ENAMELS ■j-' i'i ~i i i i'i 1 1 1 u 1 1 l 7 n 'ul'Lif-TUJ. > UJ-UUJJ l-L ?lsxe H H^l.'Rjeliqu.eary o£ Limoges Enamel an copper, gilt. 2. 3- 4 Bjamaxi Enamelled Hbulae . i.Jeivrtt deLrt. litli. "Vrncott Brooks Ircro Ex Libris C. K. OGDEN A MANUAL OF BRITISH ARCHEOLOGY. BY CHARLES BOUTELL, M.A. AUTHOR OF " MONUMENTAL BRASSES AND SLABS,** 'THE MONUMENTAL BRASSES OF ENGLAND," " CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS IN ENGLAND AND WALKS," ETC. LONDON: LOVELL REEVE, 5, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GAKDEN. 1858. LONDON : SAYILL AND EDWARDS, PRINTERS, CHANDOS-STREET. 86 LIB UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA PREFACE. The following pages have been written with the single object of being useful to students of archaeology at the outset of their inquiries. They will, accordingly, be found to range over as wide a space as possible, without ever attempting to be profound ; and in both matter and manner they have purposely assumed the simplest aspect. Had not conciseness been my object, the limits of my volume would have rendered it necessary. As it is, these limits have compelled me to leave some subjects of the utmost archaeological interest without any farther notice, than a glance at the fact of their existence. a 2 IV PREFACE. It will be observed that this volume professes to be only a " Manual of British Archaeology." There, con- sequently, are many subjects upon which it will not be expected to treat. I have, however, considered it de- sirable to introduce brief notices of many of the art- processes and productions of past times, which only so far fall within the scope of British archaeology, that they are sure, in a greater or a lesser degree, to attract the attention of British archaeologists. As far as possible I have selected examples for illus- tration and reference from such early remains as I am myself familiar with ; and I have, in most instances, preferred those that are generally well known. At the same time, I have not hesitated to make a free use of the various elaborate and able treatises which the archaeo- logical tastes of the last few years have called forth. The illustrations of this volume, selected by myself, have been drawn and engraved by the skilful and ex- perienced hand of Mr. Orlando Jewitt. PREFACE. The reader will permit me to remind him that he is not to expect this manual to prove, on a small scale, a royal road to archaeology : far from this, my aim here has been but to provide a guide sufficiently humble to en- gage the attention and to facilitate the advance of those, who might pass unnoticed productions of a higher order. My desire is to attract persons who may be disposed to become students of archaeology to take up the subject in earnest, and to enter upon a course of careful inquiry and diligent research. They will find an abundance of materials awaiting them — materials which will prove equally attractive and valuable. There is a goodly array of archaeological books already in existence, and the sub- ject yet remains very far from being exhausted. Every year also adds largely to the long list of relics which the student will soon learn to regard as the best expo- nents of archaeology. C. B. April 20th, 185S. CONTENTS. Introduction Architecture CHAPTER I. Sect. 1. Introductory .... „ 2. Roman Remains „ 3. Anglo-Saxon Remains „ 4. The Anglo-Norman Style „ 5. Anglo-Norman Details „ 6. Anglo-Norman Castles „ 7. Transition to the English Gothic Style „ 8. The English Gothic Style . „ 9. English Gothic Houses „ 10. English Gothic Castles „ 11. The Gothic Style in Scotland and Ireland PAGE 9 9 11 14 17 19 2!) 33 34 61 65 67 CHAPTER II. Architectural Accessories 71 Sect. 1. Sculpture 71 „ 2. Wood-Carving 76 „ 3. Fresco, Wall-Painting, and Polychrome . . 78 „ 4. Mosaic 80 Vlll CONTENTS. PAGE Sect. 5. Coloured Glass 82 „ 6. Inlaid Tiles 88 „ 7. Iron-work 94 „ 8. Bronze-work 96 „ 9. Lead-work 97 „ 10. The Precious Metals 97 „ 11. Bells 98 ,, 12. Nomenclature 100 CHAPTER III. Sepulchral Monuments 101 Sect. 1. British Sepulchral Monuments before the Roman Period 102 „ 2. Anglo-Roman and Anglo-Saxon Monuments . 104 „ 3. Anglo-Norman Monuments — The Stone-Coffin . 110 „ 4. Monumental Slabs 113 „ 5. Monumental Effigies 117 „ 6. Incised Monumental Effigies . . . .129 „ 7. Monumental Brasses 131 „ 8. Semi-Effigial Slabs ,141 „ 9. Tombs, Canopies, and Chantries . . . 147 „ 10. Late Monuments 149 „ 11. Churchyard Monuments . . . . .150 CHAPTER IV. Heraldry 151 Sect. 1. Introductory 151 „ 2. The Shield, and its Divisions .... 155 „ 3. Tinctures, Eurs, and Diapers . . . .156 CONTENTS. IX PAGE Sect 4. Heraldic Devices and Accessories . 158 >> 5. Blazonry . 162 j> 6. Marshalling ...... . 161 >> 7. Differencing ...... . 168 jj 8. Badges . 170 55 9. Flags ....... . 171 55 10. Knightly Insignia CHAPTER V. 171 Seals 179 Sect. 1. Introductory 179 33 2. Classification of Seals .... 185 33 3. The Great Seals of England 1S6 33 1. Examples of Various Seals .... CHAPTER VI. 189 Coins • •»•••»• •« 191 Sect. 1. Introductory 191 j) 2. Ancient British Coins .... 197 33 3. Anglo-Saxon Coins ...... 199 33 4. Anglo-Norman Coins .... 200 33 5. English Coins 201 33 6. English Medals 208 33 7. Roman Coins 209 33 8. Roman Medallions 211 CHAPTER VII. Paleography, Illuminations, and Inscriptions Sect. 1. Introductory ..... „ 2. Early Byzantine and Roman Illuminations 215 215 217 CONTENTS. PAGE Sect. 3. Early Irish Illuminations 218 „ 4. Anglo-Saxon Illuminations of the Eighth and Ninth Centuries 219 „ 5. Anglo-Saxon Illuminations of the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries . . . . . .220 „ 6. Illuminations of the Twelfth Century . .221 „ 7. Illuminations of the Thirteenth Century . . 222 „ 8. Illuminations of the Eourteenth Century . . 223 „ 9. Illuminations of the Fifteenth Century . . 225 „ 10. Illuminations of the Sixteenth Century . .227 „ 11. General Remarks „ 12. Inscriptions CHAPTER VIII. 230 239 239 240 241 243 Arms and Armour Sect. 1. Introductory .... „ 2. The Stone, or Primaeval Period . „ 3. The Bronze, or Roman Period „ 4. The Iron, or Anglo-Saxon Period „ 5. The Anglo-Norman Period, extending to the close of the Twelfth Century 245 „ 6. The Thirteenth Century— Period of Mail Armour 248 „ 7. The Eourteenth Century— Period of Mixed Armour 253 „ 8. The Eifteenth Century— Period of Plate Armour . 258 „ 9. The Sixteenth Century— Period of the Decline of Armour 261 „ 10. The Seventeenth Century— Period of the Disuse of Armour 263 ,, 11. General Remarks 265 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER IX. Costumes and Personal Ornaments . , Sect. 1. Ecclesiastical Vestments and Habits „ 2. Lay Official Costumes . „ 3. Costumes of Ladies „ 4. Costumes of Civilians . „ 5. Personal Ornaments CHAPTER X. Pottery, Porcelain, and Glass . „ 1. Introductory „ 2. Ancient British Pottery „ 3. Roman-British Pottery „ 4. Anglo-Saxon Pottery . „ 5. Italian and French Keramic Manufactures „ 6. Flemish and German Stone-ware . „ 7. Porcelain ...... „ 8. English Pottery and Porcelain „ 9. Glass PAGE 270 270 '2S1 283 295 299 304 304 30G 308 310 312 318 319 321 322 CHAPTER XL Miscellaneous Subjects Sect. 1. Decorative Processes applied to Metals „ 2. Clocks and Watches .... „ 3. Locks, Keys, and Decorative Iron-work „ 4. Ivory Carvings, Cameos, and Intaglios . „ 5. Mosaics „ 6. Painting in Oil ..... „ 7, Embroidery ..... 328 328 336 337 338 341 342 312 Xll CONTENTS. Sect. 8. Furniture 345 „ 9. Wood-Engraving and Typography . . . 346 Chess and Playing-Cards 348 English Shipping in the Middle Ages . . . 349 12. Monastic Orders 351 13. The Nimbus and Emblems of Saints . . . 356 British, Roman, and Saxon Earthworks and En- campments 359 10. 11. 14. Glossary of Architectural Terms Index or Buildings and Places Index or Names and Titles General Index .... 363 368 373 377 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATE I.— ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.— CAPITALS. Tig. 1. Chancel Arch, St. Peter's, Northampton, (Anglo-Norman). — 2. North Transept, York Cathedral, (Early English Gothic). — 3. West Front, York Cathedral, (Decorated Gothic). — 4. Cloisters, Christchurch Cathedral, Oxford, (Perpendicular Gothic). PLATE IL— ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.— WINDOWS. Fig. 1. Lancet Window, Stanton Harcourt, Oxon, about 1220, (exterior). — 2. Interior of the same. — 3. Two-light Window, Woodstock Church, Oxon, about 1240. — 4. Three-light Window, Slapton Church, Northants, about 1350. PLATE III.— HERALDIC AND WALL DIAPERS. Fig. 1. From the Tomb of William de Valence, Westminster Abbey, a.d. 1296. — 2, 3, 4, 5. From Queen Eleanor's Cross, Geddington, Northants, about 1300. — 6. Shield of Robert de Vere, Hatfield Broadoak Church, Essex, a.d. 1298. _ — 7. Shield of William de Valence. XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATE IV.— COLOURED GLASS. Tig. 1. From Chetwode Church, Bucks, about 1300. — 2, 3. Borders from the Choir of Bristol Cathedral, fourteenth century. PLATE V.— PAVEMENT TILES. Fig. 1. Prom the site of Chertsey Abbey, Surrey. — 2. Prom Wheathamstead Church, Herts. — 3. From St. Alban's Abbey Church. — 4. From Great Malvern Abbey Church. PLATE VI.— MONUMENTAL SLABS. Fig. 1. At Haltwhistle Church, Northumberland, about 1300. — 2. At Gilling Church, Yorkshire, about 1350. PLATE VII.— MONUMENTAL BRASS. Part of a Brass to an Ecclesiastic, Merton College Chapel, Oxford, about 1375. PLATE VIII.— TOMB WITH EFFIGY AND STONE COFFIN. Fig. 1. Tomb and Effigy of Sir John de Sutton, Hull, a.d. 1339. — 2. Stone Coffin, Lincoln Cathedral, (Anglo-Norman). PLATE IX.— HERALDRY. SHIELDS AND CRESTS. Fig. 1. Shield of Raymond, Count of Provence, Westminster Abbey, about 1250. — 2. Shield of Edward the Confessor, Westminster Abbey, about 1250. — 3. Shield of Percy, from the Percy Shrine, Beverley Minster, about 1350. — 4. Shield of Prince John of Eltham, Westminster Abbey, 1334. — 5. Crest and Cap of Maintenance of the Black Prince, Canter- bury Cathedral, 1376. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XV PLATE X.— HERALDRY. BADGES. Fig. 1. Badge of Spencer. — 2. Dacre. — 3. De Bohun. PLATE XL— HERALDRY. BANNERS, &c. Fig. L. Pennon of Sir John D'Aubernoun, Stoke Dabernon, Surrey, 1277. — 2, 5. Standards of Henry VIII. — 3. Royal Banner of Richard II., Felbrigg, Norfolk. — 4. Banner of St. Edmund. PLATE XII.— SEALS. Fig. 1. Great Seal of Edward I. — 2. Personal Seal. — 3. Device Seal. PLATE XIII.— INSCRIPTIONS. Fig. 1. From Tomb of King Henry III., 1273. — 2. Queen Eleanor, 1291. — 3. ■ King Edward III., 1377. — 4. Alianore, widow of Thomas of Woodstock, 1399. _ 5, 6. ■ King Richard II., 1399. All in Westminster Abbey. PLATE XIV.— CELTS. Figs. 1, 2, 3. Bronze Celts from Buxton, Alderney, and Banbury. — 4. Stone Celt, from Stanton Fitz-Warren. PLATE XV.— ARMS AND ARMOUR. Fig. 1. Bronze British Shield. — 2, 3. Bronze Swords. — 4. Bronze Spear-head. — 5. Iron Spear-head. XVI LIST OP ILLUSTKATTONS. Tig. 6. Iron Battle-axe. — 7. Iron Dagger. — 8. Bronze Dagger. — 9, 10. Iron Arrow-heads. PLATE XVI.— ARMOUR. HEAD-PIECES, &c. Pig. 1. From the Brass to Sir John D'Aubemoun, a.d. 1277 ; and — 2. From the Brass to Sir John D'Aubernoun the younger, a.d. 1327. Both at Stoke Dabernon, Surrey. — 3. From the Brass to Sir Hugh Hastings, Elsyng, Norfolk, a.d. 1347. — 4. From the Effigy of Lord Montacute, in Salisbury Cathedral, a.d. 1389. — 5. From the Brass to Sir Ivo Fitz-Waryn, in Wantage Church, Berks, a.d. 1114. — 6. From the Brass to Sir Robert Staunton, Castle Donington Church, Leicestershire, a.d. 1458. PLATE XVII.— BEADS. Figs. 1 to 18. Various British and Anglo-Saxon Beads. PLATE XVIIL— PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. Fig. 1. British Armilla Torque of gold. — 2, 3, 4, 7. Anglo-Saxon Pendant Ornaments. — 5, 6. Anglo-Saxon Bronze Fibulae. PLATE XIX.— POTTERY. Figs. 1, 5, 6. British Urn and Vases, found in Guernsey. — 2. Roman Amphora, found at Chesterford, Cambridgeshire. — 3. Small Roman Vase, found at Shefford, Beds. — 4. Roman Samian Vase, found at Chesterford. PLATE XX.— ENAMELS. Fig. 1. Reliquary of Limoges Enamel on copper, gilt. — 2, 3, 4. Roman Enamelled Fibulas. MANUAL OF BRITISH ARCHEOLOGY. INTRODUCTION. The history of the human race is, for the most part, unconsciously written by the successive generations of men in the works of their own hands. These works — in the first instance generally produced for present use — remain long after their authors have passed away from the busy scene of life. From year to year and from century to century the vast series of human pro- ductions continually accumulates, and the past is for ever adding fresh stores of visible and tangible relics to its all-comprehensive historical museum. During the last few years public attention has been attracted in a very remarkable manner to the inves- tigation and study of early remains, of whatsoever kind and in every region. An antiquarian taste has thus B 2 INTRODUCTION. been formed, and antiquarian pursuits have become both prevalent and popular. The term Archaeology (which strictly signifies the knowledge of things ancient) has been adopted and recognised to denote the antiquarian researches and studies of the present day, with their results. Archaeological Societies have been formed with the twofold object of exciting a still more widely ex- tended interest in these researches and studies, and also of conducting them more systematically and with a greater concentration of energy. In both respects the Societies have already accomplished much : more par- ticularly they have been successful in awakening intel- ligent inquiries, in engaging sympathy, and in securing co-operation. Archaeological meetings — now as regu- larly looked for as they are regularly held in all parts of the kingdom — are invariably attended with gratifying results. People find that there is an object in archaeology, and so they become archaeologists. They learn, perhaps to their surprise, that archaeology has a much higher aim than to determine to what remote ages certain ancient relics may, with probable accuracy, be assigned. In- stead of this, their attention is invited to the historical teaching of everything with which archaeology deals : INTRODUCTION. 6 they are led to regard ancient relics as expressions of the human intellect and as illustrations of human sen- timents, and habits, and requirements, under conditions differing very widely from those of our own day : they are taught to examine, to collect, to classify, to analyse early remains, with the view either to elicit from them fresh facts as new elements of knowledge, or to adduce, through their instrumentality, fresh evidence which may corroborate and elucidate facts already known and ac- cepted : they discover, in a word, that archaeology is in reality a system of monumental history, of which the peculiar interest is greatly enhanced from the circum- stance that it always closely associates the producers themselves with every object that has been left by them for us to discover, perhaps, as well as to examine. History which thus assumes a biographical aspect, while it is built up at every stage upon a series of contempo- raneous monuments, can scarcely fail to command atten- tion. There is also their own attraction inseparable from the early works themselves. Either curious, or singular, or strange, or beautiful, or noble, and some- times combining many varied qualities, these relics would very generally be found to repay the care of the b 2 4 INTRODUCTION. archaeologist even without his extending his inquiries to their historical teaching. Accordingly, when the true character of archaeology is for the first time appreciated through being for the first time understood, it is easy to conceive that the ranks of archaeologists, on these occasions, rarely fail to have their numbers increased. Such, indeed, is the sure result of a well-conducted archaeological meeting : volunteer recruits are gained, and they enter upon their new study in earnest, with zeal and with the determination to persevere ; and their first inquiry is, very naturally, for some simple manual which will guide them in the eaidy stages of their researches, and upon which they may rely for general information respecting archaeology, conveyed in a concise and popular form. Hitherto it has been impossible to return to such inquiries any other reply than that such an elementary book would be very desirable and that it really is much needed, but, unfortunately, nothing of the kind has been produced. It is the object of this little volume to supply this deficiency at the outset of our archaeological literature, and to provide for students such a Grammar of Archaeology - as may consistently introduce them to INTRODUCTION. 5 works of a higher order and a more comprehensive range. In the preparation of its pages the utmost brevity and simplicity have been carefully observed. The aim of the writer has been to classify and arrange such elementary facts as will be found most useful by persons who are entering upon a course of archaeological inquiry, and to set them forth in a plain and popular manner. All more detailed descriptions, with the varied results which have crowned the labours of our most dis- tinguished archaeologists, he leaves the student to seek from other sources. The more advanced student will find an abundant supply of valuable works, which treat of almost every possible subject that is embraced within the comprehensive scope of archaeology ; and should he seek for information upon some one special topic, or upon one particular class of works of early art, he will be able readily to lay. his hand either upon a monograph, or a series of essays and papers, which will prove to be precisely what he requires. It is not, however, merely to what has been written upon archaeology that this elementary volume would introduce the student and inquirer. Copious, indeed, D INTRODUCTION. learned, interesting-, and eminently valuable, are the books and periodicals which have attended the recent pro- gress of the career of archaeology ; and yet there exists a field for inquiry and study which possesses a still stronger claim upon the archaeologist, and also promises him a more abundant recompence. This field is thickly strewn with the actual relics of the past. All that archi- tecture has accomplished in bygone ages is here. Here are what time has spared to us of the creations of early sculpture and painting. Caligraphers, moneyers, gold- smiths, heralds, armorers, engravers, here have brought together, in long succession, their multifarious produc- tions. Here, also, are assembled the works of keramic artists and glassmakers, with all the other varied objects that former races and generations of men have devised, and made, and used, and bequeathed as their contri- butions to the history of their species. The young archaeologist will do well to enter upon a course of practical investigation from the very first. Gladly availing himself of such aids as have been pro- vided for him by those who have preceded him in the same course, he will never neglect an opportunity for acquiring information by means of his own personal INTRODUCTION. 7 observation. While he reads, and takes extracts from what others have written, and collects good engravings, he will write his own descriptions of what falls under his notice, and he will illustrate these descriptions care- fully and fully with his own pencil. Such habits need but to be formed to ensure their permanence ; for the knowledge thus acquired is by far too delightful to be neglected, or for the pursuit of it to be forsaken. It is the same with archaeology as it is with natural science. New qualities thus are imparted to objects through the power of association. In the one case natural produc- tions assume a dignity, and are clothed with a beauty, which cannot be appreciated without at least some acquaintance with the grand laws and sublime harmonies of nature. Archaeology, in her turn, discloses the monu- mental and historical character of the early works of man ; and hence these works become invested with claims upon our regard and attention, which before we could have neither understood nor recognised. Thus the archaeologist sees in the lonely tumulus much more than a picturesque upheaving of the turf; and he dis- covers hidden treasures of thought and reflection even in the old church, which from his childhood he had re- 8 INTRODUCTION. garded with mingled sentiments of reverence and admi- ration. His researches amongst the various remains of early art cannot fail to impress the student of archaeology with a high admiration for the taste and the true art-feeling, and also for the exquisite mechanical skill, displayed by men who lived in ages which he may heretofore have re- garded as altogether immersed in intellectual darkness. Let him seek to form a just estimate of those ages and of the generations of his race who then nourished. Neither yielding to an extravagant enthusiasm, nor being influenced by an unworthy indifference, let him soberly weigh the real merits of the workers and the works of the olden time. He will thus be led to feel that no intrinsic value is attached to any object merely because of the fact of its being ancient ; but that ster- ling excellence, and felicitous adaptability, and genuine beauty, and the faculty of historical illustration, alone constitute the worth of early works and relics. And, as he pursues his researches in this spirit, he will find him- self surrounded by an ever-enlarging circle of that prac- tical knowledge, which may be continually applied both to his own improvement and to advance the well-being of his generation. CHAPTER I. ARCHITECTURE. SECTION I. INTRODUCTORY. The history of British architecture may be said to com- mence in the eleventh century; and it is not until after the accession of the Norman dynasty that it can be con- sidered to have assumed any definite form. Fragments of architectural works of various earlier periods are, indeed, in existence in our county; but these remains, however valuable as illustrations of general history, can scarcely claim for themselves a distinct recognition in the history of the art of architecture as it flourished during past ages in Britain. British architecture comprises Two Styles, the Anglo- Norman and the English Gothic. Of these two styles, the former prevailed until the third quarter of the twelfth, and the latter until the middle of the sixteenth century. A brief period of transition intervened between 10 ARCHITECTURE. the final disuse of the earlier style and the complete establishment of its successor; and the Gothic, while maintaining throughout its career the distinctive cha- racteristics of a single style, is found to have passed through three distinct artistic periods, and to have assumed as many definite forms of expression. It will be of the utmost importance for the student, while carefully discriminating between the three phases of the Gothic of Britain, to keep in remembrance the fact that these are not three different styles, but that the three make up the one style. It must also be borne in mind that, in the middle ages, the same style of archi- tecture was invariably applied, at each period, to every varietv of edifice. Buildings of one class may now remain in considerable numbers, and of other classes but occasional relics may have passed through the ordeal of the lapse of ages ; yet, when these different works were planned and constructed, they were all equally true to the architecture of their own era. Whether Anglo- Norman or English Gothic, the style was equally appli- cable, and it was applied alike to the cathedral or the village church — to the feudal castle or the civic guildhall — to the monastery or to the private dwelling-house. ROMAN REMAINS. 11 The architecture was the architecture of the time : what- ever buildings were required, those it was ready to produce, and it did produce ; and it was always able to adapt itself to varying circumstances and different con- ditions, without even the slightest infringement of its own principles, or any departure from its own practice and traditions. SECTION II. ROMAN REMAINS. The flourishing condition of Britain as a Roman province is clearly proved by the existing remains of edifices which were constructed, during their occupancy of this island, by the Romans themselves. These same remains also bear no less conclusive witness to the strife and violence which succeeded, after the departure of the Romans from these shores. Thus, while foundations, pavements, and the lower portions of Roman buildings are continually brought to light by means of various excavations, it is rare indeed to find above the surface of the ground any works which were constructed by Roman builders. We may without hesitation adopt the opinion that the temples, villas, and other public and private buildings 12 ARCHITECTURE. erected in this country by the Romans were both nume- rous and important ; and we know that the Roman style of building was in itself well calculated for endurance. Roman architecture, also, and the building materials in use by the Romans, must have been understood, and their value appreciated by the native islanders; and con- sequently, the disappearance of genuine Roman edifices, followed by the complete disuse of Roman architecture, would seem of necessity to have resulted from a pro- tracted condition of civil convulsion and foreign inva- sion. Roman foundations are found to have been formed with much care and skill, and to this day they often retain unimpaired their original firmness and security. With the foundations, and the hard concrete on which they rest, pavements of tessera, or small cubes of different materials and various colours, arranged in patterns, are frequently discovered, and they generally are in excellent preservation; also, flues for heating, and the structural arrangements for the bath — that important department in a Roman (and, indeed, in every) house — constantly occur. The mortar used in these works is remarkably hard and tenacious, and almost always contains pounded ROMAN REMAINS. 13 brick, the building materials themselves being generally very hard, thin bricks, varying in size from about eight inches square to one foot six inches by one foot, and always less than two inches in thickness. In addition to these, flue-tiles have been discovered, and other varieties of bricks or tiles, which were specially adapted to par- ticular purposes. In the Construction of walls the Romans used their large flat bricks in bands or layers, consisting of either a single course, or of two or more courses, at intervals varying from about one foot to four feet apart, for the purpose of binding together the rubble (or rough flint masonry) of which the mass of the struc- ture was formed. Where stone was to be obtained, it was freely used by the Romans in their buildings : large stones were set without mortar, but mortar was used when the stones were of small size. The binding courses of bricks were sometimes introduced into regular stone- masonry. It was also a common practice with the Romans to face a wall, on both sides, with cut stone, and to fill in the central mass with rubble. Roman bricks, and possibly bricks made subsequently after the Roman fashion, were extensively used by the early Norman builders, and sometimes also by their 14 ARCHITECTURE. Saxon predecessors, as at St. Albans, Brixworth, Darentb, Guildford Castle, &c. SECTION III. ANGLO-SAXON REMAINS. The intercourse established between England and Normandy during' the first half of the eleventh century led to the adoption by the Anglo-Saxons of many usages then already prevalent amongst the Normans. The more general use of stone instead of timber for building pur- poses was not the least important of the improvements thus obtained. The great impulse at that period given to the erection of churches also led to the introduction of Norman architects and masons ; and thus the way was cleared for the establishment of Norman archi- tecture in England after the Conquest. Much difference of opinion still exists with reference to the early edifices, parts of which may (it would seem) be certainly attri- buted to Saxon times. It will be sufficient here to de- scribe those peculiarities, which by general consent have been considered to indicate a condition of architecture anterior to the accession of the Norman dynasty in England. It will be observed that these peculiarities distinguish parts of buildings, of which other parts have ANGLO-SAXON REMAINS. 15 evidently been erected at later periods. These Saxon remains are very rudely constructed of rough masonry, the mortar being of very inferior quality, and the walls having (apparently in all cases) been plastered over on their exterior surface. The quoins, or angle-masonry, are of hewn stones, set alternately on end and hori- zontally, and hence denominated "long and short work." The walls are very thick, without buttresses, and some- times built of herring-bone work, or stones set diagonally, the inclination of the courses being alternately to the right and the left. Narrow flat strips of masonry, of " long and short " construction and slight projection, ornament the surfaces of the walls, sometimes in tiers, and with the addition of small semicircular arches or triangles formed of similar stones. This ornamentation may have been derived from the ancient timber-framing. The arches of doorways and windows are rounded, or sometimes the openings have triangular heads; the jambs (or perpendicular sides) are formed of " long and short " work, and they carry either rudely-carved im- posts (blocks of stone laid horizontally) or capitals with square abaci. Sometimes rude and heavy mouldings run round the arches ; and where two or more arches 16 ARCHITECTURE. are conjoined as an arcade, these arches are carried on heavy, low shafts, formed like balusters, and encircled with rude bands. When these baluster-shafts carry arches pierced in thick external walls, they are set in the midst of the thickness of the wall, and support long stones reaching through the wall. Arched openings in walls splay from both the exterior and interior, and the actual piercings are in the mid-thickness of the walls. These peculiar features will not all be found in any one building ; but in the tower of Earl's Barton, in Nor- thamptonshire, more of them occur than in any other known example. The triform m in the transept at St. Albans may also be specified as containing some highly characteristic specimens of Anglo-Saxon baluster-shafts. It is certain that before the Norman Conquest several churches, of very considerable size, were completed in this country : thus the Confessor erected his abbey church at Westminster, and Edmer of Canterbury has left us a description of the metropolitan cathedral before it was rebuilt by Lanfranc in 1070. Anglo-Saxon remains are generally found in close association with genuine Norman work ; and it may be considered that the archi- tecture of the Saxons, however rude, exercised a certain ANGLO-NORMAN STYLE. 17 amount of influence upon the Norman style after it had become naturalized in England . SECTION IV. THE ANGLO-NORMAN STYLE. Having secured their position as the dominant race in Britain, with surprising energy the Normans applied themselves to the task of erecting cathedrals, churches, abbeys, castles, and other important edifices, throughout the length and breadth of the land. The magnitude of many of these buildings is no less remarkable than their numbers; and they are characterized by that bold, simple, and massive grandeur, which, notwithstanding their comparative rudeness as works of art, always com- mands respect, and rarely fails to win admiration. In this style the walls are massive, self-sustaining, and without buttresses. The masonry, whether of rubble or ashlar, at the first very rude and with wide joints, becomes gradually better executed ; but the stones continue to be of a small size, and in every course the stones are invariably of the same height, so that the lines of mortar are continued throughout the work, each of them in the same straight line. The buildings are often both very spacious and very lofty. The more im- c 18 ARCHITECTURE. portant churches are of a cruciform plan, and conse- quently they have a transept ; towards the east they ter- minate in an apse, which closes-in a short choir ; the aisles are narrow, and sometimes they are carried round the apse ; apsidal chapels project from various parts of the main building towards the east; and towers rise both at the intersection of the transept and at the west end. In their general proportions these churches are longer, and their transepts have a bolder projection than in similar buildings on the continent ; and, unlike their continental brethren, they were not designed to be vaulted with stone, except in their aisles and chapels. It was a common practice to build the choir, with its apse and aisles, upon a vaulted crypt, supported hy rows of low shafts and piers. The smaller churches were generally built without aisles ; and the earlier examples have often a tower between the nave and chancel, the latter of which originally terminated eastward in an apse. The apse, so characteristic of the Anglo-Norman style, is now rarely to be seen, in consequence of the prevailing usage of lengthening the earlier churches towards the east at subsequent periods ; and the apse ceased to be in use in England after the complete establishment of Gothic architecture. ANGLO-NORMAN DETAILS. 19 Decorative carving does not appear to have been much used in this style until after the first quarter of the twelfth century, when it is found in great abundance, and always is highly characteristic in both design and exe« cution. Derived in the first instance, in common with the other early forms of rnedheval architecture, from the ruins of the architecture of ancient Rome, the Anglo- Norman style is included with the early styles of Byzan- tium, Lombardy, France, and Germany, under the general title of Romanesque. The archaeological observer will not fail to trace out in this style the lin- gering influence of ancient art, and to distinguish between its results and the first free expressions of the hardy spirit of the middle ages. SECTION V. ANGLO-NORMAN DETAILS. The more important architectural members of buildings in the Anglo-Norman style may be briefly described as follows : — The piers vary considerably in both plan and compa- rative height. Some are cylindrical, others are simple masses of wall, and others are formed from groups of c 2 20 ARCHITECTURE. shafts of various sizes clustered about a mass of masonry to which they are attached. Zigzag and other carved work is sometimes found wrought about the largest "piers. The shafts or pillars, which are of different dia- meters, when grouped together and attached to piers form parts of the solid mass, and are constructed in courses which are uniform with the rest of the structure. These attached shafts stand in the nook or re-entering angle, formed by two flat surfaces of masonry, built at right angles to each other. In arcades intended simply to decorate wall-surfaces, the shafts are also generally attached to the wall itself; and in these cases they sometimes, late in the style, are formed from a single block, or from two or three stones, differing in height from the courses of the wall- masonry. The shafts which carry the vaulting of crypts or the arches of a triforium, and consequently stand clear, are also formed either from single blocks or from a few large stones. Late in the style, the shafts sometimes have a band encircling them, and they very commonly are completely covered with elaborate carvings. In Fig. 1 of Plate I. one of the shafts is thus enriched. [TECTUUA1 DETAI1 S Tlate I. n«.l. Chaiicel. .Arch, S^ Peter's T^urthaixrpton , (Anglo-TSToi-'T n 2 . North Transept '. r.is -U-hedral, (Early English Gothic) 3. West Front. Y . . Irsu. (JJecorated Gothic.) 4. Qaiater3,Chriatch\ir'£h Cathedral, Oxford,, (Perj.' . ■ Jwdi Atlff litli ' 3xodkc Im£ ANGLO-NORMAN DETAILS. 21 The arches are semicircular, or occasionally stilted — that is, the perpendicular lines of their jambs rise above the capitals. The earliest and most simple arches are pierced at right angles to the walls in which they occur, and have their edges chamfered off ; but the more general arrangement is to have the arch formed from a series of concentric arches, recessed one within the other, each order being carried by its own corresponding jamb- shafts, or by some members of the jambs which are recessed like the sweep of the arch itself. The inner- most order, or sub-order, is not shafted. The different orders are generally either moulded or covered with carvings. Parts of two orders of a very rich recessed arch with shafted jambs are represented in Fig. 1 of Plate I. Anglo-Norman doorways are often to be seen in churches in which no other member of the original Norman edifice remains. The arches for these doorways are almost always deeply recessed and much ornamented. On the exterior they are covered by a dripstone. Many of the richest of these doorway-arches are without shafts, and have the arches themselves continuous with their jambs, the whole being elaborately carved. Fine ex- 22 ARCHITECTURE. amples occur at Malmesbury Abbey and Iffley, near Oxford. The actual opening for the door is very com- monly square-headed, and formed by a horizontal lintel which cuts off the half-circle enclosed within the sweep of the arch -head. The space above this lintel, called the tympanum, is generally filled with sculpture or decorative carving. The windows in this style are, in early examples, placed high up in the wall for the sake of security. Some are very narrow, others are low and broad, while in other examples the openings are large. The splay in the window-arches, in almost all cases, commences from the outer surface of the wall, and spreads widely inwards. In the early examples, the splay of the sweep of the inner arch is uniform with the splay of the jambs ; but at a more advanced period, the inner arch is much de- pressed. The arches are often both shafted and enriched with, carving and mouldings on both, their outer and inner faces. These windows in most cases stand singly, or each window forms a single and complete member of a series ; occasionally, however, two windows are so placed as to form a group, and above them appears a circular window, as at Kirkstall Abbey. Large circular ANGLO-NORMAN DETAILS. 23 windows, divided by small arches with shafts radiating from the centre, are sometimes to be seen ; and, as the style advanced, the more important windows assumed lofty and dignified proportion's. Arcades for the decoration of wall-surfaces are very common. They often are formed of very narrow arches set on very tall shafts, as in Norwich Cathedral ; and as commonly the arches are made to intersect by rising from the alternate shafts. This intersection is some- times made compound, as in the Chapter-house at Wor- cester. In the triformM-2LVca.de of the larger churches sometimes the arches are almost as important as the main pier-arches themselves, above which they rise. The inner arches of the clerestory-arcade are commonly formed in groups of three arches, of which the central arch is much more lofty than those on either side of it. In these groups it is not uncommon to see a cluster of small shafts rising from the capital of a single one of considerably larger size than themselves. Anglo-Norman capitals are convex' in their general contour, massive, and commonly covered with carved decoration. The earlier examples are short, but the later ones are more lofty, and approach towards the graceful- 24 ARCHITECTURE. ness of the succeeding style. The abacus (or uppermost member) is square and heavy, and the neck-moulding {astragal) is frequently cabled, as in the characteristic examples from St. Peter's, Northampton, figured in Plate I. In these examples the abaci are covered with carving ; one of the capitals also shows the spiral orna- ment often to be seen in this member, and which not uncommonly approaches closely in form and treatment to the ancient Ionic volute. The Anglo-Norman capital, from its peculiar form, has been denominated a cushion- capital. The base sometimes resembles an inverted capital, but it more frequently is moulded with a few bold mouldings which rest upon a massive square plinth. In some in- stances there is a second plinth, of which the angles are chamfered off; and it was also an Anglo-Norman usage to carve a projecting leaf or other ornament, which issues from the mouldings and rests upon the angle of the plinth. The mouldings, at first very shallow and sparingly used, are almost exclusively rounds and hollows, with chamfers, and occasionally a fillet. Throughout the Anglo-Norman era plain mouldings are comparatively rare, the prevailing usage having been to cover them ANGLO-NORMAN DETAILS. 25 with carving or to break them up into some of the many- zigzag and other lines which were in such high favour with Norman artists. These zigzags are almost infi- nitely modified and variously grouped. Other figures — such as cabled- work, beads of various sizes, and inter- lacing bands — are associated with the zigzags, the beads (as in Fig. 1, Plate I.) being often worked upon them. A moulding called billet, and which appears under various modifications of form, and a series of grotescpie heads of birds or animals, placed in a hollow and having their beaks or tongues lapping over a large roll, are favourite and characteristic decorations. The billet is formed by cutting a roll or other projecting moulding into small pieces, and removing every other piece. This billet-work is generally set in two or more contiguous rows, the billets and the void spaces alternating in the alternate rows. A moulding called nail-head, which consists of a series of very small low pyramids, is also common ; so also is another which is serrated like the teeth of a saw. Strings, or continuous ranges of mould- ings traversing the faces of walls, are either plain with a chamfer below, or formed of bold rolls or zigzag-work, with billet and sometimes other carving introduced. 26 ARCHITECTURE. There are fine examples on the exterior of the nave at Ely. The surface of walls was often ornamented with diaper ; and a common pattern was a series of shallow indents, apparently produced by pressing upon mortar while wet the end of a sharp or rounded trowel. The corbel-tables, which carry the plain and massive parapets of the style, are in most cases characteristically moulded, and sometimes the corbels themselves carry a series of small arches. It will be observed that all Anglo-Norman decorative carving is shallow, and does not give to the figures and lines any genuine projection. It is in reality produced by cutting away parts of the stone, and thus the desired devices are left in sank relief. In the few attempts at sculpture which occur, the workmanship is generally such as produces no more than a very low relief. The towers and turrets are either squai-e or cylin- drical in form, and they appear to have been originally surmounted either by a conical coping or by a pyra- midal roof. It was customary to decorate their surfaces with tiers of arcades and various mouldings. The towers and turrets of this style, which are yet in existence, are comparatively but few in number. ANGLO-NORMAN DETAILS. 27 Buttress-stutps, or broad vertical bands of masonry, commonly divide the bays, and they also form the angles of buildings when there are no angle-turrets. They have but a slight projection, which is uniform through- out ; at their angles they commonly have a shaft recessed in a nook of the masonry, or sometimes the angles are cut into zigzags; strings band over them, and they either rise to the parapet which projects to receive them, or die into the wall lower down. They must be regarded as designed simply to break the uniform continuity of the surfaces of walls, for the purpose of decoration. Vaulting, when used, is very simple, and in two forms — either arched or groined: of these, the former consists of a semi-cylindrical covering, and is generally quite plain as in the White Tower, or it has plain and massive sub-arches at intervals ; the groined vaulting, formed by the intersection of four arched vaults, is with- out any ribs in the early examples, except transverse ribs between the bays ; but subsequently the groins (or edges) themselves have ribs, and both these and the transverse ribs are either heavily moulded or enriched with zigzag, billet, or other carving. The bosses at the 28 ARCHITECTURE. intersection of these ribs, when any appear, are usually small and unimportant. Very noble examples of Anglo-Norman architecture remain in the Cathedrals of Norwich, Ely, Winchester, Rochester, Canterbury, Durham, Hereford, and Gloucester; and with these may be classed the abbeys of St. Albans, Tewkesbury, and Romsey, of Malmesbury, and Pershore, with the ruins of Fountains, the grand collegiate church of Southwell, the churches of Stowe, Wymondham, St. Peter's at Northampton, Iffley, and very many others, and the chapel of the White Tower in London. In Scotland the examples of Norman architecture that are occasionally to be observed, exhibit the style in its highest perfection, and they assimilate more closely to the Norman of Normandy than of England. There are but few works of importance that were erected before the twelfth century, though the style itself was known and in use in the eleventh, and it was retained, in its most perfect form, until a much later period than it prevailed to the south of the Tweed. The abbey-churches of Kelso and Jedburgh are amongst the finest examples ; and in connexion with them may be specified the chapel of Leuchars and the ruins of Dunfermline. The remark- ANGLO-NORMAN CASTLES. 29 able Cathedral of St. Magnus, at Kirkwall in the Orkneys, was also commenced in 1137, and the works for some time were carried on with vigour. The architecture of Ireland, though distinguished by a peculiar nationality of character, exhibits in its earlier examples the influence of the Norman style, and many details essentially Norman in their treatment may often be observed ; still, Norman architecture can scarcely be considered to have fairly established itself in the sister island. SECTION VI. ANGLO-NORMAN CASTLES. In our own country, as well as in Scotland and Ireland, the lapse of time has done less to destroy early castellated and domestic buildings than war and wilful violence. Wherever any remains of castles yet exist in England, if they were originally the work of Anglo-Norman archi- tects, they illustrate the characteristic peculiarities of the style in all particulars. The same principle is com- mon to these buildings with the contemporary ecclesi- astical edifices, and the same treatment and the same details are alike apparent in all. At the same time, the early castle shows both that its own special requirements were well understood, and that the style was wielded by 30 ARCHITECTURE. men who knew well how to adapt it as well to one pur- pose as to another. The Anglo-Norman castle generally consisted of the keep, the walls, the base-court, often enclosed within a second range of walls, the mound, also called the donjon, and the ditch. Of these the keep, which constituted the actual fortress, is generally a square or oblong building (though sometimes multangular and occasionally circular), of the most massive strength and solidity, and of great height. This keep contains a series of large apartments, one above the other, and sometimes it is divided by a wall, so that there are two apartments on each floor. The ground story is generally vaulted, but the upper floors are of timber. The approach is from an external flight of steps, leading to an entrance -tower which abuts upon the main structure. The angles are usually flanked with tur- rets of great strength, though of but slight projection. The parapets, of which but a few fragments remain, may have been embattled, but they were more probably plain or pierced at long intervals with narrow slits. Staircases, galleries, small sleeping apartments, with the well and its appliances, are in the mass of the walls ; fireplaces, as well as flues, are also sometimes similarly placed ; the mural ANGLO-NORMAN CASTLES. 31 chambers are often vaulted, and the galleries are arched over. A chapel always forms a part of a keep, and this is in some examples mural. The masonry is generally rubble dressed with ashlar, but sometimes the entire work is constructed with wrought stone of admirable quality. The walls enclose a considerable space, and form with the ditch the outer defences ; they contain the base-court, which comprise lodgings for the garrison, with offices for the establishment. The entire area within the walls was called the bailey, and where the walls are double, there accordingly are inner and outer baileys. The hall is the principal apartment within the keep, and it is often enriched with the architectural sculpture and other decorative accessories of the period : the hall at Oakham Castle is a fine example. Many noble speci- mens of Norman keeps yet exist, as at London, Ro- chester, Prudhoe, Coningsburgh, &c. : in the castle last named the masonry is very perfect and of the very best construction. The mound, which usually contains a well and some chambers, is an artificial tumulus, from about 30 to about 60 feet in height, and varying from 60 to 100 feet in diameter at the summit, upon which some works for defensive purposes appear to have been erected. 32 ARCHITECTURE. Before the death of Stephen, 1115 castles are said to have been erected in England since the Conquest ; many, however, were shortly after razed by royal command ; and succeeding sovereigns exercised the exclusive powei*, as a part of the prerogative of the crown, to grant licences for the embattling or making loopholes for defensive purposes in the walls of dwelling-houses. The houses of the Anglo-Normans, as we now under- stand that term, were, from the necessity of the times, in some respect at least, defensive in their construction ; or they were buildings not calculated for any prolonged existence. It is probable that the type of these houses corresponded with that which was certainly prevalent in the twelfth century, and which is described at page 62. Near the summit of the hill at Lincoln are some domestic remains of the middle of the twelfth century, which are amongst the most curious relics of -that period. Scotland contains scarcely any example of secular architecture of the Anglo-Norman era, which claims the attention of the archaeologist ; and the few early remains of this class which may be seen in Ireland, are chiefly distinguished by the circumstance of their having almost as much in common with the architecture of the South TRANSITION TO ENGLISH GOTHIC. 33 of Europe as with the style of the Normans, as that style was developed by them either in Normandy itself or in England. SECTION VII. — THE TRANSITION TO THE ENGLISH GOTHIC STYLE. One st}de of architecture does not succeed to another by any sudden or definite change, effected at one time, and under circumstances that admit of a distinct and precise description. A period of Transition, on the con- trary, intervenes, during which, while the old style gradually declines, and its youthful successor as gradually assumes a determinate character, in many instances cer- tain distinctive peculiarities of the two styles are seen to have been blended together in the same works. In these examples it will be noticed that, in the first instance, the innovations only affect elementary forms, the details and treatment remaining unchanged, or, at the most, being but slightly influenced. By degrees, novel modes of treatment make their appearance, details undergo a decided change, and the new style thus becomes estab- lished. Accordingly, as the twelfth century draws towards its close, arcades of pointed arches appear in D 34 ARCHITECTURE. association with others of the old form, the different members of buildings assume a lighter appearance, and some of the principal arches are pointed, but the orna- ments continue to be zigzags and the like. After a while, fresh ornaments, some of them modifications of the old ones, are introduced; then a change is felt to have gradually pervaded the entire architecture, and so the reign of the Gothic style commences. SECTION VIII. — THE ENGLISH GOTHIC STYLE. Unlike the various forms of the Romanesque, Gothic architecture retains no traces of a classic origin. It is an independent style — the style of the middle ages, as the classic was the style of antiquity. The characteristic distinctions of this grand style are pointed arches, but- tresses, large windows and window-tracery, clustered shafts, ornaments studied from natural forms, traceried vaults and lofty roofs of richly-framed timber, a general lightness, the free use of sculpture, heraldry, and other decorative accessories, and an inexhaustible richness of resources, combined with an ever-ready versatility of adaptation. The style, which prevailed throughout Western, Southern, and Central Europe, exhibits various ENGLISH GOTHIC STYLE. 35 marked characteristics in different countries : it also is found to have passed through a series of highly import- ant changes during its career, from the close of the twelfth century to the middle of the sixteenth. The Gothic of England appears under three principal forms, which are generally known as Early English Gothic, Decorated, and Perpendicular. The first of these periods terminates with the thirteenth century, the second closes about a.d. 1375, and the third — including the era of the Gothic decline — extends until the Reformation. These are necessarily but approximate dates, since a condition of Transition existed between the several periods or distinct phases of the art. In now describing English Gothic details, the three periods or phases of the style will be considered together, for the purposes of comparison and contrast. Piers or Pillars. First Period. Either plain cir- cular or octagonal; or shafts, clustered about a large central pillar, which is generally circular. These shafts very commonly stand clear of the central pillar, and are banded at mid-height, the bands being worked round the entire group. In some instances, foliage sprouting out from the central pillar appears with the finest effect d 2 36 ARCHITECTURE. between the surrounding shafts. Second Period. The same plain forms are retained, but in thericher examples the shafts are always attached to the mass, the bands no longer appear, and the entire pier generally has an out- line that approaches the form of a lozenge, or a square set diagonally. Third Period. The forms resemble those of the last period, but the mouldings or the shafting of the pier have fresh sections, and are much more shallow, and the pier itself is less effective in appearance than before. The pier-mouldings in this period are frequently continuous with those of the arches, there beinff no capitals interposed. Three examples of clustered piers, with shafts, are represented in Figs. 2, 3, and 4, of Plate I. Shafts. First Period. Very slender shafts are used in great abundance ; they stand clear, are banded if of any considerable height, and are commonly formed of Purbeck marble, and they sometimes are fluted. Where a pier is formed from a cluster of shafts, the shafts are often alternately stone and Purbeck marble. A narrow fillet, or raised flat band, often traverses these shafts from base to capital. Sometimes the fillet is so narrow as to be almost sharp. Second Period. Slender shafts ENGLISH GOTHIC DETAILS. 37 are not in use alone, or in small groups, except in wall- arcades. Purbeck marble ceases to appear, and tbe bands are discontinued. All shafts now form parts of solid piers, or they are attached to walls, &c. Fillets, which are frequently used, are broader than before. Third Period. Shafts now are cut ©n the same stones with the work of which they form parts. The fillets are very broad, and the true character of the shaft itself gradually becomes almost lost. Walls and Masonry, throughout the style, are care- fully constructed, with stones varying in size, and set with fine joints. The walls are not very thick, and they depend for support upon the buttresses. Cut flints are often used in the masonry with good effect. Arches. First Period. The simple pointed arches in common use are the equilateral, the acute-angled, or lancet-arch, and the obtuse-angled ; also, for the interior arches of windows, the segmental. Foil-arches are also frequently to be observed, particularly in wall-arcades. Second Period. The equilateral arch prevails, and the ogee-arch (with curves of double curvature) is introduced. Third Period. The lancet-arch ceases to be used, bxmA. four- centred arches, many of them much depressed, are prevalent. 38 ARCHITECTURE. The sides of an arch are called its haunches ; the wedge-shaped stones of which an arch is formed are voussoirs, of which the lowermost on either side are the springers, while the uppermost form the croivn of an arch. The springers rest upon imposts, which form the termina- tions of the perpendicular sides or jambs which support an arch ; the capital of a pillar or shaft commonly forms the impost. In Gothic arches, which are constructed with many voussoirs, there is no keystone or uppermost central voussoir. The orders, or concentric series of voussoirs, in Gothic arches are not so clearly expressed as in the Norman style ; in many instances, indeed, and particularly in the Early English period, the arch-mouldings are so adjusted that the orders can scarcely be distinguished. In this period the plain arches have the angles of their masonry simply chamfered, but the mouldings of the greater arches are very rich and noble, and trails of the dog- tooth ornament are frequently introduced in hollows be- tween bold roll-mouldings ; arches also are now always set upon their imposts in such a manner, that each order projects slightly beyond the plane of its own shaft or member of the pier. This arrangement, with the dog- ENGLISH GOTHIC DETAILS. 39 tooth ornament amidst the plain mouldings, is shown in Plate I., Fig. 2. In the Decorated period the orders of the arch mouldings become more clearly shown, and various carved-work is introduced amidst the conti- nuous mouldings, as in Fig. 3 of Plate I. The orders of the arches continue to overhang those of the jambs ; but late in the period some mouldings are sometimes continued uninterruptedly from the jambs through the curves of the arch. The arch-mouldings of the Perpen- dicular period are broad and shallow, frequently conti- nuous with the jambs, and rarely set forward upon the capitals, when capitals are used. Fig. 4 of Plate I. is a characteristic example. When the jambs are panelled, the panels are often carried on through the arches. Doorways. First Period. The arches are characteristic of the period in form, shafting, and enrichments ; they are deeply recessed, and in the larger examples often divided into two sub-arches, which are generally cusped. In a few examples the arches are rounded instead of pointed, and some are square-headed. Besides the dog- tooth, trails of foliage are found in the hollows of the mouldings. The arches are almost invariably covered by dripstones. Second Period. Not so deeply recessed, these 40 ARCHITECTURE. arches are now divided only early in the period; the mould- ings have no special characteristics distinct from those in use in other arches at the same era; ornamental carving is often introduced amongst the plain mouldings ; jam h- shafts are generally smaller than before, and many ex- amples are not shafted, but have their mouldings conti- nuous throughout, and resting on slopes at the plinths ; the arches are almost always pointed, and ogee-arches are in use ; dripstones are almost universal ; and in the larger examples lofty canopies, generally triangular in form, but sometimes ogee-arched, rise above the door- way-arches, the intervening spaces being filled-in with sculpture or tracery. Third Period. The arches now very generally have a square moulded heading worked about them, which is surmounted by a bold label-dripstone of the same form ; the spandrels are filled with tracery, and often contain shields of arms. The jambs have large hollows, and their shafts, when they are shafted, are small and insignificant. In all the three periods the form of the inner doorway arches varies from that of the outer arches ; the inner arches, or rear-vaidts, are higher also, and so arranged that they leave a free passage for the pointed heads of ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS Tlate II z. Tig.'/iJui^riar of the same. Sgl. Chancel "Window', Stanton Barcrjurt.Qam. alaat 122.0 (exterior) . 3g 3 . Two h^t^idow, "Woodstock Church, Oxon, about 1240. 1^.4. Tnree^ht "Window, Skvptai-i Chm. on, IKqrthants, about 1350 5 Je™itt del.st lith "Vincent .Brooks Iutp ENGLISH GOTHIC DETAILS. 41 the doors to move. The doorways of the English Gothic are not to be compared to the spacious and deeply- recessed portals of the style as it was developed on the Continent ; they also very rarely exhibit a form of deco- ration prevalent in the Continental examples, and which consists of a series of niches with statues, carried up the jambs and round the curves of the arch. Fine examples of doorways thus decorated, of the second period, are in the Cathedrals of Lincoln and Rochester. Windows. First Period. At first always single open- ings, these windows gradually became grouped in a manner that led to the development of genuine tracery. The single windows are sometimes low and wide ; but their general form is exactly the contrary to this, and the Tancet-windoio of the Early English Gothic is well known and universally admired. In some examples the lancets are of considerable height, and not more than a few inches in width. The dripstones of a series of these windows are generally connected by a horizontal string ; this is the case at Stanton Harcourt in Oxfordshire, from which Figs. 1 and 2 of Plate II. have been drawn ; Fig. 2 shows the interior of the window, with the wide splays of the inner or escoinson-arch, which here is 42 ARCHITECTURE. shafted. It is a common arrangement to find three lancets grouped into a triplet; sometimes the group consists of two lancets only ; and late in the period the number is extended beyond three ; the lancets then are foiled in the head, and a four-foil or other figure is pierced above a pair of lancets, a single dripstone being thrown over the group thus formed, as at Woodstock, about a.d. 1240, Plate II., Fig. 3. Triplets, and also single lancets, are sometimes elaborately enriched with shafted and moulded arches, both externally and inter- nally. The most remarkable, and also the most beautiful, grouping of lancet-windows is in Worcester Cathedral, where a group is formed from six windows, in two tiers, the central window of the upper tier being the loftiest, and the whole being bound together with admirable skill by means of shafts, strings, and mouldings. Cir- cular windows are often to be observed, and many peculiar forms of window appear in towers, spires, gables, &c, as at York and Beverley. After true tracery has succeeded to strips of masonry, which at once divide and connect the several windows of a group, the mouldings, foliage, and other details of the Early English period for a while prevail, and mark the ENGLISH GOTHIC DETAILS. 43 transition to the Decorated period ; and there are many windows upon which it is, consequently, difficult to pronounce to which of the two periods they may be assigned. The earliest traceiy was sometimes actually pierced in a single large slab ; and for a time the tracery formed from several slabs retained the same general cha- racter ; it is not built up of tracery -bars, but pierced in the stone. This has been entitled "plate-tracer//," but " slab-tracery " appears a more appropriate designation. The forms first assumed by traceiy, when constructed by tracery-bars rising from mullions, are geometrical figures in various combinations ; and hence the earlier years of the Decorated 'Period have been distinguished as the Geo- metrical Era. In the larger examples the tracery-bars and the mullions are carefully subordinated — that is, the more important members are distinguished by greater boldness and by richer decoration. This subordination is always a fine and most effective arrangement. With the advance of the fourteenth century the character of the tracery becomes determined rather by the direction of the tracery -bars than by the forms of the pierced open- ings : the stone framework of the windows thus is found to have been led in flowing lines, and accordingly, in 44 ARCHITECTURE. place of the geometrical, the era of Flowing Tracery suc- ceeds. Fig. 4 in Plate II. is an excellent example of this tracery; it is a three-light window, of about a.d. 1350. These windows are often both rich and beautiful; but, on the whole, they yield to the geometrical. The Cathedrals of Lincoln and Carlisle have the finest speci- mens of the two forms of traceried windows. In this second period the mullions become much attenuated, and windows of rich tracery often are destitute of mouldings, having both jambs and mullions simply chamfered. Fine circular windows are now frequently to be seen ; squares, triangles, and other exceptional forms are also to be met with, and in clerestories small trefoils or similar forms often occur. In the Perpendicular Period the chief characteristics are the prevalence of vertical lines in the actual tracery, and the introduction of tran- soms, or horizontal divisions of the lights. Early in the period the combination of curves with the vertical lines saved the tracery from degenerating into mere pierced panel-work, and some very fine windows were thus pro- duced ; but the panel sentiment was too strong to be long resisted ; and window-tracery, the glory of Gothic architecture and its peculiar characteristic, ceased to ENGLISH GOTHIC DETAILS. 45 exist, except under a hopeless degradation. In both this period and its predecessor, single-light traceried windows are to be often seen ; and the inner arches retain the peculiarities of their construction. Tracery appears to be always essential as a component of every large window. While of small size, the Early English lancets are always most admirable; but when they assume large dimensions, as in the grand churches of Westminster, Lincoln, Salisbury, Ely, York, and Worcester, they afford the most convincing proofs that tracery cannot be spared from any perfect Gothic win- dows which are on a grand scale. It may be observed that the prevailing deficiency in our traceried windows is their want of height in the main lights, and the conse- quent depression of the entire composition. In secular architecture the windows retain the general characteristics of those designed for ecclesiastical pur- poses. Square-headed windows, however, are more fre- quently to be found in secular buildings than in churches, and the mullions and traceries are, in these examples, adapted for the reception of such window-frames as would be required for domestic uses. Projecting windows named Bays, when they rise from the ground, and Oriels 46 ARCHITECTURE. when they commence above the ground-story, are also common, and they add no less to the external appearance of the buildings to which they belong, than to their convenience within. Arcades, in the Early English period, were evidently the delight of the architects who at that time were en- gaged with the grand work of establishing the Gothic style. Wall-arcades, in this period, are very noble, the shafts standing clear, and the spandrels between the arch- heads being generally filled with sculpture. Sometimes one arcade is set in front of another, and the smaller arches of one arcade are also commonly surmounted by the larger ones of another, as at Lincoln. Second Period. Arcading now is but sparingly used, in comparison with the previous period. The principal arches, such as those of windows, stand independently, and are rarely con- nected so as to form an arcade by strings or intervening wall-arches. In the Third Period, decorative arcades are superseded by panel- work. The Triforium, or second tier of arches, in the greater churches, attains its finest proportions and greatest beauty in the First Period, when clerestories (the uppermost row of windows) often form continuous arcades ; in the Second Period, the Triforium ENGLISH GOTHIC DETAILS. 47 declines greatly in importance ; and in the following period, as a distinctive feature, it altogether disappears. Capitals. First Period. The form is concave, and somewhat resembles an inverted bell. This form is clearly shown when the capitals are ornamented only with mouldings. It is also preserved in the case of the en- richment of this member with the foliage of the period, which rises in rich clusters from the neck-moulding, and curls over gracefully beneath the overhanging abacus. The abacus itself is always round, and with a deep under- cut hollow beneath it ; and sometimes a second similar moulding makes almost a double abacus. Purbeck marble is commonly used in the construction of this member, the capital itself being of stone. Plate I. Fig. 2, exhibits a cluster of three foliaged Early English capitals from the north transept of York. Very many fine examples of these capitals yet remain. Some of the noblest are in St. Alban's Abbey, and some of the richest and most perfect in Worcester Cathedral. Second Period. The bell form is less apparent than before. The abacus, formed of the scroll-moulding, or of a group of small mouldings, without any deep hollow or any undercutting, is often polygonal. Capitals without foliage are more common, 48 ARCHITECTURE. and the foliage, when it is used, is wreathed round the body of the capital, the whole of which is formed of stone. The west front of York Cathedral, from which Fig. 3 in Plate I. has been drawn, furnishes many fine and characteristic examples. Third Period. The round abacus altogether disappears, and an octagonal form is used, even when the shaft is cylindrical. The concavity of the outline is very slight, and the general contour of the capital flat and deficient in effectiveness. It is gene- rally plainly moulded. When foliage is used the leaves are commonly large, and they often issue, alternately above and below, from a wavy stalk which surrounds the capital. Fig. 4 in Plate I., from Oxford Cathedral, is a characteristic example. Bases. First Period. The form is circular, and Pur- beck marble is often the material. The mouldings are few in number, and they commonly are carried away from the shaft in such a manner as to leave an upper surface that would hold water. The outermost member of the group is a bold roll, and it is separated from the plinth (which it rarely overhangs) by a quarter round hollow, deeply cut, which gives a strongly-marked shadow. The plinth is often much stilted, and it sometimes has a ENGLISH GOTHIC DETAILS. 49 second series of mouldings, distinct from those of the base itself. In groups of clustered shafts, and in the more important piers, the bases of the different members are often formed at different levels, and grouped with very fine effect, the whole being set upon a common basement. Second Period. The mouldings slope off from the shafts, and have no water-holding hollows. They almost always overhang the plinths, which are often octagonal, and very commonly formed of upper and lower stages. Third Period. The entire member now is generally octagonal. The mouldings, which have a bell- like contour (not an inverted bell), are shallow, and fre- cmently ogees, and overhang the plinth, which is generally a compound of two stages, often much stilted. The lower and outermost ogee of these base-mouldings that overhang the upper plinth has generally a wavy appear- ance, produced by rounding off its upper angle. In both the Second and Third Periods groups of bases constantly occur, each of which has a basement common to the entire group. Walls have basements throughout the style, which are conformed to the general character of each period, and often richly moulded, and otherwise ornamented. This E 50 ARCHITECTURE. most important member of a wall is now often lost to the sight, being but too commonly covered externally by the accumulated soil, and internally by the pavement having been raised above the original level. Mouldings. First Period. The rounds and hollows alternate, the rounds varying in size, having often narrow fillets, and being sometimes cut to an edge. The hollows are generally so deeply sunk as to undercut the rounds, and where many mouldings are grouped together the several orders or sub-groups will generally have the prominent parts of their contour bounded by lines that would lie at right angles to each other — that is, the mouldings themselves lie in the planes of the rectangular recesses. The characteristic decoration is the Dogtooth, shown in Pig. 2 of Plate I. It appears variously modi- fied, and with it are associated trails of single leaves or flowers, or of the foliage of the period. Second Period. The mouldings now generally lie in the chamfer-plane, and they are worked in small groups, the hollows sepa- rating these small groups, and not intervening between each pair of rounds. Fillets are common, and they become broader than before. Several new forms appear, of which the most characteristic is one which has a ENGLISH GOTHIC DETAILS. 51 wavy contour, and a second of which the lower half is formed from a smaller round than the upper, and in which, consequently, the upper half overhangs the lowei', and is finished in a sharp edge throwing a shadow. These are severally known as tvave and scroll mouldings. The characteristic ornament is the hall-jlower, a round hollow flower of three petals, enclosing a ball, and some- times having the petals crumpled. A square flower of four open leaves is also common, with various other flowers and leaves. Heads, animals, and heraldic devices are also introduced, and they are almost always executed with great skill. Third Period. Broad shallow hollows, with the ogee both single and double and flat in its contour, abound. Very small rounds, in clusters, are also common ; but fillets are comparatively rare. Various flowers and other figures appear amongst the decorative carving, the distinetive peculiarity of which is the square or lozenge-formed contour which is imparted to the in- dividual objects. Diapers, or surface decorations produced by a small device or pattern continually .reproduced, are executed either in low relief or in colour and gilding on flat sur- faces. This mode of ornamentation prevails throughout e 2 52 ARCHITECTURE. the Gothic style. In the two earlier periods it is gene- rally executed by carving, the carved patterns being sometimes coloured. In the third period diapers are found in colour only, without the carving. This process was also in use in the previous periods. The wall- diapers (Figs. 1,2, 3, 4, and 5, Plate III.) are specimens executed at the close of the thirteenth century. Foliage. First Period. Conventional. Rising from stalks and curling over, the foliage is a species of trefoil, with occasional small bunches of berries. It is variously treated, but always true to the type. Second Period. Natural. The ivy, oak, vine, and other leaves, with acorns, &c, and the natural branches of the several trees and plants, are now found in abundance and great variety, the whole being evidently studied from nature, and the grouping forming wreaths or flowing patterns. Third Period. Conventional. Various natural objects are conventionally treated, the prevailing contours being square. It is also a favourite usage to keep the several eaves, &c, separate. Corbel-tables, Cornices, and Parapets. First Period. Solid parapets, either plain or arcaded, sur- mounted by moulded copings, rest on corbel-tables HERALDIC & WALL DIAPERS. Plate in. r'rom die 'Tomb to William de Valence. We atminstfir Abbey-,. AD 1 . 2.3.4.5. firom Queen. Eleanor's Cross, C^dain^tnn.,Northant,s 1 abo'Li' . 6. Shield, oi bi ^Hatfielc! i . ak Church. Essex AD 1 ' ■ ■ ENGLISH GOTHIC DETAILS. 53 formed generally of a continuous series of small trefoil (or sometimes fivefoil) arches, each of which is supported by a carved corbel. Second Period. The cornice now succeeds to the corbel-table : it is formed by a group of mouldings, which commonly surmount some characteristic carving. The parapets which rise above are frequently enriched with carving, and sometimes pierced. Third Period. Parapets are now commonly embattled, and en- riched with panelling. Buttresses. First Period. The projection, which sometimes is very bold, varies but little throughout the entire height. The mouldings at the stages are sloped at very acute angles, and carried round the entire but- tress. The edges of the buttress are generally chamfered off, moulded, or shafted. The buttress itself either dies into the wall, or rises into or sometimes above the parapet, and is surmounted by a gabled head. At the angles of buildings the buttresses stand in pairs, at right angles to each other ; or a single massive buttress occupies the whole angle. A small low buttress is not uncommon in this period in the centre of both the east and west ends of churches, below the windows. Second Period. Worked in stages, the buttresses are often en- 54 ARCHITECTURE. riched with niches and other carved work. They com- monly rise into pinnacles, and are set diagonally at the angles of a building. Third Period. Panelling is now the ornamental process when buttresses are ornamented. Arch-buttresses (also called flying-buttresses) , which were introduced in the First Period, continued to be in use by the Gothic architects throughout the style. They sometimes appear in tiers, and late in the style they are much enriched, and sometimes pierced in quatrefoil and other devices. Crockets and Finials. First Period. Not in use until rather late in the period, crockets first appear in very simple forms, as single leaves on long stalks, or as bunches of the foliage of the period curling back. Second Period. Crockets become very rich, and are almost infi- nitely varied in form. Single leaves, studied from nature, are in frequent use. Third Period. The crockets assume the square form so characteristic of the ornamentation of the period, and animal forms are occasionally used either alone or with leaf-work. Finials correspond with the crockets, and indeed they may be regarded as being formed from a bunch of crockets tied together. Niches and Canopies are in use throughout the style, ENGLISH GOTHIC DETAILS. 55 of which they are characteristic and most beautiful features. They vary in their form, accessories, and deco- rations in the different periods, hut they are always true to the prevailing feeling of the time. It will he observed that, whether used singly, or in suits of several members, or in continuous ranges, the Gothic niche is invariably designed to contain a statue. Panelling, the special ornamentation of the Perpen- dicular Period, is also found in the two previous periods in use for decorative purposes, but it is more freely used in Decorated than in Early work. The earlier enrichments which fill each square panel are quatre- foils, foliage, diapers, and other carvings, with heraldic devices, and sometimes sculptured figures. In the Per- pendicular Period the panels exhibit the utmost variety of enrichment, their central ornament being either a boss or a shield of arms, and the entire work beino* impressed with the angular character of the Gothic of the period. Vaulting, or covering over a building with an arched ceiling formed generally of stone, was in general vise with the Gothic architects of this country, and by them was carried to the highest excellence. Each principal 56 ARCHITECTURE. division of a vault, corresponding with the space sup- ported by one pier-arch and included within two but- tresses, is termed a bay. The several bays of a vaulted roof are divided by transverse ribs, or arches which cross the building. A longitudinal rib runs along the upper- most central ridge from end to end, binding the whole together, and giving it at once strength and unity. Diagonal ribs cross each bay from angle to angle. Wall- ribs form the arches of each bay at its sides, and between them and the diagonals intermediate ribs are interposed. In addition to these there are surface-ribs, which are added for the purpose of increasing the richness of the vaulting ; and bosses, varying in size and in the character of their oi*namentation, mark the intersections of the ribs. The diagonal and intermediate ribs also spring and radiate from vaulting- shafts, which either rise from the ground in front of the main piers, or are corbelled below the triforium-string. In the earlier vaulting, the plan is simple and almost always grand in its simplicity. The ribs are few in number, and the bosses sparingly used. In the Decorated Period the vaults increase in richness, and in the Perpendicular Period they become elaborate and intricate to a degree. There is one class ENGLISH GOTHIC DETAILS. 57 of the vaults of the last period which claims particular attention from its peculiar richness, and also its singular beauty : this is known as fan-tracery vaulting, from the fan-like form of its clusters of ribs, which spread them- selves from the vaulting-shafts and from the tracery or panel-work which covers the surface of the vault. In addition to the bosses, which during this period are used in profusion, hanging masses of carved masonry, named pendants, are introduced into the vaulting. Roofs. Where stone is used to form the ceiling, an outer roof of timber covered with lead, tiles, shingles, &c, is raised above the vaulting. Similar roofs, also, are commonly so framed and decorated on their inner surfaces as to render any other ceiling unnecessary. Roofs thus constructed are known as " open-timber roofs." The main timbers of their framing, which in most examples are found to have been placed at regular intervals, are termed trusses or principals ; and amongst the other timbers are the following : the ridge-piece, which runs along the crest of the roof; the tie-beam, which crosses the building, one end of it resting on each wall, and the beam itself forming the base of the triangle of which the slopes of the roof are the two sides ; the 58 ARCHITECTURE. wall-plate, which rests on the masonry of the wall and receives the roof-framing ; the rafters, which are placed between the trusses, and form with them the sloping sides of the roof; the purlins, which traverse the roof along its length, between the wall-plate and the ridge ; the king-post, which rises perpendicularly from the centre, and the queen-posts, which rise in pairs in the same manner from either side of the centre of the tie-beam ; the hammer-beams, that resemble the ends of a tie-beam, of which the centre has been cut away ; the collar, which is a small tie-beam set high up in the framing of a roof; the braces or struts, inclined or curved pieces used as supports, — as beneath hammer-beams, collars, &c. Any other timbers which may be placed vertically are termed posts. Early English roofs have a high but not a uniform pitch : they generally are secured by tie-beams with braces, which are moulded. These roofs, of which but few examples remain, are distinguished by their simplicity. In the Decorated Period, the timber-roofs attain to a very rich and dignified character, and they also exhibit many varieties of treatment. King-posts appear, and moulded braces are placed both below and above the tie-beams. Many roofs are formed by having ENGLISH GOTHIC DETAILS. 59 their inner faces arranged into a series of flat spaces or cants, of which the usual number in the earlier examples is six, and in the later seven. As the period advances the principals are formed into arches by curved braces, and the tie-beams in high-pitched examples are omitted. The open-roofs of halls in public and domestic buildings appear to have been more enriched than those in churches. Arched braces here are introduced, placed upon the rafters, rising from the purlins, and rich cusping appears. Spandrels also are filled with pierced tracery, as is sometimes the case in church-roofs. One of the finest timber-roofs of the period covers the sadly disfigured Guesten Hall at Worcester. The Hall at the Mote, Igtham in Kent, has also a noble roof, the timber-framing of which is in part supported by arches of stone that span the apartment. Hammer-beam roofs wcu-e introduced in the Perpendicular Period: of these the finest example covers Westminster Hall. Two tiers of hammer-beams are often used, and the entire roofs are elaborately enriched. In this period roofs very nearly fiat, or quite flat, are common. They are some- times formed simply of the constructive timbers which are moulded on their inner faces, but more frequently 60 ARCHITECTURE. these roofs are ceiled and arranged in panels that are elaborately enriched. Roofs constructed both within and without entirely of stone sometimes occur over porches, towers, &c. In the second and third Gothic periods heraldry is intimately associated with the architecture, and through- out the era sepulchral monuments are accessories of the utmost importance. Amongst the finest and most instructive examples of the Ecclesiastical Gothic of England are the Cathedrals of Lincoln and Salisbury, parts of Canterbury, Worcester, and Ely, and of Westminster and St. Albans Abbeys, with the west front of Wells, as works of the Early English period ; and with these must be associated Be- verley Minster, and many of the Yorkshire monastic ruins. York and Wells stand forward amongst the many fine examples of the Decorated era, with parts of Ely, St. Albans, and Carlisle ; and in the Perjoendicular period, Winchester and a part of Gloucester Cathedrals, with King's College Chapel at Cambridge, and Henry VII.'s Chapel at Westminster, claim particular distinc- tion. It will also be observed that almost every im- portant edifice contains work executed in each period, ENGLISH GOTHIC HOUSES. 61 and thus the student may generally find, in a single cathedral, a complete practical illustration of Gothic architecture. SECTION IX. — ENGLISH GOTHIC HOUSES. In all the Gothic periods, the more important and specially characteristic features of the style are found as well in the remains which exist of civil, domestic, and castellated buildings, as in those which were designed for ecclesiastical purposes. And yet there is nothing church-like about the edifices that were not built for church purposes ; the architecture is indeed the same, but in its application it appears adapting itself to widely different conditions. In examining the domestic build- ings of the middle ages, the usages and requirements of mediaeval society must be kept in remembrance, in order to appreciate the applicability of the architecture to buildings of that class in those times, precisely as the applicability of the same style to domestic and civil uses at the present day must be tested by existing habits, associations, and requirements — a test that the style is able to endure with the certainty of a triumphant issue. 62 ARCHITECTURE. In consequence of the unsettled condition of society in the neighbourhood of the Scottish Border, in the North of England during the middle ages it was a literal necessity that every man's house should be his castle; and consequently the early domestic buildings that re- main in those districts are, for the most part, small fortresses. More towards the south, the distinction between domestic and castellated architecture is more clearly drawn. The prevailing usage for a long period was to build a house in the form of an oblong-square, two stories in height, the lower story being vaulted, and without any internal communication with the upper, which w r as approached by a flight of stairs on the out- side. The upper windows in these buildings are larger than those below, and sometimes the only fireplace is on the upper floor. The hall forms the principal apart- ment in houses thus constructed ; and this is also the case in houses of a different plan, in which the hall is on the ground-floor, and rises to the whole height of the building. Little Wenham Hall, in Suffolk, which was built about the middle of the thirteenth century, may be regarded as a type of the domestic structures of that age : it is constructed principally of brickwork, and ENGLISH GOTHIC HOUSES. 63 contains two long- and large rooms one over the other, the lower one being vaulted, a chapel, and two small rooms, one of them rising above the chapel, and having externally the form of a small tower : a narrow winding- stair communicates with the chapel and the two small rooms, but the principal access to the large room was by an external flight of steps at the south-west angle of the building. The small upper chamber here is an example of the apartment called the Solar. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, houses increased considerably in size, and many varieties of plan are introduced ; the hall, however, continues to be the principal feature. In towns, houses are often built about courts, to which there is a common entrance. Timber- framing with plaster was the prevailing principle of con- struction : bricks also gradually came into general use. The more important houses, surrounded in many instances by moats, were often built about court-yards ; they com- monly have entrance-towers, resembling the gate-houses of the monasteries, and various turrets, with outbuild- ings, which are grouped about the main edifice. In the sixteenth century, houses altogether lose their earlier castellated character, and many examples of great mag- 64 ARCHITECTURE. nificence yet remain to illustrate both the architecture and the social condition of the period. Timber-framing continues to be prevalent, and brickwork also is em- ployed to a great extent and with the most complete success. The Elizabethan mansions, so justly celebrated in the history of English domestic architecture, are edifices eminently calculated to attract attention from their effective appearance and their happy harmony with English scenery. These houses are in most respects true to Gothic feeling in its latest forms ; and indeed, in them Gothic architecture seems to have lingered after in ecclesiastical buildings it had sunk into absolute degradation. The timber-houses of this century are often very splendid ; galleries now become general, with large open staircases : ceilings are much enriched, and pendants often appear amongst the panelling. At the close of the century, Italian forms and details begin to prevail, and the Gothic gradually yields to the strange taste which cherished the Italian Renaissance. It will be desirable always to distinguish between the buildings of the reigns of Elizabeth and her successor, and to entitle the latter, Jacobean. The Italian Renaissance style of architecture, with ENGLISH GOTHIC CASTLES. 65 its classic imitations and adaptations, which prevailed during the seventeenth century, may excite both the surprise and the regret of the archaeologist, hut it will neither awaken his interest nor engage his sympathy. SECTION X. ENGLISH GOTHIC CASTLES. As in the case of the Anglo-Norman style, the pre- vailing architectural sentiment of each Gothic period is found to have determined the character of the work in whatever castellated edifices were erected, rebuilt, or enlarged during the prevalence of the Gothic style ; but few buildings of this class were, however, erected after the fourteenth century. In the preceding century, under Edward I., the type of the English Gothic castle became determined. The solid keep of the Anglo-Nor- mans, in these Edwardian castles, expands into a range of buildings of irregular outline and plan, arranged about a court-yard, and flanked with strong towers : this is the inner bailey, and it contains the chapel, the spacious hall, and the principal apartments. Beyond this are two or three concentric series of walls or curtains, also flanked with towers, and between which are the 'huddle and outer baileys with their various 66 ARCHITECTURE. barracks and other buildings. The entrance is by gate-houses, which are distinct works, provided with massive doors, portcullises, loops to command the pas- sage, and means for pouring down hot matter from above upon assailants. A drawbridge, lowered from the outer gate-house, crosses the moat; and beyond the moat itself is placed the barbican, or outwork to cover the approach to the bridge. The space enclosed within the walls is often very considerable ; the walls them- selves are crested with embattled parapets, which are commonly placed upon corbel-tables sufficiently ad- vanced beyond the face of the walls to admit of holes being pierced between the corbels ; these openings, called machicolations, command the face of the wall beneath them. The alternate notches and raised mem- bers of the battlements are entitled embrasures and merlons ; the merlons are often pierced by a cruciform loop (or slit in the masonry) for archery, the arms of which terminate in round holes or oilets; and it was sometimes the custom to place on the coping of these merlons sculptured figures. In castles erected after the Decorated Gothic period, the convenience of the buildings contained within the GOTHIC STYLE IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND. 67 walls was generally more considered than the defensive capabilities of the entire structure : many fine portions of castellated works were, however, erected in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, particularly gate-houses. In process of time, buildings more in accordance than castles with the altered circumstances of peaceful ages succeeded to the stern fortress-dwellings of earlier times ; and thus many of the old castles were pulled down, others very considerably altered, while many were permitted to fall into that condition of picturesque ruin which still distinguishes their remains. During the troubled reiem of Charles I., many of the old castles were once more used for military purposes and strengthened with earth- works. When taken, these castles were generally reduced to their present ruined condition by the agency of gun- powder. Among the noble Edwardian castles that yet re- main, in the first rank are Caernarvon, Conway, Dover, and Warwick, with which many others might be associated. SECTION XI. THE GOTHIC STYLE IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND. The Gothic architecture of Scotland is no less worthy of admiration than the Norman which preceded it in the f 2 G8 ARCHITECTURE. same beautiful country. Like the Norman also, the Scottish Gothic can point to but a small series of ex- amples. These all show that the several periods of the style lingei'ed longer in Scotland than was the case more towards the south : they indicate the tenacious manner with which old forms were retained, and in the last period they clearly proclaim that the architectural sym- pathy of Scotland was then far stronger with France than with England. The cathedral of St. Magnus at Kirkwall is said not to have been completed until late in the last Gothic period, and yet in its general character it assimilates throughout with the Norman portions. Glasgow Cathe- dral is a grand and most characteristic edifice of the first period ; and its crypt, of the same era, is surpassed in beauty and architectural excellence by none in exist- ence. The lancet-windows of Glasgow are singularly beautiful. The ruins of Elgin Cathedral rank with the finest remains of the Yorkshire abbeys ; here round arches are grouped with others that are pointed, and lancets are used in the fourteenth century after the Early English fashion, but with the details and decorations of their own age. Melrose, rebuilt early in the fifteenth GOTHIC STYLE IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND. G9 century, is a splendid specimen of its period, and its famed east window is almost the only instance in which genuine perpendicular tracery was used in Scotland ; its contemporaries and successors are more or less decidedly flamboyant. The chapel at Holyrood, and the ruins of St. Andrew's Cathedral and Pluscardine Abbey, with many others, are most interesting examples. Roslin Chapel and Iona are both exceptional works ; the former was probably erected by a Spanish architect, after the style of his own country. The remains of early domestic and castellated buildings in Scotland are not distin- guished by any architectural peculiarities or excellences, except those erected late in the sixteenth century, and these are perhaps without rivals, in their own period, for appropriate originality of design and picturesqueness of effect. The presence of Gothic architecture in Ireland is attested by many most interesting ruins ; but there are very few examples of early edifices which now are more than shattered relics of their former magnificence and beauty. The Cathedral of St. Patrick at Dublin, however interesting as an actual specimen of Early Gothic, is an edifice of second-rate importance ; nor can the finest of 70 • ARCHITECTURE. the ruined buildings have ever been equal to the great churches of England. They all are remarkable for their affinity to the Gothic of the Continent ; in most cases also they possess at least some features peculiar to them- selves. The ruined Cathedrals of Kildare and Kilkenny, with the remains at Cashel, are amongst the most cele- brated examples ; and with these must be connected, as forming a single group, the ruins of the Abbeys of Jerpoint (founded a.d. 1180), Clare, Sligo, Adare, Youghall, Holy Cross near Cashel, and those of Grey Abbey, County Down, founded a.d. 1193. Amongst the castellated remains, those of Limerick, Carriekfergus, and Dunluce, are specially interesting. The lofty, slender, tapering structures, with conical caps, known as round towers, have a chapter to themselves in the History of Architecture : Mr. Petrie has shown that these appa- rently unique structures were erected in the Christian era of Ireland; but from whence their remarkable type may have been derived yet remains to be discovered."* * Note. — A Glossary of Architectural Terras will be found at the end of the volume. CHAPTER II. ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. Architecture, the greatest because the most compre- hensive of the arts, has always employed the services of many auxiliaries. The works thus produced may be designated architectural accessories. To a description of the more important of these accessories, as they were in use in this country in past times, this chapter is devoted. SECTION I. — SCULPTURE. With the development of Gothic architecture the sculptor's art attained to a high standard of excellence ; but before this, during the Romanesque period, sculp- ture on a large scale can scarcely be said to have existed, except in a very rude condition. Derived, as it would seem, from the East, and certainly in the first instance powerfully affected by Byzantine traditions, if not pro- duced directly under Byzantine influence, the mediaeval sculpture of Western Europe claims attention as well 72 ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. from its vigorous and truly sculpturesque character, as because it is so essentially original. As in antique sculp- ture the undraped human form was the grand object of the artist's study, so with the mediaeval sculptor the figure itself was subordinated to the costume with which it might be attired. Arms, armour, and various articles of dress, were carefully studied, and represented with minute accuracy; and upon his aggroupment of the whole, as the costume of a human figure, the sculptor relied for the success of his work. The association of mediaeval sculp- ture with architecture will be observed to extend to the character of the sculpture itself. It has a direct refe- rence to architecture; without the architecture it is incomplete, and its expression is imperfect. Without a doubt, the sculpture of the middle ages is indebted for much of its effectiveness to this association. The sculp- ture itself thus became nobler and more worthy of admi- ration ; and, at the same time, it had its own noblest and most worthy qualities enhanced by the architecture with which it was associated. The figures of life-size, or sometimes of a size approach- ing the heroic, which the mediaeval sculptors produced, were designed to occupy niches or to be placed within SCULPTUKE. 73 canopies; their attitude, accordingly, is for the most part erect, and the figures themselves are represented as being in a condition of quiet or repose. The attitude of the figures in monumental sculpture is elsewhere (Chapter III.) described as being recumbent. The same general feeling is found to pervade this sculpture, whether the figures stand beneath niche-canopies or rest upon altar-tombs ; they are characterized by a deep tranquillity and an earnest thoughtfulness ; their draperies are heavy, insensible to any disturbing influences either from energetic action or from the wind, and they are rather dignified than graceful. Unhappily, the finest works of the mediaeval sculptors have suffered greatly from the injurious effects of time and the still more sweeping destruction of wilful mutilators ; and hence the high merit of these works has been very generally overlooked. By the careful student, however, even the mutilated and weather-worn relics of many of these once noble statues will be duly appreciated; and, if the statues themselves evidently declare that they were designed with a view to their forming architectural ac- cessories, on the other hand it will be no less clear that such co-operation on the part of the sculptor must always 74 ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. be absolutely necessary to the architect. The west fronts of the Cathedrals of Wells and Salisbury still re- tain many noble examples of sculpture; and the four headless statues (popularly called the " four bishops/' though two of the figures are females and the other two are not ecclesiastics) in the south porch of Lincoln, with the statues on the face of the adjoining buttresses, will also rank with the finest works of their class. Besides their larger statues, the mediaeval sculptors executed many small groups or single figures, for the decoration of the spandrels of arcades, or to occupy the niches which abound in the tabernacle-work of tomb- canopies and screens, and which also so commonly appear in various other parts of Gothic buildings. It was a common practice to introduce sculpture into the spandrels of the triforia and amidst the foliage of bosses, in the more important churches. Many of the heads, with occasional figures, which form corbels, may be added, as fine and expressive productions of the mediaeval chisel. The grand figures of angels which encircle the presbytery of Lincoln, and have given it the title of the " angel-choir," are well known : they are admirably adapted both for the positions which they occupy and to the height at SCULPTURE. iO which they are to be seen, and are amongst the most valuable works of the close of the thirteenth century. The triforium sculptures, and also those of the wall- arcade and of the bosses of the choir and lady-chapel at Worcester, were executed early in that century, and they are not to be surpassed in interest. The triforium- sculptures here have been most seriously injured. Ely contains an immense collection of statuettes and line sculptured details of the fourteenth century; and, indeed, there is scarcely one of our greater churches which will not both illustrate and attest the skill of our mediaeval sculptors. The passion for the grotescpie, which is one amongst several distinctive characteristics of Gothic art, con- tinually gives evidence of its influence in our early sculpture, and no less commonly does it adduce fresh testimony to the varied powers of the artists of those times. Like ancient Greek sculpture in this respect, that it rose rapidly from a rude and harsh condition to its most perfect forms of expression, mediaeval sculpture shows signB of degeneracy with the close of the four- teenth century; still, it often retained much that is worthy of respect until the very close of the Gothic era. 76 ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. With the nobler works of the sculptor may he grouped the kindred productions in decorative stone-carving, which effected so much for Gothic architecture, and particularly in its first and second periods. The men who executed these carvings were genuine artists ; possessing never- failing resources in design and in the appropriate adap- tion of their designs, they always were masters of their work; and in freedom, vigour, and sharpness of execu- tion, their productions are not to be surpassed. SECTION II. — WOOD-CARVING. For the decoration of screens, stalls, benches, canopies, and open timber roofs, the art of the wood-carver found abundant occupation in the middle ages ; and here, as in the works sculptured in stone which have come down to us from the same periods, we find conclusive evidence of the wonderful ability of the mediaeval artists. Of Norman wood-carving but a few examples remain ; nor do we now find very many works still in existence, which were executed before the second half of the four- teenth century. Whatever the special object of each work, the general character of the design is found to harmonize with the Gothic sentiment of the time; and WOOD-CARVING. 77 the workmanship is invariably such as to command admiration. Mediaeval screen-work has very generally been subjected to serious injury; and the finest speci- mens are constantly to be seen occupying positions very different from those for which they were originally designed. The stalls in our cathedrals and collegiate churches will also but too commonly show traces of other injuries than those which have been wrought by the lapse of time. Perhaps the most remarkable of the early wood-carvings are those which decorate the under sur- faces of the moveable stall-seats known as misereres. Figures and devices of infinite variety, and often of the most singular and grotesque character, may here be observed, and much unexpected illustration of the feel- ings and usages of past ages may be hence derived. Poppy-heads, or the carved terminations to the standards of open benches, with bosses placed in panels and in various other situations, are also always worthy of atten- tive study; but few works of this class exist, that may be assigned to a period earlier than the concluding quarter of the fourteenth century. A few fine examples of early monumental effigies, carved in wood, with won- derful boldness and skill, are yet in existence; and cano- 78 ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. pies; elaborately enriched with carving in wood, yet remain in Westminster Abbey and elsewhere; covering some of the noblest of the early monuments. In carved panels, figures and heraldic devices, executed with great spirit, are common; and a particular hind of panelling in oak, known as linen-panelling, from the pattern some- what resembling a folded napkin, continued, in general use until late in the sixteenth century. SECTION III. ERESCO, WALL-PAINTING, AND POLYCHROME. Fresco is a process by means of which pictures are produced upon walls or other flat surfaces covered with plaster, while the plaster is wet. Wall-painting is a term by which any pictorial representation executed upon a dry wall is implied. And. Polychrome signifies surface-colouring in which various colours are employed. AVhatever may have been the ancient practice, of the free use of colour during the middle ages, for the purpose of architectural decoration, we have the clearest proofs. Diapers, executed in polychrome, are found to have covered alike the vaulted ceilings, the timber roofs, the screens and canopies, the monuments with their effigies, FRESCO, WALL-PAINTING, AND POLYCHROME. 79 and the surfaces of walls. The richest carvings, whether n wood or stone, were not considered complete without colour and gilding; and the same means were used to produce either the details of designs of which the prin- cipal features were sculptured, or complete designs. Thus, in sculptured effigies, the mail, or armour, or the various ornamental accessories of costume are constantly shown only by means of colour; and the inner surfaces of walls are found to have been thus adorned, as well in domestic and civil buildings as in the churches. In an Early English bay of the crypt and in the noble Deco- rated Guesten Hall at Worcester, are remains of painted representations of sainted personages, with shields of arms : other fine examples occur in the Chapter-house at Westminster, and in the Abbey itself. It was, indeed, a custom universally prevalent, to display pictorial repre- sentations of Scriptural events, with figures of sacred and saintly personages, upon the walls of churches, and probably of all other important buildings. Many exam- ples are continually discovered; and it has become apparent that these paintings were in many instances repeated, at different periods, upon the same wall-spaces. Thus a rude colossal St. Christopher, of the commence- 80 ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. ment of the sixteenth century, may be found to have been painted over some well-drawn smaller figures of two centuries earlier. This system of surface decoration by colour appears to have been prevalent in Norman times, and during the later Gothic ages it was carried to excess. Among the subjects most commonly represented in churches is the Last Judgment, which it was the custom to place over the chancel-arch. In the eastern "counties, and particularly in Norfolk, there are very many exam- ples of chancel-screens (and sometimes of pulpits, as at Castleacre) elaborately painted, and having their panels adorned with figures of saints, many of which are worthy of special attention as early specimens of the art of figure- painting. SECTION IV. — MOSAIC This process consists of inlaying small cubes and other fragments of coloured marbles, glass pastes, and other materials, in such a manner as to form figures and ornamental devices. It was applied to the enrichment of pavements, monuments, and to such other parts and accessories of both churches and secular buildings as it might be desired to enrich with colour in a manner at once the most effective and enduring. But few examples MOSAIC. 81 remain in our own country of the application of mosaic for the purpose of producing architectural enrichment in colour during the middle ages. Where it was employed, it appears to have produced a rich and impressive effect. In the monumental tombs of Edward the Confessor and Henry III., in the two pavements of the choir and pres- bytery, and in the remains of the slab of the younger William de Valence, Westminster Abbey contains a series of works in mosaic which show both the great value of this process and also its varied application. Tesselatecl pavements, produced in a bold style of mosaic, of which the component fragments are called tesserce, were constantly used by the Romans, and many fine examples have been found amongst Roman remains in this country. It is remarkable that a rich Roman pavement of this description should have been discovered in the midst of the space enclosed within the cloister at Lincoln, at a considerable depth below the present level of the soil. Encrustations by means of thin slabs of precious mar- bles, attached to walls of inferior materials, are common in some foreign architecture : in England inlaid tiles were sometimes used for this purpose. G 82 ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. SECTION V. — COLOURED GLASS. Of the arts which flourished in past ages and with which the student of archaeology becomes familiar, there is none that conveys more valuable, and at the same time more attractive teaching, than the art of the early glass-painter. Known, and its value appreciated from an early period (probably in the ninth century), coloured glass was in constant use as an architectural accessoiy throughout the middle ages. In the fifteenth century it ceased to be exclusively used for churches, and was intro- duced as an appropriate decoration into public buildings of a secular character, and into private houses. Coloured glass may be divided into two classes, produced by two distinct processes: — 1. Stained glass, made by mixing metallic oxides with the glass when in a state of fusion, and thus the colours are caused to pervade the entire mass ; 2. Painted glass, in which the outlines and colour- ing of a design are obtained by laying upon either white or tinted glass enamel colours combined with vitreous fluxes, which colours are fixed upon the glass, and indeed incorporated with it, by the action of the furnace. The lead-work, by means of which the different portions of COLOURED GLASS. 83 glass are formed into glazing-panels, was made to take an important part in the composition of the design. Ruby, blue, and yellow are the colours principally employed. In the first Gothic period the yellow is often of a prim- rose hue, and green, lilac, and a dull pale red to represent the flesh of figures, are used — the flesh-tint is also pro- duced by pale blue, shaded with bistre; in the second period the green and lilac but seldom appear, and the yellow is more common ; and in the third period green and lilac are rarely used, except in draperies. This most beautiful material once existed in vast quantities in our country; but the unhappy violence of some ages, com- bined with the ignorant indifference of others, has per- mitted but a comparatively few examples to remain to our own day. Enough, however, does remain to illus- trate the various modes, both of composition, colouring, and treatment practised by the mediaeval artists. The earliest glass known to be now in existence in England is in the choir-aisles at Canterbury, where it probably was Hxed when the Cathedral was rebuilt after the fire of 1171. The colours of this glass are rich and lustrous, the general designs being medallions containing subjects from the Scriptures, upon grounds of ruby and G 2 8-L ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. blue, the medallions themselves resting on a ground- work of mosaic patterns, and the whole being enclosed within borders of scrolls and foliage. This system of treatment prevails throughout the First Gothic Period. The medallions are in form circles, pointed ovals, and other figures, and the subjects contained by them are taken as frequently from saintly legends as from Holy Writ. The principal outlines are formed by the lead. The pieces of glass are small in size, and generally coloured. The mosaic grounds are arranged in square or lozenge-shaped panels, within which fourfoils, trefoils, and other devices are formed, and the borders exhibit various leafage and scroll-work. In the Decorated Gothic Period the pieces of glass are larger, and the strips of lead are consequently placed at wider intervals. Figures, sometimes single figures of large size, appear in the place of the old medallions ; canopies and architectural accessories are introduced ; the backgrounds to the figures, instead of mosaic patterns, are in whole colours diapered ; foliage, studied from nature, is prevalent ; and lights and shadows appear in draperies and in architectural and other ornaments, and the entire compositions approach somewhat to natural COLOURED G I ft? G from Qietwode Church , Bucks, about 1300 . . 3 Borders from the Choir of .. centaiy. 1 i 1 1 f?w B I COLOURED GLASS. 85 effects. Quarries, or lozenge-shaped panes, are used, with leaves, flowers, or running foliage painted upon them ; the compositions of this class being- enriched with pieces of brilliantly-coloured glass, and with rich borders. The choir of Bristol Cathedral contains some excellent speci- mens of borders, of which two are represented in Plate IV., Figs. 2 and 3. Heraldic devices now begin to assume prominence. It will be remarked that, in all the best examples, the panels of glass are surrounded by a border of white glass, that intervenes between themselves and the mullions or jambs of the windows which contain them. Very noble examples are at York and Tewkes- bury. Early in the period a very beautiful glass, of a transitional character, is found, in which large medallions with figures appear on grounds formed partly of mosaic patterns enclosed within smaller medallions, and partly of running leaves of the vine, the oak with its acorns, &c, the whole being between borders. Fine examples of this class are in Merton College Chapel, Oxford, and a characteristic specimen, from Chetwode Church, in Buck- inghamshire, is represented in Fig. 1, Plate IV. The apostle St. Peter is here introduced, holding in his right hand two very large keys, and in his left hand a book. 8G ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. In the Perpendicular Period a succession of changes appeared, all of them tending- towards the production of complete and independent pictures, in which the glass itself was treated by the artists as simply a transparent material on which they were to exercise their art. Ac- cordingly, stained glass was comparatively but little used, and enamel colours, laid on with the brush, were proportionately in favour. Architectural canopies of great size, rising above large single figures behind which are rich curtains or other hangings, appear in the fifteenth century. Borders, when used, are painted on long strips of glass ; and landscapes, with buildings and figures, are rendered in perspective. Inscriptions, or legends, are also commonly associated with figures and groups. In the sixteenth century the same system prevailed, and was carried out more fully, and large compositions appear, which, occupy entire windows, and altogether ignore the existence of the mullions which divide the lights. Heraldry is in constant use, and entire heraldic windows are common. Long scrolls, with legends, also con- tinually appear. Quarries, with a device in the centre of each, in a yellow colour, often form plain windows ; and compositions are commonly found executed in various COLOURED GLASS. 87 tints of a single colour, which generally is brown. The glass at King's College Chapel, Cambridge, may be re- garded as the type of this period in its most advanced condition. Pictures on glass continued to be executed until the middle of the seventeenth century, when the art ceased to be practised. In private houses, panels of heraldic glass are often introduced in the midst of glazing in plain colourless glass, and with a good effect. It is much to be desired that archaeological students should seek out and study the best examples of old glass which yet remain. Many fine specimens thus may be discovered, and also saved from the dangers to which they are exposed through not being known. The true character of the old glass will by this means become generally understood, and the art, in its revived condition at the present day, cannot fail to derive important ad- vantages from this experimental knowledge of the con- ditions under which it flourished in past ages. The felicitous adaption of the glass to the architecture in the earlier periods, and, at later periods, the grave mistakes of disregarding the architecture, and of painting pictures 88 ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. on glass, as pictures would be painted on panel or canvas, will be appreciated. It will also be seen both that bad drawing is not necessary to produce glass that shall harmonize with architecture, and that the glass may be dealt with after a truly artistic manner, and yet be most strictly and consistently an architectural accessory. SECTION VI. INLAID TILES. Instead of the small cubes, or tessera, employed in Roman mosaic pavements, in the middle ages tiles were used, upon which various patterns and designs were im- pressed by means of a stamp while the clay was moist ; and the indented lines and spaces thus obtained having been filled up with a white or pale substance, the entire surface was covered with a metallic glaze, which gave a yellow tinge to the light-coloured or white figures, and also a more pleasing tint to the red ground of the tiles themselves. Accidental, or, perhaps, intentional varieties of colour were obtained by excessive burning, or by some metallic admixture in the "■lazing. The step of transition from pavements of true mosaic to those of tile was effected by the use of tiles, each of which was of one colour only. These tiles were formed in INLAID TILES. 89 various shapes, and they all were adjusted together in such a manner as would produce variously-coloured pave- ments of geometrical designs. The special peculiarity of these pavements consists in their employment of a species of quasi-incrustation ; thus, a cube or quatrefoil of one colour appears inserted in a cavity pierced for its reception through another tile of a different colour and larger dimensions. Fine examples of this class of pave- ments exist at Ely. The process of impression was found to admit the production of a great variety of designs, and to be equally applicable to simple devices and to more com- plicated combinations. The tiles themselves are gene- rally square quarries, and the devices impressed upon them are, for the most part, so arranged that each tile should form a part of a twofold design. Thus a set of four tiles would produce two distinct patterns, if arranged after two different methods ; and these same tiles, when the sets of four are repeated, will exhibit the two patterns in alternation. In some cases, each com- plete design requires nine or sixteen tiles, or even a larger number; but here also, from the mere circum- stance of the repetition of the primary and more impor- 90 ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. tant device, a secondary device is obtained with equal simplicity and effectiveness. Iii other cases, each tile bears a complete device : such tiles, when their devices are set on them in the same parallel with the sides of the tiles themselves, appear to have been designed to form borders ; but when their devices are set on them diagonally (as is the prevalent usage with the ever- beautiful fleur-de-lys and with shields of arms), they produce compound devices of great interest. Fig. 4, in Plate V., is an example of a tile of this description; it is charged with the arms of the De Clares, Earls of Gloucester. Fig. 2 is from vYheathampstead in Hert- fordshire, and is a characteristic example of the tiles in the Early English Gothic period : sets of this tile would produce only repetitions of the same pattern, the quarter-patterns at the angles being all of them the same. Besides squares, triangular and hexagonal tiles, with some other modifications of form, are sometimes used : at St. Albans are a few curious specimens of an elongated lozenge-shape, of which three tiles form a regular hexagon ; Fig. 3, of Plate V., represents one of these tiles. Narrow oblong tiles form borders, as at Salisbury and Malmesbury. Circular tiles, with such PAVEMENT TILE 5. Plate V z. Tigl.&om the site at' ChertseyAhbey, Surrey Bg 3 Brum S-Jfibaris Abhey Church. . Z.EromWheathainpsteacl Church, Herts . 4 From. Great Malvern Ahhey Church. Lei Btlith "Vincent. Brooks rrrrp. INLAID TILES. 91 others of segmental forms as are necessary to be used in combinations with them, are of rare occurrence; by far the finest examples of such tiles, both of unusually large dimensions and also very small, have lately been dis- covered in a sadly mutilated condition on the site of the destroyed Abbey of Chertsey. Here also have been found a numerous series of tiles of every variety of both form, size, and device, including many small wedge- shaped ones, each of which is impressed with a single Lombardic capital-letter. The delicacy, beauty, and spirit of these Chertsey relics claim for them the dis- tinction of being the most remarkable examples that have been discovered. Other admirable specimens are in the Chapter-house, Westminster, at Great Malvern, and in Worcester and Gloucester Cathedrals. One of the larger circular tiles from Chertsey is figured in Plate V. ; two knights of the reign of Henry III. are represented in combat, and the details of their arms and equipments are as curious as the figures of both men and horses are animated and full of action. Inlaid tiles for pavements were made in great numbers in the Early English period ; and the examples that exist of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are also very nume- 92 ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. rous; and scarcely less numerous than the tiles them- selves are the varieties of their designs. A profusion of tiles of the succeeding century are in existence ; during this century, however, the English inlaid tiles fell into disuse, and they were superseded by glazed Flemish tiles of various colours. These polychromatic tiles appear to have been first introduced by Sir Nicholas Bacon in his mansion at Gorhambury, near St. Albans, a.d. 1577. Green and yellow tiles of this description were also im- ported from Flanders by Cardinal Wolsey for Hampton Court Palace, and Christchurch College, Oxford. The devices impressed upon inlaid tiles may generally be classified as follows : — 1. Sacred and religious symbols, with texts from Holy Scripture, and pious phrases. 2. Armorial bearings, monograms, badges, and other heraldic devices, with mottos and commemorative in- scriptions. 3. Figures, whether single or in groups, and heads. 4. Monumental devices, as a cross or an effigy formed of a series of tiles. 5. Designs of an architectural character. 6. Miscellaneous devices and patterns, conformable to INLAID TILES. 93 the architecture or character of decoration prevalent at the period, but devoid of any special import. The period to which any tiles may belong is, for the most part, readily determined by their devices and the manner in which they are rendered. Various mediaeval kilns have been discovered in which these tiles were manufactured. Tiles of plain black, deep red, blue, and buff were also made, to be used in forming patterns with the tiles inlaid with devices. In a few instances tiles have been found which have devices impressed upon them, but there is no inlaying, and the devices either appear incised or in a species of low relief. A remarkable variety of inlaid tiles has also been noticed (examples occur at Great Malvern and Chertsey), which was intended to cover and decorate the surfaces of walls; these have been denominated watt-rUles, and in their use they assimilate very closely to the ancient practice of mosaic incrustation which clothed the surfaces of rouo-li walls of brick or rubble with flakes of precious marbles. The greater number of the early pavement-tiles have been removed from their original positions; wherever any still remain in situ, they claim particular attention, because many most valuable suggestions are always to 94 ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. be derived from the original modes of combination and arrangement. SECTION VII. IRON-WORK. It is the glory as it is the characteristic of the archi- tecture of the middle ages, that it watched with the same jealous carefulness as well over its minor details and subordinate accessories as it did over the most im- portant of its productions. Hence the smith who wrought the necessary iron-work for architectural pur- poses in those days was an artist, and he both felt and worked in* the spirit of the architecture of his clay. We find, accordingly, that wherever iron was used, it was treated artistically, as well as adapted to the practical uses for which it was required. Hinges were much ornamented by the Normans. The few examples of that period which yet remain are orna- mented with curling scroll-work, and a large branch, in the form of the letter C, generally issues from the straight bar near the joint or head. In the first Gothic period the scroll-work becomes much elaborated, leaves and animals' heads appear on the scrolls, small patterns ornament the main bands, and the nails are much IRON-WORK. 95 enriched. In some examples, as at Lichfield, the scroll- work of the hinges forms a system of iron-tracery covering the entire doors. In the next period the intro- duction of carved panelling on doors caused the hinges to be of simpler design ; they continued, however, to be wrought with much skill, and they add greatly to the effectiveness of the carving of the wood. In the third period the hinges are still plainer. Locks, closing-rings, escutcheons, handles, and keys are all of them executed with great care, and exhibit both the fertile invention and the skilful and delicate manipulation of the Gothic smiths. The designs are infinitely varied, and yet always in harmony with the prevailing art-sentiment of the age. Screen-tvork in iron was introduced as early as the thirteenth century. A very rich and beautiful example of the close of that era still appears attached to the monument of Eleanor, queen of Edward I., in West- minster Abbey. Doors as well as screens were formed from the same metal, aud they are enriched with pierced tracery, tabernacle-work, &c. - The bawls, which at once strengthen and ornament the large wooden chests which were much used, cor- 96 ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. respond with the hinge-scrolls, but they are generally less enriched and of inferior workmanship. Knockers, when required, assumed various grotesque forms ; some- times the massive closing-ring of a door would form the knocker also. Crosses for spires, of great beauty of design, were formed of iron. Sometimes the early cusping of window- tracery was of the same metal. The iron-work necessary for fixing the panels of glass in windows consists of stancheons, which are fixed ver- tically between the mullions, and saddle-bars, which cross the lights horizontally. The heads of the stan- cheons are generally enriched with fleurs-de-lys, oak- leaves with acorns, or other leaves. SECTION VIII. BRONZE-WORK. Screens, pierced doorways, with the coverings that in the middle ages were placed over monumental effigies for protection, and denominated herses, with many of the more important effigies themselves, and their acces- sories and canopies, were executed in bronze. Bronze and brass (the mediseval term for either alloy was latten, or laton) were used also for lecterns or standard-desks, LEAD-WORK. THE PRECIOUS METALS. 97 which often were made in the form of an eagle with out- spread wings; also for candlesticks, pendent chandeliers, or corona, and many other works of that class. To all their productions the eai'ly workers in these metals claim our careful attention, since they are characterized by high qualities as works of art. SECTION IX. LEAD-WORK. Like the smith, the early plumber was an artist. Crockets, shields of arms, fleurs-de-lys, and other devices appear, formed in lead, for the enrichment of spires. Leaden crestings and other decorative accessories of roofs, with the pipes for carrying off water, show at once the capabilities of the metal and the skilful hands that dealt with it in the middle ages. Leaden coffins, in use in the twelfth century, when discovered, are found to have been adorned with spiral and other band-work, shells, foliage, &c. Fonts are sometimes to be seen formed en- tirely of lead, and ornamented with architectural devices. SECTION X. — THE PRECIOUS METALS. Whatsoever vessels might be required for sacred use were distinguished by the beauty of their workmanship II 98 ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. and the richness of their ornamentation. In the earliest ages it had been the custom with Christian princes to enrich the churches with vast numbers of chalices, dishes, statuettes, &c, of gold and silver. Shrines of the most costly description were added to these in process of time, with adornments for altars, and all the other gor- geous appliances of mediseval worship. The artists who produced these works were the master-spirits of their times in the matter of practical art ; and the gold- smiths sought and obtained the co-operation of the artists who worked in enamel, niello, and all the varied processes by which the mind and hand of man add so greatly to the intrinsic value of the most valuable of natural productions. SECTION XI. BELLS. Introduced at a very early period in the Christian era, and employed from the first for the same purposes which they now fulfil, bells are first mentioned as accessories of churches, under their proper title campance, by Bede, in the eighth century. Church bells were used by the Anglo-Saxons; and from their time to our own we generally find on them some appropriate or characteristic BELLS. 99 inscription. In the middle ages, brief precatory legends, often addressed to the patron saint of the church in which they were to be placed, were wrought upon the bells. In some instances these legends commemorate the donor of the bells, or the founder, or some great benefactor of the church. Bell-inscriptions have been observed, which were evidently intended to be considered as calculated to increase the preservative qualities attri- buted to the sound of the bells themselves. These in- scriptions, with the heraldic and other devices which accompany them, afford curious illustrations of early sentiments and usages. It will be observed that the inscriptions are often written in the first person ; and the sentiment which they convey is thus supposed to be uttered by the bells as they sound. Different names were given to bells of various sizes, and used on different occasions. St. Katherine appears, from many bell- inscriptions, to have been the patroness of bells. The belfry-towers, in which the bells are hung, some- times are detached from the churches to which they belong, and stand at some little distance from them ; as at West Walton and East Dereham in Norfolk, at Evesham and at Chichester Cathedral. ii 2 ]00 ARCHITECTURAL ACCESSORIES. SECTION XII. NOMENCLATURE. The nomenclature now in use in treating of the archi- tecture of the middle ages, is in part derived from various documents relating to the construction of buildings, such as contracts, also from wills, with some architectural treatises by early writers. The titles given to the three divisions or periods of the Gothic style in England, were introduced by the late Mr. Rickman, and are generally adopted ; they have the advantage of being understood and recognised, and are sufficiently appropriate for their purpose. CHAPTER III. SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. From the earliest ages in the history of man, each suc- ceeding generation has been actuated by the desire to perpetuate the memory, through some visible and tan- gible memorial, of the loved and honoured ones who have passed away before themselves. Thus has been produced the vast and varied series of historical records of the world's progress, known as sepulchral monuments. Our own country still retains many examples of such pious care, which are the sole relics of the early races who once were the inhabitants of these islands. And the succession of these national monuments has been transmitted from British times, through the periods of Roman and Saxon occupation, and from thence onwards after the establishment of the Norman dynasty to our own day. These memorials, whatsoever may be their special form or character, are invariably found to possess the highest interest, as well from their historical asso- LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA 102 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. ciations as from their connexion with the" individuals whom they were designed to commemorate. SECTION I. — BRITISH SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS BEFORE THE ROMAN PERIOD. These consist of the following five varieties : — 1. The Cairn, or heap of stones. These rude memo- rials, usually found on mountain-sides or on the crests of hills, were formed of unhewn stones set about the remains of the dead, and also raised in a rugged pile above them. They occur chiefly in the western districts of England, particularly in Cornwall and Shropshire; and many examples may be observed throughout the mountainous districts of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. 2. The MoNOLiTH,*or single block of stone of large size, and generally set upright. 3. The Cromlech, formed of three or more large stones set upright, with a flat stone placed over them so as to form a kind of sepulchral chamber. A large number of these cromlechs have been discovered and explored in all parts of the kingdom, the greater number, however, being: in the Channel Islands and Ireland. In the in- terior of these cromlechs the surface of the natural soil PRIMAEVAL PERIOD. 103 has been found to have been covered with a rudely- formed pavement, upon which several distinct strata have rested. The human remains have generally con- sisted of burnt bones intermixed with articles of pottery, or sometimes the urns have contained the bones. Various weapons, ornaments, and implements have also been almost always discovered, forming a part of these sepul- chral deposits. 4. The Circle, or enclosure of upright stones, set singly, or in small groups, and at intervals varying in space. These circles were sometimes, perhaps always, erected about the cromlech of some personage of unusual importance. 5. The Barrow or Tumulus, a heap of earth raised to a considerable height, and often covering a large area. Barrows would be the most natural species of memorial, and such as an untutored race would spontaneously erect ; they are also the most enduring of monuments, and their massive simplicity is always impressive, if not actually dignified and noble. The bodies of the dead were placed upon the surface of the ground, not interred in graves sunk below the surface, and then the earth was heaped up. The barrows sometimes are found to con- 104 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. tain skeletons, and in other cases urns only, while occa- sionally both urns and skeletons appear together. The urns are very rude, and, when large, are often found to have been inverted. These urns contain burnt bones, and various relics generally appear either in them or near them. In many cases the remains of the dead ap- pear to have a species of cromlech constructed over them upon which the barrow was raised. It is, indeed, certain that many cromlechs which now stand uncovered, have had their original barrows removed or worn away during the lapse of many ages. In the earliest barrows there are found stone hammers and hatchets, Celts of the same material, both arrow-heads and spear-heads of flint, with beads of various substances, and torques or collars and armlets of gold or bronze. Somewhat later, the Celts and weapons are of bronze ; and now the sword is found to have been broken — a significant token that the warrior's career had closed. The ornaments remain the same as before, and coins are found. SECTION II. ANGLO-ROMAN AND ANGLO-SAXON SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. The Tumulus, as the Romans designated the heaped- ROMAN AND SAXON. 105 up barrow of the Celtic tribes, continued to be in use as a memorial until an advanced period of the Saxon era. These tumuli abound in our islands, and the recent researches which have been made in so many of them have thrown a bright light upon that heretofore dark period in our national history — the period between the decline of the Roman power and the tenth century. The custom of laying out the dead for their burial, or of placing their ashes in urns, accompanied with the ornaments, weapons, and other objects worn and used during life, has pre- served for us abundant evidence of the civilization, arts, and usages of our ancestors in those ages. The Romans generally burned, but they sometimes buried, their dead; and it has been proved to have been their custom to bury the bodies of children who died in their infancy in the immediate vicinity of their former homes. A few examples of Roman Sarcophagi, or massive stone coffins, have been occasionally discovered, and Roman Tumuli, with their accompanying urns, may sometimes be met with. But the Romans can scarcely be said to have regularly adopted the tumulus as a form of memorial. Their sepulchral urns, with the ashes of the dead, were commonly buried, often about two feet below 106 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. the surface ; or these urns were deposited in pits, hol- lowed out for their reception to a considerable depth in the earth. Vessels of glass were also used to contain the remains after their cremation ; and these depositories are generally found to have been protected by tiles or stones, so arranged as to form a little cromlech about them. The finer urns had also, in some cases, a similar protec- tion. Roman stones of memorial, having a brief com- memorative inscription, are also continually discovered, particularly near the more important stations, and these, it may be remarked, are the only inscribed memorials of a very early period. Of the sculptured sarcophagi of Italy, with their recumbent figures, no examples have been found in our country. The tumuli of many Britons of the Roman era of Britain have been found, and their peculiar character has been assigned to them from certain conditions which appear to indicate a decided difference between themselves and Roman tumuli, properly so called. Thus in these examples there are no tokens of the rites that appear to have marked the sepulture of the Roman ; but a cist, or coffin of stone, and sometimes of wood, is found, and the weapons, armour, and ornaments differ from those of genuine Roman type. Coffins of ROMAN AND SAXON. 107 lead have also been found enriched with varied orna- mentation, and enclosed within sarcophagi of stone. Saxon tumuli have been observed to exhibit a twofold character, which has led these examples to be severally assigned, and, as it would seem, with certain accuracy, to Christians and Pagans, of the same race, and also of the same periods. In these most interesting memorials, the great distinction between the interment of the Christian and the Pagan usage of cremation is always to be observed. In the former case, the body was either stretched out or placed in a sitting posture, sometimes with and sometimes without any coffin. The weapons, formed of iron, which the warrior had worn, were placed beside him ; his large double-edged broad-sword, his knife and single-edged cutlass, all of them now without hilt or guard, his large spear and his lighter javelin, with his shield, of which the iron boss, or umbo, is all that remains, his helmet, now reduced to its metal framework ; and with them drinking-vessels of glass, and buckets of wood set with bronze, brooches, and fibulae, some cruci- form and others circular, and clasps and buckles, all of them ornamented with either real or fictitious jewels, and with inlaid niello work, beads also of glass, and amethysts, 108 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. and sometimes ornaments of silver ; and with the body of the master the bones of his charger are not un- commonly found beneath the same barrow. But besides these relics, the Pagan memorials abound in the remains of cremation ; the funeral fire attests its action upon the entire deposit. Here are urns, rude in form and orna- ment and not rounded by the lathe, and bronze articles are mingled with those of iron ; combs, also, of ivory and horn, not so frequent in the Christian barrows, here are commonly found. Barrows were the favourite memo- rial of the Teutonic race : they vary in size and height, as well as in position ; some are of great size, and cover the remains of many persons ; others were raised, each above a single individual. Sometimes a tumulus stands alone, a solitary memorial ; and in other instances there are groups of these mounds, which are scattered in every direction. The summits of all barrows are now almost invariably somewhat depressed in their centre, where the earth has settled, and large trees may commonly be seen growing upon them. In the very large barrows several sepulchral strata have been discovered, and the evidences of both cremation and interment have appeared in bar- rows of the same group. In some instances, the orna- ANGLO-SAXON. 109 ments and other relics have indicated the resting-place and the memorial of a Dane. Besides the tumulus, the Anglo-Saxons used for sepul- ture Cists, or coffins formed of several stones ; and regular cemeteries have been discovered in which these cists exist in great numbers. In rocky districts, cists were sometimes hewn in the rock itself; and here also, and sometimes where no rock exists, large deposits of urns are found to have been placed in caverns and other excavations. Throughout the Saxon era, single stones of great size, or monoliths, were employed for the pur- pose of sepulchral commemoration. Some of these stones bear the Christian symbol — the cross ; and several of them retain traces of those singular lines cut at their angles which are denominated Ogham inscriptions. It is probable that the monuments in use during the tenth and eleventh centuries were principally upright stones, together with cists and coffins constructed of slabs, and wrought from blocks of stone. Several small slabs, curiously ornamented with interlaced patterns and crosses, have been discovered, which may be attributed to this period. They appear to have been placed beneath the heads of the dead at their burial. Larger stones, I 110 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. marked with crosses, and with inscriptions in Saxon and Runic letters, were also placed over the interments. These covering stones were either flat or coped ; in the latter case the ridge was generally considerably raised, and the stone was ornamented with zigzag work, scrolls, and interlaced patterns, often strangely mixed up with the figures of animals and wild grotesques. SECTION III. ANGLO-NOEMAN SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. THE STONE COFFIN. The Stone Coffin came gradually into general use about the close of the eleventh century, for the inter- ment and also for the memorial of deceased personages of eminence and wealth ; and this species of monument continued to be the principal form of memorial during the two centuries which followed. Upright stones were still occasionally erected ; but they appear to have fallen into disuse, or if retained in use, scarcely any examples have been preserved. Coffins of ornamented lead were employed on some occasions; but these were either buried below the surface of the ground or placed within stone coffins. Wooden coffins were used in a similar manner. The stone coffins were generally fixed upon STONE COFFINS. Ill the pavement of churches, or they were so placed that the solid slabs which covered them formed a portion of the pavement of the church. The stone coffins of founders, and other very eminent persons, after a time were placed within arched recesses, formed for their reception in the substance of the church wall. In other cases these stone coffins were buried in churchyards, or they were set there in such a manner as to show their coffin-lids. Stone coffins, formed from solid blocks of stone, are also found grouped with cists constructed from several stones; as on the site of the ruined Abbey of Chertsey, and in the foundations of a part of Worcester Cathedral, which was built early in the thirteenth century. The stone coffin, properly so called, was made from a single block of stone, hollowed out for the reception of the corpse, and having a cavity cut in the solid stone for the protection of the head. These stone coffins varied in form, but generally tapered from the head to the feet (see Plate VIII., Fig. 2). They are for the most part quite plain, examples enriched with sculpture being of rare occurrence. One of the earliest known examples which yet retains its original position, is the stone coffin 112 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. of William E,ufus, a.d. 1100, in the choir of Winchester Cathedral. It has a cover, coped, and ornamented with mouldings. A century and a half later is the date of the richly decorated stone coffin of Llewelyn, Prince of Wales, which has been removed from Conway to the Church of Llanrwst. The coffin-lids, when they follow the shape of the coffins themselves, are generally coped ; but their ridge is only slightly raised. They have a simple cross almost always sculptured upon them in low relief, with some other equally simple ornamentation. Patterns of scroll- work and interlacing figures in some examples appear as the decorations of these stones, and more particularly when they are flat ; and a few inscriptions have also been noticed, as on the memorial of Gundrada at Lewes, a work contemporary with the decease of the Princess, a.d. 1085. Inscriptions, however, are very rarely found until the thirteenth century. Besides the stone coffin- lids, flat rectangular slabs were also in use. These are ornamented after the same manner as the coffin-lids themselves. All these monumental stones had their devices executed in low relief during the Norman era, and the designs MONUMENTAL SLABS. 113 that were executed upon them were in close accordance with the architectural forms of the period. This coinci- dence in design between the architecture and the monu- ments, will be observed to have been maintained in after ages; but, after a while, the designs were no less fre- quently engraven or incised upon the slabs than produced in relief; and the practice was continued, of producing the designs for sepulchral commemoration, both in relief and in incised outline. A third mode of representation was also introduced, which combined the two processes ; here, however, the relief was obtained by cutting down or sinking parts of the surface. SECTION IV. MONUMENTAL SLABS. With the rise of Gothic architecture, monumental slabs were advanced to a great richness ajrd variety of design. The cross was still the prevailing device, and it appears to have been considered to be capable of an end- less variety of modifications in form, while decorative foliage and other accessories were added with liberal profusion. Inscriptions then again began to prevail; and then there appeared upon the monumental slabs, with the cross, and perhaps with the inscription also, i 114 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. some device or symbol tckich might indicate the rank, pro- fession, or calling of the deceased. These symbolical slabs exhibit a great variety in their treatment, and are always curious and interesting. There are examples, both incised and in relief, of the staff of the ecclesiastic of episcopal rank, with the customary cross, and alone ; sometimes it is grasped by a hand, and in other slabs it is accompanied with the chalice. The chalice with the wafer, the paten and a book, or alone, and both with and without the monumental cross, will always indicate the ecclesiastic not of episcopal rank. A hand in the attitude of benediction is sometimes seen with the chalice ; and a book appears, without any other device except the cross. The knight, or man-at-arms, in like manner, is aptly symbolized by a sword, which, in a few examples, is .represented as if it were grasped in the hand. In some slabs, with the sword are the helmet and shield of the knight, and various heraldic insignia. The sword has also other devices associated with it ; thus, at Haltwhistle, Northumberland, on one side of the shaft of the cross on a slab are a sword and shield, and on the opposite side a pilgrim's staff and wallet ; this most interesting memorial is figured in Plate VI. MONUMENT S , AB S. Hal .it QraxchLjlTortLuB 1, about 1300. 2.A1 ISlicem: brooks Imp SYMBOLICAL SLABS. 115 A lance and an axe are found elsewhere with swords, also pincers and a hammer. Again, in some examples, the sword, with its cross-hilt guard, appears alone in the middle of the slab. In other cases, more than one person is shown to be commemorated by there being two crosses, each being accompanied by its own distinct symbols. At Iona, with the swords there are rich foliage and various figures. A large axe, a forester's bow and horn, a mason's square, a notary's ink-horn and penner, a glover's scissors and glove-stretcher, with an endless series of shears of different forms, and of keys, trumpets, a ship, a fish, and many other symbols, are found to have been used in a similar manner. The shears have been considered to denote a female; but this hypothesis, though very probably correct, has not received any positive confirmation. The shears have also been supposed to indicate a wool-merchant, or some of his family. The key has also been supposed to be an emblem of the female sex. The key and shears are cer- tainly very commonly found together; and sometimes there is a pair of shears with two keys. But the key, though possibly in some instances used where a female was commemorated, cannot be considered as purely an I 2 116 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. emblem of females. It is rather a symbol of office ; and thus it appears with the early effigy of a treasurer of the see of Hereford on his monument in that Cathedral. Some of the slabs of this class, and others without any other symbol than the cross, are of very small dimensions, and they may possibly be memorials of persons who have died at an early age. In Sussex, iron-plates were often used in place of slabs of stone, for commemorative purposes; these plates bear inscriptions and various devices. Besides the devices already specified, the figure of a heart, generally accompanied with some scrolls bearing legends, has been observed; this has been supposed to signify that, in accordance with an early usage, the heart only of a deceased person has been buried where such a memorial was provided. A heart is also found in combination with effigies, in which case it would not be supposed to have any such special signification. The figure of a rose was also a favourite device, and various other figures will be observed by the student; his chief attention, however, will be attracted by the devices which have been specified, and more especially by the monu- mental crosses from their variety, richness of ornamen- MONUMENTAL EFFIGIES. 117 tation, and the evident delight with which they were executed by the early artists. SECTION V. MONUMENTAL EFFIGIES. With the close of the twelfth century, the idea appears to have become recognised that a portraiture of a deceased personage should, in certain cases, constitute his monumental memorial. The idea itself probably arose from the prevailing custom of burying the dead in the habit peculiar to their rank or condition. The equipment of the corpse for its interment led to a species of lying in state ; and hence it would be sufficiently easy to derive the suggestion that the coffin-lid itself should represent the deceased, as he had been placed beneath it in the coffin. Such a system of representation was, indeed, as old as the mummy-cases of Egypt; and the Etruscans bad for ages commemorated their dead by monumental effigies. Still, the effigies of the Western nations show but little sign of having been derived from these ancient prototypes; on the contrary, their first aspect and their gradual development would confirm the opinion that these effigies were the result of the practice of interment then prevalent. Accordingly, the earliest ]J8 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. examples present the aspect of a figure rather sunk within a stone coffin than placed upon its covering. These early effigies still continued for some length of time to be expressed in partial relief only, even after they were represented as reclining upon the monumental slab. They were wrought upon the surface of the slab and were flat, and generally associated with scroll- patterns and the earliest forms of foliage. After a while the relief became more genuine and complete, until, with the advance of the thirteenth century, monumental effigies became most noble works of the sculptor's art. The earliest effigies are those of bishops and abbots, and next to these are effigies of nobles and others in military equipment. There are very early episcopal effigies in the Cathedrals at Salisbury, Worcester, Ely, Exeter, Peterborough, and others. Of the earliest knightly effigies examples are to be found in almost every district ; fine and remarkable effigies of this class are in the Temple Church, London, in Salisbury Cathe- dral, at Malvern and Pershore, at Southacre in Norfolk, and in many of the churches in the northern counties. The costume and armour represented by these and other monumental effigies will be found fully described else- MONUMENTAL EFFIGIES. 119 where. The attitudes assumed by these figures will not escape notice. Bishops and abbots appear in the act of benediction, holding up the right hand, with the thumb and the first and second fingers elevated; some- times a book is held in the left hand, while on that arm usually rests the pastoral staff. In some few examples the staff rests on the right arm, and occasionally it is grasped in the hand ; sometimes, also, both the hands are represented as clasped in prayer, or they are crossed and rest upon the person. At the first, the military effigies exhibit the warrior as in the act of either draw- ing or returning his weapon to its sheath; and in some instances the attitude of the figure is expressive of vehement action. But the inconsistency of such repre- sentations appears to have been soon felt, and thus the effigy of the warrior was represented in that striking attitude of combined rest, resignation, and hopefulness, which imparts such a peculiar impressiveness to these memorials ; the body was stretched out as in repose ; the drapery was so arranged as to exclude the idea of all bodily action ; and the hands were upraised and clasped as in supplication. In one circumstance, and that a cir- cumstance which has attracted much attention, the early 120 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. military effigies of our own country are distinguished by a singular peculiarity in attitude. They are, until about the year 1320,very generally represented with the legs crossed. These crossed-legged effigies were, for a considerable time (and the assertion is even now sometimes made), asserted to be Knights Templars, simply because some of the effigies in the Temple Church appear in some modifica- tion of this attitude. Subsequently they were designated Crusaders, and this title they very generally retain. The Templar theory was at once dispelled when inquiry was made into the facts ; it was found that the knights thus represented had no connexion with the Temple order ; and in more than one instance the silent effigy, resting beside the companion figure of the lady who in life had been the knight's wedded wife, plainly declared that the crossed-legged attitude could not denote the Templar. Neither does there appear any reason for supposing that a soldier of the Crusades was particularly comme- morated after this manner, since many known Crusaders do not appear crossed-legged ; and, again, there are many crossed-legged effigies to knights who are equally well known not to have taken any pai't in those wonderful expeditions ; and at Cashel, in Ireland, there are effigies MONUMENTAL EFFIGIES. 121 of ladies in this attitude; and besides, this attitude has in no single instance been observed on the Continent of Europe ; and had the crossed legs really denoted the Crusader, Crusaders of every European country would, without doubt, have been represented after the same fashion, The attitude would seem to be altogether devoid of any symbolical or special signification. It is the natural attitude of the limbs when at rest, and cer- tainly its adoption has enabled the mediaeval sculptors to add very considerably to the effectiveness of their mili- tary figures. With the disuse of mail armour the crossed-legged attitude ceased to be employed. In some few examples the arms of the effigies are crossed as well as the lower limbs. Effigies of ecclesiastics not of episcopal rank, of civi- lians also, and ladies, appear in the thirteenth century ; but their numbers, until a later period, are comparatively small. Both in the thirteenth century and subsecpuently, these effigies, like those of knights, nobles, and bishops, correspond in their art-treatment with the general con- dition of art at the time ; and they always are valuable as exponents of this condition of art, no less than as examples of costume, armour, feeling, and usage. The 122 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. earlier effigies of priests exhibit them in the habit worn when ministering at the altar (see Chapter on Costume); somewhat later the cope is introduced. The earliest of these memorials are of about a.d. 1250. The priest commonly is represented having a chalice. Effigies in academic habit also occur. Other effigies represent princes and nobles in their robes, judges in their official costumes, and merchants and civilians of various ranks. The effigies of ladies illustrate costume with great effect, and they are rarely devoid of some points of special inte- rest. Children were not often commemorated by effigies, except with their parents. The prevailing position of all effigies was recumbent, and the attitude that of devo- tional rest. Occasionally an effigy appears resting on its side ; and husbands and wives not unfrequently are hand in hand, but this attitude would seem generally to have been adopted when the wife was the survivor. As the fifteenth century advanced towards its close, effigies were represented kneeling, the husband and wife facing each other, each with a faldstool and a small desk before them, and the sons and daughters behind their parents in two groups. Sometimes the children, small in size, are introduced below the figures of their parents • and MONUMENTAL EFFIGIES. 123 the effigies themselves are occasionally recumbent, but rarely with the repose and fine feeling of earlier times. Children are sometimes represented in the distinctive costume of the rank or condition to which they attained in mature life ; but they more generally appear attired as youthful persons. When one of the children has died before the parent or parents, it is, in the later monuments, represented in its place in the series, but smaller in size than the brother or sister before and behind it, and holding a skull. When first introduced, the monumental effigy was simply substituted for the cross-symbol upon the stone coffin-lid. Accordingly, early effigies are found resting upon stone coffins, which in their turn stand upon the pavement of churches ; in other cases, where the coffins are sunk below the surface, the effigies, with their coffin- shaped slabs, lie upon the actual pavement ; and, again, but too many of these figures have been removed from their proper site, and subjected to eveiy species of in- jury. Many of the effigy-slabs taper very slightly, and with the fourteenth century they generally assumed a rectangular form. The effigy of King John, a work of certain authenticity, at Worcester Cathedral, is sculp- 124 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. tured from the same block which forms the tapering coffin-lid ; this effigy, thus forming the coffin-lid, now lies upon a raised tomb of the sixteenth century ; but the actual stone coffin containing the remains of the king stands within this tomb upon the pavement of the choir, and it corresponds in its external form with the coffin-lid. This is the earliest royal effigy in England, and it is in the most excellent preservation. One of the finest military effigies of the same period represents William Longespee, Earl of Salisbury, the son of Fair Rosamond. The earl is not in the crossed-legged atti- tude ; but another effigy (like this, in Salisbury Ca- thedral) of his son has the legs crossed. The effigy of the earl reposes on a tomb constructed of wood. The tomb is also of wood which supports the effigy of William de Valence, another work of the "same period, and not crossed-legged, in Westminster Abbey. This very curious monument was originally covered with enamelled plates, of which many portions still re- main. There are several instances of early effigies having been carved in wood instead of stone or marble. The wood employed appears to have been generally chestnut. MONUMENTAL EFFIGIES. 125 These figures are almost all executed in a masterly style, and some exceed the size of life. Bronze was also used for the production of monu- mental effigies of special importance. One of the finest works of this class in this material is the noble effigy of Eleanor, queen of Edward I. (a.d. 1298), in Westminster Abbey. The effigies, cast in bronze, of Henry III. (a.d. 1272), of Richard II., and Anne, his queen (a.d. 1397), in the same grand church, and that of the Black Prince (a.d. 1376) in Canterbury Cathedral, are also most admi- rable works. And at later periods the bronze effigies of the Earl of Warwick (a.d. 1435), at Warwick, and of Henry VII. and his queen, Elizabeth of York, with that of his mother, the Countess of Derby, all executed about 1512, and preserved in Westminster Abbey, may be specified as very fine examples. The surface of the metal in these effigies was richly gilt, and in some of them elaborately adorned with engraven work. The early artists habitually applied colour to their effigies, with gilding and enamel. They farther enriched the figures with various decorative processes, such as engraved work, and probably niello. In many instances they appear to have applied to the marble or stone a I 126 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. species of cement which would speedily harden, and upon which the mailing of the armour, the patterns of female dresses, and other ornamental details were stamped. In monumental sculpture it was the prevailing usage to execute the figures of life-size ; in some instances, however, effigies appear of a much smaller size, as at Salisbury Cathedral to a bishop, at Long Wittenham, Berks, to a knight, who is crossed-legged, and to the family of a civilian at Bredon. Some special signi- fication has been assigned to these small sculptured effigies, but apparently without any reason. It was customary to place at the feet of effigies some animal or other figure ; thus the feet of King John rest upon a lion of England. The lion, or in its stead a dog, is very commonly to be seen at the feet of ecclesiastics as well as of princes and knights. Ladies frequently have at their feet very small pet dogs (and sometimes large ones), with collars of bells about their necks, and in a few instances with the dogs' names on their collars. In the first instance the animals thus placed appear to have had some heraldic connexion with the person comme- morated; and this same heraldic character was gene- rally maintained by them. In some cases these animals MONUMENTAL EFFIGIES. 127 were evidently symbolical, as where a dragon appears trodden down beneath the feet of a bishop ; and both the lion and the dog at the feet of an ecclesiastic may denote fidelity and the power of the faith. Strange and fanciful representations sometimes occur, as in the case of the effigy of William of Wykeham, in Winchester Cathedral, where very small figures of his chaplains appear at his feet. The love of allusive representation which was so prevalent in the middle ages led some artists to represent the feet of a wool-merchant to be resting on a pack of wool, and those of a vintner upon a cask ; and other similar instances occur. The heads of effigies generally rest on cushions ; at first a single cushion, then two, the upper one generally set diagonally, were used. These cushions were richly ornamented ; and they very commonly appear supported by two small figures of angels — a felicitous expression of a beautiful sentiment. These angelic figures sometimes hold censers. King John has on either side of his head a bishop with a censer. In place of the cushion and the ministering angels, the knightly effigy more frequently lies upon the great helm, with its wreath, crest, and mantling — a usage which continued until a late period. 128 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. When inscriptions are added they are set about the figure on the coffin-lid or slab of the tomb, or in the mouldings of the chamfer or sloping-edge of the stone ; more rarely the inscription is on the copper face of the slab. Above the heads of effigies Canopies were very often placed ; and they add in a most important degree to the dignity of the monumental composition. These canopies are carried on shafts, which are continued down on either side of the figure ; and they rise into a group of rich tabernacle-work, with pinnacles and a variety of elaborate architectural details. Various figures are often introduced into the canopies, and into a series of niches in their supporting members. These figures generally represent sainted personages, or perhaps some relatives and friends of the deceased are thus associated with his effigy. Portraiture, in the proper sense of the term, would seem to have but rarely been aimed at by the artists who produced effigies. While they represented every article of costume and every variety of armour with the most minutely exact fidelity, as they were in use when they were themselves at work upon any effigy, the mediaeval INCISED MONUMENTAL EFFIGIES. 129 artists generally contented themselves with a conven- tional treatment of the- features. At a late period, when art had altogether degenerated, attempts at portraiture appear to have been more common; but they are evi- dently rare amongst the finer works of the earlier artists. A few effigies are, however, too characteristic and too peculiar not to be genuine portraits, even at the earliest period of effigy-sculpture. This is strikingly the case with the royal effigies of which we possess so valu- able a series. SECTION VI. INCISED MONUMENTAL EFFIGIES. Besides those effigies which were produced by the sculptor's chisel or were cast in metal, precisely similar figures were executed for the same purpose of monumen- tal commemoration in outline upon flat slabs. With the prevalence of monuments, of which an effigy would form an essential part, it became necessary to have recourse to some means for producing the required representation without occupying any portion of the space in the in- terior of churches. This was accomplished by placing jlat slabs, with designs engraven or incised upon them, in the pavement. Thus did incised monumental effigies K 130 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. come into use. These figures, with their various acces- sories, were incised upon slabs, and the lines were filled in with a dark substance which would at once preserve the lines themselves and enhance the effect of the work. In a few examples of these incised slabs parts of the composition have been observed to have been executed upon some more precious material, inserted for that par- ticular purpose in the face of the slab. Thus, in a very fine fragment at Thornton Abbey, Lincolnshire, the head and hands of the effigy, with the accompanying shields of arms, were produced in this manner; and at Brading, in the Isle of Wight, is another well-known example, a century later (the middle of the fifteenth century), of the same usage. A very remarkable slab of larsre dimensions has been observed at Hereford Cathedral, in which the entire composition has been inlaid with thin plate-like slabs of alabaster. The alabaster still remains in the low hollows sunk for its reception in this curious stone, but all traces of the engraving have been worn away. It was this attrition, to which incised slabs placed in the pavements of churches were necessarily exposed, and which would surely wear away their designs, that led to the intro- MONUMENTAL BRASSES. 131 duction of the engraven plates of metal once in such general use, and now so well known as SECTION VII. — MONUMENTAL BRASSES. These memorials, the genuine prototypes of the art of engraving for the purpose of multiplying copies by the process of impression, appear to have soon acquired a wide-spread popularity. The cost of the metal, however, and the difficulty of obtaining it from the Continent, where it was exclusively manufactured, prevented for a while their general adoption. The metal employed was an alloy rather resembling bronze than brass; it was used at first in plates of considerable thickness, but afterwards thinner plates and a softer metal were em- ployed. These plates appear under two distinct forms : — First, they were made to cover the face of the slab to which they were affixed, leaving only a small border or margin. Secondly, the various parts of any design were cut out in separate pieces of the metal, and these separate pieces were let into indents (or matrices) of corresponding form sunk to receive them in the face of the slab. In the former case, a background to the composition was engraven upon the metal-plates, k2 132 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. while in the latter the slab itself constituted that back- ground. Brasses of the former of these two classes are but few in number in this country, and they appear to have been the work of Flemish artists. In these fine plates the effigies are produced with wonderful effect. They rest on elaborate diapers beneath no less elaborate niched canopies, abounding with small figures. The letters of the inscriptions, and the border-designs, with all the accessories, are beautifully formed and executed with singular skill and precision. It will be observed as a characteristic of these Flemish brasses, that many of the parts are rendered with a peculiar conventionality of treatment, and that the broader lines are very broad and also very shallow, and of a uniform width and depth, and that they have been produced with a flat chisel-like instrument instead of a graving-tool having an angular edge. Fine examples are at St. Alban's, Newark, King's Lynn, and Newcastle, with two of later date at Ipswich and in London. Brasses of the English type may have been first introduced at the end of the twelfth century, but the earliest known vestiges of their existence date with the commencement of the century following. The earliest MONUMENTAL BRASSES. 133 example now known to be in existence is a work of the reign of Edward I., a.d. 1277; it is the effigy of a mail-armed knight, not crossed-legged, Sir John D'Au- bernoun by name, and it is preserved in an almost un- injured state in the interesting Church of Stoke Da- bernon in Surrey. (See Plate XVI. Fig. 1.) When first adopted, the metal was cut into single Lombardic letters, and each of these letters was fixed to the slab in an indent of its own, the whole being arranged to form a border to the stone. At first the letters were not enclosed within any border-strips of metal ; but after- wards narrow fillets of the latten (as the metal was denominated) enclosed the letters. Subsequently the inscriptions were engraven upon broader fillets, and additional legends were attached to the slabs on larger plates. Crosses were used at an early era, and they con- tinued to be engraven throughout the period in which brasses were prevalent. These beautiful symbols exhibit great variety in their treatment, and in the mode and the character of their ornamentation. Some have the head of the design produced by open-work, richly cusped and with finials of foliage, and within the cross-head thus formed one or more figures are introduced. Plate o 134 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. VII. illustrates a good example of this class from the Chapel of Merton College, Oxford ; the figure is that of an ecclesiastic, and the date of the brass about a.d. 1375. It will be seen that in the engraving only the upper parts of this brass with its slab have been shown. The shafts of these cross-brasses are generally veiy lofty, and (as in this instance) ornamented at intervals with foliage after the manner of crockets. The bases are sometimes trefoiled, and in other exiimples they rise from steps ; or there is beneath them some symbolical or heraldic figure. In some brasses, instead of crosses brackets are em- ployed ; these have tall shafts, and the figures upon the brackets are covered with canopies. Effigies in brasses exhibit every variety of character, and they are equally common in every size, from the full life-size to very small figures. The figures themselves represent persons in various ranks and conditions of life; they exemplify every species of costume and equip- ment, and there is scarcely any usage of the middle ages which does not derive from themselves or their accessories at the least some indirect illustration. It will not fail to be observed that the earliest examines mom: . Plate W. -tart of a Bra. 7 5. ft T-,.r,M- .1.3 art- WV, -r TW,«"lri T-r, MONUMENTAL BRASSES. 135 are in every respect the most excellent as works of art. Some of these it would be difficult to surpass in artistic merit. Such is the brass to Sir Robert de Bures, at Acton in Suffolk, about a.d. 1300; such also are the brasses to Alianore de Bohun, in Westminster Abbey, a.d. 1399; to William and Marion Grevel, at Chipping Campden, a.d. 1101 ; to Sir Thomas and Sir Robert Swynborne, at Little Horkesley, Essex, a.d. 1412; to Prior Thomas Nelond, at Cowfold, Sussex, a.d. 1433 ; and to Judge John Martyn and Anna his wife, at Graveney in Kent, a.d. 143G ; with many others. The true power and the legitimate expression of outline are shown with masterly ability in the earlier brasses. Afterwards attempts at shading were introduced, but only to deteriorate the engraven plates. It is highly probable that the lines were always filled in with some such substance as was used for the same purpose in incised slabs ; a species of enamel was also employed to give their proper tinctures to the heraldic accessories, and the plates themselves were polished and sometimes gilt. The enamel still remains in many examples, and it is remarkably perfect in the earliest known brass at Stoke Dabcrnon. It was the practice to insert some 136 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. white metal, or some metal which would readily receive and retain a white colouring, into those heraldic devices which were to be tinctured argent. Beside full-length effigies, very many half-figures, and some heads, are found in brasses. These partial representations are more common in brasses to eccle- siastics than in others. They are generally set upon a plate bearing an inscription, though this is not invariably the case. These semi-effigies sometimes are either set upon brackets or introduced into the open heads of flo- riated crosses, and in a few instances the half-figure or the head rests upon the cross at the intersection of its arms. A very curious example of such a usage may be seen in the chapel of Merton College, Oxford. The same idea is, in a very few instances, expressed in sculp- tured slabs, as at Tewkesbury, where a noble slab of Purbeck marble has sculptured upon it a richly floriated cross, at the foot of which is an Agnus Dei, while the figure of an abbot, mitred, and with his staff, rests upon the cross-head. In brasses, two of the earliest existing specimens are both military half-figures; both are in mail armour, the one at Croft and the other at Bushing- thorpe in Lincolnshire. MONUMENTAL BRASSES. 137 There are but very few brasses, if indeed any, in which the countenance of the efligy can be considered to have been designed to convey a personal resemblance. In the general treatment of the figures, their canopies, and other accessories, there prevailed a remarkable uniformity at each period ; at the same time, certain special pecu- liarities are observable in the brasses of particular dis- tricts, indicating different artists, or artists of different schools. The brasses in the northern counties are, in many particulars of treatment, distinguished from those more to the south; and this is specially the case in Yorkshire, and also it extends to Lincolnshire. Several brasses in this country were evidently produced from designs by foreign artists, and perhaps they are the work of foreign engravers. It is certain that in more than one fine brass, executed after the English method, the engraver was a Fleming. A fragment of a slab has lately been discovered, which was enriched with coloured mosaic : it bore a cross-brass with a border leg-end. Brasses were frequently executed to commemorate personages of high rank and great wealth ; and in these cases they were generally placed on raised tombs of the noblest character. 138 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. The brasses in Wales are few in number, and of a late date. A solitary example in Glasgow Cathedral is the only memorial of this class known to exist in Scotland. At Dublin there are two ; but traces of others have been discovered elsewhere in Ireland, and in Scotland also. On the Continent, but a few brasses have escaped the wilful destroyer. Of these, the majority are in Belgium ; and several fine examples have recently been observed in various parts of Germany. At Constance there is an English brass, the memorial of an English prelate, Robert Hallum, Bishop of Salisbury, who died while attending the Council of Constance, a.d. 1416. In England, the number of known brasses is very great, amounting to not less than about four thousand ; and it is probable that a large addition would be made to this number, were the pews to disclose all the brasses which they cover. Still greater are the numbers of the brasses which, from what- soever cause, have been lost in our own country. It is no uncommon thing, in a church where one brass is yet preserved, or in which not a single specimen has been spared, to trace in the worn (or perhaps the well- preserved) stones of the pavement, the indents which once were filled by a complete series of brasses. In many MONUMENTAL BRASSES. 139 instances, these indents are worthy of careful attention, since, by means of their outlines, they often either give the leading- features in designs of which no examples remain, or they corroborate usages which otherwise might admit of doubt. It is to be hoped that, where the brasses have been permitted to remain to our times, the original plates w T ill be carefully preserved in their proper sites, and that records of them (with fac -simile rubbings) will be duly preserved. One singular circumstance connected with monumental brasses remains to be noticed ; and this is the fact that the same plates (when they have become loosened from their slabs) are often found to have been engraven on both sides. Sometimes two very different figures appear on the opposite sides of the metal, as at St. Albans; or one figure is cut out of a plate, which at an earlier period bore on its reverse a design of an altogether different character, as at St. Peter's Mancroft Church, Norwich; or the same figure, slightly modified, is seen on the two sides of the same plate, as at Rochester. And again, sometimes a figure has been altered in some of its minor details, at a period long subsequent to its first execution, and appropriated to another person, as at 140 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. Water Perry, Oxfordshire; or the second appropriation of the brass has been effected by simply reversing the inscription-plate and engraving it afresh, as at Laughton in Lincolnshire. Brasses which have been subjected to treatment of this kind have been denominated palimpsests. They may be attributed to various causes ; but without doubt, in many instances, the second application of the plates has been effected by the most unbecoming means. Much interesting information relative to these en- graven memorials has been derived from the entries in early wills, by which provision has been made for the execution of commemorative works of this class. Thus, in his will dated 1397, Sir John de Saint Quintin bequeaths the sum of twenty marks for the purchase of a certain slab of marble, which, with brasses (" tribus ymaginibus de laton") of himself and his two wives, Lora and Agnes, he orders to be placed over his remains. Of the artists who produced these works but little is known; possibly more extended researches may elicit additional information. In one or two instances, these artists have attested their productions with their marks : it is much to be wished that it had been their habit to have signed them in full. SEMI-EFFIGIAL SLABS. 141 The process of brass-rubbing is too well known to need more than a passing remark, to the effect that it cannot by any possibility be injurious to the brasses, and that it may be effected with the greatest ease, and in the most satisfactory manner, with common heel-ball (to be obtained from every shoemaker), rubbed on any thin paper, spread carefully over the engraven plates. Of course the paper must not be permitted to move during the process ; and it will be found desirable to rub lightly the entire face of the slab, while the brass itself is brought out in a darker tint. The lost portions of the brass are thus clearly indicated, and the slab has its own proper place in the composition, of which a complete and faithful representation is thus obtained. It is well not to rub with a view to rendering the rubbing too black, nor should the fidelity of the rubbing be impaired by subsequent improvements; and certainly in no case should rubbings be cut out and remounted, unless white lines be left to show with certainty the original outlines. SECTION VIII. SEMI-EFFIGIAL SLABS. When monumental effigies were introduced, they necessarily superseded the use of the great Christian 142 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. symbol, the cross, where they were adopted. The desire to retain the cross, and to combine it with the effigy, would naturally arise, and hence were produced the open floriated crosses, enclosing' figures, which form so beautiful a class of brasses. Designs of this kind were rarely em- ployed in incised slabs — slabs upon which, and not upon inserted plates of metal, the designs were engraved. In monumental sculpture, also, but few instances have been observed of memorials in which, with a cross, a complete effigy has been associated. There was not room on the same stone for the two figures, unless some such combi- nation were attempted as would place the effigy either actually upon the cross-figure, or within its open head. From this difficulty may apparently be traced the origin of a singular class of memorials, in which parts only of an effigy are apparent, such parts being more or less directly associated with the cruciform symbol. These semi-effis'ial monuments were considered to admit three varieties of treatment, each distinguished by its own peculiar mode of representing the partial effigies. In one of these varieties, those parts of the figures which were represented wei*e sunk below the surface of the stone, and made to appear as if they were disclosed to SEM1-EFFIGIAL SLABS. 143 view through apertures formed for that purpose hy the removal of portions of the coffin-lid, or slab. In the second variety the partial development of the effigy was produced hy entirely cutting away the adjoining parts of the stone; and in the third case, the head, bust, or half- figure has the appearance of having been placed upon the surface of the stone. In the incised specimens these varieties of representation are necessarily for the most part indicated in outline. It was at first supposed that monuments of this class were of earlier date than com- plete effigies, and, indeed, that from them the complete effigies were derived. This is not the fact, however, since the earliest examples of this curious species of monument may be assigned to the thirteenth century. The greater number of the examples have been observed in the churches of Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, Rutland, in some parts of Wales, and occasionally in other localities. "Where the idea obtains of apparently disclosing parts of an effigy from within the mass of the stone, a quatrefoil, either plain or foliated, is generally cut at the head, and a trefoil opening at the base of the slab, from within which the upper parts of the figure and the feet 144 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. are severally shown. The opening's are joined by a shaft, and thus the cruciform figure is produced. Other acces- sories, both heraldic and of various kinds, are sometimes added. The slab which commemorates the founder of Gilling Church, Yorkshire, figured in Plate VI., is a most characteristic example. The shield, sword, and crest are here introduced. The lower apparent aperture, in some examples, is not introduced: here accordingly the quatrefoil upper piercing furnishes the cross. Occa- sionally two of these quatrefoil openings appear, side by side, at the head of the same stone. Inscriptions also, in some instances, are introduced. In other examples the head, with or without the feet, is exhibited somewhat after the same manner, and a complete cross, variously en- riched, is carved or incised on the face of the stone, below the upper opening. Fine examples occur at Utterby, Washingborough, and Kingerby in Lincolnshire, and at Kedleston in Derbyshire. When the figure is partially shown by the cutting away the stone, the lower portion of the stone bears the cross. And this arrangement is also prevalent wdiere the whole of the composition is represented in real or apparent relief upon the surface of the slab. In a very few instances the half-figure appears SEMI-EFFIGTAL SLABS. 145 at the foot of the cross, as at Hendon, in Yorkshire. At Bredon, Worcestershire, in place of a cross there is a crucifix, below two busts, which are surmounted by canopies ; and at Penshurst in Kent, a cross is carved upon a half-figure, of which the attitude and the general expression are equally singular. Many other modifications of this arrangement might be spe- cified. There is a second and a distinct class of semi-effigial monuments in which the cross symbol is altogether omitted, and yet the figure is shown in part only. These half-figures differ from those already described in Brasses, from their generally having the feet shown as well as the upper part of the person. Examples occur in which this idea of partial representation is curiously varied. At Staunton, Notts, the figure is that of a knight in mail, and the helm and shield are represented between the uplifted arms and the feet. At Norton Brize, Oxon, more than a century later (a.d. 1346), there is a similar arrangement ; but here the figure is crossed-legged, and is, perhaps, the latest example in that attitude. The stone coffin-lid of Joanna, wife of Llewelyn, Prince of Wales, now at Margam, is covered with very rich interlacing L 146 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. foliage of the first half of the thirteenth century, spring- ing from a single stem, and disclosing the bust of the princess with uplifted hands. Other remarkable examples occur at St. John's Church, Chester, at Great Casterton, and Hambledon, Rutland, at Elford in Staffordshire, and at Howell in Lincolnshire. In the example last named, half-figures of a lady and a child appear in two separate trefoiled openings. Sometimes these stones are coped, as at Hambleton ; and in other examples the costume of the partially shown figure is represented on the flat part of the stone, as at Corwen in Merionethshire. At Stoke in Lincolnshire, upon a remarkable slab of large dimen- sions the effigies of a mail-armed knight and his lady are represented as if partially covered with drapery, while in part they are sculptured in full relief. A very late example of semi-effigial representation, with both the upper and the lower parts of the figure shown, exists in Worcester Cathedral. In Lichfield Cathedral this same idea is exemplified in a manner apparently unique. Here are three monuments in a wall-arcade, and they are so arranged that the head and the feet of each figure are shown through openings cut in the wall under alter- nate arches of the series. Thus the figures appear to be TOMBS, CANOPIES, AND CHANTRIES. 147 placed within the wall, along the face of which are arranged the arches of the arcade. SECTION IX. — TOMBS, CANOPIES, AND CHANTRIES. As early as the twelfth century the primitive stone coffin was amplified into the loftier rectangular monu- ment, entitled the high tomb or altar tomb, the latter designation heing derived from its resemblance in form to the stone altars then in use, as perhaps this form of tomb was itself adopted in consequence of the practice of burying the relics of the dead in altars. The utmost skill of the mediaeval artists was lavished upon these tombs ; they were adorned with rich mouldings, niches, and panel-work ; statuettes, called weepers, encircled them in the niches which were set about their sides (these weepers represented the children, relatives, or near friends of the person commemorated); and heraldry con- tributed its fertile resources at once to enrich them and to enhance their historical value. Upon these tombs rested the sculptured or engraven effigies, and within them the actual interment took place. Besides the canopy which was so commonly set about the recumbent effigy, and was itself designed to be recumbent, a second l2 148 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. canopy often covered the tomb itself, either having a flat form and being attached to the two piers of the great arch beneath which the tomb was placed, or rising to a considerable height in a rich profusion of tabernacle- work and of elaborate and delicate architectural details. Very fine examples of such splendid monuments are preserved in the Cathedrals of York, Gloucester, Hereford, Canterbury, Ely, and Winchester; in the Abbey-churches of Westminster, Tewkesbury, and St. Albans ; and in Beverley Minster and in Winchelsea Church. In many instances, the more dignified of these canopies were con- structed on a scale of such importance as to form small chapels or mortuary chantries for special religious cere- monies. A very late, but yet a highly interesting example of such chantries, is that which contains the tomb of Arthur Prince of Wales, the eldest son of Henry VII., in Worcester Cathedral. The example of an altar tomb, which is engraved in Plate VIII., is at Hull, and it is the memorial of Sir John de Sutton, who died a.d. 1339. The entire monu- ment is eminently characteristic of that period ; quatre- foil panels surround the body of the tomb, each of which encloses a shield of arms, and the effigy, which is well TOMB WITH EFFIGY k STONE COFFIN. Bate W I%a Tarri. and. Effigy of Sir John le Sutton, Hull, AD. 1399. Stone'Coffm Lincoln Cathedral , ( An^lc -Norm sen .) I I V-.vTtt del et "hth Vincent Bxooka 1-m.p LATE MONUMENTS. ]49 sculptured, is a valuable example of the very curious military equipment in use during the closing years of the reign of Edward II., and retained for a while after the accession of his renowned son. The armour and accoutrements represented in this effigy, together with the arms, armour, costume, &c, exhibited in other monu- mental works, are described in those chapters of this volume which are specially devoted to such matters. Besides enamel and colour obtained by the use of pigments, mosaic was occasionally employed for the enrichment and decoration of early monuments. West- minster Abbey, that rich storehouse of treasures of monumental art, contains some fine examples. SECTION X. LATE MONUMENTS. The monuments which the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries produced are in keeping with the prevailing sentiment for art in those periods. When the noble memorials of the middle ages gave way to the most in- congruous piles of classic design, room for these wretched intruders was but too often provided by the wanton mutilation or the absolute destruction of earlier works. In many cases, even these later monuments may be 150 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. studied with advantage, so far as they convey historical information by their inscriptions and their heraldry, and also by means of the costume and armour of their effigies. But as works of art and as monuments they are equally unworthy of regard, except such regard, indeed, as may at once secure lis from any repetition of similar produc- tions in time to come, and lead to the general adoption of really admirable monumental memorials. SECTION XI. CHURCHYARD MONUMENTS. In the middle ages churchyard monuments do not appear to have been in common use ; but when used, they were always true to their own proper character, and, however simple, those of them that remain are worthy of our admiration. In more recent times this class of monuments has been universally prevalent ; and yet amongst the crowd of stones which fill our church- yards and cemeteries*it would have been difficult, until within the last few years, to have discovered a single satisfactory example. A better sentiment is beginning to prevail, and it is to be hoped that our own monu- mental memorials, as we erect them year by year, will deserve to rank with the commemorative works of ages that have long passed away. CHAPTER IV. HERALDRY. SECTION I. INTRODUCTORY. Long before human events were regularly chronicled in history, it was an usage universally prevalent amongst mankind for both individuals and communities to be distinguished by some sign, device, or cognizance. The idea of symbolical expression, indeed, appears to form a component element of the human mind. Through the agency of such figurative imagery, the mind is able both to concentrate a wide range of thought within a very narrow compass, and to give to the whole a visible form under a single image. While a tendency to sym- . holism thus may be regarded as inherent in mankind in general, many of the most striking forms of both symbo- lical thought and expression were unquestionably derived by the nations of Europe from that wonderful people who, from so remote a period, were established in the valley of the Nile. 152 HERALDRY. Greece was the channel by which Egypt transmitted her symbols and her arts, hand in hand, towards theWest. The particular class of symbolical devices here to be considered, so far as relates to their use by ourselves in common with the other nations of Europe, certainly have their origin from the East. The description of the shields of the seven chiefs who were present at the ancient siege of Thebes, as given by the tragedian iEschylus, is in itself sufficient evidence to show that the Greeks knew and used a system of military heraldry. The same sym- bolical language was thoroughly understood by the Romans. And of the heraldry of the dark and turbulent ages which succeeded the overthrow of Rome, some inte- resting relics were displayed when the Norman William and Harold the Anglo-Saxon met at Hastings. The Crusades brought the chivalry of the West into direct contact with a military system strangely different from their own ; and hence, together with great changes in their weapons and armour, the knights of Europe brought home with them from the East fresh varieties of armorial devices. The prevalent use of defensive armour, indeed, rendered it necessary for each warrior to assume and wear some personal cognizance, without INTRODUCTORY. 153 which he could not have been distinguished : crests, for this purpose, were placed upon basiuets and helmets ; and both the surcoats which the knights wore over their armour and the shields which long formed most im- portant components of their defensive equipment, were emblazoned with some device — whence the heraldic phrases, "coats of arms" &vA" shields of arms" The devices which were thus used speedily became associated either with individuals, families, or the entire community of a particular nation ; and, accordingly, they may be considered after a definite method, their varieties readily admit of classification, their characteristics may be clearly elucidated and fully set forth, and they may be subjected to certain general laws and treated as forming a system in themselves. This classification and description, and these general laws, are united with the devices and insignia them- selves under the common title of heraldry. Heraldry appears to have rapidly attained to a com- plete organization amongst the nations of Western Europe, and to have been recognised by them as a dis- tinct science. It was admirably suited to the peculiar requirements of the feudal system and to the prevailing 154 HERALDRY. sentiments of the feudal ages. By it the distinctions of right, usage, and pretension were at once defined and maintained, at the very time in which these distinctions were held to he matters of primary importance, and when the observance of them was rigidly enforced. It was able, in chivalrous days, to impart to chivalrous deeds a fresh lustre of its own, by at once assigning to them a suitable recompense, and rendering the memorial of them imperishable.. The power also, and conse- quently the value, of heraldry,, as a handmaid to history, was recognised from the first. And it is because of this quality — because it conveys so much history in so concise a form — that mediaeval heraldry possesses such strong claims upon us for attentive and sympathizing study. The right and the power to bestow heraldic insignia speedily became vested in the sovereign; and special officers were appointed to administer this essentially royal prerogative. At the first of an exclusively military character, heraldic insignia after a while extended their applica- bility over a wider range; and at length armorial de- vices became associated with the pageantries of peace and the usages of ordinary life. THE SHIELD, AND TTS DIVISIONS. 155 In many general conditions the heraldry of all Euro- pean countries participates; but there are also many particular points, connected as well with the use and application of heraldic devices as with the forms and treatment of the devices themselves, by which the heraldry of every country is distinguished. In our own country, besides the actual shields of the knights, we find representations of knightly shields charged with heraldic insignia, and used in rings, seals, monuments, and architecture with its accessories; the heraldic in- signia themselves were also blazoned upon flags and the sails of ships, on various articles of costume, and on many other objects. SECTION II. THE SHIELD, AND ITS DIVISIONS. The form of the shield varies considerably at different periods. The Norman shields were long and tapering. To these succeeded short, almost triangular, heater- shaped shields. With the close of the thirteenth cen- tury they acquired the elegant form exemplified in Plate III. They were shortened in the next century ; and still later their form was altogether changed, and became somewhat square, the edges being formed by a 156 HERALDRY. series of concave curves. In these last shields a curved notch is cut out, for the lance to pass through, in the dexter chief; when thus pierced a shield is said to be a bouche. The upper part of the shield, is the chief, and the lower part the base. That side of the shield which would cover the right side of the knight who holds it is the dexter, and the other is the sinister side. The centre of the shield is the Jess-point, and above this is the honour- point. The surface ox field of a shield may be divided by lines which are either straight, or curved, or indented, or which are otherwise varied in their contour. SECTION III. TINCTURES, FURS, AND DIAPERS. The colours or tinctures in English heraldry are — or, gold or yellow; argent, silver or white (these two are distinguished as metals) ; azure, blue ; gules, red ; sable, black ; vert, green ; and purpure, purple (rarely used) ; which five are distinguished as colours. And it is a law of blazon (or heraldic display) that, in the arrangement of any devices upon a shield, metal shall not be upon metal, nor colour upon colour ; but colour shall be upon metal, and metal tipon colour. Thus, a silver star shall TINCTURES, FURS, AND DIAPERS. 157 not be upon a field or other object of gold, but upon blue or another colour; and so, in like manner, a cross or other device of any colour shall be upon either gold or silver. If a shield be so divided that one part of the field be gold and the other part blue, and upon the gold be a blue star and upon the blue a gold star, the gold and the blue are said to be counter -clian g ed ; and the same term applies to any similar arrangement of tinc- tures and heraldic devices or charges. Besides the tinctures, there are the heraldic furs — ermine, with black spots on white, and ermines, with white spots on black; also vair, represented by little bell-like figures, alternately white and blue, with some others. Diaper was a mode of ornamenting surfaces with deli- cate patterns in gold, silver, or colours, irrespective of the heraldic tinctures. The same term also denotes a pattern carved in low relief upon any flat surface in a shield of arms, for the purpose of ornamenting such flat surface, without any heraldic signification being asso- ciated with the ornamentation thus produced. The effect of this diaper is very rich. The fine shields of De Vere and De Valence, figured in Plate III., and of 158 HERALDRY. Percy in Plate IX., are most beautiful examples of such diaper. It will be observed that the shields in Plate III., together with those of Edward the Confessor and of Raymond, Count of Provence, in "Westminster Abbey, (Figs. 1 and 2, Plate IX.), are represented as being sus- pended by the guige or shield-belt, by w-hich the actual shield was secured to the person of the wearer. In the Westminster examples the guige to each shield appears to be either double or very long. SECTION IV. HERALDIC DEVICES AND ACCESSORIES. The simple figures first borne upon shields, and entitled ordinaries, are the chief, or upper third of the field ; the pale, which passes perpendicularly over the centre ; the bend, which crosses diagonally from the dexter chief to the sinister base ; the Jess, which crosses the shield hori- zontally, and occupies the central third of the field ; the chevron, which has the form of a pair of the rafters of a roof joined together; the cross; and the saltire, a cross set diagonally. Modifications of these ordinaries are also in use, as the bar, the barrulet, and the cotise, dimi- nutives of the fess; the bendlet, the chevronel, and a numerous variety of crosses. With these are associated HETtALLE.Y, _ SHIELDS 8c CREST Plat.e. JX _1 i i :s l "WeBtrmriBterAHbwakou<-1250. - 2. Shield of E&w.-i . . boat! . 3. Shield of Percy ,iram the Per \ •■, Beverley '. ■. tjout"1350. .4 i f Ponce John of EKhan ] 334 . 1 1 '!' Ma Lntetia C G JrwtcL cld.etMi. Brooks Imp HERALDIC DEVICES AND ACCESSORIES. 159 a second series of figures, not so simple as the ordinaries, and yet by no means complex, which are styled sub- ordinaries. And, in addition to devices which thus admit a simple classification, heralds have adopted for armorial charges an infinite variety of figures, animate and inanimate, natural, actually existing, and purely imaginary. These figures are used in various tinctures, combinations, groupings, and forms of arrangement ; and appropriate terms, derived from some circumstance connected with the charges themselves, have been in- vented, for the purpose of describing these charges under their different conditions. Thus a lion is said to be either couchant, passant, or rampant; an eagle, volant; a stag, tripping ; a fish, naiant. In arranging the devices which form a " coat of arms," the law of blazon before mentioned is observed in every particular. Thus, in the arms of Graham, as borne by the Duke of Montrose, the field of the shield is or (metal), upon which rests a chief, sable (colour), and again upon the chief are arranged three escallop -shells, or. The Shield always bears a complete heraldic composition, and this composition is entitled the " shield of arms," or " coat of arms." 160 HERALDRY. Above the shield is placed the Crest. This is a dis- tinct device, originally actually worn upon the knightly helmet. The helmet was encircled by a wreath, formed of two rolls, one of cloth of gold or silver, and the other of a rich material of some colour, entwined together, and upon this wreath the crest rested. Accordingly, upon a representation of this wreath, the heraldic crest is placed above a shield of arms. The Helmet itself is sometimes introduced above a shield, bearing its own wreath and crest. The royal helmet, and that of a prince, a duke, and a marquis, is set facing to the front; it is open, but guarded by bars, the royal helmet having six, the others five bars. Noblemen below the rank of marquis have a similar helmet set in profile. Baronets and knights have open helmets with- out bars, set to the front, and the helmet of esquires and gentlemen is closed and in profile. From the helmet, in a complete heraldic composition, which includes with the shield its accessories, and is en- titled an achievement of arms, the mantling hangs down and forms a kind of background to the whole composi- tion. It was originally a covering for the helmet, and it is now represented as being made of velvet or silk, HERALDIC DEVICES AND ACCESSORIES. 161 and lined with ermine, and it is generally much jagged, or cut into leaves, &c, at its edges. In place of the wreath, the crest sometimes stands npon a chapeau, or ancient cap of dignity, formed of crimson velvet, lined and turned up (or guarded) with ermine. The crest of the Black Prince, a lion of Ens'- land with a label, stands upon a chapeau, as it is repre- sented in Plate IX., Fig. 5, from the originals in Canter- bury Cathedral. In some cases the crest is placed upon a CORONET. The sovereign places the royal crown upon the helmet, and above this stands the crest. The crests of the nobility, in like manner, are placed above their coronets. The usage of encircling the helmet with the crown or coronet would give rise to such an arrange- ment. Below the shield appears the scroll, charged with the motto, or brief sentence, which has often some reference to the charges of the shield, or to the name, rank, or personal distinctions of the bearer. Thus, the motto of the sovereign is dieu et mon droit ; that of the Duke of Wellington, virtutis eortuna comes ; the mottoes of Vernon, Nevill, and Fortescue, are severally M 162 HERALDRY. VER NON SEMPER VIRET, NE VILE VELIS, and FORTE scutum salus ducum ; and the motto of John Major, Baron Henniker (who bears three columns in his shield of arms), is deus major column a. Very many of the mottoes borfle by persons of all ranks are remarkable for their point, suggestiveness, and felicity of expres- sion. Standing upon the scroll, or upon whatever 'resting- place the position of the shield may afford, in the achievements of princes and persons of distinction, are the supporters, one on either side of the shield, which they appear to hold up and sustain, or over which they may be considered to be keeping guard. These acces- sories are not of very early date. The shield of Richard II., so beautifully sculptured over the entrance to West- minster Hall, is supported and guarded by a group of angels. Two harts also appear associated with a shield of the same prince as supporters. SECTION V. BLAZONRY. The language of heraldry is peculiar ; but, at the same time, it is in the highest degree appropriate and consis- tent with both the principles and the object of heraldry BLAZONRY. 1G3 itself. Thus heraldic language is as concise as possible, and yet it is minutely exact in its descriptions. It always avoids repetitions, but it never leaves the most trifling matter without careful notice. In blazoning (or describing heraldically) a shield of arms, the several charges are always specified in their order, as they may be supposed to be nearest to the surface of the shield itself. Thus the tincture of the field is first named, then the ordinary, and afterwards the other charges. For ex- ample : — the arms of Villiers, Earl of Jersey, are blazoned — Argent, on a cross, gules, five escallops, or. Here five escallop shells of gold are placed upon a red cross, which, in its turn, rests on the silver field of the shield. The shields in Plate IX. are blazoned as follows : — Fig. 2. Azure, about a cross fieury, five martlets, or — the arms assigned to Edward the Confessor; Fig. 1. Or, four pallets, gules — borne by Raymond, Earl of Provence ; Fig. 4. Gules, three lions passant guardant, in pale, or (for England), within a bordure, azure, semee de lys, of the second, (that is, of gold, the second tincture already specified,) borne by Prince John of Eltiiam ; Fig. 3. Or, a lion rampant, azure, for Percy ; and the blazon of the two shields in Plate III. is, Quarterly, gules and or, m 2 164 HERALDRY. in the first quarter a mullet, argent, for De Vere ; and Barry of twelve, argent and azure, an orle of martlets, gules, for De Valencn. These shields are all of them admirably executed, and the last, which is in enamel of great beauty, is attached to the remarkable effigy in Westminster Abbey of William de Valence, Earl of Pembroke, who was killed a.d. 1296. SECTION VI. MARSHALLING. The association of certain " arms/' or heraldic insignia, with the hereditary possessors of certain dignities, would require the same individual to bear more than one ar- morial ensign, whenever several dignities became con- centrated in a single person. Hence arose the practice of quartering arms. By this process the field of a sino-le shield was divided into four divisions, and one of the different coats of arms was placed in each division. The coat of the highest dignity would occupy the first quarter, and the others would follow in their order. If there were but two coats to be quartered, the same coat was repeated in the first and fourth quarters, and the second coat in the second and third quarters. (See Plate XI., Fig. 3.) If three coats were to be quartered, the MARSHALLING. 1G5 principal one would occupy the first and fourth quarters, and the other two coats would appear in the second and third quarters respectively. If more than four coats were to be quartered, the shield might be divided in the required number of quarterings. Shields appear divided into quarters at an early period, as in the De Vere shield at Hatfield Broadoak, Essex (Plate III., Fig. 1), which was certainly executed in the thirteenth century, though it cannot be assigned (according' to the popular tradition) to that Robert de Vere w r ho died a.d. 1221. It is more probably the shield of his grandson, another Robert, who died a.d. 1290. The arms of Cas- tile and Leon are also quartered upon the tomb of Queen Eleanor^ a.d. 1290. There does not, however, appear any conclusive authority for determining that distinct coats were quartered upon one shield before Edward III. placed upon his royal shield the arms of France and England after this fashion, a.d. 1341. Approaches to- wards quartering are shown in the seals of Humphrey and John de Bohun, fourth and fifth Earls of Hereford, and also Earls of Essex (a.d. 1321 and 1327), in which seals on either side of the shield of Hereford that of Essex is placed, the whole being enclosed within the 166 HERALDRY. legend. The example of the king was speedily followed, and quartered shields became common as the fourteenth century advanced towards its close. The fine brass to Sir Hugh Hastings, a.d. 1347, at Elsyng, Norfolk, con- tains a quartered shield of Edward III., and also the shield of Lawrence Hastings, Earl of Pembroke, which quarters Hastings and De Valence. The shields in this brass are all richly diapered. Impalement was another method for uniting two dis- tinct coats of arms upon one shield. It was effected by dividing the shield, by a vertical line passing through its centre, into two equal parts, and then placing one coat of arms in each half of the shield. The arms of a husband and wife were thus impaled, ; the arms of the husband always occupying the dexter, and those of the wife the sinister half of the shield. Bishops also impale the arms of their sees with their own, the arms of the see being placed on the dexter side. When first introduced, impalement was effected by cutting the two coats of arms to be impaled into halves, and taking the dexter half of the husband's arms and the sinister half of the wife's, and thus placing these two halves side by side to form a single combined armorial ensign. This was MARSHALLING. 1G7 styled impaling by dimidiation, or dimidiating. Subse- quently, the whole of each coat of arms was retained upon the impaled shield or banner, as in the banner of Richard II. (Plate XL, Fig. 3), which impales the quartered arms of France and England with those of Edward the Confessor. This very interesting banner is drawn from the noble brass to Sir Symon de Felbrigge, K.G., banner-bearer to the unfortunate Richard, which is preserved in the Church at Felbrigg in Norfolk. The arrangement of the quarterings and of the impalement in a shield of arms, together with the due adjustment of the heraldic accessories, is denominated marshalling. Upon the jupons worn by the knights of the four- teenth century over their armour, the coat of arms was commonly displayed. When the tabard was adopted, the heraldic blazon was repeated upon the back, and also on each of the short sleeves. Coats of arms were also commonly embroidered upon the dresses of ladies in the middle ages, or their dresses were ornamented with small shields of arms. In these cases, the paternal coat of arms of any lady was placed upon her tunic, and the arms of her husband upon her mantle or outer garment. 163 HERALDRY. SECTION VII. DIFFERENCING. The hereditary character of heraldry would render it necessary to distinguish, by certain definite and reco- gnised symbols, the arms of the different members of the same family. This was accomplished either by introducing some slight modification into the charges of the shield, or by adding to them a fresh symbol. The earliest symbol, the label, was a narrow ribbon stretched across the chief of the shield, from which three or five short pieces of the same ribbon hung down. One of these labels encircles the throat of the lion, which is the crest of the Black Prince (see Plate IX. Fig. 5). Upon these points of the label different distinctive devices were often placed. It was also an early usage to sur- round the shield with a border, or bordure, for difference. Upon this border various devices might be introduced. At later periods, shields were differenced for the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth sons, with a label (of three points only, and not extended across the shield), a crescent, & mullet (star of five points), niartlet (bird), annulet (ring), and fleur-de-lys. These differences might be doubled : thus, the second son of a DIFFERENCING. 169 second son might place a small crescent upon a larger. Royal shields are differenced with a label or bordure, the charges upon the points of the label indicating the dif- ferent royal personages to whom the shields belong. The marks of cadency (as they are termed) in the shields of the sons of Edward III., and of the earlier Plantagenet princes, are curious in themselves, and highly interest- ing as showing from what sources such peculiar insignia were derived. Edward L, Edward II., and Edward III., before they came to the crown, differenced with a label azure. Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, second son of Henry III., charged his azure label with golden fleur-de- lys ; and the differences borne by his sons and his grand- son are very remarkable. Thomas, Earl of Norfolk, and Edmund, Earl of Kent, second and third surviving sons of Edward I., respectively differenced with a label and a bordure, argent. John of Eltham, second son of Edward II., bore the lions of England within a bordure of France — azure, with Jleitrs-de-lys, or (Plate IX., Fig. 4; drawn from his effigy in Westminster Abbey ; a prototype of the quartered shield of Edward III.). The Black Prince differenced his father's quartered shield with a silver label ; and his son Richard added, upon the middle 170 HERALDRY. point of the label, a cross of St. George. Lionel, Duke of Clarence, charged each point of the label with a canton, gules. John of Gaunt bore a label, ermine ; and his son Henry (afterwards Henry IV.), during his father's lifetime, placed a label of France upon the shield of England alone. Edmund, Duke of York (fifth son of Edward III.) charged each point of his silver label with torteaux (red roundles) ; and Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, youngest son of Edward III., bore the quartered shield of his father within a bordure, argent. Edward and liiehard, the two sons of the Duke of York, in their father's lifetime severally bore France and England, quarterly, differenced with a label, gules, having each point charged with castles, or; and the Duke of York differenced his shield with a bordure, argent, charged with lions, purpure. It appears, also, from one of the Burghersh monuments in Lincoln Cathedral, that, before the year 1362, Lionel, Duke of Clarence, differenced with a label, or, having on each point a cross, gules, and Edmund, Duke of York, with a label, chequy. SECTION VIII. BADGES. Badges were heraldic devices assumed in addition to i HERALDRY, BADGES Plate X. 1 . 5 DeP 0- Jrv. m . . BADGES. FLAGS. 171 those which formed the coat of arms, or they were taken from it in order to be home separately. Thus, in Plate X. there are figures of the black swan, with its ducal coronet and chain, the badge of the De Bohuns ; the silver escallop, attached by an intertwined cord to a ragged staff, the badge of the Dacres ; and the Spencer badge, a griffin erect, holding a banner of the Spencer arms. The three feathers, each with its label, were the well-known badge of the Black Prince. John of Gaunt assumed the portcullis, and with it the apposite motto, altera securitas. The white hart, lodged, and the sun shining from behind a cloud, were badges of Richard II. Henry Y. bore the chained antelope and swan, and the fire-beacon ; and the red and white roses, with the sun, were the famous badges of the rival houses of York and Lancaster. SECTION IX. FLAGS. Heraldic devices were, from an early period, embla- zoned upon flags of various kinds. The lance of every knight was distinguished by some kind of lance-jlag, of which a characteristic example is given in Plate XI., Fig. 6. As soon as heraldry had assumed a definite form, flags became subject to established rules. The 172 HERALDRY. three varieties of flags in use in the middle ages were the pennon, the banner, and the standard. The pennon was small in size, pointed or swallow-tailed at the ex- tremity (or fly), and borne immediately below the lance- head : it was charged with a badge or other armorial device, and these devices appear to have been set upon the pennon in such a manner as to appear in their proper positions when the weapon was laid for the charge. The brass to Sir John D'Aubernoun affords a good specimen of the knightly pennon : it is represented in Fig. 1 of Plate XI. The Banner was square in form, or nearly so, and was charged with the coat of arms of the' owner, and not with any other device. A pennon with its points torn off would make a banner ; and thus banners were made on the field of battle when, in reward for his gallantry, a knight was advanced to the rank of a banneret by the sovereign himself, present in person, with his own royal banner displayed. In Plate IX., Figs. 3 and 4, are repre- sentations of the banners of Richard II. and of St. Ed- mund; the former from the brass to the king's banner- bearer, Sir Symon de Felbrigge, K.G., at Felbrigg, Nor- folk, and the latter from an illumination. King Richard HERALDRY- BANNERS, &c. Plate IT Fi;.. J : "'■':. r,r,n at Sir Jahrill'Aubeniaua.Stokellabernaii.Siii 1 1 , 2 5 ■'■ i.' lards af HeuryVin . '■' Royal Bartner of BidhaicLII. ,Mbng§, Norfolk 4. Banner of 3*EctmuncL FLAGS. 173 II. impaled his own quartered shield with the armorial insignia attributed to Edward the Confessor — azure, about a cross fleury five martlets, or. (Plate XI., Fig. 3.) The Standard was always of considerable length in proportion to its depth, and tapering towards the extre- mity. With occasional exceptions, when they bore royal devices, English standards always had the cross of St. George at the head ; then came the device, badge, or crest, to which succeeded the motto. But standards never bore the coat of arms ; and thus they are specially distinguished from banners. They were distributed amongst the followers of any baron or knight; and they might be displayed amidst the followers of a knight who was not entitled to bear or use a banner. The examples in Plate IX., Figs. 2 and 5, are both standards of Henry VIII. ; both show the livery colours of that prince, white and green, and one has his badge, a portcullis, and the other has a cross of St. George only. Standards are evidently the prototypes of the ensigns of later times. But what we entitle " the royal standard" ought to be called " the royal banner ;" and in like manner the flags of our cavalry are knightly banners, and banners they ought to be called, and not standards. 174 HERALDRY. Amongst remarkable mediaeval banners were those of the Crusader Kings of Jerusalem and of the Knights Tem- plars. The former bore five golden crosses upon a field of silver — an intentional violation of heraldic law, for the purpose of distinguishing the ensign of the Christian King of the Holy City from the insignia of all other potentates. The Temple banner, called beauseant, was argent and sable; the black to typify terror to foes, and the white to declare amity to friends. The celebrated oriflamme of France was a plain banner, composed of a very rich scarlet or flame-coloured silk. Coats of arms were often emblazoned on the sails of early English shipping. SECTION X. KNIGHTLY INSIGNIA. The insignia of knightly orders necessarily engaged the particular attention of the mediaeval heralds. The insignia of the Garter may be seen displayed about shields of arms, as well as upon many sculptured effigies, and in four brasses. In two or three instances effigries of ladies, whose husbands were knights of the order, are invested with the insignia, worn either about the upper arm or as a bracelet. Collars, as badges of personal service to the KNIGHTLY INSIGNIA. 175 sovereign, or as emblems of party alliance, were also worn, and appear in early monuments. The Lancastrian collar of SS, said to have been introduced as well as adopted by Henry IV., is common amongst the effigies of the adherents of the house of Lancaster : it was also worn by ladies; and it appears about the throat of Joanna of Navarre, queen of Henry IV., on her effigy at Canterbury. This collar was fastened by a pendant formed of three conjoined rings. The effigies of Yorkists are distinguished by the collar of suns and roses, with the white lion of the house of March as the pendant. Private collars, bearing personal or family badges, were also worn, as by Lord Berkeley in his brass at Wooton in Gloucestershire. This Berkeley collar is composed of a series of mermaids. The celebrated knightly orders of the Temple and of St. John of Jerusalem were distinguished by the crosses which the knights wore upon their surcoats, tunics, and mantles. The knights of the most noble Order of the Garter wore the insignia of that order, in accordance with the present system. Examples of effigies with the Garter insignia are often to be observed. Canting heraldry is the term applied to the favourite 176 HERALDRY. system of adopting devices which form a pun upon a name or title. Any such device is also called a rebus. In St. Alban's Abbey Church, the arms of Abbot John de Wheathamstede appear to have been — gules, a chevron, between three ears of wheat, or; and the opposite chantry, that of Abbot Ramryge, abounds in heraldic rams, each of which has about its neck a collar bearing the letters, ryge. Names ending in ton were almost invariably rendered with a tun or cask, to denote the last syllable. Thus Ashton has for his rebus an ash tree growing out of a cask ; Stapleton has a small cask within a staple, &c. Many monuments exhibit the royal arms, to denote that the person commemorated either bore some office or held some lands under the crown. The arms of the guilds of merchants may also be often seen, and merchants marks upon shields : these last being quaint devices, usually accompanied with one or more initial letters, adopted by wealthy traders who were not permitted to assume regular arms. In early monuments the heraldic charges were fre- quently caiwed with great spirit, in relief; the shields in the canopy of the Percy shrine in Beverley Minster, executed about 1360, are amongst the finest examples KNTGIITLY INSIGNIA. 177 in existence. The tinctures were commonly indicated by a species of enamel, or they were actually painted. The blue enamel of the shield of Sir John D'Aubernoun yet remains, and retains the freshness of its colour. Fine examples of early shields may be studied, with equal delight and advantage, in the choir-aisles of West- minster Abbej'. These admirable works (to two of which reference has already been made in Plate IX.), notwithstanding the sad injuries which they have expe- rienced, show how true was the heraldic feeling as early as the time of Henry III. ; they also participate with the other examples which the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries produced, in proving that heraldry is to be regarded no less as an art than as a science. The roll of the siege of Caerlaverock, by Edward I., a.d. 1300, contains a highly-interesting series of banners of arms ; and various other MSS., with stained glass, monuments, and early edifices will supply the student with ample means for investigating the heraldry of the middle ages. He will do well carefully to observe the treatment of heraldic devices at different periods, as well as to fami- liarize himself with the distinctive insignia of persons and houses famous in history; for, while a general know- N 178 HERALDRY. ledge of heraldry may be acquired without this twofold study, by it alone will the student attain to the true feeling of a herald. It appeal's desirable here to add a brief description of the more important changes which have taken place in the royal arms of England. They are as follows : — 1. Two lions, William I. till accession of Henry II., a.d. 1066-1154. 2. Three lions, Henry II. till 15th of Edward III., 1154-1342. 3. France and England quarterly, the field of France being semee of fleurs-de-lys, 15th Edward III. till Henry V., 1342-1413. 4. As before, but with three fleurs-de-lys, Henry V. till James I., 1413-1603. 5. James I. added the arms of Scotland and Ireland. 6. William III. (a.d. 1689) added the arms of Nassau, which were removed by Anne (a.d. 1702). 7. George I. (a.d. 1714) added the arms of Hanover. 8. The arms of France were removed, a.d. 1801. 9. The arms of Hanover were removed a.d. 1837. CHAPTER V. SEALS. SECTION I . INTRODUCTORY. One of the first uses of any symbolical device would pro- bably be to apply it for the purpose either of marking- property, or of authenticating the record of important transactions. Accordingly, some kind of stamp would be formed, for the purpose of affixing the required symbol. Hence the origin of seals. It is somewhat remarkable that seals should not have been introduced into our own country until so late a period as the time of Edward the Confessor. The earlier Saxon princes were content simply to prefix a figure of a cross to the writing of their names, even upon their most important documents. But from the time of the Confessor the royal seals of England form an uninter- rupted series of the highest interest and value. It is sup- N 2 180 SEALS. posed that a few Saxon seals, besides the seal of the Con- fessor, are in existence. It was not, however, until a few years after the Norman conquest that seals came into general use in England. When once fairly established, for the space of about four centuries seals appear to have been in high favour with all classes of our ancestors. They were engraved in vast numbers ; and they became, early in the twelfth century, the peculiar means in universal use for authenticating all written documents. To the archaeologist, accordingly, they offer the most prolific stores of information, and he finds them to be at once the most varied and the most graphic illustrators of history. The art of seal-engraving, in the first instance sin- gularly rude, and yet giving promise of future excellence, attained to its highest perfection during the reign of Edward III., when it was very extensively practised. Figures of every kind, architecture, heraldic and other de- vices, with every variety both of accessory and of legend, were introduced into these early seals ; and hence they afford such varied illustrations of the taste, feelings, fancy, humour, and also of the superstitions of their times ; his- tory, genealogy, and biography, at the same time derive INTRODUCTORY. 181 from them both evidence and facts of peculiar impor- tance. Antique engraved gems appear occasionally in use as seals throughout the middle ages. In cases of this kind it was the custom to place the gem in such a setting as would receive the legend which was destined to explain its new application. Gems were also engraved to form seals by the mediaeval artists, and they were set as rings ; signet-rings were also very frequently made, by simply cutting the devices and legends on the metal of which the rings themselves were formed. The larger seals (and many of the early seals are of considerable size) were engraved on suitable pieces of gold, silver, brass (latten), or steel ; jet is found to have been sometimes employed, with some other materials. In form these seals are either circular or pointed ovals, the latter shape being that generally adopted by ecclesiastics, though not by any means restricted to them. The royal seals are circular. In rare instances seals are found which are lozenge-shaped, triangular, or cut to the form of an heraldic shield. Impressions were taken in wax of various colours, as green, red, and various shades of brown, and a dull 182 SEALS. yellow; white wax was also commonly used. Like coins, the more important seals are found to have been very commonly impressed on both sides. Id taking' these impressions, consequently, two dies or matrices, each having its own device and legend, were employed ; these were severally called the seal and counter -seal. The prevailing practice was to append the seal to the document, of which it became the attesting symbol. The early documents themselves were generally written on -small pieces of parchment, many of them being scarcely larger than a modern bank-note. A double strip of parchment, or a cord generally of silk, was drawn through the lower part of the document to be sealed, and upon this parchment-strip, or upon the silken cord, the wax was melted and the impression taken; and thus the seal would hang down below the writing, to which it had been appended. Where many persons wit- nessed an important transaction, the seal of each of these witnesses would be appended to the written in- strument. It appears to have been considered sufficient for the purpose of attestation, that some seal should be used ; but it was not held to be necessary that the seal in use should be the seal of the person using it. Of INTRODUCTORY. 183 course, for identification, it would be preferable, and it was the general custom, for every person to seal with his own seal ; but in many instances the grantor or attestor is found to have appended to a document the seal of some other person, making it his own seal for the time being by the act of his using it. Such an adoption of a seal for present use is rarely, if ever, to be observed without the signatures (and perhaps the seals also) of attesting witnesses. In some cases seals, appended after the same manner, were struck upon lead : such seals are known as bulla. The Papal instruments, of such importance in the middle ages, were thus sealed, and from these bullae the documents themselves were entitled " Bulls." Until the close of the fourteenth century the wax upon which the seal was impressed was left uncovered; but in the fifteenth century it became customary to cover the wax, for the sake of preserving it, with a wrapper of paper. The seal would thus be protected, but the sharpness of the impression would necessarily be much impaired. When the wax was not thus covered, several ingenious devices were employed for securing it from injury; thus, a rush or a band of plaited paper was 184 SEALS. coiled round a seal and attached to it, or the leaves of trees were similarly used. The rush "fender" for seals appears to have been adopted as early as a.d. 1380, and it continued in use until the time of Henry VIII. Another process, by which some of the earliest seals were impressed, is termed sealing en placard. This was effected by cutting a cross figure (+ or x) through the parchment of a document, and lifting up the points of the incision so as to allow the wax to form a mass on both sides ; the impression was then made, at first, only on the upper face of the wax, but afterwards the impression of the counter-seal was added. This process was re- tained in use by ecclesiastics after it had been aban- doned in royal seals ; but after the twelfth century it appears to have been no longer practised. All the early French kings, until the year 1110, sealed en placard. The confessor appended his seals. There are, however, three documents granted by Saxon princes to the Abbey of St. Denis which, in conformity with the French usage, are sealed en placard. Sovereigns, and other persons of high rank, in addi- tion to their official seal, had a personal or private seal, CLASSIFICATION OF SEALS. 185 designated a secret am. The same individual also occa- sionally possessed more than one secretum ; and where several offices were held by one person, he would use a separate seal for each office. SECTION IT. CLASSIFICATION OF SEALS. In collecting or describing- seals it will be desirable to adopt a threefold system of classification. I. To divide all seals into (1.) Ecclesiastical; and (2.) Lay ox secular. II. To divide each of these primary divisions into (1.) Official; and (2.) Personal seals. III. To subdivide Ecclesiastical official seals into (1.) Seals of individuals, which make a reference to their dignities, offices, or preferments; (£.) Common seals of bodies corporate, and the like; and (3.) Official seals, which are not identijied with any individual officer. Also, to subdivide lay and secular official seals into (1.) Those of sovereigns and royal personages; (2.) Seals of other persons holding official appointments; and (.'}.) Common seals of bodies corporate, and the like. Each of these subdivisions will also admit of a subordinate classification; which may in like manner be 186 SEALS. extended to all personal seals, as well lay and secular as ecclesiastical. The nature of the devices and legends, the class of the different offices, and the rank of different persons, with other distinctive circumstances, will de- termine the ultimate classification. There will remain a separate group of unascertained and miscellaneous seals, which it will not be possible con- sistently to include in any definite classification. SECTION III. THE GREAT SEALS OF ENGLAND. These shields have two distinct designs, which in fact form the seal and counter-seal ; or the two designs may be considered to constitute a single seal, of which one design forms the obverse, and the other the reverse. Thus on every seal the sovereign is twice represented ; in the one case armed and on horseback, and in the other in royal robes, seated upon a throne. It appears that the mounted figures were regarded as the obverse, or the seal, and those enthroned were the reverse, or counter- seal. Until the time of John, the throne in these seals is a mere stool, with certain ornamental accessories. In the second seal of Henry III. the royal seat assumes a more dignified character, and architectural pinnacles and THE GREAT SEALS OF ENGLAND. 187 arcade-work are added to it. Edward I. copied the seal of his father, but his seal is better executed. The same seal was used by Edward II., with a figure of a castle added on each side of the throne. Great improvements in design, including elaborate architectural enrichments, with most interesting heraldry, were introduced in the different members of the series of Great Seals made by Edward III. The succeeding sovereigns also introduced various changes in the treatment of the design, and in the accessories with which it was accompanied. In the reign of Henry IV. two great seals are recorded to have been in use, one, as before, made of gold, and the other of silver. The equestrian figures of the obverse are all in energetic action ; and from the second seal of Stephen, the prince, armed from head to foot, holds his drawn weapon uplifted, as in the act to strike. In the earlier seals a lance appears instead of the sword. Most valuable illustrations of arms and armour are to be found in these seals. The equipments of the horses are peculiarly characteristic and remarkable. In the second seal of Richard I. the three lions of England for the first time make their appearance on the royal shield. Fig. 1 of Plate XII. is a fac-simile of the obverse of the great seal 188 SEALS. of the warlike Edward I. The armour is here well defined, and the lions appear on the bard'nig of the charger as well as on the king's shield. The legend is + : edwardvs : dei : gracia : hex : anglie : dns : (dominus) hybernie : dvx : aqvitaine. The great seals of Scotland hear a close general resemblance to those of the same periods in England. The seals of William the Lion, a.d. 1165, John Balliol, a.d. 1240, and Robert Bruce, 1300, are particularly fine, and the architectural canopy of the seal of Robert II. (Stuart), a.d. 1380, is worthy of special notice. The seal and counter-seal of Mary Queen of Scots arc charged with the figure of the Queen enthroned, and with the royal arms of Scotland, accompanied with the crown and supporters. In the great seals of France the sovereign sometimes appears, after the manner that prevailed in the seals of England and Scotland, both enthroned, and on horse- back. The earlier seals (and they commence from a very early period) are antique gems. In the greater number of these seals the figure of the king is repre- sented once only, the reverse of the seal bearing either a large fleur-de-lys, or a shield charged with fleurs-de-lys. ALS Plate III. keatSeal of / Edward I 2.Tfersonal Beal . \ 3 Device Seal . falriU tdetlii}, ^!nc«nt Brobb EXAMPLES OF VARTOUS SEALS. 189 On the seal of Philip III. (a.d. 1270—1285) the shield appears, and it is semee-de-lys. A figure of an angel holds the shield on a seal of Charles VI. (a.d. 1380—1422), and here the lilies are three only in number. The secreta of the different sovereigns are highly interesting, and they show how expressive a handmaid to history is Heraldry. SECTION IV. EXAMPLES OF VARIOUS SEALS. As examples of the various seals which would he grouped in the classes that have heen suggested to the archaeo- logical student, it will not be necessary to notice more than a very few characteristic specimens. The ecclesiastical seals generally exhibit the eccle- siastics themselves, with certain architectural canopies and tabernacle-work of their period, and also with shields of arms. It is common in these seals for the patron saint of the establishment to which any seal may belong, to be represented, with a small figure of an ecclesiastical official kneeling at the base of the seal. The seal of Thomas Arundell, Archbishop of Canter- bury, who crowned Henry IV., may serve to exemplify the class to which it belongs. It is large, and a pointed 190 SEALS. oval in form ; at the base, within an arched canopy, is the prelate in his full vestments ; on either side of him are the royal arms and those of the see impaling his own ; above, occupying the centre of the field, is repre- sented the death of Becket ; and in chief, with rich tabernacle-work, appears the emblem of the Holy Tri- nity. The legend is only seen at the sides of the com- position. A fine impression is attached to a deed in the possession of the parish of Wymondham in Norfolk. The reverse of a seal of Binham Priory, Norfolk, in the possession of Caius College, Cambridge, is very curious ; Binham was a cell of the great Abbey of St. Alban's, and accordingly upon this reverse the monkish legend of the death of the British protomartyr is exhibited ; the Roman lictor, armed in mediaeval fashion, has smitten off the head of the saint with a mighty sword ; the head has fallen to the ground, but the headless body has scarcely commenced its fall ; meanwhile, the unhappy executioner is endeavouring with one hand to catch his own eyes, which have dropped from their sockets be- cause of the dreadful spectacle ; the legend is martir OBIT VICTOR PRIVATVR LVM1NE LYCTOR. The seal of Milo, Earl of Gloucester (about a.d. 1130) EXAMPLES OF VARIOUS SEALS. 191 is a good example of early military seals ; it bears the mounted figure of the Earl, in a long hawberk, with a conical helm, a kite-shaped shield, a lance with a lance- flag, and a most formidable pryck-spur. The seal of his descendant, Humphrey de Bohun, fourth Earl of Here- ford, and third Earl of Essex, is no less characteristic of the commencement of the fourteenth century ; on the obverse is the Earl, fully armed, on his barded charger ; and on the reverse is the shield of De Bohun, sus- pended by its guige from a swan, the De Bohun badge ; and on either side of the central large shield is a much smaller shield, charged with the arms of the Earldom of Essex. The seals of Henry of Lancaster, afterwards Henry IV., of his uncle, the Black Prince, and his other unfortunate uncle and brother-in-law, Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, may be specified as affording examples of heraldic seals of the greatest excellence. The seal of Walter, Lord Hungerford (10th Henry VI.), is another striking specimen of a fine heraldic seal. A good small example of a personal seal of heraldic character is repre- sented in Fig. 2 of Plate XII. ; and in Fig. 3 of the same plate is shown a device-seal of a class which evi- dently enjoyed a widely-extended popularity; here a 192 SEALS. Lawk or falcon is seen preying upon a rabbit — an incident which the legend thus explains : + alas ie supris. Another seal of a similar character (of about a.d. 1320) bears as its device a hare mounted on a hound, and blowing a hunting-horn, with the legend + sonov robin. Another device-seal is equally characteristic of mediaeval feeling ; it is the seal of Walter de Grendene, about 1340, and it bears the figures of the husbaudman and his dog who were suddenly and unexpectedly, according to the ancient popular legend, carried up to the moon ; the man had stolen a bundle of thorns from a hedge, and this was his punishment. In the seal the moon is a very slight crescent, and a couple of stars are close to the astonished rustic, who appears to express enigmatically the maxim that " Honesty is the best policy" in the legend te waltere docebo cvr spinas ph.ebo gero — " I will teach you, Walter, why I carry thorns in the moon." Punning devices upon names, trades, &c, continually occur, with almost innumerable varieties of other figures. The corporate seals form a particularly interesting series : many of those which belong to seaport towns are remarkable for the examples which they supply of EXAMPLES OF VARIOUS SEALS. 193 the quaint shipping and craft, and the no less un-ship- shape-looking sailors of the middle ages. In forming collections of casts from early seals, gutta- percha will be found the material most easy to use, and at the same time the most enduring. CHAPTER VI. COINS. SECTION I. INTRODUCTORY. Coins would, in the earliest ages of their adoption, he considered as pieces of sealed metal; that is, the lump or mass of metal would have a certain understood value, authenticated hy the impress of the symbol of the city amongst whose citizens it circulated. In like manner, in transactions with other cities, or even with foreign countries, the symbol of the tutelar divinity of some particular state, or the image of some deity held in common and general reverence, would give authority and currency to the coin. The value of a regular coinage would naturally and necessarily soon become apparent ; and whatever capacities in art a people might possess, or a potentate could command, would speedily be brought into requisition, and coins would take their places amongst the art-productions of successive ages. The most ancient coins now known are those of INTRODUCTORY. 195 Greece, and of these, the earliest were struck in the island of iEgina, in the seventh century B.C. The coins of Lydia may claim the next place in the order of chro- nological succession ; and to these succeed the gold and silver Darics of the Persians. The coins of the Greeks may he divided into two great classes, which severally comprise the coins of the Greek cities or states, and of sovereign princes. The coins of the princes commence with Alexander the Great. The Greeks did not possess a gold coinage at the commencement of the Pelopon- nesian war, B.C. 430. The earliest coins are exceedingly rude in form and in both the character and execution of their types. The coins themselves are thick and globulous in shape, the type being commonly a, tortoise or turtle, with an in- dented scpuare on the reverse. Of these coins great numbers have come down to our times. About 500 years B.C., the Greek coins attained to some degree of excellence ; and in the century preceding the birth of Alexander the Great (from about 450 to 350 B.C.), they gradually acquired the highest equalities of numismatic art. At this time the coins of Rome began to claim particular attention, and they vary in their character o % 196 coins. and in their quality as works of art during the last years of the Republic and the first years of the Empire, until under Hadrian, a.d. 117 — 138, the Roman mintage reached its highest perfection. The Romans first coined copper or brass, and silver and gold coins were afterwards added to their currency. Their entire coinage may be gene- rally divided into the consular and the Imperial coins ; and the imperial series will admit of a subdivision into the periods between Augustus and Hadrian, and Hadrian and Constantine, with a third class including the de- based but still interesting varieties which were produced in such abundance after the imperial recognition of the Christian faith. It will be observed that all the most ancient coins are impressed with representations of objects held in the highest reverence — with sacred symbols and figures, that is, and with the heads of personages who were regarded with special respect and admiration. Portraits, in the strict acceptation of that term, were not admitted upon any coinage until coins had been in use for several cen- turies : Julius Caesar was the first amongst the Romans who obtained permission from the Senate to place a portrait-head of himself upon the coinage. In the ANCIENT BRITISH COINS. 197 earliest legends which appear on coins, the letters are commonly retrograde ; or, when in two lines, they are alternately retrograde and in direct order. The legends themselves are almost invariably written with the most concise abbreviations, except in the case of the principal words ; and the forms of the letters will be found often curious and always characteristic. In connexion with the devices which they accompany and illustrate, many of these coin-legends possess the highest interest : thus, upon certain of his coins, both in gold and silver, the Emperor Claudius struck the words de britannis, and Vespasian and Titus have commemorated upon their coins an event, unique in the history of the world, with the legends ivdaea. capta., and ivdaea. de- victa. The value of coins as illustrators of history it is im- possible to estimate too highly : they are, indeed, the most graphic, the most certain, and the most imperish- able of historical records. SECTION II. — ANCIENT BRITISH COINS. Barbarous indeed were the coins which the Celtic Britons used before the Roman invasion : still it is cer- ] 98 COTNS. tain that, however rude, a native British coinage did exist which had no connexion whatever with Rome. A rude figure of a horse was a prevailing type upon these primitive coins, and where the metal was stamped on both sides the reverse devices are apparently devoid of any aim at a definite signification. The prototype of these coins may have been derived through a trading intercourse with the Phoenicians : and when once any- thing resembling a system of coinage was established amongst the Britons, it is easy to imagine that they would adapt to their own sentiments and circumstances the prevailing types of such coins as they might obtain from more civilized regions. The coins of Cunobeline, who reigned over the districts to the east and the south of the Severn, and is said to have been specially favoured by Augustus Csesar, are occasionally found : they bear his name, generally in an abbreviated form, and they exhibit his natural inclination to the types of the Roman moneyers. Amongst his favourite devices are the horse and the ear of corn, with some figures from classic mytho- logy. It appears that the Britons coined in both the precious metals as well as in copper. After the establishment of the Roman power in Bri- ANGLO-SAXON COINS. 199 tain, the Roman coinage superseded that of the native islanders. Of this Roman coinage a separate notice will be found at the end of the present chapter. SECTION III. ANGLO-SAXON COINS. The coinage of the Anglo-Saxons was rather derived from that of Rome than a direct imitation of it. Some of these coins are evidently the results of attempts to reproduce Roman types, but they more generally exhibit little beyond faint traces of a Roman origin. Others of the Anglo-Saxon coins are evidently original, though far from being worthy of admiration. Upon these coins some form of the cross is generally stamped. It is probable that coins of gold were not in use amongst the Anglo-Saxons. When gold was used by them for pur- poses of payment, it appears to have been their custom to employ that metal in the form of torques, armilla?, and other personal ornaments. The principal Anglo-Saxon coins are the see atta, penny and halfpenny of silver, and. the styca of copper. Their value is doubtful, but it is certain that at the close of the seventh century the sceatta was the coin of the lowest value known to the Anglo-Saxons. Amongst the finest 200 coins. coins of this class are those of OfFa, King of Mercia, a circumstance to be attributed to that prince having visited Rome. The Anglo-Saxon types exhibit great variety. Heads and crosses prevail, with various figures surrounded by small dots : and there also are brief legends. These coins were struck by all the princes of the Heptarchy, by the Saxon kings of all England, and by the archbishops of Canterbury and York. Some coins were also struck in the names of certain saints, as of St. Peter of York, and St. Edmund of Bury. Coinage was apparently unknown before the era of the Norman Conquest in both Scotland and Ireland. A few ancient coins have been assigned to early periods in the history of the latter country, but their authenticity remains uncertain. No coins of the Welsh princes have been found. SECTION IV. — ANGLO-NORMAN COINS. It was a part of the policy of the Norman princes to impress their English subjects with the idea that they had succeeded by inheritance and lawful right to their crown; and in their administration they, accordingly, conformed themselves to many of the popular usages of ENGLISH COINS. 201 their Saxon predecessors. Upon this principle William I. and his immediate successors were content to continue the Saxon coinage without any material changes. SECTION V. ENGLISH COINS. With Henry III. the English coinage may be said to have commenced. The prevailing practice of dividing coins into halves and quarters was prohibited, and no coins were authorized to pass current unless round in their form. In process of time, various new coins were added to the series already in use ; new types were introduced, and the old ones were modified ; and the art-character of the coinage assumed a more dignified position. Rigorous laws were also enacted to prevent forgery, clipping, and other frauds calculated to injure or debase the coinage. It is remarkable that, with the sole exception of the sli/cas of the Anglo-Saxons, the English coinage con- tinued to be restricted to the precious metals for nearly 1000 years. Unlike the Romans, whose copper or brass coinage preceded their coins in gold and silver, and who struck coins in copper or brass at all periods of their history, our own ancestors refused to admit a currency 202 coins. in copper, notwithstanding its evident utility. The different coins which succeeding 1 sovereigns introduced appeared in the following order : — Henry III. Gold penny; Groat, in silver. Edward I. Half-groat. In this reign there were mints in London, Canterbury, Bristol, Exeter, Newcastle, and Kingston-on-Hull. Edward III. Florin, Half and Quarter Florin, and Noble, in gold. By this great monarch the words dei gratia, long in use upon the Great Seals, were added to the royal legend of the coinage. Henry VI. Angel and Angelet, in gold. Edward IV. Rose Noble or Rial, with Half and Quar- ter Rial, in gold. Henry VII. Sovereign or Double Rial, in gold ; Shilling (then first coined), in silver. Henry VIII. Double Sovereign and Half Sovereign, George Noble (type, St. George and the dragon), Quarter Angel, Crown and Half-crown, in gold ; Crown, in silver. The silver Shilling now bore the second title of Testoon. Edward VI. Treble Sovereign, and Half-sovereign, in gold. ENGLISH COINS. 203 Half-crown, Six-pence, Three-pence, and Sovereign- Penny, in silver. Elizabeth. //«£/' and Quarter Shillings, Three-halfpence, and Three Farthings, in silver. Milled coins were first produced in this reign. James I. Hose Rial, Thirty Shilling Piece, Fifteen Shil- ling Piece, Spur Rial, Unit, and Double Crown, in gold. Two Pence, in silver. Farthing Token, in copper. Charles I. Three Pound Piece, Twenty Shilling Piece, and Ten Shilling Piece, in gold. Twenty Shilling Piece, Ten Shilling Piece, Oxford Crown, and Groat, in silver. Also Siege coins, in silver. During the Commonwealth, the coinage consisted of Twenty, Ten, and Five Shilling Pieces, in gold. Half Crorons, Shillings and Sixpences, in silver : and Far- things in copper and pewter. Oliver Cromwell added a Crown in silver. Charles II. Five Pound Piece, Guinea and Half Guinea, in gold. The coins last named appeared a.d. 1G63. In this rei«"n there was struck in silver the celebrated and beau- 204 coins. tiful "Petition Crown" of the eminent artist, Simon. Halfpence and farthings were also issued by Charles II. ; and during his reign, various companies of merchants were authorized to strike money for their special uses in foreign commerce. Halfpence and farthings in tin were coined by James II., and the same in copper by Wil- liam III. So early as the time of Henry VIII. also private tokens in lead had been circulated to supply the urgent want of small coin : and from a period much earlier still, as early, indeed, as Henry III., for the ac- commodation of monks and pilgrims, Abbey Pieces or Rosaries were struck in brass or latten, of the size of the groat of the period, their types being a globe and cross, a dolphin, a fleur-de-lys, &c, with the legend AVE MARIA, &C. Amongst the more remarkable types of the English coinage are certain modifications of the Greek cross, about which are grouped small circular bosses ox pellets, derived possibly from the similar marks that set forth the values of the multiples and parts of the Roman as, together with the bust or head of the reigning sovereign. Various other devices were also introduced. Thus, the noble of Edward III. is charged with a figure of the King, crowned, in armour and with his sword, standing in a ENGLISH COINS. 205 ship which carries at its mast-head a pennon of St. George : the Kind's shield bears the arms of France and England quarterly. This type, which was slightly modified under the succeeding princes, gave rise to the following significant couplet : — " Four things our noble showeth unto me,— King, ship, and sword, and power of the sea." The Rose Noble is distinguished by the addition of one or more Roses of England. The Angel has on the obverse the Archangel St. Michael, trampling on the dragon and thrusting his spear into his mouth, and on the reverse is a ship with a cross for a mast, and the Royal Arms, with the legend per. crvcem. tvam. salva. nos. christe. redemptor. The Sovereigns have a figure of the reigning prince in royal robes, with various accessories. The Roi/al Shield of Arms appears upon Henry VII.'s Schilling, and the cross is charged upon it. This position of the cross, in pretence upon the shield, was continued until the time of James I., when the cross was no longer used. Among the earlier acces- sory devices are the Star and Crescent, which, in an entry upon the Rolls of Parliament of the time of King John, are described as being the " King's livery." The Legends upon English coins are all in Latin, 206 coins. and written with more or less of abbreviation, the sole exception being the coins of the Commonwealth, which are iuscribed in the English language. Many of the earlier English coins are fine examples of the art of the numismatist; and they might well serve to rescue the English coinage of the present day from the excessive degradation into which it has fallen. Not only are many of the coins of past centuries executed with a genuine feeling for art, and more particularly for that expression of art which is appropriate to the works of the numismatist, but in their types and legends they also exhibit truly felicitous conceptions, expressed after the most effective forms. The standard value of the English coinage has been, at various times, subjected to many changes, which were productive of much and serious evil. The general cha- racter of our coinage, however, exhibits it in a very favourable aspect. It is worthy of remark that Charles I., notwithstanding his urgent troubles, never debased the currency ; while under Henry VIII. the debasement was so great that old Stow says, in his " History of London," " I have seen 20s. given for an old Angel, to gild withal." The current value of the " old Angel" ENGLISH COINS. 207 was equal to 6s. 8d., and it was celebrated for the purity of the metal. The Noble was also in value equal to 6s. Sd., or half a mark. The Mark itself does not ap- pear to have been an actual coin, but a mode of computa- tion or measure of value, as the term " pound sterling" is employed to indicate a general ideal form of money by ourselves. The " Mark" is said to have been first used by Alfred : in the tenth century its value was 100 pennies, but in 1194 it was fixed to be equivalent to 160 pennies, or 13*. id., the "pound" being always con- sidered equal to 20*. The value of the gold Florin of Edward III. was 6*. It should be added, that Henry VI. raised the value of the Noble or Rial to 10*.; and that under Henry VIII. the Angel passed for 8*., and under Mary for 10*., which last sum continued to be its value until the time of Charles I., when the Angel ceased to be issued. The Tower Pound, equal to 11 oz. 5 dwts. troy, was in use until Henry VIII. substituted for it the Pound Troy, with its divisions. The first English Pennies weighed 22^- grs. troy of silver : and the same coins weighed, under Edward III., 18 grs. ; under Edward IV., 12 grs., and under Edward VI., 8 grs. From the year 1601, the 208 coins. forty-third of Elizabeth, the standard of English silver has remained the same. Befoi-e the year 1257, the forty-first of Henry III., whatever gold coins may have been current in England were of foreign mintage. At subsequent periods, also, certain foreign coins are commonly mentioned by early English writers : of these the Ducat of gold was in value equal to 9s., and the same coin in silver to 3*. ; and the Sequin and Pistole, both in gold, to 9*. and 18*. respec- tively. The French Livre was equal to a pound weight of pure silver from the age of Charlemagne to that of Philip I. (a.d. 800 to 1103), after which period it was subjected to continual and excessive debasement. Besides their English coinage, the Sovereigns of Eng- land issued many coins as " Lords of Ireland ;" and there was also a regular coinage for the English domi- nions in France, which may be distinguished as Anglo- Gallic. SECTION VI. ENGLISH MEDALS. Henry VIII. commenced a series of English numis- matic works, which are second only to the coins of the realm in interest and importance. These are Medals — a ROMAN COINS. 209 species of coin of a strictly historical and commemora- tive character, struck in honour of distinguished persons or to preserve the remembrance of great events. Many of these medals also assumed a political and satirical character. Pox-traits are generally struck upon medals, with inscriptions ; and the inconsistent and actually ab- surd practice has obtained of impressing upon English medals the allegories of ancient and pagan times, thus falsifying the vehicle for historical record. Amongst the more remarkable English medals is the series struck on the occasion of the Coronation of the Sovereign, which commences with Edward VI. The medals of the Commonwealth and of Charles II. were executed by Simon, and accordingly they are genuine works of art. Medals were struck in Scotland before they were intro- duced into England. On the continent of Europe they have always been produced in very great numbers. SECTION VII. ROMAN COINS. Roman historians assign to a very early period in their annals the establishment of a regular coinage. The earliest coins were in copper or brass only, and they con- sist of the As, with its multiples and parts. The As, also 210 COTNS. called Libra, Libella, and Pondo, was originally a, pound of copper, and this pound was divided into twelve uncice. But, as a coin, the As, in the year B.C. 175, was reduced to half an ounce of copper. The earliest types of the As (derived probably from the Etruscans) are the bull, ram, boar, and sow, with the head of Janus and the prow of a ship. The Decussis and Quadrussis, pieces of 10 and 4 ases, were stamped with figures of a biga or two-horse chariot, and a bull, and other less common types : and the semis, triens (^ as and g as), and other parts of the as, had 2, 3, or more globes or pellets to indicate their value. The silver Denarius and Quinarius were severally ecpial in value to 10 and 5 ases; and these coins, at an early period, generally bore types of a biga and of a figure of victory, so that they were known as Bigati and Victoriati. Gold coins, denominated Aurei and Semi-aurei, were also current. The Aureus was equivalent to 30 silver denarii, but reduced by Claudius to 25. The value of the Roman currency varies through various changes in the standard; and consequently it is not possible to fix any scale of value of constant applica- bility : the average weight of the consular denarii, how- ever, appears to have been 62 grs. troy of silver, and ROMAN COINS. 211 their value accordingly would be S^d. of our money. The as was always a tenth of the denarius, and the sestertius a quarter of it. Besides the biff a type, various family types occur in consular denarii, which commemorate some remarkable events connected with the consulships of certain in- dividuals. As historical records, therefore, these coins are peculiarly interesting. The coins of the iEmilian family supply striking examples of types of this class : thus M. Lepidus has a denarius, upon which he appears placing a crown upon the head of the youthful kiug, Ptolemy Epiphanes, with the legend tvtor. regis. Another denarius of the same family represents Aretas, King of Arabia, submitting himself to M. Scaurus, under the symbol of a figure kneeling by a camel and presenting an olive-branch, from which depends a dia- dem. And a third of these coins records the youthful exploit of M. Lepidus, who appears mounted and with a trophy; the accompanying legend being — m. lepidvs. an. xv. pr. ii. o. c. s. {anno xv. prcetextatus. hostem. occidit. civem. servavit.) Similar types and legends were continued in the imperial series, to which portraits were added. The imperial types also exhibit triumphs and p 2 212 coins. consular processions, the Emperors continuing 1 to retain the ancient consular rank and authority. Allusions to the consulships and consulships-elect of the emperors are frequent in the legends of the imperial coins : the compound titles which the emperors were pleased to as- sume, with their names, are also in this same manner recorded. It will be borne in remembrance that the title imp (erator) was not prefixed to the imperial name, until in later times the Romans had become so fami- liarized with sovereignty that they no longer hesitated publicly to recognise and record the fact. At a late period of the empire, the place of mintage was gene- rally denoted upon the Roman coins by letters struck upon the exergue, or space below the line upon which, in the reverse of any coin, figures are placed. The copper or brass coins of the empire were struck in three distinct sizes, which are respectively dis- tinguished and known as the First, Second, and Third Brass. The First Brass, the largest of the three, called by the Romans Sestertius, and from the Augustan age also designated JEreus or Nummus, was formed of yellow metal, and continued to bear the same general character until the era of the Antonines, when it decreased in size, ROMAN COINS. 213 and degenerated in both the interest of the types and the quality of the execution ; and under Gallienus (about a.d. 2G5) it finally disappeared. The Second Brass was formed sometimes of a yellow and sometimes of a red metal : the metal of the coins of the Third class (anciently called Assaria), was in colour generally red. Dioclesian supplied the place of the Sestertius with the Follis, a coin of the same module as the Second or Middle Brass of the first emperors, but much thinner. Under Volusianus (killed a.d. 254), the Roman silver coins became exceedingly base ; but the standard was restored by Dioclesian (a.d. 284 — 305), and from this period the coins continued to be struck from a pure metal, but they gradually declined in weight. Under Constantine the Great (a.d. 306 — 337), a new silver coin, named Mil- liariensis, was issued ; fourteen of these Milliarienses were equal in value to one Aureus of gold. This coinage continued in use until the end of the Byzantine Empire. Amongst the commonest of the Roman coins are the Small Brass of Probus (killed a.d. 282), of which no less than 2500 varieties have been distinguished, and the Brasses of Constantine and his sons. 214 coins. SECTION VIII. ROMAN MEDALLIONS. Under this title are included all those productions of the Roman mint which exceed the current coin in size and weight. These medallions were struck, both at Rome and in the provinces of the empire, on various occasions, generally for the purpose of commemorating some event of historical interest, and occasionally for ordinary currency. Before Hadrian (a.d. 117), Roman medallions are very rare, but subsequently they are of more frequent occurrence. The medallions struck by the Senate bear the letters S. C. (Senatus Consulto). Many varieties of Roman coins were used in this country, and they are found here in very considerable numbers. Some of the Emperors, also, together with the usurpers who assumed the imperial purple in Britain, struck coins which have a special reference to this coun- try. The following Emperors commemorated their con- quests in Britain on certain of their coins : — Claudius, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Commodus, Severus, Cara- calla, and Geta. CHAPTER VII. PALEOGRAPHY, ILLUMINATIONS, AND INSCRIPTIONS. SECTION I. INTRODUCTORY. Before printing and engraving had been discovered and were in general use, Writing and the decorative process known as Illumination were regarded as arts of the highest value and importance; they were patronized by the wealthy and the noble, and the ablest artists were engaged in their production. It was the custom, from a very early period of the Christian era, to bestow great care upon the writing of manuscripts; and with this careful formation of the written letters was associated the practice of enclosing the columns or pages of the MSS. within ornamental borders, and also of enriching the more important initial letters with gold, colour, and diversified ornamentation. Miniature-pictures were added, and thus the Illuminated 216 PALEOGRAPHY, ILLUMINATIONS, ETC. 3ISS. became illustrated works, produced absolutely and entirely by the hands of the illustrators. In this coun- try the early writing, or palaeography ', with its accompany- ing illuminations, attained to the most distinguished reputation, so that the " Opus Anglicum " of the Anglo- Irish and Anglo-Saxon illuminators enjoyed a European celebrity, and the peculiarities of its style exercised a powerful influence upon the artists of the continent. Some of the finest illuminated MSS. in existence are now preserved in our own country, amongst which are the " Book of Kells," at Trinity College, Dublin ; the " Durham Book," and some Bibles and Psalters in the British Museum, with the " Benedictional of St. iEthel- wold " in the possession of the Duke of Devonshire. Possibly known in Italy before the catastrophe of the Western Empire, it is from Byzantium that we must seek the origin of the art of illumination, as it has been transmitted to the various countries of Europe, and in them was practised during the middle ages. When once they had formed their system, the Byzantine illu- minators worked on, with but little change in purpose, and with equally little variation in artistic capacity and Art-feeling, for many centuries. Their miniatures, which EARLY BYZANTINE AND ROMAN ILLUMINATIONS. 217 bear traces of an original affinity with the nobler paint- ings of the Greeks, conveyed valuable lessons to their disciples in the West; but the western artists devised their own ornaments fur themselves, and here they ex- hibit all that vigour and versatility of resource which distinguish the rise of nations, not unmixed with the rude barbarisms of uncultivated ages. SECTION II. EARLY BYZANTINE AND ROMAN ILLUMINATIONS. These works commence with the fourth century. Cor- pus Christi College, Cambridge, possesses a MS., in a debased form of Roman art, of the fifth or perhaps the sixth century. These illuminations are distinguished by the meagre patterns of their ornamentation and by their brilliant colouring ; by their miniature pictures, in which the peculiar treatment of certain Christian subjects became types with the illuminators of the West; by their use of certain characteristic architectural forms for ornamental purposes; and by their occasionally being executed in gold or silver on vellum which had been stained purple. It may here be observed, that from the Byzantine illuminated MSS. are derived the abbreviated 218 PALEOGRAPHY, ILLUMINATIONS, ETC. forms which wo still retain and use as monograms of the name of our Lord— the IHS (IHS) and the XPS or XPI being 1 Latinized Greek abbreviations. SECTION III. EARLY IRISH ILLUMINATIONS. In the sister island this art had both assumed a definite style and attained to a very high perfection before Anglo-Saxon MSS. became known. The illumi- nations in this style are produced from the most intricate and diversified interlacings of threads or narrow bands of various colours, with knot-work, all being arranged with singular skill and executed with surprising delicacy. Mr. Westwood counted one hundred and fifty-eight interlacings of a ribbon formed of white lines edged by black ones on a black ground, within the space of rather less than three-quarters by rather less than half an inch, in the " Book of Armagh." This interlacing work is accompanied with various wild grotesques and animal forms, attenuated to the utmost degree, and incorporated with the patterns. The initial letters are of gigantic size, and they exhibit a really wonderful combination of boldness of form with minuteness of detail. The writing ANGLO-SAXON ILLUMINATIONS. 219 for several lines, and sometimes for whole pages, is also very large ; and the letters, with the borderings, are commonly surrounded with one or more rows of minute red dots. There is no trace of Roman influence in the ornamentation or treatment of these illuminations ; the forms of the letters alone indicating their Roman descent. This style was practised in Ireland and in Wales until the twelfth century • and in England it became associated with the SECTION IV. ANGLO-SAXON ILLUMINATIONS OF THE EIGHTH AND NINTH CENTURIES. In these works the Roman acanthus and scroll patterns with spirals are combined with the interlacings of Ire- land, and gold and silver begin to be freely introduced. On the Continent, the Roman type exercises a more decided influence than in our own country. The style thus formed has been distinguished by the name of the great prince in whose times it was fully developed, Charlemagne. About the same period, while our great Alfred flourished, the first Anglo-Saxon illuminations became celebrated. It is remarkable that, while in the majority of the Charlemagne MSS. the Irish system is 220 PAL/EOGRAPHY, ILLUMINATIONS, ETC but rarely apparent, several of the finest French illumi- nations of the period conform in their style very closely to works of the Irish illuminators. SECTION V. ANGLO-SAXON ILLUMINATIONS OF THE TENTH AND ELEVENTH CENTURIES. Miniature pictures and outlines begin now to be intro- duced into MSS. in considerable numbers, and they accordingly become very valuable illustrators of history. Winchester at this time became the great school for English illuminators, and here the much celebrated " Opus Anglicum" was executed. Gold is introduced in masses into these fine and peculiar compositions, with " divers beautiful colours" delicately applied. The bor- ders of the text are formed from broad golden bars, with which various foliage is intertwined with striking effect. The composition and drawing of the various figures and of the architectural accessories are remarkable for artistic excellence ; the colouring is effective and harmonious, and the enrichments are of the noblest character. The letters also are nobly formed after the Roman type. This style, essentially national, and the basis of the ILLUMINATIONS OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. 221 equally national styles of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, was extensively practised for nearly two cen- turies. SECTION VI.— ILLUMINATIONS OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. The art of illumination in this century was practised upon the same general principles throughout Western Europe, and it now may be considered to have attained to its highest perfection. The style is florid, rich, and varied : the initial letters are formed of elaborately inter- lacing branches, with animal forms interwoven amongst them : the Roman acanthus forms the basis of the treat- ment of the foliage, which shows the type of the charac- teristic architectural foliage of the first Gothic period. Figures and miniatures in the works of this century, are sometimes associated with the noble initial letters, but decorative borders are rarely to be found in the twelfth century MSS. The colouring exhibits the designs in white upon grounds variously tinctured, or the inter- weaving branches are richly coloured, and placed on grounds of gold or some dark hue. 222 PALAEOGRAPHY, ILLUMINATIONS, ETC. SECTION VII. ILLUMINATIONS OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. The style of the last century is now developed in works very highly wrought, the details having attained to the most elaborate finish. Figures are more frequent, and large square compartments with rich and delicate borders are devoted to groups of figures illustrative of the text. It is remarkable that figures are at this period occasionally introduced without any reference to the MS. itself, solely as ornaments. In the French illumi- nations of this century, which are very fine, and of which the finest examples were executed at Paris, the influence of Byzantine feeling is apparent. Long-tailed initial letters, which form a border to the side of the page below the initials themselves and are returned along the base of the page, are now in- troduced : and numerous small miniatures are frequently arranged about the enriched compartments, within which the large initial letters are placed. Gothic or Lombardic capitals now appear with letters of Roman type. ILLUMINATIONS OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 2.23 SECTION VIII. ILLUMINATIONS OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. Illuminations in this century assume several distinct systems of general treatment, and yet all conform with expressive consistency to the Gothic sentiment of the period. The foliage now in use is generally that of the ivy, and it is rendered by the illuminators with a special angularity both in the outline of the several leaves and in the aggroupment of the branches ; the colouring also is arbitrary. Early in the century the long-tailed initials expand into a complete side-border to a page, with pro- jecting branches above and below, and to this border the initial letter is appended. In some cases figures and scrolls are interw T oven with the ivy foliage. As the cen- tury advances, the border-bar is much enriched and enlarged; birds and various figures are introduced amongst the foliage, and miniature pictures add variety to the design. At this time the art of the illuminator begins to be in general requisition in various departments of literature, instead of his having his attention as heretofore exclu- sively devoted to the Holy Scriptures and devotional 224) PALEOGRAPHY, ILLUMINATIONS, ETC. writings. Hence arises a departure from the traditional methods of representation which the treatment of sacred subjects had established. More natural forms and scenes are made to take the place of long recognised conven- tionalisms, and the fancy and inventive powers of the artists learn to expatiate in wider fields. These pro- gressive advances in art specially show themselves in the rendering of the backgrounds of the mediaeval illumina- tions. Having given up the Byzantine golden back- grounds, the illuminators first substitute for them delicate and richly coloured diapers or mosaic patterns in small squares ; then come backgrounds of scroll work, and various damasked devices in gold on coloured grounds, leading finally to backgrounds of natural scenery. But even after the confirmed adoption of natural scenery for backgrounds, the old feeling continually exhibits its lin- gering influences, in the habit of hanging some richly diapered drapery behind figures, which in other respects are represented in the open air. In the fourteenth century various miniatures are inter- mixed with the text, and the colours used by illuminators, and particularly the scarlets and blues, are brilliant in the highest degree ; and as the century advances towards ILLUMINATIONS OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 225 its close, the Gothic feeling of that era is seen to have exercised the strongest influence over the various compo- sitions. In. Italy, however, it may be observed that the northern angular ivy-leaf was never a favourite form of foliage, the Roman acanthus continuing there to exercise an influence, to be traced in the rounded outlines of the Italian illuminations. SECTION IX. — ILLUMINATIONS OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. In this prolific and capricious century the illuminator's art yields to the pervading impulses of the age, and adopts several distinct forms and systems of expres- sion, all of them equally distinguished by excessive enrichment and a gradual decline in art-feeling. At the first, the fifteenth century works exhibit a decided assimilation to the noble productions of the tenth, with much delicate ornamentation studied from the ivy-leafage of the fourteenth century. In another phase of the same works, the illumination forms a complete border to the page, this border being still based upon a framework of enriched bars, from which a profusion of scrolls, foli- age, and animal and grotesque figures issue forth, various 226 PALEOGRAPHY, ILLUMINATIONS, ETC. miniatures being added, and the initial enclosing a miniature of special importance as in a frame. Several initials besides the first are also illuminated in each page, but in a manner altogether subordinate to the first ; the letters are all Gothic. Ruled lines, also, now appear beneath the lines of writing, and in the borders. This style of illumination is the last in which English artists attained to any great excellence, or produced a great number of works. In the middle of this century the earlier illuminations degenerate into a diversified series of mere border patterns, of which a vast number were executed. On the continent at this period the designs are very rich and effective, and they are remarkable for their sub- ordinate use of the ivy-leaf ornamentation as an accessory to the more flowing and flamboyant devices ; the ivy- leaves themselves are always executed in gold. The ivy- leaf and the scroll patterns become associated in the middle of the century in continental illuminations, the result being a style of great richness and of the most intense elaboration. Large pictures are now introduced into such works as would admit them, and. miniatures of excessive minuteness of detail, with borders of corre- ILLUMINATIONS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 227 sponding delicacy, distinguish the smaller productions. These were executed in vast numbers, and abound in all collections. In the illuminations of Italy the borders are bounded by lines, and a stiffness pervades the works, which are richly ornamented, and as richly coloured. The Roman letters are here apparent. At this period, in the Italian choral books, the initials are of gigantic size, some being above twelve inches in height ; they are generally composed of acanthus leaves in blue and gold, with a scale-like pattern in carmine relieved with gold. The characteristic of the illuminations of the close of the fifteenth century is their being executed upon solid backgrounds of gold or rich colouring, in place of being formed of open-work resting on the vellum. Natural forms now are painted with careful exactness ; at the first, flowers and fruits predominate, then birds and animals are added, nor are miniatures of various kinds omitted. SECTION X. ILLUMINATIONS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. The taste and feeling of the age are evident in their influence upon the illuminator's productions. At the Q 2 228 PALAEOGRAPHY, ILLUMINATIONS, ETC. first, more genuine arabesques prevail, and then they are superseded by groups of armour, imitations of cameos and gems, jewellery, heraldic bearings, with medallions and other objects of the same class, wrought upon solid backgrounds. The colouring is gorgeous in the extreme. With the middle of the century the art fell into disuse, having been retained in constant practice until that period for the illustration and adornment of the earlier printed books. The last important and dis- tinct class of illuminations are more subdued in tone, and in better feeling than their immediate prede- cessors. Whatever illuminations were subsequently produced, are found to be altogether debased as works of art. One class of illumination remains to be noticed, which was introduced late in the fifteenth century. This style, termed CamJe-gris or Grisaille, consists either in adopting the prevailing designs of the period and rendering them in two or three tints of a bluish grey, or -in altogether omitting all decorative borders, and introducing numerous small pictures and medallions executed in the same tints, heightened with occasional colour or on coloured back- grounds. GENERAL REMARKS. 220 SECTION XI. — GENERAL REMARKS. Until the thirteenth century, it is probable that the MSS. were written and illuminated by the same persons. After this period, the greatly increased demand for works of this class led to their being produced after a more systematic method; the illuminator and cali- grapher became persons who practised distinct branches of art, and it was by no means an uncommon circum- stance for artists to execute only some particular parts of the illuminations in use at certain periods, so that several illuminators may have been employed upon the produc- tion of a single MS. The beauty, precision, and uniformity of character which distinguish the writing in MSS., cannot fail to attract attention and to excite admiration. The plain and yet nobly simple forms of the Roman letters, and the rich dignity of the Lombard ic, were thoroughly appreciated by the mediaeval caligraphers. They appear to have delighted in modifying the contour of the letters, and by varying both their size and their enrichments they evidently felt that they had at their command inex- haustible materials for the successful practice of their art. 230 PALEOGRAPHY, ILLUMINATIONS,, ETC. SECTION XII. — INSCRIPTIONS. Inscriptions were written in the Roman character, somewhat modified in certain respects, until the thir- teenth century, when the Lombardic character was adopted. Towards the close of the fourteenth century, the Black-letter character succeeds the Lombardic. There is a rather close general resemblance between the small letters of the Lombardic and the Black-letter, but the former is by far the more dignified character, the latter having less simplicity in its treatment, and its capitals being altogether devoid either of dignity or elegance of form. It is by no means rare to find Lombardic capitals in use long after the fourteenth century had passed away. The later Black-letter became very degenerate, and its cramped and ill-formed letters, with their strange con- tractions and abbreviations, are obscure and difficult to read. In the earliest inscriptions the Latin language is employed. In the thirteenth century they appear in Norman-French, written in Lombardic capitals. The Latin reappears in the fourteenth century, though the Norman-French still is retained. In some instances the INSCRIPTIONS. 231 two languages appear in the same inscription : and, in this century, the exclusive use of capital letters ceases. In the fifteenth century the Latin language is almost universal. In the sixteenth century the English tongue prevails, the Latin being retained in inscriptions comme- morative of ecclesiastics, upon coins also and seals. The Black-letter is now found to assume very fantastic forms, and the Roman character is sometimes to be seen. In the following century the Roman character becomes general, and inscriptions are still written in either the Latin or the English languages. The Roman letters in the earliest inscriptions are commonly placed without any dividing spaces between different words. Abbreviations also are effected after various methods : as, by omitting letters or syllables ; by attaching one letter to another — as in the letters N.R., writing the two as one compound letter by omitting the straight stroke of the R. and joining the other parts of the letter to the N. ; or by writing one letter within another. The earliest Lombardic inscriptions have one or more dots between each word, and a cross is prefixed to the legend. After a while the dividing dots are sup- pressed, and a space is left between the succeeding 23.2 PALAEOGRAPHY, ILLUMINATIONS, ETC. words ; occasionally also a hand is found to have been substituted for the initial cross. It is to be observed that the initial symbol is almost exclusively restricted to those inscriptions which are so arranged as to form a border to a monument or other object. In monuments, inscriptions generally either form a border to the entire composition, or they are set at the feet of effigies : addi- tional legends are also often introduced upon scrolls, and sometimes they appear so arranged as to form decorative accessories of costume. It was the custom to place at the angles of a border-inscription the emblems of the four Evangelists — the angel, the emblem of St. Mat- thew, the winged lion of St. Mark, the ox of St. Luke, and the eagle of St. John. In these inscriptions, about the year 1400, various devices are placed between the several words of which they are composed. Heraldic devices are also introduced into inscriptions as acces- sories; and shields of arms within four-foils are fre- quently associated with the Evangelistic emblems in border-inscriptions or are substituted for them. The practice of dividing words by some device is occasionally continued till a late period. Abbreviations are con- tinually resorted to in framing inscriptions, and some- INSCRIPTIONS. 233 times are altogether arbitrary and capricious. Dates are not introduced before the fourteenth century, when they are sometimes written partly in capital letters and partly in full in words, the prevailing habit being to ex- press them in capital letters only. In the next century the date is sometimes written in small letters in place of capitals. With the dates, the Dominical letter of a year and the regnal year of a sovereign are sometimes given. The computation by calends, &c., is also found ; saints' days, with their eves, &c, are specified, and various pre- catory and intercessory ejaculations may be observed. These last are often found to have been erased. The Arabic numeral figures are rarely seen until late in the sixteenth century : examples, however, have been ob- served as early as the middle of the fifteenth century. The figures and numeral letters sometimes occur in the same date. The forms of some of the figures, the 4, 5, and 9 in particular, are very singular, and by no means easy to determine. The composition of the early inscriptions is generally very simple, and the legends are concise and brief. In the fifteenth century they begin to be more diffuse, and in the century following they are extended to admit 234 PALEOGRAPHY, ILLUMINATIONS, ETC. minute and often irrelevant and inconsistent details. Metrical inscriptions were always in favour, particularly when the structure of the verses would admit of re- peated rhymes. Dates were forced into these verses after a very singular fashion ; and the most was made of every opportunity for alliteration, punning, and playing upon the sound of words, and more especially of names. The brass to Sir John D'Aubernoun, at Stoke Dau- bernon, a.d. 1277, supplies a good example of the early Norman-French monumental inscription written in Lombardic capitals : — +SIKE: IOHAN: DAVBERNOVN: CHEVALEE: GIST: ICY: DEV: DE: SA: ALME : EYT: MERCY. (Sir John Daubernoun, Knight, lies here : God on his soul have mercy.) Where a rhyme is not desired, inscriptions in this form commence with ici. gist, or icy. gist, or cy. GIST. In these inscriptions intercessory prayers are some- times sought by the promise of " indulgences/' &c. Rhymes abound in Latin as well as in the Norman - French. In Latin the icy. gist, is rendered by INSCRIPTIONS. 235 the well-known inc. iacet. orate, pro. anima. is a common commencement of a Latin prose inscrip- tion. The rhyming inscription in Latin, which forms a part of the brass to Sir Morys Russel and Isabel his wife, at Dyrham, in Gloucestershire, a.d. 1401, will illustrate this species of composition in a characteristic manner : — + MILES PU'ATUS, VITA IACET HIC TUMULATUS : SUB PETRA STRATUS, MORYS RUSSEL YOCITATUS : ISABEL SPONSA, PUIT HUIUS MILITIS ISTA: QUE IACET ABSCONSA, SUB MARMOREA MODO CISTA: CELI SOL AMEN, TRINITAS HIS CONEERAT AMEN : QUI EUIT EST ET ERIT, CONCITO MORTE PERIT : The translation of this legend may be left to be rendered by the reader. Other inscriptions commence in the manner follow- ing : + IN GRACIA ET MISERICORDIA DEI HIC IACET, &C, + OF YOURE CHARITE PRAY FOR THE SOVLE OF, &C. Monumental inscriptions are constantly found to be incomplete. In some cases the memorial may have been prepared by the person to be commemorated, and at his 236 PALEOGRAPHY, ILLUMINATIONS, ETC. decease the date, &c, may not have been added. In other instances, when two persons are mentioned in one legend, blank spaces were left to be filled up after the death of the survivor, and some unexpected circum- stances may have prevented the fulfilment of this inten- tion. In inscriptions formed of letters cut out from pieces of metal, the several letters are inserted in hollows sunk in the face of the stone for their reception. They afterwards are engraven on plates, or either cut or cast upon them in relief. The letters are also engraved or worked in relief upon the stone or marble, but the metal plates appear to have been preferred. Incised letters are filled in with some tenacious substance. The accompanying engraving (Plate 13) exhibits fac- simile representations of parts of five inscriptions in Westminster Abbey. Figures 1 and 2 are in Lom- bardic capitals, and they severally form the commence- ment of the legends which are placed about the fine monumental effigies of Henry III. (a.d. 1272), and Eleanor (Alianor) Queen of Edward I. (a.d. 1290). Figure 3 is the commencement of the inscription on the monument of Edward III. (a.d. 1377). Figure 4 is the INSCRIPTIONS. ZLate XU1 ♦xcr rncy AIiilIV-Hilmi-y : ' StS S . V. | . . . THE BRONZE, OR ROMAN PERIOD. 241 of Plate XIV. The hammer-heads are formed to strike both ways : they are also perforated, for the purpose of being fixed upon their handles. SECTION III. THE BRONZE, OR ROMAN PERIOD,* AVhich extends to the retirement of the Romans to the south and east of the Alps, includes the period of the Roman occupancy of Britain, and it is rich in mili- tary remains of the highest interest. The Britons them- selves retained the Celt ; but that weapon is now found cast in bronze, and exhibiting many varieties of form and ornamentation, and also with several arrangements for fixing and firmly attaching it to its shaft. The earlier Celts approach very nearly, in their wedge shape, to their prototypes in stone; but they subsequently appear finely proportioned, socketed, and with a loop or ear, and sometimes a ring, for securing them to their handles; they are also often embossed with ornamental de- vices. Moulds, made either of stone or bronze, in which Celts were cast, have repeatedly been found with the Celts themselves. Figs. 1, 2, and 3 of Plate XIV., exhibit three varieties of bronze Celts of the most prevalent types. * See note at page 2G9. R 242 ARMS AND ARMOUR. Swords, spear and arrow-heads, axes, daggers and knives, are the other weapons which were in use in this period. They all indicate both the taste and the skill of the early armourers. The sword-blades are remarkable for the beauty of their form : the hilts were made of horn or wood, and consequently the blades only remain. Fig. 2 of Plate XV., is a characteristic example of these weapons. Figs. 4 and 8 of the same Plate are speci- mens of the spear-heads and daggers, which were made in bronze ; the hilt of this dagger is of polished ivory ; and Fig. 3 of the same Plate represents a sword of a mixed character, the blade being of bronze, as also is the metallic part of the hilt, but the cross-piece and pommel are of iron ; this weapon has also the form of the iron swords of the succeeding period, when pro- bably it was made. Fig. 6 is an example of an axe, such as might probably be used for various purposes as well as in war. It is remarkable that but very few examples of armour or of shields of these early periods have been discovered. Fia". 1 of Plate XIV. illustrates the circular shield of bronze used by the Celtic Britons, and it is an admirable specimen of their treatment of this metal. ARMS All] 40UB Ha- - I 'Z.3. Bronze S-wDrds.4-. &-UU-1 ^| i ^e-Axs. 7 L.xm Dafcper 8.Brcn ,er. THE IRON, OR ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 243 SECTION IV. — THE IRON, OR ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. Iron is the metal which is associated with the warfare of the Teutonic race. The weapon most commonly found is the spear, which varies very considerably in length and size, as also in form. Some of these spear-heads taper throughout their length, others are straight, and pointed at the end, and others are leaf-shaped. They may be divided into two classes, of which the one would comprise the larger examples, and which were intended to be used in the charge, the latter being javelins, or missile wea- pons. Fig. 5, Plate XV., is a good specimen of a taper- ing spear-head of iron, of which the socket is ornamented. A third class of Anglo-Saxon spears has the iron heads barbed : these weapons, which were called angons, con- stantly appear in the illuminations of the period, and yet but few specimens have been found. The arrow-Aeads are generally barbed, as in the examples represented in Figs. 9 and 10 of Plate XV. The swords generally re- semble in shape the weapon represented in Fig. 3 : at first they are made without cross-pieces, but as the period advances the cross-piece, or guard, becomes an important part of the weapon. Axes continue to be used, in form r 2 244 ARMS AND ARMOUR. being' modifications of Fig. 6. Fig. 7 is a characteristic example of a dagger; the original was found in Ireland, but it is of precisely the same general character with the British weapons. War-knives, longer in the blade than the daggers, were in use. The hilts of all these weapons, particularly those of the swords, were often made of costly materials, and elaborately enriched ; and famous swords were distinguished by the warriors who wielded them with appropriate and significant names. The long-bow was also employed, and it became a formidable weapon in the hands of the Anglo-Saxons. It will be observed that, in addition to the weapons of iron which are characteristic of this period, the ancient arms of bronze and even of stone were often used by the lower ranks of the Saxons, and by their British asso- ciates. The Anglo-Saxon warriors appear to have worn for defence a species of hauberk, or tunic, made of metal rings ; also garments of thick leather ; and, in addition to these, they had leg-bands to guard their lower limbs. Conical helms protected their heads ; they were made of a metal frame-work covered or lined with leather, and surmounted by a crest. Their shields, which constituted THE ANGLO-NORMAN PERIOD. 245 their principal defence, were generally round ; but a few oblong examples have been observed. The iron umbo, or boss, which was placed on the centre of the shield, is commonly found with the remains of an Anglo-Saxon warrior. Bits, stirrups, bridle ornaments, with breast- guards for the war-horses, and goad-spurs for their riders, have been discovered amongst the relics of this very interesting period. SECTION V. THE ANGLO-NORMAN PEKIOD, EXTENDING TO THE CLOSE OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. After the Norman conquest, the archaeologist ceases to obtain any examples of early weapons and armour from the graves of departed warriors. The chroniclers and illuminators are his principal guides : he finds other examples represented in ivory-carvings, and a new source of illustration opens before him in the armed figures represented upon seals. As he proceeds with his in- quiry, the student will observe a reciprocal influence exercised upon each other by the offensive arms and the defensive armour : as the former become continually more formidable, so the latter is more developed, until the knight is found to be equipped from head to foot in 216 ARMS AND ARMOUR. plates of steel, and having about many parts of his per- son one plate screwed over another. The next step is the general adoption of fire-arms, and then, the weapons having become too powerful to be effectually resisted by any defences, all armour falls gradually into disuse. The arms continue to be the same as those of the Anglo-Saxons : they comprise the Lance, with its Lance- flag, Sword, Dagger, Mace, Long-how, and Javelin. The lance-heads have commonly the leaf or lozenge form, and the shaft is of uniform thickness throughout. The sword is straight, broad, two-edged, and pointed : the hilt is short, generally with a round pommel, and a cross-guard that is either straight or curved towards the blade. The mace is short and heart-shaped at the head. In the middle of the twelfth century, the Battle-axe again appears as a knightly weapon. Several varieties of Pikes, or Javelins, were in use by the common soldiers, each of whom was also for the most part provided with either a bow or a sling. Defensive armour consists of a Hauberk or Haubergeon, (the latter differing from the former only in being shorter,) worn over an iron breast-plate and a long quilted tunic called a Gambeson or ILaqueton. The hauberk is formed THE ANGLO-NORMAN PKRIOD. 247 either of ring-mail, or of small pieces of- metal attached to a tunic of leather, or simply of leather, and it has sleeves which reach sometimes only to the elbows, and sometimes to the wrist. Scale-armour, made of various materials including horn, was also in use. The lower limbs have defences of mail, similar to that of the hau- berk, but this is not the uniform practice of the period. A hood or coif, attached to the hauberk, covers the head, over which is worn a conical (or sometimes a flattened or rounded) helm, without any crest, but generally provided with a nasal or strip of metal which covers the nose, and thus protects the face from a sword-cut. The shield is long and kite-shaped, until about the middle of the twelfth century, when a triangular shield was introduced; the shields were generally made curved, to be the better adapted to cover the person of the knight; but some examples are flat. In place of the Saxon boss, a spike sometimes projects from the centre of these shields. A circular buckler is occasionally to be observed. Various fanciful devices appear painted on the shields of this period, before regular heraldry had been recognised. The second great seal of Richard I. shows the shield of that warrior-prince charged with the three lions of England. 248 ARMS AND ARMOUR. The helm of the king in this remarkable seal is rounded at the top, and surmounted by a fan-like ornament, as a crest, and it has a vizor covering the face. Both the kite- shaped and the triangular shields have straps called enermes, to attach them to the left arm, and they are also suspended over the right shoulder by a guuje or shield- belt. The knightly spur continues to be of the goad form. A mantle sometimes is represented worn over the hauberk. SECTION VI. — THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY; PERIOD OF MAIL ARMOUR. Armour formed of mail, that is, of steel rings inter- woven to produce a continuous fabric, was in general use in this stormy century, when it attained to its highest perfection. Mail armour was worn at this period by the warriors of the East, as it is retained by them, almost, unchanged both in fabric and fashion, to the preseut day ; and without doubt the chivalry of Western Europe adopted during the Crusades many improvements in their own equipment — improvements derived from their Orien- tal adversaries : it is not, however, to be supposed that mail armour was unknown in the West before the Crusades, THE PERIOD OF MAIL ARMOUR. 249 and that it was first derived through those wonderful enterprises. Besides the mail, other flexible defences continued to be worn, such as scale-armour, thickly quilted garments, leather, and particularly the cuir-bouilli, or leather adapted by a process of boiling to the required purposes; rings and small plates of metal of various forms were also fastened to the quilted and leather de- fences, in order to render them still more capable of re- sisting hostile blows. About the middle of the thirteenth century, additional defences, formed either of metal plates or of cuir-bouilli, begin to make their appearance over the mail ; they are first introduced as guards for the knees, and next as similar guards for the elbows. About the same period also, the chaiisses, or mail defences of the lower limbs, appear covered with quilted trews, or cuisses, which are generally embroidered or otherwise enriched. In other respects, throughout this century, mail constitutes the defensive equipment, with, a Plastron -de-fer to guard the breast beneath the mail hauberk. The coif de mailles covers the head, and both hands and feet are similarly protected. Over the hauberk is worn the long, flowing surcoat of rich materials ; it is without any sleeves, open 250 ARMS AND ARMOUR. in front, and secured by a narrow belt about the waist. Fig. 1 of Plate XVI., which represents the upper part of the brass to Sir John D'Aubernoun, at Stoke Dabernon in Surrey (the earliest known brass, a.d. 1277, the fifth of Edward I.), is an admirable example of the mail-armed effigies of this century; the mail coif is here shown with the fillet which secures it about the temples; on the right shoulder appears the guige, upon which the lance is resting; on the left side is seen the upper part of the triangular or heater-shaped shield. The shield, early in the century, is much larger than at its close; it is generally of the form so well exemplified in the fine specimens represented in Plate III., variously modified. It is charged with heraldic insignia, and secured by the guige. The helm is large and massive, and worn over the mail coif. It is either cylindrical and fiat-topped, with horizontal clefts for vision; or it is rounded or conical in form, and provided with a ventail or moveable vizor, or cleft and pierced with holes for breath and vision. Heraldic crests are worn on the helm. One form of helm, which resembles a sugar-loaf, is observed to be so long as to rest on the shoulders ; this would also appear to have been the case with some THE PERIOD OF MAIL ARMOUR. 251 other varieties. A light helmet, or casque, appears in place of the more ponderous helm, late in the century ; the helm sometimes is fastened to the wearer's person by a chain, as in the Trumpingdon brass. The sword is now long, large, straight, and double- edged, with a cross-guard, which generally curves slightly towards the blade ; the hilt and pommel are much enriched, the latter being in the greater number of examples spherical. The weapon is secured by a broad and heavy belt, loosely adjusted about the person, and attached by lacing in a peculiar manner to the scabbard; it is buckled in front of the wearer, and sometimes a small strap attaches the sword-belt to the belt which encircles the waist. The Misericorde, or Dagger, is added to the weapons, though it does not appear in the knightly effigies until the following century. It would seem to have derived its name from the circumstance of its being the last resort in a deadly struggle, and because when thus uplifted it would compel the vanquished to cry for mercy. The Spun remain the same as before, and are known as Pryck-spurs. The straps are very simple, and they buckle over the instep. 252 AllMS AND ARMOUR. The Lance is the same as during the preceding cen- tury, and it is decorated with a Pennon-of-arms. About the year 1280, Ailettes are added to the knight's equipment. They are small, square, or lozenge-shaped plates of steel, and are attached to the hauberk at the shoulders; they usually display some heraldic devices. Dress Ailettes appear to have been worn ; they were formed of leather, and covered with cloth or silk, and bordered with fringe. Besides the more ordinary military equipments of this period, a circular Buckler is sometimes seen, with various modifications of the shield. Broad-sioords slightly curved, Axes, Maces, and Hammers of iron, are to be reckoned amongst the weapons. The soldiery also, besides swords or long knives, were provided with javelins, bows and slings, and with several varieties of the formidable com- pound weapons known as the Bill, Halbard, and Pole- axe or Guisarme. Each of these weapons is fixed to a long and stout staff; the bill has a broad cutting blade, terminating in a pike ; the halbard consists of an axe- blade balanced by a pike, and having a pike-head at the end of the staff; the pole-axe, as its name implies, is an axe with a long instead of a short shaft. THE PERIOD OF MIXED ARMOUR. 253 In this century the singular custom of covering the war-horses with Bardings, or voluminous trappings, in addition to some defensive armour, was introduced. The armorial ensigns of the knight appear on the bardings of his charger, and on both sides of the horse the head of the animal is regarded as the heraldic dexter. In this thirteenth century Monumental Effigies make their appearance, and supply most noble and valuable examples of arms and armour. SECTION VII. THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY; PERIOD OF MIXED ARMOUR. A decided change in armour is apparent very early in the fourteenth century. The mail is not considered a sufficient protection, and fresh additional defences are continually placed upon it. The archaeological student will watch with much interest each step in advance towards the full development of the knightly panoply of polished plate armour. Plates (or, in the first instance, pieces of cuir-bouilli) are found to cover the fronts of the lower limbs, and to lie continued in small flakes or scales over the feet, and similar plates guard the outside of the arms, and circular plates (or roundles) appear at the 254 ARMS AXD ARMOUR. elbows and shoulders by about the year 1225 ; the mail-coif disappears at the same time, and in its stead there is a Basinet, or close-fitting steel helmet, from which the Camail, or tippet of mail, depends, and covers the shoulders. The shield is small ; the sword-belt is narrower, and attached to the scabbard by swivels ; the waist-belt disappears ; the surcoat gives place to a most singular garment called the Cyclas, which is cut short in front but left long behind, and from beneath this a second garment, or Haqueton, is seen over the skirt of the Hauberk, and the Hauberk itself is shorter and not open in front. The spurs have Rouelles. The Misericorde is sometimes seen. The Ailettes cease to be worn. As the century advances towards the middle, studded armour is common : the legs below the knee are com- pletely encased in Jambarts of steel ; similar Brassarts cover the arms; the hands are covered by Gauntlets, and the feet by steel Sollerets acutely pointed at the toe. The Hauberk is retained, but it is shorter, and it appears from under the plate defences of the arms at the shoulder and elbow joints. The backs of the knees are guarded by Goussettes of mail. The Camail is well developed, and fastened by laces and little staples (Verrelles) to the THE PERIOD OF MIXED ARMOUR. 255 basinet, which is tall and acutely pointed at the summit. The shield disappears. The Hauberk is covered by the rich Jupon, often emblazoned with arms, and escalloped or cut into fanciful forms below, just above the skirt of the Hauberk. The sword-belt is very rich, and buckles straight across the hips : it is attached to the scabbard without swivels or laces. The Sword is narrower than before, long, with a perfectly straight cross-guard, and the pommel is commonly an elongated octagon in form. The Misericorde accompanies the sword, and both of them are commonly secured to the breastplate by chains. Besides the massive hip-belt, a narrow belt is some- times worn which crosses the person diagonally. In effigies, the knight is commonly represented with his head resting upon his helm, which is decorated with its crest and Contoise or Mantling. At the close of the century, the armour that has just been described is universal. It is distinguished by the most dignified simplicity and a thoi-oughly martial as- pect. The Camail is the only visible relic of the mail which remains, except for secondary and subordinate purposes of defence. The Hauberk, however, is still worn 256 ARMS AND ARMOUIt. beneath the Jit/pon. The camail-laces now are covered. The Belt remains the same, but it is fastened with a Morse or clasp more frequently than with a buckle. The joints of the Gauntlets are now commonly armed with small spikes, called Gadlyngs: instead of spikes, the gadlyngs of the Black Prince, in his gauntlets at Canterbury, are very small lions. Collars are now seen worn over the camail. Figs. 2, 3, and 4 of Plate XVI., supply much cha- racteristic illustration of the armour of this century. Piff. 2 is from the brass to Sir John D'Aubernoun the younger, a.d. 1327 : it shows the earliest form of the Basinet and Camail, with Rerebraces of plate or cuir-bouilli which cover the upper arms externally over the mail sleeves of the Hauberk : the Boundles appear at the shoulders, partly covered by the Cyclas. Fig. 3 is from the brass to Sir Hugh Hastings, at Elsyng, in Norfolk, a.d. 1347, a monument which is one of the most re- markable and valuable in existence. The head of the knight, represented in the engraving, is defended with a Vizored Basinet, the Vizor (or VentaiT) being raised. In- stead of a Camail he wears a Gorget, or collar of plate, which rests upon his Hauberk. It may be observed that ARMOUR,- HEAD-PIECES, &c. Plat' Fi^.l TiramtLe Br'-<. ■ • ■■:■;. . 2 Tro-m the Brass I ;j\eycroriger^I).1327.Boi^iatStol!El)aberrLOti,Sii'tTCT: 3.Jram the Bras • I toTk AD.1347. 4.1. fftgyafl. &ury Cathedral, -AM389 5 . From the Brass to Sir Lro Fitz-"Wai -. - I ate ChurchBerks AB. 1414 6 . From the Br ^ Kcibert Sta-uivton , Castle Harrington Church, Leicester ahire AD.l 458. 1-1 ttlith *Mju.cat Bir^oWa Icip. THE PERIOD OF MIXED ARMOUR. 257 in some instances the Camail is represented as being covered. Fig. 4 is from the fine sculptured effigy in Salis- bury Cathedral, of John, Lord Montacute, who died in the year 1389, to which period this memorial may be assigned. Here the conical Basinet is shown, which covers the ears, and has the Camail attached to it by laces that are visible. A few years later the shape of the head-piece more closely resembles that shown in Fio\ 5, and the camail-laces are covered. Throughout this century the same general equipments and weapons which were in use in the preceding century continue to constitute the military appointments of the soldiery : of course many modifications are introduced, and the forms and accessories may differ in many re- spects from the earlier examples ; the principles of con- struction and application, however, remain the same. The change from mail to plate armour, the use of secondary defences, the artistic treatment of both arms and armour, and the prevalence of heraldic accessories, may be considered to form the characteristic features of this century, which may be subdivided into a group of armour-periods. s 258 ARMS AND ARMOUR. SECTION VIII. THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY ; PERIOD OF PLATE ARMOUR. The change to complete plate armour was effected in the reign of Henry V., or about the year 142.0. A Cuirass, formed of breast and back plates, at this time covers the knight's person : from below his waist de- pend a series of narrow overlapping plates, which are attached to a lining of leather or quilted work, and de- nominated Taces : a Gorget of plate protects his throat, and joins the basinet, which is more globular in form than heretofore ; and there are Roundles at the shoulders, or sometimes elongated Palettes in their stead. The sword-belt is narrow, it crosses the person diagonally from the right hip over the taces, and is attached to the scabbard only in one point. In some instances the broad and rich baudrick, or hip-belt, is also worn. The hilt of the Sword' is long, and the pommel pear-shaped. Fig. 5 of Plate XVI., from the brass to Sir Ivo FitzWaryn, in Wantage Church, Berks, a.d. 1414, exhibits the basinet, gorget, roundles, and the entire upper part of the figure of a knight in the earliest complete armour of plate. This knight wears smaller roundles at the elbow joints : THE PERTOD OF PLATE ARMOUR. 259 they are in general use until about 1435, when the fan- shaped coudiere, which had been introduced several years before, supersedes them, to give way in its turn in about ten years to more elaborate guards for the elbows. The Misericorde is worn on the right side : the Spurs are often represented as having their rouelles guarded : and the great helm with its crest and contoise is in use. The rich wreath, oxorle, on which the crest rests, is also often seen encircling the basinet. Additional plates, fixed over the others, appear before the year 1450. Tallies, or pendant plates, are attached by buckles to the lowermost taee. The right and left arms of the knight are protected after a different fashion, there being an accumulation of plates to guard the left or bridle arm, while the right or sword arm is com- paratively unencumbered. The Breast-plate is partially or entirely covered with a second plate, and the Rest for the lance appears screwed upon the right side. The Sollerets and also the Spurs are extravagantly long, and the Coudieres no less extravagantly large. About the middle of the century the Salade generally takes the place of the Basinet : it is shown in Fig. 6 of Plate XVI., as are the Pauldrous, or new defences for the s2 2G0 ARMS AND ARMOUR. shoulders ; this example is from the brass to Sir Robert Staunton, at Castle Donington, in Leicestershire, of which the date is 1458. At this same time, and also somewhat earlier, a Tabard is worn over the cuirass : this is a short loose tunic with short sleeves, and it has the heraldic distinctions of the wearer displayed upon the sleeves, as well as upon the body of the garment. The Belt, still narrow and worn after the same fashion, is often attached to the sword-scabbard by two swivels. The Hip-belt now is rarely seen. It will be observed that the armour is now often fluted. During the course of the second half of this century the Taces, which have become escalloped, decrease in number, and the Tuilles increase very considerably in size. Panldrons, or addi- tional shoulder-guards, become universal. The Gauntlets are enlarged and strengthened. The Stvord, having a singularly short and ill-proportioned hilt, hangs in front of the figure. At the close of the century the general character of the armour may be described as distin- guished by the multiplication of defences and the in- crease of elaboration in ornament, in the place of the simpler dignity of the earlier styles. Besides the arms and armour represented in effigies, THE PERIOD OF THE DECLINE OF ARMOUR. 261 the various weapons of earlier times are retained in use, with such modifications as would appear to increase their formidable character. The knightly lance itself is much larger and more unwieldy ; the shaft of it swells towards the lower part, where it is provided with a Yamplate, or projecting defence for the hands. The weapons of the Ilalbard and Pole-axe species "become very large and massive, and many of them are richly ornamented. Fire-arms also have now established themselves ; and the archaeologist will not fail to study the curious varieties of their early forms, together with the elaborate enrich- ments which are lavished upon them. SECTION IX. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY; PERIOD OF THE DECLINE OF ARMOUR. In the commencement of this century the approaching disuse of armour is surely indicated by the manner in which the armourers endeavoured to assimilate their works to the oi*dinary costume of the period. The true feeling for armour had then ceased to exist, and there remained but steel dresses instead of the true knightly panoply. The Cuirass is now found to be wrought to a ridge, called the Tapid, and Passe-gardes (a species of 262 ARMS AND ARMOUR. upright steel epaulettes) rise from the Pauldrons. The Taces gradually disappear, and the Tallies become larger and more elongated. The long Sollerets give place to Sabbatons, which are short, and very broad at the toe. The Staord again hangs at the left side, and the blade often crosses behind the figure. Mail-armour appears to have been sometimes resumed beneath the different plates that were worn in the middle of this century. The Shield, when used suspended about the neck, is pierced at the dexter upper corner to admit the passage of the lance. Several varieties of new Helmets appear, and the Plume is for the first time added as a decoration to the head-piece. Feathers, when placed on the basinet or helm before this century, were set upright, and formed an heraldic crest, called a Panache. The two most com- mon forms of new helmet are the Burgonet and the Morion ; they are distinguished by the manner in which they completely encase and cover the head. The armour of the reign of Henry VIII. is very rich, and made to imitate the puffed and slashed costume of the time : it is also elaborately adorned with engraving and inlaid work. A favourite species of armour, called Rvsset, was pro- duced by oxidising the metal, and then polishing and THE PERIOD OF THE DISUSE OF ARMOUR. 2G3 otherwise enriching it, leaving the surface of a rich brown hue. The Lance now is ponderous in the extreme, and pro- vided with a large Yamplate, attached to the shaft ; but the great double-edged Sword, which had remained in use from the time of the Conquest, at this time yields to the slight and thin Rapier, or stabbing sword. Fire- arms of all kinds increase in numbers, and improve in their style. It is remarkable that in this century Re- volvers upon the present plan were invented : there are specimens in the Tower. The Baggers, and weapons of that class, display infinite ingenuity in their construc- tion ; and some curious attempts were made to produce compound weapons, which should be both gun and lance — the prototypes these of the rifle and bayonet of the present day. SECTION X. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY; PERIOD OF THE DISUSE OF ARMOUR. Half-suits of armour were retained in use for some time after it had been both proved and acknowledged that armour was comparatively powerless as a defence against fire-arms. As this century advances, the Pistol takes 264 ARMS AND ARMOUR. the place of the Mace at the saddle-bow. The Boots of the cavalier are made of Buff-leather, and his Coat is soon of the same material. At first, the Buff-coat is covered with breast and back-plates, but in the time of Charles II., even these relics of the armour of the olden time are reduced to a small Gorget of steel, worn by the officers. Helmets, with breast and back-plates and pikes, or long spears, lingered for a longer time amongst the soldiery, and were still to be found in the armies of Marlborough. But a few years, however, had passed after the close of the seventeenth century, when armour ceased altogether to exist in England, except as a relic of the past, until a certain number of breast and back-pieces were called forth once more from their honourable repose in the Tower, to be adjusted for the use of our Life Guards and Blues. The Harquebus, Caliver, Musquetoon, and Musket — all of them guns of different kinds, with various Pistols, Blunderbusses, and other strange species of fire-arms, and with them the still more important Cannon, are found to have been continually improved, as their use became universal by those who bore arms for military purposes. GENERAL REMARKS. 265 SECTION XI. GENERAL REMARKS. In studying effigies and other mediaeval works of art which give representations of armour, the archaeologist will find the mail to be represented after several conven- tional systems. It has been considered that these diffe- rences in representation necessarily imply various modes of making; the mail itself. This is a matter which has not yet been decided, and it will be well for all students to endeavour to investigate the principles upon which the early artists treated mail-armour. It is certain that the mail was often represented only in colour; and consequently, if in such examples the colour has ceased to exist, there remain no traces of the mailing. In other instances, the ring-work was pro- duced in a paste which hardened upon the stone of the effigy, in which but a few remains of the original mail will probably be visible. The student will occasionally find the shield in an armed effigy placed very low and partly (or sometimes altogether) covering the person, with the sword appear- ing from behind it. This was a French usage, and such works may be attributed to French artists. The guiges 266 ARMS AND ARMOUR. which support these shields will be observed to be very- long. The more important pieces of mediaeval armour, with its accessories, may be classified as follows : — I. For the Head. — The Helm, Helmet, Vizor or Ven- tail, Nasal, Coif-de-Mailles, Basinet with Camail attached to Vervelles, Salade, Morion, Burgonet, Orle or Wreath, Crest and Contoise or Mantling. II. For the Body. — The Hauberk, Haubergeon, Plas- tron-de-fer, Cuirass, Gorget, Taces, Surcoat, Cyclas, Jitpon, Tabard, Ilaqueton, and Gambeson. III. For the Arms. — Brassarts, Vambraces (from elbow to wrist), Rerebraces (from shoulder to elbow), Ailettes, Bpaulieres, Palettes, Pauldrons, Passe-gardes, Roundles, and Coudieres; also Gousseltes {Gussets) at the joints. IV. For the Hands. — Mittens of mail, Gauntlets with Gadlyngs and Yamplates. V. For the Legs. — Chausses, Cuisses, Cuissarts (above the knee), Jambarts (below the knee), Genouillieres (knee- guards), Tuilles, Culettes (Tuilles for the back of the limb), and Lambeaux (steel skirts). VI. For the Feet. — Sollerets, Sabbatons, Prych-spnrs and Bouelle-spurs. GENERAL REMARKS. 267 VII. Additional Plates. — Tassels (small faces), Garde- de-reins (pieces depending from the back-plate) ; Placcate (second breast-plate) ; Volante-piece (additional defence on front of helmet) ; Mentoniere (guard for the chin) ; Garde-bras (covering for the middle of the left arm) ; Grande-garde (additional covering for the breast and left shoulder, fastened to the cuirass, &c, with screws). VIII. Belts. — Guige and Bnermes for the shield, Baudrick or broad Hip-belt, and others. IX. Weapons. — Lance, Sword, Misericorde, Mace, Battle-axe, Javelin, Bill, Halbard, Pole-axe or Guisarme, Long-bow, Cross-botv, Sling, Pike, Bagger, Harquebus, Caliver, Musquetoon, Musket, and Pistol. In the production and ornamentation of arms and armour the artists of the middle ages exercised their utmost skill and ingenuity, and almost every art-process was called into requisition to co-operate with the armourer in the production and decoration of his works. Fine and characteristic examples of sculptured effigies and of brasses illustrative of arms and armour, ranging from the twelfth to the fifteenth centuries, exist (in ad- dition to very many others) in the following cathedrals and churches : — 268 ARMS AND ARMOUR. Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. — Westminster Abbey and the Temple Church; the Cathedrals of Salisbury and Gloucester ; the Abbey Churches of Great Malvern and Pershore ; the Churches of Hatfield Broadoak, Essex; Ash and Sandwich, Kent; Hitchendon, Bucks; and Southacre, Norfolk. Brasses at Stoke Dabernon, Surrey; Trumpingdon, Cambridgeshire; and Buslingthorpe and Croft, Lincoln- shire. Fourteenth Century. — Westminster Abbey and the Temple Church ; Canterbury and Hereford Cathedrals ; the Churches of Bedale, Howden, and Byther, Yorkshire ; of Whatton, Warkworth, and Dodford, Northants ; of Clehongre, Herefordshire; of Alvechurch, Worcester- shire; of Fersfield, Ingham, and Wingfield, Norfolk; and the Abbey Church of Tewkesbury. Brasses at Acton, Suffolk; Pebmarsh, Essex; Stoke Dabernon, Surrey; Westley, Cambridgeshire; Ingham, Norfolk; and at Chartham, Minster, and Cobham, in Kent. Fifteenth Century. —Westminster Abbey; Salisbury Cathedral ; Staindrop Church, Durham ; Ashwelthorpe, Norfolk; Aston, Warwickshire; Bromsgrove, Worces- GENERAL REMAKES. 269 tershire; Elford, Staffordshire; Hoveringham, Notts; Stanton Harcourt, Oxon ; Wimborne Minster, and Warwick. Brasses at Blickling and Fellrigg,Norfolk ; Dartmouth, Devon; Spilsby, Lincoln; Thruxton, Hants; Great Tew, Oxon; Trotton, Sussex; Childrey, Berks ; West Grinstead, Sussex; Tong, Salop; Castle Donington, Leicestershire ; and Little Horkesley and Little Easton, Essex. It is a subject for much regret that early examples of actual armour are very rare. Our armories are richly stored with the weapons and the defensive equipments of past times, but a few only of these relics are of a period earlier than the wars of the Roses. Note.— The " Bronze and Iron Periods," severally described at pages 241 and 243, will be nnderstood to imply the prevalence but not the exclusive use of the metals Bronze and Iron. Iron weapons and implements were occasionally in use long before the fifth century, and bronze in like manner was sometimes retained after the use of iron had become general. CHAPTER IX. COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. All military and defensive equipments, together with the weapons in use at early periods, having been described in the last chapter, the contents of this present chapter are restricted to such costumes and personal ornaments as are devoid of all warlike associations. The authorities which supply materials on this subject are chiefly the illuminations in manuscripts, seals, and monumental effigies; other works in sculpture, with stained glass, and the works of early writers, also afford additional information. SECTION I. — ECCLESIASTICAL VESTMENTS AND HABITS. The tonsure, or shaven crown of the head, appears to have been the only personal distinction between the clergy and the laity at an early period, except when the clergy were actually engaged with sacred offices; and until the thirteenth century the ordinary clerical ECCLESIASTICAL VESTMENTS. 271 habit is not distinguished by any special or essential characteristics. The ecclesiastical vestments, with which we are so familiar on mediaeval monuments, and which must be regarded as distinct from the ordinary costume of eccle- siastics, assumed their distinctive forms long before the Norman Conquest. The changes that succeeding cen- turies brought to these vestments are changes of fashion and ornamentation only, the vestments themselves re- maining the same. The vestments are : — 1. The Amice, an oblong piece of linen having an em- broidered collar; it is tied about the throat so as to display this collar. In the earlier examples the amice is seen to be adjusted loosely and with much elegance, but subsequently it becomes rigid and devoid of graceful- ness. 2. The Alb, a very ancient vestment made of white linen, which envelopes the entire person, descending in flowing folds to the feet. It is not open in front, but is girded about the waist. The sleeves are comparatively tight. In front, at the foot, embroidery or Orphrey-work is attached to the alb, and in Saxon times this ornamen- 272 COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. tation encircled the lower part of the vestment. Similar enrichments, called Apparels, appear at the wrists ; these apparels at first encircled the sleeves, but about the year 1335, they begin to appear as small ornaments covering only the upper part of the wrists. 3. The Chesuble or Chasuble, a large vestment nearly circular in form, but slightly pointed before and behind, has an aperture in the centre for the head to pass through, and its ample folds rest on either side of the wearer upon his arms. It is always of rich materials, and often splendidly decorated with embroidery and ornaments. Ornamental borders are often seen, and an Apparel somewhat in the shape of the letter Y, evidently derived from the archiepiscopal Pall, is of common occurrence. 4. The Stole, a long and narrow scarf of rich em- broidery, worn over the shoulders, crossing over the breast, where it is secured by the girdle of the alb. Its frino-ed ends descend considerably below the knees and may generally be seen, appearing one on either side of the front point of the chesuble. The earlier stoles are narrower than those afterwards worn, and have small squares of embroidery attached to their ends; in the ECCLESIASTICAL VESTMENTS. 273 later examples, the stoles gradually expand in width towards their ends. 5. The Maniple is a short stole, and it is worn over the left wrist, from which it hangs down. 6. The Surplice, a vestment similar to that now in use under the same title, differs from the alb chiefly in its very large open sleeves, and in being shorter and without ornaments. 7. The Cope, a large cloak-like vestment, in form usually a semicircle, and furnished with a Caputium, or hood, is fastened across the breast by a Morse, or clasp, which is often elaborately enriched, and it covers the person. It is richly ornamented, and formed of costly materials. The Cope is a processional vestment, and not worn with the chesuble, which is the eucharislic vestment. 8. The Aumuce, or Almuce, a species of tippet, or hood, of white fur, has long pendent lappets hanging down in front of the figure. In brasses it is generally represented by pieces of lead or pewter, which were inserted to receive the white tincture of the fur. 9. The Tunic, a somewhat close-fitting robe, with rather narrow sleeves, reaches below the knees, where it T 271 COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. has generally a fringed border. It is worn by bishops and abbots over the alb and stole. 10. The Dalmatic resembles the tunic in its general shape, but is looser and shorter. Below, it is (as the tunic is sometimes) slit up at the sides, with fringe forming a border. This vestment is worn by the hierarchy over the tunic and beneath the chesuble. 11. In addition to the vestments the superior eccle- siastics are represented wearing embroidered Sandals, and with Gloves that are enriched with gold and jewels. Rings are also worn. The Episcopal Ring of office is worn on the middle finger of the right hand ; in effigies it appears over the glove. 12. The Episcopal Mitre, also worn by abbots of the highest rank, with its Infula, or two pendent strips of rich materials fringed at the ends, is very low until the fourteenth century, when it assumes its most dignified form. It afterwards becomes convex in its contour, instead of concave, and is considerably elevated. At first simple and plain, the Mitre, which appears on effi- gies, in process of time is very elaborately enriched. Several mitres, made of different materials, were in ECCLESIASTICAL VESTMENTS. 275 use at the same time; the state mitre, however, was always precious and splendid. 13. The Pastoral-Staff, of a crook form at the head, is the official wand of bishops and abbots. It generally has a Vexlllwm, or Banner of the Cross, hanging from it, which is usually represented as encircling the shaft of the staff. In monuments, the pastoral-staff generally appears either held in the left hand of an eSigy or rest- ing upon the left arm. The earlier examples of the pastoral-staff are very plain, but it afterwards became the custom to adorn this staff with jewels and other precious enrichments. The enamelled staff of Bishop William of Wykeham, preserved in New College Chapel, Oxford, is a splendid specimen of the second half of the fourteenth century. In Worcester Cathedral there is an effigy in episcopal habit, with a staff of which the head is upright, without either crook or cross. 14. The Crozier is surmounted by a cross, or crucifix, instead of a crook, but in other respects it resembles the pastoral-staff. It is peculiar to archbishops. The staff of a patriarch has two cross bars. 15. The Pall, or Pallium, like the crozier in beino- peculiar to archbishops, is a narrow band of white t2 276 COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. lamb's-wool, made in the form of a circle, which is ad- justed about the shoulders, and has two similar bands hanging- down from it, the one before and the other be- hind. The pall is adorned with small crosses, and fastened to the chesuble with golden pins. 16. These vestments and ornaments, or official in- signia, are represented in the effigies of ecclesiastics as being worn after the following manner : — Deacon : — Dalmatic and Maniple. Examples — Two figures in the canopy of Prince Arthur's Chantry, Worcester Cathedral : fragment of a Brass at Bur- well, Cambridgeshire. Priest: — Eucharistic Vestments: — Amice, Alb, Stole, 3f am- ple, and Chesuble. Examples — Sculptured Effigies at Beverley Minster and Worcester Cathedral ; Brasses at Horsemonden, Northfleet, and Monkton, Kent. Processional Vestments : — Cassock (a black under- garment, reaching to the ground, with close sleeves), Surplice, Almuce, and Cope. Examples — Brasses at St. Cross, Winchester; Fulbourn and Balsam, Cambridgeshire ; Warbleton, Sussex ; Exeter Cathedral, and Upwell, Norfolk. ECCLESIASTICAL VESTMENTS. 277 Bishop or Abbot: — Amice, Alb, Stole, Tunic, Dalmatic, Maniple, Chesuble, Sandals, Gloves, Ring, Mitre, and Pastoral-Staff. Examples — Sculptured Effigies at Salisbury, Lichfield, Worcester, Hereford, Ely, Durham, Peterborough, Rochester, and Exeter Cathedrals; Brasses at St. Alban's, Salisbury, and Hereford. Archbishop : — The same as the bishop, with the addi- tion of the Pall, and the substitution of the Crozier for the Pastoral- Staff. Examples — Sculptured Effigies at Canterbury and Westminster; Brasses at York, Westminster Abbey, and New College, Oxford. 17. The right hand of archbishops, bishops, and abbots, is generally held up in benediction, the fourth and fifth fingers being closed after the Latin usage. In many examples a book is held in one of the hands, and sometimes the hands are either clasped or crossed over the person. In the Greek form of benediction both the hands are held up open. 18. In some effigies the Tunic is omitted, and in others the Cope. In a very few examples the Stole and Maniple are wanting. Occasionally the Cope appears in 278 COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. place of the Chesuble, in which case the adjustment of the Stole is shown, as at Upwell. 19. Early effigies of bishops are decorated with a Pectorale, or jewelled ornament hanging over the breast. The pointed Mitre does not appear in illuminations in the eleventh century. At Croydon, and also at Guildford, in Surrey, there are some fine examples of episcopal effigies of a late period. 20. At Denham, Bucks, and at Elstow, Berks, there are brasses of Abbesses. 21. Monastic Habits are but rarely found to have been represented. The finest example is the Cluniac Habit of Prior Nelond, shown in his fine brass at Cow/old, Sussex, a.d. 1433 : he wears a large surplice-like vest- ment of black, with an ample hood. There is another very interesting example, the memorial also of a prior, at Dorchester, Oxon. Other canons wear a black Cas- sock, a Rochet, or Gown, Cloak and Hood, and also a Cap, generally pointed in the crown. Examples: — Sculp- tured effigies in Hereford Cathedral and the Church of St. Martin, Birmingham; Brasses in the Chapels of Magdalen and New College, Oxford. ECCLESIASTICAL VESTMENTS. 279 22. The Academic Habits represented in effigies are those worn by Graduates in Divinity, Arts, and Law. The two former wear a long Cassock, with a Gown, or Rochet, and a large Hood lined with fur : the latter ap- pear in a Gotvn, with, a Cape or Tippet lined with fur, over a Cassock. These habits are not very clearly in- dicated in effigies. Doctors wear a Cap. Examples — Brasses in the Chapels of Merton, Magdalen and New Colleges, and in the Cathedral at Oxford. 23. Besides the staff and other official insignia which are commonly represented in ecclesiastical effigies, and which, in some monumental memorials, appear without any effigial portraiture, the Chalice is often introduced into memorials of this class. This sacred vessel, gene- rally formed of the precious metals, but sometimes of ivory or glass, was designed by the mediaeval artists with the utmost skill, and enriched with costly and elaborate decorations. In the earliest ages of Christianity, costly chalices were the most esteemed offerings of princes and nobles. It will be observed that the bowl of the mediae- val chalice is shallow, and with a wide opening; it is also for the most part plain, the decorations of the vessel being restricted to its spreading foot and the swelling 280 COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. • knolj of the shaft or handle. Fine examples are pre- served at Trinity (from St. Alban's Abbey) and Corpus Christi Colleges, Oxford, and at Comb Pyne, in Devon- shire. Examples of chalices are represented in brasses at North Mimms, Herts; Wensley, Yorkshire; and Higham Ferrars, Northants. 24. The Paten was also enriched with suitable orna- mentation, and it is generally represented as placed in- verted over the chalice, thus forming a cover to it. It was the custom, during a long period, to bury a chalice and paten with the remains of a priest, and many ex- amples have been thus discovered. 25. Amongst other appliances of sacred use that are represented in various works of mediaeval art, are the Ciborium, or vessel in which the consecrated wafer (the Host) was kept upon the altar, or suspended over it; the Pyx, a smaller vessel in which the Host was carried in processions or from one place to another ; the Stiper- Altare, a term applied to a small moveable altar, and also to certain decorative coverings and accessories of the altar : Flagons and Cruets, for the service of the altar the Pax or Osculatorium, a symbolical instrument, upon which both priests and people impressed the " Kiss of LAY OFFICIAL COSTUMES. 281 Peace ;" and the Flabellum, a species of light fan, often circular in form, for driving away insects or removing dust from the chalice, and other sacred vessels. SECTION II. — LAY OFFICIAL COSTUMES. 1. The Royal Robes consist of the Tunic, Dalmatic, and Mantle, with richly-embroidered Boots. The Tunic and Dalmatic closely resemble the vestments of the same names worn by the hierarchy, but they appear in the royal effigies under various modifications. Thus they become shorter in the effigy of King John than they are in the effigies of his predecessors at Fontevraud. The Dalmatic of Edward III. is slit in front instead of at the sides, and that of Henry IV. has large embroidered openings at the sides. The Mantles of the earlier princes are secured, either in front or on the right shoulder, by a Morse ; those of Edward III. and Henry IV. have rich broad bands across the breast. In the effigies of these sovereigns there also appears a Tippet which reaches to the waist. This Tippet is afterwards made of ermine, and worn over the other robes. The Royal Crown and Sceptre, with the Sword, are shown in the effigies. Sometimes the Sword is placed beside the 282 COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. figure, having its belt entwined around the scabbard. The Royal Effigies of England are the following : — Henry II., and his Queen Eleanor de Guienne ; Richard I. ; and Isabel d'Angouleme, Queen of John, at Fontevraud, in Normandy : Berengaria, Queen of Richard I., at Mans, in Normandy : a second effigy of Richard I., at Ronen : John, at Worcester : Henry III. j Eleanor, Queen of Edward I.; Edward III., and Philippa, his Queen; Richard II., and Anne, his Queen ; the remains of the effigy of Henry V. ; Henry VII., and Elizabeth, his Queen ; and Elizabeth — all in West- minster Abbey : Edward II., at Gloucester : Henry IV., and Joanna, his Queen, at Canterbury — in all twenty effigies, of which fourteen are in this country. 2. Robes of the Nobility. — These appear in a few examples, and they differ but little from those w r orn by the sovereigns, consisting of a species of Dalmatic, with a Mantle of ample size guarded with fur. There are highly interesting effigies of this class in the Church at Arundel, in Sussex, and in the ruined Church of Douglas. 3. Judicial Robes. — The official robes of Judges consist of a long loose Tunic, with narrow sleeves, a Hood, Tippet and flowing Mantle ; the last two are lined COSTUMES OF LADIES. 283 with miniver, and the mantle is buttoned on the right shoulder. A Coif, or close-fitting cap, is also worn. Examples : — Brasses at Greveney, Kent; Latton, Essex ; and Grimsby, in Lincolnshire. Sergeants-at-Law have lambVwool instead of mini- ver, and to their hood two Labels, or Bands, are attached. Example : — Brass at Gosfield, Essex. section hi. — costumes of ladies. The costume of both sexes in the middle ages is dis- tinguished as well by a fantastic extravagance as by much dignified splendour. It has, however, been judi- ciously observed that in mediaeval monumental effigies the more extravagant fashions of dress have very rarely been represented. As it will not be possible to compre- hend within the limits of this volume more than a con- cise summary, the present and the following sections of this chapter upon costumes will, for the most part, be restricted to such Habits as are exemplified in commemo- rative memorials. The Anglo-Saxon ladies wore long and flowing garments, with veils adjusted about their heads after the fashion of the modern Spanish mantilla. Silk, cloth, and linen 284 COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. were the principal materials of which their dresses were made; and they appear to have preferred coloured fabrics to white. Many ornaments, such as bracelets and brooches (or fibula?), with chains and beads, were worn about the person, and the entire costume was generally rich and elegant. After the Conquest, the ladies retained the same articles of dress as had been previously worn, but they introduced many new fashions for their construction. The principal innovations consist in closely-fitting bodies to the dresses, and tight sleeves with many small buttons. Jjappets to the sleeves, after a while, became general, and were worn for a long period ; they may be considered to have been derived from the very long and flowing ends to their tight sleeves, which it suddenly pleased the Anglo-Norman ladies to adopt towards the close of the eleventh century. From this sleeve the heraldic mcmnche is derived. Gloves are introduced at this period, and the hair is displayed in long braids. The more important articles of female costume worn in England in the middle ages are the following : — 1. The Mantle, a long and flowing robe of ample di- mensions, secured across the breast by a morse, or clasp, or COSTUMES OF LADIES. 285 more generally by a cordon drawn through jewelled studs (called Fermailes) on either side, and having long pen- dant ends. It is of rich materials, often embroidered or diapered, and in the fifteenth century it appears lined with fur. Towards the close of the sixteenth century it is not often represented. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the outside of the mantle is frequently em- blazoned with the arms of the wearer, as in the brasses at Enfield, Middlesex, and Long Melford, Suffolk ; but at a much earlier period small shields of arms were sometimes attached to mantles; this, however, was a French fashion, and only a very few examples of this species of decoration have been observed in England : there is a fine specimen in Worcester Cathedral. In the effisries of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the mantle is commonly represented as being gathered up under the arms, as in the fine effigies of Aveline Countess of Lancaster in Westminster Abbey, and of two ladies at Worcester, and in the Lynn brasses. Other good examples of the mantle are at Oxford and Chi- chester Cathedrals, at Bedale, Yorkshire, and Wootton- under-edge, Gloucestershire. 2. The Kirtle, or dress with tight sleeves, generally 286 COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. buttoned to the wrists, the buttons being very small and set close together under the arms : the sleeves are often continued, and form mittens, which cover the backs of the hands. This garment is frequently the outer dress of the wearer, but it no less commonly is found to have been worn beneath 3. The Tunic, which is a long and flowing dress with large and open sleeves reaching a little below the elbows, or having its sleeves close and terminating but little below the shoulders, with long and narrow lappets, as in the brasses at Cobham, Kent, and Berkhampstead, Herts. Both the Tunic and Kirtle have often a row of buttons in front, which either stop at the waist or are continued from the throat to the feet. The Tunic is sometimes decorated with small shields of arms, as in a brass at Trotton, in Sussex; or it is emblazoned with heraldic devices, as in another fine brass at Warwick, and in a sculptured effigy at Selby, York. Pocket-holes appear in the Tunic in the fourteenth century, through which the girdle of the Kirtle may be seen, as in a brass at Winterbourne, Gloucestershire. This dress is generally worn without any girdle ; but a loose belt or girdle is COSTUMES OF LADIES. 287 seen in the effigies of Queen Anne of Bohemia, in West- minster Abbey, and of Lady de Bois, at Ingham, in Norfolk : these belts closely resemble the knightly bau- dricks of the period, and they are adjusted precisely after the same fashion. In both these fine effigies there is a Bodice richly embroidered, worn over the upper part of the dress. Both Tunic and Kirtle cover the shoulders, where they are cut straight across the figure, and, until about the year 1400, they always fit to the shape. At the close of the fourteenth century, these dresses are often made so high as to cover the throat, where they turn over, forming a collar : when made in this fashion, the dress is loose, and generally buttoned in front from top to bottom ; it is gathered in about the waist by a belt, and has very large sleeves, which are either very wide and open, or gathered in at the wrists, as in the brasses at Great Tew, Oxon ; Chipping Camden, Glou- cestershire; Bedington, Surrey; Brandsburton, York; and Spilsby, Lincolnshire. The close-fitting fashion also prevails in the fifteenth century, as in the brasses at West Grinstead, Sussex. In these examples there is no belt, and sometimes the loose dress is without a belt, as in the brass at Acton, in Suffolk. Occasionally the 288 COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. tunic is open at the top, thus disclosing the kirtle beneath it, as in an effigy at Aston, in Warwickshire. Towards the close of the fifteenth century, all traces of loose sleeves disappear, and in their stead tight sleeves, with cuffs sometimes drawn over the hands and some- times turned back, are universal. The tunic is occasion- ally cut short to display the skirt of the kirtle, but more generally it is long and flowing. In many instances the outer dress now is cut very low. Richly ornamented belts, worn very loose, are general, and they have long pendant ends : large rosaries with various jewels, chains, and other ornaments are also attached to the belt, and rich and massive chains are worn about the throat. Good examples appear in the brasses at Islesham, Cam- bridgeshire ; Luton, Beds ; Cowthorpe, Yorkshire ; and Clippesby, Norfolk. The sixteenth century brings the stiff puffed and slashed costumes identified with the era of Elizabeth. The tunic now is open in front, and with a rich collar which falls over the shoulders : the kirtle is elaborately oi'namented : a short scarf is tied about the waist : ruffs appear, and much jewellery is worn. Characteristic brasses of this and the following century exist at Water- COSTUMES OF LADIES. 289 perry, Oxon ; Sawbridgeworth, Herts ; Bradford, Wilts ; and at Ash and St. Mary's Cray in Kent. Bromsgrove Church, Worcestershire, also contains two most charac- teristic sculptured effigies of ladies, both of them of about the middle of the sixteenth century. 4. The sldeless Tunic, or Cote-hardi, a singular gar- ment, but in such high favour that it is found to have continued in fashion from the time of Edward III. till late in the fifteenth century. It is seen in royal effigies, as well as in those which commemorate ladies of various ranks in society. This dress is made to fit the figure in front and at the back, but it is altogether cut away at the sides, where the under-dress with its girdle are thus disclosed to the view : it is sometimes cut short at the knees, leaving the kirtle to flow down below it to the feet; in other examples it appears but a very little shorter than the kirtle, while in others it falls over the feet in rich folds. This dress is generally richly guarded at the side-openings with fur, and it is ornamented with goldsmith's work and jewels in front from the throat to the waist, where it is not encircled by any girdle. In some of the earlier examples it is slit up at the sides ; and on either side, at the hip, it often has a large jewel. u 2D0 COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. Examples: — The sculptured effigies of Queen Joanna and of Lady Montacute in the Cathedrals of Canterbury and Oxford; others at Arundel, Sussex; Hoveningham, Notts ; Stanton Harcourt, Oxon ; and Staindrop, Dur- ham ; also the brasses at Cobham, Kent ; Little Easton, Essex ; and Enfield, Middlesex. 5. The Wimple, a kind of kerchief, worn by ladies of the highest rank in the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries. It is adjusted throughout this period, with slight modifications of fashion, about the throat, which it entirely covers, displaying only the face, to which it imparts a triangular form. The Wimple is a remarkable instance of the manner in which, in the middle ages, one sex imitated the costume of the other, this very un- sightly appendage to a lady's attire being a kind of female Camail, to which it closely assimilates itself in its adjustment. The Wimple is covered by 6. The Couvre-chef (or kerchief), which is so arranged as to cover the head, and to fall lightly on the shoulders. Widows wore a plaited or crimped wimple. Examples : — The sculptured effigy of the Countess Aveline, at West- minster, and those of other ladies at Byther, Yorkshire, and Gonalston, Notts; the brasses at Cobham and COSTUMES OF LADIES. 29l Minster, in Kent; Lynn, in Norfolk; and Trotton, in Sussex ; also the sculptured effigy at Sparsholt, Berks, and the brass at Acton, Suffolk, in which the wimple is crimped. The Couvre-chef continued to be sometimes worn after the disuse of the Wimple, as in the brass at Sawbridge- worth, Herts. 7. The Head-dresses worn by ladies during the middle asres exhibit the eccentricities of fashion under some very peculiar forms. A species of Cap is found repre- sented in many effigies as being worn with the wimple and kerchief; and this cap is often made to resemble the contour of the knightly helm of the period. Royal ladies are represented wearing the crown over the ker- chief, as in the Fontevraud effigies : but both Queen Eleanor, at Westminster Abbey, and Queen Joanna, at Canterbury, have the crown set upon their heads without any other covering. Until about the year 1375, the hair appears to have been plaited, and gracefully adjusted about the head, though the wimple would permit but little of it to be displayed. As early as 1 350 the fashion, so long prevalent, of enclosing the hair within reticula- tions of fine goldsmith's work set with jewels, makes its u 2 292 COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. appearance. From this time until the commencement of the succeeding century, various modifications of this Reticulated Head-dress, with caps made of lace and frills, are common. In many of these examples the hair appears from beneath the head-gear, and it falls on the shoulders, where it is rolled up into two balls, and en- closed within net-work that resembles the head-dress itself. A Veil, or kerchief, is frequently worn over all. Examples : — The sculptured effigies of Ladies Montacute and Mohun, at Oxford and Canterbury; and brasses at Ashford and Cobham, Kent ; Necton, in Norfolk, and Chrishall, in Essex. During the first quarter of the fifteenth century, a modification of the Reticulated Head- dress is prevalent : in this arrangement the hair is col- lected into a bunch on either side of the forehead, and there enclosed in a rich caul; the forehead is encircled by a fillet enriched with jewels, and a close kerchief descends to the shoulders, as in the brass to Lady Felbrigge, at Felbrigge, in Norfolk, and in the sculp- tured effigies at Staindrop, in Durham. About the year 1425, the bands of hair are spread out more widely on either side of the face, being still enclosed within reticu- lated work; the kerchief now falls slightly over the COSTUMES OF LADIES. 293 forehead. The next change shows the kerchief plaited over the forehead, and slightly raised to a point above the head, as in the brasses at Snoring, in Norfolk, and Trotton, in Sussex. This form of head-dress then is seen to spread to a great width, as in the brass at Dod- ford, Northants. The Horned Head-dress follows, and is fairly in fashion by 1440 : this is a modification of the last form of coiffure, its distinctive characteristic beinsr that it sinks down to a hollow over the crown of the head, and rises on either side : there are admirable examples in sculptured effigies at Hoveningham, Notts, and at Arundel ; and in brasses at Graveney and Heme, in Kent ; Castle Donington, in Leicestershire ; and at Enfield, in Middlesex. The concluding quarter of the fifteenth century brings with it the Butterfly Head-dress, formed of a light veil extended at the back of the head by wires, the hair being drawn back and enclosed within the ever-admired reticulated work. Examples : — The brasses at Broxbourue, Herts ; Dagenham, in Essex ; and Blickling, in Norfolk. With the sixteenth century the Pedimental Head-dress makes its appearance : this is arranged in such a manner as to form an angle over the forehead, and it has long pendant lappets — as in the 294 COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. brasses at Eweime, Oxon, and Luton, Beds. The close- fitting cap, called at the time the " Paris hede" and so well known in association with the unfortunate Mary Stuart, follows about 1540, and permits the hair to be seen about the forehead. Examples : — The sculptured effigies at Bromsgrove, Worcester ; and of the Queen of Scots herself in Westminster Abbey; also the brasses at Cumnor, Berks, and Clippesby, in Norfolk. And, finally, about the year 1590, over a coiffure formed by depressing the centre of the " Paris head," and throwing forward the lappet which previously hung down behind, a broad-brimmed hat is worn, wreathed about the crown with various decorations. From the close of the thirteenth century, it appears also to have been an occasional fashion for ladies to wear their hair hanging over their shoulders, and simply con- fined about the brow with a diadem, or wreath. Ex- amples : — The bronze effigies of Queens Eleanor and Anne of Bohemia, and the sculptured effi.gy of Lady Daubeney, all in Westminster Abbey; and the brass to Lady del Bothe, at Wilmslow, in Cheshire. COSTUMES OF CIVILIANS. 295 SECTION IV. COSTUMES OF CIVILIANS. The civil costume of the Anglo- Saxons, as it is repre- sented in illuminations, consists of a Tunic descending to the knees, and having long and close sleeves. It sometimes is open at the sides, and is encircled by a belt. Over this is a short Cloak or Mantle, fastened by morses on both shoulders, or on one shoulder only, and sometimes on the breast. Leggings and Hose, the latter covered with bands of cloth, worn crossing each other diagonally, or with a kind of Sock, and leather Shoes, complete the costume. In the tenth century this dress becomes much enriched, but in its general character it remains un- changed until after the Norman Conquest, when long Tunics and flowing Mantles were introduced and worn, in addition to the earlier costume. The Anglo-Saxons allowed both the hair and the beard to grow ; but the Normans shaved, and cut their hair closely. The long hair and beards, however, re-appear in the time of Henry I. At this same early period, the English civil costume began to assume many fantastic forms, which continued to be prevalent under various modifications for several centuries. The principal garments are the 29G COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. Mantle or Cloak, the Tunic or Gown, Chausses or Leggings, Hose and Boots, with Hats and Caps of varied shapes. The Mantle and Tunic are remarkable for their close re- semblance to the garments bearing the same names that were worn by ladies — the only decided differences being that the Tunic of the men is shorter, and when there is a girdle it is worn lower on the figure than by the other sex. The borders of the Mantle are often cut into leaf- patterns and other fantastic devices, and the entire costume is much enriched with embroidery and other decorative accessories. The Mantle, fastened on the right shoulder, the tight-sleeved short Tunic, with its rich Hip- belt, the close-fitting Chausses, and the embroidered Boots, worn in the middle of the fourteenth century, are well exemplified in the sculptured effigy of Prince William, son of Edward III., at York. The statuettes which surround the monument of the same King at West- minster are also highly characteristic of the costume of the period. The brasses at Great Berkhampstead, Herts, and Stoke Fleming, Devonshire, illustrate the long and loose Tunic, buttoned down the front, with its coif, or hood. In both of these effigies the hair is long, and the short double beard is seen : in one of them the COSTUMES OF CIVILIANS. 297 anlace, or civilian's sword, is worn suspended from a rich belt, which crosses the right shoulder. In the fine brass at TopclifT, Yorkshire, which is forty years later (a.d. 1391), over precisely the same Tunic a Mantle is worn, which is fastened on the right shoulder : here the anlace hangs on the right side. The brass of William Grevel, at Chipping Camden, Gloucestershire, affords another fine example of the commencement of the fifteenth century: the costume is exactly the same. Other examples are in the brasses at Northleach, in the same county, and at Tilbrook, Beds. Earlier in the century (about 1375), the Tunic is shorter in the ex- amples at Shottesbroke, Berks, and King's Sombourne, Hants: still earlier (from about 1350 to about 1360), the brasses at King's Lynn and Newark, and at Taplow, in Bedfordshire, omit the mantle, and show the tunic open at the bottom in the front, with pockets and tight sleeves, from which lappets hang down : over the shoul- ders a Tippet is also worn. In all these examples the shoes are very large, pointed at the toes, and laced, or fastened by a strap over the instep. About the year 1430, the Tunic is made with a collar encircling the throat ; it is partially open in front at the bottom, and 298 COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. has very large sleeves (identical with those of the female costume of the period) gathered into small cuffs at the wrists ; the Belt sometimes has a long pendant end, and pointed Boots are worn, which lace inside the ankles. Examples : — Brasses at Bedington and Kingston, Sur- rey ; Chipping Norton, Oxon ; and Hitchin and "Wheat- hamstede, Herts. About the year 1480, the Tunic is worn reaching to the feet, with large open sleeves, and open in front : it is guarded with fur, and has a fur collar. A large Gypcure (or purse), with an equally large Rosary, appears suspended from the girdle. The hair is long, and the feet are encased in very broad shoes, round at the toes. Examples : — Brasses at St. Alban's Abbey; at Ardingly, in Sussex; in the Church of St. Mary Tower, at Ipswich; and atClippesby, in Norfolk. These dresses continue to be worn long after the com- mencement of the sixteenth century. As that century advances towards the year 1550, the Tunic becomes a large and loose Gown, which is lined with fur, and open in the front. At the first, the sleeves of this gown are large and open : then they are closer, but the arms pass through slits cut in them above the elbow, so that the greater part of the sleeves hangs down like large lappets. PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. 299 The Doublet, which is a short, closely-fitting garment, is worn and displayed beneath the Gown, and the lower limbs are encased in Hose. After the year 1580, the fur lining is rarely seen in the Gowns, and the sleeves become much attenuated : the Doublets are longer in the waist, and button up in front. Trunk-hose are much in fashion: these are large short breeches, which were stuffed and slashed, in accordance with the strange taste of the time. At this same time gentlemen wore, instead of the civilian's gown, short cloaks, with falling collars : Jack-boots and spurs are also seen in their effigies. Examples : — Brasses in the Churches of St. Mary Key, Ipswich, and All Hallows Barking, London ; at Shottes- broke, Berks; in several churches at Norwich; and at St. Mary's Cray, Kent. Sculptured effigies of civilians of this period are also common. SECTION V. PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. Under the denomination of " Personal Ornaments ' ; may be included whatsoever objects have been worn, as accessories to costume, without having any special or distinctive signification as official insignia. The early races, who have left us so many visible and 300 COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. tangible relics of their occupancy of these islands, have not failed to transmit to our times very many examples of the personal ornaments which were held by them in the highest and most general repute. The ornaments which would be most naturally produced and worn in a primitive condition of society are, Beads, Collars, and Armlets, with some kind of Clasp, or Fibula, which might be used for fastening a cloak or mantle. These, accord- ingly, are precisely the ornaments which are frequently found, and which may be, without hesitation, assigned to the period of the Celtic Britons. Beads and Fibula, of both the Roman and Anglo-Saxon ages are also continu- ally brought to light, together with the various other ornaments, and also with the implements and utensils of domestic and ordinary life. The systematic researches that have of late years been conducted with such energy and perseverance beneath the surface of the ground, in connexion with casual disclosures, have furnished large and varied collections of relics of this class ; and these collections, in addition to their intrinsic value and inte- rest, must be regarded with peculiar gratification by the arch geologist, from the circumstance of their affording such copious illustrations of early civilization and his- tory. BEADS pi Lte r/ir aiaua B_riUsh said An^lo-Saxoril •■ O.Jrwtt&a.etTiOi. 13ncai1 Broo^ke Imp. PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. 301 The precious metals, with beads formed from various substances, were used in making the Celtic ornaments. Their favourite and characteristic personal adornment is the Tore — a twisted collar for the neck, or an armlet of the same kind. Tores intended to be worn about the arm, and distinguished as Armillce, are much more com- mon than any other varieties. They generally are com- posed of very pure gold, and are wonderfully elastic. After the introduction of Bronze, Armillae and other Tores, some of them of sufficiently ample dimensions to encircle the waist, were made in that metal. Fig. 1, Plate XVI1L, represents a British Armilla Tore of gold. Of the Beads represented in Plate XVII., Fig. 1 is a remarkable example of the British period which was found near Oxford, and in common with the other specimens in the same Plate, it is engraved of the same size as the original. Figs. 2 and 4 are Beads of amber and ame- thyst, which were found near Ramsgate. Figs. 9 and 10 are examples of Beads formed of Roman fine pottery, and the other examples are all Anglo-Saxon Beads. The whole, with the exception of Fig. 1, are in the British Museum: Figs. 10, 13, and 18 are in the Roach Smith collections : Figs. 3, 6, 8, 14, and 15, were found 302 COSTUMES AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. in Yorkshire, and Figs. 7, 12, and 18, are from the Bar- rows of Wilts. Figs. 2, 3, and 4 of Plate XVIII., are specimens of the pendant ornaments so commonly found with Anglo-Saxon relics : Fig. 7 is also a pendant Saxon ornament of a different class. Circular ornaments were evidently preferred by the Anglo-Saxons, and the greater number of their Fibula are of this form. Many of these fibulae are elaborately executed in filagi'ee, or in other processes of metal decoration, and they are richly set with garnets and vitreous pastes of various colours. The Bronze Fibulae, Figs. 5 and 6 of Plate XVIII., are specimens of Saxon workmanship, in which the designs are conformed to Roman types. Figs. 2, 3, and 4 of Plate XX., are other examples of Fibulae, of different forms, all of them of bronze enriched with enamels, and all of them to be assigned to the Romans. Chains, pins, and rings, are also found in the Saxon Barrows. The Ornaments of the Saxon age, which immediately preceded the Norman Conquest, and of the period which followed that important event, are characterized by the same art-feeling which shows itself in the illuminations and other productions of those times. It is the same PERSONAL ORNAMENTS Plate isrm •I. \naments. PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. 303 with the ornaments that were worn under the Plantage- nets and their successors, and under the Tudors : the arts were employed to produce these luxuries, and we find them recording in their productions of this class the prevailing sentiments of each successive period. The number of personal ornaments of the twelfth and three following centuries which have remained to our times is comparatively small. Changes of fashion led, without doubt, to the reproduction of many early works after what was considered an improved taste, while others have perished, or are still awaiting the researches which will bring them forth from their hiding-places. CHAPTER X. POTTERY, PORCELAIN, AND GLASS. SECTION I. INTRODUCTORY. Probably the earliest of manufactures, and evidently from the most remote period associated with art, Pottery supplies the archaeologist with an infinite variety both of subjects for inquiry and of materials from whence he may derive historical information. Through their keramic manufactures, the great nations of antiquity have transmitted to us the most graphic delineations of their civilization ; and in productions of the same class we trace the rude efforts of barbarous tribes to provide for the simplest requirements of daily life. The finely modelled and exquisitely painted vases and urns of the Etruscan Greeks who flourished before Rome had come into existence, and the ill-formed and unbaked vessels of the Celts who inhabited this island before a Roman had landed in it, have each their own INTRODUCTORY. 305 tale to tell. It is the privilege of the archaeologist to read those legends with the faculty of appreciating all that they convey. Keramic works may be divided into three great classes : — 1. Sunburnt or Baked Vessels of Clay, called by the Italians Terra Gotta: 2. Glazed, Enamelled, and Vitrified Ware: 3. Vessels that are modelled and moulded and afterwards adorned with painting. Large collections of specimens of each of these varieties, and from almost every country, are preserved in English museums ; and from these collections the student will observe at how early a period the higher branches of the potter's art had been discovered and were in habitual use. The g-lazed and vitrified works of the Egyptians have never been surpassed, as productions of what we now designate art- manufacture. The Greco-Etruscan vases rank with the works of the highest order of Greek art. The Samian ware and the other fictile manufactures of the Romans ;,re far from being the least interesting relics of that wonderful people. The Etruscan and other ancient potters chiefly used red, black, and white, in colouring their productions. They applied their art to various purposes, and produced x 306 POTTERY, PORCELAIN, AND GLASS. many varieties of objects formed from clay, besides dif- ferent classes of vessels ; thns we find Pavements, Statu- ettes, Seals, Rings, and various ornaments to have been made of clay in great abundance ; and the fine vitrified glaze which was applied to these works leads to the in- ference that the ancient potters discovered at a very early period the enamel-processes necessary for the production of Porcelain. It is certain that enamelled porcelain was known at a remote age, and that it was then produced in the East. In Europe, the enamel -workers of By- zantium, from the fourth to the thirteenth century, and those of Limoges from the tenth to the seventeenth (see Chapter XI.), rendered powerful aid to the keramic artists of the middle ages, who, in their Florentine, Majolica, Palissy, and other wares, transmitted a precious inheri- tance to their modern successors at Dresden, Sevres, and in our own country at Worcester, London, and in Staf- fordshire. SECTION II. ANCIENT BRITISH POTTERY. For the most part discovered in the burial-places of the Celtic Britons, various kinds of urns and other vessels formed of clay have, within the last few years, Plate SX. j-igs. 1 5 6. British tfrn aniVases found in Guernsey. 2 Roman Amphora , found at Chestjerford , Cumbiid&p shire . 3.. Small TkmanVajse, found at Shsfford, Beds . 4.HDman. Samian"Vk?". fc- ■ . - ; 1. White, transparent glass, decorated with threads of coloured glass applied externally. 2. Glass tinted in the mass, or which receives its colours from metallic oxides in the process of manufacture. 3. Enamelled glass, which is decorated with subjects and ornaments in gold, vitreous colours, or coloured enamels after the vessels have been formed, these acces- sories being subsequently fixed in the furnace. 326 POTTERY, PORCELAIN, AND GLASS. 4. Filagree glass, ornamented with small canes en- closing threads of milk-white glass (lattichiio) , spirally twisted, or with similar canes enclosing coloured threads and varied designs in filagree. Works of this class were called ritortoli and afterwards ritorti. 5. Douhle glass, composed of two sheets conjoined so as to exhibit a network of filagree, between each mesh of which a minute air-bubble is formed. This glass was known as Vitro di trina, and vases thus produced were called Vast a reticelli. 6. Mosaic glass (Millefiore or Vitro fiorito), in which thin slices of coloured canes are placed within two layers of white glass, the whole being fused into a mass from which vases and other objects might be formed. JV. German Glass, consisting of vases and other vessels decorated with designs executed in enamel, was produced in small quantities in the sixteenth century, and in the following century a few similar works, executed with much greater artistic skill, made their appearance. The Bohemian white glass, w T ith its medal- lion portraits, dates from the beginning of the seven- teenth century. In this century artists of eminence GLASS. 327 executed engravings on glass, and etching on the same material was also practised. V. English Glass appears to have been made only on a small scale until the present century. The first establishment for the manufacture was at the Savoy, in the Strand, and it dates from the year 1557. In the course of the next century attempts were made to im- prove and extend the glass manufacture, but without success ; consequently, whatever early examples of glass exist in England are the production of foreign glass- makers. CHAPTER XI. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. The present chapter will be found to contain a series of brief descriptive notices of certain early art-processes and productions, which do not admit of being consis- tently grouped with any of the preceding divisions of this volume. SECTION I. DECORATIVE PROCESSES APPLIED TO METALS. I. Enamels are white or coloured substances of a vitreous nature, either opaque or transparent, which are obtained from metallic oxides, and applied to metals by fusion. Thus enamelling, which is of very early date as well as of very general application, is an art that employs one metal as the means for decorating another. Enamels are rendered opaque by the addition to the vitreous mass of an oxide of tin : hence these enamels are distinguished as stanniferous. The term "enamel" is also commonly understood to DECORATIVE PROCESSES APPLIED TO METALS. 329 denote the object, of whatsoever kind, which is decorated by the process of enamelling. Enamels form three distinct groups or classes, each distinguished by the peculiar method in which the enamel is applied : — (1.) Incr 'listed Enamels, in which the vitreous matter is inserted into the mass of the metal. (2.) Overlaid Enamels, in which the design is executed in low relief upon the metal, the surface of which is afterwards covered with a vitreous coating. (3.) Painted Enamels, in which vitrifiable colours are applied with the brush to metallic plates and fixed by the action of fire. (1 .) Incrusted Enamels, which have been also called "embedded" are subdivided into two classes, to which the French antiquaries have given the titles of "cloi- sonne" and " champleve." These names indicate the pro- cesses employed for the reception of the vitreous com- pounds in producing the enamel incrustations. In both cases, the outline of the design is formed by slender strips of metal, within which the enamel, in the condi- tion either of a paste or of a fine powder, is placed, and then fused in the furnace. The metals employed are 330 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. gold, silver, and copper, the cloisonne enamels being almost always executed upon the precious metals. It will be understood that it is necessary for the metal to be capable of enduring the action of the furnace without being affected by such temperatures as will fuse the enamels. When fused, the plates with the enamels are permitted to cool gradually, after which the entire sur- faces are ground smooth, the metallic lines, if necessary, are gilt, and the whole work receives a fine polish. In the Cloisonne enamels the outlines are formed from separate strips of metal that are bent and arranged in accordance with the desired design, and then fixed in an upright position upon the plate of metal. This process was practised by the artists of Byzantium from an early period, and it continued to be held in great repute until the fourteenth century. It was employed for the deco- ration of crowns, swords, ecclesiastical insignia and church ornaments, and other precious objects of every description. The Alfred jewel, a relic of the great Saxon Prince, now preserved at Oxford, and a pectoral cross, probably of the tenth century, in the possession of A. J. B. Beresford Hope, Esq., are specimens of enamels of this class in England : amongst the most precious ex- DECORATIVE PROCESSES APPLIED TO METALS. 331 amples on the continent, are the sword and crown of Charlemagne, at Vienna ; the pala d'oro, or altar-frontal, at St. Mark's, Venice ; and the shrine of the Three Kings, at Cologne. The outlines in the Champleve enamels are first deli- cately marked out on the surface of the plate of metal, and then the intervening spaces are hollowed away, slender threads or strips of the mass of the plate being left, to define and indeed to form the outlines, and also to keep the enamel colours distinct. In this class of enamels the figures are often entirely expressed in the metal by chasing and engraving, in which case the vitreous colouring simply forms the ground, and also ap- pears in some of the details. Fig. 1 of Plate XX. re- presents a relicmary of copper, gilt, and ornamented with enamels by the process which has been just de- scribed. The subject is the death of Archbishop Becket, with his burial in the upper compartment. The champ- leve process was practised from the eleventh to the close of the fourteenth century, during which period the city of Limoges was the great manufactory from whence the champleve enamels emanated. In this country many specimens of this beautiful art are still preserved, amongst 332 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. which are the ring of Ethelbert, in the British Museum, and the effigy of William de Valence in Westminster Abbey. (2.) Overlaid Enamels appeared in the second half of the thirteenth century, and they continued to be pro- duced in great numbers until the close of the fifteenth century. In this process the devices and subjects are expressed on plates of gold or silver, often very thin, by means of chasing and engraving, and the entire surface is afterwards coloured by fine translucid enamels, which cover the whole, and are so incorporated with the chased and engraved designs as to impart to them the appear- ance of brilliant paintings reflecting a metallic lustre. (3.) Painted Enamels, apparently first executed upon metal at Limoges in the fourteenth century, in the course of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are seen to as- sume positions of the first importance in the art-produc- tions of those periods. Very many specimens, the pro- ductions of the centuries last named, have been preserved : and with these there may be associated the similar works of later periods, the productions of Italian and German as well as of French artists. II. Engraving and Chasing, processes executed with DECORATIVE PROCESSES APPLIED TO METALS. 833 graving tools, produce decorations upon metals by means of lines incised in their surfaces, or by removing such parts of their surfaces as will leave the required designs in slight relief. The two processes are generally com- bined, and both were derived by the artists of the middle ages from the arts of antiquity. Engraving thus applied for the purpose of expressing upon metals decorative de- signs must be distinguished from the great art, which bears the same name, and of which the sole aim and ob- ject is the production and multiplication of impressions of designs by means of the press. III. Niello is the engraving designs upon metals and filling in the incised lines and spaces with a black enamel, or sometimes with coloured substances of the same na- ture. Nielli are generally found to have been executed in silver : occasionally, however, gold received this species of decoration. A fine gold niello of exquisite work- manship, found in Norfolk, is preserved in the cabi- net of K. Fitch, Esq., of Norwich. This process was applied for various purposes of ornamentation from about the commencement of the twelfth century. Niello is specially distinguished amongst the decorative processes applied during the middle ages to metal-works, from the 334 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. circumstance that Mazzo Finequerra, a skilful goldsmith of Florence, about the year 1460, was accidentally led by means of his niello to the discovery of the art of engraving' for the purpose of producing impressions. In true niello the design is exhibited in the metal, and the black enamel forms the ground : but in some of the early engraven works, such as monumental brasses and incised slabs, the designs are incised, and rendered in outline by means of the black or coloured substances which are thus imbedded in the plates or slabs. IV. Damascening is a decorative art which expresses a design by means of slender wires of one metal, which are inserted in lines incised for their reception in the surface of a plate of another metal. The general usage is to insert wires of gold or silver in iron or bronze ; but sometimes the precious metals only are employed in damascene- work, gold being thus imbedded in silver, or silver in gold. Damascening is commonly used for the decoration of armour and weapons ; and it is also found applied to various other objects in metal. It is an art that was practised with success by the ancients, from whom it was derived by the early artists of the middle ages, and by them transmitted to later times. Fared- DECORATIVE PROCESSES APPLIED TO METALS. 335 Gilding, the partial application of gold to the surface of another metal, is a decorative process in some degree al- lied to damascening. V. Embossing, produced by various processes, always implies designs which are executed in relief. Metals may be cast in moulds, and thus the desired reliefs may be obtained; or the plates may be beaten out, and the relief-work executed by the hammer. This latter process, invariably superior in its results to the finest castings, is distinguished as Repousse-work. It may be traced to a period of remote antiquity, and it was practised with eminent success by the artists in metal of the middle ages. The reliefs are finished with the chisel, and with the addition of chasing, engraving, and damascene- work. Of the long array of great and distinguished artists who worked in metal, and whose works have come down to us, three of the greatest are Lorenzo Ghiberti, the Florentine, who produced the bronze doors of the Baptis- try of St. John in the commencement of the fifteenth century : Benvenuto Cellini, also of Florence, who was born in the year 1500 ; and Quintin Matsys, of Antwerp who flourished between the years 1475 and 1529. 336 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. SECTION II. CLOCKS AND WATCHES. . Amongst the relics of the arts of the middle ages which attract the attention of the archaeologist, not the least interesting is the series of curious instruments which were invented for marking the progress of time. These clocks and watches, indeed, possess a twofold claim upon our attention, since they illustrate the art- processes of the workers in metal, while they exemplify the condition of practical science at early periods. Clocks were invented shortly before the close of the tenth century. Towards the close of the fourteenth century they began to be introduced into private houses. About the middle of the following century, the spring coiled within a cylinder was introduced, as a moving power, into clock-work. Next follow the complicated pieces of mechanism of the first half of the sixteenth century, which combine the most varied operations with the proper functions of clock-work. During the same period Watches make their appearance, and they con- tinue to be very curious instruments until their balance was adjusted by means of a spring by Huyghens, who first applied the pendulum to clocks, about the year CLOCKS AND WATCHES. LOCKS, KEYS, ETC. 337 1G65. After this time, both clocks and watches begin to assume the character and appearance with which we are familiar. At the Reformation, Hour-glasses were attached to the pulpits in churches, fur the purpose of regulating the length of sermons : many of these preachers'-monitors yet remain in their original positions, though their occupation has ceased for more than a century and a half. SECTION III. LOCKS, KEYS, AND DECORATIVE IRON-WORK. In addition to the iron-work employed as an accessory in architecture, the smiths of the middle ages executed various works in this metal, all of which are charac- terized by genuine art-feeling. Their locks, keys, and caskets, with their arms, armour, and military appli- ances, are particularly admirable ; and in common with many other objects they may be studied with much advantage, not only as specimens of elegant and appro- priate design, and also of skilful and rich workmanship, but as models from which we may elevate our own treatment of iron under all similar circumstances of its application and use by ourselves. z 338 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. SECTION IV. — IVORY CARVINGS, CAMEOS, AND INTAGLIOS. 1. Ivory Carvings constitute a class of works in themselves abounding in objects of the highest interest, and also possessing a peculiar claim upon the attentive regard of the archaeologist from the circumstance of their forming the connecting link between the sculpture of antiquity and of the Gothic era of the middle ages. These works of the sculptor, executed in ivory, or sometimes in the tooth of the walrus, originated in the usage prevalent amongst the consuls of the imperial times of Rome, to send to certain personages commemo- rative presents, entitled Diptycks, or double tablets of ivory or wood. Each of these tablets consisted of two leaves, resembling the two covers of a book, which would fold one over the other, and so would enclose and pre- serve within them a surface of wax, upon which some legend was written. The exterior surfaces of these Consular Diptycks were adorned with various carvings. In process of time, the wax legends were omitted, and the carvings were executed on the inner sides of the folding-leaves, with the view to the protection of the carved works. Triptychs were also made after the IVOKY CARVINGS, CAMEOS, AND INTAGLIOS. 339 same fashion with the diptychs; and these peculiar works, with their small carved pictures of sacred sub- jects, and their folding-leaves, shutters, or "volets" became universal with persons of every rank and condi- tion, as the companions of their devotional exercises. In the fourteenth century, the romance literature of the day furnished a different class of subjects for the sculptors in ivory; sacred subjects, however, still con- tinued to be produced after the earlier system, and they remained in special favour. These works continued to be executed in great numbers until the sixteenth century, when they ceased to be held in esteem. Besides diptychs and triptychs, caskets, tablets, mirror-cases, and other objects were sculptured in ivory; hunting-horns were produced in the same material, and enriched with elaborate ornamentation executed with the chisel. Wood-carvings were associated with the ivories of the fourteenth century, and in the centmy following the Germans introduced the practice of painting and gilding their small sculpture. The Byzan- tine origin of mediaeval ivory-sculpture is shown in the prevailing character of the art in these works, which lingered even after the development of Gothic prin- z 2 340 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. ciples. These works exhibit a wonderful variety of sub- jects, always valuable as historical exponents of both the habits and sentiments as well as of the art of their period : they also demonstrate the admirable skill with which the artists in ivory treated their subjects, and show how thoroughly they understood the capabilities of the material in which they worked. With the ivories may be grouped the various medal- lion portraits sculptured in hone-stone [speckstein] by the Germans of the sixteenth century, the sculptures in amber and other materials that were occasionally produced, together with the statuettes and carved works that were executed in hard woods. During the Renaissance period, ivory was used for making tankards and other objects of the same class, that were richly sculptured with bas-reliefs in the style and after the sentiment of the time. 2. Cameos are sculptured works, necessarily on a small scale, which are executed in relief upon gems and hard stratified stones. One of the earliest of the arts, gem- sculpture attained to a truly wonderful perfection at the hands of the Greeks. It was practised with success by the Romans, and from them it was transmitted to the middle ages. In more recent times, cameos are gene- MOSAICS. 311 rally produced from certain shells which are formed in strata of white and some deep colour, and thus the de- sired object of obtaining a design in white upon a dark ground is obtained. 3. Intaglios are the reverse of cameos, being: designs sunk in gems, and consequently they are capable of pro- ducing impressions in wax or other soft substances. Thus the matrices of seals are intaglios. SECTION V. MOSAICS. The art of producing devices and designs in colour by means of tessera (small fragments, generally cubes) of variously coloured substances was practised successful^ by the ancients, having in the first instance been applied to the decoration of pavements. At Byzantium this art flourished, and by Byzantine artists pictures for the adornment of the walls and domes of the- early Christian basilicas were produced in mosaic. The art acquired a peculiar and typical form of expression at the hands of tbese artists, which it retained until it was raised to its noblest condition by the great Italian artists of the four- teenth century. In the fifteenth century the art of painting in Mosaic declined. Marquetry is a species of mosaic executed with coloured woods and ivory. 3J2 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. SECTION VI. PAINTING IN OIL. The archaeologist, anxious to apply to the practical im- provement of the arts of his own times whatsoever the arts of past times have left for him to investigate and to elucidate, will not fail to search out the history of Paint- ing in Oil, and to examine with a careful eye its earliest productions. He will find that this art, generally sup- posed to he an invention of the fifteenth century, was known and practised at much earlier periods. SECTION VII. EMBROIDERY. The occupation of ladies of the highest rank in the times of classic antiquity, the art of adorning textile fabrics with various devices was carried to a high degree of perfection as early as the sixth century of the Chris- tian era, and it continued to be practised from that period throughout the middle ages. The earliest em- broideries were executed upon silk with gold and silver threads, and must have produced a brilliant effect. These embroideries, as well as those of later periods, are lost, but they are fully described in various inventories. The art, in some respects in a condition of decline, as EMBROIDERY. 343 it was practised in the eleventh century, is exemplified in the remarkable roll known as the "Bayeux Tapestry" and still preserved at the city of Bayeux. This relic, attributed (and, as it would seem, most correctly) to Matilda, Queen of William the Conqueror, measures two hundred and twenty-seven feet in length, by about twenty inches in breadth, and it is worked in coloured worsted on a groundwork of rather fine linen, which now has assumed a brownish tinge. The colours of the em- broidery are remarkably fresh and vivid. The entire composition is divided into seventy-two compartments, each of which contains its own incident in the historical series that occupies the central portion of the tapestry, and is enclosed within ornamental borders filled with a variety of figures and other objects. Perspective and light and shade are entirely disregarded in this work, and the adjustment of the colours is most curiously arbi- trary : the drawing of the figures, however, and their execution, are spirited and expressive. This tapestry con- veys abundant illustration of the architecture, armour, costumes, furniture, and also of the manners and usages of the important era of the Norman Conquest. The episcopal vestments and mitre of Thomas a Becket, 344 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. preserved at Sens, are characteristic specimens of the rich embroidery executed for ecclesiastical purposes in the twelfth century ; and the jupon of the Elack Prince at Canterbury is a no less interesting example of the four- teenth century. It is evident from the recorded descrip- tions of the early embroidery executed in this country, that the productions of the English needle were of the most splendid description ; and it may also be learned from the same source, that these elaborate and beautiful productions were used for the decoration of churches and dwelling-houses, and also for the enrichment of costumes both ecclesiastical and secular. The embroidery of Eng- land was, indeed, held in such high estimation, that it is continually specified in foreign documents as distin- guished above all other works of the same class. A few early ecclesiastical vestments are known to be in exis- tence; but the existing relics of embroideries executed during the middle ages as hangings for walls or for other purposes, are rarely of a period earlier than the middle of the fifteenth century, and of these a few pieces only yet remain . FURNITURE. 345 SECTION VIII. — FURNITURE. The Furniture in use at any period necessarily conveys much graphic illustration with respect not only to the then existing condition of the arts in general, but also to the prevailing manners, usages, and customs. In addi- tion to the representations conveyed by illuminations, much equally interesting and valuable information respecting mediaeval furniture is contained in inventories and other personal and household accounts and docu- ments. These sources of information have at present been but partially investigated ; and it is much to be desired that archaeological students should direct their attention to whatever documents of these classes may present themselves to their notice. But few examples of mediaeval furniture have been preserved to our own times, unless this term be con- sidered to include the Renaissance productions of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It is certain, how- ever, that throughout the best period of mediaeval art, the furniture was in keeping with the architecture of the times, and it was both designed and produced by men who must be included within the ranks of artists. The general 346 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. character of early furniture is evidently massive, and its de- corations consist both in carvings and in decorative metal- work. Marquetry, with various inlaid or superadded ornaments, appear in the furniture of the Renaissance. SECTION IX. WOOD-ENGRAVING AND TYPOGRAPHY. Wood-engraving differs from the kindred art of en- graving on plates of metal for the purpose of obtaining and multiplying impressions, in this most important par- ticular, that the impressions which it produces are printed from the surface of the engraven blocks, whereas in all plate-engraving the design is expressed by the lines which are incised into the metal. Hence, in engraving upon wood, the lines of the design remain, while the parts of the wood that are cutaway are identical with those parts of the design that are to appear white in the impression. The printing from types and from wood-engravings is consequently effected by the same process, and thus wood- engravings and type are printed together. From this cir- cumstance arises the peculiar suitableness of wood- engravings for the illustration of printed books. It will be interesting to study the arts of wood-engraving and typography together, and to observe the progress of their development. WOOD-ENGRAVING AND TYPOGRAPHY. 317 Stamps cut in relief on blocks of wood, and used either to form intaglio-impressions or for affixing brands, were known from remote periods ; but the art of engrav- ing on wood, properly so called, may be considered to be nearly contemporaneous with Typography, and to date from about the year 1430. The earliest known wood- engraving, Lord Spencer's St. Christopher, was cut in 1423. As is well known, Gutenberg, with the assist- ance of Faust and Scheffer, brought his moveable types into a perfect working condition in 1452 ; and in 1457 appeared the Psalter, which was the first book printed w T ith a date and the printers' names. In this Psalter are large initial letters, most beautifully engraved on wood, and printed in blue and red inks. In 1476 Caxton appears with his " Game and Playe of Chesse," illustrated with wood-cuts, his " Mirrour of the World," similarly illustrated, following in 1480. The two arts gradually advanced with equal steps, until in the com- mencement of the sixteenth century, Albert Durer gave so great an impulse to engraving on wood. At the close of this same century wood-engraving shows symptoms of decline, and in the course of the following century it is found to have sunk to the condition of extreme degra- dation, from which it was rescued by our own distin- 318 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. guished fellow- countryman, Thomas Bewick, in the con- cluding quarter of the last century. SECTION X. CHESS AND PLAYING-CARDS are alike of oriental origin. Both were known at very early periods in India, and apparently also in China ; and both the chess-men and the playing-cards have much in common in their original application. Chess was undoubtedly played by Edward I., and it is highly probable that cards were known in England in the same reign, under the title of the " Game of the Four Kings." Chess, however, may be presumed to have been known in this country as early as the reign of John, since chess-men, evidently executed during the first quarter of the thirteenth century, have been found amongst other relics of the same period. These early chess-men, with other pieces, the work of the fourteenth century, afford^ most interesting illustrations of both armour and costume. Cards are said to have been intro- duced into France about 1 393, in the hope of diverting the malady of Charles VI. ; they became common in that country, and also in both England and Germany, early in the following centuiy, at which time card- ENGLISH SHIPPING IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 3 19 making had become a regular trade in Germany. Cards appear to have been used for fortune-telling before the fifteenth century had expired, and tricks played with cards were in vogue about the same period. The earliest known European cards were made about the year 1440 ; the marks of the suits are Bells, Hearts, Leaves, and Acorns ; they were produced by stencilling, — that is, by cutting out the pattern in some thin substance over which, when placed upon the card, a brush charged with ink or colour was drawn. The set now in use may be considered to have been devised before 1500. Playing- cards were so much used in the time of Charles II., that they were made the vehicles for advertisements. In 1660 Heraldic Cards were introduced, and these were shortly followed by others of an historical character ; after which, in the time of Anne and George I., Satirical Cards made their appearance. The historical cards which refer to the Popish plots and quasi-plots of the time of the Second Charles are very curious. SECTION XI. ENGLISH SHIPPING IN THE MIDDLE AGES. Long before the days of Vandevelde and Hay ward, illuminations and seals convey qunint and yet graphic 350 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. illustrations of the singular craft from which the glorious navy of Britain has derived its origin. The student of archaeology will not fail to see in these un-ship shape- looking vessels much that will repay his care in tracing their progress, from step to step, until Henry VIII. built the " Great Harry" which solitary vessel for a while constituted the royal fleet of England. King John may be said to have been the founder of the royal navy. Under his son, Henry III., the largest ships do not appear to have exceeded eighty tons in burden ; these vessels had small raised castles at either end, and two masts, but no bowsprit or fore-and-aft sails. The rudder, as now used, appears about 1300, together with a species of bowsprit. Guns are found to have been used for the armament of the ships of the year 1340, and by the end of the fourteenth century the vessels have increased con- siderably in size ; four masts sometimes are seen, and something like rigging is placed about them. Then follows Henry VIII., who soon (a.d. 1512) adds the " Regent" of one thousand tons, to the " Great Harry" having in the previous year secured a third ship of about the same size by capturing from the Scottish King the " Lion ;" an incident which eventually led to the battle MONKS. 351 of Flodden. After this period, ships were continually built, and as constantly improved ; naval establishments wei*e formed; and both the navy and the mercantile marine of England assumed an important character. Drake under Elizabeth, and Blake under Cromwell, asserted and maintained the maritime supremacy of their country; and, having passed through the evil days of Charles II. and James II., the English navy grew steadily, until the ships identified with Nelson, in their turn have become as traditions of the past, steam and the " screw" being the naval types of the present. The great Commercial Companies of the " Merchants of the Staple of Calais" and of " Merchants- Adventurers" or "Hamburg Merchants" were severally incorporated by Edward III., after the capture of Calais, and by Edward I. in 1296. The East India Co?nj)a?iy was incorporated in 1600. The London Companies received their respective charters in the course of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. SECTION XII. A List of the Monastic Orders established in England during the Middle Ages, with the periods at which they 352 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. were introduced into this country, their distinctive cos- tumes, and the number of " Houses," or ecclesiastical establishments possessed by them at the time of the dis- solution of the Monasteries previous to the Reformation. I. Monks. 1. Benedtctine Order. Founded by St. Bene- dict, about 535. Introduced into England before the Norman Conquest. To them belonged the cathedral priories and the greater abbeys. Habit — a loose black gown and hood, worn over a garment of white flannel. 2. Cluniac Order. Introduced about 1107. Twen- ty-seven houses. Benedictine Habit. 3. Order of Grandmont. Introduced about 1110. Three houses. Benedictine Habit. 4. Carthusian Order. Introduced about 1180. Nine houses. Habit — white, w T ith black plaited cloak. 5. Cistercian Order. Introduced in 11 28. Eighty- five houses, all dedicated to the Virgin. Habit — white cassock, and black gown : but a white gown when engaged in religious offices. MONKS. 353 6. Order of Tiron. Introduced about 1126. Three houses in Wales. Habit — light gray ; afterwards black. 7. Culdees. Scottish monks, who had one house in England, at St. Mary's, York. All these Orders were branches of the great Bene- dictine Order, and, with certain modifications and addi- tions, conformed to the Benedictine rule. II. Canons. 1. Canons of St. Austin. Introduced about 1110. Upwards of one hundred and seventy-five houses. Habit — black cassock, white rochet, black cloak and hood. They wore beards, and caps on their heads. There were three subordinate branches of these canons, who possessed nine houses. 2. Premonstratensian Canons. Introduced about 1140. Thirty-five houses. Habit — white cassock, rochet, long cloak, and cap. 3. Lempringham, or Gilbertine Canons. Intro- duced in 1148. Twenty-five houses. Habit — black cassock, white cloak, hoods lined with lambs' skins. The men of this Order observed the Austin rule, the women the Benedictine. A A 354 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. 4. Canons of the Holy Sepulchre, or Holy Cross. Introduced about 1120. Fell into decay after 1188. Two houses at the Dissolution. Austin Habit, with double red cross. III. Friars. 1. Dominicans, or Black Friars. Introduced in 1221. Forty-three houses. Austin rule. Habit — white cassock and hood : black cloak and cowl. 2. Franciscans, Gray or Minor Friars. Intro- duced about 1224. Fifty-five houses. Habit — gray gown, cloak, cowl ; a cord for girdle, and bare feet. 3. Maturines. Introduced in 1224. Twelve houses. Austin rule. White Habit, with red and blue cross. 4. Carmelites, or White Friars. Introduced in 1240. Forty houses. Rule of Basil. Habit — white. 5. Crossed, or Crouched Friars. Introduced in 1244. Six or seven houses. Austin rule. Habit — blue, with red cross. 6. Austin, or Eremite Friars. Introduced about 1250. Thirty-two houses. Habit — white, with black cloak and cowl. MILITARY ORDERS. 355 7. Bethlemite Friars. Introduced in 1257. One house (Trumpington, Cambridge). Dominican Habit — with red star of five points, charged with blue circle. 8. Friars of St. Anthony of Vienna. Introduced about 1225. Two houses. Austin rule and Habit, with blue Tau (T) cross on the breast. 9. Friars Bonhommes. Introduced in 1283. Two houses. Austin rule ; Habit — blue. IV. Military Orders. 1. Hospitallers, or Knights of St. John of Jeru- salem. Instituted about 1092. Introduced into England about 1100. Austin rule. Habit — black with white cross of eight points, worn over the armour when in action. Between the years 1278 and 1289, when engaged in military duties they wore a red cassock with a white cross, straight. There was one house of Sisters of the Order. 2. Templars. Instituted 1118. Introduced into England during the reign of Stephen. Sup- pressed 1309. Abolished 1312. Habit— White, with red cross of eight points, worn on the left shoulder. The Templar war-cry was " Beau a a 2 356 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. Seant \" Their banner, which bore the same name, was of black and white, — per fess, sable and argent. They had also for devices the Agnus Dei, and a figure representing two Templars mounted on one horse. The Benedictine, Cluniac, Cistercian, Carthusian, Aus- tin, and Premonstratensian Orders consisted of Nuns as well as Monks and Canons. There were also three other orders of Nuns, viz. : — 1. Nuns of Fontevrault. — Introduced into Eng- land in 1161. Three houses. Habit — Cassock of the natural colour of the wool, and black cloak. 2. Nuns of St. Claee, or Minoresses. — Introduced about 1293. Four houses. Franciscan rule and habit. 3. Brigitttnes. — Introduced about 1414. One house (Syon) . Austin rule. Habit — Gray wool- len tunic and cloak. SECTION XIII. THE NIMBUS AND EMBLEMS OF SAINTS. In their ideal portraiture of saintly personages the artists of the middle ages were accustomed to encircle the heads of their figures with a luminous halo, which THE NIMBUS AND EMBLEMS OF SAINTS. 357 they called a nimbus. It was also their practice to dis- tinguish the different individuals whom they represented in sculpture, painting, or engraving, by some device or emblem. The Nimhis is represented by a circular figure placed immediately above and partly behind the head. In re- presentations of the person of Our Lord, the nimbus is cruciform — that is, it has a cross upon its under surface : of this cross, three of the limbs only are visible, the fourth being concealed by the back of the head. The head of the Dove, which is the emblem of the Holy Spirit, is en- circled with a cruciform nimbus. The radiated nimbus does not appear until late in the fifteenth century. When an entire figure is represented, encompassed by a glory, the radiant figure is styled an aureole. The aureole is generally in the form of a pointed oval, or Vesica. This pointed oval represents the outline of a fish, which was a primitive Christian symbol, the letters which compose the Greek word IX0YS (a fish) forming the initials of the words III20Y2. XPISTOS. 0EOY. YI02. 20THP. (Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour). Two emblems appear in mediaeval art to symbolize the Divine and Blessed Trinity: — (1). A group consisting 358 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. DEVS EH 00 of a venerable personage, enthroned, and holding a cru- cifix, over which a dove hovers ; the heads in this group have the cruciform nimbus. (2.) A shield, or other PATER non est ELLIVS fi S Ure ' on which a le g end is arranged, as in the margin, and which will accordingly admit of a double reading. The Emblems of Our Lord's SPIRITVS SANCTVS P "*? "* C0Mtan % to be seen in early carvings and other works : they are generally grouped upon shields, and comprise the scourging pillar, scourge, seamless robe and dice, cross, crown of thorns, nails, hammer, pincers, spear, superscription, and hyssop on a reed, with some others of more rare occurrence. A lamb holding a cross with its right fore-foot and having a cruciform nimbus about its head is a symbol of Our Lord; it is called the Agnus Dei. EMBLEMS OP SAINTS. The Four Evangelists. — St. Matthew, an angel j St. Mark, a winged lion ; St. Luke, a winged ox ; St. John, an eagle. EMBLEMS OF SAINTS. 359 The Four Doctors op the Church. — St. Jerome, a lion; St. Augustine, a heart; St. Ambrose, a bee-hive, or scourge; St. Gregory, receiving the Holy Communion, and Our Lord appearing to him. The Apostles. — St. Peter, two keys ; St. Paul, sword and book ; St. Andrew, a cross saltier ( x ) ; St. John, a chalice and serpent issuing from it ; St. Philip, a T cross, or spear, or double cross ; St. Bartholomew , a knife ; St. Thomas, an arrow or spear ; St. Matthew, a club, carpen- ter's square, or money-box ; St. James the Great, a pil- grim's staff and wallet, and shell ; St. James the Less, a fuller's bat and saw ; St. Jucle, a boat, a club, or car- penter's square ; St. Simon, a fish or fishes, or a saw ; St. Matthias, a hatchet, battle-axe, or sword. The Virgin Mary, a flower-pot with lilies. St. Stephen, some stones. St. Lawrence, a gridiron. Jesse, a genealogical tree. St. Christopher, a giant carrying the Infant Saviour. SECTION XIV. BRITISH, ROMAN, AND SAXON EARTHWORKS AND ENCAMPMENTS. The lapse of centuries has not yet effaced the traces of 360 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. the hill-fortifications, which, in early times, were thrown up in many parts of Britain for military purposes. These works present themselves to the notice of the archaeolo- gist under two distinct aspects — (1.) Such as are irre- gular in form, simple in construction, and with slight banks and low ditches, the works of rude and barbarous tribes. (2.) Such as are regular in form, have multiplied intrenchments, with lofty mounds and deep ditches, the evident productions of a people versed in the science of castrametation. The camps and hill-forts of the Britons are circular in their outline ; those of the Romans are square or oblong, bounded by straight lines, and having the angles rounded off. The Romans often occupied British camps as either victors or allies. The Saxons generally availed them- selves of the hill-works that were already in existence, and which they altered and adapted to their own views and requirements. British camps abound in the south and west of England. There is a fine Roman camp at Sodbury, near Gloucester. At Badbury, near Wim- borne, Dorset, may be seen the Saxon camp of the great Alfred. These camps continually disclose relics of the races BRITISH, ROMAN, AND SAXON EARTHWORKS. 3G1 who formed and occupied them. Amongst these relics are found the various implements and utensils in use by both Britons and Romans, as well as by the Saxons. Similar relics are also found in barrows, in addition to weapons and personal ornaments. Thus, various Celts, evidently intended for peaceful occupations, have been discovered : they comprise chisels and gouges of many forms and sizes. With these may be associated a long series of other remains of the same general character, such as querns, or stone flour-mills, pails, dif- ferent vessels, mirrors, and other articles for personal use, &c. &c. The scope of this volume Would not admit the intro- duction of any specific notices of the manners, usages, and customs prevalent amongst our ancestors of early times. The archaeologist, however, will not fail to seek for illus- trations of these matters, fraught as they are with graphic pictures of the contemporaneous history of suc- cessive generations. He will also investigate the tenures upon which property or offices were held : he will ex- amine into the ceremonies and pageants, as well civil as religious, of past times ; and he will contemplate amuse- 362 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. merits, now long obsolete, and punishments, now happily long fallen into disuse, — and from each and all he will gather some lesson that will make him better acquainted with the history of mankind, and so will enable him to play out more faithfully the part that has been allotted to himself in the great drama of human life. A GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. The figures of reference indicate the pages at which the several Terms will be found fully explained. Abacus, the uppermost member of a capital. Aisle, a lateral division of a building. Apse, a recess, usually semicircular, sometimes polygonal. Apsidal, having an apsedike form or arrangement. Arcade, a continuous series of arches. Arch, 37. Arch, parts of, 38. Arched- Buttress, a buttress which conveys its sustaining power by means of an arch or arches. Ashlar, stone cut into regular forms for building. Astragal, the lowermost member of a capital next to the shaft. Bailey, 31, 65. Ball-Flower t 51. Base, the lower division of a pillar or pier. Basement, the lower division of a wall. Bay, the space enclosed between two buttresses, or two principals of a roof, 56. Bay-window, 45. Billet, 25. ... Boss, an ornament, complete in itself, and projecting from the adjoining work. Brace, 58. Buttress, a projection of masonry for providing support. 364 A GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. Canopy, a decorative covering. Cant, 59. Capital, the upper member, or head of a pillar or pier. Chamfer, an angle cut off to form either a flat or hollow surface, on a slope. Clerestory, the uppermost horizontal division of a church : a row of win- dows that rise above any adjoining parts of a building, and so stand clear. Clerestory-String, continuous mouldings at the base of a clerestory. Collar, 58. Coping, the covering course of a wall. Corbel, a projecting mass which supports some component part of a build- ing. A Bracket, on the contrary, supports an accessory only. Corbel-Table, a series of corbels supporting a string below a parapet. Cornice, the horizontal group of mouldings which finishes any part of a building at its head. Crocket, a projecting ornament. Crypt, a vaulted building beneath the surface of the ground, and under another building. Cushion-Capital, 24. Cusp, the point, generally ornamented, in which the Foils meet in Foil- arches or Tracery. Diaper, 51. Diagonal-Rib, 56. Dog-Tooth, a small pyramidal flower of four leaves. It varies in its treat- ment, and is generally used in long continuous trails. Donjon, 30. Dripstone, or Weather- Moulding, a projecting covering to any opening. It ought to be restricted to the external face of any opening, a similar covering on the interior being distinguished as a Hood- Moulding. Equilateral-arch, an arch described about two sides of an equilateral triangle. Embrasure, 66. Escoinson-arch, 41. A GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 365 Fan-tracery-vaulting, 57. Fillet, 36. Finial, a crowning ornament. Foil-arch, an arch formed of a series of small arches, or Foils. Four-foil (Quatre-foil), the combination of four small arches. Groin, 27. Hammer-beam, 58. Haunch, 38. Herring-bone-work, 15. Impost, 15, 38. Intermediate-rib, 56. Jamb, 15, 38. Jamb-shaft, a shaft (or small pillar) forming part of the jamb of an arch. Keep, 30. Key-stone, 38. King-post, 58. Label-dripstone, a dripstone that is square in its form. Lancet-arch, an arch described about an acute angle. Lintel, 22. Long-and-short-teork, 15. Longitudinal-rib, 56. Machicolation, 66. Merlon, 66. Miserere, 77. Mullion, a perpendicular division of a window, or of a traceried screen, &c. Nail-head, 25. Neck-moulding, see Astragal. Obtuse-arch, an arch described about an obtuse angle. Ogee-arch, a pointed arcb, each side of which is formed finm two united curves, of which one is convex and the ether concave. Oilet, 66. 366 A GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. Order, a member of a group, or one distinct group, 38.* Oriel, 45. Panel, a sunken compartment. Parapet, the uppermost part of a wall, rising above the spring of the roof, and forming a protection to persons standing on the roof. Pier, a massive pillar, or group of pillars. Plate-tracery, 43. Plinth, the lowermost member of a base. Poppy-head, 77. Principal, 57. Purlin, 58. Queen-post, 58. Quoin, 15. Rafter, 58. Rear-vault, 40. Rib, a projecting band on a ceiling. Ridge-piece, 57. Roof, 57. Rubble, rough masonry. Scroll-moulding, 51. Section, the aspect of any solid body or of any building, as it would be shown in profile by cutting vertically through its centre. Segmental-arch, an arch formed by part of a single circle. * The term Oeder is described in this Glossary as it is used in mediaeval architecture. In ancient classical architecture this same term denotes an entire column, consisting of base, shaft, and capital, with the entablature or member of the building which it supports. The classic column, with its entablature, forms the distinctive charac- teristic of each variety or modification of classic architecture. There are usually said to be Five Orders — the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite. The Tuscan and Composite were not in use amongst the Greeks, but were added by the Romans to the three Greek orders. The Tuscan is a modification of the Doric, and the Composite is the Corinthian engrafted upon the Ionic. These classic orders re- appeared in the Renaissance Architecture of the seventeenth century, and were in- troduced into our country, where they have been produced in great quantities, some- times in stone, but more generally in stucco. Inigo Jones designed the Banqueting- house, Whitehall, between the years 1619 and 1621 ; and between the years 1675 and 1710, Sir Christopher Wren witnessed the laying of the first and the last stones of St. Paul's Cathedral. A GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 367 Shaft, the part of a pillar between the base and the capital : also, a small pillar complete. Slab-tracery, 43. Solar, 63. Splay, a wide sloping flat surface : an extended chamfer. Springer, 38. Stilted, 21. String, a continuous horizontal moulding, or group of mouldings. Strut, 58. Sub-arch, an arch within another arch. Subordination, 43. Surface-rib, 56. Tessera?, 12. Tie-beam, 57. Tracery, decorative subdivisions. Tracery-bars, the solid (or raised) members which form the tracery, as distinguished from the Tracery-piercings, or Tracery-panels. Transom, 44. Transverse-rib, 56. Trefoil, the combination of three small arches. Triforium, the central horizontal compartment of a church, between the Pier-arches and the Clerestory. It is generally an arcaded gallery. Triforium-string, continuous mouldings at the base of a triforium. Triplet, a group of three windows, generally lancets, of which the central lancet is in most cases loftier than the other two. Truss, 57. Tympanum, the arched space between the sweep of an arch-head and the horizontal lintel which forms the upper member of a square-headed opening. Vaulting, 27, 55. Vaulting-shafts, shafts that rise to the vaulting-ribs, which they carry. Volute, a spiral scroll characteristic of the ancient Ionic capital. Voussoir, 38. Wall-plate, 58. Wall-rib, 56. Wave-moulding, 51. INDEX OF BUILDINGS AND PLACES. Acton Chtjtioh, 135, 268, 287, 291 Adare Abbey, 70 iEgina, 195 All Hallows Barking Cburch, 299 Alvechurch Church, 268 Antwerp, 335 Arundel Church, 282, 290, 293 Ash Church, 268, 289 Ashford Church, 292 Ashwelthorpe Church, 268 Aston Church, 268, 288 Babbitry, 360 Baden, 320 , Balsam Church, 276 Bayeux, 343 Bedale Church, 268, 285 Bedington Church, 287, 298 Berlin, 320 Beverley Minster, 42, 60, 148, 176, 276 Binham Priory, 190 Birmingham, St. Martin's Church, 278 Blickling Church, 269, 293 Bradford Church, 289 Brading Church, 130 Brandsburton Church, 287 Bredon Church, 126, 145 Bristol Cathedral, 85 British Museum, 216, 301, 332 Brixworth Church, 14 Bromsgrove Church, 268, 289, 294 Broxbourne Church, 293 Burwell Church, 276 Buslingthorpe Church, 136, 268 Byzantium, 216, 324, 341 Caernarvon Castle, 67 Calais, 351 Cambridge, King's College Chapel, 60, 87 , Caius College Chapel, 190 Canterbury Cathedral, 16, 28, 60, 83, 125, 148, 161, 175, 268, 277, 282, 290, 291 Carlisle Cathedral, 44, 60 Carrickfergus Castle, 70 Cashel Cathedral, 70, 120 Castleacre Church, 80 Castle Donington Church, 260, 269, 293 Castle Durante, 315 Chantilly, 321 Chartham Church, 268 Chertsey Abbey, 91, 93, 111 Chester, St. John's Church, 146 INDEX OF BUILDINGS AND PLACES. 369 Chetwode Church, 85 Chelsea, 322 Chichester Cathedral, 99, 285 Childrey Church, 269 Chipping Camden Church, 135, 287, 297 Chipping Norton Church, 298 Chrishall Church, 292 Clare Abbey, 70 Clehongre Church, 268 Clippesby Church, 288, 294, 298 Cobham Church, Kent, 268, 286, 290, 292 Cologne, 331 Comb Pyne Church, 280 Coningsburgh Castle, 31 Constance Cathedral, 138 Conway Castle, 67 Corwen Church, 146 Cowfold Church, 135, 278 Cowthorpe Church, 288 Cray St. Mary's Church, 289, 299 Croft Church, 136, 268 Croydon Church, 278 Cumnor Church, 294 Daoenham Church, 293 Darenth Church, 14 Dartmouth Church, 269 Denham Church, 278 Derby, 322 Dodford Church, 268, 293 Dorchester Abbey Church, 278 Douglas Church, 282 Dover Castle, 67 Dresden, 306, 320 Dublin, 138 Dunfermline Abbey, 28 Dunluce Castle, 70 Durham Cathedral, 28, 277 B Dyrham Church, 235 Earl's Barton Church, 16 East Dereham Church, 99 Elford Church, 146, 269 Elgin Cathedral, 68 Elstow Church, 278 Ely Cathedral, 26, 28, 45, 60, 75, 89, 118, 148, 277 Elsyng Church, 166, 256 Enfield Church, 285, 290, 293 Evesham Abbey, 99 Ewelme Church, 294 Exeter Cathedral, 118, 277 Faenza, 314, 315 Felbrig Church, 167, 172, 269, 292 Fersfield Church, 268 Florence, 313, 315, 334, 335 Fontevraud, 281, 282, 291, 356 Fountain's Abbey, 28 Frankenthal, 320 Fulbourn Church, 276 Fulham, 322 Fiirstenberg, 320 Gilling Church, 144 Glasgow Cathedral, 68, 138 Gloucester Cathedral, 28, 60, 91, 148, 268, 282 Gonalston Church, 290 Gorhambury, 92 Gosfield Church, 283 Graveney Church, 135, 283, 293 Great Berkhampstead Church, 286, 296 Great Casterton Church, 146 Great Malvern Abbey Church, 91, 93, 118, 268 Great Tew Church, 269, 287 B 370 INDEX OF BUILDINGS AND PLACES. Grey Abbey, 70 Grimsby Church, 283 Gubbio, 315, 316 Guernsey, 307 Guildford, 278 Castle, 14 Haltwhistle Church, 114 Hambledon Church, 146 Hampton Court, 92 Hatfield Broadoak Church, 165, 268 Hereford Cathedral, 28, 116, 130, 148, 268, 277, 278 Hendon Church, 145 Heme Church, 293 Higham Ferrars Church, 280 Hitchendon Church, 268 Hitchin Church, 298 Hochst, 320 Holy Cross Abbey, 70 Holyrood Chapel, 69 Horsemonden Church, 276 Hoveningham Church, 290, 293 Hoveringham Church, 269 Howden Church, 268 Howell Church, 146 Hull, 148 Ifplet Church, 22, 28 Igtham, the Mote, 59 Ingham Church, 268, 287 Iona Chapel, 69 Ipswich, St. Mary Tower Church, 298 , St. Mary Key Church, 299 Islesham Church, 288 Jedburgh Abbey, 28 Jerpoint Abbey, 70 Kedleston Church, 144 Kelso Abbey, 28 Kildare Abbey, 70 Kilkenny Cathedral, 70 Kingerby Church, 144 King's Sombourne Church, 297 Kingston-upon-Thames, 298 Kirkstall Abbey, 22 Kirkwall, St. Magnus Cathedral, 29, 68 Kronenburg, 320 Lambeth, 322 Lattou Church, 283 Laughton Church, 140 Leuchars Chapel, 28 Lewes Church, 112 Lichfield Cathedral, 95, 146, 277 Limerick Castle, 70 Limoges, 331, 332 Lincoln Cathedral, 41, 44, 45, 60, 74, 170 Little Easton Church, 269, 290 Little Horkesley Church, 135, 269 Little Wenham Hall, 62 Llanrwst Church, 112 Long Melford Church, 285 Long Wittenham Church, 126 Luton Church, 288, 294 Lynn Regis, 132, 285, 291, 297 Malmesbury Abbey, 22, 28, 90 Mans, 282 Margam Church, 145 Melrose Abbey, 68 Minster Church, 268, 291 Meissen, 320 Monkton Church, 276 Murano, 324 INDEX OF BUILDINGS AND PLACES. 371 Necton Chukch, 292 Newark Church, 132, 297 Newcastle, 132 Norwich, 299, 333 Cathedral, 23, 28 St. Peter's Church, 139 Northampton, St. Peter's Church, 24, 28 Northfleet Church, 276 Northleach Church, 297 North Minims Church, 280 Norton Brize Church, 145 Nymphenburg, 320 Oakham Castle, 31 Oxford, 301, 330 Cathedral, 48, 285, 290, 292 Christchurch College, 92 Corpus Christi College Cha- pel, 280 - Merton College Chapel, 279 New College Chapel, 275, 277, 278, 279 Trinity College Chapel, 280 Pebmarsh Chukch, 268 Penshurst Church, 145 Pershore Abbey Church, 28, 118,268 Pesaro, 315 Peterborough Cathedral, 118, 277 Pluscardine Abbey, 69 Prudhoe Castle, 31 Ramsgate Church, 301 Rochester, 139, 277 Cathedral, 28, 41 Castle, 31 Roinsey Abbey, 28 Roslin Chapel, 69 Ryther Church, 268, 290 St* Albans Abbey Church, 14, 28, 47, 60, 90, 132, 139, 148, 176, 277, 280, 298 St. Andrew's Abbey, 69 St. Cross Hospital, 276 St. Cloud, 321 St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, 69 St. Paul's Cathedral, note to p. 366 Salisbury Cathedral, 45, 60, 74, 90, 118, 124, 126, 257, 268, 277 Sandwich Church, 268 Savoy, The, 327 Sawbridgeworth Church, 289, 291 Selby Church, 286 Sens, 344 Sevres, 306, 321 Shottesbroke Church, 297 Sligo Abbey, 70 Snoring Church, 293 Sodbury Church, 360 Southacre Church, 118, 268 Southwell Minster, 28 Sparsholt Church, 291 Spilsby Church, 269, 287 Staindrop Church, 268, 290, 292 Stanton Harcourt Church, 41, 269, 290 Staunton Church, 145 Stoke Church, Lincolnshire, 146 Stoke Dabernon Church, 133, 234, 250, 268 Stoke Fleming Church, 296 Stowe Church, 28 Stratforcl-le-Bow, 322 Syon, 356 Taplow CnuRCH, 297 Temple Church, The, 118, 120, 268 Tewkesbury Abbey Church, 28, 85, 136, 148, 268 B B !i 372 INDEX OF BUILDINGS AND PLACES. Thornton Abbey, 130 Thruxton Church, 269 Tilbrook Church, 297 Tong Church, 269 Topcliffe Church, 297 Trinity College, Dublin, 216 Trotton Church, 269, 286, 291, 293 Trumpingdon Church, 268, 355 Upwell Church, 276, 278 TTrbino, 315, 316 Utterby Church, 144 Venice, 324, 325, 331 Vienna, 320, 331 Vincennes, 321 Wantage Church, 258 Warbleton Church, 276 Warkworth Church, 268 Warwick, 125, 286 Castle, 67 Washingborough Church, 144 Water Perry Church, 140, 288 Wells Cathedral, 60, 74 Wensley Church, 280 West G-rinstead Church, 269, 287 Westley Waterless Church, 268 Westminster Abbey, 79, 81, 91, 95, 124, 125, 135, 148, 149, 158, 164, 169, 236, 268, 277, 282, 285, 287, 290, 291, 294, 296, 332 Westminster Hall, 59, 162 West Walton Church, 99 Whatton Church, 268 Wheathamstead Church, 90, 298 Whitehall, the Banqueting-house at, note to p. 366 Wimborne, 360 White Tower, London, 27, 28, 31 Wilmslow Church, 294 Wimborne Minster, 269, 360 Winchelsea Church, 148 Winchester, 220 Cathedral, 28, 60, 112, 127, 148 Wingfield Church, 268 Winterbourne Church, 286 Woodstock Church, 42 Wootton-under-Edge Church, 175, 285 Worcester Cathedral, 23, 42, 45 47, 60, 75, 91, 111, 118, 123,' 146, 148, 276, 277, 282, 285, 306, 322 ■ Guesten Hall, 59, 79 Wymondham Church, 28, 190 York Cathedral, 42, 45, 47, 48 85, 148, 277, 296 St. Mary's Abbey, 353 Youghall Abbey, 70 INDEX OF NAMES AND TITLES. Alexander, 195 Alfred, 207, 330 Andreoli, G., 316 Anne of Bohemia, 125, 287 Anne, 349 Antoninus Pius, 214 Antonines, 212 Aretas, 211 Arthur, Prince of Wales, 148, 276 Arundell, 189 Ashton, 176 Augustus, 196, 198, 323 Austin Canons, 353 Austin Friars, 354 Bacon, 92 Balliol, 188 Becket, 190, 331, 343 Benedictines, 352 Berengaria, 282 Berkeley, 175 Bethlemite Friars, 355 Bewick, T., 348 Black Prince, 125, 168, 169, 171, 191, 344 Blake, 351 Bottcher, J. F., 320 Brigittines, 356 Bruce, 188 Caracalla, 214 Carmelites, 354 Carthusians, 352 Caxton, 347 Cellini, Benvenuto, 335 Charlemagne, 208, 331 Charles I., 203, 207 Charles II., 203, 204, 209, 264, 349 Charles VI. (of France), 189, 348 Cistercians, 352 Clarence, 170 Claudius, 197, 210, 214 Cluniacs, 352 Constantine, 196, 213 Cromwell, 203, 351 Crossed Friars, 354 Culdees, 353 Cunobeline, 198 Dacre, 171 D'Aubernon, 133, 172, 177, 234, 250, 256 374 INDEX OF NAMES AND TITLES. De Bohun, 135, 165, 171, 191, 237 De Bois, 287 De Bures, 135 De Clare, 90 De Felbrigge, 167, 172, 292 Delia Robbia, 313 Derby, 125 De Sutton, 148 De Valence, 124, 157, 164, 166, 332 De Vere, 157, 164, 165 Devonshire, Duke of, 216 De Wheatharnstede, 176 Dioclesian, 213 Dominicans, 354 Drake, 351 Edmer, 16 Edward the Confessor, 16, 81, 158, 163, 167, 173, 179 Edward I., 95, 133, 169, 187, 188, 202, 250, 282, 348 Edward II., 149, 169, 187, 282 Edward III., 165, 166, 169, 178, 187, 202, 204, 207, 236, 281, 282, 289, 296, 350 Edward IV., 202, 207 Edward VI., 202, 207, 209 Eleanor of Castile, 95, 125, 165, 236, 282, 291 Eleanor of Guienne, 282 Elizabeth of York, 125, 282 Elizabeth, 203, 321, 351 Eltham, John of, 163 Fair Rosamond, 124 Faust, 347 Finequerra, Mazzo, 334 Fitch, R., 333 Fitz Waryn, 258 Fontana, O., 316 Fortescue, 161 Franciscans, 354 Friars Bonhommes, 355 Friars of St. Anthony, 355 Gallienus, 213 Gaunt, John of, 170, 171 George I., 349 Geta, 214 Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 335 Gloucester, 170, 191 Graham, 159 Grandmont, 352 Grevel, 135, 297 Gundrada, 112 Gutenberg, 347 Hadrian, 196, 214 Hallum, R., 138 Harold, 152 Hastings, 166, 256 Hayward, 349 Henry I., 295 Henry II., 178, 282 Henry III., 81, 91, 169, 177, 186, 201, 202, 204, 208, 236, 282, 350 Henry IV., 170, 175, 187, 191, 9gi 282 Henry' V., 171, 178, 258, 282 Henry VI., 202, 207 Henry VII., 125, 148, 202, 205, 282 Henry VIII., 173, 184, 202, 206, 207, 208, 262, 350 Henry II. of France, 317 Holy Sepulchre, Canons of, 354 Hope, A. J. B. B., 330 Hungerford, 191 Huyghens, 336 INDEX OF NAMES AND TITLES. 375 Isabel d'Angouleme, 282 James I., 178, 203, 205 James II., 204 Jerusalem, Kings of, 174 , Knights of St. John of, 175, 355 Joanna of Navarre, 175, 282, 290, 291 John, 123, 126, 127, 186, 205, 282, 348 Jones, Inigo, note to p. 366 Julius Caesar, 196 Kent, 169 Lancaster, 169, 285 Lanfranc, 16 Lempringham, 353 Leonardo of Florence, 313 Lepidus, M., 211 Llewelyn, 112, 145 Longespce, 124 Major, Baron Henniker, 162 Martyn, 135 Mary, Queen of Scots, 188, 294 Mary, 207 Matilda, 343 Matsys, Quintin, 335 Maturines, 354 Milo, Earl of Gloucester, 190 Mohun, 292 Montacute, 257, 290 Nelond, 135, 278 Nevill, 161 Norfolk, 169 Nuns, 356 Palissy, Bernard, 317, 320 Percy, 163 Petrie, 70 Philip III., 189 Philippa, 282 Premonstratensians, 353 Probus, 213 Ptolemy Epiphanes, 211 Raffaelle, 315 Ramryge, 176 Raymond of Provence, 158, 163 Richard I., 187, 282 Richard II., 125, 167, 171, 172, 282 Rickman, 100 Russell, 235 St. Quintin, 140 Scaurus, M., 211 Scheffer, 347 Severus, 214 Simon, 204, 209 Spencer, 171, 347 Stapleton, 176 Staunton, 260 Stow, 206 Swynborne, 135 Templars, Knights, 174, 355 Tiberius, 323 Tiron, 353 Vandevelde, 34 Vernon, 161 Villiers, 163 Volusianus, 213 Warwick, 125 Wedgewood, W., 322 Wellington, 161 376 INDEX OF NAMES AND TITLES. Westwood, 218 William I., 152, 178, 201, 343 William II., 112 William III., 204 William, the Lion, 188 William, Son of Edward III., 296 Wolsey, 92 Wren, Sir Christopher, note to p. 366 Wykeham, 127, 275 York, 170 Zanto, F., 316 GENEEAL INDEX. Academic habits, 279 Ailettes, 252 Alb, 271 Almuce, 273 Altar-tomb, 147 Amice, 271 Angel, 207 Anglo-Norman architecture, 17, 28 ; armour, 247 ; examples, 28 ; weapons, 246 Anglo-Saxon armour, 244 ; bar- rows, 107 ; coins, 199 ; horse equipments, 245; masonry, 15; remains, 14 ; sepulchral depo- sits, 107 ; weapons, 243 Anlace, 297 Apostles, emblems of, 358 Arcade, 23, 46 Arch, 21, 37 Arched buttress, 54 Architecture, Anglo-Norman, 17, 28, 29 ; British, styles of, 9 ; Gothic, 34, 35 Architectural nomenclature, 100 Armillse, 301 Armour, classification of, 266 ; examples of, in effigies, 268 ; ge- neral remarks on, 265 ; original examples of, 209 Arms and armour, 239 Arms of England, 178 As, 209 Aumuce, 273 Aureole, 357 Aureus, 210 Austin, Canons, 353; Friars, 354 Badges, 170 Bailey, 65 Ball-flower, 51 Baluster-shaft, 16 Banner, 172 ; of Crusaders, 120, 174 Banneret, 172 Barbican, 66 Bardings, 253 Barrow, 103 Base, 24, 48 Basement, 49 Basinet, 254, 256, 259 Battlement, 66 Baudrick, 258 Bayeux Tapestry, 343 Bay, 56 Bay-window, 45 Beads, 300, 301 Belfry-towers, 99 Bells, 98 Benediction, attitudes of, 277 378 GENERAL INDEX. Benedictines, 352 Bethlemite Friars, 355 Billet, 25 Blazonry, 162 Bodice, 287 Bordure, 168 Brasses (See Monumental Brasses) Brigittines, 356 British shields, 242 Bronze Period, 241 ; work, 96 Buff leather, 264 Bulke, 183 Buttress, 53 Buttress-strip, 27 Cairn, 102 Camail, 254, 256, 257 Cameo, 340 Canopy, 54, 147 Canting heraldry, 175 Capital, 23, 24, 47 Carmelites, 354 Carthusians, 352 Castles, 29, 65 Celts, 240, 241 Chalice, 279 Champleve, 331 Chantry, 148 Chapeau, 161 Chasing, 332 Chausses, 296 Chess, 348 Chesuble, 272 Church-yard monuments, 150 Ciborium, 280 Circles, 103 Cist, 109 Cistercians, 352 Cloak, 295, 296 Clock, 336 Cloisonne, 330 Closing-ring, 95 Cluniacs, 352 Coat of arms, 153 Coffin, 97 Coinage of England, 202 ; copper, 204 ; types of, 204 Coins, 194 ; ancient British, 197 ; Anglo-Norman, 200 ; English, 201 ; legends on, 205 ; most an- cient, 195 ; of Cunobeline, 198 ; Boman, 209 ; Roman imperial, 212 ; standard value of, 206 Collars, 174 ; of SS., 175 ; of Suns and Roses, 175 Cope, 273 Corbel-table, 26, 52 Cornice, 52 Coronet, 161 Costume of civilians, 295 ; of ladies, 283, 284 Cote-hardi, 289 Couvre-chef, 290, 291 Crest, 160 Cresting, 97 Crockets, 54, 97 Cromlech, 102 Crossed Friars, 354 Crossed-legged effigies, 120 Crosses, 96 Crown, 161, 281 Cuir-bouilli, 249, 253 Culdees, 353 Cusping, 96 Cyclas, 254 Dalmatic, 274, 281 Damascening, 334 Decorated English Gothic, 35, 84 Delft, 319 GENERAL INDEX. 379 Delia Robbia ware, 313 Denarius, 210 Diaper, 51, 157 Differencing, 168 Dimidiation, 167 Diptych, 338 Dog-tooth, 50 Dominicans, 354 Donjon, 30 Door-handles, 95 Door-ways, 21, 39 Doublet, 299 Early English Gothic, 35, 84 Early shipping, 350 Earthworks, 359 East India Company, 351 Ecclesiastical vestments, 270 Effigies, of bishops, 118 ; of eccle- siastics, 121; of children, 123; early examples of, 123 ; in wood, 124 ; in bronze, 125 ; enrich- ments of, 125 ; feet of, rest on animals, 126 ; heads of, rest on cushions, 127 ; canopies of, 128 ; incised, 129 ; crossed-legged, 120 ; in brasses, 134 Elizabethan houses, 64 Emblems of Holy Trinity, 357 ; of Evangelists, 358 ; of doctors, 358 ; of sainted personages, 359 Embossing, 335 Embroidery, 342 Enamel, 313 ; stanniferous, 328 incrusted, 329 ; cloisonne, 330 champleve, 331; overlaid, 332 painted, 332 Encampments, 359 Encrustations, 81 Engraving, 333 Escoinson-arch, 41 Escutcheon, 95 Fibula, 300, 302 Finial, 54 Fire-arms, 261, 264 Flabellum, 281 Flags, 171 Florin, 207 Foliage, 52 Fontevrault, Nuns of, 356 Franciscans, 354 Fresco, 78 Friars Bonhommes, 355 Furniture, 345 Furs, 157 Glass, its varieties, 325 ; Roman, 322 ; Byzantine, 323 ; Venetian, 324 ; German, 326 ; English, 327 Gloves, 274 Gothic castles, 65 Gothic style in Scotland, 67 ; in Ireland, 67 Gown, 296, 298 Grandimont, Monks of, 352 Great seals of England, 186 ; of Scotland, 188 ; of France, 188 Gypciere, 298 Half suits of Armour, 263 Haqueton, 254 Hauberk, 244, 254 Head-dresses, 291 ; reticulated, 292 ; horned, 293 ; butterfly, 293; pedimental, 293; "Paris hede," 294 Helmets, ] 60 Henry II. Fayence, 317 Heraldic devices, of, 177 158 ; treatment 380 GENERAL INDEX. Heraldry, 151, 153 ; ancient, 152 ; influence of crusades on, 152 ; an art, 177 Herring-bone work, 15 Herses, 96 High-tomb, 147 Hinges, 94 Holy Sepulchre, canons of, 354 Hose, 295, 296 Hospitallers, 355 Hour-glasses, 337 Houses, 32, 61 Illuminations, 215 ; early Irish, 218 ; of eighth and ninth centu- ries, 219 ; of tenth and eleventh centuries, 220 ; of twelfth cen- tury, 221 ; of thirteenth century, 222 ; of fourteenth century, 223 ; of fifteenth century, 225 ; of six- teenth century, 227 ; general re- marks upon, 229 Impalement, 166 Inlaid tiles, 88 Inscriptions, Roman, 230 ; Lom- bardic, 231 ; composition of, 233; examples of, 234 ; incomplete, 235 ; abbreviations in, 237 Intaglios, 341 Italian Renaissance, 64 Iron-work, 94 Ivory carvings, 338 Jack-boots, 299 Judicial robes, 282 Jupon, 167, 255 Keep, 30 Key, 95, 337 Kilns, 93 Kirtle, 285 Knightly insignia, 174 Label, 168 Lance -flag, 171 Lance-rest, 259 Lappets, 284, 297 Late monuments, 149 Latten or Laton, 96 Lead-work, 97 Lectern, 96 Lempringham canons, 353 Livery colours, 173 Livre, 208 Locks, 95, 337 London Companies, 351 " Long and short work," 15 Mail-armour, 248 Majolica Fayence, 314 Maniple, 273 Mantle, 281, 284 Mantling, 160 Mark, 207 Marks of cadency, 169 Marquetry, 341 Marshalling, 164, 167 Masonry, 15, 37 Maturines, 354 Maunche, 284 Medallions, 214 Medals, 208 Mediaeval sculpture, 71 Merchants-Adventurers, 351 Merchants of the Staple, 351 Merchants' marks, 176 Minoresses, 356 Misericorde, 251, 255, 259 Mitre, 274 Mixed armour, 25 GENERAL INDEX. 381 Monastic habits, 278 Monastic Orders, 351 Monolith, 102 Monumental brasses, 131 ; Flemish, 132; English, 132; crosses, 133 brackets, 134 ; effigies, 134 half-figures, 136 ; in Wales, 138 in Scotland, 138 ; in Ireland, 138 on the Continent, 138 ; engraved a second time, 139 ; rubbings of, 141 Monumental slabs, 113; symboli- cal, 114; symbols in, 114; effi- gies in, 118; portraiture in, 118 ; small, 109. Morse, 281, 284 Mosaic, 80, 341 Motto, 161 Mouldings, 24, 50 Niche, 54 Niello, 333 Nimbus, 357 Noble, 207 Opus Anglicum, 216, 220 Order, 38 Ordinaries, 158 Oriel, 45 Oriflamme, 174 Painted Glass, 82 Painting in Oil, 342 Paleography, 216 Palissy Fayence, 317 Pall, 275 Panache, 262 Panelling, 55 Parapet, 52 Passe-garde, 261 Pastoral -staff, 275 Paten, 280 Pauldron, 259, 262 Pax, 280 Pectorale, 278 Pennon, 172 Personal ornaments, 299 Pier, 19, 35 Pillar, 19, 35 Pipe, 97 Pistole, 208 Plate-armour, 258 Playing-cards, 348 Plume, 262 Polychrome, 78 Porcelain, 319; of Germany, 320 ; of France, 321 ; of England, 321 Portland vase, 323 Pottery, its antiquity, 304 ; classi- fication of, 305 ; Greek and Etruscan, 305; Ancient British 306 ; Romano - British, 308 Saxon, 310 ; Mediaeval English 311 ; Hispano-Moorish, 312 Italian, 313 ; French, 317 Flemish and German, 318 English, 321 Precious metals, 98 Premonstratensians, 353 Pryck-spur, 251 Pyx, 280 Quartering, 164 Rapier, 263 Rebus, 176 Repousse-work, 335 Rib, 56 Ring, 274 Robes of nobles, 282 382 GENERAL INDEX. Roman remains, 11 ; bricks, 13 children, interments of, 105 sarcophagi, 105; tumuli, 105 stones of memorial, 106 ; en- campments, 360 Romanesque, 19 Roof-timbers, 57 Rosary, 298 Rose-noble, 205 Round towers, 70 Royal effigies of England, 282 Royal robes, 281 Ruffs, 288 Russet t, 262 Sabbaton, 262 Saddle-bar, 96 St. Anthony, Friars of, 355 Samian ware, 309 Sandals, 274 Sceatta, 199 Screen-work, 95 Sceptre, 281 Scroll, 161 Scroll-moulding, 51 Seals, 179 ; antique gems, used on, 181 ; impressions of, 181 ; appended, 182; en placard, 184; protected, 183 ; classification of, 185 ; examples of, 189 ; corpo- rate, 192 Semi-effigial slabs, 141 ; without a cross, 145 Sepulchral deposits, 104 ; monu- ments, 101 Sequin, 208 Shafts, 36 Shrines, 98 Shield, the, and its divisions, 155 Shield of arms, 153, 159 Shield-belts, 248, 250 Shoes, 295 Sideless-tunic, 289 Socks, 295 Sollerets, 254 Stained glass, 82 Stancheon, 96 Stole, 272 Stone-coffin, 110; lids, 112 Stone-ware, 318 String, 25 Subordination, 159 Super-Altare, 280 Supporters, 162 Surcoat, 153 Surplice, 273 Styca, 201 Tabard, 167 Taces, 258, 260 Templars, 174, 355 Tesselated pavement, 81 Tessera, 88 Tile pavement, 93 Tinctures, heraldic, 156 Tippet, 281, 297 Tiron, Monks of, 353 Tore, 301 Tower, 26 Tower-pound, 207 Tracery, 43 Transition, 33 Transom, 44 Triptych, 338 Trunk-hose, 299 Tuilles, 259, 260 Tumulus, 103, 104 Tunic, 273, 281, 286, 296 Turret, 26 Typography, 346 ■ GENERAL INDEX. 383 Vamplate, 261, 263 Vaulting, 27, 55 Vesica, 357 Vestments of deacon, 276 ; priest, 276 ; bishop or abbot, 277 ; archbishop, 277 Vexillum, 275 Wall, 13, 15, 17, 37 Wall-painting, 78 Wall-tiles, 93 Watches, 336 Wave moulding, 51 Weapons of stone, 240; of bronze, 242 ; Saxon, 243, 244, 246 ; of the thirteenth century, 251, 252 ; of the fourteenth century, 257 ; of the fifteenth century, 260, 261 ; of the sixteenth cen- tury, 263 ; of the seventeenth century, 264. See also p. 267 Wedgewood-ware, 322 Weepers, 147 Wimple, 290 Windows, 15, 22, 41 Wood-carving, 76, 77, 339 Wood-engraving, 346 THE END. London: satill and edwards, printers, chandos street, covent garden.