Lapp, from the Lapp to the Finn, 
 
 ^ See Ch. de Ujfalvy, Les Aryens &c. 1896, p. 25. Reference should per- 
 haps be also made to Mr E. H. Parker's theory {Academy, Dec. 21, 1895) that 
 the Turki cradle lay, not in the Altai or Altun-dagh ("Golden Mountains") of 
 North Mongolia, but 1000 miles farther south in the "Golden Mountains" 
 {Kin-shan) of the present Chinese province of Kansu. But the evidence relied 
 on is not satisfactory, and indeed in one or two important instances not evidence 
 at all. ^ 
 
 - Prof. Bury, English Historical Rev, July 1897. 
 
 ^ U Anthropologic, vi. No. 3. 
 
3l8 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 from Finn to Slav and Teuton. Thus may be shown a series 
 of observations continuous between the most typical Mongol, 
 and those aberrant Mongolo-Caucasic groups which answer to 
 Prichard's " Allophylian races." Thus also is confirmed by a 
 study of details the above broad generalisation in which I have 
 endeavoured to determine the relation of the Finno-Turki peoples 
 to the primary Mongol and Caucasic divisions. 
 
 Gibbon has shrewdly remarked that " the savage tribes of 
 ^ . . , mankind, as they approach nearer to the condition 
 
 Origins and ' y r-r 
 
 Early ' of animals, preserve a stronger resemblance to 
 
 themselves and to each other. The uniform sta- 
 bility of their manners is the natural consequence of the imper- 
 fection of their faculties. Reduced to a similar situation, their 
 wants, their desires, their enjoyments, still continue the same... 
 and the banks of the Borysthenes [Dnieper], of the Volga, or of 
 the Selenga [in Mongolia], will indifferently present the same 
 uniform spectacle of similar and native manners \" To this 
 general uniformity in their social usages and institutions, com- 
 bined with an almost complete ignorance of their speech and 
 largely of their physical appearance, is unquestionably due the 
 still prevailing confusion regarding the earliest known Central 
 Asiatic populations and their first westward migrations. In the 
 popular estimation the countless hordes vaguely comprised by 
 the ancients under the general designation of Scythians^, are 
 regarded as rude nomads of true Mongol stock, to 
 Scythians. ^^ identified with the Hiung-nu of the Chinese 
 records and the historical Huns (Attila's Huns), 
 now best represented in the Far East by the Sharra Mongols and 
 farther west by the Zungarian and Volga Kalmaks. But there 
 is good reason to believe that many, perhaps the majority of 
 those early Scythians were not Mongols at all, but Finns and 
 Turks, whose domain had already extended from the Altai uplands 
 to the confines of Europe many centuries before the new era. 
 
 1 Decline and Fall, Ch. xxvi. 
 
 ^ They distinguished, to be sure, between the Scythians intra Iniaum and 
 those extra Imaum. But this was merely a convenient geographical division, 
 and if the Imaus is to be identified with the Altai, no ethnical distinction is 
 drawn between the nomad tribes on either side of that range. 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 319 
 
 Mr E. H. Parker has unfortunately lent the weight of his 
 authority to the statement that the word "Tiirko" [Turki] "goes 
 no farther back than the fifth century of our era," and that " so 
 far as recorded history is concerned the name of Turk dates from 
 this time\" But Turki tribes bearing this national name had 
 penetrated into East Europe hundreds of years before that time, 
 and were already seated on the Tanais (Don) about the new era. 
 They are mentioned by name both by Pomponius Mela^ and by 
 Pliny ^, and to. the same connection belonged, beyond all doubt, 
 the warlike Parthians, who 300 years earlier were „ _^.. 
 
 ' '^ ■' Parthians 
 
 already seated on the confines of Iran and Turan, and Turko- 
 routed the legions of Crassus and Anthony, and for 
 five centuries (250 B.C.-229 a.d.) usurped the throne of the 
 " King of Kings," holding sway from the Euphrates to the 
 Ganges, and from the Caspian to the Indian Ocean. Direct 
 descendants of the Parthians are the fierce Turkoman nomads, 
 who for ages terrorised over all the settled populations encircling 
 the Aralo-Caspian depression. Their power has at last been 
 -broken by the Russians, but they are still politically dominant 
 in Persia^ They have thus been for many ages in the closest 
 contact with the Caucasic Iranians, with the result that the 
 present Turkoman type is shown by J. L. Yavorsky's observations 
 to be extremely variable \ 
 
 1 Academy, Dec. 2\, 1895, p. 548. 
 
 2 " Budini Gelonion urbem ligneam habitant ; juxta Thyssagetee Tnrcmque 
 vastas silvas occupant, ahinturque venando" (i. 19, p. 27 of Leipzig ed. 1880). 
 
 ^ "Dein Tanain amnem gemino ore influentem incolunt Sarmat0e...Tindari, 
 Thussagetse, lyrca;, usque ad solitudines saltuosis convallibus asperas &c." (Bk. 
 VIII. 7, Vol. I. p. 234 of Berlin ed. 1886). The variants Turca and TyrccB are 
 noteworthy, as indicating the same vacillating sound of the root vowel {u and 
 y=ii) that still persists. 
 
 ^ Not only was the usurper Nadir Shah a Turkoman of the Afshar tribe, 
 but the present reigning family belongs to the rival clan of Qajar Turkomans 
 long settled in Khorasan, the home of their Parthian forefathers. 
 
 ^ Of 59 Turkomans the hair was generally a dark brown ; the eyes brown 
 (45) and light grey {14); face orthognathous (52) and prognathous (7); eyes 
 mostly not oblique; ceph. index 68*69 to 8176, mean 75'64; dolicho 28, sub- 
 dolicho 18, 9 mezaticeph, 4 sub-brachy. Five skulls from an old graveyard at 
 Samarkand were also very heterogeneous, ceph. index ranging from 7772 to 
 94-93. This last, unless deformed, exceeds in brachycephaly "le celebre crane 
 
320 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Both the Parthians and the MassagetcB have been identified 
 with the Ytu-chi, who figure so largely in the annals 
 ar!d Yu^Sr ^^ ^^^ H^^ dynasties, and are above mentioned 
 as having been driven west to Zungaria by the 
 Hiung-nu after the erection of the Great Wall. It has been said 
 that, could we follow the peregrinations of the Yue-chi bands 
 from their early seats at the foot of the Kinghan mountains to 
 their disappearance amid the snows of the Western Himalayas, 
 we should hold the key to the solution of the otjscure problems 
 associated with the migrations of the Mongolo-Turki hordes since 
 the torrent of invasion was diverted westwards by Shih Hwang Ti's 
 mighty barrier. One point, however, seems clear enough, that 
 the Yue-chi were a different people both from the Parthians who 
 had already occupied Hyrcania (Khorasan) at least in the third 
 century B.C., if not earlier, and from the Massagetae. For the latter 
 were seated on the Yaxartes (Sir-darya) in the time of Cyrus (6th 
 century B.C.), whereas the Yue-chi still dwelt east of Lake Lob 
 (Tarim basin) in the third century. After their defeat by the 
 Hiung-nu and the Usuns (201 and 165 b.c), they withdrew to 
 Sogdiana (Transoxiana), reduced the Ta-Hia of Baktria, and in 
 126 B.C. overthrew the Graeco-Baktrian kingdom, 
 Scythians and which had been founded after the death of Alex- 
 Graeco- audcr towards the close of the 4th century. But 
 
 Baktnans. •' 
 
 in the Kabul valley, south of the Hindu-Kush, the 
 Greeks still held their ground for over 100 years, until Kadphises I., 
 king of the Kushans-^a branch of the Yue-chi — after uniting the 
 whole nation in a single Indo-Scythian state, extended his con- 
 quests to Kabul and succeeded Hermasus, last of the Greek 
 dynasty (40-20 B.C.?). Kadphises' son Kadaphes (10 a.d.) added 
 to his empire a great part of North India, where his successors of 
 the Yue-chi dynasty reigned from the middle of the first to the 
 end of the fourth century a.d. Here they are supposed by some 
 Dahse Tat authorities to be still represented by \k\& Jdts and 
 and Rajput RaJputs, and even Prichard allows that the suppo- 
 
 Origins. • • /, i , i „ 
 
 sition "does not appear altogether preposterous, 
 although "the physical characters of the Jats are very different 
 
 d'un Slave vende qu'on cite dans les manuels d'anthropologie" (Th. Volkov, 
 r Atithropologie, 1897, pp. 355-57)- 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 321 
 
 from those attributed to the Yuetschi [Yue-chi] and the kindred 
 tribes [Suns, Kushans etc.] by the writers cited by Klaproth and 
 Abel Remusat, who say that they are of sanguine complexion 
 with blue eyes\" 
 
 We now know that these characters present little difficulty 
 when the composite origin of the Turki people is borne in mind. 
 On the other hand it is interesting to note that the above- 
 mentioned Ta-Hia have by some been identified with the warhke 
 Scythian Dahae^ and these with the Dehiya or Dhe, one of the 
 great divisions of the Indian Jats. But if Prof. G. Rawlinson^ is 
 right, the term Dahce was not racial but social, meaning rustici, 
 ^the peasantry as opposed to the nomads ; hence the Dahae are 
 heard of everywhere throughout Irania, just as Dehwar^ is still 
 the common designation of the Tajik (Persian) peasantry in 
 Afghanistan and Baluchistan. This is also the view taken by 
 De Ujfalvy, who identifies the Ta-Hia, not with the Scythian 
 Dahae, or with any other particular tribe, but with the peaceful 
 rural population of Baktriana^ whose reduction by the Yue-chi, 
 possibly Strabo's Tokhari, was followed by the overthrow of the 
 Graeco-Baktrians. The solution of the puzzling Yue-chi-Jat pro- 
 blem would therefore seem to be that the Dehiya and other Jats, 
 always an agricultural people, are descended from the old Iranian 
 peasantry of Baktriana, some of whom followed the fortunes of 
 their Greek rulers into the Kabul valley, while others accompanied 
 the conquering Yue-chi founders of the Indo-Scythian empire into 
 northern India. 
 
 Then followed the overthrow of the Yue-chi themselves by 
 the Ye-tha ( Ye-tha-i-li-to) of the Chinese records, that is, the 
 
 ^ Quoted by W. Crooke, who points out that '* the opinion of the best Indian 
 
 authorities seems to be gradually turning to the belief that the connection 
 
 between Jats and Rajputs is more intimate than was formerly supposed" {The 
 
 Tribes and Castes of the North' Western Provinces and Oudh, Calcutta, 1896, 
 
 ^iii. p. 27). 
 
 2 Virgil's '*indomiti Dahae" {^n. viii. 728): possibly the Dehavites 
 (Dievi) of Ezra, iv. 9. 
 
 ^ Herodotus, Vol. I. p. 413. 
 
 ■* From Pers. d>, dih, dah, Ullage (Parsi dahi). 
 
 ' Les Aryens, etc. p. 68 sq. 
 
 t 
 
 K. ^ OF THE ^ 
 
 OF 
 
322 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Ephthalites^ or so-called " White Huns," of the Greek and Arab 
 writers, who about 425 a.d. overran Transoxiana, 
 Huns "^^**^ and soon afterwards penetrated through the moun- 
 tain passes into the Kabul and Indus valleys. Al- 
 though confused by some contemporary writers (Zosimus, Am. 
 Marcellinus) with Attila's Huns, M. Drouin has made it clear that 
 the Ye'-tha were not Huns (Mongols) at all, but, like the Yue-chi, 
 a Turki people, who were driven westwards about the same time 
 as the Hiung-nu by the Yuan-Yuans (see above). Of Hun they 
 had little but the name, and the more accurate Procopius was 
 aware that they differed entirely from "the Huns known to us, 
 not being nomads, but settled for a long time in a fertile region." 
 He speaks also of their white colour and regular features, and 
 their sedentary life\ as in the Chinese accounts, where they are 
 described as warlike conquerors of twenty kingdoms, as far as that 
 of the A-si (Arsacides, Parthians), and in their customs resembling 
 the Tu-Kiu (Turks), being in fact "of the same race." On the 
 ruins of the Indo-Scythian (Yue-chi) empire, the White Huns 
 ruled in India and the surrounding lands from 425 to the middle 
 of the sixth century. A little later came the Arabs, who in 706 
 captured Samarkand, and under the Abassides were supreme in 
 Central Asia till scattered to the winds by the Oghuz Turki 
 hordes. 
 
 From all this it may perhaps be inferred that — while the 
 Baktrian peasants entered India as settlers, and are now repre- 
 sented by the agricultural Jats — the Yue-chi and Ye-tha, both of 
 fair Turki stock, came as conquerors, and are now represented 
 by the Rajputs, "Sons of Kings," the warrior and land-owning 
 race of northern India. It is significant that these Thakur, 
 "feudal lords," mostly trace their genealogies from about the 
 beginning of the 7th century, as if they had become Hinduized 
 soon after the fall of the foreign Ye'-tha dynasty, while on the 
 other hand " the country legends abound with instances of the 
 conflict between the Rajput and the Brahman in prehistoric 
 times^" This "prehistoric" hostility shows that the Rajputs 
 entered India, not as "Aryans" of the Kshatriya or military 
 caste, as is commonly assumed, but as aliens (Turks), the 
 ^ De Bella Persico, passim. ^ Crooke, op. cit. iv. p. 221. 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 323 
 
 avowed foes of the true Aryans, that is, the Brahman or theo- 
 cratic (priestly) caste. Thus also is explained the intimate 
 association of the Rajputs and the Jats from the first. The 
 Rajputs were the Turki leaders of the invasions ; the Jats were 
 their peaceful Baktrian subjects following in their wake. 
 
 The statement, therefore, that the Jats may be ethnologically 
 identical with the Rajputs S" is perhaps too strong, and even 
 somewhat misguiding. It might be more correct to say the two 
 races were not originally one, but have become largely assimilated 
 one to the other through close contact during the last i6oo years. 
 The theory that the haughty Rajputs are of unsullied "Aryan 
 blood " is scarcely any longer held even by the Rajputs them- 
 selves. Alliances with Jats and others of much lower caste have, 
 one might say, been always the normal condition, and in many 
 septs two classes of different social rank are recognised : "one the 
 offspring of wives of legitimate descent, married in the orthodox 
 way ; the other the descendants of irregular connections with low- 
 caste women." 
 
 Nearly related to the White Huns were the Uigurs^ the 
 Kao-che of the Chinese annals, who may claim to 
 be the first Turki nation that founded a relatively ^ *^"^^' 
 civilised State in Central Asia. Before the general commotion 
 caused by the westward pressure of the Hiung-nu, they appear to 
 have dwelt in eastern Turkestan (Kashgaria) between the Usuns 
 and the Sacae, and here they had already made considerable 
 progress under Buddhist influences about the fourth or fifth 
 century of the new era. Later, the Buddhist missionaries from 
 Tibet were replaced by Christian (Nestorian) evangelists from 
 western Asia, who in the seventh century reduced the Uigur 
 language to written form, adapting for the purpose, the Syriac 
 alphabet, which was afterwards borrowed by the Mongols and the 
 Manchus. 
 
 This Syriac script — which, as shown by the authentic inscription 
 of Si-ngan-fu, was introduced into China in 635 a.d. — is not to 
 be confused with that of the Orkhon inscriptions* dating from 
 
 ^ Ibid. p. 220. 
 
 2 Discovered in 1889 by NT M. YadrintsefF in the Orkhon valley, which 
 drains to the Selenga affluent of Lake Baikal. The inscriptions, one in Chinese 
 
 21 2 
 
324 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAR 
 
 732 A.D., and bearing a certain resemblance to some of the 
 Runic characters, as also to the Korean, at least in form, but 
 never in sound. Yet although differing from the 
 Inscriptions! Uiguric, Prof. Thomsen, who has successfully de- 
 ciphered the Orkhon text, thinks that this script 
 may also be derived, at least indirectly through some of the 
 Iranian varieties, from the same Aramean (Syriac) form of the 
 Semitic alphabet that gave birth to the Uiguric \ 
 
 It is more important to note that all the non-Chinese inscrip- 
 tions are in the Turki language, while the Chinese text refers by 
 name to the father, the grandfather, and the great-grandfather of 
 the reigning Khan Bilga, which takes us back nearly to the time 
 when Sinjibu (Dizabul), Great Khan of the Altai Turks, was 
 visited by the Byzantine envoy, Zimarchus, in 569 a.d. In the 
 still extant report of this embassy^ the Turks (TovpKOL) are 
 mentioned by name, and are described as nomads who dwelt 
 in tents mounted on waggons, burnt the dead, and raised monu- 
 ments to their memory, statues, and cairns with as many stones 
 as the foes slain by the deceased in battle. It is also stated that 
 they had a peculiar writing-system, which must have been that of 
 these Orkhon inscriptions, the Uiguric having apparently been 
 introduced somewhat later. 
 
 Originally the Uigurs comprised nineteen clans, which at a 
 remote period already formed two great sections : — the On-Uigur 
 ("Ten Uigurs") in the south, and the Toghuz-Uigur ("Nine 
 
 and three in Turki, cover the four sides of a monument erected by a Chinese 
 emperor to the memory of Kyul-teghin, brother of the then reigning Turki 
 Khan Bilga (Mogilan). In the same historical district, where stand the ruins of 
 Karakoram — long the centre of Turki and later of Mongol power — other inscribed 
 monuments have also been found, all apparently in the same Turki language 
 and script, but quite distinct from the glyptic rock carvings of the Upper 
 Yenisei river, Siberia. The chief workers in this field were the Finnish archaeo- 
 logists J. R. Aspelin, A. Snellman and Axel O. Heikel, the results of whose 
 labours are collected in the Inscriptions de CJenissei rectieillies et pttbliees par 
 la Societe Finlandaise d''Archdologie, Helsingfors, 1889; and Inscriptions de 
 r Orkhon etc., Helsingfors, 1892. 
 
 ^ "La source d'oii est tiree I'origine de I'alphabet lure, sinon immediate- 
 ment, du moins par intermediaire, c'est la forme de I'alphabet semitique qu'on 
 appelle arameenne" {Inscriptions de C Oi'khon dechiffrdes, Helsingfors, 1894). 
 
 '^ See Klaproth, Tableau Historique de V Asie^ p. 116 sq. 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 325 
 
 Uigurs ") in the north. The former had penetrated westwards to 
 the Aral Sea^ as early as the 2nd century a.d., and many of them 
 undoubtedly took part in Attila's invasion of Europe. 
 
 Later, all these Western Uigurs, mentioned amongst the hordes 
 that harassed the Eastern Empire in the 5th and 6th centuries, 
 in association especially with the Turki Avars, disappear from 
 history, being merged in the Ugrian and other Finnish peoples 
 of the Volga basin. The Toghuz section also, after throwing 
 off the yoke of the Mongol or Tungus Geugen (Jeu-Jen) in the 
 '^th century, were for a time submerged in the 
 
 , • rr. , r T 1 • , TheAssena 
 
 vast empire of the Altai Turks, founded m 552 by Turki 
 Tumen of the House of Assena (A-shi-na), who was y^^sty- 
 the first to assume the title of Kha-Khan, "Great Khan," and 
 whose dynasty ruled over the united Turki and Mongol peoples 
 from the Pacific to the Caspian, and from the Frozen Ocean 
 to the confines of China and Tibet. Both the above-mentioned 
 Singibu, who received the Byzantine envoy, and the Bilga Khan 
 of the Orkhon stele, belonged to this dynasty, which was replaced 
 in 774 by Pei-lo (Huei-hu), chief of the Toghuz-Uigurs. This 
 is how we are to understand the statement that all the Turki 
 peoples who during the somewhat unstable rule of the Assena 
 dynasty from 552 to 774 had undergone many vicissitudes, and 
 about 580 were even broken into two great sections (Eastern 
 Turks of the Karakoram region and Western Turks of the Tarim 
 basin) ^ere again united in one vast political sys- 
 tem under the Toghuz-Uigurs. These are hence- uigur Empire, 
 forth known in history simply as Uigurs, the On 
 branch having, as stated, long disappeared in the West. The 
 centre of their power seems to have oscillated between Kara- 
 koram and Turfan in Eastern Turkestan, the extensive ruins of 
 which have been explored by Kegel and the brothers Grum 
 Grigimailo. Their vast dominions were gradually dismembered, 
 first by the Hakas, or Ki-li-Kisse, precursors of the present 
 Kirghiz, who overran the eastern (Orkhon) districts about 840, 
 and then by the Muhammadans of Mawar-en-Nahar (Transoxiana), 
 who overthrew the "Lioa Kings," as the Uigur Khans of Turfan 
 
 ^ They are the Onoi^ the "Tens," who at this time dwelt beyond the 
 Scythians of the Caspian Sea (Dionysius Periegetes). 
 
326 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 were called, and set up several petty Mussulman states in Eastern 
 Turkestan. Later they fell under the yoke of the Kara-Khitais, 
 and were amongst the first to join the devastating hordes of 
 Jenghiz-Khan ; their name, which henceforth vanishes from his- 
 tory \ being thus perhaps perpetuated under the form of "Ogres," 
 in fable and nursery tales. 
 
 At present the heterogeneous populations of the Tarim basin 
 (Kashgaria, Eastern Turkestan) where the various elements have 
 been intermingled, offer a striking contrast to those of the Hi 
 valley (Zungaria), where one invading horde has succeeded and 
 been superimposed on another. Hence the complexity of the 
 Kashgarian type, in which the original " horse-like face " every- 
 where crops out, absorbing the later Mongolo-Turki arrivals. But 
 in Zungaria the Kalmak, Chinese, Dungan, Taranchi, and Kirghiz 
 groups are all still sharply distinguished and perceptible at a 
 glance. " Amongst the Kashgarians — a term as vague ethnically 
 as ' Aryan ' — Richthofen has determined the successive presence 
 of the Su, Yue-chi, and Usun hordes, as described in the early 
 Chinese chronicles ^" 
 
 In close proximity to the Toghuz-Uigurs dwelt the Oglmz 
 
 {Ghuz, Uz)^ for whom eponymous heroes have been provided in 
 
 the legendary records of the Eastern Turks, although all these 
 
 terms would appear to be merely shortened forms of Toghuz^. 
 
 But whether true Uigurs, or a distinct branch of the 
 
 Turkland"^ Turki pcoplc, the Ghuz, as they are commonly 
 
 their Migra- called by the Arab writers, began their westward 
 
 tions. ^ ' & 
 
 migrations about the year 780. After occupymg 
 Transoxiana, where they are now represented by the Uzbegs^ of 
 
 ^ It still persists, however, as a tribal designation both amongst the Kirghiz 
 and Uzbegs, and in 1885 Potanin visited the Yegurs of the Edzin-gol valley in 
 south-east Mongolia, said to be the last surviving representatives of the Uigur 
 nation (H. Schott, Ztir Uigiirenfrage in Abhandl. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss., Berlin, 
 1873, P- 101-21). 
 
 * Ch. de Ujfalvy, Les Aiyens au N^ord et au Stid de VHindoti-Kouch, p. 28. 
 
 3 "The Uzi of the Greeks are the Gozz [Ghuz] of the Orientals. They 
 appear on the Danube and the Volga, in Armenia, Syria, and Chorasan, and 
 their name seems to have been extended to the whole Turkoman [Turki] race" 
 [by the Arab writers] ; Gibbon, Ch. LVii. 
 
 ^ Who take their name from a mythical Uz-beg, "Prince Uz" {beg'm Turki 
 =^a chief, or hereditary ruler). 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 327 
 
 Bokhara and surrounding lands, they gradually spread as con- 
 querors over all the northern parts of Irania, Asia Minor, Syria, 
 the Russian and Caucasian steppes, Ukrania, Dacia, and the 
 Balkan Peninsula. In most of these lands they formed fresh 
 ethnical combinations both with the Caucasic aborigines, and 
 with many kindred Turki as well as Mongol peoples, some of 
 whom were settled in these regions since neolithic times, while 
 others had either accompanied Attila's expeditions, or followed 
 in his wake (Pechenegs, Komans, Alans, Kipchaks, Kara-Kalpaks), 
 or else arrived later in company with Jenghiz-Khan and his suc- 
 cessors (Kazan and Nogai "Tatars"^). 
 
 In Russia, Rumania (Dacia), and most of the Balkan peninsula 
 these Mongolo-Turki blends have been again submerged by the 
 dominant Slav and Rumanian peoples (Great and Little Russians, 
 Servo-Croatians, Montenegrini, Moldavians, and Walachians). But 
 in south-western Asia they still constitute perhaps the majority 
 of the population between the Indus and Constantinople, in 
 many places forming numerous compact communities, in which 
 the Mongolo-Turki physical and mental characters are con- 
 spicuous. Such, besides the already mentioned Turkomans of 
 Parthian lineage, are all the nomad and many of the settled 
 inhabitants of Khiva, Ferghana, Karategin, Bokhara, generally 
 comprised under the name of Uzbegs and " Sartes." Such also 
 are the Turki peoples of Afghan Turkestan, and of the neigh- 
 bouring uplands (Hazaras and Aimaks who claim Mongol descent, 
 though now of Persian speech); the Aderbaijani and many other 
 more scattered groups in Persia; the Nogai and Kumuk tribes 
 of Caucasia, and especially most of the nomad and settled 
 agricultural populations of Asia Minor. The Anatolian peasantry 
 form, in fact, the most numerous and compact division of the 
 Turki family still surviving in any part of their vast domain 
 between the Bosporus and the Lena. 
 
 ^ Both of these take their name, not from mythical but from historical 
 chiefs -.—Kazan Khan of the Volga, "the rival of Cyrus and Alexander," who 
 was however of the House of Jenghiz, consequently not a Turk, like most of 
 his subjects, but a true Mong^ {ob. 1304); and Noga, the ally and champion 
 of Michael Palaeologus against the Mongols marching under the terrible Holagu 
 almost to the shores of the Bosporus, 
 
328 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Out of this prolific Oghuz stock arose many renowned chiefs, 
 founders of vast but somewhat unstal)le empires, such as those of 
 the Gasnevides, who ruled from Persia to the Indus ; the Seljuks, 
 
 who first wrested the Asiatic provinces from Byzan- 
 Osmanii ^^^ ^^^^ ': ^^^ OsmanH, SO named from Othman, the 
 
 Arabized form of Athman, who prepared the way 
 for Orkhan (1326-60), true builder of the Ottoman power, which 
 has alone survived the shipwreck of all the historical Turki states. 
 The vicissitudes of these monarchies, looked on perhaps with 
 too kindly an eye by Gibbon, belong to the domain of history, 
 and it will suffice here to state that from the ethnical standpoint 
 the chief interest centres in that of the Seljukides, covering the 
 period from about the middle of the nth to the middle of the 
 13th century. It was under Togrul-beg of this dynasty (1038-63) 
 that "the whole body of the Turkish nation embraced with 
 fervour and sincerity the religion of Mahomet \" A little later 
 began the permanent Turki occupation of Asia Minor, where 
 after the conquest of Armenia (1065-68) and the overthrow of 
 the Byzantine emperor Romanus Diogenes (107 1), numerous 
 military settlements, followed by nomad Turkoman encampments, 
 were established by the great Seljuk rulers, Alp Arslan and Malek 
 Shah (1063-92), at all the strategical points. These first arrivals 
 were joined later by others fleeing before the Mongol hosts led 
 by Jenghiz-Khan's successors down to the time of Timur-beg. 
 But the Christians (Greeks and earlier aborigines) were not exter- 
 minated, and we read that, while great numbers apostatized, 
 " many thousand children were marked by the knife of circum- 
 cision ; and many thousand captives were devoted to the service 
 or the pleasures of their masters" {ib.). In other words, the already 
 mixed Turki intruders were yet more modified by further inter- 
 minglings with the earlier inhabitants of Asia Minor. Those 
 who, following the fortunes of the Othman dynasty, crossed the 
 Bosporus and settled in Rumelia and some other parts of the 
 Balkan Peninsula, now prefer to call themselves Osmanli^ even 
 
 ^ Gibbon, Chap. LVii. By the "Turkish nation" is here to be understood 
 the western section only. The Turks of MaM^ar-en-Nahar and Kashgaria 
 (eastern Turkestan) had been brought under the influences of Islam by the 
 first Arab invaders from Persia two centuries earlier. 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 329 
 
 repudiating the national name "Turk" still retained with pride 
 by the ruder peasant classes of Asia Minor. The latter are often 
 spoken of as "Seljuk Turks," as if there were some racial difference 
 between them and the European Osmanli, and for the distinction 
 there is some foundation. i\s pointed out by Arminius Vambery ', 
 the Osmanli have been influenced and modified by their closer 
 association with the Christian populations of the Balkan lands, 
 while in Anatolia the Seljuks have been able better to preserve 
 the national type and temperament. The true Turki spirit (**das 
 Tiirkentum") survives especially in the provinces of Lykaonia 
 and Kappadokia, where the few surviving natives were not only 
 Islamised but ethnically fused, whereas in Europe most of them 
 (Bosnians, Albanians) were only Islamised, and here the Turki 
 element has always been slight. 
 
 At present the original Turki type and temperament are 
 perhaps best preserved amongst the remote Yakuts 
 of the Lena, and the Kirghiz groups (^Kirghiz 
 Kazaks and Kara Kirghiz) of the West Siberian steppe and the 
 ~ Pamir uplands. The Turki connection of the Yakuts, about 
 which some unnecessary doubts had been raised, has been set 
 at rest by V. A. Sierochevsky^, who, however, describes them 
 as now a very mixed people, owing to alliances with the Tunguses 
 and Russians. They are of short stature, averaging scarcely 
 5 ft. 4 in., and this observer thought their dark but not brilliant 
 black eyes, deeply sunk in narrow orbits, gave them more of a 
 Red Indian than of a Mongol cast. They are almost the only 
 progressive aboriginal people in Siberia, although numbering not 
 more than 200,000 souls, concentrated chiefly along the river 
 banks on the plateau between the Lena and the Aldan. 
 
 In the Yakuts we have an extreme instance of the capacity of 
 man to adapt himself to the milieu. They not merely exist, but 
 thrive and display a considerable degree of energy and enterprise 
 in the coldest region on the globe. Within the isothermal of 
 -72° Fahr. Verkhoyansk, in the heart of their territory, is alone 
 
 1 Die Stellung der Tiirken in Eiiropa, in Geogr. Zeitschrift, Leipzig, 1897, 
 Part 5, p. 250 sq. \ 
 
 ■^ Ethnographic Researches^ edited by Prof. N. E. Vasilofky for the 
 Imperial Geogr. Soc. i8q6, quoted in Nattwe, Dec. 3, 1896, p. 97. 
 
330 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 included for the period from November to February, and in this 
 temperature, at which the quicksilver freezes, the Yakut children 
 may be seen gambolling naked in the snow. In midwinter 
 Mr R. Kennan met some of these " men of iron," as Wrangel 
 calls them, airily arrayed in nothing but a shirt and a sheepskin, 
 lounging about as if in the enjoyment of the balmy zephyrs of 
 some genial sub-tropical zone. 
 
 Although nearly all are Orthodox Christians, or at least bap- 
 tized as such, they are mere Shamanists at heart, still conjuring 
 the powers of nature, but offering no worship to a supreme deity, 
 of whom they have a vague notion, though he is too far off to 
 hear, or too good to need their supplications. The world of 
 good and evil spirits, however, has been enriched by accessions 
 from the Russian calendar and pandemonium. Thanks to their 
 commercial spirit, the Yakut language, a very pure Turki idiom, is 
 even more widespread than the race, having become a general 
 medium of intercourse for Tungus, Russian, Mongol and other 
 traders throughout East Siberia, from Irkutsk to the Sea of 
 Okhotsk, and from the Chinese frontier to the Arctic Ocean \ 
 To some extent W. Radloff is right in describing the great 
 Kirghiz Turki family as "of all Turks most nearly 
 allied to the Mongols in their physical characters, 
 and by their family names such as Kyptshak [Kipchak], Argyn, 
 Naiman, giving evidence of Mongolian descent, or at least of 
 intermixture with Mongols^" But we have already been warned 
 against the danger of attaching too much importance to these tribal 
 designations, many of which seem, after acquiring renown on the 
 battle-field, to have passed readily from one ethnic group to another. 
 There are certain Hindu Kush and Afghan tribes who think 
 themselves Greeks or Arabs, because of the supposed descent of 
 their chiefs from Alexander the Great or the Prophet's family, and 
 genealogical trees spring up like the conjurer's mango plant in 
 support of such illustrious lineage. The Chagatai ( Jagatai) tribes, 
 of Turki stock and speech, take their name from a full-blood 
 Mongol, Chagatai, second son of Jenghiz-Khan, to whom fell 
 Eastern Turkestan in the partition of the empire. 
 
 1 A. Erman, Reise uni die Erde, 1835, Vol. iii. p. 51. 
 
 2 Quoted by Peschel, Races of Man, p. 383. 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 33 1 
 
 In the same way many Uzbeg and Kirghiz Turki tribes are 
 named from famous Mongol chiefs, although no one will deny a 
 strain of true Mongol blood in all these heterogeneous groups. 
 This is evident enough from the square and somewhat flat Mongol 
 features, prominent cheek-bones, oblique eyes, large mouth, feet 
 and hands, yellowish brown complexion, ungainly obese figures 
 and short stature, all of which are characteristic of both sections, 
 the Kara-Kirghiz highlanders, and the Kazaks of the lowlands. 
 Some ethnologists regard these Kirghiz groups, not as a distinct 
 branch of the Mongolo-Turki race, but rather as a confederation 
 of several nomad tribes stretching from the Gobi to the Lower 
 Volga, and mingled together by Jenghiz-Khan and his successors ^ 
 
 The true national name is Kazdk^ "Riders," and as they 
 were originally for the most part mounted 
 marauders, or free lances of the steppe, the term K^sslck.^"'^ 
 came to be gradually applied to all nomad and 
 other horsemen engaged in predatory warfare. It thus at an early 
 date reached the South Russian steppe, where it was adopted in 
 the form of Kossack by the Russians themselves. It should be 
 noted that the compound term Kirghiz-Kazak, introduced by 
 the Russians to distinguish these nomads from their own Cossacks, 
 is really a misnomer. The word "Kirghiz," what- 
 ever its origin, is never used by the Kazaks in Kh-ghif.^*^* 
 reference to themselves, but only to their near 
 relations, the Kirghiz, or Kara-Kirghiz^, of the uplands. 
 
 These highlanders, who roam the Tian-shan and Pamir valleys, 
 form two sections : — On, " Right " or East, and Sol^ " Left," or 
 West. They are the Diko Kamennyi, that is, "Wild Rock People," 
 of the Russians, whence the expression "Block Kirghiz" still found 
 in some English books of travel. But they call themselves simply 
 Kirghiz, claiming descent from an original tribe of that name, 
 itself sprung from a legendary Kirghiz-beg, from whom are also 
 descended the Chiliks, Kitars and others, all now reunited with 
 the Ons and the Sols. 
 
 The Kazaks also are grouped in long-established and still 
 jealously maintained sections — the Great, Middle, Little^ and 
 
 ^ M, Balkashin in Izvestia Russ. Geogr. Soc. April, 1883. 
 
 - iTrt!ra = " Black," with reference to the colour of their round felt tents. 
 
332 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Inner Horde — whose joint domain extends from Lake Balkhash 
 round the north side of the Caspian down to the Lower Volga \ 
 All accepted the teachings of Islam many centuries ago, but their 
 Muhammadanism^ is of a somewhat negative character, without 
 mosques, mollahs, or fanaticism, and in practice not greatly to be 
 distinguished from the old Siberian Shamanism. Kumiss, fer- 
 mented mare's milk, their universal drink, as amongst the ancient 
 Scythians, plays a large part in the life of these hospitable steppe 
 nomads. 
 
 One of the lasting results of Castren's labours has been to 
 ^, _. place beyond reasonable doubt the Altai origin of 
 
 The Finns. v j to 
 
 the Finnish peoples ^ Their cradle may now be lo- 
 calized with some confidence about the headwaters of the Yenisei, 
 in proximity to that of their Turki kinsmen. Here is the seat of 
 the Soyotes and of the closely allied Koibals, Kamassintzi, Matores, 
 Karagasses and others, who occupy a considerable territory along 
 both slopes of the Sayan range, and may be regarded as the 
 primitive stock of the wi'dely diffused Finnish race. Some of 
 these groups have intermingled with the neighbouring Turki 
 peoples, and even speak Turki dialects. But the original Finnish 
 
 ^ On the obscure relations of these Hordes to the Kara-Kirghiz and prehis- 
 toric Usuns some light has been thrown by the investigations of N. A. Aristov, 
 a summary of whose conclusions is given by Dr A. Ivanovski in Centralhlatt 
 fiir Anthropologic etc., 1896, p. 47. 
 
 ^ Although officially returned as Muhammadans of the Sunni sect, Levchine 
 tells us that it is hard to say whether they are Moslem, Pagan (Shamanists), or 
 Manichean, this last because they believe God has made good angels called 
 Mankir and bad angels called Nankir. Two of these spirits sit invisibly on 
 the shoulders of every person from his birth, the good on the right, the bad on 
 the left, each noting his actions in their respective books, and balancing 
 accounts at his death. It is interesting to compare" these ideas with those of 
 the Uzbeg prince who explained to Mr Lansdell that at the resurrection, the 
 earth being flat, the dead grow out of it like grass; then God divides the good 
 from the bad, sending these below and those above. In heaven nobody dies, 
 and every wish is gratified ; even the wicked creditor may seek out his debtor, 
 and in lieu of the money owing may take over the equivalent in his good deeds, 
 if there be any, and thus be saved {Through Central Asm, 1887, p. 438). 
 
 ^ See especially his Reiseberichte n. Brief e aus den Jahren 1845-49, p. 401 
 sq. ; and Verstich einei Koibalischeii u. Kai'agassischen Sprachlehre, 1858, vol. i. 
 passim. 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 333 
 
 type and speech are well represented by the Soyotes, who are 
 here indigenous, and "from these their... kinsmen, the Samoyeds 
 have spread as breeders of reindeer to the north of the continent 
 from the White Sea to the Bay of Chatanga\" Others, following 
 a westerly route along the foot of the Altai and down the Irtish to 
 the Urals, appear to have long occupied both slopes of that range, 
 where they acquired some degree of culture, and especially that 
 knowledge of, and skill in working, the precious and other metals, 
 for which the "White-eyed Chudes" were famous, and to which 
 repeated reference is made in the songs of the Kalevala^. As 
 there are no mines or minerals in Finland itself, it seems obvious 
 that the legendary heroes of the Finnish national epic must have 
 dwelt in some metalliferous region, which could only be the Altai 
 or the Urals, possibly both. 
 
 In any case the Urals became a second home and point of 
 dispersion for the Finnish tribes {Ugrian Finns),^hosQ migrations — 
 some prehistoric, some historic — can be followed thence down the 
 Pechora and Dvina to the Frozen Ocean ^, and down the Kama 
 ~ to the Volga. From this artery, where permanent settlements 
 were formed ( Volga Finns), some conquering hordes went south 
 and west {Danubian Finns), while more peaceful wanderers 
 
 1 Peschel, Races of Man, p. 386. 
 
 - In a suggestive paper on this collection of Finnish songs Mr C. U. Clark 
 {Forum, April, 1898, p. 238 sq.) shows from the primitive character of the 
 mythology, the frequent allusions to copper or bronze, and the almost utter ab- 
 sence of Christian ideas and other indications, that these songs must be of great 
 antiquity. "There seems to be no doubt that some parts date back to at 
 least 3000 years ago, before the Finns and the Hungarians had become distinct 
 peoples ; for the names of the divinities, many of the customs, and even par- 
 ticular incantations and bits of superstitions mentioned in the Kalevala are 
 curiously duplicated in ancient Hungarian writings." 
 
 ^ When Ohthere made his famous voyage round North Cape to the Cwen 
 Sea (White Sea) all this Arctic seaboard was inhah)ited, not by Samoyads, as at 
 present, but by true Finns, whom King Alfred calls Beornias, i.e. i\\& Biarmians 
 of the Norsemen, and \}xq. Permiaki {Permians) of the Russians [Orosius i. 13). 
 In medieval times the whole region between the White Sea and the Urals 
 was often called Permia; but since the withdrawal southwards of the Ziryanians 
 and other Permian Finns tj^s Arctic region has been thinly occupied by 
 Samoyad tribes spreading slowly westwards from Siberia to the Pechora and 
 Lower Dvina. 
 
334 ^iAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 ascended the great river to Lakes Ladoga and Onega, and thence 
 to the shores of the Baltic and Lapland {Baltic and Lake Finns). 
 Thus were constituted the main branches of the wide-spread 
 
 Finnish family, whose domain formerly extended 
 
 Former and fj-Q^ \^q Khatanga beyond the Yenisei to Lapland, 
 
 Domain. and from the Arctic Ocean to the Altai range, the 
 
 Caspian, and the Volga, with considerable enclaves 
 in the Danube basin. But throughout their relatively short his- 
 toric life the Finnish peoples, despite a characteristic tenacity and 
 power of resistance, have in many places been encroached upon, 
 absorbed, or even entirely eliminated, by more aggressive races, 
 such as the Siberian ''Tatars" in their Altai cradleland, the Turki 
 Kirghiz and Bashkirs in the West Siberian steppes and the Urals, 
 the Russians in the Volga and Lake districts, the Germans and 
 Lithuanians in the Baltic Provinces (Kurland, Livonia, Esthonia), 
 the Rumanians, Slavs, and others in the Danube regions, where 
 the Ugrian Bulgars and Magyars have been almost entirely assimi- 
 lated in type (and the former also in speech) to the surrounding 
 European populations. 
 
 Few anthropologists now attach much importance to the view s 
 
 not yet quite obsolete regarding a former extension 
 ward Spread of of the Finnish race over the whole of Europe and 
 
 the British Isles. Despite the fact that all the 
 Finns are essentially round-headed, they were identified first with 
 the long-headed cavemen, who retreated north with the reindeer, 
 as was the favourite hypothesis, and then with the early neohthic 
 races who were also long-headed. Elaborate but now forgotten 
 essays were written by learned philologists to establish a common 
 origin of the Basque and the Finnic tongues, which have nothing 
 in common, and half the myths, folklore, and legendary heroes of 
 the western nations were traced to Finno-Ugrian sources. 
 
 Now we know better, and both archaeologists and philologists 
 have made it evident that the Finnish peoples are relatively 
 quite recent arrivals in Europe, that the men of the Bronze Age 
 in Finland itself were not Finns but Teutons, and that at the 
 beginning of the new era all the Finnish tribes still dwelt east 
 ofthe Gulf of Finland'. 
 
 ^ See A. Hackmann, Die Bronzezeit Fitmlands, Helsingfors, 1897 ; also 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 335 
 
 Not only so, but the eastern migrations themselves, as above 
 roughly outlined, appear to have taken place at 
 a relatively late epoch, long after the inhabitants Bronze Agesln 
 of west Siberia had passed from the New Stone Landl""'^*" 
 to the Metal Ages. J. R. Aspelin, "founder of 
 Finno-Ugrian archaeology," points out that the Finno-Ugrian 
 peoples originally occupied a geographical position between the 
 Indo-Germanic and the MongoHc races, and that their first Iron 
 Age was most probably a development, between the Yenisei and 
 the Kama, of the so-called Ural-Altai Bronze Age, the last echoes 
 of which may be traced westwards to Finland and north Scandi- 
 navia. In the Upper Yenisei districts iron objects had still the 
 forms of the Bronze Age, when that ancient civilisation, associated 
 with the name of the " Chudes," was interrupted by an invasion 
 which introduced the still persisting Turki Iron Age, expelled the 
 aboriginal inhabitants, and thus gave rise to the great migrations 
 first of the Finno-Ugrians, and then of the Turki peoples (Bashkirs, 
 Volga "Tatars" and others) to and across the Urals. It was here, 
 in the Permian territory between the Irtish and the Kama, that 
 the West Siberian (Chudish) Iron Age continued its normal and 
 unbroken evolution. The objects recovered from the old graves 
 and kurgans in the present governments of Tver and laroslav, 
 and especially at Ananyino on the Kama, centre of this culture, 
 show that here took place the transition from the Bronze to the 
 Iron Age some 300 years before the new era, and here was 
 developed a later Iron Age, whose forms are characteristic of the 
 northern Finno-Ugrian lands. The whole region would thus 
 appear to have been first occupied by these immigrants from 
 Asia after the irruption of the Turki hordes into Western Siberia 
 during the First Iron Age, at most some 500 or 600 years before 
 
 M. Aspelin, O, Montelius, V. Thomsen and others, who have all, on various 
 grounds, arrived at the same conclusion. Even D. E. D. Europseus, who has 
 advanced so many heterodox views on the Finnish cradleland, and on the 
 relations of the Finnic to the Mongolo-Turki languages, agrees that "vers 
 I'epoque de la naissance de J. C, c'est-a-dire bien longtemps avant que ces 
 tribus immigrassent en Finknde, elles [the western Finns] etaient etablies 
 immediatement au sud des-lacs d'Onega et de Ladoga." {Travaux Geo- 
 graphiipies executes en Finlande jusqtC en 1895, Helsingfors, 1895, p. I4i.) 
 
336 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 the Christian era. The Finno-Ugrian migrations are thus limited 
 to a period of not more than 2,600 years from the present time, 
 and this conclusion, based on archaeological grounds, agrees fairly 
 well with the historical, linguistic, and ethnical data. 
 
 It is especially in this obscure field of research that the 
 eminent Danish scholar, Prof. Vilhelm Thomsen, has rendered 
 inestimable services to European ethnology. By the light of his 
 linguistic studies A. H. Snellman^ has elucidated 
 Finns. ^^^^''^ t^^ origins of the Baltic Finns, the Proto-Esthonians, 
 the now all but extinct Livonians, and the quite 
 extinct Kurlanders, from the time when they still dwelt east and 
 south-east of the Baltic lands, under the influence of the surround- 
 ing Lithuanian and Gothic tribes, till the German conquest of the 
 Baltic provinces. We .learn from Jordanes, to whom is due the 
 first authentic account of these populations, that the various 
 Finnish tribes were subject to the Gothic king Hermanarich, 
 and Thomsen now shows that all the Western Finns (Esthonians, 
 Livonians, Votes, Vepses, Karelians, Tavastians, and others of 
 Finland), must in the first centuries of the new era have lived 
 practically as one people in the closest social union, speaking one 
 language, and following the same religious, tribal, and political 
 institutions. Earlier than the (Gothic was the Letto-Lithuanian 
 contact, as shown by the fact that its traces are perceptible in the 
 language of the Volga Finns, in which German loan-words are 
 absent. From these investigations it becomes clear that the 
 Finnish domain must at that time have stretched from the 
 present Esthonia, Livonia, and Lake Ladoga south to the western 
 Dvina. 
 
 The westward movement was connected with the Slav migra- 
 tions. When the Slavs south of the Letts moved 
 
 Relations to 
 
 Goths, Letts, west, Other Slav tribes must have pushed north, 
 and Slavs. ^^^^ driving both Letts and Finns west to the 
 
 Baltic provinces, which had previously been occupied by the 
 Germans (Goths). Some of the Western Finns must have found 
 their way about 500 a.d., scarcely earlier, into parts of this 
 region, where they came into hostile and friendly contact with 
 
 ^ Finska Forminnesfdreningens Tidskrifi, J own. Fin. Antiq. Soc, 1896, 
 p. 137 sq. 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 337 
 
 the Norsemen. These relations would even appear to be reflected 
 in the Norse mythology, which may be regarded as in great 
 measure an echo of historic events. The wars of the Swedish 
 and Danish kings referred to in these oral records may be 
 interpreted as plundering expeditions rather than permanent 
 conquests, while the undoubtedly active intercourse between the 
 east and west coasts of the Baltic may be explained on the 
 assumption that, after the withdrawal of the Goths, a remnant 
 of the Germanic populations remained behind in the Baltic 
 provinces. 
 
 From Nestor's statement that all three of the Varangian 
 princes settled, not amongst Slavish but amongst 
 Finnish peoples, it may be inferred that the Finnish orig"ns°"^"^^ 
 element constituted the most important section in 
 the newly founded Russian State ; and it may here be mentioned 
 that the term " Russ " itself has now been traced to the Finnish 
 word Ruost {Ruosti), a " Norseman." But although at first greatly 
 outnumbering the Slavs, the Finnish peoples soon lost the political 
 ascendancy, and their subsequent history may be summed up in 
 the expression — gradual absorption in the surrounding Slav popu- 
 lations. This inevitable process is still going on amongst all the 
 Volga, Lake and Baltic Finns, except in Finland and Lapland, 
 where other conditions obtain ^ 
 
 Most Finnish ethnologists agree that however much they may 
 now differ in their physical and mental characters and usages, 
 Finns and Lapps were all originally one people. Some variant 
 of Suoma^ enters into the national name of all the Baltic groups — 
 Suomalaiset, the Finns of Finland, Somela'ized, those of Esthonia, 
 Safuelats (Sabmelad), the Lapps, Samoyad, the Samoyedes. In 
 Ohthere's time the Norsemen called all the Lapps " Finnas " (as 
 
 ^ ' ' Les Finnois et leurs congeneres ont occupe autrefois, sur d'immenses 
 espaces, les vastes regions forestieres de la Russie septentrionale et centrale, et 
 de la Siberie occidental; mais plus tard, refoules et divises par d'autres 
 peuples, ils furent reduits a des tribus isolees, dont il ne reste maintenant que 
 des debris epars" [Travaux Geographiques, p. 132). 
 
 2 A word of doubtful meting, commonly but wrongly supposed to mean 
 swamp ox fen, and thus to be the original of the Teutonic Finnas, "Fen 
 People" (see Thomsen, Einfluss d. ger. Spr. aiifdiefinnisch-lappischen, p. 14). 
 K. 22 
 
338 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 the Norwegians still do), and that early navigator already noticed 
 that these " Finns " seemed to speak the same 
 
 Tavastian , 
 
 and Karelian language as the Beormas, who were true Fmns^ 
 ^""^' Nor do the present inhabitants of Finland, taken 
 
 as a whole, differ more in outward appearance and temperament 
 from their Lapp neighbours than do the Tavastians and the 
 Karelians, that is, their western and eastern sections, from each 
 other. The Tavastians, who call themselves Hemelaiset, " Lake 
 People," have rather broad, heavy frames, small and oblique blue 
 or grey eyes, towy hair and white complexion, without the clear 
 florid colour of the North Germanic and English peoples. The 
 temperament is somewhat sluggish, passive and enduring, morose 
 and vindictive, but honest and trustworthy. 
 
 Very different are the tall, slim, active Karelians (Karia/atsef, 
 "Cowherds," from Xari, "Cow"), with more regular features, 
 straight grey eyes, brown complexion, and chestnut hair, like 
 that of the hero of the Kalevala, hanging in ringlets down the 
 shoulders. Many of the Karelians, and most of the neighbouring 
 Itigrians about the head of the Gulf of Finland, as well as the 
 Votes and Vepses of the great lakes, have been assimilated in 
 speech, religion, and usages to the surrounding Russian popula- 
 tions. But the more conservative Tavastians have hitherto 
 tenaciously preserved the national sentiment, language, and tradi- 
 tions. Despite the pressure of Sweden on the west, and of 
 Russia on the east, the Finns still stand out as a distinct Euro- 
 pean nationality, and continue to cultivate with success their 
 harmonious and highly poetical language. Since the 12th century 
 they have been Christians, converted to the Catholic faith by 
 " Saint " Eric, King of Sweden, and later to Lutheranism, again 
 by the Swedes^. The national university, removed in 1827 from 
 Abo to Helsingfors, is a centre of much scientific and literary 
 work, and here E. Lonnrot, father of Finnish literature, brought 
 out his various editions of the Kalevala^ that of 1849 consisting 
 of some 50,000 strophes. 
 
 A kind of transition from these settled and cultured Finns 
 
 1 *'l>a Finnas, him )>uhte, and }>a Beormas spraecon neah an ge'Seode" 
 (Orosius I. 14). 
 
 2 See my paper on the Finns in Cassell's Storehouse of Itiforination, p. 296. 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS.* 339 
 
 to the Lapps of Scandinavia and Russia is formed by the still 
 almost nomad, or at least restless Kwcens, who for- 
 
 - TTT1 • o. 1 • 1 • The Kwaens. 
 
 merly roamed as far as the White Sea, which in 
 Alfred's time was known as the Civen See (Kwaen Sea). These 
 Kwaens, who still number nearly 300,000, are even called nomads 
 by Prof. J. A. Friis, who tells us that there is a continual move- 
 ment of small bands between Finland and Scandinavia. "The 
 wandering Kwaens pass round the Gulf of Bothnia and up 
 through Lappmarken to Kittala, where they separate, some going 
 to Varanger, and others to Alten. They follow the same route 
 as that which, according to historians, some of the Norsemen 
 followed in their wanderings from Finland ^" The references of 
 the Sagas are mostly to these primitive Bothnian Finns, with 
 whom the Norsemen first came in contact, and who in the 6th 
 and following centuries were still in a rude state not greatly 
 removed from that of their Ugrian forefathers. As shown by 
 Almqvist's researches, they lived almost exclusively by hunting 
 and fishing, had scarcely a rudimentary knowledge of agriculture, 
 and could prepare neither butter nor cheese from the milk of their 
 half-wild reindeer herds. 
 
 Such were also, and in some measure still are, the kindred 
 Lapps, who with the allied Yurak Samoyads of 
 Arctic Russia are the only true nomads still sur- s^oyads^a^nd 
 iViving in Europe. Mr A. H. Cocks, who travelled Permian 
 
 1/ ° ^ Finns. 
 
 amongst all these rude aborigines in 1888, describes 
 the Kwaens who range north to Lake Enara, as "for the most 
 part of a very rough class," and found that the Russian Lapps of 
 the Kola Peninsula, " except as to their clothing and the addition 
 of coffee and sugar to their food supply, are living now much the 
 same life as their ancestors probably lived 2000 or more years 
 ago, a far more primitive life, in fact, than the Reindeer Lapps 
 [of Scandinavia]. They have not yet begun to use tobacco, and 
 reading and writing are entirely unknown among them. Unlike 
 the three other divisions of the race [the Norwegian, Swedish, and 
 Finnish Lapps], they are a very cheerful, light-hearted people, 
 
 ^ Laila, Earl of Ducie's Eiwlish ed. p. 58. The Swedish Bothnia is stated 
 to be a translation of Kkoczn, meaning low-lying coastlands ; hence Kainulaiset, 
 as they call themselves, would mean " Coastlanders." 
 
 22 — 2 
 
340 -MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 and have the curious habit of expressing their thoughts aloud in 
 extempore sing-song ^" 
 
 Similar traits have been noticed in the Samoyads, whom 
 Mr F. G. Jackson describes as an extremely sociable and hos- 
 pitable people, delighting in gossip, and much given to laughter 
 and merriment ^ He gives their mean height as nearly 5 ft. 2 in., 
 which is about the same as that of the Lapps (Von Diiben, 5 ft. 
 2 in., others rather less), while that of the Finns averages 5 ft. 
 5 in. (Topinard). Although the general Mongol appearance is 
 much less pronounced in the Lapps than in the Samoyads, in 
 some respects — low stature, flat face with peculiar round outline — 
 the latter reminded Mr Jackson of the Ziryanians, who are a 
 branch of the Beormas (Permian Finns), though like them now 
 much mixed with the Russians. The so-called prehistoric " Lapp 
 Graves," occurring throughout the southern parts of Scandinavia, 
 are now known from their contents to have belonged to the 
 Norse race, who appear to have occupied this region since the 
 New Stone Age, while the Lapp domain seems never to have 
 reached very much farther south than Trondhjem. 
 
 All these facts, taken especially in connection with the late 
 arrival of the Finns themselves in Finland, lend 
 
 Lapp 
 
 Origins and support to the view that the Lapps are a branch, 
 not of the Suomalaiset, but of the Permian Finns, 
 and reached their present homes, not from Finland, but from 
 North Russia through the Kanin and Kola Peninsulas, if not 
 round the shores of the White Sea, at some remote period prior 
 to the occupation of Finland by its present inhabitants. This 
 assumption would also explain Ohthere's statement that Lapps 
 and Permians seemed to speak nearly the same language. The 
 resemblance is still close, though I am not competent to say to 
 which branch of the Finno-Ugrian family Lapp is most nearly 
 allied. 
 
 Of the Mongol physical characters the Lapp still retains the 
 
 T m era round low skull (index 83), the prominent cheek- 
 
 ment— bones, somewhat flat features, and ungainly figure. 
 
 The temperament, also, is still perhaps more Asiatic 
 
 1 A Boat Jotirney to Inari^ Viking Club, Feb. i, 1895. 
 - The Great Frozen Land, 1895, p. 61. 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 34I 
 
 than European, although since the i8th century they have been 
 Christians — Lutherans in Scandinavia, Orthodox in Russia. In 
 pagan times Shamanism had nowhere acquired a greater develop- 
 ment than among the Lapps. A great feature of the system were 
 the "rune-trees," made of pine or birch bark, inscribed with 
 figures of gods, men, or animals, which were consulted on all 
 important occasions, and their mysterious signs interpreted by 
 the Shamans. Even foreign potentates hearkened to the voice of 
 these renowned magicians, and in England the expression " Lap- 
 land witches " became proverbial, although it appears that there 
 never were any witches, but only wizards, in Lapland. Such 
 rites have long ceased to be practised, although some of the 
 crude ideas of a material after-life still linger on. Money and 
 other treasures are often buried or hid away, the owners dying 
 without revealing the secret, either through forgetfulness, or more 
 probably of set purpose in the hope of thus making provision for 
 the other world. 
 
 Amongst the kindred Samoyads, despite their Russian ortho- 
 doxy, the old pagan beliefs enjoy a still more vigorous existence. 
 "As long as things go well with him, he is a Christian; but 
 should his reindeer die, or other catastrophe happen, he imme- 
 diately returns to his old god Num or Chaddi...lie conducts his 
 heathen services by night and in secret, and carefully screens 
 from sight any image of Chaddi\" Mr Jackson noticed several 
 instances of this compromise between the old and the new, such 
 as the wooden cross supplemented on the Samoyad graves by an 
 overturned sledge to convey the dead safely over the snows of 
 the under-world, and the rings of stones, within which the human 
 sacrifices were perhaps formerly offered to propitiate Chaddi; 
 and although these things have ceased, "it is only a few years 
 ago that a Samoyad living on Novaia Zemlia sacrificed a young 
 
 girl." 
 
 Similar beliefs and practices still prevail not only amongst the 
 Siberian Finns — Ostyaks of the Yenisei and Obi 
 
 ■' The Volga 
 
 rivers, Voguls of the Urals — but even amongst pinns. 
 the Votyaks, Mordvini^s, Cheremisses and other 
 scattered groups still surviving in the Volga basin. So recently as 
 1 The Great Frozen Land, p. 84. 
 
342 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 the year 1896 a number of Votyaks were tried and convicted for 
 the murder of a passing mendicant, whom they had beheaded to 
 appease the wrath of Kiremet, Spirit of Evil and author of the 
 famine raging at that time in Central Russia. Besides Kiremet, 
 the Votyaks — who appear to have migrated from the Urals to 
 their present homes between the Kama and the Viatka rivers 
 about 400 A.D., and are mostly heathens — also worship Inmar, 
 God of Heaven, to whom they sacrifice animals as well as human 
 beings whenever it can be safely done. We are assured by Baron 
 de Baye that even the few who are baptized take part secretly 
 in these unhallowed rites ^ 
 
 To the Ugrian branch, rudest and most savage of all the 
 Finnish peoples, belong these now moribund Volga groups, as 
 well as the fierce Bulgar and Magyar hordes, if not also their 
 precursors, the Jazyges and Rhoxolani^ who in the 2nd century a.d. 
 swarmed into Pannonia from the Russian steppe, and in company 
 with the Germanic Quadi and Marcomanni twice (168 and 172) 
 advanced to the walls of Aquileia, and were twice arrested by the 
 legions of Marcus Aurelius and Verus. Of the once numerous 
 Jazyges, whom Pliny calls Sarmates, there were several branches 
 — McEotcE, MetanastcB, Basilii ("Royal") — who were first reduced 
 by the Goths spreading from the Baltic to the Euxine and Lower 
 Danube, and then overwhelmed with the Dacians, Getae, Bastarnae, 
 and a hundred other ancient peoples in the great deluge of the 
 Hunnish invasion. 
 
 From the same South Russian steppe — the plains watered by 
 Th Bui ars ^^ Lower Don and Dnieper — came the Bulgars^ 
 —Origins and first in association with the Huns, from whom they 
 are scarcely distinguished by the early Byzantine 
 writers, and then as a separate people, who, after throwing off the 
 yoke of the Avars (635 a.d.), withdrew before the pressure of the 
 Khazars westwards to the Lower Danube (678). But their records 
 go much farther back than these dates, and while philologists and 
 archaeologists are able to trace their wanderings step by step north 
 to the Middle Volga and the Ural Mountains, authentic Armenian 
 
 ^ Notes sur les Votiaks payens des Gonvernements de Kazan et Viatka, Vqx\%, 
 1897. They are still numerous, especially in Viatka, where they numbered 
 240,000 in 1897. 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 343 
 
 documents carry their history back to the 2nd century B.C. Under 
 the Arsacides numerous bands of Bulgars, driven from their homes 
 about the Kama confluence by civil strife, settled on the banks of 
 the Aras, and since that time (150 — 114 B.C.) the Bulgars were 
 known to the Armenians as a great nation dwelHng away to the 
 north far beyond the Caucasus. 
 
 Originally the name, which afterwards acquired such an odious 
 notoriety amongst the European peoples, may have been more 
 geographical than ethnical, implying not so much a particular 
 nation as all the inhabitants of the Bulga (Volga) between the 
 Kama and the Caspian. But at that time this section of the 
 great river seems to have been mainly held by more or less homo- 
 geneous branches of the Finno-Ugrian family, and palethnologists 
 have now shown that to this connection beyond all question 
 belonged in physical appearance, speech, and usages those bands 
 known as Bulgars, who formed permanent settlements in Moesia 
 south of the Lower Danube towards the close of the 7th century'. 
 Here "these bold and dexterous archers, who drank the milk and 
 feasted on the flesh of their fleet and indefatigable horses ; whose 
 flocks and herds followed, or rather guided, the motions of their 
 roving camps ; to whose inroads no country was remote or imper- 
 vious, and who were practised in flight, though incapable of fearV* 
 established a powerful state, which maintained its independence 
 for over seven hundred years (678 — 1392). 
 
 Acting at first in association with the Slavs, and then assuming 
 "a vague dominion" over their restless Sarmatian aUies, the 
 Bulgars spread the terror of their hated name throughout the 
 Balkan lands, and were prevented only by the skill of Belisarius 
 from anticipating their Turki kinsmen in the overthrow of the 
 Byzantine Empire itself. Procopius and Jornandes have left 
 terrible pictures of the ferocity, debasement, and utter savagery, 
 both of the Bulgars and of their Slav confederates during the 
 period preceding the foundation of the Bulgar dynasty in Mcesia. 
 Wherever the Slavs (Antes, Slavini) passed, no soul was left 
 
 1 See especially Schafarik's classical work Slavische Alterthiimer, ii. p. 159 
 sq. and V. de Saint-Martin, glides de Geographic Ancienne et d" Ethnographie 
 asiatique, II. p. 10 sq., also the still indispensable Gibbon, Ch. XLII. &c. 
 
 - Decline and Fall, XLII. 
 
344 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 alive; Thrace and Illyria were strewn with unburied corpses; 
 captives were shut up with horse and cattle in stables, and all 
 consumed together, while the brutal hordes danced to the music 
 of their shrieks and groans. Indescribable was the horror inspired 
 by the Bulgars, who killed for killing's sake, wasted for sheer love 
 of destruction, swept away all works of the human hand, burnt, 
 razed cities, left in their wake nought but a picture of their own 
 cheerless native steppes. Of all the barbarians that harried the 
 Empire, the Bulgars have left the most detested name, although 
 closely rivalled by the Slavs. 
 
 To the ethnologist the later history of the Bulgarians is of 
 exceptional interest. They entered the Danubian lands in the 
 seventh century as typical Ugro-Finns, repulsive alike in physical 
 appearance and mental characters. Their dreaded chief, Krum, 
 celebrated his triumphs with sanguinary rites, and his followers 
 yielded in no respects to the Huns themselves in coarseness and 
 brutality. Yet an almost complete moral if not physical trans- 
 formation had been effected by the middle of the 9th century, 
 when the Bulgars were evangelised by Cyril and Methodius, 
 exchanged their rude Ugrian speech for a Slavonic tongue, the 
 so-called "Church Slav," or even "Old Bulgarian," and became 
 henceforth merged in the surrounding Slav populations. The 
 national name "Bulgar" alone survives, as that of a somewhat 
 peaceful southern "Slav" people, who have in our time again 
 acquired the political independence of which they had been de- 
 prived by Bajazet I. in 1392. 
 
 Nor did this name disappear from the Volga lands after the 
 great misfration of Bulgar hordes to the Don basin 
 
 Great and » o & 
 
 Little Bui- during the 3rd and 4th centuries a.d. On the 
 ^^"^* contrary, here arose another and a greater Bulgar 
 
 empire, which was known to the Byzantines of the loth century 
 as " Black Bulgaria," and later to the Arabs and Western peoples 
 as " Great Bulgaria," in contradistinction to the " Little Bulgaria " 
 south of the Danube \ It fell to pieces during the later "Tatar" 
 
 1 Rubruquis (13th century) : "We came to the Etil, a very large and deep 
 river four times wider than the Seine, flowing from 'Great Bulgaria,' which 
 lies to the north." Farther on he adds: "It is from this Great Bulgaria that 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 345 
 
 wars, and nothing now remains of the Volga Bulgars, except the 
 Volga itself from which they were named. 
 
 In the same region, but farther north ^, lay also a "Great 
 Hungary," the original seat of those other Ugrian 
 Finns known as Hungarians and Magyars, who Magyar^." 
 followed later in the track of the Bulgars, and like 
 them formed permanent settlements in the Danube basin, but 
 higher up in Pannonia, the present kingdom of Hungary. Here, 
 however, the Magyars had been preceded by the kindred (or at 
 least distantly connected) Avars, the dominant people in the 
 Middle Danube lands for a great part of the period between the 
 departure of the Huns and the arrival of the Magyars". RoUing 
 up like a storm cloud from the depths of Siberia to the Volga and 
 Euxine, sweeping everything before them, reducing Kutigurs, 
 Utigurs, Bulgars, and Slavs, the Avars presented themselves in 
 the 6th century on the frontiers of the empire as the unwelcome 
 allies of Justinian. Arrested at the Elbe by the Austrasian Franks, 
 and hard pressed by the Gepidae, they withdrew to the Lower 
 Danube under the ferocious Khagan Bayan, who, before his over- 
 throw by the Emperor Mauritius and death in 602, had crossed 
 the Danube, captured Sirmium, and reduced the whole region 
 bordering on the Byzantine empire. Later the still powerful 
 Avars with their Slav followers, "the Avar viper and the Slav 
 locust," overran the Balkan lands, and in 625 nearly captured 
 Constantinople. They were at last crushed by Pepin, king of 
 
 issued those Bulgarians who are beyond the Danube, on the Constantinople 
 side" (quoted by V. de Saint-Martin). 
 
 1 Evidently much nearer to the Ural Mountains, for Jean du Plan Carpin 
 says this "Great Hungary was the land of BascartT that is, Bashkir, a large 
 Finno-Turki people, who still occupy a considerable territory in the Orenburg 
 Government about the southern slopes of the Urals. 
 
 2 With them were associated many of the surviving fugitive On-Uigurs 
 (Gibbon's "Ogors or Varchonites"), whence the report that they were not 
 true Avars. But the Turki genealogies would appear to admit their claim 
 to the name, and in any case the Uigurs and Avars of those times cannot 
 now be ethnically distinguished. Kandish, one of their envoys to Justinian, 
 is clearly a Turki name, aiH^ Varchonites seems to point to the Warkhon 
 (Orkhon), seat in successive ages of the eastern Turks, the Uigurs, and the 
 true Mongols. 
 
34^ MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Italy, who reoccupied Sirmium in 799, and brought back such 
 treasure that the value of gold was for a time enormously 
 reduced. 
 
 Then came the opportunity of the Himagars (Hungarians), 
 who, after advancing from the Urals to the Volga (550 a.d.), had 
 reached the Danube about 886. Here they were invited to the 
 aid of the Germanic king Arnulf, threatened by a formidable 
 Magyar coalitioH of the westem Slavs under the redoubtable 
 
 Origins and Zvcutibolg, a nominal Christian who would enter 
 
 early Records. . i , r n i i i • -i i 
 
 the church on horseback followed by his wild re- 
 tainers, and threaten the priest at the altar with the lash. In the 
 upland Transylvanian valleys the Hunagars had been joined by 
 eight of the derelict Khazar tribes, amongst whom were the 
 Megers or Mogers, whose name under the form of Magyar 
 was eventually extended to the united Hunagar-Khazar nation. 
 Under their renowned king Arpad, son of Almuth, they first 
 overthrew Zventibolg, and then with the help of the surviving 
 Avars reduced the surrounding Slav populations. Thus towards 
 the close of the 9th century was founded in Pannonia the present 
 kingdom of Hungary, in which were absorbed all the kindred 
 Mongol and Finno-Turki elements that still survived from the 
 two previous Mongolo-Turki empires, established in the same 
 region by the Huns under Attila (430-453), and by the Avars 
 under Khagan Bayan (562-602). 
 
 After reducing the whole of Pannonia and ravaging Carinthia 
 and Friuli, the Hungars raided Bavaria and Italy (899-900), 
 imposed a tribute on the feeble successor of Arnulf (910), and 
 pushed their plundering expeditions as far west as Alsace, Lorraine, 
 and Burgundy, everywhere committing atrocities that recalled the 
 memory of Attila's savage hordes. They were reported to drink 
 the blood of their captives, so that in medieval legends the term 
 hufigar, ongar (the ogre of our fairy tales), indicated a man-eating 
 monster who devoured the flesh and drank the blood of children. 
 Later the same word seems to have been revived and associated 
 with the Uigur Turks who, as above seen, took part in the 
 Mongol invasions of Europe under Jenghiz-Khan and his suc- 
 cessors. 
 
 This period of lawlessness and savagery was closed by the 
 
IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 347 
 
 conversion of Saint Stephen I. (997-1038), after which the 
 Magyars became gradually assimilated in type and general culture, 
 but not in speech, to the western nation s\ Their harmonious 
 and highly cultivated language still remains a typical member 
 of the Ural-Altaic family, reflecting in its somewhat composite 
 vocabulary the various Finno-Ugric and Turki elements (Ugrians 
 and Permians from the Urals, Volga Finns, Turki Avars and 
 Khazars), of which the substratum of the Magyar nation is con- 
 stituted^. 
 
 Politically the Magyars continue to occupy a position of vital 
 importance in Eastern Europe, wedged in between the northern 
 and southern Slav peoples, and thus presenting an insurmount- 
 able obstacle to the aspirations of the Panslavist dreamers. The 
 fiery and vigorous Magyar nationality, a compact body of about 
 8,000,000 (1898), holds the boundless plains watered by the 
 Middle Danube and the Theiss, and thus permanently separates 
 the Chekhs, Moravians, and Slovaks of Bohemia and the northern 
 Carpathians from their kinsmen, the Yugo-Slavs ("Southern Slavs ") 
 of Servia and the other now Slavonized Balkan lands. These 
 Yugo-Slavs are in their turn severed by the Rumanians of Neo- 
 Latin speech from their northern and eastern brethren, the Ruth- 
 enians, Poles, Great and Little Russians. Had the Magyars and 
 Rumanians adopted any of the neighbouring Slav idioms, it is 
 safe to say that, like the Ugrian Bulgarians, they must have long 
 ago been absorbed in the surrounding Panslav world, with con- 
 sequences to the central European nations which it would not be 
 difficult to forecast. Here we have a striking illustration of the 
 influence of language in developing and preserving the national 
 sentiment, analogous in many respects to that now witnessed on 
 a larger scale amongst the English-speaking populations on both 
 
 1 Ethnology, p. 309. 
 
 2 Vambery, perhaps the best authority on this point, holds that in its 
 structure Magyar leans more to the Finno-Ugric, and in its vocabulary to the 
 Turki branch of the Ural-Altaic linguistic family. He attributes the efFace- 
 ment of the physical type partly to the effects of the environment, partly to the 
 continuous interminglings of ^e Ugric, Turki, Slav, and Germanic peoples in 
 Pannonia {Ueber den Ursprung der Magyaren, in Mitt. d. K. K. Geograph. 
 Ges.y Vienna, 1897, XL. Nos. 3 and 4). 
 
348 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. IX. 
 
 sides of the Atlantic and in the Austral lands. From this point 
 of view the ethnologist may unreservedly accept Ehrenreich's 
 trenchant remark that "the nation stands and falls with its 
 speech \" 
 
 ^ "Das Volk steht unci fallt mit der Sprache" {Urbezvohner Brasiliens^ 
 1897, p. 14). 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 Origin and Cultural Evolution — Two Primitive Types: Long-heads from 
 Europe ; Round-heads from Asia — Mongolo-Caucasic Relations — The 
 American specialised in America — Palaeolithic Man in America — Inde- 
 pendent Evolution of Speech in America — Stock Languages — Distribution 
 of the Original Ethnical Elements — Cranial Deformation — The "Toltecs" 
 — Type of North-west Coast Indians — Contrasts and Transitions between 
 British Columbians and Eskimoans — Eskimo Origins and Migrations — 
 Skrdllinger and Norseme7z — Eskimo and Aleut Cradleland — Tribal 
 Organization — Variable Type — Uniform Character of Eskimo Speech — 
 Cultural Systems — Shamanism — Thlinkit and Haida Heraldic Posts — 
 Folklore — Range of the Athabascans — Navajo s and Apaches — The Indian 
 Reservations — The Mound-Builders — The " Six Nations " — The Chero- 
 kees — The Cherokee Writing System — The Muskhogeans — Primitive Man 
 in Florida — The Sioiians: Origins and Migrations — The Biloxi: Migra- 
 tions and Displacements-rCosmogonies — The Dakotas Dakota Social 
 
 System — The Totem : — Clan, Gens, and Phratry — The Pueblo Indians and 
 Cliff-Dwellers — Their Cultural Relations — The Pueblo Clan System — 
 Symbolism and Snake Dances. 
 
 Conspectus. 
 
 Primeval Home. North and South America. ^. Distribu- 
 
 tion in 
 
 Present Range. M W. Pacific Coastlands ; ^^^^^H^^^ 
 shores of the Arctic Ocean, Labrador, and Greenland ; the Times. 
 unsettled parts of Alaska and the Dominion; Reservations 
 and Agencies in the Dominion and the United States ; 
 parts of Florida, Arizona, and New Mexico ; most of 
 Central and South America with Fuegia either wild and 
 full-blood, or semi-civilized half-breeds. 
 
 Hair, black, lank, coarse, often very long, nearly Physical 
 round in transverse section ; face and body hairless ; ters. 
 Colour, normally coppery or yellowish-brown, but dark 
 brown on the uplands, and light brown in the Amazonian 
 and other woodlands ; Skull, generally mesaticephalous 
 
350 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 (79°), but with wide range from 65 {some Eskimo) to So 
 or 90 {some British Columbians, Peruvians); the os 
 Incae more frequently present than amongst other races, 
 but the OS linguae {hyoid bone) often imperfectly de- 
 veloped ; Jaws, massive, but moderately projecting {meso- 
 gnathous, 72)/ Cheek-bone, rather prominent laterally, 
 and also high, but often of normal Caucasic forin ; Nose, 
 generally laige, straight or even aquiline, and mesorrhine 
 (50); Eyes, nearly always black, round, and straight, but 
 small, rather deep-set, and so?netimes slightly oblique; 
 Stature, usually above the medium {sft. 8 or 10 in.), 
 but variable — under 5 //. 6 in. on the western plateaux 
 {Peruvians, c^Y.), also in Fuegia and Alaska; d ft. and 
 tipwards in Patagonia {Tehuelches), Central Brazil 
 {Bororos) and Prairie {Algonquians, Iroquoians) ; Lips, 
 Arms, Legs, and Feet, of normal {European) type. 
 Mental Temperament, moody, reserved, and wary ; out- 
 
 ters. wardly impassive and capable of enduring extreme physical 
 
 pain ; considerate towards each other, kind and gentle 
 towards their women and children, but not in a demon- 
 strative manner ; keen sense of justice, hence easily offended, 
 but also easily pacified. The outward show of dignity and 
 a lofty air assumed by many seems due more to vanity or 
 ostentation than to a feeling of true pride. Mental 
 capacity considerable, much higher than the Negro, but on 
 the whole inferior to the Mongol. 
 
 Speech, exclusively polysynthetic, a type unknown 
 elsewhere ; is not a primitive condition, but a highly 
 specialised form of agglutination, in which all the terms 
 of the sentence tend to coalesce in a single polysyllabic word; 
 stock languages very numerous, perhaps more so than all 
 the stock languages of all the other orders of speech in the 
 rest of the world. 
 
 Religion, various grades of spirit and nature wor- 
 ship, corresponding to the various cultural grades; a 
 crude form of shamanism prevalent amongst most of the 
 North American aborigines, polytheism with sacrifice and 
 priestcraft amongst the cultured peoples {Aztecs, Mayas, 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 35 1 
 
 c^c); the monotheistic concept noivhere clearly evolved ; 
 belief in a natural afterlife very prevalent^ if not uni- 
 versal. 
 
 Culture, highly diversified ^ rangitig from the lowest 
 stages of savagery through various degrees of barbarism 
 to the advanced social state of the more or less civilised 
 Mayas, Aztecs, Chibchas, Yuncas, Quichuas, and Aymaras; 
 amongst these pottery, weaving, metal-work, agriculture, 
 and especially architecture fairly well developed ; letters 
 less so, although the Maya script seems to have reached 
 the true phonetic state ; navigation and science rudi- 
 mentary or absent; in general savagery far more prevalent 
 and intense in South than in North America, but the 
 tribal state almost everywhere persistent. 
 
 North America : Eskimauan (Innuit, Aleut, Kara- ^Main 
 
 ^ Divisions. 
 
 lit); Athapascan (Kuchin, Chippevvyan, Apache, Navajo); 
 Kolushan; Algonquian (Delaware, Abenaki, Chippeway, 
 Shawnee, Arapaho, Sac and Fox, Blackfoot); Iroquoian 
 (Huron, Mohawk, Tuscarora, Seneca, Cayuga, Onon- 
 daga); Siouan (Dakota, Omaha, Crow, Iowa, Osage, 
 Assiniboin); Shoshoneafi {Comanche., Ute); Salishati ; 
 Sahaptian ; Caddoan ; Muskhogean (Creek, Choctaw, 
 Chicasa, Seminole) ; Pueblo (Zuni, Tegua, Jemez, 
 Moqui). 
 
 Central America: Opatan; Nahuatlan (Aztec, 
 Pipil); Huaxtecan (Maya, Quiche, Pocoman); Miztecan ; 
 Zapotecan; Charotegan ; Otomitlan; Talamancati. 
 
 South Amterica: Muyscan (Chibcha); Quechuan 
 (Quitu, Chincha, Inca, Aymara); Yuncan (Chimu); 
 Antisan ; Jivaran ; Zaparan ; Betoyan ; Warrauan; 
 Panoan ; Ticunan ; Lecan ; Barrean ; Tacanan ; Chi- 
 quitan; Mojan : Arawakan (Atorai, Maypure, Wapiana, 
 Vaura, Mahinacu, Layana); Cariban (Bakairi, Nahuqua, 
 Pamella, Galibi, Calina, Arecuna, Macusi, Ackawoi); 
 G'uaranian (Tembo, Tupi, Omagua, Mundrucu) ; Gesan 
 (Botocudo, Camacan); Charruan; Mataguayan; Lulean ; 
 Toban ; Mocobian ; A^ucan; Puelchean (Pampas); 
 Tehuelchean; Fuegian (Yahgan, Alacaluf). 
 
352 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 No serious inquiry into the ethnical relations of the primitive 
 
 inhabitants of the New World can avoid the discussion of such 
 
 Ori in and Primary qucstions as their origin and cultural evolu- 
 
 Cuiturai tion. Are they indigenous in the absolute sense of 
 
 Evolution. , 1 -v T/- /- 1 
 
 the word? If not, from what quarter or quarters 
 of the Eastern Hemisphere did they reach their present habitat ? 
 Or, what is practically the same thing, from what other division 
 or divisions of mankind did they branch off? When did the 
 segmentation take place ? How far, if at all, was their subsequent 
 physical and cultural development influenced by the peoples of 
 the Old World ? 
 
 My own views on these fundamental questions, elsewhere 
 given in some detail \ may here be briefly re -stated. The abun- 
 dant traces of primitive man — both the works of his hand, and 
 in some places even his osseous remains themselves — strewn over 
 the continent from Alaska to Fuegia, show that America forms 
 no exception to the general statement that all the habitable parts 
 of the globe were occupied by man in pleistocene times, that is, 
 during the early Stone Ages. But at that period the works of 
 man, as well as man himself, were still but slightly specialised, 
 everywhere presenting the same generalised and uniform types ^. 
 Consequently the American pleistocene man was not greatly to 
 be distinguished from his fellows in other regions of the world. 
 But this generalised precursor originated, not independently in 
 several zoological zones from several independent pliocene and 
 miocene ancestors, but in one zoological zone — Indo-Malaysia — 
 from one pliocene ancestor, perhaps best represented by Dubois' 
 Pithecanthropus erectiis^ and spread by migration thence over the 
 globe ^. It follows that the American aborigines are not in- 
 digenous in the absolute sense, but reached the Western from 
 the Eastern Hemisphere in the primitive state, prior to all strictly 
 cultural developments. 
 
 A study of their physical constitution, substantially but not 
 wholly uniform — with indeed two marked sub-varieties, respectively 
 
 1 American Indians, Encyclopedia Britannica New (ixth) edition; Ethno- 
 logy, Chap. XIII. 
 
 2 See pp. 8-9. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 353 
 
 represented in the north by the Eskimo long-heads and the 
 Mexican round-heads, in the south by the Botocudo 
 long-heads and the Andean round-heads — points at tive^°yper:*' 
 two streams of immigrants from the Old World. fromEurop^e; 
 The Eskimo-Botocudo section has been traced to Round-heads 
 
 from Asia. 
 
 the long-headed pal?eolithic man of Europe ^ which 
 continent geology has shown to have been connected with North 
 America through the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Greenland 
 down to post-glacial times. The other section, which probably 
 greatly outnumbered the first, came apparently later (during the 
 New Stone Age) from Eastern Asia by the Bering waters, and are 
 now represented, allowing for great intermixture, by the still 
 prevalent round-headed element. 
 
 Since then till late historic times there were no further arrivals 
 by the European route, the land connection having been sub- 
 merged ; nor by the Asiatic to any appreciable extent, no clear 
 evidence being forthcoming of the presence of early historic, that 
 is, highly specialised Asiatic peoples in the New World. On like 
 negative grounds, which have here the force of the strongest 
 positive arguments, early immigrants numerous enough to affect 
 the questions at issue are also excluded both from Africa and 
 Australasia. 
 
 The constituent elements of our aborigines would therefore 
 appear to be proto-Europeans of the First Stone Age, a somewhat 
 generalised primitive Caucasic type, and proto-Asiatics, a some- 
 what generalised primitive Mongolo-American type, both Euro- 
 pean and Asiatic still preserving many common features of the 
 common pleistocene precursors. Is it surprising that, under such 
 conditions, opinions should differ as to the actual relations of the 
 Americans to the great ethnical groups in the Old World ; some 
 insisting upon, others vehemently denying, all Mongol kinship, 
 some emphasising a European connection, some with Ehrenreich 
 
 ^ G. de Mortillet amongst others suggests that at the close of the Solutrian 
 and Madelenian epochs some of the primitive inhabitants of France migrated 
 northwards with the reindeer, and passing by the then existing land bridge into 
 America became the ancestors\)f the Eskimo, the earliest "French Colonists" 
 in that part of the world {Formation de la Nation Fratt^aise, 1897). This view 
 is anticipated by Topinard on anatomical grounds {Eth. p. 364). 
 
 K. 23 
 
354 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 maintaining that they are sui generis, products of the soil, to be 
 considered as much or as little a distinct race as those of other 
 parts of the world, in any case differing no more from Europeans 
 than from Asiatics ? This is precisely what we should expect, if 
 the American division, with its undeniable general family likeness 
 and substantial uniformity, combined with two rather strongly 
 marked types, were really constituted in the way here set forth. 
 Ehrenreich winds up a lengthy discussion of the whole question 
 with the remark that "if the Caucasic race is to be regarded as 
 one, there is no reason for treating the American differently. It 
 were strange were it not subject to variation like the other 
 main divisions. In fact the American shows considerably more 
 uniformity when compared with the whole Caucasic division, 
 which taken in its widest sense comprises the Aryan, Semitic, 
 and Hamitic stocks, whose colour ranges from an albino white 
 through all transitional shades to the deepest black, and whose 
 skulls show every degree of dolicho- and brachycephaly. Such 
 differences also as occur in Africa amongst the Bantu negroes, 
 Hottentots, and Bushmen are not found amongst the Americans, 
 whose variabiUty is scarcely greater than that of the Malay and 
 Mongol peoples." To me it is specially gratifying to find that 
 this careful observer of the American aborigines in almost every 
 part of the continent closes the discussion with the frank accept- 
 ance of my general conclusion that " without denying a common 
 origin of both groups [Mongol and American] it may still be 
 argued that the American offshoot has diverged sufficiently to be 
 regarded as a distinct variety in the same sense that the Mongol 
 is itself taken as a distinct variety^" 
 
 ^ Eth. p. 222, quoted by Ehrenreich \\\ Anthropologische Shuiien, &c., p. 44. 
 Indications of such divergence are afforded by the five anatomical peculiarities 
 of the American aborigines described by Dr Hermann Ten Kate, the most 
 characteristic of which is perhaps the form of the hyoid bone {os linguce sup- 
 porting the tongue). This observer finds that the large cornua, nearly always 
 soldered to the body of the bone in Europeans, remains distinct in the Ameri- 
 cans, as in 17 old Zuftis, 9 moundbuilders, one Yahgan, a mummy from north- 
 west Argentina, another from a Patagonian cave near Lake Argentin, 3 old 
 Patagonians from the Rio Chubut, and one Brazilian. He regards the character 
 as a case of arrested development which he considers himself justified in dis- 
 tinguishing as "American" {Sur ipielques points ctosteologie ethnique, &c., in 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 355 
 
 The question of origins thus disposed of, that of cultural 
 development is settled a priori. It must be ob- 
 vious that if the American race starts on its hfe cuitUr?*^*" 
 history from the Stone Ages, and receives no later independently 
 accessions from abroad, whatever degree of culture 
 it ultimately reached, whatever stage of progress the arts, in- 
 dustries, science, and letters may have acquired in Mexico, 
 Yucatan, Peru, or any other centre of civilisation, they must all 
 have been independent local growths, owing absolutely nothing 
 to foreign influences. 
 
 To this logical position the only possible reply might be an 
 a posteriori argument based on facts at variance with the a priori 
 assumption. Such facts, if forthcoming, might, for instance, be 
 the presence in some part or parts of the continent of some 
 language or languages clearly traceable to an eastern source; 
 or some ancient buildings unmistakably designed on Egyptian, 
 Babylonian, Hindu, or other foreign prototypes; or any inscrip- 
 tions on such monuments either explicable by the aid of Asiatic 
 or other languages, or carved in some script whose foreign origin 
 could not be denied ; or any sailing craft built on the lines of the 
 Greek trireme, the Venetian galley, the Chinese junk, the Malay 
 prau, or even the more primitive Polynesian outrigger or Indian 
 catamaran ; or oil lamps of some familiar type ' ; or some such 
 economic plants as wheat and rice, which, not being indigenous, 
 might be found cultivated in suitable locaUties, and thus supply 
 an argument at least for later intercourse. But nothing of all this 
 
 Revisia del Museo de la Plata, vii. 1896). Here may be quoted Virchow's 
 weighty words on the general uniformity of the American type in connection 
 with the seven Patagonians (Piyoche tribe) brought to Europe in 1879: " Wir 
 haben fast nichts in der alten Welt dieser Homogeneitat an die Seite zu stellen. 
 Die Massenhaftigkeit der Knochenentwickelung...die bei den Gronlandern 
 anfangt, und sich durch fast alle altern Volkerschichten Amerikas bis zur 
 Magelhaensstrasse verfolgen lasst, tritt hier so auffallend vor, dass der Kopf, in 
 Verhaltniss zu dem Gesammtkorper, nahezu so gewaltig erscheint wie der 
 Kopf eines Lowen" {Zeitsch. f. Ethnol. 1879, P* ^99)* 
 
 ^ Except amongst the Eskimo, who might have borrowed the idea from the 
 Norsemen, "no lamps at all \v^ known to the indigenes of America, not even 
 to the comparatively cultured Mexicans and Peruvians" (E. B. Tylor, Jotirn. 
 Anthrop. Inst. 1884, ?• 35^)- 
 
 23—2 
 
356 ^ MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. . 
 
 has ever been found, and the list might be prolonged indefinitely 
 without discovering any cultural links between the two hemi- 
 spheres beyond such as may be traced to the Stone Ages, or to 
 the common psychic unity of the human family. Proofs need 
 not here be advanced of this sweeping statement, because it will 
 find its confirmation in the details that are to follow. 
 
 One point only need detain us — the complete absence in 
 America of any sailing vessels or other navigable appliances, 
 whether for inland or marine waters, at all comparable to those of 
 the eastern peoples. The Algonquians had their birch-bark 
 canoes, in the calm Peruvian waters rafts drifted with the tides 
 and currents, and it is somewhere mentioned that in the West 
 Indies the roving Caribs hoisted a rudimentary sail on their frail 
 craft when venturing from island to island. Can any more vio- 
 lent contrast be imagined than that presented by Prof Flinders 
 Petrie's "New Race" already 5000 years ago decorating their 
 fictile vases with the device of "a long boat with two cabins, an 
 ensign pole, and many oars," and the rude representations of 
 the Eskimo, who despite their vicinity to Asia have still nothing to 
 show except the open skin kayak with its double paddle, or at 
 most the larger skin-covered umiak, or " woman's boat," with 
 which oars and sail may be used, but in which "the natives sit 
 with the face toward the bow, using the paddle and not an oar\" 
 In fact all the American boats were mainly propelled by the 
 paddle, which replaced oar, rudder, and true sails, the rare refer- 
 ences to such contrivances occurring for the most part in later 
 times some years after contact with Europeans. On his fourth 
 voyage, however, Columbus met some fine canoes with room for 
 150 persons off the coast of Cuba; Pizarro also captured a large 
 vessel at Tumbez, which was said to have a sail and rudder, and 
 one or two other allusions are made by the early writers to canoes 
 with sail and rudder, or with sail and oars^. If these statements 
 can be trusted, it may be inferred that in pre-Columbian times the 
 art of navigation had at least made a beginning amongst the Mayas, 
 
 1 Dr W. J. Hoffman. The Graphic Art oftheEskmios, Washington, 1897, 
 p. 847. 
 
 2 Fr. Ratzel, The History of Mankind, Eng. ed. 1896, i. p. 41 sq. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. s 357 
 
 Peruvians, and one or two other cultured peoples. But this very 
 beginning was clearly local, as shown by the fact that the Aztecs, 
 most advanced of all in so many respects, had not even got 
 beyond the raft, so that the sails hoisted by Cortez on their lagoons 
 terrified them as an unknown wonder. 
 
 But in historic times America could be reached only by more 
 or less civilised peoples of specialised type, possessing, not merely 
 crazy junks, but real seaworthy vessels capable of long oceanic 
 voyages, and freighted with useful commodities to sustain life on 
 the journey and open trading relations on arrival. Moreover, one 
 or two casual trips would be useless in the present connection. 
 To produce any general effect such intercourse must have been 
 maintained for a considerable period of time, that is, the ocean 
 route to America must have become a beaten track in pre-Norse 
 and pre-Columbian days. Who is bold enough to associate his 
 name with such an assumption as that? 
 
 Again, these early navigators — Phoenicians, Egyptians, Arabs, 
 Malays, Chinese, Japanese, Pelasgians, Mykenaeans — wherever 
 tbey landed must have found the country either uninhabited, or 
 already occupied by the American aborigines; or, is there any 
 other alternative? If uninhabited, then they took possession, 
 formed permanent settlements, and perpetuated their race and 
 culture. Or did they burn their ships behind them, like Caesar's 
 legionaries, and voluntarily relapse into savagery, beginning again 
 with the birch-bark canoe or coracle? But even so, the racial 
 type must have persisted, and one asks, where in America are 
 these early Phcenician, Egyptian, or other civilised and specialised 
 settlers ? 
 
 If, on the other hand, the country was already held by. the 
 present natives did these learn nothing from their foreign friends 
 or foes ? And if anything what has become of it ? Where before 
 the discovery was the wheat or rice\ which could scarcely help 
 running wild in many places ? Where the dog, sheep, horse, ox, 
 pig, poultry, which once introduced must have thriven then as 
 
 ^ That is the true Asiatic cereal, not the "wild rice," or "Canada rice" 
 {Zizania aquatica), which is l^wn to many North American tribes, and an 
 account of which is given by Mr Gardiner P. Stickney in the Amer. Anthropo- 
 logist for April, 1896. 
 
358 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 well as now ? Where the linguistic affinities, the inevitable loan 
 words, the Egyptian or Chinese hieroglyphs, the Phoenician 
 alphabet, the Babylonian cuneiforms, or other eastern scripts ? 
 Of such things there are frauds, enough and to spare, but not a 
 single genuine document in stone, bronze, or durable material has 
 ever been found anywhere between the two oceans. Not one 
 link, not one tangible link, has ever come to light to connect the 
 cultures of the Old and New Worlds. Yet how many links would 
 be needed for a chain long enough to stretch across Atlantic or 
 Pacific ! 
 
 The a priori assumption therefore stands, and, pending further 
 research, those ethnologists are fully justified who maintain the 
 absolutely independent evolution of post-neolithic culture in the 
 New World. Amongst them it is satisfactory to be able now to 
 include Mr J. W, Powell, who has rendered such inestimable ser- 
 vices to American anthropology, of which he may claim to be 
 the first living exponent. In the paper already referred to^ Mr 
 Powell affirms that " the aboriginal peoples of America cannot be 
 allied preferentially to any one branch of the human race in the 
 Old World"; that "there is no evidence that any of the arts of the 
 American Indians were borrowed from the Orient " : that " stone 
 implements and many other things are found in the latest pleisto- 
 cene deposits of valleys and plains everywhere throughout 
 America," although "nothing has been discovered which antedates 
 the glacial epoch"; that "the industrial arts of America were born 
 in America, America was inhabited by tribes at the time of the 
 beginning of industrial arts. They left the Old World before they 
 had learned to make knives, spear and arrowheads, or at least 
 when they knew the art only in its crudest state. Thus primitive 
 man has been here ever since the invention of the stone knife and 
 the stone hammer." He further contends that "the American 
 Indian did not derive his forms of government, his industrial or 
 decorative arts, his languages, or his mythological opinions from 
 the Old World, but developed them in the New " ; and that " in 
 the demotic characteristics of the American Indians, all that is 
 common to tribes of the Orient is universal, all that distinguishes 
 
 ^ Whence came the Ama'ican Indians ? Fortwi^Yeh. 1898. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 359 
 
 one group of tribes from another in America distinguishes them 
 from all other tribes of the world \" 
 
 These general conclusions, however, leave untouched the 
 question of palaeolithic man in the New World, on p 1 r h- 
 which opinion continues to be divided, especially in Man in 
 the United States. Some confusion has certainly 
 been caused by the failure to distinguish carefully between time 
 and cultural sequences. It is not denied that multitudes of stone 
 implements occur in many parts of America which closely 
 resemble those of the palaeolithic age in Europe. Nevertheless 
 their value as evidence of a corresponding palaeolithic age in the 
 New World is denied, because here they represent, or may repre- 
 sent, merely a low stage of culture which still continues, and has 
 no necessary reference to time. The European objects occur in 
 undisturbed glacial and even pre-glacial deposits, in caves under 
 thick stalagmite floors, in association with long extinct faunas, and 
 under other circumstances, by all of which their pleistocene age 
 and absolute antiquity are established. But in America, it is 
 argued, they are mostly surface finds, and when occurring />? situ^ 
 doubts are raised on the geological age of the beds, or on their 
 condition (whether disturbed or not), or even on the good faith of 
 the finders. Hence in his Primitive Industry'^ ^ Dr Thomas Wilson, 
 who favours antiquity, claimed for the objects in question no more 
 than that they were "to be taken as serious evidence in favour of 
 Palaeolithic Man in America," just as they have ^'proved him to 
 have existed in Europe," and this "under all reserve, and subject 
 to future discoveries." 
 
 Since then such a discovery would appear to have been made 
 in 1897 by the party of experts who undertook by independent 
 inquiry to sift the much contested evidence from the Delaware 
 gravels at Trenton, where Dr C. C. Abbott had been at work for 
 
 1 The same position is taken by others, among them being Prof. Edward 
 S. Morse, who opened a discussion on the subject at the meeting of the Amer. 
 Assoc. Detroit, 1897, and insisted upon the essential unity of the American race, 
 both in its physical characters and cultural developments, noting especially the 
 absence from America of te% silk, and other useful and easily transported 
 Asiatic commodities, as already pointed out in Eth. Ch. xiii. 
 
 2 Washington, 1894, p. 534 of the Smithsonian Report for 1892. 
 
360 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 years. Mr Mercer, while suggesting possible intrusions from 
 above, "when all was considered felt forced to conclude that a 
 significant number^ of artificial chips rested in situ in the sand, 
 and hence were of an age indicating its deposition." On this 
 question of age. Prof. Hollick reported that "the undisturbed 
 sand was found to be distinctly stratified and evidently a water 
 deposit." He " accepts the conclusions of competent authorities 
 that the so-called palseoHths are of human manufacture, and that 
 the sand in which they occur is of glacial age.... The only con- 
 troversy which seems possible is over the question of intrusion 
 from above and, in view of the facts now adduced, the burden of 
 proof should in fairness rest with those who hold this view^." 
 Unless, therefore, intrusion is proved, of which there seems to be 
 no evidence, the question would appear to be settled in favour of 
 Palaeolithic Man in North America. 
 
 Further evidence in the same direction has been adduced for 
 South America by Prof. A. Nehring, who describes a skull from a 
 sambaqui (shell-mound) at Santos, on the south coast of Brazil, 
 which presents many characters like those of the Javanese Pithec- 
 anthropus erectus^. There is the same marked constriction of 
 the frontal behind the orbital region, a trait highly characteristic 
 of old and late South American skulls, some being not merely 
 relatively, but absolutely not broader than the Java skull. The 
 orbital region of the frontal is somewhat like the Neanderthal, 
 with low retreating forehead and well-developed glabella and 
 orbital ridges; cephalic index 77-6, but height and consequent 
 cranial capacity much greater than the Java, so far as this can be 
 conjectured. The face also is strongly prognathous, a feature 
 enhanced perhaps by the abnormal dental development, the pre- 
 molars and molars being very like those of the Spy, No. i, 
 cranium. 
 
 Dr H. Meyer's explorations in 1896 of the huge Laguna 
 sambaquis in the same region, some quite 50 feet high and 
 
 ■^ About fifty mostly man-made argillite, chert, jasper, and quartz flakes. 
 
 2 An Investigation of Man^s Antiquity at Trenton, by Prof. G. F. Wright, 
 Prof. Arthur Hollick, Messrs H. B. Kiimmel, G. N. Knapp, and H. C. Mercer 
 {Science, Nov. 5, 1897). 
 
 ^ VerhandL Berliner A nthrop. Ges. 1896, p. 710. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 36 1 
 
 of vast extent, have brought to light further remains of primitive 
 man, including as many as seven skeletons found at different 
 levels ^ Thus are greatly strengthened the views which were 
 already entertained regarding the presence of Pleistocene Man in 
 South America, and were based on the researches of Ameghino, 
 Lund, Moreno, Burmeister, Hudson, Lovisato and others in the 
 now classical Lagda Santa caves of Minas Geraes, in the Parana 
 basin {Rio Carcarana), in the Buenos Ayres district (Sambo- 
 rombon), in Patagonia (Rio Negro Valley), and in Tierra del 
 Fuego (Ehzabeth Island)^. 
 
 It may be incidentally mentioned that, from a thorough study 
 of the fossil remains, especially of Lagoa Santa, the Danish 
 anthropologist, Herluf Winge, infers that man is more closely 
 allied to the gibbon than to the other simians — a conclusion also 
 pointed at by the Java skull — and that the cradle of mankind is 
 to be sought in the Old World, whence primitive man migrated 
 to America at a remote period^ These independent inferences 
 harmonise completely with the views here advocated on the origin 
 Tind dispersion of the human race, and on the peopling of America 
 during the Stone Ages. 
 
 They are also confirmed by the linguistic relations in the New 
 World. These are such as can be explained only 
 on the assumption that the early settlers possessed ent^EvoUition 
 some agglutinating form of speech at a low stage ^frng^ica^ ^" 
 of development, and that its further development 
 took place on American soil during an immense period of com- 
 plete isolation unaffected in any way by extraneous influences. 
 The freedom from extraneous influences is shown by the entirely 
 independent character of the American languages, not one of 
 which, after many years of patient comparative study, has yet been 
 traced to a foreign source. It is not merely that they differ from 
 other forms of speech in their general phonetic, structural, and 
 
 1 Fully described in Globus, LXix. p. 338 sq. 
 
 2 Eth. p. 96 sq. 
 
 •^ yordfiuidne og nulevende Aber (Primates) fra Lagda Santa, &c. Copen- 
 hagen, 1895. The migration^rom the Old to the New World is, of course, 
 necessitated by the absence of all traces of the Simiidse from America, as this 
 naturalist insists upon. On this point see Eth. p. 157. 
 
362 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 lexical features ; they differ from them in their very morphology, 
 as much, for instance, as in the zoological world class differs from 
 class, order from order. They have all of them developed on the 
 same polysynthetic lines, from which if a few here and there now 
 appear to depart, it is only because in the course of their further 
 evolution they have, so to say, broken away from that prototyped 
 Take the rudest or the most highly cultivated anywhere from 
 Alaska to Fuegia — Eskimo, Iroquois, Algonquin, i\ztec, Tarascan, 
 Ipurina, Peruvian, Yahgan — and you will find each and all giving 
 abundant evidence of this universal polysynthetic character, not 
 one true instance of which can be found anywhere in the eastern 
 hemisphere. There is incorporation with the verb, as in Basque, 
 many of the Caucasus tongues, and the Ural-Altaic group ; but it 
 is everywhere limited to pronominal and purely relational elements. 
 But in the American order of speech there is no such limita- 
 tion, and not merely the pronouns, which are restricted in number, 
 but the nouns with their attributes, which are practically number- 
 less, all enter necessarily into the verbal paradigm. Thus in 
 Tarascan (Mexico): hopoaini—to wash the hands; hopodini = \.Q> 
 wash the ears, from hoponi = to wash, which cannot be used 
 alone ^. So in Ipurina (Amazonia) : nicucacat^aurumatinii = I draw 
 the cord tight round your waist, from m, I ; cucaca, to draw tight ; 
 tca^ cord ; tiiruma, waist ; tini^ characteristic verbal affix ; /, thy, 
 referring to waists 
 
 ^ Such disintegration is clearly seen in the Carib still surviving in Dominica, 
 of which Mr J. Numa Rat has contributed a somewhat full account to the 
 Jour. Anthrop. Inst, for Nov. 1897, p. 293 sq. Here the broken form arame- 
 takuahdtina biika appears to represent the polysynthetic arametakiianientibu- 
 buka (root arameta, to hide), as in Pere Breton's Gravimaire Caraibe, p. 45, 
 where we have also the form Arametakualubatibubasubutuiruni = know that he 
 will conceal thee (p. 48). It may at the same time be allowed that great inroads 
 have been made on the principle of polysynthesis even in the continental 
 (South American) Carib, as well as in the Colombian Chibcha, the Mexican 
 Otomi and Pima, and no doubt in some other linguistic groups. But that the 
 system must have formerly been continuous over the whole of America seems 
 proved by the persistence of extremely polysynthetic tongues in such widely 
 separated regions as Greenland (Eskimo), Mexico (Aztec), Peru (Quechuan), 
 and Chili (Araucanian). 
 
 2 R. de la Grasserie and N. Leon, Lan^ue Tarasqtie, Paris, 1896. 
 
 ^ Rev. J. E. R. Polak, Ipurina Grammar, &c., London, 1894. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 363 
 
 We see from such examples that polysynthesis is not a 
 primitive condition of speech, as is often asserted, but on the 
 contrary a highly developed system, in which the original aggluti- 
 native process has gone so far as to attract all the elements of 
 the sentence to the verb, round which they cluster like swarming 
 bees round their queen. In Eskimo the tendency is shown in 
 the construction of nouns and verbs, by which other classes of 
 words are made almost unnecessary, and one word, sometimes 
 of interminable length, is able to express a whole sentence with 
 its subordinate clauses. Dr H. Rink, one of the first Eskimo 
 scholars of modern times, gives the instance : " Suerdkame- 
 autdlasassoq-tusaramiuk-tuningingmago-iluaringilat = they did not 
 approve that he (a) had omitted to give him (d) something, as he 
 (a) heard that he (d) was going to depart on account of being 
 destitute of everything \" Such monstrosities "are so complicated 
 that in daily speech they could hardly ever occur ; but still they 
 are correct and can be understood by intelligent peopled" 
 
 He gives another and much longer example, which the reader 
 may be spared, adding that there are altogether about 200 particles, 
 as many as ten of which may be piled up on any given stem. The 
 process also often involves great phonetic changes, by which the 
 original form of the elements becomes disguised, as, for instance, 
 in the EngHsh hafoth = half-pennyworth. The attempt to deter- 
 mine the number of words that might be formed in this way on a 
 single stem, such as igdlo, a house, had to be given up after getting 
 as far as the compound igdlorssualiortugssarsiumavoq = he wants 
 to find one who will build a large house. 
 
 It is clear that such a linguistic evolution implies both the 
 postulated isolation from other influences, which must have dis- 
 turbed and broken up the cumbrous process, and also the 
 postulated long period of time to develop and consolidate the 
 
 ^ The Eskimo Tribes, their Distribution and Characteristics, Copenhagen, 
 1887, I. p. 62 sq. 
 
 '^ In fact this very word was first given "as an ordinary example" by Klein- 
 schmidt, Gra7n. d. Gronlandischen Sprache, Sect. 99, and is also quoted by 
 Byrne, who translates: "Th% disapproved of him, because he did not give to 
 him, when he heard that he would go off, because he had nothing" {Principles, 
 etc. I. p. 140). 
 
364 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 system throughout the New World. But time is still more 
 
 imperiously demanded by the vast number of stock 
 
 Languages, languages, many already extinct, many still current 
 
 all over the continent, all of which differ profoundly 
 
 in their vocabulary, often also in their phonesis, and in fact have 
 
 nothing in common except this extraordinary polysynthetic groove 
 
 in which they are cast. The most moderate calculations allow at 
 
 least 150 such stock languages for the whole region, probably as 
 
 many as in all the rest of the world. 
 
 But even that conveys but a faint idea of the astonishing 
 diversity of speech prevailing in this truly linguistic Babel. Prof. 
 Powell, who has himself determined as many as 58 stock languages 
 for North America alone \ points out that the practically distinct 
 idioms are far more numerous than might be inferred even from 
 such a large number of mother tongues. Thus, in the Algon- 
 quian^ Hnguistic family he tells us there are about forty, no one 
 of which could be understood by a people speaking another ; in 
 Athapascan from 30 to 40 ; in Siouan over 20 ; and in Shoshonean 
 a still greater number I It is the same, or perhaps even worse, 
 in Central and in South America, where the Hnguistic confusion 
 is so great that no complete classification of the native tongues 
 seems possible. Sir Clements R. Markham has given a tolerably 
 full list of the Amazonian tribes, with altogether 905 entries ^ 
 and even after allowing for a large number of synonyms and sub- 
 branches, there still remain some 625 tribal groups, each with at 
 least a distinct dialect. Indeed, but for such linguistic differences, 
 large numbers of these groups would be quite indistinguishable 
 from each other, so great is the prevailing similarity in physical 
 appearance and usages in many districts. Thus Ehrenreich tells 
 us that, "despite their ethnico-linguistic differences, the tribes 
 about the head-waters of the Xingu present complete uniformity 
 
 1 Indian Linguistic Families of America north of Mexico, Washington, 1891. 
 
 2 Following this ethnologist's convenient precedent, I use both in Ethnology 
 and here the final syllable an to indicate stock races and languages in America. 
 Thus Algonqiiin = ihe particular tribe and language of that name; Algonquian 
 = the whole family ; Iroquois, Iroquoian ; Cariby Carihan, etc. 
 
 3 Forum, Feb. 1898, p. 683. 
 
 * yottr. Anthrop. Inst. 1895, p. 236 sq. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 365 
 
 in their daily habits, in the conditions of their existence, and 
 their general cultured" Yet amongst them are represented 
 three of the radically distinct linguistic groups of Brazil, some 
 (Bakairi and Nahugua) belonging to the Carib, some (Aneto and 
 Kamayura) to the Guarani-Tupi, and some (Mehinaku and Vaura) 
 to the Arawak family. Obviously these could not be so discrimi- 
 nated but for their linguistic differences. On the other hand the 
 opposite phenomenon is occasionally presented of tribes differing 
 considerably in their social relations, which are nevertheless of the 
 same origin, or, what is regarded by Ehrenreich as the same thing, 
 belong to the same linguistic group. Such are the Ipurinas, the 
 Paumari and the Yamamadi of the Purus valley, all grouped 
 as Arawaks because they speak dialects of the Arawakan stock 
 language. At the same time it should be noted that the social 
 differences observed by some modern travellers are often due to the 
 ever-increasing contact with the whites, who are now encroaching 
 gn the Gran Chaco plains, and ascending every Amazonian tribu- 
 tary in quest of rubber and the other natural produce abounding 
 in these regions. 
 
 In the introduction to his valuable list Sir Clements Markham 
 observes that the evidence of language favours the theory that the 
 Amazonian tribes, "now hke the sands on the sea-shore for 
 number, originally sprang from two or at most three parent 
 stocks. Dialects of the Tupi language extend from the roots of 
 the Andes to the Atlantic and southwards into Paraguay... and it 
 is established that the differences in the roots between the 
 numerous Amazonian languages are not so great as was generally 
 supposed." This no doubt is true, and will account for much. 
 But when we see it here recorded that of the Carabuyanas (Japura 
 river) there are or were 16 branches, that the Chiquito group 
 (Bolivia) comprises forty tribes speaking "seven different lan- 
 guages"; that of the Juris (Upper Amazons) there are ten divisions; 
 of the Moxos (Beni and Mamore rivers) 26 branches, "speaking 
 nine, or according to Southey, thirteen languages"; of the Uaupes 
 (Rio Negro) 28 divisions, and so on, we feel how much there is 
 still left to be accounted for. Attempts have been made to weaken 
 \ 
 
 1 Urbewohner Brasiliens, p. 46. 
 
1^6 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 the force of the linguistic argument by the assumption, at one 
 time much in favour, that the American tongues are of a some- 
 what evanescent nature, in an unstable condition, often changing 
 their form and structure within a few generations. But, says Prof. 
 Powell, " this widely spread opinion does not find warrant in 
 the facts discovered in the course of this research. The author 
 has everywhere been impressed with the fact that savage tongues 
 are singularly persistent, and that a language which is dependent 
 for its existence upon oral tradition is not easily modified \" A 
 test case is the Delaware (Leni Lenape), an Algonquian tongue 
 which, judging from the specimens collected by the Rev. Th. 
 Campanius about 1645, has undergone but slight modification 
 during the last 250 years. 
 
 In this connection the important point to be noticed is the fact 
 that some of the stock languages have an immense range, while 
 others are crowded together in indescribable confusion in rugged 
 upland valleys, or about river estuaries, or in the recesses of tracV 
 less woodlands, and this strangely irregular distribution prevails 
 in all the main divisions of the continent. Thus of Prof. Powell's 
 58 linguistic families in North America as many as forty are 
 restricted to the relatively narrow strip of coast-land between the 
 Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, ten are dotted round the Gulf 
 of Mexico from Florida to the Rio Grande, and two disposed 
 round the Gulf of Cafifornia, while nearly all the rest of the land — 
 some six million square miles — is occupied by the six widely 
 diffused Eskimauan, Athapascan, Algonquian, Iroquoian, Siouan, 
 and Shoshonean families. The same phenomenon is presented 
 by Central and South America, where less than a dozen stock lan- 
 guages — Opatan, Nahuatlan, Huastecan, Chorotegan, Quechuan, 
 Arawakan, Gesan (Tapuyan), Tupi-Guaranian, Cariban, Tacanan 
 — are spread over millions of square miles, while many scores of 
 others are restricted to extremely narrow areas. Here the crowding 
 is largely determined, as in Caucasia, by the altitude (Andes in 
 Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia ; Sierras in Mexico). But 
 in the United States the chief resort of the "feeble folk" have 
 been the fjord-like formations and estuaries with their rich fishing- 
 
 ^ Indian Linguistic Families^ p. 141. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 367 
 
 grounds along the Pacific seaboard. The theory advanced by 
 some leading American anthropologists that these fishing-grounds 
 were first occupied by primitive man, who thence radiated along 
 the lines of least resistance over the continent, has not been 
 generally accepted. However plausible in itself, it seemed difficult 
 to harmonise it with some of the ascertained data, not the least 
 important of which was the discovery that the great Siouan family 
 had their original seats not on the Pacific but on the Atlantic slope 
 (Virginia, the CaroHnas). Hence in this instance at least the early 
 migrations were not from the west to the Missouri, but from the 
 east apparently to and up the Mississippi to their later prairie 
 homes. The extraordinary abundance of nutritious and easily 
 captured food yielded by the Pacific estuaries need not be over- 
 looked as a determining cause. But a more potent one was pro- 
 bably the scouring action of fierce predatory steppe nomads, so 
 that here, as in Central Asia, most of the heterogeneous groups 
 huddled together in contracted areas may still be regarded as the 
 " sweepings of the plains." 
 
 It was inevitable that such dislocations, which have occurred 
 everywhere in the New as well as in the Old World, 
 should give rise to endless interminglings of the two ^f the Original 
 primary elements, causing that great variability SJ^^^'^^^ts 
 within certain narrow limits which justifies Dr 
 Hamy's view regarding the diversity of the present American 
 ethnical groups ^ First comes the distinctly round-headed type, 
 which comprises the mound-builders, the clifi-dwellers, and the 
 " pueblo Indians " who belong to one and the same race. 
 Systematic research in the old graves and ruins invariably brings 
 to light the remains of a short, stout, round-headed people with 
 strong jaws, thin nose, and large cheek-bones, resembling the 
 Attacapans, the Uchies, and other survivors of several tribes in 
 the south-east. True brachycephaly increases southwards, as 
 amongst the Mayas, Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and others of Central 
 America, perhaps also the old Chiriquis of Costa Rica, and 
 
 ^ "Ces divers groupes se comportent a peu pres de la meme maniere que 
 les Malaiques, et Ton trouv^ en Amerique comme en Oceanie, des types 
 humainsbien divers" {Les- Races Malaiques et Americaines, in V Anthropologie, 
 1896, p. 140). 
 
368 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 beyond doubt the Chimus, Quechuas, and Aymaras of Peru and 
 Bolivia. Still farther south it recurs in the Rio Negro valley, 
 where d'Orbigny's Puelches are as round-headed as the Mayas 
 of Yucatan (84°), with equally short but narrower face and 
 moderate prognathism. These Puelches form with the Arauca- 
 nians of Chili a separate group, perhaps to some extent con- 
 nected with the Yuncas of the Pacific Coast. 
 
 On the other hand the Tehuelches, whose cradle appears to 
 have been the Sumadouro district in Central Brazil, are cha- 
 racterised by long heads of archaic type. It was in the Lagoa 
 Santa caves of this district that Lund found the very old, long, 
 high and prognathous skulls, which best represent the primitive 
 long-headed race in South America. From this region it radiated 
 in all directions, north to Guiana, east to the San Francisco basin, 
 west to Ancon, south to the Pampas. Its living representatives 
 are the Botocudos, many Guarani, the Paraguayos, and probably 
 the long-headed Fuegians. The long-heads appear to have arrived 
 first, and to have been followed much later and partly submerged 
 by the round-heads. ^ 
 
 But in North America the round-headed mound- builders and 
 others were encroached upon by populations of increasingly 
 dolichocephalic type — Redskins and Cherokis, Chichimecs, Tepa- 
 necs, Acolhuas. Even still dolichocephaly is characteristic of 
 Iroquois, Coahuilas, Sonorans, while the intermediate indices met 
 with on the prairies and plateaux undoubtedly indicate the 
 mixture between the long-headed invaders and the round-heads 
 whom they swept aside as they advanced southwards. Thus the 
 Minnetaris are highly dolicho ; the Ponkas and Osages sub- 
 brachy; the Algonquians variable, while the Siouans oscillate 
 widely round a mesaticephalous mean. 
 
 The Athapascans alone are homogeneous, and their sub- 
 brachycephaly recurs amongst the Apaches and 
 Deformation, their Other southern kindred, who have given it an 
 exaggerated form by the widespread practice of 
 artificial deformation, which dates from remote times. The most 
 typical cases both of brachy and dolicho deformation are from 
 the Cerro de las Palmas graves in south-west Mexico. Defor- 
 mation prevails also in Peru and Bolivia, as well as in Ceara and 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 369 
 
 the Rio Negro on the Atlantic side. The flat-head form, so 
 common from the Columbia estuary to Peru, is found amongst 
 the broad-faced Huaxtecs, their near relations the Maya- Quiches, 
 and the Nahuatlans. It was also in use amongst the extinct 
 Cebunys of Cuba, Hayti, and Jamaica, and the 
 so-called "Toltecs," that is, the people of Tollan 'i^oUecs." 
 (Tula), who first founded a civilised state on the 
 Mexican table-land (6th and 7th centuries a.d.), and whose name 
 afterwards became associated with every ancient monument 
 throughout Central America. On this "Toltec question" the 
 most contradictory theories are current, and while some hold 
 that the Toltecs were a great and powerful nation, who after 
 the overthrow of their empire migrated southwards, everywhere 
 spreading their culture throughout Central America, others regard 
 their empire as "fabulous," and the Toltecs themselves as a 
 myth, or at all events "nothing more than a sept of the 
 Nahuas themselves, the ancestors of those Mexicans who built 
 Tenochtitlan," i.e. the present city of Mexico. A third view, 
 that of Dr Valentini, that the Toltecs were not Nahuas but 
 Mayas, is now supported both by E. P. Dieseldorf and by 
 Dr Forstermann^ It is argued that the Mayas formerly ranged 
 north to lat. 23° N., but that all were driven south by Aztec 
 tribes from the north and west, the Huaxtecs of Vera Cruz alone 
 excepted. Tula and Cholula were Maya settlements, and their 
 culture generally was adopted by the Aztecs, whence the similarity 
 between the two in many points. 
 
 On the North-west Pacific Coast the same ethnical inter- 
 minglings recur, and Dr Franz Boas^ here distin- 
 guishes as many as four types, the Northern (Tsim- North-west 
 shian and others), the Kwakiutl, the Harrison Lake, variabie'*'^"^ 
 and the inland Salishan (Flat-heads, Shuswaps, &c.). 
 All are round-headed, but while the Tsimshians are of medium 
 height, with low, concave nose, very large head, and enormously 
 broad face, exceeding the average for North America by 6 mm., 
 
 ^ Bastian- Festschrift, 1896 {Who were the Toltecs'^). 
 
 2 Globus, Lxx. No. 3. ^ 
 
 3 The Social Organization etc. of the Kwakiutl Indians, Washington, 1897, 
 p. 321 sq. 
 
 K. 24 
 
370 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 the Kwakiutls are shorter, with very high and relatively narrow 
 hooked nose, and quite exceptionally high face; the Harrison 
 Lake very short, with exceedingly short and broad head, " sur- 
 passing in this respect all other forms known to exist in North 
 America"; lastly, the inland Salish rather tall (5 ft. 8 in.), with 
 high and wide nose of the characteristic Indian form. 
 
 It would be difficult to find anywhere a greater contrast than 
 that which is presented by some of these British Columbian 
 natives, those, for instance, of Harrison Lake with almost circular 
 heads (88-8), and some of the Labrador Eskimos with a degree 
 of dolichocephaly not exceeded even by the Fijian Kai-Colos (65)'. 
 But this violent contrast is somewhat toned by the intermediate 
 forms, such as those of the Thlinkits, the Aleutian islanders, and 
 the western (Alaskan) Eskimo, by which the transition is effected 
 between the Arctic and the more southern populations. It is 
 also to be noticed that the skulls brought in 1869 from North-east 
 Greenland by A. Pansch, of the 2nd German North Polar Expe- 
 dition, and studied by Soren Hansen, show a medium cephalic 
 index as high as 75, with an extreme range from 71-3 to 8i*i^ 
 
 Assuming that the SkrdUinger of the early Norse records were 
 
 Eskimo ancestors of the present Greenland Eskimo, about 
 
 Origins and which there is not much room for doubt, the eastern 
 
 igra ions. ^^^ many think purest section of this race has been 
 in touch with Europeans ever since the discovery of the New 
 World by Eric the Red about 980 a.d. They appear to have 
 formerly ranged as far south as Massachusetts, where they were 
 again met in 1004 by Thorvald about Kjalarnes (Keel-ness), which 
 has been identified with the present Cape Cod. The Norse 
 account applies badly or not at all to the Algonquians or any 
 other Indians, but quite well to the Eskimos, described as of 
 small size, dark colour, and broad features, using skin canoes 
 
 1 W. L. H. Duckworth, Jour. Anthrop. Inst. August, 1895. 
 
 2 Centralblattf. Anthropologic, etc., 1896, pp. 137-8. Amongst these skulls, 
 which despite considerable variations present all the recognised features of the 
 Eskimo type and especially the characteristic high pyramidal form, Mr Hansen 
 found one, "an welchem die Schlafenlinien beiderseits sehr hoch lagen, undnur 
 durch einen etwa 2 cm. breiten aufgetriebenen Scheitelkamm getrennt waren, 
 ganz wie bei den menschendhnlichen Affen." Another (from North-west 
 Greenland) presented the lowest nasal index yet measured (33*9). 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 3/1 
 
 (hiidh-keipr) and harpoons unknown to the other natives, and 
 eating a mixture of marrow and blood, and what looked like 
 raw-meat, whence the name Eskmiantsic^ " raw-flesh eaters " given 
 them by the Abenaki Algonquians, and corrupted by the French 
 to Esquimaux^. The most general national name is Innuit, 
 "Men," in the west (Alaska); Yuit, of same meaning, on the 
 Asiatic side of Bering Strait ; and in the east (Greenland) Karalit, 
 which Cranz thinks may be a native form of Skrdlling^. It is 
 important to notice, in connection with their costume, some 
 usages, implements, myths, and even physical traits, that the two 
 peoples dwelt side by side for several hundred years till the 
 15th century, when the Norsemen withdrew, and that contact 
 was resumed and continued down to the present time early in the 
 1 8th century, when the Danes reoccupied Greenland. To these 
 protracted relations Prof. Tylor attributes the many striking coin- 
 cidences between the two cultures, mentioning especially the 
 dress, the curious habit of rival parties reciting satirical verses 
 against each other, stone lamps and kettles. " It is thus Hkely 
 that the Greenlanders may have learnt from the Scandinavians 
 the art of working potstone both into kettles and lamps. If so, 
 the use of these would spread from Greenland over the whole 
 Esquimaux district ^" 
 
 But against this view has to be put the theory strenuously 
 advocated by Dr H. Rink"*, that the Eskimo cradle was in the 
 
 ^ The Abbe E. Petitot, who takes Eskimo from the Kree dialect, gives the 
 form fF?3/^j--/^z*-w<?w^/^= "Mangeurs de chair crue" (wiyas = chair, arki = cru, 
 mowew = manger). He adds that the collective Mackenzie name is Chiglerk, 
 pi. Chiglit', and the Hudson Bay Aggnt or Axut^ pi. Agutit, while the western 
 tribes call themselves TacJmt or Tagut, pi. Chukchit, all these terms meaning 
 "Man," "Men" {Bid. Soc. Geogr. x. 1875, p. 256 sq.) 
 
 - Quoted by Prof E. B. Tylor, Jown. Anthrop. Inst. 1884, p- 349- 
 Others suggest that Skr ailing may be a Norse form of Karalit. The term 
 Or avian introduced by W. H. Dall {Alaska and its Resources, Boston, 1870; 
 Distribution of the Native Tribes of Alaska, etc., in Proc. Amer. Ass. 1870, 
 vol. 18) as a collective designation of all the Eskimo, Aleutian, and Chukchi 
 peoples has not met with general acceptance. 
 
 ^ Old Scandinavian Civilization among the Modern Esqidmanx, Jour. 
 Anthrop. Inst. 1884, p. 353. ^ 
 
 ■* The Eskimo Tribes, their Distribution and Characteristics, 2 vols., Copen- 
 hagen, 1887. 
 
 24—2 
 
372 MiVN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 interior of the continent, whence they moved down the Yukon, 
 and perhaps other rivers, to the coast. Here (in 
 
 Eskimo and r r- v 
 
 Aleut Cradle- Alaska) they must have dwelt some considerable 
 ^*"^' time about the lower fluvial reaches and estuaries, 
 
 developing a " culture home," and gradually adapting themselves 
 to an Arctic environment before a second dispersion took place 
 along the lines of least resistance, over the 5000 miles of sea- 
 board from Bering Strait to Greenland and Labrador. All the 
 conditions accord with the view that the original stock inhabited 
 the interior of Alaska ; that, apart from the true Eskimo, a side 
 branch in the earliest period peopled the Aleutian Islands, while 
 the main stream settled later at the river-mouths, spreading north 
 along Bering Strait, hiving off some colonies to the Asiatic side, 
 passing round to the Mackenzie river, then over the Arctic archi- 
 pelago to Labrador and Greenland. This dispersion may have 
 taken thousands of years, as they can have advanced only in small 
 bands, very much as to this day they are wont to move about 
 during certain seasons. 
 
 This view is supported by many facts drawn from social 
 usages and speech, but not from their physique. Thus "the 
 kayak does not attain its highest perfection except in Greenland." 
 Again the labret or lip ornament, obviously adopted from the 
 Thlinkits in a reduced form due to cHmatic influence, ranges only 
 to the Mackenzie. Here two smaller labrets under the corners of 
 the mouth replace the large Thhnkit and Aleutian disk, which, as 
 remarked by Dall, " no hunter exposed to the icy blasts and cold 
 waters could have worn " ; it would have exposed " the extended 
 strip of flesh to freezing and been an insufferable annoyance 
 otherwise." Reference is also made to the ruins on the banks 
 of the Yukon, where Lieut. Ray of the Point Barrow Expedition 
 brought to light "a pair of wooden goggles" from a depth of 
 26 feet below the surface. It has also been remarked that the 
 Eskimo could only have followed this line of migration by the help 
 of their stone lamps, without whose light and heat life would be 
 impossible in those high latitudes. "Since it is true that the 
 Eskimo is dependent upon his lamp for his very existence, it 
 seems safe to bring forward as a corollary that his migration 
 into his present home was subsequent to the invention of the 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 373 
 
 lamp. Further, the lamp seems to have determined the distribu- 
 tion of the Eskimo race^" 
 
 Although there are no "gentes" in the strict sense, as amongst 
 the Indians, the social organization being on the 
 whole but feebly developed, and although the exist- ojanfiation. 
 ence of a tribal system has been denied because 
 the final syllable mut {itiiut^ mute) of the group-names means 
 " inhabitants " of such districts or stations, nevertheless "the term 
 tribe is undoubtedly the most correct in this case." Recent 
 investigation shows that "each larger household comprising 
 several famiHes has a chief as conscientiously venerated and 
 obeyed as heads of communities or magistrates elsewhere^." 
 
 It is also a mistake to suppose that all the Eskimos dwell on 
 or near the coast, within 50 miles of the shore, and 
 are seafarers. There are several inland tribes who tJpT^'''^ 
 live by hunting, and have largely intermingled with 
 the Indians, the fusion with the Thlinkits and Athapascans being 
 complete in some districts. The Nushegagmuts of the Nushegak 
 basin "are hunters of considerable skill on both land and water. 
 The natives inhabiting the head-waters of the river and the lake 
 region of the interior are in constant communication with the 
 Athapascan tribes," while others " have been strangely mixed by 
 immigration from the westward and the northward^." To this 
 intermingling must partly be attributed the physical variability 
 in Alaska, where Rink recognises three distinct types: — (i) the 
 tall, cadaverous natives of Kotzebue Sound, who live on fish, 
 ptarmigan and marmots, and always have a hungry look ; (2) the 
 tall, strongly-knit, gigantic Nualoks of splendid physique, who 
 occupy the inland uplands, and feed on the reindeer, mountain 
 sheep, birds and fish ; (3) the short, stumpy people, who pro- 
 bably represent the old Eskimos before contact with southern 
 
 1 Walter Hough, The Origin and Range of the Eskimo Lamp, in Amer. 
 Anthropology, April, 1898, p. 118. 
 
 - Rink, I. p. 24. Hence we cannot accept as applicable to the whole 
 nation Ivan PetroflF's statement that "there seems to be no recognised chief- 
 tainship, each isolated settlement generally containing one man who makes 
 himself prominent by superii?fcending all intercourse and traffic with visitors" 
 (Report on the Poptdation etc. of Alaska, Washington, 1884, p. 125). 
 
 '^ Petroff, p. 135. 
 
374 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 tribes, and are now found chiefly on the Arctic coast, where 
 whale, seal, and reindeer are the staple food^ 
 
 Reference has already been made to the variable character 
 of the people of East Greenland, where the only known group at 
 present are the Anmagsaliks. These derelicts, who have their 
 stations on the coast district over against Iceland, were visited 
 for the first time by the Danish expedition of 1884-5, ^^^l at 
 that date comprised 413 souls distributed in eleven stations over 
 a tract of about 80 miles. Each station had but one house, and 
 one of these was as large as the Kashga, or "Council-house," 
 which is found in every Alaskan village. It accommodated 58 
 inmates, being 28 feet long, 15 wide, and 6 J high, and was 
 divided off into eight "stalls," varying in size with the number 
 of persons in each family. And here they lived all together 
 during the long Arctic winters, cooking, sleeping, working, 
 merrymaking, dancing, singing, perhaps gorging now and then, 
 but never wrangling. " No quarrel disturbs the peace, there is 
 no dispute about the use of the narrow space ; scolding, or even 
 unkind words are considered a misdemeanourV' as indeed 
 amongst most Eskimo peoples. 
 
 A marvellous linguistic phenomenon is presented by the 
 
 Eskimo language, which, despite its exceedingly 
 characteiTof iuvolvcd Structure (see above), is spoken with 
 Eskimo surprising uniformity from Bering Strait to East 
 
 Greenland. It is as if the Aryan mother tongue 
 were still current in all its fulness, with but slight dialectic 
 variation, from Ceylon to Iceland. This persistence for thousands 
 of years in such an exceedingly extenuated domain is partly due 
 to the migrations ranging everywhere over previously uninhabited 
 regions, so that no disintegrating effects were produced by contact 
 with other tongues. The dialectic differences, which Rink calls 
 ^'comparatively insignificant," are no greater than between English 
 and broad Scotch. On several grounds Rink argues that the 
 language was fully developed, as we now know it, before the first 
 dispersion from the culture home. Thus the names of nearly all 
 
 1 Op. at. II. p. 116. 
 
 ^ Rink, I. p. 26. The language itself is said to contain not a single abusive 
 term, so that it is impossible to swear in Eskimo. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 375 
 
 the Arctic marine fauna — bearded seal, walrus, Greenland whale, 
 narwhal, swordfish, polar bear, are everywhere the same. So also 
 the kayak and all its belongings are identically named in the 
 eastern and western dialects, showing that not only the language, 
 but the industries, usages, and it may be added many myths and 
 beliefs, were much the same as at present \ Yet, according to 
 Fru Signe Rink, some of the national folklore would carry us 
 back to an immensely remote epoch, when the Eskimo people, 
 already fully specialised, were still in direct relation not only with 
 the Siberian aborigines, but even with the " Hairy Ainu " them- 
 selves ^ 
 
 Here is again raised the whole question of racial affinities, 
 or at least close contact and direct intercourse, 
 based on the evidence of like usages, arts, religious systems* 
 notions, traditions, legendary matter and everything 
 comprised under the expression folklore. That great similarities, 
 and even identities, do exist in all these respects between the 
 North American, the Siberian, and other aborigines is undeniable. 
 "Cases in point are the vapour-baths produced by red-hot stones, 
 which follow the Arctic circle with much southing from Lapland 
 round to Alaska and down the north-west coast ; several creation 
 and procreation myths ; a common belief in good and bad spirits, 
 with a vague conception, and that borrowed, of a really Supreme 
 being; religion mostly at the shamanistic stage, though with 
 considerable differences ; magic practices and jugglery associated 
 with sickness and witchcraft. 
 
 But when all this, and much more of a Hke order, is carefully 
 analysed, it is found to establish little beyond the psychic unity 
 of man, with the accepted fact that America received some of its 
 primitive inhabitants from Asia during the New Stone Age, that is, 
 when the migrating peoples had already reached a certain degree 
 of mental culture. It will never prove, for instance, that the Aleuts 
 are Japanese, the Thlinkits Yakuts, the Eskimauans Tunguses, the 
 Kwakiutls Gilyaks, or that there has been any direct contact 
 between these several groups since the New Stone Age. It is a 
 
 1 Op. cit. II. p. lo. ^ 
 
 2 The Girl and the Dogs, an Eskimo Folk-tale, Amer. Anthropologist, June 
 and July, 1898. 
 
376 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 vast subject, and can here be merely touched upon, especially 
 with a view to the removal of some current misconceptions and 
 exaggerations, and thus reduce the question to its due pro- 
 portions. 
 
 We are assured by the editor of Rufinesque's Walani Olum 
 that " the notion of a bad spirit, a ' Devil,' was wholly unknown 
 to the aborigines, and entirely borrowed from the whites V' and 
 authorities are quoted. Nevertheless the evidence of a general 
 belief in evil spirits is overwhelming^ and even in this book itself 
 reference is made to the "Evil ManitoV' who "made evil beings 
 onlyV' and again to "an evil being, a mighty magician," who 
 "came on earth, and with him brought badness... sickness... 
 death ^" Here is the Evil One playing an important part in the 
 legend itself, the text of which the editor thinks "is a genuine 
 native production*^." 
 
 So far then the American and Siberian beliefs are in accord. 
 
 But such notions are well-nigh universal, and would therefore 
 
 supply no argument for common origin or contact, but for the 
 
 shamanistic element more or less common to both. The term 
 
 "shaman," which of course nowhere occurs in 
 
 Shamanism. * • • 
 
 America, is so freely used by writers on the native 
 religions, that the identity of these and the Asiatic primitive 
 systems is tacitly assumed, with all the above indicated corollaries. 
 But the American ttingaks^ as the Alaskan Eskimos call them", 
 stand for the most part at a much lower level than the true 
 Siberian shamans. They are little more than conjurers, or medi- 
 cine-men, like those who in Africa " smell out " the witches and 
 other evil-doers. Although sometimes looked upon as mediators 
 
 ^ The Lendpe and their Legends, etc., Philadelphia, 1885, p. 68. 
 
 - Thus the Eskimo say there is a good spirit who taught them to use 
 kayaks, and a bad spirit how to spoil and destroy them (Shelikhof, quoted by 
 Petroff, p. 137). Cf. also Niblack's statement that amongst the North-west 
 Coast Indians the sway of the shamans "depends largely upon the fear and 
 respect excited by belief in their influence and power over good and evil spirits'^ 
 {The Coast Indians, p. 348). 
 
 3 p. 166. 4 p. 173. 5 pp. 175-7. ^ P- 158. 
 
 ^ To the western tungak corresponds the Greenland angakok, who is now 
 little heard of, but figures largely in the records of the early missionaries, Hans 
 Egede and others. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 377 
 
 with the invisible world, it is impossible to say whether or not 
 the natives " believe in the actual control of spirits by the con- 
 jurers V about which the Siberians have no doubt. Among the 
 North-west Coast natives they are credited with "the power of 
 charming away life by incantations and the use of certain charms," 
 although one of their duties is also " to drive out the evil spirit 
 which haunts the sick man I" They are also expected to perform 
 other duties, such as removing the scalps of the slain in battle, 
 or even carrying out the death-sentence, when "the shaman 
 bewitches the condemned person by throwing disease into him, 
 or by poisoning him in some other (supernatural?) way^" 
 
 Most of the tungaks are clever conjurers, yet "do not seem 
 to enjoy much respect, unless they combine with the business of 
 conjuring the qualities of an expert trader and skilled hunter"*." 
 In a few districts the office appears to be inherited^ and cases are 
 reported of shamans so thoroughly ashamed of their equivocal 
 position as to warn their sons from accepting the damnosa here- 
 ditas. On the other hand observers are unanimous in declaring 
 that they never take part in, conduct, or preside at sacrificial rites 
 to gods or ancestors, or venture to propitiate evil spirits, whereas 
 this, as we have seen, is one of the most important functions of 
 the Siberian shaman. 
 
 Perhaps the ground on which both agree best are the con- 
 juring tricks, which are often of a strikingly similar character. 
 With those of the Samoyads witnessed by the old traveller Richard 
 Johnson ** may be compared the scene described by Franz Boas, 
 in which a female performer (a shamanka?) invites the people 
 
 ^ Petroff, p. 130. 
 
 2 Niblack, The Coast Indians^ etc., p. 349. 
 ^ Boas, Social Organization, etc., p. 650. 
 •* Petroff, p. 130. 
 
 5 Thus a chief of the Niska tribe, Naas River, told Franz Boas that "only 
 a man whose father was a halait (shaman) can become a shaman." He added 
 that "many who pretend to be shamans have no supernatural helpers at all," 
 but that when he himself was called to cure disease, "four supernatural men 
 appeared to him and helped him. They pointed out witches to him, and 
 enabled him to see ghosts, etS^" {Tenth Report of the North- Western Tribes of 
 Canada, 1895, pp. 59-60.) 
 
 6 p. 289. 
 
378 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 to kill her, when "she is placed on a seat behind the fire, and 
 one of her attendants complies with her request. He will appear 
 to drive a wedge through her head from one temple to the other. 
 The wedge is first shown to the people, and then secretly ex- 
 changed for another, which consists of two parts attached to a 
 wooden band that is slipped over her head and covered with hair. 
 Thus it seems that the butt is standing out on one side, the point 
 having passed through her skull. At the same time bladders 
 containing blood, which are attached to the band, are burst, and 
 the blood is seen to flow down her face^ " and so on. 
 
 Many of these pretended supernatural performances were 
 associated with the "medical profession," as almost everywhere 
 amongst primitive peoples. But the American medicine-man 
 resembled the African witch-doctor far more than the Siberian 
 shaman, because amongst the Americans sickness was as uni- 
 versally attributed to sorcery and other malign influences as 
 amongst the Bantu Negroes themselves. "The Indians had no 
 reasonable or efficacious system of medicine. They believed 
 that diseases were caused by unseen evil beings and by witch- 
 craft, and every cough, every toothache, every headache, every 
 chill, every fever, every boil, and every wound, in fact, all their 
 ailments, were attributed to such cause. Their so-called medical 
 practice was a horrible system of sorcery, and to such superstition 
 human life was sacrificed on an enormous scale. The sufferers 
 were given over to priest doctors to be tormented, bedeviled, and 
 destroyed; and a universal and profound beHef in witchcraft 
 made them suspicious, and led to the killing of all suspected and 
 obnoxious people, and engendered blood feuds on a gigantic 
 scale.... In fact, a natural death in a savage tent is a com- 
 paratively rare phenomenon ; but death by sorcery, medicine, and 
 blood feud arising from a belief in witchcraft is exceedingly 
 common ^" 
 
 In the treatment of ailments the medicine-men were left very 
 much to their own devices ; nor were the shamanistic functions 
 anywhere very clearly defined. On the whole the American 
 tungak, to generalise the word, may be regarded as a sort of 
 
 ^ Social Organization, etc. , p. 489. 
 
 ^ Powell, Indian Linguistic Families, p. 39. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 379 
 
 Asiatic shaman in embryo, arriving in the late Stone Age, and 
 afterwards diverging in various directions from his Siberian proto- 
 type. 
 
 More striking perhaps than these resemblances are those of 
 an aesthetic order, which are found to prevail be- 
 tween the British Columbian Indians and the South xot^m Posts 
 Sea Islanders, and which are well illustrated by ^"'^ Maori 
 
 Tiki. 
 
 the rich symbolic carvings of the Haida totem or 
 heraldic posts, and the tiki, or carved pillars, often set up at the 
 tombs of the Maori chiefs and others in New Zealand. The best 
 reply to the still current daring speculations based on the simi- 
 larity in form and design presented by some of these objects will 
 be found in the remarks of Mr Niblack, who has made a special 
 study of the subject, and contrasts the famous tiki near the grave 
 of Te Whero-Whero's daughter with several sculptured columns 
 of the Thlinkits and Haidas : " Many resemblances of the Haida 
 to widely remote stocks have been pointed out by writers ; but 
 to illustrate how futile such clues are in tracing the origin and 
 relationship of the tribes of the world, a parallel is here briefly 
 drawn between the Maori of New Zealand and the Haida. The 
 political organization of the tribe, their ownership of land, and 
 their laws of blood-revenge are similar. The men tattoo with 
 designs intended to identify them with their sub-tribe or house- 
 hold, and they ornament their canoes, paddles, house-fronts, etc., 
 in somewhat the same manner.... The carved wooden mortuary 
 columns erected in front of the Maori houses are also suggestive ; 
 but it is safe to say that while all this is not in one sense acci- 
 dental, yet the resemblances and similarities are as likely to have 
 arisen from the like tendencies of the human mind under the 
 same external conditions, or environment, to develop along 
 parallel lines as through contact of these tribes or through a 
 common origin." Here it may be added that if the Thlinkits 
 and Maori are one in virtue of their common door-posts, the 
 Thlinkits and Yakuts must also be one in virtue of their common 
 shamanism, and as things equal to the same are equal to one 
 another, we arrive at tl^ conclusion that the Turki Yakuts and 
 the Polynesian Maori are also one, which nobody has yet ventured 
 to assert. 
 
380 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Mr Niblack's reasoning applies with equal force to common 
 popular beliefs and practices, a notable instance of 
 which is the wide-spread couvade, and generally to 
 myths and folklore in the strict sense of the word. Thus the 
 European were-wolf and Malayan were-tiger' are matched by the 
 South-American were-jaguar, as amongst the Minuana Indians, 
 who speak of a good man formerly dwelling on the Rio Gualeguay 
 who was one night murdered by a gang of brigands. Soon after 
 some men, including one of the murderers, were passing along 
 the sedgy river-bank when a black jaguar sprang out and struck 
 down the assassin. This jaguar was often seen afterwards, but 
 never hurt anybody unless he happened to be one of the gang, 
 and when all were killed he was seen no more. A story, which 
 despite its Christian colouring is undoubtedly of native origin, is 
 current in Paraguay about Yaguarete-Aba, a baptized Indian, who 
 changes at night to a jaguar in order to feed on human flesh. 
 Withdrawing to a thicket, he falls prone on the ground and is 
 thus transformed. Then to become man again he repeats the 
 process in reverse order. He differs from a real jaguar by his 
 very short tail (a mere stump) and hairless forehead. At last he 
 is wounded by a daring youth and vanishes, but the hunter fol- 
 lowing up the trail of blood comes to a cave strewn with human 
 bones, renews the fight, and slays the ghouP. 
 
 More striking still is the story current in the province of 
 Tucuman about two brothers, who formerly lived in a hut in a 
 wood infested by a man-eating jaguar. All attempts to hunt him 
 down had failed, as at every shot his hair merely bristled up, 
 causing the bullet to rebound. Now one of the men, noticing 
 that whenever the jaguar appeared his brother was never at home, 
 sat a-watching, and one day followed stealthily after ^him into the 
 woods, till they reached a tree on which hung a flask of coarse 
 salt and a jaguar skin rolled up in a bundle. Here the suspected 
 brother, taking three grains of salt and spreading the skin on the 
 ground, danced round and round until he became a jaguar. 
 Horrified at the sight, the watcher went home, and presently 
 
 ^ See p. 239. 
 
 - J. B. Ambrosetti, La Legenda del YagtiareU-Aba, in Anales de la Sociedad 
 Cientifica Argentina^ 1896, vol. 41, p. 321. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 38 1 
 
 Stealing back to the tree, kindled a fire into which he threw the 
 charmed bundle. On his return to the hut, there was his dying 
 brother, who knew what had happened, and said he must die 
 unless there was time to get him a bit of the skin. So his pitying 
 companion was off and back in all haste with an unburnt scrap 
 snatched from the embers, which the moribund eagerly seizing 
 threw over his shoulders and was in a flash again a jaguar, 
 which with a mighty bound sprang from the hut and was seen 
 no more\ 
 
 Returning to the north, Franz Boas^ shows that the folklore 
 of the North-west Indians has spread over wide spaces by borrow- 
 ings and migrations. Thus a group of myths, in which the raven 
 plays the chief part as creator, etc., was originally confined to the 
 Thlinkits and neighbouring Haidas and Tsimshians, but spread 
 later to the Columbia river peoples, though picking up foreign 
 elements on the way. By following the track of such myths, 
 light may often be thrown on the migrations of the tribes them- 
 selves, as in the case of the Tsimshians, who have so little 
 -influenced their present neighbours that their arrival on the coast 
 must be regarded as of relatively recent date. 
 
 On the Atlantic side of the continent we seem to enter a 
 different mythological world, and here it may be readily admitted 
 that Mr Charles G. Leland has shown direct contact between the 
 Norse legends and those of the East Algonquian tribes (Micmacs, 
 Penobscots, Passamaquoddies)^ " Lox," the wolverine, may not 
 be an Indian word, but his misdeeds bear too great a resemblance 
 to those of Loki to be explained away as mere coincidences. To 
 account, however, for these and many other identities of thought 
 and sentiment we need but recall what has been stated of the long 
 sojourn of the Norsemen in Greenland, of their southern expedi- 
 tions to Hvitramannaland, and of the former range of the Eskimos 
 as far as New England, overlapping and undoubtedly intermingling 
 
 1 J. B. Ambrosetti, La Legenda del Yagtiarete-Aba, in Anales de la 
 Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, 1896, vol. 41, p. 321. 
 
 '^ Verhandl. Berlin. Ges.f. Anthrop. etc. 1895, p. 487 sq. ; also Indianische 
 Sagen von der Nord-Pacifischen Kiiste Amerikd's, Berlin, 1895, p. 329 sq. ; and 
 Social Organization^ etc., p. oOb sq. 
 
 2 The Algonquian Legends of New England, t\.Q,. 1884. 
 
382 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. , [CHAP. 
 
 with the Eastern Algonquians, as they now do with the North- 
 western Athapascans. 
 
 These two great families of Athapascans and Algonquians^ 
 with their endless ramifications, jointly occupy, or 
 Athapascans rather occupied in pre-Columbian times, consider- 
 ably more than half of the northern Continent. 
 The Athapascans, so named from the Athapascan waters in their 
 domain, but also collectively called Tinneh^ *' Men," occupy a 
 divided territory, compact in the north from the Eskimo fringe 
 in Alaska nearly to Port Nelson on Hudson Bay, and from this 
 point west to the Rocky Mountains along a curved line, mostly 
 conterminous with the Algonquians, rising midway to 60° N., and 
 dipping westwards nearly to 50° N. Then follow at intervals 
 a'long" the west coast a few small enclaves, which seem to indicate 
 the track taken during their southern migrations to the North 
 Mexican borderlands, where they roamed till lately over another 
 wide tract comprising portions of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, 
 and the Rio Grande basin. 
 
 So marked is the contrast between the northern groups, 
 mostly peaceful and even timid hunters or trappers long in the 
 service of the Hudson Bay Company, and the southern tribes — 
 fierce predatory Apache, Lipan, and Navajo hordes — that their 
 kinship might have perhaps escaped detection but for their 
 common Athapascan speech. The northern, Pacific Coast, and 
 southern sections have a joint population of scarcely 33,000, 
 the southern being by far the most numerous (23,000), but now 
 mostly reduced and settled in various reservations, while the 
 northerners (Ah-tenas, Kuchins, Chippewyans, i.e. "Yellow 
 Knives," Dog Ribs, Hares, Slaves, Nahanies, etc.) still enjoy 
 the free life of hunters and traders under the protection of the 
 Dominion Government. 
 
 Despite several centuries of a lawless existence as plundering 
 steppe tribes, the Navajos have preserved careful 
 Apaches°^ ^"^ ^"^ apparently correct oral traditions of their first 
 arrival in the San Juan valley before the end of the 
 14th century, where they were probably cHff-dwellers. According 
 to Mr F. W. Hodge the Apaches — who are not the parent stem 
 of the Navajos, as commonly supposed — were at that time already 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 383 
 
 settled in the north-western and south-western parts of New 
 Mexico/ Before the i8th century the Navajos had been joined 
 by various fragments of Athapascans, Tanoas, Tauras, Keresas, 
 Zuni, Shoshons, Yumas and others, and by the acquisition of 
 domestic animals soon after the first Spanish expedition (1542) 
 their social state underwent a complete change. Before the 
 17th century none of these marauders were strong enough to 
 molest the Pueblo communities, which afterwards suffered so 
 much from their depredations \ 
 
 But these faint reminiscences of the past are the mere echoes 
 of history compared with those of the eastern families — Algon- 
 quians, Iroquoians, Muskhogeans — all of whom have been in the 
 closest contact with the European settlers for about 300 years, 
 while some had probably come under Norse influences as early 
 as the nth century. Originally the Algonquian domain was 
 even more extensive than the Athapascan, forming a vast but 
 irregular triangular space, whose northern base, indented by 
 Hudson Bay, stretched from Labrador to the Rockies, so that 
 ihey were almost everywhere conterminous on the north with the 
 Athapascans, and round the Labrador seaboard with the Eskimos. 
 Southwards the two sides were roughly enclosed by the Mississippi 
 valley and the Atlantic shore line, reaching on the one hand as 
 far as central Tennessee, on the other to and perhaps a little 
 beyond Pamlico Sound, North Carolina-. Between these two 
 points, that is, towards its apex, the triangle was truncated, and 
 the Algonquian territory arrested and even encroached upon by 
 the Muskhogean domain in the west, by a detached southern 
 section of the Iroquoians in the centre, and by Siouan and other 
 Iroquoian enclaves towards the Atlantic. 
 
 In the Laurentian basin the northern and chief section of the 
 
 1 The Early Navajo and Apache in Ainer. Anthropologist, 1895, p. 233 sq. 
 It should be stated, however, that Mr Hodge's views are questioned by Capt. 
 J. Bourke. 
 
 - Some of the Shawnees had even penetrated from Tennessee into South 
 Carolina, where they were known as Savannahs — a name still surviving in the 
 river so called. Others (Cheyennes and Arapahoes) had pushed westwards 
 beyond the Missouri to Soutff Dakota, Wyoming, and Colorado, here forming 
 the extreme westerly range of the Algonquian peoples. 
 
384 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Iroquoian family was completely enclosed by Algonquian tribes, 
 so that it formed a great ethnical island, which itself completely 
 enclosed Lakes Erie and Ontario, extended along both banks 
 of the St Lawrence nearly to the head of the estuary \ and also 
 comprised the whole of the present State of New York, with a 
 great part of Pennsylvania and Maryland, here terminating at the 
 head of Chesapeake Bay. These limits, which scarcely anywhere 
 coincided with the geographical features of the land, were subject 
 to continual fluctuations, first during the inter-tribal wars of these 
 two rival nations, and then during the protracted struggles of the 
 French and English for supremacy, in which struggles the Algon- 
 quians generally sided with the former, the Iroquoians with the 
 latter. 
 
 Although greatly reduced, broken up, dispersed or brought 
 into reservations chiefly about the United States and Dominion 
 borderlands, the Algonquians still greatly outnumber all other 
 North American family groups. In fact over one-fourth of all 
 the aborigines belong to this division, which has a total popula- 
 tion of at least 95,000 (60,000 in Canada, 35,000 in the States). 
 Of the particular Algonquian tribe, whence the family takes its 
 name, less than 5000 still survive, all located in the provinces 
 of Ontario and Quebec. But of the Ojibwas (Chippewas) there 
 remain as many as 32,000 round about all the Great Lakes, while 
 of the Crees, the next most numerous, there are reckoned over 
 17,000, all in Manitoba and the region between Lake Winnipeg 
 and Hudson Bay. The Cree language is a typical Algonquian 
 idiom, perhaps approaching nearer to the original mother tongue 
 than any other, whence it has been inferred that the cradle of the 
 race lay north of the Laurentian basin, probably round about the 
 shores of Lake Winnipeg. Against this assumption, however, 
 
 1 The estuary, the islands of the Gulf, and surrounding land all formed part 
 of the Algonquian area, except the Labrador coast and the northern extremity 
 of Newfoundland, which were still occupied by the Eskimos, and a considerable 
 district in central Newfoundland, which was originally held by the long-extinct 
 Beothukans. These are shown by A. S. Gatschet to have been a people of 
 unknown origin, but of non-Algonquian speech. (Xhe Beothuk Indiaits, Proc. 
 Amer. Philos. Soc. June 19, 1885, and May 7, 1886.) All the rest of the 
 island belonged to, or was constantly visited by the Algonquian Micmacs of 
 New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 385 
 
 has to be weighed the fact that the central tribes — Abenaki, 
 Mohigan, Delaware and Naticoke — whose territory lay between 
 the St Lawrence and Chesapeake Bay, regarded themselves as 
 one people, and were conceded by the others to be the " grand- 
 fathers," that is, the progenitors of the whole stock. From this 
 region, " as their numbers increased, they sent colonies northward 
 along the coast, driving back the Eskimo, and probably the 
 Beothuk, westward and north-westward up the valley of the 
 St Lawrence and the lakes, and southward to occupy the coast 
 of Virginia and a part of Carolina, where, in conjunction with the 
 Iroquoian tribes, they expelled the Cherokies from the upper 
 waters of the Ohio, and compelled them to take refuge in the 
 mountain fastnesses to the south. Most of these movements, 
 although the subject of well-supported tradition, belong to pre- 
 historic times, but the advance of the Algonquian tribes into the 
 north-west is comparatively modern*." 
 
 Nor are the renowned Delawares (Leni Lenape), Sac and 
 Foxes and Shawnees yet extinct, although jointly numbering 
 little over 4000, all collected in agencies and reservations in 
 Indian territory. New York and other places. Of the Massa- 
 chusetts, for whom Eliot translated the first Bible in any native 
 tongue, the Narragansets, the Long Island Montauks^ the Man- 
 hattans, the Powhatans^, the Panticos, and other Atlantic coast 
 
 1 James Mooney, The Siouan Tribes of the East, V^ashvagton, 1894, p. 12. 
 
 2 A last echo of the Montauk Indians was heard in the Civil Courts of 
 Long Island in 1896, when documents of the 17th century signed by their chiefs 
 were produced and accepted as valid title-deeds to certain lands and fishing 
 rights about East Island, Glen Cove. The Montauks proper, a few of whom 
 are said still to survive about Montauk Point, only held the section of the 
 island north from East Hampton ; but the authority of their Sachem (Grand 
 Chief) appears to have been acknowledged by the Rockaways, the Matinecocks 
 and the numerous other tribal groups in the southern section, all of whom 
 will be found in B. F. Thompson's History of Long Island, New York, 
 
 1843. PP- 93—96- 
 
 '^ There still survives, however, a group of about 100 half-breeds, descendants 
 of the Pamunkeys, who were members of the Algonquian Confederacy founded 
 by the renowned chief Powhatan, and associated with the romantic adventures 
 of Capt. John Smith and Pocahontas. They are settled in the district of Indian- 
 town on the Pamunkey River (so named from them) some 20 miles east of 
 Richmond, and are now of English speech, though still proud of their descent 
 K. 25 
 
386 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 tribes, with whom the English settlers had first to do, none have 
 survived the " wreck of nations." 
 
 Chicago, which has a white population probably four times 
 as numerous as all the North American aborigines,' occupies the 
 site of Fort Dearborn, which was founded in 1804 to overawe 
 the turbulent prairie Indians, and was in 1833 the scene of a 
 memorable gathering of the Pottawatomis, a numerous branch of 
 the formerly wide-spread Algonquian Miamis. At this gathering 
 they ceded to the United States Government, for very much less 
 than " prairie value," a vast domain of some 20 million acres 
 constituting the present States of Illinois and Wisconsin. Over 
 this tract are now thickly strewn thriving agricultural and industrial 
 settlements of the white intruders, while the original owners of the 
 land are reduced to about 1500 souls, distributed in small groups 
 among the Indian Territory, Kansas, and other Agencies. 
 
 But even the most maudlin of sentimental philanthropists will 
 scarcely venture to affirm that from the humani- 
 R^ervat^'n". tarian point of view there is any serious ground for 
 regretting the transformation. In these Reserva- 
 tions, when honestly administered, as always in the Dominion 
 and now also for the most part in the States, there is little cause 
 to regret an inevitable change, by which the aborigines may 
 possibly be doomed to ultimate extinction or absorption in the 
 higher race, but by which they are in the meantime afforded 
 every opportunity of becoming peaceful and even useful citizens. 
 Many, such as the Chikasaws and Cherokis in Indian Territory, 
 the Six Nations in New York, the Ojibwas and others in Canada, 
 and these Pottawatomis themselves, have accepted their new 
 destinies with a sort of philosophic resignation, and have already 
 made considerable progress in the arts and industries of civihsed 
 man. Even letters have not been neglected, and a pleasant 
 surprise was afforded to thoughtful observers by a well-considered 
 paper on Indian legends and superstitions contributed to the 
 Forum for July 1898, by the Pottawatomi chief, Simon Pokagon. 
 
 and of being the only Virginia tribe still occupying a corner of "the original 
 hunting ground'* (J. Garland Pollard, The Pamunkcy Indians of Virginia, 
 Washington, 1894). 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 387 
 
 There is a good deal of what may be called mysticism in the 
 article, which contains a curious account of certain processes 
 by which the natives communicate with the spiritual world, as 
 witnessed by the writer himself: "Poles 10 to 12 feet high are set 
 in the ground in the form of a circle from 6 to 8 feet in diameter. 
 The top of the lodge is left open ; the sides are tightly covered 
 with birch-bark or the skins of animals. A fire is built close to 
 the lodge, for the purpose of enabling the spectators to light their 
 pipes, as they generally smoke during the strange performance. 
 All being ready, a low, tinkling sound is heard, like several small 
 bells at a distance. With a rush, on comes the leading performer, 
 carrying a magician's little flat rattle-box like a tambourine. He 
 sits down by the fire, and begins by telling his audience how he 
 can call up spirits of the dead, as well as of those yet living in the 
 world, and that any present can ask them questions and receive 
 true answers thereto. He next sings a true song which can 
 scarcely be understood. He then either goes into the lodge by 
 crawling under, or sits outside with the audience ; throwing his 
 blanket or some other clothing over the top of it. Immediately 
 the lodge begins to shake, like a creature of life with an ague chill. 
 Then is heard in the lodge a sound, like that of a distant strong 
 wind sweeping through leafless trees, and intermingled with strange 
 noises. When questions are asked by anyone present they are 
 always answered in an unknown tongue ; but, luckily, among the 
 spirits there is always a special interpreter to explain what the 
 spirits say." 
 
 This, at all events, is as good as the seances of our modern 
 theosophists with their paid mediums, mahatmas and other ex- 
 travagances, and a great deal better than the scalpings, lingering 
 tortures, and other nameless horrors of Indian warfare. 
 
 What are the relations of these Algonquian tribes to those 
 strange monuments of an unknown past, the earth- 
 works and sepulchral mounds which are strewn Baiiders.°"" 
 over the Mississippi basin and some adjacent lands, 
 but thickly crowded especially in the Ohio valley, which at all 
 times formed part of the Algonquian domain ? Few now believe 
 that their builders were a different race from the present Indians, 
 and the majority of antiquaries agree with Dr Cyrus Thomas, who 
 
 2!?— 2 
 
388 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 has dealt exhaustively with the subject ^ that there is nothing in 
 these monuments that the Indians could not have done, that 
 many have been erected or continued in post-Columbian times, 
 consequently by the present aborigines, and that there is therefore 
 no reason for ascribing them to any other race of which we have 
 no knowledge. 
 
 This general conclusion is in no way opposed to M. de 
 Nadaillac's suggestion that the mounds were certainly the work 
 of Indians, but of more civilised tribes than the present Algon- 
 quians, by whom they were driven south to Florida, and there 
 found with their towns, council-houses, and other structures 
 by the first white settlers ^ It would appear, however, from 
 Mr F. H. Cushing's investigations, that these tribal council- 
 houses of the Seminole Indians were a local development, 
 growing up on the spot under conditions quite diiferent from 
 those prevailing in the north. Many of the vast shell-mounds, 
 especially between Tampa and Cape Sable, are clearly of artificial 
 structure, that is, made with definite purpose, and carried up 
 symmetrically into large mounds comparable in dimensions with 
 the Indian mounds of the interior. They originated with pile 
 dwellings in shallow water, where the kitchen refuse, chiefly 
 shells, accumulates and rises above the surface, when the building 
 appears to stand on posts in a low mound. Then this type of 
 structure comes to be regarded as the normal for house-building 
 everywhere. "Through this natural series of changes in type 
 there is a tendency to the development of mounds as sites for 
 habitations and for the council-house of the clan or tribe, the 
 sites being either separate mounds or single large mounds, accord- 
 ing to circumstances. Thus the study of the Hving Seminole 
 Indians and of the shell-mounds in the same vicinity... suggests 
 a possible origin for a custom of mound-building at one time so 
 prevalent among the North American Indians ^" But if this be 
 the genesis of such structures, the custom must have spread from 
 the shores of the Gulf inland, and not from the Ohio valley south- 
 wards to Florida. 
 
 * Twelfth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1894. 
 
 2 V Anthropologic, 1897, p. 702 sq. 
 
 3 Sixteenth An. Report Bur. Ethnology, Washington, 1897, p. Ivi sq. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 389 
 
 I Problems of a different order are presented by the Algon- 
 quians' great rivals, the Iroquoians, whose social 
 and political organization has been made the subject iroquoians 
 of profound studies by several eminent American 
 and European ethnologists. Noted at all times for their proud 
 bearing, warlike spirit, and highly developed military system, they 
 have been called the " Romans of the New World," and despite 
 their limited numbers and long-standing inter-tribal feuds, such 
 was their superiority over the surrounding populations that a 
 great Iroquoian empire might have been established between the 
 Atlantic and the Mississippi had the advent of the Whites been 
 delayed a few generations longer. In the Laurentian region, 
 probably their cradle', they formed originally two hostile sections, 
 the Huron-Eries ( Wyandots) and the Iroquois^ ^ that is, the histo- 
 rical *' Five Nations " — Mohawks, Oneidas, Cayugas, Onondagoes, 
 and Senecas — who became the " Six Nations " when joined by 
 the kindred Tuscaroras from North CaroUna in 17 12. After the 
 destruction or dispersion of the Eries by the Iroquois in 1656, 
 all the Wyandots disappear from history, and survive now only in 
 the names of the two great lakes Huron and Erie, so called from 
 these aborigines. 
 
 In the south the chief member of the family are the Cherokis, 
 whose connection with the Iroquois, first suggested by Barton 
 (1798), has now been placed beyond doubt by Horatio Hale and 
 Gatschet. Much interest attaches also to this southern branch, 
 for the Cherokis, although they have made no name in history, 
 are recognised as amongst the most intelligent of all the Northj 
 American Indians. It was a Cheroki, Segwoya, better known 
 as George Guest, who in 1824 performed the re- ^^^ 
 
 markable intellectual feat of analysing the sounds cheroki 
 of his intricate polysynthetic tongue, and providing '^^ ^ ' 
 
 ^ " A tradition of the Iroquois points to the St Lawrence region as the early 
 home of the Iroquoian tribes, whence they gradually moved down to the south- 
 west along the shores of the Great Lakes " (Powell, Indian Linguistic Families, 
 
 .P- 77)- 
 
 - Iroquois, for which strained etymologies have been proposed, was the 
 common French name of the fai^us league known to the English as that of 
 the "Five," later *'Six Nations," while they called. themselves ^' Ong-iUehomve,'^ 
 or "Superior Men." 
 
390 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 symbols for a complete syllabic system by various ingenious 
 modifications of the letters in an English book. He could him- 
 self neither read nor write, nor speak any language but his own, 
 his only notion of writing being derived from hearsay and printed 
 books. The syllabary, which is still in use and serves its purpose 
 well, comprises 85 signs, of which one only, s^ is a true letter, all 
 the rest being full syllables made up of 15 consonants generally in 
 combination with six vowels, as, ka, ke^ ki, ko, ku^ ke. The 
 Cherokis, who have not met with over-generous treatment at 
 the hands of the authorities, have all been removed from their 
 original homes in Virginia and the Carolinas to Indian Territory, 
 where they hold the most important of all the Reservations with a 
 present population, including the Choktaws, of a little over 27,000. 
 All the rest of the once powerful Iroquoians number probably less 
 than 20,000, distributed in about equal parts between United States 
 and Dominion Agencies. 
 
 The just mentioned Choktaws were at one time a leading 
 branch of the Muskhogean family, the other chief 
 khogeans^^" members of which were the Muskhogis (Maskoki) 
 proper, generally known as "Creeks" from the 
 numerous inlets or coast streams in their territory on the Gulf of 
 Mexico ; the Seminoles of Florida ; the Chicasaws, Alibamus, 
 Apalachi, and a few others, whose collective domain comprised 
 nearly the whole region between Tennessee and the Gulf, and 
 between the Lower Mississippi and the Atlantic. Florida, later 
 occupied by the Seminoles, did not originally belong to this 
 family, but to the now extinct Tirnuquanans, who spoke a distinct, 
 though not necessarily a stock, language. In fact Gatschet has 
 suggested Carib affinities, and although the Caribs are now be- 
 lieved to have had their cradle, not in North America but in 
 Central Brazil, it is likely enough that these rovers may in 
 prehistoric times have passed from the Antilles to Florida, whence 
 they were later driven out by the Seminoles. Pourtales, and 
 later Heilprin, have shown that Florida has been inhabited from 
 remote times, and it appears from Mr C. B. Moore's researches^* 
 that the skulls from the old burial-mounds and earthworks are 
 
 1 Certain Sand- Mounds of Duval Country, Florida, &c., Jour. Acad. Nat. 
 Sc. Philadelphia, x 1895. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 391 
 
 round like those of Ehrenreich's Bakairi and other Brazilian 
 Caribs (Index 79° to 80°) \ 
 
 But the Timuquanans themselves, if they were round-heads of 
 Carib stock, must have been preceded by a still primitive 
 more ancient long-headed race possibly dating from Man in 
 the Stone Ages. ^' The oldest perfect skull known 
 from Florida is extremely dolichocephalic and entirely different 
 from the mound type ; it was found by Wyman at the bottom of 
 the great shell-heap near Hawkingsville on the St Johns. This 
 heap was so old that its lower layers of the shells had become 
 decomposed and transformed into a limestone in which this 
 skull and other bones of the skeleton are firmly imbedded. We 
 naturally question if this skeleton is not that of a survivor of 
 the earlier people who were on the peninsula before the short- 
 heads came^." 
 
 Next to the Athapascans and Algonquians, the most wide- 
 spread North American nation were the Siouans^, 
 whose territory is now known to have been even siouans. 
 more extensive than it was lately supposed to be. 
 So far from being confined to the plains west of the Mississippi, 
 which they were supposed to have reached from the Pacific 
 seaboard, they ranged south to the Gulf of Mexico and east to 
 the Atlantic, and occupied wide tracts in Virginia and the 
 Carolinas, where in fact is now sought their primeval home. 
 When the English began the settlement of Virginia, a term at 
 that time of much wider meaning than now, the whole region 
 between the Appalachians and the coast was occupied by a large 
 number of heterogeneous groups in a state of extreme instability, 
 and so great was the ethnical confusion that their descendants 
 have only now succeeded in clearing it up. 
 
 Besides the Powhatan (Algonquian) confederates, there were 
 numerous Iroquoian and Muskhogean tribes, together with the 
 
 ^ Urdezao/iner Brasi/tef IS, pp. 120-27. 
 
 2 F. W. Putnam, Science, Feb. 7, 1896 (Reprint, p. 4). 
 
 3 Stouan is the form adopted by Mr Powell for the whole family, of which 
 the Dakotas ("Allies") are t% chief division. It is an extension of Sioux, a 
 French corruption of " Nadowe-ssi-wag" (Snakes or Enemies), an abusive term 
 applied by the Algonquins to some of the northern members of the family. 
 
392 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 independent Ucheans ( Yuchi) of distinct speech, and several 
 other groups whose hitherto unsuspected Siouan affinities have 
 now been placed beyond reasonable doubt on linguistic and 
 historic evidence. These were the Monacan confederates, with 
 the Saponi, Tutelo', Catawba, Woccon and some other tribes, 
 who were centred chiefly on the James River above the falls at 
 Richmond, and were at constant war with the neighbouring 
 Powhatans, while hard pressed by the surrounding Iroquoians, by 
 whom most of them appear to have been eventually exterminated 
 or driven with the Algonquians beyond the Appalachians to the 
 plains of the Mississippi basin. The survivors may thus have 
 again been united with the kindred Dakotans and other western 
 Siouans after a separation which Mr Dorsey has estimated at 
 about 1500 years, basing his calculation on the highly archaic 
 character of the Siouan tongues spoken by the Appalachian tribes. 
 *' All the statements and traditions concerning the eastern Siouan 
 tribes, taken in connection with what we know of the history and 
 traditions of the western tribes of the same stock, seem to indicate 
 the upper region of the Ohio — the Alleghany, Monongahela and 
 Kanawha country — as their original home, from which one branch 
 crossed the mountains to the waters of Virginia and Carolina, 
 while the other followed along the Ohio and the lakes toward the 
 west. Linguistic evidence indicates that the eastern tribes of the 
 Siouan family were established upon the Atlantic slope long 
 before the western tribes of that stock had reached the plains ^" 
 
 That the Siouan family ranged also in former times to the Gulf 
 of Mexico is shown by the late survival in Louisiana of the Biloxi 
 (B'luksi), i.e. '* trifling or worthless," as they were called by the 
 Choktaws, though they called themselves Taneks-haya. Their 
 original home was in the present State of Mississippi about Biloxi 
 Bay, named from them, where they were first met by Iberville in 
 1699, but whence they migrated about 1760 across the great river 
 to Louisiana. From the specimens of their language collected 
 
 ^ It was from the last full-blood Tutelo (Totero) chief that Horatio Hale 
 obtained the linguistic materials which enabled him to make the important 
 announcement that the Tutelo must have been a Siouan tongue. [Proc. Amer. 
 Philosoph. Soc. 1883.) 
 
 - Mooney, The Siouan Tribes, etc. p. 29. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 393 
 
 by Gatschet and Dorsey it is clearly shown that "the Biloxi are 
 the remnant of an isolated Siouan tribe*." It may be conjectured 
 that the whole seaboard from the Mississippi delta to the Caro- 
 linas and Virginia was at one time continuously occupied by 
 tribes of Siouan stock, of whom the Biloxi are a fragment sepa- 
 rated from their Atlantic kinsmen by the irruption of the Musk- 
 hogeans from the west into the south-eastern States of Alabama 
 and Georgia. " The Muskhogean tribes all claim 
 
 ° _ ° Migrations 
 
 to have come into the Gulf States from beyond the and Displace - 
 Mississippi, and the tradition is clearest among 
 those of them — the Choktaw and Chikasaw — who may be sup- 
 posed to have crossed last. As they advanced they came at last 
 into collision with the Timuquanan and Uchean tribes of Florida 
 and Georgia, and then began the long struggle which ended only 
 with the destruction of the Timukua and the incorporation by the 
 Creek, within the historic period, of the last of the Uchi, leaving 
 the Muskhogean race supreme from Florida Cape to the Com- 
 bahee River in South Carolina. This wave of invasion must 
 necessarily have had its effect on the Carolina tribes towards the 
 north V' and, it may be added, on the Siouan (Biloxi) tribes of 
 the Gulf Coast. 
 
 In some of their customs and religious ideas, though not 
 in their speech, the eastern Siouans must have 
 differed considerably from their Missouri kinsmen. 
 A Saponi chief told W. Byrd that "he believ'd there was one 
 supreme God, who had several subaltern deities under him. 
 And that this master-God made the world a long time ago. 
 That he told the sun, the moon, and stars their business in the 
 beginning, which they, with good looking after, have faithfully 
 perform 'd ever since. . . . After death both good and bad people are 
 conducted by a strong guard into a great road, in which departed 
 souls travel together for some time, till at a certain distance this 
 road forks into two paths, the one extremely level, and the other 
 stony and mountainous. Here the good are parted from the bad 
 by a flash of lightning, the first being hurry'd away to the right, 
 the other to the left. T^e right-hand road leads to a charming 
 
 ^ Mooney, op. a'L, p. 16. 
 - I^id., op. cit., p. 12. 
 
394 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 warm country, where the spring is everlasting, and every month is 
 May ; and as the year is always in its youth, so are the people, 
 and particularly the women are bright as stars, and never scold. 
 That in this happy climate there are deer, turkeys, elks, and 
 buffaloes innumerable, perpetually fat and gentle, while the trees 
 are loaded with delicious fruit quite throughout the four seasons. . . . 
 The left-hand path is very rugged and uneven, leading to a dark 
 and barren country, where it is always winter. The ground is the 
 whole year round cover'd with snow, and nothing is to be seen 
 upon the trees but icicles. . . . Here, after they [the wicked] have 
 been tormented a certain number of years, according to their 
 several degrees of guilt, they are again driven back into this 
 world, to try if they will mend their manners, and merit a place 
 the next time in the regions of bliss'." 
 
 A curious illustration of the universality of certain practices, 
 which from their very nature might be supposed restricted in 
 time and place, is afforded by the "fire dance" found flourishing 
 in an aggravated form amongst the Catawbas, as amongst the 
 ancient Sabines, the Fijians, and so many other peoples : "These 
 miserable wretches are strangely infatuated with illness of the 
 devil ; it caused no small horror in me to see one of them wrythe 
 his neck all on one side, foam at the mouth, stand barefoot upon 
 burning coal for near one hour, and then, recovering his senses, 
 leap out of the fire without hurt or sign of any^." 
 
 Although shorn of their Gulf and Atlantic territories, the 
 Siouans still occupied till lately a vast if somewhat fluctuating 
 domain in the heart of the continent, where the Dakota division 
 thought themselves strong enough to raise the standard of revolt 
 against the United States Government more than once in the 
 second half of the 19th century. Before their final reduction, 
 followed by the usual distribution amongst the Indian Territory, 
 Dakota, Montana, Nebraska, and other Agencies, these typical 
 prairie nomads roamed from the Saskatchewan basin south to 
 Arkansas, and from the Mississippi west to Montana and 
 Wyoming. A distinction, however, should be drawn between the 
 true predatory hordes banded together in the famous "Seven 
 
 ' Quoted by Mooney, p. 48. 
 ^ Lederer, ib. p. 71. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 395 
 
 Council Fires," and constituting the formidable confederacy of 
 the Dakotas, " Friendlies," i.e. "Allies" (of which the chief 
 members were the Santees, Sissetons, Wahpetons, Yanktons, 
 Yanktonnais and Tetons), and the other branches of the Siouan 
 family — Assinaboins, Omahas, Ponkas, Kaws, Osages, Quapaws, 
 lowas, Otoes, Missouris, Winnebagos, Mandans, Minnetaris, 
 Crows (Absarokas) — who formed independent national groups 
 often hostile to the Dakotas, and presenting many distinct features 
 in their speech, tribal organisation, religious beliefs, social usages, 
 and even in their physical appearance. So marked are some of 
 these characters, as amongst the Assinaboins, Omahas, Osages, 
 and Mandans, that the Siouan family may be regarded as a 
 wide-spread people who, in pre-Columbian times, were already 
 undergoing a process of disintegration which, if left to themselves, 
 must in course of time have resulted in the development of several 
 distinct nationalities. 
 
 But exceptional interest attaches to all the Siouan peoples, 
 thanks to the light which their social systems throw 
 
 The 
 
 upon the origin of the family, clan and tribe, the Dakotas. 
 totem, early religious conceptions, and the other 
 primitive elements of human society. Hence the importance 
 of the bulky memoirs devoted to the Siouan Indians by 
 Mr W. J. McGee and the late Rev. James Owen Dorsey in 
 the fifteenth Annual Report (1893-4) of the Washington Bureau 
 of Ethnology (1897). Thus Mr McGee clearly shows that the 
 current conception of the Dakotan Wakanda, as well as that of 
 the Algonquian Manito (" Manito the Mighty " of Hiawatha), 
 as the Supreme or Great Spirit, Creator and so on, is a delusion, 
 Wakanda being rather a quality than an entity, and in any case 
 only a material substance or being, and in no sense a spirit, 
 much less " Great Spirit." Thus among many tribes " the sun 
 is wakanda — not the wakanda or a wakanda, but simply wakanda ; 
 and among the same tribes the moon is wakanda, and so are 
 thunder, Hghtning, the stars, the winds, the cedar; even a man, 
 especially a shaman, might be wakanda or a wakanda. In 
 addition the term wa^applied to mythic monsters of the earth, 
 air, and waters. So, too, the fetishes and the ceremonial objects 
 and decorations... various animals, the horse among the prairie 
 
396 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 tribes, many natural objects and places of striking character... 
 though it is easy to understand how the superficial inquirer, 
 dominated by definite spiritual concepts, perhaps deceived by 
 crafty native informants, came to adopt and perpetuate the 
 erroneous interpretation. The term may be translated into 
 ' mystery ' perhaps more satisfactorily than into any other single 
 English word, yet this rendering is at the same time too limited, 
 as wakanda vaguely connotes also power, sacred, ancient, grandeur, 
 animate, immortal, etc. ^ " 
 
 A closer study of the tribal system has also dissipated another 
 
 widespread fallacy, that of the cattle horde theory, 
 So^rai°System. — universal chaos and promiscuity as the starting 
 
 point of all human society : " The social organi- 
 zations of the lower grade are no less definite, perhaps more 
 definite, than those pertaining to the higher grade ; so that when 
 the history of demotic growth among the American Indians is 
 traced backward, the organizations are found on the whole to 
 grow more definite, albeit more simple. When the lines of 
 development revealed through research are projected still farther 
 toward their origin, they indicate an initial condition, directly 
 antithetic to the postulated horde, in which the scant population 
 was segregated in small discrete bodies, probably family groups ; 
 and that in each of these bodies there was a definite organization, 
 while each group was practically independent of, and probably 
 inimical to, all other groups ^" 
 
 And thus the family, the initial unit, segments into a number 
 of clans, each distinguished by its totem, its name, its heraldic 
 badge, which badge, becoming more and more venerated from 
 age to age, acquires inherited privileges, becomes the object 
 of endless superstitious practices and is ultimately almost deified. 
 
 Miss Fletcher, who has made a special study of the 
 
 The Totem. . ' f J 
 
 totemic concept as prevalent amongst some of the 
 Siouan tribes, may be right in regarding the totem as the personal 
 fetish grown hereditary. But it is difficult to follow her when she 
 speaks of the origin of this personal totem through a puberty rite 
 involving a trance or vision. ''Those who had seen the Bear 
 
 1 Op. cit., pp. 182-3. '■^ op. cit., p. 200. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 397 
 
 made up the Bear society ; those to whom the Thunder or Water 
 beings had come formed the Thunder or the Pebble society. 
 The membership came from every kinship group in the tribe, 
 blood relationship was ignored, the bond of union being a 
 common right in a common vision^" The system may have 
 been later influenced and modified by visions and other shaman- 
 istic practices ; but its origin lies behind all such developments,'; 
 behind all strictly religious notions, and it was at first a mere* 
 device for distinguishing one individual from another, one family 
 or clan group from another. Thus amongst the Piaroas of the 
 Orinoco below San Fernando de Atabapo, the belief holds that 
 the tapirj originally the totem of the clan, has become their 
 ancestor, and that after death the spirit of every Piaroa passes 
 into a tapir ; hence they never hunt or eat this animal, and they 
 also think all the surrounding tribes are in the same way each 
 provided with their special animal forefather ^ It is easy to see 
 how such ideas tend to cluster round the clan or family totem, at 
 first a distinguishing badge, later a protecting or tutelar deity of 
 Protean form. It should be remembered that the personal or 
 family name precedes the totem, which growls out of it, as seen by 
 the conditions still prevailing amongst the very lowest peoples 
 (Fuegians, Papuans of Torres Strait^). 
 
 Students of the Siouan social system distinguish carefully 
 between the clan, the gens, and the phratry, and 
 base their theories of the matriarchate and patri- and Phratry^ 
 archate (descent through the female and the male 
 line) on this distinction, the assumption being that in all cases 
 the former preceded the latter. " The difference between the 
 clan of savagery and the gens of barbarism is important and 
 fundamental. The clan is a group of people reckoning kinship 
 in the female line, while the gens is a group of people reckoning 
 kinship in the male line. In barbarism patriarchies are found as 
 concomitant with nomadic tribes, but in savagery the patriarchy 
 does not exist. Hence the first great revolution in tribal society 
 is the transition from the clan to the gens, the consolidation of 
 
 1 The Import of tii^ Totem. Amer. Ass. Detroit, 1897. 
 
 2 ^ Chaffanjon, Tour du Monde, 1888, LVI. p. 348. 
 * Ethnology, pp. 9, 11. 
 
SgS MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 power in the hands of the few, and the organization of the gentile 
 family'." Then the phratry is described as a system of groups 
 sometimes found in savagery (a group of clans), and always in 
 barbarism (a group of gentes). " There may be many clans or 
 many gentes in a tribe, and two or more clans or gentes may 
 constitute an intervening unit which we call the phratry." With 
 the Muskhogean there are four phratries, one each for the east, 
 west, north and south ; with the Zunis there are six, that is, 
 besides the above, one for the zenith and nadir. " Thus the 
 phratries are organized by mythologic regions ; and this method 
 of regimentation finds expression in the construction of the 
 Council Chamber, in the plaza, and in the plan of the village. 
 Here in the phratry we have the beginning of district regimenta- 
 tion, which ultimately prevails in civilization"." 
 
 Such are the now current views resulting from almost ex- 
 haustive studies of the tribal systems prevalent amongst the 
 North American Indians. As the views of serious and perfectly 
 competent observers, they are entitled to every consideration, 
 and to adequate presentation in all ethnological treatises. They 
 may even be accepted as perhaps approximately correct for the 
 ethnical groups in question; but they cannot be taken as of 
 universal application, and we have already seen^ that matriarchal 
 have not necessarily preceded patriarchal institutions everywhere. 
 Consequently the distinction here insisted upon between the clan 
 and the gens is purely local, while for practical purposes the 
 phratry may for the most part be taken as identical with the 
 tribe or group of clans. Even in North America there would 
 seem to be some hesitation about clan and gens, and Mr McGee 
 writes that "at the time of the discovery most of the Siouan 
 tribes had apparently passed into gentile organization, though 
 vestiges of clan organization were found''"; and again : — "Like 
 the other aborigines north of Mexico, the Siouan Indians were 
 organized on the basis of kinship, and were thus in the stage of 
 tribal society. All of the best known tribes had reached that 
 
 ^ Fifteenth An. Report, Introduction. 
 
 - Ibid. Introduction, passim. 
 
 •* p. 180, supra. 
 
 •* Fifteenth An. Repot t, p. 177. 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 399 
 
 plane of organization characterized by descent in the male line, 
 though many vestiges and some relatively unimportant examples 
 of descent in the female line have been discovered. Thus the 
 clan system was obsolescent, and the gentile system fairly de- 
 veloped ; i.e. the people were practically out of the stage of 
 savagery and well advanced in the stage of barbarism \" So 
 Dorsey: — "Among the Dakota. ..and other groups the man is the 
 head of the family^" It is too soon to criticise further, but 
 enough has been said to show that the clan as here defined is 
 still on its defence even in North America, while in most other 
 regions matriarchal institutions, except as purely local phenomena, 
 have already shared the fate of the group-marriage and promis- 
 cuity theories of Australian ethnologists. 
 
 From the Spanish word Pueblo^ " town," " village," are named 
 and partly characterised a considerable group of ^^^ Pueblo 
 natives, who from remote times have dwelt and Indians and 
 
 „ . - , , r 1- Cliff DweUers. 
 
 continue to dwell in fixed settlements of a peculiar 
 type scattered over the mesas ("tables" or flat rocky heights), 
 of the present states of New Mexico and Arizona. They do not 
 form a single ethnical or linguistic family, but rather a number of 
 heterogeneous communities speaking several stock languages, and 
 in one instance (Moqui) a dialect of the widely-diffused Shoshonean 
 (Snake) family. A certain uniformity is, however, imparted to 
 the whole group by their common usages, traditions, religious 
 rites, habitations, and general culture. In this respect they stand 
 on a much higher level than any of the other North American 
 aborigines, whence the theory often advanced that the Pueblos 
 represent an intermediate stage in a continuously progressive 
 cultural zone beginning with the northern mound-builders and 
 culminating with the Aztec, Maya, and Peruvian civilizations of 
 Central and South America. 
 
 That there is a steady rise of the culture-grades in the direc- 
 tion from north to south is undoubted, and it may not be without 
 significance that the round-headed mound-builders, Pueblos, and 
 neighbouring Cliff-dwellers are now commonly regarded as all 
 originally of one stock. ^" There is no warrant whatever for the 
 
 1 Fifteenth An. Report, p. 187. - Ibid. p. 213. 
 
400 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 old assumption that the CHff- dwellers were a separate race, and 
 the cliff dwellings must be regarded as only a phase of Pueblo 
 architecture ^" But the connection is not at all obvious either 
 between the mounds and the Pueblo structures, or between these 
 and the Maya-Aztec monuments, while there are good reasons 
 for regarding all alike as independent local developments. That 
 
 Their cui ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ mounds Mr Gushing 
 ture a Local has showu to be more than probable (see above), 
 and Mr Mindeleff now proves convincingly that the 
 Pueblo casas grandes — huge stone buildings or fortresses large 
 enough to accommodate the whole community — grew out of the 
 local conditions, and had no prototypes elsewhere. On this 
 question of the close relation of primitive man to his physical 
 environment Mr Mindeleff s remarks are highly instructive. "The 
 complete adaptation of Pueblo architecture to the country in 
 which it is found has been commented on. If the architecture 
 did not originate in the country where it is found, it would almost 
 certainly bear traces of former conditions. Such survivals are 
 common in all arts, and instances of it are so common in archi- 
 tecture that no examples need be cited. Only one of these 
 survivals has been found in Pueblo architecture, but that one 
 is very instructive ; it is the presence of circular chambers in 
 groups of rectangular rooms, which occur in certain regions. 
 These chambers are called estufas or kivas, and are the council 
 houses and temples of the people [the medicine lodges] in which 
 the government and religious affairs of the tribe are transacted. 
 It is owing to their religious connection that the form has been 
 preserved to the present day, carrying with it the record of the 
 time when the people lived in round chambers or huts. . . . The 
 whole Pueblo country is covered with the remains in single rooms 
 and groups of rooms, put up to meet some immediate necessity. 
 Some of these may have been built centuries ago, some are only 
 a few years or a few months old, yet the structures do not differ 
 
 1 Cosmos Mindeleff, The Cliff Rtcins of Canyon de Chelly^ in i6th An. 
 Report, Bureau of Ethnology, Washington 1897, p. 191. And Dr Hamy is 
 inclined to regard the old quaternary skull from Calaveras as perhaps the proto- 
 type of the mound-builders, cliff-dwellers and Pueblos, who "appartenaient a 
 une seule et meme race" {^V Anthropologies 1896, p. 140). 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 4OI 
 
 from one another; nor, on the other hand, does the similarity 
 imply that the builder of the oldest example knew less or more 
 than his descendant to-day — both utilized the material at hand 
 and each accomplished his purpose in the easiest way. In both 
 cases the result is so rude that no sound inference of sequence 
 can be drawn from the study of individual examples, but in the 
 study of large aggregations of rooms we find some clues. It 
 must not be forgotten that the unit of Pueblo construction is the 
 single room, even in the large many-storied villages. This unit is 
 often quite as rude in modern as in ancient work, and both are 
 very close to the result which would be produced by any Indian 
 tribe who came into the country and were left free to work out 
 their own ideas. Starting with this unit the whole system of 
 Pueblo architecture is a natural product of the country and of the 
 conditions of life known to have affected the people by whom it 
 was practised ^" 
 
 In a word it is not necessary to invent a new race different 
 from the present aborigines to account for the Pueblo structures 
 any more than it is to account for the mounds. This inference 
 becomes self-evident when we find that one of the Pueblo 
 divisions — the Moqui or Hopi^ — are actually a branch of the 
 nomad Shoshonean family, who differ in no essential respect from 
 the Siouans and all the prairie Indians. 
 
 Besides these Moqui, who occupy six pueblos in North-east 
 Arizona, there are three other nations, as they may be called — 
 Tanoan, Keresan and Zuiiian — each speaking a stock language 
 of the usual polysynthetic type, and occupying collectively nearly 
 30 pueblos with a total population of about 10,300. Each nation, 
 except the Zuni who hold a soHtary pueblo in New Mexico, 
 comprises a number of tribal or dialectic divisions, and it is now 
 known from the researches of Gushing, Bandelier, Hodge and 
 
 2 Hopi, "People," is the proper tribal name; Moqui (pronounced Moki) is 
 a vile abusive term imposed on them by their neighbours, and ought to be 
 repressed. They occupy the seven pueblos of the Tusayan district, Arizona, 
 towards the Utah frontier, "elfcch built upon the crest of a precipice of sand- 
 stone, impregnable to any assault to be expected from aboriginal foes" (J. G. 
 Bourke, The Snake Dance of the Maquis 0/ Arizona, 1884, p. 226). 
 
 K. 26 
 
402 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Others, that the clanship system prevails everywhere. So nume- 
 rous are these groups that in some divisions they 
 cian*System° include not more than 20, 10, or even 5 members, 
 and Mr F. W. Hodge ^ gives a table of the 80 clans in 
 the Tanoan, Keresan, and Zunian nations, showing in a collective 
 population of 8,666 an average membership of about 108 for each 
 clan. The clan names, of which translations are here given, 
 comprise such things as the calabash, various kinds of maize, the 
 dance-kilt, grass, salt, the swallow, antj humming-bird, etc., from 
 which it may again be 'inferred that such* totems were originally 
 merely distinctive badges which only later acquired genealogical 
 or religious significance. It seems impossible to suppose that 
 any aborigines could at any time be at once so intelligent as to 
 group themselves in a really intricate system of clanship, and so 
 stupid as to think themselves of grass, calabash, or salt lineage. 
 These ideas obviously came afterwards by the usual processes of 
 analogy and germinal growth. 
 
 But, we are told, these Pueblo Indians are specially noted for 
 a highly elaborate symbolism, manifested in their 
 recurrent seasonal festivities, snake dances and 
 other religious ceremonies, so elaborate indeed that some of this 
 symbolism is said to throw light on the intricate carvings of the 
 Aztec and Maya monuments^ All this may be so, but if anybody 
 fancies that such ceremonial forms were an initial condition of 
 Pueblo society, let him study the " social systems " still prevalent 
 amongst the Mexican Seres, the Fuegians, Bushmen, Australians 
 or New Guinea Papuans ; and let him remember that even these 
 are later developments compared with the crude beginnings of all 
 human society. 
 
 1 American Anthropologist, Oct. 1896, p. 345 sq. 
 
 ^ "The revolting ceremonials of Tusayan [Hopi] fall into position in a 
 series of observances and ceremonials connected with the serpent extending 
 from the plains of the Mississippi to the ancient cities of Mexico, Central 
 America, and even unto Peru, and some of the most puzzling sculptures, paint- 
 ings and inscriptions of the ancient cities, as well as the curious regard for snakes 
 among our north-eastern Indians can be interpreted fully only in the light of 
 the Tusayan researches" {iGth Ann. Report (1894-5) Bur. Ethnology, Wash- 
 ington, 1897, p. xcviii). 
 
X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 4O3 
 
 In reference to Dr J. Walter Fewkes' account of the "Tusayan 
 Snake Ceremonies," it is pointed out that "the 
 Pueblo Indians adore a plurality of deities, to Dance's^, 
 which various potencies are ascribed. These zoic 
 deities, or beast gods, are worshipped by means of ceremonies 
 which are sometimes highly elaborate ; and, so far as practicable, 
 the mystic zoic potency is represented in the ceremony by a living 
 animal of similar species or by an artificial symbol. Prominent 
 among the animate representatives of the zoic pantheon through- 
 out the arid region is the serpent, especially the venomous and 
 hence mysteriously potent rattlesnake. To the primitive mind 
 there is intimate association, too, between the swift-striking and 
 deadly viper and the lightning, with its attendant rain and thunder; 
 there is intimate association, too, between the moisture-loving 
 reptile of the subdeserts and the life-giving storms and freshets ; 
 and so the native rattlesnake plays an important role in the cere- 
 monies, especially in the invocations for rain, which characterize 
 the entire arid region \" 
 
 Mr Fewkes pursues the same fruitful line of thought in his 
 monograph on T/ie Feather Symbol in Ancient Hopi Designs-^ 
 showing how amongst the Tusayan Pueblos, although they have 
 left no written records, there survives an elaborate paleography, 
 the feather motif in the pottery found in the old ruins, which 
 is in fact "a picture writing often highly symbolic and compli- 
 cated," revealing certain phases of Hopi thought in remote times. 
 "Thus we come back to a beHef, taught by other reasoning, 
 that ornamentation of ancient pottery was something higher 
 than simple effort to beautify ceramic wares. The ruling motive 
 was a religious one, for in their system everything was under the 
 same sway. Esthetic and religious feelings were not differentiated, 
 the one implied the other, and to elaborately decorate a vessel 
 without introducing a religious symbol was to the ancient potter 
 an impossibihty^" So it was with the Van Eycks, the Giottos 
 and others before pictorial art became divorced from religion in 
 Italy and the Low Countries. 
 
 1 p. xcvi^ 
 
 2 Amey. Anthropologist, Jan. 1898. 
 
 ^ p. 13- 
 
 26 — 2 
 
404 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. X. 
 
 With regard to the clifif dweUings, it is explained that the 
 district is one of arid plateaus, separated and dissected by deep 
 canons, frequently composed of flat-lying rock strata forming 
 ledge-marked cliffs by the erosive action of the rare storms. 
 " Only along the few streams heading in the mountains does 
 permanent water exist, and along the cliff lines slabs of rock 
 suitable for building abound; and the primitive ancients, de- 
 pendent as they were on environment, naturally produced the 
 cliff dwellings. The tendency toward this type was strengthened 
 by intertribal relations ; the cliff dwellers were probably descended 
 from agricultural or semi-agricultural villagers who sought protec- 
 tion against enemies, and the control of land and water through 
 aggregation in communities.... Locally the ancient villages of 
 Canyon de Chelly are known as Aztec ruins, and this designation 
 is just so far as it implies relationship with the aborigines of 
 moderately advanced culture in Mexico and Central America, 
 though it would be misleading if regarded as indicating essential 
 difference between the ancient villagers and their modern descend- 
 ants and neighbours still occupying the pueblos^" 
 
 ^ idth Ann. Report^ p. xciv. 
 
 / 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES {continued). 
 
 The Central American Civilized Peoples: Nahuatlans and Huaxtecans', Maya- 
 Aztec Origins and Relations — Aztec and Maya Scripts and Calendars — 
 Nahuas and Shoshones — Chichimec and Aztec Empires — Miztecs and 
 Zapotecs — Ruins of Mitla — Uncultured Mexican Peoples: Otot/ii ; Seri — 
 Cavemen in Yucatan — The Maya-Quiches — Transitions from North to 
 South America — The Cebiinys — Early Man in the Bahamas — The Luca- 
 yans — C/iontals, Chocos^ and Ciinas — The South American Aborigines — 
 The Catio Savages — The Cultural Zone in S. America — The Columbian 
 Chibchas — Peruvian Culture — Empire of the Incas — Qiiechtia Race and 
 Language — Quechua-Aymara Origins and Cultural Relations — The Tia- 
 huanaco Monuments — Chiviu Culture — Huacas and Pyramids — Peruvian 
 Politico-Social System — The Araiuaniaiis — The Pampas Indians — The 
 GaucJws — Patagonians and Fiiegians — Patagonians and Bororos : Migra- 
 tions — Linguistic Relations South of the Plate River — The Yahgans — 
 Brazilian Aborigines-^The Cashibos — The Pano Family — Ethnical Re- 
 lations in Amazonia — The Cariban Family — Carib Cradle — Arawakan 
 Family — Migrations — The Ges {Tapuyan) Family — The Botocndos — The 
 Tupi-Guaranian Family — Tacunas and Tacanas — The Chiquitos — 
 Matacos and Tobas — Caucasic Type in S. America. 
 
 In Mexico and Central America interest is centred chiefly 
 in two great ethnical groups — the Nahuatlan and 
 Huaxtecan — whose cultural, historical, and even and Central 
 geographical relations are so intimately interwoven Arnerican 
 that they can scarcely be treated apart. Thus, 
 although their civilizations are concentrated respectively in the 
 Anahuac (Mexican) plateau and Yucatan and Guatemala, the 
 two domains overlap completely at both ends, so that there 
 are isolated branches of the Huaxtecan family in Mexico (the 
 Huaxtecs (Totonacs) of Vera Cruz, from whom the whole group 
 
406 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 is named), and of the Nahuatlan in Nicaragua (Pipils, Niquirans, 
 and others)'. 
 
 This very circumstance has no doubt tended to increase the 
 difficulties connected with the questions of their origins, migrations, 
 and mutual cultural influences. Some of these difficulties have 
 disappeared by the removal of the " Toltecs " (see above), who 
 had hitherto been a great disturbing element in this connection, 
 and all the rest have in my opinion been satisfactorily disposed 
 of by E. Forstermann, a leading authority on all Aztec-Maya 
 questions^. This eminent archaeologist refers first to the views 
 of Dr Seler^, who assumes a southern movement of Maya tribes 
 from Yucatan, and a like movement of Aztecs from Tabasco to 
 Nicaragua, and even to Yucatan. On the other hand DieseldorfF 
 holds that Maya art was independently developed, while the links 
 between it and the Aztec show that an interchange took place^ 
 in which process the Maya was the giver, the Aztec the recipient. 
 He further attributes the overthrow of the Maya power loo or 200 
 years before the discovery to the Aztecs, and thinks the Aztecs or 
 Nahuas took their god Quetzalcoatl from the "Toltecs," who were 
 a Maya people. Ph. J. Valentini also infers that the Mayas were 
 the original people, the Aztecs "mere parasites^" 
 
 Now Forstermann lays down the principle that any theory, to 
 be satisfactory, should fit in with such facts as : — (i) the agreement 
 and diversity of both cultures ; (2) the antiquity and disappear- 
 ance of the mysterious Toltecs ; (3) the complete isolation of the 
 Huaxtecs from the other Maya tribes, and their difference from 
 them; (4) the equally complete isolation of the Guatemalan 
 Pipils, and of the other southern (Nicaraguan) Aztec groups from 
 the rest of the Nahua peoples; (5) the remarkable absence of 
 Aztec local names in Yucatan, while they occur in hundreds in 
 
 ^ Some Nahuas, whom the Spaniards called "Mexicans" or "Chichimecs," 
 were met by Vasquez de Coronado even as far south as the Chiriqui lagoon, 
 Panama. These Seguas, as they called themselves, have since disappeared, 
 and it is no longer possible to say how they strayed so far from their northern 
 homes. 
 
 2 Nene Mayaforschtingen, in Globus Lxx. p. 37 sq. - 
 
 ^ Altert/iHJiier aus Guatemala, p. ■24. 
 
 ^ Analysis of the Pictorial Text inscribed on two Palenque Tablets, N. York, 
 1896. 
 
XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 407 
 
 Chiapas, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua, where scarcely 
 any trace is met of Maya names. 
 
 To account for these facts he assumes that in the earliest 
 known times Central America from about 23° to 10° N. was 
 mainly inhabited by Maya tribes, who had even reached Cuba. 
 These Mayas, while still at a somewhat low stage of culture, were 
 invaded by the Aztecs advancing from as far north as at least 26° N. 
 but only on the Pacific side, thus leaving the eastern Huaxtecs 
 untouched. The Mayas, coming thus in contact with the Nahuas 
 first in the north naturally called them "Toltecs" from the settlers 
 in the northern district of Tola. But when all the relations 
 became clearer, the Toltecs fell gradually into the background, 
 and at last entered the domain of the fabulous. 
 
 Now the Aztecs borrowed much from the Mayas, especially 
 gods, whose names they simply translated. A typical case is that 
 of Cuculan, which becomes Quetzalcoatl, where aic = quezal =^ iho. 
 bird Trogon resplendens, and ca7i — coat I - snake'. That the Mayas 
 had already developed their writing system is unthinkable; this 
 took place first amongst the Quiches of Guatemala, the central 
 point of their domain. With the higher culture here developed 
 the Aztecs came first in contact after passing through Mixtec and 
 Zapotec territory, not long before Columbian times, so that they 
 had no time here to consolidate their empire and assimilate the 
 Mayas. On the contrary the Aztecs were themselves merged in 
 these, all but the Pipils and the settlements on Lake Nicaragua, 
 which retained their national peculiarities. 
 
 But whence came the hundreds of Aztec names in the lands 
 between Chiapas and Nicaragua ? Here it should be noted that 
 these names are almost exclusively confined to the more important 
 stations, while the less prominent places have everywhere names 
 taken from the tongues of the local tribes. But even the Aztec 
 names themselves occur properly only in official use, hence also 
 on the charts, and are not current to-day amongst the natives 
 who have kept aloof from the Spanish-speaking populations. 
 
 ^ Quetzalcoatl, the " Brieht-feathered Snake," was the supreme god of the 
 Nahuan pantheon, the incarnation of Tonacateatl, the "Serpent-Sun," creator 
 of all things, round whom clusters most of the mythology, and of the pictorial 
 and plastic art of the Mexicans. 
 
408 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Hence the inference that such names were mainly introduced by 
 the Spaniards and their Mexican troops during the conquest of 
 those lands, say, up to about 1535, and do not appear in Yucatan 
 which was not conquered from Mexico. Forstermann reluctantly 
 accepts this view, advanced by Sapper, having nothing better to 
 suggest. 
 
 The higher Maya culture had not fully spread from Guatemala 
 to Yucatan, when its further development was arrested in the 
 south by the Spaniards ; nor had it lasted very long if the hypo- 
 thesis that the memorial columns of Copan were not erected 
 before the 15th century be right. 
 
 On this theory, which certainly harmonises best with most of 
 the conditions, the Mayas would appear to have stood on a higher 
 plane of culture than their Aztec rivals, and the same conclusion 
 may be drawn from their respective writing systems. Of all the 
 aborigines these two alone had developed what may fairly be 
 called a script in the strict sense of the term, although neither of 
 them had reached the same level of efficiency as the Babylonian 
 cuneiforms, the Chinese or the Egyptian hieroglyphs, not to speak 
 of the syllabic and alphabetic systems of the Old World. Some 
 even of the barbaric peoples, such as most of the prairie Indians, 
 had reached the stage of graphic symbolism, and were thus on the 
 threshold of writing at the discovery. " The art was rudimentary 
 and Hmited to crude pictography. The pictographs were painted 
 or sculptured on cliff-faces, boulders, the walls of caverns, and 
 even on trees, as well as on skins, bark, and various artificial 
 objects. Among certain Mexican tribes, also, autographic records 
 were in use, and some of them were much better 
 Maya^Scripts, differentiated than any within the present area of 
 the United States. The records were not only 
 painted and sculptured on stone and moulded in stucco, but were 
 inscribed in books or codices of native parchment and paper; 
 while the characters were measurably arbitrary, i.e. ideographic 
 rather than pictographies " 
 
 Perhaps the difference between the Aztec and Maya methods 
 is best defined by stating that the former is more purely pictorial 
 
 ^ \(ith Ann. Report^ p. xcv. 
 
XI.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 4O9 
 
 and ideographic, the latter more ideographic and phonetic, and 
 consequently approximates nearer to a true phonetic system. No 
 doubt much diversity of opinion prevails regarding the real nature 
 of the Maya symbols, and it is a fact that no single text, how- 
 ever short, has yet been satisfactorily deciphered. Nevertheless 
 Dr Cyrus Thomas, than whom no greater authority can be quoted, 
 does not hesitate to say that many of the symbols possessed true 
 phonetic value and were used to express sounds and syllables. 
 " He does not claim that the Maya scribes had reached that ad- 
 vanced stage where they could indicate each letter sound by a 
 glyph or symbol. On the contrary, he thinks a symbol was 
 selected because the name or word it represented had as its chief 
 phonetic element a certain consonant sound or syllable. If this 
 were b the symbol would be used where b was the prominent 
 element of the word to be indicated, no reference, however, to 
 its original signification being necessarily retained. Thus the 
 symbol for cab, "earth,*' might be used in writing caban, a day 
 name, or cabil, "honey," because cab is their chief phonetic 
 element. . . . One reason why attempts at decipherment have failed 
 is a misconception of the peculiar character of the writing, which 
 is in a transition stage from the purely ideographic to the pho- 
 netic \" From the example here given, the Maya script would 
 appear to have in fact reached the rebus stage, which also plays 
 so large a part in the Egyptian hieroglyphic system. Cab is 
 obviously a rebus, and the transition from the rebus to true 
 syllabic and alphabetic systems has already been explained^. 
 
 But not only were the Maya day characters phonetic; the 
 Maya calendar itself, afterwards borrowed by the 
 
 . , , 1-11 and Calendars. 
 
 Aztecs, has been described as even more accurate 
 than the Julian itself "Among the plains Indians the calendars 
 are simple, consisting commonly of a record of winters (' winter 
 counts,') and of notable events occurring either during the winter 
 or during some other season ; while the shorter time divisions 
 are reckoned by 'nights' (days), 'dead moons' (lunations), and 
 seasons of leafing, flowering, or fruiting of plants, migrating of 
 animals, etc., and then| is no definite system of reducing days 
 
 ^ Day Symbols of the Maya Year in i6th Ann. Report, p. 205. 
 - p. 27. 
 
4IO MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 to lunations or lunations to years. Among the Pueblo Indians 
 calendric records are inconspicuous or absent, though there is a 
 much more definite calendric system which is fixed and per- 
 petuated by religious ceremonies ; while among some of the 
 Mexican tribes there are elaborate calendric systems combined 
 with complete calendric records. The perfection of the calendar 
 among the Maya and Nahua Indians is indicated by the fact that 
 not only were 365 days reckoned as a year, but the bissextile was 
 recognized ^" 
 
 In another important respect the superiority of the Maya- 
 Quiche peoples over the northern Nahuans is 
 Shoshones^"'^ incontestable. When their religious systems are 
 compared, it is at once seen that at the time of 
 the discovery the Mexican Aztecs were little better than ruthless 
 barbarians newly clothed in the borrowed robes of an advanced 
 culture, to which they had not time to properly adapt themselves, 
 
 1 \(>th Ann. Report, p. xcvi. In **The Maya Year" {1894) Dr Cyrus 
 Thomas shows that "the year recorded in the Dresden codex consisted of 
 18 months of 20 days each, with 5 supplemental days, or of 365 days" {ib.). 
 Those who have persistently appealed to these Maya- Aztec calendric systems 
 as convincing proofs of Asiatic influences in the evolution of American cultures 
 will now have to show where these influences come in. As a matter of fact 
 the systems are fundamentally distinct, the American showing the clearest indi- 
 cations of local development, as seen in the mere fact, proved by Dr Thomas, 
 that the day characters of the Maya codices were phonetic, i.e. largely rebuses 
 explicable only in the Maya language, which has no affinities out of America. 
 The Aztec month of 20 days is also clearly indicated by the 20 corresponding 
 signs on the great ("alendar Stone made by king Axayacatl in 1479 and now 
 fixed in the wall of the Cathedral tower of Mexico. The best account of this 
 basalt stone, which weighs 25 tons and has a diameter of 11 feet, is that given 
 in the Aiiales del Mtiseo Nacional de Mexico by Seiior Alfredo Chavero, who 
 ascribes the astronomic system here perpetuated to the unaided efforts of the 
 American aborigines, so profoundly does it differ from the Babylonian, Egyptian, 
 and all other Old World systems. Or, he says, if indeed derived from an Asiatic 
 source, then only from such data as might have been brought over by rude 
 tribes from lands or islands now covered by the Pacific Ocean. See an excel- 
 lent reproduction of the Calendar Stone in T. U. Brocklehurst's Mexico To-Day, 
 1883, p. 186; also Zelia Nutall's study of the "Mexican Calendar System," 
 Tenth Internat. Congress of Americanists, Stockholm, 1894. "The regular 
 rotation of market-days and the day of enforced rest every 20 days were the 
 prominent and permanent features of the civil solar year" (ib.). 
 
XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 4II 
 
 and in which they could but masquerade after their own savage 
 fashion. 
 
 It has to be remembered that the Aztecs were but one branch 
 of the Nahuatlan family, whose affinities Buschmann' has traced 
 northwards to the rude Shoshonean aborigines who roamed from 
 the present States of Montana, Idaho, and Oregon down into 
 Utah, Texas, and California. Possibly to this Shoshonean stock 
 belonged the barbaric hordes who overthrew the civilization 
 which flourished on the Anahuac (Mexican) tableland about the 
 6th century a.d. and is associated with the ruins of Tula and 
 Cholula. In any case it seems now clear that the so-called 
 "Toltecs," the "Pyramid-builders," founders of this earliest Central 
 American culture, were not Nahuatlans but Huaxtecans, who 
 thence migrated southwards and formed fresh settlements in 
 Guatemala and Yucatan. 
 
 After their withdrawal barbarism would appear to have re- 
 sumed its sway in Anahuac, where it was later ^u- ,.• 
 
 •^ ' Chichimec 
 
 represented by the rude Chichimec tribes merged and Aztec 
 
 , ,. . , ... ,.._,. Empires. 
 
 m a loose political system which was dignified in 
 
 the local traditions by the name of the ^' Chichimec Empire." 
 
 In all probability these Chichimecs were true Nahuas^ whose 
 
 ^ Spiiren der Aztek. Sprac/ie, 18 =)g, passim. 
 
 2 "Chiefly of the Nahuatl race" (De Nadaillac, p. 279). It should, how- 
 ever, be noted that under this general and abusive name of "Dogs" {C/iu/ii, 
 dog) were comprised a large number of savage tribes— Otomis, Fames, Pintos, 
 etc. — who are described as wandering about naked or wearing only the skins 
 of beasts, living in caves or rock-shelters, armed with bows, slings, and clubs, 
 constantly at war amongst themselves or with the surrounding peoples, eating 
 raw flesh, drinking the blood of their captives or treating them with unheard-of 
 cruelty, altogether a horror and terror to all the more civilised communities. 
 "Chichimec Empire" may therefore be taken merely as a euphemistic expres- 
 sion for the reign of barbarism raised up on the ruins of the early Toltec 
 (Totonac or Huaxtecan) civilization. Yet it has its dynasties and dates and 
 legendary sequence of events, and we are told by the veracious native historian, 
 Ixtlilxochitl, himself of royal lineage, that Xolotl, founder of the empire, had 
 under orders 3,202,000 men and women, that his decisive victory over the 
 Toltecs took place in 1015, that he assumed the title of "Chichimecatl 
 Tecuhti," Great Clfief of tli^ Chichimecs, and that after a succession of revolts, 
 wars, conspiracies, and revolutions, Maxtla, last of the dynasty, was over- 
 thrown in 1431 by the Aztecs and their allies. 
 
412 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 ascendancy lasted from about the nth to the 15th century, when 
 they were in then* turn overthrown and absorbed by the historical 
 Nahuan confederacy of the Aztecs^ whose capital was Tenochtitlan 
 (the present city of Mexico), the Acolhuas (capital Tezcuco), and 
 the Tepanecs (capital Tlacopan). 
 
 Thus the Aztec Empire reduced by the Conquistadores in 
 1520 had but a brief record, although the Aztecs themselves as 
 well as many other tribes of Nahuatl speech, must have been 
 in contact with the more civilised Huaxtecan peoples for centuries 
 before the appearance of the Spaniards on the scene. It was 
 during these ages that the Nahuas "borrowed much from the 
 Mayas," as Forstermann puts it, without greatly benefiting by the 
 process. Thus the Maya gods, for the most part of a relatively 
 mild type like the Mayas themselves, become in the hideous 
 Aztec pantheon ferocious demons with an insatiable thirst for 
 blood, so that the teocalli, "gods' houses," were transformed to 
 human shambles, where on solemn occasions the victims were said 
 to have numbered tens of thousands^. 
 
 Besides the Aztecs and their allies, the elevated Mexican 
 Uncultured pl^tcaux' wcrc occupied by several other relatively 
 Mexican civilizcd nations, such as the Miztecs and Zapotecs 
 
 of Oajaca, the Tarascos and neighbouring Matlalt- 
 zincas of Michoacan, all of whom spoke independent stock lan- 
 guages, and the Totonacs of Vera Cruz, who were of Huaxtecan 
 speech, and were probably the earliest representatives of the 
 
 ^ Named from the shadowy land of Aztlan away to the north, where they 
 long dwelt in the seven legendary caves of Chicomoztoc, whence they migrated 
 at some unknown period to the lacustrine region, where they founded Tenoch- 
 titlan, seat of their empire. 
 
 - "The gods of the Mayas appear to have been less sanguinary than those 
 of the Nahuas. The immolation of a dog was with them enough for an occa- 
 sion that would have been celebrated by the Nahuas with hecatombs of victims. 
 Human sacrifices did however take place" (De Nadaillac, p. 266), though they 
 were as nothing compared with the countless victims demanded by the Aztec 
 gods. "The dedication by Ahuizotl of the great temple of Huitzilopochtli in 
 1487 is alleged to have been celebrated by the butchery of 72,344 victims," and 
 "under Montezuma II. 12,000 captives are said to have perished" on one occa- 
 sion {ib. p. 297); all no doubt gross exaggerations, but leaving a large margin 
 for perhaps the most terrrible chapter of horrors in the records of natural 
 religions. 
 
XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 413 
 
 Maya-Quiche race and culture. The high degree of civiHzation 
 attained by some of these nations before their reduction by the 
 Aztecs is attested by the magnificent ruins of Mitla, capital of the 
 Zapotecs, which was captured and destroyed by the Mexicans in 
 1494. Of the royal palace Viollet-le-Duc speaks in enthusiastic 
 terms, declaring that "the monuments of the golden age of 
 Greece and Rome alone equal the beauty of the masonry of 
 this great building'." In general their usages and religious rites 
 resembled those of the Aztecs, although the Zapotecs, besides the 
 civil ruler, had a High Priest who took part in the government. 
 " His feet were never allowed to touch the ground ; he was 
 carried on the shoulders of his attendants; and when he appeared 
 all, even the chiefs themselves, had to fall prostrate before him, 
 and none dared to raise their eyes in his presence ^" The Zapotec 
 language is still spoken by about 260 natives in the State of 
 Oajaca. 
 
 Farther north the plains and uplands continued to be inhabited 
 by a multitude of wild tribes speaking an unknown number of 
 stock languages, and thus presenting a chaos of ethnical and 
 hnguistic elements comparable to that which prevails along the 
 north-west coast. Of these rude populations one of the most 
 widespread are the Otomi of the central region, 
 
 ^ . , . - , . Otomi— Seri. 
 
 noted for the monosyllabic tendencies of their 
 language, which Najera, a native grammarian, has on this ground 
 compared with Chinese, from which, however, it is fundamentally 
 distinct. Still more primitive are the Seri Indians of Sonora, who 
 were visited in 1895 by Mr McGee, and found to be "probably 
 more savage than any other tribe remaining on the North 
 American Continent. Most of their food is eaten raw, they 
 have no domestic animals save dogs, they are totally without 
 agriculture, and their industrial arts are few and rudel" 
 
 It is noteworthy that but few traces of such savagery have yet 
 been discovered in Yucatan. The investigations of Mr Henry 
 Mercer^ in this region lend strong support to Forstermann's 
 views regarding the early Huaxtecan migrations and the general 
 
 1 Quoted by Dl^adaillac, p. 365. - p. 363- 
 
 * i6tA Ann. Report, p. Ixiii. 
 
 * The Hill Caves of Yucatan, Philadelphia, 1896. 
 
414 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 southward spread of Maya culture from the Mexican tableland. 
 Nearly thirty caves examined by this explorer failed 
 in Yu'^iat^n^" ^^ Y^^^^ ^ny remains either of the mastodon, mam- 
 moth, or horse, or of early man, elsewhere so often 
 associated with these animals. Hence Mr Mercer infers that the 
 Mayas reached Yucatan already in an advanced state of culture, 
 which consequently was not developed on the spot, but remained 
 unchanged till the conquest. In the caves were found great 
 quantities of good pottery, generally well baked and of sym- 
 metrical form, the oldest quite as good as the latest where they 
 occur in stratified beds, showing no progress anywhere. Yet the 
 first arrivals had no metals or domestic animals, not even the 
 dog, while the fractured bones occurring at Loltun, Sabaka and 
 some other places, raise suspicions of cannibalism. 
 
 Mr Edward H. Thompson, however, who has also examined 
 some of these caves, declares that "none of the human bones 
 showed any trace of being charred by fire, or any other evidence 
 of cannibalism." In other respects he agrees with Mr Mercer, 
 and expresses his conviction that " no people or race of so-called 
 cave-people ever existed in Yucatan, and that while these caves 
 of the Loltun type were undoubtedly inhabited, it was by the 
 same race that built the great stone structures now in ruins. And 
 I furthermore believe that the caves were only temporary places 
 of refuge and not permanent habitations \" 
 
 Since the conquest the Aztecs, as well as the other cultured 
 nations of Anahuac, have yielded to European influences to a far 
 greater extent than the Maya-Quiches of Yucatan and Guatemala. 
 In the city of Mexico the last echoes of the rich Nahuatl tongue 
 have almost died out, and this place, although formerly the chief 
 seat of Aztec culture, has long been one of the leading centres of 
 Spanish arts and letters in the New World ^ But Merida, standing 
 on the site of the ancient Ti-ho6, has almost again become a 
 Maya town, where the white settlers themselves have been largely 
 
 ^ Cave of Loltun, Yucatan, Report of Explorations by the Peahody Musewn, 
 Cambridge, Mass. 1897. 
 
 - "In the city of Mexico everything has a Spanish look" (Brocklehurst, p. 
 15). The Aztec language however is still current in the surrounding districts 
 and generally in the provinces forming part of the former Aztec empire. 
 
XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 415 
 
 assimilated in speech and usages to the natives. The very streets 
 
 are still indicated by the carved images of the hawk, 
 
 flamingo, or other tutelar deities, while the houses toT<uy!^*^*^ 
 
 of the suburbs continue to be built in the old Maya 
 
 style, two or three feet above the street level, with a walled porch 
 
 and stone bench running round the enclosure. 
 
 One reason for this remarkable contrast may be that the 
 Nahua culture, as above seen, was to a great extent borrowed 
 in relatively recent times, whereas the Maya civilization is now 
 shown to date from the epoch of the Tolan and Cholulan 
 pyramid-builders. Hence the former yielded to the first shock, 
 while the latter persists to such an extent that Yucatan, from the 
 ethnical standpoint, may still be called Mayapan, as in the days of 
 the great Xibalba confederacy, whose splendour is attested by the 
 astonishing monuments of Palenque, Copan, Chichen-Itza, Uxmal, 
 and the not yet fully described ruins of Quiriqua, Lake Itzal, and 
 other places in Guatemala, Honduras, and Salvador. Despite 
 their more gentle disposition, as expressed in the softer and almost 
 feminine lines of their features, the Mayas held out more valiantly 
 than the Aztecs against the Spaniards, and a section of the nation 
 occupying a strip of territory between Yucatan and British Hon- 
 duras, still maintains its independence. The *' barbarians," as 
 the inhabitants of this district are called, would appear to be 
 scarcely less civilised than their neighbours, although they have 
 forgotten the teachings of the padres, and transformed the Catholic 
 churches to wayside inns. Were Yucatan by any political convul- 
 sion detached from the central government, all its inhabitants, 
 together with most of those south of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 
 would probably in a few generations revert under modified con- 
 ditions to the old Maya culture. Even as it is the descendants 
 of the Spaniards have to a great extent forgotten their mother- 
 tongue, and Maya- Quiche dialects are almost everywhere current 
 except in the Campeachy district. Those also who call themselves 
 Catholics preserve and practise many of the old rites. After 
 burial the track from the grave to the house is carefully chalked, 
 so that the soul of the departed may know the way back when 
 the time comes to enter the body of some new-born babe. The 
 descendants of the national astrologers everywhere pursue their 
 
4l6 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 arts, determining events, forecasting the harvests and so on by 
 the conjunctions of the stars, and every village has its native 
 "Zadkiel" who reads the future in the ubiquitous crystal globe. 
 Even certain priests continue to celebrate the "Field Mass," at 
 which a cock is sacrificed to the Mayan Aesculapius, with invoca- 
 tions to the Trinity and their associates, the four genii of the rain 
 and crops. " These tutelar deities, however, have taken Christian 
 names, the Red, or God of the East, having become St Domenic ; 
 the White, or God of the North, St Gabriel ; the Black, or God 
 of the West, St James ; and the Yellow Goddess of the South, 
 Mary Magdalene \" 
 
 To the observer passing from the northern to the southern 
 division of the New World no marked contrasts are 
 from^North at first perceptible, either in the physical appear- 
 to South ance, or in the social condition of the aborigines. 
 
 America. ' ° 
 
 The substantial uniformity, which in these respects 
 prevails from the Arctic to the Austral waters, is in fact well 
 illustrated by the comparatively slight differences presented by 
 the primitive populations dwelling north and south of the Isthmus 
 of Panama. 
 
 Most of the insular connecting links, such as those offered by 
 
 the Cebunys of Cuba^, the nearly extinct Caribs of 
 aiS^Lucayans. ^^^ West Indies, and the entirely extinct Lucayans 
 
 of the Bahamas, have no doubt disappeared with all 
 the other aborigines of the Antilles. But the chain of native 
 populations would appear to have been formerly continuous from 
 the Timuquanans of Florida through the Windward and Leeward 
 
 ^ Reclus, Vol. XIX. p. 156. 
 
 ^ The rapid disappearance of these Cuban aborigines has been the subject 
 of much comment. Between the years 1512-32 all but some 4000 had perished, 
 although they are supposed to have originally numbered about a million, distri- 
 buted in 30 tribal groups, whose names and territories have all been carefully 
 preserved. But they practically offered no resistance to the ruthless Conquista- 
 dores, and it was a Cuban chief who even under torture refused to be baptised, 
 declaring that he would never enter the same heaven as the Spaniard. One is 
 reminded of the analogous cases of Jarl Hakon, the Norseman, and the Saxon 
 Witikind, who rejected Christianity, preferring to share the lot of their pagan 
 forefathers in the next world. 
 
Plate VI I. 
 
 I. Cree of Hudson Ba\. 
 (North Algonquian Type.) 
 
 Spokan Warrior. 
 (Selishan Type.) 
 
 3. GUATUSO. 
 
 (Costa Rican Type.) 
 
 To face, page 416] 
 

XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 417 
 
 Islands to the Caribs of the Guianas, and similarly from the 
 Bahamas and the Greater Antilles to the Arawakan groups of 
 Venezuela and surrounding lands. The statement of Columbus 
 that the Lucayans were "of good size, with large eyes and broader 
 foreheads than he had ever seen in any other race of men " is 
 fully borne out by the character of some old skulls from the 
 Bahamas measured by Mr W. K. Brooks, who unhesitatingly 
 declares that " they are the remains of the people who inhabited 
 the islands at the time of their discovery, and that these people 
 were a well-marked type of the North American Indian race 
 which was at that time distributed over the Bahama Islands, 
 Hayti, and the greater part of Cuba. As these islands are only a 
 few miles from the peninsula of Florida, this race must at some 
 time have inhabited at least the south-eastern extremity of the 
 continent, and it is therefore extremely interesting to note that 
 the North American crania which exhibit the closest resemblance 
 to those from the Bahama Islands have been obtained from 
 Florida \" This observer dwells on the solidity and massiveness 
 of the Lucayan skulls, which brings them into direct relation with 
 the races both of the Mississippi plains and of the Brazilian and 
 Venezuelan coast-lands. 
 
 Equally close is the connection established between the 
 surviving Isthmian and Colombian peoples of the chontais 
 Atrato and Magdalena basins. The Chontais of chocos and 
 Nicaragua are scarcely to be distinguished from 
 some of the Santa Marta hillmen, while the Chocos and perhaps 
 the Cunas of Panama have been affiliated to the Chocos of the 
 Atrato and San Juan rivers. Attempts, which however can 
 hardly be regarded as successful, have even been made to estab- 
 lish linguistic relations between the Costa Rican Guatusos and 
 the Timotes of the Merida uplands of Venezuela, who are them- 
 selves a branch of the formerly wide-spread Muyscan family. 
 
 But with these Muyscans we ^t once enter a new ethnical 
 and cultural domain, in which may be studied the resemblances 
 due to the common origin of all the American aborigines, and 
 the divergences due obviously to long isolation and independent 
 
 1 Paper read before the National Academy of Sciences, America, 1890. 
 K. 27 
 
41 8 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 local developments in the two continental divisions. In general 
 the southern populations present more violent contrasts than the 
 northern in their social and intellectual developments, so that 
 while the wild tribes touch a lower depth of savagery, some at 
 least of the civilised peoples rise to a higher degree of excellence, 
 if not in letters — where the inferiority is manifest^ — certainly in the 
 arts of engineering, architecture, agriculture, and political organi- 
 zation. Thus we need not travel many miles inland from the 
 Isthmus without meeting the Catios, a wild tribe 
 between the Atrato and the Cauca, far more de- 
 graded even than the Seri of Sonora, most debased of all North 
 American hordes. These Catios, a now nearly extinct branch 
 of the Choco stock, were said to dwell like the anthropoid apes, 
 in the branches of trees ; they mostly went naked, and were 
 reported, like the Mangbattus and other Congo negroes, to 
 "fatten their captives for the table." Their Darien neighbours 
 of the Nore valley, who gave an alternative name to the Panama 
 peninsula, were accustomed to steal the women of hostile tribes, 
 cohabit with them, and carefully bring up the children till their four- 
 teenth year, when they were eaten with much rejoicing, the mothers 
 ultimately sharing the same fate'; and the Cocomas of the 
 Marafion "were in the habit of eating their own dead relations, 
 and grinding their bones to drink in their fermented liquor. 
 They said it was better to be inside a friend than to be swallowed 
 up by the cold earth^" In fact of the Colombian aborigines 
 Herrera tells us that " the living are the grave of the dead ; for 
 the husband has been seen to eat his wife, the brother his 
 brother or sister, the son his father; captives also are eaten 
 roasted ^" 
 
 Thus is raised the question of cannibalism in the New World, 
 where at the discovery it was incomparably more prevalent south 
 than north of the equator. Compare the Eskimo and the Fuegians 
 at the two extremes, the former practically exonerated of the 
 
 ^ The Travels of P. de Cieza de Leon (Hakluyt Soc. 1864, P* 5© sq.). 
 
 2 Sir C. R. Markham, List of Tribes^ &c. Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1895, p. 253. 
 "This idea was widespread, and many Amazonian peoples declared they pre- 
 ferred to be eaten by their friends than by worms." 
 
 ^ Quoted by Steinmetz, Endokannibalisrmis, p. 19. 
 
 t 
 
XI.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 419 
 
 charge, and in distress sparing wives and children, and eating 
 their dogs ; the latter sparing their dogs because useful for catching 
 otters, and smoking and eating their old women because useless 
 for further purposes \ In the north the taste for human flesh had 
 declined, and the practice survived only as a ceremonial rite, 
 chiefly amongst the British Columbians and the Aztecs, except 
 of course in case of famine, when even the highest races are 
 capable of devouring their fellows. But in the south cannibaUsm 
 in some of its most repulsive forms was common enough almost 
 everywhere. Killing and eating feeble and aged members of the 
 tribe in kindness is still general ; but the Mayorunas of the Upper 
 Amazon waters do not wait till they have grown lean with years 
 or wasted with disease" ; and it was a baptized member of the 
 same tribe who complained on his death-bed that he would not 
 now provide a meal for his Christian friends, but must be devoured 
 by worms I But the lowest depths of the horrible are perhaps 
 reached by what J. Nieuwhof relates of the Tapuyas, a wide- 
 spread family which includes the Botocudos, and is the same 
 as that to which Von Martins has given the collective name 
 of Ges\ 
 
 In the southern continent the social conditions illustrated by 
 these practices prevailed everywhere, except on the 
 elevated plateaux of the western Cordilleras, which ^Jn^^ Cultural 
 for many ages before the discovery had been the 
 seats of several successive cultures, in some respects rivalling, 
 but in others much inferior to those of Central America. When 
 the Conquistadores reached this part of the New World, to which 
 
 1 C. Darwin, Journal of Researches, 1889, p. 155. Thanks to their 
 frequent contact with Europeans since the expeditions of Fitzroy and Darwin, 
 the Fuegians have given up the practice, hence the doubts or denials of 
 Brydges, Hyades, and other later observers 
 
 - V. Martins, Ziir Ethnographie Brasiliens, 1867, p. 430. 
 
 3 Herbert Spencer, The Principles of Ethics, 1892, i. p. 330. 
 
 •* "Von den Tapuyas sagt er dass die todte Frucht sogleich von der Mutter 
 verschkmgen wird, da sie nicht besser bewahrt werden konne, als in den 
 Eingeweiden der Gebarerin; auch der Nabelstrang und die Nachgeburt (sic) 
 werden gleich gekocht von ?br Mutter in ihrer Waldeinsamkeit gegessen" 
 (Steinmetz, p. 17). Something similar is related by Dobrizhoffer even of the 
 Guarani, who were not usually regarded as bestial savages {ib. p. 18). 
 
 27 — 2 
 
420 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 they were attracted by the not altogether groundless reports of 
 fabulous wealth embodied in the legend of El Dorado, the " Man 
 of Gold," they found it occupied by a cultural zone which extended 
 almost continuously from the present republic of Colombia through 
 
 Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia right into Chili. In the 
 Chibchas north the dominant people were the s emi-c ivilised 
 
 Chibchas, already mentioned under the name of 
 Muyscas\ who had developed an organized system of government 
 on the Bogota tableland, and had succeeded in extending their some- 
 what more refined social institutions to some of the other aborigines 
 of Colombia, though not to many of the outlying members of their 
 own race. As in Mexico many of the Nahuatlan tribes remained 
 little better than savages to the last, so in Colombia the civilised 
 Muyscans were surrounded by numerous kindred tribes — Coyaima, 
 Natagaima, Tocaima and others, collectively known as Panches — 
 who were real savages with scarcely any tribal organisation, wear- 
 ing no clothes, and according to the early accounts still addicted 
 to cannibalism. 
 
 The Muyscas proper had a tradition that they owed their 
 superiority to a certain Bochica, half human, half divine, who 
 came from the east a long time ago, taught them everything, and 
 then became the head of their pantheon, worshipped with solemn 
 rites and even human sacrifices. Amongst the arts thus acquired 
 was that of the goldsmith, in which they surpassed all other 
 peoples of the New World. The precious metal was even said 
 to be minted in the shape of discs, which formed an almost 
 solitary instance of a true metal currency amongst the American 
 aborigines ^ Many of the European cabinets are enriched with 
 these and other gold objects — brooches, pendants, and especially 
 grotesque little figures of men and animals — which have been 
 
 ^ The national name was Muysca, "Men," " Human Body," and the number 
 twenty (in reference to the ten fingers and ten toes making up that score). 
 Chibcha was a mimetic name having allusion to the sound ch (as in Charles), 
 which is of frequent recurrence in the Muysca language. With man = 20, cf. 
 the Ballacula (British Columbia) 19= i man-i ; 20= i man, etc.; and this again 
 with Lat. tmdeviginti. 
 
 '^ W. Bollaert, Antiqtiarian, Ethnological, and other Researches in New 
 Granada, etc. iS6o,J>assifn. 
 
XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 42 1 
 
 found in great numbers and still occasionally turn up on the 
 plateau. These finds are partly accounted for by the practice 
 of offering such objects at the altars erected everywhere in the 
 open air to the personified constellations and forces of nature, 
 which were constantly increasing in number according to the 
 whim or fancy of their votaries. Any mysterious sound emanating 
 from a forest, a rock, a mountain pass, or gloomy gorge, was 
 accepted as a manifestation of some divine presence ; a shrine 
 was raised to the embodied spirit, and so the whole land became 
 literally crowded with local deities, all subservient to Bochica, 
 sovereign lord of the Muysca world. This world itself was up- 
 borne on the shoulders of Chibchicum, a national Atlas, who 
 now and then eased himself by shifting the burden, and thus 
 caused earthquakes. In most lands subject to underground 
 disturbances analogous ideas prevail, and when their source is 
 so obvious, it seems unreasonable to seek for explanations in 
 racial affinities, contacts, foreign influences, and so forth. 
 
 It has often been remarked that at the advent of the whites 
 the native civilisations seemed generally stricken as if by the 
 hand of death, so that even if not suddenly arrested by the 
 intruders they must sooner or later have perished of themselves. 
 Such speculations are seldom convincing, because we never know 
 what recuperative forces may be at work to ward off the evil day. 
 But so much may be admitted, that the symptoms of decay were 
 everywhere more in evidence than the prospects of stability. 
 Such was certainly the case in Muyscaland, where the national 
 life and all hopes of healthy development had been stifled by an 
 oppressive system of exclusive social castes headed, as in India, 
 and with like baneful results, by the priestly class. Although 
 the High Priest — who like the Tibetan Dalai Lama, dwelt in some 
 sanctuary inaccessible to the public — was chosen by election, the 
 sacerdotal hierarchy inherited their offices through the female 
 line, doubtless a reminiscence of matriarchal customs. These 
 xeques, as they were called, obtruded themselves everywhere, and 
 exercised such diverse functions as those of the shaman, the 
 medicine man, judge, a^d executioner. 
 
 Then followed, in exactly the same order as in India, the 
 warrior caste, utilised also as police and tax-gatherers, the traders, 
 
422 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 craftsmen, and peasants, beyond whom were the tributary popula- 
 tions, nomads and others hovering on the skirts of this feebly 
 organized political system. It broke to pieces at the first shock 
 from without, and so disheartened had the people become under 
 their half theocratic rulers, that they scarcely raised a hand in 
 defence of a government which in their minds was associated 
 only with tyranny and oppression. The conquest was in any 
 case facilitated by the civil war at the time raging between the 
 northern and southern kingdoms which with several other semi- 
 independent states constituted the Muyscan empire. This empire 
 was almost conterminous southwards with that of the Incas. At 
 least the numerous terms occurring in the dialects of the Paes, 
 Coconucos, and other South Colombian tribes, show that Peruvian 
 influences had spread beyond the political frontiers far to the 
 north, without, however, quite reaching the confines of the 
 Muyscan domain. 
 
 i But, for an unknown period prior to the discovery, the sway of 
 ' the Peruvian Incas had been established throughout 
 
 th?iJfcIs.°^ nearly the whole of the Andean lands, and the terri- 
 j tory directly ruled by them extended from the Quito 
 
 district about the equator for some 2500 miles southwards to the 
 Rio Maule in Chili, with an average breadth of 400 miles between 
 the Pacific and the eastern slopes of the Cordilleras. Their 
 dominion thus comprised a considerable part of the present 
 republics of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, and Argentina, with a 
 roughly estimated area of 1,000,000 square miles, and a popula- 
 tion of over 10,000,000. Here the ruling race were the Quechuas 
 Ouechua " (Quichuas) , whose speech, the "Language of the 
 
 Race and Incas," is Still Current in several well-marked dialec- 
 
 ^ * tic varieties throughout all the provinces of the old 
 
 empire. In Lima and all the seaports and inland towns Spanish 
 prevails, but in the rural districts Quechuan remains the mother- 
 tongue of over 2,000,000 natives, and has even become the lingua 
 franca of the western regions, just as Tupi-Guarani is the lingoa 
 geral, "general language," of the eastern section of South America. 
 The attempts to find affinities with Aryan (especially Sanskrit), 
 and other linguistic families of the Eastern Hemisphere, have 
 broken down before the application of sound philological principles 
 
XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 423 
 
 to these studies, and Quechuan is now recognised as a stock 
 language of the usual American type, unconnected with any other 
 except that of the Bolivian Aymaras. Even this connection is 
 regarded by some students as verbal rather than structural, an 
 interchange of a considerable number of terms being easily ex- 
 plained by the close contact in which the two peoples have dwelt 
 since prehistoric times. But on the other hand one of the national 
 traditions of the Quechuas themselves traces their cradle to the 
 southern shores and islands of Lake Titicaca, that 
 
 ' Quechua- 
 
 is, the hallowed region which is intimately asso- Aymara 
 ciated with the earliest reminiscences of both races. "&'"^' 
 The very island which gives its name to the lake is the "Tiger 
 Rock\" the former abode of a huge jaguar who, like the dragon 
 of the Pamir, wore in his head a great jewel which illumined the 
 whole lake. Later, when the tiger had disappeared from the 
 sacred islet, there emerged from its cavernous recesses the sun- 
 born Manco-Capac, first of the Incas, bearing a golden bough 
 which he had received from the divine orb, with the injunction to 
 walk on and on till he reached a spot where the emblem of the 
 Incas' future glories would take root in the ground. Here was 
 founded the renowned city of Cuzco, first seat of the dynasty and 
 capital of the Tavantisuyan (Peruvian)^ monarchy. 
 
 Apart from the supernatural elements, what weight can be 
 attached to these traditions on the Titicaca origin of the Incas 
 and their people? On the authority of Garcilaso de la Vega, 
 himself of Inca lineage, they are accepted by most inquirers into 
 Peruvian origins, who fail to perceive that, if true, then the 
 Quechuas must be of Aymara stock, the Titicaca lands being 
 beyond all question within the domain of the Aymara race. But 
 the general assumption is that the Quechuas are and always 
 have been the dominant people, and that they were the builders 
 of the stupendous Tiahuanaco monuments on the 
 southern shores of the lake, and not far from the Monumen?s^.° 
 holy island in the very heart of Aymaraland. Now 
 it is this very assumption, involving the transfer of a whole culture 
 
 1 Titi, "tiger," z>. jagull; fara, "rock." 
 
 2 Peril, a term introduced by the Spaniards, is unknown to the natives, who 
 call the land Tavantisuyu, i.e. "The Four Quarters" (of the world). 
 
424 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 with its myths, monuments, and traditions from one nation to 
 another, that has obscured the relations of both, and surrounded 
 the inquiry into Peruvian origins with endless difficulties and 
 contradictions. The credit of having cleared up most of these 
 obscurities, and placed the whole question on a satisfactory 
 footing, is due to the patient researches of Herren A. Stiibel and 
 M. Uhle\ who make it evident that the megalithic structures 
 of Tiahuanaco, including the wonderful doorway of Akkapana^, 
 perhaps the greatest architectural triumph of the New World, 
 were the work neither of "Toltecs" from Central America, nor 
 of Quechuas from Peru, nor of any other people but the Aymaras, 
 in whose territory they were raised. It should be remembered 
 that this territory was not even included in the Incas' empire till 
 the reign of Yupanqui, scarcely 130 years before the arrival of the 
 Spaniards, that is, at a time when the very builders themselves 
 had already passed into the world of legend, and become divine 
 beings associated with the pre-Inca cult of Viracocha, " creator of 
 all things." Garcilaso himself tells us that when the fourth Inca, 
 Mayta-Capac, first penetrated to the lake district, the sight of 
 these structures struck his Quechuan followers with such amaze- 
 
 ^ Die Rtmienstdtte von Tiahuanaco ivi Hochlande des alien Peru, Breslau, 
 1893. Since the appearance of this monumental work E. W. Middendorf has 
 returned to the subject, and in his Peru: Beohachltmgen u. Shidien &c. 1895, 
 vol. III. denies that the Tiahuanaco monuments were associated with the cult 
 of Viracocha, while admitting with our authors that they are not Quechuan, and 
 in fact differ fundamentally from all others in South America. The founders 
 of this civilization were connected with the now degraded Aymaras, and came 
 from some foreign land, as indicated by their name, Tiahuanaco -haque, which 
 he interprets " Wanderers from Foreign Lands." This, however, was not a 
 national name, and whatever its meaning, appears to be of Quechuan origin. 
 For our purpose it is enough that Middendorf now recognises the non-Inca 
 character of the monuments and their connection with the Aymara race. 
 
 2 The still standing monolithic uprights in this district are specially interest- 
 ing to English archaeologists, owing to their likeness to Stonehenge: "Ak- 
 kapana macht durch seine Aenlichkeit mit den Stonehenges Englands im 
 Aeusseren allerdings einen besonders alterthiimlichen Eindruck. Allein diese 
 Aenlichkeit betrifft nur seinen gegenwartigen Zustand, und es erscheint sehr 
 fraglich, ob das unverletzte Werk die gleiche Uebereinstimmung im Aeusseren 
 mit den alten megalitischen Steinbauten Englands hatte erkennen lassen" 
 (Ruinenstdtle, p. 46). 
 
XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 425 
 
 ment that they were unable to understand by what processes such 
 buildings had been erected, proof enough that they were not the 
 builders. 
 
 It is here made abundantly evident that the great temple and 
 surrounding edifices, which were never completed, date from 
 pre-Inca times, that they were dedicated to Viracocha, tutelar 
 deity of the Aymaras, and that the building operations were 
 arrested by the Incas, who regarded Tiahuanaco, seat of this cult, 
 as the rival of Paccaritambo, near Cuzco, centre of the Quechua 
 sun-worship. But after the complete conquest of Aymaraland the 
 original hostility between the two religious centres disappeared, 
 international jealousies, based more on political than religious 
 grounds, died out, and Viracocha himself was adopted into the 
 Quechuan pantheon. His name was even borne by one of the 
 Incas (Viracocha, son of Yahuar-Huacac) ; in the esoteric teach- 
 ings of the Peruvian priests he was identified with the ''Unknown 
 God," said to have been worshipped under the name of Pacha- 
 camac in Upper Peru and of Viracocha at Cuzco ^; lastly this 
 Ayraara deity's name became in later times a general title of 
 honour, and at present all Europeans are greeted by the natives 
 as Viracocha-tatai^ " Our father Viracocha." With the Aymara 
 tutelar divinity were naturally appropriated the above described 
 myths and traditions, until Titicaca, home of the Aymaras, 
 became the mystic cradle of the sun-descended Incas, and thus 
 in the early writers (Piedro de Cieza de Leon, Garcilaso, etc.) 
 the Aymaras and all their works were merged in the dominant 
 Peruvian nationality ^ Such would appear to be the solution of 
 perhaps the most interesting, certainly one of the most obscure 
 ethnico-historical problems in the New World. 
 
 1 Cieza, however, the "Herodotus of the New World," had his doubts, for 
 he writes: "Y assi se tiene, que antes que los Ingas reynassen non muchos 
 tiempos, estavan hechos algunos edificios destos: porque yo he oydo afirmar a 
 Indios que los Ingas hizieron los edificios grandes del Cuzco, por la forma que 
 vieron tener la muralla o pared que se vee en este Tiaguanaco" {Chronica^ i. 
 eh. 105). 
 
 '■^ It is very significant in t^s connection that, as Garcilaso himself confesses 
 (Bk. VI. ch. 21), the term Viracocha had no meaning at all in the Quechuan 
 language of his Inca forefathers. 
 
426 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Here is not the place to enter into the details of the astonish- 
 ing architectural, engineering, and artistic remains, 
 
 The Chimus. , , . , , _ .... 
 
 now generally assigned to the Incas, who have in 
 this respect become the "Toltecs" of the Southern Continent, 
 but were here preceded, not only by the Aymaras, but also by 
 the Chimus^ perhaps by the, A faca?ne7ws, and other cultured 
 peoples whose very names have perished. Doubts attach even 
 to the name of the Chimus themselves, whose dominion before 
 their overthrow by the Inca Yupanqui extended from their capital, 
 Grand Chimu, where is now Truxillo, for 625 miles along the coast 
 nearly to the Chilian frontier. 
 
 The ruins of Chimu cover a vast area, nearly 15 miles by 6, 
 which is everywhere strewn with the remains of palaces, reservoirs, 
 aqueducts, ramparts, and especially Auacas, that is, truncated 
 pyramids not unlike those of Mexico, whence the theory that 
 the Chimus, of unknown origin, were "Toltecs" from Central 
 America. One of these huacas is described by Squier as 150 feet 
 high with a base 580 feet square, and an area of 8 acres, present- 
 ing from a distance the appearance of a huge crater I Still larger 
 is the so-called "Temple of the Sun," 800 by 470 feet, 200 feet 
 high, and covering an area of 7 acres. An immense population of 
 hundreds of thousands was assigned to this place in pre-Inca 
 times; but from some rough surveys made in 1897 it would 
 appear that much of the space within the enclosures consists of 
 waste lands, which had never been built over, and it is calculated 
 that at no time could the number of inhabitants have greatly 
 exceeded 50,000. 
 
 We need not stop to describe the peculiar civil and social 
 institutions of the Peruvians, which are of common 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 Political knowledge. Enough to say that here everything 
 
 y^*^™- was planned in the interests of the the6cratic and 
 
 all-powerful Incas, who were more than obeyed, almost honoured 
 with divine worship by their much bethralled and priestridden 
 subjects. "The despotic authority of the Incas was the basis 
 of government ; that authority was founded on the religious 
 respect yielded to the descendant of the sun, and supported by 
 
 ^ Peru, p. 120. 
 
XI.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 42/ 
 
 a skilfully combined hierarchy. The population was divided 
 into decuries, and amongst the ten individuals who formed each 
 (iecury, the Inca or his representatives chose one, who became 
 the chief over the nine others. Five decuries had at their head 
 a decurion of superior rank; fifty decuries a chief, who thus 
 commanded 500 men. Lastly, 100 decuries obeyed a supreme 
 chief, who received orders direct from the Inca\" It was a kind 
 of communism, half religious, half military, in which everything 
 was artificial, nature stamped out, and the individual reduced to 
 a cipher, a numbered member of a clan or group, to which he 
 was tied for Hfe, in which he could neither rise nor sink, hope 
 nor fear. The system was outwardly perfect, but soulless, and 
 so, like that of the Cundinamarcan Muyscas, collapsed at the first 
 clash with a handful of mounted Spanish brigands. 
 
 Beyond the Maule, southernmost limits of all these effete 
 civilisations, man reasserted himself in the "South 
 American Iroquois," as those Chilian aborigines Araucanians. 
 have been called who called themselves Molu-che, 
 " Warriors," but are better known by their Quechuan designation 
 of Aucaes, " Rebels," whence the Spanish Aucans (Araucan, 
 Araucanian). These " Rebels," who have never hitherto been 
 overcome by the arms of any people, and whose heroic deeds in 
 the long wars waged by the white intruders against their freedom 
 form the topic of a noble Spanish epic poem^, still maintain a 
 measure of national autonomy, as the friends and faithful allies 
 of the Chilian republic. Probably no people have ever carried 
 the sense of personal independence to greater lengths, and the 
 sentiment embodied with us in the half-jocular expression, " I'm 
 as good as my neighbour," would seem to be taken quite seriously 
 in Araucania. Here there never has been a central authority of 
 any kind ; not only are all the tribes absolutely free, but the same 
 is true of every clan, sept, and family group, which recognise no 
 masters, scarcely the paterfamilias himself, who does not even 
 venture to chastise his children or control his household. Need- 
 less to say, there are no slaves or serfs, no tribal laws or penal 
 
 N 
 
 1 De Nadaillac, p. 438. 
 
 2 Alonzo de Ercilla's Araucana. 
 
428 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 code, no hereditary chiefs, nothing but custom and a strong sense 
 of duty, or national spirit, in virtue of which the tribal groups act 
 voluntarily in concert, come together and elect their temporary 
 toqui (dictator) in time of war, and the danger over, disperse 
 again to their isolated homes and farmsteads, for they lack 
 even sufficient cohesion to dwell together in small village 
 communities. 
 
 There was, however, one controlling or binding force, a kind 
 of ancestry worship, or at least a profound veneration for their 
 forefathers, who after death went to people the Milky Way, and 
 from that vantage-ground continued to watch over the conduct 
 of their children. And this simple belief is almost the only 
 substitute for the rewards and punishments which supply the 
 motive for the observance of an artificial ethical code in so many 
 more developed religious systems. 
 
 In the sonorous Araucanian language, which is still spoken by 
 about 40,000 full-blood natives, the term che, meaning "people," 
 occurs as the postfix of several ethnical groups, which, however, 
 are not tribal but purely territorial divisions. Thus, while Molu- 
 che is the collective name of the whole nation, the Ficun-che, 
 Huilli-che, and Puel-che are simply the North, South, and East 
 men respectively. The Central and most numerous division are 
 the Fehtien-che, that is, people of the Pehuen district, who are both 
 the most typical and most intelligent of all the Araucanian family. 
 Ehrenreich's remark that many of the American aborigines re- 
 semble Europeans as much as or even more than the Asiatic 
 Mongols, is certainly borne out by the facial expression of these 
 Pehuen-ches. The resemblance is even extended to the mental 
 characters, as reflected in their oral literature. Amongst the 
 specimens of the national folklore preserved in the Pehuen-che 
 dialect and edited with Spanish translations by Dr Rodolfo Lenz\ 
 is the story of a departed lover, who returns from the other world 
 to demand his betrothed and carries her off to his grave. Al- 
 though this might seem an adaptation of Burger's Lenore, Dr Lenz 
 is of opinion that it is a genuine Araucanian legend. 
 
 Of the above-mentioned groups the Puel-ches are now included 
 
 ^ In the Anales de la Universidad de Chile for 1897. 
 
XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 429 
 
 politically in Argentina. They are, however, true Molu-ches, al- 
 though sometimes confused with the neighbouring 
 aborigines of Patagonia and the Pampas, to whom indAans.^""^^^ 
 the Chilian postfix c/ze has also been extended. 
 This very term Puel-che, meaning simply " Easterns," is applied 
 not only to the Argentine Molu-ches, whose territory stretches 
 east of the Cordilleras as far as Mendoza in Cuyo, but also to all 
 the aborigines commonly called Fajupeans {Pampas Indians) by 
 the Europeans and Fenek by the Patagonians. Under the de- 
 signation of Puel-ches would therefore be comprised the now 
 extinct Ranqual-ches (Ranqueles), who formerly raided up to 
 Buenos-Ayres and the other Spanish settlements on the Plate 
 River ; the Mapo-ches of the Lower Salado, and generally all the 
 nomads as far south as the Rio Negro. 
 
 These aborigines are now best represented by the Gauchos, 
 who are mostly Spaniards on the fathers side and 
 
 . Gauchos. 
 
 Indians on the mothers, and reflect this double 
 descent in their half-nomadic, half-civilised life. These Gauchos, 
 who are now also disappearing before the encroachments of the 
 "Grmgos'," i.e. the white immigrants from almost every country in 
 Europe, have been enveloped in an ill-deserved halo of romance, 
 thanks mainly to their roving habits, splendid horsemanship, love 
 of finery, and genial disposition combined with that innate grace 
 and courtesy which belongs to all of Spanish blood. But those 
 who knew them best described them as of sordid nature, cruel to 
 their womenkind, reckless gamblers and libertines, ruthless political 
 partisans, at times even religious fanatics without a spark of true 
 religion, and at heart little better than bloodthirsty savages. 
 
 Beyond the Rio Negro follow the gigantic Patagonians, that 
 is, the Tehnel-ches or Chiiel-ches of the Araucanians, 
 who have no true collective name unless it be gonians.^ 
 Tsoneca, a word of uncertain use and origin. Most 
 of the tribal groups — Yacana, Pilma, Chao and others— are 
 broken up, and the former division between the Northern 
 Tehuelches (Tehuelhet), comprising the Callilehet (Serranos or 
 Highlanders) of the Upoer Chupat, with the Calilan between the 
 1 Properly Griegos, "Greeks, " so called because supposed to speak ''Greek,'* 
 i.e. any language other than Spanish. 
 
430 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Rios Chupat and Negro, and the Southern Tehuelches (Yacana, 
 Sehuan, etc.), south to Fuegia, no longer holds good since the 
 general displacement of all these fluctuating nomad hordes. A 
 branch of the Tehuelches are unquestionably the Onas of the 
 eastern parts of Fuegia, the true aborigines of which are the 
 Yahgans of the central and the Alakalufs of the western islands. 
 
 Hitherto to the question whence came these tall Patagonians, 
 no answer could be given beyond the suggestion that they may 
 have been specialised in their present habitat, where nevertheless 
 tiiey seem to be obviously intruders. Now, however, one may 
 perhaps venture to look for their original home amongst the 
 Bororos of the region south of Goyaz, between the head-waters of 
 the Rios Parana and Paraguay. These Bororos, who had been 
 heard of by Martius, but whose very existence had been doubted, 
 have long been known to the Portuguese settlers, and have also 
 lately been interviewed by Ehrenreich, who found them to be a 
 very numerous and powerful nation (as in fact already stated by 
 Milliet de Saint-Adolphe^), ranging over a territory as large as 
 Germany. Their physical characters, as described by this ob- 
 server, correspond closely with those of the Patagonians: "An 
 exceptionally tall race rivaUing the Polynesians, Patagonians, and 
 Redskins ; by far the tallest Indians hitherto discovered within 
 the tropics, some being 6 ft. 4 in. high, although the tallest were 
 not measured; head very large and round (men 81*2; women 
 77 -4) ^" With this should be compared the very large round old 
 Patagonian skull from the Rio Negro, measured by Rudolf Martin, 
 as described in the Quarterly Journal of Swiss Naturalists I The 
 account reads like the description of some forerunner of a pre- 
 historic Bororo irruption into the Patagonian steppe lands. 
 
 To the perplexing use of the term Puelche above referred to 
 is perhaps due the difference of opinion still prevailing on the 
 number of stock languages in this southern section of the Con- 
 tinent. D'Orbigny's emphatic statement* that the Puelches spoke 
 
 ' *'Na9ao de Indios poderosa...dominando sobre um vasto territorio etc.," 
 {Diccionario Geographico do Brazil, 1863, i. p. 160). 
 ^ Urhewohner Brasiliens, 121, 125. 
 '^ Zurich, 1896, p. 496 sq. 
 ■* V Homme Americain, ii. p. 70. 
 
XI.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 43 1 
 
 a language fundamentally distinct both from the Araucanian and 
 the Patagonian has been questioned on the strength 
 of some Puelche words, which were collected by R^aikms*^*^ 
 Hale at Carmen on the Rio Negro, and differ but 
 slightly from Patagonian. But the Rio Negro lies on the ethnical 
 divide between the two races, which sufficiently accounts for the 
 resemblances, while the words are too few to prove anything. 
 Hale calls them "Southern Puelche," but they were in fact 
 Tehuelche (Patagonian), the true Pampean Puelches having dis- 
 appeared from that region before Hale's time\ I have now the 
 unimpeachable authority of the Rev. T. P. Schmid, for many 
 years a missionary amongst these aborigines, for asserting that 
 d'Orbigny's statement is absolutely correct. His Puelches were 
 the Pampeans, because he locates them in the region between 
 the Rios Negro and Colorado, that is, north of Patagonian and 
 east of Araucanian territory, and Mr Schmid assures me that all 
 three — Araucanian, Pampean, and Patagonian — are undoubtedly 
 stock languages, distinct both in their vocabulary and structure, 
 with nothing in common except their common polysynthetic form. 
 In a hst of 2000 Patagonian and Araucanian words he found only 
 two ahke, patac^ 100, and huarunc-^ 1000, numerals obviously 
 borrowed by the rude Tehuelches from the more cultured 
 Moluches. In Fuegia there is at least one radically distinct 
 tongue, the Yahgan, studied by the Rev. Mr Brydges. Here the 
 Ona is probably a Patagonian dialect, and Alakaluf perhaps 
 remotely allied to Araucanian. Thus in the whole region south 
 of the Plate River the stock languages are not known to exceed 
 four: — Araucanian; Pampean (Puelche); Patagonian (Tehuelche) ; 
 and Yahgan. 
 
 Few aboriginal peoples have been the subject of more glaringly 
 discrepant statements than the Yahgans, to whom 
 several lengthy monographs have been devoted Yahgans. 
 during the last few decades. How contradictory 
 are the statements of intelligent and even trained observers, 
 
 ^ They were replaced or absorbed partly by the Patagonians, but chiefly by 
 the Araucanian Puelches, whc^many years ago migrated down the Rio Negro as 
 far as El Carmen and even to the coast at Bahia Blanca. Hence Hale's 
 Puelches were in fact Araucanians with a Patagonian strain. 
 
432 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 whose good faith is beyond suspicion and who have no cause to 
 serve except the truth, will best be seen by placing in juxtaposi- 
 tion the accounts of the family relations by Lieut. Bove, a well- 
 known Italian observer, and Dr P. Hyades of the French Cape 
 Horn Expedition, both summarised' : — 
 
 Bove. Hyades. 
 
 The women are treated as slaves. Both girls and married women 
 
 The greater the number of wives or expect to be treated with proper 
 slaves a man has the easier he finds a respect and deference, 
 living ; hence polygamy is deep-rooted Some men have two or more 
 
 and four wives common. Owing to wives, but monogamy is the rule, 
 the rigid climate and bad treatment 
 
 the mortality of children under lo Children are tenderly cared for by 
 
 years is excessive; the mother's love their parents, who in return are 
 lasts till the child is weaned, after treated by them with affection and 
 which it rapidly wanes, and is com- deference, 
 pletely gone when the child attains 
 
 the age of 7 or 8 years. The Fuegian's The Fuegians are of a generous 
 
 only lasting love is the love of self. disposition and like to share their 
 As there are no family ties, the word pleasures with others. The husbands 
 'authority' is devoid of meaning. exercise due control, and punish 
 
 severely any act of infidelity. 
 
 These seeming contradictions may be partly explained by the 
 general improvement in manners due to the beneficent action of 
 the English missionaries in recent years, and great progress has 
 certainly been made since the expeditions of Fitzroy and Darwin. 
 But it is to be feared that these influences are mainly confined to 
 the vicinity of the stations, beyond which the darker pictures 
 presented by the early observers and later by Bove, Lovisato and 
 others, still hold good. 
 
 But even in the more favoured regions of the Parana and 
 
 Amazon basins many tribes are met which yield little if at all to 
 
 the Fuegians of the early writers in sheer savagery and debasement. 
 
 Thus the Cashibos or Carapaches of the Ucayali, 
 
 cJshtbos ^^° ^^^ described as resembUng the Fuegians 
 even in appearance^, may be said to answer almost 
 
 1 Mission Scientijique de Cap Horit, vol. vii., par P. Hyades et J. Deniker, 
 1891. 
 
 ^ "Les Kassivos cannibales du haut Ucayali qui ressemblent aux Fuegiens" 
 (L. Rousselet, Art. Amh-ique, 1895). Others, however, tell us they are " white 
 
XI.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 433 
 
 better than any other human group to the old saying, homo 
 homini lupus. They roam the forests Hke wild beasts, living 
 almost entirely upon game, in which is included man himself. 
 "When one of them is pursuing the chase in the woods and 
 hears another hunter imitating the cry of an animal, he imme- 
 diately makes the same cry to entice him nearer, and if he is of 
 another tribe kills him if he can and (as is alleged) eats him." 
 Hence they are naturally "in a state of hostility with all their 
 neighbours^" 
 
 These Cashibos, i.e. "Bats," are members of a widespread 
 linguistic family which in ethnological writings bears 
 the name of Paiio^ from the Panos of the Huallaga FJmn^*"° 
 and Maranon, who are now broken up or greatly 
 reduced, but whose language is current amongst the Cashibos, 
 the Conibos, the Karipunas, the Pacaouaras, the Setebos, the 
 Sipivios (Shipibos) and others about the head-waters of the 
 Amazons in Peru, BoHvia, and Brazil, as far east as the Madeira. 
 Amongst these, as amongst the Moxos and so many other riverine 
 tribes in Amazonia, a slow transformation is in progress. Some 
 have been baptized, and while still occupying their old haunts 
 and keeping up the tribal organization, have been induced to 
 forego their savage ways and turn to peaceful pursuits. They 
 are beginning to wear clothes, usually cotton robes of some vivid 
 colour, to till the soil, take service with the white traders, or even 
 trade themselves in their canoes up and down the tributaries of 
 the Amazons. 
 
 In this boundless Amazonian region of moist sunless wood- 
 lands, fringed north and east by Atlantic coast Ethnical 
 ranges, diversified by the open Venezuelan llanos. Relations in 
 
 ° -^ n • 1 1 • Amazonia. 
 
 and merging southwards in the vast alluvial plains 
 of the Parana-Paraguay basin, much light has been brought to 
 bear on the obscure ethnical relations by the recent explorations 
 especially of Dr Paul Ehrenreich and Karl von den Steinen 
 about the Xingu, Purus, Madeira and other southern affluents of 
 the great artery. Excluding several isolated— that is, not yet 
 
 as Germans, with long beards,% while "the missionary Girbal was astonished 
 at the beauty of their women" (Markham, List of Tribes etc., p. 249). 
 ^ Markham, ib. 
 
 K. 28 
 
434 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 classified — groups such as the Bororo and Caraya, these observers 
 comprise the countless Brazilian aborigines in four main divi- 
 sions, which in conformity with Powell's terminology may here be 
 named the Cariban, Arawakan, Gesan and Tupi-Guaranian 
 famiUes. 
 
 Hitherto the Caribs were commonly supposed to have had 
 their original homes far to the north, possibly in 
 the Alleghany uplands, or in Florida, where they 
 have been doubtfully identified with the extinct Timuquanans, 
 and whence they spread through the Antilles southwards to 
 Venezuela, the Guianas, and north-east Brazil, beyond which they 
 were not known to have ranged anywhere south of the Amazons. 
 But this view is now shown to be untenable, and several Carib 
 tribes, such as the Bakairi' and Nahuquas^ of the Upper Xingu, 
 all speaking archaic forms of the Carib stock language, have 
 been met by the German explorers in the very heart of Brazil ; 
 whence the inference that the cradle of this race is to be sought 
 rather in the centre of South America, perhaps on the Goyaz and 
 Matto Grosso tablelands, from which region they moved north- 
 wards, if not to Florida, at least to the Caribbean Sea which is 
 named from them^. 
 
 A connectmg link is formed by the Apiacas of the Lower 
 Tocantins between the Amazonian section and that of the Guianas, 
 where the chief groups are the Venezuelan Makirifares, the Ma- 
 cusi, Kahnas, and Galibi of British, Dutch, and French Guiana 
 respectively. In general all the Caribs present much the same 
 physical characters, although the southerners are rather taller 
 (5ft. 4 in.) with less round heads (index 79° "6) than the Guiana 
 Caribs (5 ft. 2 in., and 8i°-5). 
 
 Perhaps even a greater extension has been given by the 
 German explorers to the Arawakan family, which, 
 
 Arawakan like the Cariban, was hitherto supposed to be mainly 
 
 Fftmilv 
 
 confined to the region north of the Amazons, but is 
 now known to range as far south as the Upper Paraguay, about 
 
 ^ Ehrenreich, Urbeivohner Brasiliens, p. 45 sq. 
 
 ^ It should be stated that a like conclusion has been reached by M. Lucien 
 Adam from the vocabularies brought by Crevaux from the Upper Yapura 
 tribes — Witotos, Corequajes, Kariginas and others — all of Carib speech. 
 
Plate VIII. 
 
 I. Carib. 
 (Guiana Type.) 
 
 2. Carip.. 
 (Guiana Type.) 
 
 3. Tehuei.che. 
 (Patagonian Type.)% 
 
 4. Tehuelche. 
 (Patagonian Type. 
 
 To face page 434] 
 
XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 435 
 
 20° S. lat. {Lay anas ^ Kwanas, etc.), east to the Amazons estuary 
 (Aruan), and north-west to the Goajira peninsula. To this great 
 family — which von den Steinen proposes to call Nu-Aruak from 
 the pronominal prefix 7iu = I, common to most of the tribes — 
 belong also the Maypures of the Orinoco ; the Atarais and 
 Vapisianas of British Guiana ; the Manaos of the Rio Negro ; the 
 Yumanas', the Paumarys and Ipurinas of the Ipuri basin, and 
 the Mokos of the Upper Mam ore. 
 
 Physically the Arawaks differ from the Caribs scarcely, if at 
 all more than their Amazonian and Guiana sections differ from 
 each other. In fact, but for their radically distinct speech it 
 would be impossible to constitute these two ethnical divisions, 
 which are admittedly based on linguistic grounds. But while the 
 Caribs had their cradle in Central Brazil and migrated northwards, 
 the Arawaks would on the contrary now appear to have originated 
 in the north (Guiana, Antilles), and spread thence southwards 
 beyond the Amazons-Parana watershed into the Paraguay basin. 
 
 Our third great Brazilian division, the Gesan family, takes its 
 name from the syllable ^^^^ which, like the Araucan 
 che, forms the final element of several tribal names FamUy.^^^" 
 in East Brazil. Of these the most characteristic 
 are the Aimores of the Serra dos Aimores coast-range, who are 
 better known as Botocudos, and it was to the kindred tribes of 
 the province of Goyaz that the arbitrary collective name of " Ges " 
 was first applied by Martius. A better general designation would 
 perhaps have been Tapuya, "Strangers," "Enemies," a term by 
 which the Tupi people called all other natives of that region who 
 were not of their race or speech, or rather who were not "Tupi," 
 that is, " AUies " or "Associates." Tapuya had been adopted some- 
 what in this sense by the early Portuguese writers, who however 
 applied it somewhat loosely not only to the Aimores, but also to 
 a large number of kindred and other tribes as far north as the 
 Amazons estuary^. 
 
 1 An alternative which met with little favour, was cran, "chief," also a 
 tribal ending of frequent occurrence, as in Macamecran, of the Tocantins. 
 
 ■^ "Tapuyas, na9ao d' IiMios, tronco de numerosas tribus derramadas por 
 varias provincias do Brazil, principalmente pelas do Maranhao e do Ceara.. 
 Havia tambem algumas tribus d' esta na9ao no maritime de Pemambuco... 
 
 28—2 
 
436 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 To the same connection belong several groups in Goyaz 
 already described by Milliet and Martins, and again lately visited 
 by Ehrenreich and von den Steinen. Such are the Kayapos or 
 Suyas, a large nation with several divisions between the Araguaya 
 and Xingu rivers ; and the Akuas, better known as Cherentes, 
 about the upper course of the Tocantins. Isolated Tapuyan 
 tribes, such as the Kames or Kaingangs, wrongly called " Coro- 
 ados," and the Choglengs of Santa Catharina and Rio Grand 
 do Sul, are scattered over the southern provinces of Brazil. 
 
 The Tapuyas would thus appear to have formerly occupied 
 the whole of East Brazil from the Amazons to the Plate River for 
 an unknown distance inland. Here they must be regarded as 
 the true aborigines, who were in remote times already encroached 
 upon, and broken into isolated fragments, by tribes of the Tupi- 
 Guarani stock spreading from the interior seawards \ 
 
 Both in their physical characters and extremely low cultural 
 state, or rather the almost total absence of anything that can be 
 called "culture," the Tapuyas are the nearest representatives and 
 probably the direct descendants of the primitive race, whose 
 osseous remains have been found in the Lagoa Santa caves, and 
 the Santa Catharina shell-mounds. On anatomic grounds the 
 Botocudos are allied both to the Lagoa Santa fossil 
 
 Botocudos. "^^" ^^^ to ^^^ Sambaqui race by J. R. Peixoto, 
 who describes the skull as marked by prominent 
 glabella and superciliary arches, keel or roof-shaped vault, vertical 
 lateral walls, simple sutures, receding brow, deeply depressed 
 nasal root, high prognathism, massive lower jaw, and long head 
 (index 73°'3o) with cranial capacity 1,480 cc. for men, and 1,212 
 for women ^. It is also noteworthy that some of the Botocudos^ 
 
 Traziao mettidas em buracos que faziao nas orelhas e no bei90 inferior, rodellas 
 de madeira (Milliet de Saint- Adolphe, vol. ii. p. 689). 
 
 ^ "D'apres Gonzales Dias les tribus bresiliennes descendraient de deux 
 races absolument distinctes : la race conquerante des Tupi, et la race vaincue, 
 pourchassee, des Tapuya" (V. de Saint-Martin, vii. p. 517). 
 
 2 Novos E studios Craniologicos sohre os Botoaidos, Rio Jatieiro, 1882, passim. 
 
 '* Possibly so called from the Portuguese hotoqtte, a barrel plug, from the 
 wooden plug or disc formerly worn by all the tribes both as a lip ornament and 
 an ear-plug, distending the lobes like great leathern bat's-wings down to the 
 shoulders. But this embellishment is called tembeitera by the Brazilians, and 
 
XI.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 437 
 
 call themselves JVac-nanuk, Nac-poruc^ "Sons of the Soil," and 
 they have no traditions of ever having migrated from any other 
 land. All their implements — spears, bow and arrows, mortars, 
 water-vessels, bags — are of wood or vegetable fibre, so that they 
 may be said not to have yet reached even the stone age. They 
 are not, however, in the promiscuous state, as has been asserted, 
 for the unions, though temporary, are jealously guarded while 
 they last, and, as amongst the Fuegians whom they resemble in 
 so many respects, the women are constantly subject to the most 
 barbarous treatment, beaten with clubs or hacked about with 
 bamboo knives. One of those in Ribeiro's party, who visited 
 London in 1883, had her arms, legs, and whole body covered 
 with scars and gashes inflicted during momentary fits of brutal 
 rage by her ephemeral partner. Their dwellings are mere branches 
 stuck in the ground, bound together with bast, and though seldom 
 over 4 ft. in height accommodating two or more famihes. The 
 Botocudos are pure nomads, roaming naked in the woods in quest 
 of the roots, berries, honey, frogs, snakes, grubs, man, and other 
 larger game which form their diet, and are eaten raw or else 
 cooked in huge bamboo canes. Formerly they had no hammocks, 
 but slept without any covering, either on the ground strewn with 
 bast, or in the ashes of the fire kindled for the evening meal. 
 About their cannibalism, which has been doubted, there is really 
 no question. They wore the teeth of those they had eaten strung 
 together as necklaces, and ate not only the foe slain in battle, 
 but members of kindred tribes, all but the heads, which were stuck 
 as trophies on stakes and used as butts for the practice of archery. 
 At the graves of the dead fires are kept up for some time to 
 scare away the bad spirits, from which custom the Botocudos might 
 be credited with some notions of the supernatural. But perhaps 
 it would be more correct to say that at this low stage of their 
 evolution they have not yet realised the distinction between the 
 natural and the supernatural. We are too apt to read such ele- 
 vated ideas into the savage mind, which is essentially anthropo- 
 morphic, attributing all mysterious manifestations to perhaps 
 invisible, but still hum^ or quasi-human agencies. All good 
 
 Botocudo may perhaps be connected with betS-apoc, the native name of the 
 ear-plug. Milliet gives quite a fantastic derivation (i. p. 162). 
 
438 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 influences are attributed by the Botocudos to the "day-fire" 
 (sun), all bad things to the "night-fire" (moon), which causes 
 the thunderstorm, and is supposed itself at times to fall on the 
 earth, crushing the hill-tops, flooding the plains and destroying 
 multitudes of people. During storms and eclipses arrows are 
 shot up to scare away the demons or devouring dragons, as 
 amongst so many Indo-Chinese peoples. But beyond this there 
 is no conception of a supreme being, or creative force, the terms 
 yanchongj tapan, said to mean "God," standing merely for spirit, 
 demon, thunder, or at most the thunder-god. 
 
 Owing to the choice made by the missionaries of the Tupi 
 
 . language as the lingoa geral, or common medium of 
 
 Guaranian intercourse amongst the multitudinous populations 
 
 ami y. ^^ Brazil and Paraguay, a somewhat exaggerated 
 
 idea has been formed of the range of the Tupi-Guarani family. 
 Many of the tribes about the stations, after being induced by the 
 padres to learn this convenient lingua franca^ were apt in course 
 of time to forget their own mother-tongue, and thus came to be 
 accounted members of this family. But allowing for such a 
 source of error, there can be no doubt that at the discovery the 
 Tupi or Eastern, and the Guarani or Western, section occupied 
 jointly an immense area, which may perhaps be estimated at 
 about one-fourth of the southern continent. Tupi tribes were 
 met all along the main stream as far as Peru, where they were 
 represented by the Omaguas (" Flatheads'"), about whom so 
 many fables were circulated. Formerly they roamed the left 
 bank of the Upper Amazons for 200 leagues between the rivers 
 Tamburagua and Putumayo, waging incessant war with the Curinas 
 on the south and the Tacunas on the north side ; and they are 
 still numerous towards the sources of the Japura and Uaupes. 
 
 These Tacunas (Ticunas, Jumanas) who, like the Araucanians 
 and many other South American peoples, believe 
 T J an"a"^^ ^"'^ in a good and evil principle, one continually un- 
 doing the work of the other, and both contending 
 
 1 They are the Canibebus of the Tupi, a term also meaning Flatheads, and 
 they are so called because "apertao aos recemnacidos as cabe9as entre duas 
 taboas afim de achatal-as, costume que actuahnente han perdido (Milliet, ii. 
 p. 174). 
 
XI.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 439 
 
 for the final possession of man, are not to be confounded with 
 the Tacanas {Araonas) a widely ramifying nation about the Beni 
 and Madre de Dios, head streams of the Madeira'. Some atten- 
 tion has been paid to their sonorous speech, which appears to be 
 a stock language with strong Pano and weak Aymara^ affinities. 
 Although its numeral system stops at 2, it is still in advance of a 
 neighbouring Chiqiiito tongue, which is said to have no numerals 
 at all, eiama, supposed to be i, really meaning "alone." 
 
 Yet it would be a mistake to infer that these BoUvian Chiqui- 
 tos, who occupy the southernmost headstreams of 
 the Madeira, are a particularly stupid people. On quit^s.^^^" 
 the contrary, the Naquinoneis, "Men," as they call 
 themselves, are in some respects remarkably clever, and, strange 
 to say, their otherwise rich and harmonious language (presumably 
 the dominant Moncoca dialect is meant) has terms to express such 
 various distinctions as the height of a tree, of a house, or a tower, 
 and other subtle shades of difference disregarded in more cultured 
 tongues^ But it is to be considered th3it,J>ace Prof Max Miiller, 
 the range of thought and of speech is not the same, and all peoples 
 have no doubt many notions for which they have no equivalents 
 in their necessarily defective languages. The Chiquitos, i.e. "Little 
 Folks," were so named because, "when the country was first 
 invaded, the Indians fled to the forests; and the Spaniards came 
 to their abandoned huts, where the doorways were so exceedingly 
 
 1 D'Orbigny, ill. p. 364 sq. 
 
 - Such "identities" as Tac. dre/d = Aym. chacha (man); etai=utax (house) 
 etc., are not convincing, especially in the absence of any scientific study of the 
 laws of Lajitverschiebimg, if any exist between the Aymara-Tacana phonetic 
 systems. And then the question of loan words has to be settled before any safe 
 conclusions can be drawn from such assumed resemblances. The point is 
 important in the present connection, because current statements regarding the 
 supposed reduction of the number of stock languages in South America are 
 largely based on the unscientific comparison of lists of words, which may have 
 nothing in common except perhaps a letter or two like the m in Macedon and 
 Monmouth. Two languages (cf. Turkish and Arabic) may have hundreds or 
 thousands of words in common, and yet belong to fundamentally different 
 linguistic families. 
 
 3 A. Balbi, Atlas Etlh^graphiqtu du Globe, xxvii. With regard to the 
 numerals this authority tells us that "il a emprunte a I'espagnol ses noms de 
 nombres" {ib). 
 
440 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. XT. 
 
 low that the Indians who had fled were supposed to be dwarfs^" 
 They are a peaceful industrious nation, who ply several trades, 
 manufacture their own copper boilers for making sugar, weave 
 ponchos and straw hats, and when they want blue trousers they 
 plant a row of indigo, and rows of white and yellow cotton when 
 striped trousers are in fashion. Hence the question arises, whether 
 these clever little people may not after all have originally pos- 
 sessed some defective numeral system, (such as that of their ruder 
 Mataco neighbours who count up to 4), which was merely 
 superseded by the Spanish numbers. 
 
 These Matacos (Mataguayos) of the Bermejo, with the savage 
 
 Tobas between that river and the Pilcomayo, were 
 Tobas^*^°^ ^" '^^ only tribes of the Gran Chaco region visited 
 
 by Ehrenreich, who notices their disproportionately 
 short arms and legs, and excessive development of the thorax". 
 To judge from the photographs taken by this observer the 
 expression especially of the Tobas is strikingly European, although 
 crossings can hardly be suspected amongst a people who have 
 hitherto maintained their independence, and kept aloof from 
 the few white intruders in their secluded domain. They would 
 thus seem to afford strong support to Ehrenreich's remarks on 
 the general resemblance of so many South American aborigines to 
 the Caucasic type (see above). 
 
 ^ Markham, lAstofthe Tribes, p. 251. 
 ^ Urbewohiier Brasilietis, p. 10 1. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 
 
 General Considerations — Constituent Elements of the Caucasic Division — 
 Past and Present Range — Cradleland : Africa north of Sudan — The 
 Quaternary "Sahara " — North Africa Home of the Mediterranean Races — 
 Early Long-heads and Round-heads — The Migrations northwards from 
 Africa — The Three Great European Ethnical Groups : Tall, blond Long- 
 heads; Short, dark Long-heads; Brown Round-heads — The Canary 
 Islande7-s — The Mediterraneans: Iberians; Ligiirians; Felasgians — 
 Type and Origins — Iberian and Hamitic Languages fundamentally one — 
 The Ligiirians — Former Range to Rhineland — and to Italy from Africa — 
 Sicilian Origins — Sicani; Siciili — Sard and Corsican Origins — Ethnical 
 Relations in Italy — Sergi's Mediterranean Domain — Range of the Medi- 
 terraneans in Africa — The Eastern Hamites — 7he Western Hamites : 
 Berbers and " Moors " — General Hamitic Type — Berber and Arab Con- 
 trasts — The Tibus — The Egyptian Hamites — Origins — The Stone Ages in 
 Egypt — The Egyptians indigenous in the Nile Valley — Neolithic and 
 Bronze Culture — Egyptian Language and Type specialised in Remote 
 Times — Physical Characters persistent — Social Condition of the Ancient 
 and Later Egyptians — Other Eastern Hamites — Hadendowas — Soinals and 
 Gallas. 
 
 CONSPECTUS. 
 
 Primeval Home, Africa north of Sudan. pistribu- 
 
 Present Range, all the extra-tropical habitable lands, Past and 
 
 „, . _ 1 A • • Present 
 
 except Chifiese empire, Japan, and the Arctic zone ; inter- Times. 
 tropical America, Arabia, India, and Indonesia ; spora- 
 dically everywhere. 
 
 Three types: — i. Homo europaeus {North Euro- 'Physica.i 
 pean or Teutonic); 2. H. alpinus {Central and East xtrs. 
 European, Iranic, Ocecfi^c); 3. H. mediterranensis 
 {Afro- European). 
 
 Hair, i. very light brow fi, flaxen or red, rather long, 
 
442 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 straight or wavy, smooth and glossy. 2. light chestnut or 
 reddish brown, wavy, rather short and dull. 3. very 
 dark brown or black, wiry, curly or ringletty. All oval 
 in section ; beard of all full, bushy, straight, or wavy, 
 often lighter than hair of head, sometimes very lo?ig. 
 Colour: 1. florid. 2. pale white, swarthy or very light 
 b?'own. 3. very variable — white, light olive, all shades of 
 brown and even blackish {Eastern Hamites and others). 
 Skull: T and 3 long (69° to 75°); 2. round {2>']° to 90° 
 and upwards) ; all orthognathous (76°). Cheek-bone of 
 'all small, never projecting laterally, sometimes rather high 
 {some Berbers and Scotch). Nose, mostly large, nar?'ow, 
 straight, arched or hooked (46°), sometimes rather broad, 
 heavy, concave and short. "^Y^^, 1. mainly blue; 2. brozvn, 
 hazel-grey and black ; 3. black or deep brown, but also blue 
 {many Hamites). 
 
 Stature, i. tall {mean ^ ft. S or g in.); 2. medium 
 {mean ^ft. 6 in.), but also very tall {Indonesians ^ ft. 9 to 
 ^fl-)- 3- under-sized {mean ^ft. 4 in.), but variable 
 {some Hamites, Hindus, and others medium or tall). 
 Lips, 7nostly rather full and well-shaped, but sometimes 
 thin, or upper lip very long {many Irish), and under lip 
 pendulous {many Jews). Arms, rather short as compared 
 with Negro. Legs, shapely, with calves usually well de- 
 veloped. Feet, I. rather large ; 2 and 3, small with high 
 instep. 
 Mental Temperament, 1. earnest, energetic, and enterprising; 
 
 ters. steadfast, solid, and stolid : outwardly reserved, thoughtful, 
 
 and deeply religious ; humane, firm, but not wantonly 
 cruel. 2 and 3, brilliant, quick-ivitted, excitable and 
 impulsive ; sociable and courteous, but fickle, untrust- 
 worthy, and even treacherous {Iberian, South Italian); 
 often atrociously cruel {many Slavs, Persians, Semites, 
 Indonesians and even South Europeans) ; aesthetic sense 
 highly, ethic slightly developed. All braiJe, imaginative, 
 musical, and richly endowed intellectually. 
 
 Speech, mostly of the inflecting order with strong 
 tendency towards analytical forms ; t^ery few stock Ian- 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 443 
 
 guages (Aryan, Ibero- Hamito-Semitic, Tibu? Masai T), 
 except in the Caucasus, where stock languages of highly 
 agglutinating types are nu?nerous, and in Indonesia, where 
 one agglutinating stock language prevails. 
 
 Religion, mainly Monotheistic, with or without priest- 
 hood and sacrifice (yjeivish, Christian, Muhammadan) ; 
 polytheistic and animistic in parts of Caucasus, India, 
 Ifidotiesia, and Africa. Gross superstitions, and even 
 fetish-worship, still prevalent in many places. 
 
 Culture, generally high — all arts, industries, science, 
 philosophy and letters in a fiourishing state now almost 
 everywhere except in Africa and Indonesia, and still pro- 
 gressive. In some regions civilization dates from the 
 remotest times (Egypt, South Arabia) ; in others from 
 2 000 to 3000 years B.C. (pre-Mykaeneafi, Mykaenean, 
 Hellenic, Hittite, and Italic cultures). Indonesians and 
 many Hamites still rude, with primitive usages, fezv arts, 
 no science or letters, and cannibalism prevalent in some 
 places {Gallala?id). 
 
 Homo europaeus: Scandinavians, North Germans, Main 
 Dutch, Fle77iings, most English, Scotch and Irish, Anglo- 
 Americans, Anglo- Australasians, English and Dutch ,of 
 S. Africa; Thrako- Hellenes, some Kurds, most West 
 Persians, Afghans, Dards and Siah-post Kafirs, 7nany 
 Hindus. 
 
 Homo alpinus : most French and Welsh, South 
 Germans, Swiss and Tyrolese ; Russians, Poles, Chekhs, 
 Yugo-Slavs ; some Albanians and Rumanians ; Arme- 
 nians, many Kurds, Tajiks (East Persians), Galchas, 
 Indonesians. 
 
 Homo m.editerranensis : most Iberiafis, Corsicans, 
 Sards, Sicilians, Italians ; Greeks; Berbers and other 
 Hamites; Arabs and other Se^nites ; some Hindus; 
 Dravidas, Todas, Ainus. 
 
444 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 It is a remarkable fact that the Caucasic division of the human 
 family, of which nearly all students of the subject 
 side^rat[ons°"" ^^^ members, with which we are in any case, so to 
 say, on the most intimate terms, and with the con- 
 stituent elements of which we might consequently be supposed to 
 be best acquainted, is in point of fact the most debatable field in 
 the whole range of anthropological studies. Why this should be 
 so is not at first sight quite apparent, though the phenomenon 
 may perhaps be partly explained by the consideration that the 
 component parts are really of a more complex character, and thus 
 present more intricate problems for solution, than those of any 
 other division. But to some extent this would also seem to be 
 one of those cases in which we fail to see the wood for the trees. 
 To put it plainly, few will venture to deny that the inherent diffi- 
 culties of the subject have in recent times been rather increased 
 than diminished by the bold and often mutually destructive 
 theories, and, in some instances one might add, the really wild 
 speculations put forward in the earnest desire to remove the end- 
 less obscurities in which the more fundamental questions are 
 undoubtedly still involved. Controversial matter which seemed 
 thrashed out has been reopened, several fresh factors have been 
 brought into play, and the warfare connected with such burning 
 topics as Aryan origins, Ibero-Pelasgic relations, European round- 
 heads and long-heads, has acquired renewed intensity amid the 
 rival theories of the Penkas, Schraders, de Lapouges, Sergis, and 
 other eminent champions of the new ideas. 
 
 A return to chaos is even threatened by the needless attacks 
 that have been directed from more than one quarter against the 
 long-established Caucasic terminology, and the right of citizenship 
 is to be withdrawn from such time-honoured names as "Hamitic," 
 "Semitic," even "Caucasic" itself, in favour of " Mediterranean V' 
 "Eurafrican^," and other upstarts, which while lacking the valuable 
 
 1 That is, of course, when taken as the substitute for Caucasic. In the 
 restricted geographical sense its use is not only legitimate but indispensable. 
 
 2 Eurafrican seems specially objectionable, being in ethnology the analogue 
 of Eurasian, and therefore meaning a imdatto or some such half-breed. In 
 Geology it has a very definite sense, as in the expression " Eurafrican Miocene 
 Continent" {Eth. p. 230). To indicate the common origin of the populations on 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 445 
 
 quality of prestige, offer no compensating advantages in respect 
 of clearness and scientific accuracy. It would be well if innova- 
 tors in these matters were to take to heart the sober language of 
 Dr Ehrenreich, who reminds us that the accepted names are, 
 what they ought to be, "purely conventional," and "historically 
 justified," and "should be held as valid until something better 
 can be found to take their place'." Meanwhile can anything 
 more illogical be imagined than, for instance, the fierce objections 
 to "Caucasic" by the very writers who meekly accept "Hamitic" 
 and "Semitic".? Doubtless, as we all know, the multitudinous 
 populations covered by the symbol "Caucasic" did not originate 
 in the Caucasus; but, on the other hand are the objectors pre- 
 pared to assert that "Shem" or "Ham" had ever any ethnic 
 origin at all, were ever even so much as mythical eponymous 
 heroes, such as "Hellen," "Italus," "Brutus" and the rest of 
 them? It was considerations such as these, weighing so strongly 
 in favour of current usage, that induced me stare per vias anti- 
 quas in the Ethnology, and consequently also in the present work. 
 Hence, here as there, the Caucasic Division retains its title, 
 together with those of its main subdivisions — Hamitic, Semitic, 
 Keltic, Slavic, Hellenic, Teutonic, Iranic, Galchic and so on. 
 
 The chief exception is "Aryan," a linguistic expression forced 
 by the philologists into the domain of Ethnology, where it has 
 no place or meaning ^ There was of course a time when a com- 
 munity, or group of communities, existed probably in the steppe 
 region between the Carpathians and the Hindu-Kush, by whom 
 the Aryan mother-tongue was evolved, and who still for a time 
 presented a certain uniformity in their physical characters, were, 
 in fact, of Aryan speech and type. But while their Aryan speech 
 
 both sides of the Mediterranean, I proposed the form "Afro-European" {Eth. 
 p. 409). Hence it was with some surprise that I found myself charged with 
 plagiarism by the originator of Eurafrican in its objectionable sense, a sense 
 in which I have never used it, and which I hold in the strongest aversion. Nor 
 is Eurafrican a proper substitute for Caucasic, because it leaves out the vast 
 Asiatic and wide-spread Indonesian sections of this division. 
 
 1 "Diese Namen sind natiirlich rein conventionell. Sie sind historisch 
 berechtigt...und mogen Gelt^ig behalten, so lange wir keine zutrefferenden an 
 ihre Stelle setzen konnen" {Anthropologische Studien etc., p. 15). 
 
 2 Eth. p. 395 sq. 
 
44^ MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 persists in endlessly modified forms, they have themselves long 
 disappeared as a distinct race, merged in the countless other races 
 on whom they, perhaps as conquerors, imposed their Aryan lan- 
 guage. Hence we can and must speak of Aryan tongues, and of 
 an Aryan linguistic family, which continues to flourish and spread 
 over the globe. But of an Aryan race there can be no further 
 question since the absorption of the original stock in a hundred 
 other races in remote pre-historic times. Where comprehensive 
 references have to be made, I therefore substitute for Aryans and 
 Aryan race the expression peoples of Aryan speech, at least 
 wherever the unqualified term Aryan might lead to misunder- 
 standings. 
 
 This way of looking at the question, which has now become 
 more thorny than ever, has the signal advantage of being indiffer- 
 ent to any preconceived theories regarding the physical characters 
 of that long vanished proto-Aryan race. How great this advantage 
 is may be judged from the mere statement that, while German 
 anthropologists are still almost to a man loyal to the traditional 
 view that the first Aryans were best represented by the tall, long- 
 headed, tawny-haired, blue-eyed Teutonic barbarians of Tacitus — 
 who, Virchow tells us, have completely disappeared from sight in 
 the present population — the Italian school, or at least its chief 
 exponent, Prof Sergi, now assures us that the picture is a myth, 
 that such Aryans never existed, that "the true primitive Aryans 
 were not long, but round-headed, not fair but dark, not tall but 
 short, and are in fact to-day best represented by the round-headed 
 Kelts, Slavs, and South Germans \ 
 
 The fact is that the Aryan prototype has vanished as com- 
 pletely as has the Aryan mother-tongue, and can be conjecturally 
 restored only by processes analogous to those by which Schleicher 
 and other philologists have endeavoured with dubious success to 
 restore the organic Aryan speech as constituted before the disper- 
 sion. At the same time one may perhaps venture to say that the 
 weight of evidence seems rather in favour of the German view 
 that the first Aryans answered better than any other race to the 
 
 1 "lo non dubito di denominare aria questa stirpe etc." [Uinbri, Italici, 
 Arii, Bologna, 1897, p. 14, and elsewhere). 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 447 
 
 general North European type, as described by Linne and Tacitus'. 
 Hence M. G. de Lapouge, leader of the new French school of 
 anthropologists, returns to Linne's terminology^, and substitutes 
 his Homo Europceus for "Aryan" as understood by Penka, that is, 
 the northern of the three divisions into which he divides the 
 present European peoples. 
 
 Referring to these divisions, which he adopts and brilliantly 
 illustrates, Dr W. Z. Ripley remarks that " instead of a single 
 European type, there is indubitable evidence of at least three 
 distinct races, each possessed of a history of its own, and each 
 contributing something to the common product, population as we 
 see it to-day." Then he adds : — " If this be estabhshed, it does 
 away at one fell swoop with most of the current mouthings about 
 Aryans and pre-Aryans ; and especially with such appellations as 
 the ' Caucasian,' or the ' Indo-Germanic ' race^." 
 
 Aryan, for the reasons stated, is to be deprecated. But 
 Caucasic when properly understood — not as the equivalent of 
 " Indo-Germanic," as here apparently suggested, but as the col- 
 lective designation of one of the four main divisions of mankind — 
 cannot be dispensed with until a more suitable general term be 
 discovered. It need not interfere in the least with Dr Ripley's 
 three races, or with any number of such sub-varieties, for it covers 
 them all, just as analogous general terms cover any number of 
 genera, species, and varieties in zoology or botany. Those who 
 object to "Caucasic" are apt to forget the vast field that has to 
 be embraced by this single collective term ; a field comprising 
 not peoples of Aryan speech alone, not the tribes of the Caucasus 
 alone, but all these and many more — Semites, Hamites, Eastern 
 Polynesians, all of whom belong anthropologically to the same 
 division of mankind. 
 
 1 "-Homo Europmis: Albus, sanguineus, torosus, pilis flavescentibus, pro- 
 lixis; oculis caeruleis etc." {Systema Naturce). 
 
 2 "Zoologiste avant tout, je m'en tiens a la terminologie linneenne," giving 
 as his reason that the confusion is thus avoided which arises from the use of 
 national nanaes to designate types often foraiing a minority in the nation itself 
 {Les Selections Sociales, Pari|, 1896). 
 
 ^ The Racial Geography of Europe, in Popular Science Monthly, June, 1897^ 
 p. 192. 
 
448 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 And here arises the more important question, by what right 
 are so many and such diverse peoples grouped 
 EkmenS^"^ together and ticketed ''Caucasians"? Are they 
 to be really taken as objectively one, or are they 
 merely artificial groupings, arbitrarily arranged abstractions ? Cer- 
 tainly this Caucasic Division consists apparently of the most 
 heterogeneous elements, more so than perhaps any other except 
 the Ethiopic. Hence it seems to require a strong mental effort 
 to sweep into a single category, however elastic, so many different 
 peoples — Europeans, North Africans, West Asiatics, Iranians and 
 others all the way to the Indo-Gangetic plains and uplands, whose 
 complexion presents every shade of colour, except yellow, from 
 white to the deepest brown or even black. 
 
 But they are grouped together in a single division, because 
 their essential properties are one, and because, as pointed out by 
 Ehrenreich, who himself emphasises these objections, their sub- 
 stantial uniformity speaks to the eye that sees below the surface. 
 At the first glance, except perhaps in a few extreme cases for 
 which it would be futile to create independent categories, we 
 recognise a common racial stamp in the facial expression, the 
 structure of the hair, partly also the bodily proportions, in all of 
 which points they agree more with each other than with the other 
 main divisions. Even in the case of certain black or very dark 
 races, such as the Bejas, Somali, and a few other Eastern Hamites, 
 we are reminded instinctively more of Europeans or Berbers than 
 of negroes, thanks to their more regular features and brighter 
 expression. "Those who will accept nothing unless it can be 
 measured, weighed, and numbered, may think perhaps that accord- 
 ing to modern notions this appeal to the outward expression is 
 unscientific. Nevertheless nobody can deny the evidence of the 
 obvious physical differences between Caucasians, African Negroes, 
 Mongols, Australians and so on. After all, physical anthropology 
 itself dates only from the moment when we became conscious of 
 these differences, even before we were able to give them exact 
 expression by measurements. It was precisely the general picture 
 that spoke powerfully and directly to the eye\" The argument 
 
 1 Anthrop. Studien, p. 15, "Deise Gemeinsamkeit der Charakteren beweist 
 uns die Blutverwandtschaft" {ib.). 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 449 
 
 need not here be pursued farther, as it will receive abundant 
 illustration in the details to follow. 
 
 Since the discovery of the New and the Austral Worlds, the 
 Caucasic division as represented by the chief European nations 
 has received an enormous expansion. Here of course it is neces- 
 sary to distinguish between political and ethnical conquests, as, 
 for instance, those of India, held by military tenure, and of 
 Australia by actual settlement. Politically the whole world has 
 become Caucasic with the exception of half-a-dozen states such 
 as China, Turkey, Japan, Siam, Marocco, still enjoying a real or fic- 
 titious autonomy. But, from the ethnical standpoint, those regions 
 in which the Caucasic peoples can establish themselves and per- 
 petuate their race as colonists are alone to be regarded as fresh 
 accessions to the original and later (historical) Caucasic domains. 
 Such fresh accessions are however of vast extent, including the 
 greater part of Siberia and much of Caucasia, where the Slav 
 branch of the Aryan-speaking peoples are now founding per- 
 manent new homes ; the whole of Australia, Tasmania, and New 
 Zealand, which have become the inheritance of the Caucasic 
 inhabitants of the British Isles ; large tracts in South Africa, 
 already occupied by settlers chiefly from Holland and Great 
 Britain ; lastly the New World, where most of the northern con- 
 tinent is settled by full-blood Europeans, mainly British, French 
 and German, while in the rest (Central and South America) the 
 Caucasic immigrants (chiefly from the Iberian peninsula) have 
 formed new ethnical groups by fusion with the aborigines. These 
 new accessions, all acquired within the last 400 pastand 
 years, may be roughly estimated at about 28 million Present 
 square miles, which with some 12 millions held 
 throughout the historic period (Africa north of Sudan, most of 
 Europe, South-West and parts of Central and South Asia, Indo- 
 nesia) gives an extent of 40 million square miles to the present 
 Caucasic domain, either actually occupied or in process of settle- 
 ment. As the whole of the dry land scarcely exceeds 52 millions, 
 this leaves not more than about 12 miUions for the now reduced 
 domains of all the othei^divisions, and even of this a great part 
 {e.g. Tibetan tableland, Gobi, tundras, Greenland) is barely or 
 not at all inhabitable. This, it may be incidentally remarked, is 
 
 K. 29 
 
450 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 perhaps the best reply to those who have in late years given 
 expression to gloomy forebodings regarding the ultimate fate of 
 the Caucasic races. The "yellow scare" may be dismissed with 
 the reflection that the Caucasian populations, who have inherited 
 or acquired nearly four-fifths of the earth's surface besides the 
 absolute dominion of the high seas, is not destined to be sub- 
 merged by any conceivable combination of all the other elements, 
 still less by the Mongol alone \ 
 
 Where have we to seek the primeval home of this most 
 Caucasic vigorous and dominant branch of the human family? 
 
 Cradle— North Qn the assumption that all the primary divisions 
 have been evolved independently in separate zoo- 
 logical zones, each from its own pleistocene precursor^, the 
 question may be thus formulated, in what zone was our genera- 
 lised pleistocene ancestor specialised? Where was the Caucasic 
 type constituted in all its essential features? No final answer 
 can yet be given, but this much may be said, that Africa north 
 of Sudan corresponds best with all the known conditions. Here 
 were found in quaternary times all the physical elements which 
 zoologists demand for great specialisations — ample space, a favour- 
 able climate and abundance of food, besides continuous land con- 
 nection at two or three points across the Mediterranean, by which 
 the pliocene and early pleistocene faunas moved freely between 
 the two continents. 
 
 Former speculations on the subject failed to convince, largely 
 The "Qua bccause the writers took, so to say, the ground 
 ternary from Under their own feet, by submerging most of 
 
 the land under a vast "Quaternary Sahara Sea," 
 which had no existence, and which, moreover, reduced the whole 
 of North Africa to a Mauritanian island, a mere "appendix of 
 Europe," as it is in one place expressly called. Then this incon- 
 venient inland basin was got rid of, not by an outflow — being on 
 the same level as the Atlantic, of which it was, in fact figured as 
 
 ^ Sir W. Crooke's anticipation of a possible future failure of the wheat 
 supply as affecting the destinies of the Caucasic peoples {Presidential Address 
 at Meeting Br. Assoc. Bristol, 1898) is an economic question which cannot here 
 be discussed. 
 
 ^ p. 2 sq.. 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 45 I 
 
 an inlet — but by "evaporation," which process is however somehow 
 confined to this inlet, and does not affect either the Mediterranean 
 or the Atlantic itself. Nor is it explained how the oceanic waters 
 were prevented from rushing in according "as the Sahara sea 
 evaporated to become a desert." The attempt to evolve a 
 " Eurafrican race " in such an impossible area necessarily broke 
 down, other endless perplexities being involved in the initial 
 geological misconception. 
 
 Not only was the Sahara dry land in pleistocene times, but 
 it stood then at a considerably higher altitude than at present, 
 although its mean elevation is still estimated by Chavanne at 
 1500 feet above sea-level. "Quaternary deposits cover wide 
 areas, and were at one time supposed to be of marine origin. 
 It was even held that the great sand dunes must have been 
 formed under the sea ; but at this date it is scarcely necessary 
 to discuss such a view. The advocates of a Quaternary Sahara 
 Sea argued chiefly from the discovery of marine shells at several 
 points in the middle of the Sahara. Bat Tournouer has shown 
 that to call in the aid of a great ocean in order to explain the 
 presence of one or two shells is a needless expenditure of energy \" 
 
 At an altitude of probably over 2000 -feet the Sahara must 
 have enjoyed an almost ideal climate during late pliocene and 
 pleistocene times, when Europe was exposed to more than one 
 glacial invasion, and to a large extent covered at long intervals 
 by a succession of soUd ice-caps. We now know that these stony 
 and sandy wastes were traversed in all directions by great rivers, 
 such as the Massarawa trending south to the Niger, or the 
 Igharghar^ flowing north to the Mediterranean, and that these 
 now dry beds may still be traced for hundreds of miles by chains 
 
 1 Ph. Lake, The Geology of the Sahara, in Science Progress, '^vXy, 1895. 
 
 ^ This name, meaning in Berber "running water," has been handed down 
 from a time when the Igharghar was still a mighty stream with a northerly- 
 course of some 800 miles, draining an area of many thousand square miles, in 
 which there is not at present a single perennial brooklet. It would appear 
 that even crocodiles still survive from those remote times in the so-called Lake 
 Miharo of the Tassili district, where von Bary detected very distinct traces of 
 their presence in 1876. Mr A^. Pease also refers to a Frenchman "who had 
 satisfied himself of the existence of crocodiles cut off in ages long ago from 
 watercourses that have disappeared" {Contemp. Review, July, 1896). 
 
 29 — 2 
 
452 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 of pools or lakelets, by long eroded valleys and by other indica- 
 tions of the action of running waters. 
 
 Nor could there be any lack of vegetable or animal life in 
 a favoured region, which was thus abundantly supplied with 
 natural irrigation arteries, while the tropical heats were tempered 
 by great elevation and at times by the refreshing breezes from 
 sub-arctic Europe. 
 
 From these well-watered and fertile lands, some 'of which 
 continued even in Roman times to be the granary of the empire, 
 came that succession of southern animals — hippopotamus, hyaena, 
 rhinoceros, elephant, cave-lion — which made Europe seem like a 
 "zoological appendix of Africa." In association with this fauna 
 came primitive man himself, whose remains from the Neanderthal, 
 Spy, La Naulette, La Denise, Briix, Podbaba, Mentone, perhaps 
 Galley Hill (Kent), show that the substratum of the European 
 populations was of North African origin. So far, indeed, there 
 is scarcely room for much discussion, especially since in recent 
 years such abundant evidence has been brought to light of the 
 presence of early man all over North Africa from the shores of the 
 Mediterranean through Egypt to Somaliland. Thus one of M. J. 
 de Morgan's momentous conclusions is that the existence of civi- 
 lized men in Egypt may be reckoned by thousands, and of the 
 aborigines by myriads of years. These aborigines are identified 
 with the men of the Old Stone Age, of whom he believes four 
 stations have been discovered — Dahshur, iVbydos, Tukh, and 
 Thebes^ 
 
 " Of Tunisia the same story is told by M. Arsene Dumont, who 
 emphatically declares that " the immense period of time during 
 which man made use of stone implements is nowhere so strikingly 
 shown as in Tunisia." Here some of the flints were found in 
 abundance under a thick bed of quaternary limestone deposited 
 by the waters of a stream that has disappeared. Hence " the 
 origin of man in Mauritania must be set back to a remote age 
 which deranges all chronology and confounds the very fables of 
 the mythologies^" 
 
 ^ Recherches sur les Origines de VEgypte: L'Age de la Pierre et des Melaux, 
 1897. 
 
 ^ Bui. Soc. d'Anthrop. 1896, p. 394. This indefatigable explorer remarks, 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 453 
 
 Of course it is open to anyone to say with M. de Mortillet 
 that the men of the later Palaeolithic period re- 
 
 '■ Precursors of 
 
 presented in France by the Laugerie race, whose the European 
 remains occur in the Madelenian deposits at °"&'"es. 
 Laugerie-Basse and at Chancellade, both in Dordogne, were de- 
 veloped m situ from the older race, and were not a foreign 
 invading type'. But even so Mauritania would remain the officina 
 gentium for the first arrivals in Europe, where they were thus 
 afterwards specialised into men of the normal European (Cau- 
 casic) type. But no such specialisation on the spot was needed, 
 for it was continually going on in North Africa, whence the stream 
 of migration set steadily and uninterruptedly into Europe through- 
 out both Stone Ages. 
 
 This doctrine of the specialisation of the fundamental European 
 types in Africa, before their migrations northwards, lies at the base 
 of Prof. Sergi's views regarding the African origin of those types. 
 Arguing against the Asiatic origin iii the Hamites, as held by 
 Prichard, Virchow, Sayce and others, he points out that this race, 
 scarcely if at all represented in Asia, has an immense range in 
 Africa, where its several sub-varieties must have been evolved 
 before their dispersion over a great part of that continent and 
 of Europe. Then, regarding Hamites and Semites as essentially 
 one, he concludes that Africa is the cradle whence this primitive 
 stock "spread northwards to Europe, where it still persists, espe- 
 cially in the Mediterranean and its three principal peninsulas, and 
 eastwards to West Asia^." 
 
 Here is proclaimed in unqualified language the essential unity 
 of the three main divisions of the Caucasic family, and the North- 
 African origin of the European branch. The evidence, anatomical, 
 archaeological, and linguistic, in support of this conclusion is rapidly 
 accumulating, and daily making converts even amongst some of 
 those anthropologists who are strongly opposed to Sergi's generali- 
 
 in reference to the continuity of human culture in Tunisia throughout the Old 
 and New Stone Ages, that "ces populations fortement melangees d'elements 
 neanderthaloides de la Kromirie fabriquent encore des vases de tous points 
 analogues a la poterie neolithi^e" {ib.). 
 
 ^ Formation de la Nation Fran^aise, 1897. 
 
 - Africa, Atitropologia delta Stirpe Camitica, Turin, 1897, p. 404 sq. 
 
454 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CPIAP. 
 
 sation in all its fulness and to many of his details. To constitute 
 a distinct race, says M. Zaborowski, a wide geographical area is 
 needed, such as is presented by both shores of the Mediterranean 
 " with the whole of North Africa including the Sahara, which was 
 till lately still thickly peopled "\ Then to the question by whom 
 has this North African and Mediterranean region been inhabited 
 since quaternary times, he answers "by the ancestors of our 
 Libyans, Egyptians, Pelasgians, Iberians " ; and after rejecting the 
 Asiatic theory, he elsewhere arrives at "the grand generalisation 
 that the whole of North Africa, connected by land with Europe 
 in the Quaternary epoch, formed part of the geographical area 
 of the ancient white race, of which the Egyptians, so far from 
 being the parent stem, would appear to be merely a branch^." 
 Coming to details, Dr Bertholon^, from the human remains 
 found by M. Carton at BuUa-Regia, determines for 
 
 Early Euro- ,„ . . . ,. , , . , 
 
 peanandMau- 1 unisia and surroundmg lands two mam long- 
 [dSticai.*^^^^ headed types, one Hke the Neanderthal (occurring 
 both in Khumeria, and in the stations abounding in 
 palaeoliths), the other like the later Cro-Magnon dolmen-builders, 
 whom De Quatrefages had already identified with the tall, long- 
 headed, fair, and even blue-eyed Berbers still met in various parts 
 of Mauritania, and formerly represented in the Canary Islands*. 
 Bertholon agrees with Dr Collignon that the Mauritanian megahth- 
 builders are of the same race as those of Europe, and besides the 
 two long-headed races describes (i) a short round-headed type in 
 Gerba Island and East Tunisia^ representing the Libyans proper, 
 
 1 " Le nord de TAfrique entiere, y compris le Sahara naguere encore fort 
 peuple," i.e. of course relatively speaking {Dti Dniester h la Caspienne, in Bui. 
 Soc. (VAnthrop, 1896, p. 81 sq. 
 
 '^ Ibid. p. 654 sq. 
 
 ^ RSsume de V Anthropologic de la Tunisie, 1896, p. 4 sq. 
 
 * Ethnology^ p. 376. This identity is confirmed by the characters of three 
 skulls from the dolmens of Madracen near Batna, Algeria, now in the Con- 
 stantine Museum, found by MM. Letourneau and Papillaut to present striking 
 affinities with the long-headed Cro-Magnon race (Ceph. Index 70, 74, 78) ; 
 leptoprosope with prominent glabella, notable alveolar prognathism, and sub- 
 occipital bone projecting chignon-fashion at the back {Bui. Soc. d'Anthrop. 
 1896, p. 347), 
 
 ^ He shows {Exploration Anihropologique de file de Gerba, in V Anthropo- 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 455 
 
 and (2) a blond type of the Sahel, Khumeria, and other parts, 
 whom he identifies with the Mazices of Herodotus, with the " Afri," 
 whose name has been extended to the whole continent, and the 
 blond GetuHans of the Aures Mts. 
 
 Bertholon still holds to the old view that these may all have 
 been immigrants from Europe during the Stone Ages. But at 
 that time the stream of migration for all the fauna set the other 
 way, and it is noteworthy that the horse which belongs to the 
 Asiatic zoological world does not appear in Africa till quite recent 
 (historic) times, although it had already ranged into Europe in the 
 Old Stone (Solutrian) epoch. Such an animal could scarcely 
 fail to have accompanied the men of the Stone Ages into North 
 Africa had their movements been in that direction, and would 
 thus have been known to those Libyans of the " New Race " who 
 soon after the 6th dynasty formed permanent settlements in Upper 
 Egypt, and also to the Egyptians themselves at the very dawn of 
 their history. Yet M. Pietrement has conclusively shown that the 
 horse is nowhere figured on any of the Egyptian monuments 
 before the Hyksos irruption at the close of the Middle Empire\ 
 Thus, the migrations were from Africa, and in this favourable en- 
 vironment, rather than in the periodically ice-clad Europe, took 
 place those slow differentiations by which the pleistocene man of 
 the Neanderthal type gradually became the Afro-European whom 
 we now call Caucasian. 
 
 logie, 1897. p. 424 sq.) that the North African brown brachycephalics, forming 
 the substratum in Mauritania, and very pure in Gerba, resemble the European 
 populations the more they have avoided contact with foreign races. He 
 quotes H. Martin: "Le type brun qui domine dans la Grande Kabylie du 
 Jurjura ressemble singulierement en majorite au type fran9ais brun. Si Ton 
 habillait ces hommes de vetements europeens, vous ne les distingueriez pas de 
 paysans ou de soldats fran9ais." He compares them especially to the Bretons, 
 and agrees with Martin that "il y a parmi les Berberes bruns des brachycepha- 
 les ; je croirais volontiers que les brachycephales bruns sont des Ligures. 
 Libyens et Ligures paraissent avoir ete originairement de la meme race." He 
 thinks the very names are the same: "At/SiJes est exactement le meme mot que 
 Ai7i7es ; rien n'etait plus frequent dans les dialectes primitifs que la mutation du 
 
 en 
 
 g- 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ Les Chevaux dans les Temps Pr^historiques, etc. in Bttl. Soc. (VAnthrop. 
 1896, p. 657 sq. 
 
456 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 But it may be objected that, as established by de Lapouge 
 and Ripley, there are three distinct ethnical zones 
 
 The Three , ' / \ r 
 
 Great Euro- in Europe :— i-(i) The tall, fair, long-headed northern 
 Groups. "*^^ type, commonly identified by the Germans with the 
 race represented by the osseous remains from the 
 " Reihengraber," i.e. the "Germanic," which the French call 
 Kymric or Aryan, for which de Lapouge reserves Linne's Homo 
 EuropcBus, and to which Ripley applies the term "Teutonic," 
 because the whole combination of characters "accords exactly 
 with the descriptions handed down to us by the ancients. Such 
 were the Goths, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Vandals, Lombards, to- 
 gether with the Danes, Norsemen, Saxons... History is thus 
 corroborated by natural science." (2) The southern (Mediter- 
 ranean) zone of short, dark long-heads, i.e. the primitive element 
 in Iberia, Italy, South France, Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, and Greece, 
 called Iberians by the English, and identified by many with the 
 Ligurians, Pelasgians, and even Hittites, but grouped together by 
 Ripley as Mediterraneans \ (3) The Central (Alpine) zone of 
 short, medium -sized round-heads with light or chestnut hair, and 
 gray or hazel eye, de Lapouge's and Ripley's Homo alpinus^ the 
 Kelts or Kelto-Slavs of the French, the Ligurians or Arvernians 
 of Beddoe and other English writers. 
 
 The question is, Can all these have come from North Africa ? 
 We have seen that this region has yielded the remains of one 
 round-headed and two long-headed prehistoric types. Dr Henri 
 Malbot now points out that, as far back as we can go, we meet the 
 two quite distinct long-headed Berber types, and that this racial 
 duality is proved especially by the megalithic tombs (dolmens) of 
 Roknia between Jemmapes and Guelma, which are some 4000 or 
 5000 years old. The remains here found by General Faidherbe 
 belong to two different races, both dolichocephalic, but one tall, 
 with prominent zygomatic arches and very strong nasal spine (it 
 reads almost like the description of a brawny Caledonian), the 
 other short, with well-balanced skull and small nasal spinel When 
 it is added that the earliest (Egyptian) records refer to brown and 
 blond populations living in North Africa some 5000 years ago, 
 
 ^ Racial Geography of Europe, passim. 
 
 ^ Les Chaouias, etc. in U Anthropologic, 1897, p. i sq. 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 457 
 
 it would almost seem as if the raw materials, so to say, were here 
 to hand both of the fair northern and dark southern European 
 long-heads. Then we have Bertholon's round-heads from East 
 Tunisia (see above), who may similarly be taken as the prototypes 
 of de Lapouge's much contested Homo alpmus. 
 
 These different races were represented even amongst the 
 extinct Guanches of the Canary Islands, as shown 
 
 . The 
 
 by a study of the 52 heads procured in 1894 by Guanches— 
 Dr H. Meyer from caves in the archipelago'. Ifffnhier'* 
 Three distinct types are determined : (i) Guanche, 
 akin to the Cro-Magnon, tall (5 ft. Sin. to 6 ft. 2 in.), robust, 
 dolicho (78°), low, broad face; large eyes, rather short nose; fair, 
 reddish or light chestnut hair ; skin and eyes light ; ranged through- 
 out the islands, but centred chiefly in Tenerife; (2) ^^ Semitic,^' 
 short (5 ft. 4 or 5 in.), slim, narrow mesocephalic head (81°), 
 narrow, long face, black hair, light brown skin, dark eyes ; range, 
 Grand Canary, Palma, and Hierro ; (3) Armeiioid^ akin to von 
 Luschan's pre-Semitic of Asia Minor ; shorter than i and 2 ; very 
 short, broad, and high skull (hyperbrachy, 84°), hair, skin and eyes 
 very probably of the West Asiatic brunette type ; range, mainly in 
 Gomera, but met everywhere. Many of the skulls had been tre- 
 panned, and these are brought into direct association with the 
 full-blood Berber, of the Aures Mts. in Algeria, who still practise 
 trepanning for wounds, headaches, and other reasons. The Arme- 
 noid type is not to be distinguished from Lapouge's short brown 
 Homo alpinus, which dates from the Stone Ages, and is found in 
 densest masses in the Central Alpine regions, eastern plains of 
 Europe, and, as we shall see, in Anatolia and Irania. 
 
 Here again we see how unnecessary it is to go to Asia for the 
 early European round-heads, who are generally introduced from the 
 
 ^ Ueber eine Schddelsanwihmg von den Kanarischen hiseln, with Dr F. von 
 Luschan's appendix; also Ueber die Urbewohner der Kanarischen Inseln, 
 in Bastian- Festschrift, 1896, p. 63. The inferences here drawn are in sub- 
 stantial agreement with those of Mr Henry Wallack, in his paper on The 
 Guanches, in Journ. Anthrop. Inst. June, 1887, p. 158 sq.; and also with Mr 
 J. C. Shrubsall, who, howler, distinguishes four pre-Spanish types from a 
 study of numerous skulls and other remains from Tenerife in Proc. Cambridge 
 Phil. Soc. IX. 154-78. 
 
458 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 east in the Bronze x\ge, although it is clear that large numbers 
 had already established themselves in Central and West Europe 
 during the New Stone Age. This point, although of extreme im- 
 portance, has been strangely overlooked by Sergi and others, who 
 have built up their theories without taking this factor into account. 
 How numerous were the inhabitants of France at that time may be 
 inferred from the long list of no less than 4000 Neolithic stations 
 given for that region by M. Ph. Salmon. Of the 688 skulls 
 from those stations measured by him, 577 per cent, are classed 
 as dolicho, 21*2 as brachycephalic, and 21*1 as intermediate. 
 This distinguished palethnologist regards the intermediates as the 
 
 result of crossings between the two others, and of 
 head groups— these he thinks the first arrivals were the round- 
 2nd^'fr^nf As^ia! ^cads, who ranged over a vast area between Brittany, 
 
 the Channel, the Pyrenees, and the Mediterranean, 
 60 per cent, of the graves hitherto studied containing skulls of this 
 type\ Belgium also, where a mixture of long- and round-heads is 
 found amongst the men of Furfooz, must be included in this Neo- 
 lithic brachy domain. But Sergi minimises this brachy element, 
 which he identifies with the Aryan from Asia as represented by his 
 round-headed Slavs, Teutons, and Kelts, and takes account only of 
 Salmon's 21-2 per centage of brachycephalics, entirely overlooking 
 the 2 1 -I of intermediates, and thereby greatly reducing the real 
 proportion of Neolithic round-heads in West Europe. They are 
 in fact merely "peaceful infiltrations in France," forerunners of 
 the great invasions^. Such minimisings would not be necessary, 
 had he looked to Africa instead of to Asia for the first round- 
 headed as well as for the first long-headed populations of Europe. 
 No doubt these were later (during the Metal Ages) followed by 
 the " great invasions " from Asia, in which were represented both 
 tall, fair long-heads (Aryans from the steppe), and dark or brown 
 round-heads of average size (probably from the Iranian uplands). 
 But all of these had themselves first been speciahsed in North 
 Africa, the true centre of evolution and of dispersion for all the 
 main branches of the Caucasic family. 
 
 1 Dinombrement et Types des Crdnes Neolithiqiies de la Gaiile, in Rev. Mens, 
 de VAcole d" Anthrop. 1896. 
 
 2 "Infiltrazioni pacifiche." {Arii e Italici^i^. 124). 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 459 
 
 With that part of Sergi's view which traces the first inhabitants 
 of the northern shores of the Mediterranean (Iberians, TheMediter- 
 Ligurians, Messapians, SicuU and other Itah, Pelas- raneans: 
 gians), to North Africa, I am in full accord. I agree Ligurian's ; 
 also that all or most of these were primarily of a P^^^^e^^^s- 
 dark (brown), short, dolicho type, which still persists both in South 
 Europe and North Africa, and in fact is the race which Ripley 
 properly calls " Mediterranean," although in the west they almost 
 certainly ranged into Brittany and the British Isles. 
 
 For the Basques and Iberians we have now the independent 
 testimony of Dr R. Collignon \ perhaps the first living authority on 
 this race. " The physical traits characteristic of the Basques attach 
 them unquestionably ('indiscutablement ') to the great Hamitic 
 branch of the white races, that is to say, to the ancient Egyptians 
 and to the various groups commonly comprised under the col- 
 lective name of Berbers. Their brachycephaly, slight as it is, 
 cannot outweigh the aggregate of the other characters which they 
 present.... It is therefore in this direction and not amongst Finns 
 or Esthonians that is to be sought the parent stem of this para- 
 doxical race. It is North African or European, assuredly not 
 Asiatic." 
 
 To this and the archaeological evidences of identity derived 
 from their common megalithic monuments may now be added a 
 linguistic proof, which seems all but conclusive. On the African 
 side we have the Hamitic (Berber) language still in its full vigour ; 
 and apparently but little changed for thousands of years. But in 
 Europe the corresponding primitive tongues have everywhere been 
 swept away by the Aryan (Hellenic, Italic, Keltic) except in Italy 
 and Iberia. Of Pelasgic, if a member of this family, nothing 
 survives except the statement of Herodotus, a dangerous guide 
 in this matter, that it was a barbaric tongue like the people them- 
 selves ^ Of Messapian also there remain but a few fragments, 
 just enough to show that it was not a member of the Italic branch 
 of the Aryan family, if we even allow with Mommsen that it was 
 Aryan at all. 
 
 \ 
 
 1 La Race Basque^ UAnthropologie, 1894, pp. 270-87. 
 
460 
 
 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 Tongues of 
 one Stock. 
 
 But in Iberia there fortunately survives the Basque of the 
 western Pyrenees, which beyond question represents a form of 
 speech which was current in the peninsula in pre-Aryan times, 
 and on the assumption of a common origin of the populations 
 on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar might be expected to show 
 traces of kinship with the Hamitic Berber. In a 
 efrbe^"^ ^"^ posthumous work on this subject^ the eminent 
 philologist G. von der Gabelenz goes much further 
 than mere traces, and is able to establish not only 
 phonetic and verbal resemblances, but structural correspondences, 
 so that his editor Graf von der Schulenberg is satisfied that there 
 is no longer any doubt as to the relationship of the two languages^, 
 Great divergence, due to a separation of many thousand years, was 
 of course inevitable, and is seen in the shifting of prefixes and 
 postfixes while the form remains, and in the absence from Basque 
 of nominal gender which is so characteristic of the Hamitic. Yet 
 even here the Bas. verbal k masc, n fem. answer to Ham. k, in, 
 where n — m, as in Bas. izen — Ham. isem (name). Subjoined are a 
 few structural and other equations^ : — 
 
 Basque 
 ak (pi. ending) 
 Chikhiro 
 
 ak 
 ikerri 
 
 jarri 
 
 ers 
 
 ezarri 
 
 sers 
 
 sortu 
 
 iseru 
 
 urten, irten 
 
 eru 
 
 estali 
 
 sentel 
 
 tik, dik 
 
 deg 
 
 n, en 
 
 n, en 
 
 z 
 
 s 
 
 jargi 
 
 aruku 
 
 ekarri) ^_j 
 errukii 
 hamar, amar 
 
 eglu J 
 
 lequ 
 
 merau 
 
 Berber 
 
 English 
 all 
 
 wether 
 to sit 
 to set 
 to beget 
 to be born 
 to cover 
 (Abl. case) 
 (Gen. case) 
 (Instrumental case) 
 seat, saddle 
 to bear 
 
 pity, to be sad 
 ten 
 
 ^ Die Verwandschaft des Baskischen niit den Berbersprachen Nord-Afrikas 
 nachgewiesen, Brunswick, 1894. 
 
 2 " Die Sprachen waren mit einander verwandt, das stand ausser Zweifel." 
 (Pref. IV.) 
 
 ^ Of the doublets in the English column the ist meaning refers to the 
 Basque, the 2nd to the Berber. 
 
XII.] 
 
 THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 
 
 461. 
 
 Basque 
 
 Berber 
 
 English 
 
 il-gora (2'/= new) 
 
 aggur 
 
 moon 
 
 egun 
 
 agenna 
 
 day, sky 
 
 akarka 
 
 agahar 
 
 river 
 
 osto 
 
 a^asta 
 
 leaf, twig 
 
 mirotza 
 
 imerze7sen 
 
 hawk, vulture 
 
 (ond-)agora 
 
 agurez 
 
 heel 
 
 otar 
 
 atarrah 
 
 basket, net 
 
 eraso 
 
 ers 
 
 to fall 
 
 egosi 
 
 igas 
 
 to cook 
 
 zigor, zihor 
 
 azgar, asyar 
 
 rod, stick 
 
 malso, merzil 
 
 melelli 
 
 soft, to soften 
 
 vedats 
 
 tafsit, fetafet 
 
 spring (season) 
 
 azkon 
 
 aqzun 
 
 dog 
 
 urdin 
 
 idalen 
 
 blue 
 
 arkitu 
 
 egru 
 
 to find 
 
 saski 
 
 aseksad 
 
 basket, sieve 
 
 mende 
 
 ti-mindi) 
 ti-midi \ 
 
 century, hundred 
 
 aketz 
 
 aqennaz 
 
 boar, pig 
 
 agereder 
 
 agerda 
 
 weasel, rat 
 
 andagatu 
 
 andigdig 
 
 to waste, ruin 
 
 ikartu 
 
 hakkir 
 
 to see 
 
 edeki 
 
 dekir 
 
 to take, steal 
 
 In general auslaut is better preserved in Berber than in Basque. 
 Thus : — 
 
 Basque Berber English 
 
 nek, neki I 
 
 ageris dew, hoarfrost 
 
 agus south wind, south 
 
 auray yellow 
 
 tshulleg white, to be pale 
 
 ni 
 azaro 
 
 ego, egoi 
 
 ori, hori 
 
 zuri (for zurig, zulig) 
 
 All these equations, which form a vocabulary of no less than 
 780 words, are much closer than they seem, because the differences 
 are largely explained by constant or normal phonetic laws of 
 change, such as those established by Rask and Grimm for the 
 Aryan family, and by other considerations which are too technical 
 to be here considered'. Let one example suffice. The Bas. 
 
 ^ Amongst these is the remarkable vocalic shifting in the tri-literal roots, 
 which is fully developed iASemitic, less so in Hamitic, and incipient traces of 
 which are evident in Basque. Such variants as Ham. abrid, azrib, azerg, azrug 
 (way), are compared with Bas. eguzki, iduzki, iruzki, iluzki (sun) &c. 
 
462 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 mende = 2i century, is identical with the Ber. //w/^/= hundred, 
 where ti is merely a fern, prefix and midi is for mindi by normal 
 loss of n. In this as in many other instances Basque preserves 
 the archaic form, while in other respects Berber is more faithful 
 to the original Hamito-Iberian mother-tongue. Altogether the 
 undoubted resemblances are far too close and numerous to be 
 explained away as coincidences or later borrowings \ No doubt 
 many Berbers took part in the Moslem invasion of Iberia, but 
 Arabic, the dominant speech, alone affected the current languages 
 and the geographical nomenclature, as we see in Gibraltar = Jebel- 
 Tarik^ i.e. " Tarik's-Hill " although Tarik himself was a Nefusi 
 Berber from Tripolitana; so also Guadalquivir — Wad-el- Kebir, the 
 " Great River." 
 
 Besides, the invaders never penetrated to the western Pyrenees, 
 to which the Basque language had already at that time been 
 confined. But that it was not originally a local idiom, but gene- 
 rally diffused over the whole of Iberia and South Gaul, a point as 
 often denied as asserted by the protagonists of the Basque question, 
 is now convincingly proved by Father F. Fita, perhaps the first 
 living authority on this subject. In a paper on the Iberian and 
 Roman inscriptions of Fraga^ he makes it evident that in pre- 
 Roman times, that is, in the prehistoric age, a language of Basque 
 type was current amongst the aborigines on both sides of the 
 Pyrenees. When Hannibal crossed into Gallia Narbonensis on 
 his march to Italy he came upon a flourishing city Illiberis, a 
 name with which his Iberian allies were familiar, because they had 
 left behind them in their own territory of Baetica (Andalusia) 
 another place of the same name, meaning in their language 
 •" Newtown," as it still does in modern Basque^ Look at the 
 
 ^ See also M. Geze, De quelqttes rapports entre les langues berb^re et basque 
 in Mem. Soc. Ajxheol. du Midi de la France^ vol. Xili., where a great many 
 words are compared, with the conclusion that in an exceedingly remote epoch 
 a close connection existed for a long period of time between the ancestors of 
 the Basques and Berbers. This memoir was unknown to von der Gabelenz. 
 
 ^ In Bol. Real Acad, de la Historia, October 1894. 
 
 '^ Other identities are: — Tolosa, twice in Spain and on the Garonne ; Cala- 
 gurris on Ebro and Garonne; Elemberris, Attirris, Iluro and Andurensis in 
 Spain; Elimberris, Adour, Iluzo (Oloron) and Aturenses in south of France. 
 Cf. also Andere (Matres Tolosanse) and andere ='womz.n (Bas.). **The evidence 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 463 
 
 map and see what a wide area is covered by these Iberian settle- 
 ments, one in the south-west, not far from the shores of the 
 Atlantic, the other looking out on the North Mediterranean 
 waters. But it may be now shown that their range extended 
 both in the west and east far beyond these limits. Caesar's 
 Aquitani were almost admittedly Iberians, as were beyond doubt 
 their successors, the Vascones, whose name survives in the present 
 Basques as well as in Gascony, from which most of them have 
 disappeared \ This western branch of the Iberian family thus 
 ranged north to the Garonne, beyond which were seated the 
 Fictones, now also commonly regarded as Iberians, and most 
 probably ancestors of the Fkts who occupied Britain before the 
 arrival of the Kelts'^. 
 
 Farther east, beyond " Newtown," the Iberians, as shown by 
 Sergi, must now be grouped with the Ligurians, 
 whose ethnical position has hitherto been strangely Ligurians 
 misunderstood. Sergi — and this is one of his great 
 services to anthropological studies — makes it quite clear that the 
 true Ligurians were not round-headed Kelts ^ but, like the Iberians, 
 
 seems to me conclusive that a people speaking the same language as that 
 spoken in Baetica inhabited Southern Gaul in early times" (W. Webster in 
 Academy, Sept. 26, 1891). This authority also recognises a distinct though 
 more remote kinship between the Iberians south of and the Pictones north of 
 the Garonne. 
 
 ^ J. F. Blade {Les Vascons avant leur etablissement en Novempopulanie, 
 1891), argues that there were no Basques in Gascony before the later migration 
 from the Ebro in the 6th century. But the above-quoted place-names show 
 that the country (Aquitania) had been settled in remote times by Iberian pre- 
 cursors of these Basques. 
 
 2 "I believe Picts and Iberians to have belonged to one and the same 
 family, which I have ventured to call Ibero-Pictish" (Prof. J. Rhys, Academy, 
 Sept. 26, 1891). 
 
 ^ No one puts this point stronger than M. G. Herve, who even goes beyond 
 Broca, completely identifying the Kelts with the populations of Liguria, and 
 proposing to remove the confusion caused by the term "Kelt" by striking out 
 of scientific nomenclature "un terme aussi radicalement fausse et de le remplacer 
 par le nom de Ligures" {^Rev. Mens, de P Ecole cP Anthrop. I v. 1896). It should 
 be stated that Herve traces the Cro-Magnon race from the Quaternary through 
 the whole of the Neolitl!lt period, when it was identical with that of the 
 dolicho Baumes-Chaudes, and when the Neolithic brachy race of Grenelle 
 arrived. In the Bronze period this brachy element abounds, and to it he applies 
 
464 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 a section of the long-headed Mediterranean (Afro-European) 
 stock. From prehistoric stations in the valley of the Po he 
 collected 59 skulls, all of this type, and all Ligurian ; history and 
 tradition being of accord that before the arrival of the Kelts this 
 region belonged to the Ligurian domain. "If it be true that 
 prehistoric Italy was occupied by the Mediterranean race and by 
 two branches — Ligurian and Pelasgian — of that race, the ancient 
 inhabitants of the Po valley, now exhumed in those 59 skulls, 
 were Ligurian \" 
 
 These Ligurians may now be traced from their homes on the 
 , . . . Mediterranean into Central Europe. From a study 
 
 Ligunans in _ ^ ■' 
 
 Rhineiand and of the Neolithic fiuds made in recent years in the 
 ^* ^' district between Neustadt and Worms Dr C. MehHs^ 
 
 infers that here the first settlers were Ligurians, who had penetrated 
 up the Rhone and Saone into Rhineiand. In the Kircherian 
 Museum in Rome he was surprised to find a marked analogy 
 between objects from the Riviera and from the Rhine ; skulls 
 (both dolicho), vases, stone implements, mill-stones, etc., all alike. 
 Such Ligurian objects, found everywhere in North Italy, occur in 
 the Rhine lands chiefly along the left bank of the main stream 
 between Basel and Mainz, and farther north in the Rheingau at 
 Wiesbaden, and in the Lahn valley. These Ligurian migrations so 
 far north are confirmed not only by geographical, anthropological, 
 and archaeological data, but also by linguistic proofs, as shown 
 by Prof. W. Deeckel 
 
 The Ligurians may of course have reached the Riviera round 
 the coast from Illiberis and Iberia ; but the same race is found as 
 the aboriginal element also at the " heel of the boot," and in fact 
 throughout the whole of Italy and all the adjacent islands. This 
 
 the name of "race des Ligures, ou, ce qui revient au meme, celle des Celies, 
 au sens que les anthropologistes [fran^ais] ont accoutume d'attacher depuis 
 Broca k ce dernier terme" [ib.]. The one reply to this and to many volumes 
 written from the same standpoint is that the true Ligurians were not brachy- 
 but dolichocephalic. 
 
 1 Arii e Italici, p. 60. 
 
 ^ Corresbl. d. d. Ges.f. Anthrop. Feb. 1898, p. 12. 
 
 "^ This last statement I have to take on trust, not having seen the work 
 referred to, vol. x. of the Jahrbuch fiir Geschichte, Sprache tt. Literatur 
 Elsass-Lothringens. 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 465 
 
 point is now firmly established, and not only Sergi, but several 
 other leading Italian authorities hold that the early inhabitants 
 of the peninsula and islands were Ligurians and Pelasgians, whom 
 they look upon as of the same stock, all of whom came from North 
 Africa, and that, despite subsequent invasions and crossings, this 
 Mediterranean stock still persists, especially in the southern pro- 
 vinces and in the islands — Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Hence it 
 seems more reasonable to bring this aboriginal element straight 
 from Africa by the stepping stones of Pantellaria, Malta, and Gozzo 
 (formerly more extensive than at present, and still strewn with 
 megalithic remains comparable to those of both continents), than 
 by the roundabout route of Iberia and Southern Gaul\ 
 
 For Sicily, with which may practically be included the south 
 of Italy, we have the conclusions of Signor G. Patroni 
 based on years of intelligent and patient labours^ Origins— 
 To Africa this archaeologist traces the palaeolithic '*^*"' ' 
 men of the west coast of Sicily and of the caves near Syracuse 
 explored by Von Adrian ^ "We are forced to conclude that man 
 arrived in Sicily from Africa at a time when the isthmus connect- 
 ing the island with that Continent still stood above sea-level. 
 He made his appearance about the same time as the elephant, 
 whose remains are associated with human bones especially in the 
 west. He followed the sea coasts, the shells of which offered him 
 sufficient food*." He was followed by the Neolithic man, whose 
 presence has been revealed by the researches of Signor Orsi at 
 the station of Stentinello on the coast north of Syracuse. 
 
 To Orsi is also due the discovery of what he calls the 
 "^neolithic Epoch V' represented by the bronzes of the Girgenti 
 district. Orsi assigns this culture to the Siculi^ and divides it into 
 three periods, while regarding the Neolithic men of Stentinello 
 as pre-Siculi. But Patroni holds that the ^neolithic peoples 
 have a right to the historic name of Sicaniy and that the true 
 
 ^ Yet Ligurians are actually planted on the North Atlantic coast of Spain 
 by S. Sempere y Miguel {Revisia de Ciencias Historicas, I. V. 1887). 
 
 2 La Civilisation Primitive dans la Sicilie Orientate, in L' Anthropologie , 
 1897, p. 130 sq.; and 295 sq.\ 
 
 '^ Prahistorische Studien aus Sicilien, quoted by Patroni. 
 
 * p. 130. 5 See p. 17. 
 
 K. ■ . 30 
 
466 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Siculi were those that arrived from Italy in Orsi's second period. 
 It seems no longer possible to determine the true relations of 
 these two peoples, who stand out as distinct throughout early 
 historic times, and can in no way be regarded as of one race, 
 although both (StKavos, StKcXos) are already mentioned in the 
 Odyssey. But all the evidence tends to show that the Sicani 
 represent the oldest element which came direct from Africa in the 
 Stone Age, while the Siculi were a branch of the Ligurians driven 
 in the Metal Age from Italy to the island, which was already occu- 
 pied by the Sicani \ as related by Dionysius Halicarnassus^. In 
 fact this migration of the Siculi may be regarded as almost an his- 
 torical event, which according to Thucydides took place "about 
 300 years before the Hellenes came to Sicily^." The Siculi bore 
 this national name on the mainland, so that the modern expression 
 "Kingdom of the Two Sicilies" (the late Kingdom of Naples) has 
 its justification in the earliest traditions of the people. Later, 
 both races were merged in one, and the present Sicilian nation 
 gradually constituted by further accessions of Phoenician (Cartha- 
 ginian), Greek, Roman, Vandal, Arab, Norman, French and 
 Spanish elements. 
 
 Very remarkable is the contrast presented by the conditions 
 prevailing in this ethnical microcosm and those of Sardinia, 
 inhabited since the Stone Ages by one of the most homogeneous 
 
 groups in the world. From the statistics embodied 
 Corsicans" i^ ^r R. Livi's Afitropologia Militare^, the Sards 
 
 would almost seem to be cast all in one mould, 
 the great bulk of the natives having the shortest stature, the 
 
 ^ It may be mentioned that while Penka makes the Siculi Illyrians from 
 Upper Italy {Zur Paldoethnologie Mittel- zi. Sildeuropas, in Wiener Anthrop. 
 Ges. 1897, p. 18), E. A. Freeman holds that they were not only Aryans, but 
 closely akin to the Romans, speaking **an undeveloped Latin," or "something 
 which did not differ more widely from Latin than one dialect of Greek differed 
 from another" {The History of Sicily etc., I. p. 488). But ethnology was not 
 Freeman's strong point, and for this assumption there is no kind of proof. 
 Besides names, such as Motyca, Acis, Hybla which are not Latin, there survive 
 only two Sicul words which are also not Latin: cottabos, a game, and zanclon, a 
 reaping-hook. 
 
 2 I. 22. 3 yj^ 2. 
 
 * Parte I. Dati Antropologici ed Etnologici, Rome, 1896. 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 467 
 
 brownest eyes and hair, .the longest heads, the swarthiest com- 
 plexion of all the Italian populations. "They consequently form 
 quite a distinct variety amongst the Italian races, which is natural 
 enough when we remember the seclusion in which this island has 
 remained for so many ages'." They seem to have been preserved 
 as if in some natural museum to show us what the Ligurian 
 branch of the Mediterranean stock may have been in Neolithic 
 times. Yet they were probably preceded by the microcephalous 
 dwarfish race described by Sergi as one of the early Mediterranean 
 stocks. Their presence in Sardinia has now been determined by 
 A. Niceforo and E. A. Onnis, who find that of about 130 skulls 
 from old graves thirty have a capacity of only 11 50 c.c. or under, 
 while several living persons range in height from 4 ft. 2 in. to 
 4 ft. II in. Niceforo agrees with Sergi in bringing this dwarfish 
 race also from North Africa^. 
 
 Despite greater cranial variability^, similar phenomena are 
 presented by the Corsicans who show "the same exaggerated 
 length of face and narrowness of the forehead. The Cephalic 
 Index drops from 87 and above in the Alps to about 75 all along 
 the line. Coincidently the colour of hair and eyes becomes very 
 dark, almost black. The figure is less amply proportioned, the 
 people become light and rather agile. It is certain that the 
 stature at the same time falls to an exceedingly low level : fully 
 9 inches below the average for Teutonic Europe," although " the 
 people of Northern Africa, pure Mediterranean Europeans, are of 
 medium size''." 
 
 In the Italian peninsula Sergi holds not only that the 
 aborigines were exclusively of Ligurian, i.e. Mediterranean stock, 
 but that this stock still persists in the whole of the region south 
 of the Tiber, although here and there mixed with Aryan elements. 
 North of that river these elements increase gradually up to the 
 Italian Alps, and at present are dominant in the valley of the 
 Po°. In this way he would explain the rising percentage of 
 
 1 p. 182. 2 Atti Soc. Rom. d' Antrop. 1896, pp. 179 and 201. 
 
 3 Range of cephalic index of four Corsican heads studied by Ripley 72*3 to 
 8o*8 {Racial Geogi'aphy of S^rope). * lb. 
 
 5 Arii e Italici, p. 188. Hence for these Italian Ligurians he claims the 
 name of "Italici," which he refuses to extend to the Aryan intruders in the 
 
 30—2 
 
468 man: past and present. [chap. 
 
 round-heads in that direction, the Ligurians being for him, as 
 stated, long-headed, the Aryans round-headed. 
 
 Similarly Dr Beddoe, commenting on Livi's statistics, showing 
 predominance of tall stature, round heads, and fair complexion in 
 North Italy, infers "that a type, the one we usually call the 
 Mediterranean, does really predominate in the south, and exists 
 in a state of comparative purity in Sardinia and Calabria ; while 
 in the north the broad-headed Alpine type is powerful, but is 
 almost everywhere more or less modified by, or interspersed with 
 other types — Germanic, Slavic, or of doubtful origin — to which the 
 variations of stature and complexion may probably be, at least in 
 part, attributed \" 
 
 Similar relations prevail in the Balkan peninsula, where the 
 , , Mediterranean stock is represented by the Pelasgic 
 
 Range of the . 
 
 Mediter- substratum, the Aryan by the Slav mtruders. Thus 
 
 raneans. ^^^ Hamitic race still persists all along the northern 
 
 shores of the Mediterranean from Spain (Iberians) through Italy 
 and the islands (Ligurians) to Greece (Pelasgians), and passes 
 with these Pelasgians into Asia Minor. Moreover the same stock 
 ranges according to Sergi westwards to the British Isles, north- 
 wards through central Europe to Scandinavia, and eastwards 
 into Russia, everywhere forming the true aboriginal or pre-Aryan 
 
 peninsula. "A questi primi abitatori spetta legittimamente il nome di Italici, 
 non a popolazioni successive [Aryan Umbrians], che avrebbero sloggiato i 
 primi abitanti" (p. 60). The result is a little confusing, "Italic" being now 
 the accepted name of the Italian branch of the Aryan linguistic family, and also 
 commonly applied to the Aryans of this Italic speech, although the word 
 Italia itself was undoubtedly indigenous (Ligurian) and not introduced by the 
 Aryans. It would perhaps be better to regard "Italia" as a "geographical 
 expression" applicable to all its inhabitants, whatever their origin or speech. 
 
 ^ Science Progress, ^vXy 1894. It will be noticed that the facts, accepted 
 by all, are differently interpreted by Beddoe and Sergi, the latter taking the 
 long-headed element in North Italy as the aboriginal (Ligurian), modified by 
 the later intnision of round-headed Aryan Slavs, Teutons, and especially Kelts, 
 while Beddoe seems to regard the broad-headed Alpine as the original, after- 
 wards modified by intrusive long-headed types ' ' Germanic, Slavic, or of doubt- 
 ful origin." Either view would no doubt account for the present relations; 
 but Sergi's study of the prehistoric remains (see above) seems to compel 
 acceptance of his explanation. From the statistics an average height of not 
 more than 5 ft. 4 in. results for the whole of Italy. 
 
Plate IX. 
 
 I. Bohemian. 
 
 (West Slav Type.) 
 
 2. Egyptian Dancing E^erwish. 
 (Hamito-Semitic Type.) 
 
 3. Egyptian Bedouin. 
 (Arab Type.) 
 
 To face page 468] 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 469 
 
 element, and is consequently represented by the dolicho skulls 
 from the British long barrows, from the German Reihengraber, 
 and from the Kurgans of the Russian steppe. While this bril- 
 liant generalisation, based on solid anatomical studies, may be 
 accepted without reserve for the Mediterranean and British lands', 
 it seems beset with grave, perhaps insurmountable, difficulties 
 when applied to central and east Europe, as will be seen when 
 we come to deal with Germanic and Slav origins. 
 
 Meanwhile, returning to the African home of these Hamites, we 
 find them still forming not merely the substratum, 
 but the great bulk of the inhabitants throughout all Hamites in 
 recorded time from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, 
 and from the Mediterranean to Sudan, although since Muham- 
 madan times largely intermingled with the kindred Semitic stock 
 (mainly Arabs) in the north and west, and in the east (Abyssinia) 
 with the same stock since prehistoric times. All are comprised 
 by Sergi'' in two main divisions : — 
 
 1. Eastern Hamites, answering to the Ethiopic Branch 
 of some writers, of somewhat variable type, comprising the Old 
 and Modern Egyptians now mixed with Semitic (Arab) elements ; 
 the Nubians (excluded by me for reasons stated at p. 74) ; the 
 Bejas, the A bjyssinians, collective name of all the peoples between 
 Khor Barka and Shoa (with, in some places, a considerable in- 
 fusion of Himyaritic or early Semitic blood from South Arabia) ; 
 the Gallas (Gallas proper, Somals, and Afars or Danakils) ; the 
 Masai and Wahuma. 
 
 2. Northern Hamites, answering to the Berber (IVesfern) 
 Branch of some writers, comprising the Mediterranean Bei'bers 
 of Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli ; the Atlantic Berbers {Shlu/is and 
 others) of Marocco ; the West Saharan Berbers commonly called 
 Tuaregs; the Tibjis of the East Sahara; the Fulahs, dispersed 
 
 ^ Referring to one characteristic form of skull from Novilara, which he 
 calls "Pelasgic," Sergi says that its African origin "non e a mettersi in dubbio, 
 dopo che ho scoperto le stesse forme nell' Africa orientale, e la cui diflfusione e 
 grande e antichissima, aven(%ne trovato di tale tipo nella antica Troade a Troia, 
 e nei tumuli neolitici della Gran Brettagna" {A7-ii e Italici, p. 121). 
 
 - In his already quoted monumental work, Africa: Anti-opologia della 
 Stirpe Camitica, Turin, 1897. 
 
470 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 amongst the Sudanese Negroes ; the Guanches of the Canary 
 Islands. 
 
 Of the Eastern Hamites he remarks generally that they 
 
 do not form a homogeneous division, but rather a 
 nlmlte^^^*^'^" number of different peoples either crowded together 
 
 in separate areas, or dispersed in the territories of 
 other peoples. They agree more in their inner than in their 
 outer characters, without constituting a single ethnical type. 
 The cranial, forms are variable, though converging, and evidently 
 to be regarded as very old varieties of an original stock. The 
 features are also variable, converging and characteristic, with 
 straight or arched (aquiloid) nose quite different from the Negro ; 
 lips rather thick, but never everted as in the Negro ; hair usually 
 frizzled, not wavy ; beard thin ; skin very variable, brown, red- 
 brown, black-brown, ruddy black, chocolate and coffee-brown, 
 reddish or yellowish, these variations being due to crossings and 
 the outward physical conditions. 
 
 In this assumption Sergi is supported by the analogous case of 
 the western Berbers between the Senegal and Marocco, to whom 
 
 Collignon and Deniker^ restrict the term "Moor," 
 *'Moo^"*^'^" as an ethnical name. The chief groups, which 
 
 range from the Atlantic coast east to the camping 
 grounds of the true Tuaregs^ are the Trarsas and Braknas of the 
 Senegal river, and farther north the Dwaish (Idoesh), Uled-Bella, 
 Uled-Embark, and Uled-en-Nasiir. From a study of four of 
 these Moors, who visited Paris in 1895, it appears that they are 
 not an Arabo-Berber cross, as commonly supposed, but true 
 Hamites, with a distinct Negro strain, shown especially in their 
 frizzly hair, bronze colour, short broad nose, and thickish lips, 
 their general appearance showing an astonishing likeness to the 
 Bejas, Afars, Somals, Abyssinians, and other Eastern Hamites. 
 This is not due to direct descent, and it is more reasonable to 
 suppose "that at the two extremities of the continent the same 
 
 ^ Les Matires dti Senegal, in V Anthropologie 1896, p. 258 sq. 
 
 '^ That is, the Sanhaja-an Litliam, those who wear the Uthani or veil, which 
 is needed to protect them from the sand, but has now acquired religious signi- 
 ficance, and is never worn by the "Moors."' Cf. the totem, originally a badge, 
 now often a god. 
 
Plate X. 
 
 I. TuRCO, Algeria. 
 (Hamitic Type.) 
 
 2. TuRCO, Algeria. 
 (Hamitic Type.L 
 
 3. Woman of Biskra. 
 (Mediterranean Type.) 
 
 To face page 4 70] 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 47 1 
 
 causes have produced the same effects, and that from the infusion 
 of a certain proportion of black blood in the Egyptian [eastern] 
 and Berber branches of the Hamites, there have sprung closely 
 analogous mixed groups ^" From the true Negro they are also 
 distinguished by their grave and dignified bearing, and still more 
 by their far greater intelligence. One of the visitors to Paris 
 taught himself enough French to expound such abstruse terms 
 as doctrine^ which was the chemin droit "right road," his hand 
 pointing from earth to heaven, and substance, which was explained 
 by a walking-stick "heavy, black, hard," the rest substance, thus 
 plunging into the subtleties of the Schoolmen with their distinc- 
 tions between substantia and accidentalia. 
 
 Both divisions of the Hamite, continiies Sergi, agree sub- 
 stantially in their bony structure, and thus form a 
 single anthropological group with variable skull — Hamitic^Type. 
 pentagonoid, ovoid, ellipsoid, sphenoid, etc., as ex- 
 pressed in his new terminology — but constant, that is, each variety 
 recurring in all the branches; face also variable (tetragonal, 
 ellipsoid, etc.), but similarly identical in all the branches ; profile 
 non-prognathous ; eyes dark, straight, not prominent; nose straight 
 or arched ; hair smooth, curly, long, black or chestnut ; beard 
 full, also scant; lips thin or slightly tumid, never protruding; 
 skin of various brown shades; stature medium or tall. 
 
 Such is the great anthropological division, which was diffused 
 continuously over a vast area in North Africa, Europe, and Asia ; 
 differing however with the different physical environments in its 
 secondary characters, which appear not as individual variations, 
 but as inherited varieties, persisting through all time, in fact 
 behaving like the varieties of a well established zoological 
 species. 
 
 Nothing is more astonishing than this strange persistence not 
 merely of the Berber type, but of the Berber temperament and 
 nationality since the Stone Ages, despite the successive invasions 
 of foreign peoples during the historic period. First came the 
 Sidonian Phcenicians, founders of Carthage and Utica probably 
 about 1500 B.C. Th^ Greek occupation of Cyrenaica (628 B.C.) 
 
472 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 was followed by the advent of the Romans on the ruins of the 
 Carthaginian empire. The Romans have certainly 
 Elements in left distinct traces of their presence, and some of 
 the Aures highlanders still proudly call themselves 
 Rumaniya. These Shawias (" Pastors ") form a numerous group, 
 all claiming Roman descent, and even still keeping certain Roman 
 and Christian feasts, such as Bu Ini, i.e. Christmas; Innar or 
 January (New Year's Day); Spring (Easter), &c. A few Latin 
 words also survive such as urtho — hortus ; kerrush = quercus 
 (evergreen oak); ;;w7/? = milliarium (milestone). 
 
 After the temporary Vandal occupation came the great Arab 
 invasions of the 7 th and later centuries, and even these had been 
 preceded by the kindred Ruadites, who had in pre-Moslem times 
 already reached Mauritania from Arabia. With the Jews, some of 
 whom had also reached Tripolitana before the New Era, a steady 
 infiltration of Negroes from Sudan, and the recent French, Spanish, 
 Italian, and Maltese settlers, we have all the elements that go to 
 make up the cosmopolitan population of Mauritania. 
 
 But amid them all the Berbers and the Arabs stand out as the 
 immensely predominant factors, still distinct despite 
 
 Arab and '^ ^ 
 
 Berber Con- their common Hamito-Semitic origin and later inter- 
 minglings. The Arab remains above all a nomad 
 herdsman, dwelling in tents, without house or hamlet, a good 
 stock-breeder, but a bad husbandman, and that only on com- 
 pulsion. " The ploughshare and shame enter hand in hand into 
 the family," says the national proverb. To find space for his 
 flocks and herds he continues the destructive work of Carthaginian 
 and Roman, who ages ago cleared vast wooded tracts for their 
 fleets and commercial navies, and thus helped to deteriorate the 
 North African climate. 
 
 The Berber on the contrary loves the sheltering woodlands; 
 he is essentially a highlander who carefully tills the forest glades, 
 settles in permanent homes, and often develops flourishing in- 
 dustries. Arab society is feudal and theocratic, ruled by a 
 despotic Sheikh, while the Berber with his Jemaa, or " Witenage- 
 mot," and his Kanun or unwritten code, feels himself a freeman ; 
 and it may well have been this democratic spirit, inherited by his 
 European descendants, that enabled the western nations to take 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 473 
 
 tie lead in the onward movement of humanity. The Arab again 
 is a fanatic, ever to be feared, because he blindly obeys the will 
 of Allah proclaimed by his prophets, marabouts, and mahdisV 
 But the Berber, a born sceptic, looks askance at theological 
 dogmas ; an unconscious philosopher, he is far less of a fatalist 
 than his Semitic neighbour, who associates with Allah countless 
 demons and jins in the government of the world. 
 
 In their physical characters the two races also present some 
 striking contrasts, the Arab having the regular oval brain-cap 
 and face of the true Semite, whereas the Berber head is more 
 angular, less finely moulded, with more prominent cheek bones, 
 shorter and less aquiline nose, which combined with a slight 
 degree of sub-nasal prognathism, imparts to the features coarser 
 and less harmonious outlines. He is at the same time distinctly 
 taller and more muscular, with less uniformity in the colour of 
 the eye and the hair, as might be expected from the numerous 
 elements entering into the constitution of the present Berber 
 populations. 
 
 In the social conflict between the Arab and Berber races, the 
 almost unique spectacle is presented of two nearly equal elements 
 (same origin, same religion, same government, same or analogous 
 tribal groupings, at about the same cultural development) refusing 
 to amalgamate to any great extent, although living in the closest 
 proximity for over a thousand years. In this struggle the Arab 
 seems so far to have had the advantage. Instances of Berberised 
 Arabs occur, but are extremely rare, whereas the Berbers have 
 not only everywhere accepted the Koran, but whole tribes have 
 become assimilated in speech, costume, and usages to the Semitic 
 intruders. It might therefore seem as if the Arab must ultimately 
 prevail. But we are assured by the French observers that in 
 Algeria and Tunisia appearances are fallacious, however the case 
 may stand in Marocco and the Sahara. "The Arab," writes 
 Dr Malbot, to whom I am indebted for some of these details, 
 "an alien in Mauritania, transported to a soil which does not 
 always suit him, so far from thriving tends to disappear, whereas 
 \ 
 1 The Kababish and Baggara tribes, chief mainstays of the late Sudanese 
 revolt, claim to be of unsullied Arab descent with long pedigrees going back to 
 early Muhammadan times. 
 
474 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP 
 
 the Berber, especially under the shield of France, becomes mors 
 and more aggressive, and yearly increases in numbers. At present 
 he forms at least three- fifths of the population in Algeria, and in 
 Marocco the proportion is greater. He is the race of the future 
 as of the past\" 
 
 This however would seem to apply only to the races, not to 
 their languages, for we are elsewhere told that Arabic is encroach- 
 ing steadily on the somewhat ruder Berber dialects I Considering 
 the enormous space over which they are diffused, and the thou- 
 sands of years that some of the groups have ceased to be in 
 contact, these dialects show remarkably slight divergence from 
 the long extinct proto-Hamitic speech from which all have sprung. 
 Whatever it be called — Kabyle, Zenatia, Shawia, Tamashek, 
 Shluh — the Berber language is still essentially one, and the 
 likeness between the forms current in Marocco, Algeria, the 
 Saharaf and the remote Siwah Oasis on the confines of Egypt, is 
 much closer, for instance, than between Norse and English in 
 the sub- Aryan Teutonic group ^ 
 
 But when we cross the conventional frontier between the 
 contiguous Tuareg and Tibu domains in the central 
 
 The Tibus. . 
 
 Sahara the divergence is so great that philolo- 
 gists are still doubtful whether the two languages are even re- 
 motely or at all connected. My own impression is that Tibu 
 stands to Berber as Berber to Semitic on the one hand and to 
 Basque on the other — all disjecta mefubra of a primeval mother- 
 tongue, extinct for many thousands of years, and no more or even 
 less capable of reconstruction than the organic Aryan mother- 
 tongue on which so much unprofitable labour has been lavished. 
 The Tibus themselves, apparently direct descendants of the 
 ancient Garamantes, have their primeval home in the Tibesti 
 range, i.e. the " Rocky Mountains," whence they take their 
 
 ^ Les Chaouias etc., in VAnthropologie, 1897, p. 14. 
 
 - P- 17- 
 
 3 The words collected by Sir H. H. Johnston at Dwirat in Tunis show a 
 great resemblance with the language of the Saharan Tuaregs, and the sheikh 
 of that place "admitted that his people could understand and make themselves 
 understood by those fierce nomads, who range between the southern frontier of 
 Algeria and Tunis and the Sudan" {Geogr. your., June, 1898, p. =,90). 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 475 
 
 name\ There are two distinct sections, the northern Tedas, 
 a name recalling the Tedamansii, a branch of the Garamantes 
 located by Ptolemy somewhere between Tripolitana and Phazania 
 (Fezzan), and the Southern Dazas^ through whom the Tibus 
 merge gradually in the negroid populations of central Sudan. 
 This intermingling with the blacks dates from remote times, 
 whence Ptolemy's remark that the Garamantes seemed rather more 
 ^'Ethiopians" than Libyans'. But there can be no doubt that 
 the full-blood Tibus, as represented by the northern section, are 
 true Hamites, and although the type of the men is somewhat 
 coarser than that of their Tuareg neighbours, that of the women 
 is almost the finest in Africa. " Their women are charming while 
 still in the bloom of youth, unrivalled amongst their sisters of 
 North Africa for their physical beauty, pliant and graceful figures ^" 
 It is interesting to notice amongst these somewhat secluded 
 Saharan nomads the slow growth of culture, and the curious 
 survival of usages which have their explanation in primitive social 
 conditions. "The Tibu is always distrustful; hence, meeting 
 a fellow-countryman in the desert, he is careful not to draw near 
 without due precaution. At sight of each other both generally 
 stop suddenly ; then crouching and throwing the litham over the 
 lower part of the face in Tuareg fashion, they grasp the insepar- 
 able spear in their right and the shangermangor, or bill-hook, in 
 their left. iVfter these preliminaries they begin to interchange 
 compliments, inquiring after each other's health and family con- 
 nections, receiving every answer with expressions of thanksgiving 
 to Allah. These formalities usually last some minutest" Ob- 
 viously all this means nothing more than a doffing of the hat or 
 a shake-hands amongst more advanced peoples; but it points 
 to times when every stranger was a hostis, who later became the 
 hospes (host, guest). 
 
 1 7z'-<^/^="Rock People"; cf. A'^w^w-A«=*'Kanem People," southern- 
 most branch of the family on north side of Lake Chad. 
 
 2 "Oi'Twi' U KoX avrQv v^v fJt.aX\oP Aldioirojv (i. 8). I take ^Sr;, which has 
 caused some trouble to commentators, here to mean that, as you advance south- 
 wards from the Mediterranean seaboard, you find yourself on entering Gara- 
 .mantian territory already rather amongst Ethiopians than Libyans. 
 
 ^ Recks, Eng. ed. vol. xi. p. 429. 
 ^ 73. p. 430. 
 
476 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 It will be noticed that the Tibu domain, with the now 
 absolutely impassable Libyan desert", almost corn- 
 Egyptian pletely separates the western from the eastern 
 section of the Hamites proper. Continuity, how- 
 ever, is afforded, both on the north along the shores of the 
 Mediterranean to the Nile Delta (Lower Egypt), and on the south 
 through Darfur and Kordofan to the White Nile, and thence 
 down the main stream to Upper Egypt, and through Abyssinia, 
 Galla and Somali lands to the Indian Ocean. Between the Nile 
 and the east coast the domain of the Eastern Hamites stretches 
 from the equator northwards to Egypt and the Mediterranean. 
 
 It appears therefore that Egypt, occupied for many thousands 
 of years by an admittedly Hamitic people, might have been reached 
 either by the Western Hamites by the Mediterranean route, or by 
 the Eastern Hamites down the Nile. But it may be suggested 
 that the Hamites were specialised in the Nile valley itself, and 
 spread thence over North Africa, in which case Egypt need not, 
 so to say, have been reached at all, but should be regarded as the 
 cradle of the race. The point is insoluble, because, when appeal 
 is made to the evidence of the Stone Ages, we find nothing to 
 choose between such widely separated regions as Somaliland, 
 Upper Egypt, and Mauritania, all of which have yielded super- 
 abundant proofs of the presence of man for incalculable ages, 
 estimated by some palethnologists at several hundred thousand 
 years. When the Nile flowed in a bed 400 or 500 feet higher 
 than its present level it was inhabited by men who can scarcely 
 be called primitive, for they were able to manufacture those won- 
 Iderful stone implements discovered by Burton, de Morgan, Petrie, 
 "and others, to reproduce which would baffle the skill of hundreds 
 of rude tribes still living in Africa, Australia, and South America. 
 If it be asked, were these men Hamites ? we can but answer, yes, 
 Hamites im Werden, Hamites in process of specialisation, a 
 process, it must be inferred, going on simultaneously in Somali- 
 land, in Upper Egypt, and Mauritania, in fact, in the whole of 
 
 ^ From the enormous sheets of tuffs near the Khargheh Oasis Dr Zettel, 
 geologist of G. Rohlf's expedition in 1876, thinks that even this sandy waste 
 may have supported a rich vegetation in Quaternary times. 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 4/7 
 
 North Africa since pleistocene man wandered from Indo-Malaysia 
 into that region. 
 
 It might seem therefore that the question of Egyptian origins 
 was settled by the mere statement of the case, and 
 
 ... Origins. 
 
 that there could be no hesitation in saying that the 
 Egyptian Hamites were evolved on Egyptian soil, consequently 
 are the true autochthones in the Nile valley. Yet there is no 
 ethnological question more hotly discussed than this of Egyptian 
 origins and culture, for the two seem inseparable. There are 
 broadly speaking two schools : the African, whose fundamental 
 views are above briefly set forth, and the Asiatic, which brings 
 the Egyptians with all their works from the neighbouring con- 
 tinent. But, seeing that the Egyptians are now admitted to be 
 Hamites, that there are no Hamites to speak of (let it be frankly 
 said, none at all) in Asia^ and that they have for untold ages 
 occupied many millions of square miles in Africa, the more 
 moderate members of the Asiatic school now allow that, not the 
 people themselves, but their culture only came from western Asia 
 (Mesopotamia). If so, this culture would of course have its roots 
 in the delta, which is first reached by the Isthmus of Suez from 
 Asia, and spread thence, say, from Memphis up the Nile to 
 Thebes and Upper Egypt, and that is the assumption. But at 
 
 1 The Kushite ghost should have been laid after Sir R. Burton wrote that 
 to postulate a Kushite immigration to account for the Caucasian type and the 
 Aryan 'miscegenation' in the races and languages of Egypt, was "one of 
 the wildest theories ever propounded by mortal man." The Egyptologist of 
 the Asiatic school, who holds, despite Herodotus, that art had no infancy in 
 Egypt, and has a personal aversion to a prehistoric Stone Age (which he denies 
 a priori), "begins by inventing a people settled somewhere near India. 
 Having passed through the preliminaiy stages and reached the 'apogee of 
 its civilization,' this people emigrates bodily westward, leaving no trace of 
 itself in the old home, no signs of its exodus, no notice in history. It reaches 
 Egypt, and falls to making pyramids and other masterpieces of the highest art, 
 which afterwards begin to decay and become Egyptian. Marvellous to relate, 
 this is the belief of sound and ripe scholars " {Stones and Bones from Egypt 
 and Midian, in Jour. Anthrop. Inst. Nov. 1878, p. 296). The case is per- 
 fectly analogous to that of t!^ American "Asiatics," who in the same wild way 
 refuse an indigenous culture to the New World, and bring everything bodily 
 from the Old. 
 
47S MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 that time there was no delta ^, or at least it was only in process 
 of formation, a kind of debatable region between land and 
 water, inhabitable mainly by crocodiles, and utterly unsuited to 
 become the seat of a culture whose characteristic features are 
 huge stone monuments, amongst the largest ever erected by man, 
 and consequently needing solid foundations on ^erra firma. It 
 further appears that although Memphis is very old, Thebes is 
 much older^ in other words, that Egyptian culture began in Upper 
 Egypt, and spread not up but down the Nile. Thus all Asiatic 
 claims are again excluded, unless indeed South Arabia formed 
 part of the land of Punt (Somaliland ?) from which Petrie is in- 
 chned to bring the Retu. But South Arabia is not Babylonia, 
 so this will not help the '' Asiatics " who with Hommel will have 
 everything from Mesopotamia ^ 
 
 In a question of origins going back to such a prodigious 
 antiquity, almost the first consideration is the climate, of which 
 Dr Eberhard Fraas^ has made a special study. That the abori- 
 gines were not, as at present, so closely hemmed in by the desert 
 sands, is evident, he says, from the fabulous development of the 
 stone industry during the Neolithic period in a region which 
 is now a wilderness, where scarcely a few bedouins can find 
 
 1 The Egyptians themselves had a tradition that when Menes moved north 
 he found the Delta still under water. The sea reached almost as far as the 
 Fayyum, and the whole valley, except the Thebais, was a malarious swamp 
 (Herod. II. 4). Thus late into historic times memories still survived that the 
 delta was of relatively recent formation, and that the Retii {Roviitu of the 
 Pyramid texts, later Rotti^ Romi etc.) had already developed their social system 
 before the Lower Nile valley was inhabitable. Hence whether the Nile took 
 20,000 years (Schweinfurth) or over 70,000, as others hold, to fill in its estuary, 
 the beginning of the Egyptian prehistoric period must still be set back many 
 millenniums before the new era. "Ce que nous savons du Sahara, lui-meme 
 alors sillonne de rivieres, atteste qu'il [the Delta] ne devait pas etre habitable, 
 pas etre constitue a I'epoque quaternaire" (M. Zaborowski, Bui. Soc. d^Anthrop. 
 1896, p. 655). 
 
 '^ As shown by G. Bertin, "no Egyptian tradition, either on the monuments, 
 or on papyri, or preserved by classical writers, ever points to Asia as their first 
 country," and he refers to Dr S. Birch's remark at the First Congress of 
 Orientalists that "«o evidence w//a/^z/^r supported the hypothesis of the emigra- 
 tion of the Egyptians from Asia" {Jour. Anthrop. Inst. xi. p. 436). 
 
 ^ Corresp. Bl. d. d. Ges. f. Anthrop. Feb. 1898, p. 10 sq. 
 
xil] the caucasic peoples. 479 
 
 sustenance for themselves and their wretched flocks. A moister 
 climate must have prevailed, with springs and running waters, 
 and the extensive terraces flanking the mouths of the mountain 
 streams between Keneh and Kosseir, the well rolled pebbles, the 
 beds 15 or 16 feet thick of calc-sinter (incrustations of carbonate 
 of lime) in the now dry gorges of the Hammamat, undoubtedly 
 deposited by springs, all show the former abundance of moisture 
 in quite recent geological times. The same conclusion results 
 from a study of the coral barrier-reefs skirting the shores of the 
 Red Sea, with gaps at intervals opposite the wadi mouths, where 
 the freshwater from the torrents prevented the polyps from build- 
 ing. We may therefore conclude that parts of the present wastes 
 were inhabitable, and this solves the question where that magni- 
 ficent NeoUthic culture of the first dynasties originated, and whence 
 the early Pharaohs drew those countless hosts for which the narrow 
 Nile valley could never have afforded sustenance. Thus also are 
 explained the numerous ancient settlements, the extensive quarries 
 and mining operations, whose debris amid the now waterless up- 
 lands seem such an inexplicable puzzle. The more moist and tem- 
 perate climate may be connected with the Ice Age farther north, 
 as already suggested by Lepsius, who thought that to the glacial 
 epoch of Europe corresponded a genial climate with a sufficient 
 rainfall in the now overheated southern zones, and that in such 
 an environment alone could be found the conditions needed for 
 the development of a cultured people. 
 
 In such a climate great progress was made, especially in the 
 New Stone Age, which,as shown by M.J. de Morgan^ ^^^ gtone 
 must have been of very long duration. It has yielded arvi Bronze 
 
 . 1 • J r • 1 4. ^S^® ^" Upper 
 
 a profusion of every imagmary kmd ot implements Egypt also 
 adapted to all the wants and usages of daily life, ^"'^^^^"o"^- 
 As elsewhere, this Age lingered on well into the Metal period, as 
 seen in a beautiful flint knife plated with gold on which are 
 carved animal figures. The flints come not only from ordinary 
 stations, but also from very old graves and dwellings, such as the 
 necropolis of El-Amrah, four or five miles from Abydos. Here 
 
 \ 
 
 1 Recherches des Origines de r^gypte: PAge de la Pierre et des MetauXy. 
 
 1896. 
 
480 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 were found quantities of very coarse earthenware, and also much 
 finer pottery, embellished with geometrical tracings, figures of ani- 
 mals, and even hieroglyphics, showing on the same spot the actual 
 slow transition from rudimentary arts to a high level of culture. 
 M. Morgan's view is that this Neolithic industry belonged to 
 an indigenous race, later conquered by a foreign people who intro- 
 duced metallurgy and the civilisation of the monuments. The 
 illustrations seem to show a double overlapping of flints surviving 
 amongst the intruders, and of animal designs figured by them 
 on the native pottery. 
 
 These first intruders M. Morgan brings from Asia, because they 
 introduced bronze, whicJi he supposes was invented in Central 
 Asia or South China. But the argument is inconclusive, and in 
 fact, considering the discordant views now current on the subject 
 of bronze, is for the present of no weight. On the other hand, 
 Maspero, Zaborowski, Mariette, Petrie and many other leading 
 authorities now hold that the new comers, with whom the pre- 
 historic metal period was ushered in, were, like the aborigines, 
 of African origin. The earliest memories of the people were 
 associated, not with Memphis, but with Abydos, where reigned 
 Thoth and Osiris ; and throughout the Old and Middle Empires 
 all the domestic and other animals figured on the monuments 
 were members of the African fauna. Such was the dog, a large 
 greyhound with straight ears like the caberu of Abyssinia, and the 
 greyhound still surviving among the Saharan Tibus and Tuaregs ; 
 in Egypt he was sacred to Anubis, whose priests were figured with 
 heads of the greyhound type. Such were also the cat, resembling 
 the Upper Nile wild breed, trained for the chase and mummified 
 in prodigious numbers; the ox, ass, gazelle, sheep, goat, duck, 
 goose, all of true African species. Neither horse nor camel, 
 Asiatic and not African animals, came in at first : the former did 
 not arrive till the New Empire, the latter apparently not till the 
 Ptolemaic period \ It is also noteworthy that of the 1 1 skulls from 
 El-Amrah measured by M. Fouquet all but one were distinctly 
 
 ^ Dr W. Cunningham says "unknown in the earliest period of Egyptian 
 greatness" {Western Civilisation^ etc., Cambridge University Press, 1898). 
 But one might rather say in the very latest, for no reference appears to h^ 
 made to the camel in any extant documents much before the New Era. 
 
XII.] THE CAUCAsic PEOPLES. 48 
 
 long-headed, of the type corresponding to Prichard's " Pelasgic," 
 /. e. Sergi's Hamitic or Mediterranean. 
 
 M. Zaborowski points out' that nobody has yet been able even 
 to suggest any part of the world, or any people, who were in 
 possession of these same elements of culture before the Egyptians. 
 He had already remarked^ thai; there is absolutely no foundation 
 for the view that the Retus arrived from Asia via the Isthmus of 
 Suez. This was merely a reaction against those ancient and 
 modern writers who traced Egyptian culture to Ethiopia, and the 
 Egyptians to the Negroes. It was mainly based on the erroneous 
 idea that there was no white race except those of Asiatic origin 
 (Semites and Aryans). But we have now the Hamitic white race 
 of African origin, located in Upper Egypt, home of Osiris^, land 
 of Thebes, whose foundation is long prior to all history. This 
 region was divided into a number of independent petty states, 
 with an organisation recalling that of the Berber tribes, and they 
 were first welded into a compact political body by Menes, king 
 of Thini. By founding Memphis, and thus removing the centre 
 of power for the first time to Lower Egypt, Menes merely shifted 
 to this region the advanced bulwark of a civilization, which may 
 have already been threatened by predatory hordes from Asia, but 
 had in any case first taken root at some immensely remote epoch 
 in Upper Egypt. 
 
 Of course there are Asiatic elements even in the early Egyptian 
 civilisation. Bronze art is very old, and two statuettes in this 
 metal are attributed to the 5th or 6th dynasty, while in a tomb 
 apparently earlier than the 4th Mariette found three wooden 
 panels with bas-reliefs presenting the type of the Semitic race. 
 From the 2nd or 3rd dynasty date other statues, such as that of 
 Nefer, a young girl with ornaments in the Babylonian style. But 
 all this merely proves that, as impHed in the legendary Osirian 
 wars, Egypt had relations with Asia in the very earliest historic, 
 
 1 BtU. Soc. cCAnthrop. 1S96, p. 654 sq. 
 
 2 Les Peuples Pri7)iitifs deVAfrique Sepientrionale, m Noiwelle Revue, 1883. 
 
 3 Osiris already belongs to the mythical age, and before his time the Retus 
 were a nide and savage peopA^addicted to cannibalism, from which they were 
 weaned by Isis and Osiris: — '^yu) /xcto, tov dde\<pov 'Oaipeus ras dvdp(aTro<paylas 
 ^Travov (Kaibel, Epigram. Grceca, p. XXl). 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
482 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 and probably even in prehistoric ages. Thus Snefru, last king 
 of the 3rd dynasty, warred with the nomads of Arabia Petraea, 
 and left records of his exploits on the rocks of Sinai. But such 
 events are quite recent compared with the actual beginnings of 
 Egyptian culture, which go back to an epoch twice as long as the 
 historic period (Bunsen, Renan). Indications of a thoroughly 
 established social and political organisation have been traced by 
 Oppert back to 11,500 years B.C. Amongst the first cultivated 
 plants were wheat, barley, sorghum, vetches, lupins, lentils, pease, 
 most of which belong essentially to the African flora. 
 
 Corresponding with this progress in agriculture is the progress 
 in the arts, as revealed by the bas-reliefs and inscriptions carved 
 by Snefru on the rocks of the Wady Magharah, which although 
 some 6000 years old, show a state of culture as fully developed as 
 that under the New Empire, with thoroughly original features, and 
 all the marks of a long previous existence. At this remote period 
 written form had been given to the Egyptian language, which had 
 already been completely developed and differentiated from the 
 allied Libyan (Berber), and from the still more remotely connected 
 Semitic family. When we consider the amazing tenacity both of 
 the Hamitic and Semitic sections of this linguistic stock, such 
 a statement alone should satisfy the most sceptical as to the 
 immense antiquity of civilised man in the Nile valley. And proofs 
 are accumulating that this race was already highly specialised 
 with features of European type. At the Deshasheh necropoUs 
 nearly opposite Beni Suef, Petrie found in 1897 the portrait 
 statue of Prince Nenkheftka of the 5th dynasty (3700 B.C.), a 
 man of pleasing expression and " European features \" M. Loret 
 also describes several royal persons from the tomb of Amenophis II. 
 (1500 B.C.) as distinguished by luxuriant hair and well-preserved 
 features "to a marked degree like those of the present Fellahin^" 
 Sergi tabulates eight primary varieties of old Egyptian 
 T^^^^**^" skulls with several sub-varieties, all specified in his 
 formidable (some have called it bewildering) nomen- 
 clature, and all still persisting both in Egypt and amongst the 
 
 Deshasheh^ i^th Me?n. Egypt. Expl. Fund, i! 
 Nature, April 14, 1898, p. 566. 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 483 
 
 other Eastern Hamites : "The persistence of the race is therefore 
 shown in this historical and most ancient people, which has had 
 vicissitudes and interminghngs enough to infer a complete change 
 in its physical characters and the effacement of its old ethnic 
 elements'." 
 
 Thanks to this amazing stability of the early types, Egypt is a 
 region of quite exceptional interest to the anthropo- 
 logist. Owing to the remarkable continuity of its ence.^^"*^*' 
 now changeless climate, and of a historic record 
 unbroken for over 7000 years, it affords a better illustration than 
 most other lands of the still obscure principle of convergence in 
 biological forms. That plants and animals should, under the 
 environmental conditions, have undergone but slight change since 
 Pharaonic days is perhaps no more than might be expected. 
 But that the Retus type itself should have emerged in its integrity 
 from such secular intermingUngs of peoples — the problematical 
 Hyksos and Hittites, Petrie's "New Race," blue-eyed Libyans, 
 continuous Ethiopic infiltrations, early and later Arabs and 
 kindred Assyrian Semites, Persian, Greek, and Roman "Aryans," 
 Levantines, Turks, Circassian Mamluks, Albanians, Franks and 
 others — is indeed a wonder perhaps best explained on the assump- 
 tion that in certain cases environment is an all-potent crucible, 
 in which foreign ingredients are fused in the general amalgam. 
 It is not to be supposed, for instance, that the Moslem Arab 
 bedouins have ever formed unions with the native Christian Kopts, 
 direct descendants of the old Egyptians. Yet when the wooden 
 statue of an official under Khephren (4200 B.C.) was brought to 
 light, it was at once named the "village Sheikh," because of its 
 striking resemblance to the then living local headman^ "The 
 Egyptians themselves have come down from the Old Empire 
 through all the vicissitudes of conquests, mixtures of races, 
 changes of religion and language, so little altered that the fellah 
 of to-day is often the image of the Egyptians who built the 
 
 1 Africa^ etc. p. 67. 
 
 2 Maspero also remarks that "the profile copied from a Theban mummy 
 taken at hazard from a necr^lis of the i8th dynasty, and compared with the 
 likeness of a modern Luxor peasant, would almost pass for a family portrait" 
 {Dawn of Civ. p. 48). 
 
 31—2 
 
484 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 pyramids ^" In most regions a general fusion of native and 
 foreign peoples results in conformity to a new type different from 
 the old ; but in Egypt the foreign elements, even without com- 
 mingling, tend to conform, i.e. converge towards the old Retus 
 prototype. It is clear therefore that the Retus themselves are the 
 outcome of their environment, and to that extent true aborigines, 
 and not Kushite immigrants from Asia at the close of the New 
 Stone Age. Nor is it likely that any fresh discoveries can now be 
 made which will invalidate this conclusion. 
 
 Yet, except the priestly and military castes, on whom the king 
 
 relied for support, the whole of the population, 
 CondiSon. whether nominally free or slaves, were doomed to a 
 
 life of incessant toil, reHeved from monotony by the 
 irregular visits of the taxgatherer, when there were moanings and 
 weeping throughout the land. " Shall I tell thee of the mason, 
 how he endures misery ? exposed to all the winds, while he builds 
 without any garment but a belt, and while the bunch of lotus 
 flowers [which is fixed] on the [completed] houses, is still far out 
 of his reach, his two arms are worn out with work, his provisions 
 are placed higgledy-piggledy amongst his refuse... when the work 
 is quite finished, if he has bread he returns home, and his children 
 have been beaten unmercifully [during his absence].... The shoe- 
 maker moans ceaselessly, and he gnaws the leather. The baker 
 ...subjects the loaves to the fire... while his head is inside the oven 
 his son holds him by the legs — if he slips he falls there into the 
 flamesl" 
 
 "The determination not to pay the taxes except under the 
 stick was proverbial from ancient times. Whoever paid his dues 
 before he had received a merciless beating would be overwhelmed 
 with reproaches by his family, and jeered at without pity by his 
 neighbours... When the tax fell due... for several days there was 
 nothing to be heard but protestations, threats, beatings, cries of 
 pain from the taxpayers, and piercing lamentations from women 
 and children. The performance over, calm was reestablished, 
 and the good people, binding up their wounds, resumed their 
 
 ^ Laing, Human Origms, p. 399. 
 
 2 Sellier Papyrus, quoted by Maspero, p. 313. 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 485 
 
 round of daily life until the next taxgathering\" The bread 
 above referred to was usually in the form of small round or oblong 
 cakes about half-an-inch thick, and was so coarse and gritty that in 
 the long run it ruined the strongest teeth ^ It is this dire misery 
 which, combined with their unchangeable type, connects the 
 pyramid-builders through the long ages with the modern fellahin, 
 who have only now been relieved from hopeless oppression by 
 British intervention in Egypt. 
 
 A brighter if ruder social state is presented by the kindred 
 Eastern Hamites, who form a continuous chain of other 
 dark Caucasic peoples from the Mediterranean to Eastern 
 
 ^ ^ , Hamites— 
 
 the equator, and whose ethnical unity is now Bejas— 
 established by Sergi on anatomical grounds ^ Bor- 
 dering on Upper Egypt, and extending thence to the foot of the 
 Abyssinian plateau, is the Beja section, whose chief divisions — 
 Ababdeh, Hadendowa, Bishari, Beni-Amer — have from the earliest 
 times occupied the whole region between the Nile and the Red 
 Sea. Recent events have familiarised the English reader with 
 many of their tribal names, and with some of their usages, notably 
 that fondness for elaborate coiffures, which has earned for our 
 late foes, now the friendly Hadendowas, the popular designation 
 of " Fuzzy- Wuzzies." They never need have been foes, had our 
 officials, at the time of the Mahdi's revolt, been able to under- 
 stand that they were not "Arabs," but Hamites, whom a little 
 diplomacy would have easily gained over to our side without any 
 bloodshed ^ 
 
 In peaceful times many hours are daily given up to the toilet, 
 and in Suakim " hair-dressing plays such an important part that a 
 whole street is devoted to this business. I saw some twelve shops 
 which dealt exclusively in the egg-shaped balls of mutton-fat, the 
 favourite hair ointment. Close by were, perhaps, as many stores 
 trading in various mineral powders in all colours of the rainbow, 
 
 1 Maspero, p. 314, where Am. Marcellinus is quoted : "Erubescit apud eos, 
 siquis non infitiando tributa plurimas in corpore vibices ostendat," xxii. ch. 
 16, 23. ^ 
 
 2 Ibid. p. 320. 
 
 3 Africa, passim. 
 
 * See on this point my Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan, p. 10. 
 
486 " MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 which are dusted over the greasy superstructure and regarded as 
 most effective. Here are also half-a-dozen tents of the native 
 hairdressers, where the mysteries of the toilet receive the finishing 
 touch. The style differs, as a rule, but little from that of the other 
 Beja tribes or even of the Abyssinians. The black, kinky, and 
 wavy hair, essentially different from the fine woolly hair of the 
 Negro, is drawn out so as to completely cover the ear, and is then 
 disposed in two main divisions by a horizontal parting. The 
 upper mass is raised to a top-knot, while the rest is plaited in 
 small tresses with their ends unravelled. But the whole is 
 first saturated with mutton-fat which causes it to retain the shape 
 given to it by the deft hand of the artist'." 
 
 Through the Afars (Danakil) of the arid coastlands between 
 Abyssinia and the sea, the Bejas are connected with the numerous 
 
 Hamitic populations of the Somali and Galla lands. 
 Genealogies. ^^^ ^^^ ^^^'^ " Somal," which is quitc recent and of 
 
 course unknown to the natives, Major H. M. Abud^ 
 suggests an interesting and plausible explanation. Being a hos- 
 pitable people, and milk their staple food, "the first word a 
 stranger would hear on visiting their kraals would be 'So mal,' 
 z.e. '' Go and bring milk." Strangers may have named them from 
 this circumstance, and other tribal names may certainly be traced 
 to more improbable sources. 
 
 The natives hold that two races inhabit the land : — (i) Asha, 
 true Somals, of whom there are two great divisions, Ddrbd and 
 Ishdk, both claiming descent from certain noble Arab families, 
 though no longer of Arab speech ; (2) HawIya, who are not 
 counted by the others as true Somals, but only "pagans," and 
 also comprise two main branches, Aysa and Gadabursi. In the 
 national genealogies collected by Major A bud and Captain Cox, 
 many of the mythical heroes are buried at or near Meit, which 
 may thus be termed the cradle of the Somal race. From this 
 point they spread in all directions, the Darods pushing south and 
 driving the Gallas beyond the Webbe Shebel, and till lately 
 raiding them as far as the Tana river. It should be noticed that 
 
 ^ Von Maltzau, quoted by Junker, Travels, i. p. 55. 
 ^ Genealogies of the Somal, 1896. 
 
XIL] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 487 
 
 these genealogical tables are far from complete, for they exclude 
 most of the southern sections, notably the Rahanwin who have a 
 very wide range on both sides of the Jub. 
 
 In the statements made by the natives about true Somals 
 and "pagans," race and religion are confused, and the distinction 
 between Asha and Hawiya is merely one between Moslem and 
 infidel. The latter are probably of much purer stock than the 
 former, whose very genealogies testify to interminglings of the 
 Moslem Arab intruders with the heathen aborigines. 
 
 Despite their dark colour Prof. C. Keller^ has no difficulty in 
 regarding the SomaU as members of the "Caucasic Race." The 
 Semitic type crops out decidedly in several groups, and they are 
 generally speaking of fine physique, well grown, with proud bearing 
 and often with classic profile, though the type is very variable 
 owing to Arab and Negro grafts on the Hamitic stock. The 
 hair is never woolly, but, like that of the Bejas, ringletty and 
 less thick than the Abyssinian and Galla, sometimes even quite 
 straight. The forehead is finely rounded and prominent, eye 
 moderately large and rather deep-set, nose straight, but also 
 snub and aquiline, mouth regular, lips not too thick, head 
 sub-doHcho. 
 
 Great attention has been paid to all these Eastern Hamitic 
 peoples by Ph. Paulitschke^ who regards the Gallas as both intel- 
 lectually and morally superior to the Somals and Afars, the chief 
 reason being that the baneful influences exercised by the Arabs 
 and Abyssinians affect to a far greater extent the two latter than 
 the former group. He credits these primitive peoples originally 
 (" urspriinglich ") with a monotheistic belief, or rather with "a 
 monotheism disturbed by diverse superstitions." But this view, 
 which rests on the assumption that the aborigines in question 
 distinguish between a Supreme God and a large number of spirits 
 under him, is unsupported by any solid proof. The characteristic 
 feature in their religion is the predominance of animistic over 
 natural mythological concepts. A great part is played by bodiless 
 genii; even their animal and tree worship has its roots in animism, 
 
 1 "Reisestudien in den Somalilandern," Globus, LXX,, p. 33 sq. 
 
 2 Ethnographie Nord-Ost-Afrikas: Die geistige Kidttcr der Dandkil, Galla 
 u. Somdl. Berlin, 1896, 2 vols. 
 
488 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 while none of the Gallas or Somals unaffected by Islam are able 
 to form any notion of a Supreme deity. 
 
 But it is amongst the Abyssinian Hamites that are met the 
 strangest interminglings of primitive and more advanced religious 
 ideas. On a seething mass of African heathendom, already in 
 prehistoric times affected by early Semitic ideas, introduced by 
 the Himyarites from South Arabia, was somewhat suddenly im- 
 posed an undeveloped form of Christianity by the preaching of 
 Frumentius in the fourth century, with results that cannot be 
 called satisfactory. While the heterogeneous ethnical elements 
 have been merged in a composite Abyssinian nationahty, the 
 discordant religious ideas have never yet been fused in a con- 
 sistent uniform system. Hence "Abyssinian Christianity" is a 
 sort of by-word even amongst the Eastern Churches, while the 
 social institutions are marked by elementary notions of justice 
 and paradoxical " shamanistic " practices, interspersed with a few 
 sublime moral precepts. Many things came as a surprise to the 
 members of the Rennell Rodd Mission^, who could not under- 
 stand such a strange mixture of savagery and lofty notions in a 
 Christian community which, for instance, accounted accidental 
 death as wilful murder. The case is mentioned of a man falhng 
 from a tree on a friend below and kiUing him. "He was adjudged 
 to perish at the hands of the bereaved family, in the same manner 
 as the corpse. But the family refused to sacrifice a second 
 member, so the culprit escaped." Dreams also are resorted to, 
 as in the days of the Pharaohs, for detecting crime. A priest is 
 sent for, and if his prayers and curses fail, a small boy is drugged 
 and told to dream. "Whatever person he dreams of is fixed on 
 as the criminal; no further proof is needed. ..If the boy does not 
 dream of the person whom the priest has determined on as the 
 criminal, he is kept under drugs until he does what is required of 
 him." 
 
 To outsiders society seems to be a strange jumble of an iron 
 despotism, which forbids the selling of a horse for over jQio 
 under severe penalties, and a personal freedom or licence, which 
 allows the labourer to claim his wages after a week's work and 
 
 1 Count Gleichen, 'Rennell Rodd' s Mission to Menelik, 1897. 
 
XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 489 
 
 forthwith decamp to spend them, returning next day or next 
 month as the humour takes him. Yet somehow things hold 
 together, and a few Semitic immigrants from South Arabia have 
 for over 2000 years contrived to maintain some kind of control 
 over the Hamitic aborigines who have always formed the bulk of 
 the population in Abyssinia. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES {contiiitced). 
 
 The Semites — Cradle, Origins, and Migrations — Divisions: Phcenicians ; 
 Assyrians; Aniorites; Canaanites ; Himyarites — Phoenician Cradle and 
 Migration — The Phoenician Alphabet — Himyarites — Sabaan and MincBan 
 Origins — The Ainorites: Arameans, Syr o- Chaldeans — Later Syrians — 
 Ansariehs; Maronites ; Druzes — The Jews — Origins — Early and Later 
 Dispersions — Diverse Physical Types — Present Range and Population — 
 The Hittites— Conflicting Theories — The Arabs — Spread of the Arab 
 Race and Language — Semitic Monotheism — Its Evolution — The Pelas- 
 GIANS, a wide-spread pre-Hellenic People of the Neolithic and Bronze 
 Ages — Knowledge of Letters — The Cretan and other ^gean Scripts — 
 ^gean Culture a Local Development — Its Age and Westward Spread 
 from Troy to Scandinavia and Britain. 
 
 The Himyaritic immigrants, who thus still hold sway in a 
 foreign land, have long ceased to exist as a distinct nationality 
 in their own country, where they had nevertheless ages ago 
 founded flourishing empires, centres of one of the very oldest 
 civilizations of which there is any record. Should future research 
 confirm the now generally received view that Karaites and Semites 
 are fundamentally of one stock, a view based both on physical and 
 linguistic data, the cradle of the Semitic branch will 
 — Cradie!"^^*^^ also probably be traced to South Arabia, and more 
 Origins, and particularly to that south-western region known to 
 
 Migrations, r j o 
 
 the ancients as Arabia Felix, i.e. the Yemen of the 
 Arabs. While Asia and Africa were still partly separated in the 
 north by a broad marine inlet before the formation of the Nile 
 delta, easy communication was afforded between the two continents 
 farther south at the head of the Gulf of Aden, where they are still 
 almost contiguous. By this route the primitive Hamito-Semitic 
 
CHAP. XIIL] the CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 49I 
 
 populations may have moved either westwards into Africa, or, as 
 would seem more probable, eastwards into Asia, where in the 
 course of ages the Semitic type became specialised. 
 
 On this assumption South Arabia would necessarily be the 
 first home of the Semites, who in later times spread thence 
 north and east, and became further specialised as 
 Phoenicians on the east coast of Arabia and the 
 neighbouring Bahrein Islands; as Assyria?is in Mesopotamia; 
 as Arabs on the Nejd steppe ; as Canaanites, Moabites and 
 others in and about Palestine ; as Amorifes {Aramceans, Syrians)^ 
 possibly even Hittites, in Syria and Asia Minor. 
 
 Against this broad view of Semitic origins and early migrations 
 there appear to be no serious objections of any kind, while the 
 hypothesis would seem to harmonise well with all the known 
 conditions. In the first place is to be considered the very narrow 
 area occupied by the Semites, both absolutely and relatively to 
 the domains of the other fundamental ethnical groups. While 
 ■ the Mongols are found in possession of the greater part of Asia, 
 and the Hamites with the Mediterraneans are diffused over the 
 whole of north Africa, south and west Europe since the Stone 
 Ages, the Semites, excluding later expansions — Himyarites to 
 x\byssinia, Phoenicians to the shores of the Mediterranean, 
 Moslem Arabs to Africa, Irania, and Transoxiana — have always 
 been confined to the south-west corner of Asia, comprising very 
 little more than the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia, Syria, and 
 (doubtfully) parts of Asia Minor. From this may be drawn two 
 important inferences — first that, as suggested, the early Hamito- 
 Semitic migrations were not from east to west, but from the larger, 
 African to the singularly contracted Asiatic area, and secondly that 
 these migrations were comparatively late, not earlier at all events 
 than the Neolithic period. At that time Asia was already well 
 peopled, so that the proto-Semites could extend their range only 
 as conquerors, and as such the Assyrians seem to make their 
 appearance amongst the Akkado-Sumerians of Mesopotamia, 
 advancing, not from the north (the Kurdistan uplands), but from 
 the south (Persian Gul^, as is now generally believed by the best 
 authorities \ 
 
 1 See p. 275. 
 
492 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 It is the same with the Phoenicians, who, according to 
 
 Phoenician Theodore Bent and others, had their first seats in 
 
 Cradle and the Persian Gulf, whence they passed in quite late 
 
 Migrations. . . ^ ^ ^ 
 
 times to the Mediterranean, at first as traders and 
 seafarers (Byblos, Tyre, Sidon), then as colonists and founders of 
 empires (Leptis Magna, Carthage, Gades). In the earliest 
 references to the Syrian coast, a cylinder of Sargon I. (3800 B.C.), 
 and another of his son Dungi from Cyprus, no allusion is made to 
 the Phoenicians, who had probably at that time not yet reached 
 the Mediterranean. Herodotus learnt from the priests of Baal 
 Melkart, the great god of Tyre, that this place was founded about 
 2700 B.C., while Old Tyre on the mainland was much more 
 ancient. Yet Tyre was still but an obscure fishing town, while 
 Byblos, their oldest settlement, Sidon, and Beryta (Beyrout) were 
 flourishing seaports, referred to in a papyrus of about 1320 B.C. 
 Amongst the places captured by Thutmes III. (1600 B.C.) are 
 mentioned both Beryta and Akko (Acre). 
 
 Altogether Phoenician origins in their new seats on the Syrian 
 seaboard cannot be carried back beyond about 3000 B.C. How 
 long they may have dwelt in their first homes on the Arabian side 
 of the Persian Gulf can only be conjectured from the immense 
 extent of the burial grounds explored by Bent in the Bahrein 
 Islands. Obviously these remains date back into Neolithic times, 
 and make it probable that the eastern Phoenicians had taken a 
 chief part in the active trade carried on by the Sumerian city of 
 Eridhu with Sinai, possibly even with the far East, 4000 or 5000 
 years before the new era. 
 
 Was the " Phoenician Alphabet " amongst the treasures intro- 
 duced into Greece by these early distributors of 
 AiphSet!*^" eastern wares? Before Mr Evans's discovery of a 
 pre-Phoenician syllabary in Crete, the story of 
 Cadmus was accepted in its integrity, and must still be regarded 
 as substantially true. It is possible that this syllabary of Hnear 
 symbols, as has been suggested, may have been picked up by the 
 Phoenician traders in the Archipelago, simplified by them in Tyre 
 or Sidon, and then reintroduced into Hellas in the perfect form 
 which it has since retained. But the suggestion, made apparently 
 in order to transfer the credit of this stupendous invention from 
 
XIII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 493 
 
 the Semites to the "Aryans," is not necessary, and cannot be 
 proved. The syllabary stands apart, as an independent or 
 separate development, while the eastern origin of the "Alphabet" 
 is for ever attested by the forms, the order, and very names of the 
 letters, the Greek alpha, beta, gamma, delta, etc. being the Semitic 
 aleph, ox ; beth, house ; gimel, camel ; daleth, door, names them- 
 selves suggestive of the ultimate pictorial or hieroglyphic origin of 
 the system \ Early forms or prototypes of these letters have been 
 sought, with but partial success, amongst the Egyptian hieroglyphs, 
 the Babylonian cuneiforms, and the rock-inscriptions of the 
 Minaeans and Sabaeans in South Arabia. 
 
 These rock-inscriptions, great numbers of which have been 
 recovered in recent years by Halevy, Glaser and others, show that 
 in very remote times South Arabia, presumable cradle of the 
 Semitic race, " was a land of culture and literature, a seat of 
 powerful kingdoms and wealthy commerce, which cannot fail to 
 have exercised an influence upon the general history of the world I" 
 Everything points to Saba {Sabcea), i.e. Yemen, as the Sheba of 
 Scripture, which, in the time of Solomon, had extensive trading 
 relations with Tyre, probably also with India and 
 the east coast of Africa from Abyssinia to Sofala ^ ^^"^" 
 beyond the Zambesi. That the gold brought by the Tyrians and 
 the Queen of Sheba came through Sofala from the neighbouring 
 mines worked by the Sabaean Semites has been all but proved by 
 the investigations of Bent amid the ruins of Zimbabwe and other 
 parts of Manica and Matabililand. Sabaea is shown by Assyrian 
 inscriptions to have been a powerful state in the 8th century B.C., 
 when it was conterminous northwards with the Ninevite empire 
 under Tigleth-Pileser and Sargon III. Like the Egypt of Menes, 
 it was formed by the fusion of several Himyarite principaHties 
 ruled by the so-called Makarib, " Blessed," or high-priest of Saba, 
 who gave his name to the land, as Ashdr did to that of the kindred 
 Assyrian Semites of Nineveh. 
 
 1 Cadmus also, despite the great authority of Aug. Fick [Die Griechischen 
 Fersonennamen, 2nd ed. 1894), is a Pheenician name occurring in the form of 
 Qadmu, with the sense of godlike, on a cuneiform tablet quoted by Sayce in 
 Acad. Sept. 22, 1894, p. 217. 
 
 - Sayce, quoted by S. Laing, to whom I am indebted for some of these data 
 Human Origins, passim). 
 
494 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 But Saba itself was preceded by the much older empire of 
 Ma^in, i.e. of the MmcEans, whose very name had 
 almost died out till rescued from oblivion by the 
 recently discovered inscriptions ^ These have already yielded a 
 long Hst of 33 Minaean kings, whose sway extended over the 
 whole of Arabia as far as Syria and Egypt, as shown by the 
 references to Gaza and to Teima (the Tema of Scripture) on the 
 route between Sinai and Damascus. 
 
 Other inscriptions copied by Seetzen in 1810, and all grouped 
 together as Himyaritic^, proved to be in an old Semitic tongue, 
 and in a script which is often disposed in vertical lines, and is the 
 parent of the system introduced in remote times into Abyssinia, 
 where it is still current. These Himyaritic documents are now 
 found to comprise two distinct groups, an early Minsean with 
 fuller and more archaic Semitic forms, and a later Sabaean, though 
 even this language is more primitive than that of the oldest 
 Assyrian and Hebrew records. Now the later Sabaean empire 
 goes back with certainty to the time of Solomon, so that the 33 
 kings of the preceding Minaean dynasty, Sayce argues, may point 
 to a past probably coeval with that of the earliest Egyptian and 
 Akkadian records. When we remember that the Phoenicians 
 looked to the Persian Gulf as their cradle, that they must have 
 been settled in the Bahrein islands for long ages before their 
 migration to the Mediterranean, and that Cannes, from whom the 
 Akkado-Sumerians received the germs of their culture, had also 
 traditionally come up from the sea^ further research may yet show 
 that South Arabia was the source whence the Chaldaeans derived 
 their first knowledge of the arts and letters. In any case this region 
 may well have been the first home of the Semites, for " in Arabia 
 alone we find Semites, and Semites only, from the very beginning, 
 
 ^ See Fritz Hommel's Siid-Arabische Chrestomathie, Munich, 1893. 
 
 2 From Himyar, land of the Homerites, i.e. the "Red People," a term at 
 one time applied to the South Arabian populations, and extended from them 
 to the neighbouring Erythrean ("Red") Sea. It is interesting to note that the 
 Egyptian artists also depicted the Retu men in red, but the women in yellow, 
 in contradistinction to the black Ethiopians ; while the Pun, i.e. the people of 
 Punt ("Red Land") on both sides of the Strait of Bab-el- Mandeb, are now 
 believed to be the ancestors of the Puni, or Phoenicians. 
 
xiil] the caucasic peoples. 495 
 
 and the peculiar language and character of the race must have 
 been first developed in the growing civilization which preceded 
 the ancient Minrean Empire, probably as the later Stone Age was 
 passing into that of metaP." 
 
 It should be mentioned that the Minaean script, often described 
 as a modified form of Phoenician, reveals on the contrary a writing 
 system more primitive than the oldest extant Phcenician letters. 
 It is on this ground that Sayce asks whether the Phoenician itself 
 may not be derived from the Minaean (rather than from the 
 Egyptian hieroglyphs) as often assumed but never proved, or from 
 the Cretan syllabary, as above suggested. The Minaean language 
 is by far the most primitive member of the Semitic family, and 
 Sayce shows that its characters afford a better explanation of the 
 names of the Phcenician letters than do the hieroglyphs. Thus 
 aleph, "ox," presents in Minaean the outlines of an ox's head, but 
 bears no resemblance to any of the Egyptian symbols used for a^. 
 Should this view be confirmed, Semitic origins must be set still 
 further back to give time for the slow evolution of the Minaean 
 script from the assumed pictorial prototypes to the already highly 
 conventionalised forms of the oldest known inscriptions. 
 
 It is noteworthy that the Amorites, unless they are to be 
 identified with the Hittites, have always played a 
 very subordinate part amongst the Semitic peoples. Amorites. 
 Their territory was properly that part of Syria which 
 lay north of what was afterwards Palestine, although the name was 
 extended by the Babylonians to the whole of Canaan. At a very 
 early date the Amorites had also, though apparently only as 
 peaceful settlers, reached Babylonia, where they had a colony at 
 Sippara, and were able to hold high offices in the state (Pinches). 
 After the Hebrews had migrated from this region ("Ur of Chaldaea") 
 to Canaan (South Syria), the two peoples were often at war, but 
 were sometimes also allies, engaged in international courtesies and 
 " covenants," as in i Kings xx. 34, where we read that the kings 
 of Israel and Syria severally " made streets " for their subjects in 
 
 1 Human Origins, p. 94. 
 
 2 Later, rejecting Mr EvJhs's suggested Cretan theory, Sayce declares his 
 present belief to be "that the Phoenician alphabet came from Arabia'* 
 {Academy, Aug. 29, 1896, p. 149). 
 
496 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Damascus and Samaria. From Babylonia those early Amorites 
 
 appear to have wandered up the Tigris to Kurdistan 
 Chaidaeans ^"^ ^^^ Lake Urmia district, where they are now 
 
 represented by a few groups of Christians commonly 
 but wrongly called " Nestorians," being simply eastern Christians 
 with a national rite\ They call themselves Kaldani (Chaldseans) 
 and still speak, besides Arabic, a Syro-Chaldcean (Aramaic) 
 dialect written in a modified form of the Syriac (Estranghelo) 
 script ^ Strange to say some of these Kaldani are still in the 
 tribal state^, unless we suppose that this is a case of reversion under 
 the influence of the surrounding Kurdish tribes. 
 
 In Syria the whole population has become Arabised in speech, 
 
 while the majority (Maronites of the Lebanon and 
 Syrians. Others) have long been Christians of the Syrian rite. 
 
 They possess a copious reHgious literature, adorned 
 by the names of St Ephrem and John of Damascus, and enriched 
 by a valuable version of Scripture (the Peshitto "correct")^ and 
 some patristic writings still consulted by commentators. All 
 these writings are in the Aramaic, a distinct branch of the Semitic 
 family, which appears to hold a position somewhat intermediate 
 between the Assyrian of the cuneiform documents and Phoenician. 
 After the dispersion of the ten tribes and the Babylonian captivity 
 a slightly modified form of Syriac, often called " Syro-Chaldaic," 
 became the current speech of Palestine, where Hebrew, Phcenician, 
 and the other closely related Canaanitish dialects have been 
 extinct as vernaculars for quite 2000 years. 
 
 1 Max von Thielmann, Journey in the Caucasus etc., 1875, vol. 2, 
 p. 72. 
 
 2 M. Rubens, Les Dialectes Neo-Arameens de Salamas etc. ^ Paris, 1884; and 
 Ignazio Guidi in Zeitschr. d. Morgen. Ges. xxxvi. p. 293 sq. 
 
 3 Such are the Kojainis about the source of the Tigris (1000 families), the 
 Tiaris in the Salamas district (10,000) and the Tokdbis of the Upper Tigris 
 {300). 
 
 * This version is not to be confused with the very old text of the Penta- 
 teuch in a Hebrew- Aramaic dialect, written in the original Hebrew character, 
 which is jealously preserved at Nablus (Sichem) by a small "Samaritan" com- 
 munity now dying out. They are an interesting link between present times 
 and Palestine before the Captivity, living under a Sheikh, Jakiib Shalaibi, 
 whose subjects were reduced a few years ago to 133. 
 
XIII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 497 
 
 Other ethnical groups, such as the Druzes^ on the Lebanon 
 and now also in the Hauran district, and the 
 Ansarieh of the mountain range named from "sane . 
 them, still linger on, either as survivals of the old pagan and 
 Christian times, or as Moslem sectaries with secret rites and 
 observances surrounded by much mystery. Theodore Bent* 
 connects the Ansarieh, whom he visited in the Tarsus district, 
 with the Ali-Ullah-hi of north Persia, and thinks their occult 
 religion is practised by many other scattered groups in Asia Minor. 
 Their reputed founder, Barba Nasere, made the Godhead of Ali 
 the basis of the system, and they also admit a Trinity — the Ain- 
 Min-Sin, or Ali the Father, Muhammad the Son, and Salman el- 
 Farsi the Holy Ghost — which, with the use of wine in their secret 
 feasts, would seem to show that this cult is a graft of the Shiah 
 Moslem sect on soipe early form of Christianity. The Ansarieh 
 prayers are described as " very beautiful and impressive, and there 
 are many curious points analogous to freemasonry in connection 
 with the initiation of a new member^" 
 
 With the Hebrew or Israelitish inhabitants of south Syria 
 (Canaan, Palestine, "Land of Promise") we are here concerned 
 only in so far as they form a distinct branch of the Semitic family. 
 The term 'Jews^' properly indicating the children 
 of Judah, fourth son of Jacob, has long been applied 
 generally to the whole people, who since the disappearance of the 
 ten northern tribes have been mainly represented by the tribe of 
 Judah, a remnant of Benjamin and a few Levites, i.e. the section 
 of the nation which to the number of some 50,000 returned to 
 south Palestine (kingdom of Judaea) after the Babylonian captivity. 
 These were doubtless later joined by some of the dispersed northern 
 tribes, who from Jacob's alternative name were commonly called 
 the " ten tribes of Israel." But all such Israelites had lost their 
 separate nationality, and were consequently absorbed in the royal 
 tribe of Judah. Since the suppression of the various revolts 
 
 ^ Jour. Anthrop, Inst. June, 1890, p. 225. 
 
 - Ibid. 
 
 3 From Old French Jttis.SiaA.. Jtidai, i.e. Sons of Jehudah (Judah). See 
 my article, Jews, in Cassell's Storehouse of General Information, 1893, from 
 which I take many of the following particulars. 
 
 K. 32 
 
49^ MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 under the Empire, the Judaei themselves have been a dispersed 
 nationality, and even before those events numerous settlements 
 had been made in different parts of the Greek and Roman worlds, 
 as far west as Tripolitana, and also in Arabia and Abyssinia. 
 
 But most of the present communities probably descend from 
 those of the great dispersion after the fall of Jerusalem (70 a.d.), 
 increased by considerable accessions of converted " Gentiles," for 
 the assumption that they have made few or no converts is no 
 longer tenable. In exile they have been far more a religious body 
 than a broken nation, and as such they could not fail under 
 favourable conditions to spread their teachings, not only amongst 
 their Christian slaves, but also amongst peoples, such as the 
 Abyssinian Falashas, of lower culture than themselves. In pre- 
 Muhammadan times many Arabs of Yemen and other districts 
 had conformed, and some of their Jewish kings (Asad Abu-Karib, 
 Dhu Nowas, and others) are still remembered. About the 7th 
 century all the Khazars — a renowned Turki people of the Volga, 
 the Crimea, and the Caspian — accepted Judaism, though they later 
 conformed to Russian orthodoxy. The Visigoth persecution of 
 the Spanish Jews (5th and 6th centuries) was largely due to their 
 proselytising zeal, against which, as well as against Jewish and 
 Christian mixed marriages, numerous papal decrees were issued 
 in medieval times. 
 
 To this process of miscegenation is attributed the great variety 
 of physical features observed amongst the Jews of 
 
 Physical different countries, while the distinctly red type 
 
 ^^^^' cropping out almost everywhere has been traced by 
 
 Sayce and others to primordial interminglings with the Amorites 
 (" Red People "). Dr Dalby declares that there are all kinds of 
 Jews — brown, white, dark ; Jews with black and with blue eyes ; 
 tall, short; concluding that there is, therefore, no longer any 
 question of a Jewish race at all^ Nevertheless certain marked 
 
 ^ Felix von Luschan also finds that *'of our modern Jews nearly 50% are 
 brachy, 1 1 have fair complexion, and not more than 5 correspond to what we 
 have learned to be the real old Semitic type" {Science, Jan. 12, 1894, p. 21). 
 He thinks that the majority of living Jews have the short-headed Armenian or 
 Hittite type, because "they are the descendants of an Armenoid population 
 that had only accepted Semitic writing and language in about 1000 B.C." (id.) 
 
XIII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 499 
 
 characteristics — large hooked nose, prominent watery eyes, thick 
 pendulous and almost everted under lip, rough frizzly lustreless 
 Hair — are sufficiently general to be regarded as racial traits. 
 
 The race is richly endowed with the most varied qualities, as 
 shown by the whole tenour of their history. Originally pure 
 nomads, they became excellent agriculturists after the settlement 
 in Canaan, and since then they have given proof of the highest 
 capacity for science, letters, erudition of all kinds, finance, music, 
 and diplomacy. The reputation of the medieval Arabs as restorers 
 of learning is largely due to their wise tolerance of the enlightened 
 Jewish communities in their midst, and on the other hand Spain 
 and Portugal have never recovered from the national loss sustained 
 by the expulsion of the Jews in the 14th and 15th centuries. In 
 late years the persecutions, especially in Russia, have caused a 
 fresh exodus from the east of Europe, and by the aid of philan- 
 thropic capitalists flourishing agricultural settlements have been 
 founded in Palestine and Argentina. From statistics taken in 
 various places since 1880 the Jewish communities are at present 
 estimated at about 6,500,000, of whom 5,500,000 are in Europe, 
 420,000 in Africa, 250,000 in Asia, the rest in America and 
 Austraha. 
 
 Intimately associated with all these Aramaic and Canaanitic 
 Semites were a mysterious people who have been _. , . . 
 
 •' , r, ■ n TheHittites. 
 
 identified with the Hittites^ of Scripture, and to 
 whom this name has been extended by common consent. 
 They are also identified with the Kheta of the Egyptian monu- 
 ments ^ as well as with the Khatti of the Assyrian cuneiform texts. 
 Indeed all these are, without any clear proof, assumed to be the 
 same people, and to them are ascribed a considerable number 
 of stones, cylinders, and gems from time to time picked up at 
 various points between the Middle Euphrates and the Mediter- 
 ranean, engraved in a kind of hieroglyphic or rather pictorial 
 
 1 First mentioned in Gen. xxv. 9: "Zohar the Hittite." 
 
 2 This identification is based on "the casts of Hittite profiles made by 
 Petrie from the Egyptian monuments. The profiles are peculiar, unlike those of 
 any other people representedVy the Egyptian artists, but they are identical 
 with the profiles which occur among the Hittite hieroglyphs" (A. H. Sayce, 
 Acad. Sept. 1894, p. 259). 
 
 32—2 
 
500 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 script, which has been variously deciphered according to the bias 
 or fancy of epigraphists. This simply means that the " Hittite 
 texts" have not yet been interpreted, and are likely to remain 
 unexplained, until a clue is found in some bilingual document, 
 such as the Rosetta Stone, which surrendered the secret of the 
 Egyptian hieroglyphs. 
 
 Meanwhile the Hittite language and people are proved to be 
 Semites, Pelasgians, "Turanians," or Ural-Altaic or Akkado- 
 Sumerians, of all of which views one may say with Prof. Peter 
 Jensen that they "are without foundation, and their results are 
 destitute of valued" Is the same to be said of the solution 
 proposed, or rather revived by Jensen himself? I am not com- 
 petent to decide, and can but say that his theory, which connects 
 the Hittite language with the Armenian branch of the Aryan 
 family, has been favourably received, and seems plausible. In 
 the Hittite area, which has still to be defined, he admits a Semitic 
 element, which was in remote times Aryanised in speech by Indo- 
 European intruders speaking an archaic form of the Armenian 
 language. 
 
 This view agrees well with some of the known conditions, and 
 is independently supported by the results of Von Luschan's 
 explorations in Senjirli, as well as by his theory on the modi- 
 fications of the Semitic type in western Asia by early inter- 
 minglings of Amorites and Jews with Hittites in this region. 
 In North Syria, land of the Amorites, " nearly all the heads are 
 brachy, with indices near to 90 ; and these same brachy elements 
 we find everywhere in Western Asia ; we find them more or less 
 prominent even with the modern Greeks, Armenians, and Turks 
 of Asia Minor, and especially the Armenians are most remarkable 
 
 1 Various papers in the Zeitschrift of the German Oriental Society, 1893- 
 96, and Hittiter unci Arnienier, a scholarly work which appeared in 1898 almost 
 simultaneously with C. R. Conder's The Hittites and their Lattgtiage. This 
 last is singularly inconclusive, and seems to fall between two stools by attempting 
 to compare the Hittite system *'on the one hand with what is called the Asian 
 syllabary, including the Cypriote syllables, and the extra letters of the Lycian 
 and Carian alphabets, which are generally admitted to be of the same origin ; 
 on the other by comparing the sounds and forms of the oldest known Sumerian 
 emblems" (p. 215). Peiser's "Turanians" and Reinach's "Pelasgians" seem 
 equally wide of the mark. 
 
XIII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 5OI 
 
 for the nearly complete uniformity of their types, for their dark 
 complexion, for their extreme brachycephalism and for their large 
 and hooked 'Jewish' nose.... The old brachy race [of Syria' 
 and Asia Minor], which from the beginning was utterly distinct 
 from any Semitic tribe, can only be identified with the Hittites — 
 the same Hittites mentioned as a Syrian tribe in the Bible, which 
 had been a strong and formidable enemy to Ramses II. [X/iefa]y 
 and were finally conquered by Assyrian kings in long wars, as we 
 read in the Assyrian annals from the 9th to the 7th century b.c.'" 
 
 At Senjirli, i.e. the Sammal mentioned in the Assyrian texts 
 as a Hittite station in north Syria, were found numerous Hittite 
 carvings with figures of strikingly Armenian type, so that "we 
 cannot err if we consider the inhabitants of Sammal as the direct 
 ancestors of the modern Armenians "^. But the presence of Semites 
 in the same old royal city is shown by two inscriptions of the 9th 
 and 8th centuries B.C., both in characters closely resembling those 
 of the famous Moabite inscription, and in a proto- Aramaic or proto- 
 Hebrew language. Here we seem to find Semites and Armenians 
 in actual contact, their fusion resulting in what Von Luschan and 
 Jensen would call Hittites. 
 
 In marked contrast to these mixed Semitic populations of 
 western Asia stand out the Arabs of the Nejd 
 
 1 1 , 1-1 ^ 1 • The Arabs. 
 
 plateau, who have to this day preserved their 
 Semitic type and speech almost in their full integrity, and whose 
 destiny it has been to absorb, or at least impose their language 
 on, all the other members of the Semitic family, the cosmopolitan 
 Jews and the Himyaritic rulers of Abyssinia alone excepted. We 
 have already seen how these fiery nomads, who in Muhammadau 
 times have overrun north Africa, stand related to their remote 
 Hamitic kinsmen, the Berber aborigines of that region. But they 
 have also ranged north to Mesopotamia and Syria, and the great 
 cities of Bagdad, Damascus, and Aleppo have long been centres 
 of Arab cult and culture. Here again Von Luschan points out 
 that of all the Semites the Bedouins alone form a homogeneous 
 unity, such as is represented on the earUest Egyptian monuments, 
 while the oldest Phoenician skulls "seem identical with old and 
 
 1 yews and Hittites, Science, Jan. 12, 1894. 
 
 2 jjyi^. 
 
502 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 modern Bedouin skulls, so that we must consider the modern 
 Bedouins as pure descendants of the old Semitic race. They 
 have long narrow heads, dark complexion, and a short, small and 
 straight nose, which is in every respect the direct counterpart of 
 what we are accustomed to call a ' typical Jewish race^ '. 
 
 Elsewhere — Iberia, Sicily, Malta", Irania, Central Asia, Ma- 
 laysia — the Arab invaders have failed to preserve either their 
 speech or their racial individuality. In some places (Spain, 
 Portugal, Sicily) they have disappeared altogether, leaving no- 
 thing behind them beyond some slight linguistic traces, and the 
 monuments of their wonderful architecture, crumbling Alhambras 
 or stupendous mosques re-consecrated as Christian temples. But 
 in the eastern lands their influence is still felt by multitudes, who 
 profess Islam and use the Arabic script in writing their Persian, 
 Turki, or Malay languages, because some centuries ago those 
 regions were swept by a tornado of rude Bedouin fanatics, or 
 else visited by peaceful traders and missionaries from the Arabian 
 peninsula. 
 
 The monotheism proclaimed by these zealous preachers is 
 
 often spoken of as a special inheritance of the 
 Monotheism. Semitic peoples, or at least already possessed by 
 
 them at such an early period in their life-history 
 as to seem inseparable from their very being. But it was not so. 
 Before the time of Allah or of Yahveh every hill-top had its 
 tutelar deity; the caves and rocks and the very atmosphere 
 swarmed with " jins " ; Assyrian and Phoenician pantheons, 
 with their Baals, and Molochs, and Astartes and Adonais, were 
 as thickly peopled as those of the Hellenes and Hindus, and 
 in this, as in all other natural systems of belief, the mono- 
 theistic concept was gradually evolved by a slow process of 
 elimination. Nor was the process perfected by all the Semitic 
 peoples — Canaanites, Assyrians, Amorites, Phoenicians, and others 
 having always remained at the polytheistic stage — but only by the 
 Hebrews and the Arabs, the two more richly endowed members 
 
 ^ Science, Jan. 12, 1894. 
 
 '^ The rude Semitic dialect still current in this island appears to be 
 fundamentally Phoenician (Carthaginian), later affected by Arabic and Italian 
 influences. (M. Mizzi, .-^ Voice from Malta, \^()6, passim.) 
 
XIII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 503 
 
 of the Semitic family. Even here a reservation has to be made, 
 for we now know that there was really but one evolution, that of 
 Yahveh, the adoption of the idea embodied in Allah being histori- 
 cally traceable to the Jewish and Christian systems. 
 
 Should the Hittites prove to be a Semito-Armenian blend, in 
 them will be found a direct transition between the 
 eastern and western populations. On the Semitic gjns^.^^^^^' 
 side they range to the Persian Gulf and Irania, 
 while the Armenian element connects them with the aborigines 
 of Asia Minor — Cappadocians, Lycians, Carians, Leleges, perhaps 
 Lydians and Phrygians. With these last we pass through the 
 Troad and the Propontis to the kindred Thracians, Pgeones, 
 Tyrrheni, Illyri and other pre- or proto-Hellenic peoples, grouped 
 by some authors collectively as " Pelasgians." Invented, as has 
 been said, for the purpose of confounding future ethnologists, these 
 Pelasgians certainly present an extremely difficult racial problem, 
 the solution of which has hitherto resisted the combined attacks 
 of ancient and modern students. When Dionysius tells us bluntly 
 that they were Greeks \ we fancy the question is settled off-hand, 
 until we find Herodotus describing them a few hundred years 
 earlier as aliens, rude in speech and usages, distinctly not Greeks, 
 and in his time here and there (Thrace, Hellespont) still 
 speaking apparently non- Hellenic dialects I Then Homer 
 several centuries still earlier, with his epithet of 8tot, occurring 
 both in the Iliad and the Odyssey^, exalts them almost above the 
 level of the Greeks themselves. But perhaps in these seeming 
 contradictions we may have a key to the puzzle, one which will 
 also fit in both with Sergi's Mediterranean theory, and with the 
 results of recent archaeological researches in the ^gean lands. 
 If the pre-Mykenaean culture revealed by Schliemann and others 
 in the Troad, Mykenae, Argos, Tiryns, by Mr A. J. Evans in 
 Crete, by Cesnola in Cyprus, be ascribed to a pre-Hellenic rather 
 than to a proto-Hellenic people, then the classical references will 
 explain themselves, while this pre-Hellenic race will be readily 
 
 1 ^b tQv neXa(r7u?i' yivos 'EWrjviKdv. 
 
 2 J. 27. 3 //. iQ^ 429; Od. 19, 177. 
 
504 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 identified with the Pelasgians, as this term is understood by 
 Sergi. 
 
 It is, I suppose, universally allowed that Greece really was 
 peopled before the arrival of the Hellenes, which term is here 
 to be taken as comprising all the Aryan intruders of Hellenic 
 speech. On their arrival the Hellenes therefore found the land 
 not only inhabited, but inhabited by a cultured people more 
 civihzed than themselves, that is to say, the pre-Mykenaeans, 
 Sergi's Pelasgian branch of the Mediterranean or Afro- European 
 stock, whom the proto-Hellenes naturally regarded as their 
 superiors, and whom their first singers also natu- 
 greaS^''^ ^ ^ally called SXol HcXao-yot^ But in the course of a 
 wide-spread fg^ centuries ^ thesc Pelasgians became Hellen- 
 
 People. . ° , . 
 
 ized, all but a few scattered groups, which lagging 
 behind in the general social progress are now also looked upon as 
 barbarians, speaking barbaric tongues, and are so described by 
 contemporary historians. Then these few remnants of a glorious 
 but forgotten past are also merged in the Hellenic stream, and 
 can no longer be distinguished from other Greeks by contemporary 
 writers. Hence for Dionysius the Pelasgians are simply Greeks, 
 
 1 "We recognize in the Pelasgi an ancient and honourable race, ante- 
 Hellenic, it is true, but distinguished from the Hellenes only in the political 
 and social development of their age.,.. Herodotus and others take a prejudiced 
 view when, reasoning back from the subsequent Tyrrhenian Pelasgi, they call 
 the ancient Pelasgians a rude and worthless race, their language barbarous, and 
 their deities nameless. Numerous traditionary accounts, of undoubted authen- 
 ticity, describe them as a brave, moral, and honourable people, which was less 
 a distinct stock and tribe, than a race united by a resemblance in manners and 
 the forms of life" (W. Wachsmuth, T/ie Historical Antiquities of the Greeks^ 
 etc., Engl. ed. 1837, i- P- 39)- Remarkable words to have been written before 
 the recent revelations of archaeology in Hellas. 
 
 2 That the two cultures went on for a long time side by side is evident from 
 the different social institutions and religious ideas prevailing in different parts 
 of Hellas during the strictly historic period. Thus there is no trace of fetishism 
 in Homer, who represents the Achaian (Hellenic) side, whereas fetish worship, 
 as popularly understood, prevailed in Arcadia, Attica, and other Pelasgic lands. 
 So with totemism, and the dark Poseidon of the Pelasgians who was finally 
 eclipsed by the fair Apollo, Zeus, and other gods of the Achaioi, It is a 
 vast subject, which has yet been scarcely touched; its elucidation will explain 
 much in the obscure ethnical relations of prehistoric Greece. 
 
XIII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 505 
 
 which in a sense may be true enough. All the heterogeneous 
 elements have been fused in a single Hellenic nationality, built 
 upon a rough Pelasgic substratum, and adorned with all the graces 
 of Hellenic culture. 
 
 Now to make good this hypothesis, it is necessary to show, 
 first, that the Pelasgians were not an obscure tribe, a small 
 people confined to some remote corner of Hellas, but a wide- 
 spread nation diffused over all the land; secondly, that this 
 nation, as far as can now be determined, presented mental and 
 other characters answering to those of Sergi's Mediterraneans, and 
 also such as might be looked for in a race capable of developing 
 the splendid ^2gean culture of pre-Hellenic times. 
 
 On the first point it may suffice to say that the Pelasgians 
 were everywhere*, so much so that the difficulty 
 rather is to discover a district where their presence o/the ^ 
 was unknown. They fill the background of Hellenic Mykenaean 
 origins, and even spread beyond the Hellenic 
 horizon, to such an extent that there seems little room for 
 any other people between the Adriatic and the Hellespont. 
 Prof. W. Ridge way ^ has brought together a good many passages 
 which clearly estabUsh their universal range, as well as their 
 occupation especially of those places where have been found 
 objects of Mykenaean and pre-Mykensean culture, such as en- 
 graved gems, pottery, implements, buildings, inscriptions in 
 pictographic and syllabic scripts. In Crete they had the "great 
 city of Knossos" in Homer's time^; not only was Mykenae 
 theirs, but the whole of Peloponnesus took the name of Pelasgia ; 
 the kings of Tiryns were Pelasgians, and Aeschylus calls Argos 
 a Pelasgian city ; an old wall at Athens was attributed to them, 
 and the people of Attica had from all time been Pelasgians ^ 
 Orchomenus in Bceotia was founded by a colony from Pelas- 
 giotis in Thessaly ; Lesbos also was called Pelasgia, and Homer 
 knew of Pelasgians in the Troad. Their settlements are further 
 
 ^ Karh T7> 'EWdSa Trdffap iireirdXaae (Strabo, V. 220). This might almost 
 be translated, "they floodecLthe whole of Greece." 
 
 2 Academy^ July 13, 1895, p. 32; and elsewhere. 
 
 3 Od. XIX. 
 
 ■1 Time. I. 3. 
 
506 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 traced to Egypt, to Rhodes, Cyprus, Epirus — where Dodona 
 was their ancient shrine — and lastly to various parts of Italy. 
 
 Moreover, the Pelasgians were traditionally the civiHsing 
 
 element, who taught people to make bread, to yoke 
 CuuSre." ^^^ o^ ^^ ^^^ plough, and to measure land. It would 
 
 appear from these and other allusions that there were 
 memories of still earlier aborigines, amongst whom the Pelasgians 
 appear as a cultured people, introducing perhaps the arts and 
 industries of the pre-Mykensean Age. But the assumption, 
 based on no known data, is unnecessary, and it seems more 
 reasonable to look on this culture as locally developed, to some 
 extent under eastern (Egyptian, Babylonian, Hittite?) influences ^ 
 Here it is important to note that the Pelasgians were credited 
 with a knowledge of letters ^ and all this may perhaps be taken as 
 sufficient confirmation of our second postulate. At least if a 
 writing system be regarded as the highest achievement of civilised 
 man, there need no longer be any hesitation in ascribing all the 
 other arts and industries of the "^gean school" to our Pelasgians. 
 That the Hellenes were at first, and probably long after their 
 advent in Greece, an illiterate people, might almost be inferred 
 from the solitary reference in Homer to writing of any kind^, the 
 more so since the writer is a Pelasgian king of Argos. The 
 reference thus shows that the Pelasgians were at that time a 
 cultured people, who corresponded with each other on both sides 
 of the yEgean, apparently in a script now revealed by the researches 
 
 ^ This idea of an independent evolution of western (European) culture 
 is steadily gaining ground, and is strenuously advocated, amongst others, by 
 M. Salomon Reinach, who has made a vigorous attack on what he calls the 
 "oriental mirage," i.e. the delusion which sees nothing but Asiatic or Egyptian 
 influences everywhere. Sergi of course goes further, regarding the Mediter- 
 ranean (Iberian, Ligurian, Pelasgian) cultures not only as local growths, but as 
 independent both of Asiatics and of the rude Aryan hordes, who came rather 
 as destroyers than civilisers. This is one of the fundamental ideas pervading 
 the whole of his Ariz e Italici, and some earlier writings. 
 
 ^ Pausanias, in. 20, 5. 
 
 '^ The famous aijixaTa \vypd "fatal signs" of //. VI. 168, called at 1. 178 
 arjixa KaKbv, "evil script," written in a "folding tablet" by Proetus, king of 
 Argos, and addressed to his father-in-law, the king of Lycia, to compass the 
 destruction of the bearer, Bellerophon. 
 
XIII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 507 
 
 of Mr Evans in Crete ^ Here were found, not one, but two 
 systems, a pictorial or hieroglyphic quite independent of the 
 Egyptian, and a linear or syllabic, the latter, it would seem, 
 developed from the former, while both overlapped each other, 
 i.e. were in concurrent use. Although some of the pictographs 
 resemble the Hittite symbols, they form as a whole an inde- 
 pendent group possibly of Cretan origin, though possibly also 
 belonging to an extensive hieroglyphic system spread over all the 
 ^gean lands, including Asia Minor and Peloponnesus. Similarly 
 the linear characters, assumed to be degraded Cretan pictographs, 
 show analogies with the Cypriote, Lycian, and other syllabaries, so 
 that we may here also have a syllabic system current in the same 
 region in Mykenaean times, or even earlier. Was it in this script 
 that King Proetus wrote his a-rjfjLaTa \vypd? If so, 
 should the document be recovered (archaeologists scripts. ^*^" 
 have accustomed us to such surprises) there are 
 prospects that it would not long remain undeciphered. Dr M. 
 Much has already set to work with German patience on the 
 syllabary with not unpromising results^, despite a somewhat 
 doubtful initial assumption. Supposing that the script is in some 
 archaic form of the Greek language, he takes a given symbol to 
 have the sound of the first letter of the corresponding Greek word, 
 on the principle of A for an Apple in children's pictorial alphabets. 
 Thus the character representing an axe would have the phonetic 
 value of A, this being the first letter of the Greek word 'A^iVry, an 
 axe, and so on. Of course everything depends on the language, 
 which, considering some ascertained dates such as that of Sargon I. 
 (3800 B.C.), was more probably Pelasgic or pre-Hellenic. So the 
 matter stands at present. 
 
 It is agreed that the ^gean culture was antecedent to a 
 knowledge of iron, and belonged in fact to the Bronze Age, with 
 its roots buried deeply in the preceding Neolithic period. Mr 
 Evans's view^ is that the arts and industries were developed first 
 in the Archipelago (Crete, Cyprus, etc.), and later on the Greek 
 mainland (Mykenae, Argos, etc.), and in Asia Minor (Lycia, the 
 
 1 Cretan Pictographs and Pra-PJmnician Script, 1896; and elsewhere. 
 
 '^ Globus, LXXI. p. 74 sq. 
 
 3 Paper read at the Meeting of the Brit. Assoc. Liverpool, 1896. 
 
508 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Troad) under eastern influences, but still independently, in so far 
 
 that the eastern models were not slavishly borrowed, but rather 
 
 assimilated and still further improved. Moreover, it was from the 
 
 ^gean centre, and not directly from the East, that the arts of the 
 
 Bronze and later periods were introduced into Europe, so that the 
 
 ^gean is to be regarded as the connecting link 
 
 SpJeld^^r^ between East and West, between, for instance, the 
 
 ^gean bronzes of Ireland and Scandinavia on the one hand 
 
 Culture. 
 
 and those of Egypt and Babylonia on the other. 
 His conclusions being based, not only on his own researches, but 
 also on those of Schliemann, Tsountas and others in Hissarlik 
 (Troy), Tiryns, Mykense, Argos, Cyprus, together with the 
 revelations of the Swiss lake- dwellings and the Terramare of 
 north Italy, have a solid foundation in fact, and are now largely 
 accepted by archseologists. The old views respecting the 
 "Etruscan" or "Semitic" origin of the Western Bronze culture, 
 are falling into the background, and making way for the several 
 periods of ^gean culture, as determined by the finds in the second 
 city of Troy, in Amorgos, under the volcanic bed in the island of 
 Thera, in the tombs of Mykenae and elsewhere. 
 
 The first period covers the wide domain comprised by Switzer- 
 land and Upper Italy, the Danube basin (especially Hungary) 
 and the Balkan peninsula; it is continued throughout a great part 
 of Asia Minor, and at last ends in Cyprus. In this artistic domain, 
 in which Asia Minor appears as a part of Europe, the later yEgean 
 culture was evolved mainly along the sea-coasts, for "life springs 
 from water." The assumption that navigation in the eastern 
 Mediterranean had its rise on the unsheltered Syrian seaboard, 
 where we now know that the Phoenicians arrived at a relatively 
 late period, can no longer be maintained. The ^gean islands 
 were the natural home of the earliest efforts of seafaring man, and 
 thus was here stimulated a higher degree of culture, which reacted 
 not only on the whole of the European domain, but also influenced 
 the earher Egyptian and Asiatic fields themselves. 
 
 But the influences were mutual, as shown by the ^gean 
 imitation of the Babylonian cylinders and other objects, and 
 especially by the spiral motive in ornamentation, which already 
 appears in the Amorgos (pre-Mykenaean) period, and later 
 
XIII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. S09 
 
 plays so great a part in European art, while absent from the 
 earliest productions of Asia Minor and the Danubian lands. 
 This motive, however, is shown by Petrie to be ultimately of 
 Egyptian origin, being met on the scarabs of the 4th dynasty. 
 The great development of the spiral and of other foreign designs 
 in Mykenaean art can be explained only on the assumption of 
 contact between Egypt and the vEgean about 1000 years earlier 
 than had hitherto been supposed \ 
 
 1 See p. 20. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 THE C AUG ASIC PEOPLES {continued). 
 
 The Peoples of Aryan Speech — The " Proto- Aryans" of two Types — 
 Linguistic Relations in Greece and Italy — Ethnical Relations in North 
 Germany — Teutonic Origins — Areas of Specialisation — The Bastania: 
 
 — The Meso- Goths — Later Migrations — Modification of the Teutonic Type 
 — De Lapouge's New Doctrine — The Kelto-Slavs : Their Ethnical 
 Position defined — Aberrant Ty^-olese Type — Rhcetians and Etruscans — 
 Etruscan Origins — The Kelts — Origins — Q-speaking Gaels and P-speaking 
 Kyniry — Past and Present Divisions — Migrations — Etymologies — The 
 Picts — Origins and Later Connections — Picts and Scots — Ethnic Relations 
 in Britain — Prehistoric and Historic Races — Long-heads and Round- 
 heads — Angles and Saxons — Formation of the English Nation — Ethnic 
 Relations in Ireland — and Scotland — Present Constitution of the British 
 Peoples — The English Language — The French Nation — Constituent 
 Elements — Mental Traits — T%e Spaniards and Portuguese — Ethnic Rela- 
 tions in Italy — Ligurian, Illyriaii, and Aryan Elemetits — The Present 
 Italians — Art and Ethics — The Rumanians — Ethnic Relations in Greece 
 
 — The Hellenes — Origins and Migrations — The Lithuanian Factor — 
 ^olians; Dorians; lonians — The Hellenic Legend — The Greek Lan- 
 guage — The Slavs — Origins and Migrations — Sarmatians and Budini 
 
 — Wends, Chekhs, and Poles — The Southern Slavs — Migrations — Serbs, 
 Croats, Bosnians — The Albanians — The Russians — Panslavism — Russian 
 Origins — Alans and Ossets — Aborigines of the Caucasus — The Iranians 
 — Ethnic and Linguistic Relations — Persians, Tajiks and Galchas — 
 Afghans — Lowland and Hill Tajiks — The Galchic Linguistic Family — 
 Galcha and Tajik Types — Homo Europceus and H. alpinus in Central 
 Asia — The Hindus — Ethnic Relations in India — Negroid, Mongoloid, 
 Dravidian, and Aryan Elements — The KSls — The Dravidians — Todas and 
 Kurumbas — The Civilized Dravidian and Aryan Groups — Dravidian arid 
 Neo-Sanskritic Languages — The Hindu Castes — The Oceanic Cauca- 
 sians — Micronesians — Eastern Polynesians — Origins, Types, and Divi- 
 sions— Migrations. 
 
 If the views of Mr Evans be accepted, there is an end of the 
 theory that Bronze came in with the "Aryans," and it is from this 
 standpoint that the revelation of an independent ^gean culture 
 in touch with Babylonia and Egypt some four milleniums before 
 
CHAP. XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 51I 
 
 the new era is of such momentous import in determining the 
 ethnical relations of the historical, i.e. the present European 
 populations. Whether we call them Achseans or Hellenes, 
 Umbrians or Itali, Sarmatians or Slavs, Teutons or Germans, 
 Gauls, Britons or Kelts, Basques or Spaniards, all may now, 
 roughly speaking, be regarded as originally North African Hamites, 
 both of the long-headed and round-headed types, indigenous from 
 remote times in that region. Europe would appear to have been 
 reached by two routes, first in the Stone Ages, across the Mediter- 
 ranean at several points, then round by Asia Minor and the 
 Eurasian steppe, mainly in the early Metal Age, or in the period 
 intermediate between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age, the 
 ^neolithic period of Italian archaeologists. Both routes were 
 followed by both types, the rather short, dark long-heads, i.e. the 
 "Mediterraneans" of Ripley and Sergi, becoming specialised 
 along the northern shores of the Mediterranean, in West Europe, 
 and the British Isles as Pelasgians, Ligurians, Iberians, Picts or 
 Silurians, while the dark or brown round-heads of medium height, 
 — the " Alpines " of Ripley and de Lapouge — were massed in the 
 central uplands (Auvergne, Savoy, Switzerland, Tyrol). 
 
 It is doubtful whether the Mediterraneans spread in large 
 numbers to North Europe (the North German lowlands and 
 Scandinavia), which region would seem to have been for the 
 most part occupied in Neolithic times by the tall blond long- 
 heads, — Ripley's Teutons, and the Homo Europceus of Linne 
 and de Lapouge — who came from the Eurasian steppe. Then 
 perhaps a little later the "Alpines" may have been reinforced 
 by other roundheads from the Iranian and Armenian uplands, 
 who at the same time spread over the East European plains. 
 
 Such prehistoric migrations would at least explain several 
 striking facts in the constitution of the European peoples, as for 
 instance, the absence everywhere of a clearly defined Mongol 
 type, except such as can be traced to quite late Mongol intruders ; 
 the astonishing diflfusion of the Alpine roundheads over the 
 eastern plains, that is, over well-nigh half of Europe, so that one 
 asks why this type should be called "Alpine," when it covers 
 nearly 2,000,000 square miles of lowlands; the perhaps still 
 more remarkable exclusion of the same Alpines or of any round- 
 
512 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 heads from the British Islands till the Bronze Age, here certainly 
 recent, say, about 1500 b.c. at the earliest ; the strange distribution 
 of the dolicho and brachy types in Italy and the islands, where 
 the positions seem to be reversed ; and lastly the presence of long- 
 heads in Greece in Mykenaean, i.e. Pelasgic or pre-Hellenic times, 
 the common assumption being that this element came in with 
 the long-headed Hellenes of Aryan speech. But if long-headed 
 Mediterraneans be once admitted as the substratum in the above 
 specified lands, all will be simplified. 
 
 The general character of the Aryan migrations has already 
 been considered. But it may here be pointed out 
 
 The"Proto- .- . , 
 
 Aryans" of that the Aryans, as a distmct race, were perhaps at 
 two types. ^^ \\m^ very numerous. Still, few or many, in their 
 
 cradle, which was presumably the Eurasian steppe, and before the 
 dispersions, they must have been a more or less homogeneous race 
 with definite physical characters. They could not, for instance, 
 have been both round and long-headed, fair and dark, tall and 
 short, but, let us say, tall, fair long-heads, as all things considered 
 seems the more probable view. How then does it happen that 
 from the first, that is, on their very first appearance in Europe, 
 peoples of Aryan speech present both types, as is clearly seen, for 
 instance, in the round-headed Kelts and the long-headed Teutons ? 
 Sergi solves the problem by assuming that the tribes of Aryan 
 speech entering Europe from Asia in the Bronze period were 
 all round-headed, and moreover rude barbarians who brought 
 nothing with them, except bronze, and their language. This they 
 imposed on the Mediterraneans, or rather grafted on the speech 
 of the Ligurians in Italy, and of the Pelasgians in Greece, which 
 must have been of Hamitic type : " The language of the Aryans 
 transformed, but did not destroy those spoken in Greece and 
 Italy \" There may be more truth in this than appears on the 
 surface, although the case is put in a way that can never be 
 accepted by philologists. To me it appears rather that the Aryan 
 
 tongues everywhere, so to say, took possession of 
 Reiatkmsin the soil, and effaced those previously current, but 
 ^ll\y^ ^^^ ^"^ ^^ doing became themselves somewhat modified, 
 
 especially in their vocabulary and phonetics. Even 
 ^ Arii e Italici^ p. 176. 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. * 513 
 
 their structure was disturbed by the conflict, so that there were 
 often great losses and reconstructions, as is plainly seen in the 
 Italic (Latin, Umbrian, Oscan) verbal system. The organic 
 Aryan future in s disappears in many verbs, and is replaced by 
 an analytical form, which in course of time again becomes 
 synthetic ^ 
 
 In this way the various members of the Aryan linguistic 
 family became specialised in their new homes, and it is reasonable 
 to suppose that such specialisation took place under local in- 
 fluences, Ligurian in Italy, Pelasgian in Greece, and so on. But 
 this is very different from saying that the Aryans, of Asiatic origin, 
 had on reaching Europe only one language divided into three 
 main branches, which are now well differentiated under the names 
 of Keltic, Germanic, and Slav, just as they had only one funda- 
 mental physical type ; also that the other so-called Aryan languages, 
 especially those of Greece and Italy, were never originally Aryan 
 (" non furono mai arie d' origin e "), but became transformed to 
 Aryan tongues, under the influence especially of the proto-Kelts 
 and the proto-Slavs, the two branches which invaded those regions. 
 
 The same phenomena, Sergi contends, must have taken place 
 amongst the long-headed people who first occupied North Europe. 
 They also came from Africa, are represented in the German 
 Reihengrdber, and are wrongly supposed to be 
 typical Teutonic Aryans from Asia. But they are Relations in 
 only Mediterraneans who, like the others in Italy, North Ger- 
 
 •' -^ many. 
 
 Greece, and elsewhere, were Aryanised in speech, 
 
 and generally yielded to the sway and cultural influences of 
 
 the round-headed Aryans arriving much later from Asia^ 
 
 This extension of the Mediterranean stock to north Europe and 
 Scandinavia is based by Sergi on what he claims to be an absolute 
 identity in the forms of the crania from the Reihengraber with 
 those of Ligurian graves in Italy. But too much seems to be 
 built on the common characters of these dolicho skulls, the two 
 races being in most other respects quite different, the northerners 
 
 1 Cf. Lat. habehit, where the Umbrian still has habiest (R. S. Conway, The 
 Italic Dialects, etc., Cambric^e University Press, 1897, vol. i. p. 428). 
 
 2 Arii e Italici, pp. 166-7 '■> Ueber den sogenannten Reihetigrdbertypus, p. 7, 
 and elsewhere. 
 
 K. 33 
 
514 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 tall, almost gigantic blonds, of robust if somewhat coarse physique, 
 the southerners dark, short or medium-sized, with finely pro- 
 portioned but slender figures. Nor is it explained how the dark 
 round-heads from Asia could have imposed their Aryan speech on 
 these tall blonds without close contact, interminglings, and con- 
 sequent modifications of the type. 
 
 Some other solution must therefore be sought for this Aryan 
 crux, and I think it will be found in the suggested twofold in- 
 vasion of Europe in relatively late times, by tall, blond long-heads 
 from the Eurasian steppe, , and by short, dark round-heads from 
 Armenia through Asia Minor, both being of Aryan speech. The 
 universality of this speech in Europe since the Metal period is an 
 immense factor in the problem, which can be explained only on the 
 assumption that the Aryan language had already been widely diffused 
 over the Eurasian steppe and the southern (Iranian, Armenian) 
 uplands in remote times, prior to the later Aryan migrations to 
 North, Central, and South Europe. Jensen's view that Hittite 
 was an early form of Armenian (Aryan) at present holds the field 
 (see above), while the very marked Armenian cranial type is now 
 traced from Asia right through the central European brachy zone 
 to the Alps and into north Africa where it originated, and even 
 west to the Canary Islands. Thus E. Chantre constitutes in 
 western Asia an Armenoid group of round-heads^ quite distinct 
 from the true long-headed Iranians, and the same type is found as 
 far west as Adalia and Lycia by von Luschan, who also identifies it 
 as Armenian, and as the aboriginal element in this region^. From 
 
 1 Includes the Kizilbashi, Metuali, Ansarieh, Bakhtian, "et quelques 
 autres families encore moins connues," besides the Armenians proper, hypsi- 
 brachy with cephalic index 85 to 90 {Recherches Anthropologiques dans PAsie 
 Occidentale, Lyons, 1895). Elsewhere {Les Armeniens, etc. in Bui. Soc. 
 d'Anthrop. de Lyon, 1896) this observer, who has spent five years in the field 
 (1890-94) describes the true Armenian type, figured on certain Assyrian bas- 
 reliefs, as hypsi-brachy with deep brown eyes and hair, long nose often convex 
 and rounded at tip, and below mean height, from remote times crossed probably 
 with Semites, Kurds, proto-Georgians, and Cappadocian.Bektashi. 
 
 ^ See Fig. 94 in his Reisen in Lykien, Vienna, 1889 ; also Archiv /. 
 Anthrop. xix. 1891. Hommel brings even blond Aryans into Asia Minor, 
 identifying the Scythians with the Iranians, some of whom ranged into Cilicia 
 and Cappadocia, where the Hittites are located by many. Proper names show 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 515 
 
 this source (without going with Prof. Herve^ to the Central Asian 
 Mongols) were therefore most probably derived the Asiatic round- 
 heads of the brachy zone of East and Alpine Europe. 
 
 On the other hand the tall long-headed blonds (Ripley's 
 Teutons and the typical "Aryans" of nearly all 
 German anthropologists), must have followed a more or7^ns°"**^ 
 northern route from the Eurasian steppe to the 
 Baltic lands, where they are by many regarded as indigenous, that 
 is, as having here been specialised in an environment favourable 
 to the development of a florid complexion and robust physique. 
 This suggestion, which is reasonable enough, in no way clashes 
 with a Eurasiatic origin, if understood to mean, not that the 
 Teutons sprang out of the soil in their present homes, but only 
 that, since their advent in this region in Neolithic times, they have 
 under new conditions acquired those physical characters by which 
 they have been distinguished throughout the historic period. 
 
 In fact the earliest known historic records all point in this 
 direction, that the Baltic lands (north Germany, Scandinavia, 
 the present Finland and Baltic provinces) are, in the sense here 
 suggested, the true home of the Teutonic race, a second area of 
 differentiation and dispersion in later times over Europe and half 
 the globe. Thus Gustav Kossinna^ shows that south Scandinavia 
 with Denmark, Mecklenburg, and Pomerania form the German 
 cradle ("Urheimat") since the Neolithic Age. Their farther east- 
 ward spread in the Bronze period can have started 
 only from Scandinavia, as direct trade-relations speciaHs°ation 
 between south Sweden and the mouth of the Oder ^"d Disper- 
 
 sion. 
 
 can be traced back to the beginning of the Metal 
 period. Somewhat later two distinct trade-routes can be clearly 
 followed through Bornholm (originally Burgund) and through 
 Jutland, while tribal names such as Warines, Goths, Burgunds 
 
 Iranian influences in Asia Minor, and reference is made to the "blue-eyed" 
 princess of Metanni spoken of in the Tell-el-Amama tablets {Sitzungsberichte, 
 Bohem. Acad, of Sc. 1898, "Hethiter u. Skythen "). 
 
 1 In Rev. de PEcole d'^throp., July 1898, this ethnologist makes all the 
 Kelts of direct Mongol lineage, entering Europe in the Neolithic Age with a 
 distinct Ural-Altaic type and culture. 
 
 - Indogerm. Forsch. vii. 3 and 4, Strassburg, 1896. 
 
 33—2 
 
5l6 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 common both to North Germany and Scandinavia, show the 
 intimate association of all these lands at the dawn of history. 
 
 At first no sharp parting line can be detected within the Teu- 
 tonic linguistic family ; but the Kattegat and Great Belt must soon 
 have divided the whole region into two distinct speech areas — south 
 Sweden and north Germany — which became gradually more 
 marked, while the cleft between north and south Germany must 
 also have grown wider by the spread of the tribes west and south 
 in the La Tene period, say about 300 B.C. The parting line was 
 now shifted to Jutland, whence the Cimbrians, Teutons, Eudusi, 
 Harudi, and Heruli streamed forth. Thus the general Teutonic 
 law of sound-shifting need not in its first (pre-historic) stage be 
 set back farther than about 400 B.C., although Miillenhoff dates 
 it some 600 years earlier. 
 
 In any case it is now certain that the great waves of Teutonic 
 migration began some time before the new era, and while some 
 set south and west, others, and these perhaps the earliest, flowed 
 south-east towards their original Eurasiatic seats. Amongst these 
 may have been the Thracians and the kindred Phrygians^ by 
 many believed to be of Germanic stock, but whether belated 
 Teutons left behind on their march to the north, or more recent 
 arrivals from the north, they do not say; nor indeed are there 
 sufficient data for a profitable discussion of the question. 
 
 We reach firmer ground with the Basiarnce, who are the earliest 
 Teutonic people that come within the historical 
 
 Bastarnse. horizon. Already mentioned doubtfully by Strabo 
 as separating the Germani from the Scythians 
 (Tyragetes) about the Dniester and Dnieper, their movements may 
 now be followed by authentic documents from the Baltic to the 
 Euxine. Fortwangler^ shows that the earliest known German 
 figures are those of the Adamklissi monument, in the Dobruja, 
 commemorating the victory of Crassus over the Bastarnse, Getae, 
 and Thracians in 28 B.C. The Bastarnae migrated before the 
 Cimbri and Teutons through the Vistula valley to the Lower 
 Danube about 200 b.c. They had relations with the Macedonians, 
 and the successes of Mithridates over the Romans were due to 
 
 ^ Paper read at the Meeting of the Ger. Anthrop. Soc, Spiers, 1896. 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 517 
 
 their aid. The account of their overthrow by Crassus in Die 
 Cassius is in striking accord with the scenes on the Adamklissi 
 monument. Here they appear dressed only in a kind of trowsers, 
 with long pointed beards, and defiant but noble features. The same 
 type recurs both on the column of Trajan, who engaged them as 
 auxiliaries in his Dacian wars, and on the Arch of Marcus Aurelius, 
 here however wearing a tunic, a sign perhaps of later Roman in- 
 fluences. And thus after 2000 years are answered Strabo's doubts 
 by modern archaeology. 
 
 Much later there followed along the same beaten track between 
 the Baltic and Black Sea a section of the Goths, whom 
 we find first settled in the Baltic lands in proximity Gclths.^°^^°" 
 to the Finns \ The exodus from this region can 
 scarcely have taken place before the 2nd century of the new era, 
 for they are still unknown to Strabo, while Tacitus locates them 
 on the Baltic between the Elbe and the Vistula. Later Cassio- 
 doras and others bring them from Scandinavia to the Vistula, and 
 up that river to the Euxine and Lower Danube. Although often 
 regarded as legendary, this migration is supported by archaeo- 
 logical evidence. In 1837 a gold ring inscribed with the oldest 
 runes was found at Petroassa in Wallachia, and in 1858 an iron 
 spearhead with a Gothic name in the same script^, which dates 
 from the first Iron Age, turned up near Kovel in Volhynia. The 
 spear-head is identical with one found in 1865 at Miinchenberg 
 in Brandenburg, on which Wimmer remarks that "of 15 Runic 
 inscriptions in Germany the two earliest occur on iron pikes. 
 There is no doubt that the runes of the Kovel spearhead and 
 of the ring came from Gothic tribes^" These Southern Goths, 
 later called Moeso-Goths, because they settled in Mcesia (Bulgaria 
 and Servia), had all the physical and even moral characters of the 
 Old Teutons, as seen in the Emperor Maximinus, born in Thrace 
 of a Goth by an Alan woman — very tall, strong, handsome, with 
 
 1 See p. 336. 
 
 t ^o 
 
 forms to Scandinavia and Bmain, but were current amongst the early Germanic 
 peoples, though apparently nowhere in extensive use. 
 
 ■^ Monwnents runiqius in Mem. Soc. R. Ant. du Nord, 1893. 
 
5l8 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CP[AP. 
 
 light hair and milk-white skin\ temperate in all things and of 
 great mental energy. 
 
 We thus see that this movement of the Goths to the Euxine 
 and Danube is not a primitive migration of " Aryans " from North 
 Europe, and should lend no support to the views of Penka, who 
 locates the Aryan cradle in that region. It is quite a recent 
 event, which is in no way opposed to the theory of Montelius and 
 other Swedish palethnologists that the proto-Teutons had origin- 
 ally migrated to Sweden from the Black Sea (the Eurasian steppe) 
 in the New Stone Age. Penka's objection that in this view the 
 Teutonic language could not contain such words, for instance, as 
 whale, seal, and lobster, is irrelevant. Such terms were of course 
 not brought from the Euxine, but were either loan-words or 
 normal developments during their long settlement on the shores 
 of the Baltic and German Ocean. 
 
 Before their absorption in the surrounding Bulgar and Slav 
 populations the Moeso-Goths were evangelised in the 4th century 
 by their bishop Ulfilas (" Wolf"), whose fragmentary translation 
 of Scripture, preserved in the Codex Argenteus of Upsala, is the 
 most precious monument of early Teutonic speech extant. 
 
 Without following the later migrations of Burgundians, Longo- 
 bards, Saxons, Angles, Franks, Vandals, Visigoths and the other 
 northern " barbarians," which are historic events, it will suffice to 
 indicate the results, so far as they have affected the physical 
 Modification characters of the present Germanic peoples. From 
 of the Teu- the examination made some years ago of 6,758,000 
 school children^, it would appear that about 31 per 
 cent, of living Germans may be classed as blonds, 14 as brunettes, 
 and 55 as mixed ; and further that of the blonds about 43 per cent, 
 are centred in North, 33 in Central and 24 in South Germany. 
 The brunettes increase, generally speaking, southwards, South 
 Bavaria showing only about 14 per cent, of blonds, and the same 
 law holds good of the long-heads and the round-heads respectively. 
 To what cause is to be attributed this profound modification of 
 the Teutonic type in the direction of the south? 
 
 ^ **Lactea cutis" (Sidonius Apollinaris). 
 
 ^ The results were tabulated by Virchow and may be seen, without going 
 to German sources, in the Times of Sept. 21, 1886. 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 519 
 
 That the Teutons ranged in considerable numbers far beyond 
 their northern seats is proved by the spread of the German 
 language to the central highlands, and beyond them down the 
 southern slopes, where a rude High German dialect lingered on 
 in the so-called " Seven Communes " of the Veronese district far 
 into the nineteenth century. But after passing the Main, which 
 appears to have long formed the ethnical divide for Central 
 Europe, they entered the zone of the brown Alpine round-heads \ 
 to whom they communicated their speech, but by whom they were 
 largely modified in physical appearance. The process has for 
 long ages been much the same everywhere — perennial streams of 
 Teutonism setting steadily from the north, all successively sub- 
 merged in the great ocean of dark round-headed humanity, which 
 under many names has occupied the central uplands and eastern 
 plains since the Neolithic Age, overflowing also in later times 
 into the Balkan Peninsula. 
 
 This absorption of what is assumed to be the superior in the 
 inferior type, may be due to the conditions of the general move- 
 ment — warlike bands, accompanied by few women, appearing as 
 conquerors in the midst of the Alpines and merging with them 
 in the great mass of brachy populations. Or is the transformation 
 to be explained by de Lapouge's new doctrine, which, whatever may 
 be its ultimate fate, is at least entitled to a respectful hearing, and 
 not to be dismissed, as Sergi and others dismiss it, as " fantastic " ? 
 Briefly put, the theory is that the long and the round cranial forms 
 are not so much a question of race as of social conditions, and 
 that, owing to the increasingly unfavourable nature of these con- 
 ditions, there is a general tendency for the superior long-heads to 
 be absorbed in the inferior round-heads^. 
 
 Thus is struck a deep pessimistic note, which under the cover 
 
 1 See Ripley's Craniological chart in Notes et Domments potcr la construc- 
 tion cTune carte de VIndice Cephalique en Europe. 
 
 2 The case is stated in uncompromising language by M. Alfred Fouillee : 
 "Une autre loi, plus generalement admise, c'estque depuis les temps prehisto- 
 riques, les brachycephales tendent a eliminer les dolichocephales par I'invasion 
 progressive des couches inferieures et I'absorption des aristocraties dans les 
 democraties, ou elles viennent se noyer" {Rev. des Deux Mondes, March 15, 
 1895). 
 
520 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 of science aims a deadly blow at modern culture. De Lapouge^ 
 contends that in France the restless and more enterprising long- 
 heads migrate from the rural districts in disproportionate numbers 
 to the towns, where they die out. For the department of Aveyron 
 he gives a table showing a steady rise of the cephalic index from 
 7 1 '4 in prehistoric times to 86 '5 in 1889, and attributes this to 
 the dolichos gravitating chiefly to the large towns, as Dr Ammon 
 has also shown for Baden. Dr L. Laloy sums up the results thus : 
 France is being depopulated, and, what is worse, it is precisely 
 the best section of the inhabitants that disappears, the section 
 most productive in eminent men in all departments of learning, 
 while the ignorant and rude pecus alone increase. 
 
 These views have met with favour even across the Atlantic, 
 but are by no means universally accepted. The ground seems 
 cut from the whole theory by Prof. A. Macalister, who had a 
 paper at the Toronto Meeting of the British Association, 1897, 
 on "The Causes of Brachycephaly," showing that the infantile and 
 primitive skull is relatively long, and that there is a gradual change, 
 phylogenetic (racial) as well as ontogenetic (individual) toward 
 brachycephaly, which is certainly correlated with, and is apparently 
 produced by, cerebral activity and growth ; in the process of 
 development in the individual and the race the frontal lobes of 
 the brain grow the more rapidly and tend to fill out and broaden 
 the skulP. The tendency would thus have nothing to do with 
 rustic and urban life, nor would the round be necessarily, if at all, 
 inferior to the long head. Some of de Lapouge's generalisations 
 are also traversed by Livi^ Deniker'', Sergi'^ and others, so that a 
 
 ^ Recherches Anthrop. stir le ProbUme de la Depopulation^ in Rev. d'Econo- 
 mie politique^ ix. p. 1002; x. p. 132 (1895-6). "-^ Nature, 1897, p. 487. 
 
 ^ Livi's results for Italy {Antroponietria Militare) differ in some respects 
 from those of de Lapouge and Ammon for France and Baden. Thus he finds 
 that in the brachy districts the urban population is less brachy than the rural, 
 while in the dolicho districts the towns are more brachy than the plains. 
 
 ^ Dealing with some recent studies of the Lithuanian race, Deniker writes : 
 *'Ainsi, done, contrairement aux idees de MM, de Lapouge et Ammon, en 
 Pologne, comme d'ailleurs en Italic, les classes les plus instruites, dirigeantes, 
 urbaires, sont plus brachy que les paysans" {V Anthropologie, 1896, p. 351). 
 Similar contradictions occur in connection with light and dark hair, eyes etc. 
 
 ^ "E qui non posso tralasciare di avvertire un errore assai diffuso fra gli 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 521 
 
 huge superstructure seems to have been built up on very weak 
 foundations. 
 
 But whatever be the cause, the fact must be accepted that 
 Homo EuropcEus (the Teutons) becomes merged 
 southwards in Homo Alpinus, whose names, as siavs.^^^*° 
 stated, are many. If, with Broca, we call him Kelt, 
 or Slavo-Kelt, the expression need no longer lead to misunder- 
 standings, as for us it now simply implies a great mass of Neo- 
 lithic round-heads from Africa, later — probably in the Copper or 
 Early Bronze Age — reinforced by other round-heads of Aryan 
 speech from Asia, with whom they united and from whom they 
 received their Keltic and Slavonic languages. 
 
 It is remarkable that in the Alpine region, especially Tyrol, 
 where the brachy element comes to a focus, there 
 is a peculiar form of round-head which has greatly Tyrotese Type, 
 puzzled de Lapouge, but may perhaps be accounted 
 for on this hypothesis of two brachy types here fused in one. To 
 explain the exceedingly round Tyrolese head, which shows 
 affinities on the one hand with the Swiss, on the other with the 
 Illyrian and Albanian, that is, with the normal Alpine, a Mongol 
 strain has been suggested, but is rightly rejected by Franz 
 Tappeiner as inadmissible on many grounds'. De Ujfalvy^, a 
 follower of de Lapouge, looks on the hyperbrachy 
 Tyrolese as descendants of the ancient Rhsetians or and Rtrifscans. 
 Rasenes, whom so many regard as the parent stock 
 of the Etruscans. 
 
 But Montelius with most other modern ethnologists rejects the 
 land route from the north, and brings the Etruscans by the sea 
 
 antropologi...i quali vorrebbero ammettere una trasformazione del cranio da 
 dolicocefalo in brachicefalo " {Arii e Italici, p. 155). 
 
 1 This specialist insists "dass von einer mongolischen Einwanderung in 
 Europa keine Rede mehr sein konne" {Der europaische Mensch u. die Th-oler, 
 1896). He is of course speaking of prehistoric times, not of the late (historical) 
 Mongol irruptions. 
 
 - "Malgre les nonibreuses invasions des populations germaniques, le 
 Tyrolien est reste, quant a sa conformation cranienne, le Rasene ou Rhsetien 
 des temps antiques — hypemrachycephale " [Les Aryens, p. 7). The mean 
 index of the so-called Disentis type of Rhsetian skulls is about 86 (His and 
 Ruetimaer, Crania Helvetica, p. 29 and Plate E. i). 
 
522 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 route direct from the yEgean and Lydia (Asia Minor). They are 
 the Thessalian Pelasgians whom Hellanikos of Lesbos brings to 
 Campania, or the Tyrrhenian Pelasgians transported by AntikHdes 
 from Asia Minor to Etruria, and he is " quite sure that the archseo- 
 logical facts in Central and North Italy... prove the truth of this 
 tradition \" Of course, until the affinities of the Etruscan lan- 
 guage are determined, from which we are still as far off as ever-, 
 Etruscan origins must remain chiefly an archaeological ques- 
 tion. Even the help afforded by the crania from 
 Orig^ins!^" the Etruscau tombs is but slight, both long and 
 round heads being here found in the closest associa- 
 tion. Sergi, who also brings the Etruscans from the east, explains 
 this by supposing that, being Pelasgians, they were of the same 
 dolicho Mediterranean stock as the Italians (Ligurians) themselves, 
 and differed only from the brachy Umbrians of Aryan speech. 
 Hence the skulls from the tombs are of two types, the intruding 
 Aryan, and the Mediterranean, the latter, whether representing 
 native Ligurians or intruding Etruscans, being indistinguishable. 
 " I can show," he says, "Etruscan crania, which differ in no respect 
 from the Italian [Ligurian], from the oldest graves, as I can also 
 show heads from the Etruscan graves which do not differ from 
 those still found in Aryan lands, whether Slav, Keltic, or 
 Germanic^." 
 
 ^ T/ie Tyrrhenians in Greece and Italy, in Jour. Ant/wop. Inst. 1897, p. 
 258. In this splendidly illustrated paper the date of the immigration is referred 
 to the nth century B.C. on the ground that the first Etruscan s?eculum was 
 considered as beginning about 1050 B.C., presumably the date of their arrival 
 in Italy (p. 259). But Sergi thinks they did not arrive till about the end of the 
 8th century [Arii e Italici, p. X49). 
 
 ^ On the linguistic side of the question see especially Dr Carl Pauli's 
 Altitalische Forschtcngen, Vol. ii. Leipzig, 1894. This philologist treats the 
 famous inscription of Lemnos as pre-Hellenic, and as "Pelasgic," a language 
 which he holds to have been closely related to Etruscan. The inscription, 
 presumably a funeral epitaph, he refers to the 7th century B.C., and all previous 
 essays at interpretation are qualified as "equally valuable, i.e. equally worth- 
 less." Much use is made of the mummy swathing from Egypt lately found at 
 Agram, which contains the longest extant Etruscan text. Looking at the 
 question a priori one might suppose Etruscan = Pelasgian, where both members 
 of the equation are unfortunately unknown quantities. 
 
 3 Op. cit. p. 1 51. By German he means the round-headed South German, 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 523 
 
 However this may be, the peoples of Keltic speech can never 
 be shown to be true Aryans of the Teutonic type, 
 but only tribes most probably of the Alpine type 
 Aryanised in speech in very remote times, and apparently before 
 their appearance in Europe. This may almost be inferred from 
 the consideration that, as far back as they can be traced, they are 
 already found split into two linguistic sections, which, from the 
 interchange of the letters P and Q in the two sister tongues, have 
 been called by Prof Rhys the P- and the Q-Kelts. Reference to 
 the common Aryan speech shows that Q is original, i.e. the shift 
 has been, not from P to Q, but from Qto P, so that 
 the Q-speaking Kelts should so far be regarded as K^ts"^ ^ 
 the elder branch. Both still survive in what has 
 been called the "Keltic fringe," that is, the strips of territory on 
 the skirts of the Teutonic and Neo-Latin domains in the extreme 
 west — Brittany, Wales, parts of Ireland, the Scotch Highlands and 
 the Isle of Man — where Keltic dialects are still spoken. In 
 Welsh and Breton, also in Cornish, extinct before the close of the 
 iSth century,/, often voiced to b^ takes the place of ^, normally 
 changed to c^k, in Irish, Gaelic (Highland Scotch), and Manx\ 
 Thus the Irish mac, son, answers to the Welsh map, ap, p, as in 
 Ap-John, P-rice; cen, head (as in Kinsale, "Old liea.d") =pen, 
 ben (as in Penryn in Cornwall, Penrhyn in Wales, Ben-Lomo7id 
 in Scotland). With this cue is partly revealed the vast domain 
 formerly occupied on the mainland by peoples of Keltic speech, 
 as seen in the Italian A-pen-nines (cf. Pennine chain in England), 
 the Penha range in Portugal, etc. 
 
 It is noteworthy that this geographical terminology belongs 
 mostly to the P branch, as if in the first migrations, apparently 
 from Asia Minor through the Balkan Peninsula to and up the 
 
 which he regards as jointly constituting with the round-headed Slav and Keltic 
 the true primitive stock of Aryan speech in Europe. It is all very confusing, 
 and one finds the greatest difficulty in threading this maze of ethnological 
 contradictions created by the new theories of Sergi and de Lapouge super- 
 imposed on the old "ortl^cdox Aryan views." 
 
 ^ Manx, which is not a mere dialect of Irish, but a sister tongue, is credited 
 with traces of the original Aryan qu = kw; but the point is doubtful, as the 
 sound may be, not a survival, but a revival like the French quoi (H. Bradley). 
 
524 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Danube to the former Keltic lands of Bohemia, Helvetia, Gaul 
 and Britain, the traces left by the elder Q's had been effaced by 
 the P's arriving later \ The phenomenon may also, perhaps, be 
 partly due to the tendency in the Q group to drop initial/, as in 
 Erin = Perm, where the / seems preserved in the Greek Iliepta^, 
 the name of a district on the route taken by the 
 
 Migrations. ^ •' 
 
 Q's to the Danube. A difficulty is presented by 
 the Gatds, Caesar's CeltcE between the Garonne and the Seine, 
 who form the great bulk of the present French nation, and are 
 known from the surviving fragments of their speech to have been 
 P's, despite their name, which seems to connect them with the 
 Gaelic Q's. But it would appear that Galli is from the common 
 Keltic root gal, "valour," occurring also in Galatce, i.e. those 
 Gauls who later, reversing the former route, swept through 
 Greece back to their original homes in Asia Minor, and were 
 honoured by a letter from St Paul. The name has nothing to do 
 with the Irish Goidi/, Gaoidhil, Gael, the etymology of which is 
 unknown^. Another difficulty is raised by Cymro, plural Cymry, 
 the national name of the Welsh or British Kelts, and assumed to 
 be the same as that of the Teutonic Cifubru But although such 
 shiftings of national names are not impossible and do occur, as 
 with the Gallo-Romans, who now call their country France, and 
 themselves Francais from their conquerors the Germanic Franks, 
 the Cimbri never conquered the British Cymry, who are the 
 Com-brog^, the people of the " marches," or borderlands, perhaps 
 
 ^ Qu of course occurs in place-names in Gallic territory; "but it is not yet 
 absolutely proved that the Gaulish place-names with qji are Aryan, or that if 
 .Aryan their qti is etymologically equivalent to the Welsh /" (H. Bradley,^ 
 Acad. Jan. 9, 1892, p. 42). 
 
 - Birthplace of the Muses and Orpheus, quoted by Prof. Thurmeysen in 
 Keltoromanisches, Halle, 1884. Keltic scholars, 1 believe, generally recognise 
 a loss of/ in Erin. 
 
 •^ It has been equated with Lat. hoedus, while Celtte, the Kelts, is referred 
 to the same root as Lat. celstis, and Lithuanian keltas, lofty, exalted, noble, 
 it is curious to note in this connection that the Kelts appear before their further 
 westward wanderings to have been long in close association with the Lithu- 
 anians, as well as with other Slav peoples. 
 
 ^ Cf. Allo-broges, where the Gaulish stem brog, Welsh bro^ Ir. bi'ug, point 
 through the Old- Irish nirug to an original Keltic root mrugii, cognate with 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 525 
 
 in reference to the remote times when they first reached Britain 
 from Upper Gaul and there dwelt on the frontiers of their Pictish 
 forerunners from Lower Gaul. 
 
 There is no longer much doubt as to the identity of these 
 Picts with the Continental Pictones, Fictavi, whose 
 name survives in Foitou, and its chief town Poitiers. 
 The classical references show that in Roman times the Pictones 
 were of Gaulish speech, but there is good reason to believe that 
 their original language was Iberian, which, as above seen, was 
 radically connected with the Berber (Hamitic) of North Africa. 
 They may therefore be taken as Aryanised Mediterraneans, and 
 the question will then arise, Were they Aryanised before or after 
 the migration to Britain ? If before, then the emigrants of Iberian 
 speech must have been Aryanised in their new insular homes at 
 an early date. It is remarkable that by the Irish the Picts 
 were commonly called Cruithne, which answers etymologically 
 to Prydain ( Yfiys Prydain) a Welsh name for the " Island of 
 Britain \" They were therefore, apparently, not distinguished by 
 the Irish from the Kymry and other Britons, which could scarcely 
 be the case had they, within the memory of man, spoken an 
 Iberian or any other non-British tongue. 
 
 Thus may, perhaps, be explained the faint (if any) traces of 
 Iberian speech in Britain, where the Picts were, at least at first, 
 more closely connected with the Kymry than with the Scots, that 
 is, the Gaels from Ireland ^. Their association with these Scots, 
 
 Lat. viargo, Goth, marka, Eng. mark, as in T>Qnmark and Marcomanni, the 
 "Men of the Marches," i.e. the southern Germans dwelling about the Kelto- 
 Slav borderlands. The general equation is due to J. Kaspar Zeuss, whose 
 great work, Graminatica Celtica, 1853, introduced order into Keltic philology 
 and ethnology. 
 
 1 This troublesome name, originally Brettdna, is connected by Rhys with 
 Welsh brethyn, "cloth," so that BreUdm = the "cloth-clad," and is to be 
 distinguished from Prydyn, the native name both for the Picts and for Scotland. 
 
 2 That the Scots were Gaels might perhaps be questioned ; but that they 
 came over from the north of Ireland in comparatively recent times is beyond 
 all doubt. In the very old, if not quite authentic, Confessio of St Patrick 
 occurs the expression "una\)enedicta Scota," and Ireland itself was called 
 Scotia, later Scotia Major, to distinguish it from Scotia Minor, i.e. North 
 Britain, to which the name was extended after the Scots had reduced the Picts. 
 
526 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 first as allies against the Romans, and then as rivals for the 
 supremacy in North Britain, came later, and explains the presence 
 of Gaelic names in the Pictish Chronicle. This document, on 
 which so much has been built, is of Gaelic origin, and, as many of 
 the Pictish kings had Gaelic blood in their veins, it is not surprising 
 to find in the Pictish lists those Gaelic names on which are based 
 the views of Mr Skene and others regarding the GaeUc origin or 
 aflinities of the Picts. In my opinion the Picts were Iberians 
 Aryanised either in Gaul or in Britain, not by Gaelic but by 
 Kymric Kelts, and this seems to be borne out by the local 
 geographical nomenclature, where the voicing of/ to b, and other 
 phonetic changes, may perhaps be due to Iberian influences. 
 Thus of aber and the equivalent inver^ a confluence, river-mouth, 
 or estuary, the former alone occurs in Wales, the latter alone in 
 Ireland \ but both somewhat irregularly and even confusedly in 
 Scotland^, showing the presence and intermingling here of the two 
 elements, as might be expected. But in Spain we have aber alone 
 {Iberm, Ebro), and no inver^ from which, if the equation be 
 allowed, it may be inferred that the Picts did not reach Ireland 
 at all, and were Aryanised by the British if the assimilation took 
 place after the migration from Gaul, and consequently that the 
 Keltic language spoken by them was not Gaelic, but Kymric some- 
 what modified phonetically in North Britain. 
 
 This view accords completely with the anthropological and 
 archaeological data supplied by such authorities as Drs Beddoe 
 and Thurnam and Sir John Evans, and also with the present 
 ethnical relations in the British Isles, as set forth by Prof. Ripley^. 
 Of these relations the most striking feature is the apparently 
 inexplicable uniformity in the shape of the head, which is every- 
 ^, . . _, where rather long, more oval than round, with a 
 
 Ethnic Re- . . 
 
 lations in mean cephalic index of about 78°, but nowhere 
 
 falling below 76° or rising above 79°. This is the 
 
 more remarkable since Britain has been successively occupied by 
 
 ^ Isaac Taylor, Names and their Histories, 1896, p. 37- 
 
 2 C. Blackie, A Dictionary of Place- Naities, 1887, p. 112, where it is 
 pointed out that inver is "found sometimes at the mouth and aber farther up 
 the same stream. Thus : Ahergeldie and Invergeldie, Abernyte and Invernyte. " 
 
 ^ Popular Science Monthly, Dec. 1897, p. 145 sq. 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 527 
 
 a great number of peoples — primitive man in the Old Stone Age ; 
 Picts, and perhaps others associated with the dolmens and other 
 MegaUthic monuments, in the New Stone Age; tribes of Keltic 
 speech, commonly called Kelts, in the Bronze period, possibly as 
 early as 2000 B.C. ; Belgae or proto-Teutons somewhat later ; 
 Romans and their legionaries of diverse origins about the new 
 era ; early and later Frisians, Saxons, Angles and others of Teu- 
 tonic speech, say between 300 and 500 a.d. ; Scandinavians, chiefly 
 Danes and Norwegians, of kindred speech, 8th to loth century; 
 Normans, mainly Norsemen Romanised in speech, nth century, 
 with sporadic arrivals from the mainland down to the present time. 
 
 But the first two strata, i.e. the men of the Stone Ages, were both 
 long-headed, the first exclusively so, the second in ^^^ ^ 
 great majority, our Picts being now identified with and Round- 
 the Iberians who, as shown by Sergi, were a branch of 
 the long-headed Mediterraneans from Africa. The identity indeed 
 is placed beyond reasonable doubt by the fact that these Neolithic 
 Picts belonged all to the so-called long-barrow period, and that 
 these long barrows, egg-shaped and often several hundred feet in 
 length, have yielded the remains of a singularly uniform type, 
 extremely dolicho (nearly all well under 80° and even as low as 
 70''), and at the same time of rather low stature (5 ft. 5 in.), thus 
 corresponding exactly with Sergi's Mediterraneans \ The barrows, 
 occurring chiefly in the south-west (Wilts, Gloucestershire, the 
 Cotswold Hills, and farther north), are shown to be of the Neo- 
 lithic Age by their contents — poHshed stone implements, pottery, 
 but no bronze. It is further shown by Dr Garson that the men 
 of this period were spread over the whole of Britain as far as the 
 extreme north of Scotland and the Orkneys ^ 
 
 They were succeeded in the Bronze Age by men of quite a 
 
 1 See especially his Ursprung u. Verbreittmg des Mittelldndischen Stammes, 
 1897, p. 76: "Ich habe die Formen aus den britischen Hugeln [long barrows] 
 mit alten und neuen mittellandischen verglichen, und habe die charakteris- 
 tischen Formen Spaniens und Portugals gefunden, wie sie bei Mugem und in den 
 Hohlen Italiens, Griechenlands, zu Hissarlik und in Ostafrika ausgegraben 
 worden sind." 
 
 - Nature, Nov. 15 anil 22, 1894; see also Boyd Dawkins, Early Man in 
 Britain, 1880, Chap. ix. "Historical Evidence of Iberic and Celtic Races in 
 Spain and Gaul," Fig. 112, p. 318. 
 
528 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 different type, tall (5 ft. 8 in.) and round-headed (83°), who also 
 built round barrows, whence Thurnam's dictum: "long-barrow, 
 long skull; round-barrow, round skull." Later research has 
 mainly confirmed this ethnic law, although it is not to be sup- 
 posed that the Neohthic race had died out or been extirpated 
 by their successors. Some are, on the contrary, found buried 
 with them in the same barrows, and Dr Garson shows that the 
 Neolithic element survives to this day in the British Isles'. In 
 fact it would appear to have already largely absorbed the Bronze 
 element before it was reinforced later by the historical long-heads : 
 " This broad-headed invasion is the only case where such an ethnic 
 element ever crossed the English Channel in numbers sufficient 
 to affect the physical type of the aborigines. Even here its 
 influence was but transitory ; the energy of the invasion speedily 
 dissipated ; for at the opening of the historic period, judged by 
 the sepulchral remains, the earlier [dolicho] types had consider- 
 ably absorbed the new-comers'^." 
 
 Whence came these tall round-heads ? Some with Dr Rolleston^ 
 would bring them from Scandinavia, where there is certainly a 
 somewhat puzzling brachy element both along the south-west 
 coast of Norway and in Denmark. But in that case they must 
 have spoken some early Low German dialect, of which there are no 
 clear traces in the tribal and place names of the Bronze Age. At 
 that time Britain seems to have belonged entirely to the domain 
 of Keltic speech^, nor could there be any hesitation in identifying 
 
 ^ Nature, Nov. 15 and 22, 1894. ^ Ripley, p. 153. 
 
 •^ T. V. Holmes describes them as ' ' taller, stronger and much rougher in 
 appearance, with large frontal sinuses and supra-orbital ridges, prominent cheek- 
 bones and heavy jaws" {Notes on the Evidence hearing on British Ethnology^ 
 1886), and he quotes Rolleston {British Barrows, p. 680) : "The Briton of the 
 round-barrow period almost certainly presented much the same combination 
 of physical peculiarities as the modern Finn and Dane"; hence the inference 
 that the Bronze people were men from what is now Denmark, but "of Finnish 
 and not Teutonic affinities" (p. 5). But we now know that there were no 
 Finns west of the Gulf of Finland till quite late times (see Chap. ix. p. 334). 
 Still the question is beset with difficulties, and the British round-heads seem 
 undoubtedly to resemble those of the Danish Neolithic Age more than they 
 do de Lapouge's H. Alpimis, and much more than those of the Disentis type. 
 
 ■* Even the intruding Belgae, referred to by Caesar {B.G. v. 12), and no doubt 
 originally of Teutonic speech, seem to have soon been Kelticised. 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 529 
 
 our round-heads with Broca's Kehs but for their stature. The 
 simplest explanation seems to be that the Bronze people were 
 really of Keltic speech, but came from the north of Gaul, where 
 the average height has always been somewhat higher than in the 
 south. 
 
 After the passage of the Romans, who mingled little with the 
 aborigines and left few traces of their presence in Formation of 
 the speech or type of the British populations, a the English 
 great transformation was effected in these respects 
 by the arrival of the historical Teutonic tribes. The Ibero-Keltic 
 substratum was perhaps nowhere effaced, but rather thinned out 
 by the prolonged wars of conquest and all their attendant evils. 
 Large numbers undoubtedly migrated beyond the seas, Kymry to 
 Brittany, and to Ireland those Gaels who had still lingered on in 
 Britain. The residue were now gradually merged with the in- 
 truders in a common nationality of English speech, everywhere 
 except in the Keltic fringe, which then, and long after, still in- 
 cluded Cornwall and Cumberland. The Teutonic element was 
 later strengthened by the arrival of the Scandinavians and Normans, 
 all very much of the same physical type, after which no serious 
 accessions were made to this composite ethnical group, which 
 on the east side ranged uninterruptedly from the Channel to 
 the Grampians. Later the expansion was continued northwards 
 beyond the Grampians, and westwards through Strathclyde to 
 Ireland, while now the spread of education and the development 
 of the industries are already threatening to absorb the last strong- 
 holds of Kymric and Gaelic speech in Wales, the Highlands, and 
 Ireland. 
 
 Thanks to its isolation in the extreme west, Ireland had been 
 left untouched by some of the above described Ethnic Re- 
 ethnical movements. It is doubtful whether Palaeo- lations in 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 lithic man ever reached this region, and but few 
 even of the round-heads ranged so far west during the Bronze 
 Age. The prehistoric station explored by Mr F. J. Bigger at 
 Portnafeady near Roundstone, Connemara, yielded several stone 
 hammers, but neither t^rked flints nor metal-ware', as if the 
 
 1 Proc. R. Ir. Acad. ill. May 1896. 
 K. 34 
 
530 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 district had never been visited either in the Old Stone or the 
 Bronze age. Nevertheless Mr W. J. Knowles^ suggests from the 
 close resemblance — in fact identity — of a great number of Neolithic 
 objects in Ireland with Palaeolithic forms in France (Saint-Acheul, 
 Moustrier, Solutre, La Madeleine types), that the Irish objects 
 bridge over the gap between the two ages, and were worked by 
 tribes from the continent following the migration of the reindeer 
 northwards. These peoples may have continued to make tools of 
 palaeolithic types, while at the same time coming under the in- 
 fluence of the Neolithic culture gradually arriving from some 
 southern region. The astonishing development of this Neolithic 
 culture in the remote island on the confines of the west, as illus- 
 trated in Mr VV. C. Borlase's sumptuous volumes^ is a perpetual 
 wonder, and indeed would be inexplicable but for the now proved 
 immense duration of the New Stone Age in the British Isles^ 
 
 The Irish dolmen-builders were presumably of the same long- 
 headed Iberian stock as those of Britain*, and they were followed 
 by Kelts of the Gaelic branch, many of whom, however, may 
 well have arrived before the close of the Neolithic Age. Of the 
 Kymry there appear to be but slight if any traces, and since 
 those prehistoric times the intruders have been almost exclusively 
 Continental and British Teutons ; the former were chiefly Danes 
 who formed settlements at such seaports as Dublin, Waterford, 
 Cork, and Limerick, but were eventually all absorbed by the 
 vigorous Gaelic aborigines ■\ And now all alike have in their turn 
 
 ^ Survivals from the Palceolithic Age among Irish Neolithic Implements^ 
 1897. 
 
 2 The Dolmens of Ireland^ 3 vols., 1897. 
 
 ^ See pp. 10- 1 1. 
 
 ^ They need not, however, have come from Britain, and the allusions in 
 Irish literature to direct immigration from Spain, probable enough in itself, 
 are too numerous to be disregarded. Thus, Geoffrey of Monmouth : — " Hibernia 
 Basclensibus [to the Basques] incolenda datur " {Hist. Keg. Brit. ill. § 12) ; and 
 Giraldus Cambrensis: — "De Gurguntio Brytonum Rege, qui Rasclenses [read 
 Basclenses] in Hiberniam transmisit et eandem ipsis habitandam concessit." 
 I am indebted to Mr Wentworth Webster for these references {Academy, Oct. 
 19, 1895). 
 
 ^ Not, however, always without a struggle, as in Dublin, where even after 
 their acceptance of Christianity the Danes refused to worship at the same altars 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 53 1 
 
 been nearly absorbed by the British Teutons, that is to say, 
 assimilated in speech to the English and Lowland Scotch in- 
 truders, who began to arrive late in the 12 th century, and are 
 now chiefly massed in Ulster, Leinster, and all the large towns. 
 The rich and highly poetic Irish language, which has a copious 
 medieval literature deeply interesting to folklorists and even 
 ethnologists, has not I believe been used for strictly literary pur 
 poses since the translations of Homer and of Moore's Melodies 
 by the late Archbishop McHale of Tuam. 
 
 In Scotland few ethnical changes or displacements have 
 occurred since the two great political settlements, 
 first by the Scottish vanquishing of the Picts, and scotia^d."^ '" 
 then by the English (Angle) occupation of the 
 Lothians. The Grampians have during historic times formed 
 the main ethnical divide between the two elements, and brooklets 
 which can be taken at a leap are shown where the opposite banks 
 have for hundreds of years been respectively held by formerly 
 hostile, but now friendly communities of Gaelic and broad Scotch 
 speech. Here the chief intruders have been Norwegians, whose 
 descendants may still be recognised in Caithness, the Hebrides, 
 and the Orkney and Shetland groups. Faint echoes of the old 
 Norrena tongue are said still to linger amongst the sturdy Shet- 
 landers, whose assimilation to the dominant race began only after 
 their transfer from Norway to the Crown of Scotland. 
 
 We have now all the elements needed to unravel the ethnical 
 tangle of the present inhabitants of the British Isles. 
 The astonishing prevalence everywhere of the mode- stltution of 
 rately dolicho heads is at once explained by the J^gopies'^^ 
 absence of brachy immigrants except in the Bronze 
 period, and these could do no more than raise the cephalic index 
 from about 70 or 72 to the present mean of about 78. With the 
 other perhaps less stable characters the case is not always quite 
 
 as the Irish. On appeal to Rome they received a bishop of their own race and 
 also a Cathedral, whence the curious fact that to this day Dublin is almost the 
 only city in Christendom blessed with two medieval Cathedrals, St Patrick's 
 originally for the Irish and Christchurch for the Danes. These having both 
 been "confiscated" at the Reformation, a third has had to be erected for the 
 community that remained loyal to the old faith, 
 
 34—2 
 
532 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 SO simple. The brunettes, representing both Iberians and Kelts, 
 certainly increase, as we should expect from north-east to south- 
 west, though even here there is a considerable dark patch, due to 
 local causes, in the home shires about London. But the stature, 
 almost everywhere a troublesome factor, seems to wander some- 
 what lawlessly over the land. The little people under 5 ft. 6 in. 
 are perhaps more numerous than they ought to be ; nor are they 
 always in evidence where we should look for them. In Ireland 
 especially the positions are reversed, the tall being all in the west 
 (Connaught and Munster), the less tall in the north and east 
 (Ulster and Leinster), though the difference is but slight. For 
 details on this and some other points, which become rather 
 technical, I must refer the reader to Ripley, and especially to the 
 Reports of the Anthropometric Committees appointed to deal with 
 these matters systematically by the British Association in 1875. 
 
 Strange to say, the element that appears to have undergone 
 the least change is the racial temperament. The Kelt is still a 
 Kelt, mercurial, passionate, vehement, impulsive, more courteous 
 than sincere, voluble or eloquent, fanciful, if not imaginative, 
 quick-witted and brilliant rather than profound, elated with success 
 but easily depressed, hence lacking steadfastness, and still as of 
 old novarum rerum cupidissimus. The Saxon also still remains 
 a Saxon, stolid and solid, outwardly abrupt but warm-hearted and 
 true, haughty and even overbearing through an innate sense of 
 superiority, yet at heart sympathetic and always just, hence a 
 ruler of men ; seemingly dull or slow, yet preeminent in the realms 
 of philosophy and imagination (Newton, Shakespeare). 
 
 While the Saxon prefers duty to glory, both are largely gifted 
 with some of those qualities which make for empire— plucky or 
 personal valour as distinguished from courage in the mass, the 
 spirit of daring enterprise and a love of adventure for its own 
 sake. Jointly they have struggled to the front, and secured for 
 our people some 12 million square miles of habitable lands beyond 
 
 1 This quality is no monopoly of the Saxon, as has been contended. The 
 Kelts, and especially the Irish and Scqtch Gaels, possess it in large measure, 
 as shown by the incidents recorded of Clontarf, Aughrim, Limerick, Cremona, 
 Fontenoy, and by such names as Sarsfield, Dundonald, Kavanagh, O'Higgins, 
 and a hundred others. 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 533 
 
 the seas. Here they already number, including other elements in 
 process of assimilation to the dominant race, about 80 millions — 
 70 in the United States, 5 in the Canadian Dominion, and 5 in 
 Australasia and South Africa. These with 40 millions in the home 
 lands make collectively some 120 millions, enough perhaps to 
 ensure the future control of human destinies to a composite 
 people who may now be defined with some approach to accuracy 
 as Ibero-Kelto-Teutons of Teuton (English) speech. This English 
 tongue need not detain us long. Its qualities, illus- 
 trated in the noblest of all literatures, are patent to Ljn^gu^gl!"^^ 
 the world, indeed have earned for it from Jacob 
 Grimm the title of Welt-Sprache, the "World Speech." It belongs, 
 as might be anticipated from the northern origin of the Teutonic 
 element in Britain, to the Low German division of the Teutonic 
 branch of the Aryan family. Despite extreme pressure from 
 Norman French, continued for over 200 years (1066 — 1300), it 
 has remained faithful to this connection in its inner structure, 
 which reveals not a trace of Neo-Latin influences. The phonetic 
 system has undergone profound changes, which can be only in- 
 directly and to a small extent due to French action. What English 
 owes to French and Latin is a very large number, many thousands, 
 of words, some superadded to, some superseding their Saxon 
 equivalents, but altogether immensely increasing its wealth of 
 expression, while giving it a transitional position between the 
 somewhat sharply contrasted Germanic and Romance worlds. 
 
 Amongst the Romance peoples, that is, the French, Spaniards, 
 Portuguese, Italians, Rumanians, many Swiss and 
 Belgians, who were entirely assimilated in speech NJt^on!^'^^"^^ 
 and largely in their civil institutions to their Roman 
 masters, the paramount position, a sort of international hegemony, 
 has been taken by the French nation since the decadence of Spain 
 under the feeble successors of Philip 11. The constituent elements 
 of these Gallo-Romans, as they may be called, are much the same 
 as those of the British peoples, but differ in their distribution and 
 relative proportions. Thus the Iberians (Aquitani, Pictones, and 
 later Vascones), who Aay be identified with the Neolithic long- 
 heads, do not appear ever to have ranged much farther north than 
 Brittany, and were Aryanised in pre- Roman times by the P-speaking 
 
534 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Kelts everywhere north of the Garonne. The prehistoric Teutons 
 again, who had advanced beyond the Rhine at an early period 
 (Caesar says antiquitus) into the present Belgium, were mainly con- 
 fined to the northern provinces. Even the historic Teutons (chiefly 
 Franks and Burgundians) penetrated little beyond the Seine in 
 the north and the present Burgundy in the east, while the Vandals, 
 Visigoths and a few others passed rapidly through to Iberia 
 beyond the Pyrenees. 
 
 Thus the greater part of the land, say from the Seine-Marne 
 basin to the Mediterranean, continued to be held by the Romanised 
 Kelts of the Alpine type throughout all the central and most of 
 the southern provinces, and elsewhere in the south by the 
 Romanised long-headed Iberians and Ligurians. This great pre- 
 ponderance of the Romanised Keltic masses explains the rapid 
 absorption of the Teutonic intruders, who were all, except the 
 Fleming section of the Belgae, completely assimilated to the Gallo- 
 Romans before the close of the loth century. It also explains 
 the perhaps still more remarkable fact that the Norsemen who 
 settled (912) under Rollo in Normandy were all practically Fi^ench- 
 men when a few generations later they followed their Duke William 
 to the conquest of Saxon England. Thus the only intractable 
 groups have proved to be the un-Romanised Iberians (Basques) 
 and Kelts (Bretons), both of whom to this day hold their ground 
 in isolated corners of the country. With these exceptions the 
 whole of France since the loss of Alsace-Lorraine (1871) presents 
 in its speech a certain homogeneous character, the standard 
 language {langue d^oil^) being current throughout all the northern 
 and central provinces, while it is steadily gaining upon the 
 southern form [langiie d^oc^) still surviving in the rural districts 
 of Limousin and Provence. 
 
 1 That is, the languages whose affirmatives were the Latin pronouns hoc ilhid 
 {oil) and hoc {oc), the former being more contracted, the latter more expanded, 
 as we see in the very names of the respective Northern and Southern bards : 
 Troiivires and Troubadours. It was customary in medieval times to name lan- 
 guages in this way, Dante, for instance, calling Italian la lingua del si, "the 
 language of j^j"; and, strange to say, the same usage prevails largely amongst 
 the Australian aborigines, who, however, use both the affirmative and the 
 negative particles, so that we have here no- as well as_j/^j--tribes. 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 535 
 
 But pending a more thorough fusion of such tenacious elements 
 as Basques, Bretons, Auvergnats, and Savoyards, we 
 can scarcely yet speak of a common French type, Traits**^ 
 but only of a common nationality. Tall stature, 
 long skulls, fair or light brown colour, grey or blue eyes, still pre- 
 vail, as might be expected, in the north, these being traits common 
 alike to the prehistoric Belgae, the Franks of the Merovingian 
 and Carlovingian empires, and Rollo's Norsemen. With these 
 contrast the southern peoples of short stature, olive-brOwn skin, 
 round heads, dark brown or black eyes and hair. The tendency 
 towards uniformity has proceeded far more rapidly in the urban 
 than in the rural districts. Hence the citizens of Paris, Lyons, 
 Bordeaux, Marseilles and other large towns, present fewer and less 
 striking contrasts than the natives of the old historical provinces, 
 where are still distinguished the loquacious and mendacious 
 Gascon, the pliant and versatile Basque, the slow and wary 
 Norman, the dreamy and fanatical Breton, the quick and enter- 
 prising Burgundian, and the bright, intelligent, more even-tempered 
 native of Touraine, a typical Frenchman occupying the heart of 
 the land, and holding, as it were, the balance between all the 
 surrounding elements. 
 
 Taken as a whole the modern Frenchman stands somewhat 
 intermediate between the southern and northern peoples, less 
 steadfast than the Teuton, more energetic than the Italian, less 
 personally independent than the Briton. The moral sentiment 
 is also defective, as seen in the love of show and glory, which 
 is certainly stronger than the sense of duty. On the other hand, 
 the artistic feeling is highly developed, while the purely intellectual 
 qualities are far above the average, as reflected in the scientific 
 and literary work of the nation, and in the cultivated language, 
 which within certain limits is almost an ideally perfect instrument 
 of human thought, although still suffering from the enfeebling 
 effects of the drawing-room and academical refinements of Bourbon 
 times. The French excel also in conversational powers, and in 
 all matters pertaining to taste, etiquette, tact, and the social 
 amenities, where brillVncy and esprit find freer scope than 
 the more solid qualities of the reasoning faculty. It is note- 
 worthy that France has produced few leaders of thought except 
 
536 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Descartes and Pascal (and even he was wrecked on the shoals 
 of religious polemics), whereas epigrammatists, essayists, writers 
 of memoirs and correspondence, chemists, and pure mathematicians 
 abound. With more outward poUsh French culture as a whole 
 penetrates perhaps less deeply through the social strata than does 
 the refinement of the English cultured classes. At the same time 
 the substantial qualities of patience, economy, and love of labour 
 cannot be denied to the French peasantry, who thus act as a 
 counterpoise to the extravagance and frivolity of urban life. By 
 hoarding their small savings, and by domestic thrift verging on 
 the sordid, they have made France one of the richest countries 
 in the world, better able than most others to survive tremendous 
 catastrophes and rise buoyantly above apparently overwhelming 
 disasters. Thanks to these quahties, combined with a pronounced 
 mihtary spirit and love of conquest, the French people have played 
 a leading part in the world's history since remote times, and have 
 become an almost necessary element in the general progress of 
 humanity. Yet the future would seem to be for others, and 
 although the present alarming arrest of the population and other 
 symptoms of decadence may not be due to the absorption of the 
 upper in the lower strata alluded to above, the effects must be 
 far-reaching, and France would appear to have already been 
 outstripped in the race for the future political predominance 
 amongst the cultured peoples of the globe'. 
 
 In Spain and Portugal we have again the same Ibero-Keltic 
 
 ^^^ elements, but also again in different proportions and 
 
 Spaniards and differently distributed, with others superadded — 
 
 uguese. proto-Phcenicians and later Phoenicians (Cartha- 
 
 genians), Romans, Visigoths, Vandals, and still later Berbers and 
 
 Arabs. Here the Keltic-speaking round-heads intermingled in 
 
 prehistoric times with the long-lieaded Mediterraneans, an ethnical 
 
 fusion known to the ancients, who labelled it " Keltiberian." But, 
 
 as in Britain, the other intruders were mostly long-heads, with the 
 
 striking result that the Peninsula presents to-day exactly the 
 
 same uniform cranial type as the British Isles. Even the range 
 
 (76 to 79) and the mean (78) of the cephalic index are the same, 
 
 ^ See my article on the Ethnology of France \n Cassell's Storehouse, iv. p. 
 
 359- 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 537 
 
 rising in Spain to 80 only in the Basque corner. In both regions 
 the general rise from the original 70 or 72 is due to the same 
 Keltic and Roman intrusion, acting on the Ibero-Teutons in Britain, 
 and on the Hamito-Semitic aborigines crossed by Teutons in Spain, 
 where it is to be noticed that while the round-headed Romans 
 play a very small part in the insular domain, they are extensively 
 represented in the Peninsula, the reverse being the case with 
 the Teutons. An equilibrium and surface uniformity are thus 
 established, and Ripley is right in stating that "the average 
 cephalic index of 78 occurs nowhere else so uniformly distributed 
 in Europe" except in Norway, and that this uniformity "is the 
 concomitant and index of two relatively pure, albeit widely 
 different, ethnic types — Mediterranean in Spain, Teutonic in 
 Norway \" 
 
 In other respects the social, one might almost say the national, 
 groups are both more numerous and perhaps even 
 more sharply discriminated in the Peninsula than oi^'irps""^^ 
 in France. Besides the Basques and Portuguese, 
 the latter with a considerable strain of negro blood ^, we have 
 such very distinct populations as the haughty and punctilious 
 Castilians, who under an outward show of pride and honour, are 
 capable of much meanness ; the sprightly and vainglorious An- 
 dalusians, who have been called the Gascons of Spain, yet of 
 graceful address and seductive manners ; the morose and im- 
 passive Murcians, indolent because fatalists; the gay Valencians 
 given to much dancing and revelry, but also to sudden fits of 
 murderous rage, holding life so cheap that they will hire them- 
 selves out as assassins, and cut their bread with the blood-stained 
 knife of their last victim ; the dull and superstitious Aragonese, also 
 given to bloodshed, and so obdurate that they are said to " drive 
 
 ^ Science Progress^ p. 159. 
 
 ^ ' ' The Portuguese are much mixed with Negroes more particularly in the 
 south and along the coast. The slave trade existed long before the Negroes 
 of Guinea were exported to the plantations of America. Damiao de Goes 
 estimated the number of blacks imported into Lisbon alone during the i6th 
 century at 10,000 or i2,oo<xper annum. If contemporary eye-witnesses can be 
 trusted, the number of blacks met with in the streets of Lisbon equalled that 
 of the whites. Not a house but had its negro servants, and the wealthy owned 
 entire gangs of them" (Reclus, i. p. 471). 
 
538 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 nails in with their heads " ; lastly the Catalans, noisy and quarrel- 
 some, but brave, industrious, and enterprising, on the whole the 
 best element in this motley aggregate of unbalanced temperaments. 
 To the cold-blooded northerner the Spaniards often seem scarcely 
 sane, and about as trustworthy as caged wild beasts, a people who 
 had empire thrust upon them, but never understood the nature 
 of the trust. Stripped of nearly all foreign dominion (1898) and 
 thrown back upon themselves, they must either turn to the useful 
 business of life and devote their energies to the development of 
 their resourceful country, or else sever the ties by which the 
 various ethnical groups are held loosely together. 
 
 In Italy the past and present relations, as elucidated especially 
 Ethnic Re- ^^ ^^^vi and Scrgi, may be thus briefly stated, 
 lations in After the first Stone Age, of which there are fewer 
 
 indications than might be expected, the whole land 
 was thickly settled by long-headed Mediterranean Ligurians from 
 Africa in Neolithic times. These were later joined by Pelasgians 
 of like type from Greece, and by Illyrians of doubtful affinity from 
 the Balkan Peninsula. Indeed K. Penka^ who has so many 
 paradoxical theories, makes the Illyrians the first inhabitants of 
 Italy, as shown by the striking resemblance of the terramara 
 culture of Emilia with that of the Venetian and Laibach pile- 
 dwellings. The recent finds in Bosnia also, besides the historically 
 proved (?) migration of the Siculi from Upper Italy to Sicily, and 
 their Illyrian origin, all point in the same direction. But the facts 
 
 ^ Ztir Paldoethnologie Mittel- 11. Siideuropas in Mitt. Wiener Anthrop. Ges. 
 1897, p. 18. It should here be noted that in his History of the Greek Language 
 (1896) Dr Kretschmer connects the inscriptions of the Veneti in north Italy 
 and of the Messapians in the south with the Illyrian linguistic family, which 
 he regards as Aryan intermediate between the Greek and the Italic branches, 
 the present Albanian being a surviving member of it. In the same Illyrian 
 family Mr W. M. Lindsay would also include the "Old Sabellian" of Picenum, 
 "believed to be the oldest inscriptions on Italian soil. The manifest identity 
 of the 'name Aodatos and the word meitimon with the Illyrian names AuSdra 
 and Meitima is almost sufficient of itself to prove these inscriptions to be 
 Illyrian. Further the whole character of their language, with its Greek and 
 its Italic features, corresponds with M'hat we know and what we can safely infer 
 about the Illyrian family of languages" [Acadet7iy, Oct. 24, 1896). A vista is 
 here opened up which is likely to lead to good results. 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 539 
 
 are differently interpreted by Sergi', who holds that the whole 
 land was occupied by the Mediterraneans, because we find even 
 in Switzerland pile-dwellers of the same type^. 
 
 Then came the peoples of Aryan speech, Kelts from the north- 
 west and Slavs from the north-east, both round-heads, who raised 
 the cephalic index in the north, where the brachy element, as 
 already seen, still greatly predominates but diminishes steadily 
 southwards ^ They occupied the whole of Umbria, which at first 
 stretched across the peninsula from the Adriatic to the Mediter- 
 ranean, but was later encroached upon by the intruding Etruscans 
 on the west side. Then also some of these Umbrians, migrating 
 southwards to Latium beyond the Tiber, intermingled, says Sergi, 
 with the ItaHc (Ligurian) aborigines, and became the founders of 
 the Roman state. With the spread of the Roman arms the Latin 
 language, which Sergi claims to be a kind of Aryanised Ligurian, 
 but must be regarded as a true member of the Aryan family in the 
 sense already explained (p. 513), was diffused throughout the whole 
 of the peninsula and islands, sweeping away all traces not only of 
 the original Ligurian and other Mediterranean tongues, but also of 
 Etruscan and its own sister languages, such as Umbrian, Oscan, 
 and Sabellian. 
 
 At the fall of the empire the land was overrun by Ostrogoths, 
 Heruli, and other Teutons, none of whom formed permanent 
 settlements except the Longobards, who gave their name to the 
 present Lombardy, but were themselves rapidly assimilated in 
 speech and general culture to the surrounding populations, whom 
 we may now call Italians in the modern sense of the term. 
 
 When it is remembered that the ^gean culture had spread to 
 Italy at an early date, that it was continued under 
 Hellenic influences by Etruscans and Umbrians, Ethks.^"'^ 
 that Greek arts and letters were planted on ItaHan 
 soil {Magna Grcecia) before the foundation of Rome, that all these 
 
 ^ Arii e Italici, p. 158 sq. 
 
 ■^ "Liguri e Pelasgi furono i primi abitatori d'ltalia; e Liguri sembra siano 
 stati quelli che occupavano la Valle del Po e costrussero le palafitte, e Liguri 
 forse anche i costruttori d^le palafitte svizzere: Mediterranei tutti" {lb. p. 138). 
 
 2 Ripley's chart shows a range of from 87 in Piedmont to 76 and 77 in 
 Calabria, Puglia, and Sardinia, and 75 and under in Corsica {The Races of 
 Rtirope, 1899). 
 
540 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 civilisations converged in Rome itself and were thence diffused 
 throughout the West, that the traditions of previous cultural 
 epochs never died out, acquired new life with the Renascence and 
 were thus perpetuated to the present day, it may be claimed for 
 the gifted Italian people that they have been for a longer period 
 than any others under the unbroken sway of general humanising 
 influences. The results, owing to the racial temperament, have 
 not been entirely satisfactory, nor has complete harmony ever 
 been estabHshed between the ethical sense, the feehng of Art, 
 and the religious sentiment. The discordance culminated in the 
 Renascence Age, when the great revival of Art and of letters left 
 a degraded form of religion untouched and, as would seem, 
 brought about, or at least was associated with, a distinct lowering 
 of public morals. Hence pessimism, which has been called the 
 mental disease of our times, has sounded perhaps a deeper note 
 amongst the leaders of thought in Italy than elsewhere. 
 
 These "Latin Peoples," as they are called because they all 
 
 speak languages of the Latin stock, are not confined 
 Rumanians. ^^ ^^^ Wcst. To the Italian, French, Spanish, 
 
 Portuguese, with the less known and ruder Wallon 
 of Belgium and Romansch of Switzerland, Tyrol, and Friuli, must 
 be associated the Rumanian current amongst some 9 millions 
 of so-called " Daco-Rumanians " in Moldavia and Wallachia, i.e. 
 the modern kingdom of Rumania. The same Neo-Latin tongue 
 is also spoken by the Tsintsars or Kutzo-Vlacks^ of the Mount 
 Pindus districts in the Balkan Peninsula, and by numerous 
 Rumanians who have in later times migrated into Hungary. 
 They form a compact and vigorous nationality, who claim direct 
 descent from the Roman military colonists settled north of the 
 Lower Danube by Trajan after his conquest of the Dacians 
 (107 A.D.). But great difficulties attach to this theory, which 
 is rejected by many ethnologists, especially on the ground that, 
 after Trajan's time, Dacia was repeatedly swept clean by the 
 
 1 The true name of these .southern or Macedo-Rumanians, as pointed out 
 by Gustav Weigland {Globus, LXXI. p. 54), is Ara?ndni or Armdni, i.e. 
 " Romans." Tsintsar, Ktitzo- Vlack, etc. are mere nicknames, by which they are 
 known to their Macedonian (Bulgar and Greek) neighbours. See also W. R. 
 Morfill in Academy, July i, 1893. 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 54 1 
 
 Huns, the Finns, the Avars, Magyars and other rude Mongolo- 
 Turki hordes, besides many almost ruder Slavic peoples during 
 the many centuries when the eastern populations were in a state 
 of continual flux after the withdrawal of the Roman legionaries 
 from the Lower Danube. Besides, it is shown by Roesler^ and 
 others that under Aureliaii (257 a.d.) Trajan's colonists withdrew 
 bodily southwards to and beyond the Hemus to the territory 
 of the old Bessi (Thracians), i.e. the district still occupied by 
 the Macedo-Rumanians. But in the 13th century, during the 
 break-up of the Byzantine empire, most of these fugitives were 
 again driven north to their former seats beyond the Danube, 
 where they have ever since held their ground, and constituted 
 themselves a distinct and far from feeble branch of the Neo-Latin 
 community. The Pindus, therefore, rather than the Carpathians, 
 is to be taken as the last area of dispersion of these valiant and 
 intelligent descendants of the Daco-Romans. This seems the 
 most rational solution of what A. D. Xenopol calls "an historic 
 enigma," although he himself rejects Roesler's conclusions in 
 favour of the old view so dear to the national vanity of the present 
 Rumanian people^. The composite character of the Rumanian 
 language — fundamentally Neo-Latin or rather early Italian, with 
 strong Illyrian (Albanian) and Slav affinities— would almost imply 
 that Dacia had never been Romanised under the empire, and 
 that in fact this region was for the first ti?ne occupied by its 
 present Romance speaking inhabitants in the 13th century ^ 
 
 Sergi, who regards the proto-Aryans as round-headed bar- 
 barians of Keltic, Slav, and Teutonic speech, makes Ethnic Re- 
 no exception in favour of the Hellenes. These also lations in 
 
 . .,. , , , Greece. 
 
 enter Greece not as civilisers, but rather as destroyers 
 
 of the flourishing Mykenaean culture developed here, as in Italy, 
 
 ^ Romdnische Sttcdien, Leipzig, 1871. 
 
 2 Les Roujuains au Moyen Age, passim. Hunfalvy, quoted by A.J. Patter- 
 son {Academy, Sept. 7, 1895) also shows that "for a thousand years there is no 
 authentic mention of a Latin or Romance speaking population north of the 
 Danube." 
 
 3 This view is held by Dr L. Rethy, also quoted by Patterson, and the term 
 Vlack ( Welsch, whence Wallachia) applied to the Rumanians by all their Slav 
 and Greek neighbours points in the same direction. 
 
542 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 by the Mediterranean aborigines. But in course of time the in- 
 truders become absorbed in the Pelasgic or eastern branch of the 
 Mediterraneans, and what we call Hellenism is really Pelasgianism 
 revived, and to some extent modified by the Aryan (Hellenic) 
 element. Thus, even the Greek language itself, generally accepted 
 as a typical member of the Aryan linguistic family, is not strictly 
 speaking an Aryan, but rather a Mediterranean form of speech 
 locally developed under Aryan influences. I have tried hard to 
 understand this part of Pro(. Sergi's theory and hope I do not 
 wrong him. But to me he seems to completely lop off two great 
 branches of the Aryan linguistic tree, the Italic and the Hellenic, 
 as if they had never existed, and to reconstitute the corresponding 
 old Mediterranean tongues in Italy and Greece by means of Aryan 
 elements drawn he does not say from what source ; but in his view 
 it must be either Keltic, Slavic, or Teutonic, for in his scheme 
 there are no others'. 
 
 I do not read the facts in this way, but would rather reverse 
 the process, and regard the Greek language as distinctly Aryan 
 locally developed, but modified by Pelasgic influences to a far 
 less extent than the sister tongue has been modified in Italy by 
 Ligurian influences. Hence it is that Latin, Umbrian, and Oscan 
 have diverged much farther than has classical Greek from the 
 parent Aryan stem. 
 
 It may, on the other hand, be allowed that at their advent the 
 
 Hellenes were less civilised than the Pelasgians, on 
 
 Hellenes whom they imposed their Aryan speech. Whence 
 
 and when came they? By Penka^, for whom 
 
 the Baltic lands would be the original home not merely of 
 
 the Germanic branch but of all the Aryans, the Hellenic cradle 
 
 is located in the Oder basin between the Elbe and the Vistula. 
 
 As the Doric, doubtless the last Greek irruption into Hellas, 
 
 1 He says, for instance, "dass die wahren Ur-Arier von drei Hauptvolkern, 
 von Kelten, Slaven und Sliddeutschen dargestellt werden ; und dass es unter den 
 Ariern keiri italisches und kein hellenisches Volk gab, wie von Archseologen und 
 Linguisten angenommen wird...Die beiden grossen klassischen Kulturen, die 
 lateinische und die griechische, sind eine spatere Erscheinung, durch das Hinzu- 
 treten des mittellandischen Elementes hervorgebracht " {Orsp'ting, p. i6o). 
 
 2 MitL Wiener Anthrop. Ges. 1897, p. 18. 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 543 
 
 is chronologically fixed at 11 49 b.c. ; the beginning of the 
 Hellenic migrations may be dated back to the 13th century. 
 When the Hellenes migrated fi-om Central Europe to Greece, the 
 period of the general ethnic dispersion was already closed, 
 and the migratory period which next followed began with the 
 Hellenes, and was continued by the Itali, Gauls, Germans, etc. 
 The difficulties created by this view are insurmountable. Thus 
 we should have to suppose that from this relatively contracted 
 Aryan cradle countless tribes swarmed over Europe since the 
 13th century B.C., speaking profoundly different languages (Greek, 
 Keltic, Latin, etc.), all differentiated since that time on the shores 
 of the Baltic. The proto-Aryans with their already specialised 
 tongues had reached the shores of the Mediterranean long before 
 that time, and according to Maspero\ were known to the Egyptians 
 of the 5th dynasty (3990 — 3804 B.C.) if not earlier. Allowing that 
 these may have rather been pre-Hellenes (Pelasgians), we still 
 know that the Achseans had traditionally arrived about 1250 b.c. 
 and they were already speaking the language of Homer. As far 
 as can be judged from their respective languages, a most valuable 
 criterion in questions of origins, the proto-Hellenes were in closer 
 contact with the proto-Iranians before the dispersion than with 
 the European Aryans. Hence they probably reached the Balkan 
 peninsula and Greece, not from North or Central Europe, but 
 from the Iranian uplands through Asia Minor, where Hommel 
 finds blond and blue-eyed Aryans referred to in the Tell el- 
 Amarna tablets. 
 
 Indeed I think we may safely say that no Achgeans, or any 
 other proto-Hellenes, could have come from the Baltic lands. 
 The farther back the migration is dated, the nearer will their 
 speech approximate to the Aryan mother tongue, and consequently 
 be the farther removed from the Teutonic, which nevertheless 
 according to Miillenhoff was already highly specialised about 
 1000 B.C. Hence the Greek of that period must have differed 
 profoundly from the Germanic. And even if we go further back 
 to the migration period (13th century B.C. as is assumed), then the 
 difference will still ba^great, the two branches having all along 
 
 1 Da%vjt of Civilization, p. 391. 
 
544 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 followed different and extremely divergent lines of evolution \ 
 Yet both are brought at or about the same time from the same 
 area, the district west of the Vistula, which is impossible. 
 
 The difficulty is intensified when we throw in the Keltic and 
 Italic groups, also assumed to have been specialised in the same 
 
 region and about the same time. There is, to be 
 anTan^ plcto^r" ^urc, the Lithuanian factor, of which so much has 
 
 been made, and which certainly cannot be over- 
 looked. But the archaic character of this language, which still 
 survives in two forms (Lithuanian proper and Lettic) in the Wilna 
 and neighbouring districts, is distinctly of a proto-Slavic type, and 
 has no particular bearing on the question at issue. It can prove 
 nothing except that, owing to local conditions, a very early form 
 of Slavonic speech has persisted in the region where one might 
 almost expect to find it. I cannot see that it throws much light 
 on Aryan and still less on Hellenic origins, but is rather connected 
 with Slav migrations, of which presently. 
 
 It is evident from the national traditions that the proto-Greeks 
 did not arrive en bloc, but rather at intervals in separate and often 
 hostile bands bearing different names. But all these groups — 
 Achaeans, Danai, Argians, Dolopes, Myrmidons, Leleges and 
 many others, some of which were also found in Asia Minor, but 
 not in the Baltic lands — retained a strong sense of their common 
 origin. The sentiment, which may be called racial rather than 
 national, received ultimate expression when to all of them was 
 extended the collective name of Hellenes (Sellenes originally), 
 that is, descendants of Deucalion's son Hellen, whose two sons 
 ^olus and Dorus, and grandson Ion, were supposed to be the 
 progenitors of the Cohans, Dorians, and lonians. But such 
 traditions are merely reminiscences of times when the tribal 
 
 ^ For instance, the two phonetic systems differed toto ccbIo, and while proto- 
 Teutonic had a well-developed scale of sound-shifting peculiar to itself, Hellenic 
 leaned on the contrary towards the Keltic P and Q with T superadded, as we 
 see in such variants as riaaapes, iriavpes; ttQs, kus, etc., where all the initials (r, 
 IT, k) represent an organic </. But the shift in Greek was very irregular and 
 undeveloped, all the changes occurring even within the same dialect, as if not 
 so much by normal internal evolution, as by outward influences — contact, for 
 instance, with proto- Gaels and proto-Kymry in Asia Minor or the Balkan 
 peninsula (see above). 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 545 
 
 groupings still prevailed, and it may be taken for granted that the 
 three main branches of the Hellenic stock did not spring from a 
 particular family that rose to power in comparatively recent times 
 in the ThessaHan district of Phthiotis. Whatever truth may lie 
 behind the Hellenic legend, it is highly probable that, at the time 
 when Hellen is said to have flourished (about 1500 B.C.), the 
 yEolic-speaking communities of Thessaly, Arcadia, Boeotia, the 
 closely- allied Dorians of Phocgea, Argos, and Laconia, and the 
 lonians of Attica, had already been clearly specialised, had in 
 fact formed special groups before entering Greece. 
 Later their dialects, after acquiring a certain polish L^n^g^ufg^.^^ 
 and leaving some imperishable records of the 
 many-sided Greek genius, were gradually merged in the literary 
 Neo-Ionic or Attic, which thus became the kolvi] SiaAcKTog, or 
 current speech of the Greek world. 
 
 Admirable ahke for its manifold aptitudes and surprising vitality, 
 the language of Aeschylus, Thucydides, and the other great 
 Athenians outlived all the vicissitudes of the Byzantine empire, 
 during which it was for a time banished from southern Greece, 
 and even still survives, although in a somewhat degraded form, in 
 the Romaic or Neo- Hellenic tongue of modern Hellas. Romaic, 
 a name which recalls a time when the Byzantines were 
 known as "Romans" throughout the East, differs far less from 
 the classical standard than do any of the Romance tongues from 
 Latin. Since the restoration of Greek independence great efforts 
 have been made to revive the old language in all its purity, and 
 some modern writers now compose in a style differing little from 
 that of the classic period. 
 
 Yet the Hellenic race itself has almost perished on the main- 
 land. Traces of the old Greek type have been detected by 
 Lenormant and others, especially amongst the women of Patras 
 and Missolonghi. But within living memory Attica was still an 
 Albanian land, and Fallmerayer has conclusively shown that the 
 Peloponnesus and adjacent districts had become thoroughly 
 Slavonised during the 6th and 7th centuries^ "For many cen- 
 turies," writes the careM Roesler, "the Greek peninsula served 
 
 1 Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea, Stuttgart 1830. See also G. Finlay's 
 Medieval Greece, and the Anthrop. Rev. 1868, vi. p. 154. 
 
 K. 35 
 
54^ MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 as a colonial domain for the Slavs, receiving the overflow of their 
 population from the Sarmatian lowlands'." Their presence is 
 betrayed in numerous geographical terms, such as Varsova in 
 Arcadia, Glogova, Tsilikhova etc. Nevertheless, since the revival 
 of the Hellenic sentiment there has been a steady flow of Greek 
 immigration from the Archipelago and Anatolia; and the Alba- 
 nian, Slav, Italian, Turkish, Rumanian, and Norman elements 
 have in modern Greece already become almost completely Hel- 
 lenised, at least in speech. Of the old dialects Doric alone 
 appears to have survived in the Tsaconic of the Laconian hills. 
 The Greek language has, however, disappeared from Sou hern 
 Italy, Sicily, Syria, and the greater part of Egypt and Asia Minor, 
 where it was long dominant. 
 
 To understand the appearance of Slavs in the Peloponnesus 
 we must go back to the Eurasian steppe, the pro- 
 
 The Slavs. ° . . ^ , 
 
 bable cradle of these multitudinous populations. 
 Here they are generally identified with the ancient Sarmatae, who 
 already before the dawn of history were in possession of the South 
 Russian plains between the Scythians towards the east and the 
 proto-Germanic tribes before their migration to the Baltic lands. 
 But even at that time, before the close of the Neolithic Age, there 
 must have been interminglings, if not with the western Teutons, 
 almost certainly with the eastern Scythians, which helps to explain 
 the generally vague character of the references made by classical 
 writers both to the Sarmatians and the Scythians, who sometimes 
 seem to be indistinguishable from savage Mongol hordes, and at 
 others are represented as semi-cultured peoples, such as the Aryans 
 of the Bronze period might have been round about the district of 
 Olbia and the other early Miletian settlements on the northern 
 shores of the Euxine. 
 
 Owing to these early crossings Andre Lefevre goes so far as to 
 say that "there is no Slav race^" but only nations of divers more 
 or less pure types, more or less crossed, speaking dialects of the 
 same language, who later received the name of Slavs, borne by a 
 prehistoric tribe of Sarmatians, and meaning "renowned," 
 
 1 Romdnische Studien. 
 
 2 Bui. Soc, d'Anthrop. 1896, p. 351 sq. 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 547 
 
 "illustrious^" Both their language and mythologies, continues 
 M. Lefevre, point to the vast region near Irania as the primeval 
 home of the Slav, as of the Keltic and Germanic populations. 
 The Sauromatae or Sarmatae of Herodotus^, who had given their 
 name to the mass of Slav or Slavonised peoples, still dwelt north 
 of the Caucasus and south of the Budini between the Caspian, the 
 Don and Sea of Azov: "after crossing the Tanais (Don) we are 
 no longer in Scythia; we begin to enter the lands 
 of the Sauromatae, who, starting from the angle of mat^ans^*^ 
 the Palus Moeotis (Sea of Azov), occupy a space of 
 15 days' march, where are neither trees, fruit-trees, nor savages. 
 Above the tract fallen to them the Budini occupy another district, 
 which is overgrown with all kinds of trees ^" Then Herodotus 
 seems to identify these Sarmatians with the Scythians, whence all 
 the subsequent doubts and confusion. Both spoke the same 
 language, of which seven distinct dialects are mentioned, yet a 
 number of personal names preserved by the Greeks have a certain 
 Iranic look, so that these Scythian tongues seem to have been 
 really Aryan, forming a transition between the Asiatic and the 
 European branches of the family. It could scarcely be other- 
 wise, for the Scythians, that is, the still generalised Teuto-Slav 
 stock, had about 1000 years (probably we should now say 3000 or 
 4000) before the invasion of Darius been driven by the Massagetae 
 from the Oxus basin, where some place the home of Aryan 
 cultured They claimed to be the youngest of nations, says 
 
 1 Cf. Sanskrit fravas, Gr. /cX^os (root klu, cm). By a sort of grim 
 irony the word has come to mean "slave" in the West, owing to the multi- 
 tudes of Slavs captured and enslaved during the medieval border warfare. 
 But the term is by many referred to the root slovo, word, speech, implying a 
 people of intelligible utterance, and this is supported by the form Slovene 
 occurring in Nestor and still borne by a southern Slav group. 
 
 ■^ IV. 21. 
 
 3 These Budini are described as a large nation with "remarkably blue eyes 
 and red hair," on which account Zaborowski thinks they may have been 
 ancestors of the present Finns. But they may also very well have been belated 
 proto-Germani left behind bv the body of the nation en route for their new 
 Baltic homes. 
 
 4 See especially R. von Ihring, The Evolution of the Aryan, 1897, on this 
 point. 
 
 35—2 
 
54^ MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 HeroBotus, and remembered their exodus, their wanderings round 
 the Caspian, and down the great river valleys to the Euxine. 
 
 Both Slav and Germanic tribes had probably in remote times 
 penetrated up the Danube and the Volga, while some of the 
 former under the name of Wends (Venedi, Heneti, Eneti) appear 
 to have reached the i\driatic and the present Venetia on the 
 one hand, and on the other the Baltic shores down the Vistula, 
 thus enveloping and pressing westward their Keltic and Germanic 
 forerunners. The movement was continued far into medieval 
 times, when great overlappings took place, and when numerous 
 Slav tribes, some still known as Wends, others as Sorbs, Croats, or 
 Chekhs, ranged over central Europe to Pomerania and beyond 
 the Upper Elbe to Suabia. Most of these have long been Teu- 
 tonised, but a few of the Polabs^ survive as Wends in Prussian 
 and Saxon Lausatz, while the Chekhs and Slovaks still hold their 
 ground in Bohemia and Moravia, as the Poles do in Posen and 
 the Vistula valley, and the Rusniaks or Ruthenes with the closely 
 aUied "Little Russians," in the Carpathians, GaHcia, and Ukrania. 
 
 It was from the Carpathian^ lands that came those Yugo- 
 slavs ("Southern Slavs") who, under the collective 
 Slavs ^°"*^^*^" name of Sorbs (Serbs, Servians), moved southwards 
 beyond the Danube, and overran a great part of the 
 Balkan peninsula and nearly the whole of Greece in the 6th and 
 yth centuries. They were the Khorvats^ or Khrobats^ from the 
 upland valleys of the Oder and Vistula, whom, after his Persian 
 wars, Heraclius invited to settle in the wasted provinces south of 
 the Danube, hoping, as Nadir Shah did later with the Kurds in 
 Khorasan, to make them a northern bulwark of the empire against 
 the incursions of the Avars and other Mongolo-Turki hordes. 
 Thus was formed the first permanent settlement of the Yugo- 
 slavs in Croatia, Istria, Dalmatia, Bosnia, and the Narenta valley 
 
 1 Thai is, the Elbe Slaves, from /^ = by, near, and Z«i5^==Elbe; cf. Pomor 
 (Pomeranians), "by the Sea"; Borussia, Porussia, Prussia, originally peopled 
 by the Pruczi, a branch of the Lithuanians Germanised in the 17th century. 
 
 2 Carpath, Khrobat, Khorvat are all the same word, meaning Highlands, 
 mountains, hence not strictly an ethnic term, although at present so used by the 
 Crovats or Croatians, a considerable section of the Yugo-Slavs south of the 
 Danube. 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 549 
 
 in 680, under the five brothers Klukas, Lobol, Kosentses, Mukl, 
 and Khrobat, with their sisters Tuga and Buga. These were 
 followed by the kindred Srp (Sorb) tribes from the Elbe, who left 
 their homes in Misnia and Lusatia, and received as their patri- 
 mony the whole region between Macedonia and Epirus, Dardania, 
 Upper Moesia, the Dacia of Aurelian, and lUyria, i.e. Bosnia and 
 Servia. The Lower Danube was at the same time occupied by 
 the Severenses, "Seven Nations," also Slavs, who reached to the 
 foot of the Hemus beyond the present Varna. Nothing could 
 stem this great Slav inundation, which soon overflowed into 
 Macedonia (Rumelia), Thessaly, and Peloponnesus, so that for a 
 time nearly the. whole of the Balkan lands, from the Danube to 
 the Mediterranean, became a Slav domain — parts of lUyria and 
 Epirus (Albania) with the Greek districts about Constantinople 
 alone excepted. 
 
 Hellas, as above seen, has recovered itself, and the Albanians^ ^ 
 direct descendants of the ancient Illyrians, still hold 
 their ground and keep alive the last echoes of the Albanians, 
 old lUyrian language, which was almost certainly a 
 proto-Aryan form of speech probably intermediate, as above- 
 mentioned, between the Italic and Hellenic branches. They even 
 retain the old tribal system, so that there are not only two main 
 sections, the northern Ghegs and the southern Toshks^ but each 
 section is divided into a number of minor groups^, such as the 
 Malliesors (Klementi, Pulati, Hoti, etc.) and Mirdites (Dibri, 
 Fandi, Matia, etc.) in the north, and the Toxides (whence Toshk) 
 and the Yapides (Lapides) in the south. The southerners are 
 mainly Orthodox Greeks, and in other respects half-Hellenized 
 Epirotes, the northerners partly Moslem and partly Roman 
 
 1 That is, "Highlanders" (root alb, alp, height, hill). From Albanites 
 through the Byzantine Arvanites comes the Turkish Arnaut, while the national 
 name Skipetar has precisely the same meaning (root skip^ scop, as in aKdireXos, 
 scopulus, cliff, crag). Thus the very nomenclature shows Italo-Hellenic and 
 even Keltic (alb) relations. 
 
 2 There are about tweaty of these phis or p/iar (phratries) amongst the 
 Ghegs, and the practice of exogamous marriage still survives amongst the Mir- 
 dites south of the Drin, who, although Catholics, seek their wives amongst the 
 surrounding hostile Turkish and Muhammadan Gheg populations. 
 
550 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 Catholics of the Latin rite. From this section came chiefly those 
 Albanians who, after the death (1467). of their valiant champion, 
 George Castriota {Scanderbeg, "Alexander the Great"), fled from 
 Turkish oppression and formed numerous settlements, especially 
 in Calabria and Sicily, and still retain their national tradi- 
 tions. 
 
 In their original homes, located by some between the Bug 
 
 and the Dnieper, the Slavs have not only recovered 
 Russians i^om the fierce Mongolo-Turki and Finn tornadoes, 
 
 by which the eastern steppes were repeatedly swept 
 for over 1500 years after the building of the Great Wall, but have 
 in recent historic times displayed a prodigious power of expansion 
 second only to that of the British peoples. The Russians (Great, 
 Little, and White Russians), whose poUtical empire now stretches 
 continuously from the Baltic to the Pacific, have already absorbed 
 nearly all the Mongol elements in East Europe, have founded 
 /compact settlements in Caucasia and West Siberia, and have 
 /thrown off numerous pioneer groups of colonists along all the 
 highways of trade and migration, and down the great fluvial 
 arteries between the Ob and the Amur estuary. They number 
 collectively over loo millions, and as their domain of some 
 9 million square miles is more compact than that of the English 
 peoples, while they are themselves apparently more aggressive, 
 some thoughtful observers have feared lest an exploded "Yellow 
 Scare " may be followed by a very real Panslav terror. The 
 "terror" may come, but will subside, because, for political and 
 economic reasons which cannot here be discussed, it will be found 
 raised on a baseless fabric. 
 
 Nor need we be detained by the controversy now in progress 
 
 between Sergi and Zaborowski regarding a pre- 
 Ori^rTs*" historic spread of the Mediterranean race to 
 
 Russia ^ The skulls from several of the old 
 Kurgans, identified by Sergi with his Mediterranean type, have 
 not been sufficiently determined as to date or cultural periods to 
 decide the question, while their dolicho shape is common both 
 to the Mediterraneans and to the proto-Aryans of the North 
 
 ^ Bui. Soc. cfAnthrop. vii. 1896. 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 55 1 
 
 European type\ To this stock the proto-Slavs are affiliated by 
 Zaborowski and many others', although the present Slavs are all 
 distinctly round-headed. Ripley asks, almost in despair, what is 
 to be done with the present Slav element, and decides to apply 
 " the term Homo Alpinus to this broad-headed group wherever it 
 occurs, whether on mountains or plains, in the west or in the 
 east^" 
 
 We are beset by the same difficulties as we pass with the 
 Ossets of the Caucasus into the Iranian and Indian 
 
 The Ossets. 
 
 domams of the proto-Aryan peoples. These Ossets, 
 who are the only aborigines of Aryan speech in Caucasia, are by 
 Zaborowski* identified with the Alans, who are already mentioned 
 in the ist century a.d. and were Scythians of Iranian speech, 
 blonds, mixed with Medes, and perhaps descendants of the Massa- 
 ge tae. We know from history that the Goths and Alans became 
 closely united, and it may be from the Goths that the Osset 
 descendants of the Alans (some still call themselves Alans) 
 learned to brew beer. Elsewhere^ Zaborowski represents the 
 Ossets as of European origin, till lately for the most part blonds, 
 though now showing many Scythian traits. But they are not 
 physically Iranians "despite the Iranian and Asiatic origin of 
 their language," as shown by Max Kowalewsky^ On the whole, 
 therefore, the Ossets may be taken as originally blond Europeans, 
 closely blended with Scythians, and later with the other modern 
 Caucasus peoples, who are mostly brown brachys. But Ernest 
 Chantre Rallies these groups to their brown and brachy Tatar 
 
 1 Hence Virchow (Meeting Ger. Anthrop. Soc. 1897) declared that the 
 extent and duration of the Slav encroachments in German territory could not 
 be determined by the old skulls, because it is impossible to say whether a given 
 skull is Slav or not. 
 
 2 Especially Lubor Niederle, for whom the proto-Slavs are unquestionably 
 long-headed blonds like the Teutons, although he admits that round skulls 
 occur even of old date, and practically gives up the attempt to account for the 
 transition to the modern Slav. Have we here a physiological phenomenon on 
 a very large scale, such as that indicated by Prof. Macalister? 
 
 3 The Racial Geography of Europe, in Popular Science Monthly,]\XTi&, 1897. 
 •* Bui. Soc. ct Anthrop. 1896, p. 81 sq. 
 
 ^ Bui. Soc. d' Anthrop. 1894, p. 36. 
 ^ Droit Coutumier Ossethien, 1893. 
 ^ Quoted by Ujfalvy, Les Aryens etc. p. 11. 
 
552 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 neighbours, and denies that the Ossets are the last remnants of 
 Germanic immigrants into Caucasia. 
 
 We have therefore in the Caucasus a very curious and puzzUng 
 
 phenomenon — several somewhat distinct groups of 
 Aborigin^s^^"^ aboHgines, mainly of de Lapouge's Alpine type, but 
 
 all except the Ossets speaking an amazing number 
 of non-Aryan stock-languages. Philologists have been for some 
 time hard at work in this linguistic wilderness, the " Mountain of 
 Languages " of the early Arabo-Persian writers, without greatly 
 reducing the number of independent groups, while many idioms 
 traceable to a single stem still differ so profoundly from each 
 other that they are practically so many stocks. Of the really 
 distinct families the more important are : — the Kartweli of the 
 southern slopes, comprising the historical Georgian, cultivated 
 since the 5th century, the Mingrelian, Imeritian, Laz of Lazistan, 
 and many others ; the Cherkess (Circassian), the Abkhasian and 
 Kabard of the Western and Central Caucasus ; the Chechenz and 
 Lesghian^ the Andi, the Ude^ the Kubachi and Duodez of Daghestan, 
 i.e. the Eastern Caucasus. Where did this babel of tongues 
 come from? We know that 2500 years ago the relations were 
 much the same as at present, because the Greeks speak of 
 scores of languages current in the port of Dioscurias in their 
 time. If therefore the aborigines are the ''sweepings of the 
 plains," they must have been swept up long before the historic 
 period. Did they bring their different languages with them, or 
 were these specialised in their new upland homes? .The con- 
 sideration that an open environment makes for uniformity, 
 secluded upland valleys for diversity, seems greatly to favour the 
 latter assumption, which is further strengthened by the now 
 estabhshed fact that, although there are few traces of the Palaeo- 
 lithic epoch, the Caucasus was somewhat thickly inhabited in 
 the New Stone Age. These highlanders need not therefore be 
 regarded as sweepings, but rather as true aborigines, the direct 
 descendants of the round-headed race of Alpine Caucasic type, 
 who had spread from North Africa in Neolithic times into Europe 
 and Western Asia. Bearing in mind the immensely long duration 
 of the New Stone Age, we see at once that this would give ample 
 time for the development of these non- Aryan agglutinating forms 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 553 
 
 of speech in a region so favourable to such specialisation as the 
 Caucasus \ 
 
 Crossing into Irania we are at once confronted with totally 
 different conditions. For the ethnologist this region 
 comprises, besides the tableland between the Tigris irjililns. 
 and Indus, both slopes of the Hindu-Kush, and 
 the Pamir, with the uplands bounded south and north by the 
 upper courses of the Oxus and the Sir-darya. Overlooking later 
 Mongolo-Turki encroachments, a general survey will, I think, 
 show that from the earliest times the whole of this region has 
 formed part of the Caucasic domain ; that the bulk of the indi- 
 genous populations must have belonged to the dark, round-headed 
 Alpine type: that these, still found in compact masses in many 
 places, were apparently conquered, but certainly Aryanised in 
 speech, in very remote prehistoric times by long-headed blond 
 Aryans of the Iranic and Galchic branches, who arrived in large 
 numbers from the contiguous Eurasian steppe, mingled generally 
 with the brachy aborigines, but also kept aloof in several districts, 
 where they still survive with more or less modified proto-Aryan 
 features. Thus we are at once struck by the remarkable fact that 
 absolute uniformity of speech, always apart from late Mongol 
 intrusions, has prevailed during the historic period throughout 
 Irania, which has been in this respect as completely Aryanised as 
 Europe itself; and further, that all current Aryan tongues, with 
 perhaps one trifling exception^, are members either of the Iranic 
 
 ^ It should perhaps be stated that R. von Erckert [Die Sprachen des Kau- 
 kasischen Stammes, Vienna, 1895) claims to have reduced all the non- Aryan 
 tongues of the Caucasus to one stock with 3 main divisions : Georgian ; Cher- 
 kess with Abkhasian; and Lesghian with Chechenz. "Es ergiebt sich eine 
 einheitliche Ursprung aller diesen Sprachen." But this does not help us 
 much, because the divergences are so great as to leave the primordial unity 
 little more than a hypothesis, possible in itself, but no longer capable of philo- 
 logical proof. Nobody can be convinced by the author's processes. 
 
 2 The Yagnobi of the river of like name, an affluent of the Zerafshan ; yet 
 even this shows lexical affinities with Iranic, while its structure seems to connect 
 it with Leitner's Kajuna and Biddulph's Burish, a non-Aryan tongue current in 
 Ghilghit, Yasin, Hunza and Nagar, whose inhabitants are regarded by Biddulph 
 as descendants of the Yue^hi. The Yagnobi themselves, however, are dis- 
 tinctly Alpines, somewhat short, very hirsute and brown, with broad face, 
 large head, and a Savoyard expression. They have the curious custom of never 
 
554 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 or the Galchic branch of the family. Both Iranic and Galchic are 
 thus rather linguistic than ethnic terms, and so true is this that a 
 philologist always knows what is meant by an Iranic language, 
 while the anthropologist is unable to define or form any clear 
 conception of an Iranian, who may be either a long-headed Aryan 
 or a round-headed Alpine. Here confusion may be avoided by 
 reserving the historic name of Persian for the former, and com- 
 prising all the Alpines under the also time-honoured though less 
 known name of Tajiks. 
 
 Khanikoff has shown that these Tajiks constitute the primitive 
 element in ancient Iran. To the true Persians 
 
 The Tajiks. 
 
 of the west, as well as to the kindred Afghans 
 in the east, both of dolicho type, the term is rarely applied. 
 But almost everywhere the sedentary and agricultural aborigines 
 are called Tajiks, and are spoken of as Parsivdn^ that is, Parsi- 
 zaMn\ "of Persian speech," or else Dihkdn^, that is, "Peasants," 
 all being mainly husbandmen "of Persian race and tongue^" 
 They form endless tribal, or at least social, groups, who keep 
 somewhat aloof from their proto-Aryan conquerors, so that, in 
 the east especially, the ethnic fusion is far from complete, the 
 various sections of the community being still rather juxtaposed 
 than fused in a single nationality. When to these primeval 
 differences is added the tribal system still surviving in full vigour 
 
 amongst the intruding Afghans themselves, we see 
 
 Afghans. , ? ., , . . ^ ^ , , \ , , 
 
 how impossible it is yet to speak of an Afghan 
 nation, but only of heterogeneous masses loosely held together 
 by the paramount tribe — at present the Durani of Kabul. 
 
 The Tajiks are first mentioned by Herodotus, whose Dadikes'*' 
 are identified by Hammer and Khanikoff with them\ They are 
 
 cutting but always breaking their bread, the use of the knife being sure to raise 
 the price of flour. 
 
 ^ Zabdn, tongue, language. 
 
 ^ Dih, deh, village. 
 
 ^ H. Walter, From Indus to Tigris, p. i6. Of course this traveller refers 
 only to the Tajiks of the plateau ( Persia, Afghanistan). Of the Galchic Tajiks 
 he knew nothing; nor indeed is the distinction even yet quite understood by 
 European ethnologists. 
 
 * III. 91. 
 
 * Even Ptolemy's irdaixo-t appear to be the same people, tt being an error 
 
Plate XI. 
 
 I. Persian of Shiraz. 
 (Iranian Type.) 
 
 2. Baluchi. 
 (Lowland Tajik Type.) 
 
 3. Kling Woman. 
 (Dravidian Type.) 
 
 4. Igorrote, Luzon I. 
 (Indonesian Type.) 
 
 To face page 554] 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 555 
 
 now commonly divided into Lowland, and Highland or Hill Tajiks, 
 of whom the former were always Parsivan, whereas the Hill Tajiks 
 did not originally speak Persian at all, but, as many still do, an 
 independent sister language called Galchic, current in the Pamir, 
 Zerafshan and Sir-darya uplands, and holding a somewhat inter- 
 mediate position between the Iranic and Indie branches. 
 
 This term Galcha, although new to science, has long been 
 applied to the Aryans of the Pamir valleys, being t»i- p , t. 
 identified with the Calcienses populi of the lay Jesuit 
 Benedict Goez, who crossed the Pamir in 1603, and describes 
 them as " of light hair and beard like the Belgians." Meyendorff 
 also calls those of Zerafshan " Eastern Persians, Galchi, Galchas." 
 The word has been explained to mean "the hungry raven who 
 has withdrawn to the mountains," probably in reference to those 
 Lowland Tajiks who took refuge in the uplands from the pre- 
 datory Turki hordes. But it is no doubt the Persian galcha^ 
 a peasant or clown, then a vagabond, etc., whence galchagi, 
 rudeness. 
 
 As shown by J. Biddulph\ the tribes of Galchic speech range 
 over both slopes of the Hindu-Kush, comprising the natives of 
 Sarakol, Wakhan, Shignan, Munjan (with the Yidoks of the Upper 
 Lud-kho or Chitral river), Sanglich, and Ishkashim. To these he 
 is inclined to add the Pakhpus and the Shakshus of the Upper 
 Yarkand-darya, as well as those of the Kocha valley, with whom 
 must now also be included the Zerafshan Galchas (Maghians, 
 Kshtuts, Falghars, Machas and Fans), but not the Yagnobis. All 
 these form also one ethnic group of Alpine type, with whom on 
 linguistic grounds Biddulph also includes two other groups, the 
 Khos of Chitral with the Siah Posh of Kafiristan, and the Shins 
 (Dards), G6rs, Chilasi and other small tribes of the Upper Indus 
 and side valleys, all these apparently being long-heads of the blond 
 Aryan type. Keeping this distinction in view, Biddulph's valuable 
 treatise on the Hindu-Kush populations may be followed with 
 
 for T, so that ToxTLKai would be the nearest possible Greek transcription of 
 Tajik. Major Raverty {liafiristan and elsewhere) writes Tajzik, which comes 
 very near to Da-zhik, the old sound of the Chinese Tiao-chi or Ta-shih given 
 by Chang Kiao, who visited the West in 122 B.C. (Desguignes). 
 ^ Tribes of the Hindoo-Koosh, passim. 
 
55^ MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 safety. He traces the Galcha idioms generally to the old Baktrian 
 (East Persian, so-called "Zend Avesta"), the Shin however lean- 
 ing closely to Sanskrit, while Khowar, the speech of the Chitrali 
 (Khos), is intermediate between Baktrian and Sanskrit. But 
 differences prevail on these details, which will give occupation 
 to philologists for some time to come. 
 
 Speaking generally, all the Galchas of the northern slopes 
 (most of Biddulph's first group) are physically con- 
 Tajtk^ Types. nected with all the other Lowland and Hill Tajiks, 
 with whom should also probably be included 
 Elphinstone's^ southern Tajiks dwelling south of the Hindu-Kush 
 (Kohistani, Berrakis, PurmuU or Fermuli, Sirdehis, Sistani, and 
 others scattered over Afghanistan and northern Baluchistan). 
 Their type is pronouncedly Alpine, so much so that they have been 
 spoken of by French anthropologists as "those belated Savoyards 
 of Kohistani" De Ujfalvy, who has studied them carefully, 
 describes them as tall, brown or bronzed and even white, with 
 ruddy cheeks recalling the Englishman, black or chestnut hair, 
 sometimes red and even light, smooth, wavy or curly, full beard, 
 brown, ruddy or blond (he met two brothers near Penjakend with 
 hair "blanc comme du lin ") ; brown, blue, or grey eyes, never 
 oblique, long, shapely nose sHghtly curved, thin, straight lips, oval 
 face, stout, vigorous frame, and round heads with cephalic index as 
 high as 86 '50. This description, which is confirmed by Bonvalot 
 and other recent observers, applies to the Darwazi, Wakhi, 
 Badakhshi, and in fact all the groups, so that we have beyond all 
 doubt an eastern extension of the Alpine brachy zone through 
 Armenia and the Bakhtiari uplands to the Central Asiatic high- 
 lands. In this description we also see obvious traces of the blond 
 type grafted on these pre-Aryan Neolithic Tajiks by their Iranic 
 Aryan conquerors, just as the Kelts and other pre-Aryan round- 
 heads were Aryanised farther west. 
 
 We can now, perhaps for the first time, grasp the picture 
 as a whole, and realise the marvellous uniformity of the ethnical 
 and linguistic relations of two great sections of mankind — Linne's 
 
 ^ An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul, 1815. 
 
 ^ *'Ces Savoyards attardes du Kohistan" (Ujfalvy, Les Aryens etc.). 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 557 
 
 Homo europceus and ff. alpinus^ as they may now be called — who 
 have been in the closest contact for thousands of years all along 
 the borderlands from the heart of Asia to the shores of the 
 Atlantic. 
 
 But the eventful drama is not yet closed. Arrested perhaps 
 for a time by the barrier of the Hindu-Kush and Suhman ranges, 
 these wonderful proto-Aryan conquerors burst at Ethnic Re 
 last, probably through the Kabul river gorges, on lations in 
 to the plains of India, and thereby added another 
 world to the Caucasic domain. Here they were brought face 
 to face with new conditions, which gave rise to fresh changes and 
 adaptations resulting in the present ethnical relations in the 
 peninsula. There is good reason to think that in this region the 
 leavening Aryan element never was numerous, while even on their 
 first arrival the Aryan invaders found the land already somewhat 
 thickly peopled by the aborigines. 
 
 These formed at least three, and most probably four distinct 
 ethnical groups — a black substratum forming a section of the 
 primitive Indo-Malaysian populations ; tribes of Kolarian speech 
 probably from the north-east, or from the Himalayan slopes ; tribes 
 of Dravidian speech almost certainly from the north-west through 
 the Suliman passes ; lastly, Mongoloid peoples from the Tibetan 
 plateau, all arriving apparently in the order named. Of the cha- 
 racteristic woolly hair, by which the first might best be recognised, 
 few distinct traces have yet been detected ; nor are the features 
 anywhere sufficiently negroid to remove all doubts as to their 
 presence \ Hence we may perhaps infer that little remains of 
 this substratum except a general deepening of the colour of the 
 skin, if it is to be traced to this source rather than to environ- 
 mental influences. 
 
 The fourth or Mongoloid element has also mainly disappeared 
 from India proper, and is found now only on the northern and 
 north-eastern uplands near their original Tibetan homes, beyond 
 
 1 Negroid or Negrito t^ts are however shown in the nose, mouth, and hair 
 of the Paniyan woman figured in the Madras Govt. Museum Series, vol. ii. 
 No. I,. Madras, 1897, p. 25. 
 
553 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 which they may have never ranged very far into the plains. 
 Even the Kols or Kolarians \ who formerly over- 
 spread the plains of Bengal, are now restricted to 
 the hilly and jungly tracts between Upper and Lower Bengal, 
 the Chota Nagpore plateau, and generally from the Ganges to 
 about i8° N. lat. Their chief divisions are the Santals, Mundas, 
 Kharias, Korwas, Kurkus, Mehtos, Mal-Paharias^, and Savaras, 
 each speaking a distinct dialect of the common Kolarian speech, 
 which seems to show affinities with the Kiranti of Nepal, but none 
 with the Mon of Pegu, as has been suggested by Dr Mason and 
 others ^ 
 
 In features, says Dalton, the Kols show "much variety, and 
 I think in a great many families there is a considerable admixture 
 of Aryan blood. Many have high noses and oval faces, and 
 young girls are at times met with who have delicate and regular 
 features, finely-chiselled straight noses, and perfectly formed 
 mouths and chins. The eyes, however, are seldom so large, so 
 bright, and gazelle-like as those of pure Hindu maidens, and 
 I have met strongly marked Mongolian features. In colour they 
 vary greatly, the copper tints being about the most common 
 [though the Mirzapur Kols are very dark]. Eyes dark brown, 
 hair black, straight or wavy [as all over India]. Both men and 
 women are noticeable for their fine, erect carriage and long, free 
 stride \" 
 
 All this, taken in connection with the affinities of their speech 
 to some of the Nepalese idioms, points to a proto-Mongoloid 
 people, who arrived in remote times, intermingled with the black 
 aborigines, and afterwards crossed with Aryans. 
 
 There remain the Dra vidians, to whom the same remark may 
 apply, with this difference, that both the black and the Mongol 
 
 ^ The term A'o/, which occurs as an element in a great many tribal names, 
 and was first introduced by Campbell in a collective sense (1866), is of unknown 
 origin, but probably connected with a root meaning "Man" (W. Crooke, 
 Tribes and Castes, ill. p. 294). 
 
 2 Bishop Caldwell, The Languages of India, 1875. At the census of 1891 
 about 3 millions were returned as of Kolarian speech. 
 
 ^ Capt. Forbes, Paper read at the Asiat. Soc. Nov. 1877. 
 
 * Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, p. 190. 
 
Plate XII. 
 
 :;jr^: 
 
 I. ToDA Man, S. India. 
 (Caucasic Type.) 
 
 Toda Man, S. India. 
 (Caucasic Type.) 
 
 3. Ainu, Sakhalin I. 
 (Caucasic Type.) 
 
 4. Ainu, Yezo 1. 
 (Caucasic Type.) 
 
 To face page 558] 
 
Of THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY j 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 559 
 
 traits are more effaced, and the Aryan more accentuated. But, 
 as should be expected, there are many aberrant 
 groups showing divergences in all directions, as Dmvldians 
 amongst the Kurufnbas and Todas of the Nilgiris, 
 the former approximating to the Mongol, the latter to the Aryan 
 standard. The Rev. W. Sikemeier, who has lived amongst them 
 for years, writes to me that " many of the Kurumbas have decided 
 Mongoloid face and stature, and appear to be the aborigines of 
 that region \" My correspondent adds that much nonsense has 
 been written about the Todas, who have become the trump card 
 of popular ethnographists. "Being ransacked by P^uropean 
 visitors they invent all kinds of traditions, which they found out 
 their questioners liked to get, and for which they were paid.'" 
 Still the type is remarkable and strikingly European, "well pro- 
 portioned and stalwart, with straight nose, regular features and 
 perfect teeth," the chief characteristic being the development of 
 the hairy system, less however than amongst the Ainu, whom 
 they so closely resembled From the illustrations given in Mr 
 Thurston's valuable series one might be tempted to infer that a 
 group of proto-Aryans had reached this extreme limit of their 
 Asiatic domain and here for untold ages preserved their original 
 type in almost unsullied purity. 
 
 The Dravidians occupy the greater part of the Dekkan, where 
 they are constituted in a few great nations — Telugus (Telingas); 
 Tamils (numbers of whom have crossed into Ceylon and occupied 
 the northern and central parts of that island, working in the coffee 
 districts), Kanarese, and the Malayalim of the west coast. These 
 with some others were brought at an early date under Aryan (Hindu) 
 influences, but have preserved their highly agglutinating Dravidian 
 speech, which has no known affinities elsewhere, unless perhaps 
 with the language of the Brahuis, who are regarded by many as 
 belated Dravidians left behind in East Baluchistan. 
 
 But for this very old, but highly cultivated Dravidian language,, 
 which is still spoken by about 54 millions between Dravidian 
 the Ganges and Ceylon, it would no longer be and Aryan 
 possible to distinguish ^hese southern Hindus from 
 
 1 Letter, ]\xr\Q 18, 1895. 
 
 2 Edgar Thurston, Anthropology etc., Bui. 4, Madras, 1896, pp. 147-8. 
 
56o MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 those of Aryan speech who occupy all the rest of the peninsula 
 together with the southern slopes of the Hindu- Kush and parts of 
 the western Himalayas. Their main divisions are the Kashmiri, 
 many of whom might be called typical Aryans; the Punjabis with 
 several sub-groups, amongst which are the Sikhs, religious sec- 
 taries half Moslem half Hindu, also of magnificent physique ; 
 the Gujaratis, Mahratis, Hindis, Bengalis, Assamis, and Oraons 
 of Orissa, all speaking Neo-Sanskritic idioms, which collectively 
 constitute the Indie branch of the Aryan family. Hindustani 
 or Urdu, a simplified form of Hindi current especially in the 
 Doab, or "Two waters," the region between the Ganges and 
 Jumna above Allahabad, has become a sort of lingua fratica^ the 
 chief medium of intercourse throughout the peninsula, and is 
 understood by certainly over loo millions, while all the popula- 
 tions of Neo-Sanskritic speech numbered in 1898 considerably 
 over 200 millions. 
 
 Perhaps the most surprising feature of these teeming multi- 
 tudes is the remarkable uniformity of their physical characters, as 
 indicated especially by the prevailing dolicho shape of the head 
 everywhere in the peninsula. Thus in Mr Risley's tables^ the 
 averages of cephalic indices for Bengal, Oudh, the North-west 
 Provinces and the north generally, range from 71 to about 77, 
 rising of course much higher (84) on the Himalayan slopes, that 
 is, the Mongoloid Tibetan territory. In the extreme south also 
 Mr Thurston's averages are 72, 74, and 76 for the Madras Pre- 
 sidency^. It is difficult to explain this phenomenon on the 
 assumption that the proto-Dra vidians were of brachy Mongol 
 stock, as the Kols almost certainly were, if not also the later Jat 
 and Rajput intruders. These, one would suppose, must have 
 sufficed to have swamped both the dolicho black aborigines and 
 the comparatively recent Aryan invaders, or at least to raise the 
 indices everywhere above their actual low averages. 
 
 Are we driven to infer with de Lapouge that the form of the 
 head is not so much a racial as a social question? If so, we 
 should have to infer further that, while the inferior round-heads 
 are gaining on the superior long-heads in Europe, the reverse 
 
 1 Quoted by Crooke, i. p. cxxix. 
 
 2 Madras Govt. Mus. Series, passim. 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 561 
 
 process is going on in the Indian peninsula. Are the racial con- 
 ditions of the two regions such as to warrant this conclusion? 
 Surely not, so long as nearly 300 million natives are held in 
 political subjection and administered by 200 or 300 thousand 
 Europeans from a base 6000 or 7000 miles away. Ethnology is, 
 like a two-edged sword, an extremely dangerous weapon to be 
 introduced into the discussion of social questions, until the whole 
 field is thoroughly surveyed and the broad results clearly coordi- 
 nated. 
 
 Here we derive little help from the consideration of caste, 
 whatever view be taken of the origin of this institu- 
 tion. The rather obvious theory that it was intro- cJstes.^'"'^" 
 duced by the handful of Aryan conquerors to 
 prevent the submergence of the race in the great ocean of black 
 or dark aborigines, is now rejected by Mr Nesfield^ and others, 
 who hold that its origin is occupational, a question rather of social 
 pursuits becoming hereditary in family groups, rather than of race 
 distinctions sanctioned by religion. They point out that the 
 commentator's interpretation of the Pancha Ksttaya, " Five 
 Classes," as Brdhmans (priests), Kshatriyas (fighters), Vaisya 
 (traders), Sudra (peasants and craftsmen of all kinds) and Nishdda 
 (savages or outcasts) is recent, and conveys only the current senti- 
 ment of the age. It never had any substantial base, and even 
 in the comparatively late Institutes of Manu "the rules of 
 food, connubium and intercourse between the various castes are 
 very different from what we find at present"; also that, far from 
 being eternal and changeless, caste has been subject to endless 
 modifications throughout the whole range of Hindu myth and 
 history. Nor is it an institution peculiar to India, while even 
 here the stereotyped four or five divisions neither accord with 
 existing facts, nor correspond to so many distinct ethnical groups. 
 
 All this is perfectly true, and it is also true that for generations 
 the recognised castes, say, social pursuits, have been in a state of 
 constant flux, incessantly undergoing processes of segmentation, 
 so that their number is at present past counting. Nevertheless, 
 the system may have b^n, and probably was, first inspired by 
 
 1 Quoted by Crooke, l. p. XX. sq. ^ 
 
 K. 36 
 
562 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. 
 
 racial motives, an instinctive sense of self-preservation, which 
 expressed itself in an informal way by local class distinctions 
 which were afterwards sanctioned by religion, but eventually 
 broke down or degenerated into the present relations under the 
 outward pressure of imperious social necessities. 
 
 Beyond the mainland and Ceylon no Caucasic peoples of 
 
 Aryan speech are known to have ranged in neo- 
 
 Csmcasfa"^."^*^ Hthic or prehistoric times. But we have already 
 
 followed the early migrations of the proto-Caucasic 
 
 race, here called Indonesians, into Malaysia, the Philippines, 
 
 Formosa and the Japanese Archipelago, which they must have 
 
 occupied in the New Stone Age. Here there occurs a great 
 
 break, for they are not again met till we reach Micronesia and 
 
 the still more remote insular groups beyond Melanesia. In 
 
 Micronesia the relations are extremely confused, 
 
 Micronesians. . 
 
 because, as it seems, this group had already been 
 occupied by the Melanesians from New Guinea before the 
 arrival of the Indonesians, while after their arrival they were 
 followed at intervals by Malays perhaps from the Philippines and 
 Formosa, and still later by Japanese, if not also by Chinese from 
 the mainland. Hence the types are here as varied as the colour, 
 which appears, going eastwards, to shade off from the dark brown 
 of the Pelew and Caroline Islanders to the light brown of the 
 Marshall and Gilbert groups, where we already touch upon the 
 skirts of the true Indonesian domain. 
 
 A line drawn athwart the Pacific from New Zealand through 
 Fiji to Hawaii will rouj^hly cut off this domain from 
 
 Polynesians. ° •' 
 
 the rest of the Oceanic world, where all to the 
 west is Melanesian, Papuan or mixed, while all to the right — 
 Maoris some of the eastern Fijians, Tongans, Samoans, Tahitians, 
 Marquesans^ Hawaiians and Easter Islatiders — constitute the 
 purest and most interesting section of the Caucasic Indonesians. 
 Their claim to belong to this connection can no longer be 
 seriously questioned, since, as now firmly established, there 
 have been from the remotest times both a dolicho and a 
 brachy section of the Caucasic division. To the former section 
 
XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 563 
 
 belong our Eastern Polynesians, who are mostly long-heads' 
 with remarkably regular features often of a distinctly European 
 stamp, and other characters of a pronouncedly Caucasic type. 
 The hair is mostly black and straight, but also wavy, though 
 never frizzly or even kinky. The colour also is of a light brown 
 compared to cinnamon or cafe-au-lait, and sometimes approaching 
 an almost white shade, while the tall stature averaging 5 ft. 11 in. 
 or 6 ft. slightly exceeds that of several European groups in Sweden, 
 Norway, North Britain and Ireland. 
 
 But the language, it is objected, is not Aryan or European. 
 No doubt this is so, but the Caucasic peoples of the New Stone 
 Age spread over North Africa, Europe, and Asia, and most of 
 them spoke non-Aryan idioms, as we see very well from the 
 Hamito-Semitic and the allied Basque, besides those of the 
 Caucasus, and Yagnobi, which in its remarkable survival may 
 be called the "Basque of Central Asia." Malayo-Polynesian 
 also, of which Eastern Polynesian is a very pure member, has 
 its roots on the Asiatic mainland, whence it was diffused over 
 the Oceanic world by our Indonesians in prehistoric times. The 
 problems associated with this position are intricate, but have 
 already been dealt with in the seventh chapter of this volume. 
 
 Migrating at an unknown date eastwards from Malaysia, the 
 Indonesians appear to have first formed permanent 
 
 . t, , . , , . , Migrations. 
 
 settlements m Samoa, and more particularly m the 
 island of Savaii, originally Savaiki, which name under divers 
 forms and still more divers meanings accompanied all their subse- 
 quent migrations over the Pacific waters. Thus we have in Tahiti 
 Havaii^^ the "universe," and the old capital of Raiatea; in Raro- 
 tonga Avaiki, "the land under the wind"; in New Zealand 
 Hawaiki, " the land whence came the Maori " ; in the Marquesas 
 Havaiki, "the lower regions of the dead," as in to fenua Havaiki^ 
 
 1 I make this statement on the authority of Dr Hamy, who, against the 
 current opinion, finds from fresh measurements that "dans I'est, dans le nord, 
 et dans lesud ils presentent une dolichocephalie fort prononcee" (Hawaii 75-5; 
 Taiti 74'i; Maori 73'2), ri^g only in the west to 80 {Les Races Malaiqties, 
 V Anihropologie, 1896, p. 13^- 
 
 2 H everywhere takes the place of S, which is preserved only in the Samoan 
 mother-tongue; cf. Gr. eTrrd with Lat. septem, Eng. seven. 
 
 36—2 
 
564 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CH. XIV 
 
 " return to the land of thy forefathers," the words with which the 
 victims in human sacrifices were speeded to the other world ; 
 lastly in Hawaii^ the name of the chief island of the Sandwich 
 group. 
 
 That such reminiscences should be preserved for long ages is 
 characteristic of these Indonesians, whose myths and legends, 
 sometimes unexpectedly verified in surprising ways, show that 
 they were gifted with very long memories. Some of their poetic 
 and even subhme cosmogonies would almost seem to have ac- 
 companied all their wanderings from their Central Asiatic cradle 
 through Malaysia to their present eastern homes. More than 
 one of these cosmogonies starts with Chaos, Immensity, Gloomy 
 Night — not so much concrete as abstract concepts. Almost 
 purely subjective notions, these entities, writes Dr Tautain', 
 must have been preceded by more material beings, by simpler 
 and more tangible deities. In all the Polynesian cosmogonies, 
 of which there is great store, we find Heaven, Earth, the Universe, 
 the After- World, recurring under diverse names and forms, per- 
 sonified by language, embodied in animistic and anthropomorphic 
 philosophies — echoes, as it were, of the Vedic hymns reverberating 
 from isle to isle over the broad Pacific waters. 
 
 1 V Anthropologie, 1896, p. 542. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ababdehs, 485 
 
 Abakas, 76 
 
 Abbot, W. J. L., on the works of 
 
 early man, 9 
 Abenaki, 385 
 Abkhasians, 552 
 Abors, 176 
 Abos, 113, 200 
 Absarokas, 395 
 Abyssinians, 469, 488 
 Achseans, 543 — 4 
 Achinese, 233, 247 
 Acclimatisation, 13 
 Acolhuas, 412 
 Adam, L., on vowel harmony, 294 
 
 —5 
 .'Egean culture, 506 — 9 
 
 script, 507 
 
 ^neolithic Age, 17, 511 
 
 in Sicily, 46^--6 
 
 yEolians, 544 
 
 Aetas, 165 — -68 
 
 Afars, 469, 486 
 
 Afghans, 554 
 
 Afilos, 89 
 
 Afri, 455 
 
 Afro- European, 445, 455, 464 
 
 Ahoms, 200 
 
 Aimores, 435 — 8 
 
 Ainus, 286 
 
 Akkads, Alckado-Sumerians, 273 sq, 
 
 Akkado-Chinese relations, 215 — 16 
 
 Akkas, 118 
 
 Akuas, 436 
 
 Alakalufs, 430 
 
 Alans, 551 
 
 Albanians, 521, 549 — 50 ^ 
 
 Aleuts, 372 ^ 
 
 Algonquians, 383 sq. 
 
 Alibamus, 390 
 
 AUobroges, 524 
 
 Alphabet, evolution of, 26 
 
 ' Malaysian, 244 — 5 
 
 Ambrosetti, J. B., on S. American 
 
 folklore, 380 — i 
 American aborigines, 349 sq. 
 
 origin of race and culture, 352 
 
 sq. 
 
 two types, 353—4 
 
 speech, 361 
 
 stock languages, number and 
 
 distribution of, 364 — 7 
 
 distribution of the brachys and 
 
 dolichos, 367 — 8 
 
 cranial deformation, 368 
 
 cultural resemblances with the 
 
 Old World, 379—80 
 
 Reservations, 386 
 
 Amias, 262 
 
 Ammon, Dr, on the brachy and 
 
 dolicho types, 520 
 Amok, 236 
 
 Amorites, 274, 491, 495, 500 
 Anatolian Turks, 327 
 Ancestry-worship, Ashanti, 58 
 
 Wagiryama, 95 
 
 Bantu, 114 — 15 
 
 Celebes, rr6 
 
 Chinese, 223 
 
 Andalusians, 537 
 Andamanese, 158 — 62 
 
 speech, 160 — 2 
 
 numeral system, 161 
 
 Andi, 552 
 
 Angami speech, 184 
 Angles, 518, 527 
 Angoni, 99 
 Annamese, 205, 2irsq. 
 
 speech, 213 
 
 Anorohoros, 252 — 3 
 Ansariehs, 497 
 Anus, 294 
 
566 
 
 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Apaches, 382 
 
 Apalachi, 390 
 
 Apiacas, 434 
 
 Aquitani, 463 
 
 Arabs, 472—4, 491, 501—3 
 
 Aragonese, 537 
 
 Aramaeans, 274, 491 
 
 Araonas, 439 
 
 Araucanians, 427 sq. 
 
 Arawaks, 434 — 5 
 
 Arboreal dwellings, Africa, 67 
 
 New Guinea, 134 
 
 Philippines, 166 
 
 Archaeology, an aid to ethnology, t6 
 Armenians, 500 — i 
 
 Armenoid type, 457, 514 
 Aruans, 435 
 "Aryan," 445 
 
 race and speech, 445 — 6, 512 
 
 — - prototypes, 511 — 12 
 
 Ashas, 486 
 
 Aspelin, J. R., on Finnish origins, 
 
 335 . 
 Assami, 200, 560 
 Assena Turks, 325 
 Assinaboins, 395 
 Assyrians, 274, 491, 502 
 Atacamenos, 426 
 Athapascans, 382 sq. 
 Atorais, 435 
 Attila, 346 
 Australians, 145 — 56 
 
 speech, 147 
 
 numeral system, 148 
 
 gesture language, 149 
 
 class and group marriages, 
 
 153—5 
 
 pictorial art, 150 
 
 Avars, 345 
 Ayamats, 48 
 Aymaras, 423 sq. 
 Aysas, 486 
 
 Aztecs, 406 sq. 
 
 calendar, 410 
 
 Babirs, 67 
 Badakhshi, 556 
 Baeles, 71 
 Ba-Fiot, 109 
 Baggaras, 72, 473 
 Baghirmi, 66, 69 
 Bajaus, 237 
 Bakairi, 365, 391, 434 
 Bakalai, 112 
 Bakhtiari, 279 
 Bakish, 114 
 Bakundu, 11^ 
 
 Bakwiri, 113 
 Balinese, 234 
 Ball, Rev. C. J., on Akkado-Chinese 
 
 relations, 217 
 Ball, D., on the Hakkas and Pun-ti, 
 
 220 
 Balolo, 107, 110 
 Balongs, 113 
 Balti, 173 
 Baltic Finns, 336 
 Baluba, lio 
 Balz, Dr G., on the Japanese type, 
 
 310 
 Bamangwato, 106 
 Bambaras, 45 
 Bambas, 109 , 
 
 Banjars, 48 
 Bantu Negro, 39 
 
 contrasts, 39 
 
 languages, 41 
 
 prefixes, 78 
 
 domain, 85 
 
 constituent elements, 87 — 8, 
 
 90 
 
 migrations, 114 
 
 Banyuns, 48 
 Barabra, 73 
 
 Bari, 76 
 
 Barotse empire, 103 
 
 Barrows, British, 527 
 
 Barth, H., on the Sonrhays, 63 
 
 on the Hausas and Kanuri, 69 
 
 on the Mosgus, 68 
 
 Basange, no 
 
 Basas, 113 
 
 Bashiiange, no 
 
 Bashkirs, 335, 345 
 
 Bashukulumbe, 105 
 
 Basonge, no 
 
 Basque and Berber speech, 459 — 60 
 
 Basques, 459 
 
 French, 535 
 
 Bastarnse, 516 — 17 
 Batanga, 113 
 Batekes, 112 
 
 Bateman, S. L., on the Tushilanges, 
 
 no 
 Batoka, 105 
 Batonga, 105 
 Battas, 245 — 7 
 Batwas, 1 20 
 Bayas, 86 
 
 Baye, Baron de, on the Votyaks, 342 
 Bayongs, n3 
 Bayots, 48 
 Bechuanas, 103 
 Beddoe, Dr, on the proto- Italians, 468 
 
INDEX. 
 
 567 
 
 Bedes, 67 
 
 Bedouins, 502 
 
 Bejas, 74, 469, 485 
 
 Belgse, 527—8 
 
 Bengalis, 560 
 
 Beni-Amers, 485 
 
 Benin bronzes, 58 
 
 Bent, T., on Zimbabwe, 102 
 
 Bentley, Rev. W., on the Kongo 
 language, 108 
 
 Beothuks, 384 
 
 Berber and Basque speech, 460 — 2 
 
 Berberi, 73 
 
 Berbers, 75, 454, 455, 469 
 
 Berbers and Arabs, 472 — 4 
 
 Bernard, A., on the New Caledo- 
 nians, 140 
 
 Berthelot, M., on the Copper Age, 18 
 
 Bertin, G., on the Bushmen, 124 
 on Egyptian origins, 478 
 
 Bessi, 541 
 
 Betsileos, 254 
 
 Betsimisarakas, 253 
 
 Bhotiyas, 176 
 
 Bicols, 258 
 
 Biddulph, J., on the Galchas, 555 
 
 Bigger, F. J., on the Portnafeady 
 finds, 529 
 
 Billet, Dr A., on the Tonking abori- 
 gines, 204 — 5 
 
 Biloxi, 392 
 
 Binger, Capt., on the Mandingans, 
 46 
 
 Birch, S., on Egyptian origins, 478 
 
 Bird, G. W., on Burmese myths, 196 
 
 Bisayans, 258 
 
 Bishari, 485 
 
 Bishop, Mrs, on the Chinese, 227 
 
 "Black Jews," 109 
 
 Bloch, A., on the Malagasy, 249 
 
 Blumentritt, F., on the Philippine 
 natives, 258 
 
 Boas, F., on the Kwakiutl Indians, 
 369—70 
 
 Bock, C, on the Shans, 199 sq. 
 
 Bod-pa, 175 
 
 Bonbo religion, 18 r 
 
 Bongos, 76 
 
 Bonjos, 85 
 
 Borgus, 59 
 
 Bori, 176 
 
 Bomeans, 240 sq. 
 
 Bororos, 430, 434 ^ 
 
 Botocudos, 419, 435 — 8 
 
 Brahui, 559 
 
 Braknas, 470 
 
 Bretons, 455, 523 
 
 British barrows, 528 
 
 British types, 526--8 
 
 Britons, 525 — 7 
 
 Bronze Age, 19, 20, 479, 507 
 
 Bronze alloys, 19 
 
 Brooks, W. K., on early man in the 
 
 Bahamas, 417 
 Buddhism, Tibetan, 178, 182 
 
 Burmese, 196 
 
 Siamese, 209 
 
 Annamese, 214 
 
 Chinese, 223 
 
 Mongol, 285 
 
 Korean, 307 
 
 Japanese, 307, 312 
 
 and Christian ritualism, 182 
 
 Budini, 547 
 
 Buganda, v. Waganda 
 Bugis, 233 
 Bulalas, 71 
 Bulams, 49 
 Bulgaria, Great, 344 
 - — Little, 344 
 Bulgars, 342 sq. 
 
 speech, 344 
 
 Buquitnons, 259 
 Burgunds, 515, 535 
 Burish language, 553 
 Burmese, 195 sq. 
 
 Burton, R., on the Kushites, 477 
 Buryats, 284 
 Bushmen, 121 — 25 
 
 domain, 121 — 2 
 
 speech, 124 
 
 Bwais, 194 
 
 Byrne, Dean, his theory of vowel 
 harmony, 295 
 
 Cagayanes, 258 
 Calendar, Mexican, 410 
 Callilehets, 429 
 Cambojans, 207 
 Canaanites, 491, 502 
 Canary natives, 454, 457 
 Cannibal zone, Africa, 78 
 Cannibalism, Welle basin, 78 
 
 Gallaland, 79 
 
 Bonjo, 85 
 
 Fan, 112 
 
 New Guinea, 133 
 
 Melanesia, 137 
 
 New Caledonia, 142 
 
 Borneo, 241 
 
 Sumatra, 246 
 
 Batta, 247 
 
 South America, 418 — 19 
 
 Cappadocians, 503 
 
568 
 
 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Carapaches, 432 
 
 Carey, S., on the Chins, 190 sq. 
 Carians, 503 
 Caribs, 390, 434 sq. 
 Cashibos, 432 — 3 
 Castes, Hindu, 561 
 Castilians, 537 
 Catalans, 538 
 Catawbas, 392 
 Catios, 418 
 Cattle Damaras, 107 
 Caucasian elements in Indo-China, 
 193, 2or 
 
 South-east Asia, 206 
 
 Borneo, 242 
 
 Central Asia, 268 
 
 East Asia, 305 
 
 Japan, 313 
 
 West Asia, 315 
 
 America, 353 sq. 
 
 Caucasic peoples, 444 sq. 
 
 terminology, 444 — 5 
 
 constituent elements of, 448 
 
 range and population, 449 
 
 cradle, 450 
 
 Caucasus, aborigines of, 552 
 
 languages of, 552—3 
 
 Cayugas, 389 
 Chagatais, 330 
 Chaldseans, 496 
 
 Chalmers, Rev. J., on the Papuan 
 
 cannibals, 133 
 Chamberlain, B. H., on Japanese 
 
 origins, 309 
 
 on the Liu-Kiu language, 311 
 
 Chanler, W. A., on the Wando- 
 
 robbos, 1 1 9 
 
 Chantre, E., on the Armenoids, 514 
 
 Chavero, A., on the Mexican Calen- 
 dar, 410 
 
 Chechenzes, 552 
 
 Chedorlaomer, 277 
 
 Chekhs, 548 
 
 Cheremisses, 341 
 
 Cherentes, 436 
 
 Cheroki script, 26 
 
 Cherokis, 385 
 
 Chess, with living pieces, in Annani, 
 205 
 
 Chibchas, 420 sq. 
 
 Chicasaws, 390 
 
 Chichimecs, 411 — 12 
 
 Chilasi, 555 
 
 Chimus, 426 
 
 China, prehistoric ages in, 24 
 
 Chinese, 214 sq. 
 
 script, 217 — 18 
 
 Chingpaws, 193 
 Chinhwans, 261 
 Chins, 189 — 93 
 Chippeways, 384 
 Chiquitos, 439 
 Chocos, 417 — 18 
 Choctaws, 390 
 Chontals, 417 
 Chudes, 315, 335 
 Chuelches, 429 
 Chukchi, 286, 298 — 9 
 Cimbri, 516, 524 
 Circassians, 552 
 Clan, theory of, 397 — 8 
 
 Pueblo system, 402 
 
 Clark, C. U., on Magyar and Finn 
 
 relations, 333 
 Classification, elements of, 33 
 Clicks, Bushman, 124 
 Cliff-dwellers, 399 — 401 
 Cliff-dwellings, genesis of, 404 
 Clifford, H., on the Semangs, 162 — 4 
 
 on Malay folklore, 239 
 
 Clozel, F. J., on the Bayas, 86 
 Cocomas, 418 
 
 Coconucos, 422 
 Codex Argenteus, 518 
 Codrington, R., on the Angoni, 99 
 Codrington, Rev. R. H., on Melan- 
 
 esian religion, 136 — 7 
 CoUignon, l3r, on the Malagasy, 249 
 
 on the Afro-Europeans, 454 
 
 on the Basques, 459 
 
 Colquhoun, A. R., on the Shans, 200 
 
 on Siamese Buddhism, 210 
 
 Colville, Z., on the Malagasy, 254 
 Communal dwellings, New Guinea, 
 
 134 
 
 Borneo, 242 
 
 Communal marriages, 155 
 
 Conant, L. L., on numeral systems, 
 
 148 
 Conder, C. R., on the Hittites, 500 
 Confucianism, 221 
 Conibos, 433 
 Conspectus of Sudanese Negro, 35 
 
 Bantus, Negritoes, Bushmen 
 
 and Hottentots, 82 
 
 Oceanic Negroes, 126 
 
 Southern Mongols, 169 
 
 Oceanic Mongols, 228 
 
 Northern Mongols, 265 
 
 American Aborigines, 349 
 
 the Caucasic peoples, 441 
 
 Convergence, theory of, 483 
 
 Cool, Capt. W., on the Balinese and 
 Sassaks, 234 — 5 
 
INDEX. 
 
 569 
 
 Cope, E. D., on Babylonian origins, 
 
 275 
 Copper Age, 17 
 Corequajes, 434 
 Coroados, 436 
 Corsicans, 467 
 Couvade, 263 
 Cowan, Rev. W. D., on the Malagasy, 
 
 254 
 Craniology, theories of, 519 — 20 
 Creeks, 390 
 Crees, 384 
 
 Cretan script, 495, 506 — 7 
 Croatians, 548 
 Crooke, W., on the Jats and Rajputs, 
 
 321—3 
 Crow Indians, 395 
 Cultural resemblances, their ethnic 
 
 value, 379 — 80 
 Cunas, 417 
 
 Cuneiforms, evolution of, 28, 29 
 Curr, E. M., on Australian class and 
 
 group marriages, 153—5 
 Cushing, F. H., on the Florida 
 
 Mounds, 388 
 Customs, V. Usages 
 Cymry, 524 
 Cypriote script, 507 
 
 Daco-Romans, 541 
 
 Dadikes, 554 
 
 Daflas, 176 
 
 Dahse, 320 — i 
 
 Dahle, Rev. L., on the Malagasy, 
 
 on Malagasy folklore, 256 
 
 Dahomi, 55 
 
 Dakotas, 395 sq. 
 Damaras, 106 
 Danakils, 469, 486 
 Danes, 527 
 
 in Ireland, 530 
 
 Dards, 174, 555 
 Darods, 486 
 Darwazi, 556 
 Dauri, 292 
 Dayaks, 240 
 
 Dazas, 475 
 
 Decle, L., on the Wahumas, 89 — 90 
 
 Delawares, 385 
 
 Deniker, J., on Lapouge's cranio - 
 
 logical theory, 520 
 Desgodins, Abbe, on th^ Tibetans, 
 
 177-8 
 Diaramocks, 262 
 Diasus, 204 
 Dinkas, 76 
 
 Disentis type, 521, 528 
 
 Dokos, 119 
 
 Dolmen builders, Afro-European, 454 
 
 Dolopes, 544 
 
 Dongolawi, 73 
 
 Dorians, 544 
 
 Dors, 76 
 
 Dra vidians, 557 — 9 
 
 language, 559 
 
 Drum language, 42 - 
 Dru-pa, 175 
 Druzes, 497 
 
 Dubois, F., on Sonrhay origins, 62 
 Duckworth, W. L. H., on the Mala- 
 gasy, 255 
 
 on the Eskimo type, 370 
 
 Dumes, 119 
 
 Dungans, 225, 326 
 Duodez, 552 
 Durani, 554 
 Dusuns, 240 
 Dwaish, 470 
 Dwalas, 113 
 Dwarfs, 117 sq. 
 Dyaks, 240 
 
 Early man, characters of, 5, 6 
 
 works of, 8, 9 
 
 in Burma, 5 
 
 New Caledonia, 141 
 
 Malay penins, 165 
 
 Tibet, 172 
 
 Siberia, 268 
 
 Japan, 271 — 2 
 
 Korea, 271 
 
 Mongolia, 271 
 
 Babylonia, 273 
 
 East Europe, 273 
 
 F'inland, 273 
 
 United States, 359 
 
 Brazil, 360 
 
 Florida, 390 — i 
 
 Yucatan, 414 
 
 Bahamas, 417 
 
 North Africa, 452 
 
 Tunis, 452 
 
 Algeria, 454 
 
 Sicily, 465 
 
 Sardinia, 467 
 
 Britain, 468 — 9, 527 
 
 Germany, 469 
 
 Russia, 469 
 
 Egypt, 476—7 
 
 Arabia, 490 — i 
 
 Scandinavia, 515 
 
 Easter Islanders, 562 
 Ebisu, 272, 309 
 
5/0 
 
 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Edkins, Rev. J., on the Hok-los, 
 
 220 
 Egyptians, 469, 476 — 82 
 
 origins, 477—82 
 
 type, persistence of, 485 
 
 social state, 484 
 
 Ehrenreich, Dr, on polygenism, 2, 3 
 
 on the American aborigines, 
 
 354 
 
 on the Caucasic peoples, 448 
 
 Elamites, 277 — 8 
 
 Elbing Museum, bronze objects in, 
 
 Ellis, A. B., on the drum language, 
 
 43 
 
 on the Guinea peoples, 55 — 
 
 57, 116 
 
 on fetishism, 56 — 7 
 
 English nation, 529 sq. 
 
 character, 532 
 
 language, 533 
 
 Environment, influence of, 12 — 14, 
 
 404 
 Ephthalites, 322 
 Eponymous heroes, Hausa, 6^ 
 
 Australian, 151 
 
 Eries, 389 
 
 Eshi- Kongo, 107 
 Eskimo, 299, 370 sq. 
 
 migrations, 371 
 
 speech, 374 
 
 Esthonians, 336 
 Etruscans, 521 — 2, 539 
 Eudusi, 516 
 
 Europseus, E. D., on Finnish migra- 
 tions, 335 
 " Eurafrican," 444 
 European aborigines, cradle of, 453 
 
 types, 453, 458 
 
 Evans, Sir J., on the works of early 
 
 man, 9 
 .Evans, A. J., on the Cretan scripts, 
 
 507 
 
 on /Egean and Mykensean 
 
 culture, 507 — 8 
 
 Evil eye, 193 
 Ewe Negroes, 54 
 
 Falashas, 498 
 Falghars, 555 
 Family, the Social Unit, 1^4 — 5, 167 
 
 —8 
 Fans, African, 112 
 
 Asiatic, 555 
 
 Fanti, 55 
 Felups, 48 
 Fermuli, 556 
 
 Fetishism, theory of, 56, 57 
 Fewkes, J. W., on Pueblo symbolism, 
 
 403 
 
 Fijians, 562 
 
 Finland, first peopled by Teutons, 
 
 334 
 
 Metal Ages in, 335 
 
 Finno-Turki peoples, 314 sq. 
 Finns, 332 sq. 
 
 Danubian, 333 
 
 Ugrian, 333 
 
 Volga, 333 
 
 Baltic and Lake, 334 
 
 domain, 334 
 
 P'ire dance, 394 
 
 Fire myth, 156 
 
 Fison, Rev. L., on Australian class 
 
 marriages, 154—5 
 Fitzgerald, W. A., on the Wagiryama, 
 
 94—6 
 Five Nations, 389 
 Flatheads, 369 
 
 Fletcher, Miss, on the totem, 396 — 7 
 Folklore, its ethnic value, 375, 380 
 
 Ashanti, 56 
 
 Hausa, 65 — 6 
 
 Uganda, 91 
 
 Pygmy, 118 
 
 Bushman, 123 
 
 Papuan, 132, 135 
 
 — — Melanesian, 136 
 
 Australian, 151 
 
 Tasmanian, 156 
 
 Andamanese, 160 
 
 Semang, 162 
 
 Kuki, 184 
 
 Manipuri, 189 
 
 Chin, 191 
 
 Burmese, 196 
 
 Malayan, 230 
 
 Balinese, 235 
 
 Malagasi, 256 
 
 Ainu, 375 
 
 Eskimo, 375 
 
 Saponi, 393 
 
 Piaroa, 397 
 
 Muysca, 421 
 
 Quechua-Aymara, 424 — 5 
 
 Araucanian, 428 
 
 Forbes, Capt., on the Burmese, 195 
 Foreman, J., on the Philippine natives, 
 
 257 sq. 
 Formosans, 260 
 
 speech, 262 
 
 Forstermann, E., on the Aztec-Maya 
 
 question, 406 sq. 
 Fortwangler, Dr, on the Bastarnae, 516 
 
INDEX. 
 
 571 
 
 Fouillee, A., on the brachy and 
 
 dolicho types, 519 
 Fraas, E., on the foiTner climate of 
 
 Egypt, 478—9 
 Franks, 518, 533—4 
 Freeman, E. A., on the Siculi, 466 
 Freemasonry, African, 50 
 
 Melanesian, 139 
 
 French, 524, 533—6 
 
 — — language, 534—5 
 Frisians, 527 
 Fuegians, 430 
 Fulahs, 70, 72 — 3, 469 
 Fuluns, 48 
 Fung-shui, 223 
 Funj, 76 
 Furs, 73 
 
 Ga tribe, ^^ 
 
 Gabelenz, G. v. der, on the Basque 
 
 and Berber languages, 460 — 2 
 Gadabursi, 486 
 Gaelic language, 523 
 Gaels, 524 
 
 Gait, E., on the Ahoms, 200 
 Galatae, 524 
 Galchas, 553—56 
 
 language, 556 
 
 Galibi, 434 
 
 Gallas, 469, 486 — 7 
 
 Galli, 524 
 
 Gallinas, 49 
 
 Gallo- Romans, 533 
 
 Gamergus, 67 
 
 Garamantes, 475 
 
 Garhwali, 177 
 
 Garson, Dr, on the early Britons, 
 
 527—8 
 Gascons, 535 
 Gatschet, A. S., on the Beothuks, 
 
 384 
 Gauchos, 429 
 Gauls, 524 
 
 Gens, theory of, 397 — 8 
 Georgians, 552 
 Gepidge, 345 
 Germans, v. Teutons 
 Ges, Gesans, 419, 435 sq. 
 Getse, 516 
 Getulians, 455 
 Geze, M., on the Basque and Berber 
 
 languages, 462 \ 
 
 Ghegs, 549 
 Giao-shi, 211 
 
 Giles, E., on Australian art, 150 
 Gill, Capt. W., on the Man-tse, 205 
 
 Gilyaks, 286, 301 
 
 Gladstone, J. H., on the early use of 
 copper, 18 
 
 on Bronze Age in Egypt, 20 
 
 Gleichen. Count, on the Abyssiniaas, 
 
 488 
 God, primitive concepts of: 
 
 Akkad, 279 — 81 
 
 Ansarieh, 407 
 
 Australian, 151 
 
 Aztec, 412 
 
 Babylonian, 280 — i 
 
 Bantu, 115, 116 
 
 Botocudos, 438 
 
 Dakotan, 395 
 
 Felup, 49 
 
 Galla, 487 
 
 Karen, 194 
 
 Kirghiz, 330 
 
 Kuki-Lushai, 186 
 
 Maya, 412, 416 
 
 Muyscan, 421 
 
 Papuan, 132 
 
 Semitic, 502 
 
 Serer, 45 
 
 Somal, 487 
 
 Tibetan, 178 
 
 Wagiryama, 96 
 
 Godden, G. M,, on the Nagas, 184 
 
 Goklans, 317 
 
 Golas, 49 
 
 Golds, 286 
 
 Goliki, 179 
 
 Golos, 76 
 
 Gors, 555 
 
 Gothamites, Malagasy, 252 — 3 
 
 Goths, 336. 515, 551 
 
 Gowland, W., on the Korean and 
 
 Japanese dolmens, 271 
 Grassiere, R. de la, on the Tarascan 
 
 language, 362 
 Grseco-Baktrians, 320 
 Greeks, v. Hellenes 
 Ground Landlordism in Babylonia, 
 
 281 
 Group marriages, 155 
 Guanches, 457, 470 
 Guarami, 438 sq. 
 Guatusos, 417 
 Guitlemard, F. H. H., on the Liu- 
 
 Kiu natives, 310 
 Guine empire, 47 
 Guinea Negroes, table of, 55 
 Gujaratis, 560 
 Guppy, H. B., on the Solomon 
 
 natives, 138 
 Gura'ans, 71 
 
572 
 
 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Gurkhas, 177 
 Gyarung, 262 — 3 
 
 Hackman, A., on early man in Fin- 
 land, 273, 334 
 Hadendowas, 485 
 Haida totem-posts and Maori tiki^ 
 
 379 
 Hakas, 325 
 Hakkas, 220, 260 
 Hallett, H. S., on the Burmese, 197 
 
 on Siamese, 209 
 
 Halstatt culture, 21 
 
 Hamitic elements in Bantuland, 889 
 
 speech, 460 — 2 
 
 race, range of, 468 — 70 
 
 divisions, 469, 485 — 89 
 
 type, 471—2 
 
 Hamito-Iberian mother-tongue, 462 
 Hampel, J., on the Copper Age, 18 
 Hamy, E. T., on Wolof pottery, 44 
 
 on the Melanesians, 131 
 
 on the Turki type, 287 
 
 on Korean types, 302 — 3 
 
 Hans, 304 
 
 Hardinge, Sir A., on the N.E. 
 
 Bantus, 94 
 Harudi, 516 
 
 Hausas, 64, 69 
 Hawaiians, 562 
 Hawiyas, 486 
 Head-hunting, Melanesia, 1 37 
 
 Philippines, 166 
 
 Manipur, 189 
 
 Borneo, 241 
 
 Formosa, 261 
 
 Healy, B. A., on Papuan myths, 132 
 
 Hebrews, 495 
 
 Hellenes, 503—4, 542—5 
 
 Hellenic language, 545 
 
 Helm, O., on Bronze alloys, 19 
 
 Henri d'Orleans, on the Thais, 193 
 
 on the Pai, 199 
 
 Hepburn, D., on Pithec. erectus, 5 
 Hermann, K. A., on Akkado-Turki 
 
 relations, 273 
 
 Heruli, 516, 539 
 
 Herve, G., on Kelto-Ligurian rela- 
 tions, 463 
 
 on Keltic origins, 515 
 
 Hickson, S. J., on the bodily and 
 
 psychic unity of man, 116 
 
 on the Malays, 144 
 
 Hieroglyphs, evolution of, 26, 27 
 Hill Damaras, 106 
 
 Hilprecht, Dr, on the age of Nippur, 
 
 277 
 Himyarites, 88, 103, 493 — 4 
 
 script, 494 
 
 Hindis, 560 
 Hindu castes, 561 
 Hindustani language, 560 
 
 Hirth, F., on the Iron Age in China, 
 
 219 
 Hittites, 491, 499 — 501 
 Hiung-nu, 304, 305, 318 
 
 empire, 305 
 
 Hodge, F. W., on the Pueblo clans, 
 402 
 
 Hodgson, B. H., on Nepalese lan- 
 guages, 184 
 
 Hoffman, W. J., on Eskimo art, 356 
 
 Hoklos, 220, 260 
 
 Holmes, T. V., on the Britons, 528 
 
 Homerites, 494 
 
 Hommel, Dr, on Akkad Origins, 273 
 
 Homo Javanensis, 3 
 
 Asiaticus, 17*3, 174, 317 
 
 Mediterranensis, 174 
 
 Europaeus, 174, 304, 317, 456, 
 
 511, 521, 557 
 
 Mongolicus, 172 
 
 Acrogonus, 317 
 
 Alpinus, 456, 457, 521, 557 
 
 Homrans, 72 
 
 Hopin, 401 
 
 Hor-pa, 179 
 
 Horse, the, late in N. Africa and 
 
 Egypt, 455 
 Horsoks, 1 79 
 Hottentots, 106, 121 — 25 
 
 domain, 121 — 2 
 
 speech, 124 
 
 Hough, W., on Eskimo migrations, 
 
 372 
 Hovas, 249, 254 
 Howitt, A. W., on Australian 
 
 Origins, 146 
 
 on class marriages, 154 — 5 
 
 Howorth, Sir H. H., on the Horpas, 
 
 179 
 
 on the Hiung-rlu, 305 
 
 Hrasso, 176 
 Huaxtecans, 405 sq. 
 Hubus, 49 
 
 Huilliches, 428 
 Hungary, Great, 345 
 Hungary, Copper Age in, 18 
 Hungarians, v. Magyars 
 Huns, 305, 318 
 Huron-Eries, 389 
 "Hyperboreans," 297 
 
INDEX. 
 
 573 
 
 Ibaras, 254 
 
 Iberians, 459 — 62 
 
 Ibero-Hamitic speech, 460 — 2 
 
 Igorrotes, 259 
 
 Ihring, H. V., on Babylonian origins, 
 
 274 
 Illanuns, 238 
 Illiberis, 462 
 Illyri, 503, 538, 549 
 Ulyrian language, 538, 549 
 Ilocanos, 258 
 Incas, 422 sq. 
 Indo-Chinese natives, 186 — 7 
 
 ■ tribal nomenclature, 190, 195 
 
 Indo-Malaysia, cradle of mankind, 5 
 Indonesians, 143, 230 — 1, 242, 259, 
 
 262, 562 — 4 
 Indo-Scythians, 320 
 lonians, 544 
 lowas, 395 
 Ipurinas, 435 
 Iranians, 553—5 
 Irish language, 523, 531 
 
 race, 529—31 
 
 dolmen-builders, 530 
 
 character, 532 
 
 Iron Age, 21, 22, 221, 335 
 Iroquoians, 389 — 90 
 Ishaks, 486 
 Ishogos, 112 
 Italians, 467 — 8, 538 — 9 
 Italic speech, 513 
 
 Ivanovski, Dr A., on the Kirghiz and 
 Usuns, 332 
 
 Jaalins, 72 
 
 Jackson, F. G., on the Samoyads 
 
 and Lapps, 340 — i 
 Jagatais, 330 
 Jallonkes, 45 
 Japanese, 308 sq. 
 
 speech, 311 
 
 Javanese, 233 
 Jazyges, 342 
 
 Jensen, P., on the Hittites, 500 
 Jews, 497—9 
 Jigushes, 48- 
 Joats, 48 
 
 Johnston, Sir H. H., on the Negro 
 temperament, 40 
 
 on former range of the Bush- 
 men, 121 <^ 
 
 on the Camenin Negros, 113 
 
 on Bantu migrations, 102 
 
 Jolas, 48 
 
 Jumanas, 438 
 
 Junker, Dr W., on the Nile-Congo 
 Negros, 77 
 
 on the Negro sense of art and 
 
 humour, 79 — 80 
 
 on Negrito mimics, 120 
 
 Kababish, 72, 473 
 
 Kabards, 552 
 
 Kabindas, 107, 109 
 
 Kachins, 190 
 
 Kafir, meaning of the term, 98 
 
 Kafirs, V. Zulu-Xosas 
 
 Kaingangs, 436 
 
 Kakhyens, 182 — 90, 193 
 
 Kalinas, 434 
 
 Kalmiiks, 284 
 
 Kamassintzi, 332 
 
 Kamchadales, 286, 300 — i 
 
 Kames, 436 
 
 Kanarese, 559 
 
 Kanembu, 66, 69 
 
 Kanuri, 66, 69 
 
 Karagasses, 332 
 
 Kara-Kalpaks, 327 
 
 Kara-Kirghiz, 331 
 
 Karelians, 336, 338 
 
 Karens, 190, 194 
 
 Kargos, 73 
 
 Kariginas, 434 
 
 Karipunas, 433 
 
 Kartweli, 552 
 
 Kashgarians, 326 
 
 Kassonkes, 45 
 
 Kaws, 395 
 
 Kayans, 240 
 
 Kayapos, 436 
 
 Kazaks, 331 
 
 Kazan Tatars, 327 
 
 Keller, C.,-on the Somals, 487 
 
 Keltic speech, 523 — 4 
 
 Kelto-Ligurian relations, 463 
 
 Kelto- Slavs, 521 ; 
 
 Kelts, 463, 523—28 
 
 of P. and Q. speech, 523 
 
 Kenus, 73 
 Keresans, 383, 401 
 Keribinas, 67 
 Kerrikerri, 67 
 Khagan Bayan, 345 — 6 
 Khalkas, 284 
 Khamti, 200 
 Khanungs, 204 
 Kharias, 558 
 Khas, 177 
 Khassi speech, 184 
 Khazars, 498 
 Khemis, 195 
 
574 
 
 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Khmers, 207 
 
 Khos, 555 
 
 Khyengs, 195 
 
 Khyungthas, 195 
 
 Kimmerians, 279 
 
 Kimos, 250 
 
 Kin-tse, 204 
 
 Kintu legend, 91 — 2 
 
 Kipchaks, 327, 330 
 
 Kirghiz, 325, 330—2 
 
 Kitwara empire, 91 
 
 Knowles, W. J., on the Stone Ages 
 
 in Ireland, 530 
 Kobito, 272 
 Kohistani, 556 
 Koibals, 332 
 Kols, Kolarians, 557 — 8 
 Kolaji, 73 
 Romans, 327 
 Kongo empire, 107 
 
 language, 108 
 
 aborigines, 109 
 
 Konos, 49 
 
 Kopts, 483 
 
 Koreans, 302 sq. 
 
 Korinchi, 245 
 
 Koro-pok-guru, 272 
 
 Korwas, 558 
 
 Koryaks, 266, 298 — 9, 300 
 
 Kossacks, 331 
 
 Krej, 76 
 
 Krumen, 53 
 
 Kshtuts, 555 
 
 Kubachi, 552 
 
 Kuki-Lushai, 185, 190 
 
 Kulfans, 73 
 
 Kumi, 195 
 
 Kumuks, 327 
 
 Kunjaras, 73 
 
 Kurankos, 49 
 
 Kurds, 280 
 
 Kuri, 66 
 
 Kurkus, 558 
 
 Kurumbas, 559 
 
 Kush, 278 
 
 Kushites, 477, 484 
 
 Kussas, 49 
 
 Kutigurs, 345 
 
 Kutzo-Vlacks, 540 
 
 Kuznesov, S. K., on early man in 
 
 Siberia, 269 
 Kwsens, 338 
 Kwanas, 435 
 Kymry, 529 
 
 Lacouperie, T. de, on the Tibetan 
 language, 183 
 
 Lacouperie, T. de, on E. Asiatic scripts, 
 203 
 
 on Chinese script, 215, 218 
 
 Lacustrian Bantus, 79 — 94 
 Ladakhi, 173 — 4 
 
 Lahse, ornamental vases found at, 23 
 Lamaism, 182 
 Lampong, 245 
 Lamuts, 286 
 Landins, 99 
 
 Lang, Andrew, on primitive revela- 
 tions, 280 
 
 on Papuan religion, 135 
 
 Language, and racial characters, 295 
 
 its ethnic value, 74 
 
 Lansdell, Rev. H., on the Manchus, 
 
 292—3 
 
 on the Yukaghirs, 298 
 
 on the Gilyaks, 301 — 2 
 
 Laos, 199 
 
 Laotians, 200 
 
 Lapouge, de, his craniology, 33 ; his 
 three Em-opean types, 447, 456 
 
 on the brachy and dolicho 
 
 types, 519 
 
 his pessimistic views, 519 — 20 
 
 Lapps, 337. sq. 
 
 Last, J. T., on the Malagasy, 251 
 Latah malady, 236 
 La Tene culture, 22 
 Latin speech, 513, 539, 542 
 Latin Peoples, 540 
 Layanas, 435 
 
 Leder, H., his palseo finds in Siberia, 
 269—70 
 
 in Mongolia, 271 
 
 Legends v. Folklore 
 
 Leland, C. G., on Algonquin legends, 
 
 381 
 Leleges, 503, 544 
 Lenz, O., on the Fans, 113 
 Lenz, R., on Chilian folklore, 428 
 Lepchas, 1 84 
 
 Lepsius, R., on the Nubians, 74 
 Lesghians, 552 
 
 Letourneau, Ch., on the Malagasy, 249 
 Lettic language, 544 
 Letts, 336 
 Lho-pa, 176 
 Liberians, 52 
 Libyans, 75, 455 
 Lichtenstein, H., on the Bechuanas, 
 
 103; on the Hottentot domain, 122 
 Ligurians, 33, 455, 459, 463-6 
 Limbas, 49 
 Lin-tin-zu, 204 
 Lithuanians, 334, 524 
 
INDEX. 
 
 575 
 
 Lithuanian language, 544 
 Liu-Kiu Islanders, 310 
 
 speech, 311 
 
 Livi, R., on the Sardinians, 466 
 
 Livonians, 336 
 
 Logons, 67 
 
 Lokkos, 49 
 
 Lolos, 203 
 
 Loltun caves, 414 
 
 Longobards, 539 
 
 Loria, L., on the Papuans, 133 
 
 Lucretius, on primitive man, 8; on 
 
 the Bronze and Iron Ages, 17 
 Lumholtz, C, on Australian religion, 
 
 151 
 
 Lurs, 279 
 
 Luschan, F. v., on the Guanches, 457 
 
 on the Jews, 498 
 
 on the Hittites, 500 
 
 on the Arabs, 501 
 
 on the Armenoids, 514 
 
 Lushai, 184 
 
 Lu-tse, 204 
 Lycians, 503 
 Lydians, 503 
 
 Mabas, 71 
 
 Macalister, A., on the causes of 
 brachycephaly, 520 
 
 McCabe, R- B., on the Angami lan- 
 guage, 184 
 
 Macdonald, Rev. J., on the Kafirs, 
 loi, T05 
 
 Macedo- Romans, 541 
 
 Macgregor, Sir W., on the Papuans, 
 
 134 
 
 Machas, 555 
 
 Macusi, 434 
 
 Madagascar v. Malagasi 
 
 Madis, 76 
 
 Madurese, 233 
 
 Maghians, 555 
 
 Maghs, 195 
 
 Magyars, 345—7 
 
 Mahai, 73 
 
 Mahratis, 560 
 
 Mainwaring, G. B., on the Rong lan- 
 guage, 184 
 
 Makalakas, loi 
 
 Makarakas, 76 
 
 Makari, 66 
 
 Makirifares, ^4 
 
 Makololos, 103 
 
 Malagasi, 248 sq. % 
 
 speech, 250 
 
 Malay and Papuan contrasts, 144 
 Malays and Malayans, 231 
 
 Malays proper, 231, 236 
 
 migrations of, 231 
 
 Malayans, 233 sq. 
 Malayo-Polynesian, 231 — 33 
 
 speech, 233, 250, 563 
 
 Malaysia, East, ethnical elements in, 
 
 Mali empire, 47 
 Mal-Paharias, 558 
 Maltese, 502 
 
 Man, E. H., on the Andamanese, 
 159—60 
 
 on the Nicobarese, 263 — 4 
 
 Man, cradle of, 5 
 
 Primary Divisions of specia- 
 lised in pre-Neolithic times, 10 
 
 varieties of, the outcome of 
 
 the environment, 12 — 13; see also 
 Early Man 
 
 Mana, theory of the Melanesian, 136 
 
 Manchus, 286, 290 sq. 
 
 Mandans, 395 
 
 Mandaras, 66 
 
 Mandas, 278 
 
 Mandingans, 45 
 
 Mandos, 435 
 
 Mangbattus, 76 
 
 Mangkassaras, 233, 245 
 
 Mangoni, 99 
 
 Manguangas, 259 
 
 Manhattans, 385 
 
 Manipuri, 187 — 8 
 
 Manito, concept of, 395 
 
 Manouvrier, on Pithec. erectus, 3 
 
 Man-tse, 205 
 
 Manx language, 523 
 
 Maori, 562 
 
 Maori, tiki^ v. Haida 
 
 Mapoches, 429 
 
 Marcomanni, 525 
 
 Margis, 67 
 
 Marisi, 73 
 
 Maronites, 496 
 
 Marquesans, 562 
 
 Marriage, class, a food question, 155 
 
 group, a myth, 154 — 5 
 
 Marsh, O. C., on Pithec. erectus, 3 
 Masai, 469 
 
 Mashonas, loi 
 
 Maspero, M., on the Metal Ages, 20 
 
 on Sumerian origins, 274 
 
 on Egyptians, 284 — 5 
 
 Massachusetts, 385 
 Massagetae, 320, 551 
 Matacos, 440 
 Mataguayos, 440 
 Matl^tzincas, 412 
 
 rv 
 
576 
 
 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Matokki, 73 
 Matores, 332 
 Matriarchal usages of the Felups, 49 
 
 Tibetans, 180 
 
 Dakotans, 399 
 
 Matriarchate, a local institution, 180 
 Mauritanian types, 454 — 5 
 Maviti, 99 
 
 Mayas, 406 sq. 
 
 Maya-Quiches, 410 
 
 Mayorunas, 419 
 
 Maypures, 435 
 
 Maz-d' Azil script, 21, 28 
 
 Mazitu, 99 
 
 Mbengas, 112 
 
 Medes, 278 — 9 
 
 Mediterraneans, 459, 468, 511 — 13 
 
 Mehlos, 558 " 
 
 Melams, 204 
 
 Melanesians, 1 30 sq. ; 562 
 
 Menangkabau, Malay cradle, 232 
 
 Mendis, 49 
 
 Mentawi, 244 
 
 Mercer, H. C., on the Loltun Cave, 
 
 414 
 Messapians, 459, 538 
 Metal Ages, 16 sq. 
 
 in the Finnish lands, 335 
 
 Mexicans, v. Aztecs 
 
 Meyer, A. B., on the Aetas, 168 
 Miamis, 386 
 Miao-tse, 206 
 Micronesians, 260, 562 
 Mies, Dr, on the Wasandawi, 121 — 2 
 Mikhailovskii, V. M., on Shama- 
 nism, 288 sqq. 
 Miklukho-Maclay, on the Papuans, 
 
 131 
 
 Minaeans, 88, 493 — 4 
 
 script, 494—5 
 
 Minahasans, 233 
 
 MindelefF, C., on the Cliff dwellings, 
 
 400 
 Minnetaris, 395 
 Miri, 176 
 Mishmi, 176 
 Missouris, 395 
 Mitla, ruins of, 413 
 Mittus, 76 
 Miztecs, 412 
 Moabites, 491 
 Moeso-Goths, 517—18 
 Mohawks, 389 
 Mohigans, 385 
 Moi, 205 
 Mokos, 435 
 Moluches, 427 
 
 Mombuttus, 76 
 Mongolo-Tatar, 267 
 Mongolo-Turki, 267, 286 
 
 speech, 243 — 6 
 
 Mongols, South, 171 sq. 
 
 cradle, 171 
 
 Oceanic, 230 sq. 
 
 domain, 230 
 
 Northern, 266 sq. 
 
 domain, 267 
 
 Mongols proper, 282 sq. 
 Monogenism, 2 
 Monomotapa, loi 
 Monotheism, v. God 
 Mons, 188 
 
 Montano, J., on the Aetas, 167 
 
 Montauks, 385 
 
 Montelius, O., on the Etruscans 521 
 
 — 2 
 Mooney, J., on Siouan origins, 365, 
 
 392 
 Moore, C. B., on early man in 
 
 PUorida, 391 
 Moqui, 401 
 Mordvinians, 341 
 Morgan, J. de, on Metal Ages in 
 
 Egypt, 20, 479—80 
 Morgan, L. H., on class marriages, 
 
 154 
 Moros, 259 
 Mosgus, 66, 68 
 Mossi, 59 
 Mossos, 203 
 
 Mounds, genesis of, 387 — 8 
 Mound-builders, 387 
 Moxos, 433 
 Mpangwe, 112 
 Mpongwe, 112 
 
 Much, Dr M., on the Copper Age, 18 
 Mugs, 195 
 Mundas, 558 
 Mundus, 76 
 Munkulunkulu, 115 
 Munro, Dr R., on Quaternary man, 
 
 2, 6, 7 
 Muongs, 205 
 Murcians, 537 
 Muskhogeans, 390 
 Muyscas, 417, 420 sq. 
 Mykaenean origins and culture, 20, 
 
 505—9. 541 
 Myongs, 205 
 Myrmidons, 544 
 Myths, V. Folklore 
 
 Nachtigal, G., on arboreal fortresses, 
 68 
 
INDEX. 
 
 577 
 
 Nachtigal, G., on the Welle natives, 77 
 
 Nagas, 184, 186 
 
 Nahuas, 406 sq. 
 
 Nahuatlans, 405 sq. 
 
 Nahuguas, 434 
 
 Narragansets, 385 
 
 Naticokes, 385 
 
 Nature- worship, 116 
 
 Navajos, 382 
 
 Negress, classical description of, 37 
 
 Negritoes, African, 117 sq. 
 
 Oceanic, 158 sq. 
 
 Negro, African, domain, 37 
 
 origins, 38 
 
 type, persistent, 38 
 
 arts, 79 
 
 sense of humour, 80 
 
 Oceanic, 129 sq. 
 
 divisions, 129 — 30 
 
 element in Madagascar, 253, 
 
 Nehring, A., on early man in Brazil, 
 
 360 
 Neolithic Age, see New Stone Age 
 Neolithic script, 30 
 Nestorians, 496 
 New Caledonians, 140 — 43 
 New Stone Age, duration of, 10, 12 
 
 See also Stone Ages 
 Ngaos, 206 
 Ngious, 199 
 Ngisems, 67 
 Niam-Niams, 76 
 Nias natives, 244 
 Niblack, A. P., on the N. W. Coast 
 
 Indians, 376 — 7 
 
 on the ethnic value of like arts, 
 
 379 ^ 
 
 Nickas, 202 
 
 Nicobarese, 263 
 
 Niederle, L., on Slav origins, 551 
 
 Nile Delta, Age of, 478 
 
 Nippur, 276 — 7 
 
 Niquirans, 406 
 
 Noetling, Dr, on pliocene finds in 
 
 Burma, 5 
 Norse and Eskimo contacts, 370—1, 
 
 381 
 Nogais, 327 
 Normans, 527—535 
 Norsemen, 527 
 
 North African types, 456 (|^^ 
 Norwegians, 527 
 
 in Scotland, 531 
 
 Nubas, Nubians, 72 — 5 
 Nuers, 76, 77 
 
 K. 
 
 Nuesch, J., on the Schweizersbild 
 
 station, 12 
 Numeral systems, 148, 16 r, 439 
 Nutall, Z., on the Mexican Calendar, 
 
 410 
 Nzambi, 115 
 
 Oghams, 26 
 
 Oghuz Turks, 322, 326 
 
 Ogre, 346 
 
 Ojibwas, 384 
 
 Okandas, 112 
 
 Oldham, R. D., on pliocene finds 
 
 in Burma, 5 
 Old Stone Age, duration of, 9, 12 
 
 See also Stone Ages 
 Omaguas, 438 
 Omahas, 395 
 Onas, 430 
 Oneidas, 389 
 Onondagas, 389 
 Oraons, 560 
 
 Orsi, S., on Sicilian Origins, 465 
 Orang-Malayu, 232 — 3 
 Selah, 237 
 
 -Laut, 337 
 
 Benua, 233 
 
 Tunong, 247 — 8 
 
 Baruk, 248 
 
 Origins, Achinese, 247 
 
 American, 352 
 
 Andamanese, 158 
 
 Annamese, 210 
 
 Aryan, 445 sq. 
 
 Ashanti, 56 
 
 Australian, 146 
 
 Aztec, 406 
 
 Babylonian, 274 — 7 
 
 Balti, 173 • 
 
 Balolo, no 
 
 — — Bantu, 87—8 
 
 Bulgar, 342 
 
 Caucasic, 450 — 4 
 
 Chinese, 215, 219 
 
 Corsican, 467 
 
 Egyptian, 477 — 81 
 
 Elamite, 277 
 
 English, 529 
 
 Eskimo, 370 
 
 Etruscan, 521 — 2 
 
 European, 453 
 
 Fan, 113 
 
 Finn, 332 
 
 Finno-Russ, 337 
 
 Greek, 542 
 
 Hausa, 67 
 
 Hebrew, 495 
 
 37 
 
578 
 
 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Origins, Himyarite, 494 
 
 Iberian, 459 
 
 Irish, 529 — 31 
 
 Italian, 538 — 9 
 
 Japanese, 308 
 
 Jat, 320—3 
 
 Keltic, 523 — 4 
 
 Korean, 303 
 
 Lapp, 310 
 
 Ligurian, 459, 463 
 
 Malagasy, 250 
 
 Malay, 231 — 2 
 
 Manchu, 290 
 
 Man-tse, 205 
 
 Mauritanian, 454 
 
 Maya-Aztec, 406 
 
 Mede, 278 
 
 Mongol, North, 268 
 
 Mongol, South, 171 
 
 Mosso, 204 
 
 Mykensean, 505 — 7 
 
 Negro, 38 
 
 New Caledonian, 141 
 
 Nubian, 73 
 
 Oghuz, 326 
 
 Pelasgian, 459, 503 
 
 Phoenician, 492 
 
 Pictish, 525 
 
 Quechua-Aymara, 423 — 5 
 
 Rajput, 320—3 
 
 Rumanian, 540 
 
 Russian, 550 
 
 Sabaean, 493 
 
 Sard, 466 
 
 Scotch, 531 
 
 Semite, 490 — i 
 
 ' Shan, 200 
 
 Siamese, 207 
 
 Sicilian, 465 
 
 Siouan, 391—3 
 
 Slav, 546 
 
 . Sonrhay, 62 
 
 Tasmanian, 146 
 
 Teutonic, 515 — 16 
 
 Tibetan, 172 
 
 Tungus, 287 
 
 Turki, 316—18 
 
 Orkhon inscriptions, 323 — 4 
 Orochons, 286 
 
 Osages, 395 
 
 Oscan language, 513, 539, 542 
 
 Oshyebas, 112 
 
 Osmanli Turks, 328 
 
 Ossets, 551 
 
 Ostrogoths, 539 
 
 Ostyaks, 341 
 
 Otoes, 395 
 
 Otomis, 411, 413 
 Ova-Herero, 106 
 Ova-Mpo, 106 
 Ova-Zorotu, 107 
 
 Pacaouaras, 433 
 
 Padams, 176, 200 
 
 Padao, 200 
 
 Paeones, 503 
 
 Paiwans, 262 
 
 Pakhpus, 555 
 
 Palaeolithic Age, see Old Stone Age 
 
 Palawan Islanders, 245 
 
 Pames, 411 
 
 Pampangos, 258 
 
 Pampas Indians, 429 
 
 Pamunkeys, 385 
 
 Pangasinanes, 258 
 
 Panos, 435 
 
 Panthays, 225 
 
 Panticos, 385 
 
 Papuan terminology, 130 
 
 Papuans, 130 
 
 Papuasians, 1 30 
 
 domain, 130 
 
 Western, 142 
 
 Parker, E. H., on Wei dynasty, 306 
 
 on the Korean script, 307 
 
 on Turki origins, 317, 319 
 
 Parthians, 319 
 
 Passumahs, 233 
 
 Patagonians, 429 
 
 Patroni, G., on Sicilian Origins, 
 
 465—6 
 Patterson, A. J., on the Rumanians, 
 
 541 
 Pauli, C. , on the Etruscan language, 
 
 522 
 Paulitschke, Ph., on the Gallas and 
 
 Somals, 487 
 Pehuenches, 428 
 Pelasgians, 459, 464, 503—6 
 Penka, Prof., on Aryan origins, 518 
 
 on Greek origins, 542 
 
 on Italian origins, 538 
 
 People and Race, 32, 33 
 Pepohwans, 260 
 Permians, 339 
 
 Peroche, J., on the duration of the 
 
 Stone Ages, 9 
 Persians, 279, 554 
 Peters, Dr J. P., on Babylonian 
 
 chronology, 276 
 Philippine natives, 256 sq. 
 Phoenicians, 491, 492- — 3 
 
 alphabet, 492 
 
 Phratry, theory of, 397 — 8 
 
INDEX. 
 
 579 
 
 Phrygians, 503, 516 
 
 Piaroas, 397 
 
 Pictavi, 525 
 
 Pictones, 463, 525 
 
 Picts, 463, 525 
 
 Pictographs, 25 
 
 Pictorial Art, prehistoric, 23 
 
 Picunches, 428 
 
 Pidgin English, 220 — i, 227 
 
 Eskimo, 299 
 
 Piette, E. , on the Maz-d' Azil script, 
 21, 28 
 
 Pinches, T. G., on the Akkad lan- 
 guage, 216 
 
 Pintos, 411 
 
 Pipils, 406 
 
 Pithecanthropus erectus, 3 — 6 
 
 Pleistocene Man, 2, 6, 7 
 
 Migrations of, 8 
 
 Pliocene Man, 3, 5 — 7 
 Polabs, 548 
 
 Poles, 548 
 
 Polo, game of, 174, 189 
 Polyandry, theory of, 180 
 Polygenism, 2 
 Polynesians, 447, 562 — 4 
 Polysynthesis, 362 sq. 
 Polytheism, v. God 
 Ponkas, 395 
 Portuguese, 537 
 Pottawatomies, 386 
 Powell, J. W., on the evolution of 
 American culture, 358 
 
 on the American languages, 
 
 364 
 Powhatans, 385 
 Prehistoric Age, 24 
 
 in China, 24 — 5 
 
 Promiscuity, 155 
 
 Pryer, W. B., on the Bajaus, 238 
 
 Pueblo Indians, 399 sq. 
 
 Puelches, 428 
 
 Pun, Punt, 494 
 
 Punjabi, 560 
 
 Pun-ti, 220 
 
 Purmuli, 556 
 
 Pwos, 194 
 
 Pygmies, 117 sq. 
 
 at the Courts of the Pharaohs, 
 
 117— 18 
 
 Quadi, 342 \ 
 
 Quapaws, 395 
 Quaternary, see Pleistocene 
 "Quaternary Sahara Sea," 451 
 Quechuas, 422 sq. 
 
 Quetzalcoatl, 406 — 7 
 Quiches, 407 
 
 Race and People, ^Concept of, 31, 32 
 
 and religion, 285 — 6 
 
 Rahawins, 487 
 Ranqueles, 429 
 Rasenes, 521 
 
 Rat, J. N., on the Carib language, 
 
 362 
 Reihengraber, 513 
 Reinach, S., on the " oriental mirage," 
 
 506 
 Reinisch, L., on the Welle-Congo 
 
 languages, 77 — 8 
 Rejangs, 233, 245 
 Religion and race, 285 — 6 
 Religious ideas, common, their ethnic 
 
 value, 186, 379 
 Religious ideas of the Andamanese, 
 
 160 
 
 Annamese, 214 
 
 Araucanians, 428 
 
 Australians, 150 
 
 Aztecs, 412 
 
 — — Babylonians, 279 
 
 Balinese, 235 
 
 Bantus, 115 — 16 
 
 Battas, 246 
 
 Botocudos, 437 
 
 Chinese, 221 — 3 
 
 Chins, 192 
 
 Dakotas, 395 
 
 Dyaks, 242 — 3 
 
 Egyptians, 280 
 
 Eshi-Kongo, 109 
 
 Felups, 49 
 
 Gallas, 487 
 
 Japanese, 311 
 
 Karens, 194 
 
 Koreans, 307 
 
 Kuki-Lushai, 185 — 6 
 
 Lapps, 340—1 
 
 Liu-Kiu, 311 
 
 Mayas, 412, 415 
 
 Melanesians, 136 
 
 Muyscas, 420 — i 
 
 Papuans, 132—135 
 
 Polynesians, 564 
 
 Samoyads, 341 
 
 Saponi, 393 
 
 Serers, 45 
 
 Somals, 487 
 
 Tibetans, 181 — 3 
 
 Timni, 50 
 
 Tunguses, 288 
 
 Wagiryama, 95, 96 
 
58o 
 
 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Religious ideas of the Wolofs, 45 
 
 Renascence culture, 540 
 
 Rethy, L. , on the Rumanians, 541 
 
 Retu, V. Egyptians 
 
 Rhaetians, 521 
 
 Rhoxolani, 342 
 
 Rialle, G. de, on the Formosans, 
 
 260 
 Ridgeway, W., on the Pelasgians, 
 
 505 
 
 on the Iron Age, 22 
 
 Rink, Dr H., on the Eskimo, 371 — 4 
 
 Fru Signe, on Eskimo folk- 
 lore, 375 
 
 Ripley, W. Z., on Acclimatization, J3 
 
 on the European races, 447 
 
 on Lapouge's three types, 456 
 
 on British origins, 526 
 
 Ritter, K., on Galla migrations, 90 
 Roberts, H., on the Khassi language, 
 
 184 
 Robinson, Rev. C. H., on the Hausas, 
 
 64—5 
 Rockhill, W. W., on the Tibetans, 
 
 174 — 6, 178 
 
 on polyandry, 180 
 
 Roesler, Prof., on the Rumanians, 
 
 541 
 
 on the Southern Slavs, 545 — 6 
 
 RoUeston, Dr, on the early Britons, 
 
 528_ 
 Romaic language, 545 
 Romance Peoples, 533 sq. 
 Romans, 539 
 Romansch,. 540 
 
 Romilly, H. H., on the Papuans, 134 
 Rongs, 184 
 Roth, W. E., on Australian class 
 
 marriages, 153 
 Rumanians, 327, 540 — i 
 Runic script, 517 
 Rusniaks, 548 
 Russ, meaning of, 337 
 Russians, Great, 327, 550 
 
 Little, 327, 550 
 
 White, 550 
 
 Ruthenes, 548 
 
 Sabaeans, 88, 493 
 
 Sabellian language, 538 — 9 
 
 Sacae, 173 — 4 
 
 Sacs and Foxes, 385 
 
 Sahara, dry land in quaternary times, 
 
 45f 
 Sakais, 162 
 Sakalavas, 253 
 Salars, 176 
 
 Salishans, 369 
 
 Salmon, P., on Neolithic types, 458 
 
 Salt, its ethnical associations, 163 — 4 
 
 Samaritans, 496 
 
 Samoans, 562 
 
 Samoyads, 337 
 
 Sam-Sams, 232 
 
 Santals, 558 
 
 Saponi, 392 
 
 Sardinians, 466 — 7 
 
 Sarmatians, 546 — 7 
 
 Sartes, 327 
 
 Sassaks, 234 
 
 Savaras, 558 
 
 Saxons, 527 
 
 Sayce, Rev. A. 11., on the Libyans, 
 
 on the Minaean Script, 495 
 
 on Assyrian origins, 274 — 5 
 
 on the Medes and Kimmerians, 
 
 279 — 80 
 
 wScandinavians, 527 
 
 Schetelig, A., on Oceanic relations, 
 262 
 
 Schott, H., on the Uigurs, 326 
 
 Schweinfurth, G., on the Welle na- 
 tives, 77 
 
 on the Cannibal Fans, 1 1 3 
 
 Schweizersbild, 12 
 
 Scots, 525, 531 
 
 Scripts, V. Writing Systems 
 
 Scythians, 318, 546 
 
 Sekhwans, 260 
 
 Seljuks, 328 — 9 
 
 Semangs, 162 — 65 
 
 Seminoles, 390 
 
 Senecas, 389 
 
 Serbs, 548 
 
 Serers, 43 
 
 Sergi, G., on the ^neolithic Age, 17 
 
 on de Lapouge's Craniology, 
 
 33 
 
 on the Proto-Aryans, 446 
 
 on the European Cradle, 453 
 
 on the Mediterraneans, 459, 
 
 513 
 
 on Kelts and Ligurians, 463 — 4 
 
 on the Proto-Italians, 467 — 8 
 
 on the Hamites, 469 — 71 
 
 on the Germans, 513 
 
 on the Latin language, 539 
 
 on the Etruscans, 522 
 
 on early British types, 527 
 
 on the Aryan languages, 542 
 
 Seri, 413 
 
 Servians, 548 
 Setebos, 433 
 
INDEX. 
 
 581 
 
 Severenses, 549 
 
 Shamanism, Siberian, 288, 341 
 
 American, 376 — 9 
 
 Shakshus, 555 
 Shans, 198 sq. 
 Shargorodsky, S., on the Yukaghir 
 
 Script, 296 
 Sharras, 284, 318 
 Shaw, Rev. J. A., on the Malagasy, 
 
 254 
 Shawnees, 383, 385 
 Shendus, 190 
 Sheyantes, 190 
 Shilluks, 76 
 Shintoism, 311 — 12 
 Shipibos, 433 
 Shluhs, 469 
 Shom-pen, 263 
 Shoshones, 383, 410 
 Shrubsall, J. C., on the Guanches, 
 
 457 
 Shukriehs, 72 
 Siah-posh Kafirs, 98, 555 
 Siamese, 206 sq. 
 Sibree, Rev. J., on the Malagasy, 
 
 252 
 Sicani, 465 — 6 
 Sicilians, 466 
 Siculi, 465 — 6 
 Sien-pi, 304 
 Sierra Leonese, 50 
 Sihanakas, 252, 253 
 Sikhs, 560 
 Silurians, 511 
 
 Simon, R., on the Australians, 148 
 Singphos, 193 
 Siouans, 391 sq. 
 Sipivios, 433 
 Sistani, 556 
 Six Nations, 389 
 Siyirs, 190 
 Slavo-Kelts, 521 
 Slavs, 546—50 
 Slovaks, 548 
 
 Smeaton, D. M., on the Karens, 194 
 Smith, Dr D., on the Dumes, 119 
 Snellman, A. H., on Finnish origins, 
 
 336 
 So tribe, 67 
 Sok-pa, 179 
 Soktes, 190 
 Somals, 469, 486 — 7 
 Sommier, S., on the Chudl^, 269 
 Soninkes, 45 
 Sonrhays, 61 — 4 
 Soppitt, C. A., on the Kuki-Lushai, 
 
 185-6 
 
 Sorbs, 548 
 
 Soyotes, 332 
 
 Spaniards, 536 — 8 
 
 Steinmetz, R. S., on Cannibalism, 79, 
 
 419 
 Stone Ages, New Caledonia, 141 
 
 America, 359 
 
 Andaman Is., 158 
 
 Egypt, 452, 479 
 
 Ireland, 529 — 30 
 
 Japan, 271 — 2 
 
 Korea, 271 
 
 Malay peninsula, 165 
 
 Mongolia, 271 
 
 N. Africa, 452 
 
 Siberia, 268 — 9 
 
 Sicily, 465 
 
 Somaliland, 452 
 
 Tibet, 172 
 
 Tunis, 452 
 
 See also New Stone Age and Old 
 Stone Age 
 Sudanese Negro, 35, 39 
 
 languages, 41 
 
 Sumerians, v. Akkads 
 Sundanese, 233 
 Supreme Being, v. God 
 Svastika, Tibetan, 181 — 2 
 Swettenham, F. A., on the latah 
 
 malady, 236 
 Swiss, 521 
 
 Symbolism in early Art, 403 
 Syrians, 274 — 491 
 Syro-Chaldaeans, 496 
 
 Taboo, a food question, 141 
 Tacunas, 438 
 Tagals, 257—8 
 Ta-Hia, 320 
 Tai-Shans, 198 sq. 
 
 speech, 201 
 
 Tahitians, 562 
 Tajiks, 554—5 
 Talaings, 187 
 Tamalas, 254 
 Tamils, 559 
 Tanaos, 383 
 Tanguts, 175, 179 
 Tanoans, 401 
 Taoism, 221 
 
 Tappeiner, F., on the Tyrolese, 521 
 
 Tapuyas, 419, 435 
 
 Taranchi, 326 
 
 Tarascos, 412 
 
 Tashons, 190 
 
 Tasmanians, 145, 156 — 8 
 
 Tatar, Tartar, v. Turki 
 
582 
 
 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Tattooing processes, Burma, 198 
 
 Totonacs, 412 
 
 Melanesian, 138 
 
 Trarsas, 470 
 
 Shan, 199 
 
 Tribe, concept of 397—8 
 
 Tauras, 383 
 
 Tsaconic language, 546 
 
 Tautes, 190 
 
 Tshi Negroes, 54 — 6 
 
 Tavastians, 336, 338 
 
 Tsimshians, 369 
 
 Tawangs, 176 
 
 Tsintsars, 540 
 
 Taylor, Rev. W. E., on the Wagir- 
 
 Tsonecas, 429 
 
 yama, 94—6 
 
 Tuaregs, 61, 469, 470 
 
 Taylor, G., on the Formosans, 260 
 
 Tuck, H. N., on the Chins, 190 sq. 
 
 — 2 
 
 Tumali, 73 
 
 Tedamansii, 475 
 
 Tungaks, 376—7 
 
 Tedas, 475 
 
 Tungthas, 195 
 
 Tehuelches, 429 
 
 Tunguses, 286 — 7 
 
 Tehngas, 187 
 
 Tunisian type, 454 
 
 Telugus, 187, 559 
 
 Tunjurs, 71 
 
 Temple, R. C, on Andamanese 
 
 Tupi-Guarani, 438 
 
 speech, 161 
 
 Turki group, 316 sq. 
 
 on the Karens, 190, 195 
 
 cradle, 316 
 
 on the Khel system, 189 
 
 name, 319 
 
 Tepanecs, 412 
 
 Turkomans, 319 
 
 Teutons, 513 — 20 
 
 Turner, Sir W., on duration of New 
 
 Thlinkits, 379 
 
 Stone Age, 10 
 
 Thomas, Cyrus, on the mound- 
 
 Tuscaroras, 389 
 
 builders, 387—8 
 
 Tushilange, no 
 
 on the Maya Script, 409 
 
 Tutelos, 392 
 
 on the Maya Calendar, 410 
 
 Tynjurs, 71, 73 
 
 Thompson, E. H., on the Yucatan 
 
 Tyragetes, 516 
 
 caves, 414 
 
 Tyrolese, 521 
 
 Thompson, J. P., on Papuan houses, 
 
 Tyrrhenians, 522 
 
 134—5 
 
 
 Thomsen, V., on the Orkhon inscrip- 
 
 Ucheans, 392 
 
 tions, 324 
 
 Udes, 552 
 
 Thracians, 516, 541 
 
 Uigurs, 323, 324 
 
 Thurnam, Dr, on the British barrows. 
 
 On, 324 
 
 528 
 
 Toghuz, 324—5 
 
 Tiahuanaco, ruins of, 423 — 25 
 
 Ujfalvy, C. de, on the Baltis and 
 
 Tibetans, 174 sq. 
 
 Ladakhis, 172 — 3 
 
 speech, 183 
 
 on the Usuns, 304 
 
 burial customs, 181 
 
 on the Galchas, 556 
 
 Tibus, 469, 474—5 
 
 Uled-Bella, 470 
 
 Ticunas, 438 
 
 Uled-Embark, 470 
 
 Timni, 49 
 
 Uled-en-Nasur, 470 
 
 Timotes, 417 
 
 Ulfilas, 518 
 
 Timuquanans, 390 
 
 Umbrian speech, 513, 539, 542 
 
 Tipperahs, 195 
 
 Umbrians, 539 
 
 Tipuns, 262 
 
 Ural-Altaic, 267 
 
 Todas, 559 
 
 Usages, common, their ethnic value. 
 
 Toltecs, 369, 406, 411 
 
 154, i86, 375 
 
 Tongans, 562 
 
 Usuns, 304 
 
 Toshks, 549 
 
 Utigurs, 345 
 
 Totemic systems, Mandingan, 46 
 
 Uzbegs, 326 — 7 
 
 Dakotan, 396 — 7 
 
 
 Papuan, 132 
 
 Vacas, 48 
 
 Uganda, 93 
 
 Valencians, 537 
 
 Wolof, 45 
 
 Vambery, A., on the Osmanli and 
 
 theory of, 396—7, 402 
 
 Anatolian Turks, 329 
 
INDEX. 
 
 583 
 
 Vambery, A., on the Magyar lan- 
 guage, 347 
 Vandals, 518, 536 
 
 Vansittart, E., on the Gurkhas, 177 
 Vascones, 463 
 
 Vasilosky, N. E., on the Yakuts, 329 
 Vazimbas, 250 
 Vei script, 26 
 
 tribe, 45 
 
 Vepses, 336 
 
 Verneau, R., on the Annamese 
 
 Aborigines, 206 
 Virchow, on pithec. erectus, 3 
 
 on the works of early man, 8 
 
 on the American type, 355 
 
 on the German type, 518 
 
 Visigoths, 518, 536 
 
 Voguls, 341 
 Volga Finns, 341 
 Votes, 336 
 Votyaks, 341 — 2 
 
 Vouchereau, Dr A., on the Malagasy, 
 254 
 
 Waboni, 94 
 Wachaga, 94 
 Waduruma, 94 
 Waganda, 89 — 94 
 Wagiryama, 94 — 96 
 Wagweno, 94 
 Wahuma, 89, 469 
 Wakamba, 94 
 
 Wakanda, the Dakotan "spirit," 395 
 Wakha, 89 
 Wakhi, 556 
 Wakikuyu, 94 
 Walachians, 327 
 
 Wallace, A. R., on the Malagasy and 
 Papuans, 144 — 5 
 
 on the Ternate natives, 232 
 
 Wallons, 540 
 
 Wandorobbos, 119 
 
 Wanyika, 94 
 
 Wanyoro, 89 
 
 Wapokomo, 94 
 
 Warines, 515 
 
 Waruanda, 89 
 
 Wasandawi, 121 
 
 Waswahili, 96 
 
 Wataveita, 94 
 
 Wateita, 94 
 
 Watt, Dr G., on the Manipuri, 188 
 
 Watusi, 89 ^ 
 
 Were-animals, African, 239 
 
 Malay, 239 
 
 South American, 380 
 
 Welsh, 524 
 
 Welsh language, 523 
 
 Wends, 548 
 
 White Huns, 322 
 
 Wibling, C., on Stone Age in 
 
 Sweden, 11 
 Windt, H. de, on the Chukchi, 300 
 Winnebagos, 395 
 Witotos, 434 
 Woccons, 392 
 Wochuas, 120 
 
 Wolf, Dr L., on the Batwa, 120 
 Wolofs, 43—45 
 Woodford, C. M.,ontheMelanesians, 
 
 138-9 
 Woodthorpe, Col. R. G., on Shan 
 
 scripts, 202 
 Wray, L., on the Perak cave-men, 165 
 Writing Systems, evolution of, 25 
 
 Aztec and Maya, 408 — 9 
 
 Cheroki, 389 
 
 Chinese, 217 — 20 
 
 Indo-Chinese, 202 
 
 Korean, 307 
 
 Lolo, 203 
 
 Malaysian, 244 
 
 Mongol and Manchu, 296 
 
 Mosso, 203 
 
 Philippine, 259 
 
 Syriac, 322 
 
 Uiguric, 324 
 
 Yukaghir, 296 — 7 
 
 Wuri, 113 
 
 Wu-sun, 304 
 Wyandots, 389 
 
 Xenopol, A. D., on Rumanian 
 Origins, 541 
 
 Yagnobi, 553 
 Yahgans, 430 — 2 
 Yakuts, 286, 329 
 
 speech, 330 
 
 Yangeres, 86 
 
 Yavorsky, J. L., on Turkoman types, 
 
 319 ^^ 
 Yedinas, 60 
 Yegrai, 179 
 Ye-tha, 321 
 Yidoks, 555 
 Yomuds, 317 
 Yorubas, 54 
 Younghusband, Capt., on Mongolo- 
 
 Turki types, 316 
 Yuchi, 392 
 Yue-chi, 304, 320 sq. 
 Yugo-Slavs, 548 
 Yukaghirs, 286, 296 
 
584 
 
 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Yumas, 383 
 Yuraks, 339 
 
 Zaborovski, M., on Egyptian Origins, 
 481 
 
 on Russian Origins, 550 
 
 on the Ossets, 551 
 
 Zambales, 258 
 Zandehs, 76 
 
 Zang empire, 97 
 
 Zapotecs, 412 — 13 
 Zenaga Berbers, 43 
 Zimbabwe, 102, 493 
 Zoghawas, 71 
 Zones, racial and cultural, 
 Zulu-Xosas, 98 — roi 
 
 genealogies, 100 
 
 Zufii, 383, 401 
 Zventobolg, 346 
 
 14 
 
 CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY J. AND C. F. CLAY, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARl