AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING SERIES 
 E. B. McCORMICK, CONSULTING EDITOR 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEER, OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS 
 
 U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 FORMERLY DEAN OF ENGINEERING DIVISION 
 
 KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
McGraw-Hill Book Company 
 
 Electrical World The Engineering and Mimng Journal 
 En5ineering Record Engineering News 
 
 Railway Age G azettx? American Machinist 
 
 Signal Engineer American Engineer 
 
 Electric Railway Journal Coal Age 
 
 Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering P o we r 
 
USE OF WATER 
 
 IN 
 
 IRRIGATION 
 
 BY 
 SAMUEL FORTIER, D. Sc., M. AM. Soc. C. E. 
 
 CHIEF OF IRRIGATION I NVESTIGATION8, OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS AND RURAL 
 ENGINEERING, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 SECOND EDITION 
 
 McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC, 
 239 WEST 39TH STREET. NEW YORK 
 
 LONDON: HILL PUBLISHING CO., LTD. 
 
 6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C. 
 1916 
 
COPYRIGHT, 1915, 1916, BY THE 
 MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. 
 
 THE. MAPLE. PRESS. YOKE. PA 
 
So 
 
 THE MEMORY OP 
 MY MOTHER 
 
 3C55JB8 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 
 
 IN this edition the typographical and other minor errors of 
 the first edition have been corrected, the article on the measure- 
 ment of water revised and enlarged and a new article added on 
 sewage irrigation. The most important change consists in the 
 addition of a new chapter on the Use of Water in Foreign 
 Countries. 
 
 The author takes this opportunity to express his appreciation 
 of the wide-spread interest taken in the work, particularly by 
 college professors and instructors who have introduced it as a 
 text-book, and he trusts that the information added pertaining 
 to irrigation in other countries may render the book still more 
 serviceable for instructional purposes. 
 
 S. F. 
 
 WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 June 19, 1916. 
 
 vu 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION 
 
 IT is well to recognize at the outset that irrigation is a many- 
 sided subject. The heavy drafts which it makes on scanty 
 water supplies and the close relationship which it bears to other 
 uses of water call for wise legislation and efficient control on 
 the part of state governments in the granting and protection 
 of water rights and the equitable distribution of water supplies. 
 These comprise the legal and administrative features of irriga- 
 tion. Again, enormous quantities of water have to be annu- 
 ally stored in the mountains, pumped from wells, diverted 
 from torrential streams, conveyed around hills and across valleys 
 and finally delivered to farmers. The accomplishment of so 
 great a task calls for high ability and broad experience on the 
 part of engineers in designing and constructing the needed works 
 and these constitute the engineering side of irrigation. Then there 
 is the agricultural side of irrigation which transcends all others 
 in importance, in that it deals with the production of profitable 
 crops. All other phases of irrigation are but means to an end. 
 The one great purpose is to transform desert places into gardens 
 and orchards where the highest type of American citizens may 
 establish homes. Lastly, running all through the subject like 
 threads in a fabric, are to be found such features as proper 
 organization, cooperation, good management and profitable 
 returns. These may be grouped under the economic side of 
 irrigation. 
 
 No work on American Irrigation would be complete that 
 did not embrace all of these salient features. On the other hand, 
 the time required to prepare so much material would cause the 
 first part to be out of date before the last was written. So 
 it has been deemed best to consider but one phase of the subject 
 at a time and to publish the material which properly belongs to 
 that phase in a separate volume. 
 
 The volume here presented deals with the agricultural side 
 of irrigation under the somewhat broad title, Use of Water 
 in Irrigation. It aims to benefit at least three classes of readers. 
 
 viii 
 
PRKl'M'I-: TO THE FIRST EDITION IX 
 
 The first comprises the new settlers and those who are look- 
 ing to the West as a suitable place to establish homes. The 
 second includes the irrigation farmers and those who are in- 
 terested in irrigated agriculture; and the third class comprises 
 students in agricultural high schools and in the agricultural 
 and engineeiing classes of colleges and universities. The sub- 
 ject matter is confined almost exclusively to the irrigated farm 
 and to the problems which confront the irrigator. In this 
 respect it is an Irrigator's Handbook. The legal, economic 
 and engineering phases of the subject are touched upon but only 
 insofar as they affect the welfare of the farmer. Considerable 
 space has been given to methods of preparing land and ap- 
 plying water for the reason that the manner in which these 
 are done determines to a large degree the profits derived by 
 the farmers and the success of canal companies. Considering 
 the rich soil and favorable climate of arid America, the aver- 
 age yields under irrigation are small. This is mainly due to 
 the adoption and use of faulty methods in watering fields and 
 maintaining moisture conditions in the soil. It is hoped that 
 out of the many methods herein described the farmer may adopt 
 those best suited to the conditions on his farm and thus pave 
 the way for profitable returns. 
 
 The manner in which water is used in irrigation as described 
 in these pages is nation-wide. The same care and attention 
 which were paid to the irrigation of cotton and sugar cane in 
 the Southwest, to rice in the Gulf States and to truck and fruit 
 crops along the Atlantic seaboard were given to the irriga- 
 tion of forage and cereal crops in the Mountain States and to 
 vineyards and orchards along the Pacific. To cover so wide 
 a field is much beyond the range of experience of any one man 
 and in this connection the author gratefully acknowledges 
 the assistance rendered by members of the Division of Irriga- 
 tion Investigations of the Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. 
 Department of Agriculture. For more than a dozen years this 
 faithful band of technically and scientifically trained men 
 have worked with and for the irrigators in their efforts to in- 
 crease the productivity of land, establish homes and create 
 more prosperous farming communities through the agency of 
 water wisely used. Whatever of merit this publication may 
 
X PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION 
 
 possess is due in the main to the writings and views of these co- 
 workers in the development of irrigation in this country. It 
 records the experiences gained in the field and laboratory rather 
 than what may be compiled in a library. 
 
 The author likewise desires to acknowledge his indebtedness 
 to the HONORABLE DAVID F. HOUSTON, Secretary of Agriculture, 
 for permission to publish this Handbook and to DR. A. C. TRUE, 
 Director of the Office of Experiment Stations, for permission to 
 make use of the publications and illustrations of the Office. 
 
 S. F. 
 
 WASHINGTON, D. C., 
 December, 1914.^ 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PREFACE PAGE vii 
 
 LIST OP PLATES xv 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Extent of Irrigation in the United States PAGE 1 
 
 Agencies in Irrigation Development 2 
 
 Cost of Irrigation in the United States 3 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 THE IRRIGATED FARM 
 
 ART. 1. Location and Selection of a Farm under Irrigation . . PAGE 7 
 
 2. Lands Open to Settlement by Purchase or Entry ... 9 
 
 3. Water Supplies 11 
 
 4. Water Rights 13 
 
 5. Soils of the Arid and Semi-Arid Regions 18 
 
 6. Soil Moisture 21 
 
 7. Movement of Soil Moisture 24 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 THE NECESSARY EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES 
 
 8. Equipment for the New Settler PAGE 28 
 
 9. Laying out a Farm under an Irrigation System .... 30 
 
 10. Farm Ditches 32 
 
 11. Irrigation Structures for the Farm 39 
 
 12. Pipes and Pipe Systems for the Farm 47 
 
 13. Pumping Plants 57 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 METHODS OF PREPARING LAND AND APPLYING WATER 
 
 ART. 14. The Removal of Native Vegetation PAGE 64 
 
 15. Preparing the Surface for Irrigation 68 
 
 16. Furrow Method of Irrigation. ... 72 
 
 xi 
 
xii CONTENTS 
 
 17. Corrugation Method of Irrigation 80 
 
 18. Flooding Method of Irrigation 83 
 
 19. Surface Pipe Method of Irrigation . 84 
 
 20. Border Method of Irrigation 87 
 
 21. Check Method of Irrigation 91 
 
 22. Basin Method of Irrigation 93 
 
 23. Subirrigation 95 
 
 24. Spray Irrigation 102 
 
 CHAPTER V" 
 WASTE, MEASUREMENT, DELIVERY AND DUTY OF WATER 
 
 ART. 25. The Low Efficiency of Irrigation Water PAGE 110 
 
 26. Waste of Water due to Seepage and Other Causes. . . Ill 
 
 27. Measurement of Water 115 
 
 28. Evaporation from Water Surfaces , 125 
 
 29. Evaporation from Irrigated Soils 128 
 
 30. The Duty of Water in Irrigation 134 
 
 31. Delivery of Water . 150 
 
 32. Injurious Mineral Salts 160 
 
 33. The Use of Saline Waters in Irrigation 162 
 
 34. Drainage of Irrigated Farm Lands 166 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 
 
 ART. 35. Alfalfa and Other Forage Crops PAGE 174 
 
 36. Irrigation of Grain 186 
 
 37. Growing Root Crops under Irrigation 195 
 
 38. Irrigation of Orchards . 209 
 
 39. Irrigation of Rice 220 
 
 40. The Growing of Cotton under Irrigation 232 
 
 41. The Growing of Sugar Cane under Irrigation 238 
 
 42. Irrigation of Onions 243 
 
 43. Irrigation of Grapes 245 
 
 44. Irrigation of Small Fruit 247 
 
 45. Supplemental Irrigation on the Atlantic Coast .... 252 
 
 46. Dry Farming in its Relation to Supplemental Irrigation. 253 
 
 47. Sewage Irrigation 257 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 
 
 ART. 48. Irrigation in Italy PAGE 263 
 
 49. Irrigation in Spain 268 
 
CONTENTS xiii 
 
 50. Irrigation in France 273 
 
 51. Irrigation in Russia 275 
 
 52. Irrigation in Egypt .... 
 
 53. Irrigation in South Africa 288 
 
 54. Irrigation in India 
 
 55. Irrigation in Java 291 
 
 56. Irrigation in Japan 296 
 
 57. Irrigation in the Philippine Islands 296 
 
 58. Irrigation in Australia 303 
 
 59. Irrigation in Western Canada 306 
 
 60. Irrigation in the Hawaiian Islands 310 
 
 61. Irrigation in Argentina 311 
 
 62. Irrigation in Northern Brazil 
 
 63. Irrigation in Columbia 
 
 64. Irrigation in Peru '. . 314 
 
 o5. Irrigation in Siam 316 
 
 INDEX . 319 
 
LIST OF PLATES 
 
 Frontispiece. Orange Orchard and Residence of Mr. J. H. Williams, 
 
 Porterville, Cal Frontis. 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 PLATE II - 76 
 
 Fig. A. Laying concrete pipe. 
 Fig. B. Setting stands. 
 
 PLATE III 96 
 
 Fig. A. Main line and stop-boxes for subirrigation systems. 
 Fig. B. Lateral line and stop-box. 
 Fig. C. Details of stop-boxes. 
 
 PLATE IV 104 
 
 Fig. A. Overhead spray irrigation showing piping. 
 Fig. B. Enlarged view of overhead nozzle line. 
 
 PLATE V 116 
 
 Fig. A. Downstream view of trapezoidal weir in use. 
 Fig. B. Upstream view showing measurement being taken. 
 Fig. C. Automatic water register. 
 
 PLATE VI 126 
 
 Fig. A. Testing Australian meter against standard weir. 
 Fig. B. Similar device used in Victoria, Australia. 
 
 PLATE VII 148 
 
 Fig. A. Equipment used for determining the water requirements 
 of crops. 
 
 Figs. B and C. Equipment used for determining the water re- 
 quirements of crops. 
 
 XV 
 
xvi LIST OF PLATES 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 PLATE VIII 308 
 
 Fig. A. Secondary canal of Western Section Canadian Pacific 
 
 Railway project, Alberta. 
 
 Fig. B. Concrete drop in secondary canal of same project. 
 Fig. C. Irrigated wheat-field and lateral, C. P. R. project, 
 
 Alberta. 
 Fig. D. Water master's headquarters, C. P. R. project, Alberta. 
 
USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 CHAPTER 1 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Those who have watched the rise and progress of Western 
 commonwealths must have observed how large a part of their 
 total revenue is derived from irrigated products. Irrigation 
 farming lies at the foundation of much of the material prosperity 
 of the West. Through the agency of water wisely used, deserts 
 are converted into productive fields and orchards, and flocks 
 and herds and prosperous communities take the place of wild 
 animals and an uncivilized race. It also furnishes food and 
 clothing for the dwellers in cities, raw material for the manu- 
 facturer and traffic for the transportation company. If it were 
 possible to remove from the arid region the comparatively small 
 area which has been rendered highly productive by means of ir- 
 rigation, it would go far to undo the labor of half a century 
 in building up the western half of the Union. 
 
 Extent of Irrigation in the United States. The extent of 
 irrigation in the United States is shown in the following table 
 compiled from Census data. The first column of figures gives 
 the acreage actually irrigated in 1909, in each of the seventeen 
 western states, the Gulf states and throughout the humid region, 
 the second column the acreage which the enterprises were capable 
 of irrigating in 1910 and the third column the acreage included 
 in enterprises either completed or under way July 1, 1910. In 
 the last column of the table is given the estimated value of 
 irrigated crops in each of the seventeen western states and also 
 in the rice belt of the Gulf states. 
 
 1 
 
OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 TABLE No. 1 
 
 State 
 
 Acreage 
 irrigated 
 in 1909 
 
 Acreage 
 enterprises 
 were capable 
 of irrigating 
 in 1910 
 
 Acreage 
 included in 
 enterprises 
 
 Estimated 
 value of 
 irrigated 
 crops in 
 19101 
 
 Arizona. 
 
 320,051 
 
 387,655 
 
 944,090 
 
 $5,765,030 
 
 California 
 
 2,664,104 
 
 3,619,378 
 
 5,490,360 
 
 70,849,320 
 
 Colorado 
 Idaho.. 
 
 2,792,032 
 1,430,848 
 
 3,990,166 
 2,388,959 
 
 5,917,457 
 3,549,573 
 
 56,312,392 
 27,684,194 
 
 Kansas 
 
 37,479 
 
 139,995 
 
 161,300 
 
 1,781,617 
 
 Montana 
 
 1,679,084 
 
 2,205,155 
 
 3,515,602 
 
 19,040,620 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 255,950 
 
 429,225 
 
 680,133 
 
 3,335 328 
 
 Nevada 
 
 701,833 
 
 840,962 
 
 1,232,142 
 
 9 910 080 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 461,718 
 
 644,970 
 
 1,102,297 
 
 7,997,628 
 
 North Dakota 
 Oklahoma 
 
 10,248 
 
 4,388 
 
 21,917 
 6,397 
 
 38,173 
 
 8528 
 
 120,483 
 
 88 851 
 
 Oregon 
 
 686,129 
 
 830,526 
 
 2,527,208 
 
 9,104,225 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 63,248 
 
 128,481 
 
 201,625 
 
 1 031 388 
 
 Texas 
 
 164,283 
 
 340,641 
 
 753,699 
 
 5,416,346 
 
 Utah 
 
 999,410 
 
 1,250,246 
 
 1,947,625 
 
 18,317,086 
 
 Washington 
 Wyoming 
 
 334,378 
 1,133,302 
 
 470,514 
 1,639,510 
 
 817,032 
 2,224,298 
 
 11,251,647 
 10,750,592 
 
 Gulf States 
 
 694,800 
 
 950,706 
 
 950,706 
 
 15,000 000 
 
 Humid Region 
 
 30,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 Total 
 
 14,463,285 
 
 20,315,403 
 
 32,091,848 
 
 276,756,827 
 
 Agencies in Irrigation Development. Out of a total of over 
 14,000,000 acres the individual irrigator who has either built a 
 ditch himself or formed a partnership with one or more neighbors 
 has reclaimed and irrigated 6,624,614 acres. Next in order come 
 the cooperative companies which are really larger groups of farm- 
 ers acting together in building the necessary works. Next come 
 the commercial enterprises of one sort or another which have 
 launched into the business of furnishing a water right and selling 
 it to the irrigator. Public irrigation corporations known as 
 irrigation districts, the U. S. Reclamation Service, companies 
 operating under the Carey Act, and the U. S. Indian Service, 
 comprise the remainder of these agencies. The extent of land 
 which was reclaimed by each of these agencies at the close of 
 1909 is given in the following table. 2 
 
 1 Compiled by P. A. Ewing, formerly connected with the Irrigation Census. 
 
 2 Irrigation in the United States by R. P. Teele, 13th Census. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 TABLE No. 2 
 
 Agency 
 
 Acres 
 
 Individual and Partnership Enterprises. 
 
 6,624,614 
 
 Cooperative Enterprises 
 
 4 643 539 
 
 Commercial Enterprises 
 Irrigation Districts 
 
 1,809,379 
 528,642 
 
 U S Reclamation Service 
 
 395 646 
 
 Carey \ct Kntorprises. . 
 
 288,553 
 
 U S Indian Service 
 
 172,912 
 
 
 
 
 14,463,285 
 
 Cost of Irrigation in the United States. The total cost of 
 irrigation falls naturally into two divisions. One of these rep- 
 resents the cost of the works necessary to provide a water supply 
 and to convey it to within easy reach of each farm. The other 
 represents the cost of preparing the land in such a way that it can 
 be irrigated together with the cost of farm ditches and structures. 
 
 The cost of irrigation works for each western state up to 
 July 1, 1910, as found by the Census is given in Table 3 and 
 
 TABLE No. 3 
 
 State 
 
 Average 
 cost per 
 acre of 
 preparing 
 land 
 
 Cost of works 
 to July 1, 1910 
 
 Estimated cost 
 of preparing 
 land irrigated 
 in 1909 
 
 Total estimated 
 cost 
 
 Arizona 
 
 $13.75 
 
 $17,677,966 
 
 $4,401,000 
 
 $22,078,966 
 
 California 
 Colorado 
 Idaho 
 
 19.25 
 14.50 
 11.60 
 
 72,580,030 
 56,636,443 
 40,977,688 
 
 51,284,000 
 40,485,000 
 16,598,000 
 
 123,864,030 
 97,121,443 
 57,575,688 
 
 Kansas 
 
 10.50 
 
 1,365,563 
 
 394,000 
 
 1,759,563 
 
 Montana 
 
 12.50 
 
 22,970,958 
 
 20,989,000 
 
 43,959,958 
 
 Nebraska 
 Nevada 
 New Mexico .... 
 North Dakota. . . 
 Oklahoma.. 
 
 10.50 
 10.00 
 13.50 
 11.00 
 10 50 
 
 f 7,798,310 
 6,721,924 
 9,154,897 
 836,482 
 47,200 
 
 2,687,000 
 7,018,000 
 6,233,000 
 113,000 
 46,000 
 
 10,485,310 
 13,739,924 
 15,387,897 
 949,482 
 93,200 
 
 Oregon 
 
 15 00 
 
 12,760,214 
 
 10,292,000 
 
 23,052,214 
 
 South Dakota... 
 Texas 
 
 12.00 
 19.00 
 
 3,043,140 
 7,346,708 
 
 759,000 
 3,121,000 
 
 3,802,140 
 10,467,708 
 
 Utah. 
 
 15 00 
 
 14,028,717 
 
 14,990,000 
 
 29,018,717 
 
 Washington 
 
 16 00 
 
 16219,149 
 
 5,350,000 
 
 21,569,149 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 9.00 
 
 17,700,980 
 
 10,200,000 
 
 27,900,980 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals i $307,866,369 $194,960,000 $502,826,369 
 
USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 amounts in the aggregate to $307,866,369. The estimated 
 final cost of such works when all the enterprises which were 
 either completed or under way in 1910 are included, is given in 
 Table 4 and aggregates $424,281,186. 
 
 The various items of cost comprised in the second division 
 were estimated by the state agents of Irrigation Investigations, 
 Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
 located in the states where irrigation is practised. These were 
 based on the amount of money expended by farmers in clear- 
 ing the land of desert growths, plowing, leveling and grading it, 
 building the necessary supply and farm ditches with their 
 accompanying structures and in general preparing the land for 
 irrigation and profitable crops. Table No. 3 gives the average 
 
 TABLE No. 4 
 
 State 
 
 Average 
 cost per 
 acre of 
 preparing 
 land 
 
 Estimated final 
 cost of worka 
 
 Estimated final 
 cost of preparing 
 land in projects 
 
 Total estimated 
 final cost 
 
 Arizona 
 California. 
 
 $13.75 
 19 25 
 
 $24,828,868 
 84,392,344 
 
 $12,981,000 
 105,689,000 
 
 $37,809,868 
 190 081 344 
 
 Colorado 
 Idaho 
 Kansas 
 Montana 
 Nebraska . . . 
 
 14.50 
 11.60 
 10.50 
 12.50 
 10 50 
 
 76,443,239 
 58,451,106 
 1,365,563 
 32,382,077 
 9,485,231 
 
 85,803,000 
 41,175,000 
 1,694,000 
 43,945,000 
 7,141 000 
 
 162,246,239 
 99,626,106 
 3,059,563 
 76,327,077 
 16,626 231 
 
 Nevada 
 
 10 00 
 
 12 188 756 
 
 12 321 000 
 
 24 509 756 
 
 New Mexico .... 
 North Dakota. . . 
 Oklahoma... 
 Oregon 
 South Dakota . . . 
 Texas 
 
 13 ,50 
 11.00 
 10.50 
 15.00 
 12.00 
 19.00 
 
 11,640,091 
 836,482 
 47,200 
 39,216,619 
 3,800,556 
 8,613,533 
 
 14,881,000 
 420,000 
 90,000 
 37,908,000 
 2,420,000 
 14,320,000 
 
 26,521,091 
 1,256,482 
 137,200 
 77,124,619 
 6,220,556 
 22,933,533 
 
 Utah 
 
 15.00 
 
 17,840,775 
 
 29,214,000 
 
 47,054,775 
 
 Washington 
 Wyoming. 
 
 16.00 
 9 00 
 
 22,322,856 
 20 425 890 
 
 13,072,000 
 20 019 000 
 
 35,394,856 
 40 444 890 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 
 $424,281,186 
 
 $443,093,000 
 
 $867,374,186 
 
 cost per acre of such preparation in each of the western states. 
 The product of this unit cost and the acreage irrigated in 1909 
 is likewise given in the table for each western state and com- 
 prise in the aggregate the sum of $194,960,000. 
 In estimating the cost of preparing land for enterprises not 
 
INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 completed in 1909 the same unit costs were used. These when 
 multiplied by the number of acres contained within completed 
 and incompleted enterprises are given in Table No. 4 and com- 
 prise a total expenditure by the farmers under irrigation enter- 
 prises, inclusive of the amount expended for like purposes prior 
 to 1910 of $443,093,000 or $18,811,814 more than the entire 
 cost of the construction of irrigation works. 
 
 Many will be surprised to learn of the large expenditures 
 necessary before the business of irrigation farming can be suc- 
 cessfully carried on. These data show that water rights prior 
 to 1910 cost on an average 62 per cent, of the total and that the 
 final cost will be below 50 per cent, of the total, the balance 
 being expended in the building of ditches and structures on the 
 farm and in grading and smoothing the surfaces of fields to 
 permit the proper application of irrigation waters. They like- 
 wise show the large expenditure necessary in each western state 
 before the land included in projects and not irrigated in 1909 
 is made remunerative. 
 
 The people of this country have been greatly interested in 
 the construction of works to reclaim desert lands. Land* agents 
 and others engaged in the settlement of these lands have fostered 
 this interest by magnifying the importance of such works and at 
 the same time ignoring the heavy expense which has to be in- 
 curred by the settler before such lands can be made productive. 
 The erroneous impressions which have been formed in the minds 
 of jcredulous people by land agents and 'press agents in giving 
 out one-sided information by means of circulars, press notices 
 and illustrated lectures, have been the indirect cause of great 
 suffering and disappointment among the settlers of irrigation 
 projects and of irreparable loss to capital invested in irrigation 
 enterprises. 
 
 This volume will have served a useful purpose if it corrects 
 some of these erroneous impressions. It is thought no one can 
 peruse its pages without being impressed with the large amount 
 of money which must be expended between the time water is 
 ready to be delivered and the time when the farm is on a paying 
 basis. The information which it contains has been prepared 
 with the object of assisting the irrigator in the design and exe- 
 cution of that part of the work which he must perform. The 
 
6 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 measure of his success will represent the measure of the success 
 of the irrigation enterprise of which he forms a part since it is 
 the labor of the irrigators skillfully directed which determines 
 the value of such properties. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 THE IRRIGATED FARM 
 
 1. Location and Selection of a Farm under Irrigation. The 
 prospective settler usually decides upon the kind of farming which 
 he wishes to follow, basing his decision upon the experience and 
 knowledge of various phases of the subject which he has acquired. 
 Having arrived at this decision he should then seek for a suitable 
 location. 
 
 The selection of a farm, to be operated under irrigation, should 
 be made only after carefully investigating the climate, soil, 
 drainage, crops to be raised, transportation facilities to local and 
 distant markets, and the social and educational advantages of 
 the various localities. Since health is paramount all malarial 
 and fever infested districts should be shunned no matter how 
 many advantages they possess in other respects. Except where 
 health must be considered climatic conditions in general should 
 only be given the same weight as the other factors involved. 
 These conditions are different throughout the various sections 
 of the country and will be found to vary for even a given locality. 
 In the valleys and lowlands frost occurs later in the spring and 
 earlier in the fall than upon the adjacent ridges and tablelands 
 thus producing a slightly shorter growing season for the same 
 locality. The decision regarding the kind of farming to be 
 followed will usually determine the section of the country to be 
 investigated. 
 
 Special consideration should be given to the character of the 
 soil since all plants require certain nutrients to sustain life. 
 These must be present in the soil in an available form before crops 
 can be successfully grown. When the supply of plant food is 
 not available or is deficient in some elements the defect can be 
 remedied only by skillful treatment or the application of artificial 
 fertilizers at the expense of labor and capital. Only those soils 
 which contain plenty of plant food should be selected. 
 
 The surface and subsurface conditions of the soil should like- 
 
8 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 wise be considered. A surface with knolls and hollows requires 
 leveling for irrigation. Leveling involves the removal of earth 
 from the knolls and the filling in of the hollows, thus the rougher 
 the surface the more costly will be its preparation for irrigation. 
 An ideal farm for irrigation should have an even surface which 
 slopes uniformly in one or two directions. Land with a good 
 surface slope has two advantages, it is easily irrigated and readily 
 drained. Formerly drainage was given little consideration but 
 the consequences resulting from continuous irrigation show that 
 irrigated land .must have proper drainage. Should the soil be 
 underlaid with an impervious stratum excessive applications of 
 water may raise the water table and damage crops. The con- 
 tinual evaporation would likewise precipitate the salts, which 
 have been dissolved out of the soil, upon the surface and im- 
 pregnate the surface with alkali. A porous subsoil would allow 
 all excess water applied to the land to pass downward and thus 
 prevent injurious results. On the other hand, too porous a soil 
 may waste valuable water through deep percolation. 
 
 Both soil and climatic conditions should be studied for the 
 purpose of determining what crops can best be grown under 
 these conditions. The crops grown in a newly developed 
 district are usually a poor guide since they are consumed at 
 home or within the district. Under such conditions prices are 
 usually high whereas if an extensive area be planted to these 
 same crops the local price may fall so low that it will not be 
 profitable to produce them. 
 
 It is thus apparent that the selection of profitable crops to be 
 grown involves a study of transportation facilities and a proximity 
 to outside markets. If crops have to be shipped long distances 
 attention must be given to the selection of those which will sell 
 for a relatively high price per pound or else the freight charges 
 may consume all possible profits. Bulky crops which sell for a 
 small unit price may be converted into finished products on the 
 farm, by such means, for instance as the feeding of livestock for 
 market. Profitable returns may be realized in this way yet 
 every mile distant from the railroad and likewise from the open 
 market increases the cost of production. Hence the farm should 
 be located so that it is in reasonably close proximity to railway 
 facilities and not too great a distance from good markets. 
 
THE IRRIGATED FARM 9 
 
 At first social and educational advantages are rather limited 
 in a newly developed section. Provisions for schools, however, 
 are usually made a part of the administrative policy of irrigation 
 projects and they are established whenever the attendance is 
 sufficient to warrant such institutions. In the West instances 
 are common where schools were organized as soon as some four 
 or five children of school age resided within the district. Schools 
 are closely followed by social and religious activities which tend 
 to the uplift and betterment of the community. 
 
 At the beginning the farm has but a slight intrinsic value but 
 as improvements are made and as social and educational con- 
 ditions become better, its value rises. Again, as the com- 
 munity becomes better settled small towns and villages may 
 spring up which will tend to enhance its value still more. Even 
 though proximity to a town and favorable social and educational 
 facilities can not be had to the extent desired the settler has it 
 in his power to make his farm highly productive and valuable 
 by the adoption of good methods of farming skillfully carried 
 out. 
 
 Farming under irrigation along the Atlantic seaboard is at 
 present confined to valuable truck and fruit crops. These are 
 usually grown in the warmer and earlier sandy, muck or peat 
 soils which yield large returns under proper treatment. The 
 essentials of such treatment are intensive culture, an abundance 
 of fertilizers and proper moisture control. 
 
 Soil moisture and frosts are the most difficult to control and 
 the chief causes of crop failures. However, an excess of moisture 
 can be readily removed by tile drainage and any deficiency can 
 as readily be supplied by irrigation. The dangers from frost 
 can be greatly lessened by selecting the right location and by 
 maturing the crops with the least delay. It is in this connection 
 that irrigation plays an important part. By its means the 
 seed bed can be prepared and the seed planted regardless of dry 
 weather. A light irrigation at the right time also keeps the 
 plants in a vigorous condition until maturity. 
 
 2. Lands Open to Settlement by Purchase or Entry. Before 
 acquiring western land the prospective settler should first con- 
 sider the opportunities to which his circumstances make him 
 eligible. If he has money or credit he may purchase an improved 
 
10 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 farm in one of the older districts. The price of fertile and im- 
 proved farms with a reliable water right varies between wide 
 limits. Those which produce good yields of alfalfa, grain and 
 root crops range in price from $50 to $200 per acre; deciduous 
 orchards, vineyards and diversified farms near towns and cities 
 are worth from $200 to $500, while citrus orchards can seldom 
 be purchased for less than $1000 per acre. 
 
 The wealth in irrigated farms which now yield a yearly revenue 
 of over $276,000,000 was created by men who were poor in worldly 
 goods but rich in those physical and mental qualities which go 
 to make up the best type of citizenship. If the prospective 
 settler belongs to this class it would seem wise for him to select 
 a tract of raw land and by the exercise of brain and brawn 
 transform it into a highly productive and valuable farm. 
 
 To those who are equipped with more vigor and courage than 
 cash capital there is still good arable raw land available in the 
 West. Settlement under the desert land act is confined for 
 the most part to localities where the settler secures a water right 
 from some canal already built. The individual entryman is 
 seldom able financially to put in his own system of irrigation. 
 Sometimes this can be done by the union of several entrymen. 
 Opportunities for settlement under the homestead law upon 
 lands susceptible of irrigation are at present few and hard to 
 find, but large areas acquired under this law in the past are 
 now irrigated with water purchased from canal companies. 
 
 To those who are unfamiliar with local conditions the best 
 openings for settlement are to be found on the vacant lands in- 
 cluded in the many irrigation enterprises for which a water 
 supply has been provided. The following figures taken from 
 the Census of 1910 show the extent of such land included in 
 projects but not irrigated in that year under the agencies named. 
 
 Acres 
 
 Cooperative enterprises 4,186,658 
 
 Commercial enterprises 3,668,171 
 
 Carey Act enterprises 2,265,321 
 
 U. S. Reclamation Service 1,677,370 
 
 Irrigation districts 1,052,823 
 
 Total 12,850,343 
 
THE IRRIGATED FARM 11 
 
 The foregoing figures include the unirrigated portions of farms 
 and a large area in the aggregate which for one reason or another 
 may never be irrigated. Even when all such areas are deducted 
 there remains a vast extent of land for which water has been pro- 
 vided but which is unreclaimed for lack of settlers. 
 
 Some information for the prospective settler is briefly sum- 
 marized by F. C. Scobey, Irrigation Engineer of the Office of 
 Experiment Stations in the following schedule. (Table No. 5.) 
 For the exceptions to the statements made therein and for more 
 detailed information the reader is referred to Circulars 6, 116, 
 253, 290 and the general reclamation circular of the U. S. Land 
 Office, all of which publications may be had free on application. 
 
 3. Water Supply. According to the 13th Census approxi- 
 mately 95 per cent, of the land irrigated in 1909 was irrigated 
 from streams. The remainder consisted of 452,000 acres ir- 
 rigated from wells, 196,000 acres from springs, 98,000 acres from 
 stored-water reservoirs, and 70,500 acres from lakes. Most 
 of the streams used for irrigation rise in the higher mountains 
 and are fed mostly by melting snows. This results in a flood 
 flow in the late spring and early summer when the snows are 
 melting rapidly and rains are occurring in the lower altitudes, 
 and a low flow during the remainder of the summer, when the 
 only sources of supply are the melting of glaciers and the last 
 of the higher snowbanks, and seepage from saturated lands. 
 Consequently, nearly all the streams carry more water in the 
 flood season than can be used, while in summer, when there is 
 the greatest need for water, there is a serious shortage. A 
 tabulation made by the Bureau of the Census of the flow in 1909 
 of twelve of the largest streams draining the Rocky Mountains 
 and the east side of the Cascade Range shows the aggregate 
 June discharge of these streams to have been nearly four times 
 the aggregate August discharge. The flood discharge of in- 
 dividual streams is commonly five to ten times that of the low- 
 water flow. 
 
 The low-water flow of most of the streams of the arid sec- 
 tion is utilized by the present irrigation works, and the greater 
 part of the future extension of irrigation will depend upon the 
 storage of the winter and the flood flow of streams. On many 
 streams, notably those of Colorado, storage has been practised 
 
12 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 TABLE No. 5 
 
 Table of General Information Concerning Land Available to the Pros- 
 pective Settler 
 
 
 
 ,i 
 ll 
 
 S3 
 % 3 
 Q 
 
 Homestead 
 entry 
 
 Is 
 
 fc 
 
 ~ 5 
 
 OQ 
 
 PEJ 
 DQ 
 
 $ 
 
 Who are qualified? 
 All citizens of U S 
 
 Yes 
 
 No 
 
 No 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 No 
 
 ]VIen over 21 years 
 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 
 
 Yes 
 
 Married women 
 
 
 Yes 
 
 No 
 
 
 
 Yes 
 
 \Vidows or deserted wives 
 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 
 
 Yes 
 
 Single women over 21 years 
 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 
 
 Yes 
 
 Heads of families under 21 yrs.. 
 
 
 
 Yes 
 
 
 
 
 Acreage limit to one settler 
 
 Is land assignable before patent 
 issues? 
 
 None 
 
 320 
 
 Yes 
 
 160 
 
 No 
 
 160 
 Yes 
 
 None 
 
 10- 
 160 
 
 Yea 
 
 Is residence on land required? 
 Is a dwelling required? 
 
 No 
 No 
 
 No 
 No 
 
 Yes 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 Yes 
 
 No 
 
 No 
 
 Yes 
 Yes 
 
 Is cultivation of land required? 
 Is water supply for irrigation 
 required ? 
 
 No 
 
 No 
 
 Yes 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 No 
 
 Yes 
 Yes 
 
 No 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 Yes 
 
 Is property liable for irrigation 
 charges? 
 
 
 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 What time is allowed before final 
 proof in years ^ 
 
 
 4 
 
 7 or 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 20 
 
 What time must elapse before final 
 proof unless commuted? 
 
 
 
 5 or 3 
 
 
 
 
 Immediate money necessary per A. 
 
 What is eventual cost per acre aside 
 from labor? 
 
 Vari- 
 able 
 
 do 
 
 25c. 
 $3.25 
 
 Nominal 
 do 
 
 25c. 
 $10-65 
 
 do 
 
 1st 
 pay 
 
 $30- 
 
 May irrigation water be secured 
 from: 
 An individual or partnership sys- 
 tem ? . . . 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 110 
 
 No 
 
 A commerical co. system? 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 No 
 
 A Carey Act company? 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 No 
 
 A cooperative company? 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 No 
 
 An irrigation district? 
 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 Indi- 
 
 Yes 
 
 No 
 
 U. S. Reclamation Service? 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 rectly 
 do 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
THE IRRIGATED FARM 13 
 
 for a number of years. The Census reported that in 1909 there 
 were 6800 reservoirs having an aggregate capacity of 12,581,000 
 acre-feet used for storing water for irrigation in the arid section. 
 
 While much storage is being provided for by Carey Act and 
 other projects it is along this line that the U. S. Reclamation 
 Service is doing its most important work. Its great storage dams 
 on the Salt River in Arizona, on the Boise River in Idaho, 
 on the North Platte in Wyoming and in many other streams 
 of the West have greatly increased the available water supply of 
 that region. 
 
 Next to the storage of the winter and flood flow of streams, 
 the extension of irrigation will depend upon pumping from 
 wells and the storage of storm waters in reservoirs. Large 
 areas of arable land throughout the arid sections can not be 
 irrigated economically from streams, but are underlain at com- 
 paratively shallow depths with good supplies of ground water. 
 One of the most conspicuous facts in the irrigation development 
 of the last few years has been the rapid increase in the area 
 irrigated from wells. The improvements that have been and are 
 being made in pumps and pumping machinery, gasoline and other 
 engines, and the rapid increase in the cost of obtaining water 
 supplies from streams, have been the chief causes of this rapid 
 development. As yet California is the only state in which the 
 use of underground waters has developed to such an extent that 
 laws other than the common law of percolating water have been 
 applied to its use. 
 
 There are also large areas of arable land, especially on the 
 Great Plains, which can not be irrigated from streams but 
 which are rolling enough to afford many opportunities for small 
 reservoirs in which to store storm waters with which to water 
 small acreages, in connection with larger acreages used for dry- 
 farming and grazing. 
 
 4. Water Rights. The right to use the water of streams, 
 lakes, etc., for irrigation and other purposes is defined by the 
 constitutions, statutes, and court decisions of the different 
 states, and as a result water rights vary materially in the dif- 
 ferent sections. As Mr. F. G. Harden of the Department of 
 Agriculture has well stated, the law of water rights in all the arid 
 states is in a formative state and is being changed constantly by 
 
14 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 new statutes and court interpretations with a view to better 
 meeting the changing conditions and necessities of the different 
 sections. 
 
 Three doctrines regarding the source and nature of water 
 rights have existed in the arid sections of the United States, 
 and there are in existence at present rights based upon each of 
 these doctrines. In nearly all the states there is some water 
 used for irrigation under the common-law doctrine of riparian 
 rights. The rights to use such water were vested at the time 
 of the enacting of existing water laws, as the doctrine of riparian 
 water rights is not recognized at present in an unmodified form 
 in any arid or semi-arid state. It does exist, however, in a 
 modified form in California, Kansas, Oregon, and Washington. 
 Under the common law riparian rights attach to all lands abutting 
 on a stream, and the possessor of such lands is entitled to have 
 the stream flow by his land undiminished in quantity and un- 
 impaired in quality. Such rights can not be lost by disuse and 
 can be separated from the land only by specific grant. Strictly 
 applied, the doctrine precludes the use of water for irrigation and 
 consequently has been abandoned or modified in all the arid states. 
 
 In Texas and the states created out of the territory acquired 
 from Mexico there is some water used, the rights to which are 
 based upon old Spanish or Mexican grants to individuals, com- 
 panies or pueblos, the old rights being recognized by treaties 
 and laws of the United States and the states. These rights vary 
 widely, as under the civil law the water belonged to the crown 
 and in making a grant any restrictions desired could be placed in 
 the grant. 
 
 The lands irrigated under the two classes of rights mentioned, 
 however, comprise only a small percentage of the lands under 
 irrigation, the remainder being watered under rights based upon 
 appropriation and use, a doctrine originating in the necessity 
 and customs of the early miners and irrigators. Under this 
 doctrine the water belongs to the public and the state merely 
 regulates its use, the right to make use of the water being ob- 
 tained by taking, or appropriating, the water, and putting it to 
 a beneficial use. The right so gained continues as long as the 
 use continues and is not in conflict with earlier appropriations 
 from the same source. 
 
THE IRRIGATED FARM 15 
 
 Under existing legislation, there are two methods of acquiring 
 water rights. Many of the early rights rest merely on appro- 
 priation and use without any formalities whatever. The only 
 formalities required even at present in Arizona, California, 
 Kansas, Montana, and Washington are that a notice be posted 
 at the point of intended diversion, stating the amount of water 
 claimed, the purpose for which it is claimed, the place of intended 
 use, and the manner in which the water is to be diverted; and 
 that a copy of this notice be filed within a certain time with 
 some public official, usually the county clerk or recorder. Having 
 complied with these formalities, the appropriator is required to 
 begin construction of his ditch or other works within a specified 
 time, to prosecute the work diligently and uninterruptedly to 
 completion, and to make beneficial use of the water. These 
 formalities having been complied with, the right dates back to 
 the time the notice was posted. No records of construction 
 or use are required to be filed, and consequently the records of 
 claims are of little value in determining the value of a water 
 right. The determination of the value of such a right is made 
 still more difficult by the fact that the records in all the counties 
 through which the stream flows must be examined, since claims 
 may be filed in any or all of the counties, and by the fact that 
 rights may be acquired by diversion and use without complying 
 with any formalities regarding posting and recording notices. 
 Such rights, however, date only from the time the water is ac- 
 tually put to beneficial use and are antedated by all perfected 
 rights for which notices were posted and filed before the water 
 was actually put to use. 
 
 In all the other states, except Colorado, it is necessary to 
 apply to the state for a permit to appropriate and use water. 
 This system of requiring the permission of the state to appro- 
 priate and use water is correctly known as the Wyoming system. 
 The laws of all the other states are modelled after that of Wyom- 
 ing which was drafted by Dr. Elwood Mead then State Engineer 
 of Wyoming. The data required in the applications vary some- 
 what in the different states, but in general the following are 
 asked for: The name and address of the applicant; the source 
 and intended use of the water; the nature of the ditch or other 
 works; maps showing the location and extent of the ditch; the 
 
16 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 location and area of the land to be irrigated; the dates when 
 construction will begin and when the works will be completed 
 and the water put to the intended use. 
 
 The procedure, upon receipt of the application by the state 
 engineer or state board to which application must be made, also 
 varies somewhat in the different states, but in general is as 
 follows: The application is examined to ascertain whether it 
 is in proper form and complies with the laws and regulations, and if 
 so, it is recorded and it is the duty of the state engineer or state 
 board to approve the application and issue the permit if there is 
 unappropriated water in the source of supply provided the 
 proposed use will not impair the value of existing rights or be 
 detrimental to the public welfare. The permit issued by the 
 state engineer or state board fixes the amount of water which may 
 be appropriated, the time within which the works must be begun 
 and completed and the waters put to a beneficial use. Upon 
 submission of proof that the conditions of the permit have been 
 complied with, a certificate is issued by the state showing what 
 rights have been acquired. About 15 per cent, of the acreage 
 irrigated in 1909 was irrigated under permits or certificates from 
 the state, so small a percentage being due to the fact that the 
 laws providing for this method of securing rights have been on 
 the statute books for only a few years, the earliest, that of Wyom- 
 ing, having been enacted in 1890, and the most recent, that of 
 Texas, in 1913. 
 
 Although Colorado was the first state to adopt the state 
 control of waters, it does not require that any application for a 
 permit to appropriate water, or that proof of the construction of 
 works and use of the water be filed with any state official. It 
 does require, however, that within 60 days after construction 
 for the purpose of appropriating water is begun, a statement, 
 together with maps, must be filed with the state engineer, setting 
 forth the place of diversion, the nature of the works, the date 
 of commencement of construction, estimated cost of the project, 
 etc., and that if the data so given are sufficient and satisfactory 
 to the state engineer, a copy shall be filed with the recorder of 
 the county in which the headgate is located. These records 
 furnish no index to the existing rights to water from the same source 
 of supply. 
 
TI/1-: IRRIGATED FARM 17 
 
 The adjudication of rights which are not defined when ac- 
 quired is left to the courts in all the states but Wyoming, Ne- 
 braska, Nevada, and Texas, in which states it is left to adminis- 
 trative boards. The laws of most of the states provide that 
 when an action regarding a water right is brought all parties 
 having claims to water from the same source must be parties to 
 the suit so that the rights may be adjudicated by one action. 
 
 The laws of practically all the states provide that water can 
 be used only upon the land for which it is appropriated, conse- 
 quently, when it is not being used upon such land it must be 
 left in or turned back into the stream for use of other appro- 
 priators. The amount of water that can be beneficially used, is 
 t he limit in all the states of the amount that can be appropriated 
 for a given tract of land. This is further limited in most of the 
 states to an amount not exceeding 1 second-foot continuous 
 flow for each 50, 70, or 80 acres. Non-use for a period of 3 to 5 years 
 constitutes an abandonment of a right in most states if the right has 
 been acquired by appropriation and use. 
 
 The purchaser of a tract of land with a water right should 
 exercise as much, or more, care in determining the validity of 
 his water right as he does in examining the title to his land. 
 The few transfers that have been made of the lands and the com- 
 plete record of such transfers and the liens against lands in 
 the offices of the recorders or clerks of the counties in most 
 of the western states make the examination of the title to land 
 comparatively simple. Examinations regarding water rights, on 
 the other hand, are very complicated, owing to the various 
 methods by which rights may be acquired, the lack of records of 
 existing rights, the grounds that may be set up to destroy a 
 right or change its priority, the fact that all except the very 
 earliest priorities on the stream are dependent upon the low- 
 water flow, and the difficulty of securing proof of continuous use 
 and compliance with laws regarding the appropriation of water. 
 
 According to the 13th Census, 35 per cent, of the land ir- 
 rigated in 1909 was under rights that had been adjudicated, 
 approximately 6 per cent, under certificates from the state, and 
 7 per cent, under permits from the state, thus making approxi- 
 mately two-fifths of the acreage under rights that were deter- 
 mined as to extent and about one-fourteenth under rights that 
 
18 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 would be so determined as soon as the appropriations and use 
 were completed. The other half of the acreage irrigated con- 
 sisted of 2 per cent, under riparian rights, 34 per cent, under 
 appropriation and use, and 16 per cent, under notices posted 
 and filed, all of which rights are undefined and more or less in- 
 definite as to extent, although many of them are perfectly valid. 
 On the other hand, the fact that the right has been adjudicated 
 or defined is not an absolute guarantee of the extent or value of 
 the right, as the appropriator may be entitled to water only in 
 times of flood, only when the flow is considerably above the 
 low summer stage, or only at certain periods of the year; the 
 right may have been lost or lessened since the adjudication by 
 abandonment, and in some cases it may have been adjudicated as 
 against only part of the other claims from the same source of supply. 
 
 5. Soils of the Arid and Semi-arid Regions. Soil may be 
 defined as disintegrated and decomposed rock into which has 
 been incorporated more or less organic matter derived from plant 
 and animal life. Soils are of various chemical and mechanical 
 composition like the rocks from which they are derived. They 
 are popularly classified according to their relative sand and 
 clay content, as light or heavy, sandy or clay. To this classifi- 
 cation there is sometimes added, in arid regions, a third class, 
 viz., alkali soils, which are almost always of the heavier type. 
 
 In general it may be said that the soils of the irrigated sections 
 of the United States are deep, of high fertility and uniform 
 texture, contain large quantities of lime and potash, are low 
 in humus content and phosphorus but fairly well supplied with 
 nitrogen. They allow water to penetrate readily to great 
 depths, contain less clay and more sand than humid soils and 
 consequently do not bake so readily. Arid soils have much 
 better natural drainage than humid soils but due to their great 
 depth, plant food is not leached out into the ground water and 
 thus lost. The high per cent, of lime in arid soils prevents 
 sourness, encourages bacterial life, makes some plant foods more 
 available, and aids in converting organic matter into humus. 
 The hard, impervious, non-penetrable clay subsoil of humid 
 sections is almost unknown in arid regions but hardpans are 
 found in many localities. These hardpans are the result of a 
 concentration of lime and to a limited extent of clay at a depth 
 
THE IRRIGATED FARM 
 
 19 
 
 below the surface corresponding to the limit of average pene- 
 tration of the seasonal precipitation. The precipitation, pene- 
 Iruting the soil to approximately the same depth each year 
 carries in suspension and in solution some of the finer material 
 and lime found in the top soil. These substances are deposited 
 at about the same depth from year to year and by physical and 
 chemical means form the hardpan. This hardpan is almost al- 
 ways dissolved and destroyed under irrigation. 
 
 To describe the chemical composition of the average arid 
 soil it will probably be well to compare it with the average 
 composition of soils from humid sections. 
 
 TABLE No. 6 
 Chemical Composition of Average Humid and Arid Soils. (After Hilgard) 
 
 Number of 
 samples 
 
 Insolu- 
 ble 
 residue 
 
 Partial percentage composition 
 
 Humus 
 
 Soluble 
 silica 
 
 Alumina 
 
 Lime 
 
 Potash 
 
 Phos- 
 phoric 
 acid 
 
 Humid 696 
 
 84.17 
 69.16 
 
 4.04 
 6.71 
 
 3.66 
 7.21 
 
 0.13 
 1.43 
 
 0.21 
 0.67 
 
 0.12 
 0.16 
 
 1.22 
 1.13 
 
 Arid 573 
 
 From the above table it is observed that the arid soil con- 
 tains more soluble matter and more of the mineral and plant 
 
 TABLE No. 7 
 
 Class of soil and 
 location 
 
 Fine 
 gravel 
 
 Coarse 
 sand 
 
 Medium 
 sand 
 
 Fine 
 sand 
 
 Very 
 fine sand 
 
 Silt 
 
 Clay 
 
 Millimeters 
 
 2-1 
 
 1-0.5 
 
 0.5-0.250.25-0.1 
 
 0.1-0.050.05-0.005 
 
 0.005-0 
 
 Salt River clay loam, Ariz. 
 Imperial fine sand, Cal. . . 
 Imperial clay loam, Cal.. . 
 
 Tr. 
 
 0.00 
 Tr. 
 
 0.12 
 Tr. 
 0.30 
 
 0.20 
 1.20 
 0.34 
 
 13.70 
 0.40 
 10.26 
 15.90 
 0.20 
 0.50 
 
 0.30 
 13.60 
 
 1.10 
 
 18.50 
 0.60 
 2.06 
 1.30 
 14.10 
 
 3.80 
 42.20 
 1.92 
 
 27.10 
 4.30 
 15.54 
 39.60 
 0.60 
 1.40 
 
 10.00 
 30.60 
 
 16.00 
 
 44.20 
 2.24 
 5.96 
 9.30 
 29.80 
 
 12.78 
 38.00 
 3.64 
 
 11.90 
 7.30 
 11.70 
 13.10 
 21.30 
 8.10 
 
 48.60 
 18.60 
 
 20.70 
 
 13.30 
 14.64 
 34.82 
 32.60 
 19.16 
 
 42.30 
 15.00 
 53.90 
 
 21.00 
 64.10 
 19.84 
 8.40 
 66.10 
 71.30 
 
 35.10 
 14.20 
 
 39.10 
 
 11.00 
 43.08 
 45.04 
 51.80 
 13.10 
 
 41.00 
 3.58 
 39.80 
 
 10.90 
 23.50 
 11.26 
 7.10 
 11.60 
 17.80 
 
 5.50 
 9.40 
 
 22.40 
 
 7.90 
 37.80 
 3.98 
 4.40 
 
 8.40 
 
 San Joaquin Valley sandy 
 loam, Cal 
 
 1.60 
 0.00 
 8.96 
 1.50 
 0.00 
 0.20 
 
 0.10 
 3.60 
 
 0.20 
 
 0.40 
 0.36 
 1.50 
 0.00 
 
 2.80 
 
 13.40 
 0.30 
 22.08 
 14.50 
 0.20 
 0.70 
 
 0.30 
 10.30 
 
 0.10 
 
 7.90 
 0.90 
 3.08 
 0.50 
 12.60 
 
 Silty clay loam, Colo 
 San Luis sandy loam, Colo 
 Yakima sandy loam, Ida. 
 Colby silt loam, Kansas 
 Bozeman silt loam, Mont. 
 Finney fine sandy loam, 
 Xebr 
 
 I.ahontan sandy loam, Xev. 
 Morton loam, South 
 Dakota 
 
 Amarillo sandy loam, 
 Texas. . 
 
 Jordan loam, Utah. 
 
 Yakima sandy loam, Wash. 
 Quincy silt loam, Wash.. . 
 Laramie sandy loam.Wyo. 
 
20 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 foods with the exception of humus. Hilgard determined, how- 
 ever, that the low humus content is partly compensated by the 
 much higher nitrogen content of the humus in arid soils as 
 compared with the humus of soils in humid sections. 
 
 The preceding table was compiled from the published reports 
 of the Bureau of Soils, U. S. D. A. and gives the mechanical 
 analyses of typical soils in various irrigated valleys throughout 
 the arid and semi-arid belt. 
 
 The soils of the arid region will average about 50 per cent, of 
 open space. According to Lyon and Fippin the pore space of 
 various soils under field conditions is about as follows: 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Clean sand 33 . 5 
 
 Fine sand 44. 10 
 
 Sandy loam .' 51 .00 
 
 Silt loam 53 . 00 
 
 Clay loam 54.00 ' 
 
 Clay 56 . 00 
 
 "The effect of irrigation upon arid soils" according to Professor 
 W. W. McLaughlin of Utah, "is to dissolve plant food for use of the 
 plants, to break up hardpan, tc cause the clay to become troublesome, 
 and in case of gypsum soils to cause them to settle. In alkali soils 
 the results of irrigation may be beneficial or detrimental, depending 
 upon drainage. The water, in penetrating an alkali soil dissolves the 
 salts and carries them downward into- the soil. After each irrigation 
 part of the water previously applied is drawn upward by evaporation 
 and transpiration and the salts are deposited at or near the surface. If 
 this process be continued there may finally be such a concentration of 
 salts at the surface as to injure or entirely prevent plant growth and the 
 land is then said to be 'alkalied.'" 
 
 In selecting a soil in the arid region the following points should 
 be kept in mind: A growth of sagebrush, bunch grass, tree and 
 brush growth are indexes of a fertile soil, while a growth of shad 
 scale, salt grass and other alkali-tolerating vegetation indicates 
 a soil which, while it may be fertile, may contain alkali salts in 
 such quantities as to become troublesome under irrigation and 
 especially unless great care is taken in the application of water. 
 The mechanical appearance of the soil, the way it feels in the 
 hand, its taste, etc., aid in determining the probable difficulty in 
 
77/7-; IRRIGATED FARM 21 
 
 securing and maintaining proper tilth. The depth of the soil 
 cither to hardpan or to bedrock should be determined, as upon 
 this depth will depend to some extent the lasting power of the 
 soil. The natural drainage and the situation of the land with 
 respect to probable location of canals and other irrigated lands 
 is an important point. It is a fact that in all of the, older irri- 
 gated sections, some of the lower lying lands that were in the 
 early days most productive have, with the development of irri- 
 gation, become water-logged or alkali-ridden. Not all soils are 
 adapted to all crops. Some soils are adapted to one crop but 
 not to another. This is illustrated in the selection of soils for 
 peach growing. If the peach tree is planted upon heavy strong 
 soils or soils naturally very damp, the trees will grow very rapidly 
 but the fruit will be inferior in every way. Numerous other 
 illustrations could be cited. 
 
 6. Soil Moisture. All substances contain moisture under 
 normal conditions. Scientists' have divided all moisture con- 
 tained with the soil into three general classes with respect to its 
 physical properties, namely, hygroscopic, capillary and gravita- 
 tional. Only by artificial heating can soils be rendered water- 
 free^ 
 
 HYGROSCOPIC. Water which in nature clings to all matter, 
 and varies in amount with the temperature, dampness of the air, 
 sunshine, and other less important factors, is called hygroscopic. 
 That it is of no direct value to plants is now generally conceded. 
 According to Hilgard, arid region soils will absorb water in a 
 saturated atmosphere equal to 5.5 per cent, of their dry weight. 
 This amount represents their maximum hygroscopic capacity, 
 but the actual content of water in this form is usually much less. 
 Under Great Basin conditions, the hygroscopic content is reported 
 by Widtsoe to vary from 0.75 to 3.50 per cent., averaging 
 approximately 1.5 per cent. 
 
 CAPILLARY. Under normal field conditions, every minute soil 
 particle is invested with a very thin film of moisture. Water 
 thus held in soils is called capillary. One gram of a coarse sandy 
 soil according to Lyon and Fippin, contains 3,276,000,000 par- 
 ticles, while the same weight of silt loam and of clay soils con- 
 tain 9,639,000,000 and 19,525,000,000 particles in the order 
 named. Provided these particles were spherical, their surface 
 
22 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 area in square feet per pound of soil would be 405, 1314, and 
 2000 respectively. These figures clearly indicate how soils can 
 contain large quantities of capillary water, even though 
 the film about each particle is very thin. 
 
 Moreover, it is evident that as the soil grains decrease in 
 size, and the number and surface area of the particles per unit 
 of volume increase, the moisture capacity should likewise in- 
 crease. This is in fact the case. Ordinary . plants get all of 
 their water from the capillary form. 
 
 GRAVITATIONAL. Gravitational water or that which percolates 
 through the soil due to the force of gravity, supplies the deficiency 
 in the capillary content caused by plant absorption and evapora- 
 tion. Prof. O. W. Israelsen of the University of California 
 states that " irrigation should be so controlled that all of the 
 gravitational water added to the soil will be changed to the 
 capillary form before it is lost to plants by passing far beyond 
 their root zone or into the ground-water table. Each farmer 
 can, by the use of a soil auger make enough borings after ir- 
 rigation to determine for his particular soil the normal depth 
 of penetration of a given amount of water applied." 
 
 The relation of the classes of soil moisture and their avail- 
 ability to plants is well illustrated in the following diagram after 
 Lyon and Pippin. 
 
 Hygroscopic Capillary Gravitational 
 
 Unavailable Available Injurious 
 
 FIG. 1. Forms and relationship of soil moisture. 
 
 DETERMINING SOIL MOISTURE CONTENT. Soil moisture, or 
 moisture content is expressed in per cents, of the weight of dry 
 soil. This is determined as follows: A sample of wet soil is dried 
 in an oven at a temperature slightly above 100 degrees C. or 212 
 degrees P. until no further loss occurs under this temperature. 
 The period of heating required is dependent upon the quality 
 of the soil and the wetness of the sample and will usually take 
 
THE IRRIGATED FARM 23 
 
 from 5 to 12 hours. The per cent, of soil moisture or moisture 
 
 content is computed thus: 
 
 L<ss of weight in (Irving 
 
 = Per cent, moisture or moisture content. 
 Weight of dry soil in sample 
 
 PROPER PERCENTAGE OF SOIL MOISTURE. Irrigators may get 
 a general knowledge of capillary moisture content by simply air- 
 drying a sample of soil and computing percentage as above. 
 Neither method, however, gives accurate knowledge of the water 
 which is available for plants. This may be closely approxi- 
 mated by deducting from the per cents, obtained by the method 
 first outlined, the per cents, at which ordinary plants wilt in soils 
 of the class tested. The " wilting coefficient" for various soils 
 as determined by Messrs. Briggs and Shantz are quoted below, 
 but it should be remembered that under normal conditions, 
 plants can derive moisture for plant growth at points" somewhat 
 below those quoted here. 1 
 
 Coarse sand 0.9 Loam 13.1 
 
 Fine sand 3.2 Clay loam 15.9 
 
 Sandy loam 7.0 Clay 25.2 
 
 Fine sandy loam 10.7 
 
 Lack of moisture limits plant growth over about 65 per cent, 
 of the earth's surface, while crop production is also prohibited 
 on large areas by an excess of water. The importance of an 
 adequate supply of moisture and the bad effects of too much 
 are considered in other parts of the book. It is apparent that 
 plants differ greatly in their requirements for water. These 
 requirements are the results of various factors, such as tem- 
 perature, sunshine, shade, humidity, and the plant food avail- 
 able in the soil. It is possible for man to exert partial control 
 over all these factors. Soil fertility, however, which plays 
 a very important role in water requirement is almost entirely 
 under the irrigator's control. If farmers desire a high efficiency 
 in the use of moisture, they must maintain an adequate supply 
 of plant food in their soils. 
 
 Soils should not be too wet or too dry. Either extreme 
 should be avoided if possible. It is well known that plants 
 
 1 Bui. 230, B. P. I., U. S. D. A. 
 
24 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 which are grown in very moist soils waste water. Moreover, 
 evaporation lossos from such soils are a maximum. Paradoxical 
 as it may seem, plants are equally wasteful of water where the 
 moisture content of the soil is very low. Briggs and Shantz 
 have assembled data from a large number of experiments which 
 indicate that the water requirements for every pound of dry 
 matter produced increase as either extreme in moisture content 
 is approached. Such relations have also been observed in the 
 results of field experiments at Davis, California, conducted under 
 the auspices of the Office of Experiment Stations in cooperation 
 with the State Engineering Department and the University of 
 California. Soils which are kept moist absorb water much more 
 readily than those which have been allowed to become very dry 
 and in very dry soils bacteria are not active. It is important, 
 therefore, to prevent excessive drying out in order to allow 
 plants to iise water efficiently, to provide for continuous plant 
 food formation by bacterial action, and to cause water to be 
 readily absorbed. 
 
 In deep loamy soil, according to Widtsoe, a total moisture 
 content of about 18 per cent, is the most desirable for such 
 crops as wheat, oats, barley, alfalfa, sugar beets and potatoes. 
 This optimum per cent, varies with the soil, decreasing as the 
 soil becomes lighter and increasing as it becomes heavier. The 
 minimum moisture content desirable, varies in the same manner 
 but should approximate at least 12 per cent, for a deep loam. 
 
 7. Movement of Soil Moisture. The forces which produce 
 motion in the water of soils are the same the world over. It is 
 also true that the sources from which the water is derived and 
 the manner in which it is distributed over the land exert an 
 influence in the direction and volume of subsurface flow. In 
 a humid region the clouds are the main source of soil water. This 
 falls as rain or snow with fair uniformity over the entire surface. 
 In an irrigated district with its light rainfall and heavy evapora- 
 tion, the main source of water is the artificial canal which de- 
 livers water to smaller distributaries on benches more or less 
 distant from natural streams. A large part of the water so 
 distributed passes under the forces of gravity and capillarity 
 through the upper stratum of soil into the subsoil. One of the 
 first effects of this movement of water is to raise the ground water 
 
THE IRRIGATED FARM 
 
 25 
 
 level. This may be observed by noting the sudden rise of water 
 in a well located near a field which is irrigated. After a little 
 time the greater part of the excess water which caused the rise 
 of the water table finds its way through the subsoil to lower 
 levels. This is known throughout the West as seepage water. 
 
 RATE of FLOW of SEEPAGE WATER. The rate of flow of seepage 
 and underground waters generally depends upon a number of 
 conditions. The chief of these are (1) the available head or 
 gradient, (2) the relative porosity of the soil and (3) the tem- 
 pcrature of the soil and water. In the following table, compiled 
 from Water Supply Papers Nos. 67 and 140, U. S. Geological 
 Survey by Prof. Chas. S. Slichter, the velocity of flow is based on 
 a fall or grade of 100 feet per mile, a porosity of 32 per cent, and 
 a temperature of 50 degrees F. 
 
 TABLE No. 8 
 
 Kind of soil 
 
 Diameter of 
 soil grains, 
 mm. 
 
 Velocity 
 
 ' In feet per 
 day 
 
 In miles per 
 year 
 
 sat 
 
 0.01 
 0.04 
 0.05 
 0.07 
 0.09 
 0.10 
 0.15 
 0.20 
 0.25 
 0.35 
 0.45 
 0.50 
 0.65 
 0.80 
 0.95 
 1.00 
 3.00 
 5.00 
 
 0.0038 
 
 0.0590 
 0.0923 
 . 1808 
 0.2989 
 0.3690 
 0.8322 
 1.476 
 2.305 
 4.520 
 7.471 
 9.224 
 15.57 
 23.62 
 33.30 
 36.90 
 332.1 
 1067.0 
 
 0.00026 
 0.00408 
 0.00638 
 0.01250 
 0.02066 
 0.02551 
 0.05753 
 0.1021 
 0.1594 
 0.3125 
 0.5165 
 0.6377 
 1.077 
 1.633 
 2.302 
 2.551 
 22.96 
 63.77 
 
 Very fine sand 
 
 Fine sand 
 
 Medium sand. . . 
 
 Coarse sand 
 
 Fine gravel 
 
 
 CAPILLARY MOVEMENT of SOIL MOISTURE. Capillary movement 
 may be readily observed in furrow irrigation where a small stream 
 of water is run in furrows several feet apart. If the flow in each 
 furrow were not acted upon by any force other than gravity 
 the water would tend to sink vertically downward. While 
 
26 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 there is motion in this direction the moisture also spreads side- 
 wise so as to moisten in time all the intervening space between 
 the furrows. In the case of deep furrows, such as are used in 
 the irrigation of potatoes, the water is not only drawn sidewise 
 but upward, thus overcoming the pull of gravity. 
 
 The action of this natural force is of paramount importance to 
 agriculturists in general, and especially to irrigators. The latter 
 have to devise ways and means to moisten the soil artificially and 
 without the aid of this force it would be impossible to distribute 
 water in soils so effectively or to maintain the proper amount of 
 moisture within the root zone of plants. Thus, when a relatively 
 dry soil lies next to a wet soil the excess of film water in the 
 latter is gradually drawn to the former. Again, when the root- 
 lets of a plant absorb the moisture in the soil around them the 
 deficiency is made up by drawing moisture from wet soils. 
 So, too, as the top layer of soil is robbed of its moisture by evapora- 
 tion, a fresh supply is raised from below. Hence it is apparent 
 that this force not only aids the irrigator to distribute water in 
 soils but acts as a great equalizer of soil moisture. 
 
 Capillary force or surface tension as it is sometimes called, is 
 usually compared and measured by placing the lower ends of 
 columns of typical soils or soil ingredients in contact with 
 water and noting the vertical height to which water will rise 
 through the material in a given time. The movement of soil 
 moisture due to this force may be measured by determining the 
 amount of water which is raised, say a foot high, through the 
 material in a given time. When the lower end of a column of 
 air-dry soil is brought into contact with water/ the rise of the 
 wat^r in the soil is at first quite rapid. This is seen in Table 9. 
 After the end of the first day or so the rise is less rapid as is 
 shown in Table 10, and in time reaches a height beyond which 
 it does not rise. 
 
 TABLE No. 9 
 Capillary Rise of Moisture in Soils. (Hilgard) 
 
 Class of soil 
 
 Clay 
 
 Silt 
 
 Medium sand I Sandy loam 
 
 Rise of moisture 
 End of 1 hour 
 
 Inches 
 5 
 
 Inches 
 11 
 
 Inches 
 10 
 
 Inches 
 
 7 
 
 End of 1 day 
 
 2.0 
 
 43 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 End of 6 days 
 End of 10 days 
 
 8.0 
 13.0 
 
 65 
 
 72 
 
 22 
 23 
 
 23 
 25 
 
THE IRRIGATED FARM 
 
 27 
 
 TABLE No. 10 
 
 Height of Rise of Water in Dry Soils of Different Texture. 
 
 Fippin) 
 
 (Lyon and 
 
 
 Time 
 
 Min. 
 
 Hours 
 
 Days 
 
 15 
 
 1 | 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 8 | 13 
 
 19 
 
 Silt and very fine sand . 
 Very fine sand 
 Fine sand 
 
 In. 
 2.7 
 7.6 
 9.0 
 
 5.8 
 4.0 
 
 In. 
 
 4.7 
 10.0 
 9.5 
 
 6.0 
 5.0 
 
 In. 
 7.0 
 12.4 
 10.0 
 
 6.3 
 5.3 
 
 In. 
 20.0 
 21.0 
 11.6 
 
 7.5 
 6.4 
 
 In. 
 
 30.0 
 23.0 
 13.0 
 
 9.0 
 8.0 
 
 In. 
 
 45.0 
 26.0 
 14.3 
 
 10.0 
 9.0 
 
 In. 
 52.0 
 27.5 
 15.2 
 
 11.5 
 10.0 
 
 In. 
 56.0 
 
 28.5 
 16.0 
 
 12.5 
 10.8 
 
 Coarse and medium 
 
 sand 
 
 Fine gravel 
 
CHAPTER III 
 THE NECESSARY EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES 
 
 8. Equipment for the New Settler. Many advertisements 
 for the sale of irrigated lands state or leave the impression that 
 men with but little capital and experience can easily make a 
 success upon such lands. While it is true that the ability to do 
 hard work, a willingness to suffer privations and a determina- 
 tion to succeed greatly supplement a small bank account, yet 
 there are many demands for capital which must be met. Before 
 purchasing, the prospective settler should either have sumcient 
 money to meet such demands or know from whence he may 
 secure it when needed. 
 
 The first expenditure required of the prospective settler is 
 the first payment upon the land. This varies in price accord- 
 ing to locality and the cost of developing the project. Prior 
 to moving to the land a house should be built for habitation. 
 The settler may provide a temporary structure but this should 
 be fairly well built since it may have to do service for several 
 years. The size and cost of such a house and its furnishings 
 will depend to a large extent upon the size of the family. In 
 addition a barn will be required for whatever live stock is pur- 
 chased. The settler should provide himself with a good team 
 and wagon complete with harness, an extra horse, a milch cow, 
 two pigs and fowls. 
 
 For reclaiming, leveling and putting the land under cultiva- 
 tion a plow, harrow, leveller and other implements will be re- 
 quired. While not absolutely necessary the settler will find 
 that the purchase of a few miscellaneous tools for working in 
 wood and metal will prove a great convenience. Some imple- 
 ments, such as a mower and hay rake can, no doubt, be rented 
 from some neighbor whenever needed. 
 
 Fencing the entire place may be out of the question for the 
 first year or two but should be done as soon as practicable 
 
 28 
 
NECESSARY EQl'IPVI-XT AND STRUCTURES 29 
 
 in order to furnish pasturage for the cow thus reducing the 
 feed bill to some extent. At any rate enough fencing should 
 be provided to build a feed coral at the barn. 
 
 The settler should move to the farm some time during the fall 
 or early spring, preferably the latter, before the cropping season 
 begins in order to clear, plow and level a portion of the land 
 for cultivation. This tilling of the soil will involve the purchase 
 of seed and the yields for the first year will barely pay expenses 
 of cropping and in many cases barely furnish enough seed for 
 the increased acreage the following season. As the returns 
 from the first season will be light the settler must provide pro- 
 visions for himself and family and feed for the live stock dur- 
 ing the first season and the greater portion of the following 
 season. 
 
 It is very doubtful whether the return from the crops will 
 furnish a living to the settler and meet the expenses incurred 
 by such improvements as will be required from time to time 
 within several years. Usually on most projects the second 
 payment with deferred interest falls due at the end of the 
 first season and this money must be derived from outside 
 sources. 
 
 At some certain date during the year, fixed by statute, the 
 settler becomes subject to taxation for both personal property 
 and real estate. Lands located upon Carey Act projects 
 become taxable as soon as final proof is made, while those 
 located upon Reclamation projects of the United States are 
 not taxed until title is obtained. Assessments to provide for 
 maintenance and operation charges for irrigation works must, 
 of course, be met each year whether the land is patented 
 or not. 
 
 No title to the land can be acquired until all payments have 
 been made. As only equity to the land can be given as security 
 for loans interest becomes high and credit limited making loans 
 on real estate held in equity hard to float. Thus payments 
 with deferred interest can not be raised by making loans on 
 the place but must be derived from outside sources until such 
 time as the farm has reached a paying basis. 
 
 Summarizing, the settler will require money to meet the 
 following expenditures : 
 
30 ; USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 First payment on the land. Two pigs. 
 
 House. Fowls. 
 
 Domestic water supply. Plow. 
 
 Barn. Land leveler. 
 
 Two or three horses with wagon. Harrow. 
 
 Milch cow. Miscellaneous tools. 
 
 Taxes personal and real estate. 
 
 Fencing at least enough for corral. 
 
 Provisions for two seasons. 
 
 Feed for live stock for greater portion of two seasons. 
 
 Seed for seeding land. 
 
 Annual payments and deferred interest until farm reaches paying 
 basis. 
 
 All of the above expenditures involve a supply of ready cash 
 which can be drawn upon as needed. Due to the range of 
 prices in the local markets throughout the different sections 
 of the country the amount of available money required will vary 
 for the various sections. H. C. Diesem, Irrigation Engineer 
 of the Department of Agriculture, who has had a varied ex- 
 perience in dealing with new settlers believes that a prospective 
 settler going upon a 40-acre farm in a newly developed section 
 should have an available fund of from $1500 to $3000 with 
 which to meet expenses as they may arise. 
 
 9. Laying Out a Farm under an Irrigation System. "The 
 governing factor in laying out a farm which is to be irrigated" 
 according to F. L. Bixby, Irrigation Engineer of New Mexico, 
 " consists in providing proper facilities for the ready and uniform 
 distribution of water to all parts." Since the location and cost 
 of permanent farm ditches depend to a large degree on surface 
 configuration, it is a saving of money in the end to have a survey 
 and topographic map made of the entire tract. If this can not 
 be done surface levels should be taken to fix the proper loca- 
 tion of the fields, ditches, and other permanent features. The 
 supply ditch from the main canal or from one of its branches 
 should be as short and as large as possible. The main points 
 to be kept in mind in fixing its location are to convey the water 
 with the least loss to the highest part of the farm if practicable, 
 to run parallel to fence lines or field borders, to avoid use of 
 syphons, flumes or dikes and to adopt a suitable grade. The 
 capacity of the supply ditch, as well as the capacity and direction 
 
NECESSARY EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES 31 
 
 of the farm ditches, depend on the size of the farm and fields, 
 the method to be followed in irrigating, the kind of crops which 
 are likely to be raised and other considerations. 
 
 Owing to the nature of land surveys, irrigated farms usually 
 comprise some even multiple of the 10-acre tract. This unit 
 also forms a convenient size for fields where the topography will 
 admit of such an arrangement. If too large for a field, a 10- 
 acre tract can be subdivided in the direction in which it is ir- 
 rigated. The width or length (660 feet) of this unit of area 
 is about as long a distance as water should be run in furrows. 
 In laying out small tracts of land for suburban settlers in ir- 
 rigated districts the rectangular form has some advantages. 
 Dr. H. C. Gardiner of the Anaconda Copper Mining Company, 
 in subdividing lands for this class of occupants on the outskirts 
 of Anaconda, adopted the arrangement shown in Fig. 2. This 
 
 GO' 
 
 ^20' 
 
 10 Acres 
 
 10 Acres 
 
 1000' 
 
 1000' 
 
 FIG. 2. Arrangement of tracts for suburban irrigated farms. 
 
 lessens the number of roads or streets, facilitates the distribution 
 of water, is better adapted to the rotation of crops and removes 
 to a greater distance from the residence the ugly and unwhole- 
 some features of farm life. 
 
 In laying out fields and permanent farm ditches, one should 
 not overlook crop rotation. The same field may be in root 
 crops one season, in cereals the next and in a legume the third. 
 With the exception of fruits, vines, and a few other crops, rota- 
 tion of one kind or another is quite generally practised under 
 irrigation and it is well to plan farms at the start so as to con- 
 form to this use. Owing to the wide variation of soils on some 
 farms and to the further fact that particular soils are adapted 
 to particular crops, it is well to set aside a certain field for a 
 special crop, such as fruit trees. The Director of the experiment 
 station in the state in which the farm is located may be with 
 profit consulted on matters pertaining to soils, crops and climate. 
 
32 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 FARM BUILDINGS. Good drainage and sanitation are prime 
 requisites in fixing the location of a farm home. Such questions 
 as facing the public highway, exposure to high or chilling winds, the 
 advantage of a beautiful outlook and accessibility to other parts 
 of the farm, although of much importance in themselves, occupy 
 a second place. Sometimes a part of the farm is too high to be 
 watered by a gravity ditch and this cheap and dry part may be 
 utilized for farm buildings and yards. This proves a good 
 selection providing water can be pumped or otherwise secured 
 for domestic, lawn and garden purposes. Farm houses should be 
 set back at least 100 feet from roads or bare ground to avoid 
 the discomfort of drifting dust and to assure an attractive setting 
 of lawn and shrubbery. Whatever the source of the domestic 
 water supply, whether from a well, cistern or spring, it should 
 be carefully guarded from contamination. A water-tight cess- 
 pool or septic tank should be provided but if this can not be 
 built great care should be used to protect sewage from flies and 
 to convey it beyond the possible reach of the water supply 
 through surface channels or underground percolation. This 
 highly important feature is commonly overlooked as may be 
 seen in the careless location of sewage drains and outbuildings. 
 Its careful observance is an excellent preventative of typhoid and 
 similar diseases. The homestead should likewise be protected 
 from prevailing winds by a grove of trees of the variety best 
 suited to the climate and soil. Poplar or cottonwood, and in 
 localities of little frost, eucalyptus, when well watered, will grow 
 rapidly. These may alternate with the slow-growing elms, 
 box elders, oaks and peppers. Good roads and lanes lined with 
 shade trees, not only enhance the value of the farmstead but 
 add greatly to its attractiveness. The farm home and its sur- 
 roundings in an irrigated district need not be expensive in order 
 to be beautiful. Where there is an abundance of rich soil, a 
 ready supply of water and a favorable climate, it is easy to con- 
 vert a dreary abode into an attractive residence. Green grass 
 soon covers the drifting sands, a climbing rose or a vine conceals 
 an ugly exterior and the foliage of shrubs and trees affords shelter 
 from the rays of the western sun. 
 
 10. Farm Ditches. Farm ditches are either permanent or 
 temporary. The former include the main supply ditch to the 
 
NECESSARY j-:QnrMj-:\T AND STRUCTURES 33 
 
 farm and its various branches to subdivisions of the farm. The 
 latter are confined to the small distributaries in each field and 
 are renewed for each crop. 
 
 LOCATION. The chief features to be considered in locating 
 permanent farm ditches were pointed out in Art. 9. It 
 may be stated here by way of emphasis that too much care can 
 not well be given to this subject since faults of location in such 
 channels affect the whole farm. The most common mistake 
 made by farmers is to lay out and build a system of ditches for 
 a part of the farm without regard to the irrigation of the re- 
 mainder. Since these are considered temporary in character 
 little attention is paid to them but after the lapse of years it is 
 found both difficult and costly to abandon the old and begin 
 anew. 
 
 GRADE OF DITCHES. The quantity of water which a ditch will 
 carry depends fully as much on the fall or grade as on its size. 
 The two elements should be considered together. When con- 
 ditions are such that one can adopt a suitable grade the chief 
 points to consider are the volume to be carried and the nature 
 of the soil. The smaller the volume the greater the grade 
 required. In a small ditch capable of carrying 50 miner's inches 
 a fall of 2 inches to the rod would produce a velocity of 2 feet per 
 second, while in a ditch capable of carrying 950 miner's inches 
 the fall required to give the same velocity is only 1/4 
 inch to the rod. In fine sand or sediment a flat grade is required 
 to prevent scouring. A mean velocity of 1 foot per second is 
 sufficient for such material.^ In hard gravel or hard clay or in 
 a mixture of these, a velocity of 3 feet per second can be used 
 without eroding the bottom. In ordinary materials, ranging 
 v from sandy or gravelly loams to clay loams, a grade may safely 
 be adopted which will produce a mean velocity of. 2 to 2 1/2 feet 
 per second. On a farm with little fall the grade can not exceed 
 that of the land. On rolling land or where the slope is steep a 
 suitable grade for ditches can usually be found by running them 
 across the slopes rather than directly down them. When ex- 
 cessive grades can not be avoided by winding around the high 
 places the speed of the water may be checked at intervals by 
 the insertion of drops or a rough pavement of cobble stones 
 loosely laid. Check boards are convenient to direct water into 
 
 3 
 
34 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 laterals, and at a slight additional expense they may be com- 
 bined with a permanent drop. Considering the ditch alone it 
 is preferable to use a grade which for its size will give a velocity 
 just safely less than will cause cutting in the type of soil through 
 which it is to be built. 
 
 Farm Ditch No.l 
 
 Farm Ditch No. 2 
 
 Farm Ditch No. 3 
 
 "Water Level 
 Original 
 
 irface '"^V&'/rXy 
 
 Farm Ditch No.4 when New 
 
 ''^ : ^%^;;;. : .-:^-,..^ : ;,-/ : j?^^' V ' 
 
 k--' 1 -"-'^i--- -V^j 
 Farm Ditch No.4 after being used 
 
 k 3-->J 
 
 Farm Ditch No.5 when New 
 "Water Level 
 
 Farm Ditch No.5 after being used^ 
 
 FIG. 3. Farm ditches of various capacities. 
 
 FORM OF DITCHES. The principal function of both the per- 
 manent and temporary ditches is to get water on the land quickly 
 and easily. To do this the form of the ditch should be such that 
 the water surface in the ditch is kept above the ground to be 
 
NECESSARY EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES 35 
 
 covered. Ditches should not be allowed to cut deeply into the 
 ground so that diversion is hindered. When being built they 
 should be well banked so that the turnouts can be made without 
 having to raise the water above safe limits on the banks above. 
 The form of the cross section of a ditch depends largely on its 
 method of construction. Small ditches made with a V crowder 
 (Fig. 5), are generally triangular in shape when built. If the 
 velocity is not such that scour will occur these usually become 
 rounded as shown in Ditches Nos. 4 and 5 (Fig. 3). 
 
 The larger ditches are usually constructed with a scraper 
 working across from side to side making a bank on both sides in 
 nearly level ground and on only the lower side in side-hill work. 
 Such ditches are best built with curved cross section as the 
 squaring to a regular trapezoidal shape does not give advan- 
 tages in proportion to the work required. In ditches made 
 wide enough for a slip or scraper to be run along in the direction 
 of the length of the ditch, the trapezoidal shape is as easily 
 built as the curved. Typical shapes and dimensions for small 
 
 -IU 1 , F-vt 
 
 FIG. 4. Home-made level for locating ditches. 
 
 ditches are shown in the accompanying cuts, the ditches shown 
 being those for which the tables of capacity given later are 
 computed. 
 
 CAPACITY. The capacity needed depends chiefly on the manner 
 of delivering the water and the methods used in applying it. It 
 also depends, but to a less extent, on the size of the farm, the 
 duty of water, the nature of the soil and the crops raised. 
 
 FLOW OF WATER IN FARM DITCHES. In the table which follows 
 (Table No. 11) the flow in each of the five types of farm ditches 
 previously shown (Fig. 3) has been figured for different 
 grades. These grades are intended to cover ordinary conditions 
 on most farms and are expressed in three ways : First, in inches 
 and fractions of an inch per rod; next in feet per 100 feet; and, 
 lastly, in feet per mile. The mean or average velocity of the 
 
36 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 water in each kind of ditch having a given grade is also given, 
 as well as the discharge in cubic feet per second and its equiva- 
 lent in miner's inches under a 6-inch pressure head, about 40 
 of such inches being equal to 1 cubic foot per second. Thus in 
 farm ditch No. 3 a grade of 1/2 inch per rod produces a dis- 
 charge of 168 miner's inches, but when the grade is increased to 
 3/4 inch per rod the discharge is 207 miner's inches. 
 
 TABLE No. 11 
 
 Table giving the Mean Velocity and Discharge of Ditches with Different 
 Grades. Lateral ditch with bottom width of 14 inches (ditch No. 1) 
 
 Grade 
 
 Mean velocity 
 in feet per 
 second 
 
 Discharge 
 
 Inches 
 per rod 
 
 Feet per 
 100 feet 
 
 Feet per mile 
 
 Cubic feet per 
 second 
 
 Miner's inches 
 under 6-inch 
 pressure head 
 
 1/2 
 
 0.25 
 
 13.33 
 
 1.01 
 
 0.67 
 
 27 
 
 3/4 
 
 0.38 
 
 20.00 
 
 1.23 
 
 0.81 
 
 32 . 
 
 1 
 
 0.51 
 
 26.67 
 
 1.42 
 
 0.93 
 
 37 
 
 11/4 
 
 0.63 
 
 33.33 
 
 1.59 
 
 1.05 
 
 42 
 
 1 1/2 
 
 0.76 
 
 40.00 
 
 1.75 
 
 1.16 
 
 46 
 
 2 
 
 1.01 
 
 53.33 
 
 2.04 
 
 1.35 
 
 54 
 
 21/2 
 
 1.26 
 
 66.67 
 
 2.28 
 
 1.50 
 
 60 
 
 3 
 
 1.51 
 
 80.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 1.64 
 
 66 
 
 31/2 
 
 1.77 
 
 93.33 
 
 2.70 
 
 1.78 
 
 71 
 
 Lateral ditch with bottom width of 16 inches (ditch No. 2) 
 
 1/4 
 
 0.13 
 
 6.67 
 
 0.82 
 
 0.80 
 
 30 
 
 1/2 
 
 0.25 
 
 13.33 
 
 1.16 
 
 1.00 
 
 42 
 
 3/4 
 
 0.38 
 
 20.00 
 
 1.42 
 
 1.30 
 
 52 
 
 1 
 
 0.51 
 
 26.67 
 
 1.64 
 
 1.50 
 
 60 
 
 11/4 
 
 0.63 
 
 33.33 
 
 1.84 
 
 1.70 
 
 67 
 
 11/2 
 
 0.76 
 
 40.00 
 
 2.02 
 
 1.80 
 
 74 
 
 13/4 
 
 0.88 
 
 46.67 
 
 2.18 
 
 2.00 
 
 80 
 
 2 
 
 1.01 
 
 53.33 
 
 2.34 
 
 2.10 
 
 86 
 
 21/2 
 
 1.26 
 
 66.67 
 
 2.61 
 
 2.40 
 
 96 
 
 Lateral ditch with bottom width of 2 feet (ditch No. 3) 
 
 1/8 
 
 0.06 
 
 3.33 
 
 0.79 
 
 2.08 
 
 83 
 
 1/4 
 
 0.13 
 
 6.67 
 
 1.13 
 
 3.00 
 
 119 
 
 1/2 
 
 0.25 
 
 13.33 
 
 1.60 
 
 4.20 
 
 168 
 
 3/4 
 
 0.38 
 
 20.00 
 
 1.97 
 
 5.20 
 
 207 
 
 1 
 
 0.51 
 
 26.67 
 
 2.28 
 
 6.00 
 
 239 
 
 1 1/4 
 
 . 63 
 
 33 . 33 
 
 2.57 
 
 6.80 
 
 270 
 
NECESSARY EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES 37 
 
 TABLE No. 11 (Continued) 
 
 Table giving the Mean Velocity and Discharge of Ditches with Different 
 (Irados. Lateral ditch with bottom width of 4 feet (ditch No. 4) 
 
 Grade 
 
 Mean velocity 
 in feet per 
 second 
 
 Discharge 
 
 per rod 
 
 Feet per 
 100 feet 
 
 Feet per mile 
 
 Cubic feet per 
 second 
 
 Miner's inches 
 under 6-inch 
 pressure head 
 
 1/16 
 
 0.03 
 
 1.58 
 
 0.84 
 
 4.20 
 
 168 
 
 1/8 
 
 0.06 
 
 3.33 
 
 1.08 
 
 5.40 
 
 216 
 
 1/4 
 
 0.13 
 
 6.67 
 
 1.54 
 
 7.70 
 
 308 
 
 3/8 
 
 0.19 
 
 10.00 
 
 1.89 
 
 9.50 
 
 378 
 
 1/2 
 
 0.25 
 
 13.33 
 
 2.20 
 
 11.00 
 
 440 
 
 5/8 
 
 0.31 
 
 16.67 
 
 2.45 
 
 12.20 
 
 490 
 
 3/4 
 
 0.38 
 
 20.00 
 
 2.69 
 
 13.40 
 
 538 
 
 Lateral ditch with bottom width of 6 feet (ditch No. 5) 
 
 1/16 
 
 0.03 
 
 1.67 
 
 1.03 
 
 11.6 
 
 464 
 
 1/8 
 
 0.06 
 
 3.33 
 
 1.48 
 
 16.7 
 
 666 
 
 3/16 
 
 1/4 
 
 0.09 
 0.13 
 
 5.00 
 6.67 
 
 1.82 
 2.11 
 
 20.5 
 23.7 
 
 819 
 950 
 
 5/16 
 
 0.16 
 
 8.33 
 
 2.35 
 
 26.4 
 
 1,058 
 
 3 8 
 
 0.19 
 
 10.00 
 
 2.58 
 
 28.0 
 
 1.121 
 
 7 16 
 
 0.22 
 
 11.67 
 
 2.80 
 
 30.5 
 
 1,260 
 
 INSTRUMENTS NEEDED IN LAYING OUT DITCHES. In laying 
 out supply ditches an engineer's level and rod are the most con- 
 venient instruments. The distances may be estimated by 
 
 Old Wagon Tire 
 
 Fn;. 5. V-crowders used in building farm ditches. 
 
 When such instruments are not available, a useful 
 substitute consists of an ordinary carpenter's spirit level attached 
 to a portable wooden frame, a sketch of which is shown in Fig. 
 I. When first made and placed on a level surface the bubble 
 should come to the center of its run. Then one leg is short- 
 ened by the amount of the grade per rod (see Table of Grades). 
 
38 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 The device is operated by one man, who first places the shorter 
 leg at the surface of the water in the main canal or supply ditch 
 and swings the other end around until the bubble comes to the 
 center. The location of the longer leg is then marked by a 
 helper, who carries a shovel and removes part of a shovelful of 
 earth. The level is then carried forward until the shorter leg 
 occupies the position vacated by its mate, when a second mark is 
 made. This operation is repeated until the line is laid out and a 
 furrow is run connecting all of the temporary marks. 
 
 FIG. 6. Wing plow. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION. Usually for the construction of farm ditches 
 the ground is plowed to the width desired. With small ditches 
 a lister or ditch plow may be run through once and the ditch 
 shaped by hand or with a small log crowder. With larger 
 ditches as many furrows as needed can be plowed and a V crowder 
 such as is shown in Fig. 5 used to shape the ditch and pile the 
 earth in the banks. By varying the shape of the V or by the 
 driver and helper shifting their weight in riding the crowder, the 
 ditch can be shaped to almost any desired form. A wing plow 
 such as is shown in Fig. 6 can be used to plow and clean the 
 ditch at the same time. For larger ditches graders can be used. 
 A greater range of adjustment of the blade is needed for ditch 
 work than for leveling. 
 
 In case it is necessary to build the ditch in fill over low places, 
 the necessary dirt for the fill can be brought from the adjoining 
 ground and the ditch shaped on its top as in level ground. 
 
 If possible ditches should be built some time before use so 
 that the banks may have time to settle. In case the banks 
 are still soft when 'water is first run great care should be taken to 
 avoid breaks. 
 
NECESSARY EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES 39 
 
 MAINTENANCE. 1 Maintenance of farm ditches aside from the 
 repairs to structure is principally of two kinds, the prevention 
 or ivmoval of weeds and the cleaning out of silt and aquatic 
 growths. In the case of weeds, prevention where practicable is 
 preferable. Irrigation waters usually carry weed seeds. If the 
 grade of the farm ditch is such as to give as high a velocity as in 
 the lateral from which the water is received, the weed seed and 
 silt can be largely carried on through to the fields. More trouble 
 is generally experienced from weeds on ditches with low velocities. 
 The planting of alfalfa or other crops on the ditch banks is a 
 preventive measure. The cutting of weeds before they seed 
 at slack times is another. In some cases aquatic growths occur 
 which reduce the carrying capacity to such a degree that irriga- 
 tion must be stopped and the ditch cleaned. These growths may 
 be grass growing in the water or on the banks and drooping over 
 into the ditch or they may be trailing moss, water cress, or other 
 forms of water plants. In ditches in use only a part of the time 
 the moss is usually killed during the periods the ditch is dry. 
 The grasses, however, grow best at such times in the wet mud of 
 the ditch bottom. In farm ditches the grasses can be mowed 
 with a hand scythe without having to shut off the water. Regu- 
 lar and smooth banks will allow the use of the mowing machine 
 for a large part of the weeds and grass leaving only the finishing 
 for the scythe. The cleaning of ditches is generally a neces- 
 sity in the spring whether the ditch is one that scours or one 
 that silts. In a ditch which scours, the undercut banks will 
 need shaping. In a ditch which silts, the deposits will need to 
 be removed. This may be done either by hand shoveling where 
 small in amount or by any of the methods described for the 
 original construction. 
 
 11. Irrigation Structures for the Farm. The structures which 
 may be used on an irrigated farm in connection with the use of 
 water include headgates, measuring devices, flumes, pipes, cul- 
 verts, wells, cisterns, reservoirs, etc. Many of these have 
 been described under other headings and need not be considered 
 here. 
 
 1 On this subject as well as that of farm ditches in general the writer 
 has drawn from the experience of S. T. Harding of the University of 
 California. 
 
40 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 DELIVERY GATES. A headgate is needed to control the flow from 
 the main or branch canal into a private ditch. The gate and its 
 framework, together with the pipe or box which conducts the 
 water out of the canal into the farmer's ditch is sometimes 
 termed a turnout. A structure of this kind should meet the 
 requirements of both the canal company and the water user. 
 The interests of the water company demand that it be secure, 
 water-tight when closed, large enough to admit the necessary 
 
 Gate Partly Open and Locked 
 
 FIG. 7. Delivery gate to farm lateral. 
 
 flow and so designed that it will not discharge after adjustment 
 more than a certain fixed quantity of water. The water user 
 is likewise interested in having a substantial structure of ample 
 size but in addition he desires it to be designed in such a way that 
 he can, when he chooses, close it partly or altogether. The 
 wooden headgate, Fig. 7, designed by F. C. Scobey, is intended 
 to be connected with a wooden box or flume. 
 
 Another type of wooden headgate with screw lift designed by 
 
NECESSARY KQl'irMENT AND STRUCTURE* 11 
 
 FIG. 8. Another type of wooden gate. 
 
 FIG. 9. Metal delivery gate and frame. 
 
42 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 J. L. Rhead and used by the writer on the Bear River Canal 
 laterals is shown in Fig. 8. 
 
 A more durable delivery gate made by the Kellar-Thomason 
 Mfg. Co., of Los Angeles, Cal., consists of a metal gate and 
 frame attached to a short line of pipe laid beneath the canal 
 bank. The pipe may be vitrified clay, concrete or steel. Fig. 
 9 shows a connection made with a steel pipe. 
 
 One of the latest types of delivery gates in use in the Imperial 
 Valley, California, for admitting water to borders is made by 
 moulding a concrete head on a joint of concrete pipe the open- 
 ing being regulated by a galvanized iron gate held in place by 
 
 T 
 
 
 r 
 
 j: 
 
 a 
 
 *L. 
 
 Tfc 
 
 24 
 
 Coucrete Pipe 
 
 Front Elevation 
 
 Longitudinal Section 
 
 
 1J 
 
 -J. 
 
 -Nails 
 
 Gate 
 
 FIG. 10. Delivery gate in use in Imperial Valley, Cal. 
 
 springs. The gate is manipulated by an iron handle or wooden 
 frame fastened to the gate. Fig. 10 shows the essential features 
 of this design. 
 
 The chief points to be considered in the installation of such 
 structures are: (1) To secure an advantageous location in 
 tapping the canal so that water can be readily conveyed from it 
 to the highest point of the farm to be irrigated; (2) to take the 
 necessary precautions to render the structure secure by cut-off 
 walls and earth puddling and packing; and (3) to place the gate 
 on such a level that it will draw its full supply when the canal 
 is only partly full. 
 
NECESSARY EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES 43 
 
 ( CLVERTS. Various devices are used to conduct the flow of 
 ditches across roads. A loose plank bridge or else a culvert 
 formed of four planks of the requisite size and length are both 
 quite common. Unless lumber is cheap the short life of the 
 former and the inconvenience of the latter render it worth while 
 adopting a more durable structure. Perhaps the best substitute 
 for lumber is the metal pipe and one of the most durable and 
 easily installed pipes is the corrugated culvert pipe, Fig. 11, made 
 of ingot iron. This is made in sizes ranging from 8 to 84 inches 
 in diameter and two or more shipping lengths may be riveted 
 together if necessary. In df pressed crossings and wherever the 
 pipe is under water pressure the seams of the pipe should be 
 
 FIG. 11. Corrugated pipe of ingot iron used for culverts. 
 
 calked. The retail prices range from 65 cents per foot tor an 
 8-inch pipe to $1 and over for a 15-inch pipe. 
 
 WATER FOR DOMESTIC USES. The settler under an irrigation 
 enterprise has seldom an opportunity to obtain water from 
 either springs or reservoirs for culinary and stock purposes. 
 As a rule such supplies are obtained from the main canal or one 
 of its distributaries or else from wells. Before canal water can 
 be used for domestic purposes with safety to health it should 
 be filtered. Filters are sometimes made by inserting a partition 
 wall of porous brick within a cistern and allowing the canal water 
 to filter through the wall. This practice is not to be recom- 
 mended on account of the difficulty in cleaning or removing the 
 
44 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 filter which soon becomes foul and clogged. A better plan is 
 to filter the water in a separate vessel and conduct it from the 
 filter to the cistern where only pure water is stored. The filter 
 may consist of a concrete box with coarse gravel in the bottom 
 and a depth of 15 inches of sand on top. A large oak barrel is 
 a good substitute for the concrete box. In using a barrel a false 
 bottom is inserted 2 or 3 inches above the true bottom and 
 pierced with a number of holes which are covered with a brass 
 wire screen. The filter consists of a thin layer of gravel, about 
 15 inches of sand and the same depth of water. The filtered 
 water is conducted through a smalf pipe from the bottom of the 
 
 1- Inlet 
 
 FIG. 12. Concrete cistern for farm use. 
 
 barrel direct to the cistern. When the cistern is filled the sand 
 should either be discarded or else exposed to the sun and air until 
 again used. 
 
 The concrete cistern shown in Fig. 12 l may serve as a model 
 with the exception of the partition wall which is of doubtful 
 utility. In constructing a cistern of this kind," make a circular 
 excavation 16 inches wider than the desired diameter of the 
 cistern and about 16 inches deeper than the desired depth. 
 Make a cylindrical form as shown in the figure, the outside diam- 
 
 1 Bui. 57, U. S. Dept. of Agri. 
 
XM'KSSAItY KQl'irMKXT AND STRUCTURES 45 
 
 eter of which will be the inside diameter of the cistern. Mix 
 the concrete in small batches fairly wet and tamp in between the 
 form and the earth. To construct the conical portion build a 
 floor across the top of the cylindrical form, leaving a hole of the 
 desired size in the center. Brace the floor well with uprights 
 from the cistern bottom. Build a cone-shaped mould of wet earth 
 or sand and lay the concrete and reinforcing on this cone. Allow 
 it to set and harden well before removing the forms and earth. 
 
 FIG. 13. Small electrically driven pumping plant. 
 
 A large number of different types of wells are used throughout 
 the arid region to secure potable water. The most suitable type 
 to select depends to a great extent on local conditions and the 
 practice followed in the neighborhood affords the best guide. 
 One can usually secure the services of a contractor having the 
 necessary equipment who will undertake to sink or bore a well 
 at a certain price per foot. 
 
 Where it is desirable to combine water supply for domestic 
 purposes with that of irrigation for a garden, lawn, shade trees, 
 
46 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 or small orchard the water may be pumped from a canal, well, 
 or other source by means of a windmill, gasoline engine or motor. 
 
 Where a small pumpijig plant is needed to furnish water 
 for culinary and stock purposes as well as the irrigation of a 
 garden and orchard the arrangement shown in Fig. 13 may be 
 found suitable. 1 
 
 A standpipe, tank, or reservoir is often a necessary part of 
 small water supplies designed to serve a number of purposes. 
 If the right elevation can be obtained a reinforced concrete stand- 
 
 FIG. 14. Reservoir and pumping plant. 
 
 pipe forms an excellent part of a pumping plant since it can 
 be designed in such a way as not only to store considerable water 
 but to act as an equalizing and distributing reservoir. 
 
 In a flat country the pumped water is usually stored in an 
 elevated tank. Concrete is too heavy for such a purpose but 
 redwood stave pipe of large diameters may be substituted. 
 
 Where conditions are favorable, a reservoir should be sub- 
 stituted for the standpipe and tank on account of its cheap- 
 
 1 The Use of Small Water Supplies for Irrigation by the author, Yearbook 
 of U. S. D. A., 1907. 
 
NECESSARY EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES 47 
 
 ness, durability and larger capacity. The reservoir and pump- 
 ing plant shown in Fig. 14 while somewhat too large and costly 
 for a farmer's use, may serve as a sort of model for a plant of 
 small dimensions. 
 
 12. Pipes and Pipe Systems for the Farm. The materials 
 composing the pipes most commonly used by irrigators are 
 concrete, clay, wood, and metal. A brief description of each of 
 those kinds follows: 
 
 CONCRETE PIPE. This kind of pipe is used quite generally in 
 southern California for conveying irrigation water underground 
 without pressure or under low heads not exceeding 10 to 15 feet. 
 Mr. C. E. Tait, Irrigation Engineer of the Department of Agri- 
 culture, states that "a good pipe for the smaller sizes is made 
 from a 1 to 3 mixture consisting of 5 parts cement, 6 parts sand 
 and 9 parts gravel. A larger proportion of gravel may be used in 
 the larger sizes. A good pipe may also be made of cement, sand 
 and crushed rock, no particle being larger than one-half the 
 thickness of the pipe." 
 
 TABLE No. 12 
 
 Size of pipe 
 
 Lineal feet 
 per barrel 
 of cement 
 
 Lineal feet 
 per cu. yd. 
 of gravel 
 
 Cost data per lineal foot 
 
 Cement 
 
 Gravel / 
 
 Mould- 
 ing 
 
 Coating 
 
 Total 
 
 4 in. 
 
 126-130 
 
 174 
 
 $0.023 
 
 $0.006 
 
 $0.020 
 
 $0.003 
 
 $0.052 
 
 6 in. 
 
 82-100 
 
 112 
 
 0.036 
 
 0.009 
 
 0.020 
 
 0.003 
 
 0.068 
 
 8 in. 
 
 64- 76 
 
 87 
 
 0.047 
 
 0.011 
 
 0.022 
 
 0.003 
 
 0.083 
 
 10 in. 
 
 48- 56 
 
 64 
 
 0.062 
 
 0.015 
 
 0.025 
 
 0.003 
 
 0.105 
 
 12 in. 
 
 36- 44 
 
 50 
 
 0.083 
 
 0.020 
 
 0.028 
 
 0.004 
 
 0.135 
 
 14 in. 
 
 28- 30 
 
 40 
 
 0.108 
 
 0.025 
 
 0.032 
 
 0.005 
 
 0.170 
 
 16 in. 
 
 26- 28 
 
 34 
 
 0.115 
 
 0.029 
 
 0.038 
 
 0.006 
 
 0.188 
 
 18 in. 
 
 22- 26 
 
 28 
 
 0.136 
 
 0.036 
 
 0.042 
 
 0.007 
 
 0.266 
 
 20 in. 
 
 18- 20 
 
 23 
 
 0.166 
 
 0.043 
 
 0.100 
 
 0.008 
 
 0.317 
 
 24 in. 
 
 12- 14 
 
 18 
 
 0.250 
 
 0.055 
 
 0.110 
 
 0.009 
 
 0.424 
 
 30 in. 
 
 8- 10 
 
 11 
 
 0.375 
 
 0.090 
 
 0.150 
 
 0.011 
 
 0.626 
 
 36 in. 
 
 6- 8 
 
 8 
 
 0.500 
 
 0.125 
 
 0.200 
 
 0.012 
 
 0.837 
 
 Failures in concrete pipe have been largely due to lean mix- 
 tures, the use of sand mixed with earth and improper moulding. 
 A weak unreliable pipe is likely to result when the voids in the 
 sand are not filled with cement, when earthy material is in- 
 corporated in the mixture or when the mixture is too dry when 
 moulded. The porosity of concrete pipe is reduced and the carry- 
 
48 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 ing capacity is increased by the application to the inner surface 
 of a cement brush coating. 
 
 The prices for materials in 1914 in southern California were 
 for cement delivered $3 per barrel, sand and gravel $1 per cubic 
 yard, tampers $3 and mixers $2.25 per day of 9 hours. The 
 quantities of materials used, their respective costs and the cost 
 of the various processes in making pipe, exclusive of overhead 
 charges and profits are given in Table 12. 
 
 MOULDING THE PIPE. Concrete pipe as made in southern Cali- 
 fornia for the farmer's use is moulded in 2-foot lengths with 
 beveled lap joints. Since the price of moulds for pipe between 6 
 and 12 inches in diameter varies from $50 to $100 per set the 
 tendency is to use the smallest possible number. This effort 
 to economize frequently results in a brittle pipe caused by the 
 use of too dry a mixture, such a mixture requiring less time in 
 the moulds. To obviate this difficulty and increase the output 
 from each set of moulds thin metal cylinders are sometimes 
 introduced in the moulds and allowed to remain for some time 
 around the freshly moulded pipe after its removal from the moulds. 
 In this way a wetter mixture resulting in a stronger pipe can be 
 made. 
 
 The making of concrete pipe is still in a formative stage. 
 In recent years various methods have been designed and pat- 
 ented. Some of these will doubtless prove useless or impracti- 
 cable but by combining the best features of several designs 
 methods will become standardized in time. 
 
 Successful attempts have been made to lessen the arduous 
 and slow process of hand tamping by placing the mould on a 
 revolving table and operating the tamping-bar by machinery. 
 The same end is perhaps better attained by subjecting the table 
 to a succession of sudden and brief motions first in a horizontal 
 and then in a vertical direction. These alternating jars serve 
 to pack the material in a dense, uniform mass. This method 
 is known as the Jagger system and seems to be especially well 
 adapted to reinforced pipe. 
 
 Another method is to subject the freshly moulded pipe to 
 the action of superheated steam which greatly hastens the 
 setting of the concrete and permits the pipe to be withdrawn 
 from the moulds without any serious delay. 
 
XECEXSAltY EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES 49 
 
 In the manufacture of reinforced concrete pipe in Australia 
 to convey water for domestic, power, and irrigation purposes and 
 for electric conduits, the packing is done by means of centrifugal 
 force. The mould, which is 6 feet or more in length, is placed on 
 journals in a horizontal position. Light reinforcing in the form 
 of a cylinder is then inserted in the mould after which a wet 
 concrete mixture is gradually poured in from each end. As the 
 concrete enters the mould the latter revolves, at first slowly and 
 later at a high rate of speed. The centrifugal force thus de- 
 veloped not only packs the concrete but forms a smooth finish 
 on the inner surface of the pipe. The sections are true cylinders 
 and reinforced collars are placed around abutting joints. This 
 pipe is used under pressures of 75 pounds or more per square 
 inch. 
 
 VITRIFIED CLAY PIPE. Pipe made of moulded clay, kiln-burned 
 and glazed is extensively used to conduct sewage in the sewer 
 systems of towns and cities. The requirements for this service 
 
 FIG. 15. Fittings for vitrified clay pipe. 
 
 are quite rigid and the pipe which is rejected by the sewer in- 
 spector can frequently be purchased at a low figure. In this way 
 the irrigator who resides within hauling distance of a town or 
 city can usually obtain from the municipality or the clay pipe 
 company a serviceable water pipe for low heads at reasonable 
 prices. 
 
 In southern California the rejected sewer pipe is classified into 
 three grades known as Nos. 1, 2, and 3 water pipe. The defects 
 in No. 1 grade are not serious and can be depended on to stand 
 a head of 20 to 30 feet in the smaller sizes and 15 to 20 feet in 
 the larger sizes. The No. 2 grade consists of pipe which is 
 (racked in the main part of the joint or length and withstands 
 Less pressure than No. 1. No. 3 grade is used only for drainage, 
 being usually cheaper than the tile. The prices of grades 1 and 
 
50 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 2 in 3-foot lengths, f.o.b. cars Los Angeles, are at this writing 
 (1914) as follows: 
 
 TABLE No. 13 
 
 Size 
 
 No. 1 Grade. Cents per ft. | No. 2 Grade. Cents per ft. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 4 7/8 
 
 4 1/8 
 
 4 in. 
 
 6 1/2 
 
 5 1/2 
 
 5 in. 
 
 8 1/8 
 
 6 7/8 
 
 Gin. 
 
 9 3/4 
 
 8 1/4 
 
 8 in. 
 
 12 3/8 
 
 10 1/8 
 
 10 in. 
 
 16 1/2 
 
 13 1/2 
 
 12 in. 
 
 20 5/8 
 
 16 7/8 
 
 14 in. 
 
 27 1/2 
 
 22 1/2 
 
 16 in. 
 
 34 3/8 
 
 28 1/8 
 
 18 in. 
 
 41 1/4 
 
 33 3/4 
 
 20 in. 
 
 56 7/8 
 
 48 1/8 
 
 22 in. 
 
 71 1/2 
 
 60 1/2 
 
 24 in. 
 
 81 1/4 
 
 68 3/4 
 
 Manufacturers of clay pipe furnish standpipes and other 
 fittings similar to those furnished by the concrete pipe makers. 
 The stand shown in Fig. 15a is used for orchard irrigation. A 
 special fitting shown in Fig. 15b is also made for the insertion of 
 a gate on a pipe line and a T joint with an " alfalfa" valve in 
 position on the vertical branch as shown in Fig. 15c. 
 
 WOOD PIPE. The various kinds of wood pipe used to convey 
 water for irrigation purposes belong to one of two general types. 
 One of these is the continuous stave pipe and the other the 
 machine banded pipe. Since the former is only built in medium 
 and large sizes in which the diameters run from 1 to 12 feet it is 
 not well adapted to the farmer's needs and for that reason will 
 not be considered here. 
 
 The factory for making machine-banded pipe in San Francisco, 
 California, uses redwood; those located in Portland, Oregon, 
 Tacoma and Seattle, Washington, and Vancouver, B. C., use fir. 
 In the States of New York and Pennsylvania the pipes are made 
 of white pine and tamarack while in Louisiana cypress is con- 
 sidered the most suitable wood. 
 
 A quarter of a century and less ago, machine-banded pipe con- 
 sisted wholly of logs turned in a lathe, machine-bored -and 
 wrapped with flat steel bands. Staves 8 to 12 feet in length in 
 the eastern factories and up to 20 feet in length in the western 
 
NECESSARY EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES 51 
 
 factories have since been substituted for bored logs. The 
 staves which vary in thickness from 1 to 1 3/4 inches are held to- 
 gether by galvanized steel wire spaced far apart or close accord- 
 ing as the internal pressure of the water is low or high. In some 
 factories flat bands of steel 14 to 16 gauge are used instead of the 
 round wire. After the pipe is banded and the ends are milled 
 for couplings each section is dipped in a bath of hot asphalt and 
 when withdrawn is rolled in sawdust or shavings. 
 
 The joints are made in various ways. A common form for 
 low pressures is that of the mortise and tenon joint. The joint 
 
 FIG. 16. Forms of joints for wood pipe. 
 
 is reinforced when the pressure requires it. Sometimes tenons 
 are made on both ends of each section and the coupling is made 
 by means of collars. All three forms are shown in Fig. 16. In 
 common with other kinds of pipes the joints in wood pipe are 
 the chief source of trouble and expense. 
 
 According to S. O. Jayne, Irrigation Engineer, U. S. Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, the cost of laying wood pipe exclusive of 
 earthwork, backfilling and haulage varies from 2 cents per lineal 
 foot for pipes 4 to 6 inches in diameter up to 6 cents for pipes 24 
 inches in diameter. 
 
52 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 The prices and weights per lineal foot of machine-banded pipe 
 f.o.b. cars, Seattle, Washington, follows: 
 
 TABLE No. 14 
 
 Diam- 
 eter 
 
 Head, 
 feet 
 
 Price 
 
 Weight, 
 pounds 
 
 Diame- 
 ter 
 
 Head 
 
 Price 
 
 Weight, 
 pounds 
 
 2 in. 
 
 50 
 
 $0.087 
 
 3.1 
 
 10 in. 
 
 50 
 
 $0.268 
 
 13.1 
 
 
 100 
 
 0.09 
 
 3.2 
 
 
 100 
 
 0.347 
 
 14.7 
 
 
 150 
 
 0.092 
 
 3.2 
 
 
 150 ! 0.392 
 
 15.7 
 
 
 200 
 
 0.10 
 
 3.4 
 
 
 200 
 
 0.455 
 
 17.3 
 
 
 250 
 
 0.105 
 
 3.5 
 
 
 250 
 
 0.479 
 
 18.4 
 
 
 300 
 
 0.116 
 
 3.6 
 
 
 300 
 
 0.503 
 
 19.4 
 
 4 in. 
 
 50 
 
 0.129 
 
 5.8 
 
 12 in. 
 
 50 
 
 0.322 
 
 16.8 
 
 
 100 
 
 0.131 
 
 5.9 
 
 
 100 
 
 0.413 
 
 18.9 
 
 
 150 
 
 0.134 
 
 6.0 
 
 
 150 
 
 0.450 
 
 19.8 
 
 
 200 
 
 0.166 
 
 6.3 
 
 
 200 
 
 0.532 
 
 21.7 
 
 
 250 
 
 0.176 
 
 7.0 
 
 
 250 
 
 0.618 
 
 23.8 
 
 
 300 
 
 0.189 
 
 7.3 
 
 
 300 
 
 0.660 
 
 25.3 
 
 6 in. 
 
 50 
 
 0.163 
 
 8.3 
 
 14 in. 
 
 50 
 
 0.445 
 
 21.3 
 
 
 100 
 
 0.168 
 
 8.9 
 
 
 100 
 
 0.550 
 
 23.0 
 
 
 150 
 
 0.184 
 
 9.1 
 
 
 150 
 
 0.629 
 
 25.3 
 
 
 200 
 
 0.226 
 
 9.6 
 
 
 200 
 
 0.745 
 
 28.2 
 
 
 250 
 
 0.242 
 
 10.0 
 
 
 250 
 
 0.834 
 
 29.9 
 
 
 300 
 
 0.258 
 
 10.4 
 
 
 300 
 
 0.916 
 
 32.3 
 
 8 in. 
 
 50 
 
 0.203 
 
 10.3 
 
 16 in. 
 
 50 
 
 0.547 
 
 24.7 
 
 
 100 
 
 0.224 
 
 10.5 
 
 
 100 
 
 0.639 
 
 26.9 
 
 
 150 
 
 0.292 
 
 12.8 
 
 
 150 
 
 0.734 
 
 29.3 
 
 
 200 
 
 0.332 
 
 13.7 
 
 
 200 
 
 0.871 
 
 33.4 
 
 
 250 
 
 0.366 
 
 15.6 
 
 
 250 
 
 0.987 
 
 36.2 
 
 
 300 
 
 0.387 
 
 16.2 
 
 
 300 
 
 1.132 
 
 40.2 
 
 METAL PIPES. Space will not permit even a brief description 
 of each kind of metal pipe used by irrigators. References 
 are made to the galvanized iron pipe in Art. 19 and to the cor- 
 rugated pipe in Art. 11. Notwithstanding the large variety in 
 the market by far the most common is the steel-riveted pipe. 
 This pipe may be purchased in a large number of sizes ranging 
 from 4 to 30 inches and over in diameter and capable of with- 
 standing heads of 50 to 300 feet. Each joint of pipe is made of 
 a single sheet of steel which is sized, punched, rolled and riveted. 
 A number of these joints are then riveted together making a 
 
XECESSARY EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES 53 
 
 shipping length of about 30 feet. Each length is immersed in a 
 bath of hot asphalt before being stacked up in the shipping 
 yards. For all sizes up to 12 inches designed for ordinary pres- 
 sures the lengths are simply driven together, the smaller joint 
 of one end telescoping the larger joint of the adjacent length. 
 For high pressures and large sizes the circular seams are single 
 riveted and the seams may be split-calked. For low heads, 
 lighter and less expensive pipe of galvanized iron from 20 to 
 24 gauge, both coated and uncoated, has during the past few 
 years come into somewhat extensive use throughout certain 
 sections of the Northwest. 
 
 The following table gives the list prices of steel-riveted pipe 
 in Los Angeles, California, in 1914, these prices being subject to 
 a discount of about 15 per cent. 
 
 TABLE No. 15 
 Size 16-Gauge 14<-Gauge 12-Gauge 
 
 4 in. $0.19 10.22 
 
 5 in. 0.23 0.27 
 
 Gin. 0.28 0.32 $0.41 
 
 Tin. 0.31 0.37 0.48 
 
 Sin. 0.34 0.40 0.52 
 
 9 in. 0.38 0.42 0.57 
 
 10 in. 0.41 0.47 0.62 
 
 11 in. 0.43 0.49 0.65 
 
 12 in. 0.46 0.55 0.69 
 
 PIPE SYSTEMS. As irrigation practice develops the unlined 
 ditch will gradually give place to pipes. Of late years more or 
 less substitution of this kind has been made in western localities 
 where water is scarce and costly and where large crop returns are 
 secured. The same is true in the eastern part of the United 
 States where water supplies are abundant and cheap. The 
 eastern irrigator adopts the open ditch only as a last resort. 
 He considers pipes the more efficient and economical for the 
 following reasons. They are laid underground beneath the 
 deepest furrow, there is practically no loss in conveyance, and 
 time and labor are saved in applying the water. In the case of 
 open ditches the western irrigator has to weigh their cheapness 
 against a number of disadvantages. Among these may be men- 
 tioned the returns which might be derived from the valuable 
 
54 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 ground occupied by open ditches, the damage done by noxious 
 weeds which grow on their banks, the loss of water by absorp- 
 tion, the structures required to span them, the heavy mainte- 
 nance charge, the inconvenience of crossing and recrossing them 
 with teams and implements and the difficulty of distributing 
 water from such channels. 
 
 The arrangement of pipe systems for irrigation is not unlike 
 that for domestic water supplies in cities since the requirements 
 
 /Irrigating Flume 
 
 Irrigating Flume Lincoln Avenue 
 
 028.90 
 
 Hydrant 
 
 FIG. 17. Orchard tract showing streets and pipe laterals. 
 
 are similar. There is usually the main conduit from which the 
 feed pipes extend. The water carried by each feed pipe is dis- 
 tributed through lateral pipes which supply the various farms or 
 fields. In cities water for domestic purposes is frequently 
 metered out to each consumer. The same course has been fol- 
 lowed by irrigation companies. A better and cheaper plan is 
 to measure the water diverted into each distributing pipe and 
 determine all water deliveries by the quantity carried in each 
 and the number of hours it is used. 
 
 On the Gage Canal system in Riverside County, California, 
 
NECESSARY EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES 55 
 
 the water supply for the tiers of 40-acre tracts is taken from 
 
 the canal in riveted steel 
 
 pipes varying from 6 to 10 
 
 inches in diameter. These 
 
 larger mains are connected 
 
 with 4-, 5-, and 6-inch lateral 
 
 pipes of the same material, 
 
 which convey the water to 
 
 the highest point of each 
 
 10-acre tract. This general 
 
 arrangement is shown in the 
 
 sketch, Fig. 17. 
 
 Fig. 18 shows the plan of 
 the pipe system of the irri- 
 gated farm of Granville W. 
 Leeds at Rancocas, New 
 
 Jersey, as designed and in- 
 stalled by Milo B. Williams, 
 
 Irrigation Engineer of the 
 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
 In this system a 24-horse- 
 
 power gasoline engine 
 
 (Gray), driving a No. 3 
 
 American 2-stage horizontal 
 
 centrifugal pump raises water 
 
 out of Rancocas Creek to a 
 
 maximum height of 88 feet. Barn 
 
 A 5-inch galvanized steel 
 
 pressure main conveys the 
 
 water from the pump to a 
 
 standpipe. From there the 
 
 water is distributed through 
 
 small overhead pipes to about 
 
 9 acres which are irrigated by 
 
 the overhead spray method. 
 
 Under a pressure of 30 pounds 
 
 per square inch at the nozzles 
 
 of the spray pipes the .plant 
 
 discharges from.2f) i f ), tcbSOO gallons per minute. 
 
56 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 Underground Main 
 
 FIG. 19. Underground pipe, hydrant, and distributor on an eastern truck 
 
 farm. 
 
 FIG. 20. Details of hydrant shown in Fig. 19. 
 
 FIG. 21. Detail of valve on distributor shown in Fig. 19. 
 
NECESSARY EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES 57 
 
 Leading out from the centrally located standpipe is another 
 line of low pressure pipe of 8-inch vitrified clay which is reduced 
 farther on to 6-inch pipe. These pipes are laid beneath the 
 surface so as not to interfere with plows or subsoilers and fit into 
 the topography of the tract, Fig. 19. Hydrants or stands of 
 the type shown in Fig. 20 are placed at the head of every other 
 tree row or approximately 44 feet apart. A portable distribut- 
 ing pipe with openings spaced about 5 feet apart and controlled 
 by special valves, Fig. 21, is attached by canvas hose to each 
 hydrant in turn for the irrigation of each strip between the hy- 
 drants. The capacity of the plant when water is conveyed from 
 the standpipe through vitrified pipe and distributed over the 
 surface in furrow irrigation varies from 300 to 350 gallons per 
 minute. The cost of this plant complete was $3440 or $123 
 per acre but the extra returns from the irrigated area in the way 
 of larger and better crops has rendered it a highly profitable 
 investment. 
 
 13. Pumping Plants. Source of Supply. Only a relatively 
 small part of pumped water is derived from surface supplies 
 such as streams, lakes, reservoirs and canals. The utilization 
 of these is comparatively easy since all that is required is a 
 direct connection between the pump and the water by means of 
 a suction pipe. 
 
 By far the greater part of the water raised by pumping plants 
 is found at varying depths beneath the surface. The water so 
 found does not move as in streams freely from place to place in 
 more or less large volumes. It is divided up into an innumerable 
 number of small particles which are enclosed for the time being 
 within the interstices of earth and rock. Some of these materials 
 are either so fine in texture or else so dense that they virtually 
 imprison the water within their mass. Other substances are 
 more open in texture and these permit the slow passage of water 
 through their open spaces. Such formations are termed water- 
 bearing strata which receive and give off water to the extent of 
 20 to 30 per cent, of their volume. 
 
 The percentage of open, space in some material may exceed 
 40 per c$ nt. When, however, the voids of coarse material such 
 as gravel are filled with sand and those of the sand with silt or 
 clay, the water-holding capacity of the material is greatly dimin- 
 
58 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 ished and the amount of water which will pass through it in a 
 given time is still further diminished. Whether the material 
 composing a water-bearing stratum is of one kind or of several 
 the amount of water which flows from it into a well, for example, 
 is always less than the amount required for saturation. A 
 certain percentage clings to each particle of silt, sand or gravel 
 and can not be dislodged by the force exerted by gravity. As a 
 result of tests conducted by V. M. Cone and the writer in 1907 
 the fine sandy loam of Fresno County, California, contained 30.5 
 per cent, of open space and gave off 22 per cent, after being 
 saturated. A clay-sand loam of the same locality contained 40 
 per cent, of open space and gave off 25 per cent. In the coarser 
 material penetrated by many wells the open space or porosity 
 may be greater and such material may give off from a saturated 
 mass fully 30 per cent, by volume of water. Under some con- 
 ditions this underground water moves in a generally horizontal 
 direction down a given slope at a slow rate of speed often not 
 more than a few feet per day. This is true of beds of streams 
 which flow over porous material. When only a small part of this 
 so-called underflow is withdrawn by pumps, the deficiency is 
 speedily restored by the inflow. When, however, more water is 
 withdrawn than the inflow can replenish the supply diminishes 
 unless a low level is tapped. 
 
 Under other conditions there is little more than an up 'and 
 down movement of the underground water caused by precipi- 
 tation and floods on the one hand and deep percolation on 
 the other. In such cases the withdrawal of water during an ir- 
 rigation season usually lowers the water table but if this is 
 restored when the pump ceases to- run or at the close of the 
 season or year no apprehension need be felt. It is only when 
 the water table is permanently lowered as a result of pumping 
 from season to season that a scanty or unreliable supply is 
 indicated. 
 
 In calling attention to the longitudinal and vertical move- 
 ments of underground water it is well to bear in mind that the 
 water contained in any given water-bearing strata may be sub- 
 jected to both movements in the same period of time. 
 
 According to the census there were in 1910, 15,803 pump- 
 ing plants of all kinds in the United States. Qut of this^ total 
 
NECESSARY EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES 59 
 
 9297 were found in California and 1897 in the rice belt of the 
 Gulf States. Since 78 per cent, of this kind of irrigation is 
 confined to these two localities the information herein given 
 concerning this subject will likewise be confined to these same 
 localities. 
 
 WKLLS. According to C. E. Tait, the most common sizes of 
 drilled wells for new plants in southern California at this writing 
 (1914) are 12, 14, 16, and 20 inches in diameter. A few 24- and 
 26-inch wells are also in use. !The increase in size in recent 
 years has been largely due to two causes. The larger circum- 
 ference of the casing permits more openings to be made and 
 more water to enter from the adjacent gravel. They are also 
 better suited to the use of deep well pumps of the plunger and 
 turbine types in that they permit a long stroke at low speed. 
 
 FIG. 22. Well casing. 
 
 The casing consists of a double thickness of riveted steel 
 sheets 2 feet long arranged as in Fig. 22 1 and broken jointed. 
 The cost of casing per foot for various diameters and thickness 
 of metal subject to a discount of 30 per cent, is as follows: 
 
 TABLE No. 16 
 
 Diameter, inches 
 
 16-Gauge 
 
 14-Gauge 
 
 12-Gauge 
 
 10-Gauge 
 
 7 
 
 $0 59 
 
 SO 6S 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 0.83 
 
 0.99 
 
 $1.20 
 
 
 12 
 
 0.90 
 
 1.06 
 
 1.37 
 
 $1.78 
 
 14 
 
 1.08 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.62 
 
 1.97 
 
 16 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.33 
 
 1.94 
 
 2.17 
 
 20 
 
 
 1.57 
 
 2.23 
 
 2.64 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 2.69 
 
 3.20 
 
 1 Bui. 236, O. E. S., U. S. D. A. 
 
60 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 What is known as a starter is a tube about 20 feet long riveted 
 to the bottom of the casing. This consists of a triple thickness 
 of metal for large wells and for wells in bowlders or rock. A 
 steel shoe or ring is in turn riveted to the bottom of the starter. 
 A 3-ply, 12-gauge starter for a 12-inch well costs $1.80 per foot, 
 while a 12 X 3/4 inch ring costs $16. 
 
 Wells in southern California are drilled by contract. The 
 equipment consists of a California portable rig costing $500 to 
 $600 without the tools. In starting a well a hole is first bored 
 and the starter inserted. A sand bucket is then used to make 
 the excavation unless rock is encountered. The rig is provided 
 with hydraulic jacks which apply a pressure of 100 tons or less 
 to an iron ring which rests on the top of the casing. The cost 
 of drilling in sand or clay exclusive of casing is $1.50 per foot 
 for a 12-inch well. Contractors are usually protected by a 
 provision inserted in the contract to the effect that if bowlders 
 or rock are encountered requiring more than 2 hours to bore 
 through an extra charge will be made. 
 
 Strainers, which form so essential a feature of many wells in 
 the rice belt, are not necessary in southern California as there 
 is no quicksand or very fine sand unmixed with coarser material. 
 Water is admitted through long vertical slots in the casing which 
 are cut by a special tool after the casing is in place. The cross 
 sections of the openings thus made are trapezoidal in form, the 
 narrowest side being at the outside to prevent clogging. Four 
 vertical slots about 20 inches long are made in the circumference 
 of each joint of a 12-inch casing opposite and slightly below 
 each water-bearing stratum. 
 
 In the rice belt, according to C. G. Haskell, Irrigation Engineer, 
 Department of Agriculture, the hydraulic rotary method for 
 drilling wells is the most common. The equipment usually 
 consists of a derrick 16 feet square at the bottom tapering to 4 
 feet square at the top and about 40 feet high. The first operation 
 after the derrick has been built over the site is to sink a test 
 hole by using a 4-inch pipe in order to get a log of the well. A 
 fish-tail bit is screwed into the lower end of the pipe and its 
 cutting blade makes an opening somewhat larger than the pipe 
 as both are revolved. Muddy water is then pumped into the 
 pipe and is discharged under high velocities through two 1- 
 
NECESSARY EQUIPfrfENT AND STRUCTURES 61 
 
 inch openings in the bit at the lower end. The water carrying the 
 borings then rises on the outside of the pipe to the surface. 
 After the test hole has been drilled to the required depth the 
 pipe is removed from the well. 
 
 The character of the materials, particularly those of the 
 water-bearing strata are known from the log and suitable 
 strainers and other equipment can then be ordered and trans- 
 ported to the site. The permanent well is then dug in very much 
 the same manner as the test well. 
 
 PUMPS. For low lifts not exceeding 30 feet, the horizontal 
 centrifugal pump is perhaps the best type. Where there is lit- 
 tle fluctuation in the water table and the lift is not over 25 feet 
 they can be installed on the surface and belted or coupled direct 
 to engines and motors. The same kind of pump can be lowered 
 in a pit 10 to -15 feet below the surface in order to secure* a safer 
 suction and to adapt it to a somewhat higher lift. 
 
 For lifts between 20 and 75 feet the single-stage, vertical cen- 
 trifugal pump is commonly installed. This kind of pump may 
 be placed in the bottom of an open pit or shaft within safe suc- 
 tion reach of the water and if the water lift is stable it may be 
 directly connected to an electric motor by vertical shafting. 
 
 Such installations are, however, rare in southern California 
 on account of the seasonal and periodical fluctuation in the 
 water table. 
 
 For lifts ranging between 75 and 150 feet the two-stage, verti- 
 cal centrifugal pump is the most common. The limit of 150 feet 
 or less is due largely to the cost of the shaft. These shafts or 
 pits are 6 X 8 feet or 5 X 7 feet when curbed with redwood and 
 circular when curbed with concrete. The cost of the excavation 
 increases with the depth. 
 
 Owing to the expense of digging a pit and lining it with con- 
 crete ? which though more expensive than redwood is in the end 
 more economical, the tendency in late years has been to install 
 turbine or turbine centrifugal pumps for all lifts over 100 feet and 
 thus dispense with the open pit. 
 
 The Layne and Bowler Company manufactures a special form 
 of centrifugal pump which operates within a steel casing. This 
 steel casing is inserted by the rotary process previously described 
 and may be lowered 50 feet or more below the water level. In 
 
62 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 this way the pump is submerged. This type of pump is well 
 adapted to conditions which prevail in the rice belt but is little 
 used in southern California. There the orchardists prefer the 
 double-acting, deep-well pumps with plungers operating within 
 a cylinder of brass tubing and with a specially designed power 
 head for converting the rotary motion of the belt pulley into the 
 reciprocating motion of rods and plungers with quick return and 
 lap stroke to prevent pulsations in the discharge of water. This 
 type is used for lifts of from 150 to 400 feet. 
 
 For lifts between 300 and 400 feet the Pomona Manufac- 
 turing Co., Pomona, Cal., and the Deane Pump Works of Holyoke, 
 Mass., make somewhat similar pumps to that just described but 
 with three plungers. The lowest plunger is operated by a solid 
 rod placed within a hollow rod which operates the middle plunger 
 and this in turn is placed within a second hollow rod which 
 operates the highest plunger. With three plungers the discharge 
 of water is fairly constant and in consequence the power head for 
 this so-called triplex deep-well pump does not require the quick 
 return and lap in stroke which form so prominent a feature of 
 the double-acting type. 
 
 ENGINES AND MOTOKS. The power required to raise water for 
 irrigation is now confined for the most part to gas-burning engines 
 and electric motors. In localities far removed from oil wells, 
 gasoline and, to some extent, distillate are the staple fuel prod- 
 ucts for such engines. A cheaper power can be produced by a 
 new product of the oil wells known as "tops." In heating 
 crude oil in tanks as a partial refining process for use in locomo- 
 tives the top layer is removed and is now marketed as a special 
 by-product. Its specific gravity ranges from 38 to 40 degrees 
 Baume", its flashing point is under 100 degrees and it costs 2 3/4 
 cents per gallon, f.o.b. Los Angeles. It is claimed that "tops" 
 produces more power per gallon than distillate which sells for 
 8 and 9 cents a gallon. 
 
 For small and medium-sized plants up to 75 horsepower the 
 most popular and cheapest at the present time in southern Cali- 
 fornia is a gasoline engine so modified as to burn tops in its 
 cylinder. A plant of this kind was recently installed by Raught 
 Brothers, Redlands, California. It consists of a cased well 
 16 inches in diameter, a double-acting deep- well pump and a 
 
XECESSARY EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES 63 
 
 60-horsepower gasoline engine. The plant discharges 75 to 80 
 miner's inches (673 to 718 gallons per minute) under a lift of 
 180 feet at a total cost, including fuel, attendance, interest and 
 depreciation, of 0.0284 cent per foot acre-foot. l 
 
 Owing to the large output, the low first cost and keen competi- 
 tion, the price of electric current has been lowered in recent 
 years. Electric current is now supplied to pumping plants 
 between San Bernardino and Los Angeles at the rate of 1 cent per 
 K. W. hour. As compared with oil-burning engines, induction 
 motors have a somewhat higher efficiency and a lower cost for 
 maintenance and operation. They are, moreover, adapted to 
 a wider range of conditions and can be more readily operated. 
 
 When a 10-horsepower gasoline engine operates a centrifugal 
 pump and raises a volume of water in a given time equivalent 
 to the application of 5 horsepower, the efficiency of the plant 
 is said to be as 1 is to 2, or 50 per cent. The efficiencies of pump- 
 ing plants depend on a wide range of conditions and in con- 
 sequence vary between wide limits. The experiments made by 
 Le Conte and Tait in California nearly a decade ago revealed the 
 fact that the efficiencies of many of the plants tested varied from 
 30 to 50 per cent, and that some of the poorest plants did not 
 exceed 20 per cent. Improvements since made covering engines, 
 pumps and installations have tended to increase efficiencies so 
 that the range of the present time lies between 30 and 75 per cent. 
 Other conditions being similar, the small plant operating under 
 low lifts wastes the most power and farmers who install such 
 should not figure on ge.tting much more than 35 per cent, of 
 useful work done. 
 
 1 The expression per foot acre-foot means the raising of 1 acre-foot of 
 water which is equal to 43,560 cubic feet, or 325,850 gallons, through a 
 vertical elevation of 1 foot. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 METHODS OF PREPARING LAND AND APPLYING WATER 
 
 14. The Removal of Native Vegetation. In arid America few 
 places are so barren as not to produce plants of some kind, and 
 the first step in preparing land for irrigation is the removal of 
 this native vegetation. When this consists of native grasses, low 
 cacti, or rabbit brush it can be plowed under or removed without 
 much extra expense but when it consists of large sagebrush, 
 greasewood, mesquite or other plants of shrubby growth the cost 
 may be considerable. Still costlier is the removal of junipers, 
 pines, or other trees sometimes of considerable size which grow 
 in some of the less arid sections where irrigation is practised. 
 
 SAGEBRUSH. Of all the desert plants, sagebrush is the most 
 widely distributed. It covers thousands of square miles of the 
 Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast states and various methods 
 have been employed in removing it from irrigable land. 
 
 Instances are recorded where sagebrush has been killed by 
 irrigating the land heavily for a season. The wetting of the soil 
 causes weeds and grass to grow and when these are dry they are 
 set on fire and in burning the dead sagebrush is consumed at 
 the same time. Such a practice, however, can not have a wide 
 application, and where land and water are both valuable, it is 
 not a practice to be recommended. 
 
 Sagebrush can be quite easily broken off at the surface of the 
 ground, and in clearing large tracts, one of the most common 
 practices is to break the brush by dragging a railroad rail over 
 it, using a strong team at each end of the rail. The rail is dragged 
 twice over, the second time in the opposite direction to the first. 
 Sometimes if a rail is not available, a heavy stick of timber is 
 used as a substitute, but with somewhat less satisfactory results. 
 Though the rails are very commonly used straight, it is claimed 
 they are more effective in tearing out and breaking off the brush 
 if bent into a V shape. By using a rail in this way, nearly all 
 
 64 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 
 
 65 
 
 the sagebrush is broken off, and what little remains can be easily 
 cut by hand with a mattock. 
 
 After railing, the sagebrush is either raked into windrows or 
 piled by hand and burned. In districts where the soil is subject 
 to blowing it is sometimes left in windrows 30 to 50 feet apart 
 for a year or two to serve as a windbreak while the intervening 
 space is placed under cultivation. The cost of clearing land by 
 t he n lot hod of railing varies with the density and size of the sage- 
 brush but contract prices in the Northwest during recent years 
 have ranged from about $2.50 to $3 per acre which includes 
 burning the brush. 
 
 FIG. 23. Twin Falls sage brush grubber. 
 
 Heavy two-bottom gang plows drawn by six large mules have 
 been used with success in removing sagebrush in the Yakima 
 Valley, Washington. This work was done by contract at 
 S3 per acre. Five acres of plowing was an average day's work. 
 In addition it cost $1.50 per acre to gather up and burn the brush ; 
 making the total cost of clearing and breaking $4.50. 
 
 In Colorado sagebrush has been plowed out with a gang plow 
 and steam traction engine. 
 
66 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 In southern Idaho, at a cost of $3.50 and up for clearing, 
 plowing and leveling, sagebrush is cut by the "Twin Falls 
 Grubber," Fig. 23. This implement consists of heavy steel 
 knives suspended from and rigidly attached to a framework 
 carried on two wheels. It can be so adjusted that the knives 
 which are set in the form of a V with the point ahead can be 
 lowered a few inches beneath the surface of the ground where it 
 cuts off the roots of the sagebrush. This implement is not 
 adapted to stony land. 
 
 Under certain conditions it is often more economical or satis- 
 factory to remove the sagebrush by hand grubbing. For this 
 work a sharp mattock is used and the brush is cut at the surface 
 of the ground. This is most easily accomplished when the 
 ground is frozen. Where the growth is of average size and 
 density, one man can grub about 1 acre a day. To gather up 
 and burn the brush will require possibly half a day more, mak- 
 ing the cost of clearing by hand, with wages at $2.50 per day 
 about $3.75 per acre. 
 
 GREASEWOOD. This is another shrubby plant having a wide 
 range of distribution from the upper Missouri River region south 
 to Mexico, and west to the Sierra Nevadas and Cascade Moun- 
 tains. Its presence on the plains is not so general as sagebrush. 
 It is often found and seems to thrive best on soils more or less 
 impregnated with alkali and its presence for this reason is 
 usually looked upon with suspicion. A height of 8 feet or more 
 is sometimes attained by this plant. 
 
 MESQUITE. Mesquite is found in the far Southwest from cen- 
 tral Texas to eastern California. According to its surroundings 
 it varies from straggling spiny shrubs to a widely branched tree 
 .50 feet high and 3 feet in diameter. The latter size is attained 
 only in the rich valleys having an abundance of moisture. On 
 the arid plains, as a shrub only 2 or 3 feet high, the roots 
 may extend to water at a distance of 60 feet or more. (Bergen 
 and Davis, Principles of Botany, p. 27.) Greasewood and mes- 
 quite such as is usually found on lands suitable for irrigation can 
 be cleared by the same methods commonly employed in the 
 removal of sagebrush. 
 
 Large trees are not commonly found in regions where land is 
 prepared for irrigation, but in some localities, junipers, pines or 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 
 
 67 
 
 other trees of considerable size have to be removed. As a rule, 
 all trees large enough for wood or saw timber are removed first, 
 then the smaller trees are slashed, and when dry, burned together 
 with the tops of the larger trees. Small pine stumps rot quickly, 
 and within a year or two after the cutting those 4 to 6 inches in 
 diameter may often be removed by a direct pull with a good team. 
 For stumps of larger size, some one of the many types of stump 
 pullers is employed and more or less dynamite and stump powder 
 
 FIG. 24. Blasting stumps. 
 
 are used to split or blow out the ones too big to be handled readily 
 with the pullers. The cost of removing trees and stumps varies 
 widely according to the kind of trees and the number to the acre. 
 In clearing several thousand acres of pine land from which the 
 saw timber and wood has largely been removed, in the vicinity 
 of Spokane, Washington, the cost ranges from $25 to $60 per 
 acre. The Hercules stump puller is used mainly, and this is 
 supplemented by powder. In parts of British Columbia, where 
 land is cleared for irrigation without making any use of the wood 
 
68 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 or saw timber, the cost per acre for removing trees and stumps 
 runs from $75 to $150 per acre. 1 The tools used in blasting, the 
 manner of tamping the charge and the best location for the charge 
 are shown in Fig. 24 taken from Bull. 134 of the Minnesota 
 Agri. Exp. Sta. 
 
 15. Preparing the Surface for Irrigation. Following the re- 
 moval of native vegetation land to be irrigated usually requires 
 grading, or smoothing in order that water may be distributed or 
 spread over it uniformly with a minimun of labor and expense. 
 In some parts of the West large areas of land are found which are 
 naturally smooth, and consequently require very little grading 
 preparatory to irrigating, while in other sections the natural 
 topography of the land is so irregular that the work involves a 
 heavy expense. There is frequently wide variation also in the 
 requirements of different tracts in the same locality. By level- 
 ing or grading is not meant the reduction of the land to a level 
 surface as this would in most places be not only impracticable 
 but undesirable. Except where the land is very flat, grading 
 as a rule involves only the removal of knolls and hummocks 
 which interfere with the flow or spreading of the water, and the 
 filling of depressions into which the water would collect to a 
 detrimental extent. The aim in -grading should be to obtain 
 plane surfaces. These, however, may have little or much slope 
 according to the local conditions found. 
 
 S. 0. Jayne, in charge of the Irrigation Investigations of the 
 Department of Agriculture in the State of Washington, states: 
 "In no instance should the importance of securing a smooth 
 surface be underestimated. Very often the saving of the few 
 dollars needed to properly finish the grading of a tract of land 
 may mean an annual loss of many dollars worth of time, water 
 and crops due to the difficulty of irrigation. Frequently the 
 apparent smoothness of a piece of land may lead to the belief 
 that no grading is necessary. It is not often however that 
 a natural surface is found that can not be improved to some 
 extent. Sometimes, in the rush of development work, orchards 
 or other crops are planted before sufficient grading is done, with 
 
 1 For cost of clearing land in western Washington, see Eng. and Con- 
 tracting magazine, Vol. XXXVI, pp. 252, 273, 313, 451, also Wash. State 
 Exp. Sta. Bui. No. 101, also U. S. D. A., B. P. I., Cir. No. 25. 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 69 
 
 the idea that the surface is good enough or that this important 
 matter can bo deferred until some more convenient time. A 
 greater mistake than this is seldom made in connection with 
 irrigation farming? 7 
 
 If the soil is fairly uniform for a considerable depth, as it is 
 in many arid districts considerable of the surface layer may 
 be removed without permanently impairing the productivity 
 of the land. But if coarse gravel or some other form of un- 
 productive subsoil occurs within a foot or two of the surface, a 
 compromise must be made between the advantages of good 
 grading and the disadvantages of poor soil. Under such con- 
 ditions, it may sometimes be practicable, in a limited way, to 
 move the surface soil to one side, remove so much of the poor 
 subsoil as required and then replace the surface soil. It may 
 be easier and better to modify the usual method of irrigation 
 to suit the land, than to modify the land to suit the usual method 
 of applying water. Grading is frequently carried too far on 
 
 FIG. 25. Buck-scraper. 
 
 this kind of soil but even under the most unfavorable conditions 
 some improvement of the surface is usually possible. 
 
 The cost of preparing the surface after clearing runs all the 
 way from a few* cents to $50 or more per acre, depending mainly 
 on how much dirt has to be moved. If the land has not been 
 broken up in removing the native vegetation, the first plowing, 
 which as a rule can be done with an ordinary strong plow and 
 three or four horses, will cost from $2 to $2.50. This, however, 
 is about as far as any itemizing of cost can be carried. In some 
 parts of the West where land is held at $150 to $300 per acre, a 
 cost of from $15 to $30 per acre for grading is not unusual, nor 
 is it considered excessive. This, however, is higher than the 
 average cost of such work. 
 
 If it is necessary to move much earth and the haul is not short, 
 
70 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 one of the best implements for the purpose is the buck-scraper, 
 Fig. 25. In its simplest form it consists of a 2-inch plank with a 
 steel shoe on the cutting edge and a tail board for holding the 
 plank in position while filling, and for controlling the angle 
 of it while spreading the dirt. Scrapers of this type have been 
 made in lengths up to 24 feet but the size commonly used for 
 four horses is 8 feet long and 2 feet wide. The 4-horse size 
 is securely ironed and bolted together and can be made by the 
 local blacksmith or on the farm at a cost of about $14. Some 
 scrapers have a lever attached to the tailboard so that the scraper 
 can be set at the desired angle in loading or spreading. 
 
 In parts of California a modified buckscraper or planer has 
 been found especially useful on a slightly uneven ground. This 
 consists of a base made of 4 X 12 inch plank 14 feet long and a 
 
 FIG. 26. Fresno scraper. 
 
 back 2 inches thick, 18 inches high and 12 fee^ long. The base 
 and back are held together by the extension of the steel plate with 
 which the cutting edge and bottom of the base plane are shod and 
 by iron straps on the front side of the upright plank. Foot 
 boards are bolted across the base plank which extends a foot 
 beyond the back at each end. Four mules are used at each end 
 of the planer, the hitch bemg made to the base plank below the 
 footboards. The drivers regulate the action of the implement by 
 shifting their positions forward or backward on the footboards. 
 If the grading is heavy and the haul long, the " Fresno" 
 scraper, Fig. 26, is the most satisfactory implement. This is 
 a steel scraper 4 to 8 feet long which works on the same prin- 
 
METHODS or PREPARING LAND 71 
 
 ciple as an ordinary "slip." A single steel handle about 4 
 feet long, attached at the middle of the back of the scraper 
 serves both as a means of regulating the dip in loading, and 
 of dumping and spreading the load. Usually a short piece of 
 rope is attached to the end of the handle to facilitate turning 
 the scraper back into position preparatory to loading. The 
 common sized "Fresno" is pulled by four horses, but a smaller 
 size suitable for two horses is also made. 
 
 The scrapers so far described are used for rapid movement 
 of earth, and are not especially adapted to the work of making 
 a finished surface. This is done with some form of rectangular 
 leveler, the function of which is analogous to that of the long 
 "jointer" plane used by a carpenter to smooth the edge of a 
 board after the prominent humps have been removed with a 
 short "jackplane." These levelers are made in many sizes and 
 proportions to suit the local requirements, but the principle of 
 their use is for all the same. The leveler is intended to remove 
 the minor irregularities of the surface by spreading the earth left 
 in bunches by the scraper, and by filling the slight depressions 
 which ordinarily can not be detected with the eye. After having 
 been properly leveled with a leveler the field should present a 
 smooth plane surface. 
 
 The rectangular float l or "box leveler," Fig. 27, generally used 
 is essentially a frame about 6 feet wide and 14 to 24 feet long, 
 made of 2 X 8 inch or 2 X 10 inch planks set on edge; several 
 crosspieces being used in addition to the ones at the ends. The 
 framework should be diagonally braced on top, and well spiked 
 or bolted together. The crosspieces should be faced on the 
 front side with steel or iron plates. A footboard placed on top, 
 in the middle, parallel to the long side affords a place for the 
 driver to stand. The hitch is made so that the leveler is drawn 
 lengthwise and the action of the leveler can be regulated to some 
 extent by the driver shifting his position forward or back. The 
 number of horses required varies with the size and weight of the 
 implement. Four to six are commonly used, but more are some- 
 times put on very large levelers. In the Imperial Valley, Cali- 
 fornia, rectangular levelers have been made in sizes up to 12 X 30 
 feet, requiring 16 horses and an operator in addition to the 
 
 1 Farmer's Bulletin No. 392, p. 17. 
 
72 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 driver. A rectangular leveler suitable for use with two to four 
 horses is a very inexpensive implement that can be made on the 
 farm, and it will often be of value in smoothing plowed fields in 
 years succeeding the original grading. 
 
 Graders or levelers of other types are used in some localities. 
 Some of these are patented machines. These cost more, and 
 farmers generally prefer the less expensive home-made ones which 
 are very satisfactory. 
 
 When preparing the surface for irrigation, sufficient soil to 
 allow for settling should be placed in depressions of any con- 
 siderable size, and before the field is seeded to permanent meadow 
 or other long term crops, it is well to first irrigate it thoroughly. 
 
 FIG. 27. Rectangular float or box leveller. 
 
 The application of water will settle the soil of fills, and disclose 
 any need of further grading more or less of which is usually re- 
 quired to put the surface in perfect shape. 
 
 16. Furrow Method of Irrigation. As a rule the furrow method 
 is used to irrigate orchards, small fruits, root crops and vegetables. 
 It is adapted to a wide variety of soils and surface slopes. Porous 
 soils and flat slopes, however, should be watered, if possible, in 
 some other way on account of the loss of water by deep percola- 
 tion in the former and the sluggish movement of the small 
 streams in the latter. The essential features of furrow irriga- 
 tion are the head ditch, flume or pipe from which the water is 
 distributed, and the furrows. The earth head ditch is still 
 common but making openings in its lower bank with a shovel 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 
 
 73 
 
 is being replaced by the use of the more stable and permanent 
 openings. 
 
 EARTHEN HEAD DITCHES. A skilled irrigator may adjust the 
 size and depths of the openings in a ditch bank so as to secure a 
 fairly uniform flow, but constant attention is required in order to 
 maintain it. If the water is permitted to flow for half an hour 
 unattended the distribution is likely to become unequal. The 
 banks of the ditch absorb water and become soft and as the 
 water rushes through the openings, erosion enlarges them, per- 
 mitting larger discharges and lowering the general level of the 
 water in the ditch so that other openings may have little or no 
 
 FIG. 28. Home-made crowder for making head ditches. 
 
 discharge. Even if it were possible to divide the flow of the 
 ditch equally between a certain number of furrows the difficulty 
 would not be overcome, because the number of divisions would 
 invariably be too small. In using such crude methods it is 
 difficult to divide a stream of, say 40 miner's inches into more 
 than about ten equal parts; but good practice frequently calls for 
 a flow in each furrow of from one-fifth to three-fourths of a miner's 
 inch, which can not be secured by this method. 
 
 One of the most serviceable home-made implements for making 
 head ditches is the crowder of which several forms are shown 
 in Figs. 5 and 28. 
 
 HEAD FLUMES. In the Northwest where durable lumber can 
 be purchased at reasonable rates, timber flumes are often used 
 
74 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 to distribute water to furrows. When installed for this purpose 
 they should be but slightly elevated above the surface of the 
 ground to prevent soil erosion and the scattering of the stream 
 
 FIG. 29. Common form of wooden head flume. 
 
 by strong winds. Flumes 6X6 inches and 8X8 inches are 
 the most common. The sides are of 1-inch lumber but the bot- 
 toms are frequently 1 1/4 or 1 1/2 inches in thickness. The lum- 
 ber, preferably cedar, is purchased in lengths of 16 to 18 feet. Col- 
 lars made of 2 X 4 inch fir 
 joists for the bottom and sides 
 and 1X4 inches for the tops 
 are placed around the flume 
 at each joint and midway be- 
 tween joints. The water is 
 distributed to the furrows 
 through holes the flow to each 
 
 is H- 
 
 H' 
 
 FIG. 30. Concrete head flume with 
 opening. 
 
 being regulated by a metal 
 slide in the manner shown in 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 Where suitable lumber may 
 
 be had for $15 per M. the cost of head flumes in place of the 
 kind described varies from $4.50 to $6 per 100 feet of length. 
 
 In parts of the West where lumber is costly head flumes were 
 formerly built of cement but these in turn are giving place to 
 
MKTHODS OF PREPARING LAND 
 
 75 
 
 concrete pipes. By means of a specially designed machine, which 
 is patented, cement mortar composed of one part cement to about 
 six parts of coarse sand is fed into a hopper and forced by lever 
 pressure into a set of guide plates of the form of the flume. Such 
 flumes are made in place in one continuous line across the upper 
 margin of the orchard tract. After the flume is built but before 
 the mortar has become hard, small tubes from 3/4 to 1 1/2 inches 
 in diameter, the size depending somewhat on the size of the flume, 
 are inserted in the side next the orchard (Fig. 30). The flow 
 through these tubes is regulated by zinc slides. Flumes of this 
 kind are made in five sizes, the smallest being 6 inches on the 
 bottom in the clear and the largest 14 inches. 
 
 At a slightly greater cost a stronger flume can be built by the 
 use of moulds. The increased strength is derived from a change 
 
 FIG. 31. Types of concrete head flumes. 
 
 in the mixture. In the machine-made flume, the mixture of one 
 part cement to five or six parts of sand is lacking in strength, 
 for the reason that there is not enough cement to fill all the open 
 spaces in the sand. In using moulds, medium-sized gravel can 
 be added to the sand and the mixture resembles that of a common 
 rich concrete (Fig. 31). 
 
 PIPES AND STANDS. Head flumes, being placed on the surface 
 of the ground interfere with the free passage of teams in culti- 
 vating, irrigating, and harvesting the crop. Dead leaves from 
 shade and fruit trees also clog the small openings in the flumes. 
 These and other objections to flumes have induced many fruit 
 growers of southern California to convey the water in under- 
 ground pipes and distribute it through standpipes placed at the 
 
76 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 head of the rows of trees. Both cement and clay pipes are 
 used for this purpose. 
 
 This method of distributing water to orchards is described 
 by C. E. Tait in O. E. S. Bulletin 236 from which the 
 following illustrations are taken. Fig. 32 shows a concrete 
 head pipe 8 inches in diam'eter laid with its top 12 inches 
 below the surface of the ground. The cut likewise shows 
 the larger stand with its valve through which the water is ad- 
 mitted to the head pipe and the smaller distributing stand with 
 its valve through which the water flows to the furrows. The 
 methods used in laying concrete pipe and in placing stands are 
 still further illustrated in Plate II. 
 
 FIG. 32. Concrete head pipe, with stands, valves, etc. 
 
 FURROWS. The depth, spacing and length of furrows depend on 
 a variety of conditions pertaining to crops, soils, and climate. 
 In growing shallow-rooted crops or in irrigating a shallow soil, 
 the furrow should likewise be shallow or of medium depth in 
 order to moisten the soil around the roots and lessen the loss by 
 deep percolation. However, in growing such crops, it is well to 
 bear in mind that a large part of the upper 12 inches of soil in 
 an arid climate can not be utilized for the nourishment of plants 
 for the reason that the heavy evaporation robs it of its available 
 moisture. 
 
 In all cultivated crops the grower should figure on reserving 
 
PLATE II 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 bfi 
 
 
 
 I 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 
 
 a certain depth of the top soil to be used as a sort of blanket or 
 dry soil mulch covering to protect the moist soil beneath. It is 
 unfortunate that the soil so reserved is the most fertile, the best 
 aerated, and the most easily worked soil of the field. In the ex- 
 periments conducted by Dr. Loughridge of the University of 
 California and the writer in 1905 in the citrus orchards of River- 
 side, California, it was shown that irrigation by means of a large 
 number of shallow furrows followed by shallow cultivation was 
 not good practice for that particular product, soil and climate. 
 During the dry hot months of summer little free moisture was 
 found in the upper 12 inches of soil prior to the time of irrigating. 
 In other words the moisture content of the top foot of soil was 
 wholly inadequate to support plant life. As a result the tree 
 roots found in this layer of soil were either withered or unable 
 
 2T1. IFt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ilti 
 
 f a nfc ..-.;.>>, 
 
 -Mulct 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Z^ 7 
 
 
 
 a b 
 
 FIG. 33. (a) Distribution of water from deep furrow, (b) From shallow 
 furrow, in same time. 
 
 to perform their proper function. Orchardists who permitted 
 the roots of trees to be lured near the surface during the winter 
 rains were disappointed in learning that the trees after expend- 
 ing a part of their vital force in developing roots to occupy this 
 new feeding zone were damaged by the subsequent withering or 
 inaction of part of the root system so formed. Modern practice 
 in orchard irrigation in southern California aims to prevent 
 by frequent and deep cultivation the formation of roots near the 
 surface. This results, as has been stated, in setting aside the top- 
 layer of soil in order to conserve and make more constant the 
 moisture content of the remainder. The depth of this top layer 
 varies with different conditions. A depth which would suffice 
 for the low temperature and light evaporation of the Bitterroot 
 Valley, Montana, might have to be increased 100 per cent, in 
 
78 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 Santa Ana Valley, California or the Salt River Valley in Arizona. 
 The same principles however, apply to all three localities. 
 
 From the foregoing it is observed that the top layer of dry 
 soil mulch should not be irrigated. This can be accomplished 
 in part at least by the use of deep furrows. Fig. 33a shows the 
 distribution of the water in 7 hours from a furrow 10 inches deep 
 and Fig. 33b a similar distribution from a furrow 5 inches deep 
 in the same time. From the former it will be seen that little of 
 the mulch is moistened and that the water has a wide distribu- 
 tion at a depth of 2 feet below the surface where the most roots 
 
 FIG. 34. Orchard irrigation showing deep furrows. 
 
 are to be found, whereas in the latter nearly one-half of the 
 water applied has found its way into the soil mulch to be speedily 
 dissipated by evaporation. According to the present practice in 
 citrus irrigation, four to six furrows are made between the rows 
 in the heavier soils and two to four in the lighter soils. These 
 furrows are made 8 to 9 inches deep and are made by attaching 
 lister plows to the frames of wheeled cultivators. Such furrows 
 are shown in Fig. 34. 
 
 LENGTH AND LOCATION OF FURROWS. In porous soils it is often 
 found necessary to limit the length of furrows to 200 feet. Even 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 
 
 79 
 
 in reasonably tight soils it is seldom wise to exceed a length of 
 660 feet. These limitations as to length are made for the pur- 
 pose of securing a more even 
 distribution of the water. 
 The main defects of a long 
 furrow one-eighth to one- 
 quarter of a mile in length are 
 the over-irrigation of the sub- 
 soil near the head ditch or 
 flume if the soil is porous and 
 the flooding of the lower por- 
 tion of the field if the soil is 
 
 
 1C 
 
 ) 
 
 7 
 
 ) 
 
 ( 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 FIG. 
 
 35. Furrow irrigation showing 
 dry spaces. 
 
 impervious. A good arrangement in medium soils is to 
 divide a 40-acre tract into three belts by as many head 
 
 FIG. 36. Plan for laying out zigzag furrows. 
 
 ditches, thus making the furrows in each belt or field 440 
 feet long. 
 
80 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 In irrigating small fruits, roots, vegetables, and to some ex- 
 tent orchards by the furrow method, the furrows are made 
 parallel to the rows. In the case of mature orchards, however, 
 cross-furrowing is gaining in popular favor. The purpose of this 
 modification is to moisten the dry spaces shown in Fig. 35. Each 
 space in mature orchards may contain from 100 to 150 square 
 feet which usually becomes so dry that it is worthless as a feed- 
 ing ground for roots. In order to moisten these dry spots, first, 
 cross-furrows, indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 36, are made, 
 then the regular furrows are made after which the zigzag system 
 as shown is completed by a little hand work with a shovel. 
 Since the flow in each furrow can be quite accurately gauged by 
 the slide on the stand, it is customary to turn in more water to 
 the furrows which feed the cross furrows. 
 
 Cross furrowing is sometimes resorted to on steep .slopes to 
 lessen the velocity of the water and thus prevent erosion. It is 
 also made use of on the lower portions of orchard tracts to secure 
 as deep a penetration of moisture as occurs from the direct 
 furrows on the upper portions. On very steep slopes, the rows 
 of orchard trees are planted on grade lines, the fall being 3 to 4 
 inches per 100 feet in ordinary soils. In such cases the furrows 
 are made parallel to and on the same grade as the tree rows. 
 
 17. Corrugation Method of Irrigation. This is a modified 
 form of furrow irrigation and is quite extensively practised in the 
 states of Idaho and Washington. It is adapted to a rather wide 
 range of topography, soils and crops, but the most favorable 
 conditions for its use are a rather steep slope and medium soils 
 as regards sand and clay. The reasons for these requirements are 
 readily explained. Considerable slope to the field is necessary 
 in order to create motion in the small quantity of water which 
 flows in each corrugation. Again, in coarse porous soils there is 
 too heavy a loss due to deep percolation and in heavy clay soils 
 too many corrugations and too much time are needed in order 
 to moisten the entire top layer of soil. 
 
 HEAD DITCHES. For average fields of about 10 acres in extent 
 the head ditch is made about 2 feet wide at the water line. A 
 light grade with a correspondingly low velocity is preferable 
 in order to check and control the flow with greater ease. A grade 
 ranging from 0.05 to 0.25 per cent, may be used, but about 0.1 5 per 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 
 
 81 
 
 cent, is ideal for average soils. After the grade stakes are set a 
 dead furrow is plowed along the line. This can be cleaned out 
 with the ordinary "A" ditcher after which one or more furrows 
 is plowed along the bottom throwing the dirt down hill. The 
 "A" ditcher is again run through twice. With the exception of 
 a little hand work the head ditch is then completed. 
 
 CORRUGATIONS. The size of the corrugations depends on the 
 character of the soil, kind of crop, and length of run. In sandy 
 soils liable to cave in or erode the corrugations are made larger 
 than in clay soils. In perennial crops such as alfalfa or clover 
 they are also made larger than for annual crops since the cutting 
 and harvesting of hay crops tend to fill up the corrugations. As 
 regards the length of the run it is never advisable to exceed one- 
 eighth of a mile (660 feet). An excellent arrangement under 
 normal conditions is to divide a 40-acre field into three runs of 
 440 feet each. 
 
 FIG. 37. Furrower designed by Don H. Bark. 
 
 The distance between the corrugations is determined by the 
 texture of the soil and the action of capillarity in conducting 
 moisture from wet to dry soils. When this action, which is 
 called "subbing" by the irrigator, is unimpeded the distance may 
 be as great as 4 feet or more but in the more impervious soils it 
 is frequently 18 inches or less. The spacing of the corrugations 
 in southern Idaho is 2 1/2 to 3 feet. A safe rule to follow is to 
 space the corrugations so that a small stream running in each for 
 12 to 24 hours will moisten all the intervening soil. 
 
 The best field slope for this method of irrigation is a fall of 1 
 foot in every hundred feet but by decreasing the flow so as to 
 avoid erosion slopes as steep as 15 to 20 feet per hundred feet 
 may be successfully watered. Fields are corrugated or furrowed 
 
82 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 after seeding but before the seed has sprouted. An implement 
 resembling the front runner of a bob sled, Fig. 37, designed by 
 Don H. Bark is now much used for this purpose in both Wyoming 
 and Idaho. 
 
 HEAD DITCH DISTRIBUTARIES. Small tubes 16 to 24 inches in 
 length made of four pieces of lath inserted in the lower bank of 
 the head ditch serve to regulate the flow in each corrugation. 
 All tubes between checks are puddled in at the same level and 
 at the same distance below the water line so as to equalize the 
 discharge through each. Small metal tubes are also used for the 
 same purpose but they are more expensive and wash out more 
 readily. Others use small syphons of rubber hose or pipe which 
 
 FIG. 38. Check box for corrugation method of irrigation 
 
 are transferred from place to place as needed but the trouble met 
 with in setting each syphon is a serious objection to this device. 
 At other times diversions are made from a small temporary and 
 supplemental ditch extending for 100 feet or so parallel to the 
 main head ditch. 
 
 CHECKS. The surface of the water in the head ditch is held 
 from 1 to 2 inches above the top of the spouts by means of 
 checks. These are spaced at long or short intervals depending 
 on the grade of the ditch and the kind of check used. When 
 canvas dams are inserted they are placed far enough apart so 
 that there will be a fall of about 6 inches between every two. 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 83 
 
 If wooden checks (Fig. 38) are used the fall may be 6 to 10 
 inches. 
 
 HEAD OF WATER. The most suitable head of water for this 
 method of irrigation varies from 1 to 2 second-feet. Each second- 
 foot is distributed among 40 to 120 corrugations, the largest 
 number being used on the steeper grades. 
 
 18. Flooding Methods of Irrigation. It is impossible to state 
 with any degree of certainty which method of flooding was first put 
 into practice but it may readily be assumed that the "wild" or 
 "mountain" method was one of the earliest methods due, no 
 doubt, to the low initial cost of putting water upon the land. 
 Under this method practically the entire cost of preparing the 
 land for irrigation is expended in the building of laterals and but 
 little money is spent in leveling or preparing the land. 
 
 The laterals may be located in one of three ways, namely: 
 (1) On contours, (2) down the steepest slope, or (3) diagonally 
 down the slope. 
 
 1 . The laterals are built approximately along contours and are 
 given just enough slope to produce the desired velocity of flow. 
 Irrigation is accomplished by turning the water out at intervals 
 along the lateral and allowing it to flow down the slope to the 
 next lower lateral. This method is usually employed on very 
 steep slopes. 
 
 2. Laterals are built directly down the slope, the grade of the 
 lateral approximating that of the slope, and usually no attempt is 
 made to reduce the velocity of the water. The water is turned 
 out at intervals along the lateral and the flooding is accomplished 
 by the water flowing simultaneously laterally and down the 
 slope. This method can not be employed on very steep slopes as 
 the water will have a tendency to follow alongside the lateral and 
 produce serious washing of the soil and will not spread out 
 laterally to any appreciable extent. 
 
 3. Laterals built diagonally down the slope have a tendency to 
 approach a mean between the two methods mentioned above. 
 Such a lateral has a steeper grade than that of the contour 
 lateral and a lighter grade than that of the second method, thus 
 the velocity of the water in the lateral is increased over that 
 in the first and decreased under that of the second case. With 
 this method water can be run a slightly greater distance than by 
 
84 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 either of the first two methods mentioned before it must be 
 changed. 
 
 There are two distinct methods employed in irrigating by wild 
 flooding, each of which has its advantages and disadvantages. 
 One method is to begin to irrigate with the lowest lateral and 
 work up the hill. The advantage of this method is that there is 
 always dry land upon which the irrigator can cross from one 
 part of the field to another. The disadvantage is that all waste 
 water recovered by a lower lateral must be turned upon land that 
 has already been irrigated. The other method is to begin with 
 the upper lateral and work down the slope. This method has 
 the advantage that all waste water can be collected in a lower 
 lateral and turned upon land that has yet to be irrigated. The 
 disadvantage is that the irrigator has more or less wet ground 
 where he is at work changing the water. 
 
 The spacing of the laterals varies with the degree of steep- 
 ness of the land, the smoothness of the surface, the physical 
 properties of the soil, the .amount or head of water to be used, 
 and the crop to be irrigated. 
 
 The initial cost of wild flooding is less than that of any of the 
 other methods yet this is more than offset by the increased cost 
 of handling the water upon the ground. The water requires 
 more attention and more leading around with the shovel in 
 order to cover all of the surface and must be changed at more 
 frequent intervals. In addition this method can not be classed 
 as an economical method as the water runs quickly over the sur- 
 face and penetrates but slightly into the soil, it can not be dis- 
 tributed evenlv over the land, and more or less water rmis^off the 
 field and is lost. 
 
 19. Surface Pipe Method of Irrigation. This method is an 
 outgrowth of irrigation by pumping. It requires no ditches, 
 check, or border levees nor is.it essential that the surface be 
 graded to a uniform slope. For these reasons it is rapidly gaining 
 in favor in the East and is destined to become one of the most 
 common methods of applying water under humid conditions. 
 When irrigation is practised to supplement the natural rainfall 
 during dry spells, relatively small quantities are needed. An 
 application. of 2 acre-inches per acre is usually sufficient at any 
 
OF PREPARING LAND 
 
 85 
 
 one time. Accordingly pipe mains ranging in size from 6 to 12 
 inches in diameter convey sufficient pumped water to the highest 
 portions of the fields from which it is distributed through mov- 
 able surface pipes attached to special hydrants or stands on the 
 head mains. All main and head pipes are laid far enough below 
 the surface so as not to interfere with the plow or subsoiler. 
 When a field has been watered and the surface pipes removed, 
 nothing remains to interfere with the ordinary processes of 
 growing and harvesting crops until a second watering is needed. 
 To be free from the inconvenience of an open ditch, levee, or 
 other field obstruction and to be able to utilize the space which 
 these occupy, are strong incentives to adopt this method. It is 
 also well adapted to the irrigation of the rolling and irregular land 
 surfaces of the Atlantic Coast States. As will be noted later 
 the surface of fields should be carefully graded and smoothed 
 
 FIG. 39. Stand and valve for irrigating alfalfa. 
 
 as a necessary preparation but only to a limited extent can this 
 be done in the far East where the soil is too shallow to permit 
 much surface grading. 
 
 This method as used in southern California for the irriga- 
 tion of alfalfa is described by C. E. Tait in Bull. 236 of the 
 Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. D. A., issued in 1912. Since 
 then a number of improvements have been made to which the 
 author of this publication has called the writer's attention. 
 The concrete head pipes for alfalfa are usually 12 inches in di- 
 a meteor and are laid beneath the surface. .About 100 feet apart, 
 stands of the same material are inserted in the head pipe and 
 at the top of each stand a valve is placed as shown in Fig. 39. 
 The prices of alfalfa valves as made by the Irrigator's Supply 
 Company of Ontario, California, follow : 
 
86 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 Size of pipe, Size of opening, 
 inches inches 
 
 7 1/2 
 9 1/2 
 11 1/2 
 13 1/2 
 
 inches 
 10 
 12 
 14 
 16 
 18 
 
 15 1/2 
 
 Weight, 
 pounds 
 
 Price 
 
 7 1/2 
 
 $1.65 
 
 10 1/2 
 
 2.25 
 
 16 
 
 2.75 
 
 22 
 
 3.50 
 
 29 
 
 5.50 
 
 Standpipes which project a foot or two above the surface are 
 seldom used in irrigating alfalfa. The more usual practice is 
 to use only a portion of a joint of pipe for stands which terminate 
 4 to 6 inches below the ground surface. When the valve is pro- 
 tected by a covering of earth when not in use, wagons and other 
 implements can pass over it without injuring it. 
 
 Hose and hose connections between the stands and the sur- 
 face pipes have also been substituted for metal pipes and metal 
 elbows. The detachable surface pipe is made of galvanized iron, 
 usually 24 gauge. It is 8 inches in diameter and is made up in 
 
 Taper 20 (Jage N Reinforcing Ring 
 
 FIG. 40. Surface pipe for irrigating from stands. 
 
 10-foot lengths. Each length consists of a single sheet of metal 
 which is rolled, crimped, and soldered in the manner shown in 
 Fig. 40. The socket end of each length is reinforced by a ring 
 and the spigot end is formed by riveting a tapering joint 8 inches 
 long of 20 gauge. 
 
 Mr. Tait states that with a head of 60 miner's inches (1 1/5 
 second-feet) one man can irrigate 2 1/2 acres in a 10-hour day. 
 In irrigating a field the water is used from one stand for a 
 strip equal in width to the distance between stands and in length 
 from the head to the foot of the field. If one begins to irri- 
 gate at the upper end, he proceeds toward the lower end by gradu- 
 ally adding sections of pipe until the entire strip is watered. 
 
 Where the depth and fertility of the soil and other conditions 
 will permit, it pays to grade alfalfa fields with as much care 
 for this method as for any other. If the surface is left rough 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 87 
 
 * 
 
 and uneven the water can not be evenly distributed, causing dry 
 spots on the high places and over-irrigation and scalding in the 
 low places. 
 
 20. Border Method of Irrigation. The border method is well 
 adapted to the irrigation of alfalfa and grain crops and is used 
 extensively in California and Arizona and to a less extent in 
 Idaho, Montana and other Rocky Mountain States. It consists 
 of dividing the field into a series of parallel strips or borders by 
 low flat levees. It is especially adapted to land with a medium, 
 uniform slope and to light open soils that absorb water readily. 
 It can also be used best under canals which deliver water to users 
 in large heads. 
 
 moothing Blades 
 
 2'k lo"Beveled both 
 
 Top and Bottom 
 
 FIG. 41. Home-made levee planer or smoother. 
 
 In preparing the land for border irrigation, the ground is first 
 plowed or disked and the location of the levees is marked by plow 
 furrows. A good foundation for the levees is made by plowing 
 two or more furrows on each side of the levee line, the earth 
 being thrown toward the center from either side. The levees are 
 built with a Fresno scraper which is driven back and forth at 
 right angles to the levee lines, the earth which is skimmed from 
 the surface being dumped on the levee line so that the loads 
 overlap one another. The. levees after being roughly made by 
 the scrapers are brought down to grade and smoothed by an 
 implement known as a planer or smoother, Fig. 41. The levees 
 
88 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 should be made so that after being smoothed and settled by 
 water, they. will be from 8 to 10 inches high in the center and 
 have a base of 6 to 8 feet. This will permit the cutting and raking 
 of hay with comparative ease. The cost of preparing border 
 checks, including ditches and gates, ranges from $10 to $30 per 
 acre. 
 
 The levees usually extend in the direction of the steepest slope. 
 When the slope is too steep the borders are laid off diagonally 
 across the face of the slope. A medium loam soil with an even 
 grade of about 1 foot in 400 feet presents ideal conditions for 
 the border method. For these conditions border checks 50 feet 
 wide and from 600 to 800 feet long will be found desirable. 
 Where the grade is steeper than 1 foot in 400 feet, the checks 
 should be 30 to 40 feet in width. If the fall is less than that 
 
 Cleat under each End 
 x 14* 
 
 FIG. 42. Border gate of wood used in Sacramento Valley, Cal. 
 
 described, the checks can be made wider and longer. In most 
 cases it will not be found advisable to make checks longer than 
 1320 feet or wider than 100 feet. Border checks should be level 
 in cross section to irrigate well and it is a good plan to make the 
 first 25 or 50 feet of the upper end of the check level in both 
 directions. This causes the water to spread evenly between the 
 levees when leaving the head ditch, thus allowing it to flow down 
 the check in a thin sheet. 
 
 The head or feed ditch should be located so that two or more 
 border checks can be watered at the same time. The size of the 
 ditch will naturally depend upon the grade that can be secured 
 and the quantity of water to be carried. For ordinary farms of 
 10 to 40 acres, the feed ditch should be at least 4 feet wide on the 
 bottom and excavated about 1 foot below the ground surface, 
 the banks being about 2 feet high. 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 89 
 
 \\ 'liter is admitted to each check through a gate or box placed 
 in the ditch bank. Fig. 42 shows a type of timber gate used 
 extensively in the Sacramento Valley, California. Another 
 more substantial gate built of concrete is shown in Fig. 43. 
 The ordinary head of water turned into each check usually varies 
 from 1 to 5 cubic feet per second. The advantage of the larger 
 head is that the land can be covered more quickly and the cost 
 of applying water is materially reduced. Water after being 
 admitted passes over the check in a thin sheet and before reaching 
 the lower end of the field, the check gate is closed, since there is 
 then usually enough water flowing in the check to complete the 
 irrigation. A drainage ditch is generally provided at the lower 
 
 FIG. 43. Border gate of concrete used in Sacramento Valley, Cal. 
 
 end of the checks to carry off surplus water. The average cost 
 of applying water each time ranges from 10 to 25 cents per acre. 
 Ralph D. Robertson, irrigation engineer of the U. S. Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, who has had much to do with irrigation 
 development in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, 
 California, is of the opinion that the sketch shown in Fig. 44 
 typifies the best practice of the border method as used in the 
 Sacramento Valley. In this field the checks are 50 feet wide 
 and 800 feet long. The levees are 8 feet wide on the bottom and 
 10 inches high. The slope is 1 foot in 400 feet, there being a 
 difference of elevation of 2 feet between the upper and lower 
 
90 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 end of each check. The soil is a silt loam and the cost of prepara- 
 tion was $15 per acre. The head ditch is 5 feet wide on the 
 bottom, 2 feet deep, and has a capacity of 10 cubic feet per 
 second. The following brief descriptions give some idea of the 
 border method as practised in other localities. 
 
 Under the Sutter Butte canal in the Sacramento Valley, 
 California, the feed ditches are designed to carry from 10 to 
 15 cubic feet per second and irrigation progresses at the rate of 
 
 Feed Ditch, 5 Feet Wide, Capacity, 10 Sec. Ft. 
 
 Drain Ditch 
 
 FIG. 44. Alfalfa field near Gridley, CaL, irrigated by border method. 
 
 2 acres per hour with two men handling the water. Usually 
 from 2.5 to 5 cubic feet per second are turned into each check. 
 The cost of each watering is about 20 cents per acre. When irri- 
 gation was first practised in the Turlock and Modesto districts, 
 California, the land was prepared in rectangular and contour 
 checks. Of late years the border method has grown in favor. 
 The time allowed the irrigator in these districts fora head of water 
 of 10 to 15 cubic feet per second varies during the season from 20 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 91 
 
 to 30 minutes per acre. The average cost of applying water for 
 the season is about 50 cents per acre. In Yolo County, Cali- 
 fornia, where the border method originated, a common head of 
 water delivered to the irrigator is from 10 to 12 cubic feet per 
 second. Average checks having a fall of 1 foot in 400 feet are 
 made 50 feet wide and 1320 feet long. The cost of applying 
 water is from 10 to 20 cents per acre for each irrigation. In 
 the Imperial Valley, California, the cost of preparing border 
 luvks, 'ditches and gates is from $5 to $20 an acre and where 
 much native vegetation has to be removed, the cost may reach 
 S40 per acre. The checks vary from 50 to 75 feet in width and in 
 length up to 1320 feet. Two cubic feet per second represent the 
 average head turned into each check. In Salt River Valley, 
 Arizona, borders are made from 30 to 50 feet wide and from 
 1/8 to 1/4 mile long. A head of water of about 100 miner's 
 inches is turned into a check 30 feet wide and 660 feet long 
 requiring from 1 to 3 hours to complete an irrigation. 
 
 21. Check Method of Irrigation. This method consists of 
 dividing the field into a number of small compartments sur- 
 rounded by low levees. Provision is usually made to flood each 
 check by means of a gate or box placed in the ditch bank. This 
 method is well adapted to light sandy soils having a rather 
 uniform slope of 3 to 15 feet to the mile, but is used also in heavy 
 soils where it is necessary to hold watef in the checks to secure 
 its percolation downward. There are various modifications of 
 the check system in use. When the levees follow the natural 
 contour of the ground surface, the enclosed spaces are called 
 contour checks. Fig. 45 shows a 40-acre field prepared by the 
 contour method in which the single lines represent the levees 
 built on the contours and the double lines, the field ditches. 
 Cross levees are constructed to break up some of the larger 
 checks, making the average size of each compartment 1 acre 
 or less in extent. 
 
 Before the checks can be formed, it is necessary to make a 
 survey to determine the location of the levee lines and the field 
 ditches. Engineers follow somewhat different methods of con- 
 ducting a survey of this kind but the general operation and the 
 end attained are the same. A party of three consisting of a 
 levelman, rodman, and a man following with a plow can work 
 
92 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 to advantage. The levelman sets up his instrument where he 
 can command a good view of the field and takes a number of ran- 
 dom readings at different points to gain a general knowledge of 
 the topography. He then selects a point on the highest contour 
 and takes a reading on a hub or stake driven flush with the 
 ground. This stake may be referenced, to be used as a bench- 
 mark for future surveys. The levelman after noting the rod 
 reading calls this the grade rod and locates points of the same 
 elevation by having the rodman proceed over the field with the 
 target set at the initial reading. The rodman marks each point 
 with a stake and the plowman follows closely behind connecting 
 up each point with a furrow which marks the location of the 
 levees. When the rodman has reached the end of the field, he 
 
 -Feed Ditch 
 
 Ditch 
 
 \ 
 
 vee\ 
 
 FIG. 45. Forty-acre field showing 
 contour checks. 
 
 FIG. 46. Rectangular checks on 
 field shown in Fig. 45. 
 
 moves the target up the correct distance from the contour in- 
 terval decided upon and starts across the field a second time, 
 locating the new contour line, the plowman following as before. 
 Three or 4 inches is the usual vertical distance between 
 contours and it will not be found advisable to contour land 
 that slopes more than 2 feet in 100 feet. The height 
 of the levees depends upon the difference in elevation of the 
 contour lines and the depth of water applied in one irrigation. 
 As a rule levees 8 or 9 inches high after being settled and with 
 a base of 6 to 8 feet will be found satisfactory. These offer 
 but little difficulty in cutting and harvesting crops while high 
 levees are often troublesome in this respect. 
 
METHODS OF PREP A in \d LAND 93 
 
 Rectangular checks are often preferred to the contour type. 
 I itf. 40 shows the same field as that sketched in Fig. 45 prepared 
 by building the levees in straight lines thus forming a series of 
 rectangles. In either case the levees are generally made by 
 scrapers drawn by two or four horses. The high parts within the 
 checks are removed to the lower spots or dumped along the levees. 
 The proper leveling of each check is important. The size of the 
 checks depends largely upon the slope of the land, the charac- 
 ter of the soil and the head of water available. In the San 
 Joaquin Valley, California, where the check method is used more 
 extensively than in any part of arid America, the average size of 
 the checks is about three-fourths of an acre. It was the com- 
 mon practice when irrigation commenced in this valley to make 
 large checks containing sometimes as much as 25 acres in a 
 single check. Later practice has demonstrated the fallacy of this 
 idea and large checks with their correspondingly high levees con- 
 taining over 5 acres are now seldom found in California. 
 
 The cost of checking land for irrigation including ditches and 
 structures ranges from $10 to $30 per acre and the average over 
 a large part of the San Joaquin and Sacramento Valleys is about 
 $15 per acre. In the Tulare Irrigation District, California, 
 alfalfa is irrigated by the check method with a head of water 
 varying from 5 to 10 cubic feet per second at a cost of about 50 
 cents per acre. The cost of each watering on large areas of land 
 under the Miller and Lux canal system in Fresno and Merced 
 counties where contour checks are used is from 75 to 90 cents per 
 acre. An irrigating head of 5 cubic feet per second will cover 1 
 acre about 5 inches deep in 1 hour and at this, rate 10 acres per 
 10-hour day can be irrigated. Suitable boxes for controlling 
 the water passing from the feed ditch into each check greatly 
 lessen the time required and facilitate the ease of irrigation. 
 
 22. Basin Method of Irrigation. This method is essentially 
 the check method adapted to the needs of orchard irrigation. 
 Ridges of loose earth are thrown up midway between the rows 
 of trees in two directions at right angles to each other. These 
 form a large number of square basins, or enclosures, with a tree 
 at the center of each. The ridges are made either by throwing 
 up two furrows with an ordinary walking plow or with a special 
 implement known as a ridger. There are various forms of ridgers 
 
94 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 used, the most common of which is shown in Fig. 47. It consists 
 of two running boards made of 2-inch plank, 14 to 18 inches high 
 and from 6 to 8 feet long. The runners are shod with steel on 
 the bottom and part way up the inner side to prevent wear and 
 lessen the draft. They are from 4 to 5 feet apart at the front 
 end, 15 to 24 inches apart at the rear end, and held in position by 
 cross pieces and straps of steel. Another implement popular 
 in California for making ridges is the rotary disk which throws 
 the earth toward a common ridge in the center and requires only 
 one trip across the orchard for each ridge. In cross checking 
 or ridging the orchard an opening is left at each corner of each 
 basin. An ordinary scraper or a rotary scraper is usually used 
 to fill these gaps or openings; occasionally they are filled with a 
 
 FIG. 47. Ridger used in basin irrigation. 
 
 shovel. The ridges are made from 4 to 9 inches high depending 
 upon the depth of water applied in one irrigation. 
 
 There are several methods of flooding basins practised. One 
 of the most common and perhaps the best method is shown in 
 Fig. 48. Double ridges are made between alternate rows of 
 trees, forming a small ditch through which water is conveyed 
 from the head ditch in the direction of the greatest slope. The 
 basins are flooded in pairs beginning with the lowest tier. 
 Another method of flooding basins is to let the water from the 
 feed ditch take a zigzag course through the basins by making 
 openings in opposite corners of each compartment. The prin- 
 cipal objection to this method is that the basins nearest the head 
 ditch receive the most water. To prevent water coming in con- 
 tact with the trunks of the trees, which is considered detrimental 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 
 
 95 
 
 by some orchardists, ridges may be formed between the rows of 
 trees. These form small basins around each tree, the water 
 being applied to the outer basin. Ordinarily the orchard can 
 be graded leaving a small mound around each tree high enough 
 so as never to be submerged. 
 
 After each irrigation the ridges are worked down to the 
 general ground level and the orchard is thoroughly cultivated 
 and harrowed. The average cost of preparing the land for 
 basin irrigation in the Santa Clara Valley, California, where this 
 form of irrigation has reached its highest development is about 
 70 cents per acre and the average cost of applying water is about 
 $1.90 per acre. The basin method was formerly used extensively 
 in southern California for the irrigation of citrus fruits but has 
 
 FIG. 48. Basin method of irrigation. 
 
 been practically abandoned in favor of the furrow method. It 
 is, however, still used on some of the heavier clay soils and for 
 the irrigation of numerous walnut orchards. 
 
 23. Subirrigation. Crops are said to be subirrigated when 
 the irrigation water is supplied from beneath the surface and is 
 drawn to the roots by the force of capillarity. The water used 
 in subirrigation may be supplied in two general ways. First, 
 through some form of artificial conduit, such as tile or cement 
 )ipe, and second, by raising the natural water table high enough 
 that the plants can draw upon it for their growth. The first 
 iay be termed artificial subirrigation and the second natural 
 ibirrigation. In either case at least three conditions must 
 
96 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 exist in order to make subirrigation practicable: namely, a 
 porous surface soil which allows rapid movement of the mois- 
 ture laterally or upward; an impervious substratum, and drainage 
 facilities to prevent the complete waterlogging of the land. 
 There are few localities where these three conditions exist simul- 
 taneously and the area of land adapted to subirrigation is there- 
 fore very restricted. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL SUBIRRIGATION. Artificial subirrigation has always 
 seemed very attractive to the uninitiated since it is in theory 
 an ideal method of distributing the water in the soil. It reduces 
 to a minimum the usual waste due to evaporation and run-off, 
 the water can be easily controlled and the cost of application is 
 small. However, unless the conditions described above prevail 
 the installation of a subirrigation system is very apt to result in 
 failure, and even when all conditions are favorable, the high cost 
 of installation makes this method of irrigation unadvisable unless 
 valuable crops can be grown. 
 
 Perhaps the most successful subirrigation is practised in the 
 vicinity of Sanford, Florida. The following description of the 
 methods employed in Florida and other sections has been ex- 
 tracted from a report by Milo B. Williams, Irrigation Engineer, 
 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 The lands in the vicinity of Sanford, Florida, are sandy and 
 slope gently toward the lake with an exceptionally uniform sur- 
 face. They are known as the " Palmetto Flatwoods." The soil 
 is sandy and is underlaid by hardpan which is a decided advan- 
 tage from the standpoint of subirrigation since it forms a bottom 
 for the moisture reservoir, thus holding the water close to the 
 plant roots and assisting greatly its lateral spread. Water is 
 turned into the irrigation systems from flowing wells and allowed 
 to run until the whole soil area is saturated to the surface. Then 
 the tile drains are opened and the excess is allowed to drain off. 
 This is done at times of setting out young plants rather than 
 during the growth of the crop. 
 
 As the larger part of the land is naturally too wet for culti- 
 vation and must be drained as well as irrigated, the system of 
 tiling used is designed to answer both purposes. The tile system 
 consists of a water-tight main pipe feeding a series of open- 
 jointed parallel laterals placed 16 to 18 inches deep. The mains 
 
PLATE III 
 
 FIG. A. Main line and stop- 
 boxes for subirrigation systems 
 
 FIG. B. Lateral line and 
 stop-box. 
 
 FIG. C. Details of stop-boxes. 
 
 (Facing page 96.) 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 97 
 
 are laid parallel to the surface regardless of grades and are 
 located on the highest side or on the ridges throughout the field 
 so that the laterals slope away from the mains at the proper 
 depth. The mains are 4-inch to 5-inch vitrified terra cotta 
 pipe which is obtained in 2 1/2-foot lengths with bell ends. The 
 joints are made water-tight with cement. A stop-box is placed 
 at the intersection of each lateral with the main. Holes are cut 
 in the side of the pipe and a short length of 2-inch steel pipe is 
 cemented into place to form a connection between the main 
 and the head stop-box, the lateral leading out from the stop-box. 
 This metal pipe also forms a neck in which wooden plugs or other 
 devices may be inserted to control the flow of water. 
 
 The laterals are built of 3-inch clay drain tile which are 
 obtained in 12-inch lengths. The pipe are laid with open joints 
 by placing the short lengths end to end. A shovelful of sawdust 
 or cinders is placed over each joint to prevent fine sand from work- 
 ing into the line and stopping up the pipe. The grades for the 
 lateral trenches vary from a 1/2-inch to a 3-inch fall per 100 feet 
 and the laterals are spaced 18 to 24 feet apart, the shorter dis- 
 tance being preferable. 
 
 Stop-boxes (Plate III, Fig. A) are placed in the lateral lines 
 (Plate III, Fig. B) at intervals of 100 to 400 feet for the purpose 
 of checking the water in the laterals and thus securing a small 
 pressure in the line above the boxes. A weir division wall 
 (Plate III, Fig. C) is inserted near the inlet side containing 
 two metal-lined openings, one a 3-inch hole on a level with the tiles 
 entering and leaving the box and the other a 1-inch hole about 
 G inches higher. When the water is not to be held in the pipe line 
 above a box, the lower hole is left open so that the water can pass 
 down the line freely. When the water is to be held up, the lower 
 hole may be plugged, raising the water to the upper hole, or both 
 may be plugged, causing the water to rise until it flows over 
 the top of the weir wall into the next section of the lateral. The 
 cost of this system ranges from $100 to $125 per acre, not 
 including the water supply or the drainage outlet from the field. 
 
 The first irrigation usually is applied when the first winter 
 crops are planted in the fall. Later irrigations occur at inter- 
 vals of 10 days to 2 weeks thereafter during the growing period. 
 The length of time required to saturate the Sanford soils varies 
 
98 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 from 2 or 3 hours to 24 hours depending on the amount of 
 water in the soil prior to irrigation, the depth to hardpan and 
 the texture of the soil. 
 
 Some of the peat lands of Florida are also subirrigated. 
 Owing to the lower first cost and the difficulty in keeping the 
 tile in alignment in the spongy peat, many of the farmers 
 in this section use wood conduits in place of tile (Fig. 49). 
 Open ditches are used for the main supply and drainage conduits. 
 The laterals are made of rough pine lumber. Boards 1X6 
 inches are spliced together with cleats and laid in the bottom 
 of the lateral trench with the cleats underneath. Small 1/4- 
 inch blocks are then nailed along the top edges at intervals 
 of 2 1/2 feet. Boards 1X4 inches and 1X5 inches are nailed 
 together forming a V-shaped trough which is inverted over the 
 
 3 of 1)4 Inlet or Outlet Pipe Set in Concrete 
 
 FIG. 49. Wooden conduits for combined drainage and irrigation. 
 
 boards in the trench and the water enters and leaves through 
 the triangular cavity thus formed. The laterals are spaced 
 15 feet apart, 15 inches deep and on a slight grade or no grade. 
 Three-foot lengths of 1 1/4-inch galvanized steel pipe are placed 
 in the ends of each lateral through which the water is turned 
 into or discharged from the lateral. Wooden plugs are used 
 in the ends of the pipe for diverting the water from the open 
 ditches to the laterals. With lumber at $16 per thousand 
 feet B. M., this construction costs $90 per acre. 
 
 Subirrigation from open ditches is also practised in Florida, 
 this method being adapted to very level land and for shallow- 
 rooted crops. It is necessary to drain this land during the 
 summer season and to irrigate it during the winter. Tho 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 
 
 99 
 
 drainage is done through surface ditches cut 3 to 5 feet deep. 
 The fields are drained into the border ditches by surface laterals 
 which are also used as irrigation laterals. 
 
 The land is prepared for irrigation and drainage by throwing 
 the soil into ridges 12 to 13 inches high and 4 feet apart. Irri- 
 gation laterals are placed at intervals of 40 feet running in the 
 direction of the rows. Grades are very flat and the water 
 is held in the ditches by earthen dams until the moisture shows 
 on the surface over the entire area between ditches. 
 
 Various modifications of the Florida system of pipe subirriga- 
 tion are found in scattered localities throughout the central and 
 middle western states, chiefly in Kansas, Colorado, and Texas. 
 
 FIG. 50. Cement pipe for subirrigation, showing porous nozzle. 
 
 Porous concrete tile for subirrigation has not proved very 
 satisfactory owing to the fact that the coarse structure permits 
 the free absorption of soluble substances from the soil, many 
 of which react with the cement and cause it to disintegrate. 
 There is also danger that the sediment carried by the water 
 will clog up the pores in the pipe and lessen its porosity. 
 
 Continuous concrete pipe has also been used to some extent 
 but owing to the fact that it is difficult to make it strong enough 
 to withstand stresses due to expansion, contraction, and earth 
 pressure, this kind of pipe is not likely to come into general use. 
 From an hydraulic standpoint, non-porous pipe with protected 
 and adjustable openings would seem to be a logical type of 
 construction. 
 
100 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 Several devices are used to protect the pipe openings against 
 the entrance of roots and dirt. In one of these devices small 
 concrete nozzles, each having an opening through its length are 
 inserted in the top side of the pipe. Each nozzle is covered 
 with a concave concrete cap cemented at each end but left 
 uncemented on the sides so that the water can seep out. The 
 distribution of water is controlled by varying the size of the nozzle 
 openings to suit the different hydraulic pressures. Another 
 device consists of a circular block of porous concrete having a 
 convex top and a concave bottom with the bottom so hollowed 
 as to form a cavity (Fig. 50). This is cemented over an opening 
 in the pipe. The top of the block is waterproofed with neat 
 cement so that water seeps through the porous concrete and 
 enters the soil through the sides of the block. The discharge is 
 regulated by increasing or decreasing the size of the block. 
 
 Before a subirrigation system is installed, preliminary tests 
 should be made on a small area of the tract to be irrigated. 
 These tests should determine the amount of water required by 
 a given subirrigated area, the depth to which the water percolates 
 beneath the laterals and the distance to which it spreads laterally. 
 When it has been determined how far apart to space the laterals 
 the cost can be determined quite accurately. 
 
 Subirrigation of lands which contain any considerable quantities 
 of soluble salts involves great risks since the continuous rising 
 of moisture from below may cause an accumulation of salts 
 on the surface which will in time make the land unproductive. 
 
 NATURAL SUBIRRIGATION. Frequently the seepage water from 
 porous, earthen ditches and the waste water from irrigated 
 areas pass through the subsoil of lower fields sufficiently near 
 the surface to subirrigate them. In other places these seepage 
 waters collect at the lower levels and raise the ground water 
 near enough to the surface to supply the plants with the needed 
 moisture. 
 
 Perhaps the most notable subirrigated area in the arid region 
 is found in the vicinity of the towns of St. Anthony and Sugar 
 City in the upper Snake River Valley, Idaho. This subirrigated 
 district comprises an area of about 60,000 acres. The surface 
 soils in this area are gravelly or clay loam, varying in depth 
 from 1 1/2 to 6 feet. The land slopes at the rate of about 10 feet 
 
METHOD* OF I'RWMtlMi / .1A '/> 101 
 
 per mile. An impervious lava rock is found at a depth varying 
 from a few feet to 90 feet. This land was at first irrigated by 
 the usual methods but owing to the porous nature of the soil 
 the water rapidly sunk to the bed rock and it was not possible 
 to retain sufficient moisture in the surface soil to insure good 
 crops. In time, however, the subsoil filled with water and the 
 top soil began to receive moisture from below. This led to a 
 new method of irrigation. The water is supplied to the fields in 
 shallow ditches 3 feet wide, 6 inches deep and not to exceed 1320 
 feet long. These ditches divide the farm into strips 100 to 300 
 feet wide. By this method no water is spread over the surface, 
 the laterals merely distributing from 15 to 20 miner's inches to 
 different parts of the field where it soon joins the ground water 
 by sinking through the bottoms of the shallow ditches. The 
 water is kept running continuously until the water table rises 
 high enough to supply the needed moisture to the roots of the 
 plants. Thereafter the ground water is regulated by the amount 
 of water turned into the supply ditches. The rise and fall 
 of the ground water is determined by means of small boxes set 
 in the ground 3 to 5 feet deep. From 20 to 30 boxes are usually 
 required for each 80-acre farm. 
 
 A system of subirrigation very similar to that just described 
 is practised in parts of the San Luis Valley, Colorado. The best 
 results are obtained on porous sandy loam soils underlaid at a 
 depth of several feet by an impervious stratum and on land 
 having a slope of 5 to 10 feet per mile. Most of the land in the 
 valley is of uniform slope and the custom is to run the ditches 
 parallel to the section lines in the direction having the least 
 slope. They are spaced at intervals varying from 50 to 250 feet 
 according to the character of the soil, the depth to the normal 
 water table and the amount of irrigation in the neighborhood 
 affecting the water table. 
 
 There are many modifications of the above method in the 
 San Luis Valley. Where the soil is thin or leveling is impracti- 
 cable for any reason, the field ditches are carried along the ridges. 
 In the river bottoms, sloughs or old channels are dammed and 
 kept full of water during the season. In other cases small res- 
 ervoirs have been built to catch excess water which is allowed to 
 seep out and saturate the subsoil. 
 
102 . t'SJK OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 24. Spray Irrigation. In spray irrigation water is applied to 
 the surface of soils and crops in the form of rain or mist. This 
 method has long been used in the irrigation of lawns in western 
 cities. When one considers the high rates charged by companies 
 and municipalities for domestic water supplies and the large per- 
 centage of such supplies which is used for sprinkling lawns he is 
 surprised at the crudeness and inefficiency of the equipment and 
 methods employed. 
 
 In recent years successful attempts have been made not 
 only to improve the practice of spray irrigation but to extend 
 its use to gardens and fields. In outlining its broader scope 
 in the irrigation of fields, the writer has been guided by the 
 recommendations made by Milo B. Williams, to eastern irri- 
 gators in assisting them to install suitable plants for the irriga- 
 tion of small areas throughout the humid region. These plants 
 are designed to supplement a scanty or unequal and always un- 
 certain rainfall by furnishing relatively small quantities of water 
 to truck, small fruit and orchards at the right time. The large 
 profits derived from such crops, the high cost of artificial fertili- 
 zers, the uneven character of the surface of fields, the growing 
 of two or more crops on the same field in one season and the ad- 
 vantages of being able to control the soil moisture in cultivating 
 and recropping, fully justify, under favorable conditions, the 
 heavy expense. 
 
 The essential features of every system designed for spray 
 irrigation are (1) nozzles, (2) feed pipes and (3) a pumping plant 
 or its equivalent. The design of nozzle and its arrangement 
 in the field separate the types of spray irrigation into three more 
 or less distinct groups which are herein briefly described under the 
 following heads. 
 
 PORTABLE NOZZLE TYPE . This consists of sets of nozzles and 
 hose which can be moved from place to place and attached to 
 hydrants conveniently located throughout the field. The 
 hydrants are generally spaced 100 to 200 .feet apart and each con- 
 trols an area of proportionate size. The hydrants are usually 
 made of a short length of pipe projecting 2 or 3 feet above the 
 surface and capped with spigot or hose connection. In some 
 cases special hydrants are used. The portable nozzles are at- 
 tached to lengths of hose which reach at least one-half the dis- 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 103 
 
 tance between the hydrants. For garden or lawn irrigation a 
 3/4-inch hydrant and hose can be used. Grass sods, such as put- 
 ting greens, public parks, and meadows are often irrigated with 
 larger hose ranging up to 2 1/2 inches in diameter. 
 
 Some gardeners prefer to dispense with the nozzle in spraying 
 greenhouse plants and seed-beds, and merely pinch the end of 
 the hose between the fingers in such a way as to produce the 
 desired spray. Th6re are a number of adjustable nozzles on 
 the market which can be made to discharge a solid stream or any 
 degree of fineness of spray. One type requires to be held con- 
 stantly in the hand or moved very frequently. Another type 
 which sprays a circular area can be set in one place and allowed 
 to run for some time before moving is necessary. The last type 
 is generally supported on a stool or sharp-pointed rod which can 
 be stuck into the ground and the nozzle held 3 or 4 feet above the 
 surface. 
 
 Where a large quantity of water is to be applied through a large 
 hose, a rotating nozzle mounted on a small truck meets the re- 
 quirements. These nozzles discharge from 60 to 100 gallons per 
 minute under a 30-pound pressure and cover a circular area 75 to 
 100 feet in diameter. 
 
 STATIONARY NOZZLE TYPE . The stationary type of spray irri- 
 gation consists of a system of equally spaced nozzles over the 
 field so that any portion can be sprayed by turning on the water. 
 The feeder system forms a network of piping so constructed that 
 the nozzles are about 30 feet from each other and set on the 
 " diamond." This makes the circular areas covered by the noz- 
 zles fit together with the least overlapping and yet cover the 
 bulk of the ground. The nozzles are placed on 3/4-inch risers 5 
 to 6 feet above the surface. The nozzles commonly used may be 
 divided into three groups, viz., (1) solid nozzles with no moving 
 parts, (2) adjustable nozzles with parts which can be manipu- 
 lated to change their capacities or degree of spray and (3) rotary 
 nozzles with moving parts which assist in the distribution of the 
 water by centrifugal force. 
 
 The capacities of some of the popular nozzles were found by 
 actual test to be from 3.2 gallons per minute to 14.5 gallons per 
 minute when operating under 20 pounds pressure per square inch, 
 and from 3.5 to 18.4 gallons under 25 pounds pressure. The 
 
104 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 circular areas covered by the different nozzles varied from 30 to 
 40 feet in diameter. The distribution of water over the areas 
 was somewhat uneven. Most nozzles discharge a relatively 
 large percentage of the water in an annular ring from 10 to 30 
 feet in diameter, with gradual reductions inside and outside of 
 this ring. 
 
 The solid nozzles with no moving parts are the most durable. 
 Their capacities and form of spray can not be varied as in the case 
 of the adjustable nozzle. The solid nozzles which will give a 
 wide lateral throw are of large capacities and demand large feeders. 
 
 Rotary nozzles throw the greatest distance in proportion to 
 their capacities but in larger drops. A certain amount of wear 
 takes place which in time reduces their efficiencies. 
 
 Adjustable nozzles are favored by some truck gardeners be- 
 cause of the fine spray which can be obtained when desired. The 
 throw is usually less than either the stationary or rotary nozzle. 
 
 OVERHEAD NOZZLE LINES. The system commonly known as 
 overhead spray irrigation consists of a series of nozzles inserted 
 in parallel pipe lines supported above the surface on posts in such 
 a way that each line is fed from a main at one end and irrigates 
 a strip from 50 to 56 feet in width the length of the field (see 
 Plate IV). 
 
 A nozzle line is made of galvanized wrought iron or steel pipe 
 into the shell of which is screwed at regular intervals small brass 
 nozzles. The pipe is supported in bearings which will permit 
 it to be revolved, thus throwing the nozzles from side to side. 
 The nozzles are accurately set in a straight line so that all will 
 discharge in the same direction and irrigate a strip parallel to the 
 pipe when the line is set in any one position. Consecutive strips 
 can be irrigated by revolving the pipe through an arc at different 
 stages until the entire area on both sides is covered. Each nozzle 
 throws a clear cut solid stream which becomes broken into small 
 drops before reaching the ground. A nozzle line is connected 
 to the feed pipe by means of a riser, elbow, patented turning 
 union, and nipples. A quick-opening lever gate valve is placed 
 in the riser at a convenient height. The lines are operated from 
 the feeder end by a hand or power turning device. 
 
 The nozzle lines should run in the direction of cultivation so 
 that the crop rows will parallel the pipe supports. T he feeder 
 
PLATE IV 
 
 j 
 
 5? 
 
PLATE IV 
 
 FIG. B. Enlarged view of overhead nozzle line. 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 
 
 105 
 
 pipe should run under ground at right angles to the nozzle lines 
 and be so located as to use the least amount of large pipe. 
 
 The size of pipe to use in a nozzle line is determined by the 
 number and capacities of the nozzles it contains. The end con- 
 necting to the feeder is the larger to carry all the water but as the 
 water is diminished by the nozzles the pipe can be made smaller 
 in proportion to the amount withdrawn. 
 
 The following table illustrates the sizes of pipe used in nozzle 
 lines of different lengths for a nozzle having a capacity of 1/5 
 gallon per minute and a spacing of 4 feet. 
 
 TABLE No. 17 
 
 Total 
 length, 
 
 foot 
 
 Proportioned sizes and lengths of pipe 
 
 3/4 Inch 
 
 1 Inch 
 
 1 1/4 Inch 
 
 1 1/2 Inch 
 
 2 Inch 
 
 103 
 150 
 200 
 300 
 400 
 500 
 600 
 700 
 800 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 90 
 90 
 90 
 90 
 90 
 90 
 90 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 60 
 110 
 
 150 
 150 
 150 
 150 
 150 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 160 
 150 
 150 
 150 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 
 110 
 150 
 150 
 150 
 
 
 60 
 
 160 
 260 
 
 Nozzle lines are usually spaced 50 to 56 feet apart and operated 
 under 30 pounds pressure. When it is desired to irrigate more 
 rapidly larger pipe lines and nozzles must be used or the small 
 nozzles may be spaced closer together on a larger pipe. It seldom 
 pays to use 2-inch pipe in nozzle lines but is cheaper and better 
 to run more feeders. 
 
 There are two popular methods of supporting nozzle lines, i.e., 
 directly on posts or suspended from a high cable. A post which 
 will hold the pipe just above the crop or one that elevates the line 
 012 feet above the surface so a horse can pass under are the com- 
 mon designs. The higher design permits cross cultivation and is 
 popular among truck farmers and berry growers, while the low 
 posts place the system less in sight for flower beds, lawns and 
 small home gardens. The posts should be of concrete, pipe, or 
 wood treated with asphaltum, tar, or paint. They should be 
 5 to 6 inches at the base if of wood, and set in the ground 21/2 
 to 3 feet and of ample length to be cut off at the right height 
 
106 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 after set to give the nozzle lines uniform appearance. Nozzle 
 lines should be supported every 18 feet. 
 
 Suspending the nozzle lines from a high cable supported on 
 large posts is a construction used by some farmers because of the 
 less obstruction to cultivation. The posts are spaced from 
 75 to 100 feet apart and may be either of wood or 4-inch steel 
 pipe. They should be from two to three times as high as the 
 pipe is to be held. The cable is held on the tops of the posts by 
 heavy hooks but free to draw lengthwise. Heavy spreading 
 anchors must hold the ends of the cable which are generally 
 fastened to buried logs or concrete. A turn buckle should be 
 inserted near the end of the cable for use in taking up the slack 
 at different times. The proper weight of cable to use depends 
 upon the spacing and height of the posts and the weight of pipe 
 to be supported. These facts should be furnished to the cable 
 dealer and a sufficient weight used. 
 
 The nozzle line is suspended from the cable by varying lengths 
 of galvanized wire spaced 15 feet apart and fastened to hooks in 
 which the pipe lies. The nozzle lines can be graded uniformly 
 by adjusting the lengths of the wire hangers. Cable suspension 
 generally costs 15 to 20 per cent, more than direct post support. 
 
 FEEDER SYSTEM. The designing of a feeder system should 
 be governed by the type of nozzles used, their individual capacities, 
 and the amount of water to be carried through each line. The 
 field should be divided into irrigation units. The size of units 
 will be limited either by the available water supply or by the rate 
 of irrigation desired for the entire field. The main feeder should 
 be located to make it as short as possible and at the same time 
 intersect the branch feeders at the most efficient points. The 
 capacity of the main should be equal to that of the pump and 
 that needed for one irrigation unit. The main can be reduced in 
 size as the water is diminished by branches in the most remote unit. 
 
 The branch feeders should be of capacities to supply their 
 respective nozzles and reduced in size in correspondence to the 
 amount of water to be carried at different points. No pipe should 
 be small enough to generate excessive frictional resistance. 
 
 The following table gives the size of metal pipe to use for differ- 
 ent quantities of water in order to keep the frictional resistance 
 within moderate limits, for straight pipe lines under 500 feet in 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 
 
 107 
 
 length. For longer lines it is generally advisable to increase the 
 sixes to the next larger. Allowance should also be made for any 
 sharp bends. 
 
 TABLE No. 18 
 
 Gallons per minute Size of pipe, inches j Gallons per minute | Size of pipe, inches 
 
 O ff\ f 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 350 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 1 1/4 
 
 400 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 11/2 
 
 500 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 600 
 
 7 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 700 
 
 7 
 
 75 
 
 21/2 
 
 800 
 
 8 
 
 100 
 
 3 
 
 900 
 
 8 
 
 150 
 
 31/2 
 
 1000 
 
 9 
 
 200 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 4 
 
 .... 
 
 . . 
 
 300 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 The pipe used for feeder systems consists of common steel or 
 wrought-iron water pipe with threaded joints, or cast-iron pipe 
 with leaded joints, or riveted steel pipe with flange or bolted 
 joints. Reinforced concrete pipe can also be used for this pur- 
 pose if it is properly made and the pressure is carefully regulated. 
 
 Steel pipe should be galvanized and the exposed threads on 
 both steel and wrought iron should be painted. Black guaran- 
 teed wrought-iron pipe is more durable than steel and often used 
 in preference to galvanized steel. The rust which forms on 
 black pipe may give some trouble in filling nozzles. It is 
 customary to use steel or wrought pipe in sizes up to 5 or 6 inches. 
 Cast-iron pipe becomes cheaper for larger sizes unless it must be 
 shipped long distances. Cast iron is the most durable of these 
 metal pipes and may be used in the lightest weights made. 
 Riveted steel pipe is light in weight and comes in long lengths 
 making it the cheapest to lay. This pipe if well galvanized after 
 making is good to use when long shipments and large pipe are 
 necessary. 
 
 All feeder systems should be put underground below the depth 
 of cultivation where possible, and ample provision should be made 
 for draining in winter and for flushing out once or twice per year 
 to blow out rust scales, sediment, etc. This is best accomplished 
 by having removable plugs at the end of each main and feeder 
 and at all low points in all lines. 
 
108 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 PUMPING PLANTS. The five factors to be considered in design- 
 ing a pumping plant for spray irrigation are the amount of water 
 to be pumped per minute; the static head, or vertical distance 
 between the level of the water supply and the highest nozzle; 
 the friction and velocity heads or the total resistance to the water 
 passing through the pipe lines; and the pressure head, or the 
 amount of pressure necessary to operate the nozzles. 
 
 The capacity of the plant should be the same as that of the 
 feeder system (see page 106). The static head should be deter- 
 mined by a survey in the field with an engineer's level and due 
 allowance made for the distances the water level may be lowered 
 when pumping as well as the height of the nozzles above the 
 ground. The frictional and velocity heads can be obtained from 
 hydraulic tables when the kind, size, and length of pipe and the 
 amounts of water are known. The pressure head is determined 
 by the type of nozzle used. 
 
 Knowing the capacity and the sum of the heads, the amount of 
 work which the plant must perform is determined and the horse- 
 power can be calculated to correspond to the guaranteed efficiency 
 of the pump to be used. 
 
 The most desirable type of pump to use in any one case must 
 be determined by the above factors and any restricting conditions 
 of the water supply, such as a deep well, water containing sedi- 
 ment, etc. All factors and conditions should be furnished to 
 several manufacturers so that they can bid on their most adapt- 
 able machinery and the farmer obtain the most efficient equip- 
 ment for the expenditure. 
 
 Power displacement pumps of the piston and plunger types, and 
 high pressure centrifugal pumps are the designs commonly used 
 for spray irrigation plants. 
 
 The single cylinder displacement pumps are adaptable to small 
 plants up to 75 gallons per minute, where the water is within 
 25 feet of the pump. This type is sometimes the only one ad- 
 visable to use in deep wells for any quantity of water. The piston 
 should be double acting and lift water when moving in either direc- 
 tion. The pump should be equipped with a large air chamber 
 which will act as a cushion and reduce the pulsations of the water 
 in the pipe lines to a minimum. The power head and cylinder 
 are built in a compact unit for low suction lifts but must be sepa- 
 
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND 109 
 
 rated for deep well use. In the latter case it is best to have the 
 cylinder always under water if possible. 
 
 The duplex and triplex displacement pumps are adaptable 
 for pumping any quantity of water where the suction lift is within 
 2o feet. These pumps are built in both single- and double-acting 
 types. Light weight double-acting duplex and single-acting tri- 
 plex are commonly used. Smaller air chambers in comparison 
 to the amount of water can be used than on simplex pumps as 
 the multicylinders give a more steady discharge. These pumps 
 are considered the most efficient types when kept in repair and 
 direct-connected to the prime mover. The connection to the 
 engine should be made by a friction clutch which can be thrown 
 in or out at will when the engine is running. A belt connection 
 can be used where desirable but takes more floor space and more 
 power is lost in transmission. A direct-connected unit is the 
 most efficient and compact construction. The reduced power 
 necessary to run an efficient high-priced pump may make it 
 cheaper to install and operate than a belt-connected inexpensive 
 pump which demands a larger engine and house. 
 
 Centrifugal pumps can be used to advantage for spray irriga- 
 tion under some conditions. Large centrifugal pumps are more 
 efficient than small ones. Centrifugal pumps also decrease in 
 efficiency as the head against which they must work increases. 
 Therefore, .the larger the plant and the lower the lift the more 
 adaptable is a centrifugal pump. Where the total head does not 
 exceed 100 feet a single-stage high-pressure pump may be used. 
 These pumps should be built for high speed with long bearings 
 and adequate oiling facilities. Two-stage centrifugal pumps 
 should be used for heads between 100 and 250 feet as they can be 
 run at lower speeds than the single stage for like heads. 
 
 The efficiency of a centrifugal pump may not be as high in the 
 beginning as a good displacement pump but unless the displace- 
 ment pump is kept in the best of repair its efficiency is apt to 
 drop below that of the centrifugal which maintains its efficiency 
 longer under wear. The centrifugal is the simplest of pumps 
 and the repair bills are correspondingly small. It is seldom that 
 a centrifugal can be direct connected to the prime mover unless 
 the power is electricity in which case the centrifugal should always 
 be considered. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 WASTE, MEASUREMENT, DELIVERY AND DUTY OF WATER 
 
 25. The Low Efficiency of Irrigation Water. The area of land 
 irrigated in the United States at the present time (1914) is about 
 15,500,000 acres. Probably not less than 75,000,000 acre-feet 
 of water are diverted annually from streams, reservoirs, wells and 
 other sources of supply to water this area. Some idea of the mag- 
 nitude of the amount of water supplied for irrigation may be formed 
 by stating that if spread evenly over a territory the size of the 
 State of New York it would cover it to a depth of over 28 inches. 
 To convey so much water often from distant sources and distribute 
 it over cultivated land render necessary a large number of canals 
 and ditches. These channels are for the most part excavated 
 in earth and except in a few cases a large percentage of the water 
 which flows through them is lost by absorption and percolation 
 along the route. Coupled with the transmission losses are to be 
 found other losses arising from improper methods of use and lack 
 of skill in applying water. An estimate of all losses based on 
 water measurements and experiments shows that for every 3 
 gallons of water diverted from natural streams, only about 1 gal- 
 lon subserves a useful purpose in nourishing plant life. In other 
 words, the general average efficiency of irrigation water is less 
 than 35 per cent. The waste which lowers the efficiency to one- 
 third the maximum is all the more to be deplored by reason of 
 the fact that irrigation water so valuable to the West is rapidly 
 becoming scarce while fertile raw land without a water right is 
 plentiful and cheap. Based on the acreage which a unit of water 
 now serves, it is doubtful if more than 50,000,000 acres can ever 
 be irrigated. The Census returns for 1910 show that in the 17 
 states comprising the arid region, 173,000,000 acres were classed 
 as improved farm lands. Just how much more land can be 
 improved of the total extent of arable land in the West is not 
 known. This much, however, is certain, that when every gallon 
 
 110 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 111 
 
 of the available water supply is economically used, vast areas 
 of rich fanning lands will be unreclaimed for lack of water. 
 
 26. Waste of Water Due to Seepage and Other Causes. The 
 largest loss of irrigation water is due to the well-nigh universal 
 practice of conducting it in earthen ditches. In 1910 the census 
 enumerators reported 81,837 main and lateral ditches aggregating 
 125,591 miles in length. At that time probably less than 4 
 per cent, of the total number was lined or otherwise made im- 
 pervious, thus leaving fully 120,000 miles of earthen channels. 
 The loss of water in such channels may be grouped under leaks, 
 evaporation and seepage. The first is due to poor workmanship 
 or carelessness in operation or both and can be readily remedied. 
 The second is small in comparison to the volume carried and on 
 an average represents less than one-fourth of 1 per cent, of the 
 flow, while the third is the main source of waste. 
 
 SEEPAGE LOSSES. Opinions differ as to the relative merits of 
 the two methods of expressing seepage losses in canals. One 
 method expresses the loss per mile in the percentage of flow of the 
 canal while the other expresses the loss in 24 hours in terms of 
 cubic feet per square foot of wetted area. Both of these methods 
 have their merits. The former gives one a ready grasp of the 
 efficiency of a canal in a general way while the latter permits a 
 more detailed estimate of the loss which may be expected from 
 a given section of a canal when the conditions existing in it have 
 been carefully studied. However, seepage losses from canals 
 are governed by many variable and interdependent conditions, 
 the combined influence of which makes it very difficult, if not 
 altogether impracticable, to reduce to a mathematical formula. 
 The writer is convinced that no refinement of calculation for 
 estimating seepage losses in proposed canals is warranted at this 
 time without considerable data directly applicable to individual 
 conditions and even when this is obtainable the accuracy of the 
 estimate will depend largely upon the skill as well as upon the 
 experience and judgment of the estimator. 
 
 It is not within the scope of this publication to include a de- 
 tailed discussion of the various factors influencing seepage, but 
 in order to form a reliable estimate of the loss by seepage from a 
 proposed canal, the principal factors should be carefully consid- 
 ered. Briefly these are: 
 
112 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 1. Size and shape of grains and general character of materials. 
 
 2. Capillarity and gravitation. 
 
 3. The gradual deposition of silt. 
 
 4. Depth of water over the wetted perimeter. 
 
 5. The relation which the wetted perimeter of the canal bears to the 
 other hydraulic elements. 
 
 6. Velocity of water in canal. 
 
 7. Inflow of seepage water. 
 
 8. Temperature of the soil and the water. 
 
 Table No. 19 shows the close relation existing between the 
 unit loss as expressed in percentage of flow and the size of a canal. 
 It has been compiled from data obtained from various sources 
 which have been published in Bull. 126, U. S. Department of 
 Agriculture, by the author. It is interesting to note the fairly 
 constant decrease in the average loss in per cent, per mile as the 
 capacity increases. 
 
 TABLE No. 19 
 
 Capacity of canal, second-feet 
 
 Number of tests 
 
 Average loss per mile, 
 per cent. 
 
 Less than 1 
 
 16 
 
 25.7 
 
 1 to 5 
 
 37 
 
 20 2 
 
 5 to 10 
 10 to 25 
 
 30 
 49 
 
 11.7 
 12.1 
 
 25 to 50 
 
 48 
 
 5 5 
 
 50 to 75 
 
 31 
 
 4 3 
 
 75 to 100 
 
 26 
 
 2.7 
 
 100 to 200 
 
 45 
 
 1.8 
 
 200 to 800 
 
 27 
 
 1.2 
 
 800 and over 
 
 14 
 
 1.0 
 
 PREVENTION OF SEEPAGE LOSSES. Seepage losses in porous 
 channels may be greatly lessened by a lining of impervious mate- 
 rial, such as clay or fine silt. Sometimes the beds of such chan- 
 nels contain more or less fine material mixed with the coarse and 
 puddling may then be used to advantage. Puddling can be^t 
 be done by making use of the canal after being moistened as a 
 temporary feeding ground for sheep or goats. Whenever the 
 material is too coarse to puddle, good puddling material may be 
 hauled and spread over the surface of the canal. It is then mois- 
 tened and tamped or puddled by the feet of domestic animals. 
 After securing a clay lining in this manner it is well to ram coarse 
 gravel into the surface, thereby making a clay concrete. 
 
 In all irrigation channels except those subject to erosion, a 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 113 
 
 gradual sedimentation takes place which renders them more 
 impervious with age. Whenever water of silt-laden streams is 
 run through canals the bottom soon becomes quite impervious 
 necessitating frequent removal by cleaning. In fact the dis- 
 charge of all streams subject to floods carries during periods of 
 high water more or less silt, a part of which is deposited in the 
 artificial channels and tends to make them water-tight. 
 
 A coating of heavy petroleum oil containing a large percentage 
 of asphaltum was applied to a few canals in California at the rate 
 of 2 to 3 gallons per square yard but the results of the experiments 
 have not justified the extensive use of petroleum for this purpose. 
 
 At a time when lumber was cheap and Portland cement ex- 
 pensive it was common practice to line the weak and leaky beds 
 of canals with lumber in the form of flumes. The short life of 
 wood, particularly when in contact with earth, the high cost of 
 maintenance, the f rapid increase in the price of lumber and the 
 corresponding decrease in the price of cement have all tended to 
 lessen the use of wooden linings. 
 
 Concrete lining is now regarded as the best and as a rule the 
 most economical lining to use in the prevention of seepage losses 
 in irrigation ditches and canals. A large amount of concrete 
 lining has been laid during the past 5 years and plans are under 
 way for still larger investments in the future for this class of 
 construction. The cost of concrete lining varies with the thick- 
 ness, cost of materials, transportation charges and other factors. 
 Generally the highest cost does not exceed 15 cents per square 
 foot of surface lined, the lowest 5 cents and the mean 10 cents 
 per square foot. The methods followed in lining farm ditches 
 are given elsewhere. 
 
 A FLAT RATE PER ACRE CAUSES WASTE. In the most common 
 form of water right contract between the owners of a canal sys- 
 tem and the water users, the former agree to deliver a fixed quan- 
 tity of water for a definite area of land. This ratio between a 
 unit of water and a certain number of acres of land is known as the 
 duty of water and is usually determined while the land is in its 
 raw state and before the real needs of soil and crops as regards 
 water have been ascertained. As a result of a random guess at 
 the average duty over large tracts, some water users receive under 
 their contracts more water than they can use economically, while 
 
 8 
 
114 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 others may receive too little. The farmers have no incentive to 
 economize in the use of water since their payments are based on a 
 flat rate per acre. More than this, the combined efforts of the 
 latter class are usually exerted in inducing the company to de- 
 crease the general average duty. 
 
 Wherever it is practicable, irrigation water should be measured 
 out to users in the same way that water for domestic purposes is 
 metered out to consumers and let each pay for what he gets. 
 Experiments have repeatedly shown that where water is delivered 
 under a quantity rate, much less is used at no sacrifice to the 
 yields of crops. 
 
 If the quantity rate per acre can not be adopted, it is usually 
 feasible to form such a combination of the two methods as will 
 serve the same purpose. In this combined method a minimum 
 quantity of water per acre must be paid for by all users but to those 
 who use more an additional charge is made for all excess. This 
 method has been in vogue for years in the Imperial Valley, Cali- 
 fornia, and has resulted in saving annually enormous quantities 
 of water. Each water user is obliged to pay 50 cents for 1 acre- 
 foot of water for each share of stock which he owns whether he 
 uses the water or not. If he desires more water during any 1 
 year he has the privilege of purchasing it at the same price pro- 
 viding the total quantity does not exceed 4 acre-feet per share. 
 
 CONTINUOUS DELIVERY WASTES WATER. A continuous flow 
 during the irrigation season may be delivered to large farms with 
 only normal waste but in the case of small or medium-sized 
 farms rotation should be practised in the interests of economy. 
 The needs of the average crop for water vary greatly between 
 seed time and harvest and a water-right contract which calls for 
 a continuous delivery of a fixed volume of water from early spring 
 to late fall is not only wrong in principle but wasteful of water. 
 Instead of a continuous flow water contracts might better provide 
 for the delivery at stated periods during each season of a definite 
 .quantity of water preferably expressed in acre-feet per acre. In 
 the case of stored water, well water, or other constant sources of 
 supply, the delivery might be made on demand of the user after 
 due notification. A system of this kind would insure the delivery 
 to the farmer of the proper amount of water at the right time. 
 
 OTHER LOSSES OF WATER. The waste of water caused by evapo- 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 115 
 
 ration from irrigated fields, deep percolation, uneven distribu- 
 tion, poorly prepared fields, imperfect methods of application and 
 unskillful use, will be treated under other headings. 
 
 27. Measurement of Water. The necessity for measuring 
 the water delivered to irrigators is now generally recognized 
 throughout the arid region. While many irrigation enterprises 
 still do without such measurements, the increasing value of water 
 and the gradual establishment of the principle that irrigators 
 should pay for the quantity of water used rather than for the 
 number of acres irrigated are forcing measurements on the well- 
 managed systems. Above all, wise farm management requires 
 that irrigators should know by actual measurement whether 
 they are receiving the water for which they are paying from 50 
 cents to $20 or more per acre-foot. 
 
 The measurement of water is a large subject. To treat it 
 fully would require a volume in itself. The parts of the subject 
 herein considered will, therefore, be limited to a brief presentation 
 of those features which concern the irrigator and more particularly 
 the devices and methods which he can employ in the purchase, 
 delivery and use of water. 
 
 UNITS OF MEASURE. A number of standard units are used in 
 the measurement of water. Other units and terms more indefi- 
 nite in character are likewise in common use in certain localities 
 and both kinds are herein defined. 
 
 (1) Cubic Foot per Second. This standard unit, usually ab- 
 breviated to second-foot in America and to cusec in British 
 India, represents the quantity of water flowing through a flume 
 or other channel 1 foot wide and 1 foot deep with a mean 
 velocity of 1 foot per second of time. 
 
 (2) Acre-foot. As the term implies, an acre-foot is the volume 
 which will cover 1 acre 1 foot in depth and is equivalent to 
 43,560 cubic feet. An acre-inch is one-twelfth of an acre-foot. 
 
 (3) U. S. Gallon. The U. S. gallon contains 231 cubic inches. 
 The three units just described are standard in this country 
 
 but those which follow vary with the state or locality. 
 
 (4) Miner's Inch. This unit is loosely defined by state laws 
 as the amount of water that will flow through an orifice an inch 
 square under a given head. The head given in different states 
 varies, and consequently the amount of water discharged will 
 
116 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 vary. Moreover, even with the same head the number of miner's 
 inches will not vary 'in proportion to the area of the orifice in 
 square inches. 1 
 
 (5) Head of Water. The quantity of water which is turned 
 into a farmer's supply ditch is usually termed a head. The same 
 term is used to designate the quantity used to irrigate a field. 
 While the head of water is, as a rule, quite uniform over any given 
 canal system it varies between wide limits among systems and 
 states. In Utah a head of water is called an "irrigating stream." 
 
 (6) An Irrigation. Equally indefinite is the term "irrigation" 
 when used to represent the quantity of water applied to land at 
 any one time. A light irrigation may not exceed 2 acre-inches 
 per acre, whereas a heavy irrigation often exceeds 6 acre-inches 
 per acre. 
 
 UNIT EQUIVALENTS. In converting from one unit to another 
 the volumes carried in ditches, stored in reservoirs, pumped from 
 wells or spread over the land, the following table of equivalents 
 may be found convenient: 
 
 1 cubic foot equals 7.48 gallons. 
 
 1 cubic foot of water weighs approximately 62 1/2 pounds. 
 
 1 second-foot flowing 1 hour equals approximately 1 acre-inch. 
 
 1 second-foot flowing 12 hours equals approximately 1 acre-foot. 
 
 1 second-foot flowing 24 hours equals approximately 2 acre-feet (1.983 
 acre-feet). 
 
 1 second-foot equals 448.8 gallons per minute. 
 
 1 second-foot equals 646,272 gallons per day. 
 
 1 acre-foot equals 43,560 cubic feet, equals 325,850 gallons. 
 
 1 acre-inch equals 3630 cubic feet, equals 27,154 gallons. 
 
 1 million cubic feet (1,000,000) equals 22.95 acre-feet. 
 
 50 miner's inches equal 1 second-foot in So. California, Idaho, Kansas, 
 New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Utah. 
 
 40 miner's inches equal 1 second-foot in Arizona, Nevada, Montana, 
 Oregon, and in Central California. 
 
 38.4 miner's inches is assumed to equal 1 second-foot in Colorado. 
 
 VOLUMETRIC MEASUREMENT. Springs, ditches or small streams 
 may be diverted into a vessel of known capacity and the discharge 
 determined by noting the time required to fill the vessel. Larger 
 flows may be diverted into tanks or reservoirs and measured by 
 ascertaining the cubical contents of that part of the tank or reser- 
 voir which is either filled or emptied in a given time. 
 
 1 The Colorado Statute Inch and Some Miner's Inch Measuring Devices, 
 Colorado Experiment Station, Bulletin 207. 
 
PLATE V 
 
 FIG. A. Trapezoidal weir in use. View from up-stream side. 
 
 FIG. B. Trapezoidal weir-measurement being made. 
 
PLATE V 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 117 
 
 WEIRS. The weir is one of the most commonly used devices 
 for measuring water for irrigation. When properly constructed 
 under suitable ditch conditions it is accurate, but conditions 
 are frequently encountered which either prevent its use or make 
 it quite worthless as a measuring device. The ordinary type of 
 weir, as shown in Figs. 51 and 51 A and Figs. A and B of Plate V, 
 requires a box or enlargement of the ditch on the upstream side 
 of the weir notch. This enlargement should be rather wide 
 and deep as compared with the size of the notch through which 
 
 KCS. 
 
 FIG. 51. Rectangular weir showing pond. 
 
 the water flows. The weir pond thus formed must not be 
 allowed to fill with sand or silt. The crest of the weir notch 
 must be enough higher than the water surface in the ditch down- 
 stream from the weir to allow air to pass freely under the stream 
 as it flows through the notch. If the weir pond is not as large 
 as specified in the table of dimensions accompanying Fig. 51 A 
 the water will approach the notch with too high a velocity and 
 cause an error in the indicated discharge. The average velocity 
 of approach in the weir pond should not exceed one-half foot per 
 
118 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 second. The crest of the weir notch must be sharp and level 
 and the sides must be set at the proper angle. 
 
 There are three kinds of weirs of this type, rectangular, trape- 
 zoidal (commonly known as the Cipolletti weir) and triangular, 
 
 FIG. 51A. Forms of weir notches. 
 
 FIG. 51A. Design of weir box. 
 
 depending on the form of the weir notch. (See Fig. 51 A.) The 
 popularity of the Cipolletti weir is due to the belief that with a 
 given head the discharges through notches of different crest 
 lengths are proportionally to the lengths of the crests. Experi- 
 ments have shown this to be more nearly true of rectangular 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 119 
 
 notches, and as this type is easier to construct they are to be 
 preferred. The 90 triangular weir notch should be used for 
 flows up to 2 or 3 second-feet, as it will measure small flows more 
 accurately than either of the other types. 1 An automatic regis- 
 
 Detail of flngle Iron Weir Crest and Sides . 
 
 '->Stiii Box for Gage 
 N8"to 4." 
 
 FIG. 51B. A new type of irrigation weir. 
 
 ter (Plate V, Fig. 3) is useful for recording the depths of water 
 flowing through the notch. Table 20 gives the discharges for 
 rectangular, Cipoletti and 90 triangular notches. 
 
 1 For a more complete discussion of these types of weirs see " Flow through 
 Weir Xotches with Thin Edges and Full Contraction," by V. M. Cone, 
 Journal of Agricultural Research, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Vol. V, No. 23. 
 
120 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 DISCHARGES (IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND) THROUGH CIPOLLETTI WEIR 
 
 NOTCHES 1 
 
 Head 
 
 1-foot 
 crest 
 
 1 1/2-foot 
 crest 
 
 2-foot crest 
 
 3-foot crest 
 
 4-foot crest 
 
 Feet 
 
 Inches 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.20 
 
 23/8 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.45 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.90 
 
 1.20 
 
 0.21 
 
 21/2 
 
 0.32 
 
 0.48 
 
 0.64 
 
 0.97 
 
 1.29 
 
 0.22 
 
 25/8 
 
 0.35 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.69 
 
 .04 
 
 1.38 
 
 0.23 
 
 23/4 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.55 
 
 0.74 
 
 .11 
 
 1.47 
 
 0.24 
 
 27/8 
 
 0.39 
 
 0.59 
 
 0.79 
 
 .18 
 
 1.57 
 
 0.25 
 
 3 
 
 0.42 
 
 0.63 
 
 0.84 
 
 .25 
 
 1.67 
 
 0.26 
 
 31/8 
 
 0.45 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.89 
 
 .33 
 
 1.77 
 
 0.27 
 
 31/4 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.71 
 
 0.94 
 
 .40 
 
 1.87 
 
 0.28 
 
 33/8 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.75 
 
 0.99 
 
 .48 
 
 1.97 
 
 0.29 
 
 31/2 
 
 0.53 
 
 0.79 
 
 1.04 
 
 .56 
 
 2.08 
 
 0.30 
 
 35/8 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.83 
 
 1.10 
 
 1.64 
 
 2.19 
 
 0.31 
 
 33/4 
 
 0.59 
 
 0.87 
 
 1.15 
 
 1.73 
 
 2.30 
 
 0.32 
 
 3 13/16 
 
 0.61 
 
 0.91 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.81 
 
 2.41 
 
 0.33 
 
 3 15/16 
 
 0.64 
 
 0.95 
 
 1.27 
 
 1.89 
 
 2.52 
 
 0.34 
 
 4 1/16 
 
 0.67 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.32 
 
 1.98 
 
 2.64 
 
 0.35 
 
 43/16 
 
 0.70 
 
 1.04 
 
 1.38 
 
 2.07 
 
 2.75 
 
 0.36 
 
 45/16 
 
 0.73 
 
 1.09 
 
 1.44 
 
 2.16 
 
 2.87 
 
 0.37 
 
 47/16 
 
 0.77 
 
 1.13 
 
 1.50 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.99 
 
 0.38 
 
 49/16 
 
 0.80 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.57 
 
 2.34 
 
 3.11 
 
 0.39 
 
 4 11/16 
 
 0.83 
 
 1.23 
 
 1.63 
 
 2.43 
 
 3.24 
 
 0.40 
 
 4 13/16 
 
 0.87 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.69 
 
 2.53 
 
 3.36 
 
 0.41 
 
 4 15/16 
 
 0.90 
 
 1.32 
 
 1.76 
 
 2.62 
 
 3.49 
 
 0.42 
 
 51/16 
 
 0.93 
 
 1.37 
 
 1.82 
 
 2.72 
 
 3.61 
 
 0.43 
 
 53/16 
 
 0.97 
 
 1.42 
 
 1.89 
 
 2.81 
 
 3.74 
 
 0.44 
 
 5 1/4 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.47 
 
 1.95 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.87 
 
 0.45 
 
 53/8 
 
 1.04 
 
 1.53 
 
 2.02 
 
 3.01 
 
 4.01 
 
 0.46 
 
 51/2 
 
 1.07 
 
 1.58 
 
 2.09 
 
 3.11 
 
 4.14 
 
 0.47 
 
 55/8 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.63 
 
 2.16 
 
 3.21 
 
 4.28 
 
 0.48 
 
 53/4 
 
 1.15 
 
 1.68 
 
 2.23 
 
 3.32 
 
 4.41 
 
 0.49 
 
 57/8 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.74 
 
 2.30 
 
 3.42 
 
 4.55 
 
 0.50 
 
 6 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.79 
 
 2.37 
 
 3.53 
 
 4.69 
 
 0.51 
 
 61/8 
 
 1.26 
 
 1.85 
 
 2.44 
 
 3.64 
 
 4.83 
 
 0.52 
 
 61/4 
 
 1.30 
 
 1.90 
 
 2.51 
 
 3.74 
 
 4.97 
 
 0.53 
 
 63/8 
 
 1.34 
 
 1.96 
 
 2.59 
 
 3.85 
 
 5.12 
 
 0.54 
 
 6 1/2 
 
 1.38 
 
 2.02 
 
 2.66 
 
 3.96 
 
 5.26 
 
 0.55 
 
 65/8 
 
 1.42 
 
 2.07 
 
 2.74 
 
 4.07 
 
 5.41 
 
 0.56 
 
 63/4 
 
 1.46 
 
 2.13 
 
 2.81 
 
 4.18 
 
 5.56 
 
 0.57 
 
 6 13/16 
 
 1.50 
 
 2.19 
 
 2.89 
 
 4.30 
 
 5.71 
 
 0.58 
 
 6 15/16 
 
 1.54 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.97 
 
 4.41 
 
 5.86 
 
 0.59 
 
 7 1/16 
 
 1.58 
 
 2.31 
 
 3.05 
 
 4.53 
 
 G.01 
 
 i Computed by the formula Q = 3.247 L7/L 
 
 ^0.566 LI-S 
 a -r-2Lis 
 
 0.609 7/2-5 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 121 
 
 DISCHARGES (IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND) THROUGH CIPOLLETTI WEIR 
 N OTC HES * Continued 
 
 Head 
 
 1-foot 
 crest 
 
 1 1/2-foot 
 crest 
 
 2-foot crest 
 
 3-foot crest 
 
 4-foot crest 
 
 Feet 
 
 Inches 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.60 
 
 73/16 
 
 1.62 
 
 2.37 
 
 3.13 
 
 4.64 
 
 6.17 
 
 0.61 
 
 75/16 
 
 1.67 
 
 2.43 
 
 3.20 
 
 4.76 
 
 6.32 
 
 0.62 
 
 77/16 
 
 1.71 
 
 2.49 
 
 3.28 
 
 4.88 
 
 6.47 
 
 0.63 
 
 79/16 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.55 
 
 3.37 
 
 5.00 
 
 6.63 
 
 0.64 
 
 711/16 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.62 
 
 3.45 
 
 5.12 
 
 6.79 
 
 0.65 
 
 7 13/16 
 
 1.84 
 
 2.68 
 
 3.53 
 
 5.24 
 
 6.95 
 
 0.66 
 
 7 15/16 
 
 1.89 
 
 2.75 
 
 3.61 
 
 5.36 
 
 7.11 
 
 0.67 
 
 "8 1/16 
 
 1.93 
 
 2.81 
 
 3.70 
 
 5.48 
 
 7.28 
 
 0.68 
 
 83/16 
 
 1.98 
 
 2.87 
 
 3.79 
 
 5.61 
 
 7.44 
 
 0.69 
 
 81/4 
 
 2.02 
 
 2.94 
 
 3.87 
 
 5.73 
 
 7.61 
 
 0.70 
 
 83/8 
 
 2.07 
 
 3.01 
 
 3.95 
 
 5.86 
 
 7.77 
 
 0.71 
 
 81/2 
 
 2.12 
 
 3.07 
 
 4.04 
 
 5.98 
 
 7.94 
 
 0.72 
 
 85/8 
 
 2.16 
 
 3.14 
 
 4.13 
 
 6.11 
 
 8.11 
 
 0.73 
 
 83/4 
 
 2.21 
 
 3.21 
 
 4.22 
 
 6.24 
 
 8.28 
 
 0.74 
 
 87/8 
 
 2.26 
 
 3.28 
 
 4.31 
 
 6.38 
 
 8.45 
 
 0.75 
 
 9 
 
 2.31 
 
 3.35 
 
 4.40 
 
 6.51 
 
 8.62 
 
 0.76 
 
 91/8 
 
 2.36 
 
 3.42 
 
 4.49 
 
 6.64 
 
 8.80 
 
 0.77 
 
 9 1/4 
 
 2.41 
 
 3.49 
 
 4.58 
 
 6.77 
 
 8.97 
 
 0.78 
 
 93/8 
 
 2.46 
 
 3.56 
 
 4.67 
 
 6.90 
 
 9.15 
 
 0.79 
 
 91/2 
 
 2.51 
 
 3.63 
 
 4.76 
 
 7.04 
 
 9.33 
 
 0.80 
 
 95/8 
 
 2.56 
 
 3.70 
 
 4.85 
 
 7.18 
 
 9.51 
 
 0.81 
 
 93/4 
 
 2.61 
 
 3.77 
 
 4.95 
 
 7.31 
 
 9.69 
 
 0.82 
 
 9 13/16 
 
 2.66 
 
 3.84 
 
 5.04 
 
 7.45 
 
 9.87 
 
 0.83 
 
 9 15/16 
 
 2.71 
 
 3.92 
 
 5.14 
 
 7.59 
 
 10.05 
 
 0.84 
 
 10 1/16 
 
 2.77 
 
 3.99 
 
 5.23 
 
 7.73 
 
 10.23 
 
 0.85 
 
 10 3/16 
 
 2.82 
 
 4.07 
 
 5.33 
 
 7.87 
 
 10.42 
 
 0.86 
 
 10 5/16 
 
 2.87 
 
 4.14 
 
 5.43 
 
 8.01 
 
 10.60 
 
 0.87 
 
 107/16 
 
 2.93 
 
 4.22 
 
 5.52 
 
 8.15 
 
 10.79 
 
 0.88 
 
 109/16 
 
 2.98 
 
 4.29 
 
 5.62 
 
 8.30 
 
 10.98 
 
 0.89 
 
 10 11/16 
 
 3.04 
 
 4.37 
 
 5.72 
 
 8.44 
 
 11.17 
 
 0.90 
 
 10 13/16 
 
 3.09 
 
 4.45 
 
 5.82 
 
 8.59 
 
 11.36 
 
 0.91 
 
 10 15/16 
 
 3.15 
 
 4.53 
 
 5.92 
 
 8.73 
 
 11.55 t 
 
 0.92 
 
 11 1/16 
 
 3.20 
 
 4.60 
 
 6.02 
 
 8.88 
 
 11.74 
 
 0.93 
 
 11 3/16 
 
 3.26 
 
 4.68 
 
 6.13 
 
 9.03 
 
 11.94 
 
 0.94 
 
 11 1/4 
 
 3.32 
 
 4.76 
 
 6.23 
 
 9.17 
 
 12.13 
 
 0.95 
 
 113/8 
 
 3.37 
 
 4.84 
 
 6.33 
 
 9.32 
 
 12.33 
 
 0.96 
 
 11 1/2 
 
 3.43 
 
 4.92 
 
 6.44 
 
 9.47 
 
 12.53 
 
 0.97 
 
 11 5/8 
 
 3.49 
 
 5.00 
 
 6.55 
 
 9.62 
 
 12.72 
 
 0.98 
 
 11 3/4 
 
 3.55 
 
 5.09 
 
 6.64 
 
 9.78 
 
 12.92 
 
 0.99 
 
 11 7/8 
 
 3.61 
 
 5.17 
 
 6.75 
 
 9.93 
 
 13.12 
 
 1.00 12 
 
 3.67 
 
 5.25 
 
 6.86 
 
 10.08 
 
 13.32 
 
122 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 DISCHARGES (IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND) THROUGH RECTANGULAR WEIR 
 
 NOTCHES 1 
 
 Head 
 
 1-foot 
 crest 
 
 1 1/2-foot 
 crest 
 
 2-foot crest 
 
 3-foot crest 
 
 4-foot crest 
 
 Feet 
 
 Inches 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.20 
 
 23/8 
 
 0.291 
 
 0.439 
 
 0.588 
 
 0.887 
 
 1.19 
 
 0.21 
 
 2 1/2 
 
 0.312 
 
 0.472 
 
 0.632 
 
 0.954 
 
 1.28 
 
 0.22 
 
 25/8 
 
 0.335 
 
 0.505 
 
 0.677 
 
 1.02 
 
 1.37 
 
 0.23 
 
 23/4 
 
 0.358 
 
 0.539 
 
 0.723 
 
 1.09 
 
 1.46 
 
 0.24 
 
 27/8 
 
 0.380 
 
 0.574 
 
 0.769 
 
 1.16 
 
 1.55 
 
 0.25 
 
 3 
 
 0.404 
 
 0.609 
 
 0.817 
 
 1.23 
 
 1.65 
 
 0.26 
 
 3 1/8 
 
 0.428 
 
 0.646 
 
 0.865 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.75 
 
 0.27 
 
 31/4 
 
 0.452 
 
 0.682 
 
 0.914 
 
 1.38 
 
 1.85 
 
 0.28 
 
 33/8 
 
 0.477 
 
 0.720 
 
 0.965 
 
 1.46 
 
 1.95 
 
 0.29 
 
 31/2 
 
 0.502 
 
 0.758 
 
 1.02 
 
 1.53 
 
 2.05 
 
 0.30 
 
 ,3 5/8 
 
 0.527 
 
 0.796 
 
 1.07 
 
 l.ftl 
 
 2.16 
 
 0.31 
 
 33/4 
 
 0.553 
 
 0.836 
 
 1.12 
 
 1.69 
 
 2.27 
 
 0.32 
 
 3 13/16 
 
 0.580 
 
 0.876 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.77 
 
 2.37 
 
 0.33 
 
 3 15/16 
 
 0.606 
 
 0.916 
 
 1.23 
 
 1.86 
 
 2.48 
 
 0.34 
 
 4 1/16 
 
 0.634 
 
 0.957 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.94 
 
 2.60 
 
 0.35 
 
 43/16 
 
 0.661 
 
 0.999 
 
 .34 
 
 2.02 
 
 2.71 
 
 0.36 
 
 4 5/16 
 
 0.688 
 
 1.04 
 
 .40 
 
 2.11 
 
 2.82 
 
 0.37 
 
 47/16 
 
 0.717 
 
 1.08 
 
 .45 
 
 2.20 
 
 2.94 
 
 0.38 
 
 49/16 
 
 0.745 
 
 1.13 
 
 .51 
 
 2.28 
 
 3.06 
 
 0.39 
 
 4 11/16 
 
 0.774 
 
 1.17 
 
 .57 
 
 2.37 
 
 3.18 
 
 0.40 
 
 4 13/16 
 
 0.804 
 
 1.21 
 
 .63 
 
 2.46 
 
 3.30 
 
 0.41 
 
 4 15/16 
 
 0.833 
 
 1.26 
 
 .69 
 
 2.55 
 
 3.42 
 
 0.42 
 
 5 1/16 
 
 0.863 
 
 1.30 
 
 .75 
 
 2.65 
 
 3.54 
 
 0.43 
 
 53/16 
 
 0.893 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.81 
 
 2.74 
 
 3.67 
 
 0.44 
 
 51/4 
 
 0.924 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.88 
 
 2.83 
 
 3.80 
 
 0.45 
 
 53/8 
 
 0.955 
 
 1.44 
 
 1.94 
 
 2.93 
 
 3.93 
 
 0.46 
 
 5 1/2 
 
 0.986 
 
 1.49 
 
 2.00 
 
 3.03 
 
 4.05 
 
 0.47 
 
 55/8 
 
 1.02 
 
 1.54 
 
 2.07 
 
 3.12 
 
 4.18 
 
 0.48 
 
 53/4 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.59 
 
 2.13 
 
 3.22 
 
 4.32 
 
 0.49 
 
 57/8 
 
 1.08 
 
 1.64 
 
 2.20 
 
 3.32 
 
 4.45 
 
 0.50 
 
 6 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.68 
 
 2.26 
 
 3.42 
 
 4.58 
 
 0.51 
 
 6 1/8 
 
 1.15 
 
 1.73 
 
 2.33 
 
 3.52 
 
 4.72 
 
 0.52 
 
 6 1/4 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.78 
 
 2.40 
 
 3.62 
 
 4.86 
 
 0.53 
 
 63/8 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.84 
 
 2.46 
 
 3.73 
 
 4.99 
 
 0.54 
 
 61/2 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.89 
 
 2.53 
 
 3.83 
 
 5.13 
 
 0.55 
 
 65/8 
 
 .28 
 
 1.94 
 
 2.60 
 
 3.94 
 
 5.27 
 
 0.56 
 
 63/4 
 
 .31 
 
 1.99 
 
 2.67 
 
 4.04 
 
 5.42 
 
 0.57 . 
 
 6 13/16 
 
 .36 
 
 2.04 
 
 2.74 
 
 4.15 
 
 5.56 
 
 0.58 
 
 615/16 
 
 .38 
 
 2.09 
 
 2.81 
 
 4.26 
 
 5.70 
 
 0.59 
 
 71/16 
 
 .42 
 
 2.15 
 
 2.88 
 
 4.36 
 
 5.85 
 
 Computed by the formula Q - 3.247 L#M - ( 1 " +2 L'8> 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 123 
 
 DISCHARGES (IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND) THROUGH RECTANGULAR WEIR 
 NOTCHES 1 Continued 
 
 Head 
 
 1-foot 
 crest 
 
 1 1/2-foot 
 crest 
 
 2-foot crest 
 
 3-foot crest 
 
 4-foot crest 
 
 Feet 
 
 Inches 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 0.60 
 
 73/16 
 
 .45 
 
 2.20 
 
 2.96 
 
 4.47 
 
 6.00 
 
 0.61 
 
 75/16 
 
 .49 
 
 2.25 
 
 3.03 
 
 4.58 
 
 6.14 
 
 0.62 
 
 77/16 
 
 .52 
 
 2.31 
 
 3.10 
 
 4.69 
 
 6 29 
 
 0.63 
 
 79/16 
 
 .56 
 
 2.36 
 
 3.17 
 
 4.81 
 
 6.44 
 
 0.64 
 
 711/16 
 
 .60 
 
 2.42 
 
 3.25 
 
 4.92 
 
 6.59 
 
 0.65 
 
 7 13/16 
 
 .63 
 
 2.47 
 
 3.33 
 
 5.03 
 
 6.75 
 
 0.66 
 
 7 15/16 
 
 .67 
 
 2.53 
 
 3.40 
 
 5.15 
 
 6.90 
 
 0.67 
 
 81/16 
 
 .71 
 
 2.59 
 
 3.48 
 
 5.26 
 
 7.05 
 
 0.68 
 
 83/16 
 
 .74 
 
 2.64 
 
 3.56 
 
 5.38 
 
 7.21 
 
 0.69 
 
 81/4 
 
 .78 
 
 2.70 
 
 3.63 
 
 5.49 
 
 7.36 
 
 0.70 
 
 83/8 
 
 .82 
 
 2.76 
 
 3.71 
 
 5.61 
 
 7.52 
 
 0.71 
 
 81/2 
 
 .86 
 
 2.81 
 
 3.78 
 
 5.73 
 
 7.68 
 
 0.72 
 
 85/8 
 
 .90 
 
 2.87 
 
 3.86 
 
 5.85 
 
 7.84 
 
 0.73 
 
 83/4 
 
 .93 
 
 2.93 
 
 3.94 
 
 5.97 
 
 8.00 
 
 0.74 
 
 87/8 
 
 .97 
 
 2.99 
 
 4.02 
 
 6.09 
 
 8.17 
 
 0.75 
 
 9 
 
 2.01 
 
 3.05 
 
 4.10 
 
 6.21 
 
 8.33 
 
 0.76 
 
 9 1/8 
 
 2.05 
 
 3.11 
 
 4.18 
 
 6.33 
 
 8.49 
 
 0.77 
 
 9 1/4 
 
 2.09 
 
 3.17 
 
 4.26 
 
 6.45 
 
 8.66 
 
 0.78 
 
 93/8 
 
 2.13 
 
 3.23 
 
 4.34 
 
 6.58 
 
 8.82 
 
 0.79 
 
 91/2 
 
 2.17 
 
 3.29 
 
 4.42 
 
 6.70 
 
 8.99 
 
 0.80 
 
 95/8 
 
 2.21 
 
 3.35 
 
 4.51 
 
 6.83 
 
 9.16 
 
 0.81 
 
 93/4 
 
 2.25 
 
 3.41 
 
 4.59 
 
 6.95 
 
 9.33 
 
 0.82 
 
 9 13/16 
 
 2.29 
 
 3.47 
 
 4.67 
 
 7.08 
 
 9.50 
 
 0.83 
 
 9 15/16 
 
 2.33 
 
 3.54 
 
 4.75 
 
 7.21 
 
 9.67 
 
 0.84 
 
 10 1/16 
 
 2.37 
 
 3.60 
 
 4.84 
 
 7.33 
 
 v 9.84 
 
 0.85 
 
 103/16 
 
 2.41 
 
 3.66 
 
 4.92 
 
 7.46 
 
 10.01 
 
 0.86 
 
 10 5/16 
 
 2.46 
 
 3.72 
 
 5.01 
 
 7.59 
 
 10.19 
 
 0.87 
 
 10 7/16 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.79 
 
 5.10 
 
 7.72 
 
 10.36 
 
 0.88 
 
 109/16 
 
 2.54 
 
 3.85 
 
 5.18 
 
 7.85 
 
 10.54 
 
 0.89 
 
 1011/16 
 
 2.58 
 
 3.92 
 
 5.27 
 
 7.99 
 
 10.71 
 
 0.90 10 13/16 
 
 2/62 
 
 3.98 
 
 5.35 
 
 8.12 
 
 10.89 
 
 0.91 
 
 10 15/16 
 
 2.67 
 
 .05 
 
 5.44 
 
 8.25 
 
 11.07 
 
 0.92 
 
 11 1/16 
 
 2.71 
 
 .11 
 
 5.53 
 
 8.38 
 
 11.25 
 
 0.93 
 
 11 3/16 
 
 2.75 
 
 .18 
 
 5.62 
 
 8.52 
 
 11.43 
 
 0.94 
 
 11 1/4 
 
 2.79 
 
 .24 
 
 5.71 
 
 8.65 
 
 11.61 
 
 0.95 
 
 113/8 
 
 2.84 
 
 .31 
 
 5.80 
 
 8.79 
 
 11.79 
 
 0.96 
 
 11 1/2 
 
 2.88 
 
 .37 
 
 5.89 
 
 8.93 
 
 11.98 
 
 0.97 
 
 115/8 
 
 2.93 
 
 .44 
 
 5.98 
 
 9.06 
 
 12.16 
 
 0.98 
 
 113/4 
 
 2.97 
 
 .51 
 
 6.07 
 
 9.20 
 
 12.34 
 
 0.99 
 
 11 7/8 
 
 3.01 
 
 .57 
 
 6.15 
 
 9.34 
 
 12.53 
 
 1.00 
 
 12 
 
 3.06 
 
 .64 
 
 6.25 
 
 9.48 
 
 12.72 
 
124 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 DISCHARGES (i?t CUBIC FEET PER SECOND) FOR 90 TRIANGULAR WEIR NOTCHES 1 
 
 Head 
 
 Notch angle 28 4' 
 
 Notch angle 30 
 
 Notch angle 60 
 
 Notch angle 90 
 
 Feet 
 0.20 
 
 Inches 
 23/8 
 
 0.012 
 
 0.013 
 
 0.027 
 
 0.046 
 
 0.21 
 
 2 1/2 
 
 0.014 
 
 0.015 
 
 0.031 
 
 0.052 
 
 0.22 
 
 2 5/8 
 
 0.016 
 
 0.017 
 
 0.034 
 
 0.058 
 
 0.23 
 
 23/4 
 
 0.018 
 
 0.019 
 
 0.038 
 
 0.065 
 
 0.24 
 
 27/8 
 
 0.020 
 
 0.021 
 
 0.043 
 
 0.072 
 
 0.25 
 
 3 
 
 0.022 
 
 0.023 
 
 0.047 
 
 0.080 
 
 0.26 
 
 3 1/8 
 
 0.024 
 
 0.025 
 
 0.052 
 
 0.088 
 
 0.27 
 
 31/4 
 
 0.026 
 
 0.028 
 
 0.057 
 
 0.096 
 
 0.28 
 
 33/8 
 
 0.029 
 
 0.030 
 
 0.062 
 
 0.105 
 
 0.29 
 
 31/2 
 
 0.031 
 
 0.033 
 
 0.068 
 
 0.115 
 
 0.30 
 
 35/8 
 
 0.034 
 
 0.036 
 
 0.074 
 
 0.125 
 
 0.31 
 
 33/4 
 
 0.037 
 
 0.039 
 
 0.080 
 
 0.136 
 
 0.32 
 
 3 13/16 
 
 0.040 
 
 0.042 
 
 0.087 
 
 0.147 
 
 0.33 
 
 3 15/16 
 
 0.043 
 
 0.045 
 
 0.094 
 
 0.159 
 
 0.34 
 
 4 1/16 
 
 0.046 
 
 0.049 
 
 0.101 
 
 0.171 
 
 0.35 
 
 43/16 
 
 0.049 
 
 0.052 
 
 0.108 
 
 0.184 
 
 0.36 
 
 45/16 
 
 0.053 
 
 0.056 
 
 0.116 
 
 0.197 
 
 0.37 
 
 47/16 
 
 0.056 
 
 0.060 
 
 0.124 
 
 0.211 
 
 0.38 
 
 49/16 
 
 0.060 
 
 0.064 
 
 0.132 
 
 0.225 
 
 0.39 
 
 4 11/16 
 
 0.064 
 
 0.068 
 
 0.141 
 
 0.240 
 
 0.40 
 
 4 13/16 
 
 0.068 
 
 0.073 
 
 0.150 
 
 0.256 
 
 0.41 
 
 4 15/16 
 
 0.072 
 
 0.077 
 
 0.160 
 
 0.272 
 
 0.42 
 
 5 1/16 
 
 0.077 
 
 0.082 
 
 0.170 
 
 0.289 
 
 0.43 
 
 53/16 
 
 0.081 
 
 0.087 
 
 0.180 
 
 0.306 
 
 0.44 
 
 51/4 
 
 0.086 
 
 0.092 
 
 0.190 
 
 0.324 
 
 0.45 
 
 53/8 
 
 0.091 
 
 0.097 
 
 0.201 
 
 0.343 
 
 0.46 
 
 51/2 
 
 0.096 
 
 0.102 
 
 0.212 
 
 0.362 
 
 0.47 
 
 55/8 
 
 0.101 
 
 0.108 
 
 0.224 
 
 0.382 
 
 0.48 
 
 53/4 
 
 0.106 
 
 0.114 
 
 0.236 
 
 0.403 
 
 0.49 
 
 57/8 
 
 0.112 
 
 0.120 
 
 0.248 
 
 0.424 
 
 0.50 
 
 6 
 
 0.118 
 
 0.126 
 
 0.261 
 
 0.445 
 
 0.51 
 
 61/8 
 
 0.123 
 
 0.132 
 
 0.274 
 
 0.468 
 
 0.52 
 
 6 1/4 
 
 0.129 
 
 0.138 
 
 0.287 
 
 0.491 
 
 0.53 
 
 63/8 
 
 0.136 
 
 0.145 
 
 0.301 
 
 0.515 
 
 0.54 
 
 6 1/2 
 
 0.412 
 
 0.152 
 
 0.315 
 
 0.539 
 
 0.55 
 
 65/8 
 
 0.148 
 
 0.159 
 
 0.330 
 
 0.564 
 
 0.56 
 
 63/4 
 
 0.155 
 
 0.166 
 
 0.345 
 
 0.590 
 
 0.57 
 
 6 13/16 
 
 0.162 
 
 0.713 
 
 0.360 
 
 0.617 
 
 0.58 
 
 6 15/16 
 
 0.169 
 
 0.181 
 
 0.376 
 
 0.644 
 
 0.59 
 
 7 1/16 
 
 0.176 
 
 0.188 
 
 0.392 
 
 0.672 
 
 0.60 
 
 73/16 
 
 0.184 
 
 0.196 
 
 0.409 
 
 0.700 
 
 0.61 
 
 75/16 
 
 0.191 
 
 0.204 
 
 0.426 
 
 0.730 
 
 0.62 
 
 77/16 
 
 0.199 
 
 0.212 
 
 0.444 
 
 0.760 
 
 0.63 
 
 79/16 
 
 0.207 
 
 0.221 
 
 0.462 
 
 0.790 
 
 0.64 
 
 7 11/16 
 
 0.215 
 
 0.230 
 
 0.480 
 
 0.822 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 0.0195N 
 
 Computed by the formula Q = (0.025 + 2. 4625)7/^2. 5 -^Ts 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 125 
 
 DISCHARGES (IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND) FOR 90 TRIANGULAR WEIR NOTCHES 1 
 
 Continued 
 
 Head 
 
 Notch angle 28 4' 
 
 Notch angle 30 
 
 Notch angle 60 
 
 Notch angle 90 
 
 Feet 
 0.65 
 
 Inches 
 713/16 
 
 0.223 
 
 0.239 
 
 0.499 
 
 0.854 
 
 0.66 
 
 7 15/16 
 
 0.232 
 
 0.248 
 
 0.518 
 
 0.887 
 
 0.67 
 
 81/16 
 
 0.241 
 
 0.257 
 
 0.537 
 
 0.921 
 
 0.68 
 
 83/16 
 
 0.250 
 
 0.266 
 
 0.557 
 
 0.955 
 
 0.69 
 
 81/4 
 
 0.259 
 
 0.276 
 
 0.578 
 
 0.991 
 
 0.70 
 
 83/8 
 
 0.268 
 
 0.286 
 
 0.599 
 
 1.03 
 
 0.71 
 
 81/2 
 
 0.277 
 
 0.296 
 
 0.620 
 
 .06 
 
 0.72 
 
 85/8 
 
 0.287 
 
 0.306 
 
 0.642 
 
 .10 
 
 0.73 
 
 83/4 
 
 0.297 
 
 0.317 
 
 0.664 
 
 .14 
 
 0.74 
 
 87/8 
 
 0.307 
 
 0.328 
 
 0.687 
 
 .18 
 
 0.75 
 
 9 
 
 0.317 
 
 0.339 
 
 0.710 
 
 .22 
 
 0.76 
 
 91/8 
 
 0.327 
 
 0.350 
 
 0.734 
 
 .26 
 
 0.77 
 
 91/4 
 
 0.338 
 
 0.361 
 
 0.758 
 
 .30 
 
 0.78 
 
 93/8 
 
 0.349 
 
 0.373 
 
 0.782 
 
 .34 
 
 0.79 
 
 91/2 
 
 0.360 
 
 0.385 
 
 0.807 
 
 .39 
 
 0.80 
 
 95/8 
 
 0.371 
 
 0.397 
 
 0.833 
 
 .43 
 
 0.81 
 
 93/4 
 
 0.383 
 
 0.409 
 
 0.859 
 
 .48 
 
 0.82 
 
 9 13/16 
 
 0.394 
 
 0.421 
 
 0.885 
 
 .52 
 
 0.83 
 
 9 15/16 
 
 0.406 
 
 0.434 
 
 0.912 
 
 .57 
 
 0.84 
 
 10 1/16 
 
 0.418 
 
 0.447 
 
 0.940 
 
 .61 
 
 0.85 
 
 103/16 
 
 0.430 
 
 0.460 
 
 0.968 
 
 1.66 
 
 0.86 
 
 105/16 
 
 0.443 
 
 0.473 
 
 0.996 
 
 1.71 
 
 0.87 
 
 10 7/16 
 
 0.456 
 
 0.487 
 
 1.02 
 
 1.76 
 
 0.88 
 
 10 9/16 
 
 0.469 
 
 0.501 
 
 .05 
 
 1.81 
 
 0.89 
 
 10 11/16 
 
 0.482 
 
 0.515 
 
 .08 
 
 1.86 
 
 0.90 
 
 10 13/16 
 
 0.495 
 
 0.529 
 
 .11 
 
 1.92 
 
 0.91 
 
 10 15/16 
 
 0.509 
 
 0.544 
 
 .15 
 
 1.97 
 
 0.92 
 
 11 1/16 
 
 0.522 
 
 0.558 
 
 .18 
 
 2.02 
 
 0.93 
 
 11 3/16 
 
 0.536 
 
 0.573 
 
 1.21 
 
 2.08 
 
 0.94 
 
 11 1/4 
 
 0.551 
 
 0.589 
 
 1.24 
 
 2.13 
 
 0.95 
 
 113/8 
 
 0.565 
 
 0.604 
 
 1.27 
 
 2.19 
 
 0.96 
 
 11 1/2 
 
 0.580 
 
 0.620 
 
 1.31 
 
 2.25 
 
 0.97 
 
 11 5/8 
 
 0.595 
 
 0.636 
 
 1.34 
 
 2.31 
 
 0.98 
 
 11 3/4 
 
 0.610 
 
 0.652 
 
 1.38 
 
 2.37 
 
 0.99 
 
 117/8 
 
 0.625 
 
 0.668 
 
 1.41 
 
 2.43 
 
 .00 
 
 12 
 
 0.641 
 
 0.685 
 
 1.45 
 
 2.49 
 
 .01 
 
 12 1/8 
 
 0.656 
 
 0.702 
 
 1.48 
 
 2.55 
 
 .02 
 
 12 1/4 
 
 0.672 
 
 0.719 
 
 1.52 
 
 2.61 
 
 .03 
 
 123/8 
 
 0.688 
 
 0.736 
 
 1.56 
 
 2.68 
 
 .04 
 
 12 1/2 
 
 0.705 
 
 0.754 
 
 1.59 
 
 2.74 
 
 .05 
 
 125/8 
 
 0.722 
 
 0.772 
 
 1.63 
 
 2.81 
 
 .06 
 
 123/4 
 
 0.739 
 
 0.790 
 
 1.67 
 
 2.87 
 
 .07 
 
 12 13/16 
 
 0.756 
 
 0.808 
 
 1.71 
 
 2.94 
 
 .08 
 
 12 15/16 
 
 0.773 
 
 0.827 
 
 1.75 
 
 3.01 
 
 .09 
 
 13 1/16 
 
 0.791 
 
 0.846 
 
 1 . 79 3 . f,8 
 
125 a 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 TABLE OF DIMENSIONS FOR USE WITH FIGURE 51A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dis- 
 
 Dis- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tance 
 
 tance 
 
 
 
 
 Maxi- 
 
 Length 
 
 Length 
 
 Length 
 
 Total 
 
 Total 
 
 from 
 
 from 
 
 Hook 
 
 Hook 
 
 
 mum 
 
 of weir 
 
 of box 
 
 of box 
 
 width 
 
 depth 
 
 end of 
 
 crest 
 
 gauge 
 
 gauge 
 
 Flow 
 
 head 
 
 crest 
 
 above 
 
 below 
 
 of box 
 
 of box 
 
 crest 
 
 to bot- 
 
 dis- 
 
 dis- 
 
 
 in feet 
 
 
 weir 
 
 weir 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 tom 
 
 tance 
 
 tance 
 
 
 
 
 notch 
 
 notch 
 
 
 
 side 
 
 of box 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of box 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 L 
 
 A 
 
 K 
 
 B 
 
 E** 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 F * 
 
 G* 
 
 
 Rectangular and Cipolletti weirs 
 
 Second-feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 
 
 
 1/2 to 3 
 
 1.0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 51/2 
 
 31/2 
 
 2 1/4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 to 5 
 
 1.1 
 
 1 1/2 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 1/2 
 
 41/2 
 
 2 
 
 4 to 8 
 
 1.2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 81/2 
 
 41/2 
 
 3 1/4 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 2 1/2 
 
 6 to 14 
 
 1.3 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 41/2 
 
 3 1/4 
 
 5 1/2 
 
 3 
 
 10 to 22 
 
 1.5 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 5 1/2 
 
 5 
 
 3 1/2 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 90 triangular notch 
 
 1/2 to 2 1/2 
 
 1.0 
 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 2 1/2 
 
 1 1/2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 to 4 
 
 1.25 
 
 
 
 61/2 
 
 31/2 
 
 61/2 
 
 3 1/4 
 
 3 1/4 
 
 1 1/2 
 
 5 
 
 2 1/2 
 
 11 * This distance allows for about 1/2 foot freeboard above highest water level in weir 
 box. 
 
 * F When gauge is placed upstream from notch. 
 
 * O When gauge is placed on bulkhead. 
 
 A new irrigation weir has been developed by the U. S. Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture at its Fort Collins (Colorado) hydraulic 
 laboratory. (See Fig. 5 IB.) This weir has the advantages that 
 it is free from sand and silt troubles and that no correction is 
 necessary for velocity of approach. This weir can be used in 
 places where silt would rapidly fill a weir pond, and it is espe- 
 cially applicable in connection with drops in ditches. The 
 formula for computing discharges with this weir is 
 
 Q = (3.83 - 
 
 in which Q is the discharge in second-feet, L the length of the 
 notch crest in feet, and H the de.pth of the water on the notch 
 in feet. 1 
 
 1 See "A New Irrigation Weir" by V. M. Cone, Journal of Agricultural 
 Research, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Vol. V, No. 24. 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 1256 
 
 ORIFICES. Miner's Inch Box. This device is a type of free 
 flow orifice and was the first form of measuring device used by 
 irrigators in the West, being a relic of the early mining days. 
 Its use at present is restricted to a few localities. Such orifices 
 are reasonably accurate in their measurement of water, but they 
 should be either calibrated or built according to plans which will 
 give a known discharge and the discharge should be expressed 
 in second-feet, or some other definite quantity, rather than in 
 such terms as miner's, statute, or farmers' inch. Such orifices 
 are especially applicable to the measurement of small flows of 
 water and when used in connection with a spill box acts some- 
 what as a proportional divider. They are not well suited to the 
 rotation method of delivery of irrigation water where large 
 quantities are delivered for short periods, and they will not de- 
 liver a flow much in excess of their normal capacity. This type 
 of measuring device has often been unjustly condemned for a 
 fault which is not so much the fault of the orifice structure as the 
 unit of measurement used, the inch, whether it be called miner's, 
 statute, customary, or farmers' inch. A miner's inch box usu- 
 ally has an orifice opening measuring 2, 4, or 6 inches, vertically 
 fitted with a slide which moves horizontally. The heads com- 
 monly used are 4 to 6 inches above the center of the opening, 
 but in Colorado the opening is 6 inches high and the -head 5 
 inches above the top of the orifice. 
 
 Submerged Orifices. Where too much silt or insufficient fall 
 prevents the installing of the ordinary type of weir, water may 
 be measured by means of a submerged orifice in a headgate or 
 other structure, or in a specially installed submerged orifice 
 measuring device. In determining the discharge for a submerged 
 orifice it is necessary to know besides the size of the opening, the 
 difference in the elevation of the water surfaces on the sides of 
 the gate and the proper coefficient of discharge through the 
 opening. The first of these is readily obtained, but the latter 
 varies with the structure and even for the same orifice under 
 different conditions of operation. Whether the orifice is in a 
 headgate, or in a special orifice measuring device, it is the com- 
 mon practice to provide more or less complete contractions on 
 the bottom and sides of the opening in order to simplify the 
 discharge measurement. The contraction on the bottom is apt 
 
125c USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 to fill with debris or sediment and this causes an over registra- 
 tion of water. 
 
 Different contraction distances give different velocities of 
 approach, which in turn effect the discharge through the orifice. 
 While it is desirable that the velocity of approach be eliminated 
 as far as possible so there will be as little change as possible in 
 the discharge conditions, low velocities allow silt to accumulate 
 in front of the opening and cause error in the measurement. 
 Eliminating the bottom contraction reduces trouble due to silt, 
 but increases the errors due to varying velocities of approach 
 for different conditions of operation. The discharge through an 
 orifice is computed from the following equation: Q = CA\/2gh 
 where Q is the discharge in second-feet, C a constant ranging from 
 0.60 to 0.85, A the area of the orifice in square feet, g the accelera- 
 tion of gravity in feet per second, usually taken as 32.16, and h 
 the head in feet. Since the choice of a proper coefficient value 
 for the orifice is difficult, and since such value usually varies for 
 different conditions of operation, it is readily seen that the sub- 
 merged orifice is not the most practical measuring device for 
 farm use. 
 
 PROPORTIONAL DIVISION OF WATER. In some states, notably 
 Utah, not only the water carried by canals but also the dis- 
 charge of the smaller streatns is frequently allotted to the users 
 in proportional parts of the entire flow. The basis of allotment 
 is the number of shares of stock owned by each user, each share 
 usually representing an acre of irrigable land. Since western 
 streams and to a considerable extent western gravity canals are 
 subject to wide fluctuations in the volumes carried, there is a 
 decided advantage in using this method. Its chief defect is due 
 to a disregard of transmission losses which results in allotting too 
 much water to the upper users of a system and too little to the 
 lower users. An equitable apportionment of the available or net 
 flow can be effected only by first deducting all losses due to trans- 
 mission and this method requires the measurement rather than 
 the proportioning of water. 
 
 The division box shown in Fig. 52 1 is based on the principle that 
 
 1 Gate Structures for Irrigation Canals, by Fred C. Scobey. U. S. De- 
 partment of Agriculture, Bui. 115. 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 125d 
 
 water flows over a weir crest in volumes proportionate to its length 
 providing certain conditions are complied with. These are (a) 
 that the velocity of water above the weir and before it is in- 
 fluenced by it is quite low; (b) that the crest board be set far 
 enough downstream in the flume so as to insure complete sup- 
 pression of side contractions; (c) that the influence of backwater, 
 if any, be uniform across the box; and (d) that the crest be kept 
 level. 
 
 Note: 
 Gate to be 
 Hinged 
 
 Post 
 
 FIG. 52. Design for proportional division box. 
 
 The division of water by means of such boxes can best^be 
 described by an example. At a certain box delivering water to 
 John Smith there are 84 shares including Smith's yet to be served. 
 The width of the water channel is 60 inches which is reduced to a 
 net width of 58 inches by deducting the width of the division 
 board. c Mr. Smith has 17 shares of stock and the width of the 
 crest serving his ditch would be found by multiplying the net 
 width of the canal (58 inches) by the number of Smith's shares 
 (17) and dividing the product by the total number of shares 
 yet to be served (84) which would give 11.7. 
 
125e 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 TIME-FLOW METHOD. When a constant stream of water, the 
 quantity of which has been measured, is. turned into a lateral, 
 ditch, or pipe the simplest, cheapest, and most accurate means 
 of ascertaining the quantity delivered to each irrigator who uses 
 the water in turn is to keep a record of the time of flow to each. 
 For lack of a better term the writer has called this the time-flow 
 measurement. Where irrigation water is distributed through 
 lateral ditches, and it is desired to charge for it by the quantity 
 flowing during any given time and at the same time keep a watch 
 on such flow and continually record the time and quantities the 
 Venturi irrigation meter shown in Fig. 53 can be installed at the 
 
 FIG. 53. Venturi irrigation meter. 
 
 head of each lateral line. It goes without saying that the ordi- 
 nary form of Venturi meter can be used where the distribution 
 of irrigation water takes place under pressure through pipe lines. 
 The use of weirs to measure such water, has been treated in a 
 previous paragraph. In this way all deliveries to users on the 
 same lateral, whether through a pipe or ditch, can be made by 
 the time-flow method. 
 
 CURRENT METER. The current meter is a light portable device 
 for measuring the rate of flow of water and consists of a screw 
 propeller or cup-shaped wheel delicately mounted so that even 
 a sluggish current will cause either to revolve. Each complete 
 revolution of the meter or a fixed number of revolutions is noted 
 by a click which is transmitted to the ear of the operator by a 
 sounding tube or electrical connection. 1 
 
 1 For detailed description of current meter see River Discharge by Hoyt 
 and Grover, John Wiley and Son, Inc., New York, Publishers. 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 125/ 
 
 It is obvious that the faster the water flows the greater will be 
 the number of revolutions of the meter and that each revolution 
 will indicate a certain rate of flow in the water. The determina- 
 tion of this relation is called "rating the meter." If ail meters 
 of the same type revolved with the same ease and speed under 
 similar conditions the manufacturer could ship with each new 
 instrument the standard rating for that type. Numerous tests 
 have shown, however, that no two meters behave exactly alike 
 and for accurate work each has to be rated. A rating station 
 has been established by the Bureau of Standards near Washing- 
 
 FIG. 54. Measuring a canal with current meter. 
 
 ton, D. C., and other stations are to be found in various parts of 
 the West.,~ The meter when being rated is attached by a rod to 
 a car on a track and is held about 1 foot deep in still water. 
 The car is then moved over a measured course at speeds ranging 
 from 0.2 to 10 feet per second and over, an accurate record being 
 kept of the time and the number of revolutions. From the results 
 of a sufficient number of runs a table is computed which gives 
 the rating of the meter within the range of the observations. 
 
 Water flowing under normal conditions in any ditch or canal 
 has a relatively high velocity at the center and a slow velocity at 
 either side and along the bottom. In order to obtain the average 
 velocity it is necessary to determine the speed of the water at 
 
1250 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 various points or in various sections. The usual practice is to 
 select a suitable part of a straight channel having a smooth and 
 uniform section in which the velocity of the water is slow rather 
 than fast. c An ideal velocity is about 2 feet per second. A plank 
 or timber may be placed across the channel, Fig. 54, and the width 
 of the water-surface marked thereon in feet. Beginning at 
 station zero as shown on the plank, ascertain the depth and mean 
 velocity at station 0.25, and afterward at stations 1, 2, 3, etc. 
 The depth in feet at stations 1, 2, 3, etc., multiplied by the mean 
 velocity in feet per second, will give the flow for that particular 
 station in cubic feet per second and the sum of all these products 
 will represent the discharge of the ditch, with the exception of 
 what flows through the small areas at each side. The small area 
 between stations zero and 0.5 is considered as a triangle and its 
 discharge computed. The fractional part of a station at the 
 other edge of the water-surface is similarly treated, thus complet- 
 ing the total discharge. 
 
 In determining the mean velocity of any vertical section the 
 integration method is recommended for small ditches and streams. 
 This consists in moving the meter vertically from just below the 
 surface of the water to the bottom of the ditch and back again 
 to the surface, making one or more complete trips from the sur- 
 face to the bottom and back to the surface, taking note of the 
 time by a stop-watch, and counting the revolutions of the meter 
 in the entire period. In using this method, care should be exer- 
 cised to move the meter very slowly and uniformly through the 
 water, so as to secure the average of the different velocities in 
 any vertical section. 
 
 SLOPE FORMULA. In estimating the capacity of a dry ditch 
 or one which is only partially filled, Kutter's formula may be 
 used. Expressed in English measures, this formula gives the 
 following equivalent for 7, the mean velocity of the water in 
 the ditch: 
 
 1.811 
 
 + 41.66 - 
 
 0.00281 
 
 n 
 
 e 
 
 ,4, 
 
 0.00281] 
 
 .OO "f" " 
 
 s \ V 
 
 In applying this formula it is advisable to determine the 
 grade, or slope (s) over at least 500 feet and apply the average 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY I25h 
 
 slope thus found to a particular section. R, as given in the 
 formula, is found by dividing the cross-section of the ditch in 
 square feet by the length of the perimeter of the ditch in feet. 
 The letter "n" represents, in the formula, all the retarding in- 
 fluences. Its value for small ditches in average condition may 
 be taken at 0.025. 
 
 THE AUSTRALIAN METER. Most farmers prefer a measuring 
 device which records in some well-known unit the total quantity 
 of water that flows through every ditch during any period of time. 
 Such a meter has been devised by J. S. Dethridge, an Australian 
 engineer, and is known as the Dethridge, or Australian meter. 
 It consists of a metal drum 40 inches in diameter fo which are 
 attached V-shaped plates of the same material 10 inches in 
 width. The drum carrying the plates revolves in a concrete 
 flume about 30 inches wide, the middle portion of the bottom 
 being concave to fit the revolving wheel. One-fourth to three- 
 eighths of an inch clearance is allowed on the sides and bottom. 
 Each pocket between the projecting plates must be filled with 
 water before the wheel revolves and a simple revolution counter 
 attached to the axle of the drum indicates the total volume of 
 water delivered 1 . Fig. A of Plate VI shows one of these meters 
 being tested against a standard weir on the University farm at 
 Davis, California. Fig. B of the same plate shows a meter of 
 this type in operation in the State of Victoria, Australia. 1 
 
 28. Evaporation from Water Surfaces. Evaporation from 
 water surfaces is of importance to the irrigation engineer in con- 
 nection with the loss from reservoirs and to a very small degree in 
 connection with the loss from canals. It is also of importance 
 to the irrigation farmer because it gives some indication of the 
 loss from the surface of irrigated soils discussed in Art. 29. 
 
 APPLIANCES USED. Evaporation from water surf aces is usually 
 ascertained by measuring the depth lost from evaporating pans 
 or tanks freely exposed to the weather and set in the ground with 
 the earth compactly replaced about them and with the rims of the 
 pans or tanks protruding about 1 inch above the ground. It 
 is generally customary to use round tanks made of galvanized 
 sheet iron and varying in diameter from 2 to 8 feet and in depth 
 
 1 See the Dethridge meter, Colorado Experiment Station Bulletin No. 215 
 and Some Measuring Devices used in the Delivery of Irrigation Water, 
 California University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin, No. 247. 
 
126 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 from 2 to 3 feet, a round tank 4 feet in diameter and 2.5 feet deep 
 being suggested as a desirable standard. 1 
 
 Additional equipment for ordinary observation consists of a 
 hook gauge for measuring weekly or daily loss, 2 and a standard 
 rain gauge for measuring precipitation between observations and 
 refillings of the evaporation tank. For complete engineering 
 observation there should be added a set of maximum and mini- 
 mum thermometers and a standard psychrometer for ascertaining 
 the dew point, and also an anemometer for ascertaining wind 
 movement. The latter instruments are only needed when it is 
 desired to apply observed data to situations considerably removed 
 from the place of observation. 3 The entire equipment should be 
 protected from stray animals by a low wire-mesh fence. 
 
 How EVAPORATION is DETERMINED. When feasible it is desir- 
 able to record evaporation not less frequently than once weekly 
 and daily observations for short periods at intervals during the 
 observational period are often desirable. When starting ob- 
 servations the tank should be filled to within 1 to 3 or 4 inches 
 of the top, depending on the size of the tank and the prevalence 
 of winds, these two factors determining possible slopping over 
 the rim of the tank by wave action. During periods of possible 
 excessive precipitation the water must be kept a safe distance be- 
 low the rim, daily observations often being necessary to insure 
 this result. A desirable plan is to fill the tank at each re-filling 
 to the same depth. To the measured loss should be added at 
 each observation the precipitation since the last observation. It 
 
 1 Experiments by the U. S. Weather Bureau, reported in the Monthly 
 Weather Review, February and July, 1910, pp. 307, 1133, indicate a sen- 
 sible difference in the evaporation from vessels of different diameters, so 
 that careful calculations of evaporation from observed data must neces- 
 sarily take into account the sizes of vessels used in observations. As 
 observed data regarding evaporation losses are often made general use 
 of in engineering practice the need of a standard vessel is obvious. 
 
 2 A recording evaporimeter for obtaining continuous records is a valuable 
 addition to the equipment. For description of an evaporimeter 'used by 
 the Irrigation Investigations of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
 See U. S. D. A., O. E. S. Bui. No. 248. 
 
 3 A much more elaborate equipment is used in observations and experi- 
 ments designed to furnish data of wide scientific application. For descrip- 
 tion of such equipment see Monthly Weather Review, Feb. and Dec., 1910, 
 pp. 307, 1133. 
 
PLATE VI 
 
 FIG. A. Testing Australian meter against standard weir. 
 
 FIG. B. Similar device used in Victoria, Australia. 
 
 (Facing page 126.) 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 127 
 
 is not ii(vos>ary that the tank should be re-filled after each ob- 
 serva ion. yet a va.iation in the water level of more than 3 or 4 
 inches should not be permitted. 
 
 FACTORS GOVERNING I EVAPORATION. What determines the rate 
 of evaporation from freely exposed water surfaces has been ex- 
 tensively studied, some of the most complete technical work done 
 along this line in this country being that of Fitzgerald and the 
 U. S. Weather Bureau. 1 The governing factor in evaporation 
 is the temperature of the water, which is of course dependent on 
 the temperature of the atmosphere immediately above, 2 evapora- 
 tion taking place more rapidly when the surface water tempera- 
 ture is considerably a*bove the dew point of the surrounding air. 
 Other factors are air movement above the water surface, humidity, 
 and possibly to some extent altitude. Air movement above 
 a water surface increases evaporation to the extent that drier air 
 li made to replace the air already charged with the escaping vapor 
 from the water surface, fcr at any given temperature air is capable 
 of holding only a definite amount of moisture, saturation occur- 
 ring when that quantity is supplied. It has been found that 
 while evaporation is greatly reduced during foggy weather, it 
 does not altogether cease even with a saturated atmosphere 
 provided there is air movement above. The effect of altitude 
 merely in so far as concerns change in barometric pressure, is 
 not yet fully established, although most observers credit it with 
 exerting but little influence, and limited experiments of the U. S. 
 \\Vuther Bureau point to not greater evaporation at 4000 feet 
 elevation, after correction for temperature, etc., than at sea level. 
 
 1 For account of the work of Fitzgerald see Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., 
 Vol. XV, pp. 581 et seq. For account of investigations of U. S. Weather 
 Bureau see Monthly Weather Review, Feb. and July, 1910, pp. 307, 1133. 
 For additional miscellaneous references see among many others, Quart. Jr. 
 Royal Met. Soc. (Eng.), Vol. XVIII, pp. 54 et seq, Bui. 45, Colo. Agr. Exp. 
 Sta.: En- Newi. Apr. 6, 1905, p. 353; Sept. 19, 1907, p. 304; Aug. 13, 1908, 
 p 163; Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Vol. LXXVI, p. 1516; U. S. Dept. Agr. 
 O. E. S.. Bui. 177, Eng. Rec., Feb. 12, 1910, p. 198, U. S. Dept. Agr. B. P. I., 
 Bui. 188. For an extended bibliography on evaporation see Monthly 
 ' her Review for 1908 and 1909. 
 
 : For rc-ults of experiments on the effect of water temperature on evapora- 
 tion, especially in its relation to irrigation practice, see U. S. Dept. Agr. 
 O. E. S.Buls. 177 and 248. 
 
128 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 UNITED STATES EVAPORATION RECORDS. Evaporation losses 
 from small tanks or pans have been widely observed in the United 
 States and table No. 21 gives the observed monthly^nd annual 
 rates for various localities, records from evaporation tanks or 
 pans situated on or near the ground chiefly being drawn from. 
 The pans used in the observations reported have varied from 2 to 
 6 feet in diameter and have been mostly set into the ground. 1 
 Measurements of evaporation from large bodies of water have 
 been very limited and are extremely difficult to make, owing 
 largely to the uncertainties of underground increase or loss, as 
 well as increase from surface run-off. Observations of the U. S. 
 Weather Bureau at Salton Sea have addeH to the available data 
 on the subject by showing that evaporation from large bodies of 
 water is only between 60 and 70 per cent, of that observed from 
 experimental tanks. In applying to reservoirs and other large 
 bodies of water data obtained from small evaporating tanks or 
 pans this correction should therefore be made. In estimating 
 evaporation losses from reservoirs it should be further borne in 
 mind that owing to the higher temperature of their water, shal- 
 low bodies evaporate more water than deep bodies, also, that 
 thus far there has not been found an appreciable difference be- 
 tween the amount evaporated near the shore of lakes and reser- 
 voirs and at some distance from the shore. 
 
 29. Evaporation from Irrigated Soils. Investigations to de- 
 termine the rate of evaporation from irrigated soils have been 
 carried on for a number of years by the Office of Experiment 
 Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture, under the supervision 
 of the writer and summaries of the results obtained have been 
 published in Buls. 177 and 248 of the Office. From these the 
 following data are taken. 
 
 1 The records given for Mecca and Lake Tahoe, Cal.; Deer Flat, Idaho; 
 Fallen, Nev.; Carlsbad, N. M.; Ady, Oregon; and North Yakima, Wash- 
 ington, are the records of the U. S. Weather Bureau (Vol. LXIII, Eng. News, 
 p. 694) and contain interpolations for from 3 to 7 months. The early 
 records for California are from Physical Data and Statistics, 1886, and 
 the later records are mainly from reports of Irrigation Investigations 
 O. E. S., U. S. D. A. Other records are mainly from the reports and bulle- 
 tins of the state experiment stations. Reports of the Irrigation Investi- 
 gations and the various state experiment stations give a large number of 
 part-season records. 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 129 
 
 X *J 
 
 >> 
 
 2 
 
 . 
 
 r/'/l-'-CC-.SXOt^O'H^O -o 
 -r rt r - t- -. rt -r C r-: ri x C 
 
 t>. ** i- : - f - . - r-t ~ : 
 t- oc 
 
 
 ::::; :g2 : : ::::: 
 
 eg eg 'i- i-< 
 
 ~ o e< es eg 
 
 -<^ioxxi5~x'':'N^^ro-H -o -o -ox -o -o -p 
 M M" ? -t' ' ei o ** ^ '-< -M '# -cieo --H ' ' '-H -fri 
 
 CO ^iCCO 00 X CO 
 
 S. . -O -3 
 -C^ -! 
 
 CCO <-i -C^ -d -CO 
 
 - Mcssooa a es ** * >* ooo o <NO-* OM-^O 
 
 -C C-l -M X t- ~ 'C -f * T}< 00 -< rp * O -H -H O M O -i fl X 
 
 - c c r. - r. cr^t^ 
 
 -1 O iQ OJ 
 
 c x ~ ?i x c; t^. ic c M >-? c^ re I-T !.; * -c >.t -H t>. ^ x t o ci t^- t o t o x 
 r. ' - - -r i-~ ~ M x c; ~ ri -M re >-: c; x re c ^ ^. x x -r x c: -t i> ^ *N c cs - 
 
 -<J* IN * CO O t x TJH 
 
 t> O OS Tf t> 00 >O 
 
 r f t~ ~ 
 . r : . c / - r - 
 
 to 
 
 - ~l -4* ^moOI >O i-iOtOD O O '-C*tti ' ?O ' 
 
 :g 
 
 :S 
 
 
 : ^ ;j : i ;J5 
 
 1 111 'I ! 
 
 I :3 
 
 ,11 
 
 - 
 .----. _2S 
 
130 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 The equipment (Fig. 55 and Plate VII) consisted of large 
 double tanks of galvanized iron and suitable apparatus for weigh- 
 ing the soil in each vessel. The outer tanks were installed nearly 
 level with the ground surface in a field or orchard and the an- 
 nular space between the outer and inner tanks of each set was 
 filled with water. In filling the inner tank with soil, care was 
 taken to place it within the tank in its natural condition. 
 
 AMOUNT EVAPORATED. 
 The results of the experiments 
 conducted at Riverside, Cali- 
 fornia, showed that when the 
 dry sandy loam of an orchard 
 was irrigated by the furrow 
 method, the average loss by 
 evaporation during a subse- 
 quent period of 5 days was 15 
 per cent, of the water applied 
 in irrigation. 
 
 In other experiments at the 
 same place the loss by evapo- 
 ration in 10 days after the 
 surface had been irrigated by 
 flooding ranged from 21 per 
 cent, to 40 per cent, of the 
 amount of water applied. 
 
 At Davis, California, soils 
 which were irrigated by flood- 
 ing lost in 21 days from 23 per 
 cent, to 40 per cent, of the volume applied. At Reno, Nevada, 
 similar losses during a like period were found to be 24 per cent, 
 of the volume applied. 
 
 The investigations demonstrated that the same factors which 
 influenced the rate of evaporation from a water surface (Art. 28) 
 were also applicable to soils. In the case of soils, however, the 
 main governing factor in the rate of evaporation is not the tem- 
 perature of the soil and air, the movement of wind, or the humid- 
 ity of the atmosphere but the percentage of moisture in the top 
 layer of soil. This is illustrated in Fig. 56. It is further shown 
 in Table 22 in which the weekly rates of evaporation from soil 
 
 FIG. 55. Design of tank used in 
 evaporation experiments. 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 131 
 
 and water surfaces may be compared under the same climatic 
 conditions. 
 
 TABLE No. 22 
 Evaporation from Soil and Water 
 
 Kind of soil and percentage 
 of free water 
 
 Moan temperature taken morning, 
 noon and evening in degrees F. 
 
 Weekly 
 evaporation 
 
 Air in 
 shade 
 
 Soil in 
 shade 
 
 Soil in 
 sun 
 
 Moist 
 soil 
 
 Surface 
 of water 
 
 Soil, 
 inches 
 
 Water, 
 inches 
 
 Sandy loam saturated . . . 
 S'tndv loam 17.5. . . . 
 
 71 
 76 
 76 
 76 
 76 
 
 76 
 
 78 
 78 
 78 
 
 78 
 
 95 
 106 
 106 
 108 
 108 
 
 83 
 
 77 
 80 
 80 
 80 
 80 
 
 4.75 
 1.33 
 1.13 
 
 0.88 
 0.25 
 
 1.88 
 1.94 
 1.94 
 1.94 
 1.94 
 
 Sandy loam 11.9 
 Sandv loam 8.9 
 
 
 
 
 Sandv loam 4.8 
 
 The investigations likewise demonstrated that the loss by 
 evaporation from newly irrigated soils, particularly when the 
 entire surface is moistened was very great for the first few days 
 after irrigation. One would expect this result from what was 
 stated previously. 
 
 Loss by Evaporation 
 Free Moisture in Soil 
 Irrigation Water 
 
 23456789 10 
 Free Moisture-Equivalent in Depth over Surface 
 
 FIG. 56. Diagram showing the initial amount of free moisture in the 
 soil, the amount added, and the loss by evaporation, July 27 to Aug. 5, 1907, 
 at Riverside, Cal. 
 
 PARTIAL PREVENTION OF EVAPORATION LOSSES. In all crops 
 the husbandman can materially lessen the amount of water lost by 
 evaporation by properly preparing the surface of fields, adopting 
 the right method of applying water and cultivating the soil at the 
 right time. In following this course he will not only economize 
 
132 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 in water but will increase the quantity and quality of the products 
 raised. The foregoing applies in particular to all cultivated and 
 deep-rooted crops and for these the following remedies for such 
 losses nray be applied. 
 
 (a) Soil Mulches. At five stations throughout the arid region 
 tanks (Fig. 55) containing soil were each irrigated to a depth of 
 6 inches. After the water had entirely disappeared from the 
 soil surface, fine dry granular soil mulches were added as follows : 
 Tanks 1 and 2, no mulch; tanks 3 and 4, a 3-inch layer; tanks 
 
 
 Average 21-Day Period 
 
 
 Mulch 
 
 3 Inch 
 
 Mulch 
 
 6 loch 
 Mulch 
 
 9 Inch 
 Mulch 
 
 30 
 25 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 h 
 
 ! 
 
 h 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IEvapo^ration in Inches 
 | en b en b 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1Q 
 
 >"X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "R 
 
 X^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ss 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X"u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^\*- 
 
 -^< 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rV 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , > 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^<f 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^^* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 _^* 
 
 
 
 
 vx^ 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 ^J\ 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 *^~ 
 
 
 
 6 A 
 
 \\>- *' 
 
 ^^"' 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 ^**^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 -*^^ 
 
 
 ^-< 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 b 
 
 i 
 
 *^ 
 
 == 
 
 L e 
 
 -= 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 1 
 
 IT*-- 
 
 L 
 
 D 1 
 Days 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 i 
 
 *r~~~*~~ 
 \- 
 ^Z 
 4 1 
 
 -^4 
 
 9-ljJ 
 5 1 
 
 ?&*& 
 8 20 
 
 FIG. 57. Average evaporation loses from tanks of soil protected by 
 mulches of different depths during first 21 days after irrigation. Average 
 loss at five stations. 
 
 5 and 6, a 6-inch layer; tanks 7 and 8, a 9-inch layer. Weighings 
 were started immediately and continued semi-weekly for a period 
 of 21 days. The average losses of water at the five stations 
 are shown graphically in Fig. 57. 
 
 (b) Cultivation. Similar equipment was used to determine 
 the effect of cultivation in checking evaporation. The results 
 of experiments conducted at six stations throughout the arid 
 region with the accompanying meteorological data are given 
 in Fig. 58. The average losses shown by the above are 2.13 
 inches from the uncultivated and 1.58 inches from the cultivated 
 soils, being 35.5 and 26.3, respectively, of the total 6 inches used 
 in irrigation. It is a significant fact that 51 per cent, of the loss 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 133 
 
 from the cultivated surface occurred in the first 3 days, that 
 is, during the average period between irrigation and cultivation. 
 
 FIG. 58. Average evaporation losses from cultivated and uncultivated 
 tanks during first 28 days after irrigation. Average of losses at six stations. 
 
 Average of Two 28-Day Periods 
 July 3-August 5 : August 10-September 7 
 
 I" 
 
 310 
 
 24 G 8101214101820222426*2830 
 Days 
 
 FIG. 59. Average evaporation losses from tanks irrigated by flooding 
 and with furrows of different depths at Reno, Nevada, July 8 to Aug. 5 
 and Aug. 10 to Sept. 7, 1909. 
 
 This emphasizes the necessity of early cultivation, especially 
 in the heavy soils where the percolation of moisture through the 
 >:oil is slow and the moisture content of the surface soil is high. 
 
134 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 The observations also revealed a tendency in light sandy soils 
 for the uncultivated surfaces to mulch themselves and after the 
 first few days following the application of water the loss dimin- 
 ished very rapidly and in the end little advantage is shown in 
 favor of cultivation. It not infrequently happens too, that the 
 cultivation of soils containing a high percentage of free water 
 increases rather than diminishes the loss by evaporation. 
 
 (c) Shallow Versus Deep Furrows. Of late years in orchard 
 irrigation in particular, where the furrow method is used, there 
 has been a growing tendency toward fewer and deeper furrows 
 with one heavy irrigation every 4 to 6 weeks rather than a larger 
 number of shallow furrows with a light irrigation at short inter- 
 vals. In shallow-rooted crops and in soils thiough which water 
 percolates freely, the deep furrow is not to be recommended. 
 On the other hand, where conditions pertaining to water supply, 
 soils, and crops are favorable, the deep furrow affords a marked 
 saving in the water used by checking evaporation. This is 
 clearly brought out in Fig. 59 which presents graphically the 
 summarized results of investigations conducted at Reno, Nevada. 
 
 TABLE No. 23 
 
 Summary of Temperature of Air, Soil, and Water, Humidity, Wind Velocity, 
 
 Rainfall, Free Water in Soil, and Losses from Free-water Surface and 
 
 from Cultivated and Uncultivated Tanks of the Several Stations 
 
 
 
 
 Temperatures 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 S g 
 
 , 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 .2 
 
 o 
 
 .-73 
 
 
 
 
 > 3 
 
 T5 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 
 3 03 
 o -~ 
 
 - 
 
 Oi 3 
 
 
 41 
 
 c 
 
 i 
 
 B 
 
 
 49 
 
 fi ^ 
 
 H 
 
 h 
 
 c 2 
 
 g 
 
 
 9 
 
 Stations 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 mosphe 
 
 1 
 
 > 
 
 I's 
 
 3 n 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 Humid 
 
 '5 S3 
 , ft 
 
 || 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 || 
 
 ll 
 _> 
 
 1 
 
 
 fe 
 
 * 
 
 2j 
 
 a 
 p 
 
 
 
 > J 
 
 H 
 
 
 II 
 
 ^^ 
 
 31 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 F. 
 
 F. 
 
 F 
 
 F. 
 
 P.ctJMiles 
 
 In. 
 
 P.ct. 
 
 In. /I In. In. P.ct- 
 
 Sunnyside, Wash. . . 
 
 1 
 
 65.2 
 
 71.3 
 
 74.3 
 
 70.9 
 
 
 
 0.00 6.00 
 
 7.25 1.47 2.47 
 
 40.3 
 
 Davis, Cal 
 
 2 |64.5 
 
 
 75.7 
 
 73.2 
 
 49.8 
 
 9.3 
 
 0.0012.85 
 
 9.41 
 
 1.36 1.91 
 
 28.2 
 
 Reno, Nev 
 
 2 
 
 56.6 
 
 
 67.9 
 
 
 58.9 
 
 6.4 
 
 0.39 
 
 8.88 
 
 8.49 
 
 1.09 1.51 27.8 
 
 Caldwell, Idaho.... 
 
 ?, 
 
 7? ? 
 
 69 ? 
 
 69.4 
 
 68 4 
 
 
 
 O 14 
 
 fi 9,1 
 
 9 81 
 
 1 91 9 49: 91 f 
 
 Agricultural College, 
 N. Mex 
 
 9 
 
 74 5 
 
 
 
 
 22 7 
 
 8 3 
 
 57 
 
 11 13 
 
 1 37 
 
 1 t^O 
 
 13 8 
 
 Bozeman, Mont.. . . 
 
 1 
 
 64 ..4 
 
 73.9 
 
 74.6 
 
 75.0 
 
 
 9.4 
 
 0.99 
 
 17.80 
 
 4.38 
 
 2.30 2.92 
 
 21.2 
 
 Average 
 
 
 66.2 
 
 71.5 72.4 
 
 72.943.8 8.4 
 
 0.3510.35 
 
 8.4-1 1.58 
 
 2.14 
 
 26.4 
 
 30. The Duty of Water in Irrigation. Duty of water in irriga- 
 tion expresses the relation between a given quantity of water and 
 the area which it serves. The water supply of the arid region 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 135 
 
 being limited in volume means must be taken to regulate its use. 
 By the exercise of this control the flow of streams is apportioned 
 to users of various kinds in accordance with a pre-determined 
 duty. It therefore follows that the duty of water when fixed by 
 competent authority affects communities and enterprises, as 
 well as individuals and may affect states and nations. 
 
 All phases of this subject vitally concern the irrigator. He 
 wishes to secure for his growing crops an adequate supply of 
 water at the right time but in its use he may be governed wholly 
 or in part by Federal statutes, State Laws, State regulations, 
 court decisions or water right contracts which determine his 
 right to divert and place limitations on the quantity of water 
 which can be used for this purpose. It has therefore been con- 
 sidered best to preface this article with a brief outline of the 
 broader aspects of the subject by discussing briefly the agencies 
 and methods employed to place limitations on the quantity of 
 water which can be used in irrigation. 
 
 1. State Laws. The statutes of Idaho restrict the user to a 
 maximum quantity of 1/50 of a second-foot per acre, but the 
 courts of the state are empowered to grant more when necessary. 
 This authority has been abused in a number of cases, since some 
 decrees have granted as much as 1 second-foot for 10 acres. 
 In the states of Wyoming, Nebraska, Oklahoma, New Mexico and 
 South Dakota, the maximum limit is fixed by statute at 1/70 
 of a second-foot per acre, while in North Dakota it is 1/80 of 
 a second-foot per acre. There' is a similar limitation in Nevada 
 but the unit adopted is in acie-feet per acre, 3 acre-feet being the 
 maximum. 
 
 To the writer it seems unwise for any arid state to fix limita- 
 tions of this kind. Outlined in another part of this article are 
 some of the conditions which affect the duty of irrigation water. 
 These conditions not only differ widely in different parts of the 
 same state but change from year to year. The changes which 
 time brings forth may be shown by citing a few cases. Some 
 25 years ago the irrigators of the Greeley district in northern 
 Colorado were using a second-foot of water on 40 to 50 acres. 
 In recent years the same quantity has served fully three times as 
 much land with far better results when measured in crop yields. 
 Again in the early nineties the farmers in the Bear River Valley 
 
136 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 in northern Utah used a second-foot on 60 to 80 acres but during 
 the past few years the average duty has been a second-foot for 
 120 acres. Furthermore, when the legislative assembly of Wy- 
 oming in 1891 limited the duty throughout that state to 1 
 second-foot for each 70 acres it was actuated by the best of 
 motives. Such a duty was then high. Now it is too low and the 
 state is handicapped by having apportioned so large a volume of 
 its public waters on the limit fixed by statute. 
 
 2. State Control. The control exercised by a state may affect 
 the duty of water in several ways. In many of the western 
 states the apportionment, measurement and distribution of 
 the appropriated waters are in charge of state officers, who 
 are required to distribute the flow of streams in accordance 
 with adjudicated rights. It often happens that by the exercise 
 of good judgment in the performance of this duty they can modify 
 the defects or temper the harshness of court decisions. Some- 
 times the transfer of a little water for a short time from a superior 
 to an inferior right "may save a farmer's crops without inflicting 
 any injury en his more fortunate neighbor who has a prior right. 
 Such officers can be of so great service to the state in maintaining 
 friendly relations among irrigators, in the prevention of waste 
 of water, in the wise use of seepage and return waters, and in 
 securing the largest possible benefits from all available sources of 
 supply, that the trend of public opinion favors giving them large 
 discretionary powers in the exercise of their public duties. 
 
 Another form of state control is exercised by state land 
 boards in examining and approving the duty of water on lands 
 under Carey Act projects. In Idaho, for example, the prevailing 
 duty under such projects is 1 second-foot of water for each 
 80 acres of land, delivered at the head of the farmer's laterals. 
 
 State control is likewise exercised through special tribunals 
 or water courts. In Wyoming the special tribunal is called the 
 Board of Control and it is justly entitled to the highest praise 
 for its efficiency. From the time this Board was created in 1890 
 and organized in 1891, up to January 1, 1914, it had adjudicated 
 12,500 rights to the use of water. These rights serve 1,510,000 
 acres. Considering the small number of its decisions that have 
 been appealed no other court can show so good a record. 
 
 The writer is in favor of a special tribunal with state-wide 
 
WAST I-:. MEASUREMENT, AXD DELIVERY 137 
 
 jurisdiction for the determination of water rights. He is likewise 
 i;i favor of handing over to competent state officers the regulation 
 of the water supply. Acting in accordance with these views, 
 Mr. H. W. Grunsky and the writer, when called upon to advise 
 the ministry of British Columbia on matteis pertaining to irriga- 
 tion, recommended, among other things, a form of water license 
 for the Province. This form of final license is in force at this 
 writing and contains the following "terms and conditions": 
 (a) source of supply, (b) point of diversion, (c) the date from which 
 the license shall take precedence, (d) the purpose for which the 
 water is to be used, (e) the maximum quantity of water which 
 may be used until lawfully altered, and the maximum quantity 
 of water per annum which may be used on each acre actually 
 irrigated in acre-feet, (f) the period of the year during which 
 the water may be used, (g) the area and description of the land 
 to which the water is appurtenant, (h) a concise description of 
 the works, (i) a limitation of the water used per acre to that 
 quantity which experience may hereafter determine to be neces- 
 sary for the production of crops in the exercise of good husbandry, 
 and (j) a reservation to the Province of the right to distribute 
 water in rotation of time or otherwise for the purpose of securing 
 the most economical use of water. 
 
 Some may regard these terms and conditions as unduly rigid 
 and unfair to the irrigator. On the other hand, the belief is 
 becoming quite general that the high value and scarcity of water 
 and the demand which is being made on this natural resource will 
 soon force the abandonment of lax laws and wasteful use affecting 
 it, 
 
 3. Court Decisions. Of the adjudicated rights, by far the 
 largest number have been determined by district courts. Mem- 
 bers of the legal profession generally favor this mode of procedure; 
 and no valid objection can be raised to it, if only questions of 
 law are involved. Needless to state, however, the proper de- 
 termination of a right to the use of water resembles that of the 
 survey and location of a piece of land. It is based on the re- 
 sults of investigations pertaining to water and land measure- 
 ments, the carrying capacities of ditches, seepage and return 
 waters, character of the soil, water requirements of crops and 
 other physical facts of like nature. Considering the question 
 
138 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 from this point of view it may well be doubted whether the 
 ordinary law court is the best tribunal for such a purpose. In 
 any event, grave mistakes have been made by such courts in the 
 past. Some 20 years ago a part of the public waters of 
 Colorado were adjudicated in a haphazard way with little or no 
 effort to ascertain the physical facts. Many adjudications were 
 based on the cross-sectional area of the ditch or canal without 
 reference to its grade or the velocity of flow. In one case 33 
 second-feet of water were granted to 120 acres of land, and in 
 another 31 second-feet to 200 acres. The owner of the ranch 
 last referred to was recently offered $100,000 for the land 
 and the water right, the latter being appraised at about 
 $60,000. 
 
 It is but just to state that these decisions were rendered at 
 a time when water possessed less value than it does today. Re- 
 cent water decisions of the district courts are based on more 
 accurate data, yet the tendency is still in the direction of grant- 
 ing a generous allowance, disregarding the public welfare and 
 allowing too much latitude as to the period of time when the 
 water can be used. Some of these weak features are brought 
 out in the following references: 
 
 In 1909 the rights to the u^e of water on the West Gallatin 
 valley in Montana were determined by a decree of the court. 
 In this suit, 144 canals, providing water for 83,600 acres of land, 
 were involved. In arriving at a decision some attempt at a 
 rough classification of soils was made for the purpose of adjusting 
 the amount of water decreed to the needs of the soil. In general, 
 1 miner's inch per acre (1/40 second-foot) was decreed to the 
 more porous soils and 3/4 miner's inch to the silt and clay 
 loams. These quantities were supplemented by allowances 
 for seepage losses in the ditches and canals. These losses varied 
 from less than 1 per cent, to 5 per cent, per mile. While 
 the case was pending competent parties ascertained for the 
 court the proper duty of water for both classes of soil. These 
 were based on a 24-hour use of the water in each day. The 
 judge, however, did not think it right to compel users to irrigate 
 during the night and so based the decree on a 12-hour day by 
 granting double the quantity of water required per acre. In this 
 decision the seasonal time of use is not defined and in consequence 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 139 
 
 no provision is made for appropriating water from the same 
 stream for storage or other purposes. 
 
 In a decision rendered in 1910 by Judge Kent of Arizona, the 
 standard duty of water was fixed for much of the irrigated land 
 in the Salt River Valley. The area affected by the decree em- 
 braced 179,970 acres and a constant flow of 48 miner's inches 
 was allowed to each quarter section of land measured and de- 
 livered at the land. This is equivalent to 1 second-foot to 
 each 133 1/3 acres or 5.42 acre-feet per acre per annum. A 
 standard transmission loss due to seepage and evaporation was 
 also adopted. This loss was placed at 1 per cent, of the flow 
 per mile of main canal. Although of recent date, this decree has 
 a far-reaching influence in that it has fixed for the past 3 
 years the duty of water for more than one-half of the irrigated 
 lands of Arizona. 
 
 A peculiar feature of the decree is that the court retained 
 jurisdiction of the case and the issues raised in the suit with a 
 view to modifying any portion later. This reservation has 
 great significance when applied to duty of water and seems to 
 be the recognition of the fact that the water requirements of 
 crops and soils change as conditions change. While a decision 
 of this kind is quite arbitrary in character so long as it is in effect, 
 yet the opportunity which it affords for modification encourages 
 t he fullest investigation of the amount of water actually required 
 for different crops and soils. The results of investigations thus 
 far made by the Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, under the direction of P. E. Fuller, seem to 
 point to the conclusion that 3 acre-feet per acre when 
 economically applied will suffice for average crops and soils. If 
 further investigation should confirm this view,^ it would justify 
 an early modification of the present duty of water in the Salt 
 River Valley. 
 
 4. Water Right Contracts. In general it may be stated that 
 court decisions in allotting water supplies favor the water users 
 at the expense of the public while water right contracts favor 
 the company at the expense of the water user. Whether justly 
 or unjustly, water right contracts likewise exert a potent influence 
 in restricting the quantity of water used in irrigation. While 
 many companies and enterprises live up to their agreements, 
 
140 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 some delivering to consumers more water than the contracts 
 called for, others, through stress of circumstances, seek to over- 
 come the defects of a short water supply or unsafe structures, 
 or both, by the insertion of one-sided agreements in the con- 
 tracts. Most contracts of this kind stipulate that the com- 
 pany agrees to furnish a fixed quantity of water which must be 
 used on a definite area; and in case of water shortage at any time 
 the amount available is to be prorated. Such provisions, when 
 robbed of their legal phraseology, mean, as R. P. Teele of the 
 U. S. Department of Agriculture states (Annual Report, O. E. 
 S., 1908) "That the farmer takes what water he can get, for 
 which he shall pay a flat rate per acre regardless of the quantity 
 received." 
 
 Duty of water under contracts is expressed in various ways 
 but measured in total volume for any one season it is seldom 
 less than 1 acre-foot or more than 3 acre-feet per acre. 
 
 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT. The manner in which duty of 
 water is expressed differs throughout the irrigated region. The 
 unit of water may be the acre-foot, the second-foot, the miner's 
 inch, or the U. S. Gallon per minute. In the rice belt where much 
 of the water is pumped, duty is usually expressed in gallons per 
 acre. Again, since the natural precipitation is measured in 
 depth over the surface and is a factor to be reckoned with in 
 connection with canal duty, the custom of using either the acre- 
 foot or the acre-inch per acre to express duty has become quite 
 general. In the more arid states where large quantities of ditch 
 water are required the acre-foot is the better term, but in the 
 humid region where small quantities are used as a supplemental 
 supply during periods of droughts, the acre-inch is preferable. 
 Another custom deserving of some recognition allows a certain 
 quantity of water per month delivered as required rather than 
 per season. The necessity for -corporations and irrigation 
 enterprises of all kinds obligating themselves to do this is shown 
 by the monthly water requirements of the crops in Table 24. ' 
 
 PLACE OF MEASUREMENT. The duty of water may be meas- 
 ured (1) at the intake of the main canal, (2) at the intake of the 
 lateral, or (3) at the margin of the farm. The results of meas- 
 urements made at^ the first-named place are often spoken of 
 as the gross duty, since they include all transmission losses 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 141 
 
 (Art. 26). Those obtained at the margins of fields are fre- 
 quently designated the net duty, since all losses in transit are 
 excluded. 
 
 CONDITIONS AFFECTING DUTY. It has long been recognized 
 that the amount of water required in irrigation differs widely on 
 adjacent farms and in different localities and states. In briefly 
 considering the causes of this the writer will not attempt to 
 name all the conditions nor to designate the order in which they 
 shall be presented. 
 
 (1) Value of Water. Where water, is plentiful and cheap 
 less care is certain to be taken in its use and less money ex- 
 pended in facilities for its conveyance and application. This 
 accounts for the large amount of water per acre which is used 
 in parts of central California and the relatively small amounts 
 used in southern California. There are, of course, exceptions 
 to this rule. In Florida, for example, water is both abundant 
 and cheap but irrigation water is exceptionally high on account 
 of the methods employed in its distribution and application, the 
 cost of which varies from $50 to $250 per acre. 
 
 (2) Character of Soil and Subsoil. Porous soils, on account 
 of the losses due to deep percolation, require much more water 
 than retentive soils. This is illustrated in a marked degree by 
 the use of water on the Reclamation Service project at Umatilla, 
 Oregon. On the " sand hill " area north of the town of Hermiston 
 in particular, the soil contains 60 to 90 per cent, of coarse sand 
 and gravel with little fine sand and an almost negligible amount 
 of silt and clay. The irrigation season extends from March 
 16 to October 16 210 days during which period contracts 
 call for the delivery to the land of 2.8 acre-feet of water per 
 acre. In 1912 the actual average delivery to the entire pro- 
 ject was 9.7 acre-feet per acre. On the more porous portions 
 it is considered necessary to irrigate alfalfa three or four times 
 for each cutting. One grower with 7 acres irrigated five times 
 for the first crop, and six times for each of the following 
 three cuttings, making 23 irrigations for the season. 
 
 (3) Climate. The rain which falls during the crop-growing 
 season and to a less extent the annual precipitation, have a 
 marked effect on crop production and the use of irrigation water. 
 In one sense all irrigation water is supplementary and the more 
 
142 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 rain which is absorbed by the soil, the less is the need for ar- 
 tificial supplies. It is likewise true that much of the rain which 
 falls during the period of growth is wasted. The light shower 
 may invigorate certain crops but it seldom adds anything to 
 the moisture content of the soil, being too soon dissipated 
 in vapor. It may actually deprive the soil of moisture by break- 
 ing down the dust mulch. Not only rainfall but temperature, 
 the prevalence of high, warm winds, the rate of evaporation, and 
 other climatic factors exert an influence on duty of water. The 
 traveler in proceeding north from Arizona and New Mexico into 
 the Province of British Columbia can not but observe the heavy 
 growth of timber which a light rainfall supports in the south- 
 central part of this Province. On account of the heavy evapora- 
 tion in the southwestern states, the same rainfall there pro- 
 duces only desert plants. 
 
 (4) Proper Channels and Structures. In discussing the ef- 
 ficiency of irrigation water in Art. 25 the extent of the losses 
 due to conducting water from place to place was pointed out. 
 Until this waste is much reduced a high duty of water can not 
 be secured, Furthermore, since the small ditches made by 
 the farmer waste a higher percentage of water there is much 
 need for reducing this loss by careful and efficient construction 
 and in some cases even to the extent of making them water- 
 tight. Much needless waste can likewise be saved by making 
 shorter runs. 
 
 (5) Preparation of Land. Coupled with proper facilities 
 for the carriage and distribution of the head used there is also 
 required the careful preparation of each field. To attempt to 
 irrigate land which has a rough, uneven surface, is frequently 
 the cause of much waste of water, extra labor, small yields and 
 eventually damaged land. Not only thorough grading but 
 thorough cultivation are essential. 
 
 (6) Diversified Farming. Cereals usually require to be 
 watered one or more times during the period from the time the 
 plants cover the ground until the grain is well " headed out." 
 This represents a short period and the farmer who raises only 
 grain has no further use of irrigation water for the balance of 
 that season. On the other hand, in rotating grain with such 
 crops as alfalfa, roots and fruit, these latter require late water 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 143 
 
 and the use of the same flow is thus extended over a longer 
 period and in consequence waters a larger acreage. 
 
 (7) Time and Manner of Water Delivery. Water, as well 
 as labor and time can be saved and an economical duty secured 
 where conditions are favorable by using large quantities of 
 water for short periods of time. Irrigators in the northern 
 tier of states have been slow to abandon the continual use of 
 small heads. While this method has its advantages for the man 
 having a large farm and crude irrigation appliances, it will 
 be found profitable on the whole to rotate the supply with 
 one's neighbors. Watering crops is too important to be treated 
 as a side issue. If one attempts to attend to other duties while 
 water is running on his fields, only visiting the latter at long 
 intervals, small yields are likely to result. It is better to see 
 that the water is well distributed while it can be used. When 
 the time of use has expired the headgate is closed and the water 
 flows on to the neighboring farm. 
 
 (8) Kind of Crops. The kind of crop, whether cultivated 
 or uncultivated, and the length of season that it needs water, 
 have a direct bearing on the amount of water required. Winter 
 grains seem to require the least irrigation water because they 
 mature early and are able to make good use of the winter pre- 
 cipitation. Spring grains are not usually planted until some of 
 the winter precipitation has been evaporated. Cultivated crops, 
 because of the moisture that can be saved by cultivation (Art. 
 29) require less water than uncultivated crops. Alfalfa, hay 
 and pasture grasses grow luxuriantly through a long season and 
 thus require the most water, it being found that such crops 
 require about twice as much as grains. 
 
 (9) Fertility of the Soil. Arid soils are deficient in vegetable 
 matter and when this want is supplied by the right kind of 
 rotation and by good farming generally, the soil becomes more 
 retentive of moisture and a unit of water will supply a larger 
 area than is possible when the soil is in a raw state. What 
 is true of humus and nitrogen is also true of other fertilizers. 
 Generally speaking, the richer the soil and the better it is tilled, 
 the less the water requirements for any one crop. 
 
 (10) Manner of Paying for Water. Paying for water by the 
 season on an acreage basis tends to lower the efficiency of water. 
 
144 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 As has been pointed out elsewhere the water user under such 
 a contract is given no chance to reduce his water bill by the 
 exercise of economy. On the other hand, the practice of pay- 
 ing only for what water one receives is invariably followed by 
 an economical use. 
 
 (11) Method of Applying Water. Faulty methods of appli- 
 cation are liable to cause large losses in deep percolation, evapora- 
 tion, run-off or in any or all of these combined. 
 
 (12) Legal Restrictions. The effect of these on duty of water 
 have already been considered in discussing the limitations im- 
 posed by statutory, regulatory and judicial means. 
 
 INVESTIGATING DUTY OF WATER. A knowledge of the service 
 or duty which water performs is necessary in all irrigated regions. 
 This fact was early recognized in the development of the arid 
 West. In 1892 the Colorado Experiment Station published a 
 bulletin on this subject which gave the results of investigations 
 made by Professor Carpenter. Two years later the writer be- 
 gan similar investigations. It was not, however, until Congress 
 in 1898 appropriated money for irrigation investigations that 
 a study of duty of water became general throughout the West. 
 An urgent demand existed at that time for more information con- 
 cerning the quantities of water used and required in irrigation. 
 This information was needed by courts in determining water 
 rights, by state officers in apportioning water supplies, by en- 
 gineers in planning the capacities of canals and in estimating the 
 areas of land which they would serve, by the managers of canal 
 companies in drawing up water right contracts, and by those who 
 used the water on their farms. Studies of this kind were con- 
 tinued for several years and the collected data proved of lasting 
 benefit since they resulted in the framing of wise legislation and 
 in the adoption of sound public policies in relation to water 
 during a formative stage of irrigation development in this 
 country. True, the results obtained have been criticised by 
 agriculturists and others who contend that too little attention 
 was paid to the character of the soil and subsoil and to the kind 
 of crops grown. Such critics overlooked the fact that the in- 
 vestigations as first planned were intended to supply informa- 
 tion regarding the legal, administrative and engineering features 
 of irrigation rather than the agricultural. Besides, the funds 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 145 
 
 available were too small to permit a thorough study of the sub- 
 ject in all its phases. At that time it was infinitely better 
 to ascertain the general average duty over 100,000 acres than 
 to spend the same amount of money in more detailed studies on a 
 40-acre tract. 
 
 Both land and water measurements were made by men 
 familiar with this class of work. The weir and rating flume 
 were the most commonly used devices for measuring water. To 
 secure a continuous record of flow, recording registers were 
 imported from France until the demand for such instruments was 
 pressing enough to induce American firms to make them. At 
 first the work was quite generally confined to making a con- 
 tinuous measurement of the quantities of water which flowed 
 through the intakes of the main canals but later the flow through 
 laterals and farmers' ditches was measured. These measure- 
 ments indicated a large transmission loss which took place be- 
 tween the main intake and the farmer's headgates, and efforts 
 were made to ascertain the extent of these losses. 
 
 The writer was one of the first to apply different quantities 
 of water to experimental plats in order to determine the effect 
 of water on crop production. This work is still carried on in 
 various parts of the West and bids fair to throw considerable 
 light on the proper amount of water to apply to the different 
 crops. 
 
 A plan of investigation which combined the plat and the 
 large area was devised by Don H. Bark, irrigation engineer 
 in charge of irrigation investigations in Idaho. Mr. Bark's 
 plan consists in dividing a typical cropped field into three 
 parts. The owner applies to one part in one or more irrigations 
 that quantity of water which in his judgment, will produce the 
 largest yield. Mr. Bark's assistant applies by the same method a 
 larger amount to the second and a smaller amount to the third 
 part. By means of weirs the amount of water applied as well 
 as the run-off is carefully measured. The yield on each sub- 
 division is determined at harvest time and by comparing the 
 quantity of water applied with the yield, a fairly accurate con- 
 clusion may be drawn as to the proper duty of water for that 
 soil and crop. A large number of such experiments have been 
 
 financed in southern Idaho by funds obtained from the State 
 10 
 
146 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 Land Board and the Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. 
 Department of Agriculture and the results, which are summarized 
 below, possess great value, not only to that state but to the 
 West in general. 
 
 RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS. The following table gives the 
 average results obtained during the years 1910, 1911, and 1912 
 throughout southern Idaho. It shows that a project devoting 
 about half its area to grain and other crops which require the 
 least water, and the other half to alfalfa, clover and pasture, 
 which need the most water, will require on an average about 
 2 acre-feet delivered to each acre exclusive of precipitation, 
 which varied from 2 to 6 inches, Of this amount 0.82 per 
 cent, was required in April, 16.08 per cent, in May, 31. 67 per 
 cent, in June, 32.25 per cent, in July, 16.38 per cent, in August 
 and 2.79 per cent, in September. 
 
 TABLE No. 24 
 
 Summary of Depths of Water applied by Months to 168 Fields of Grain 
 
 and Alfalfa on Medium Clay and Sandy Loam Soils in Idaho, Altitudes 
 
 ranging from 2400 to 5000 Feet, Seasons 1910, 1911, 1912 
 
 
 a 
 
 No 
 
 April 
 
 
 
 
 
 September 
 
 Total 
 for 
 
 Crop 
 
 1 
 
 of 
 
 
 May, 
 feet 
 
 June, 
 feet 
 
 July, 
 feet 
 
 Aug., 
 feet 
 
 
 sea- 
 
 1-15 
 
 16-30 
 
 1-15 
 
 16-30 
 
 
 CQ , 
 
 plots 
 
 feet 
 
 feet 
 
 
 
 
 
 feet 
 
 feet 
 
 son, 
 feet 
 
 
 1910 39 
 
 
 
 320 
 
 6453 
 
 495 
 
 0954 
 
 
 
 1 556 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 1910 
 
 17 
 
 053 
 
 0.018 
 
 0.531 
 
 . 7200 
 
 0.602 
 
 0.5510 
 
 0.0636 
 
 
 2.540 
 
 
 1911 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 021 
 
 7170 
 
 428 
 
 0060 
 
 
 
 1 172 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 1911 
 
 18 
 
 . ... 
 
 0.025 
 
 0.525 
 
 . 3080 
 
 0.945 
 
 . 7500 
 
 0.19900.031 
 
 2.7813 
 
 Grain 
 
 1912 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 
 0.9140 
 
 0.650 
 
 . 0590 
 
 
 
 1.623 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 1912 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 0.508 
 
 0.4430 
 
 0.697 
 
 0.4740 
 
 . 0376 
 
 
 2.160 
 
 
 
 
 0.009 
 
 0.007 
 
 0.318 
 
 . 6245 
 
 0.636 
 
 0.323 
 
 0.050 
 
 0.005 
 
 1.972 
 
 Percentage 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of total.. . . 
 
 
 
 0.46 
 
 0.36 
 
 16.08 
 
 31.67 
 
 32.25 
 
 16.38 
 
 2.54 
 
 0.25 
 
 100 . 00 
 
 Some results of duty of water under typical canals throughout 
 the arid regions are given in Table 25. 
 
 Similar results of duty of water under diversions from streams 
 are given in Table 26. 
 
 WATER REQUIREMENT OF CROPS. The quantity of water re- 
 quired for various crops under field conditions has been treated 
 in Arts. 35 to 44. The specific cases of water duty therein cited 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 147 
 TABLE No. 25 
 
 Name of canal 
 
 Location 
 
 Class of 
 soil 
 
 Season 
 
 Length of 
 season 
 
 No. of 
 acres 
 
 Duty, 
 ac. 
 ft. 
 per 
 ar. 
 
 Riverside 
 Farmer's Coop 
 F'irmer's Union 
 
 Boise Valley, 
 Idaho. 
 Boise Valley, 
 Idaho. 
 Boise Valley, 
 
 Clay loam 
 Clay loam 
 Clay loam 
 
 1911-12 
 1911-12 
 1911-12 
 
 Apr. 1-Oct. 31 
 Apr. 1-Oct. 31 
 Apr. 1-Oct. 31 
 
 3,004 
 7,160 
 6,993 
 
 8.31 
 5.13 
 5 60 
 
 
 Idaho. 
 Boise Valley, 
 
 Clay loam 
 
 1911-12 
 
 Apr 1-Oct 31 
 
 6 440 
 
 2 95 
 
 
 Idaho. 
 Boise Valley, 
 
 Gravelly 
 
 1911-12 
 
 Apr 1-Oct 31 
 
 751 
 
 3 15 
 
 Eureka No. 1 
 Pioneer 
 
 Randall 
 Clark and Edwards. . 
 Ridenbaugh 
 
 Idaho. 
 Boise Valley, 
 Idaho. 
 Boise Valley, 
 Idaho. 
 Rigby, Idaho 
 Rigby, Idaho 
 Boise Valley, 
 
 Gravelly 
 
 Gravelly 
 
 Gravelly 
 Gravelly 
 Clay loam 
 
 1911-12 
 1911-12 
 
 1912 
 1912 
 1906-12 
 
 Apr. 1-Oct. 31 
 Apr. 1-Oct. 31 
 
 Apr. 1-Oct. 31 
 Apr. 1-Oct. 31 
 Apr. 1-Oct. 31 
 
 2,174 
 1,137 
 
 3,255 
 1,362 
 25 710 
 
 2.51 
 5.72 
 
 6.87 
 10.04 
 4 15 
 
 U. S. R. S. upper 
 system. 
 So. Side Twin Falls 
 
 St John . . 
 
 Idaho. 
 Boise Valley, 
 Idaho. 
 Twin Falls, 
 Idaho. 
 Malad, Idaho 
 
 Clay loam 
 Clay loam 
 Clay loam 
 
 1912 
 1910-12 
 1913 
 
 Apr. 16- 
 Oct. 31 
 Apr. 1-Oct. 31 
 
 Apr 25- 
 
 45,664 
 147,309 
 1 518 
 
 2.88 
 4.90 
 1 91 
 
 Larimer* Weld 
 
 Cache la Poudre, 
 No. 2. 
 Loveland & Greeley 
 
 Colorado 
 
 N. Ft. Collins, 
 Colo. 
 Greeley, Colo. 
 
 Loveland- 
 Greeley, Colo. 
 Arkansas Val. 
 
 Clay loam 
 Clay loam 
 Sandy loam 
 
 1910-12 
 1910-12 
 1910-12 
 1912 
 
 Sept. 15 
 May 3-Oct. 24 
 
 Apr. 2 1-Oct. 3 
 Apr. 7-Nov. 14 
 
 51,666 
 39,300 
 19,330 
 52 850 
 
 1/49 
 1.61 
 1.11 
 1 61 
 
 Amity 
 
 Arkansas Val. 
 
 
 1912 
 
 
 31 870 
 
 3 02 
 
 Logan-Hyde Park 
 
 Logan, Utah 
 
 
 1909 
 
 June 1 
 
 3,183 
 
 5 42 
 
 & Smithfield. 
 Logan & Richmond 
 
 Logan, Utah 
 
 
 1909 
 
 Sept. 10 
 May 25- 
 
 3,375 
 
 5 16 
 
 Logan & Benson. . . . 
 
 Logan, Utah 
 
 
 1909 
 
 Aug. 31 
 June 13- 
 
 5,467 
 
 1 14 
 
 Bothwell or Bear 
 
 Garland Utah 
 
 
 1902-05 
 
 Aug. 31 
 Apr 1- 
 
 34 778 
 
 3 85 
 
 River. 
 East Jordan 
 
 Grand Valley 
 
 \Vvo. Development 
 Co. 
 Riverside Water Co. 
 
 So Salt Lake, 
 Utah. 
 
 Grand Jc., 
 Colo. 
 Wheatland, 
 Wyo. 
 Riverside, Cal. 
 
 Clay loam 
 Clay loam 
 Clay loam 
 
 1904-08 
 -12 
 1909-11 
 
 1912 
 1899-05 
 
 Sept. 30 
 May 1- 
 Oct. 1 
 Apr. 1-Oct. 31 
 
 May 1- 
 Sept. 30 
 
 16,000 
 40,000 
 33,500 
 80,667 
 
 1.96 
 3.50 
 2.93 
 2.25 
 
 Imperial Water Co. 
 
 Imperial Val- 
 
 
 1905 
 
 
 120,000 
 
 2.04 
 
 N..S. 1. 4. ",. MM. 17. 
 
 l.-v, Cal. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
148 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 TABLE No. 26 
 Gross Duty of Water, by Streams 
 
 Stream 
 
 Canal 
 
 Approxi- 
 mate area 
 irrigated 
 
 Water 
 diverted 
 per acre 
 
 . 
 
 Arizona! Salt River 
 
 Average of several 
 
 Acres 
 113,000 
 
 Acre-feet 
 3.42 
 
 California : 
 Santa Ana 
 
 Gaee 
 
 7,000 
 
 2 16 
 
 Santa Clara 
 
 Average of several 
 
 5,160 
 
 2.00 
 
 Tule 
 
 Average of several 
 
 5,000 
 
 4 94 
 
 Tuolumne. 
 
 Modesto r . . 
 
 7,000 
 
 13 18 
 
 Tuolumne 
 
 Turlock 
 
 20,000 
 
 8 34 
 
 Cache Creek 
 
 Moore 
 
 7,000 
 
 3.15 
 
 Colorado : 
 Arkansas 
 
 Amity 
 
 16,000 
 
 4 92 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Lake 
 
 15000 
 
 2 58 
 
 Grand 
 
 Grand Valley 
 
 22,000 
 
 4 11 
 
 Cache la Poudre 
 
 New Cache la Poudre 
 
 30,000 
 
 2 21 
 
 Big Thompson. . . . 
 
 Average of two 
 
 32,000 
 
 1.80 
 
 St. Vrain 
 Clear Creek 
 
 Supply 
 Average of three 
 
 7,000 
 53,000 
 
 1.79 
 1 37 
 
 South Platte 
 
 Average of several 
 
 67,000 
 
 2 90 
 
 Montana : 
 Gallatin 
 
 Average of seve r al 
 
 8,000 
 
 3 55 
 
 Yellowstone 
 
 Big Ditch 
 
 25,000 
 
 2 71 
 
 Bitterroot 
 
 Average of several 
 
 20,000 
 
 4.69 
 
 Nevada : Truckee 
 Nebraska: 
 North Platte 
 
 Orr Ditch 
 Average of several 
 
 6,000 
 80,000 
 
 7.08 
 4.00 
 
 New Mexico : Pecos 
 
 Pecos 
 
 8500 
 
 7 90 
 
 Utah: 
 Big Cottonwood. 
 
 Average of several 
 
 8,000 
 
 4 13 
 
 Logan 
 
 Average of two 
 
 6,000 
 
 4 08 
 
 Bear River 
 
 Bear River 
 
 17 000 
 
 4 84 
 
 Washington: 
 Naches 
 
 Average of several 
 
 15,000 
 
 4 86 
 
 Yakima 
 
 Average of several 
 
 50,000 
 
 5.70 
 
 Wyoming: 
 Laramie 
 
 Canal No. 2. . . 
 
 6,500 
 
 3.72 
 
 Deer Creek 
 
 Average of several 
 
 
 10 40 
 
 Horseshoe 
 
 Average of several 
 
 
 9.75 
 
 may be regarded as typical for various crops under economic 
 use. These figures do not, however, represent the actual water 
 requirement for each crop since more or less water is wasted in 
 
PLATE VII 
 
 bO 
 '. 
 
 I 
 
PLATE VII 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 149 
 
 applying it to fields. Investigators have attempted to eliminate 
 tliis waste by growing plants in vessels and the results of their 
 investigations are briefly summarized in the following table which 
 is compiled in part from Buls. 284 and 285 by Briggs and 
 Shantz of the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of 
 Agriculture. 
 
 In scanning the figures which represent in the table the ratio 
 in pounds between the water absorbed and a pound of air-dried 
 crop produced, one can not but note their incongruity. In 
 many respects they do not seem to agree with the views of prac- 
 tical growers. Rye, for example, which requires little moisture 
 according to the belief of many farmers, stands near the head 
 of the list, the ratio averaging 724 in the experiments conducted 
 at Akron, Colorado. Again, the average of experiments on red 
 clover made in England, Germany and the State of Wisconsin 
 is 354 pounds of water to a pound of dried clover hay. Judging 
 from these results the water requirement of rye is more than 
 double that of red clover. 
 
 While the results which have been assembled in the table can 
 not be accepted as a safe guide to practise, yet they show that a 
 beginning has been made in this important study. The work 
 already done has brought into prominence the effect produced 
 on the water requirement of standard crops by certain conditions 
 of the soil in which the crops are grown. Among these may 
 be mentioned the moisture content, temperature, fertility and 
 kind of soil. The influence exerted by atmospheric conditions 
 has likewise been studied as well as the demands of the plant for 
 water at critical stages of its growth. What is urgently needed 
 at this stage of progress is the standardization of the methods em- 
 ployed so that the results may be more readily and accurately com- 
 pared. In devising such methods it is essential that the plants 
 under test be grown as nearly as possible under natural conditions 
 (Plate VII) in order that the farmer may know how much water 
 is required for any given crop. This is especially needed for 
 irrigation farming. The prevailing custom in irrigated districts 
 as has been pointed out, is to measure the duty of water for crops 
 at the headgate of the ditch or canal but the rapid increase in 
 the value of water is drawing attention to a more economical 
 method. In recent years more consideration has been given to 
 
150 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 the actual needs of each crop for water and of basing the net 
 duty thereon. If, for example, it is known that wheat averaging 
 40 bushels or 2400 pounds to the acre with the accompanying 
 straw weighing 2900 pounds, requires 350 pounds of water to 
 each pound of grain and straw, the net duty of water would be 
 about 0.68 acre-foot per acre. To this minimum allowance should 
 be added whatever loss is sustained in the carriage of the water, 
 deep percolation, run-off and evaporation from the soil. Many 
 good reasons might be given in favor of this method of determin- 
 ing duty of water in irrigation but until more definite knowledge 
 is obtained concerning the actual water requirement of various 
 crops under field conditions it can not be applied. Viewed 
 from this standpoint that method of experimentation may be 
 said to be best which approaches nearest to natural field condi- 
 tions. In this connection the writer would recommend as the 
 result of his experience in making such investigations, that the 
 unit of soil used in the experiment be as large as practicable and 
 that the vessel containing this unit be placed in the ground and 
 water-jacketed. The first insures a near approach to field con- 
 ditions and the second controls the temperature. It is a well- 
 known fact that temperature and moisture are the two main 
 conditions which cause the natural vegetation of one region to 
 differ from that of another. Hence it follows that in conducting 
 experiments of the kind under consideration the temperature of 
 the soil in which the plants grow should be maintained nearly 
 equal to that of the soil in the field. By making use of such 
 water-jacketed vessels or tanks as are shown in Fig. 55 and 
 placing these in the ground with their tops nearly level with 
 the surface, the temperature of the soil within them is not only 
 kept equal or nearly equal to that of the soil without, but wind, 
 sunshine and rain exert a more natural influence on the plants 
 under test. 
 
 31. Delivery of Water. J The final test of the success of every 
 irrigation project is the quality of the service rendered to ir- 
 rigators in the matter of water delivery. Adequate water de- 
 
 x ln at least one western state, California, the state public service com- 
 mission has authority, which is being freely exercised, to compel adequate 
 water delivery service by public service corporations supplying water for 
 irrigation. 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 151 
 
 livery service can be nothing less than the reasonably prompt 
 giving to ouch irrigator the full share of water to which he is en- 
 titled and at such time and at such rate of flow as the crops to be 
 
 TABLE No. 27 
 Water Requirement of Various Standard Crops 
 
 Crop 
 
 Location 
 
 Experimenter 
 
 Pounds 
 
 water per 
 dry matte 
 
 pound of 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Meam 
 
 Wheat.. 
 
 Germany 
 
 Sorauer 
 
 708 
 
 
 708 
 
 
 Germany 
 Germany 
 
 Hellriegel 
 Von Seelhorst . 
 
 390 
 333 
 
 '328 
 
 339 
 333 
 
 
 India 
 
 Leather 
 
 544 
 
 
 544 
 
 
 Akron, Colo. 
 
 Briggs & Shantz 
 
 534 
 
 468 
 
 507 
 
 
 England 
 
 Lawes 
 
 235 
 
 
 235 
 
 
 Logan, Utah 
 Davis, Cal. 
 
 Widtsoe 
 Fortier & Beckett 
 
 489 
 359 
 
 427 
 
 286 
 
 458 
 326 
 
 Oats 
 
 Bozeman, Mont . . 
 Reno, Nevada 
 
 Germany 
 
 Fortier & Gieseker. 
 Fortier & Peterson . 
 
 Wollny 
 
 334 
 395 
 
 226 
 309 
 
 271 
 360 
 
 665 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 Sorauer 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 
 Germany 
 India 
 
 Hellriegel 
 Leather 
 
 464 
 
 339 
 
 401 
 469 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 King 
 
 526 
 
 502 
 
 514 
 
 
 Akron Colo 
 
 Briggs & Shantz 
 
 639 
 
 598 
 
 614 
 
 Barlev 
 
 England 
 
 Lawes 
 
 262 
 
 258 
 
 260 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 Wollny . 
 
 
 
 774 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 Sorauer 
 
 
 
 490 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 Hellriegel 
 
 366 
 
 263 
 
 297 
 
 
 Germany . . 
 
 Von Seelhorst 
 
 454 
 
 295 
 
 365 
 
 
 India 
 
 Leather 
 
 
 
 468 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 King 
 
 401 
 
 375 
 
 388 
 
 
 Akron, Colo 
 
 Briggs & Shantz 
 
 544 
 
 527 
 
 539 
 
 Corn 
 
 Germany 
 
 Wollny 
 
 
 
 233 
 
 
 India 
 
 Leather 
 
 
 
 337 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 King 
 
 390 
 
 305 
 
 348 
 
 Rye 
 
 Akron, Colo 
 Germany 
 
 Briggs & Shantz . . . 
 Hellriegel 
 
 420 
 438 
 
 319 
 315 
 
 369 
 377 
 
 
 Germany . . 
 
 Von Seelhorst 
 
 700 
 
 343 
 
 469 
 
 
 Akron, Colo ; 
 
 Briggs & Shantz . . . 
 
 
 
 724 
 
 1 I ndcr this column are given the average of all reliable and comparable 
 tests. 
 
152 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 TABLE No. 27 
 Water Requirement of Various Standard Crops. Continued 
 
 Crop 
 
 Location 
 
 Experimenter 
 
 Pounds 
 
 ( 
 
 water per 
 iry matte 
 
 pound of 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Mean 
 
 Peas 
 
 England 
 
 La\yes 
 
 
 
 235 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 Wollny 
 
 
 
 416 
 
 
 Germany 
 India .... 
 
 Hellriegel 
 Leather 
 
 353 
 
 231 
 
 292 
 563 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 King 
 
 
 
 477 
 
 
 Akron, Colo 
 
 Briggs & Shantz 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Germany . . . 
 
 Von Seelhorst 
 
 294 
 
 268 
 
 281 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 King 
 
 
 
 423 
 
 
 Akron Colo 
 
 Briggs & Shantz 
 
 
 
 448 
 
 Alfalfa, 
 1st. Yr. 
 
 Davis, Cal 
 
 Fortier & Beckett. . 
 
 1265 
 
 1005 
 
 1102 
 
 2nd. Yr.. 
 
 
 
 971 
 
 522 
 
 761 
 
 
 State College, 
 N. M. 
 
 
 889 
 
 757 
 
 823 
 
 Clover 
 
 Akron, Colo 
 England 
 
 Briggs & Shantz . . . 
 Lawes 
 
 
 
 1068 
 251 
 
 (red) . . . 
 
 Germany 
 
 Hellriegel 
 
 363 
 
 297 
 
 330 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 King 
 
 564 
 
 398 
 
 481 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Logan Utah 
 
 Widtsoe 
 
 
 
 497 
 
 beets . . . 
 Rice 
 
 Akron, Colo 
 India 
 
 Briggs & Shantz . . . 
 Leather 
 
 
 
 
 377 
 811 
 
 irrigated require. If one crop is mainly irrigated there is gen- 
 erally little difficulty in arranging a satisfactory plan of water 
 distribution and delivery, for in the main each irrigator is in a 
 like position with all of his neighbors with reference to the quan- 
 tity of water needed per acre and the interval between irriga- 
 tions. But one-crop agriculture is not usual, except in dis- 
 tricts that have highly specialized crops, so that the irrigation 
 manager arranging a plan of water distribution and delivery 
 ordinarily must arrange to supply water to diversified plantings 
 scattered over the entire project. Some crops, like small fruits 
 and shallow-rooting annual field crops, are usually quite sensitive 
 to comparatively light drought, while others, as alfalfa and or- 
 chards on deep soil, are more elastic in their need for irrigation, 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 153 
 
 although even the latter are best served by regular waterings, 
 and can not go without water beyond certain varying periods 
 without serious damage. Recent investigations indicate that 
 in some instances the character of the product, as well as the 
 quantity, are influenced by the time of applying water. 
 
 RELATIONS OF SUPERINTENDENTS OR DITCH TENDERS AND IRRI- 
 GATORS. Since the essential condition of a successful irrigation 
 system is adequate water delivery service, it follows that those 
 directly in charge of water delivery should be in close touch with 
 the irrigators served and thoroughly understand their water 
 requirements how much water the different crops need at 
 each irrigation, how often irrigation is essential in the case of 
 different crops, how water is applied to the various soils and to 
 the various crops with least waste and most efficiency. Both 
 superintendents and ditch tenders should constantly bear in 
 mind that an entire year of effort on the part of the farmer may 
 be either wholly lost or very adversely affected by a failure in 
 the water delivery service; also that the service that is acceptable 
 to one irrigator may not be the service needed by another. In 
 order that both ditch tenders and irrigators may throughly 
 know their relations to each other, the plan of water delivery to 
 be followed and the duties and rights of each should be made a 
 part of the printed rules and regulations of the system and be in 
 the hands of every ditch tender and every irrigator. 
 
 REGULATIONS GOVERNING WATER DELIVERY. Every irrigation 
 project is in some degree different from every other project 
 and the necessary and proper regulations for each must nec- 
 essarily be prepared with regard to the particular conditions 
 present. Still there are certain principles of regulation that 
 with some variation are desirable for any well-managed system 
 and the most important of these have been outlined by Frank 
 Adams, in charge of Irrigation Investigations of the Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture in California in the following paragraphs. 
 
 (1) "The superintendent and the ditch tenders working under him 
 should have sole control of all gates, checks, and turn-outs, and users 
 should be prohibited from altering them without definite authority 
 from the superintendent or ditch tender, of course excepting cases of 
 emergency. 
 
 (2) ''Every irrigator should be required to make written application 
 
154 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 for any water wanted, on blanks furnished by the management, the 
 application to be handed to the ditch tender or sent directly to the cen- 
 tral office of the system a sufficient number of days usually 1 to 3 
 prior to the time water is needed. This enables the superintendent and 
 ditch tenders to make necessary arrangements for getting the required 
 flow in the various laterals. 
 
 (3) "Irrigators should be given ample notice of the time water is tc 
 be delivered and should be held responsible for being ready to receive it 
 at the time set. 
 
 (4) " During time of water delivery ditch tenders should, wherever 
 practicable, be required to be within ready call of the irrigators receiving 
 water. This is especially necessary where comparatively large irrigating 
 heads are being delivered because it frequently happens that for one 
 cause or other the delivery must be temporarily or prematurely stopped, 
 in which case the ditch tender should be on hand to care for the water 
 turned back. 
 
 (5) "It is desirable, but not always practicable, that water users 
 should make all complaints in writing. In justice to the users the rules 
 should require that all complaints filed in writing shall be promptly 
 investigated by the superintendent. 
 
 (6) "The rules should require ditch tenders to keep careful record, on 
 suitable forms furnished by the management, of all deliveries made, 
 such record to state the time of beginning and ending of each delivery, 
 the size of head furnished, the acreage irrigated, and the crop watered. 
 On some systems it has been found desirable to require irrigators to give 
 written receipts, preferably in the ditch-tenders' record books, for de- 
 liveries made. 
 
 (7) "Ditch tenders should be given authority in the rules to prevent 
 all avoidable waste from the irrigable fields. Where water is repeatedly 
 wasted through excessive application the ditch tenders should be re- 
 quired to report the fact in writing to the superintendent, regardless of 
 whether this waste is depriving some other user of water. Excessive 
 application of water is of general injury through causing the rise of 
 ground water, and irrigators should at the start be taught that they are 
 entitled to no more water than the crops being irrigated require. 
 
 (8) "The rules should require all farm ditches to be of proper capacity 
 to carry without undue waste the water delivered. They should also 
 require that they be kept in good repair throughout the delivery season. 
 
 (9) "Authority should be given in the rules for placing locks on all 
 turn-out gates when this is found necessary. 
 
 (10) "The superintendent should be given full authority to discon- 
 tinue water delivery to any irrigator who wilfully and repeatedly dis- 
 regards the established regulations of the system. 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 155 
 
 (11) "It is usually desirable to establish a definite irrigating season 
 within which water will be available. In such cases the limits of the 
 irrigation season should be stated in the rules. This should not mean 
 that where feasible water is not to be run at other times. Sometimes it 
 is very desirable that irrigation should occur during the winter months 
 which are never included in a regular irrigation season, and where 
 desirable, this should be encouraged. In the Southwest some irrigation 
 systems usually carry water for 10 or 12 months of each year. 
 
 (12) "The rules should specify the duties of ditch tenders in the 
 matter of patrol and care of canal banks and structures, and also in the 
 matter of reports to their superintendent and of their proper relations 
 to irrigators." 
 
 PLAN OF WATER DELIVERY. Attention has already been called 
 to the necessity for adopting a plan of water distribution and 
 delivery that will give water to each irrigator at the time and in 
 the quantity required by the crops to be irrigated. While very 
 large farms, as of a full section of land, can sometimes profitably 
 use a continuous flow of water, it has become almost universally 
 recognized that delivery by some plan of rotation is by far the 
 best plan to follow and the only plan that is generally economical. 
 It eliminates the wasteful use of small heads, there being much 
 greater economy, within reasonable limits, in using a large enough 
 head to get over land quickly than in using for a longer time such 
 a small head as continuous flow would require. 
 
 The simplest plan of rotation delivery is one in which each 
 irrigator may receive water during each run for a certain definite 
 length of time for each acre irrigated, all delivery heads to be of 
 equal quantity. The runs may be arranged to begin and end 
 at such times as may be fixed during the season, the size of heads 
 also being changed from time to time as the total supply available 
 for delivery makes desirable. In this simple plan the various 
 runs are usually not definitely scheduled at their beginning to 
 show the time of delivery to each individual irrigator. Instead, 
 a> the runs proceed each irrigator is notified in advance as to the 
 approximate time delivery may be expected, water being allowed 
 to each until his farm is well watered or until delivery has con- 
 tinued for the apportioned time for each acre in the farm. Breaks 
 or other interruptions merely delay the completion of the runs 
 during which they occur. This plan of delivery is quite common 
 
156 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 on large systems, especially in the earlier periods of their 
 operation. 
 
 A more complete plan of rotation delivery, involving full 
 seasonal schedules, by which each irrigator knows at the be- 
 ginning of each season the hour and day when he will receive 
 water during every run, is not uncommon on some of the older 
 irrigating systems, and especially on some of the smaller systems, 
 as in southern California, under which one crop or one system 
 of plantings chiefly occur. For such a system a reasonably 
 regular supply of water in the main canal is necessary, and, ex- 
 cept on some of the smaller systems, this does not frequently 
 occur. On the small southern California systems using this 
 seasonal schedule plan water is usually delivered to each irrigator 
 once every 30 days, or a one-half supply is delivered every 
 15 days, the last day in 31-day months not being counted in 
 making up the schedules. On one large system in Utah a con- 
 tinuous flow of at least 2.1 second-feet is maintained in each con- 
 sumer's lateral, these laterals having been laid out to permit of 
 this, and each irrigator receives water at this rate 1 hour each 
 week for each acre irrigated, the same schedule being followed 
 substantially year after year. 
 
 The above-mentioned rotation plans, or modifications of them, 
 are suited to systems delivering water on an acreage basis. But 
 when water is paid for according to quantity received a different 
 rotation plan is necessary, where rotation is followed. Paying 
 for the quantity of water received results in a considerable varia- 
 tion in the quantity used per acre, both as between individual 
 irrigators and during the season in the case of single irrigators. 
 This makes regular individual delivery schedules impracticable 
 but does not alter the desirability of rotating between the various 
 parts of a system in order to do away with running less water 
 in laterals than they are designed to carry economically. Even 
 where water is paid for on an acreage basis this rotation between 
 laterals, especially in times of shortage, is desirable for the same 
 reason. 
 
 On some systems continuous flow to individuals, who in turn 
 rotate to some extent between each other, constitutes another 
 rotation plan. Sometimes, even when the main delivery 
 schedule provides rotation between individuals, two or more of 
 
 \ 
 
WAST!-. MEAxriiEMEXT, AND DELIVERY 157 
 
 individuals carry the plan even further by rotating among 
 themselves. 
 
 While delivery on demand sometimes goes with a modified 
 plan of rotation, some systems are so arranged as to distributaries 
 and crops grown that it is most satisfactory to have water 
 continuously subject to demand in nearly every part of it. 
 With an all-reservoir supply this is an excellent plan, no water 
 needing to be turned into the distributaries unless previously 
 called for. Where the demand for water is sufficiently even so 
 that the needs and the supply can be balanced so closely in ad- 
 vance that practically no water is wasted, as is the case with 
 some of the southern California systems irrigating citrus fruits, 
 the plan becomes an almost ideal one, especially, as is the case 
 with many of the southern California systems, when the water 
 distribution on the farms is through underground pipes. 
 
 Possibly of equal importance with the plan of water delivery 
 to be followed is the plan of charges to be made for the water 
 delivered. Authorities are now almost a unit in holding that 
 water should be charged for according to quantity delivered 
 rather than according to acreage irrigated. Experience shows 
 that a much higher duty of irrigation water is reached under the 
 former of these two methods. In recent years there has gradually 
 grown up the practice of making a flat acre charge for the first 
 acre-foot or for the first 1.5 or 2 acre-feet delivered, with a 
 quantity charge for water delivered in excess of that. This is 
 an admirable principle if the quantity permitted under the flat 
 acre rate is not made too large. The importance of this 
 matter, however, is more fully discussed in Art. 26. 
 
 DELIVERY FORMS AND RECORDS. Reference has already been 
 made to the desirability of ditch tenders keeping accurate record 
 of all deliveries of water to individual irrigators. In the earlier 
 years of a project it is sometimes very difficult for those operat- 
 ing irrigation systems to find time to keep many records. A 
 full record system of water distribution and delivery should, how- 
 ever, be begun at the earliest possible time. The essential records 
 in this connection would cover (a) the daily flow in the main 
 canal of the system and the daily amount available in reservoirs, 
 (b) the daily diversions from the main canal into the principal 
 laterals, (c) the daily deliveries to individuals, (d) a delivery 
 
158 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 ledger, account for each irrigator where the quantities delivered 
 are charged for, and (e) ditch tender's diaries. Many private, 
 cooperative, and district irrigation systems, and also the various 
 projects of the United States Reclamation Service, have worked 
 out very complete records and forms. For descriptions of these 
 forms reference is made to Bui. 229 of the Office of Ex- 
 periment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture by Frank 
 Adams, and to the operation and maintenance manual of the 
 Reclamation Service. 
 
 DELIVERY FORCE REQUIRED. The first essential of a water de- 
 livery force in irrigation systems is, as previously pointed out, 
 that it shall understand the needs of the water users. While 
 it is almost always necessary that the ditch tenders charged with 
 water delivery shall also patrol the canal system for breaks- and 
 make all ordinary repairs that can be attended to in connection 
 with their Bother duties, their duties in connection with water 
 delivery should be paramount to maintenance and on large 
 systems at least their water delivery activities should be directed 
 by a head water master not connected with the maintenance 
 work of the system. The number of miles patroled per day by 
 ditch tenders may vary from 5 or 6 to about 20. The average 
 number of miles traveled on fifteen projects of the U. S. Reclamation 
 Service is given by F. W. Hanna as 22.4, with the average number 
 of users served daily per ditch tender as 26.2. An authority 
 on systems in Montana gives 10 to 12 miles per day as the usual 
 length of main canal patroled daily by each ditch tender, with 
 5 or 6 miles the length of section patroled on laterals while at the 
 same time about fifteen private turn-outs being cared for. One 
 large system in Wyoming employs one ditch tender to cover each 
 5 to 10 miles of main canal and all laterals leading from it. The 
 average length of main canal and laterals served per ditch tender 
 under four important systems in California is 11.7 miles. On 
 one large system in Colorado it is 23.5 miles. On another in 
 the same general section it is 13.3. On three large Utah systems 
 it is 19.4 miles. These figures indicate a wide difference which 
 is probably more apparent than real so far as pertains to ser- 
 vice performed, owing to the different duties and the different 
 number of users served and in the care with which deliveries 
 are made. 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 159 
 
 THE DELIVERY "HEAD." How large the irrigating heads 
 should be is a question of immediate and practical interest to 
 every irrigation manager. No rule can be laid down and practice 
 varies widely. With continuous flow as little as a single miner's 
 inch, or about 0.02 second-foot, has sometimes been delivered 
 as an irrigating head for furrow irrigation on 2-acre or 3-acre 
 narts, but such small heads are altogether unusual. In the 
 citrus orchards of southern California where furrow irrigation 
 is practised and where the irrigation water is distributed in under- 
 ground pipes or flumes heads of 10 to 50 inches, or 0.20 to 1 second- 
 foot are perhaps most common. In Modesto and Turlock irri- 
 gation districts, California, the practice is to give heads of from 
 15 to 20 and sometimes 30 second-feet for from 20 to 30 minutes 
 per acre at each run, yet irrigators themselves often split the full 
 heads into several smaller heads. These California figures 
 represent the two extremes. As a rule such large heads as 20 
 to 30 second-feet are excessive and while theoretically economical 
 in that they largely prevent uneven distribution in alfalfa checks, 
 in the main they are believed to foster wasteful practice. The 
 smaller heads are, of course, economical in special cases only. 
 In most of the mountain states with continuous flow the irri- 
 gating head is based on the number of water shares owned by each 
 irrigator and may be as little as 10 inches and in some cases as 
 much as 100 inches or more. Under the largest system in Utah 
 the stream delivered is usually from 2 to 4 second-feet. Accord- 
 ing to figures furnished by F. W. Hanna on the projects of the 
 Reclamation Service practice varies widely with the different 
 conditions met, as much as 12 to 20 second-feet being given as a 
 maximum delivery head on some of the projects, with average 
 deliveries on the same projects varying between 3 and 7.5 cubic 
 feet per second. On Reclamation Service projects using the 
 smaller class of heads, as on the Boise, Uncompahgre, Huntley, 
 Sun River and Shoshone projects, the maximum heads vary 
 from 2.5 to 4 second-feet and the average from 0.75 second-feet 
 to 2 second-feet. 
 
 On the whole, the above data indicate that the head adopted 
 on any system must be determined with reference to the par- 
 ticular conditions found. The soil and crop irrigated must 
 govern, and distribution systems, including delivery gates, 
 
160 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 must be designed to permit using the head that is the most 
 economical. In general, the greater the slope and the more 
 porous the soil, the smaller should be the delivery head adopted. 
 Furrow irrigation accomplishes the best results by the use 
 of relatively small streams after the furrows have once become 
 wetted, and the head delivered can only be determined according 
 to the number of furrows it is convenient to care for during 
 irrigation at one time. In irrigating both grains and alfalfa 
 in the mountain states the characteristic slope of the irrigated 
 lands usually prevents applying in excess of 2 to 4 second-feet 
 at one time, while the flatter slopes and more sandy soils of 
 such places as the Great Valley of California and of the South- 
 west make heads as large as 10 to 15 second-feet economical 
 of both time and water where check flooding is practised, much 
 smaller heads being necessary for furrow irrigation. 
 
 A description of the more common devices used for the meas- 
 urement of deliveries may be found under Art. 27. 
 
 32. Injurious Mineral Salts. Portions of all soils are con- 
 tinuously being made soluble by numerous agencies. Abundant 
 rains, which percolate through the soils of the earth's humid 
 regions carry these soluble materials as they are formed, into 
 the rivers, lakes, and oceans. Vast areas, however, have in- 
 sufficient rainfall to leach away the soluble salts, thus giving 
 rise to excess accumulation of these materials in arid soils. 
 " Alkali," a term commonly given to all excess mineral salts, 
 usually exists in the form of chloride, sulphates, and carbonates 
 of sodium, calcium, and magnesium. Broadly speaking, the 
 world over, alkali salts consist chiefly of sodium chloride, (NaCl), 
 common salt; sodium sulphate (Na 2 SO 4 ), Glauber salt; and 
 sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ) sal soda. The latter is commonly 
 spoken of as " black alkali" since it dissolves organic matter 
 and thus gives the soil surface a dark color, while the other 
 salts which are less harmful to plants, form a white crust on the 
 soil and are hence classed as " white alkali." 
 
 While it is very difficult to give maximum per cents, of plant 
 tolerance to alkali, Hilgard's limits of 0.1 per cent, sodium 
 carbonate, 0.25 per cent, sodium chloride and .0.50 per cent, 
 sodium sulphate, observed for cereals in sandy loam soil are 
 valuable as a general guide. In clay soils, the injurious pud- 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 161 
 
 or breaking down of crumb structure, especially by 
 sodium carbonate, makes the limits very much less. 
 
 Much of the future success in the cultivation of alkali lands 
 undoubtedly depends upon the use of plants resistant to soluble 
 salts. The date palm, according to Swingle (Bui. 53, Bureau 
 of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. Agr.) is the most resistant of 
 cultural plants. Kafir corn, sorghum, sugar beets, barley, rye, 
 mature alfalfa, and asparagus are among the most resistant 
 of ordinary crops, while wheat and oats tolerate very little 
 alkali. Leguminous plants are as a class sensitive, although 
 alfalfa and vetch are quite resistant. Hilgard reports that 
 carrots, onions, and potatoes produce normal yields in soils 
 strongly alkaline, but that the quality of the crops is badly 
 affected. Grapes, olives, almonds, and figs are, in the order 
 named, the most resistant fruit crops; while oranges, pears and 
 apples are moderately tolerant; and, prunes, peaches, apricots 
 and lemons rather sensitive. 
 
 Proper treatment of alkali soils will materially lessen the 
 injurious effects of the excess soluble salts. Immediately after 
 each irrigation large volumes of water are evaporated from 
 the soil. A total loss of 3 acre-inches per acre in a period 
 of 9 days, causing a deficiency in moisture to a depth of 10 
 feet has been observed by Widtsoe. As moisture moves up- 
 ward in the soil, large quantities of soluble materials are carried 
 with it to the surface where the salts are deposited, as the 
 water passes off in vapor form. Suppose that a soil containing 
 only 0.05 per cent, soluble salts, an ordinary amount in many 
 productive lands, should have the entire amount, contained to 
 a depth of 10 feet, deposited in the surface 6 inches. The 
 surface content would be twenty times as great as before evapo- 
 ration took place, thus making a total amount of 1 per cent, 
 which is beyond plant tolerance. As a matter of fact, many 
 soils in which "alkali" has been unsuspected, have been rendered 
 worthless in just this manner. Clearly then irrigators must 
 reduce evaporation from their soils. 
 
 Soils naturally alkaline, or those rendered such by faulty 
 irrigation may be improved by (1) cropping with resistant 
 plants, (2) removing surface incrustation, (3) turning under 
 
 11 
 
162 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 surface soils, (4) chemical treatment, and (5) leaching by flood- 
 ing and drainage. 
 
 About one-fifth of the dry weight of Australian salt brush 
 and Russian thistle is ash or salt compounds, hence with 5 
 tons of dry matter harvested, 1 ton of salt would be removed. 
 This may, in time, give some improvement. Moving the 
 surface soil can be economically practised only on small areas 
 or under other conditions, especially favorable. Turning it 
 under will distribute the salts over a large area, and thus give 
 at least temporary relief, while plants germinate and establish 
 a root system to great depths. Chemical treatment, which 
 is applied only to " black alkali" consists in adding calcium 
 sulphate in amounts which depend on the amount of sodium 
 carbonate in the soil, and vary from a few hundred pounds to 
 several tons per acre. This method is valuable, even when 
 leaching is contemplated, since it is very difficult to leach sodium 
 carbonate. The less harmful sodium sulphate, formed by 
 adding calcium sulphate, leaches with comparative ease. Its 
 beneficial effects are reversed, however, if soils are irrigated 
 to excess. Moreover, the noxious " black alkali" is actually 
 formed in ordinary soils when they are swamped by heavy ir- 
 rigation. Ultimately, however, leaching the excess salts by 
 drainage is the only permanent method of reclamation. 1 This 
 process was successfully tried in the vineyards of Fresno County, 
 California, by V. M. Cone and the writer in 1907 and 1908. 
 The upper 4 feet of soil before being treated contained on 
 an average about 2/10 of 1 per cent, of soluble salts. After 
 drain pipes had been laid in the vineyard, the surface formed 
 into checks and each check flooded twice to a depth of 12 inches, 
 the percentage of soluble salts was reduced to about 4/100 of 1 
 per cent. 
 
 33. The Use of Saline Waters in Irrigation. Large amounts 
 of soluble salts occur, not only in the soils, but also in the streams, 
 lakes, and underground waters of the earth's arid region. The 
 importance of plant tolerance to saline irrigation waters is there- 
 fore obvious. Some valuable observations have been made in 
 connection with the use of such waters for irrigation, but no sys- 
 
 1 See Drainage of Irrigated Lands in the San Joaquin. Valley, Bui. 217, 
 O. E. S., U. S. D. A. 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 163 
 
 tomntic field experiments have been conducted for the purpose of 
 determining plant tolerance to them. Reports of water analysis 
 usually include all dissolved solids, but for agricultural purposes 
 analyses of water for sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ); sodium 
 chloride (NaCl); and sodium sulphate (Na 2 SO 4 ) will give a good 
 index to its value. The amount of mineral salts contained in 
 water is commonly reported in parts per 100,000. 
 
 The following classification of river waters, made by Stabler 
 (Water Supply Paper No. 274 and Engineering News of July 
 14, 1910) furnishes irrigators a general guide in the use of saline 
 waters. 
 
 TABLE No. 28 
 
 Table Showing Classification of River Waters for Irrigation Purposes Based 
 upon Amount and Composition of Dissolved Solids 
 
 Class Name of river 
 
 Place of sampling 
 
 Dissolved 
 solids, 
 parts per 
 100,000 
 
 Radicals in per cent, 
 dissolved solids 
 
 Carb. 
 (C0 3 ) 
 
 Bicarb. 
 (HC0 3 ) 
 
 Chlor. 
 (Cl) 
 
 Fair Rio Grande 
 
 El Paso, Texas 
 
 69 9 
 
 10 
 
 34 
 
 15 
 
 Fair Colorado 
 
 Yuma, Ariz. 
 
 70 7 
 
 28 
 
 33 o 
 
 18 
 
 Fair Salt River 
 
 Roosevelt, Ariz 
 
 53 4 
 
 00 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 Fair Gila River 
 
 San Carlos, Ariz 
 
 73.6 
 
 0.04 
 
 35.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 Fair 'Salt Fork of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Red River 
 
 Near Mangum, Okla . . 
 
 230.0 
 
 0.00 
 
 6.2 
 
 9.5 
 
 Poor Turkey Creek.. . 
 
 Near Olustee, Okla... 
 
 317.0 
 
 0.00 
 
 6.1 
 
 12.0 
 
 Poor Pecos River. . . . 
 
 Near Carlsbad, N. M.. 
 
 272.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 5.7 
 
 17.0 
 
 Poor North Fork of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Red River 
 
 Near Headrick, Okla . . 
 
 359.0 
 
 0.04 
 
 5.3 
 
 33.0 
 
 Bad Elm Fork of Red 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 River 
 
 Near Mangum. Okla.. 
 
 913.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 1.7 
 
 38.0 
 
 The calcium (Ca); sulphate (S0 4 ) sodium (Na) and other 
 radicals are omitted from the table, hence the sum of the per 
 cent, columns, as given above will never equal 100. Note that 
 the Salt Fork of Red River, which contains a total of 230 parts 
 dissolved matter per 100,000 is classed as fair. When it is 
 observed that none of this material is carbonate, only 6.2 per cent. 
 bicarbonate and 9.5 per cent, chlorine, the reason for the classifi- 
 cation is obvious. The waters of these rivers, excluding the last 
 two, have all been successfully used for irrigation. That special 
 
 1 52 per cent, of D. S. '(SO 4 ) and 18 per cent. (Ca). 
 
164 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 precautions are necessary to permanently maintain the pro- 
 ductive capacity of soils in connection with the use of such waters 
 is evident in view of experience in various localities as briefly 
 mentioned in the following paragraph. 
 
 Certain orchard soils, irrigated, according to Forbes, with 
 water taken from the Salt River, Arizona, which contained soluble 
 salts varying in amount from 52 to 157 with a mean of 107 parts 
 per 100,000, accumulated from 0.111 per cent, to 0.426 per cent, 
 in a period of about 10 years (Arizona Bui. 44, p. 116). 
 Two samples of Wyoming water which contained 5.71 and 23.58 
 parts alkali salts per 100,000, before irrigation, were shown by 
 Slossen from analysis of the waste waters, to have made annual 
 deposits in the upper 3 feet of soil which would in a period 
 of 10 years, have amounted to 0.067 and 0.278 per cent, re- 
 spectively (Wyo., Bui. 24, pp. 114 and 117). The Bureau of 
 Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agri., speaking of conditions in the Pecos 
 Valley, New Mexico, said, "Five hundred parts of soluble matter 
 may be taken as the extreme limit of endurance for plants, while 
 250 to 300 mark the danger point at which the results of the use 
 of water are very uncertain. " That this estimate is conserva- 
 tive, seems evident in view of the fact that for centuries past 
 waters containing from 400 to 800 parts per 100,000 have been 
 successfully used in crop production, according to Means, by 
 the Arabs in the Algerian Oases. 
 
 The remarkable success attained by the Arabs with such 
 waters is dependent upon frequent, heavy application of water 
 and thorough drainage by open ditches or tiles (Bureau of 
 Soils, Cir. 10). The efficiency of frequent flooding is well 
 illustrated in the following table after Forbes showing the relative 
 alkali content in furrows and rows subsequent to the use of saline 
 water in furrow irrigation. 
 
 TABLE No. 29 
 
 Depth in feet 
 
 Uncultivated tree 
 row 
 
 Temporary ridges 
 
 Furrows flooded 
 every 8 days 
 
 Per cent, of alkali 
 in soil 
 
 Per cent, of alkali 
 in soil 
 
 Per cent, of alkali 
 in soil 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 0.305 
 0.099 
 0.092 
 
 0.295 
 0.070 
 0.055 
 
 0.043 
 0.045 
 0.046 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 165 
 
 Note that the uncultivated row contains, in the first foot, 7 
 times as much salt as the furrow, and in the second and third, 
 only twice as much as the soil under the furrow. Forbes noted 
 further that the crest of a ridge in a strawberry plat contained 
 0.20 per cent, in the surface foot as compared to 0.061 per cent, 
 in the bottom of the adjacent furrow. Hilgard observed that in 
 a period of 3 years, water containing 170 parts of soluble salts 
 per 100,000, caused complete defoliation of orange trees near 
 Corona, California, and increased the per cent, of salts in the soil, 
 from 0.0174 to 0.0696. He says further that the upper limit 
 under ordinary practice in California is 120 parts. Water from 
 artesian wells containing from 175 to 200 parts mineral salts 
 per 100,000 have been successfully used for irrigation in South 
 Dakota. 
 
 The general statement of permissible per cents, of mineral 
 matter in irrigation water involves a knowledge of the character 
 and relative proportion of the alkali salts; the crops grown; the 
 soil texture, depth, and original alkali content; methods of irri- 
 gation; and drainage facilities. From the foregoing examples it 
 is obvious that, although the parts of tolerable salts differ widely, 
 under various conditions, evaporation must be reduced to a mini- 
 mum and drainage provided when saline waters are used. Irri- 
 gation should be quickly followed by cultivation, especially where 
 the furrow method is employed. Practical experience and chem- 
 ical analysis agree in emphasizing liberal flooding and thorough 
 drainage where saline waters must be used. 
 
 In case natural drainage is inadequate and artificial drain- 
 age impractical, the following method adopted by Israelson 
 of calculating the number of acre-feet of water, containing a 
 given amount of salt, which can be safely added to the soil may 
 be valuable in helping irrigators to interpret an analysis of 
 the water used. It assumes that all of the alkali salts con- 
 tained in the irrigation water remain in the soil. An example 
 will make it clear. Suppose the alkali content is 150 parts 
 sodium chloride per 100,00.0 of water, the irrigation water 
 penetrates to a depth of 6 feet, and that a cubic foot of soil 
 weighs 1.32 times the weight of a cubic foot of water, a rela- 
 tion generally true. Let N equal the number of acre-feet per 
 acre that can be safely added. By Art. 32 the maximum 
 
166 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 amount of sodium chloride that ordinary plants can tolerate 
 in the soil is 0.25 per cent., therefore the greatest number of 
 pounds permissible in 6 acre-feet of soil is 
 
 0.25 X 1.32 X 62.5 X 43,560 X 6 
 100 
 
 The number of pounds chloride in 1 acre-foot of water 
 
 150 X 62 5 X 43 560 
 would be - v 10Q - as 150 parts per 100,000 - 0.150 
 
 per cent., 62.5 the weight of 1 cubic foot of water, and 43,560 
 the area of 1 acre in square feet. Hence, 
 
 0.25 X 1.32 X 62.5 X 43,560 X 6 
 1.150 X 52.5 X 43,560 
 
 If, therefore, 2 acre-feet of water are used annually, a period 
 of 6 to 7 years would render the soil unproductive. From the 
 
 ,. . 1.32 X Ps X D . 
 above discussion, the general formula N = - p - is 
 
 easily deduced where Ps equals the permissible per cent, of 
 salt in the soil, Pw the per cent, of salt contained in the irri- 
 gation water, and D the mean depth in the soil to which water 
 penetrates. 
 
 34. Drainage of Irrigated Farm Lands. The drainage of 
 land in an arid region differs in many essential features from 
 the drainage of land in a humid region. In the former the soil 
 in its natural state, except near the surface, has been continuously 
 dry for ages. No percolating water has passed through it and 
 in consequence no drainage arteries have been formed within 
 its mass. It is not until water is conveyed and distributed in 
 artificial channels over the land that these conditions are changed. 
 These changes are often very radical in character. The river 
 may no longer flow in its natural channel but be taken out and 
 spread over large areas of dry soil. This soil and the numerous 
 earthen channels which convey the water permit a large part 
 to percolate and otherwise pass through the top layer of soil. 
 Gravity and capillarity draw this escaping water lower and 
 lower until some impervious stratum is reached along which 
 it passes to lower levels.. The intercepting of this waste or 
 seepage water from the irrigated field and ditch forms an im- 
 portant feature in the drainage of arid lands. 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 167 
 
 Another feature of even greater importance is the presence 
 of mineral salts known as alkali in amounts larger than the 
 ordinary crops can tolerate. The greater part of these salts 
 have to be removed and drainage systems are planned, not 
 only to lower the ground-water level but to remove the harmful 
 accumulation of alkali. 
 
 Charles F. Brown divides irrigated lands needing drainage 
 into three classes (Farmers' Bui. 371). (1) Those injured 
 by excess of water only, (2) those affected by an excess of both 
 water and alkali, (3) those having an excess of alkali only. 
 
 The Deer Lodge Valley in Montana is an example of the first 
 class. The extensive drainage operations now in progress under 
 the supervision of Dr. H. C. Gardner of the Montana Copper 
 Mining Company reveal no harmful amounts of alkali. The soil 
 is merely water-logged. The district southwest of Fresno City, 
 California, is a good example of the second class. Here the 
 ground-water level has risen in places to a height of over 60 
 feet as a result of the inflow of seepage water from irrigated 
 lands and leaky ditches. The rise of the water table near the 
 surface and the dissolving of mineral salts by it has accumulated 
 so much alkali near the surface as to render much of the land 
 unfit for the more profitable crops, such as raisin grapes and 
 deciduous fruit trees (Drainage of Irrigated Lands in the San 
 Joaquin Valley, O. E. S., Bui. 217). Much of the low-lying land 
 bordering on Great Salt Lake is an example of the third class. 
 Here virgin soil is so impregnated with common salt and other 
 minerals as to be non-productive until the greater part of such 
 salts have been removed by copious irrigations and underground 
 drainage. 
 
 NEED FOR DRAINAGE. Some engineers have gone so far as 
 to advocate that all irrigated lands be provided with drainage 
 systems. Since only a relatively small part of such lands re- 
 quire drainage it is manifestly unjust to impose so heavy a 
 burden upon all farmers under irrigation enterprises. A better 
 plan is to prevent, so far as practicable, the water-logging of 
 raw lands and thje rise of the alkali by a skillful use of water and 
 by keeping the natural drainage channels open. In spite of all 
 that can be done, however, in the way of preventative measures, 
 a certain percentage of irrigated lands is certain to become in- 
 
168 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 juriously affected by too much water, too much alkali, or both. 
 Such tracts should receive early consideration in order that the 
 proper remedy may be applied before valuable crops are de- 
 stroyed and the soil rendered unproductive. The rise of the 
 water table can be readily observed by the use of small test 
 wells. The water in these wells can be analyzed to determine 
 the kind and amount of mineral salts which it holds in solution. 
 The height to which soil water may rise without injury to crops, 
 varies with the seasons, crops and other conditions, but generally 
 speaking, 4 feet below the surface is looked upon as the danger 
 line. 
 
 In* preparing the following paragraphs which aim to present 
 an outline of the best drainage practice of the West, the writer 
 desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to R. A. Hart super- 
 vising drainage engineer of the O. E. S., U. S. D. A. 
 
 KIND OF DRAINS. Covered drainage systems should be used 
 for farm work as they are most efficient and more economical 
 in the long run. Clay tile, cement tile or lumber-box conduits 
 may be employed. Clay tile are to be preferred. They should 
 be hard-burned but not brittle, of good shape and condition, 
 free from blisters and serious cracks and have walls as im- 
 pervious as possible and strong enough to bear the necessary 
 weight of earth. Cement tile should only be used when clay tile 
 is not available at reasonable rates. It should be machine-made, 
 mixed wet, of proportions about 2 : 1 and should be steam-cured. 
 Lumber-box conduits should invariably be supplied with bottoms 
 and should be so constructed that their integrity of form will not 
 depend on the nailing, since nails are soon destroyed by the 
 salts. This may be accomplished by cutting shoulders in the 
 tops and bottoms for holding the sides apart. 
 
 DEPTH OF DRAINS. Drains in an irrigated district should not 
 be laid less than 6 feet in depth, save in exceptional cases where 
 a thick impervious stratum is encountered at a less depth. 
 Drains having a depth of 8 feet or more are much more ef- 
 fective, as a rule, but the additional cost of installing them is often 
 prohibitive. 
 
 LOCATION OF DRAINS. As a general thing drains should be 
 located near the upper edge of water-logged areas or belts, but 
 if the subsoil is coarse gravel it is preferable to locate the lines 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 169 
 
 in the lower parts and depressions. If considerable areas of 
 comparatively level land, having fairly uniform soil conditions are 
 to be drained, the lines may be located with some regularity from 
 200 to 500 feet apart, depending on the nature of the soil. Where 
 conditions are irregular no rule for proximity of drains can be 
 given except to state that the lines must be located so as to inter- 
 cept the waste water along the line of its entrance to the field, 
 which is usually at the foot of a change in slope from a steep to a 
 lighter grade. 
 
 FIG. 60. Plan and part elevation of drainage system, showing intercepting 
 
 drains. 
 
 RELIEF WELLS. In many cases, however, the seepage water 
 comes from deep sources and is under pressure. Obviously 
 there is a limit at which drains can be laid economically, but 
 fortunately the seepage may be intercepted by means of relief 
 wells so located as to connect the water-bearing stratum with a 
 drain at ordinary depth. Fig. 60 shows the plan and part^ eleva- 
 tion of a drainage system so constructed as to intercept seepage 
 from two distinct sources. The drain line cuts off the seepage 
 from the upper stratum directly, while the relief wells convey 
 the pressure water from the lower stratum to the drain. These 
 wells may be bored with a post hole auger and should be cased or 
 filled with coarse gravel. 
 
170 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 REQUIRED CAPACITY. It is difficult to give general rules re- 
 garding necessary capacity for drainage systems, but it is usually 
 safe to provide a capacity of one-fifth the irrigation supply for 
 lands having a clay subsoil and a capacity of one-half the irri- 
 gation supply for lands having a sandy subsoil. If the subsoil 
 is coarse gravel it is necessary to determine the contributing area 
 instead of the injured area and to provide a capacity of about 
 one-half the irrigation supply of the area directly contributing. 
 
 GRADE. The carrying capacity of a tile of given diameter 
 depends mainly on the fall of the drain. The smaller the drain 
 the more grade is required. For the smaller sizes a fall of at least 
 
 ? Contour^ 100 
 Drain. 
 
 FIG. 61. A common system of drainage as applied to an irrigated farm. 
 
 1 foot per thousand is required but where conditions permit 
 
 2 or more feet per thousand are preferable. For the larger sizes 
 the fall should be at least a half-foot per thousand and where 
 the necessary fall can be had double or even treble this grade 
 may be advantageously adopted. Tile should be laid on a 
 uniform grade so far as possible and in straight lines (Fig. 61). 
 
 SIZE OF TILE. It is not economical to use tile smaller than 6 
 inches in diameter and the use of tile less than 4 inches is not 
 to be thought of. On the other hand it is rarely necessary to 
 use tile larger than 12 inches in diameter for farm drainage. 
 The latter size will take care of about a mile of drainage in gravel 
 when laid on a grade of 1 foot per thousand. Nothing smaller 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 171 
 
 than an 8-inch tile should be laid in gravel and nothing smaller 
 than a 0-inch tile in sand. A 12-inch tile will take care of 
 
 v , 
 
 the drainage developed by a system of 10 miles of laterals laid 
 in a day subsoil and of about 4 miles laid in a sand subsoil, on 
 the above-named grade. As a general rule it may be stated that 
 a given size of tile, up to 12 inches will carry as much water 
 on the same grade as two lines of the next smaller size. 
 
 METHODS OF INSTALLATION. The use of machinery for exca- 
 vating is advisable whenever possible but ordinarily it will be 
 found necessary to resort to hand labor. Owing to the fluxible 
 nature of irrigated soils, it is generally found expedient to employ 
 a small gang of men on each line and to complete the work in 
 short sections, keeping the trenchers as close together as possible. 
 Work must always commence at the outlet of each line and pro- 
 ceed up the slope so the developed water will readily drain away. 
 The trench should not be opened ahead of the work, even to a 
 shallow depth, and it is a fatal mistake to plow or scrape a trench 
 in advance of the diggers. The trench should be cut from surface 
 to grade as rapidly as possible and immediately thereafter the 
 tile laid and blinded with a few inches of earth caved from the 
 edges of the trench. By systematic, rapid trenching it is usually 
 possible to proceed without much difficulty and at a reasonable 
 cost but if, in spite of all precautions, caving in takes place, it 
 will be necessary to brace the trench by means of long planks 
 and short cross-pieces or sewer braces, and in spejcial cases to 
 sheet the trench tightly. These operations, of course, increase 
 the cost greatly and should only be resorted to when all other 
 measures fail. The best way to avoid difficulty is to choose the 
 season of lowest ground- water table and to avoid storm periods. 
 Irrigation water should be kept off the field that is being drained 
 and also from higher and adjacent fields if possible. 
 
 The tile should be laid carefully, end to end, in a straight line 
 and on an even grade. It is not necessary to separate the tile 
 in any soil but in sandy or silty soils it may be necessary to pro- 
 tect the joints against the entrance of material. Burlap or 
 cheesecloth doubled several times makes an effective filter. If 
 gravel is available it is well to pack a quantity of graded material 
 ranging from coarse sand to stones an inch in diameter about the 
 joints, placing the coarser material next to the tile. The tile 
 
172 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 should be blinded immediately, to prevent subsequent displace- 
 ment in case of caving. If the material is very soft, it is advisable 
 to lay boards under the tile to keep it in position and if it is 
 impossible to keep sediment out of the line during construction 
 it is well to operate sewer rods from openings in the line down the 
 slope from the point where tile is being laid. It is also advisable 
 to turn a stream of irrigation water into the upper end of each 
 line for some time when the system is complete, in order to 
 flush out sediment. Flushing should be resorted to if sediment 
 makes its way into the drains at later periods. Almost any 
 drain will be improved by occasional flushings. 
 
 BACKFILLING. Actual backfilling should be done after the tile 
 laying is complete and there is no better way of accomplishing this 
 than by the use of a plow attached to a long pole evener, drawn 
 by three or more horses. The spoil should be ridged up over the 
 trench to allow for subsequent settling. Irrigation should not 
 be applied directly over the completed trenches and canals and 
 ditches should be carried across them in flumes. 
 
 MANHOLES. Manholes in a drainage system serve several 
 useful purposes. They offer an opportunity for observation of 
 the flow of water and for access to the drain in case it becomes 
 inoperative, so that cleaning devices may be easily inserted. 
 Also by extending the manhole a foot or more below the tile 
 level a basin is formed in which sediment may be trapped and 
 removed froni time to time. In soils that may be expected to 
 enter the drains when wet, manholes should be installed at all 
 junctions, changes in direction or slope and at intervals of 
 not to exceed 500 feet on straight lines. In gravelly or 
 compact soils they may well be eliminated. For observation 
 purposes only nothing is better than a standpipe of 12-inch tile 
 topped with a length of sewer pipe, provided with a cap. The 
 bottom tile should have holes cut for the drain a foot above the 
 bottom of the tile and gravel should be placed on the bottom. 
 
 COST. On account of the varying soil conditions, effectiveness 
 of drains and materials, and methods employed it is impossible 
 to estimate with accuracy the cost of drainage of a given tract 
 without making a special study of that tract. A summary of 
 the experience that has been gained, however, warrants the 
 fixing of certain limits of probable cost. 
 
WASTE, MEASUREMENT, AND DELIVERY 173 
 
 Outlet drainage systems cost from $3 to $15 per acre and often 
 accomplish a great deal of farm drainage directly. At the latter 
 figure, very little tile drainage should be necessary. Farm drain- 
 age, when single tracts or a collection of small units are handled, 
 and the soil is stable, varies in cost from $10 per acre to $20 per 
 acre with the average close to $14 per acre. If the soil is fluxible, 
 however, or the material is so hard as to require picking, the costs 
 run from $20 to $50 per acre and if the trenching work must be 
 protected by sheeting the cost is often considerably more. 
 
 The cost of clay tile in the irrigated sections averages from 
 about a cent per inch of inside diameter per foot of length in the 
 smallest size up to 2 cents per inch of inside diameter per foot 
 of length in the largest size ordinarily used. Trenching, laying 
 tile and backfilling by hand in stable soil to an average depth of 
 6 feet, varies from 7 cents to 15 cents per foot. If the material 
 is hard or unstable the cost will run up to 25 cents per foot and 
 if sheeting is required the cost will be more than double this 
 figure. Machine trenching is ordinarily much cheaper and 5-foot 
 trenching has been contracted at about 4 cents per foot. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 
 
 35. Alfalfa and Other Forage Crops. Of the crops reported 
 in the 17 Western States by the Census of 1910, 30.6 per cent, was 
 in alfalfa, 21.1 per cent, in wild, salt, or prairie grasses, and 11.2 
 per cent, in other forage crops. These returns convey seme 
 idea of the imports rce of alfalfa and the preponderance of forage 
 crops in western farming. The value of alfalfa to the West is 
 more than double that of all other forage crcps combined and as 
 indicated by the incomplete returns of the census probably ex- 
 ceeds $80,000,000 a year. 
 
 Notwithstanding its importance and value in irrigation farm- 
 ing, the profits on the area devoted to this crop can be greatly 
 increased if more care and skill are exercised in growing it. 
 The western irrigator has seldom been able financially to prepare 
 his fields in such a way as to insure the most efficient irrigation 
 and the highest profits. In consequence valuable water is waste- 
 fully applied to land that is in no fit condition to be irrigated. 
 On the large acreage in irrigated alfalfa this amounts to an 
 enormous loss. This is shown in the case of southern Idaho. 
 There soil, water, climate and other conditions are unexcelled 
 for the production of heavy yields of alfalfa and under good farm- 
 ing seasonal yields of 6 to 8 tons per acre can be harvested, yet 
 the general average seasonal yield per acre in 1910 was only 
 3.26 tons. 
 
 LANDS ADAPTED TO ALFALFA. l The most essential conditions 
 for the production of alfalfa are abundant sunshine, a high 
 summer temperature, plenty of moisture and a deep, well- 
 drained soil. All of these essentials save moisture exist naturally 
 in the arid region of the United States and when water is applied 
 it makes conditions ideal. Over half a century of experience has 
 
 'See Farmers' Bui. 263 and 373, U. S. D. A., by the author. 
 
 174 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 175 
 
 shown that alfalfa can be successfully grown under a wide variety 
 of soils and climate yet all western lands are not equally well 
 adapted to its growth. For this reason those who are seeking 
 such lands with a view to their purchase should first make a 
 careful examination of the character and depth of soil, its be- 
 havior when irrigated, the slope and evenness of the surface, the 
 presence of injurious salts and the facilities for drainage. 
 
 PREPARATORY CROPS. Experience has shown that it is diffi- 
 cult in the course of 6 months or a year to secure a good stand 
 of alfalfa on raw land that has been covered by a desert growth. 
 This is true particularly of rough, uneven land on which crop 
 rotation is not practised. It is likewise true of land thickly 
 covered with brush. It has been found impracticable in most 
 localities to secure a smooth, well-graded surface where fresh 
 roots interfere with the proper use of all grading and leveling 
 implements. The same is true of hog-wallow land, where con- 
 siderable soil has to be removed from the high places and de- 
 posited in the low places. It takes time and a second preparation 
 of the surface before fields of this character can be put in good 
 condition for the growth and irrigation of alfalfa. If crop rota- 
 tion is to be followed the necessity for a preparatory crop is not 
 so urgent, since the alfalfa will soon be plowed under to give place 
 to another crop. In northern Colorado, where alfalfa usually 
 follows either potatoes or sugar beets, the surface is not 
 plowed, but merely harrowed or disked in the spring just before 
 seeding. If the surface is uneven it is smoothed and leveled by 
 means of a float or drag before the seed is put in. In south- 
 western Kansas it is likewise considered best to plant alfalfa after 
 some cultivated crop which has held the weeds in check. The 
 land is plowed in the fall to a depth of 6 inches, double- disked in 
 the spring after the weeds have started, and is subsequently 
 harrowed. In the vicinity of Los Banos, California, new land is 
 almost invariably sown to barley or corn for two seasons before 
 seeding to alfalfa. In Utah wheat or oats is preferred as a pre- 
 paratory crop. The chief purpose of all such preparatory grain 
 crops is to allow fresh roots of the original plant covering to de- 
 cay, filled-in spots to settle, high places denuded of the upper 
 layer of soil to weather, and in general to prepare a well-pulverized 
 seed bed in a smooth, well-graded field. 
 
176 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 SEEDING ALFALFA. In northern Colorado rotation of crops is 
 practised and alfalfa seed is sown with a nurse crop, usually 
 wheat or barley. The seed is drilled early in the spring with a 
 common force-feed press drill equipped with an auxiliary seed 
 box for alfalfa seed which is scattered broadcast between the 
 rows and covered by the disk wheels of the press drill. From 12 
 to 20 pounds of alfalfa seed are sown to the acre. 
 
 In Yuma and other valleys of Arizona October planting is 
 preferred. Frequently in this dry climate the land is irri- 
 gated before seeding. It is then cultivated, seeded and harrowed. 
 
 In the Sacramento Valley of California, alfalfa is seeded 
 generally in the spring from February 15 to April 15. In the 
 San Joaquin valley the time of seeding extends from March or 
 earlier to April. The amount of seed used per acre in both val- 
 leys averages about 16 pounds. 
 
 The alfalfa growers of Montana are about equally divided 
 in opinion as to the advantages of using a nurse crop. Those 
 who seed grain with alfalfa claim that they get more out of the 
 land the first season. Those who are opposed to this practice 
 believe that the injury done to the alfalfa plants by the grain 
 crop extends through several years and that the small gain of 
 the first year is more than offset by the lessened yields of alfalfa 
 in subsequent years. Mr. I. D. O'Donnell, one of the most 
 successful alfalfa growers and feeders in the state is an advocate 
 of the last-named practice. 
 
 The last half of August is the best time to seed alfalfa in 
 the humid region. The soil is first plowed and heavily fertilized 
 and early in the spring a hoed crop, preferably potatoes is 
 planted. When this crop is harvested and the soil again properly 
 prepared it is in excellent condition for alfalfa seed. The long 
 growing season of the middle and south Atlantic states en- 
 ables the plant to establish itself before the first killing frost. 
 In seeding alfalfa in the humid region it is not safe to use less 
 than 20 pounds to the acre. 
 
 ALFALFA AS A BASE OF ROTATION. The benefits to be derived 
 by rotating alfalfa with irrigated crops are now quite generally 
 recognized and this practice is being followed by the more pro- 
 gressive communities of the irrigated region. Formerly when 
 hay and grain crops comprised the bulk of the westein scil 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 177 
 
 production, farmers were loathe to plow under a good stand of 
 alfalfa because it was their best paying crop. In later years the 
 raising of beets, potatoes, srnall fruits and truck have well nigh 
 forced growers to rotate with legumes in order to maintain the 
 fertility and good tilth of the soil. 
 
 On account of the slow growth of alfalfa during the first 
 4 to G months after seeding and the long period required to 
 reach full maturity it is not adapted to short time rotations 
 such as is practised so successfully in the more elevated and 
 cooler portions of the irrigated West where red clover is sown 
 with grain in the spring and in less than 18 months is plowed 
 under. This simple rotation of grain sown with clover one 
 season and clover alone the next year, giving large returns 
 of both grain and hay could not well be followed with alfalfa 
 for the reason named and for the additional reason that it re- 
 quires at least 3 years for the roots of alfalfa to develop fully. 
 So the most common alfalfa rotation in the West is 3 to 4 years 
 in alfalfa, followed by root crops and a nurse crop of grain. If 
 root crops are the most profitable the tendency is to grow them 
 until the yields and profits fall off when the land is again restored 
 by seeding to grain and alfalfa. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF IRRIGATION IN ROOT DEVELOPMENT. To de- 
 velop a good tap root in the early stages of growth of alfalfa is 
 desirable for many reasons. It enlarges the feeding ground of 
 the plant and thus renders it more vigorous and a heavy yielder. 
 It guards it from the bad effects of alternate dry and saturated 
 surface soil by drawing moisture from beneath and it prolongs 
 the life and usefulness of the plants by maintaining its most es- 
 sential member in a healthy, normal condition. 
 
 When the top layer of soil is rich and kept continuously 
 moist, alfalfa plants seem to put forth little effort to extend 
 their tap roots far below the surface. The result is a division 
 of the main root into several branches which spread out and 
 become bushy. 
 
 To bring about deep rooting, the subsoil should be well drained. 
 If water and worse still, water containing harmful quantities 
 of salts, is allowed to rise into the feeding zone it will injure and 
 in time destroy the tap root. The presence of hardpan or 
 any formation which hinders root penetration likewise forces 
 12 
 
178 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 shallow rooting. The remedy for this condition is deep plow- 
 ing, subsoiling or else dynamiting. But even in well-drained, 
 deep and thoroughly 'cultivated soils some incentive to deep 
 rooting is necessary. This can readily be brought about by ap- 
 plying to the soil a scanty amount of water when the plant is 
 young. At this stage it should suffer for water and this lack 
 of moisture will tend to make it strike down through its tap 
 root in quest of more. It is also a good plan to apply water 
 some time before seeding if the soil is too dry. 
 
 Perhaps the greatest objections to sowing alfalfa with a 
 nurse crop arises from the injury done to the root develop- 
 ment of the alfalfa. In such a practice the fodder crop is over- 
 looked in an effort to produce a good cereal crop. The latter 
 requires water early on account of its quick-maturing properties 
 and being shallow-rooted it requires a moist surface soil. Both 
 are likely to affect injuriously the proper development of the 
 roots of the alfalfa. 
 
 THE IRKIGATION OF ALFALFA, (a) By Flooding. In the states 
 of Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and Utah and to some ex- 
 tent in all Western States, flooding, as it is termed, from field 
 ditches and laterals is the most common method of irrigating 
 hay and grain crops. As a rule a medium head of water is 
 used. This is conducted through the supply ditch to the high- 
 est point of the field and is then divided into smaller heads and 
 distributed among the farm ditches and laterals. From these 
 in turn it is made to flow over the surface of the land, all ex 
 cess water being collected by the lower laterals. The temporary 
 field ditches are made to fit into the natural slope and con- 
 figuration of the tract to be watered so as to conduct the water 
 to the high places. 
 
 . This method is well adapted to the varying slopes and ir- 
 regular surface formation so common in the Mountain States. 
 Fields which slope from 5 to 500 feet per mile can be success- 
 fully watered in this way. Besides the preparation of the land 
 is easy and cheap since little change is made in the natural sur- 
 face. On the other hand the labor required to irrigate is ex- 
 cessive and of the most fatiguing kind. 
 
 The manner in which forage crops are irrigated by flooding 
 can best be shown by outlining the practice in a few localities. 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 179 
 
 / 
 
 In northern Colorado, for example, the head used varies from 
 2 to 4 second-feet and is divided into two or three laterals. 
 Canvas or coarse manure dams are used to check the water 
 in the laterals and to force it out over the banks and down the 
 slopes of the fields. In less than 3 hours the upper foot of 
 soil is usually thoroughly moistened. To apply one watering in 
 this way costs from 15 to 30 cents per acre. 
 
 In Montana the field ditches are laid out across the slope 
 on a grade of 1/2 to 3/4 inch to the rod or else down the 
 steepest slope. In the first case the ditches are spaced 50 
 to 100 feet apart and water flows through openings in the 
 bank made with the shovel and spreading out covers a wide 
 space before reaching the next lower ditch. Each ditch carries 
 from 40 to 80 miner's inches (1 to 2 second-feet) and one man can 
 handle from 80 to 200 miner's inches in two or more ditches. 
 The canvas dam is the most commonly used to check the flow 
 in the ditch but earth and manure dams are also common. The 
 earth is taken from the low side and when the dam is broken 
 the hole is again partially filled with the same material. In 
 making use of coarse manure for this purpose it is hauled by 
 teams and distributed in small heaps along the ditch bank at in- 
 tervals of 30 to 60 feet. Before irrigation begins it is placed 
 in the ditch with a thin covering of earth over its upper face. 
 The same manure can be used for several irrigations. 
 
 In other districts of Montana the field ditches are parallel 
 and extend down the steepest slope from the supply ditch to 
 the catch ditch at the bottom of the field. In this practice 
 the check dams previously described are used. The laterals 
 are made with a lister attached to a sulky frame, Fig. 62. 
 
 In Utah the head varies from less than 1 second-foot to 
 as high as 5 second-feet. During the spring months when 
 the streams are running bank full, large irrigating heads are 
 the rule but as the stream flow diminishes the quantities used 
 by the farmers likewise diminish. In this State, the farms, as 
 well as the alfalfa fields, are smaller than those of neighboring 
 states. One also finds more permanent ditches and turnout 
 boxes. 
 
 (b) By Borders. The borders or lands described under 
 Art. 20 are used extensively for the irrigation of alfalfa. When 
 
180 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 an alfalfa field is divided off into borders it can be watered 
 at a low cost per acre and with little labor. It is therefore a 
 paying investment to prepare the surface for this kind of ap- 
 plication rather than for flooding whenever conditions are 
 suitable. It calls for a fairly smooth, uniform slope of 5 to 20 
 feet per mile for any available supply of water of 2 to 10 second- 
 feet. As a rule the borders or lands are too long. One is seldom 
 justified in exceeding 900 feet between head ditches. On more 
 uneven slopes a much shorter run is desirable. Several secord- 
 feet aie turned into each border and the number of strips which 
 can be watered simultaneously depends on the quantity of water 
 available in the supply ditch. Immediately after a crop has 
 been cut and removed a thin sheet of water will flow over the 
 
 FIG. 62. Lateral ditch plow. 
 
 stubble and down the border in a short time without backing 
 up. Irrigation at this stage does not, therefore, require high 
 border levees. On the contrary, due to the obstruction to the 
 flow of water caused by the larger growth, the time required to 
 irrigate a fairly well matured crop is much longer and the side 
 levees require to be higher to prevent over-topping. 
 
 The most common size of borders in the Salt River valley 
 of Arizona is 66 feet wide and 1320 feet long. A head of 300 
 miner's inches (7 1/2 second-feet) is turned into four borders. 
 The time required to irrigate each set of four borders averages 
 about 6 hours and the amount of water applied at a time varies 
 from 2 to 4 acre-inches per acre. This water, however, is seldom 
 evenly distributed throughout the length of the border. The 
 
IRHIHATIOX OF STAPLE CROPS 181 
 
 soil in the upper end may be moistened to a depth of 30 inches, 
 that cf the middle to a depth of 27 inches, while that near the 
 lower end of the border may not be moistened to a greater depth 
 than 15 inches. 
 
 (c) By Checks. With a large volume in the feed ditch and 
 a light sandy soil oh a flat slope, alfalfa can be watered in checks 
 at a low cost per acre for the season. In the Modesto and 
 Turlock Irrigation districts of central California the feed ditches 
 are designed to carry 10 to 20 second-feet. These large heads 
 are used by the farmers in turn for short periods of time. Five 
 second-feet flowing on a check containing 1 acre would cover 
 it to a depth of 5 inches in 1 hour. If a head of 15 second- 
 feet is available, three checks can be irrigated simultaneously. 
 Irrigation begins with the higher checks and works down. 
 
 On the west side of the San Joaquin river under the Miller 
 and Lux canal system, the check levees follow contour lines and 
 enclose areas of 1 to 3 acres. The average head used 
 is 8 1/2 second-feet and the time required to irrigate an acre 
 varies from 1/2 to 1 hour and over. The checks and 
 ditches under this system are not so well provided with boxes and 
 gates as are those of the Modesto and Turlock districts and in con- 
 sequence the cost per acre for the season is about 50 cents higher. 
 
 (d) By Furrows. Alfalfa, clover and other forage crops 
 grown in the State of Washington and in parts of Idaho and other 
 states are irrigated by the furrow method. Where the soil is 
 deep and fairly retentive of moisture, the furrows are spaced 3 1/2 
 to 4 feet apart but in sandy and shallow soil the spacing varies 
 from 2 to 21/2 feet. The length of the furrow likewise varies 
 with the character of the soil. In sandy soil 200 feet is considered 
 sufficient whereas in the heavy and deeper soils it is customary 
 to run water in furrows 330 to 660 feet or even longer distances. 
 
 In Washington the water is delivered, as a rule, in a con- 
 tinuous stream, 1 second-foot being allowed for 160 acres. 
 By this custom the owner of a small farm of 20 acres receives 
 only one-eighth of a second-foot, a flow altogether too small to 
 apply economically. This defect in water contracts is partly 
 overcome by an exchange of water among neighbors who in this 
 way adopt a voluntary rotation system. 
 
 The head of water available is distributed to the furrows 
 
182 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 from head ditches through lath or metal spouts. Wooden flumes 
 and pipes of concrete, wood and galvanized iron sometimes take 
 the place of head ditches in earth. A head of half a second-foot 
 may be apportioned among 50 or more furrows and permitted 
 to run from 6 to 12 hours in the lighter soils and from 1 to 3 
 days in the heavy soils. Alfalfa is irrigated after each cutting 
 and occasionally between cuttings. The quantity of water ap- 
 plied at each irrigation is seldom less than 6 acre-inches per 
 acre but there is always a certain percentage wasted by deep 
 percolation. 
 
 (e) By Surface Pipes. This method is described in Art. 19. 
 
 AMOUNT OF WATER REQUIRED. Alfalfa requires more water 
 than most crops. This is readily accounted for by the character 
 of the plant, the rapidity with which it grows, the number of 
 crops produced in one season, and the heavy tonnage obtained. 
 
 As a result of careless practice there is a lack of uniformity in 
 the quantity of water used, the volume applied frequently being 
 far in excess of the needs of the crop. The majority of the 
 records collected and published by the Office of Experiment 
 Stations show a yearly duty of water for alfalfa ranging from 
 2.5 to 4.5 feet in depth over the surface, while in quite a large 
 number of cases the volumes applied would have covered the 
 area irrigated to depths of 6 to 15 feet. 
 
 From the large number of measurements made on the duty of 
 water it is possible to select some that possess great value, since 
 they indicate what can be accomplished with a given quantity of 
 water. 
 
 During the season of 1904 careful measurements were made 
 by C. E. Tait of the amount of water used on the alfalfa fields 
 in the vicinity of Pomona, Cal. The rainfall at Pomona for the 
 winter of 1903-04 was much below the normal and amounted to 
 about 9.1 inches. The quantity of irrigation water applied 
 by pumping averaged 2.3 feet in depth and the yield of cured hay 
 averaged from 1 to 1.5 tons per acre per crop, five or six crops 
 being common. These figures are corroborated by many others 
 collected in southern California. Perhaps in no other locality of 
 the arid region is a greater tonnage of alfalfa obtained, yet in 
 a climate of scanty rainfall having a long, dry, hot summer only 
 a comparatively small amount of water is used. About a third 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 
 
 183 
 
 cf the 0000 acres irrigated by the Riverside Water Company is 
 in alfalfa and for the past 7 years the average depth applied has 
 been 2.31 feet, while the depth of rainfall and irrigation water 
 combined has averaged 3.18 feet. 
 
 In 1903 the writer, then Director of the Montana Experi- 
 ment Station, applied differ- 
 ent depths of water to seven 
 plats of alfalfa with the results 
 given in the following table. 
 It will be seen that a high 
 tonnage for so short a season 
 as prevails in Montana was 
 obtained from plat 5 with the 
 use of 2 feet of water. By ir- 
 rigating plat 6 seven times, 
 and plat 7 eight times, it was 
 possible to increase the yield 
 to the amounts stated. The 
 results of this experiment 
 seem to confirm the best prac- 
 tice of southern California, 
 which may be summed up by 
 stating that in localities hav- 
 ing an annual rainfall of about 
 12 inches remarkably heavy 
 yields of alfalfa may be ob- 
 tained from the use of 24 to 30 inches of irrigation water, pro- 
 viding it is properly applied. 
 
 I 1 ABLE No. 30 
 
 Quantities of Water Applied to Alfalfa and Yields Secured, Montana 
 Experiment Station 
 
 1 Yield in Tons pe r Acre 
 
 (- N! CO N~ VI Ot -3 OO tO 
 
 Total Depth of Water in Inches 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 2-1 
 
 30 
 
 3G 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FIG. 63. Average yield of alfalfa 
 at Davis, Cal., from different quanti- 
 ties of water. 
 
 Plat 
 number 
 
 Depth of 
 irrigation, 
 feet 
 
 Depth of 
 rainfall, 
 feet 
 
 Total 
 depth, 
 feet 
 
 Yield. per acre 
 of cured alfalfa, 
 tons 
 
 1 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.70 
 
 1.20 
 
 4.61 
 
 2 
 
 None 
 
 0.70 
 
 0.70 
 
 1.95 
 
 3 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.70 
 
 1.70 
 
 4.42 
 
 4 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.70 
 
 2.20 
 
 3.75 
 
 5 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.70 
 
 2.70 
 
 6.35 
 
 6 
 
 2.5 
 
 0.70 
 
 3.20 
 
 7.20 
 
 7 
 
 3.0 
 
 0.70 
 
 3.70 
 
 7. OX 
 
184 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 Results similar to the preceding were obtained at Eavis, 
 California (Bui. 10, U. S. D. A.) during the years 1910 to 
 1912 inclusive. These results are summarized in Table 31 
 and Fig. 63. 
 
 TABLE No. 31 
 
 Summary of Results of Alfalfa Irrigation Investigations, 1910, 1911, and 
 
 1912 
 
 Depth 
 of 
 water 
 ap- 
 plied 
 
 Yield in tons Value of hay per 
 per acre acre at $7 per ton 
 
 Cost of production 
 
 Net profit per acre 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 Inches 
 
 
 3.85 
 
 6.02 
 
 6.52 
 
 $26.95142.14 
 
 $38.64 
 
 $8.65 
 
 $13. 50 $12. 40 
 
 $18.30 
 
 $28.64 
 
 $26 . 24 
 
 12 
 18 
 24 
 
 4.75 
 
 7.52 
 
 6.51 
 7 02 
 
 33.25 
 
 52.64 
 
 45.57 
 49.14 
 58.24 
 
 13.40 
 
 19.60 
 
 17.35 
 19 85 
 
 19 . 85 
 
 33.04 
 
 28.22 
 29.29 
 34.14 
 
 6.00 
 
 8.38 
 
 8.32 
 
 42.00 
 
 58.66 
 
 18.90 
 
 24.20 
 
 24.10 
 
 23.10 
 
 34.46 
 
 30 
 
 7.53 
 
 9.61 
 
 9.43 
 
 52.71 
 
 67.27 
 
 66.31 
 
 23.15 
 
 27.85 
 
 27.35 
 
 29.56 
 
 39.42 
 
 38.96 
 
 36 
 
 7.58 
 
 9.33 
 
 9.38 
 
 53.00 
 
 65.31 
 
 65.66 
 
 24.15 
 
 28.05 
 
 28.10 
 
 28.91 
 
 37.26 
 
 37.56 
 
 48. 
 60 
 
 8.45 
 
 9.64 
 
 8.87 
 10.04 
 
 59.15 
 
 67.48 
 
 62.09 
 70.20 
 
 27.80 
 
 30.25 
 
 28.80 
 33.65 
 
 31.35 
 
 37.23 
 
 33.29 
 
 36.63 
 
 WINTERKILLING OF ALFALFA. The winterkilling of alfalfa is 
 confined chiefly to the colder and more elevated portions of the 
 Rocky Mountain region and to the northern belt of humid states. 
 Damage from cold is rare in Arizona and in California it is con- 
 fined to young plants. In both the Sacramento and San Joaquin 
 valleys of the latter State the seed is frequently sown in mid- 
 winter and the slight frosts which occur occasionally in December 
 and January in both these valleys are severe enough to kill very 
 young plants. The belief is common that the plants are safe 
 after they have put forth their third leaf. 
 
 In the colder portions of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, 
 and the Dakotas alfalfa is apparently winterkilled from a 
 variety of causes and sometimes from a combination of causes. 
 The percentage of loss around Greeley, Colorado, has been placed 
 at 2 per cent, per annum. In this locality and throughout the 
 Cache la Poudre Valley in northern Colorado most of the winter- 
 killing is done in open, dry winters and is quite generally at- 
 tributed to a scarcity of moisture in the soil. In the winter 
 of 1907 considerable damage was done to the alfalfa fields around 
 Loveland, Colorado, on account of the long dry spell in mid- 
 winter. The old alfalfa fields suffered most. It was the opinion 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 185 
 
 of the farmers that a late fall irrigation would have prevented 
 the loss. 
 
 Near Wheatland, Wyoming, the higher portions of the fields 
 suffer most damage in winter, and here also the cause is said 
 to be lack of moisture in the soil, combined with the effects 
 produced by cold and wind. 
 
 At Choteau, in northern Montana, a farmer watered late 
 in the fall, part of an alfalfa field which was 2 years old, and 
 it winterkilled, while the unwatered portion escaped injury. 
 This and other evidence along the same line which might be given 
 go far to demonstrate that under some conditions too much 
 moisture is as detrimental as too little. 
 
 Probably the chief cause of the winterkilling of alfalfa is 
 alternate freezing and thawing. The damage from this cause is 
 greatly increased when water is left standing on the surface. A 
 blanket of snow is a protection, but when a thin sheet of ice 
 forms over portions of a field the result is usually fatal to plants. 
 The bad effects of alternate freezing and thawing on alfalfa 
 may be observed at the edge of a snow bank. This crop is 
 likewise injured by the rupture of the tap roots caused by the 
 heaving of the soil. 
 
 From present knowledge of the subject, the means which 
 may be used to protect alfalfa fields from winterkilling may be 
 summed up as follows: Where both the soil and the air are dry 
 the plant should be supplied with sufficient water for evapora- 
 tion but the land should be drained so thoroughly that none of 
 the top soil is saturated; a late growth should not be forced by 
 heavy irrigations late in the growing season; if the soil is dry, 
 irrigate after the plants have stopped growing; and the latest 
 urowth should be permitted to remain on the ground, unpastured, 
 as a protection. 
 
 It may be stated in conclusion that the loss to the farmer 
 from the winterkilling of alfalfa is not as great as might appear 
 at first. The damage is done in winter and there is ample time 
 to plow the plants under and secure another crop, which is 
 usually heavy, owing to the amount of fertilizers added by 
 the roots of alfalfa. The Montana farmer who increased his 
 average yield of oats from 50 to 103 bushels per acre by plowing 
 under winterkilled alfalfa illustrated this point. 
 
186 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 36. Irrigation of Grain. New irrigation enterprises have been 
 settled for the most part by pioneering people who have but little 
 capital. To settlers of this class the planting of small grain crops 
 during the first years of their struggles with desert conditions is a 
 necessity. Wheat and vegetables constitute the staple food sup- 
 ply for the poorer class, while corn, barley, oats and rye fur- 
 nish food for both man and beast. Such crops as a rule require 
 the smallest outlay to prepare the land for irrigation, and bring 
 the quickest returns. They do fairly well on virgin soil and 
 by their growth fit the raw land for such crops as alfalfa and 
 clover. They also require water at a time when snow-fed 
 streams are high and begin to, ripen before the water supply runs 
 low. For these and other reasons which might be named grain 
 crops will continue to be of prime importance so long as farmers 
 with limited means settle on the newly reclaimed lands of the 
 West. On the other hand, the continuous cropping of grain, 
 wheat in particular, should not be regarded as good management 
 for the irrigated farm because of the small returns. As soon 
 as the land is fit and the farmer is able financially to prepare 
 the surface for more profitable crops, he should gradually con- 
 vert the greater part of his grain fields into alfalfa, sugar beets, 
 potatoes, truck, and fruit. 
 
 The results of growing grain under irrigation in rotation 
 with other crops have been carefully studied by W. W. Mc- 
 Laughlin, in charge of irrigation investigations of the Office 
 of Experiment Stations in Utah, and his able assistant, L. M. 
 Winsor. The opinions of these men are regarded highly among 
 grain growers in the Mountain States and in what follows the 
 author has drawn freely from their published reports. 
 
 GRAIN IN ROTATION. The chief advantages secured by rotat- 
 ing grains, legumes and root crops are larger and better yields, a 
 more uniform draft on the plant food in the soil, the privilege of 
 growing the crop best suited to markets, and greater immunity 
 from plant diseases and crop failures. Grain used in rotation 
 serves in many localities as a nurse crop for alfalfa and clover. 
 However in planning a rotation it is obvious that the system 
 adapted to one locality may not apply to another. Each system 
 should be based on local conditions and take into consideration 
 such factors as adaptability of soil and climate, concentrated prod- 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 187 
 
 nets such as beef and cream, market conditions, size of farm, 
 availability of labor, and the like. 
 
 SEASONAL ROTATION OF GRAIN. Largely as the result of ex- 
 periments by the Irrigation Investigations force in California, 
 grain raising in the Sacramento Valley, whether for hay or grain, 
 has of late taken a new turn. Here the practice for a half 
 century has been to sow in the fall or winter and rely upon the 
 winter rains to provide moisture to mature the crop in the 
 spring. The success which has attended the efforts of Messrs. 
 Adams and Beckett in irrigating grain on the University Farm 
 at Davis, California, has led to a change in plan. By making 
 use of irrigation water any deficiency in the rainfall can be made 
 up and when the grain is harvested in the spring the stubble can 
 be irrigated, plowed and seeded to another crop. Professor 
 Beckett is of the opinion that three crops can be grown on the 
 same field each year provided the right use is made of both soil 
 and water. In any event grain followed by a corn crop has been 
 a demonstrated success provided the 'soil fertility is maintained 
 by a proper rotation. 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. Grain crops respond quickly at the 
 start to a carefully prepared seed bed. On heavy soil it is not 
 advisable to plow very deep at first, for the deeper soil, being 
 less exposed to the action of the elements, is not so mellow or so 
 well aerated; but each succeeding plowing should go a little 
 deeper until the desired depth is reached, by which time the in- 
 active subsoil shall have become productive. In breaking up 
 new land it is advisable to remove if possible all the brush and 
 roots because when turned under they keep the soil loose and 
 open and cause the ready loss of moisture. Brush thus covered 
 will remain sound for a long time before decaying and will be a 
 constant source of annoyance while it lasts. 
 
 In order that the winter moisture may be stored for spring 
 germination, it is advisable to prepare the sofl early and the 
 ground should be plowed in the fall. Fall-plowed ground should 
 receive a little cultivation with a spring-tooth harrow as soon as 
 it can be worked in the spring. In the absence of a spring-tooth, 
 the best implement is the spike-tooth harrow with teeth at an 
 angle of 45 to 60 degrees. The disk harrow should not be used 
 in preparing fall-plowed ground for seeding except perhaps in 
 
188 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 rare cases, because it cuts too deep and the soil will dry out just 
 as deep as it is disturbed. The object of this cultivation is 
 three-fold; it pulverizes the surface mulch, it kills the first crop 
 of weeds which start with the early warm days of spring, and it 
 levels the rough surface of the land, leaving it in better condition 
 for irrigation. If this method is followed, the moisture will be 
 held near enough the surface so that the grain may be drilled 
 from 1 to 2 inches into the moist earth which lies beneath the 
 dry surface mulch. 
 
 Where it is necessary to plow in the spring care should be 
 taken to have the ground sufficiently moist. It should not break 
 up into dry clods or break down into a powdery ash heap. In 
 the former case a suitable seed bed can not be secured and in the 
 latter the soil will puddle after being wet. When plowed it 
 should be dry enough to scour the plow and moist enough to 
 turn over in a mellow state. When the soil is too dry it is better 
 to irrigate before plowing even though plowing be delayed in 
 consequence. The harrow should follow the plow. If a second 
 team is not available then the land plowed in the forenoon should 
 be harrowed before the team is unhitched at dinner time, that 
 plowed in the afternoon should be harrowed before night. Where 
 leveling is necessary it should be done immediately after plow- 
 ing and should be followed in turn by light harrowing. This 
 is essential in order to hold the moisture and to get the ground 
 smoothed down to a seed bed while it is in a moist condition. 
 
 SEED AND SEEDING. The time of seeding varies with the 
 locality and variety of grain. Wheat may be sowed on unfrozen 
 ground at any time from late August until well along in the spring 
 months. Spring wheat should be planted early. It is generally 
 conceded that the growing of fall or winter wheat is preferable 
 to the growing of spring wheat except in sections where the former 
 will winterkill. In growing winter wheat farm labor is more 
 evenly distributed, less water and labor are required in irrigation 
 and the crop matures earlier. These advantage's also apply to 
 the grains which can be grown in the fall. 
 
 In the case of spring barley and oats, early planting is not 
 desirable. When sown too early these seeds sometimes rot be- 
 fore germinating and a good stand is not secured. The better 
 plan is to have the ground well prepared with plenty of moisture 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 189 
 
 under a thin, fine mulch; then wait for warm spring weather and 
 plant at a time when quick germination can be secured. 
 
 The depth of planting will depend somewhat on the condition ' 
 of the soil. One of the advantages in using a drill in seeding is 
 to secure a uniform germination which in turn insures a uniform 
 ripening of the crop. When a drill is used in seeding the grain 
 should be placed 1/2 to 2 inches in the moist earth which with 
 a 2 to 2 1/2 inch mulch makes a total depth of planting of from 
 2 1/2 to 4 1/2 inches. 
 
 The variety of seed to use should be determined by local con- 
 ditions, time of planting, market demands and various other 
 factors. A safe rule to follow is to choose the variety which has 
 been adopted by the majority in a community and found to give 
 the best results. If any entire community is growing the same 
 variety there will be little difficulty experienced in obtaining 
 seed pure, which is one of the most important considerations in 
 successful grain culture. Care should also be taken to secure 
 grain seed which is true to type, heavy, and free from weed seed. 
 This done, the next step is the proper treatment of the seed to 
 prevent various diseases, principal among which is smut. 
 
 The Department of Agriculture and the state experiment 
 stations have recommended various treatments to kill the smut 
 spore without impairing the germinating power of the grain, such 
 as a solution of blue stone followed by lime, immersion in hot 
 water, sprinkling with or immersion in formalin solution, details 
 of which are given in Farmers' Bull. 250 of the Department of 
 Agriculture. The formalin treatment consisting of 1 pound of 
 formalin of guaranteed strength and purity to 50 gallons of water 
 is commonly used at the present time. 
 
 IRRIGATION BEFORE SEEDING. In many parts of the arid West 
 the winter precipitation is so light that moisture sufficient for 
 spring germination is not stored in the soil and it is necessary 
 to irrigate to supply the deficiency. This may be done either 
 before or after seeding. Although the latter practice is the 
 more common, observations and the results of demonstrations 
 in many western states point conclusively to the fact that irri- 
 gation before seeding rather than immediately afterward is 
 generally the better practice. In the more retentive soils of the 
 warmer states, water may be applied during the late fall or 
 
190 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 winter months so as to store enough moisture in, the soil to supply 
 the needs of the plant until seeding time. In other localities 
 the effect of fall plowing followed by soil moisture conservation 
 may provide sufficient moisture without any artificial watering. 
 
 It is the land which is plowed in the spring that gives the 
 most trouble. If it is too dry it should first be plowed and leveled, 
 and then irrigated and harrowed when dry enough. The har- 
 rowing should be done with a spring-tooth or spike-tooth har- 
 row. This treatment not only provides ample moisture near 
 the surface but leaves the soil mellow and in good condition to 
 insure an even and rapid growth of grain. It is only on the more 
 retentive soils that this practice is likely to prove injurious in 
 seeding. 
 
 Farmers who plow in the spring, put in the seed and take 
 chances of the small amount of moisture in the soil being suf- 
 ficient for germination, usually fail to harvest a full crop. The 
 stirring of the soil causes a loss of moisture by evaporation in the 
 top layer where the seed is placed, and as a result germination 
 is incomplete and an immediate irrigation is necessary to obtain 
 a stand. The application of water at this time is liable to form 
 a crust through which the young plants can not force their way. 
 This crust also tends to rob the soil of its moisture by producing 
 a heavy evaporation and it is not long until a second or even a 
 third watering is required. These frequent irrigations at the 
 start produce shallow-rooted plants which are injuriously affected 
 by the subsequent drying out of the top soil. The bad effects 
 of " irrigating up " a crop, as it is called, may be partially remedied 
 by harrowing the ground in the direction of the furrows when the 
 plants are in the third or fourth leaf. 
 
 WHEN TO IRRIGATE. There are two critical periods in the 
 development of grain crops. The first extends from germination 
 until the plants shade the ground, the second is at the flowering 
 or fruiting stage. The plant must get a good start. Sufficient 
 food is present in the parent kernel to start the root growth and 
 to force the first leaf into view, after which it must shift for itself. 
 If moisture is scarce at this stage the necessary food can not be ob- 
 tained and a stunted growth results which can never be entirely 
 overcome. Because of the necessity of giving the tender plant 
 a good start it is important that the moisture should be supplied 
 
IRRIGATION <)l- STAPLE CROPS 191 
 
 beforehand so as to make it unnecessary to apply cold v 
 which always checks development at this stage of growth. 
 
 The second critical period and the one which is the most vital 
 because of the sensitive condition of the plant, comes at the 
 flowering or fruiting stage. More moisture is required at this 
 time and immediately following than at any other stage of 
 growth. To avoid a second shock care should be taken to supply 
 plenty of moisture about booting time before the heads appear. 
 This irrigation may suffice to bring the crop to maturity. How- 
 ever, if a shallow-rooted system has been developed by frequent 
 previous irrigations or if even with a deep-rooted system there 
 seems to be a scant supply of moisture, then it is advisable to 
 give another light irrigation when the grain is in the dough. 
 Otherwise it will not fill and will shrink in weight after harvest. 
 
 The character of the soil and subsoil (Farmers' Bui.- 399) 
 has a large influence on the time of irrigating. A heavy soil with 
 tight subsoil will receive a large quantity of moisture and hold 
 it for a long time, making it possible to irrigate heavily and at 
 long intervals. A lighter soil which is underlaid with an open 
 subsoil will not retain the water and it will become necessary to 
 irrigate more frequently. 
 
 Many natural and artificial conditions influence the time and 
 the amount of irrigation, and the farmer who best understands 
 and makes use of them is the most successful. The condition 
 of the soil, together with the appearance of the plant affords a 
 practical test of the requirement of the plant for water. Grain 
 which has plenty of moisture is of a light green color; but when 
 the plant begins to suffer for water it turns to a dark green and the 
 lower leaves begin to turn yellow. The presence of alkali in the 
 soil may produce the same effect, however. t 
 
 QUANTITY OF WATER TO APPLY. The quantity of water to 
 be applied at each irrigation depends upon the number of irri- 
 gations, depth of soil, nature of subsoil, the purpose for which 
 the grain is grown, the condition of the crop, climatic condi- 
 tions, and from a practical standpoint, the length of time be- 
 tween water turns, the available supply, method of application, 
 the requirements of other crops, the expertness of the irrigator 
 and the length of time the field has been under irrigation and 
 cultivation (Farmers' Bui. 399). 
 
192 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 As a general rule the soil is driest at the time of the first irri- 
 gation and more water will be required to irrigate properly at 
 this time than subsequently. It is always safe to assume that 
 the larger the growth of the straw the greater will be the quantity 
 of water required at the time the head is making. Water for 
 irrigation is generally plentiful during the early spring, but at 
 the time the grain is filling the supply usually begins to fail. 
 The usual practice of the farmers in the Mountain States is to 
 irrigate heavily in the spring and use less water as the season 
 advances. 
 
 The amount of water required by new land is usually more than 
 that required by older land. The experience of the Bear Valley 
 Canal Company in Utah affords an excellent illustration of the 
 relative requirements in this regard. During the first years 
 of irrigation in this valley a second-foot of water was used upon 
 60 to 80 acres and apparently the land required that amount. 
 In recent years the amount of land actually served by a second- 
 foot of water averaged 163 acres for grain crops. This decrease 
 in the use of water is due in the first place to a rise of the ground 
 water level and in the second to a better understanding of the 
 water requirements of crops and improved methods of culture. 
 
 The time of irrigation in connection with the stage of growth 
 has much to do in determining the amount of straw as compared 
 with the amount of grain produced by the plant. The grain plant 
 passes through a period when it is making straw and roots, and 
 a period when it is making head. A heavy supply of moisture 
 during the first period is conducive to a heavy growth of straw 
 and leaves. If this is followed by a shortage of moisture during 
 the second or heading stage, the heads will not fill and a shrunken 
 kernel results. A proper supply of moisture at both stages in- 
 sures a normal growth of straw with plump, well-filled heads of 
 grain. These observations seem to indicate that the time of 
 irrigation has more effect upon the results than does the quantity 
 of water applied. 
 
 In general, beginning with grain under dry farm conditions, 
 the yields can be slightly increased with each added amount of 
 water until the maximum yield is reached. Beyond this point 
 a condition is finally reached when an increased amount of 
 water actually causes a falling off in yield. It may be well 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 193 
 
 to state in this connection that the increase in yield is not in 
 proportion to the increase in water applied so that where water 
 is scarce a heavy application may be given at a loss to the farmer 
 even though the limit of application for maximum yield has not 
 been reached. 
 
 The results of investigations made by Don H. Bark on the 
 medium clay and sandy loam soils in southern Idaho in the 
 years 1910, 1911 and 1912 show that the average amount of 
 \\at<T used on 122 fields of grain was 1.45 acre-feet per acre. The 
 rainfall during the three seasons of growth varied from 2 to 
 6 inches. 
 
 In the years 1899 and 1902 inclusive, the writer determined 
 the amount of water used on 25 grain fields in three widely 
 separated valleys of Montana and the average was found to be 
 1.31 acre-feet per acre. To this amount should be added the 
 rainfall which averaged 0.42 acre-foot per season. 
 
 METHODS OF APPLYING WATER. The experience of the Greeley 
 colonists in Colorado and of others throughout the West goes 
 far in demonstrating that grain growing year after year on 
 irrigated land is not a profitable business. In order to yield 
 fairly remunerative returns it must be rotated with other crops. 
 Accordingly the preparation of land and the manner of applying 
 water must also be adapted, not only to grain but to other 
 crops in the rotation. At least three of the various methods 
 previously described are suited to a combination of this kind. 
 These methods are flooding, small furrows and borders. 
 
 Irrigating grain by flooding is the usual practice in Montana. 
 There the field ditches, spaced from 60 to 90 feet apart, are made 
 with a 14- or 16-inch double mouldboard plow attached to a sulky 
 frame and drawn by three horses. The ditches are cleaned 
 out with a steel or wooden shovel of the same width, drawn by one 
 horse, Fig. 64. This implement also forms the earth dams in the 
 ditches and is locally styled a dammer. The horse walks in the 
 furrow made by the ditch plow and the loose earth in the bottom 
 and sides is carried by the steel shovel and dumped in heaps about 
 60 feet apart. A stream of 100 miner's inches or thereabouts is 
 turned into the supply ditch and divided between two adjacent 
 field ditches. When one piece of ground is thoroughly soaked to 
 a depth of 12 inches the dam is opened and the water rushes 
 
 13 
 
194 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 through until it is checked by the next earth dam. By this 
 method and with a good head of wa.ter one man can irrigate on an 
 average 5 acres per day. If the flow of water is small and 
 intermittent the average may be cut down to 2 acres. The 
 second irrigation is applied in the same way but the amount of 
 water used is considerably less. 
 
 In some sections of the West the field ditches, instead of being 
 located on the grade lines extend down the steepest slope. 
 Each irrigator is given about 125 miner's inches of water which 
 is divided between two laterals. Instead of earth, half-rotted 
 straw or stable manure is often used to form the checks, which 
 
 * 
 
 FIG. 64. Dammer used in cleaning and damming field laterals. 
 
 are spaced about 65 feet apart. As soon as the first irrigation 
 is completed the dams are re-set for the second irrigation. In 
 re-setting the dams the manure or straw is mixed with the 
 earth while both are kept damp thus forming a stronger and 
 more impervious dam. 
 
 In irrigating grains by small furrows spaced 2 1/2 to 3 feet 
 apart, commonly called corrugations (Art. 17), from 1 to 
 2 second-feet is turned into the head ditches and distributed 
 among the furrows. One second-foot may well be divided among 
 50 to 150 furrows depending on the character of the soil and the 
 slope of the field. The length of the furrows should not ex- 
 ceed that of a square 10- acre tract (660 feet) and when a 40- 
 acre field is irrigated it should be divided into three equal parts 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 195 
 
 by head ditches, thus making the length of furrow in each 
 part 440 feet. The water should be run long enough in the fur- 
 rows to moisten the soil between them. 
 
 The irrigation of grain by the border method (Art. 20) does 
 not differ in any essential from the description given elsewhere 
 for the irrigation of alfalfa and other crops by this method. 
 
 HARVESTING, MARKETING AND PROFITS. Irrigated grain is con- 
 fined to relatively small areas and has a long and heavy straw. 
 Both of these conditions are unsuited to the combined harvester 
 so commonly used on the dry farms and in the Mississippi 
 valley. The sheaf binder is used almost universally in harvest- 
 ing irrigated grain. This implement drops the grain bound in 
 bundles either scattered or in piles. These are immediately 
 placed in shocks by hand. Occasionally the bundles are hauled 
 from the shocks to the farm stack yard to cure but more often 
 they are hauled from the shocks directly to the thresher. 
 
 The well-managed irrigated farm has very little grain to 
 market. But little wheat is grown and the oats, barley and 
 corn or other grains are fed to stock of various kinds, thus 
 insuring a much higher return than can be realized from the 
 direct sale of the grain. 
 
 The returns which may be expected from grain where it is 
 marketed direct are outlined by Professor McLaughlin in 
 Farmers' Bui. 399. 
 
 37. Growing Root Crops under Irrigation. Under this head- 
 ing is included potatoes, sugar beets, sweet potatoes, turnips, 
 etc., but in irrigated sections only the first two named are of 
 sufficient importance to be considered here. Root crops are of 
 greater relative importance in arid than in humid regions owing 
 to the fact that under irrigation they produce heavy yields which 
 are ordinarily sold for cash. Since the various operations con- 
 nected with the cultivation, irrigation, harvesting, etc., of these 
 two crops differ considerably they will be treated separately. 
 
 POTATOES 
 
 CLIMATE. Potatoes thrive in almost every section of the arid 
 West. They are grown successfully in Wyoming at an elevation 
 of 8000 feet and also at the lower elevations in the states along 
 
196 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 the Pacific coast and are found from Montana on the north 
 to New Mexico and Arizona on the south. Intense heat is 
 detrimental to the potato. In general it may be said that for the 
 best yield the mean temperature of the air should not rise above 
 70 to 75 degrees F. for any considerable time while the tubers 
 are growing. 
 
 SOIL. Potatoes under irrigation require a loose friable soil 
 with good under drainage, an ideal soil being a sandy loam with 
 gravelly subsoil. A heavy clay or adobe soil is not well adapted 
 to this crop. 
 
 ROTATION. Some system of rotation is very essential for the 
 best results in the growing of potatoes, for continuous cropping 
 will exhaust the soil in a short time and the yields will decline 
 unless fertilizers are applied. Even though manure or arti- 
 ficial fertilizer is applied, fungus diseases, such as scab, will 
 attack the tubers if they are grown on the same ground year 
 after year. In the West, alfalfa or clover should be included 
 in any rotation with potatoes in order to restore the nitrogen 
 taken from the soil by the potatoes. Small grain and sugar beets 
 can also be grown to advantage in such a rotation though many 
 farmers simply grow alfalfa and potatoes alternately, letting 
 the alfalfa remain 3 to 5 years or longer and following 
 with potatoes for 1 or 2 years, never more than two. If 
 grain is grown the order should be alfalfa, potatoes, grain; or 
 alfalfa, grain, potatoes, grain. The advantage of the last 
 named rotation is that the alfalfa is sometimes hard to kill 
 out and if a crop of grain is grown preceding the potato crop 
 the alfalfa will be effectually eliminated. 
 
 PREPARATION OF SOIL. The ground should be carefully leveled 
 to a uniform slope so that the irrigation water can be easily con- 
 fined to the furrows. The importance of deep plowing, followed 
 by a thorough harrowing in order to put the soil in good shape to 
 receive the seed can not be too strongly recommended. If the 
 season has been unusually dry it is sometimes advisable to irri- 
 gate before plowing in order to insure a liberal supply of moisture 
 at the time of planting. 
 
 SEED AND PLANTING. Medium-sized potatoes, with clear, 
 healthy skins and shallow eyes should be selected for planting. 
 The grower will find it of advantage to select his seed potatoes 
 
iiii!i<;.\riON OF STAPLE CROPS 197 
 
 in the field, choosing seed from the large hills. Ground which 
 has grown scabby potatoes the previous year should not again 
 be planted to potatoes no matter how thoroughly the seed may 
 be treated to prevent this disease. If there is danger of scab, 
 ground should be selected where alfalfa or grain has been grown 
 for a number of years. As an extra precaution it is well to treat 
 the seed before cutting with a solution of corrosive sublimate or 
 formalin or with gas. Farmers' Bui. 407 of the Department of 
 Agriculture describes the preparation and use of these solutions. 
 The pieces should not be cut too small, quarters or halves usually 
 being recommended by the best growers. Many good authorities 
 are now recommending the planting of whole potatoes of medium 
 size. 
 
 The tubers should be planted 3 to 6 inches deep and 12 to 18 
 inches apart in rows 2 1/2 to 3 1/2 feet apart, depending on local 
 conditions. Shallow planting is best on heavy soils, while on 
 light sandy soils 6 inches or even more is not considered too deep. 
 The amount of seed per acre depends, of course, on the distance 
 between hills and the size of the seed pieces, but 700 pounds may 
 be considered a fair average. Where this crop is grown on a 
 commercial scale a planter should be used but great care should 
 be exercised to get a uniform stand. Planting potatoes in plow 
 furrows should never be practised as the seed should be entirely 
 surrounded with soft earth to permit of the proper development 
 of the roots and tubers. 
 
 CULTIVATION. In arid regions frequent cultivation will aid 
 greatly in conserving the soil moisture and may take the place of 
 one or more irrigations. While the plants are quite small the 
 field can be harrowed without injury and this kills the small 
 weeds and serves as a cultivation. Other cultivations between 
 the rows with an ordinary cultivator should follow rapidly until 
 the vines are large enough to shade the ground when it is usually 
 considered, that no further cultivation is necessary although 
 some irrigators prefer to cultivate after every irrigation so long 
 as it can be done without injury to the vines. These later culti- 
 vations should be very shallow, however, in order not to injure 
 the tubers. 
 
 SPRAYING. It is sometimes necessary to spray potato vines 
 to protect them against the ravages of the potato beetle. There 
 
198 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 are machines on the market which enable the grower to get over 
 his fields very rapidly and a thorough spraying at the right 
 time greatly reduces the injury by the beetles. In Farmers' 
 Bui. 407 the Bordeaux mixture is recommended. The method 
 of making small quantities of this mixture is as follows: " Place 
 5 pounds of lime in one tub and slake this with sufficient water 
 to thoroughly break up the lime without allowing it to burn. 
 After the lime is slaked, dilute it to 25 gallons. Into another 
 tub pour 25 gallons of water and suspend in it a 5-pound sack of 
 copper sulphate for 24 to 48 hours. Bordeaux mixture is made 
 by pouring these two solutions through a wire cloth sieve having 
 about 18 to 20 meshes per inch, equal quantities of the two 
 solutions being poured at the same time through the strainer." 
 
 IRRIGATION. Potatoes should never be " irrigated up," that is, 
 it should never be necessary to irrigate the field to sprout the 
 seed, as it is impossible to get a uniform stand in that way. 
 Care should be taken that sufficient moisture is in the ground 
 at the time of planting to supply the needs of the plant for the 
 first 20 days. Irrigation should be delayed as long as possible 
 without checking the healthy, vigorous growth of the vines. 
 Under ordinary circumstances the first irrigation is applied about 
 the time the vines begin to bloom and from this time on until 
 maturity the soil should be kept well supplied with moisture so 
 as not to check the growth. Allowing the soil to dry out and 
 then applying a copious irrigation is apt to produce knotty tubers 
 and otherwise injure their quality. 
 
 Furrow irrigation is the only practical method for potatoes. 
 The common practice in irrigating potatoes is to make an open- 
 ing in the ditch bank with the shovel at intervals, one opening 
 supplying water to several furrows. This method can be im- 
 proved on by inserting wooden or metal spouts in the ditch bank 
 for every other row and raising the water in the ditch by means 
 of a check box or canvas dam until it flows through these open- 
 ings. This enables the irrigator to control the flow of water in 
 each furrow much better than by the first-mentioned plan. 
 A rather unique method of supplying water to the furrows is 
 employed in parts of Colorado and is shown in Fig. 65. When 
 furrow E has been watered the ridge between it and furrow F is 
 cut, the earth removed being placed in furrow E to turn the 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 199 
 
 water through the cut. This is repeated for the next furrow 
 and so on until the group of furrows supplied from an opening in 
 the ditch has been watered. 
 
 Furrows should be made deep so as to allow the water to 
 be drawn up to the vines by capillarity. This lessens the 
 danger of saturating the soil and causing it to bake, a condition 
 which should always be avoided if possible. At the last culti- 
 vation before the first irrigation the fenders should be taken 
 off the cultivator and the shovels turned so as to crowd the 
 
 . - 
 
 O-T 72 " 2" 36 Suf faced / S/de Wood. 
 
 A B C D ~ K 
 
 FIG. 65. Method of distributing water from head ditch to potato rows. 
 
 earth toward the vines. The furrow thus made should be deep- 
 ened by going over the field again, using double-winged shovels 
 on the cultivator or a double mouldboard plow. This makes a 
 furrow about 12 inches deep measured from the crown of the 
 plants and 12 to 16 inches wide across the top. The chief ad- 
 vantages of deep furrows are : they provide an abundance of loose 
 earth to place around the tubers; they lessen the risk of the water 
 coming in contact with the vines; they prevent an excess of water 
 around the tubers and they allow the moisture to be drawn up 
 from below, thus supplying a constant and uniform quantity to 
 the roots. 
 
 Where it is possible to get a large head of water, one irrigator 
 can handle 2 second-feet without waste. With such a stream 
 
200 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 he can keep water running in 40 to 50 rows at a time and under 
 typical conditions, that is, with a slope of 25 feet per mile and 
 rows 1000 to 1200 feet long, the water should reach the end 
 of the rows in 3 or 4 hours. Where smaller heads must 
 be used it is sometimes necessary to run water in the rows 
 from 24 to 48 hours in order to thoroughly irrigate the crop. 
 Two or three irrigations usually suffice to bring the crop to 
 maturity. A well-known method of determining when the crop 
 is in need of moisture is to dig into the earth near the tubers 
 and press a handful together; if it crumbles apart when released 
 the crop should be irrigated. When the vines have a dark 
 green color it is also an indication that they need water. 
 
 Experiments conducted at the Experiment Stations of Idaho, 
 Montana and Utah indicate that better quality and as good 
 yields of potatoes can be secured by the use of a moderate 
 amount of water. The amount required varies with the soil, 
 and the season, but generally speaking the total amount applied 
 during a season should not exceed 2 feet in depth over the 
 field. With frequent cultivations and care in the distribution 
 of the water a much smaller amount will be ample. 
 
 Opinions differ regarding the respective merits of applying 
 water in every row or every alternate row. The majority 
 of potato growers irrigate in every row but many employ the 
 alternate method successfully. With a loose, friable, sandy 
 loam which allows moisture to spread rapidly laterally water 
 applied to every other furrow will moisten the intervening 
 space sufficiently to maintain the proper condition of soil mois- 
 ture. At the second irrigation the rows not watered the first 
 time should be irrigated. Where only a small irrigation head 
 is obtainable, and with a soil as described above, this method 
 undoubtedly possesses merit. 
 
 Under any system of irrigation, care should be used to cease 
 irrigating long enough before harvest to allow the ground to 
 become dry so that the dirt will readily separate from the tubers 
 when they are plowed out. 
 
 The writer is indebted to Mr. Guy Ervin, of the U. S. 
 Department of Agriculture, for the following suggestions as to 
 the best practice to follow in irrigating potatoes. 
 
 1. See that there is plenty of moisture in the soil at the time of 
 
I IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 201 
 
 planting. Irrigate before planting if necessary but never irri- 
 gate to sprout the seed after planting. 
 
 2. Run a small stream of water in a deep furrow so that mois- 
 ture will bo drawn up to the tubers instead of soaking down to 
 them. 
 
 3. Do not irrigate too soon. Wait until the crop is plainly 
 in need of water and then keep the ground well supplied with 
 moisture until the potatoes have matured. 
 
 4. Conserve the moisture and aerate the soil by frequent light 
 cultivations. If this is done two or three irrigations will usually 
 suffice. 
 
 HARVESTING AND SORTING. When the skin of the potato is firm 
 and cannot be rubbed off and the vines are dead, the crop is ready 
 to harvest. The work of digging, sorting and marketing or stor- 
 ing should then be rushed through in order to avoid danger of loss 
 from freezing. 
 
 Where potatoes are grown on a commercial scale it is best to 
 have a potato digger. Sometimes a number of farmers can com- 
 bine and purchase a digger to advantage. There are a number of 
 different makes on the market at varying prices. The machine 
 should be kept some distance ahead of the pickers in order that 
 the potatoes may have time to dry off before they are sacked. 
 
 The sorting can either be done in the field at the time of harvest 
 or later when they are to be marketed but the former method is 
 the better. There are also machines which sort the potatoes. 
 These consist simply of a set of screens of different sized meshes 
 which separate the small potatoes from those of marketable size. 
 
 STORING. It is not always convenient or advisable to haul the 
 potatoes directly to market from the field and it is therefore 
 often necessary to provide storage for part of the crop at least. 
 In building a storage house for potatoes it should be constructed 
 so as to provide an even temperature just a little above freezing, 
 a good circulation of dry air and convenient arrangemonts for 
 putting in and taking out potatoes. 
 
 Fig. 66 shows an end elevation of a potato cellar near Idaho'- 
 Falls, Idaho. The cellar is 98 feet long and 40 feet wide. The 
 dimensions of the frame are as shown in the sketch. The sides 
 and ends are boarded up with 1-inch rough lumber and the por- 
 tions above the natural surface of the ground are banked with 
 
202 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 earth and straw. The roof consists of 2-inch rough planking 
 covered with a foot each of straw and packed earth. The main 
 entrance is protected by a covered driveway 28 feet long, 1 1 feet 
 wide and 9 feet high built of rough 1-inch lumber. There are 
 six 1-foot square chutes in the roof on each side for use in filling 
 the top part of the cellar and four 2 X 3-foot traps in center of 
 roof to admit light and air. In cold weather the traps are covered 
 with sacks and in very severe weather a covering of fresh barn- 
 yard manure is added. 
 
 2 Pea Si 12 to Hold Door 
 
 2 Driven Tongue 
 
 Graded up into Cellar 12 '3 
 
 FIG. 66. End elevation of a potato cellar. 
 
 MARKETING. The man who grows potatoes commercially 
 should keep in close touch not only with his local market but also 
 with the large markets o'f the country. He should endeavor to 
 ascertain just what characteristics a potato should possess to be 
 a good seller and should strive to produce that kind of potato. 
 Very large or very small potatoes are not in demand. A medium- 
 sized potato, with shallow eyes and smooth, healthy skin will 
 always command the highest price. If the grower contemplates 
 holding his crop in storage for better prices he should take into 
 account the extra labor involved, the loss from shrinkage of the 
 stored crop and the danger of loss from freezing in very cold 
 weather or from other causes. Cooperation among growers in 
 raising uniform varieties and in marketing their crops is of great 
 value in sections which are distant from large markets. 
 
 COST OF GROWING. The cost of growing potatoes under irriga- 
 tion varies somewhat due to the difference in the amount of seed 
 planted, the price of the irrigation water, the yield, etc. How- 
 ever, it is believed the following tabulation represents the average 
 cost of the various items. This does not include the cost of 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 203 
 
 fertilizer which if used would add S3 or $4, or taxes and interest 
 on the value of the land. 
 
 Preparing ground $2 . 50 
 
 Cutting seed and planting 2 . 00 
 
 Cost of seed 8 . 00 
 
 Cultivating and hoeing 4 . 00 
 
 Irrigating 4 . 50 
 
 Harvesting 8.00 
 
 Sorting 1 . 50 
 
 Sacks 5 . 00 
 
 Marketing 5.00 
 
 Spraying 2.00 
 
 Total $42.50 
 
 The cost of the seed is the item subject to the greatest variation. 
 This is readily understood when it is remembered that the amount 
 of seed planted may vary all the way from 600 to 3000 pounds 
 per acre. 
 
 YIELDS AND PROFITS. According to the Yearbooks of the De- 
 partment of Agriculture, the average yield of potatoes in the 
 United States for the 10-year period 1900-1909 inclusive, was 91 
 bushels per acre. In the 16 western states, however, the yield 
 was about 150 bushels and if it were possible to determine the 
 average yield on irrigated fields alone it would doubtless be 
 found to be still higher. Yields of from 300 to 600 bushels per 
 acre are not uncommon. 
 
 The price of potatoes fluctuates considerably from year to year 
 and at different times of the year. The average farm price per 
 bushel on December 1, 1910, was 55.7 cents, on the same date 
 in 1911 it was 79.9 and again in 1912 it was 50.5 cents. Taking 
 the country as a whole, this rise and fall in price is directly pro- 
 portional to the production. The profit from this crop is there- 
 fore a matter of considerable uncertainty and especially is this 
 true in small isolated valleys located at a distance from large 
 markets. No attempt will be made here to state the net profits 
 from the growing of potatoes more than to say that if the irriga- 
 tion farmer will use care in the selection of seed and in the plant- 
 ing, cultivating and irrigating of his crop, he will find that it will 
 add materially to his cash revenues 3 years out of every 4. 
 His chief concern should be to increase the quantity and improve 
 
204 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 the quality of his output and a careful application of the principles 
 laid down in the foregoing, together with a study of the best prac- 
 tice in the community, will do much to accomplish this aim. 
 
 SUGAR BEETS 
 
 The growing of sugar beets is subject to conditions unlike those 
 for any other crop. Owing to their bulk, sugar beets can not be 
 shipped a long distance and it is therefore necessary that they be 
 grown near a sugar factory. On the other hand the factory must 
 be assured that a large enough acreage is planted to sugar beets 
 each year to keep the plant running sufficiently long to make the 
 enterprise profitable. The grower and the sugar company are 
 therefore interdependent. 
 
 Sugar beet factories have capacities ranging from 400 to 1200 
 tons of beets daily and the " campaign" or time the factory runs 
 is from 80 to 120 days, varying with the locality and the season. 
 
 Each sugar beet grower is required to enter into a contract with 
 the factory before the beginning of the crop-growing season. 
 These contracts provide that the grower shall prepare the area 
 which is to be devoted to beets in a thorough manner and that 
 the seed will be planted and the beets grown, blocked, thinned, 
 harvested and delivered in accordance with instructions and under 
 the supervision of duly authorized agents or field superintendents 
 of the company. The company agrees to commence receiving 
 beets as soon as they are matured. Instructions are given in the 
 contracts regarding the harvesting, marketing and siloing of the 
 crop. The company agrees to furnish the seed and do the plant- 
 ing at specified prices per pound and per acre, respectively. It 
 is usually specified that the beets shall be of 80 per cent, purity 
 and contain 12 per cent, of sugar or more. The price per ton 
 for beets meeting the requirements in the contract is also stated 
 and an additional 50 cents is paid for siloed beets. Not over 
 25 per cent, of the crop is allowed to be siloed and this only upon 
 the request of the company. The growers are privileged to 
 employ a man at their own expense satisfactory to the company, 
 to check the tare and weights of the beets or the beet polarization 
 of the laboratory. Settlement is made on or about the tenth of 
 each month for all beets received during the first half of the pre- 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 205 
 
 (('ding month and on the twentieth for the last half of the pre- 
 ceding month. 
 
 Sugar beets are grown successfully on almost all classes of soil 
 from heavy black adobe to sandy and silt loams. The heavy 
 soils are of course harder to cultivate but if properly handled 
 such soils will produce a large tonnage of beets high in sugar 
 content. 
 
 According to investigations conducted by the Bureau of 
 Chemistry a number of years ago, a climate with a mean summer 
 temperature of 70 degrees F. is best for sugar beets. They grow 
 luxuriantly in warm climates but the sugar content is very low 
 while in colder climates the growing season is too short. It is also 
 essential that there be an absence of rain at the time of harvest, 
 since a season of wet weather near the time of harvest, will cause 
 a renewal of growth which reduces the sugar content of the beet. 
 This is one thing which makes the West the ideal section for sugar 
 beet culture since the water can be applied or withheld at will. 
 
 Rotation of crops is just as essential in the growing of sugar 
 beets as with other crops. One instance is recorded where a 
 field was cropped to sugar beets for 7 successive years with 
 the result that the tonnage was reduced from 33 to 14 tons per 
 acre. The most common rotation is to follow beets with grain, 
 then alfalfa, then potatoes or other cultivated crop and back to 
 beets again. Beets should not be grown more than 3 years 
 in succession and 2 is preferable. 
 
 PREPARATION OF SOIL AND SEEDING. In preparing a field for 
 seeding, deep fall plowing (10 to 12 inches) is generally considered 
 very essential. Except in California it is thought best to allow 
 the field to remain in its rough condition so as to catch the 
 snow and to allow the soil to be thoroughly aerated. In early 
 spring it is double-disked, irrigated if necessary and replowed to a 
 depth of 3 or 4 inches. After this second plowing the ground 
 should be harrowed down to a fine seed bed. This last is very 
 important since the beet is a tender plant at first and needs every 
 possible encouragement to develop its root system. 
 
 The seeding is usually done by the sugar company, the company 
 furnishing the seed and doing the seeding at prices stated in the 
 contract. An ordinary four-row force-feed beet drill is used, 15 
 to 25 pounds of seed being sown per acre. The seed is planted 1 
 
206 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 to 2 inches deep, and the rows are spaced 16 to 20 inches apart or 
 they may be alternately 16 and 24 inches apart. The time of 
 seeding in California extends from the end of October to May. In 
 most other sections of the West the time is from April 10 to May 
 20. Sometimes rain falls before the beets have sprouted and a 
 crust forms. This crust must be broken and the usual methods 
 are to harrow the ground with the teeth of the harrow slanting 
 back or to use a corrugated roller. In Farmers' Bui. 392 it is 
 stated: "Seemingly the best way is to use 'spiders' on a beet 
 cultivator. . . . The sharp points of the implement prick into 
 and break up the crust without otherwise disturbing the top soil." 
 
 CARE OF THE YOUNG PLANTS. In caring for the young plants 
 there are a number of operations necessary in addition to frequent 
 cultivations with horse cultivators. The first of these is caHed 
 blocking and thinning. The blocking is done with a hoe by cut- 
 ting out part of the young plants, leaving the remainder in bunches 
 8 inches to 1 foot apart from center to center. All but one plant 
 in each bunch are then removed by hand. This gives the beet 
 sufficient room to grow to a desirable size. Beets weighing 1 to 
 3 pounds are preferable. This work is usually done by contract 
 and often small plants which should have been pulled- are over- 
 looked and these are removed at the second hoeing which follows 
 in about 10 days. A third hoeing is usually necessary following the 
 first irrigation which consists chiefly of cutting out or pulling the 
 large weeds which are missed by the cultivator.* A cultivation 
 should follow each hoeing and each irrigation but this is not done 
 in some localities. In Colorado very few growers cultivate after 
 irrigation begins. However, since the cost per acre for each culti- 
 vation is. not more than 35 or 40 cents, the benefits of cultivating 
 after each irrigation are more than worth the additional expense. 
 
 IRRIGATION. As with .other row crops, it is very important that 
 a field intended for beets be carefully leveled to a uniform slope 
 before the crop is planted. The benefits from such a course will 
 be felt as long as the land is farmed. If there are irregularities 
 in the field, part of the crop will suffer from lack of water and 
 other parts will get too much and it will be impossible to con- 
 fine the water to the furrows. 
 
 The furrow method is used almost exclusively in all western 
 states except California and Kansas. In these latter states 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 207 
 
 flooding in checks or borders is practised. This is due to the fact 
 that winter irrigation is practised to a great extent, most of the 
 water being applied before the crop is planted. Slip joint pipe 
 is also used in parts of southern California, and in the neighbor- 
 hood of Lewiston, Utah, and southern Idaho a method of sub- 
 irrigation is practised. These methods are the same for sugar 
 beets as for other crops and have been described elsewhere in this 
 volume. 
 
 Where furrow irrigation is employed the furrows are made with 
 a furrowing sled or with a cultivator, using the furrowing shovels 
 and fenders. The furrowing sled is a homemade device and is 
 described in Farmers' Bulletin 392 as follows: "It is made of 6 
 by 6 inch timbers 42 inches long as runners and spaced wide 
 enough to straddle two rows. These timbers are set to run on 
 edge and are sharpened at the forward point and armed with old 
 furrowing shovels which about fit them. The runners are securely 
 spiked together at the back end with 2-inch boards upon which 
 the driver rides and are connected in front by a 4 by 4 inch timber 
 to which the draft is attached." While this implement makes a 
 smooth furrow and is inexpensive it is not used very extensively 
 because of the time required to make the furrows in this manner. 
 
 The furrows receiving water from one supply ditch should not 
 exceed 500 feet in length and 300 feet would be better in most 
 cases. Cross ditches should therefore be constructed at intervals 
 of 300 to 500 feet at right angles with the beet rows for all ordi- 
 nary slopes. These consist simply of furrows made with a single 
 or double mouldboard plow. Water is supplied to the furrows in 
 much the same way as described for the irrigation of potatoes. 
 
 Irrigation should be deferred as long as possible in order to 'en- 
 courage the roots to strike deep into the soil. If water is applied 
 too soon it is apt to result in an over-development of the tops at 
 the expense of the roots. Water should only be supplied as needed 
 throughout the growing season. From 2 to 4 applications are 
 usually sufficient. Beet tops may wilt during hot days even 
 when the ground is abundantly supplied with moisture but if they 
 still appear wilted in the early morning it is a sign that they are in 
 need of water. The ground should never be allowed to become 
 dry enough to check the vigorous growth of the beets. Irrigation 
 should be discontinued long enough before harvest to allow beets 
 
208 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 to mature. This is usually 4 to 6 weeks but the grower must use 
 his best judgment in this matter combined with an observance of 
 the practice of the most successful growers in the community. 
 
 Some difference of opinion exists as to the relative merits of 
 night and day irrigation. Those who advocate day irrigation 
 claim that they can control the water better in the day time and 
 thus insure a more even distribution and less waste. The ad- 
 vantages of night irrigation are that water will go farther at night 
 due to less evaporation, that the temperature of the water is 
 higher and that there is less danger from scalding. In many sec- 
 tions where a system of rotation is practised irrigators are com- 
 pelled to irrigate both night and day since they are only allowed 
 to use the water for a stated period. Where night irrigation is 
 practised either from choice or necessity it is of great advantage 
 to have the field thoroughly leveled and lath boxes, tubes or other 
 devices in the ditches to feed the water to the furrows in small 
 uniform streams. 
 
 HARVESTING. The harvesting like the planting and cultivation 
 of sugar beets, is done under the supervision of the sugar com- 
 panies. About the time the beets are maturing the field agents 
 of the factory take a number of beets from various parts of the 
 field and have them tested for purity and sugar contents. If 
 they are found to meet the requirements, orders are issued to the 
 grower to harvest the crop. 
 
 If the ground is soft enough to permit, a beet puller is used to 
 plow out the beets. This consists of two prongs which run one on 
 either side of the row close to the beets. This raises and loosens 
 the beets so that they can be easily freed from the soil. If the 
 ground is hard a beet plow is used, an implement somewhat like 
 a subsoil plow. After these implements come a crew of men who 
 gather the beets into windrows or piles, cut off the tops at the 
 point of the lowest leaf and pile them up preparatory to hauling 
 to the dumps or factory. If the piles have to be left in the field 
 over night the beet tops are thrown over them to protect them 
 against possible damage from frost. As ^rapidly as possible the 
 beets are hauled to the factory or loading station. Sometimes 
 it is impossible to get cars fast enough to take care of the beets 
 as they come in and provision is usually made in the contracts 
 for piling beets at the loading station until cars can be obtained. 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 209 
 
 SILOING. In the Rocky Mountain States it is not possible usu- 
 ally for the factory to take care of the entire crop at the time of 
 harvest and it becomes necessary to store or silo a part of the 
 crop until such time as the factory can receive them. This con- 
 sista simply of piling the beets carefully, the piles averaging from 
 1000 to 2000 pounds each, and covering them with a 6 to 12-inch 
 layer of dirt, leaving a small space at the top for ventilation. 
 As previously stated, 50 cents additional is paid for siloed beets 
 to compensate for the additional labor. 
 
 COST OF GROWING. Farmers' Bui. 392 itemizes the cost of 
 growing sugar beets as follows: 
 
 Plowing land 10 to 12 inches deep $3.00 
 
 Harrowing, leveling, cultivating, and preparing seed 
 
 bed 2.00 
 
 Drilling in seed . 50 
 
 20 pounds seed 2 . 00 
 
 Cultivating five times at 40 cents . . . . 2 . 00 
 
 Furrowing twice 1 . 00 
 
 Irrigating three times labor 3.00 
 
 Thinning, hoeing and topping contract 20 . 00 
 
 Plowing out 2.00 
 
 Hauling at 50 cents per ton (17 ton crop) 8.50 
 
 Water charge for maintenance of canals 0.75 
 
 Total .$44.75 
 
 YIELDS AND PROFITS. The average yield of sugar beets 
 throughout the arid region is only about 10 to 12 tons per acre. 
 With such a yield the profit is very small but with proper care the 
 yield should be much larger. Yields of 15 to 20 tons are usually 
 obtained by successful growers and as high as 36 tons have been 
 recorded. The price per ton does not fluctuate as much for this 
 crop as it does for most field crops so if the grower gets a good 
 yield he is practically assured of a good profit. 
 
 38. Irrigation of Orchards. Four years ago the writer pre- 
 pared an article on this subject which was published as Farmers' 
 Bui. 404 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The more 
 important features of this publication are reproduced in this 
 article, together with such modifications and additional informa- 
 tion as the experiences of the past 4 years seems to warrant. 
 
 SB .EJTTON OF LAND. Care and good judgment should b3 exer- 
 cised in the selection of an orchard tract. If it turns out well 
 u 
 
210 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 the profits are high, but* if it fails the losses are heavy. It in- 
 volves the setting aside of good land, the use of irrigation water 
 and somewhat heavy expenses in purchasing trees, setting them 
 out and caring for them until they begin to bear. 
 
 Assuming that the climate and soil of the district selected are 
 adapted to the kind of trees to be grown, the next most important 
 things to consider are good drainage and freedom from early 
 and late frosts. Low-lying lands under a new irrigation system 
 should be regarded with suspicion, even if the subsoil be quite 
 dry at the time of planting. The results of a few years of heavy 
 and careless irrigation on the higher lands adjacent may render 
 the lowlands unfit for orchards. On the other hand, the higher 
 lands are not always well drained naturally. A bank of clay 
 extending across a slope may intercept percolating water and 
 raise it near the surface. Favored locations for orchards in the 
 mountain states are often found in the narrow river valleys at 
 the mouths of canyons. The coarse soil of these deltas, the steep 
 slopes, and the daily occurrence of winds which blow first out of 
 the canyons and then back into them, afford excellent conditions 
 for the production of highly flavored fruits at the minimum risk 
 of being injured by frost. 
 
 Proper exposure is another important factor. In the warmer 
 regions *of the West and Southwest a northern exposure is some- 
 times best, but as a rule the orchards of the West require warmth 
 and sunshine, and a southerly exposure is usually more desirable. 
 Natural barriers frequently intercept the sweep of cold, destruc- 
 tive winds, and when these are lacking, wind-breaks may be 
 planted to serve the same purpose. Depressions or sheltered 
 coves should be avoided if the cold air has a tendency to collect 
 in them, a free circulation of air being necessary to drive away 
 frost. The low-lying lands seem to be the most subject to cold, 
 stagnant air. 
 
 While experience has shown that orchard trees of nearly all 
 kinds can be successfully grown on soils that differ widely in their 
 mechanical and chemical composition, it has also shown that 
 certain types of soils are best adapted to particular kinds of trees. 
 Thus the best peach, almond, apricot, and olive orchards of the 
 West are found on the lighter or sandier loams; the best apple, 
 cherry, and pear orchards on heavier loams; while walnut, prune, 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 211 
 
 and orange orchards do best on medium grades of soil. The 
 requirements of all, however, are a deep rich, and well-drained 
 soil. 
 
 GRADING THE SURFACE. As a rule fruit trees are planted on 
 lands previously cultivated and cropped. One of the best prepara- 
 tnr-y crops for orchards is alfalfa. This vigorous plant breaks up 
 the soil and subsoil by its roots, collects and stores valuable plant 
 foods, and when it is turned under at the end of the second or 
 third year leaves the soil in much better condition for the reten- 
 tion of moisture and the growth of young trees. 
 
 An effort should be made to establish a fairly uniform grade 
 from top to bottom of each tract. This is done by cutting off the 
 high points and depositing the earth thus obtained in the depres- 
 sions. The length of the furrows should not exceed one-eighth of 
 a mile and in sandy soil they should be shorter. As a rule, it is 
 not difficult to grade the surface of an orchard so that small 
 streams of water will readily flow in furrows from top to bottom. 
 
 TIME TO IRRIGATE. The best orchardists believe that frequent 
 examinations of the stem, branches, foliage and fruit are not 
 enough. The roots and soil should likewise be examined. The 
 advice of such men to the inexperienced is: Find out where the 
 bulk of the feeding roots is located, ascertain the nature of the soil 
 around them, and make frequent tests as to the moisture which 
 it contains. In a citrus orchard of sandy loam samples are taken 
 at depths of about 3 feet, and the moisture content determined 
 by exposing the samples to a bright sun for the greater part of a 
 day. It is considered that 6 per cent, by weight of free water is 
 sufficient to keep the trees in a vigorous condition. 
 
 Dr. Loughridge of the University of California, in his experi- 
 ments at Riverside, Cal., in June, 1905, found an average of 3.5 
 pec, cent, in the upper 2 feet and an average of 6. 16 per cent, below 
 this level in an orchard which had not been irrigated since October 
 of the preceding year. It had received, however, a winter rain- 
 fall of about 16 inches. On examination it was found that the 
 bulk of the roots lay between the first and fourth foot. These 
 trees in June seemed to be merely holding their own. When 
 irrigated July 7 they began to make new growth. A few days 
 after the water was applied the percentage of free water in the 
 upper 4 feet of soil rose to 9.64 per cent. The results of these 
 
212 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 tests seem to indicate that the percentage by weight of free mois- 
 ture should range between 5 and 10 per cent, in orchard loams. 
 
 Many fruit growers do not turn on the irrigation stream until 
 the trees begin to show visible signs of suffering, as a slight change 
 in color or a slight curling of the leaves. In thus waiting for these 
 signals of distress, both trees and fruit are liable to be injured. 
 On the other hand, the man who ignores these symptoms and 
 pours on a large quantity of water whenever he can spare it, or 
 when his turn comes, is apt to cause greater damage by an over- 
 dose of water. 
 
 APPLYING WATER. Orchards are irrigated for the most part 
 from furrows. The manner in which water is distributed from head 
 ditches or pipes to furrows and the location, spacing and depth of 
 furrows were described under Furrow Irrigation. Practice differs 
 as to the amount of water which is turned into each furrow and 
 the number of hours it is permitted to flow. 
 
 In Southern California a miner's inch of water (1/50 second- 
 foot) is usually allowed to run in each furrow until the soil is 
 moistened to a sufficient depth. The heads used vary from 30 to 
 60 miner's inches. 
 
 In the Payette Valley, Idaho, 200 or more miner's inches are 
 turned into the head ditch and divided up by means of wooden 
 spouts into a like number of furrows. On steep ground much 
 smaller streams are used. The length of the furrow varies from 
 300 feet on steep slopes to 600 feet and more on flat slopes. The 
 time required to moisten the soil depends on the length of the 
 furrow and the nature of the soil. In this locality it varies from 3 
 to 36 hours. 
 
 J. H. Foreman owns 20 acres of bearing orchard under the 
 Sunnyside Canal in the Yakima Valley, Washington, and waters 
 it four times in each season with 14 miner's inches (0.35 cubic 
 foot per second). He makes three furrows between the rows, 
 which are 40 rods long. The total supply is applied to one-half 
 the orchard (10 acres) and kept on 48 hours. 
 
 On the clayey loams of the apple orchards on the east bench of 
 the Bitter Root River, Montana, Prof. R. W. Fisher has found, as 
 a result of experimenting, that it requires from 12 to 18 hours to 
 moisten the soil in furrow irrigation 4 feet deep and 3 feet side- 
 ways. 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 213 
 
 In 1908 Mr. Struck, of Hood River, Oregon, irrigated 3 acres 
 of apple trees in furrows 360 feet long, spaced 3 feet apart. About 
 a miner's inch of water was turned into each alternate furrow from 
 a wooden head flume and kept on for about 48 hours. After the 
 soil had become sufficiently dry it was cultivated, and in 8 or 10 
 days thereafter water was turned into the alternate rows, which 
 were left dry during the first irrigation. 
 
 In irrigating the deciduous orchards in the Sierra foothills of 
 Placer County, Cal., very small heads are required in order to 
 prevent erosion on the steep slopes. The continuous flow of 3 to 
 4 miner's inches is sufficient for a 20-acre orchard during the irri- 
 gation season which extends from May 1 to October 1. As a 
 rule, there is but one furrow for each row of trees. This may ex- 
 tend down the steepest slope encircling the upper half of each 
 tree in its course or it may extend in a diagonal direction. A tiny 
 stream no larger, on steep slopes, than a pencil is permitted to 
 run for 24 to 48 hours and is then changed to another furrow. 
 
 NUMBER OF IRRIGATIONS. For nearly half the entire year the 
 fruit trees of Wyoming and Montana have little active, visible 
 growth, whereas in the citrus districts of California and Arizona 
 the growth is continuous. A tree when dormant gives off mois- 
 ture, but the amount evaporated from both soil and tree in winter 
 is relatively small, owing to the low temperature, the lack of 
 foliage, and feeble growth. A heavy ram which saturates the 
 soil below the usual covering of soil mulch may take the place of 
 one artificial watering, but the light shower frequently does more 
 harm than good. The number of irrigations likewise depends on 
 the capacity of the soil to hold water. If it readily parts with its 
 moisture, light but frequent applications will produce the best 
 results, but if it holds water well a heavy application at longer in- 
 tervals is best, especially when loss by evaporation from the soil 
 is prevented by the use of a deep soil mulch. 
 
 In the Yakima and Wenatchee fruit-growing districts of Wash- 
 ington the first irrigation is usually given in April or early in May. 
 Then follow three to four waterings at intervals of 20 to 30 days. 
 At Montrose, Colorado, water is used three to five times in a 
 season. At Payette, Idaho, the same number of irrigations is 
 applied, beginning about June 1 in ordinary seasons and repeating 
 the operation at the end of 30-day intervals. As a rule, the 
 
214 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 orchards at Lewiston, Idaho, are watered three times, beginning 
 about June 15. From two to four waterings suffice for fruit trees 
 in the vicinity of Boulder, Colo. The last irrigation is given on or 
 before September 5, so that the new wood may have a chance to 
 mature before heavy freezes occur. In the Bitter Root Valley, 
 Montana, young trees are irrigated earlier and of tener than mature 
 trees. Trees in bearing are, as a rule, irrigated about July 15, 
 August 10, and August 20 of each year. In San Diego County, 
 Cal., citrus trees are watered six to eight times, and deciduous 
 trees three to four times in a season. In Placer County, Cal., 
 deciduous trees are watered every 2 weeks. 
 
 DUTY OF WATER. The duty of water for 1 acre as fixed by water 
 contracts varies all the way from one-fortieth to one four-hun- 
 dredth of a cubic foot per second. In general, the most water 
 is applied in districts that require the least. Wherever water is 
 cheap and abundant the tendency seems to be to use large quan- 
 tities, regardless of the requirements of the fruit trees. In Wy- 
 oming the duty of water is seldom less than at .the rate of a 
 cubic foot per second for 70 acres. In parts of southern Cali- 
 fornia the same quantity of water not infrequently serves 400 
 acres, yet the amount required by the fruit trees of the latter 
 locality is far in excess of that of the former.' 
 
 In recent years the tendency all over the West is toward a more 
 economical use of water, and even in localities where water for 
 irrigation is still reasonably low in price it is rare that more than 
 21/2 acre-feet per acre are applied in a season. This is the duty 
 provided for in the contracts of the Bitter Root Valley Irrigation 
 Company, of Montana, which has 40,000 acres of fruit lands under 
 ditch. Since, however, the water user is not entitled to receive 
 more than one-half of an acre-foot per acre in any one calendar 
 month, it is only when the growing season is long and dry that 
 he requires the full amount. 
 
 In the vicinity of Boulder, Colo., the continuous flow of a cubic 
 foot per second for 105 days serves about 112 acres of all kinds of 
 crops. This amount of water, if none were lost, would cover 
 each acre to a depth of 1.9 feet. In other words, the duty of 
 water is a trifle less than 2 acre-feet per acre. 
 
 In 1908, the depth of water used on a 21 1/2-acre apple orchard 
 at Wenatchee, Wash., was measured and found to be 23 inches. 
 
IlflflGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 
 
 215 
 
 The trees were 7 years old and produced heavily. This orchard 
 was watered five times, the first on May 13 and the last on Sep- 
 tember 23. In San Diego County, Cal., 1 miner's inch (1/50 
 second-foot) irrigates from 6 to 7 acres near the coast where the 
 iilr is cool and evaporation low, but 20 miles or so inland the same 
 amount of water is needed for about 4 acres. 
 
 On the sandy loam orchards of Orange County, Cal., it has been 
 demonstrated that 2 acre-inches every 60 days are sufficient to 
 keep bearing trees in good condition. The rainfall in this locality 
 
 Mar. 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.0 
 
 FIG. 67.- 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 -Average duty of water per month under Riverside Water Com- 
 pany, Dec. 1, 1901, to Nov. 30, 1908. 
 
 averages somewhat less than 12 inches per annum, but about 95 
 per cent, of the total falls between November and May, inclusive. 
 The most reliable and in many ways the most valuable records 
 pertaining to duty of water on orchards have been obtained by 
 the water companies of Riverside County, Cal. Here more or 
 less irrigation water is used every month of the year. Fig. 67 is 
 a graphic representation of the average amount of water used per 
 month in a period of 7 years by the Riverside Water Company 
 in irrigating about 9000 acres, of which nearly 6000 acres are 
 planted to oranges and the balance to alfalfa. The figures given 
 
216 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 in the diagram represent depth in feet over the surface watered. 
 In the following table is given the average duty of water per 
 month in acre-feet per acre under the same system from Decem- 
 ber 1, 1901, to November 30, 1908, a period of 7 years. The 
 table also includes the average monthly rainfall at Riverside, Cal., 
 for the same period and adding the quantity of water applied in 
 irrigation in any one month to the rainfall of that month gives 
 the total moisture received by the soil. 
 
 TABLE No. 32 
 Water used under Riverside Water Company's System, 1901-1908 
 
 Month 
 
 Average 
 depth 
 per acre, 
 feet 
 
 Average 
 rainfall, 
 feet 
 
 Total 
 water 
 applied, 
 feet 
 
 Month 
 
 Average 
 depth 
 per acre, 
 feet 
 
 Average 
 rainfall, 
 feet 
 
 Total 
 water 
 applied, 
 feet 
 
 December . . 
 
 0.159 
 
 0.109 
 
 0.268 
 
 July 
 
 0.272 
 
 0.002 
 
 0.274 
 
 January . . . 
 February . . 
 March .... 
 April 
 
 0.123 
 0.046 
 0.078 
 0.177 
 
 0.170 
 0.190 
 0.316 
 0.068 
 
 0.293 
 0.236 
 0.394 
 0.245 
 
 August. . . . 
 September . 
 October . . . 
 November . 
 
 0.269 
 0.243 
 0.189 
 0.169 
 
 0.015 
 0.043 
 0.073 
 
 0.269 
 0.258 
 0.232 
 0.242 
 
 May 
 
 291 
 
 023 
 
 314 
 
 Total 
 
 29Q 
 
 i rji 
 
 3Of| 
 
 June 
 
 0.274 
 
 0.003 
 
 0.277 
 
 
 
 
 
 INTERCROPPING. The large majority of California fruit growers 
 do not grow marketable crops between the trees. They believe 
 in clean culture, except where leguminous crops are used to reno- 
 vate and fertilize the soil. From the standpoint of the large 
 commercial orchard and the well-to-do proprietor, this practice 
 has much to recommend it. The planting of such an orchard is 
 regarded as a long-time investment. Little, if any, returns are 
 expected for the first few years, but when the trees approach 
 maturity, and are in full bearing the anticipated profits are sup- 
 posed to compensate the owner for all the lean years. Any 
 treatment, therefore, which tends to rob the soil of its plant food 
 when the trees are young or to retard their growth is pretty cer- 
 tain to lessen the yields and the consequent profits in later years. 
 Prof. E. J. Wickson, director of the California Experiment Sta- 
 tion, tersely expressed the prevailing opinion on this question in 
 California in his work, " California Fruits and How to Grow 
 Them" in the following language: "All intercultures are a loan 
 made by the trees to the orchardist. The term may be long and 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 217 
 
 the rate of interest low, but sooner or later the trees will need res- 
 titution to the soil of the plant food removed by intercropping." 
 
 Mr. S. W. McCulloch, who controls 150 acres of citrus orchards 
 in southern California, goes further in stating, "It is always 
 detrimental to the development of an orchard to grow crops 
 between the trees. In some cases the effect is not marked aside 
 from securing less rapid growth, but it will affect the crops of fruit 
 for several years and in the end nothing will be gained." 
 
 Notwithstanding all this, the poor man must needs make the 
 loan or his children may starve. The settler on a small tract 
 set out to young trees cannot afford, if his means are limited, to 
 wait 4 or 5 years for the first returns. He must produce crops 
 between the rows, and the question for him to consider is 
 how this can be done with the least possible injury to the trees. 
 A plentiful supply of water and a deep rich soil are the essentials 
 of intercropping. In districts that depend on a meager rainfall 
 of 15 to 20 inches per annum, or where irrigation water is both 
 scarce and costly, the practice becomes of doubtful value under 
 any circumstances. In most of the fruit districts of the West 
 water for irrigation is still reasonably low in price, and the extra 
 amount required for intercropping represents but a small part of 
 the net gains from such crops. 
 
 Shallow-rooted plants are considered the most desirable for 
 this purpose. Squash, melons, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, and 
 peanuts are the most common in California. The cultivation is 
 done with one horse and a small cultivator. A clear space 3 to 
 4 feet wide is left on each side of the young trees. In the Verde 
 River Valley of Arizona, strawberries, lettuce, onions, and melons 
 are raised in the young orchards. In parts of Idaho, alfalfa 
 fields are frequently plowed under to plant trees. When this is 
 done, berries, beans, melons, onions, and tomatoes can be grown 
 between the rows for several years without any apparent injury 
 to young trees. In northern Colorado, raspberries, goose- 
 berries, currants, as well as corn, beans, and peas are often planted 
 in orchards, while in southwestern Kansas the order is usually 
 cabbage, melons and sweet potatoes. 
 
 In the young apple orchards of Hood River Valley, Oregon, 
 strawberries are frequently planted between the rows. The 
 manner in which this is done, as well as the system of contour 
 
218 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 planting which is there practised, is shown in Fig. 68. The 
 manager of a large apple orchard company in Montana states 
 that no appreciable effect is noticed on apple trees as a result of 
 growing potatoes, cabbage, beans, onions, and other vegetables 
 between the trees providing the intercrops are well cultivated 
 and irrigated. In the fruit districts of Washington, intercropping 
 is a common practice. In 1907 a fruit grower raised in 10 acres 
 of two-year-old trees cantaloupes, tomatoes, peppers, cucumbers, 
 corn, radishes, beans, peas, potatoes, and turnips, all of which 
 netted him $2,086.50, or an average of $208.65 an acre. 
 
 FIG. 68. Orchard showing strawberries between rows of trees. 
 
 While opinions differ regarding the wisdom of growing such 
 crops as have been named between the tree rows, most fruit grow- 
 ers are convinced of the beneficial effects of cover crops. Not- 
 withstanding the scarcity and high value of water in the River- 
 side citrus district, the superintendent of a large fruit compan}^ 
 has for years grown peas and vetch in the orange and lemon 
 orchards under his management, and advocates the free use of 
 irrigation water to supplement the winter rains for the rapid and 
 vigorous growth of such crops. In the walnut groves of Orange 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 210 
 
 County. Cal., bur clover is sown in the fall, given one or two 
 irrigations during; the winter if the rainfall is below the normal 
 ami plowed under in April. 
 
 The cost of such cover crops as peas, vetch, or clover includes 
 the seed, the labor of sowing it, the water, and the time required 
 to apply it. These items, according to Dr. S. S. Twombly, of 
 Fullerton, Cal., amount to from $2.50 to $3.25 per acre. Twenty 
 tons per acre of green material is perhaps an average crop. In 
 this tonnage there would be about 160 pounds of nitrogen, which 
 at 20 cents per pound represents a value of $32 per acre for a cover 
 crop like vetch. 
 
 Other beneficial effects of cover crops are quite fully sum- 
 marized by Prof. W. S. Thornber, horticulturist of the Washing- 
 ton Agricultural Experiment Station (Wash. Sta. Pop. Bui. 8). 
 
 WINTER IRRIGATION. When water is used outside of the regular 
 irrigation period, or what is in many cases equivalent, outside 
 of the growing season, it is termed winter irrigation. Over a 
 large part of the arid region the growing season is limited by low 
 temperatures to 150 days, or less, and when the flow of streams 
 is utilized only during this period much valuable water runs to 
 waste. 
 
 It was for the purpose of utilizing some of this waste that the 
 orchardists of the Pacific Coast States and Arizona began the 
 practice of winter irrigation. The precipitation usually occurs 
 in winter in the form of rain, and large quantities of creek water 
 are then available. This water is spread over the orchards in 
 January, February, and March, when deciduous trees are dor- 
 mant. The most favorable conditions for this practice are a 
 mild winter climate; a deep, retentive soil which will hold the 
 greater part of the water applied; deep-rooted trees; and a soil 
 moist from frequent rains. 
 
 The creek water which was applied to some of the prune 
 orchards of the Santa Clara Valley, California, during the wirter 
 of 1904 was measured by the agents of irrigation investigations 
 with the following results: From February 27 to April 23, 1241 
 acres were irrigated under the Statler ditch to an average depth 
 of 1.58 feet. From February 12 to April 23, 2021 acres were 
 i Tuated under the Sorosis and Calkins ditches to an average 
 depth of 1.75 feet. In the majority of cases the orchards which 
 
220 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 are irrigated in winter in this valley receive no additional supply 
 of moisture other than about 16 inches of rain water. 
 
 In the colder parts of the arid region winter irrigation is like- 
 wise being practised with satisfactory results. The purpose is 
 not only to store water in the soil but to prevent the winter- 
 killing of trees. Experience has shown that it is not best to 
 apply much water to orchards during the latter part of the grow- 
 ing season, since it tends to produce immature growth which 
 is easily damaged by frost. In many of the orchards of Montana 
 no water is applied in summer irrigation after August 20. Owing, 
 however, to the prevalence of warm chinook winds, which not 
 only melt the snow in a night, but rob the exposed soil of much 
 of its moisture, one or two irrigations are frequently necessary in 
 midwinter. 
 
 39. Irrigation of Rice. The total acreage devoted to rice grow- 
 ing in the United States in 1912, was, according to the Decem- 
 ber Crop Report of the Department of Agriculture for that 
 year 722,800 acres; the production was 25,054,000 bushels valued 
 at $23,423,000. The distribution of the area in rice in that year 
 was as follows: 
 
 Per cent, of 
 State Acres 
 
 total 
 
 Louisiana 352,600 48 . 78 
 
 Texas 265,500 36.73 
 
 Arkansas 90,800 12 . 56 
 
 So. Atlantic States 12,500 1 . 73 
 
 California _ 1 ' 400 _ __- 19 
 
 Total 722,800 99.~99 
 
 In 1896, the forerunner of the modern pumping plant for the 
 irrigation of rice was operated for the first time near Crowley, 
 Louisiana, marking the beginning of a new era in the develop- 
 ment of irrigated rice in this country. Largely as a result of 
 better facilities for securing and controlling an adequate water 
 supply, the yield of cleaned rice increased from 116,000,000 
 pounds in 1897 to 520,000,000 pounds in 1907. 
 
 During the past 5 years questions of water supply, canals, 
 application and duty of water, and the effect of water on rice 
 production have been carefully investigated by C. G. Haskell of 
 Irrigation Investigations, Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 221 
 
 Department of Agriculture. The writer has drawn freely from 
 Mr. Haskell's publications and acquired knowledge on this sub- 
 ject in preparing the following article. 
 
 SOIL, r LI MATE AND WATER SUPPLY. Practically all of the rice 
 grown in the United States is irrigated, and irrigated rice to be 
 profitable requires the right kind of soil and subsoil, a suitable 
 climate, and an adequate water supply. Any rich loam or clay 
 soil that is level enough to be economically irrigated, if underlaid 
 with a compact clay subsoil, impervious to water, is suitable for 
 rice culture. If the land is rolling or broken, water can not be 
 easily kept on it, and if the subsoil is loose, there will be such a 
 loss of water that irrigation will be very expensive. Not more 
 than two successive rice crops can be grown profitably on very 
 sandy loam soil. The crop must likewise have at least 4 
 months of warm weather and no cool nights during heading time. 
 
 The water used in rice irrigation is derived from streams, lakes, 
 bayous, and wells. More than 97 per cent, of the water used is 
 pumped and over one-quarter of this is pumped from wells. A 
 very small acreage is irrigated with stored water from wells, and a 
 similar area with water stored in shallow reservoirs and allowed 
 to flow to rice planted on lower land. Sometimes rice planted 
 on low land receives its irrigation from the inflow of water from 
 surrounding higher fields. This is the so-called "Providence" 
 method. Along the Atlantic coast several thousand acres of rice 
 are grown on low land near the mouths of rivers and are irrigated 
 by fresh river water backed up over it during high tides. 
 
 PREPARATION OF LAND, PLANTING AND SEEDING. On the prai- 
 ries the land is generally plowed with sulky or gang plows. Along 
 the Mississippi River and the Atlantic coast where negro laborers 
 do most of the work the walking plow is generally used. The land 
 is disked and harrowed to make a good seed bed and the rice is 
 planted with a drill or sometimes with a broadcast seeder. Along 
 the Atlantic coast the rows are made 15 inches apart to allow 
 the rice to be cultivated, but in all other sections rice is not 
 cultivated and the rows are made about 7 inches apart. 
 
 In Louisiana, Texas and Arkansas, Honduras and Shinriki 
 (Japan) rices are the principal varieties grown for commercial 
 purposes, although during the last few years several varieties 
 have been developed in this country which do better than the 
 
222 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 imported rices. The Honduras is a tall rice with coarse stalks 
 and wide leaves. The heads and the grains in the heads hang 
 long and are light colored. The Japan rice is short with small 
 wire-like stalks and narrow leaves. The head and grains are 
 shorter than the Honduras rice. By reason of the large number 
 of heads per plant, Japan rice makes larger yields than the Hon- 
 duras, but it does not bring as high a price on the market. On 
 the Atlantic coast the famous Carolina Gold Seed and white rice 
 are grown. The Gold Seed is about the size of the Honduras 
 rice and is known by the golden color of the hulls. About 90 
 pounds of Honduras or 65 pounds of Japan rice are generally 
 planted to the acre. 
 
 CANALS, PUMPING PLANTS, AND LATERALS. The irrigation 
 canals which carry the water from the streams and lakes to the 
 lands to be irrigated are built on high ground and sometimes ex- 
 tend 30 miles from their source. The larger canals are merely two 
 parallel levees built upon the surface of the ground from 200 to 
 275 feet apart, and since their grades are very flat they are really 
 long reservoirs in which water flows very slowly. The slow veloc- 
 ity causes little loss of head and keeps the total lift at the pump- 
 ing plant at a minimum. This is essential, for the cost of the 
 water depends largely upon the height to which it is elevated. 
 From the main canals the water is conveyed to the fields in 
 laterals. 
 
 Some of the largest and best equipped pumping plants in the 
 world pump into irrigation canals from the streams of south- 
 western Louisiana and southeastern Texas. They are frequently 
 equipped with large horizontal centrifugal or rotary pumps, 
 operated by compound condensing Corliss engines. Steam is 
 generally supplied from horizontal water-tube boilers and petro- 
 leum is often used for fuel. 
 
 WELLS. A large part of the land upon which rice is grown is 
 underlain with waterbearing beds of sand and gravel at depths 
 varying from 40 to 1000 feet. Great improvements have been 
 made during recent years in methods of drilling and equipping 
 wells. Practically all of the water obtained from wells is pumped. 
 The average of the discharges from over 800 wells in Texas, 
 Arkansas, and Louisiana is 950 gallons per minute. Some wells 
 supply as high as 3000 gallons per minute, and irrigate about 
 
IRRIGATION^OF STAPLE CROPS 
 
 223 
 
 400 acres of rice. Irrigation water from wells enables much land 
 to be planted to rice which is out of reach of the river, bayou or 
 lake canals and could not otherwise be irrigated. The greater 
 part of the irrigation development in the rice country during 
 recent years has been along the line of irrigation from wells. 
 
 FIG. 69. Push for building levees and digging small drainage ditches. 
 
 FIELD LEVEES. High levees are built around the field to pre- 
 vent the escape of water. Other levees are built across the field 
 01 contours to hold the water on the land. A contour field levee is 
 built on the surface of the ground for every drop of three-tenths 
 of a foot. Sometimes the levees are located on every two or 
 
 FIG. 70. Cross-section of the common high field levee. 
 
 four-tenths of a foot drop. The field is thus divided into irregu- 
 lar shaped cuts depending in size upon the- slope of the ground. 
 All the land in each cut is of nearly the same elevation. Fig. 69 
 shows a wooden "push" that is generally used to build levees and 
 to dig small drainage ditches. 
 
224 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 In the newer or more up to date rice farms the cross levees 
 are built wide so that teams can work them and rice can be grown 
 upon them. Fig. 70 shows a cross section of a common, narrow, 
 high, field levee. Fig. 71 shows a cross section of a low, wide, 
 field levee. 
 
 STRUCTURES TO CONTROL THE FLOW OF WATER ON FIELDS. 
 Drainage ditches are provided so that water can be removed 
 from any cut, when desired. If the soil is loose, sandy loam, 
 wooden gates are placed in the field levees to regulate the flow 
 of the water and to prevent the levees washing out. Sometimes 
 a sack is placed so the water can flow over it to answer the pur- 
 pose of a gate. The lateral or small canal which carries the 
 water supply should be built along the side of the field so that 
 water can be applied to any cut without flooding those above it. 
 
 FIG. 71. Cross-section of the low, wide field levee. 
 
 If the field is very large and the cuts are long the lateral should 
 be extended down the slope dividing the cuts so that the water 
 will not have to flow too far to reach the farther ends of the cuts. 
 
 SECURING WATER FOR IRRIGATION ALONG THE MISSISSIPPI. 
 Along the Mississippi River rice grows on alluvial land just over 
 the levees. When the crop was first introduced into this section 
 the planters cut the levees which protect the land along the river 
 from overflow to get water to irrigate their rice or placed wooden 
 gates or iron pipes in the levees to allow the water to flow from 
 the river to their fields. After several crevasses and overflows 
 resulted from this practice, a law was passed preventing the cut- 
 ting of the levees. This made it necessary to syphon the water 
 over them. As long as the river is low the water has to be 
 pumped into a reservoir built beside the levee, and of sufficient 
 height to cause the water to flow from it through the syphon 
 to the field. 
 
 Small portable pumping plants are used to pump the water 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 225 
 
 from the river into the reservoirs. During the seasons when 
 t he river is high irrigation water is very cheap but when the river 
 is low it is very expensive. On the Mississippi River above 
 Baton Rouge, Louisiana, the fields are laid out and irrigated 
 in much the same way as on the prairie lands. Below Baton 
 P.ouge the older method is still practised. 
 
 Some idea of the arrangement of field levees and ditches 
 in different parts of the rice area may be obtained from the 
 following outline: 
 
 The land along the Mississippi River slopes back to the swamp 
 or low land. Parallel drain ditches are dug down this slope at 
 distances varying from 200 to 600 feet apart. Levees are built 
 along the sides of the ditches and cross levees at right angles 
 to them for every drop of two- to five-tenths of a foot in the 
 surface of the land. The cross levees thus range from 50 to 800 
 feet apart and form rectangular cuts of varying sizes. The 
 water is allowed to flow from cut to cut across the field; and, 
 when the field is to be drained the water is allowed to flow off 
 through the drainage ditches. 
 
 Along the Atlantic Coast some of the land near the mouths of 
 rivers influenced by tides, is level and lies between high and 
 low tide. At high tide the fresh water of the river is backed 
 up until it is higher than the land. Large, high levees are built 
 around the field to hold the river water from the land. Inside 
 field levees, generally straight, are built across the field to divide 
 it into cuts approximately 40 acres in size. A large ditch or 
 canal is dug in from the river and branches from the canal 
 extend to each cut. Where the branch canals reach the levees 
 surrounding the cuts a wooden box with a gate on each end to 
 close it is placed under the levees. The box and gates together 
 are called a "trunk." 
 
 The gates are arranged so that they can be set to work auto- 
 matically and let the water on or off the field at the change of 
 tide, whichever may be desired. A ditch about 4 feet wide 
 and 4 feet deep runs from the trunk parallel to the inside 
 levees and about 20 feet from them around the inside of 
 each cut and back to the trunk. Other narrow ditches con- 
 nect with the larger ditches from opposite sides, leaving room 
 only for a team to pass between the ends. These inside systems 
 
 15 
 
226 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 of ditches are made to allow the water to flow quickly to and 
 from' the fields while the tide is high or low. 
 
 Rice is cultivated on the Atlantic Coast only. In the other 
 states the irrigation is not only expected to supply the moisture 
 necessary for plant growth and to control the pests which attack 
 young rice when the land is not flooded, but it is also expected to 
 keep down the weeds and grasses. If there is not enough mois- 
 ture in the soil to sprout the seed, water is applied just before 
 or just after planting. It is not allowed to stand long on the 
 newly planted rice, however, in order that the seed may not 
 rot in the ground. The period of danger is from the time the 
 rice starts to sprout until it is above the ground. If the field 
 cannot be completely drained, sprout flooding can not be prac- 
 tised safely. The water should then be applied first and the 
 rice planted as the land dries or planting should be delayed until 
 rain falls. 
 
 If the corn beetles, wire-worms, white grubs, or birds are 
 injuring the young rice, water is applied to drive the pests away 
 even if the rice is just above the ground. 
 
 APPLICATION OF WATER. Irrigation water is applied to the 
 land when the rice is 4 inches above the surface. If the water 
 is held deep when the rice is young, it will cause the plants to 
 grow tall and slender at a rapid *ate and not to thicken up or 
 stool out to make many heads to each plant. If the weather is 
 very hot, the water must be held not less than 1 inch and 
 preferably 2 inches deep or it will become hot enough to scald 
 the young rice. There is little danger of the water getting hot 
 enough to injure the early planted rice but rice planted late in 
 the season should be watched carefully. 
 
 After the rice has grown enough to shade the water there 
 is no danger of scalding and the water may be allowed to get 
 lower if desired. During cool weather the water should be- 
 held from 1 to 2 inches deep on the land in order that the 
 sun may warm it quickly in the morning and the plants be given 
 a chance to grow. After the rice has stooled properly in shallow 
 water the water is held at an average of 4 inches or more on the 
 cuts. The average depth of water on a cut is the depth midway 
 between properly located contour levees. Tests to determine 
 the depth of water which will cause the greatest yields have 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 227 
 
 shown that for old, grassy fields the yields increase with the 
 average depth of water up to 6 inches and probably beyond. 
 It is also true that the increase in yield is very slight for average 
 depths greater than 4 inches. It is therefore not economical 
 to flood deeper because it would require the use of a greater 
 amount of water and the building of higher field levees. New 
 land does not require as deep flooding as old land. 
 
 RICE WATER-WEEVIL OR RICE ROOT-MAGGOT. The rice water- 
 s-evil resembles somewhat in size, shape and color, the weevil 
 that eats stored grain and is most readily found when the rice 
 has been flooded about 2 weeks and is 8 to 10 inches tall. It 
 may be found on the leaves or stalks of the rice plants, or swim- 
 ming in the water, but does little harm when eating on the 
 leaves of the rice. When in the larva stage the weevils sometimes 
 do great injury by eating the roots of the rice plants. 
 
 The rice maggot, as the rice larva is called by the farmers, 
 is a small white worm about one-fourth to one-half of an inch 
 long with corrugations or ridges running around it and both 
 extremities somewhat blunt. Its head looks like little more 
 than a reddish-brown speck. A rice maggot is found in wet 
 soils near the roots of the rice plants but should not be mistaken 
 for the larva of the greenhead fly which is sometimes found in 
 wet or flooded rice fields, since the fly maggot does not injure 
 the rice. The fly maggot is generally larger, of a darker color 
 and with sharper extremities than the rice maggot. 
 
 If the rice maggots when discovered have just begun to eat 
 the roots of the. rice plants and there is a little rain to prevent 
 the land drying, the water is drained from the cuts and the land 
 is allowed to dry until the mud will not stick to the shoes but 
 not so that the ground cracks. The water is then re-applied 
 to the cuts. If the rice maggots have already done much 
 injury and the weather is cloudy or rainy, or if irrigation water 
 is too scarce to allow the water to be drained from the field, the 
 cuts are flooded deep with fresh water. This seems to remain 
 too cool for the rice maggots and also helps the rice to recover 
 from its injuries. 
 
 After the field has been completely flooded the openings 
 in the field levees are so placed that the water will flow in at 
 one end of a cut and out at the other, also flowing down from 
 
228 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 cut to cut across the field. This causes the water to circulate 
 and prevents it from becoming hot and stagnant. 
 
 STRAIGHT-HEAD OR "BLIGHT." Straight-head or "blight" 
 sometimes causes great loss. This is an unfavorable growth of 
 the rice plant occurring when too much of its strength goes to 
 stalks and leaves and not enough to grain. It can be recognized 
 by the tall stalks and dark green leaves during the growing 
 period and by the empty or partly filled heads which stand straight 
 up at harvest time. 
 
 This trouble seldom occurs on any but sandy loam soil which 
 has not been planted to rice for a year or two. To remedy the 
 defective growth the water should be drained from the field just 
 before the rice begins to joint, permitting the soil to aerate 
 until it is about to crack. The field should then be reflooded 
 with fresh water. Rice planted on newly plowed prairie land 
 is most apt to be injured by straight-head, although the danger 
 is not so great after the first year. Even one plowing will so 
 change the condition of the soil that there is little danger. 
 
 Water is handled on the rice fields along the Mississippi River 
 in much the same way as further west. On account of weeds 
 and grass on most of the older fields, the water is applied early 
 and is held deep on the land throughout the whole season. 
 Rice is not cultivated in this section and the small danger from 
 straight-head on this soil makes drainage unnecessary. More 
 water than that used on prairie land is generally required be- 
 cause the subsoils are not so compact. Weeds and grass are 
 generally cut while water is on the ground. 
 
 HANDLING WATER ON ATLANTIC COAST RICE FIELDS. Along 
 the Atlantic Coast the rice fields are generally flooded as soxm as 
 the rice is planted. This flooding is called the " sprout flow." It 
 protects the grains from the birds and causes the seed to germi- 
 nate. The water is allowed to remain on the land 6 to 12 inches 
 deep until little white sprouts one-third of an inch long have 
 pushed through the hulls and caused the rice to be " pipped." 
 This generally requires 3 to 6 days. The water is then drained 
 off and is not re-applied until the rice is 1 to 2 inches tall with 
 one point-like leaf. 
 
 The second flooding, called the "point or stretch flow" over the 
 young rice causes it to grow quickly, getting a start on the 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 229 
 
 woods and grass much of which the water is expected to kill. 
 Who n tho rice has grown to a height of about 6 inches the water 
 is gradually lowored to an average depth of 4 inches and is held 
 there for 13 to 30 days, according to the strength of the soil, 
 the condition of the plants, and the temperature. Every week 
 or 10 days the water is drawn off and fresh water is applied. 
 
 The " stretch flow" is followed by a period of "dry growth" 
 which lasts from 40 to 50 days. If the weather is dry a short 
 flooding is given during the "dry growth" period. During 
 this period the rice is cultivated with horse plows 2 or 3 times 
 and is hoed by hand once or twice. All weeds, grass, and red 
 rice are uprooted and the ground is thoroughly stirred. 
 
 When the plants have begun to joint the "harvest flow" 
 is turned on 4 to 5 inches deep and is allowed to remain until 
 just before the rice is harvested. 
 
 DUTY OF WATER, RAINFALL, AND EVAPORATION. Measure- 
 ments have been made of rainfall, evaporation, and the duty of 
 water for irrigating rice on prairie lands of Louisiana, Texas, and 
 Arkansas for 11 years, during which 21 measurements have 
 been made. The averages of these measurements give 15.74 
 inches of pumped water and 17.16 inches of rainfall applied to 
 the land and a loss due to evaporation from flooded rice fields 
 of 15.33 inches. The total average depth of water applied was 
 32.90 inches. Subtracting the evaporation from this leaves 
 17.57 inches which was used by the plants, percolated into the 
 ground and escaped through the outside field levees. Allow- 
 ing time for break-down of pumping plant and for stoppage of 
 pumping when irrigation water is not needed after rains, the 
 duty of water for rice irrigation for prairie land runs from 7 1/2 
 to 8 gallons per minute per acre, depending upon the character 
 of the land and the distance the water has to be carried in the 
 canal. If the water is pumped at the field so there is no loss 
 in a canal, less water will be required. For the black clay and 
 loam soils along rivers, like that along the Mississippi River, 
 10 gallons of water per minute per acre should be provided while 
 if the land has a loose subsoil and is located near a river or lake, 
 38 to 40 gallons will be needed. 
 
 In Texas, Arkansas, and all of Louisiana, except the strip 
 along the Mississippi River below Baton Rouge, the water has 
 
230 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 to be drained from the field in time for the land to become dry 
 enough to support teams and binders at harvest time. This 
 requires from 8 to 14 days according to the character of the land 
 and the time required for the water to drain from the field. 
 Generally the water is removed when most of the heads of the 
 rice are in the dough stage, the end grains have begun to harden 
 and the heads have turned yellow and filled enough so that 
 most of them have turned down. 
 
 Along the lower part of the Mississippi River and the Atlantic 
 Coast where the rice is still cut with sickles, the water is left 
 longer on the field, and in some cases is drained off only the 
 day before the -rice is cut. In all sections the bundles of rice 
 are shocked on the field and threshed by threshing machines 
 driven by steam or gasoline engines. 
 
 MARKETING. Rice is generally sold to the rice mills through 
 buyers who go over the country during threshing time to sample 
 the rice. Frequently several buyers bid on the same rice. 
 During recent years the rice growers have organized a sales 
 company called the Southern Rice Growers Association, the 
 object of which is to give stability to the rice market and protect 
 the growers by regulating the price, grading the rice, and selling 
 it for the highest possible price, under the greatest competition 
 from the buyers. The rice growers sign a contract agreeing 
 not to sell their rice for less than the price fixed for that grade 
 of rice by the association. In consideration of the assistance of 
 the association in selling the rice and to provide a fund to be 
 used to increase the consumption of rice, each member of the 
 association pays into its treasury 7 cents a sack when his rice 
 is sold. 
 
 COST AND PROFITS. The cost of growing rice varies with the 
 character of the soil, the price of labor, the cost of irrigation 
 water, etc. For the prairie lands of Louisiana and Texas, when 
 irrigation water is secured from canals, the approximate cost of 
 growing rice is given on the following page. 
 
 This estimate is based on what a farmer could be hired to do 
 the work for at regular prices. Where the farmer owns the equip- 
 ment and does his own work or hires a hand by the month, the 
 outlay will not be so great, since this estimate allows wages for 
 the farmer and his teams and tools. According to the December 
 
- I1UU<;.\TK)X OF STAPLE CROPS 231 
 
 Crop Report of 1912, the average yield of rice per acre from 
 1909 to 1912, for Texas and Louisiana was 34 bushels, or 9.44 bar- 
 rels, and the average price received during those years was 
 S0.80 a bushel, or $2.80 a barrel. This makes a return of $27.20 
 per aero or $1.15 per acre less than the estimated complete cost 
 of production. Both yield and price vary with different seasons. 
 
 Plowing SI .50 
 
 Double disking . 85 
 
 Double harrowing . 60 
 
 Seed rice 3 . 00 
 
 Fertilizing 1 . 00 
 
 Planting . 65 
 
 Rolling 0.30 
 
 Repairing field levees . 35 
 
 Irrigation water 7 . 00 
 
 Handling water on field . 40 
 
 Cutting rice 1 . 25 
 
 Binder twine . 30 
 
 Shocking . 50 
 
 Threshing 3 . 00 
 
 Marketing . 90 
 
 Sacks (at 10 cents each) 1 . 00 
 
 Handling rice . 50 
 
 Warehouse storage and insurance 0.75 
 
 Interest at 8 per cent, on land, houses, barn, etc., and 
 
 loss of work animals. . . 4 . 50 
 
 Total $28.35 
 
 COST OF PRODUCTION ON THE ARKANSAS PRAIRIES. The fol- 
 lowing itemized cost per acre of producing rice on the prairies of 
 Arkansas where irrigation water is secured from wells, is based on 
 what the cost would be if hired at market prices. 
 
 This estimate is based on the regular price of $6 per day for 
 a four-mule team and machine or wagon and driver. The 
 difference in the cost of production in Arkansas and that of the 
 Gulf Coast is largely due to the greater cost of irrigation water. 
 According to the Crop Reporter, December, 1912, the average 
 yield of rice for Arkansas from 1909 to 1912, was 40.8 bushels, 
 or 11 1/3 barrels per acre, and the average price received for the 
 same yeais was $0.84 per bushel or $3.C2 per barrel. This 
 makes a return of $34.26 per acre and leaves $2.91 per acre more 
 
232 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 than the cost of production. The causes of the larger yields and 
 better prices for Arkansas rice are that a larger part of the land 
 is new and the crops are given more careful attention than on 
 the Gulf Coast. The yield and price of rice in Arkansas have 
 gradually fallen and will be about the same as in other states in 
 a few years, when much of the land becomes old. 
 
 Plowing $1 . 50 
 
 Double disking . 85 
 
 Double harrowing . 60 
 
 Seed rice 3.00 
 
 Planting . 60 
 
 Repairing levees . 20 
 
 Irrigation water 10 . 00 
 
 Handling water on land 1 . 00 
 
 Cutting rice. 1 . 50 
 
 Binder twine . 40 
 
 Shocking.. 0.60 
 
 Threshing 4.00 
 
 Marketing 1.10 
 
 Sacks (at 10 cents each) 1 . 20 
 
 Hauling 0.80 
 
 Warehouse storage and insurance interest at 8 per 
 
 cent, on land, houses, barn, etc 4 . 00 
 
 Total $31 .35 
 
 40. The Growing of Cotton under Irrigation. About three- 
 fourths of the cotton produced in the world is grown in the 
 United States. Cotton is also grown in India, Egypt, Asiatic 
 Russia (Turkestan), China, Brazil, Peru, Mexico, Turkey and 
 Persia. Cotton crops are artificially watered in Egypt, India, 
 Algeria, Persia, Turkestan, Mexico, Peru and Brazil but the 
 practice in this country is of recent origin. In 1908 there were 
 less than 5000 acres of irrigated cotton in the United States 
 while in 1913 the acreage had increased to 80,000 acres. Cotton 
 is produced in all of the southern boundary states from Georgia 
 to California but only in California, Arizona, New Mexico and 
 southwest Texas is it necessary to apply moisture artificially 
 to produce a commercial crop. 
 
 In outlining the best practice to adopt in the culture and 
 irrigation of cotton in this country the writer desires to acknowl- 
 edge the assistance he has received from Mr. W.L. Rockwell, C. E., 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 233 
 
 of San Antonio, Texas, who has gained through close observa- 
 tion and long experience an intimate knowledge of the behavioi 
 of this plant under irrigation. 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. Cotton is a semi-tropical plant 
 and as such thrives best under a hot sun and in a warm soil. 
 A high moisture content tends to reduce soil temperature, hence 
 cotton makes the best growth in a moderately moist soil. Pro- 
 duced under proper conditions the cotton plant is very sym- 
 metrical. It sends a tap root .deeply into the subsoil, and this 
 is surrounded by a uniformly distributed system of rootlets. 
 The plant is a strong feeder and requires a large area from' which 
 to draw its nourishment. It thrives best in a rather firm seed 
 bed, which in irrigation is readily obtained. It is good practice 
 to plow the ground as early and as deep as possible. Fall plow- 
 ing is to be preferred to spring plowing. If at planting time 
 the soil does not contain sufficient moisture to germinate the 
 seed and start plant growth, water should be applied moistening 
 the ground to a good depth. After irrigation, mulch the soil 
 and plant immediately. 
 
 VARIETY AND SEED. The cotton plant has two kinds of branches 
 whose functions are distinctive. These are the vegetative, or 
 those forming the framework of the plant, which are produced 
 upright and bear no fruit, and the fruiting, which are thrown 
 out laterally from the vegetative stems and carry the fruit. 
 The variety grown should be one which is well supplied with 
 fruit stems from the ground upward and each fruiting branch 
 should retain from three to six bolls and rapidly develop these 
 to maturity. The bolls should ,be large, of good length, uni- 
 formly cylindrical and the percentage of lint high. The fiber 
 should be long, strong and of fine texture. A variety should be 
 selected which is not inclined to " throw off" squares when 
 water is applied, or when the temperature is high. When mature 
 the bolls should open well, but in such a manner that the lint 
 will not waste badly during storms. 
 
 To secure these characteristics and habits the seed should 
 be selected from marked plants in the field, the selections 
 being made during the growing and maturing periods. Cotton 
 is a plant that readily hybridizes ano! deteriorates, so to main- 
 tain a uniformly high grade of produce, seed selection is of para- 
 
234 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 mount importance. To produce upland and long staple varieties 
 on adjoining farms, pure seed must be obtained every second 
 or third year, and if other varieties of cotton are grown near 
 fields of Egyptian, pure seed of the latter type must be imported 
 eacji year. 
 
 The upland varieties as well as the long staple may be pro- 
 duced over the entire irrigated cotton area, though varietal 
 habits and characteristics adapt certain types to certain locali- 
 ties. Egyptian, being a long season, late maturing plant can 
 not be successfully grown in districts infested with the boll 
 weevil. 
 
 TIME OF PLANTING. The young cotton plant does not thrive 
 during cool cloudy days, and the maturing of the crop is not 
 hastened by too early planting. In southwest Texas it may 
 be planted after March 1 until April 1; in west Texas, New 
 Mexico, Arizona and southern California from March 15 to April 
 15. The short staple, short season cotton may be planted in 
 districts not infested with the boll weevil as late as May 15. 
 
 PLANTING. The customary method of planting in the Salt 
 River Valley, Arizona, is to throw a ridge or back furrow every 
 4 feet and plant the seed with a hoe drill provided with a 
 covering wheel in the center of each ridge. This method 
 splits the original ridge into two smaller ones which effectively 
 prevent the irrigating water breaking into the seed row and 
 leaves an irrigating furrow on each side. The quantity of seed 
 per acre varies from 25 to 30 pounds. 
 
 The depth of planting is regulated by the nature of the soil 
 and percentage of moisture present. The seed should not be 
 placed as deep in a clay as in a sandy loam. From 1 to 2 
 inches are allowable, but seldom is it advisable to plant over 1 1/2 
 inches in depth. 
 
 SPACING AND THINNING. A close study of the characteristics 
 and habits of the cotton plant have recently brought about 
 changes in the methods of culture, particularly in the width 
 allowed between plants in the row, as well as the distance 
 between rows. It has been found that when the plants are 
 young, to allow them to crowd each other in the row holds in 
 check the vegetative growth. This treatment also prevents 
 the production of vegetative branches and induces the develop- 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 235 
 
 ment of fruiting branches. The proper distances between 
 plants in the row can not be definitely stated since this is gov- 
 erned by variety, type of soil, and other conditions. Investi- 
 gations thus far conducted indicate that a gradual thinning 
 gives better results than if all extra plants are removed at one 
 time. By thinning to a distance of 3 or 4 inches when the 
 plants are 6 to 8 inches high, then by a second spacing to 10 or 
 12 inches, in sandy soils, 15 inches, when the plants are 10 to 12 
 inches tall, a more uniform stand is secured, and the crowding 
 process is more uniformly maintained, thus securing a reduction 
 in the vegetative branches. If these branches are allowed to 
 develop wide spacing becomes necessary, else the rank foliage 
 will shade the early fruit, prevent its maturing and only a light 
 top crop will be secured. The width between rows varies from 
 36 inches to 54 inches according to soils and variety, lighter 
 soils requiring the greater widths. 
 
 METHODS OF IRRIGATING. Cotton, like other cultivated crops, 
 is irrigated by means of head ditches and furrows. The distance 
 between head ditches should not exceed 350 feet in sandy 
 soils and 450 feet in clay loams. Most soils in warm climates 
 bake after being thoroughly wet. On this account, the water 
 should not be permitted to overflow the soil around young 
 plants. In this regard the irrigation of cotton resembles that 
 of potatoes. 
 
 PROPER TIME TO IRRIGATE. It is doubtful whether there is 
 another annual crop produced that responds so favorably to 
 proper methods of treatment. In the rich valley soils of the arid 
 southwest there is a tendency to rank weed growth. With 
 crops producing fruit like cotton this must be prevented or 
 held in check. The soil at the time of planting should be moist 
 for at least 4 feet in depth under which condition a considerable 
 time may elapse before it will be necessary to apply more water. 
 The surface soil will gradually lose a part of its moisture and 
 the roots will be induced to seek moister soil at lower depths. 
 A large feeding area is thus made available and the roots are 
 removed from the unfavorable climatic influences existing near 
 the surface. By withholding moisture at the proper time 
 and following the method of close planting advocated the wood 
 growth is held in check and the plant kept in a healthy normal 
 
236 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 state. While in this condition it is best fitted to throw out 
 fruiting branches and to begin setting fruit. Before a large 
 number of flowers appear the crop should be given a 2 to 3-inch 
 irrigation and during the period of fruit setting the soil should 
 be maintained uniformly moist not so moist as to produce a 
 glossy, sappy appearance of the plant leaves, but one of healthy, 
 balanced growth. The field is in fine condition when in looking 
 over it flowers are more in evidence than leaves. The soil must 
 not be allowed at this stage to become so dry as to check the 
 growth, for if this occurs, when water is applied the plants will 
 " throw off" their squares. Soil and other conditions are so 
 varied that no rule can be given regarding the interval between 
 irrigations. This must be determined by the farmer in studying 
 the soil and the condition of the crop at various stages of growth. 
 In close clay soils light applications at short intervals seem best, 
 while in open soils heavier waterings at longer intervals will 
 bring better results. 
 
 CULTIVATION. Deep plowing before planting opens the soil 
 to the air and the first irrigation firms the seed bed which is 
 necessary for cotton. Cultivation should begin as soon as the 
 plants appear and continue until they become too large to cul- 
 tivate between the rows. The cultivation should be shallow and 
 the sweep and harrow are the best tools to use. A very fine 
 tooth adjustable harrow, in two sections and large enough to 
 cultivate two spaces, should be used after an irrigation, since 
 with this tool cultivation can be begun earlier than with a 
 sweep. This implement also breaks up the surface so that it 
 can be more readily pulverized by the sweep. 
 
 COST OF PRODUCTION. The cost of production and returns 
 from a one-bale crop of upland cotton is herewith itemized. 
 This estimate is based on labor at $1 per day without board, 
 horses $0.75 per day with ^oard, irrigation water $4 per acre per 
 season. 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 237 
 
 Plowing ground $2 . 50 
 
 Seed 1.00 
 
 Irrigation, water 4 . 00 
 
 Irrigation, labor 1 .00 
 
 Thinning 1.00 
 
 Cultivation 5 . 00 
 
 Picking, 1500 pounds seed cotton @ 75 cents 11 .25 
 
 Ginning and baling 3 . 50 
 
 Marketing 1 . 00 
 
 Total..... $30.25 
 
 Overhead expenses 
 
 Six per cent. int. on $150 land 9.00 
 
 Taxes 1.00 
 
 Interest and depreciation on tools 1 . 00 
 
 $11.00 
 
 Total cost of production not allowing for superin- 
 tendence $41 . 25 
 
 Returns 
 
 500 pounds lint cotton at 10 cents $50.00 
 
 1000 pounds seed at $25 per ton 12 . 50 
 
 Total 62 . 50 
 
 Net returns $21 .25 
 
 The cost of production of the long staples, such as Durango, 
 Snowflake and Blackseed would be about $55, the difference being 
 in the picking and ginning. It is worth about 5 cents more per 
 pound than the Uplands and the returns would be about as 
 follows: 
 
 500 pounds lint at 15 cents $75.00 
 
 1000 pounds seed at $25 per ton 12 . 50 
 
 cost of production 55.00 
 
 Net returns $32.50 
 
 Cost and returns of Egyptian cotton in the Salt River Valley, 
 Arizona, no allowance being made for superintendence, is as 
 follows : 
 
238 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 (One bale crop) 
 
 Plowing ground $3 . 50 
 
 Seed 1.00 
 
 Irrigation, water 2 . 00 
 
 Irrigation, labor 1 . 00 
 
 Thinning 1 . 00 
 
 Cultivation 7.50 
 
 Picking, 1780 pounds seed cotton at $2 ... 35 . 60 
 
 Ginning and baling 12 . 00 
 
 Marketing 1 .00 
 
 Total cost $64 . 60 
 
 Overhead expense 
 
 Interest on $150 land 9 . 00 
 
 Taxes 1 . 00 
 
 Interest and depreciation on tools 1 . 00 
 
 11.00 
 Total cost $75 . 60 
 
 Returns 
 
 500 pounds lint at 20 cents $100 . 00 
 
 1200 pounds seed at $25 per ton 15 . 00 
 
 $115.00 
 Less cost of production 75 . 60 
 
 Net returns $39.40 
 
 Mr. Rockwell believes that an average yield of one and one- 
 half bales per acre is possible throughout the irrigated districts 
 when proper care and skill are exercised by the grower. He 
 considers the following features of first importance. (1) Early 
 and deep plowing, (2) thorough irrigation before planting fol- 
 lowed by a limited moisture supply after planting until the first 
 flowers appear, (3) a sufficient and uniform moisture supply 
 during the fruiting period, (4) a continuous shallow cultivation, 
 (5) close planting in the row and subsequent crowding to hold 
 in check the vegetative branching, (6) thinning gradually 10 to 
 15 inches apart by at least two operations. 
 
 41. The Growing of Sugar Cane under Irrigation. Sugar 
 cane is produced in all the Gulf States from Florida westward 
 and for a distance of more than 200 miles inland from the Gulf. 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 239 
 
 Though grown in a number of southern states it is only in Texas 
 and in the island possessions of the United States that it is irri- 
 gMtcd. This subtropical plant requires a long growing season 
 of at least 10 months to produce a profitable crop. In the Hawai- 
 ian Islands the first crop from seed requires 18 months to mature 
 and the subsequent or stubble crops 22 months to reach maturity. 
 The average crop thus obtained yields about 41/2 tons of sugar 
 per acre. Coming inland from the Gulf of Mexico in Texas a 
 distance of 75 miles or more the frostless period is not sufficient 
 in length to produce a commercial crop of sugar but over a con- 
 siderable area cane is grown for the manufacture of sirup. 
 
 PREPARING THE SOIL. Soils for sugar cane, according to Mr. 
 Rockwell, should be rich in vegetable matter to furnish nourish- 
 ment to the plant and to facilitate drainage. If the soil is de- 
 ficient in humus, green crops, particularly leguminous crops should 
 be plowed under. This can be readily done by a proper rotation. 
 Soils adapted to the growth of sugar cane in this country are 
 close grained and require deep plowing and subsoiling. The stir- 
 ring of the soil to a depth of 20 inches is beneficial. Fields should 
 be plowed as long as possible before planting and the surface 
 thoroughly mulched with a disk. 
 
 PLANTING. Sugar cane is reproduced for commercial purposes 
 by planting the stocks. Great care should be exercised in their 
 selection which should be made near the end of the growing 
 period. Only a vigorous, early maturing stock should be chosen, 
 having a good length of joint and plump, well-matured buds. 
 The selected stock should be left standing as long as possible 
 without injury from frost. Planting should begin whenever the 
 seed crop has sufficiently matured for vigorous germination. 
 The planting period extends from October into the winter season 
 but early planting is preferable since it lessens the risk of damage 
 by frost to the seed, the drying out of the buds and other set- 
 backs. 
 
 The rows spaced 6 feet apart are marked by a single shovel 
 which is followed by a large middle breaker which opens the fur- 
 row 8 to 12 inches deep in one or two trips. The canes are cut 
 in lengths of 4 to 5 feet or shorter if crooked and dropped in the 
 furrow. If there are few infertile buds one stock in a place slightly 
 lapped at the joints will furnish a good stand but if there is a 
 
240 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 rather high percentage of poor, weak buds it may be necessary to 
 drop two stocks alongside, breaking joints. Thus from 31/2 
 to 51/2 tons of seed per acre will be required. When the seed 
 is covered to a depth of 3 inches irrigation water is run down the 
 row and directly over the cane. The field is then harrowed to 
 create a soil mulch which checks evaporation and any tendency 
 to soil baking. 
 
 IKRIGATION. Sugar cane, not unlike other cultivated grasses, 
 grows most luxuriantly under humid conditions. The results of ex- 
 perience seem to show that the moisture content of the soil should 
 not fall below 25 per cent, during the season. Dr. W. C. Stubbs, 
 at one time Director of the Louisiana Experiment Station, states 
 that 60 inches of well distributed rainfall is necessary for the 
 largest yields. It is well to bear in mind, however, that cane pro- 
 duced under excessive moisture contains a low percentage of sugar, 
 the heaviest sugar production being in districts of light rainfall 
 where the moisture is largely supplied by irrigation. In the lower 
 Rio Grande Valley of Texas during the season 1908-09, 42 acres 
 produced 44.75 tons of stripped cane per acre. The soil was a 
 sandy loam very well drained. The crop was planted during 
 November and December. It received during the growing season 
 25 inches per acre in five irrigations and 8 acre-inches which were 
 applied before planting made 33 inches in all. The total amount 
 received by irrigation and rainfall amounted to 55.84 inches. 
 
 In retentive soils 12 to 13 irrigations of 4 inches each are usu- 
 ally applied to sugar cane. Two of these are generally given prior 
 to February 1. In the 5-month period from February 1 to July 
 1 the interval between irrigations is 20 days and from July 1 
 to September 30 it is 30 days. 
 
 While a high moisture content in the soil increases the yield 
 it also increases the moisture in the stock which adds to the cost 
 of hauling and manufacture and undoubtedly decreases the per- 
 centage of sucrose. The more water in the cane the more the 
 machinery required for reducing it and the greater the time con- 
 sumed in evaporating. It is the action of the sun on the leaves 
 that produces the sugar in the plant and when the time arrives 
 for maturing and producing the sugar water should be withheld. 
 
 The furrow method of application is commonly used but there 
 is a difference of opinion among growers as to the proper location 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE .CROPS 241 
 
 of the furrow. Some advocate running the water in a furrow 
 along the cane row, others in two shallow furrows on either side 
 of the row while still others make use of the flat central furrow. 
 All growers agree in running the water along the row, the first 
 two applications after seeding. The difference of opinion as to 
 the location of the furrows arises perhaps from the action of the 
 water in different types of soil. In heavy clay soils the water 
 reaches the roots more readily if applied around the stocks which 
 it follows into the ground. In open porous soils this advantage 
 is lost and water is applied more readily alongside the row. The 
 grower should watch the movement of moisture and learn the best 
 method to apply in his individual case. 
 
 Head ditches having a capacity of 3 to 5 second-feet are con- 
 structed across the field at intervals of 300 to 600 feet. The 
 grades of these ditches may vary from to 2 inches per 100 feet. 
 Ordinarily heads of from 2 to 3 second-feet are used in irrigating, 
 each head being divided between 5 to 10 furrows. 
 
 CULTIVATION. To prevent weed growth as well as to check 
 evaporation and packing of the soil, cultivation should follow the 
 application of the water and continue until the cane is too large 
 for such treatment. The first tool used after irrigation should be 
 one that will pulverize the surface without turning up moist soil 
 from below. All cultivation should be shallow as cane is a grass 
 and a shallow-rooted feeder. Until the crop thoroughly shades 
 the ground cultivation should be continued. 
 
 When ready for harvesting the cane is stripped, cut, topped 
 and placed in windrows on the ground and is then transported 
 to the mill on wagons or tread ways. 
 
 COST OF PRODUCTION. Assuming that raw land in the lower 
 Rio Grande Valley, Texas, is worth $115 per acre, the cost of clear- 
 ing, leveling, ditching and the like would increase its value to $150 
 per acre. Assuming also that three crops are harvested before 
 replanting, only one-third of the total cost of planting should be 
 charged to each annual crop. On this basis the various items 
 of cost per acre for a 45-ton yield has been estimated by Mr. 
 Rockwell to be about as shown on page 242. 
 
 If one figures on a yield of 25 tons per acre which sells for $3 
 per ton, the cost would be reduced to about $50 and the net re- 
 turns to about $37.50 per acre. 
 
 16 
 
242 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 One-third cost of planting $12 . 25 
 
 Irrigation water 
 
 Labor in irrigating 
 
 Cultivation with teams 
 
 Hoeing twice over 
 
 Cutting, stripping and topping 
 
 Hauling 1 mile 
 
 Overhead charges for interest, taxes, and depreciation 
 
 Total 
 
 Gross returns, 45 tons at $3 . 50 
 
 Net returns . . 
 
 6.00 
 3.00 
 5.50 
 2.25 
 7.00 
 22.00 
 12.00 
 
 $70.00 
 $157.50 
 
 $87.50 
 
 Owing to the heavy yields, long seasons, and other factors, 
 large quantities of water are used in the irrigation of ,cane in the 
 Hawaiian Islands. The following table gives a summary of the 
 results obtained at the Hawaiian Experiment Station. 
 
 TABLE No. 31 
 
 Experiment 
 
 Rainfall, 
 inches 
 
 Irrigation 
 water in 
 acre-feet 
 
 Total 
 water, 
 acre-feet 
 
 Pounds of 
 sugar 
 produced 
 per acre 
 
 Various 
 
 1897-1898 
 
 
 46.5 
 
 3.91 
 
 7.78 
 
 24,755 
 
 crops 
 
 1898-1899 
 
 
 26.9 
 
 6.33 
 
 8.58 
 
 29,059 
 
 
 1899-1900 
 
 Rattoon 
 
 40.17 
 
 5.92 
 
 9.27 
 
 26,581 
 
 
 1899-1900 
 
 Plant 
 
 40.96 
 
 7.21 
 
 10.6 
 
 30,682 
 
 
 do 
 
 Plat 21 
 
 40.96 
 
 8.84 
 
 12.24 
 
 47,580 
 
 
 do 
 
 Plat 22 
 
 40.96 
 
 8.00 
 
 11.4 
 
 45,268 
 
 
 do 
 
 Plat 23 
 
 40.96 
 
 13.5 
 
 16.9 
 
 54,605 
 
 
 do 
 
 Plat 24 
 
 40.96 
 
 8.08 
 
 11.5 
 
 42,505 
 
 
 do 
 
 Plat 25 
 
 40.96 
 
 20.2 
 
 23.6 
 
 44,387 
 
 
 do 
 
 Plat 26 
 
 40.96 
 
 8.33 
 
 11.75 
 
 31,890 
 
 
 1903 
 
 
 70.51 
 
 5.08 
 
 10.95 
 
 24,164 
 
 Lahaina. One inch per 
 
 week; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1905 
 
 
 71.12 
 
 4.92 
 
 10.84 
 
 20,956 
 
 
 1903 
 
 
 70.51 
 
 9.84 
 
 15.7 
 
 23,939 
 
 Two inches 
 
 per week 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1905 
 
 
 71.12 
 
 10.5 
 
 16.42 
 
 28,698 
 
 
 1903 
 
 
 70.51 
 
 14.58 
 
 20.45 
 
 26,497 
 
 Three inches per week 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1905 
 
 
 71.12 
 
 15.56 
 
 21.5 
 
 34,347 
 
 
 1903 
 
 
 70.51 
 
 5.33 
 
 11.2 
 
 24,045 
 
 Two inches 
 
 every two weeks 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1905 
 
 
 71.12 
 
 5.00 
 
 10.92 
 
 20,698 
 
 
 1903 
 
 
 70.51 
 
 5.58 
 
 11.45 
 
 19,452 
 
 Three inches every two 
 
 weeks 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1905 
 
 
 71.12 
 
 5.00 
 
 10.92 
 
 21,534 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 243 
 
 42. Irrigation of Onions. Onions are grown chiefly for home 
 consumption in all irrigated sections. Conditions in the South- 
 west and more particularly in the lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas, 
 are so favorable for the growth of onions that their production on a 
 commercial scale has become an important industry. According 
 to W. L. Rockwell, the output from this valley in 1913 was 
 2,000,000 crates of 50 pounds each from 8000 acres. 
 
 FALL SEEDING AND SEED BED. Some varieties are seeded in the 
 spring in the direct and ordinary manner. The more common 
 practice, however, is to sow the seed in seed beds in the fall and 
 afterward transplant to the field. The white Bermuda is the 
 most popular variety for fall seeding. The ground chosen for 
 t he seed bed should not have much slope and should be thoroughly 
 leveled and the surface pulverized. Ordinarily the beds are laid 
 out 10 to 12 feet wide and 30 to 50 feet long by constructing a head 
 ditch along the ends of the rows and throwing up a back furrow at 
 right angles to the head ditch. The seed is drilled in by hand 
 late in September or early in October on a flat surface not to ex- 
 ceed 1/4 inch in depth in rows 12 inches apart, about 25 pounds 
 of seed per acre being used. An acre of seed bed will furnish 
 plants for 8 acres in the field. The soil is kept moist by frequent 
 light flooding or sprinkling, the overhead spray method being well 
 adapted to seed bed irrigation. As soon as the plants appear 
 cultivation with hand tools begins. By December 1 to 15 the 
 plants should be the size of lead pencils when they are ready to 
 transplant. 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE FIELD. The field should be well plowed 
 and the surface thoroughly leveled and pulverized. Ordinarily 
 the furrow or border method of irrigation is practised. In either 
 case the head ditches are spaced from 35 to 200 feet apart and 
 are given a capacity of 1 to 3 second-feet. The beds are made 
 from 10 to 14 feet wide by turning a back furrow with a turning 
 plow or disk. 
 
 TRANSPLANTING. Care should be exercised in securing good seed 
 and thrifty, vigorous transplants are of equal importance. The 
 latter should be graded to secure a more uniform maturing and a 
 better crop. They are pulled from a moist seed bed, the roots 
 clipped to 1.4 inches and the tops cut back, leaving a plant about 
 5 inches long. They are distributed along the row set 3 or 4 
 
244 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 inches apart and 2 1/2 inches deep, the soil being placed closely 
 about them. 
 
 IRRIGATION. Immediately following transplanting the field is 
 irrigated. by flooding between borders or along the rows. One to 
 three irrigations may be necessary prior to February depending 
 on the season. During the growing period water is applied every 
 8 to 12 days at a rate of 1 1/2 to 4 inches per application. Eight 
 to ten irrigations are given in all, totaling 12 to 30 inches. Under 
 economical methods of distribution and use, 18 inches will mature 
 a crop. Heads of from 1 to 3 second-feet are used, a second-foot 
 being divided between two beds or else between 20 to 35 rows. 
 
 HARVESTING. Upon the first sign of the tops falling irrigation 
 should cease. When the plants are mature, indicated by the 
 fallen tops, they are plowed out with a single shovel plow, placed 
 in windrows and allowed to dry. The roots and tops are then 
 clipped and the onions placed in crates and hauled to the sorting 
 shed. After grading they are packed in 50-pound crates and 
 stored or placed upon the car. 
 
 COST OF PRODUCTION. Mr. Rockwell estimates the cost of pro- 
 ducing a crop of 300 crates per acre at $139, this total being made 
 up of the following items. 
 
 Preparation of seed bed $1 . 00 
 
 Irrigation of seed bed . 50 
 
 Seed 4.00 
 
 Preparation of field 7 . 50 
 
 Transplanting 12 . 00 
 
 Irrigation water 10.00 
 
 Labor in irrigating 7 . 00 
 
 Cultivation 6.00 
 
 Plowing and windrows 3 . 00 
 
 Topping and clipping 8 . 00 
 
 Grading and crating 4 . 50 
 
 300 crates at 18 cents 54 . 00 
 
 Hauling to car 3 miles 4 . 50 
 
 Interest on land 12 .00 
 
 Taxes 2 . 00 
 
 Depreciation on tools 3 . 00 
 
 Total $139.00 
 
 The yields vary all tl e way from 100 to 600 crates per acre and 
 the price from 50 cents to $1.50 per crate. 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 245 
 
 43. Irrigation of Grapes. THE NEED OF IRRIGATION. The 
 growing of grapes under irrigation is perhaps less usual in the 
 western United States than their growth without irrigation. 
 Tli is is mainly due to the fact that in general less moisture is 
 required for grapes than for most other fruits. A further prob- 
 able reason is that the advantage to be gained by irrigating 
 grapes on the less moist soils is not yet fully appreciated; and 
 besides, considerable areas of grapes are grown on hillsides where 
 water for irrigation is not available and where its distribution 
 would be very difficult even if it were at hand. 
 
 VARIETIES USUALLY GROWN. While grapes are found through- 
 out the United States, their commercial production in the west- 
 ern United States is mainly limited to the Pacific States and they 
 are most largely found in California. For the perfection of the 
 grape rather higher temperatures are required during ripening 
 periods than obtain in the mountain areas of the interior. 
 While the commercial grapes of the eastern and central states 
 are varieties of native American species, the commercial grapes 
 of California and the other Pacific slope states are varieties of 
 the European species Vinifera, although several American spe- 
 cies, as Riparia, and Rupestris, are used as grafting stock for 
 the Vinifera and other European species grown commercially 
 in the West. Wickson lists the following as the most popular 
 varieties among California fruit growers: Muscat, Tokay, Cor- 
 nichon, Thompson, Emperor, Malaga, Rose of Peru, Zinfandel, 
 Black Morocco, Sweet Water, Verdal, Carignane, Black Prince, 
 Alicante, and Sultana. 
 
 WHEN AND How TO IRRIGATE. There is no well-established 
 practice in either the time or the manner of irrigating grapes. In 
 the Fresno section of California, which is the raisin-grape center 
 of the United States, where the ground water is in most cases 
 relatively high, it is customary to irrigate only during the first 2 
 years of growth, the vines receiving ample moisture after that 
 from below. In such cases the usual practice is to apply water 
 twice during the season, with a total seasonal application of about 
 1 acre-foot. Some growers, however, prefer to apply the same 
 amount in four irrigations instead of two. On the higher ground 
 about Fresno vineyardists usually apply water on old vineyards 
 at least once each season. In the vineyard sections of Sacra- 
 
246 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 mento and San Joaquin Counties, California, some growers irri- 
 gate more frequently, watering every 7 to 14 days, with as many 
 as 14 or 15 in a season not being uncommon. Many of the vine- 
 yardists in these counties, however, do not irrigate at all. In 
 the Napa and Sonoma county grape sections of California, where 
 the annual rainfall averages from 25 to over 40 inches, vineyards 
 are not irrigated nor are southern California vineyards usually 
 irrigated, except in the desert sections, as about Coachella where 
 they receive three or four waterings annually. While, as indi- 
 cated, practice varies widely, the general principle to bear in mind 
 is that, whether they receive it from rainfall or by irrigation, vine- 
 yards should have ample moisture prior to and at the time of 
 budding in the spring, with a diminishing amount as the season 
 advances. The quantity to apply is dependent entirely on the 
 retentiveness of the soil and on the amount lost by evaporation, 
 from 15 to 20 acre-inches per year probably being the minimum 
 quantity it is desirable to apply in addition to rainfall. Care 
 must be taken not to irrigate late enough in the season to stimu- 
 late growth of the vines beyond ripening of the fruit. Bioletti 
 holds that with deep soils very retentive of moisture best results 
 are obtained by withholding all irrigation after April, the moisture 
 then in the ground to be conserved by cultivation. In shallower 
 or less retentive soils he holds that an irrigation just after the 
 fruit is set and another a little before it reaches full size are ad- 
 visable. In any case, too frequent irrigations should be avoided 
 with grapes as with other deciduous fruits. 
 
 The usual method of irrigating vineyards is by means of furrows. 
 About Fresno, California, two furrows are run in each ''land" 12 
 to 24 inches from the vines, small checks being placed across the 
 furrows every four or five rows to hold the water. In the best 
 practice the water is confined to the furrows, the more crude prac- 
 tice practically resulting in the basin method sometimes used in 
 orchards. Frank Adams states that "One of the best systems of 
 vineyard irrigation observed in California was seen at Elk Grove, 
 Sacramento County. There furrows about 12 inches deep are 
 plowed in every other 'land' by means of a five-horse home-made 
 sulky lister plow with enlarged mouldboards, the furrows later 
 being enlarged to a bottom width of about 6 inches and ' packed ' 
 with a home-made 'logger' constructed like an ordinary crowder 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 247 
 
 and shod with steel plates. By this method of furrowing shallow 
 wetting and consequently shallow rooting of the vines are pre- 
 vented." 
 
 44. Irrigation of Small Fruit. The berry patch is almost as 
 common and almost as indispensable on irrigated farms as the 
 family garden. The area devoted to the commercial growing of 
 small fruit under irrigation is, however, comparatively small and 
 is of necessity limited to sections having easy access to large 
 markets. 
 
 The crops discussed in this article include strawberries, rasp- 
 berries, blackberries, loganberries and dewberries. The methods 
 of cultivation and irrigation of these crops vary only slightly in 
 the different irrigated sections. 
 
 STRAWBERRIES. Strawberries are the most important berry 
 crop grown commercially in the West. They can be grown on a 
 variety of soils but thrive best on a sandy loam. The lighter 
 soils produce earlier berries but the heavier soils often give 
 larger yields and for a longer period. One of the chief essentials 
 is that the soil be well drained and for this reason a porous sub- 
 soil is desirable. 
 
 Ground which is intended to be planted to strawberries should 
 be plowed 8 to 10 inches deep, thoroughly pulverized and brought 
 to a uniform grade entirely free, if possible, from high spots or 
 depressions. The soil should contakfa good supply of moisture 
 at the time the plants are set out. 
 
 In setting out plants a good way is to make a hole with a 
 trowel, insert the plant and press the earth firmly around it with 
 the hanas. The roots should be cut to a length of about 3 inches. 
 It is a good plan to carry the plants in a vessel containing water 
 until they are ready to set in the ground. There are two general 
 methods of planting, known as the hill system and the matted row 
 system. The former system consists of growing the plants in 
 rows and keeping the runners cut off. In the matted row system 
 the rows are marked off 3 to 4 feet apart and the plants set 
 1 to 2 feet apart in the row and the runners allowed to fill the 
 intervening space. There are various modifications of these 
 methods. In Oregon if plants are to be cultivated both ways they 
 are usually set 21/2X2 1/2 feet apart or 3 X 3 feet apart. 
 If not intended to be cultivated both ways they are set 4 1/2 X 3 
 
248 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 feet apart. In southern California the rows are usually 2X21/2 
 feet apart. Sometimes they are set on ridges in double rows 6 to 
 10 inches apart, the ridges being 30 to 32 inches apart between 
 centers. In Colorado if the hill system is used the rows are 
 2 1/2 to 3 feet apart and plants 12 inches in the rows. If the 
 matted row system is employed the plants are set 18 to 24 inches 
 apart and the rows 3 1/2 to 4 feet apart. By the hill system larger 
 berries are produced but the yield is larger and the fruiting period 
 longer when the matted row system is followed. Size, beauty and 
 good shipping qualities, rather than flavor, are the things aimed 
 at by the commercial grower. Plants may be set out either in 
 the spring or fall but if the winters are at all severe spring plant- 
 ing is preferable. 
 
 It is of vital importance that strawberries have an ample 
 supply of moisture at all times, especially during the fruiting 
 stage. Few plants are quicker to feel the effect of a deficiency 
 of moisture than strawberries. In southern California water is 
 applied every 6 to 10 days throughout the growing season. 
 Local soil and climatic conditions must govern the amount and 
 frequency of irrigation but the condition of the soil and plants 
 should be carefully observed and water should be applied before 
 the plants begin to suffer. After the vines cease to bear one or 
 two irrigations usually suffice. 
 
 In Colorado the best practice consists in making shallow fur- 
 rows close to each row of plants as soon as they are set out and 
 water is applied immediately even if the ground is moist. This 
 settles the earth around the plants, is an insurance against possi- 
 ble dryness and gives the plants a vigorous start. In order to 
 properly regulate the amount of water in each furrow it is best 
 to take the water from the supply ditch through metal tubes or 
 lath boxes rather than to make cuts in the ditch bank. 
 
 Some growers prefer to irrigate in every alternate row while the 
 dry rows are being picked. This makes it possible for irrigation 
 and picking to proceed at the same time. It is important that 
 the berries be picked frequently, every day if possible, as it is 
 detrimental to the vines to allow fruit to decay on them. 
 
 The profitable life of strawberry vines is 2 to 5 years. 
 Most growers claim they are not profitable after the third year. 
 Strawberries should be cultivated or hoed frequently throughout 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 249 
 
 ihe Crowing season in order to keep down the weeds and aerate 
 the M)il. One large grower in Pajaro Valley, Cal., cultivates 
 ten to twelve times per season and hoes six times. 
 
 Among the popular varieties of strawberries grown in the West 
 may he mentioned the Brandywine and the Klondike. 
 
 IRRIGATION OF STRAWBERRIES IN SOUTHWESTERN TEXAS. 
 The cost of growing, harvesting and the profits of an acre of 
 strawberries are given in the following table compiled by C. G. 
 Haskell, Austin, Texas. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Plowing $2.00 
 
 Ridging 1.50 
 
 Fertilizing 4 . 00 
 
 Plants 8.00 
 
 Planting 4.00 
 
 Cultivating and hoeing 15.00 
 
 Mulching 20.00 
 
 Irrigating 20 . 00 
 
 Interest on investment. . . 16.00 
 
 $90.50 
 
 Harvesting 102 crates @ 60 cents 61 .20 
 
 Crates ft 15 cents 15.30 
 
 Selling @ 15 cents 15 . 30 
 
 Total cost $182.30 
 
 102 crates @ $2 per crate $204.00 
 
 Profit per acre ". $21 . 70 
 
 Within recent years truck growers in southwest Texas have 
 learned the value of supplemental irrigation for their crops, espe- 
 cially strawberries. Conditions are favorable for pumping water, 
 the lift being low, from 30 to 40 feet, the supply of water abun- 
 dant and fuel oil cheap. 
 
 Water is pumped to the highest side of the field through 
 2- or 3-inch iron pipes. It is taken from the discharge pipe into 
 light galvanized pipes, movable wooden flumes or old fire hose 
 from which it is distributed to the rows. The rows vary in 
 length from 150 to 1000 feet, about 400 feet being considered the 
 be<t length. The water is usually applied in every alternate 
 furrow except on the steep slopes where it is applied in every row. 
 Only enough water is allowed to flow in the furrows to reach the 
 
250 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 lower end of the row, care being taken to prevent it from touching 
 the plants or wetting the tops of the ridges. The best practice 
 is to irrigate every 10 days or 2 weeks during dry weather, the 
 aim being, of course, to apply water before the plants begin to 
 suffer for lack of moisture. 
 
 The good effects of irrigation upon the yield and quality of 
 strawberries in this section is very marked. Where irrigated and 
 non-irrigated strawberries have been grown side by side it has 
 been found that in dry years the yield from the part irrigated was 
 about double that from the unirrigated strawberries. 
 
 RASPBEREIES. Raspberries are of two general kinds, red rasp- 
 berries and black raspberries or black caps. Like strawberries 
 and other small fruit they require a well-drained soil. In the 
 Pacific Coast States they are planted either in hills 6 to 8 feet 
 apart each way or in continuous rows 5 to 8 feet apart and 
 3 to 5 feet apart in the rows. In the Rocky Mountain States 
 if winter protection is necessary the rows are spaced about 7 feet 
 apart and plants 2 to 3 feet apart in the rows. When winter 
 protection is not necessary the rows are 5 to 6 feet apart and 
 the plants 3 to 5 feet apart in the rows. 
 
 In sections where the winter temperature is likely to remain 
 at zero or lower for any length of time it is necessary to cover the 
 plants to protect them from winterkilling. This is accomplished 
 by removing the earth from one side of the row and bending the 
 canes over to the ground, then partially covering with coarse 
 manure or earth. 
 
 In California the planting season extends from November to 
 February while in the mountain states plants may be set out 
 either in the spring or fall, spring planting being preferred if the 
 winters are severe. 
 
 Raspberries require a moderate amount of water. The aim 
 should be to keep the surface soil in a fairly moist condition 
 throughout the growing season. Water is applied in shallow 
 furrows as near to the rows as possible without danger of injury 
 to the plants in cultivating. Irrigations should occur at inter- 
 vals of 10 days to 3 weeks. In some soils even more frequent 
 irrigation may be necessary but frequent cultivation will reduce 
 the number of irrigations required. Each irrigation should be 
 followed by a shallow cultivation. Deep cultivation during the 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 251 
 
 growing season is never advisable for bush berries of any kind, 
 since it disturbs the delicate feed roots near the surface. Some 
 growers in southern California have an extra ridge between the 
 rows which provides a dry path for the pickers to walk on. 
 
 It is a good practice to prune all old canes just after the fruiting 
 season and later cut the main canes from 3 1/2 to 4 feet in length 
 and remove all small, inferior growth. Where there is danger of 
 winterkilling it is best not to remove the old canes until spring. 
 
 A common method of trellising the vines is to sink a line of 
 posts 4 or 5 feet high in the row to which an 18-inch cross arm is 
 nailed 3 feet from the ground. To the ends of these arms heavy 
 wires are stapled thus forming lateral supports for the canes. 
 Many growers, however, do not consider it necessary to provide 
 supports of this kind. 
 
 The Cuthbert is one of the most common of red raspberries and 
 the Gregg is prominent among the black caps. 
 
 BLACKBERRIES. What has been said regarding raspberries 
 applies equally as well to blackberries, since the habits and re- 
 quirements of these berries are very similar. The blackberry is 
 hardier than most other bush berries and will not suffer as quickly 
 from drought but an ample supply of moisture is nevertheless 
 necessary for an abundant yield of large, luscious berries. 
 
 DEWBERRIES. These berries, distinguished from blackberries 
 chiefly by their low, trailing habit, if anything are probably more 
 dependent on water than are blackberries. They are planted 
 shallower than blackberries and are probably best irrigated by 
 means of furrows midway between the rows rather than close to 
 them as is the case with blackberries. Having the vines high 
 enough to keep them well out of the water when irrigating has 
 been found to be a good practice. The fruiting season of the 
 dewberry is earlier than that of the blackberry and for that 
 reason it is more dependent on early waterings. 
 
 LOGANBERRY. This berry is a California hybrid of the wild 
 blackberry and red raspberry. Its treatment should be similar 
 to that required for the raspberry except that it is less adapted 
 to successful growing without irrigation and is usually spaced 
 wider apart in the rows. 
 
 CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. These are more limited in their 
 area of successful growth than are any of the bush fruits previously 
 
252 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 mentioned, due chiefly to the fruit being unable to stand the hot- 
 ter sections. In California they are usually grown commercially 
 within the cooling influences of the coast. They should be irri- 
 gated by furrows and deeper cultivation is possible with them 
 after irrigation than other berries. Ample moisture should 
 always be kept in the soil during the growing and fruiting seasons. 
 
 45. Supplemental Irrigation on the Atlantic Coast. Irrigation 
 development along the Atlantic seaboard differs in many essential 
 features from that of the arid region. The most striking of 
 these differences pertain to the size of tract irrigated and the form 
 of organization adopted. In the West it is customary to include 
 a large area in one project and to organize farmers under it. In 
 the East a small area comprising the most fertile parts of a single 
 farm is irrigated by the owner. This may be accomplished by 
 one of three systems of irrigation, viz., surface, subsurface and 
 overhead spray, or 'by combinations of the first and third as 
 described in Art. 24. The plant for surface irrigation usually 
 consists of a gasoline engine, centrifugal pump and underground 
 mains of vitrified clay or concrete. The equipments for the other 
 systems named have been described in Art. 23 and 24. Potatoes, 
 tobacco, corn, orchards, bush berries and other row crops can be 
 successfully irrigated by the surface method providing measures 
 are taken to adapt it to local conditions. Owing to the shallow 
 soil, the surface can seldom be reduced to an even grade by re- 
 moving earth from the high places and filling up the low places. 
 Owing also to the undulating character of the surface the dis- 
 tribution pipes and furrows can not be laid out with that regular- 
 ity common to the West. As a rule the pipes follow the ridges 
 and the furrows are short. At intervals of about 40 feet hydrants 
 are placed on the pipes and to these are attached portable surface 
 pipes from which the water is distributed over the surface or in 
 furrows. 
 
 Again it is not possible to figure out in advance the amount of 
 water that will be needed for any particular crop. If the season 
 is wet little water may be required. On the other hand, if the 
 season is dry the duty of water may approach that of an arid 
 country. There is likewise much uncertainty in applying water. 
 A heavy irrigation may be followed by a heavy rainstorm. 
 
 Taking into consideration shallow-rooted crops in shallow soils 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 253 
 
 and the uncertainty of the rainfall it is better to apply light 
 irrigations of not more than 2 acre-inches per acre whenever the 
 crops are in need of water. It is also customary in planning an 
 ii libation plant to allow a seasonal -duty of 1 acre-foot per acre. 
 This is reasonably certain to suffice for all crops with the possible 
 exception of alfalfa. 
 
 The investigations conducted by Milo B. Williams for the Office 
 of Experiment Stations have demonstrated that the economic 
 advantages of irrigation in the Atlantic Coast States should not 
 be measured wholly by increased yields or a better quality of 
 products. Under intensive farming where large sums are ex- 
 pended for fertilizers waiting on rain to sow the seed or to cultivate 
 the soil may prove very costly. The farmer who can moisten 
 the soil by artificial means, and plant a crop gains the advantage 
 of having highly fertilized soil utilized without delay from dry 
 weather. The time thus saved often makes possible the growing 
 of an additional crop on the same ground in one season at the 
 same cost for fertilizer and at a reduced cost for labor. By prop- 
 erly controlling soil moisture, weeding and cutivating can be 
 done in the best manner at the least expense and a crop of maxi- 
 mum yield can be produced in the shortest time and with the 
 least risk from disease, frost, or other unfavorable conditions. 
 
 One of the greatest advantages of supplemental irrigation lies 
 in the fact that irrigated crops can usually be marketed ahead 
 of non-irrigated crops. Crops can not well be planted during 
 droughts and if planted their growth is checked. By applying 
 water when needed at critical stages of growth the irrigator loses 
 no time and produces a heavy crop of good quality which he 
 markets before the bulk of like crops in his district are mature. 
 
 46. Dry -farming in its Relation to Supplemental Irrigation. 
 Dry-farming is the growing of unirrigated crops by special 
 methods of tillage and cropping in regions where the average sea- 
 sonal rainfall is not sufficient for profitable farming if ordinary 
 methods are employed. In such regions it is necessary, in the case 
 of row crops to maintain a surface mulch by frequent cultivation 
 which will prevent to a large degree the escape of moisture by 
 surface evaporation, and in the case of small grain, hay, or forage 
 crops it is found that thin seeding is advisable since a few strong 
 plants will produce a larger yield of a marketable product than a 
 
254 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 thick stand which is starved for lack of moisture. Another 
 common practice in dry-farming regions is known as sunmer fal- 
 lowing, which consists of allowing the land to lie idle every other 
 year and by keeping it free from weeds and maintaining a surface 
 mulch, store water in the soil for the crop planted the following 
 year. The employment of special methods to pack or firm the 
 soil after plowing, the growing of drought-resistant crops, and a 
 rotation of crops which includes a leguminous crop to maintain 
 the fertility of the soil and increase its water-holding capacity, are 
 other important aids to successful dry-farming. 
 
 The extent of land which is adapted to dry-farming is not very 
 definitely known. Between the line of 20-inch rainfall and the 
 margin of the arable lands along the main range of the Rocky 
 Mountains, there is an area of over 250,000,000 acres, the greater 
 part of which will have to be farmed, if at all, by dry-farming 
 methods. In addition to this Great Plains area, there are large 
 areas of dry-farming lands on the Pacific slope of the Rockies. 
 California, for example, contains over 10,000,000 acres of arable 
 land which can not be irrigated on account of the lack of available 
 water. If one assumes that the water supply of the seventeen 
 western states will be wholly utilized when 50,000,000 acres are 
 irrigated, there will remain over 300,000,000 acres of arable land 
 to be dry-farmed or else pastured. 
 
 According to the last census, sufficient water is annually diver- 
 ted to cover the entire irrigated area of this country to a depth of 
 over 57 inches. To furnish and apply water so wastefully to even 
 a small part of the dry-farming land is impracticable. It is, how- 
 ever, practicable in the majority of cases to secure from 1 to 1 1/2 
 acre-feet of water per acre for small tracts that are intensely 
 farmed or else from 4 to 8 acre-inches per acre for larger tracts. 
 This is what is meant by supplemental irrigation for the dry-farms. 
 Water supplies for this purpose can be obtained from streams and 
 wells. As a rule the summer flow of the streams is diverted and 
 used but immense quantities of water go to waste outside of the 
 regular crop-growing season. A part of the water which is now 
 wasted might be stored in reservoirs and used on dry-farmed lands. 
 Another part might be diverted in the late fall, winter, or early 
 spring and stored in the soil. Then, too, underlying a part of the 
 
IRlUdA TION OF STAPLE CROl^ 255 
 
 vast areas of dry-farming lands are to be found water-bearing 
 strata from which water may be pumped. 
 
 On account of the larger returns per acre from a small tract 
 which is both irrigated and intensively farmed, a farmer is justi- 
 fied in paying much more than the average price for water. A 
 small storage reservoir when safely built does not depreciate in 
 value to any extent and costs little to maintain. The main item 
 of expense is the interest on the first cost, which varies from a few 
 dollars per acre-foot of water stored to over $100. 
 
 The factory cost of a serviceable 14-foot windmill varies from 
 S150 to S200. 1 This includes the steel tower 40 feet high and the 
 pump. The freight charges, assembling and erecting would add 
 S45 to the factory price. Much of the work of digging a well and 
 of building a small reservoir can be done by the farmer so that the 
 total outlay of cash for a plant of this kind need not exceed $450. 
 The maintenance and repair bill together with the depreciation 
 are usually high, especially when the windmill is not properly 
 cared for. 
 
 In recent years oil-burning engines have been much improved 
 in both efficiency and serviceability. Portable engines as now 
 manufactured form a valuable part of dry-farm equipment. The 
 farmer who desires to pump water for a small part of a large 
 dry-farm can now make his selection from a large number of types 
 of internal combustion engines. Apart from the gasoline engine 
 proper, there are on the market engines adapted to the burning 
 of distillate, crude oil and semi-crude oil. Assuming that the 
 land is carefully prepared for irrigation and the water economic- 
 ally applied, a duty of 15 inches in addition to the rainfall will 
 suffice for average crops in dry-farming districts. The cost of 
 raising this quantity of water for 1 acre from a well 100 feet 
 deep by means of an oil-burning engine and a good pump will 
 vary between rather wide limits depending largely on the price of 
 suitable oils. If one installs a gasoline engine and burns gasoline 
 at 20 cents a gallon, the cost per acre including all charges will not 
 be far from SI 1 for the season. With distillate at 8 cents a gallon 
 and a distillate-burning engine this cost may be reduced nearly 
 one-half. Furthermore, if crude oil or semi-crude oil can be ob- 
 tained at 4 cents a gallon and used in a crude-oil or Diesel type of 
 
 1 The use of small water supplies for irrigation. Yearbook, 1908. 
 
256 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 engine the cost may be still further reduced to about $3.50 per 
 
 acre. In using an electric motor and current at 2 1/2 cents per 
 
 K. W. the cost for the season will be approximately $6 per acre. 
 
 In Bui. 70 of the Arizona Experiment' Station it is stated: 
 
 "When yields of 35 to 50 bushels of milo maize per acre can be 
 obtained by pumping from 4 to 6 acre-inches of water upon the 
 land during the winter months when other work is slack, it is 
 useless to resort to the great amount of labor required by summer- 
 fallowing to produce the very meager yields obtained by that 
 method of farming. The increased yields by supplemental irrigation 
 are not so much the result of more water in the soil as of a small 
 amount of water applied at a critical time. Thus the application of 
 2 to 3 inches of water at a critical time makes ohe difference between 
 absolute failure and satisfactory success." 
 
 At the Cheyenne Experiment Farm in charge of John H. Gordon 
 oats on which 9.55 inches of water were applied in 1913 yielded 63 
 bushels against 31 bushels on dry-farmed land. Wheat which 
 received 10.25 inches yielded 35 bushels against 13 bushels on 
 non-irrigated land. Alfalfa which received only 13.20 inches of 
 irrigation water yielded 8500 pounds, whereas unirrigated alfalfa 
 produced only 1800 pounds. These. are striking examples of the 
 beneficial effects of a small amount of water applied at critical 
 periods of the crop growth. 
 
 In J. A. Widtsoe's " Dry-farming " it is stated that Forbes of 
 Arizona found that a 12-foot windmill pumping water from a 
 well 90 feet deep into a 5000-gallon storage reservoir supplied 
 water for household use and for the irrigation of 61 olive trees, 
 2 cotton woods, 8 pepper trees, 1 date palm, 19 pomegranates, 
 4 grape vines, 1 fig tree, 9 eucalyptus trees, 1 ash and 13 miscel- 
 laneous, making a total of 87 useful trees and 32 vines and bushes. 
 
 Widtsoe also states: 
 
 "The dry-farmer should carefully avoid the temptation to decry 
 irrigation practices. Irrigation and dry-farming of necessity must go 
 hand in hand in the development of the great arid regions of the world. 
 Neither can well stand alone in the building of great commonwealths on 
 the deserts of the earth." 
 
 It is evident from the foregoing that a wise use of limited water 
 supplies is certain to become an important factor in the settle- 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 257 
 
 ment of semi-arid lands and the ultimate success of dry-farming. 
 Homes cannot be established without water. r A domestic supply 
 for man and beast is indispensable. Now it is feasible in the 
 majority of cases to increase the supply for household and stock 
 purposes sufficiently to irrigate a few acres around the home. A 
 small amount of water carefully used soon brings about a wonder- 
 ful change. .A green lawn covers the drifting sand, shade trees 
 intercept the burning rays of a western sun, cacti and sage give 
 place to flowers and fruit and vegetables fresh from the garden 
 render canned goods from the factory no longer a necessity. In 
 a larger sense the use of limited water supplies on the dry farm 
 insures a much larger yield by applying a small quantity of water 
 to the crop at a time when it is most needed. This larger yield 
 means closer settlement, better social conditions, and everything 
 that goes to make up our best rural communities. 
 
 47. Sewage Irrigation. Sewage irrigation is employed for two 
 principal reasons: First, to provide means for disposing of the 
 sewage from a city in a manner which will maintain sanitary 
 conditions and protect public health. Second, to utilize the 
 water and fertilizer elements of the sewage in growing crops, the 
 proceeds from which help to lessen the cost of the sewage disposal. 
 
 The science of sewage purification has advanced sufficiently 
 so that at this time it is principally a matter of expense and man- 
 agement to reduce sewage to an inoffensive and harmless state. 
 According to George W. Rafter, in U. S. Water Supply Paper 
 No. 3, "the sewage from the average American town contains 
 something like 998 parts of water, 1 part of mineral matter and 1 
 part of organic matter." The water comes from laundries, 
 baths, kitchen sinks and household water-closets. Large quan- 
 tities of water are also added directly in flushing the sewer pipe 
 lines to keep them clean and open. Many sewer systems collect 
 seepage water from the earth by infiltration through poorly made 
 joints and sewer walls. Likewise the amount of water may be 
 reduced through leaky pipe lines, thereby affecting the character 
 of the sewage in a reverse manner. Manufacturing communities 
 are apt to turn oils, acids, and other factory wastes into the 
 sewers which may require special treatment or be excluded en- 
 tirely before the sewage can be used for irrigation. "Combined 
 systems," in which both storm waters and domestic sewage are 
 
258 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 collected, are not as desirable as " separate systems/* in which t"he 
 domestic sewage is separately conducted to a disposal plant for 
 irrigation use. Separate domestic sewage is more uniform in 
 flow and character and better for irrigation purposes than when 
 storm waters are added which increase the volume in rainy 
 periods, when most difficult to utilize on the land. 
 
 Under certain circumstances, it is possible to use sewage on 
 farm lands with practically no preliminary treatment. Ex- 
 amples of raw sewage irrigation are found in the cases of Redlands 
 and Santa Ana, Cal. The population of Redlands is estimated 
 to be 12,000. The sewage is-sometimes passed through a small 
 settling tank for the purpose of removing sand and coffee grounds 
 which cause trouble by rilling the farm pipe lines. This tank is 
 supposed to be flushed out every 10 days in order to prevent septic 
 action and the forming of a scum mat. The sewage is conducted 
 through the farm lands in underground sewer pipe and delivered 
 to the fields through a modern hydrant system. The soil is a 
 light sandy loam, naturally well drained but not extremely ab- 
 sorbent. The principal crop irrigated is orange trees which 
 receive from 3 to 6 inches of sewage at intervals of 30 days, with 
 the exception of the dormant season when the sewage is used on 
 barley and oat land for its fertilizing value. Furrow irrigation 
 is the only system of application used on all crops and cultivation 
 follows as closely as possible after irrigation. There is no senti- 
 ment against the use of sewage in this way among the inhabitants. 
 The success of the Redlands disposal is principally due to the 
 efficient system of distribution, the farm nlanagement of the 
 sewage used, the very favorable natural conditions and sufficient 
 land. 
 
 The City of Santa Ana has an estimated population of 13,000. 
 The raw sewage is distributed through a system of concrete pipe 
 lines and valves to lands upon which sugar beets are grown. 
 The soils vary from a heavy loam to a very light sandy loam. 
 Two irrigations are used during the growth of a crop on the heavy 
 lands, while as high as six are applied on the sandy lands during 
 growth. The Southern California Sugar Beet Company has 
 done considerable building up of sterile sandy lands with Santa 
 Ana sewage by applications of approximately 8 inches every 30 
 days for 2 years before planting to sugar beets (Fig. 72). The 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 259 
 
 fertility is then maintained by sewage irrigation. This company 
 estimates sewage irrigation increases the yield of beets 3 to 4 
 tons per acre over clear- water irrigation. 
 
 The principal object in treating sewage which is to be used for 
 farm irrigation, is to remove the solids which tend to obstruct the 
 free distribution and collect in the fields where they may become 
 offensive and dangerous to health. Raw sewage irrigation 
 should be used only in exceptional cases where large areas of 
 absorbent land are available and cultivation can follow irrigation 
 
 FIG. 72. Fertilizing sterile, sandy lands by dosing with sewage, 
 Santa Ana, Cal. 
 
 closely at all times. The majority of cities are using some type 
 of settling or clarifying tank, while in extreme cases where the 
 irrigation must be confined to a limited area surrounded by a 
 closely populated section, it may be advisable to prepare for 
 completely purifying a part or all of the sewage so it can be 
 discharged into natural drains during excessive rainy or freezing 
 periods. 
 
 The commonly used septic tank, when well designed and oper- 
 ated, will break down a large percentage of the solids by bacterial 
 action. The products are then discharged in the form of solution 
 or finely suspended substances and gases. Some residue is left 
 in the bottom of the tank, called sludge, which can be removed at 
 
260 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 intervals and used on the land as a fertilizer of considerable 
 value. The effluent from a septic tank is not stable nor purified 
 from bacteria dangerous to health, and may give off more offen- 
 sive odors than fresh raw sewage before septic action has started. 
 However, the tank effluent is in a liquid state which can be as 
 easily applied to land as stream or well water, yet retains the 
 most of its fertility in better form for distribution and plant food. 
 The sewage farm should be considered as a large receiving bed 
 and a part of the purification system upon portions of which the 
 sewage is intermittently spread and where purifying takes place 
 through the action of the soil bacteria and sunlight. For this 
 reason an efficient distribution system on the farm is as important 
 as any part of the plant. Every small stream of sewage should 
 be under absolute control and a rotation of irrigation followed 
 which will not overload any portion of the land and hinder the 
 purification processes or the growth of crops. The bacteria 
 dangerous to health may be destroyed by chemical treatment of 
 the effluent from septic tanks, but this should not be necessary if 
 proper precaution is taken to prevent the sewage getting into 
 drinking water or coming into contact with vegetables which are 
 to be eaten without cooking. Chemical treatment is given 
 the effluent of septic tanks of some of the newer California State 
 institutions before the sewage is used for irrigation purposes. 
 
 One of the chief causes of failure in sewage irrigation in the 
 United States is the lack of proper irrigation construction and 
 management on the farm. Open ditches still unfortunately pre- 
 vail on sewage farms. These ditches are the greatest source of 
 offensive odors due to the dangerous accumulations of putrefying 
 matters which collect wherever there are weeds, pockets, or dead 
 ends. Seepage from earthen ditches is apt to be large in porous 
 soils and dangerous to the public health. The continuous con- 
 trol of sewage in ditches and an efficient division into irrigation 
 units can best be obtained with a pipe and hydrant system. 
 
 The first pipe and hydrant system for sewage irrigation in this 
 country was probably installed for the city of Pullman, 111., in 
 1881 and the efficiency of such construction was here well demon- 
 strated. This system consists of either concrete or vitrified 
 sewer pipe laid with tight joints, below cultivation and frost, in 
 which the sewage can be carried under a light pressure head 
 
IRRIGATION OF STAPLE CROPS 261 
 
 sufficient to force the sewage out of hydrants onto the surface for 
 distribution. The pipe-line construction does not differ from 
 that used for common irrigation water, with the exception that 
 velocities should be kept sufficiently high to prevent deposits; 
 also flushing facilities should be provided. Either the two-way 
 type of hydrant valve as used for eastern irrigation, or the 
 southern California type, can be used successfully, each having 
 advantages for special conditions. The pipe lines should be 
 carefully located by an irrigation engineer and the capacities of 
 the hydrants regulated to prevent overdosing of irrigation units. 
 In many cases it is advisable to reserve a lower portion of the 
 farm for taking the unpurified water from a "pick up" system of 
 drains which will catch any emergency runoff from the higher 
 lands. This is especially well adapted to humid regions where 
 heavy rains are apt to occur in the cropping season. 
 
 The management of the sewage irrigated farm is a vital and 
 serious problem upon which the success of the project depends. 
 Disposal of sewage upon both private lands and municipally 
 owned lands is practised in the United States. The cities of 
 Redlands, San Bernardino, and Orange, CaL, are examples of 
 disposal upon privately owned lands. In these cases, long term 
 contracts are entered into with farmers who agree under bond 
 to receive and care for all the sewage relieving the city from all 
 liability and responsibility if the sewage is not properly cared for. 
 The cities cited receive some payment for the sewage, the amount 
 varying according to local conditions. Under more adverse 
 conditions it would be necessary for the city to pay the farmers 
 for disposing of the sewage. The plan of selling the sewage to 
 pay for its disposal upon private lands has the advantage of 
 giving a greater continuity to the management of the farms 
 than would be likely if that management were left subject to 
 change with each change in local government, while there is a 
 disadvantage in the city being dependent upon a farmer who may 
 not have the ability or willingness to stay by his contract after 
 the city has gone to the expense of delivering the sewage. 
 
 The cities of Pasadena and Pomona of Southern California are 
 examples of municipally owned farms for sewage disposal where 
 the municipality retains control by managing and operating the 
 sewage farms. In many respects this practice is preferable to 
 
262 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 leasing the land to farmers for a cash rental on condition that they 
 dispose of the sewage. Such farms should be considered as a 
 necessary part of sewage disposal plants. The services of the 
 irrigation engineer and agriculturist are as necessary as those of 
 the chemist and biologist in designing and constructing such 
 systems of disposal, and their management should be carried on 
 with the same degree of skill and efficiency as are used on other 
 public utilities. 
 
 The Pasadena sewage farm of 500 acres has been in operation 
 since 1893 and may be regarded as one of the most successful in 
 the United States. 1 
 
 The raw sewage is first passed through tanks of the Imhoff and 
 Cameron types and afterwards conveyed in pipes and distributed 
 over the sewage farm for the irrigation of walnut and orange 
 groves as well as alfalfa and corn. 
 
 Largely as a result of the success of the present farm, it is now 
 proposed to purchase a new and larger farm for the needs of the 
 three cities of Pasadena, South Pasadena and Alhambra. The 
 plans as formulated by R. V. Orbison, city engineer of Pasadena, 
 and his associates call for a sewage irrigation plant of sufficient 
 capacity to take care of the sewage of an ultimate population of 
 300,000 people. 
 
 1 Statement of Milo B. Williams investigating sewage irrigation in the 
 United States for the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, U. S. 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 
 
 48. Irrigation in Italy. The land area of Italy is about the 
 same as that of Nevada and somewhat less than three-fourths 
 that of California. Its 71,000,000 acres comprise about 20,000- 
 000 acres of cultivated land, 16,000,000 acres of grazing land, 
 21,000,000 acres of forests and 14,000,000 acres of waste land. 
 Of the cultivated land, 3,458,000 acres were irrigated in 1915, a 
 somewhat larger area than was irrigated in California in 1912, 
 which was 3,150,000 acres. In some other ways, particularly 
 as regards rainfall, summer droughts, water supply, and crops, 
 Italy resembles California. In the valley of the Po in northern 
 Italy the normal rainfall is 36 inches. In Apulia and Calabria in 
 southeastern Italy it is about 20 inches, and in Sicily about 15 
 inches. Practically no rain falls from May 1 to October 1 of 
 each year. Water is plentiful and cheap in the North and scarce 
 and dear in the South; hence the cheaper products such as rice 
 and fodders are raised in the North, while citrus fruits are con- 
 fined to the South. 
 
 SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY. Water for irrigation is derived 
 from rivers, storage reservoirs, infiltration tunnels, and wells. 
 One of the largest irrigation canals of Italy and of the world is the 
 Cavour canal, which diverts water from the River Po to irrigate 
 the Piedmont district. The Cavour canal was begun in 1855 by 
 a private company which failed. The project was then bought 
 over and completed in 1866 by the State at a cost of $20,000,000. 
 The canal has a capacity of 3850 second-feet of water, which is 
 conveyed and distributed through 1000 miles of main and 
 secondary canals and distributaries. Its waters have trans- 
 formed 250,000 acres of stunted timber and bushes of low- 
 producing value into the most fertile rice and meadow lands of 
 Italy, which rent for $40 to $60 per acre. Other large canals 
 with their respective capacities which have been built during the 
 past 50 years, are the Villoresi, 1450 second-feet; the Marzona, 
 
 263 
 
264 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 1050 second-feet; the Tagliamento, 617 second-feet; and the 
 Veronese, 525 second-feet. In central Italy, near Grosseto, 
 a still larger canal called the Ombrone is nearing completion. 
 It has a capacity of 21,000 second-feet and ultimately will be 
 used for both navigation and irrigation. Its first use will be to 
 convey the muddy waters of the River Ombrone in flood time to 
 silt up and in this manner reclaim low-lying marshes. 
 
 Those named represent some of the largest as well as the most 
 modern canals of Italy. There are, of course, hundreds of other 
 canals ranging in capacity from 100 to 2000 second-feet which 
 were built in the long interval between the 12th and the 19th 
 century. 
 
 The storage of water for irrigation purposes is effected for the 
 most part by small earthen reservoirs (serbatoi a corona) or else 
 by large loose rock or masonry dams. The first type is formed 
 by surrounding a natural depression of 10 or more acres of 
 retentive material with earthen dykes 12 to 16 feet high. In the 
 second type the water is as a rule first used for hydro-electric 
 power and afterward for irrigation. One of the largest enter- 
 prises of this kind yet attempted is now being constructed on the 
 River Tirso in Sardinia. The dam is 195 feet high and will 
 impound 285,000 acre-feet of water at a cost of $5,000,000. 
 The State contributes $600,000 of the first cost and $30,000 a 
 year for 50 years on condition that the price of the irrigation 
 water to the farmers will not exceed $1.63 per acre-foot. At the 
 end of 60 years the entire plant becomes the property of the 
 State. 
 
 The infiltration tunnels to be found near Rome and Naples 
 are narrow unlined tunnels extending into the lava rock through 
 which the rain water percolates and is drawn off for irrigation 
 purposes. In southern Italy the tunnels are frequently lined 
 with porous masonry except for the concrete base and arch rings. 
 A common feature of all such tunnels is the use of shafts for ven- 
 tilation and to facilitate repairs. 
 
 The most common methods of raising water from wells are by 
 means of centrifugal pumps operated by fuel oils or electric 
 motors, the water bucket (cicogna) which is similar to the 
 Egyptian shadouf , and the chain and bucket lift (noria) driven by 
 animal power. 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 265 
 
 Dnv OF WATER. Compared with other irrigated countries, 
 the annual duty of water per acre is low in Italy. This is due in 
 part at least to the large quantities of water required for rice 
 irrigation and the watering of marcite or winter meadows 
 throughout the year. In northern Italy 1 second-foot of water 
 is used on 20 to 40 acres of rice, 40 to 80 acres of fodder crops and 
 80 to 100 acres of other staple crops. The specially prepared 
 lands, called marcite, which are seeded to mixed clovers, alfalfa, 
 and grasses to provide feed for dairy cows, require the largest 
 quantities of water. In southern Italy .where water is less 
 abundant and where more grain is raised, the duty is higher. 
 However, it is seldom that water is used as economically in 
 southern Italy as it is in southern California. According to 
 Professor Luiggi, the cultivation of Indian corn, potatoes, toma- 
 toes, and the usual vegetables, requires from 7000 to 8000 cubic 
 meters of water per hectare or an equivalent of 5.6 to 6.4 acre- 
 feet per acre. The royal commission in its report for 1913 
 recommended that for all new lands to be irrigated by the works 
 proposed, % liter per second for 7 months or 2.95 acre-feet per 
 acre, be adopted as the average duty. These new works for the 
 Apulian peninsula alone are intended to provide water for 
 395,000 acres. 
 
 COST OF WATER. Luiggi 1 states that water from the State 
 canals is sold generally at 25 francs per liter-second per annum 
 and that 1 liter-second is the average duty for 1 hectare of land 
 in northern Italy. This would be equivalent to about 20 cents 
 per acre-foot or $2 per acre per annum since the gross duty per 
 annum is 10 acre-feet per acre. Since water is seldom used for 
 more than half the year, the actual quantity applied to the land 
 would be proportionally reduced. The cost of water from the 
 Villoresi, Marzano and other canals belonging to private corpora- 
 tions, is about double that quoted above. 
 
 As has been stated, the water from the large storage reservoirs 
 is, as a rule, first used for power and afterward for irrigation. 
 This double use lowers the rates to irrigators who pay from $1.63 
 to S3. 25 per acre-foot. The water stored in the smaller reser- 
 voirs or tanks usually costs the farmers from $3.25 to $4.87 per 
 acre-foot. Water raised by norias 15 to 40 feet high costs from 
 
 1 Italian Irrigation by Prof. Luigi Luiggi, Rome, Italy. 
 
266 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 $15 to $30 per acre-foot while water for citrus orchards in the 
 vicinity of Mesina costs from $45 to $72 per acre-foot. 
 
 PREPARING LAND FOR IRRIGATION. In many irrigated dis- 
 tricts of northern Italy the number of persons per square mile 
 exceeds 500. This density of population coupled with low 
 wages (40 cents per day) is in the main responsible for the 
 adoption of methods of preparing land and applying water differ- 
 ing from those which prevail in western America. Nowhere is 
 this difference so clearly brought out as in the winter meadows of 
 Lombardy. These consist of mixed grasses and legumes sown 
 
 Cross Sec-K 
 
 O f of Beds. 
 
 on 
 
 FIG. 73. Showing method pf preparing land for marcite meadows, 
 Northern Italy. 
 
 in fields 2 to 8 acres in extent and irrigated periodically in warm 
 weather and continuously in cold weather. The care and skill 
 exercised in preparing and maintaining the surface of these fields, 
 the large amount of both water and fertilizers applied, and the 
 large profits derived from the green cow feed grown all tend to 
 give prominence to this particular feature of Italian irrigation. 
 "Chi ha prato, ha tutto" (he who has a meadow has everything) 
 is a Lombard adage. The average annual yield of green forage is 
 equivalent to a crop of over 5 tons per acre of cured hay. A 
 winter meadow or marcite has its surface artifically laid out in the 
 form of flat-gable roofs (Fig. 73). Each bed corresponds to the 
 side of a sloping roof from the ridge of which water is distributed 
 and from the eaves of which water is drained. Each bed varies 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 267 
 
 in width from 15 to 25 feet and in length from 200 to 300 feet or 
 more depending on the slope. The beds run longitudinally with 
 the slope of the field and each tier from the top to the bottom is 
 3 to 6 inches lower than the one above. This drop enables the 
 drainage water from one tier to flow into the feed ditches of the 
 one next lower. In summer, canal water may be used but in 
 winter only warm water from springs (fontanili) can be used on 
 account of the danger of forming ice and killing the grass. For 5 
 months of winter a thin sheet of water having a temperature of 
 48 to 63 degrees F. is run over the sloping beds and collected by 
 the drains. Such beds are also heavily fertilized twice a year by 
 means of manure, compost, and phosphates. The compost heaps 
 occupy the corners of the fields and are made up of alternate 
 layers of manure and a mixture of stubble, sod and silt, the latter 
 taken from the ditches and drains. These heaps remain for 5 
 to 6 months, in which time they are turned over at least twice. 
 When it is considered that all manure and compost are carried 
 by hand in baskets and that the grass is cut and raked by hand 
 and removed from the field in baskets, the contrast between Italian 
 and American methods is readily seen. 
 
 The modern methods of agriculture as practised in the valley 
 of the Po do not differ from those described by Pliny, Varro, 
 Columello, and other writers of the Roman period. Pliny 
 describes the short scythe corresponding to our reaping hook and 
 also the " Gallic" because introduced from Gaul which is the 
 forerunner of our scythe and snath and consisted of a long handle 
 on a longer and larger blade. When cut the hay was raked into 
 windrows (in strigam) and then gathered into cocks (metos) and 
 when dry put up into 4-pound armfuls (manipulos). 
 
 The grass meadows of northern Italy are either permanent or 
 alternative. The winter meadows just described belong to the 
 permanent class as do the summer meadows. The latter are 
 irrigated only in summer during intervals of 7, 14, or 20 days 
 according to the character and moisture conditions of the soil. 
 On account of the smaller yields and the absence of freezing 
 weather while irrigation is in progress, the summer meadows are 
 not laid off with the same care as those of the marcite. The field 
 is divided, says Bachmann, into flat, slightly inclined beds; the 
 water is admitted from the supply ditch into the furrows which 
 
268 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 divide the beds, backs up at the end, and flows over the surface on 
 each side. 
 
 The desirability of adopting one or more kinds of crop rotation 
 has given rise to the alternating meadows. In these the fodder 
 crop is preceded by a cereal, usually wheat, and followed by a 
 crop of maize. Thus a common rotation is J^ year in wheat, 2 
 or more years in fodder crops and J^ year in maize. When the 
 clover and grass is plowed under the sods are gathered and carried 
 in baskets to the compost heaps to be treated as in the case of 
 compost for marcite meadows. 
 
 49. Irrigation in Spain. The Kingdom of Spain contains a 
 land area of 127,500,000 acres of which nearly 50,000,000 acres 
 are cultivated and of this 3,041,000 acres were irrigated in 1915. 
 Owing to the low annual rainfall of the central and eastern parts, 
 the warm dry summer and the increase in population, irrigation is 
 becoming of great economic importance. When one considers 
 that the great central plateaus receive on an average only 9 
 inches of rainfall in winter and 1 inch in summer and that the 
 lower coastal plains of the Mediterranean, while receiving slightly 
 more winter precipitation, have even less in summer, it is sur- 
 prising that Spain is content with an irrigated area of 3,000,000 
 acres when a water supply is available for 15,000,000 acres. 
 The need of irrigation is further shown by the low value of dry 
 land compared with the high value of irrigated land. According 
 to Rafael de la Escosura, dry farming land in the valley of the 
 Ebro has a value of $16 to $20 an acre while similar land when 
 properly prepared for irrigation and having a good water right is 
 worth from $118 to $197 an acre. 
 
 In recent years, a well-directed and successful effort has been 
 made on the part of the State to increase the value and produc- 
 tivity of dry lands by constructing large irrigation systems at 
 Government expense and charging a low water rental to land- 
 owners. The most notable of these systems is known as the 
 Canal de Aragon y Catahma which was designed to irrigate 
 247,000 acres The main canal of this system was begun by a 
 private company in 1851 but after $5,000,000 had been expended 
 the company was unable to complete the project. Accordingly 
 Baron de Romafia, who acted as the chief intermediary between 
 the owners and the State, finally succeeded in having the project 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 269 
 
 undertaken and completed by the State. The success which has 
 attended this enterprise since 1906 when water was first used, 
 amply justified the State in undertaking its completion. In 1906 
 the area irrigated was 14,800 acres and in that year both irrigated 
 and non-irrigated land under the system produced 1,465,000 
 bushels of grain. In 1914, 8 years later, the area irrigated had 
 increased to 136,850 acres and the total production of grain on 
 both dry and irrigated lands amounted to 3,780,000 bushels. 
 It is estimated that when the entire acreage is irrigated the annual 
 profit will be close to $3,000,000. The chief canals, including the 
 Aragon and Cataluna and reservoirs, constructed by the State are 
 named in the following table: 
 
 Canals 
 
 Acres 
 irrigated 
 
 Discharge in 
 second-feet 
 
 Right bank of the Llobregat 
 
 18,530 
 
 130 
 
 Aragon and Cataluna. 
 
 259,400 
 
 1,236 
 
 Irrigation of Upper Aragon 
 
 741,300 
 
 
 Imperial canal of Aragon.. 
 
 69,200 
 
 1,060 
 
 Guadalentin 
 
 69,200 
 
 706 
 
 
 
 
 Reservoirs 
 
 Capacity in 
 acre-feet 
 
 Cost per acre-foot 
 
 Val de infierno 
 
 1 621 
 
 $2 88 
 
 Alfonso 13 
 
 18,736 
 
 24.00 
 
 Talave 
 
 1,572 
 
 31.20 
 
 Ponton de la Oliva. 
 
 243 
 
 31 20 
 
 Vallar 
 
 1 775 
 
 22 56 
 
 Moneva 
 
 892 
 
 (Under construction) 
 
 Pena. 
 
 1,135 
 
 (Under construction) 
 
 Andrade. 
 
 567 
 
 (Under construction) 
 
 Santa Maria del Belsue 
 
 1,054 
 
 (Under construction) 
 
 Gasset 
 
 1,797 
 
 (Under construction) 
 
 Guadamellato. . 
 
 5,918 
 
 (Under construction) 
 
 Cuovo Foramadad 
 
 1 459 
 
 (Under construction) 
 
 Chorro 
 
 1,865 
 
 (Under construction) 
 
 Mcdiano (projected) to feed the irriga- 
 tion of upper Aragon 
 
 8,188 
 
 
 Sotonera (projected) 
 
 15,322 
 
 
 Revnosa (projected) . 
 
 48,642 
 
 
 Barasona (projected) to feed the canal 
 of Aragon and Cataluna 
 
 4,053 
 
 
270 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 Of the canals and storage reservoirs constructed by private 
 companies, the following may be named. 
 
 Canals 
 
 Acres 
 irrigated 
 
 Cost per 
 acre 
 
 Discharge in 
 cubic feet 
 
 De la Infanta 
 
 7,961 
 
 $26.90 
 
 155 
 
 Tauste 
 
 22,239 
 
 39 90 
 
 318 
 
 Urgel 
 
 170,500 
 
 37.00 
 
 1165 
 
 Right Delta of the Ebro. 
 Left Delta of the Ebro 
 
 30,640 
 31,135 
 
 55.25 
 43 60 
 
 565 
 671 
 
 Guadiaro 
 
 4,448 
 
 29 20 
 
 64 
 
 Henares. 
 
 28,416 
 
 
 177 
 
 Duero 
 
 32,123 
 
 
 155 
 
 Esla '.;;. 
 
 19,768 
 
 
 
 Aceouia of the Jarama 
 
 61,775 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Reservoirs 
 
 Capacity in 
 acre-feet 
 
 Cost per 
 acre-foot 
 
 Pena 
 
 1459 
 
 $91 20 
 
 Mesalocha 
 
 317 
 
 40 80 
 
 Riudecanas 
 
 2794 
 
 199 20 
 
 Maria Christina 
 
 1581 
 
 199 20 
 
 La Gragera. 
 
 142 
 
 7 20 
 
 San Barolome 
 
 227 
 
 31 20 
 
 Monteagudo 
 
 369 
 
 12 00 
 
 Calahorra. 
 
 89 
 
 33 60 
 
 Valadelafuen 
 
 166 
 
 16 80 
 
 Hi jar 
 
 289 
 
 43 20 
 
 Guadalcacin 
 
 7541 
 
 4 80 
 
 Santillana. 
 
 3648 
 
 14 40 
 
 La IVlolineta 
 
 31 
 
 79 20 
 
 Buseo 
 
 608 
 
 72 00 
 
 Puentes. . 
 
 2623 
 
 26 40 
 
 Benabolar 
 
 4 
 
 103 20 
 
 Rincones 
 
 18 
 
 84.00 
 
 Campofrio 
 
 208 
 
 192 00 
 
 Marismilla 
 
 70 
 
 122 40 
 
 San Pedro 
 
 41 
 
 7 20 
 
 La Parilla 
 
 4 
 
 544 . 80 
 
 Garguera . 
 
 183 
 
 50.75 
 
 
 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 271 
 
 By comparing the tariffs adopted by both state and company 
 canals as given below it will be seen that those of the State canals 
 are much lower. 
 
 Canals 
 
 Pesestas per 
 hectare 
 
 Cost 
 per acre 
 
 State canals 
 Right bank of the Llobregat. 
 
 25 75 
 
 $2 03 
 
 Aragon and Catalune 
 
 4 00 
 
 32 
 
 Irrigation of upper Aragon 
 
 4.00 
 
 0.32 
 
 Imperial Canal of Aragon. 
 
 7.50 
 
 0.59 
 
 Company canals 
 Infanta 
 
 412.50 
 
 33.53 
 
 Tauste 
 
 86 00 
 
 6.69 
 
 Urgel. 
 
 52 00 
 
 4 10 
 
 Ri^ht delta of the Ebro 
 
 47 00 
 
 3 70 
 
 Left Delta of the Ebro 
 
 47.00 
 
 3.70 
 
 Guadiaro 
 
 56 00 
 
 4 40 
 
 Henares 
 
 86 00 
 
 6 69 
 
 Acequia of th^e Jarama. . 
 
 25.00 
 
 1.90 
 
 
 
 
 In addition to those named there are a number of other canals 
 in the Ebro valley and a multitude of small diversions. From 
 Logrone to a little below Saragossa, a distance of about 130 miles, 
 the irrigated areas adjacent to the river and its affluents are 
 numerous and extensive. Simple dikes of loose stone and some- 
 times norias, draw water from the river to supply the canals. 
 The crops usually irrigated are olives, vines, cereals and garden 
 truck. 
 
 Following down the Mediterranean coast a number of im- 
 portant irrigated sections are found in the vicinity of Valencia, 
 Murcia, Lorca, and elsewhere. In the strip of coastal plains ex- 
 tending from the delta of the Ebro River to Cape Nao, the avail- 
 able water supplies are quite completely utilized and in the 
 southern part of this strip the irrigated areas are almost con- 
 tinuous, so that there is little to indicate that the country was 
 once an arid waste. Surrounding Valencia is an area of 25,000 
 acres which is irrigated with water diverted from the Guadalvier 
 River. These canals were built in very ancient times, .there being 
 no authentic record of the date of their construction. 
 
272 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 The section adjacent to Palma del Rio in southern Spain is 
 watered by huge wheels identical with the sakiehs of Egypt. 
 There are 20 of these wheels, most of which are over 30 feet in 
 diameter. The natural current of the river is not strong enough 
 to drive the wheels and consequently the stream is raised by 
 simple dams producing a fall of about 4 feet. Each wheel and 
 dam has its separate area to irrigate, the total area irrigated by 
 the wheels being 500 acres. This section is devoted almost ex- 
 clusively to citrus fruits and garden truck. 
 
 The unit of water measurement adopted at Valencia and in all 
 the ancient irrigation communities of Spain is called a "fila" or 
 "hilo," meaning a thread or filament of water. There is con- 
 siderable difference of opinion as to just what this unit is. Some 
 claim it is the volume of water which will pass through a square 
 orifice with sides of 8.9 inches with a velocity of 35.6 inches a 
 second. Others contend that the velocity should be 53.4 inches 
 per second. 
 
 At Elche and Lorca a very curious custom prevails which 
 consists of the disposition of the available water supply by daily 
 auctions. At Lorca in particular this custom is very picturesque. 
 The crowd congregates each morning in a large hall and at 8 
 o'clock the crier calls out "In honor of the holy sacrament of the 
 alter, who buys the first hila of Sotellana?" 1 Immediately there 
 ensues excited and rapid bidding to which the president listens 
 calmly until suddenly he indicates the successful bidder and 
 as suddenly quiet is restored. There is no appeal from the 
 decision of the president and no one presumes to question his 
 fairness. 
 
 Orange groves are found along the Mediterranean coast from 
 Sevilla and Granada on the south to Barcelona on the north. 
 In Alcira and Carcagente they are irrigated from April to October 
 every 8 to 15 days about 2 inches being applied at each irrigation, 
 and are also irrigated in winter if the ground becomes very dry. 
 At Orihuela, however, no water is applied in winter and only at 
 intervals of 20 days during the summer. The water is applied 
 to a square basin around each tree, being supplied from a furrow 
 running alongside. No water is applied to the surface of the 
 ground outside of these basins. 
 
 Grain fields are rarely irrigated by flooding and then only 
 
 1 "L Irrigation, by Jean Brunhes, Paris, 1902." 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 273 
 
 between borders. If the ground is very dry previous to sowing 
 winter grains in the fall an irrigation is applied in October or 
 November. One more irrigation in March or April will usually 
 suffice to mature a crop but in extremely dry years another light 
 irrigation is applied before the heads fill. 
 
 Corn is planted after the grain is harvested and matures in a 
 little over 3 months. In a month or a little* less after planting, 
 the ground is plowed and ridges are formed, leaving the plant 
 at the edge of the ridge. The corn is irrigated in 20 or 21 days 
 after the hilling and at intervals of 8 to 15 days thereafter, the 
 number of irrigations varying from four to eight according to 
 the soil. 
 
 Alfalfa is sown in ridges and irrigated by the furrow method or 
 broadcasted in beds 20 to 25 feet square and irrigated by lateral 
 percolation from ditches surrounding them. In Alcira alfalfa 
 yields twelve crops a year and in other sections five to seven crops. 
 It is irrigated every week during hot weather and every 10 days 
 during the remainder of the season. 
 
 The average cost per acre for preparing land for irrigation in the 
 northeastern provinces of Spain is about $20 per acre. This not 
 only includes leveling but the necessary farm ditches. This cost 
 is based on labor at 60 cents a day and a work horse and man at 
 SI. 60 a day. 
 
 50. Irrigation in France. According to Prof. Bechmann of 
 PEcole des Fonts et Chaussees, the area cultivated in France is in 
 round numbers 66,000,000 acres and the area regularly irrigated 
 about 6,000,000 acres, this being supplemented by an additional 
 area of 3,000,000 acres which is irrigated occasionally. 
 
 The irrigation of native meadows in the center and north of 
 France is a distinctive feature. For such the water supply is 
 derived from nearby streams and no long canals or costly struc- 
 tures are required. Even in the valley of the Rhone and through- 
 out the Mediterranean provinces where irrigation is more 
 generally practised to increase the yield and quality of a large 
 variety of crops, there is no large system corresponding to the 
 Cavour canal of Italy or the Aragon and Cataluna canal of Spain. 
 The bulk of the canal systems are of medium capacity, seldom 
 carrying more than a few hundred cubic feet per second. Of 
 these the following may be named: 
 
274 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 Name of Stream from which water 
 
 canal is diverted 
 
 Gignac Herault 
 
 Vesubie Vesubie 
 
 Saint Martory Garonne 
 
 Verdun Verdun 
 
 Pierralatte Rhone 
 
 Beaucaire . Gardon 
 
 Forez Loire 
 
 In addition to those mentioned, there are several medium-sized 
 canals which divert water from the River Durance such as 
 the Carpentras, Chateaurenard, Saint Mitre, Manosque and 
 Marseille. 
 
 Some idea of irrigation canals and of irrigation conditions 
 generally in France may be had from a brief description of one 
 that of the Gignac canal 1 built in 1879. 
 
 The Herault River, having its source in the high Cevennes, has 
 a minimum flow of several hundred second-feet and a large flood 
 flow. In the narrow rocky gorge above the plain of Gignac a 
 masonry weir was built to divert the flow of the river into the 
 canal. This canal has a maximum capacity of 177 second-feet 
 and at a point 3 miles or so from the intake is diverted into two 
 main branches, one of which extends over a distance of 18 miles 
 and the other 12 miles. The irrigated area comprises 10,375 
 acres and the total cost of the system was $831,000, of which the 
 Government paid $273,000 as a subvention. The balance of the 
 funds used was borrowed from capitalists to be repaid in 50 years, 
 the Government guaranteeing an interest rate of 4.65 per cent. 
 
 The founders of the company, that is to say, the farmers who 
 were the original subscribers, pay an annual rate of a little more 
 than $1.70 per acre for the water used, the duty of water being 
 fixed at about 3^ acre-feet per acre. Those who have joined the 
 company since its organization pay rates about 25 per cent, 
 higher than the originators. The receipts based on the foregoing 
 rates suffice to cover the cost of operation and maintenance and 
 provide for the necessary sinking fund. 
 
 This canal was built at the time when the phylloxera disease 
 was devastating the vineyards of southern France, and one of the 
 
 1 See article in Genie Civil,. Oct. 5, 1907 by Francis Marre. 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 275 
 
 main purposes sought was to secure water to submerge the vines 
 during the dormant season. Since then the vineyards have been 
 reset with American stock and water for this purpose is now sel- 
 dom required. Other and more important uses have been found, 
 however, and the application of water to diversified crops under 
 this and other canals has amply demonstrated the benefits of 
 irrigation in the Mediterranean region. In the irrigated lands 
 of the Southwest, fruit and vegetables assure large average 
 returns and the products are not only shipped to the markets of 
 France but supply those of other countries as well. The revenues 
 from such crops as strawberries, peas, plums, cherries, apricots, 
 peaches and flowers are particularly large. 
 
 51. Irrigation in Russia. 1 Russia may be divided geographic- 
 ally as regards irrigation into: Turkestan, Crimea, Trans-Cau- 
 casia, southern and southeastern Russia and Siberia. Since 
 conditions as to soil, climate and crops differ widely in these 
 various sections they will be discussed separately. 
 
 TURKESTAN. The climate of Turkestan is semi-tropical and 
 is very favorable for agriculture, a great variety of crops being 
 grown. The total annual rainfall in some sections amounts to 
 only 2.4 inches while the evaporation is 36 times as great, so that 
 no crops can be grown without irrigation. The irrigation of 
 parts of Turkestan dates back to a very remote time. 
 
 The rivers of Turkestan are the chief sources of the water 
 supply. Most of the rivers have their sources in mountain 
 ranges. These mountains attain elevations of 23,000 to 25,000 
 feet and, of course, are perpetually covered with snow, thus 
 assuring a constant flow of water in the streams. 
 
 Most of the irrigation systems were constructed without the 
 aid of instruments or engineering knowledge of any sort. Fur- 
 rows were plowed and water run in them to determine the slope 
 and the canals were built according to the route thus determined. 
 Consequently these old canals are very sinuous and in some 
 cases the slopes are too steep causing erosion and loss of water 
 through seepage. Some of the canals are quite large, the Shar- 
 chan-clay canal, for example, being 67 miles long and carrying 
 about 2400 cubic feet per second. 
 
 1 Based on reports and statements of E. E. Skorniakoff, A. E., of the Rus- 
 sian Reclamation Service. 
 
276 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 The diversion works in many cases consist of dams thrown 
 across the bed of the river of the following types: 
 
 SIPOYS. A sipoy consists of a tripod made of logs and held 
 together by means of horizontal frames. This tripod is placed 
 on the bottom of the river and weighted down with boulders, the 
 frames being bound together with brushwood. A row or several 
 rows of tripods with the spaces between the legs filled with brush- 
 wood, reed, and stone, constitutes the dam. 
 
 ISHACK. An ishack is a modified form of sipoy and is con- 
 structed in the shape of a long wooden horse with numerous 
 supports, the spaces between being filled with reed and brush- 
 wood. 
 
 CARABUR. A carabur consists of a large bamboo pile about 27 
 feet long and 7 feet thick, weighted down with rock. This pile 
 is tied together with reed and is anchored to the stakes driven 
 into the river bed and into the bank. Several rows of such piles 
 constitute a diversion dam. 
 
 Such dams are gradually being replaced with modern struc- 
 tures. However, in most of Turkestan the diversion works 
 consist of temporary structures which are carried away at each 
 big flood. 
 
 The Anne-dasia River in its lower reaches flows at an elevation 
 above the surrounding land, its bed having been built up by its 
 own deposits, and water is diverted from it by means of " chigirs," 
 a type of lifting device quite similar to our current wheels. This 
 is propelled by the current when it is strong enough; otherwise 
 it is run by animal power. Centrifugal pumps driven by gas or 
 oil engines are used to some extent but the ever-rising price of oil 
 tends to limit their use. 
 
 In Trans-Caspia, where the surface supply is very scarce the 
 underground water is utilized, the water being collected in sub- 
 terranean tunnels called "kiares-is." This method of obtaining 
 water has been extensively developed in some sections, the 
 number of "kiares-es" in one province exceeding 12,000, some of 
 which are 6}^ miles long. 
 
 Rice and alfalfa are irrigated by the check method. Most 
 other crops are irrigated from furrows, but subirrigation from 
 deep furrows is also practised. 
 
 Few measurements of the amount of water applied to crops 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 277 
 
 have been made. In one experiment it was found that approxi- 
 mately 2 acre-feet per acre was used on alfalfa yielding 7.7 tons. 
 For cotton experiments showed that the application of a little 
 more than 1 acre-foot per acre was the most beneficial. 
 
 It is estimated that 13,500,000 acres of land can be eventually 
 irrigated in Turkestan. This is more than twice the present 
 area under irrigation. 
 
 CRIMEA. Artificial watering is practised almost exclusively 
 in the southern mountain section of the Crimean Peninsula. 
 This is an important fruit-growing section, apples, pears, quinces, 
 cherries, plums, peaches, and grapes being grown successfully 
 under irrigation. 
 
 The water for irrigation is taken from rivers, springs, wells, 
 and from stored flood waters. The diversion works and canals 
 are very crude. The dams, in most cases are of a type called 
 "aricbash," being a fence placed obliquely across the bed of the 
 river against which is piled a mixture of clay, manure, branches, 
 etc. The usual height is about 3J feet and the length varies 
 from 35 to 350 feet. These dams are, of course, washed out by 
 each flood. In the lower parts of the river, where conditions are 
 somewhat more favorable, due to a more sluggish current, a 
 modification of this dam is found. This consists of two fences 
 placed at right angles to the stream about 3J^ feet apart and 7 
 feet high. The space between is filled with small stones and the 
 fence on the downstream side is supported by a pile of stones. 
 During floods this dam may be partially destroyed but the frame- 
 work will remain. 
 
 Water wheels, propelled by animal power, are used in the 
 lower and middle- valleys. The average diameter of these wheels 
 is 21 feet. One wheel turned by a team of horses will raise 137 
 gallons (50 vedros) per minute through a height of 17J^ feet. 
 There are about 200 wheels of this type in Crimea. 
 
 Another lifting device, the "Noria," more durable and more 
 efficient than the Tartar wheel described above, consists of an 
 endless chain running over a cast-iron drum to which are at- 
 tached metal scoops. The drum revolves on a horizontal shaft 
 and the power is communicated to it through a pair of bevel gears 
 on one end of the shaft. The efficiency of the wheel is 80 
 to 86 per cent. The noria lifts not less than 183 gallons (66% 
 
278 . USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 vedros) per minute through a height of 17% feet- There are 
 about 250 of these in operation in Crimea. 
 
 In addition to these a great variety of pumps driven by internal 
 combustion engines have come into use; also windmills. In all 
 about 12,150 acres is irrigated by pumped water. 
 
 Wild flooding and the basin method are the two methods most 
 commonly employed. In flooding pastures the water is applied 
 to a depth of from 0.56 foot to 2.1 feet and is kept on for 3 or 4 
 days to 2 weeks. Orchards are irrigated by scooping out 
 saucer-shaped basins around each tree and running water into 
 these basins in succession down each tree row. After each irriga- 
 tion the crust formed in the basins is broken up with a hoe. 
 Orchards are watered once a month from May to August. 
 
 Tobacco is irrigated by furrows made with a hoe and run 
 parallel to each other 2% feet apart. The most skillful irrigators 
 can water about 2.7 acres per day by this method. 
 
 The measure of water is the "czapka" (meaning hoe) which is 
 sometimes taken as the quantity of water that flows through a 
 channel having a cross section equal to the blade of a hoe. 
 Another definition is the amount of water that can be successfully 
 handled by one man using a hoe. The generally accepted defini- 
 tion, however, is a quantity of water equal to 30 to 40 vedros, or 
 1.85 to 2.45 cubic feet per second. The established practice is to 
 U3& one czapka of water per day for each " dessiatine" (2.7 acres). 
 
 In irrigating gardens and tobacco the general practice is to 
 irrigate whenever water can be obtained, the oftener the better. 
 When water is abundant this amounts to two irrigations per 
 week. 
 
 TRANS-CAUCASIA. Irrigation in Trans-Caucasia is confined to 
 the eastern part of the country. This section consists of plains 
 sloping gently toward the Caspian Sea and 1,940,845 acres is 
 irrigated from 5946 canals and ditches. The area irrigated in 
 Trans-Caucasia has increased 38 per cent, in the last 9 years. 
 
 The streams are fed from melting snows in the mountains 'so 
 that there is an abundant water supply during the crop-growing 
 season. In addition to the streams, water is obtained from 
 springs, reservoirs, artesian wells, and from other underground 
 sources. The underground water is developed by means of sub- 
 terranean galleries as described in the section on Turkestan. 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 279 
 
 The principal crops grown are grain, rice, cotton, mulberry 
 trees, grapes and orchards. The irrigation period extends from 
 the latter part of March until August or September, the greatest 
 need for water coming in the period from March to June which, 
 fortunately is the period of high-water in the rivers. 
 
 The only unit of water measurement recognized in Trans- 
 Caucasia is the "bash " or the head of water which can be handled 
 economically by one man, which corresponds to the "irrigating 
 stream" used in Utah. This has been accepted as the legal unit 
 of measure and is taken as equivalent to 25 second-liters or about 
 0.8 cubic foot per second. 
 
 There are three large irrigating systems in Trans-Caucasia, the 
 Karaiay-Steppe, the Ardsian Steppe, and the Mugan Steppe. 
 The first-named irrigates about 41,495 acres. The system 
 consists of a main canal 12 miles long, a branch canal 3^ miles 
 long and 16 distributaries. The Ardsian Steppe system irrigates 
 about 27,000 acres of land. Its main canal is 24 miles long and 
 the total length of the distributaries is 26 % miles. The system 
 cost about $260,000. 
 
 SOUTHERN AND SOUTHEASTERN RUSSIA. The annual rainfall 
 in this section does not exceed 19.5 inches and in some places is 
 less than 7.8 inches; consequently irrigation is necessary, or at 
 least highly beneficial, to all this section. Irrigation, however, 
 can only be accomplished after the expenditure of considerable 
 money, for the reason that most of the large streams, such as the 
 Volga, Don, Dnieper, etc., flow in deep channels and with gentle 
 slopes. Consequently most of the farmers content themselves 
 with the meager and uncertain returns from dry farming with its 
 frequent droughts, low yields, etc. 
 
 One of the largest irrigation works in this section is that built 
 by the Government on the Soliana Kuba River. It consists of a 
 reservoir on the river having a capacity of 3780 acre-feet (480,000 
 cubic sagene), two main canals, and one branch canal supplying 
 water to about 5600 acres of land. 
 
 The crops raised are rye, wheat, oats, barley, sunflowers, corn 
 and forage. These crops are all irrigated by the same method, 
 described as follows. The water from the irrigating canals flows 
 through cuts in the embankments over the irrigated section, 
 covering them with a layer of water. Banks 210 feet apart are 
 
280 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 placed in the direction of the horizontal slope on each section. 
 The banks regulate the distribution of water over an irrigated 
 section. 
 
 According to the data secured by the Kosticher experiment 
 station, alfalfa requires 183 cubic sagene of water per acre or a 
 depth of 0.52 foot at the first watering and a depth of 0.44 foot 
 at the second. Oats require 0.56 foot, wheat 0.55, and potatoes 
 0.88 to 1.16 in two irrigations. These measurements were made 
 at the borders of the fields irrigated. Winter crops are watered 
 twice in autumn after seeding, and once in the spring. It is 
 believed that the average water consumption for the entire valley 
 is not less than 0.88 foot in depth over the surface. 
 
 The average yield of alfalfa is 700 puds per dessiatine or 3.2 
 tons per acre in three cuttings. 
 
 The annual cost of upkeep of the system amounts to 900 rubles 
 ($464). The cost of irrigation where the furrow method is 
 employed is $0.57 per acre. 
 
 Where water is pumped for irrigation the method of application 
 to the fields is as follows : " The whole field is divided by furrows 
 into squares and right triangles. The area inside of each such 
 square or triangle is separated by means of banks into irrigating 
 sections, each section being an aqueduct to an irrigating furrow. 
 The sizes of these sections vary from 10^ to 35 feet. The water 
 admitted from each furrow into the section is left there till the 
 soil gets fully saturated and then drained into the next section." 
 By this method one skillful irrigator can take care of 1.35 acres a 
 day. 
 
 SIBERIA. The climate of Siberia is very dry, the average 
 rainfall never exceeding 19.5 inches and in some sections being 
 as low as 3.9 inches. However, the evaporation is small so that 
 crops can be grown without irrigation in many sections. 
 
 The irrigated area in Siberia amounts to about 216,000 acres. 
 The crops grown are grain, cucumbers, melons, fruit, and some 
 alfalfa. The methods of irrigation are very crude. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE FEATURES OF THE WATER LAWS OF TRANS- 
 CAUCASIA. All flowing waters not originating and ending on any 
 property, belong to the public and can be used in either of the 
 following ways : (a) for domestic purposes, (b) for irrigation, and 
 (c) for industrial purposes. 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 281 
 
 Every landowner is obliged to give a right-of-way, for which he 
 is compensated according to valuation, for canals conveying water 
 for the above purposes and for carrying waste water from the 
 irrigated lands. 
 
 The priority of the rights to the water is determined according 
 to their acquisition. The amount of the water to be used is de- 
 termined according to the actual use. Every farmer using the 
 water has to bear either by money payment or by labor part of 
 the expenses connected with the maintenance and repairs of the 
 canals and operation of the system. 
 
 To facilitate the carrying out of the provisions of the law the 
 whole of Trans-Caucasia is divided into water districts. For the 
 decision of all questions concerning irrigation, the landowners 
 of each district elect three persons as " representatives" for a 
 term of three years. These men appoint a so-called " district 
 water-superintendent" who is in charge of the distribution of 
 water in the district. 
 
 All persons using the water of a canal elect an overseer or 
 ditch tender for this canal. If among the parties using the 
 water there are towns and villages, the inhabitants of each elect 
 a man to distribute the water among them. 
 
 An hydraulic engineer for each district is appointed by the 
 government to determine all technical questions. All above 
 mentioned elective officers are required to carry out strictly any 
 directions concerning engineering matters given by the hydraulic 
 engineer. Once a year all hydraulic engineers meet at Tiflis, 
 the principal city of Trans-Caucasia, for the discussion of all 
 technical questions affecting their respective districts. 
 
 At the head of the water control system of the whole country 
 of Trans-Caucasia stands the "Water Inspector of Trans-Cau- 
 casia," who is responsible to the Minister of Agriculture. A 
 consulting lawyer or "jurisconsult" and a technical bureau are 
 attached to his office. The inspector presides at the meetings of 
 the hydraulic engineers. 
 
 The whole official organization can be put into operation in a 
 district only after a detailed determination of the water rights of 
 the different persons, towns and villages of the district. This 
 determination is made by various district boards and one main 
 board, sitting when required. 
 
282 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 The district boards, composed of the local judge and the above- 
 mentioned three representatives, determine the water-rights 
 according to the actual needs of the communities, taking into 
 consideration written and oral testimony. All sessions of the 
 district boards are public and all parties interested are heard. 
 
 The decisions of the district boards are sent to the Water In- 
 spector, who after having them examined from the legal and 
 technical sides, refers them, with his own opinion, to the main 
 board. 
 
 Over this main board presides one of the judges of the Superior 
 Court of Tiflis. This board is composed of the jurisconsult, an 
 officer appointed by the Governor General of Caucasia and one. of 
 the hydraulic engineers. 
 
 Complaints of the decisions of the district boards can be 
 filed with the main board and complaints against the decisions of 
 the latter can be brought before the First Department of the 
 Senate (the Supreme Court of Russia). If the complaints are 
 found justified, the decision can be reversed by the Senate and 
 ordered to be again revised by the main board. 
 
 Appeals to the Senate do not prevent the execution of the deci- 
 sion of the boards. 
 
 52. Irrigation in Egypt. 1 Without irrigation there could prob- 
 ably be no Egyptian people, certainly no civilization in Egypt. 
 The influence of irrigation pervades Egyptian economics, 
 politics, social life, agriculture, legislation, and even religion. 
 
 All of the water used for irrigation in Egypt is taken from the 
 Nile or pumped from the underground supply. The Nile is a 
 remarkable river in several respects. Extending from south 
 latitude 4 to north latitude 31.5 the basin of this river lies in a 
 greater variety of climatic regions than any other river in the 
 world. The Nile drains nearly the whole of northeastern Africa, 
 comprising nearly a million and a quarter square miles, but only 
 half of this area contributes any water to the river. The mean 
 flow of the Nile at Assuan for a period of 20 years is 107,350 
 cubic feet per second, the maximum recorded flow is 441,250 cubic 
 feet per second and the minimum 14,120 cubic feet per second. 
 
 1 This article is based for the most part on the following works. 
 Egyptian Irrigation 3 Ed. By Willcocks and Craig. Egyptian Irrigation 
 by C. T. Johnston. 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 283 
 
 The total area under cultivation and irrigation is 5,351,000 
 acres while the total cultivable area is 6,663,000 acres. The 
 cultivated area is cropped as follows: 
 
 WINTER SEASON 
 
 Acres 
 
 Clover 1,400,000 
 
 Wheat 1,250,000 
 
 Beans 550,000 
 
 Barley 400,000 
 
 3,600,000 
 SUMMER SEASON 
 
 Acres 
 
 Cotton 1,650,000 
 
 Millets and maize 170,000 
 
 Sugar cane 50,000 
 
 Rice 240,000 
 
 Miscellaneous 73,000 
 
 2,183,000 
 FLOOD SEASON 
 
 Acres 
 
 Millets and maize 1,700,000 
 
 Rice 50,000 
 
 Garden and orchard cover 30,000 
 
 1,780,000 
 
 The total area in crops is 7,563,000 acres or 2,212,000 acres in 
 excess of the area of land, from which it is seen that approximately 
 45 per cent, of the land is double-cropped. 
 
 There are 1,392,000 landowners in Egypt owning 5,464,000 
 acres, with a mean holding of 3.9 acres. The number of owners 
 of less than 5 acres is 1,247,000, holding 1,370,000 acres a 
 mean holding of 1.1 acres. There are 12,410 owners holding 50 
 acres apiece or 2,460,000 acres in all a mean holding of 200 acres. 
 The population of Egypt in 1907 was 11,287,359, or 1.47 person 
 per acre. Cultivation increased 13 per cent, from 1897 to 1907 
 while the population increased 16 per cent. 
 
 BASIN IRRIGATION. Two systems of irrigationare practised side 
 by side in Egypt. The ancient or basin system is confined to half 
 of upper Egypt, and the modern or perennial system is employed 
 on the remaining half of upper Egypt and the whole of lower 
 
284 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 Egypt. The perennial system applied to suitable lands is more 
 profitable than the basin system, but depends on the summer 
 supply of the Nile, which is both limited and irregular in quan- 
 tity. To reclaim waste lands, improve deteriorated lands, and 
 renew old and fatigued lands, the basin system which has come 
 down from the Pharaohs is the best. To develop good lands and 
 make them yield their maximum when skillfully handled, the 
 perennial system has undoubtedly the advantage. 
 
 Considering the times of flood and low supply, the climate of 
 Egypt, etc., no better system than the basin method could have 
 been devised. If the floods had come in April or May and been 
 followed by a burning summer, or if the autumn floods had been 
 followed by the frozen winters of Europe or the warm winters of 
 the Sudan, basin irrigation would have been a failure or a moder- 
 ate success; but given Egyptian climate, basin irrigation has 
 stood without a rival for 7000 years. By this system the direct 
 labor of cultivation is reduced to an absolute minimum. 
 
 Basin irrigation holds the flood waters for some 45 days per 
 annum over the whole of the valley. The water is in places 3 
 meters (9.84 feet) deep and in others only 30 centimeters (0.984 
 feet), the average depth being 1 meter (3.28 feet). The thorough 
 saturation of the subsoil caused by basin irrigation provides a 
 supply of underground water which can be drawn upon by pump- 
 ing to mature certain crops and for growing others. 
 
 The basins have an average area of 7000 acres. Where the 
 valley is narrow they average 2000 acres each and where it is 
 wide 20,000 acres, while some of the tail basins are 40,000 acres in 
 extent. Each canal has seven or eight basins depending on it, of 
 which the last is always the largest. There are masonry regu- 
 lators at the canal heads, at each crossing of the cross banks and 
 at the tail escapes into the river. In the more perfect basins, the 
 canals and escapes syrjhon under one another and overlap and 
 supply each other's deficiencies, so as to meet the requirements of 
 every kind of flood which Egypt can experience. The cost of 
 basin irrigation in Egypt for basins of 10,000 acres may be taken 
 at 3 pounds ($15) per acre. 
 
 The filling of the basins begins ordinarily about the 12th of 
 August and in the southernmost basins is completed by the 1st of 
 October when the escapes are opened and the water discharged 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 285 
 
 back into the Nile, ordinarily by October 15. If the Nile is still 
 high when the time for emptying comes there is no recourse but 
 to allow the water to remain until the river lowers, but this very 
 seldom occurs. If the flood has not been sufficient to fill all the 
 basins completely the upper basins are drawn off to supply the 
 lower ones. 
 
 The basin dykes have an average width at top of 6 meters 
 (19.68) feet, a height of 3^ meters (11.48 feet), and a slope of 
 1 to 1. A few of the transverse dykes are riprapped with stone 
 on their northern slopes to break the force of the waves. The 
 villages within the basins are on artificial mounds protected with 
 stone. Communications between villages are kept up by means 
 of boats or the dykes during the inundation. 
 
 PERENNIAL IRRIGATION. About the year 1820 Mohamed Ali 
 Pasha changed the irrigation system of lower Egypt by excavat- 
 ing a number of deep perennial canals capable of discharging the 
 low level summer supply of the Nile. This allowed the cultiva- 
 tion of cotton during the summer and thus introduced cotton on a 
 large scale in Egypt. 
 
 As the area under perennial irrigation increased it became 
 evident that the summer flow of the Nile was unreliable unless 
 supplemented by storage. Accordingly in 1888 steps were taken 
 to build control works on the river to protect against drought, and 
 later the great Assuan dam was built, impounding approximately 
 2,000,000 acre-feet of water. 
 
 In all perennially irrigated tracts the year is divided into three 
 seasons. The summer crops are sugar cane, cotton, rice, millets, 
 vegetables, and orchards; while clover is irrigated up to June. 
 The summer is followed by the flood season, when the whole 
 country is irrigated. The flood crops are millets, maize and rice. 
 The third season is winter, when the crops are clover, wheat, beans, 
 barley, vetches, etc. (Fig. 74). The flood crop of maize is the 
 staple food for the whole agricultural population. 
 
 Since 1901 the whole of the summer discharge of the Nile has 
 been utilized in perennial irrigation. 
 
 The area provided with perennial irrigation by the State covers 
 4,064,000 acres, of which 964,000 acres is in upper Egypt and 
 3,100,000 acres in lower Egypt. 
 
 One of the most important perennial irrigation areas is the 
 
286 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 Fayum in lower Egypt. The Fayum, like parts of the Imperial 
 Valley of California, is an inland depression with a lake called 
 Birket Harun located in the northwestern part next to the Lybian 
 desert, the surface of which is 33 feet below sea-level. The only 
 connection between the lake and the River Nile is an artificial 
 canal. During the reigns of Amenemhat I and his successors of 
 the 12th Dynasty, this lake must have covered fully 10 times its 
 present area and, being controlled by sluice gates, formed the 
 
 FIG. 74. Check method of applying water as practised under perennial 
 irrigation in Egypt. 
 
 famous Lake Moeris, which served as a regulator for the high and 
 low floods of the Nile. 
 
 Since the Assuan reservoir was completed 405,000 acres of basin 
 land have been converted to perennial irrigation. There remains 
 under basin irrigation an area of 995,842 acres. 
 
 In 1912 it was estimated that the total number of water wheels 
 or sakias on wells in the basins was 40,600; also 740 oil engines 
 with a total horsepower of 11,470. The greater part of the land 
 supplied with water in this way (240,330 acres) is devoted to sugar 
 cane and sorghum, and the remainder to cotton. 
 
 Large sections of the basin areas have been enclosed by sub- 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 287 
 
 sidiary dykes and cultivated with sugar cane and cotton. Such 
 lands are irrigated by pumps deriving water from the Nile or wells 
 in the basins. The natives generally pump their water by means 
 of sakiyehs (Fig. 75) operated by oxen or by shadoufs worked by 
 men, although in some cases deep wells are bored by companies 
 and the water is pumped and sold to the natives. 
 
 Cotton is irrigated at planting time and about 30 to 35 days 
 thereafter the second irrigation is applied, subsequent waterings 
 
 FIG. 75. Sakiyeh for raising water for irrigation in Egypt. 
 
 being at intervals of about every 15 to 18 days. In all eight 
 waterings are given prior to the time the flood arrives. After 
 the flood, four more irrigations are given. The total amount 
 applied per acre amounts to 4400 cubic meters (about 3.5 feet in 
 depth over the surface). 
 
 For the summer watering of rice the water is changed every 2 
 to 3 days during the first fortnight, then every 4 to 8 days for the 
 next 6 weeks, further waterings occurring every 8 to 10 days. 
 
 Wheat and barley are irrigated at time of sowing, again 40 to 
 45 days later, while a third irrigation is applied at flowering time. 
 
288 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 Sugar cane is watered 15 to 16 times, receiving in all 8800 cubic 
 meters (7 ac. ft.) of water per acre. 
 
 53. Irrigation in South Africa. In 1912 the Government of 
 South Africa passed a new Irrigation Act which provided for the 
 creation of irrigation districts and Government loans to ap- 
 proved irrigation works. U. S. Consul Wakefield reports that the 
 Cougha Poort Irrigation District was one of the first to be organ- 
 ized under the Act. The water is taken from Cougha River 
 which has its source in the South Coast, This is a perennial 
 stream which seldom carries less than 367 acre-feet per day. The 
 system consists of a concrete weir, 3}^ miles of main canal, a 
 24-inch steel siphon under the river and two branch steel siphons 
 with smaller pipe distributaries to convey the water to the 
 irrigable lands. The system was designed to irrigate 2000 acres 
 and has cost $88,500, or $42 per acre. The Government has 
 advanced money in connection with this enterprise which is to 
 be repaid in 25 years with 4 per cent, interest per annum. 
 
 Another larger enterprise has just been undertaken (1916) 
 near Port Elizabeth, consisting of a dam on Sunday's river to 
 store 69,054 acre-feet at a cost of $1,000,000 for the purpose of 
 irrigating 38,000 acres of deciduous and citrus orchards. Up to 
 the end of their fiscal year, March 31, 1915, the Government had 
 expended about $7,000,000 in aid of irrigation. 
 
 54. Irrigation in India. India includes within its borders the 
 highest mountains in the world and some of the mightiest rivers 
 and greatest plains. Topographically it may be divided into 
 three distinct parts: first the Himalayas along the northern bor- 
 der; second, the plains of the great rivers; and third, south of the 
 plains, a table-land broken by many peaks and mountain ranges 
 separated by broad and fertile valleys. 
 
 The Himalayas may be likened to the Sierra Nevada 1 bordering 
 the eastern side of the great California valley, having the same 
 general appearance of low, rolling foothills with the higher peaks 
 so far back as to be scarcely visible from the valley. The highest 
 peak is Mount Everett, 29,002 feet above sea-level, while peaks 
 above 20,000 feet elevation abound. 1 
 
 The principal rivers are the Indus, the Ganges, and the Brah- 
 
 1 Irrigation in India by H. M. Wilson, W. S. & T. Paper No. 87, U. S. 
 Geol. Survey. 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 289 
 
 maputra, all of which rise in the Himalayas; and the Godaveri, 
 Cauveri, and Kistna rising in the western Ghauts, a mountain 
 range along the western seashore of the peninsula. Water 
 for irrigation is diverted from all these rivers except the 
 Brahmaputra. 
 
 The flood discharges of the various great Indian rivers are 
 enormous. The Ganges in flood may discharge 1,350,000 second- 
 feet, the Godaveri the same amount, while the Soane one of the 
 smaller rivers, having a catchment area of only 34,000 square 
 miles, discharges 1,700,000 second-feet, equivalent to 50 second- 
 feet per square mile of catchment. 
 
 By far the greater part of the rainfall 1 of India is due to the 
 southwest monsoon, which occurs between June and October. 
 The later part of the cold weather and the earlier spring months 
 are the time's of the winter rainfall in northern India. The 
 intensity of the rainfall varies greatly. The average fall of the 
 whole of India is about 42 inches. Speaking generally it may be 
 said that the smaller the average rainfall of any tract, the greater 
 is the probability that the gross fall in it in any particular year 
 will be below the average of a long series of years. When the 
 annual rainfall is not over 10 or 12 inches crops can not be grown 
 without irrigation. On the other hand, in sections where the 
 average fall is 70 inches, it is very seldom that any irrigation is 
 required. Intermediate between these two conditions there 
 is a tract of about a million square miles where irrigation 
 alone can secure the country from an occasional loss of crops, 
 although such a loss will never occur simultaneously over all 
 the area. 
 
 Authorities differ regarding the area actually irrigated in India. 
 This is probably due to the fact that large areas of land are pro- 
 vided with a water supply as a protection against drought which 
 occurs only at intervals so that the cropped area irrigated varies 
 from year to year. Another reason may be the fact that much 
 of the land produces two or more crops yearly so that the acreage 
 in crops is considerably larger than the area of land irrigated. 
 
 According to the most reliable information obtainable, the area 
 actually irrigated in 1911-12 was as follows: 
 
 1 The Irrigation Works of India by R. B. Buckley. 
 
290 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 By canals: Acres 
 
 Government 16,820,827 
 
 Private 2,068,428 
 
 By tanks 5,364,200 
 
 By wells 10,408,424 
 
 Other sources 6,017,263 
 
 Total 40,679,142 
 
 The total length of canals in India is 42,352 miles, of which 
 12,497 miles were main canals ancl the remainder distributaries. 
 
 The irrigation works of India have been divided by Buckley 
 into the following classes. 
 
 1. Major works: 
 
 A. Works of which the capital has been provided from 
 borrowed money (productive works). 
 
 B. Works of which the capital has been provided out of 
 the general revenues of India (protective works). 
 
 2. Minor works: 
 
 A. Works of which capital and revenue accounts are kept. 
 
 B. Works of which no capital accounts are kept. 
 
 There are 42 systems coming under major works (A). Before 
 a project can be sanctioned under this class it is necessary that 
 there should be good reason to think that it will provide a net 
 revenue equal to or greater than the interest which the Govern- 
 ment has to pay on the money borrowed for its construction. 
 The test, in fact, which is applied to all projects for works of this 
 class is a purely commercial one; it is considered that borrowed 
 money should be expended only on works which are likely to be 
 remunerative. According to figures compiled several years ago, 
 19 of the 42 major works (A) hacl not paid 4 per cent, interest on 
 the investment, but the profits from the other 23 were sufficient 
 to cover the deficiencies. 
 
 The major works (B) are eleven in number. They are the 
 works generally known as "protective works" which will not 
 stand the commercial test applied to the major works (A); 
 that is, the net revenue derived from them is not likely to cover 
 interest on the capital expended. They are designed as a pro- 
 tection against famine. 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 291 
 
 The minor works (A) comprise 85 systems in operation. Some 
 of these works are old tanks and inundation canals which have 
 been taken over, improved and worked by the British Govern- 
 ment; others are new works entirely constructed by the British 
 Government but which do not fulfil the conditions of the two 
 classes of major works above described. The majority of this 
 class of works were constructed before the system of constructing 
 irrigation works from borrowed capital had been introduced, 
 otherwise some of them would have been classed as major works 
 (A). 
 
 The minor works (B) are extremely numerous and generally 
 of small extent individually. The great majority of them are old 
 works and there is no record of their original cost. 
 
 The amount of water required to mature the staple crops of 
 India varies greatly with conditions. Many of these, such as 
 the character of the soil, rainfall, transmission losses, and the 
 like, do not differ from those of the United States. Again, the 
 greater part of the irrigated portion of India resembles the Pacific 
 Coast States in having a wet and a dry season in each year, with 
 this difference, that in India the heavy rainfall occurs in summer. 
 Khareef crops, such as cotton, corn, indigo, and rice, are grown in 
 the rainy summer season while rabi crops correspond to the 
 fall sown wheat of the West. In general more water is required 
 for khareef than for rabi crops. Thus under the Upper Ganges 
 canal, according to Buckley, the average depth of water applied 
 to the former was 32 inches over the surface, while 20 inches 
 sufficed for the latter. 
 
 The methods followed in preparing land and applying water 
 and in the production of irrigated crops generally, differ in many 
 essential features from the corresponding practice of this country. 
 This wide difference arises from the small size of the average 
 farm in India, the cheap labor, the lack of equipment as well as 
 land tenure and land surveys. Irrigation as practised by the 
 Hindoo farmers is not unlike Chinese gardening in the arid 
 states of this country. Small irrigated plats, the absence of 
 costly equipment, a large amount of manual labor and the exer- 
 cise of skill as well as patience, characterize both. 
 
 55. Irrigation in Java. The island of Java is approximately 670 
 miles long and has an average width of 82 miles. Through the 
 
292 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 middle of this elongated island runs a chain of mountains of 
 volcanic origin, many of the craters being still active. The plains 
 are composed for the most part of material brought down by the 
 volcanoes. 
 
 The rainfall is governed quite largely by the monsoons, the 
 west monsoon causing rains and the east monsoons giving rise 
 to droughts. The heaviest precipitation, of course, occurs in 
 the high mountains and becomes less as the lower plains are 
 reached. The rainfall on the plains along the northwest coast is 
 greater and starts earlier than on the northeast coast but the 
 rains along the latter coast extend over a longer period. In 
 general the rainfall is heavier along the south coast than the 
 north coast. The rainy season extends from October to May, 
 February being the wettest month and August the driest. Dur- 
 ing the time of the east monsoon or dry period, the rainfall is 
 sometimes very scant, little rain falling for several months in 
 some years. The rainfall at Batavia, the seat of government, 
 is 72.28 inches per annum and at Majalenka it is 175 inches. 
 In the more elevated portions of the island the precipitation is 
 even greater, but authentic records are lacking. 
 
 The island of Java lies wholly in the tropics, being a short 
 distance south of the equator. The crops grown consist prin- 
 cipally of rice and sugar cane, which are grown in the west 
 monsoon, and maize, pulses, arachides, cassava, tobacco, indigo, 
 and cotton, which are grown during the dry period, since they 
 require less water. 
 
 Owing to the shape of the island the rivers have short courses 
 and small watersheds. The largest are the Solo and the Brantas, 
 having lengths of 325 and 190 miles respectively. All the rivers 
 have a general northerly or southerly course. The discharges 
 of these rivers are extremely erratic. The Solo, for example, has 
 discharged as high as 90,000 cubic feet per second while its 
 minimum flow is 800 cubic feet per second. Nearly all these 
 rivers bring down enormous quantities of silt during the floods, 
 especially in the regions of active volcanoes. 
 
 The island of Java comprises about 31,000,000 acres of which 
 40 per cent, or 12,500,000 acres are cultivated. The population 
 in 1905 was 30,098,008, making it one of the most densely popu- 
 lated lands in the world. Notwithstanding this fact the people 
 
USE OF WATER IX FOREIGN COUNTRIES 293 
 
 for the most part live in small villages and are engaged in agri- 
 culture. Batavia is the largest city, having a population of 
 about 125,000. Each town or village constitutes a separate and 
 distinct community, seldom exceeding 1000 inhabitants, and 
 when the population reaches a certain limit a new community is 
 formed, which begins the development of new land. The popu- 
 lation of Java nearly doubled between 1880 and 1905, due, in all 
 probability, to the work of the Western rulers in utilizing the 
 water of the large streams for irrigation, thus greatly increasing 
 the productivity of the valley land. 
 
 The Javanese have practised irrigation on their rice fields 
 from a very remote time. Their systems are, of course, very 
 crude, and they were only able to utilize the waters of small 
 streams and wells, since they lacked the necessary technical 
 knowledge and resources to make use of the water of the large 
 rivers. Nevertheless, more than half of the area of irrigated rice 
 fields in Java are supplied by native works. 
 
 The Netherlands Colonial Government, first represented by 
 the East India Company, began taking interest in irrigation 
 work as early as the 18th century. The first canal constructed 
 under Government supervision was the " Oosterslokkan " built 
 during the years 1739 to 1753. Since that time the Government 
 has continued to take an active part in irrigation matters but the 
 greatest activity in the construction of works has taken place 
 since the establishment of the Public Works Department in 1854. 
 A considerable part of the work has been done during the last 15 
 years and works are now under construction for the irrigation of 
 about 415,000 acres additional. This work consists of repairing 
 and reconstructing existing systems, many of which were of a 
 very faulty design or of a temporary nature, and also in the 
 construction of new works. There have been eleven large pro- 
 jects constructed by the Government or in course of construction, 
 costing from $300,000 to over $3,000,000 each. 
 
 The growth of the Government participation in the construc- 
 tion of irrigation enterprises is evidenced by the fact that in 1885 
 there were 9 engineers and 12 surveyors employed, whereas in 
 1914 the number had increased to 95 engineers and 136 surveyors. 
 
 The chief irrigated crops of Java are rice and sugar cane. 
 There is roughly 4,000,000 acres devoted to rice on the island and 
 
294 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 of this 2,500,000 acres is irrigated, the remainder being what is 
 termed ''Providence" rice in the United States; that is, dependent 
 on the natural rainfall alone. Rice is usually grown during the 
 west monsoon but in districts where irrigation water is abundant 
 during the east monsoon two crops are grown on the same land, 
 one during each monsoon. 
 
 The rice seed is sown in nurseries where it is allowed to remain 
 for 6 weeks, it is then transplanted in the fields. About one- 
 tenth of the area to be planted is taken up by the nurseries. 
 
 
 FIG. 76. Ploughing in Java. 
 
 For the first few days after the rice is sown the beds are simply 
 kept damp, after which they are entirely submerged until time of 
 replanting. 
 
 Before the seedlings can be transplanted to the rice fields proper, 
 the latter must be prepared for the purpose. The quantity of 
 water required depends on the nature of the soil, the topography, 
 the height of the ground water, and the rainfall. In some dis- 
 tricts the soil needs very little water prior to planting so that 
 only a few weeks need elapse between the time of plowing and 
 planting. In other sections the ground is subjected to a copious 
 watering before plowing (Fig. 76) and a long course of treatment 
 afterward, consisting of successive plowings, harrowings, and ex- 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 295 
 
 posure to sun and air. The time required for such treatment is 
 from 7 to 14 weeks. 
 
 After planting further irrigation is needed for a time, the 
 quantity necessary diminishing as the plants get older. No 
 water is necessary after the heads begin to fill. 
 
 No attempt is made to plant an entire field at one time; in 
 fact, it is not uncommon to find a difference in the time of maturity 
 of 6 to 8 weeks in a single field. 
 
 FIG. 77. A patjol an implement used extensively in Java and other 
 parts of the Orient. 
 
 The second crop in importance is sugar cane, which is grown 
 extensively in some localities and constitutes one of the chief 
 export crops of the island. Sugar cane is planted any time from 
 May to August. As a rule, the same piece of ground is planted 
 once in 3 years. Irrigation is usually necessary only during the 
 east monsoon. 
 
 The so-called "secondary crops," consisting of maize, tobacco, 
 cassava, etc., are grown during the east monsoon. Less water is 
 required for these crops than for sugar cane. In many districts 
 the irrigation water is divided between the sugar-cane plantations 
 and the secondary crops, the water being applied to the sugar 
 cane during the day and to the secondary crops at night 
 (Fig. 77). 
 
296 VSE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 56. Irrigation in Japan. 1 On account of the mountainous 
 character of the country and the extent of forests, less than 
 13,000,000 acres comprising about 17 per cent, of the total area 
 of the islands, is cultivated. This is divided into irrigated paddy 
 fields (ta) and dry-land fields (hata), the .former amounting 
 to 7,057,000 acres and the later to 5,908,000 acres. Paddy fields 
 are almost all devoted to rice, but in the warmer districts after- 
 crops of barley, rape, and clover crops are also grown. On 
 the dry-land fields are grown such crops as wheat, barley, upland 
 rice, corn, soy beans, millet, buckwheat, potatoes, and vegetables. 
 More than 6 per cent, of the total cultivated area of Japan is 
 devoted to the growing of mulberry trees. Japanese oranges, 
 pears, peaches, apples and grapes are also raised. 
 
 About 50 per cent, of the paddy fields and 60 per cent, of the 
 dry-land fields are farmed by the owners, the balance by tenants 
 who pay a high rent in kind. In rented rice fields the rent varies 
 from one-half to two-thirds of the crop, after-crops being excluded. 
 
 57. Irrigation in the Philippine Islands. The group of islands 
 making up the greater part of the Philippines has an area of ap- 
 proximately 115,026 square miles or 73,600,000 acres, which is 
 almost equal to the area of the New England States, New York 
 and New Jersey combined. The largest islands, Luzon and 
 Mindanao, have areas of 40,969 and 36,292 square miles, re- 
 spectively. The next nine in importance range in land area from 
 5000 to 1200 square miles. The islands are traversed by three 
 mountain ridges, mostly of volcanic origin, which contain peaks 
 having an altitude of over 10,000 feet. The plains are fertile 
 alluvial districts, some of considerable extent, which lie along 
 the courses of the rivers and between the sea and mountain 
 ranges. 
 
 The Philippines have many rivers, small streams, and lakes. 
 The rivers have their sources in the hills, and traverse fertile 
 valleys to the sea. There are eight rivers of importance, the 
 principal ones being the Rio Grande, Abra, w Agno, and Pampan- 
 gan, on the island of Luzon. Others are the Mindanao, Aguson, 
 Pulangui, the O'Donnell and Pillar Rivers. The larger streams 
 have a minimum flow varying from 500 to 3000 cubic feet per 
 
 1 See article in the Americana by Tokiyoshi Yokoi, Prof, of Agriculture, 
 Imperial University, Tokyo. 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 297 
 
 second. Their discharge is subject to great variation, due 
 principally to the tropical storms and the short length of the 
 streams. The Agno, for example, has a minimum flow of 500 
 cubic feet per second, but during a severe storm the flow was 
 estimated at 280,000 cubic feet per second. 
 
 The climate is distinctly tropical, except in altitudes above 
 5000 feet, where it is quite temperate. The mean annual 
 temperature at Manila is 80 degrees F. The hottest season is 
 from March to June, when the heat ranges from 80 to 100 degrees 
 F. The coolest weather prevails in December and January, 
 when the maximum temperature is usually slightly above 75 
 degrees F. There are two distinct seasons, the wet and the dry. 
 From December to May the rainfall is scant, ranging from 10 to 
 100 millimeters at Manila, while the remainder of the year has an 
 abundance of rainfall, the monthly average varying from 135 to 
 380 millimeters. 
 
 The principal industry of the Philippines is agriculture, and 
 40 per cent, of the population is engaged in farming. The leading 
 products are rice, hemp, tobacco, and sugar cane. In 1903 only 
 9.5 per cent, of the total area of the islands, or approximately 
 7,040,000 acres, was included in "farm lands," and only about 
 one-half, or 3,520,000 acres, was under cultivation. Of the 
 tatal area under cultivation but 3.5 per cent., or 125,000 acres 
 of this land, was systematically irrigated at this time. In 1911 
 94.5 per cent, of the total area under cultivation, or 2,578,077 
 acres, was devoted to the culture of rice. The Irrigation Divi- 
 sion of the Bureau of Public Works is the authority for the 
 statement that 124,950 acres are now under irrigation, but that 
 approximately 1,200,420 acres may be brought under modern 
 irrigation. The islands of Luzon and Cebu have by far the 
 greatest percentage of farm lands. The Philippines have a few 
 large farms and many small ones, and the average size of a farm 
 on the islands is but 8.6 acres. 
 
 Irrigation is essential during the dry season. One writer says: 
 "The distinct seasons are the prime reason for irrigation," the 
 rice crop requiring a great deal of water. The production of rice 
 in the Philippines is not sufficient for the needs of its own people. 
 This surprising fact necessitates further development of its 
 irrigation possibilities. Mr. H. B. Kirkpatrick says: 
 
298 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 "Rice is the principal crop of the islands, and is the principal food of 
 the Filipino. This crop requires a great deal of water, and the water 
 must be supplied at the proper time if the best results are to be obtained. 
 The Filipino can not plow his rice field until it has been soaked with 
 water, and water is required throughout growth until the grain is 
 formed." 
 
 With the aid of controlled irrigation the Filipino can at least 
 double his rice production, obtaining two crops in a year instead 
 of one. 
 
 Irrigation in the Philippines began thousands of years ago with 
 the savage tribes that inhabited the islands, and is practised 
 by them to-day. The work accomplished by the Igorrotes and 
 Ifugaos and other tribes was to conduct water to the terraced 
 rice paddies on the mountain sides. 
 
 The most wonderful rice terraces in existence to-day are those 
 built by the Ifugaos and located in the heart of Luzon. They 
 greatly surpass other terraces in the Philippines, Java, and the 
 Andes. One author describes them from an " industrial stand- 
 point" as the "most colossal undertaking in the Philippines and 
 the most stupendous task ever undertaken by savages." View- 
 ing them with the eye, he believes them to rival the Pyramids of 
 Egypt and the Great Wall of China and as a great utility and 
 example of engineering skill equal to the Roman viaducts. TheSe 
 terraces begin at the valley level and extend to the top of the 
 mountain and around its contour. One in particular has a ver- 
 tical extension of 3000 feet. The terraces range from 8 to 40 
 feet in width, and from 300 feet to % mile in length without vary- 
 ing 2 inches in elevation. Each terrace has an outside wall from 
 6 to 18 feet in height which extends to the terrace below to form 
 its inside wall. In Nueva Vizcaya, 3 miles east of Quiangan is 
 an excellent example of irrigation as practised by the Igorrotes. 
 There is no limit to the extent of these terraces except the size of 
 the mountain on which they are built. In many cases these 
 terraced mountains have the appearance of being sculptured, and 
 not creations of nature. 
 
 The savages simplify and facilitate their rice growing by irrigat- 
 ing and fertilizing in a single operation. A writer describes this 
 method in part as follows: 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 299 
 
 "The water deflected from mountain streams or arising from springs 
 passes through decomposed vegetable matter, ashes, black alluvial soil 
 and other fertilizing material and is carried to the uppermost rice ter- 
 race. It carries in suspension this rich fertilizing matter which is 
 distributed on the rice paddies. The water descends from the terrace 
 to the one below,, carrying with it much fertilizing material." 
 
 The savages do not use animals to till the soil, all the work 
 being done by manual labor. They seem to be ignorant of the 
 use of dams, but the water-tight aqueducts for carrying water 
 to the terraces made of hollow trees, are many and unique in 
 construction. 
 
 The progress of irrigation in the Philippines made under 
 Spanish rule began over 200 years ago, although the Spanish 
 Government did not encourage irrigation. The Spanish friars 
 acquired much rice holdings on the islands which necessitated 
 the construction of irrigation works. Their systems were 
 modern in principle, but more or less crude in construction. 
 Their structures were permanent. In the Magot River Valley is 
 a large canal built under the direction of Spanish priests many 
 years ago. It is 25 feet wide, 2 feet deep and carries water at a 
 velocity of about 2 miles'an hour. It irrigates the rice fields along 
 this valley to an extent of 15 miles. In Cavite and La Guna 
 provinces the Catholic Church built several irrigation systems. 
 In Cavite in a single system are several miles of tunnels, and more 
 than 50 dams, large and small, built of volcanic tuff. Some of 
 these dams are 100 years old, and are in use to-day. 
 
 Throughout the islands, principally in Luzon, are a great 
 number of systems built by the Filipinos which are somewhat 
 inferior to those constructed by the Friars. Some of the Filipino 
 systems have dams of brush and logs that are replaced after every 
 flood. Other systems have dams of brick and stone, with sub- 
 stantial headgates. A noticeable feature of these native-con- 
 structed irrigation systems is that some are built to take water at 
 all stages of the stream, while others only take water in flood time. 
 From 1880 until the outbreak of the insurrection, irrigation 
 development progressed very rapidly. 
 
 From the time the United States acquired the Philippines until 
 1907 but little attention was devoted by the Insular Government 
 
300 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 to irrigation. About this time the necessity of Government aid 
 for irrigation was realized, probably brought about by the realiza- 
 tion of the great importation of rice to the islands, amounting to 
 $5,000,000 in value annually. Previous to 1907 the only work 
 done by the Government was limited to repairs in Friar lands 
 systems and limited investigations of irrigation projects. The 
 Insular Bureau Report of 1905 calls attention to the great lack of 
 surveys and investigations concerning the topography, hydro- 
 graphy, storage and irrigation possibilities of the islands. In 
 1907 a small appropriation was made "for the construction and 
 maintenance of irrigation plants and systems in the provinces 
 subject to allotment and regulation as to the use of water and the 
 charge therefor by the Secretary of Commerce and Police. " 
 Since that time annual appropriations have been made and are 
 gradually increasing to secure necessary data. A Division of 
 Irrigation was formed in the Bureau of Public Works in 1908. 
 The Government has constructed two irrigation projects which 
 are briefly described as follows: 
 
 The first and largest irrigation project in the Philippines under- 
 taken by the Government is San Miguel project, begun in 1910, 
 located near San Miguel, Tarlac Province. This project was 
 constructed for a Philippine corporation, and irrigates"from 4000 
 to 5000 hectares of land, and cost approximately 1,100,000 
 pesos. The main canal has a bottom width of from 3.8 to 2.5 
 meters, and a grade of 1 to 2000, a total length of 19 kilometers 
 and a carrying capacity of 6 cubic meters per second. The total 
 length of laterals is about 19 kilometers. A particular feature of 
 this development is the large number of drops in canal construc- 
 tion necessary to overcome the rapid fall of ground. At one drop 
 power is developed to the extent of 100 horsepower. The water 
 is taken from the O'Donnell River, and is admitted to the canal 
 by nine headgates of modern construction. This river carries in 
 suspension much sand, and it was found necessary to construct a 
 settling basin. The San Miguel dam built for the storage of the 
 flood waters is of steel and concrete, and all necessary precautions 
 were taken in its construction to provide for the large and sudden 
 floods peculiar to the country. The drainage area above the dam 
 is about 300 square kilometers. 
 
 The Pillar irrigation project, another Government develop- 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 301 
 
 ment, is located near the town of Pillar in the province of Bataan, 
 and occupies an area between Pillar River and Talisaya River, 
 and Manila Bay. This is a small project, and irrigates ap- 
 proximately 200 hectares. The history of the project dates back 
 to 1886, when a dam and later a partial irrigation system were 
 built. About 1908 the owners applied to the Government for 
 aid. After contracts were signed, the reconstruction and repairs 
 to the system were begun. In 1911 a heavy storm destroyed the 
 head works, and in 1913 a new dam of modern design, built of 
 steel and concrete, replaced the destroyed structure. The con- 
 struction of irrigation systems in the Philippines requires great 
 precautions, due to the excessive floods, and in many instances 
 dikes are built to prevent destruction of banks, the flooding of 
 areas and possibly to prevent the river from seeking a new 
 channel. Irrigation development in the Philippines is aided by 
 this feature. The irrigable land is mostly flat, with a gentle slope 
 to the sea. To secure ample water supply, storage is necessary, 
 due to the great variation in stream flow. 
 
 Rice being the principal product of the Philippines, its culture 
 with relation to irrigation will be discussed briefly. The methods 
 employed at the present time are somewhat primitive, and its 
 cultivation is far from being classed as diversified farming. A 
 rich, fertile soil with a layer of impervious clay beneath to hold 
 the water is best adapted to its culture. Mr. C. M. Conner, 
 Agricultural Department, describing ' rice cultivation on the 
 Islands, says: 
 
 "The new land is plowed and harrowed, then as the water is turned on 
 or the rains commence small dikes are put up to hold the water on the 
 plants. The method followed is to use the water as a level and as a 
 result the paddies are small and irregular in shape." 
 
 The seed bed should contain some sand, as this aids in preserving 
 the roots of the plants when pulling to be transplanted. Four- 
 fifths of the rice growth is transplanted. In preparing the land 
 for transplanting, Mr. Conner again says: 
 
 "It should first be moistened by irrigation water if the rains have 
 not commenced in order to reduce the draft of the plow. The land 
 should be plowed about 10 centimeters deep the first time, and a little 
 
302 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 deeper the second time. It should be harrowed after the first plowing, 
 then allowed to stand for 10 or 15 days, after which it should be cross- 
 plowed and harrowed under water until the soil is well puddled." 
 
 One-twentieth of the total area to be planted is required for seed 
 bed. The transplanting is done in soft mud. The plants are 
 placed in rows 15 centimeters apart, and 2J centimeters in the 
 mud. Where irrigation is not practised the growth is harvested 
 at the end of the rainy season, and the field used for pasture until 
 the next year, exposure to the air and sun being very advanta- 
 geous to the soil. Single rice crops per year have been grown on 
 the same land for 100 years. In a few localities short rotation of 
 cane, corn and mungos is practised. Where irrigation is used 
 grass usually springs up after the first crop and hinders prepara- 
 tion for the second crop. 
 
 The lack of good irrigation laws has hindered irrigation de- 
 velopment on the Islands. Records and accounts are found of 
 hand-to-hand battles with bolos between natives fighting over 
 their share of water. Under the Spanish the " riparian doctrine" 
 was not applicable to the Philippines. About 1909 irrigation 
 experts in the United States were consulted, and an irrigation 
 law similar to the Nevada code was prepared and presented to the 
 legislature. Government aid for irrigation projects contain the 
 proviso that the benefited land owners must repay the Govern- 
 ment. This point is not covered by proper legislation. Again, 
 the number of landowners on a project are large and their hold- 
 ings are small, involving many complications of titles, few of 
 which are acceptable to the Government. All authors writing 
 on the Philippines emphasize the fact that first an adequate law 
 must be adopted to secure success of future irrigation develop- 
 ment on the Islands. 
 
 NOTE. The greater part of the information given above was obtained 
 from the following sources: 
 
 Quarterly Bulletins, Bureau of Public Works, Manila: July 1, 1913; 
 January 1, 1914; October 1, 1915. 
 
 "Scientific American" on Savage Irrigation, by Hamilton Wright: 
 February 3, 1912. 
 
 California Journal of Technology, "Legislation for the Philippines," 
 by A. E. Chandler: March, 1910. 
 
 Engineering and Contracting: November 29, 1911. Article by Mr. H. 
 B. Kirkpatrick, formerly Chief of Irrigation Division, P. I. 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 303 
 
 Farmers' Bulletin, Philippine Islands No. 52, "Rice Culture in the 
 Philippines," by Chas. M. Conner, 1912. 
 
 Report of the Bureau of Engineering for the Year Ended June 30, 1905. 
 Bureau of Insular Affairs, Washington, 1906. 
 
 Article by Mr. J. D. Fauntleroy on "Irrigation in Neueva Vizcaya." 
 Various encyclopedia. 
 
 58. Irrigation in Australia. Irrigation in Australia is in its 
 infancy. At present (1916) large areas of irrigable lands are 
 undeveloped and but slightly utilized by a relatively small 
 number of stockmen. As time goes on, however, people in less 
 favored climates will take advantage of the mild winters and 
 temperate summers of this island continent and immigrate 
 to its shores in quest of farms and homes. Since fully three- 
 fourths of the country is either arid or semi-arid, there can be 
 little development in agriculture beyond that which has already 
 taken place without the aid of irrigation. This doubtless ac- 
 counts for the fact that the Commonwealth is cooperating 
 with several of the States in the building of large irrigation 
 works and the colonizing of irrigable lands. Furthermore, the 
 governments of the majority of the States are enacting legisla- 
 tion and providing administrative machinery with a view to 
 establishing this basic industry on a broad and safe foundation. 
 
 In 1915 an agreement was entered into by the States of New 
 South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and the Government of 
 the Commonwealth of Australia, for the development, at a cost 
 of about $45,000,000, of irrigation schemes in the three States 
 mentioned, supplies for which will be drawn from the Murray 
 River. 
 
 Thus far comparatively little land in Australia has been 
 actually irrigated but works have either been built or are under 
 construction to provide a water supply for large areas of land. 
 In Victoria, the area actually irrigated at the present time is 
 less than one-fourth of a million acres but the area supplied with 
 water for domestic and ordinary use and for watering stock is 
 approximately 10,880,000 acres. Under the direction of Dr. 
 Elwood Mead, effective methods of colonizing the irrigable hold- 
 ings have been devised and put into successful operation. Briefly 
 stated, these consist of: (1) Long time and low interest in paying 
 for land; (2) no charges for water rights and only an annual 
 
304 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 charge to meet interest and operating expenses, the average price 
 of water being $1.25 per acre-foot measured at the place of use; 
 (3) small advances to settlers to aid in constructing needed build- 
 ings and for preparing a part of their holdings for successful ir- 
 rigation and profitable crops; (4) the establishment by the State 
 of cold storage plants, cooperative dairies, canning factories and 
 the like. 
 
 Little progress was made in irrigation in South Australia until 
 1910, when an irrigation and reclamation works department was 
 created. At present the Government is proceeding with the 
 preliminary surveys and construction of a number of irrigation 
 enterprises along the Murray River. The Cobdagla estate, 
 formerly held under grazing permits, has been resumed by the 
 crown and as the result of the surveys to June 30, 1913, 11,400 
 acres have been found available for irrigation. Additional ir- 
 rigable areas are being developed at Berri. A large central 
 pumping station has also been erected at the south end of Lake 
 Bonney to command adjacent irrigable lands. The maximum 
 lift is about 90 feet. 
 
 Tasmania, one of the six States which form the commonwealth 
 of Australia, has an area of nearly 17,000,000 acres, but its popula- 
 tion in 1914 was only 200,000. At present about 10,000 acres are 
 under irrigation and plans are being matured for enterprises 
 which will include much larger areas. 
 
 The State of western Australia is likewise making preliminary 
 surveys for irrigation enterprises, one of which includes a scheme 
 to irrigate 100,000 acres. 
 
 An idea of the present (1916) status of irrigation in the various 
 States of Australia can probably best be conveyed by a descrip- 
 tion of one, namely, New South Wales. 1 In this State thus far 
 only one large national scheme has been developed, that of the 
 Murrumbidgee irrigation enterprise. This is intended, to provide 
 for about 6000 farms or 200,000 acres of irrigable land to which 
 is attached about 1,000,000 acres of non-irrigable holdings. 
 Before the European war put a stop to immigration, this large 
 tract was being rapidly settled. At the close of 1915 about 1000 
 
 \ 
 
 1 Extracted from report prepared by G. J. Evatt, Secretary, under the 
 direction of E. M. DeBurgh, Commissioner of Irrigation. 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 305 
 
 block holders were in occupation. The management of the 
 Murrumbidgee project is vested in a commissioner of irrigation 
 who is responsible to the minister for agriculture and irrigation. 
 The irrigation works of the State, being reproductive, are financed 
 to a great extent out of loan money and the charges to settlers 
 are calculated to pay for administration and maintenance, pro- 
 vide interest on the capital cost involved in the carrying out of 
 the various projects and also an annual payment toward the 
 sinking fund for the repayment of the loan money expended on 
 the works. 
 
 The cost of a water right under the Murrumbidgee project 
 averages about $22.50 per acre. The Government does not 
 aim at making any profit out of the enterprise. The irrigable lands 
 under the project were purchased by the Government from 
 private holders at an average cost of between $12.50 and $15 per 
 acre. The title to the farms is leasehold in perpetuity and it has 
 been calculated that a rental of 2% per cent, based on a capital 
 value of from $15 to $40 per acre, according to the quality of the 
 land irrigated, will enable the State to meet the obligations al- 
 ready mentioned. The annual rental paid by the "water users is 
 $1.25 per acre-foot. The water is delivered to the farmers by 
 rotation. The period was originally a three-weekly one but dur- 
 ing the last two seasons it has been reduced to 15 days. Farmers 
 notify the superintendent of water distribution 5 days beforehand 
 as to their requirements and a supply is given accordingly. 
 Special waterings can be arranged for if crops are urgently in 
 need of a watering and it can be given without undue interference 
 with the requirements of other settlers who are dependent on 
 rotation. The matter is left entirely to the judgment of the 
 superintendent of water distribution. When it is granted a 
 nominal charge is made for such a special watering. 
 
 In the methods of preparing land and applying water there has 
 been no important departure from American practice. The 
 implements used are in most cases identical with those in com- 
 mon use in the United States. Flooding between check banks 
 is a method commonly adopted for irrigating alfalfa. The land 
 is made level transversely and a continuous fall is provided for 
 to insure the excess of water being readily drawn off. The 
 fhiof difference between Australian practice and the so-called 
 
306 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 border method of the United States consists in the shorter length 
 of the borders, which varies from 200 to 400 feet. 
 
 Flooding in paddocks or sections is also practised in irrigating 
 alfalfa and cereals. This corresponds closely to the check irriga- 
 tion methods of California. 
 
 The cost of preparing land for irrigation varies according to the 
 nature of the land, but as a general average the following may be 
 taken as typical of the Murrumbidgee irrigation areas. 
 
 Clearing, ready for the plow $12 to $25 per acre. 
 
 Making temporary ditches if ground 
 is too hard to plow without water. $2 . 50 per acre. 
 
 Plowing $3 . 00 per acre. 
 
 Harrowing, rolling, etc . 50 per acre. 
 
 Grading $10 to $20 per acre. 
 
 Head ditching 1 to \Y cents per foot. 
 
 Southeastern Australia possesses one of the largest artesian 
 basins in the world. The southern half of this great natural 
 underground reservoir lies in the northeastern portion of the 
 State of New South Wales, and it would be hard to estimate the 
 benefits both pastoral and agricultural that have been derived 
 from the tapping of this subterranean supply. Within this 
 district no less than 531 wells have been put down to depths vary- 
 ing from 100 to 338 feet. The rate of flow from these varies from 
 a pumping supply to a natural flow of 1,250,000 gallons (Imperial) 
 per day and the total flow per day from all the wells in the 
 artesian basin is upward of 100,000,000 gallons. The artesian 
 wells are utilized largely for stock supply purposes but the 
 water is also used for irrigation, although the presence of mineral 
 salts in some of the well waters militates greatly against their 
 value for irrigation. 
 
 59. Irrigation in Western Canada. So far irrigation in the 
 Dominion of Canada has been confined to the Provinces of 
 British Columbia and Alberta, together with a small area 
 (10,000 acres) in southwestern Saskatchewan. Compared with 
 the country to the south, the need for irrigation is less in that 
 broad expanse of territory which stretches from Halifax on the 
 east to Vancouver on the west. This is not so much due to a larger 
 annual precipitation as it is to a smaller loss of water by evapora- 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 307 
 
 tion. A rainfall which will barely support desert plants in Colo- 
 rado and Now Mexico suffices for a fairly dense forest growth in 
 parts of British Columbia, yet notwithstanding the fact that a 
 large percentage of the moisture which falls from the clouds is 
 available for plant growth, the necessity for irrigation has long 
 been felt in both British Columbia and Alberta and large amounts 
 of capital have been invested in irrigation works in both Pro- 
 vinces. In recent years the cost of the works built by the Cana- 
 dian Pacific Railroad in the province of Alberta reaches the 
 large aggregate of $20,000,000 and individuals and private irri- 
 gation companies have expended nearly as much more in British 
 Columbia. A brief outline of what has been accomplished in 
 irrigation up to the close of 1915 in the two western Provinces 
 is here given. 
 
 ALBERTA. The arid portion of this prairie province occupies a 
 belt approximately 160 miles in width north of the' State of 
 Montana and extends from the Rockies on the west across the 
 entire southern base of the Province and merges into the more 
 humid climate of Saskatchewan in the eastern limits of Cyprus 
 hills district of southwestern Saskatchewan. 
 
 The climatic conditions of Calgary are representative of the 
 western portion of Alberta and in that city for the 5 months of 
 May to September, there is an average precipitation of about 10 
 inches which is increased to 15 inches for the entire year. In the 
 vicinity of Medicine Hat in the eastern part of the Province, the 
 summer and annual precipitations are about 20 per cent. less. 
 Although the precipitation is less than it is at Greeley, Colo., 
 good cereal crops can be grown without the aid of irrigation in 
 seasons of more than normal rainfall. It is to insure against crop 
 failures in dry seasons that irrigation has been provided for. 
 
 One of the oldest irrigation projects in Alberta provides water 
 for lands in the neighborhood of Lethbridge. This enterprise 
 was first known as the Alberta Irrigation Company, but after 
 reorganization it became the Canadian Northwest Irrigation 
 Company and still later the Alberta Railroad and Irrigation 
 Company. In 1912 it was taken over by the Canadian Pacific 
 Railroad Company and has since been operated with other 
 similar enterprises by the Department of Natural Resources of 
 the company. This system diverts water from the St. Mary's 
 
308 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 River through a canal of 1000 second-feet capacity for the irriga- 
 tion of 100,000 acres, of which more than one-half were irrigated 
 in 1915. The capital cost has been $1,326,000. Since temporary 
 structures were first used and since the system has been in opera- 
 tion for 15 years, renewals and repairs are needed which will 
 require an additional expenditure of $350,000 or $1,676,000 in all, 
 thus making the first cost $13.25 per acre and with betterments 
 that are now being installed, $16.76 per acre. The annual water 
 rental paid by the water users is $1 per acre. The bulk of the 
 land around Lethbridge is naturally smooth and possesses an ideal 
 slope for distributing water. In consequence the preparation of 
 land costs on an average less than $2 per acre. The success of 
 this project has been largely due to the growing of alfalfa, which 
 forms a large percentage of the total cropped area under the 
 canal. Alfalfa has not only proved profitable as a fodder, selling 
 for $10 to $15 per ton, but also as a renovator of soils and as a 
 basis for crop rotation. 
 
 By far the largest irrigation project owned and operated by the 
 Canadian Pacific Railroad Company lies immediately east of 
 Calgary and embraces a block of 3,000,000 acres located between 
 the Bow and Red Deer Rivers. . This block is divided into the 
 central, western, and eastern sections. About 13 years ago the 
 construction of a system for the irrigable lands of the western 
 section was begun and water was first used in irrigating land in 
 1909 (Plate VIII). This system diverts water from Bow River 
 through a costly intake structure at Calgary and consists of 17 
 miles of main canal, having a capacity of 2300 second-feet, 254 
 miles of secondary canals and 1300 miles of distributaries with 
 their accompanying structures. These channels command an 
 area of over 1,0000,000 acres, of which by the first estimate 350,000 
 acres were said to be irrigable; but as a result of more accu- 
 rate surveys this estimate has recently been reduced to about 
 250,000 acres. The cost of the eastern section to date is 
 approximately $4,325,000 or $17.30 per acre. 
 
 The works for the eastern section have recently been completed 
 at a cost of $9,250,000. These comprise a diversion dam and 
 intake on Bow River near Bassano, costin-g $1,500,000, 5 miles of 
 main canal, 475 miles of secondary canals and 2020 miles of 
 distributaries. The channels command an area of about 1,250,- 
 
PLATE VIII 
 
 FIG. A. Secondary canal of Western Section Canadian Pacific project, 
 
 Alberta. 
 
 FIG. B. Concrete drop in secondary canal of same project. 
 
 (Facing page 308.) 
 
PLATE VIII 
 
 FIG. C. Irrigated wheat-field and lateral C. P. R. project, Alberta. 
 
 FIG. D. Water master's headquarters C. P. R. project, Alberta. 
 
USE OF \YATI-:R i\ FOREIGN COUNTRIES 309 
 
 000 acres, of which 425,000 acres are classed as being readily 
 susceptible of irrigation. 
 
 The central section comprises an area of 830,000 acres but no 
 efforts have as yet been made to construct the necessary works. 
 
 Irrigable land sells for $35 to $50 per acre, the higher prices 
 being asked for lands near towns and railway stations. Water 
 users pay yearly only 50 cents per acre on the western project 
 but this price having been found too low, a rate of $1.25 per 
 acre is charged on the eastern section. 
 
 Another large system, known as the Southern Alberta Land 
 Company, was nearing completion at the outbreak of the 
 European war and little has since been done. In this system 
 300,000 acre-feet of water from Bow River is stored in Lake 
 MacGregor reservoir. Additional storage is also provided in 
 Little Bow River reservoir which has a capacity of 30,000 acre- 
 feet. The contents of both reservoirs are intended for use on 
 some 200,000 acres of excellent land in the vicinity. 
 
 As regards duty of water in the Province of Alberta, this is 
 fixed arbitrarily by the terms of the Dominion irrigation act at 
 2 acre-feet per irrigable acre for the season. The actual amount 
 of water required for maximum plant growth varies considerably 
 with the kind of crop and other conditions but experience has 
 indicated that an average net duty of from 15 to 18 inches is all 
 that is required for average crops. 
 
 The methods followed in preparing land and applying water do 
 not differ in any essential part from those practised in the 
 States to the south. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA. This Province is wonderfully rich in 
 natural resources. For more than half a century the mines have 
 been producing gold and silver, lead and copper, coal and coke, 
 in steadily increasing quantities. The total revenues derived 
 from the sale of timber exceeds those from all other soil products 
 combined. In short, the output from the mines and forests, the 
 yearly catch of salmon, the extension of grain raising on dry 
 farms, the large expenditures in civic improvements and the 
 building of highways and railways, have tended to draw the 
 attention of the people away from irrigation and to subordinate 
 this basic industry to none the less important but less permanent 
 development. 
 
310 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 Southern British Columbia, containing an area equal to the 
 entire State of Colorado, is divided into a succession of long 
 narrow valleys by five or six mountain ranges which run north 
 and south. A typical feature of most of these valleys is a long 
 narrow lake which also has a general north and south direction 
 and thus parallels the range and valley on each side. The low 
 elevation of these mountain valleys, the mildness of the winter 
 climate and the fertility of the soil, render them well adapted to 
 the production of a fine quality of deciduous fruits and berries 
 when the natural aridity is overcome by artificial waterings. 
 
 Exclusive of individual effort, about 60 irrigation companies 
 have been organized to build works and sell land and water 
 rights to settlers. So rapid a development in diverting and using 
 water soon led to controversies which in turn induced the 
 Government of the Province to engage experts for the purpose of 
 making a thorough study of irrigation conditions and of framing 
 the necessary legislation. As a result of such investigations, 
 supplemented by the wise counsel of the minister of lands, Hon. 
 W. R. Ross, K. C., the province can now boast of an irrigation 
 code inferior to none on the North American Continent. Six 
 years ago there were 8000 unsettled claims to the use of water. 
 At that time the water rights branch of the Department of Lands 
 consisted of a chief water commissioner, two board members 
 who gave onry a small part of their time to official duties, and 
 three surveying parties engaged for the summer season. Four 
 years later there was a staff of over 50 members, consisting of 
 the commissioner of water rights, 3 members of the board of 
 investigation, 8 district engineers, and over 20 surveying parties 
 With such a staff, the old records can be surveyed, platted, inves- 
 tigated, determined, and licenses either granted or denied at the 
 rate of about 100 per month. Of the first 2000 claims that were 
 determined, only two were appealed to a higher court. In this 
 way the administration of the province hopes to free the water 
 users from litigation, the curse of irrigated countries. 
 
 60. Irrigation in the Hawaiian Islands. The water supply for 
 irrigation in the Hawaiian Islands is derived from three sources. 
 The chief supply is obtained from wells and sumps excavated 
 near the seashore and pumped to higher elevations by means of 
 oil or coal engines and electric motors. In 1909 according to 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 311 
 
 O'Shaughnessy 1 there were 60 pumping plants in operation hav- 
 ing capacities ranging from a few million gallons up to 10, 12 and 
 14 million gallons per 24 hours. 
 
 Next in order of importance is the stream flow on the windward 
 side of the islands. This supply is conveyed by gravity ditches 
 to the more arid parts. 
 
 Lastly there is the supply derived from the water confined in 
 the lava rocks. Recent experience has shown that water so 
 confined can be readily and cheaply liberated and utilized by 
 development tunnels excavated on grade. 
 
 The duty of water for sugar cane is generally stated to be not 
 less than the continuous flow of 1.5 second-feet for 100 acres, 
 although in porous soils this quantity may be needed for 60 
 acres. 
 
 At the Hawaiian Experiment Station the application of 8.6 
 acre-feet per acre gave a yield of 2700 pounds of sugar per acre. 
 Sugar cane constitutes the chief crop of the Islands. In 1915 
 about 200,000 acres of this crop were irrigated. 
 
 61. Irrigation in Argentina. Dr. Bailey Willis in his recent 
 work (1914) on Northern Patagonia, states that three-fifths 
 of the area of Argentina has less than 20 inches of rainfall. From 
 the Chubut River north for a distance of 1500 miles, there is an 
 immense area located on the eastern slope of the continental range 
 which has less than 10 inches of rainfall. East of this long belt is 
 another which has an annual precipitation of less than 16 inches, 
 and still east of this lies a larger belt in which the precipitation 
 ranges from 15 to 30 inches per annum. In view of such arid 
 conditions Willis may well state that "the conservation of the 
 waters and their utilization to the greatest possible extent of 
 economical service is the most important factor among the natural 
 resources of this Republic." 
 
 The valley which presents the best prospects for irrigation and 
 intensive agriculture, is that of the Rio Negro. This stream, 
 which has a mean annual discharge of 17,000 second-feet, is 
 dependent for its supply on two main tributaries, the Limay and 
 the Neuquen, both of which rise in the Andes but nearly 300 
 miles apart. The drainage basin of the Rio Negro and its tribu- 
 
 1 Irrigation Works in the Hawaiian Islands by M. M. O'Shaughnessy, 
 C. E. in Engineering News. 
 
312 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 taries contains about 9,000,000 acres and at present supports on 
 an average a sheep to each acre. 
 
 The condition of Argentina to-day does not differ from that 
 which prevailed in the States of the Rocky Mountain region 35 
 years ago. Stock-raising is the main industry. There are said 
 to be 20,000,000 head of cattle and 80,000,000 sheep. In course 
 of time these conditions will change. The large ranches will be 
 subdivided; irrigated farms will be formed out of arid pasture 
 lands, and a larger and more stable population will depend on the 
 irrigated farms for sustenance. 
 
 In recent years the national Government has taken an active 
 part in the development of irrigation. In most cases it provides 
 the funds for construction in the form of loans to the provinces, 
 which repay them on easy terms. Projects approved during 1915 
 are to cost a little less than $2,000,000. The railway corpora- 
 tions have likewise cooperated with the Government and the 
 more arid provinces in furthering the interest of irrigation 
 farming. 
 
 According to a list of irrigation projects prepared by special 
 agent, J. A. Massel, the total area under completed projects 
 aggregates 1,116,200 acres and the area under proposed and par- 
 tially completed projects amounts to about 3,221,000 acres. 
 
 62. Irrigation in Northern Brazil. The States of Piauhy, 
 Ceard, Rio Grande de Notre, Parahyba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, 
 Sergipe, and Bahia, in northeastern Brazil, embracing an area 
 of nearly 300,000,000 acres, consists of a coastal belt of limited 
 area, an interior undulating plain and extensive table lands 
 that rise above the plains to elevations of from 1500 to 2800 feet. 
 This region is arid rather than tropical, being covered with cactus, 
 brush and dwarf trees, although the equator is only 8 north of 
 its center. Over the greater part the annual rainfall is less than 
 20 inches and the entire region is subject to prolonged droughts. 
 It was to relieve the famines which such droughts produced that 
 the Government of Brazil organized in 1904 three federal bureaus 
 known as the Reservoir Commission, the Drought Commission 
 and the Commission for Sinking Wells. In 1909 these com- 
 missions were consolidated into the Inspectoria de Obras Contra 
 as Seccas, or Drought Service, and placed in charge of M. A. 11. 
 Lisboa as chief. So far the Service has devoted its energies 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 313 
 
 mainly to surveys, studies of the water resources, and to the 
 building of reservoirs, a list of which is here given. 
 
 RESERVOIRS BUILT OR PROPOSED IN NORTHEASTERN BRAZIL 
 
 Name 
 
 Status 
 
 Capacity, acre- 
 feet 
 
 "3 
 
 !i 
 
 if 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 
 ja 
 
 Jl 
 
 Material 
 
 
 Projected 
 
 600 000 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 Masonry 
 
 Quixadi 
 
 Constructed . 
 
 111,450 
 
 51 
 
 1360 
 
 Masonry 1 
 
 Gargalheira . . 
 
 Projected 
 
 60,500 
 
 56 
 82 
 
 800 
 395 
 
 Earth* 
 Masonry 
 
 
 Constructed 
 
 20,600 
 48 600 
 
 65 
 
 59 
 
 300 
 1450 
 
 Overflow* 
 Earth 
 
 
 In construction 
 
 38000 
 
 108 
 
 1030 
 
 
 
 Projected 
 
 25,100 
 
 52 
 
 1150 
 
 Earth 
 
 Santo Antonio de Russas. . . . 
 Soledade 
 
 In construction. 
 Projected 
 
 22,700 
 26,000 
 
 43 
 25 
 
 2030 
 1450 
 
 Earth 
 Earth 
 
 Serafim Dias 
 
 Projected 
 
 21,900 
 
 66 
 
 950 
 
 Masonry overflow 
 
 Lagoa das Pombas . . . 
 
 Constructed. . . . 
 
 16,200 
 
 20 
 
 790 
 
 Earth 
 
 Sao Pedro Timbauba 
 
 In construction. 
 
 15,600 
 
 46 
 
 1820 
 
 Earth 
 
 Cruzeta 
 
 Projected 
 
 13,000 
 
 39 
 
 1670 
 
 Earth 
 
 Santo Antonio Caraubas. . . . 
 
 Projected. ...'.. 
 
 9,000 
 7 900 
 
 33 
 33 
 
 1900 
 1020 
 
 Earth 
 Earth 
 
 Sant* Anna Pau dos Ferros. . 
 Araca 
 
 Constructed; to 
 be increased to 
 Projected 
 
 5,670 
 5,650 
 
 39 
 44 
 
 920 
 485 
 
 Earth 
 
 Varzea de Volta . . 
 
 Projected 
 
 5,600 
 
 30 
 
 670 
 
 Earth > 
 
 Breguedoff 
 
 Constructed . . 
 
 5,100 
 
 26 
 
 380 
 
 Earth 
 
 Salao 
 
 
 4 350 
 
 43 
 
 1035 
 
 Earth 
 
 Zangarelha 
 
 Projected 
 
 4,200 
 
 36 
 
 490 
 
 Masonry 
 
 Pedra Branca 
 
 Projected 
 
 3,850 
 
 44 
 
 910 
 
 Earth 
 
 Sao Rayinundo Nonnato. . . . 
 Corredor. . . 
 
 In construction. 
 In construction 
 
 3,800 
 3 300 
 
 28 
 
 820 
 
 Earth 
 Earth 
 
 Curraes. . . 
 
 In construction 
 
 3 250 
 
 35 
 
 1020 
 
 Earth 
 
 
 Projected 
 
 2 900 
 
 33 
 
 400 
 
 
 Alto da Serrinha 
 
 
 1,670 
 
 33 
 
 1400 
 
 Earth 
 
 Sao Miguel Uruburetama. . . 
 Bodocong6 
 
 Constructed. . . . 
 Projected 
 
 1,140 
 1 120 
 
 39 
 
 48 
 
 560 
 490 
 
 Earth 
 Earth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 63. Irrigation in Colombia. Little progress has been made in 
 irrigation development in Colombia, but the need for better pro- 
 tection against prolonged droughts is keenly felt. The stock 
 and farming interests of the country are urging the national 
 Government to take steps to protect these industries. The 
 uneven distribution of the rainfall and its wide variations from 
 year to year are shown in the accompanying table from Consul 
 Ross Hazeltine's report of the rainfall of Cartagena: 
 
 1 Two principal dams. J Two projects. 
 
314 
 
 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 
 1909, 
 inches 
 
 1910, 
 inches 
 
 1911, 
 
 inches 
 
 1912, 
 inches 
 
 1913, 
 inches 
 
 .1914, 
 inches 
 
 January 
 
 0.54 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 February. . 
 
 05 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 March. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 April 
 
 1.93 
 
 1 05 
 
 1 78 
 
 
 69 
 
 20 
 
 May . . 
 
 9 02 
 
 4 44 
 
 1 27 
 
 13 
 
 1 35 
 
 94 
 
 June 
 
 2 02 
 
 5 67 
 
 80 
 
 1 47 
 
 2 14 
 
 1 11 
 
 July . . 
 
 7.89 
 
 6.85 
 
 0.80 
 
 88 
 
 11 
 
 
 August . 
 
 14.71 
 
 8 05 
 
 64 
 
 54 
 
 3 40 
 
 1 12 
 
 September 
 
 5 11 
 
 6 78 
 
 1 36 
 
 7 56 
 
 5 00 
 
 49 
 
 October 
 
 8.56 
 
 9.51 
 
 5 29 
 
 10 78 
 
 2 07 
 
 7 26 
 
 November 
 
 18.00 
 
 6 32 
 
 2 12 
 
 2 56 
 
 10 90 
 
 3 22 
 
 December.. 
 
 55 
 
 1 42 
 
 
 05 
 
 60 
 
 1 57 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total (in inches) 
 
 68.38 
 
 50.09 
 
 14.06 
 
 23.87 
 
 26.26 
 
 15.91 
 
 64. Irrigation in Peru. The Republic of Peru occupies a 
 portion of the west coast of South America from a point near 
 the equator to latitude 19 south. It is traversed from north to 
 south by the Andes Mountains which contain a number of lofty 
 volcanic peaks. The Amazon River has its source in these 
 mountains and the greater part of Peru lies in the watershed of 
 this river and its tributaries. The only arid portion of Peru is 
 the narrow strip of coastal plain having an average width of 
 30 to 40 miles, and consequently all the irrigation is found in 
 this strip. This plain is watered by about 65 rivers of perennial 
 and intermittent type having their sources in the Andes and 
 crossing the plain to the ocean, in many cases forming alluvial 
 fans at their mouths. 
 
 The land already under irrigation embraces a total area of 
 approximately 640,000 acres and the additional area which may 
 ultimately be irrigated at a reasonable cost is estimated to be 
 640,000 acres also. The area possible to irrigate is limited in 
 part by the coarse quality of the soils in some sections and 
 by the scarcity of suitable storage sites for conserving the flood 
 waters. Much land that is well situated topographically for 
 irrigation is found to consist of shallow, highly alkaline soil lying 
 directly on the rock, and, again, good land is found along streams 
 where all available water supplies are already fully utilized. 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 315 
 
 The mean annual temperature varies from 50 degrees F. in 
 June and July, to 90 degrees in February and March. It is 
 therefore possible to grow crops at any time of the year, but the 
 most favorable time for planting cotton and other staple crops 
 is in the spring from August to November. The climate is re- 
 markably uniform throughout the coast country due to the 
 Humboldt current which passes along it. 
 
 The rainfall of the coastal plains of Peru, with the exception 
 of the extreme northern part, is very light, not exceeding 2 or 
 3 inches per year. During the cooler winter months heavy fogs 
 occur in the evenings, sometimes lasting into the late morning 
 hours. Throughout the summer and fall from November to 
 April, there is constant dryness with bright sunshine, considerable 
 midday heat but cool nights. 
 
 Mr. William White Handley, Consul-General of Peru, states: 
 "There was practically no development of irrigation in Peru 
 from the time of the Spanish Conquest down to the beginning 
 of the present century. The Spaniards found irrigation v works 
 serving about the same area of land as is irrigated to-day, per- 
 haps a somewhat greater area. Old canals are traceable cover- 
 ing areas now abandoned, sometimes because of lack of water 
 in proper season for export crops such as sugar and cotton. They 
 did nothing to extend or improve the works. It is estimated 
 that over half the lands irrigated at the time of the conquest 
 were granted to various persons enjoying the patronage of the 
 crown, and the lands constituting such grants exist to-day in 
 large part, in the form of large sugar estates. The irrigation 
 works upon these estates are in the condition in which they were 
 found by the Spaniards. In several valleys, however, the Indian 
 communities were secured in the ownership of their lands. In 
 some cases the lands have descended to the present time in small 
 lots each with a separate proprietor." 
 
 The existing works are but the remnants of perhaps the most 
 elaborate and complete system of irrigation ever perfected by 
 man, which covered not only the best parts of the valleys but 
 terraced declivities of the mountains. 
 
 The amount of water used in irrigation is subject to seasonal 
 supply. In the spring, September to November, as low as 1 
 second-foot per 560 acres is used for the production of an average 
 
316 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 crop of cotton. When water is abundant the duty for an average 
 crop of cotton is 1 cubic foot per second for 200 acres. As the 
 summer advances, floods arrive and there is an abrupt change 
 from scarcity to superabundance of water. Then the duty falls 
 in all cases to 1 second-foot for 70 acres or less. On the sugar- 
 cane fields a high duty may be attained from April to December 
 owing to the frequency of dense fogs at night, so that even when 
 there is an abundance of water the average use on sugar cane 
 during these months is a second-foot for 200 acres. 
 
 The principal crops grown in Peru are cotton, sugar cane, 
 grapes and rice. Forage crops are little grown except for pastur- 
 ing stock, although some alfalfa is raised for sale to the army. 
 Seven crops of alfalfa per acre are cut, the yield varying from 
 10 to 17 tons. Corn yields an average of 50 bushels per acre, 
 lima beans 40 to 50 bushels per acre. The average yield of 
 cotton is 470 pounds per acre and of sugar cane 4% tons. No 
 fruit is grown commercially, although all subtropical fruits make 
 good yields when properly taken care of. 
 
 A law was passed by the Peruvian Government in 1913 pro- 
 viding for the raising of $9,750,000 by the issue of 30-year bonds 
 bearing 5% per cent, interest at a price not below 87% per cent., 
 to be devoted to irrigation and colonization, the bonds to be 
 secured on the irrigation works and to be repaid from sales of 
 public lands covered by these bonds. 
 
 A number of irrigation projects have been investigated and 
 designed or are being investigated for the Government by G. W. 
 Sutton, Chief of the Irrigation Service, which if constructed, 
 would provide water for about 336,000 acres of land. Some of 
 these contemplate the storage of flood waters where the normal 
 flow is already fully utilized and others the reconstructing and 
 enlarging of old systems. So far as is known, none of this work 
 has as yet been undertaken. 
 
 65. Irrigation in Siam. The kingdom of Siam in southern Asia 
 comprises an area of 242,587 square miles and has a population 
 of 6,230,000. Nearly the entire population outside of Bangkok, 
 the capitol and metropolis, is engaged in the growing of paddy 
 (uncleaned rice). The country exports annually 500,000 long 
 tons of this crop worth about $30,000,000, in addition to what is 
 
USE OF WATER IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 317 
 
 consumed as food locally. The Siamese rice is considered to be 
 the best in the world. 
 
 Since rice is the main source of revenue, the Government is 
 desirous of reclaiming by irrigation and drainage a larger area 
 of land to be planted to rice. Furthermore, five-sixths of the total 
 land tax is from rice lands, hence the internal revenue is largely 
 derived from this crop. The rental of rice land varies from $1 
 to $10 per acre. The best rice land is worth about $75 per acre. 
 
 A fair average yield of paddy is 35 bushels per acre or about 
 27 bushels of cleaned rice. The common practice is to sow in 
 seed beds and transplant The area of the seed beds is from 
 one-tenth to one-twentieth of that of the fields. 
 
 About 3,500,000 acres are under cultivation in Siam nearly 
 all of which lies in the plains of central Siam, and of this area 
 1,750,000 acres are at present irrigated. Water for irrigation is 
 diverted from the Menam Chao Bhraya, the Prasak, the Nagorn 
 Nayok, the Prachin and the Neklolng, and from a few minor 
 streams. Of these by far the most important is the Menam 
 Chao Bhraya, whose source is in the hill region of northern Siam. 
 
 The average rainfall in central Siam is about 57 inches per 
 annum. The wettest months of the year are July, August, and 
 September, and the driest months are November, December 
 and January, December being practically rainless. 
 
 Irrigation has been practised in a crude way since very ancient 
 times but the building of modern irrigation systems was not 
 undertaken until quite recently, dependence being placed on 
 the rainfall in growing rice. As a consequence famines were of 
 frequent occurrence and about 1902 the Government began a 
 study of the irrigation possibilities of the plains of lower Siam. 
 A Royal Irrigation Department was formed and extensive sur- 
 veys have been made. The following projects have been recom- 
 mended for immediate construction by Mr. T. R. J. Ward, 
 Irrigation Engineer of the Indian Public Works Department, 
 who was invited by the Government of Siam in 1913 to come to 
 Siam for the purpose of evolving a scheme of irrigation to embrace 
 as much of the valley of the Menam Chao Bhraya as possible 
 for a capital outlay of about $8,500,000: The Subharn canal, the 
 Bejaburi East canal, the Prasak South canal, the hill irrigation 
 scheme, and navigation and drainage works in the flat plains 
 
318 USE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 
 
 are included. Mr. Ward has also recommended that the Govern- 
 ment construct the minor village works, making a loan to the 
 villages for the purpose and charging a suitable interest. 
 
 The various schemes proposed, including those mentioned 
 above, will reclaim and irrigate annually about 1,800,000 acres 
 but will command an area of about 3,200,000 acres. These works 
 when completed are estimated to cost $34,000,000. 
 
 During the past three years the use of water in irrigation in 
 Siam has been the subject of careful investigation on the part of 
 W. B. Freeman, an American irrigation engineer, who was one of 
 Mr. Ward's staff. In designing channels and structures for 
 rice irrigation, Mr. Freeman allowed an average duty of water of 
 1 second-foot for each 55 acres for an irrigation season of six 
 months. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Acreage irrigated in United States, 2 
 Acre-foot per foot, definition of, 63 
 Adams, Frank, 158, 187 
 Adjudication of water rights, 17 
 Africa, South, irrigation in, 288 
 Agencies in irrigation development, 2 
 Alberta, Canada, irrigation in, 307- 
 
 309 
 
 Alfalfa and other forage crops, 174 
 amount of water required for, 
 
 182 
 
 as a base of rotation, 176 
 irrigation of, by borders, 179 
 by checks, 181 
 by flooding, 178 
 by furrows, 181 
 by surface pipes, 182 
 influence of in root develop- 
 ment, 177 
 
 lands adapted to, 174 
 preparatory crops for, 175 
 seeding, 176 
 winterkilling of, 184 
 Alkali, black and white, 160 
 plant tolerance of, 160 
 plants resistant to, 161 
 lands, drainage of, 167 
 Appropriation of water, 15 
 Aragon y Cataluna canal, Spain, 268 
 Argentina, irrigation in, 311 
 Arizona, 2, 3, 4 
 Artesian basin, Australia, 306 
 Australia, irrigation in, 303-306 
 
 B 
 
 Bark, Don H., 82, 145, 193 
 Basin method of irrigation, 93 
 
 Egypt, 283 
 
 flooding, 94 
 
 ridger used in, 94 
 
 sketch of, 95 
 
 Beckett, S. H., 151, 152, 187 
 
 Bixby, F. L., 30 
 
 Blackberries, 251 
 
 Brazil, northern, irrigation in, 312 
 
 Briggs, L. J., 23, 149 
 
 British Columbia, irrigation in, 309 
 
 Brown, Chas. F., 167 
 
 California, 2, 3, 4 
 
 Canada, western, irrigation in, 306- 
 
 310 
 Canadian Pac. Ry. Co. irrigation 
 
 projects, 308 
 
 Capillarity, 21, 25, 26, 112, 166 
 Carey Act, 2, 3, 10, 12 
 Carpenter, L. G., 144 
 Check method of irrigation, 91 
 contour, type of, 93 
 fields irrigated by, 92 
 rectangular, type of, 93 
 Cistern, concrete, 44 
 Colombia, irrigation in, 313 
 Colorado, 2, 3, 4 
 
 Cone, V. M., 58, 116, 119, 125a, 162 
 Corrugation method of irrigation, 80 
 checks for, 82 
 corrugations for, 81 
 furrower for, 81 
 head ditches for, 80 
 
 ditch distributaries for, 82 
 of water for, 83 
 Cost of, check method of irrigation, 
 
 93 
 
 clearing land, 65-68 
 concrete pipe, 47 
 drainage, 172 
 growing cotton, 236 
 onions, 244 
 potatoes, 202 
 raspberries, 250 
 rice, 230 
 sugar beets, 209 
 cane, 241 
 
 319 
 
320 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Cost of irrigation, 3-6 
 
 pipe systems, 57 
 
 rivetted pipe, 53 
 
 well casing, 59 
 Cotton, 232 
 
 cost of producing, 236 
 
 cultivation of, 236 
 
 extent of production of, 232 
 
 methods of irrigating, 235 
 
 planting, 234 
 
 preparing soil for, 233 
 
 seeding, 233 
 
 spacing and thinning, 234 
 Crimea, irrigation in, 277 
 Crops, profitable, 8 
 
 revenue from, 2, 10 
 
 water requirement of, 146 
 Crowder, homemade, 73 
 Culverts, corrugated pipe for, 43 
 Currants, 251 
 Current meter, 125e 
 
 D 
 
 Delivery of water, 150 
 
 force required for, 158 
 forms and records of, 157 
 head used in, 159 
 plan of, 155 
 
 regulations governing, 153 
 relations of irrigators to super- 
 intendents in, 153 
 Desert Land Act, 10 
 
 entry, 12 
 Dewberries, 251 
 Diesem, H. C., 30 
 Ditches, number and length of, 111 
 
 farm, 33-39 
 
 Drainage of irrigated lands, 8, 166 
 cost of, 172 
 drains for, 168 
 backfilling of, 172 
 depth of, 168 
 grade of, 170 
 kind of, 168 
 location of, 168 
 manholes for, 172 
 
 Drainage, methods of installation of, 
 
 171 
 
 relief wells for, 169 
 required capacity of, 170 
 size of tile for, 170 
 need for, 167 
 
 Dry farming in relation to supple- 
 mental irrigation, 253 
 extent of, in semi-arid belt, 254 
 Duty of water, 134 
 
 British Columbia contract gov- 
 erning, 137 
 
 conditions affecting, 141 
 court decisions governing, 137 
 investigating, 144 
 limitations as to, 17 
 place of measurement of, 140 
 results of investigations of, 146 
 state control governing, 136 
 
 laws governing, 135 
 units of measurement for, 140 
 water right contracts governing, 
 139 
 
 E 
 
 Educational advantages, 9 
 Efficiency of irrigation water, 110 
 Egypt, irrigation in, 282 
 Enterprises, individual, cooperative, 
 
 etc., 3, 10 
 
 Equipment for new settler, 28 
 Ervin, Guy, 200 
 
 Evaporation from irrigated soils, 128 
 amount evaporated, 130 
 equipment for determining, 130 
 from soil and water compared, 
 
 131 
 
 from water surfaces, 125 
 appliances used in, 125 
 determination of, 126 
 factors governing, 127 
 records of, 128 
 Evaporation losses, 131 
 
 partial prevention of, 131 
 Ewing, P. A., 2 
 Extent of irrigation in United States, 
 
INDEX 
 
 321 
 
 Farm, the irrigated, buildings, 32 
 ditches, 32 
 
 capacity of, 35 
 construction of, 38 
 flow of water in, 35 
 form of, 34 
 grade of, 33 
 
 instruments for laying out, 37 
 location of, 33 
 maintenance of, 39 
 irrigation structures for, 39 
 lands, extent of improved, 110 
 laying out, 30 
 location and selection of, 7 
 Fippin, E. O., 20, 21, 22, 27 
 Fisher, R. W., 212 
 Flooding methods, 83 
 Forbes, R. H., 164, 165, 256 
 Foreman, J. H., 212 
 France, irrigation in, 273-275 
 Freeman, W. B., 318 
 Fresno, scraper, 70 
 Frosts, occurrence of, 7, 9 
 Fruit, small, 247 
 Fuel oil 'Hops," 62 
 Fuller, P. E., 139 
 Furrow method of irrigation, 73 
 earthen head ditches for, 73 
 head flumes for, 73 
 Furrower for corrugations, 81 
 Furrows, 76 
 
 distribution of water in, 77 
 length and location of, 78 
 
 Gardiner, H. C., 31, 167 
 
 Gates, delivery, 40, 41 
 
 used in Imperial Valley, Cal., 42 
 for border method, 88, 89 
 
 Gieseker, L. M., 151 
 
 Gignac canal, France, 274 
 
 Gooseberries, 251 
 
 Gordon, John H., 256 
 
 Grading surface of fields, 69 
 
 Grain, 186 
 
 harvesting, marketing, profits 
 of, 195 
 
 irrigating before seeding, 189 
 
 methods of applying water to, 
 193 
 
 preparation of soil for, 187 
 
 seasonal rotation of, 187 
 
 smut in, 189 
 
 when to irrigate, 190 
 Grapes, 245 
 
 irrigation of, 245 
 
 varieties of, 245 
 Grease wood, removal of, 66 
 Grunsky, H. W., 137 J 
 Gulf States, 2 
 
 Handley, Wm. White, 315 
 
 Hanna, F. W., 158, 159 
 
 Harden, F. G., 13 
 
 Harding, S. T., 39 
 
 Hardpan, 18 
 
 Hart, R. A., 168 
 
 Haskell, C. G., 60, 220 
 
 Hawaiian Islands, irrigation in, 310 
 
 Head ditches, 73, 80, 88, 90 
 
 distributors for, 82 
 
 flumes, wooden, 74 
 
 concrete, types of, 74, 75 
 Headgates, wooden, 40, 41 
 
 concrete, 42 
 
 metal, 41 
 
 Hilgard, E. W., 19, 160, 161, 165 
 Homestead entry, 12 
 
 law, 10 
 Humid region, 2 
 
 Idaho, 2, 3, 4 
 
 State Land Board of, 146 
 India, irrigation in, 288-291 
 Indian Service, 3 
 Irrigation districts, 3, 10, 12 
 
 extent of in United {States, 1 
 
322 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Irrigator's Supply Co. of Ontario, 
 
 Cal., 85 
 
 Israelsen, O. W., 22, 165 
 Italy, irrigation in, 265-268 
 
 Japan, irrigation in, 296 
 Java, irrigation in, 291-295 
 Jayne, S. O.. 51, 68 
 
 K 
 
 Kansas, 2, 3, 4 
 Kellar-Thomason Mfg. Co. ,42 
 
 Land Office circulars, 11 
 Lands, open to settlement, 9 
 
 price of, 10 
 
 tabulated information concern- 
 ing, 12. 
 
 LeConte, J. N., 63 
 Level, homemade, 35 
 Leveler, rectangular or box, 71 
 Loganberries, 251 
 Loughridge, R. H., 77, 211 
 Lyon, Thos. L., 20, 21, 22, 27 
 
 M 
 
 Marcite meadows, Italy, 266 
 McCulloch, S. W., 217 
 McLaughlin, W. W., 20, 186, 195 
 Mead, Elwood, 15, 303 
 Means, Thos. H., 164 
 Measurement of water, 115-1250 
 
 Australian meter, 1250 
 
 current meter, 125e 
 
 miner's inch, 119 
 
 proportional division, 125c, 125d 
 
 slope formulae, 1250 
 
 submerged orifice, 125/ 
 
 time-flow method, 125e 
 
 unit equivalents, 116 
 
 units used in, 115 
 
 Venturi irrigation meter, 125e 
 
 volumetric, 116 
 
 Mesquite, removal of, 66 
 Methods of irrigation, 72-107 
 Mineral salts, injurious, 160 
 Moisture in soils, capillary rise of, 
 
 26, 27 
 
 Montana, 2, 3, 4 
 Murrumbidgee irrigation enterprise, 
 
 Australia, 304 
 
 N 
 
 Native vegetation, removal of, 64 
 Nebraska, 2, 3, 4 
 Nevada, 2, 3, 4 
 New Mexico, 2, 3, 4 
 North Dakota, 2, 3, 4 
 
 O 
 
 O'Donnell, I. D., 176 
 Oklahoma, 2, 3, 4 
 Onions, 243 
 
 cost of producing, 244 
 fall seeding of, 243 
 harvesting, 244 
 irrigating, 244 
 preparation of field for, 243 
 seed bed for, 243 
 transplanting, 243 
 Orbison, R. B., city engineer of 
 
 Pasadena, 262 
 Orchards, 209 
 
 grading the surface, 211 
 intercropping, 216 
 irrigation of, 211 
 
 amount of water required, 214 
 methods of application, 212 
 number of, 213 
 time of, 211 
 selecting land for, 209 
 winter irrigation of, 219 
 Oregon, 2, 3, 4 
 Orifices, 1256 
 
 Perennial irrigation, Egypt, 285 
 Peru, irrigation in, 314 
 
INDEX 
 
 IVtnson, F. L., 151 
 
 Philippine Islands, irrigation in, 
 
 296-303 
 
 Pipe, cement, for subirrigation, 99 
 concrete, 47 
 
 Australian method of making, 
 
 49 
 
 cost of, 47 
 
 Jagger system of making, 48 
 moulding, 48 
 metal, 52 
 ri vetted, 52 
 cost of, 53 
 systems, 53 
 cost of, 57 
 fittings for, 56 
 hydrants or stands for, 57 
 Leeds, Granville W., 55 
 vitrified clay, 49 
 fittings for, 49 
 grades of, 49 
 prices of, 50 
 wood, 50 
 
 how made, 50, 51 
 joints for, 51 
 prices of, 52 
 Pipes and stands, 75 
 Planer, homemade levee, 87 
 Plow, wing, 38 
 Potatoes, 195 
 
 cost of growing, 202 
 cultivation of, 197 
 effect of climate on, 195 
 effect of soil, 196 
 harvesting, 201 
 irrigation of, 198 
 marketing, 202 
 planting, 196 
 
 preparation of soil for, 196 
 rotation of, 196 
 sorting, 201 
 spraying, 197 
 yields and profits of, 203 
 Preparation of surface for irrigation, 
 
 68 
 Pumps, 61 
 
 Deane Pump Works, 62 
 
 Pumps, engines and motors for, 62 
 Layne and Bowler, 61 
 Pomona Mfg. Co., 62 
 
 Rafter, Geo. W., 257 
 
 Raspberries, 250 
 
 Reclamation Service, U. S., 2, 3, 12 
 
 Reservoirs, 46 
 
 Rhead, J. L., 42 
 
 Rice, acreage devoted to, 220 
 
 amount of water required for, 
 
 229 
 cost and profits of, 230 
 
 of production in Arkansas, 
 
 231 
 irrigation, 222 
 
 Atlantic Coast, 226, 228 
 field levees for, 223 
 methods of applying water 
 
 in, 226 
 
 securing water along Missis- 
 sippi for, 224 
 structures to control flow in, 
 
 224 
 
 wells for, 222 
 marketing, 230 
 planting, 221 
 
 preparation of land for, 221 
 soil and climate adapted to, 221 
 straight head or blight in, 228 
 water supply for, 222 
 
 weevil in, 227 
 
 Ridger used in basin method, 94 
 Riparian rights to water, 14, 18 
 Robertson, Ralph D., 89 
 Rockwell, W. L., 238, 243 
 Root crops, irrigation of, 195 
 Russia, irrigation in, 275-282 
 
 S 
 
 Sagebrush grubber, 65 
 
 removal of, 64 
 Saline waters, use-of, 162 
 
324 
 
 INDEX 
 
 San Miguel project, Philippine Is- 
 lands, 300 
 
 Schlicter, Chas. J., 25 
 Scobey, F. C., 11, 40 
 Scraper, buck, 69 
 
 Fresno, 70 
 Seepage losses, 111 
 
 factors influencing, 111 
 
 in percentage of flow, 112 
 
 prevention of, 112 
 
 water, rate of flow of, 25 
 Settler, equipment for, 28 
 
 available funds necessary for, 30 
 Sewage, dosing with, 259 
 
 irrigation, 257-262 
 Shantz, H. L., 23, 149 
 Siam, irrigation in, 316-318 
 Siberia, irrigation in, 280 
 Slossen, E. E., 164 
 Social advantages, 9 
 Soil moisture, 9, 21 
 
 capillary, 21, 22, 25 
 
 determining content of, 22 
 
 forms and relationship of, 22 
 
 gravitational, 21 
 
 hygroscopic, 21, 22 
 
 movement of, 24 
 
 proper percentage of, 23 
 Soil mulches, 132 
 Soils, 7 
 
 adapted to particular crops, 8, 
 21 
 
 alkaline, 161 
 
 character of indicated by native 
 vegetation, 20 
 
 hardpan in, 18 
 
 humid and arid, compared, 19 
 
 of arid and semi-arid regions, 18 
 
 open space in, 20 
 
 typical, 19 
 
 South Dakota, 2, 3, 4 
 Spain, irrigation in, 268-273 
 Spray irrigation, 102 
 
 feeder system for, 106 
 
 from suspended nozzle lines, 106 
 
 overhead nozzle lines, 104 
 
 portable nozzle type, 102 
 
 Spray irrigation, pumping plants for, 
 
 108 
 sizes and capacities of pipes for, 
 
 105, 106 
 
 stationary nozzle type of, 103 
 Stabler, Herman, 163 
 State control of water, 16, 136 
 Strawberries, 247 
 cost of, 249 
 profits from, 249 
 Stubbs, W. C., 240 
 Stump puller, Hercules, 67 
 Stumps, blasting out, 67 
 Subirrigation, 95 
 artificial, 96 
 cement pipe for, 99 
 natural, 100 
 
 in San Luis Valley, Colo., 100 
 near St. Anthony, Idaho, 100 
 stop boxes for, 97 
 wooden conduits for, 98 
 Submerged orifice, 1256 
 Sugar beets, 204 
 care of, 206 
 cost of growing, 209 
 harvesting, 208 
 irrigation of, 206 
 preparing soil for, 205 
 seeding, 205 
 siloing, 209 
 Sugar cane, 238 
 
 amount of water applied to, 242 
 cost of producing, 241 
 cultivation of, 241 
 irrigation of, 240 
 planting, 239 
 preparing soil for, 239 
 Supplemental irrigation, 252 
 Surface pipe method of irrigation. 84 
 stands and valves for, 85 
 tension, 26 
 Sutton, G. W., chief of irrigation 
 
 service, Peru, 316 
 Swingle, W. T., 161 
 T 
 
 Tait, C. E., 47, 59, 63, 76, 85, 182 
 Teele, R. P., 2, 140 
 
INDEX 
 
 325 
 
 Terraces, rice, in Philippine Islands, 
 
 300 
 
 Texas, 2, 3, 4 
 Thorburn, W. S., 219 
 Trans-Caucasia, irrigation in, 278 
 Transportation facilities, 8 
 Turkestan, irrigation in, 275 
 Twombly, S. S., 219 
 
 U 
 
 Units of measure, 115 
 Utah, 2, 3, 4 
 
 V-crowder, 37 
 
 W 
 
 Ward, T. R. J., 317 
 Washington, 2, 3, 4 
 of water, 111 
 continuous delivery, cause of, 
 
 114 
 flat rate per acre, cause of, 113 
 
 Waste of water, seepage losses, cause 
 
 of, ill 
 
 Water-bearing strata, 57 
 Water for domestic use, 43 
 
 rights, 13 
 
 abandonment of, 17 
 acquirement of, 15 
 adjudication of, 17 
 doctrine of, 14 
 
 supply, 11 
 Weirs, 117 
 
 Cipolletti or trapezoidal, 118 
 
 discharge of, table of, 120-125 
 
 new type of, 119 
 Wells, 45, 59 
 
 casing, 59 
 
 cost of casing, 59 
 
 drilling, 60 
 
 in rice belt, 60 
 Wickson, E. J., 216 
 Widtsoe, J. A., 21, 24, 161, 256 
 Williams, Milo B., 55, 102, 253, 262 
 Wilting coefficient, 23 
 Windmills, 255 
 Winsor, L. M., 186 
 Wyoming, 2, 3, 4 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 DAY AND TO $I.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 
 
 FEB b1935 
 
 
 
 
 rEiVED r 
 
 
 4 
 
 >r-j ~\ M\R 
 
 
 ;.;>;: ;. s 51 T 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LD 21-100m-8,'34 
 
XCI037I 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY