5213 
 
 UC-NRLF 
 
 SB 3A1 b3fl 
 
GRAMMAR 
 
 CHALDEE LANGUAGE, 
 
 AS COM \ISKH IN THE 
 
 BIBLE AND THE TARGUMS. 
 
 DR. GEORGE B. WINER, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY, ETC. IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LEIPSIC. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN 
 
 H. B. HACKETT, 
 
 Professor of Biblical Literature in Newton Theological Institution. 
 
 ANDOVER: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY ALLEN, MORRILL AND WARDWELL. 
 NEW YORK : MARK H. NEWMAN. 
 
 1845. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1845, by 
 
 ALLEN, MORRILL AND WARDWELL, 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 
 
 LOAN STACK 
 GIFT 
 

 3 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 As a practical grammar of the Chaldee language, that of Dr. Wi- 
 ner is undoubtedly the best which can be placed in the hands of 
 the student. The first edition of this work was published in 1824 ; 
 and it is this, for substance, which was translated by Mr. Riggs, 
 and printed at Andover in 1832. The grammar here offered to the 
 public, which appeared in Germany in 1842, has undergone a com- 
 plete revision, and may be considered as essentially a new produc- 
 tion. In the interval between the two editions, the most important 
 works of Gesenius in Hebrew and Chaldee literature, those also 
 of Ewald, Furst and others, have made their appearance ; and 
 the materials for a scientific treatment of Chaldee grammar have 
 thus been rendered far more complete than at any former period. 
 All that is truly valuable, and at the same time pertinent to the 
 subject, which the labors of these distinguished scholars have 
 produced, the author has faithfully appropriated in this new edi- 
 tion ; while he has added to them the results of his own maturer 
 and more extended studies, in this department of philology, since 
 the publication of his first more elementary treatise. The intro- 
 duction, on the subject of the Chaldee language and literature, 
 will be found to be almost entirely new; the various topics suc- 
 cessively introduced are discussed with far greater fulness and 
 precision ; the survey, both of the general facts and of the more 
 infrequent phenomena of the language, is more minute, and au- 
 thenticated by a much greater variety of references and examples ; 
 while the Syntax, which was almost wholly wanting in the first 
 edition, has here been re- written, and brought at least to as per- 
 fect a state, as the same division of Hebrew grammar in the ablest 
 works which treat of that language. 
 
 In preparing this work for the public, the writer has confined 
 himself in the main to the mere task of translation. An occasional, 
 unimportant remark has been inserted in the body of the gram- 
 mar, and a few supplementary pages have been added at the end ; 
 but further than this no change has been attempted ; and the only 
 responsibility, therefore, which he assumes is that of having en- 
 deavored to furnish a correct representation of the original. The 
 Chaldee portions of the work have been set up directly from the 
 printed text of Winer, without transcription ; and if they are found 
 
 121 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 to be conformed to the text itself, it is hoped that the translator will 
 be considered as having discharged his duty in this respect. It is 
 deemed the more important to make this remark, because the origi- 
 nal German work does not appear to have had the benefit of that 
 careful revision in passing through the press, which a scholar like 
 Winer would have bestowed upon it, had he charged himself with 
 this labor ; and hence some negligences may present themselves 
 on a closer study of the grammar (though not a few such have 
 been removed), which would naturally enough escape attention 
 in the mere act of proofreading. It is impossible that they should 
 be such as to occasion the student any practical inconvenience. 
 It is not often that such a multitude of references both to biblical 
 passages and to various literary and critical works, occur crowded 
 together within the same compass, as will be found in the follow- 
 ing pages. Perfect accuracy in every one of these instances is of 
 course unattainable. The translator has experienced an occa- 
 sional disappointment in attempting to trace some of these refer- 
 ences ; and it is possible that the reader may experience the 
 same. A few errors of this kind, which happened to be observed, 
 have been corrected ; but it was not supposed to be necessary, even 
 had the means for this purpose within reach rendered it practicable, 
 to subject this part of the work to a complete revision. Some pe- 
 culiarities in the mode of printing the Chaldee will be remarked 
 by the reader. The Daghesh lene is universally omitted in the 
 aspirates ; except in the Paradigms of verbs and nouns, where 
 (though omitted there likewise in the original) it was thought best 
 to insert it, as a matter of convenience to the learner. This, though 
 not usual in books printed in this country, is very common in works 
 from the German press ; and to the student who has been trained 
 to habits of correct pronunciation in Hebrew, it cannot possibly 
 give rise to any embarrassment. It will be noticed also that a few 
 words are now and then written without the vowel- signs, for the 
 most part in cases where the same words are repeated, or where 
 the point which they illustrate, lies in the form of the word rather 
 than its vocalization. It will be understood, when such examples 
 occur, that they are the result of design, not an accident or over- 
 sight. 
 
 No Chrestomathy, or Vocabulary accompanies the present gram- 
 mar. The author of it has here treated indeed of the Chaldee 
 language in all its extent ;* and has furnished the materials for 
 
 * ] should except the Rabbinic or Talmudic, which is a species of Chaldee, 
 
PREFACE. O 
 
 limp; the study of it to all the remains of the Chaldee lift 
 hire which have come down to us. It was supposed, however, 
 that the object of most students in wishing to gain an acquaintance 
 with this dialect would be to enable them to read the Chaldee por- 
 tions of the Bible ; and that for this purpose an extended and ex- 
 pensive apparatus would not be necessary. A reprint of the bib- 
 lical Chaldee would certainly be useless, as every Hebrew Bible 
 contains it ; and the provision which Gesenius has made in the 
 later editions of his Lexicon for the Chaldee words in Ezra and 
 Daniel, does away with the necessity for a separate Glossary. 
 The grammatical forms of these words, it is true, a general Lexi- 
 con like his does not discriminate ; and the student at first, unless 
 he has the guidance of a teacher, may experience some difficulty 
 in referring them to their proper classification. For the greater 
 convenience of such as may wish to prosecute the study by them- 
 selves, a few pages, containing something like an analytical key 
 to the Chaldee portions of the Bible, may be added hereafter as 
 an accompaniment to the present grammar. 
 
 It may be proper to say, that the more immediate object which 1 
 have had in view in the publication of this work, wa> umo- 
 
 dation of some of my own pupils who had expressed a desire to 
 attend to the study of the Chaldee. It is hoped, however, that the 
 circle of its usefulness may be extended yet more widely, and that 
 a want of the theological public may be supplied by it, at present 
 not otherwise provided for. A portion of the Word of God has 
 been written in the Chaldee language ; and no one can have ac- 
 cess to the entire, original Scriptures without an acquaintance with 
 it. The labor of making this acquisition is not great, after the 
 student has already laid a foundation for it in a knowledge of the 
 Hebrew. The advantages which he may expect to realize from 
 such study, are many and important. An extended enumeration 
 of them it would be impossible to offer here. Some of them are 
 well stated in the following remarks of a distinguished biblical 
 scholar * to whom the writer acknowledges himself indebted, in 
 common with so many others in our country, for his first instruction 
 and impulse in sacred studies. 
 
 " First, a knowledge of the Chaldee is highly important in aid- 
 ing the student more fully to understand the Hebrew. The basis 
 
 the idioms of which as distinguished from those of the Chaldee properly so 
 called, Dr. Winer does not profess to exhibit in the present work. 
 
 The Rev. Prof. Stua jit of Andover, in a Preface written by him for t h 
 edition of this grammar, to which reference has already been made. 
 
b PREFACE. 
 
 of the Hebrew and Chaldee^in common with others of the Semitic 
 languages, is well known by every good oriental scholar to be one 
 and the same. The genius, structure, idiom, peculiarities of syntax, 
 and a multitude of the words, are substantially the same in all ; so 
 that he who has acquired a radical acquaintance with any one of 
 them, is prepared to make very rapid and easy progress in them 
 all. The student who understands the Hebrew, has only to read 
 through the pages of the following grammar, in order to be fully 
 satisfied of the correctness of this statement And if correct, then 
 it is obvious, that in every step of his progress in the study of the 
 Chaldee, he is gaining additional light and confirmation, in regard 
 to the meaning, forms, and structure of the Hebrew. Again, the 
 most important ancient helps extant, for illustrating the meaning 
 of Hebrew words, are in the Chaldee language. The two Tar- 
 gums of Onkelos and Jonathan (which extend over the most con- 
 siderable portion of the Old Testament), are more to be depended 
 on in difficult cases, than any other aid to which we can resort, 
 in all the store-houses of antiquity. Being of substantially 
 the same idiom with the Hebrew, they often give us the exact 
 shape, as well as meaning of the Hebrew, better than any or all 
 other ancient versions. We may reasonably have a confidence in 
 such ancient Chaldee translators that they, at least for the most 
 part, rightly understood their original. Finally, several chapters 
 in Ezra and Daniel, as exhibited in our Hebrew Bibles, are in the 
 Chaldee language. The student, therefore, who designs to ac- 
 quire the power of consulting all the original Scriptures, must 
 make himself acquainted with the Chaldee language." 
 
 It may be added, that in all probability the vernacular language 
 of the writers of the New Testament was the Chaldee, or a dialect 
 very similar to it ; and consequently that its idioms and modes of 
 thought must have had an important influence upon the manner 
 in which they employed the Greek language. Not a few of those 
 peculiarities which distinguish the Greek of the New Testament 
 are decidedly Aramaean rather than Hebrew ; and hence without 
 a knowledge of the Chaldee, we shj^frd be wanting in some of 
 the means necessary for enabling us to interpret critically even 
 the Gospels and the writings of the Apostles. 
 
 H B. H 
 Newton Theol. Institution, | 
 June 21, 1845. \ 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Page 
 
 The Chaldee Language and Literature 9 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Elements, or Signs for Reading and their Use 21 
 
 1. Consonants 21 
 
 2. Vowel Signs 22 
 
 :*. Place of the Tone 24 
 
 4. Reading of Unpointed Text 26 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Etymology. 
 CHAPTER I. General Principles on which the Changes of Words 
 
 DEPI M>. 
 
 5. The Subject in General 27 
 
 6. Mutations which affect the Consonants 28 
 
 7. Mutations which affect the Vowels 31 
 
 CHAPTER II. The Pronoun. 
 
 8. Personal and Possessive Pronouns ; 33 
 
 9. Other Pronouns 36 
 
 CHAPTER III. The Verb. 
 
 10. Derivation and Inflection of the Verb in General ... 38 
 
 11. Inflexion of the Regular Verb 41 
 
 12. Remarks on the Paradigm of the Regular Verb .... 46 
 
 13. Personal Inflection of the Participles 50 
 
 14. Unusual Conjugations and Quadriliteral Verbs , 51 
 
 15. Guttural Verbs 52 
 
 16. Regular Verbs with Suffixes 54 
 
 17. Irregular Verb in general 58 
 
 18 Verbs jb 58 
 
 19. Verbs j>* or y doubled 61 
 
 20. Verbs ifi (IB) ... 64 
 
 21. Verbs as 65 
 
 22. Verbs i* (v) 66 
 
 23. Verbs & (-.y 70 
 
 24. Verbs doubly Anomalous 75 
 
 25. Defective Verbs and Mixed Forms 76 
 
 26. Irregular Verbs with Suffixes 77 
 
 CHAPTER IV. The Noun. 
 
 27. The Derivation of Nouns 79 
 
 28. Nouns derived from the Regular Verb 81 
 
 29. Nouns derived from the Irregular Verb 83 
 
 30. Denominative Nouns 84 
 
O CONTENTS. 
 
 31. Gender and Number of Nouns 84 
 
 32 Different Relations (Status) of Nouns ..... 87 
 
 33. Declension of Nouns ........ 88 
 
 34. Remarks on the Paradigms of the Nouns 93 
 
 35. Anomalous and Defective Nouns 98 
 
 36. Adjectives and Numerals 100 
 
 CHAPTER V.The Particles. 
 
 37. Adverbs ...... 104 
 
 38. Prepositions 105 
 
 39. Conjunctions and Interjections 106 
 
 PART III. 
 
 Syntax. 
 
 CHAPTER I. The Pronoun. 
 
 40. Use of the Personal and Possessive Pronouns . . . . 108 
 
 41. Use of the Relative Pronouns 110 
 
 42. Use of the Demonstrative and Interrogative Pronouns . . 112 
 
 43. Expression of the Pronominal Forms which are wanting in Chaldee 112 
 
 CHAPTER II. Syntax or the Verb. 
 
 44. Use of the two leading Tenses 114 
 
 45. Modes of expressing certain Finite Tenses .... 116 
 
 46. Use of the Imperative and Infinitive 117 
 
 47. Use of the Participle 118 
 
 48. The Optative 120 
 
 49. Number and Person of the Verb 120 
 
 50. Construction of Verbs with Dative and Accusative . . . 122 
 
 51. Verbs with Prepositions 124 
 
 52. Use of Verbs in the place of Adverbs 126 
 
 53. Construetio praegnans, Brachylogy and Ellipsis of the Verb . 126 
 
 CHAPTER TV. Syntax of the Noun. 
 
 54. Use of Nouns for Adjectives, and Expression of concrete Substantives 1 27 
 
 55. Numbers, and the Repetition of Nouns 128 
 
 56. Designation of the Cases 129 
 
 57. The Noun in the Designation of subordinate Relations . . 130 
 
 58. Expression of the Comparative and Superlative . . . 131 
 
 59. Construction of the Numerals . 132 
 
 60. Construction of Adjectives 133 
 
 61. Nominative Absolute 134 
 
 CHAPTER IV. Syntax of the Particles. 
 
 62. Adverbs and Prepositions 135 
 
 63. Use of the Negatives 135 
 
 64. The Particles of Interrogation 136 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 No. I. Targums 137 
 
 No. II. Talmud, Mishna, Gemara 148 
 
 No. III. Is the Aramaean still spoken in the East? .... 150 
 
 No. IV. The Zabian Dialect 151 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE CHALDEE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 1. The term Chaldee is applied to that Semitic dialect, 
 in which certain sections of the Old Testament and the Tar- 
 gums, 1 so called, are written. These Targums are translations 
 and paraphrases of books of the Old Testament made by Jews, 
 which belong to very different ages, and which, in reference to 
 their linguistic and exegetical character, exhibit an important 
 diversity. With this idiom connects itself the Talmudic dialect, 
 as do also the few remains of the language of the Jews preva- 
 lent in Palestine in the time of Christ, and which are pre- 
 served in the New Testament, and in Josephus. The dialect 
 of the Egyptian- Aramaean monuments, that have been re- 
 cently discovered, is likewise a species of Chaldee. 
 
 With reference to their linguistic character, which alone claims 
 our attention here, the above remains of the Chaldee may be di- 
 vided into three classes. This dialect appears in its purest state, 
 i. e. in its most peculiar and independent form, in the Targum of 
 Onkelos on the Pentateuch, which is, at the same time, the oldest 
 of these Targums. (See Winer's Diss, de Onkeloso ejusque para- 
 phrasi Chald. Lips. 1819. 4. S. D. Luzzatto de Onkel. Chald. Pen- 
 tateuchi versione. Vienn. 1830. 8.) The biblical Chaldee occupies 
 the second place. As regards its lexical properties, it is not inferior, 
 indeed, to the preceding ; but in respect to orthography and gram- 
 mar, it stands somewhat lower. (See J. F. Hirt de Chaldaismo 
 
 1 See Appendix, No. I. Tr. 
 
 Cph. Helvici tractat. de Chaldaicis biblior. paraphrasib. Giess. 1612. 4. 
 Carpzov., Critica sacra V. T. p. 431 sq. That which the more recent works on 
 Introduction to the Old Testament contain, is to a great extent traditionary 
 material, derived from these writings. 
 
 2 
 
10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 biblico. Jen. 1751. 4.) Various peculiarities of the Hebrew occur in- 
 termixed with it, as, e. g. the art. n, the plural ending d* 1 - , the conju- 
 gations Hiphil and Hophal, and the writing of Ji instead of X . Fi- 
 nally, the other Targums, among which that of Jonathan ben Usiel 
 on the Prophets approaches nearest to that of Onkelos, are written 
 in a language which is not only freely interspersed with foreign 
 words, but presents also many peculiar formations (e. g. a as prae- 
 formative of the Infinitive of Pael, Ithpeal arid Ithpaal), some of 
 which show an affinity to the Syriac or the Rabbinic, (as a for the 
 third person Future, the prefixed syllable w in the Passives), while 
 others of them arise from contractions (as in the numerals). What 
 Eichhorn (Einl. ins A. T. II, p. 6 sq. p. 90 sq.) remarks respecting 
 these peculiarities, is not sufficiently complete ; they deserve to be 
 collected separately and made a subject of more extended notice. 
 We have special, linguistic investigations only upon Pseudo-Jona- 
 than on the Pentateuch and upon the Targum on the Proverbs ; these 
 have been constantly used in the sequel of the present work. Comp. 
 J. H. Petermann de duab. Pentateuchi paraphrasib. Chald. Be- 
 rol. 1829. 8. P. I, p. 64 sq. Dathe de ratione consensus vers. Chald. 
 et Syr. Proverb. Lips. 1764. 4. (Opusc. p. 109 sq.) 
 
 The relation of the Talmudic dialect to the language of the Para- 
 phrases, cannot be more closely investigated here ; we remark only 
 that there prevails an important difference between the idiom of the 
 Mishna and that of the two Gemara. 1 The former is, lexically 
 considered, a species of new Hebrew, but in its grammatical struc- 
 ture discovers the infusion of a strong Aramaean influence. Comp. 
 especially Hartmann, Thesauri linguae Hebr. e Mischna augendi 
 P. I. p. 9 sq. Besides, see J. E. Faber, Anmerk. z. Erlernung des 
 Talmud, und Rabbin. Gott. 1770. 8. M. J. Landau, Geist und 
 Sprache der Hebraer nach dem Tempelbaue. Prag. 1822. 8. 
 
 On the popular language of the Jews, current in Palestine in the 
 time of Christ, see particularly Pfannkuche in Eichhorn's Biblioth. 
 der bibl. Literatur VIII. 365 sq 2 . Comp. Winer's BibL Rw. 
 II, 587 sq. (648?) This has usually been called the Syro-Chal- 
 daic dialect, 3 and it is the same language which the Jews at that 
 
 1 See Appendix, No. II. Tr. 
 
 2 This article has been translated by Dr. Robinson in the Bibl. Repository, 
 Vol.1. p.317sq. Tr. 
 
 3 The appellation was first derived from Hieron. contra Pelag. 3. 1, where 
 it is said that the original of Matthew's Gospel was written Chaldaico-Syroque 
 serrnone. A view of this idiom is given by Gesenius in Ersch and Gruber's 
 Encyclop. I. XVI. 110. 
 
CHALDEE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 11 
 
 time employed in their writings, as is shown by the fact (aside 
 from the apocryphal books which originated in Palestine 1 ) that Jo- 
 sephus wrote his work on the Jewish War in this language (De bel- 
 lo Jud. Praef. 1.) It is called, in the New Testament, Hebrew, 
 but in the Talmud, Syriac or Aramaean. Comp. Rw.II,587. (648 1) 
 Anm. From the few remains of it extant, we could not infer with 
 certainty a difference between this idiom and the language of the 
 Paraphrases (Furst p. 5). In Mark 15: 34, a well known passage 
 of the Psalms is represented as cited by Jesus exactly in the lan- 
 guage of the Paraphrases. 
 
 The Egyptian-Aramaean dialect is found upon some monuments 
 belonging to Egypt, which proceeded for the most part from Jews 
 resident in that country. They are the inscription of Carpentras 
 and some papyrus rolls in the possession of the Museum at Turin 
 and of the count de Blacas ; comp. Beer, Inscriptiones ex papyri vett. 
 Semit. quotquot in Aegypto reperti sunt, etc. Lips. 1833. 4. P. I. 
 Gesen., Monumenta Phoenic. I. 226 sq. The language is Ara- 
 maean, yet more allied to the Chaldee than the Syriac. The In- 
 scriptions de Blacas, indeed, incline strongly towards the Hebrew, 
 as much as the Chaldee sections of the Bible. As peculiar appears 
 here *l for tl, 
 
 2. It is obvious, on the slightest inspection, that the 
 Chaldee, as it exists at present, sustains a very close relation 
 to the Syriac, both lexically and grammatically. It possesses, 
 in common with it, all its essential characteristics, but differs 
 from it again in its details, so far as to maintain a certain in- 
 dividuality of its own. These deviations, however, are gram- ' 
 matical rather than lexical, and affect chiefly the vocalization, 
 in which respect the Chaldee resembles the Phoenician and 
 the Hebrew. 
 
 On this relation of the Chaldee to the Syriac, see Aurivillius de 
 lingua Aramaea, in his Dissertatt. ed. Michaelis, p. 104 sq. 
 
 1 Jerome terms the language of his original text of the apocrypha sometimes 
 Hebreic, sometimes Chaldee. This is to be referred, perhaps, to the fact, that 
 some of these compositions connected themselves more decidedly with the an- 
 cient Hebrew, while others of them were written in the current language of 
 the people. Yet the two expressions might possibly be synonymous, as a com- 
 parison of the passages Commentar. in Matth. Lib. 2 (on 12, 13) and Contra 
 Pelag. 3. 1. renders probable. 
 
12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 A comprehensive survey of the lexical character of the Chaldee 
 would be inappropriate here. Its agreement with the Syriac in 
 reference to the sounds of consonants in such words as belong to 
 the Chaldee in common with the Hebrew, is the only point which 
 need be here remarked. As in this respect the Syriac bears, in 
 general, the character of a flat language, so also in Chaldee 1 and in 
 often appear in the place of 1 and tt5; e. g. hnn to sacrifice, ninn gold, 
 5>nn seed, )y$ ear, for )lk , 1 or ^1 as relat. from nt , nsn to break in 
 pieces, ^n steer, trblion (Hebr.ttJ^), tWj new, fortthH, and D 
 instead of S, e. g. n*iD rock, atjy counsel Less frequently is 
 tt) changed into a , and a into $ , e. g. nwp to bind, for nujp , 
 sna ear^A, for y^K. That the liter ae unius organi are inter- 
 changed, scarcely needs to be remarked ; e. g. h***11p brimstone, 
 
 $ Zip helmet, W3 to collect, ^^1 , |j-a^1 sma?/. 
 
 The Chaldee shares with the Syriac, grammatically, the following 
 properties : 1. The forms of the words are in general pronounced with 
 fewer vowels than in Hebrew, and consequently the consonants pre- 
 dominate here in the grammatical structure ; e. g. nap , ^e , n^p . 
 2. The Stat, emphat. instead of the article employed in Hebrew 
 and Arabic. 3. The 1 as sign of the Gen. and the b as sign of 
 the Accus. as well as ^ as the sign of relation. 4. The termina- 
 tion 'p- for the Plur. of the Masc. 5. The distinction of the third 
 Plur. Praet. in the Masc. and Fern. 6. The formation of Re- 
 flexives and Passives by the prefixed syllable ins* . 7. The forma- 
 tion of the third conjugation in such a form as ittptf. 8. The use 
 of Imperatives Passive. 9. Double Participles in the Actives of 
 the second and third conjugation. 10. The formation of a special 
 Tense by the use of the Parti c. in connection with pronouns. 
 
 11. The preference of tf instead of In at the end of words; e.g. 
 VC&n queen, and the interchange arising thence of verbs <i and tib. 
 
 12. The pleonastic use of the suffixes before the Genitive. 13. The 
 use of the third Plur. of the Actives in a Passive signification. 
 14. The formation of an adjective personal pronoun by means of 
 b^n with a suffix ; e. g. *V*l mens, T]^ 1 ? tuus. 
 
 On the peculiarities of the Chaldee which distinguish it from the 
 Syriac (with a nearer approach, sometimes, to the Hebrew), see 
 Fr. Dietrich de sermonis Chald. proprietate. Lips. 1839. 8. Briefly 
 considered, they are principally the following : 1. A preference for 
 clearer vowels, since a is often employed instead of the Syr. and 
 
CHALDEE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 13 
 
 Hebr. o ; e. g. an=> Syr. \z> Ld , W** Syr. fouk , Hebr. ttxjk , 
 x&$ Hebr. dbis>, rax Hebr. tittg, b Hebr. bip, sop f j-o ; be- 
 sides, a is used in Chaldee instead of the Syriac u, in the termina- 
 tion of the Infin. out of Peal ; also often i , where in Syriac *i oc- 
 
 curs; e.g.bb, \jd , and T where the vowel, in Syriac, is --; 
 
 >. 
 e. g. Vopn, \o-$*dJ., further, the plural ending of the Fern.")- 
 
 o o 
 
 instead of ... , and n instead of Z '> the compos. Sheva under 
 
 gutturals we could not with certainty reckon here, since the Syr- 
 ians, although without written signs, may in a similar manner 
 have uttered a short half- vowel under the vowelless gutturals. 
 
 2. The avoiding of diphthongs ; comp. Ktt'h with (loa^. , wb 
 
 St constr. with , iVsSn , ffcfK with ^oj , iba with aX* > as 
 
 well as of the literae otiantes ; comp. oba my king, .^Vv^ f 
 
 Atop JLgl^-d , N^p ^L^Lo. 3. The regular accentuation of 
 
 the last syllable ; e. g. s<d^ )n^^ . 4. The prevailing forma- 
 tion of the Inf. except Peal without the prefixed a. 5. The re- 
 taining of 1 as Preform, of the third Fut. in place of 3 which pre- 
 vails in Syriac ; only the Targ. Prov. (and the Talm.) have appro- 
 priated to themselves the a (contrary to Furst, who explains away 
 this peculiarity, p. 9sq. ; see Dietrich as already cited, p. 42 sq.). 
 Further, the forms of the suffixes with epenth. a- are very frequent 
 in Chaldee, but occur rarely in Syriac. In respect to orthography, . 
 the more constant occurrence of the scriptio plena should be like- 
 wise mentioned, and the existence of a written sign (Dag. forte) to 
 denote the doubling of the consonants that are not gutturals; 
 comp. Hoffmann, Grammat Syr. p. 105 sq. 
 
 3. Accordingly, the Chaldee may be denominated, with en- 
 tire propriety, an Aramaean dialect; and so, in fact, it is 
 termed in the Bible itself (Dan. 2: 4. Ezra 4: 7). Its proper 
 native country is Babylonia ; for in the Jewish tradition, Dan. 
 2: 4, this language is represented as there in its home ; and 
 because, too, in this way may be explained the fact that the 
 Jews, who lived a long time as exiles in Babylon and its 
 provinces, appropriated to themselves this idiom, both as their 
 
14 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 written and spoken language. If this view be correct, it 
 would be then not inappropriate to distinguish a West Ara- 
 maean and an East Aramaean, and to apply the term Baby- 
 lonish to what has hitherto been called the Chaldee dialect. 
 
 The Aramaean, rWna, is the language generally which was 
 spoken in the various countries designated in the Old Testament 
 by the term tfitf (See Gesen. Thesaur. I. p. 151. Winer's Rw. I. 
 92 sq.). That appellation occurs in the Old Testament four times, 
 2 Kings 18: 26. Isa. 36: 11. Ezra 4: 7. Dan. 2: 4. In the first two 
 passages, the Assyrian officers (Sennacherib's) are requested by the 
 Hebrew courtiers to speak in Aramaean, as being a dialect which 
 was not intelligible to the common Israelites. The Assyrian lan- 
 guage itself, a Median dialect, is certainly not meant here (this 
 could not be called Aramaean ; nor was it, at that time, familiar to 
 the Hebrew statesmen) ; but the language which was used in that 
 portion of Ar-am subject to the Assyrian dominion, and which also 
 could not be unknown to the officers of the Assyrian court. See 
 Gesen. commentar zu Jesaias I. 946 sq. In Ezra 4: 7, the term 
 Aramaean is applied to a letter which the authorities of the Persian 
 government, in the country on this side of the Euphrates, send to the 
 king, and which, accordingly, is inserted in the Chaldee language. 
 Finally, in the passage of Daniel already cited, the Chaldee inter- 
 preters of dreams speak with Nebuchadnezzar in Aramaean, i. e. 
 as the sequel shows, in the language of which we here treat. Phi- 
 lologists have now accustomed themselves to apply the term Ara- 
 maean generally to the language of. the Semites who dwelt in Syria, 
 Mesopotamia and Babylonia ; according to which, the Syriac is an 
 Aramaean dialect, and our Chaldee, so called, claims also this ap- 
 pellation, because, in its essential character, it allies itself so closely 
 to the Syriac. But scholars until very recently, on the grounds 
 above alluded to, sought the proper home of this Aram, dialect in 
 Babylonia, consequently in East Aram ; and they could, therefore, 
 distinguish the Chaldee, as East Aramaean, from the Syriac as 
 West Aramaean ; although East Aramaean is a wider appellation 
 and strictly comprehends also the Mesopotamian. (Comp. also Gese- 
 nius, Gesch. der Hebr. Spr. 6. and in the Encyclopadie of Ersch 
 and Gruber, I. Sect. XVI. 109 sq. Hoffmann, Grammat. Syr. p. 3). 
 See, in general, J. A. M. Nagel de lingua Aramaea. Altorf. 1739. 4. 
 Adelung, Mithridates I. 327 sq. 
 
 This East Aramaean might now be denominated Babylonish (as 
 
CHALDEE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 15 
 
 in Ezra 4: 9 the inhabitants of Babylonia are called fcO^s). But 
 since in the Old Testament the people of Babylonia are uniformly 
 termed ff^S, and in Dan. 1: 4 mention is made of a tir*f&5 yvdb 
 (at the court of Nebuchadnezzar), the designation Chaldee has 
 been preferred. It is indeed very doubtful, however, whether the 
 D^ia? were the original inhabitants of Babylonia, and even whether 
 they were Semites in general : the former, because the Greeks, 
 in the time of the Persian kingdom, show themselves still ac- 
 quainted with Xaldam, as a people who lived in the mountainous 
 parts of Armenia (Winer, Rw. 1, 254) ; the latter, because the Chal- 
 dee proper names and titles of office (of the period of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar and his successors) find their explanation, for the most part, 
 not in the Semitic, but the Medo-Persian language (Nagel de lin- 
 gua Aramaea, p. 5 sq. Gesenius, Gesch. der Hebr. Sprache, 62 sq.). 1 
 On this account many have been disposed to regard the Chaldeans 
 as a nation that migrated into Babylonia and became subsequently 
 masters of it, and who are, therefore, distinct from the proper Semit- 
 ic Babylonians (Gesenius, Commentar iiber Jesaias I. 744 sq. Hee- 
 rens Ideen I, II. 165 sq. Hitzig, Prophet Jes. 287, and others). Ac- 
 cording to this view two different languages, as regards their deri- 
 vation, would have been spoken in Babylonia, the Chaldee (espe- 
 cially as the language of the court in Babylon itself, comp. Dan. 1: 4) 
 and the (Semitic) Babylonish. The objections which have been 
 alleged hitherto against this ethnographic representation, are of lit- 
 tle importance ; 2 but they need not be subjected to any examination 
 here, since the question does not affect in any way the. subject of 
 Chaldee grammar. 
 
 In respect to the manner in which the Jews appropriated to them- 
 selves the Chaldee during the Babylonian exile, and afterwards 
 transplanted it to Palestine, see Gesenius, Gesch. der Hebr. Spr.. 
 p. 25. It exerted a manifest influence upon the Hebrew even as a 
 written language ; comp. Hirzel de Chaldaismi bibl. origine et 
 auctoritate critica. Lips. 1830. 4. Still the Jews termed this 
 
 1 The explanations hitherto given (by Lorsbach, Archiv. f. bibl. und morgenl. 
 Literat. II. 246 ff. und von Bohlen, Symbolae ad interpret, sacri cod. e lingua 
 Pers. Lips. 1823. 4.) are not indeed placed beyond all doubt ; nay, they are 
 in part entirely unsuccessful. Comp. Kleinert, in the Dorpt. Beitrag. zu den 
 theol. Wissensch. I. 213 sq. Ha.vernick, Einl. I. 1. 101 sq. 
 
 2 Comp. P. Schleyer, Wdrdigung dor Einwdrfe gegen die Weissag. an dem 
 Orakel des Jesaia (lber den Untergang Babels, C. 1314, 23 sq. Rottenburg, 
 L835; then, Freiburg, 1839. 8. 
 
16 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 adopted dialect in opposition to the old Hebrew hJUih '-asn "pttA . 
 See Lightfoot, Hor. ad Jo. 5. 1. 
 
 4. Since this dialect, however, has been preserved to us only 
 in writings of Jewish authorship, one could hardly assume 
 that we have it before us in all the purity with which it was 
 spoken by the Semitic Babylonians. Yet in reality, when 
 strictly and impartially considered, it seems to have been in- 
 fluenced by the Hebrew only in some unimportant particu- 
 lars, while in all that is essential in respect either to its gram- 
 matical structure or its stock of words, it retained firmly its 
 Aramaean character. 
 
 The assertion that the Chaldee idiom is contained only in writings 
 of Jewish origin, is not invalidated by the fact, that according to 
 Gesenius (Monum. Phoenic. I, 232) the inscription on the Carpen- 
 tras stone is said to have had for its author a heathen Aramaean. 
 For, in the first place, this conjecture is merely a conjecture ; and 
 in the second place, as Gesenius thinks, a Hebraizing Aramaean 
 might, through the influence of the neighboring Phoenician, have 
 formed itself even in Syria. 
 
 That the Babylonian dialect should approximate somewhat to- 
 wards the Hebrew in the hands of Jews, especially those of Pales- 
 tine, was natural in itself, and has been already intimated above in 
 No. 1. But there is no just warrant for the assertion that our 
 present Chaldee, which has come down to us merely through the 
 medium of Jews, was corrupted by them in an extraordinary degree, 
 or was even a dialect first formed by a mixture of the Hebrew and Ar- 
 amaean (Syriac). See Michaelis, Abh. v. der Syr. Spr. 36 sq. Wahl, 
 Gesch. der Morgenl. Sprachen p. 291 sq. (whom de Wette has 
 followed, Einl. ins A. T. 22) and formerly Loscher de causis 
 ling. Hebr. p. 46. For, from a comparison of the Chaldee (espe- 
 cially as it is found in the older Targums) with the Syriac, as we are 
 acquainted with it from native writers, it is manifest that the Chal- 
 dee shares with the Syriac all its main (characteristic) peculiarities 
 of grammatical structure and syntactical arrangement, as well as 
 the greatest part of its stock of words, i. e. its vocabulary traits 
 sufficiently marked evidently to attest its character as an Aramaean 
 dialect. On the contrary, the Chaldee contains little which coin- 
 cides with the Hebrew, at the same time that it differs from the Syr- 
 
CHALDEE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 17 
 
 iac, and this little restricts itself almost solely to the orthography 
 and vocalization. But why might not this, as well as that in the 
 Chaldee, which deviates from the Syriac without agreeing with the 
 Hebrew, be considered as a dialectic variety ? Various considera- 
 tions favor such a view. It is but natural that the Aramaean which 
 occupied so great a territory, like other languages extensively dif- 
 fused, should have branched out into subordinate dialects, especially 
 if the tribes that spoke it formed separate and remote states, and 
 reached different degrees of culture. Even the Phoenician and 
 Hebrew, notwithstanding the original relationship and the geo- 
 graphical vicinity of these tribes, and the similarity of the natural fea- 
 tures of the countries inhabited by them, were distinguished by dif- 
 ferences. See Gesenius, Monum. Phoenic. IT, 335 sq. 439. Again, 
 on the other supposition, it would not be easy to see why the Jews 
 should have divested the Chaldee of its Aramaean character only 
 in some few points, and these such as do not depart further from 
 the Hebrew, than others which they left untouched. It could not 
 be explained why they should have said, e. g. ba;r> instead of b^j53 , 
 fc6::p instead of Kbajss , which last forms are certainly not more 
 foreign to their language than folhg instead of D"0^3 , aw in- 
 stead of tn*fi , or bvpv instead of Map . Besides, a part of the 
 deviations of the Chaldee from the Syriac might be placed to the 
 account of the later Jews, who transferred the vowel-signs to the 
 Chaldee, had not the same pronunciation of Chaldee words (even to 
 that of the Sheva compos.) been already expressed in the New 
 Testament; comp. John 19: 13 ya^a&d ansa, Acts 1: 19 
 3 y4xsXda[id Wft bpn , Acts 9: 36 Tafii&d NtrttB , 1 Cor. 16: 22 
 Maqdv d&d nx fjo , Mark 5: 41 rah&d *ov\ii taup xrpba ; (so 
 also in Josephus, '^dwfid WQTIX , Ji$$d X2X , etc.) 
 
 Finally, also, it is not to be overlooked, that while the Syriac, 
 in accordance entirely with its character as the language of a moun- 
 tainous region, fell roughly and heavily upon the ear, the Chal- 
 dee possessed clearer and smoother sounds, precisely as we might 
 expect from a dialect which was spoken in an open, flat and level 
 country. In many of the ancient writers, particularly among the 
 Greeks, a Syrian and Babylonian language is the same they recog- 
 nize no distinction between them (Hupfeld, as already cited, 292); 
 but no one who considers the superficial acquaintance which they 
 had with everything relating to the oriental philology, will regard this 
 as any argument against the position which has been advanced ; and 
 3 
 
18 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 so much the less, when he adds to this that the term Syriac, as used 
 among the ancients, was fully as extensive in its meaning as the 
 term Aramaean. But it must not be supposed, because we find 
 the dialect here spoken of only in writings composed by Jews, that 
 this dialect was, therefore, formed by the Jews ; we have, in general, 
 no written monuments from Babylonian hands. The destruction, 
 however, of the Babylonian literature, if any such ever existed, is 
 not more difficult to be explained than that of the literary works 
 of Phoenicia or Carthage. In short, the circumstance that in the 
 Gemara the current Jewish language of Palestine is called Syriac, is 
 fully outweighed by the fact, that in the Mishna (Schekal. 5, 3) 
 the same is styled Aramaean ; the term in fact, according to Hup- 
 feld (p. 291), which is said to be the Talmudic designation of the 
 Babl. Arm. language. (The Talmud recognizes, therefore, such a 
 language ? This is an important concession ; for what Hupfeld 
 remarks, p. 293, could only be assumed.) 
 
 Nor will any one, with Furst (Lehrgebaude der Aram. Idiome, 
 p. 5), consider the idiom in question as a Syriac language adopted 
 by the Jews, and deny altogether a dialectic difference between the 
 Syriac and the Babylonish. What is remarked by this scholar, 
 p. 7 sq., in order to remove every deviation of the Chaldee, so 
 called, from the Syriac, is in part incomplete, as an exhibition of 
 the phenomena in the case ; in part, founded upon attempts to iden- 
 tify the two dialects, which do not prove tenable on closer exami- 
 nation. Comp. Dietrich de sermonis Chal. proprietate. Lips. 
 1839. 8. p. 10. 43. One cannot but characterize it as a weak ar- 
 gument, that in the Old Testament allusion is made only to the 
 Aramaean in a general way, but never to a double dialect of this 
 language, and that the Talmudists term our idiom WiO ! Furst 
 acknowledges, however (p. 13), a. pure Aramaean in the language 
 of the Paraphrases, and will admit only such a difference between 
 this language and the Syriac (transmitted to us only in Christian 
 writings) as was produced by religious faith ; so that, according to 
 this view, we must divide the Aramaean, not into West and East 
 Aramaean, but Jewish and Christian Aramaean. An assertion 
 like this, however, it would be found difficult to sustain, especially 
 when it should be first shown how Judaism and Christianity could 
 have operated upon the grammatical structure of the Aramaean. 
 The dialectic deviations of the Chaldee from the Syriac are greater, 
 at all events, than the differences between the Phoenician and Car- 
 
 ^5** 
 
CHALDEE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 19 
 
 lhaginian ; although this latter is precisely a case, in which we should 
 expect a different relation (Gesenius, Monum. Phoenic. II, 337). 
 Finally, we can argue nothing decisive from the language of the 
 Carpentras inscription, which is said, according to Gesenius, to be- 
 long to some heathen Aramaean, who was a native of Phoenicia. 
 Even supposing the truth of this conjecture, it is of too limited ex- 
 tent to admit of comparison with the Chaldee idiom, the remains 
 of which are so much more ample, in order to prove that the Ara- 
 maean might have formed itself among the Jews into the Chaldee, 
 as it is called, as easily as that dialect arose from a combination of 
 the Aramaean with Phoenician elements. 
 
 The periods of Persian and Greco-Macedonian supremacy intro- 
 duced Persian and Grecian words into the Babylonish (yet fewer 
 than into the Syriac, upon which the ecclesiastical Greek of the 
 Christian fathers operated) ; hence even the Targum of Onkelos 
 and the bibl. Chaldee (comp. e. g. Dan. 4: 5, 7) is not free from 
 Greek words; (comp. D. Cohen de Lara de convenientia vocabul. 
 Rabbin, (et Chald.) c. Graecis cet. Amst. 1648. 4). But the Sara- 
 cen power, which swept over Babylon with the army of the Caliphs, 
 640 after Christ, extirpated utterly the Aramaean dialect in all its 
 branches, so that no trace of it remains at the present time in the 
 East ; for the report that the Chaldee is still spoken in some villages 
 near Mosul and Mardin (Niebuhr, Reise II, 363), is destitute of all 
 probability, and has not been confirmed by recent travellers. 1 An- 
 other statement, which is still more unsupported, see in Eichhorn's 
 Biblioth. VIII. p. 435. 
 
 The most important helps for the acquisition of the Chaldee are the following : 
 1. Lexicons. 
 
 J. Buxtorfii the elder (1629), 2 Lexicon Chaldaico-Talmudico-Rabbini- 
 
 cum. Basil. 1640. Fol. 
 Edm. Castelli Lexicon heptaglotton. Lond. 1669. Fol. (which contains 
 
 also a complete Chald. Vocabulary). 
 M. J. Landau, rabb. aram. deutsch. Worterbuch zur Kenntniss des Talm., 
 
 der Targum. etc. Prag. 1819. 20. 
 J. II. Dessauer, Gedrangtes vollstandiges aram. chald. deutsches Hand- 
 
 worterbuch. Erlang. 1838. 8. 
 
 1 See Appendix, No. 3. Tr. 
 
 2 The year designated in these cases is that of the author's death. Tr. 
 
 
 
 
20 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 2. Grammars. 
 
 a) Of the Semitic dialects generally, or at least of the Aramaean dialect. 
 
 J. Buxtori; Grammatica Chald. et Syr. Basil. (1615.) 1650. 8. 
 
 Lud. de Dieu (1642), Grammatica linguar. orientall. Hebr. Chald. et Syr. 
 
 inter se collatarum. L. B. 1628. 4. Fref. a. M. 1683. 4. 
 J. H. Hottinger (1667), Grammatica quatuor linguar. Hebr. Chald. Syr. et 
 
 Arab. Tigur. 1849. 4. Heidelb. 1658. 
 Andr. Sennert (1689), Hypotyposis harmonica linguar. orientall. Chald. 
 
 Syr. et Arab. c. matre Hebr. Viteb. 1553. 4. 
 Car. Schaaf (1729), Opus Aramaeum compl. Grammaticam Chald. Syr. 
 
 etc. L. Bat. 1686. 8. 
 Ign. Fessler, Institutt. linguar. orientall. Hebr. Chald. Syr. et Arab. Vra- 
 
 tisl. 1787. 89. 2 Tomi. 8. 
 J. Gottfr. Hasse (1806), prakt. Handb. der aram. Sprache. Jena. 1791. 8. 
 
 Elementa Aram. s. Chald. et Syr. linguae Lat. reddita et accessioni- 
 
 bus aucta ab Andr. Oberleitner. Vindob. 1820. 8. 
 J. S. Vater(1826), Handbuch der hebr. syr. chald. und arab. Grammatik. 
 
 Leipzig. (1802.) 1817. 8. 
 
 b) The Chaldee language separately. 
 
 Chph. Cellarii (1707), Chaldaismus s. Grammatica nova ling. Chald. Cizae. 
 1685. 4. 
 
 Henr. Opitii (U712), Chaldaismus targum Talm. Rabbin. Hebraismo har- 
 monious. Kil. 1696. 4. 
 
 J. Dav. Michaelis (1791), Grammatica Chald. Goett. 1771. 8. 
 
 Wilh. Fr. Hezel. (1824), Anweis. zum Chald. bei Ermangelung alles 
 miindl. Unterrichts. Lemgo. 1787. 8. (See Michaelis, neue oriental, und 
 exeget. Bibl. V, 180 sq. Eichhorn's Bibl. I, 1034). 
 
 N. W. Schroder (1798), Institutt. ad fundam. Chaldaismi bibl. brevissime 
 concinnata (1787) ed. 2. aucta et emend. Ulm. 1810. gr. 8. (An appen- 
 dix, properly, to this author's grammar. See Eichhorn's Bibl. VIII, 694.) 
 
 Jul. Furst, Lehrgebaude der aram'aischen Idiome in Bezug auf die indo- 
 german. Sprachen (I. Thl. Formenlehre der chald. Grammatik). Lpz. 
 1835. 8. (The portion which treats of nouns is not contained in this 
 division of the work.) 
 
 3. Chrestomathies and Readers. 
 
 Geneseos ex Oncelosi paraphr. Chald. quatuor priora capita una c. Dan. 
 
 c. 2. Chald. ed. W. Fr. Hezel. Lemgo. 1788. 8. 
 Ge. Lor. Bauer (1806), Chrestom. e paraphras. Chald. et Talmude delecta 
 
 c. nott. et ind. Nurnb. 1792. 8. (See Eichhorn's Bibl. IV, 895 sq.) 
 J. Jahn, chald. Chrestomathie grosstentheils aus Handschriften. Wien. 
 
 1800. (Without a glossary.) 
 H. Adolf Grimm (1815), chald. Chrestomathie mit einem vollstandigen 
 
 Glossar. Lemgo. 1801. 8. 
 
 Besides, the Chaldee words in Dan. and Ezra are usually admitted 
 into the Hebr. Lexicons. The older Hebrew grammars (see Alting, Danz, 
 etc.) contain also a brief introduction to the Chaldee. 
 
PART I. 
 
 ELEMENTS, OR SIGNS FOR READING, AND THEIR USE. 
 
 it 
 
 Consonants. 
 
 The Chaldee is written with the same consonants that are em- 
 ployed in Hebrew ; and so far as we are able to trace the history 
 of the former, it has never been expressed by any other essentially 
 different mode of representation. On the contrary, the palaeog- 
 raphists have long maintained the view, that the square letter, 
 which we now term Hebrew by way of eminence, belonged origi- 
 nally to the Chaldeans (Babylonians), and was first adopted by 
 the Jews instead of the old Hebrew character, after the Babylo- 
 nian exile. This may not admit of being satisfactorily proved ; 
 still it is impossible to entertain any doubt of the Aramaean ori- 
 gin of the Hebrew- Chaldee character, in opposition to the old He- 
 brew (so-called Samaritan) alphabet. 
 
 The older view has been defended at large in Gesenius's Geschichte 
 der hebr. Sprache und Schrift (Leipzig. 1815. 8) p. 140 sq. [In conse- 
 quence of more recent discussions respecting this point, Gesenius has 
 expressed himself less decidedly in his later works. See his Hebr. Gram. 
 p. 17. Tr,] This opinion began to be shaken even by Kopp, but was 
 more fully controverted by Hupfeld, in the Studien und Kritiken, 1830. 
 2 Heft, with whom Havernick agrees essentially, in his Einl. p. 288 sq. 
 What they maintain is that the present Hebrew character came to the 
 Jews from the neighboring Syrians, and was afterwards calligraphically 
 improved by them. Its nearest modal form is to be sought in the 
 Palmyrene mode of writing. However, all the arguments which Hup- 
 feld advanced have not equal force, or indeed any true force in some 
 instances : see Winer's Bibl. Rw. II, 497 sq. And even if the square letter, 
 
 
* 
 
 22 2. VOWEL SIGNS. 
 
 as it lies before us in the Codd., does not extend back beyond the third 
 century after Christ, still the Aramaean character, which it represents, 
 may have been already known to the Jews in the time of the Babylo- 
 nian exile, and used by them at that period, just as the characters on 
 the Aramaean-Egyptian monuments prove an earlier existence of Ara- 
 maean written signs ; see Rw. as above ; Gesenius, Monum. Phoenic. 
 I. 78, and also Ewald, Krit. Grammat. der hebr. Spr. 11 sq. 
 
 That the square letter, as it now appears in the Hebrew and Chal- 
 dee manuscripts and printed works, acquired this particular form in 
 the course of time and gradually, may be inferred in part from the 
 nature of the case, in part from an inspection of the oldest MSS., and 
 especially of the Palmyrene, and the still more ancient Egyptian- Ara- 
 maean monuments. Among the ruins of the Syrian city Palmyra or 
 Thadmor, travellers have discovered several inscriptions, the oldest of 
 which dates from the year 49 after Christ (see the painting in Wood's 
 Ruins of Palmyra, Lond. 1753, and the plate at the end of Tychsen's 
 Element. Syr. Comp. Kopp, Bilder und Schriften 11,245 sq.). The 
 characters found upon them agree manifestly, in their main points, 
 with the square figure, but differ from the present Hebrew letters by 
 a rougher and less distinct form ; and thus afford proof that our present 
 square alphabet has received this permanent character principally in 
 consequence of calligraphic efforts. Still nearer, in some respects, to 
 the square alphabet, stand the written characters, which, from the 
 circumstance of their having been found upon certain monuments in 
 Egypt, have received the name of Egyptian- Aramaean ; comp. Gese- 
 nius, Monum. Phoenic. 1, 59 sq. The forms of particular letters (Tab. 4. 
 col. 3. in Gesenius), as a , 1 , 5 , 1 , exhibit still more decidedly this re- 
 semblance to the square character. (On the question how far the Ara- 
 maean character, in its most ancient form, goes back to the old Phoe- 
 nician, and thus may have sprung, at last, from the same root, as well 
 as the old Hebrew, see Gesen., Monum. Phoenic. I, 64.). 
 
 2. 
 V oio el Signs. 
 
 The vowel-points, also, and the various diacritic signs (in part 
 even the accents), which are employed in Hebrew, have been 
 extended to the Chaldee, and appear in many manuscripts and 
 most editions of the Chaldee text. Since it is certain, however, 
 that these signs were all invented by the Jews, even as late as 
 
 J 
 
 
 
2. VOWEL SIGNS. 23 
 
 several centuries after Christ, it follows that the written Chaldee 
 was originally without any provision for the representation of the 
 vowels, etc. It may be added, also, that in the Egyptian- Ara- 
 maean, as well as the Palmyrene inscriptions, no vowel-signs 
 are perceptible. But proof may be derived from the nature of 
 the Chaldee punctuation itself, that the language previously to 
 this availed itself of the letters X, \ \ in doubtful cases, as a 
 guide to the reading. 
 
 The correctness of this remark is evident from orthographical phe- 
 nomena like &W?in iSXttft:i , rwfya Dan. 2: 35, etc., and from the 
 frequent use of the scriptio plena. See $ 4. 
 
 2. Since, however, the transfer of the Jewish vowel-signs to 
 the Chaldee took place in an age when the Jewish vowel-system 
 had not yet been perfectly formed and established, and since 
 subsequently the same attention was not devoted to the punctu- 
 ation of the Chaldee text, particularly that of the Targum, which 
 was given to the biblical Chaldee, we can readily understand 
 why the Chaldee writings exhibit at present so much less regu- 
 larity in this respect than the Hebrew Scriptures. Not only do 
 the Chaldee Codd. and editions (especially those of Venice and 
 London) differ widely from each other, but there prevails every- 
 where a great fluctuation in the use of the long and short vowels. 
 On the variable punctuation of the Targums, see Eichhorn, Einl. 
 ins A. T. 2 Thl. p. 24 sq. The printed copies of the Targums distrib- 
 ute themselves, as regards their punctuation, into three principal 
 classes : 1. The pointed text of Onkelos, contained in the Compluten- 
 sian Bible (1517) whether derived in this state from MSS. in uncertain. 
 This, with some alterations of Rapheleng, the Antwerp polyglott (1569) 
 adopted, and added the Chaldee Paraphrases of most of the Old Tes- 
 tament books. 2. The three Rabbinic Bibles of Bomberg (Venice, 
 1518, 1526, 154749. See Rosenmuller's Handb. f. die bibl. Literatur I, 
 249 sq.) contained the Chaldee text, as it appears, strictly according to 
 Codd. 3. On the contrary, Buxtorf, in his Rabbin. Bible (1618), not 
 only altered greatly the paraphrases taken from the Venetian editions 
 in conformity with the Hebrew, but also made the punctuation more 
 regular. This improved text, as it was considered, the London poly- 
 glott (1657) repeated. Finally, in the Paris polyglott (1629 sq.) we 
 have a mixed text presented to us. A careful comparison of all these 
 
24 3. PLACE OF THE TONE. 
 
 impressions is much to be desired, as also that the punctuation in the 
 manuscripts should be more perfectly examined. Valuable in this 
 respect is Jahn's Chaldee Chrestomathy, since according to his assu- 
 rance he had ttfe sections of Onkelos printed so as to correspond ex- 
 actly to the Codd. But the punctuation here agrees, in the main, more 
 with that of Buxtorf than that of the Venetian Bibles. 
 
 In the Chaldee text, even of the biblical sections, long vowels 
 frequently stand in a closed, unaccented syllable, contrary to the rules 
 of the Masoretic punctuation ; and, on the other hand, short vowels 
 occur in a simple syllable. (In particular are si and T used altogether 
 promiscuously, of which in Hebrew an incipient usage only is observable. 
 See Gesenius, Lehrgeb'aude, p. 60.) For the former, comp. instances 
 like Wprtn Deut. 23: 16, 1W Jer. 49: 19, pis (allin) Dan. 4: 4 ; 
 for the latter, *&tjp, *ip& ( 18). On the contrary, I should not rank 
 examples like Rr$&ti Dan. 4: 14, fcnVipft Dan. 5: 27, 'prftag etc -> un " 
 der No. 1. ; for these words are entirely analogous to the Hebrew 
 nrnin^ Spia^ ; the consonant which follows immediately the long 
 vowel, must be referred to the last syllable, and the anomoly of the or- 
 thography consists merely in the omission of the Methegh, which is far 
 more negligently employed in the Chaldee, than in Hebr. manuscripts. 
 See Gesenius, Lehrgebaude, p. 118.) It appears with most regularity, 
 however, in the Bible ; comp. e. g. Dan. 6: 4 bMft , KWO , 6: eyTraK , 
 6: 17 r- i-r&& , Dan. 2: 8 ftfitt , Dan. 4: 31 flStJM , 7: 12 pr15$ji '. 
 
 It results from the preceding, that the rule for Qa?nets Hhatuph, 
 which occurs in Chaldee much less frequently than in Hebrew, will 
 not prove indeed in practice so certain, as there ; the reader must ob- 
 serve the origin of words, so as not to pronounce, e. g.. *pbtfl)3 , fjft qot- 
 lin, ollin. On the contrary, examples like fcwairi can occasion no dif- 
 ficulty. A superfluous mater lectionis has been here retained ( 4) ; and 
 no one would so far err as to think of a quiescent 1 in Qamets Hhatuph, 
 or even such a pronunciation as Hhdvkhmd. The occurrence of 1 with- 
 out Sheva is decisive against the latter. But the Chaldee words 
 which contain a Qamets Hhatuph at all, are very few. 
 
 3. 
 
 Place of the Tone. 
 
 According to the usage of the Masoretic punctuation, transfer- 
 red from the Hebrew to the Chaldee of Dan., Ezra and Onkelos, 
 the tone, in Chaldee words also, rests uniformly upon the last 
 syllable ; it is only as an exception, and in certain forms, that the 
 
3. PLACE OF THE TONE. 25 
 
 tone rests on the penultimate. This last occurs in the following 
 cases : 1. In the Segholate forms of nouns, which resembfe those 
 that bear this designation in Hebrew ; as *$v , wo , JJJ , rnia , 
 and the analogous verbal forms, as rvroK , nnbsi , as also in the 
 Plural (and Dual) ending y?_ ; 2. In the verbal forms terminating 
 in n and fc ; e. g. xrbbp , KjMap ; in the third Plur. Praeter, as 
 >bp , fcAbj? , abb]? ; in the persons of the Imperative termina- 
 tions in % and -1 , as , Abp ] 3. In the forms of verbs and 
 nouns with the suffixes *a_ , xn_ , w_ , *!_ , w , *npf , Tnr? , 
 Ifttfa , Hbbjq , WrtfTTh, etc. ; besides, the svffixes *J , *o , *H , leave 
 the tone to the preceding syllable ; e. g. ^aa^n . 
 
 On exception 2 above, we subjoin a farther remark. In tin 1 biblical 
 Chaldee the forms >top , vtyf^ etc., are regularly marked with the 
 tone on the penult; comp. Dan. 6: 7, 25. 7: 4. Ezra 4: 11, 18, 23. 5: 5. 
 6: 1, 13, 16 sq. ; so likewise the Imperatives Dan. 7: 5. Ezra 6: 7. 
 From Onkelos, comp. (Jen. 29: 5 sq. 7:21. ExotL 2: 19 ; bow ever, 
 these forms are here sometimes accented on the ultimate, even when 
 no pospositive accent (see Gesenius, Gr. p. 41 Tr.) falls upon it ; e. g. 
 ihttK, &C^2 Gen. 3: 7. 26: 28. Exod. 2: 16,18. Tin- Infinitives in X_ 
 
 - -: ' t - : ' t 
 
 have the place of the tone on the ultimate with the single exception which 
 is about to be remarked. A drawing back of the tone from the last syllal >lo 
 to the last but one takes place (in bibL Chaldee, yet without uniformity) 
 when two tone-syllables would follow each other in immediate succes- 
 sion ; comp. Ezra 6: 12 tr B r" f . Dan. 7: 12 prfc row , Exod. 2: 2, al- 
 so in pause ; e. g. Exod. 8: 12 N~r r~ . Besides, in pause a monosyllabic 
 word sometimes became disyllabic with the tone on the penultimate, 
 as Gen. 4: 9. Jon. fcOX; seldom is the accent carried forward to the 
 last open syllable Gen. 37: 10 xrabn , 49: 9 SPjAo , 16: 4 M*n% (Ge- 
 senius, Lehrgeb. p. 178). On the effect of the pause in lengthening 
 the vowel of the accented syllable, see 7 a. 
 
 The German and Polish Jews place the tone in Chaldee, as in He- 
 brew, regularly on the penultimate. That this accentuation, however, 
 was the ancient Babylonian, we could not infer from the accentuation 
 prevalent in Syriac ; for two dialects, otherwise very nearly related, 
 might still differ from each other in their accentuation. Were the 
 vocalization of the Chaldee, as it now exists, perfectly conformed to 
 the ancient Babylonian pronunciation, it would afford also an argu- 
 ment for the received accentuation of the Chaldee. 
 
 4 
 
26 4. READING OF UNPOINTED TEXT. 
 
 4. 
 Reading of Unpointed Text. 
 
 As all Chaldee text is not pointed ; and as that which is un- 
 pointed, in addition to the ordinary use of the matres lectioni, M ,#>* 
 (^ for e and i, 1 for o and w, I* for a, Sheva vocal also being of- 
 ten designated by *; e.g. Ktti^a for awjaa Gen. 2: 5, M^^ for 
 WJT^Sj , BtTO instead of ana Genes. 4: 8. Jon., Ta^a for *$g Exod. 
 6: 6), exhibits several peculiarities, it may be remarked, as a help 
 to the reading of such text, and as applicable also at least to the 
 Targums, that a double 1 or * is employed : (a) In the middle of 
 words, either where the consonant power of these letters is to be 
 indicated ; e. g. anma i. e. anisto , as^an i. e. won , or where 
 they are to be pronounced twice; e. g. nniiina i. e. WljNrtt, 
 T*aN n i. e. pa^f; (b) At the end of words, particularly where the 
 pronouns % and i- are to be distinguished ; e. g. ^bm i. e. ftfi . 
 These helping consonants have been retained in single words, even 
 in the printed text; e. g. Targ. Jon. Gen. 2: 1 S^lja instead of abjia , 
 3: 15 mi3ta , 24: 46 n^pm , 25: 21 m-nnK , Exod. 10: 25 wfej , 
 
 tt: .7 _i.._7 _ t . . j j t : - 
 
 Num. 34: 6 WWIJJ, Lev. 13: 38 $??*? 
 
 Of the abbreviations which are so numerous in the Rabbins (J. Bux- 
 torf de Abbreviat. Hebr. ed. 2. Basil. 1640. 8.), there occurs con- 
 stantly in the Targums only * (j*j i. e. h"W ; on the contrary, in the 
 later Targums several others are found here and there, as Gen. 
 15: 34. Deut. 32: 31. Jon. 83 i.e. tt^Wba ^S (Buxtorf, p. 150) and 
 Gen. 25: 21. Jon. nsp i. e. a in $p15l &<u3mp tfie Ubfy One 6e praised 
 (Buxtorf, p. 168). Certain uniform abbreviations appear upon the 
 Jewish coins, as well as the Phoenician inscriptions (Gesenius, Monum. 
 Phoenic. I, 53 sq. 
 

 
 PART II. 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES ON WHICH THE CHANGES OF WORDS DEPEND. 
 
 5. 
 The Subject in General. 
 
 1. Before it can be shown how the several, permanent 
 parts of speech are produced from one another (derivari), and also 
 what changes they undergo within themselves (declinari), in or- 
 der to accomplish the various objects of speech, the fundamental 
 principles must be exhibited, according to which this takes place. 
 The consideration of these principles furnishes the material for 
 that portion of grammar, viz. etymology, or the general doctrine of 
 forms, of which we have next to treat. But since in Chaldee, as 
 in every other language, the formation and inflection of words are 
 effected partly by changes in the consonants, partly by changes 
 in the vowels, the subject divides itself naturally into two parts. 
 
 2. In considering the modifications, to which the vowels and 
 consonants are subject in the formation and inflection of words, 
 we should distinguish between those which are designed or ra- 
 tional, and those which are physical or euphonic. Among the for- 
 mer we include those, in which may be traced a fixed, pervading 
 type of formation and inflection, and which is the product of a re- 
 flecting consciousness on the part of the people by whom the 
 language is developed. Examples of this are furnished in the 
 
28 6. MUTATIONS WHICH AFFECT THE CONSONANTS. 
 
 characteristic differences of the Tenses and Conjugations, and 
 in the endings of the Singular and Plural of nouns. As material 
 or euphonic, on the contrary, we are to consider those varieties 
 of Words, which in the pronunciation of particular forms or com- 
 binations are produced, consciously or unconsciously, by the or- 
 gans of the speaker ; e. g. I'iog for *pl?2g, l^iKa for T^&ta, 'ifflntpi 
 for TOJMria , (in like manner in Latin imminutus for inminutus, mi 
 for mihi, hodie for hoc die, etc.) That the general branch of ety- 
 mology, which grammar embraces, must confine itself principally 
 to changes of the latter kind, is obvious of itself. 
 
 6. 
 Mutations which affect the Consonants. 
 
 The derivation and inflection of words, therefore, are effected 
 in the first place by changes in the consonants. In this case, 
 either the radicals which compose the ground-form remain, and 
 other letters with vowels or without them are prefixed, inserted 
 or annexed, or the radicals themselves are rejected, doubled or 
 interchanged with other letters ; e. g. tagna , Sft , awbap , i**J2 
 from tags ; *4a from &6y; )r\tt from n: . For this purpose the 
 Chaldee employed the letters 1 , *> , sn , 5 , , a , n ; and it belongs to 
 special etymology to show what use, in each particular instance, 
 was made of these formative letters. General etymology, on 
 the other hand, has to notice only certain phonetic changes, i. e. 
 in part such as were produced by the organs of speech entirely 
 without design, in part such as have their origin in the effort of 
 the language to secure to itself softness of pronunciation and eu- 
 phony. The changes now which take place among consonants, 
 in this way and for this object, are assimilation, transposition, re- 
 jection, commutation and addition. 
 
 a) Assimilation occurs regularly : 1) With 3 when it stands with- 
 out a vowel, at the close of a mixed syllable immediately before 
 another consonant. Thus, instead of pas? we have usual- 
 ly P& 1 ? > for nn2>? , SR$i , NtjuJ for Htjftf , etc. Genes. 7 : 11. Jon. 
 Comp. $ 18 in relation to verbs }2 } and $38. 2) With n of 
 
6. MUTATIONS WHICH AFFECT THE CONSONANTS. 29 
 
 the Passive prefix n syllable before & and 1, more rarely be- 
 fore other letters: see HO. 5. 3) With a and n, only in par- 
 ticular examples, as *ta for *ib ex , ann , ^ann for arnn , wnn 
 Gen. 1: 6. 6: 16. Jon. 4) With * in some verbs *B; e. g. Wf* in- 
 stead of *3p5j and rrsa, h(g fr m n:n aua * ^ ($20.4.). In- 
 stead of prolonging the vowel, i is here represented by a repeti- 
 tion of the following consonant with a sharpened vowel. Comp. 
 Gesen., Lehrgeb. p. 390 sq. 
 
 b) The n of the Passive prefix nx is regularly trans/erred to the 
 place of the first radical of the verb, when this radical is a sibi- 
 lant (tt, s, D, t); e.g. nsnr, "innox, rs-jsx . The easier pro- 
 nunciation thus obtained is the obvious ground of this usage. 
 Of a lexical character is the transposition which occurs in still 
 other separate examples ; as rm for irn (Hebr. nra), na which 
 coexists with "ttj . 
 
 c) The feeble letters K, * and 3 , when destitute of a vowel, 
 are rejected (aphaeresis) at the beginning of words ; e. g. in for 
 nnx, ira for \r_3X, pB, po, in Imper. for pfip, poa, *Jp; in the 
 later Targums, also, other consonants ; e. g. in^ for -zz-\ Gen. 
 37:4. Num. 30: 21. Jon. 2) The same and similar vowelless 
 consonants are dropped in the middle of words, particularly on 
 the contraction of several words into one, or the contact of forma- 
 tive syllables, occasioning the elision of one or more subsequent 
 letters; e. g. kA5 for kjx bv%, fmif^Q for pnptoqp ($ 13. 1), 
 i&'nn for *ios *nn, Knn for Knsts km, war for a&o xn ($ 39, 
 3. Rem.), HJtjH for n^^rx , besides, though more rarely, as Bj; 
 Gen. 29: 17 T. H. for aran, IpQ for Itypfe This takes place, 
 also, sometimes with x and H , when it has a vowel ; e. g. 
 isrx for H^T* ($ 21), wq for ffpEh 3) At the end of words 
 the soft n is regularly dropped (apocope) in the Feminine forms 
 of nouns like MD^B ; in the later Targums (and in the Talmud) 
 in some other cases, e. g. ^2 for n*o Gen. 22: 19. 40: 3. Jon. Num. 
 16: 16. Jon. m for Wm Gen. 26: 21. Jon. The apocope of 1 ap- 
 pears only in single instances, particularly ; e.g. ian; for "pan? 
 Dan. 5: 10; of *l in the Fut. x^xn instead of iBxn Gen. 33: 
 
30 6. MUTATIONS WHICH AFFECT THE CONSONANTS. 
 
 10. Jon. ; of d in *$JJ (^g) for BHg Gen. 18: 10. 24: 13. Jon. 
 Comp. i 23. Eem. 1. 
 
 Merely orthographic is the omission of the quiescent letters ; as, 
 Ntri for Titftn, *&j for *b**, tfeq for Cjilte (fi)|^). 
 
 d) Commutation takes place among those consonants which are 
 similar in their pronunciation, particularly the quiescents ; e. g. 
 Wti for "isaa , *b$ for g&a . 
 
 On the contrary, it is to be differently explained, when in verbs tib 
 a movable "> appears in many forms in the place of K , or when KrVTO'?!? 
 is written instead of ain&W'ig . In these cases the original consonant 
 which had been displaced, merely returns. 
 
 e) A prosthetic a is sometimes prefixed to forms which would 
 commence with two consonants ; e. g. iintiK , ^na . See $ 23. \ 
 Rem. 1. This extends lexically, however, still further, and the 
 X prefixed in the formation of Nouns is sometimes nothing else 
 than a prosthetic a ; e. g. fcfj&fc , tnx , even with a doubling of 
 the subsequent consonant d^a , "jax together with "ja , ktik to- 
 gether with *tjfl 
 
 To foreign words, especially Greek, which begin with three or two 
 consonants, an K is usually prefixed on their adoption in Chaldee 
 (Talmud); e.g. W?p!* Cant 4: 14 i. e. tfiXov, hi/n* o/i/Aq, abtt&H 
 ctvXtj, tt*jlflip^ strata. 
 
 2) By insertion (epenthesis) a liquid and hence softer 3 is intro- 
 duced, sometimes for the purpose of obviating the harsh repeti- 
 tion of a letter; as, ansa for asa, jnaa for STra, 5>w for W*: 
 
 ' ' t : t 7 t : t 7 t : t 7 
 
 (this is especially frequent in the Zabian dialect 1 ) ; sometimes, as 
 a means of union between the sufibrmative and the verb ; as, 
 $fa$3? for ^tf|?? (H6. Rem. 1.). For the former object 1 also is 
 sometimes employed; comp. pb^i for pOT"i, acna (*&) 
 
 On an insertion of "i and i for the formation of quadriliteral verbs, 
 see 14. 2. 
 
 3) To such forms as have a vowel for their final letter, i 
 (Nun paragogic) is frequently annexed, as furnishing a better ter- 
 mination; e. g. V^aj?, )*&S$i )9ltglta 
 
 1 See Appendix, No. 4. Tr. 
 
7. MUTATIONS WHICH AFFECT THE VOWELS. 31 
 
 7. 
 Mutations which affect the Vowels. 
 
 The formation and inflection of words, in the second place, are 
 effected by means of vowels ; since, in many cases, the charac- 
 teristic difference between a groimd-form and its derivatives con- 
 sists merely in a change of the vowels ; e. g. T|^ from r^ , ba 
 from bap , bnp from bnp . It cannot be shown indeed, in each 
 particular instance, why precisely these and no other vowels were 
 selected for marking this distinction; but we can at least per- 
 ceive a certain fixed type, which controls these formations ; and 
 this, again, it is the province of special etymology to point out. 
 On the other hand, it belongs to general etymology to bring to- 
 gether and briefly explain certain deviations from this type, and 
 various modifications of the vowels, which have been occasioned 
 by the organs of speech in pronunciation. Vowels, in the course 
 of formation and inflection, are commuted, transposed, rejected or 
 assumed. 
 
 a) 1. Long vowels are exchanged for a short one, when a closed 
 syllable loses the tone ; e. g. "prVsa from bb , T^B" 1 . Ezra 7: 20 for 
 bgft , t&ryqp Dan. 2: 16 for Jfc , r^-jna Gen. 30: 31 for ^na , nsn from 
 TO > ^K st- constr. from *tyf (i pure then passes generally into - , 
 _ into _), d?B najsf for n^to (Ezra 6: 12.) ; comp. above $ 3, be- 
 cause the tone here is drawn back upon the first syllable ; npjsrt 
 Dan. 3: 14, tUMri ^nna Gen. 20: 5. A word is sometimes increased, 
 while the long vowel remains unchanged ; but in this case, either 
 the vowel was a vocalis impura (e. g. pa'Vro), or the final consonant 
 of the word attached itself to the syllable annexed ; e. g. fGU&ji 
 Dan. 3: 3 1 , as is constantly done in Hebrew *flfip| . See above, $ 2. 2. 
 But before Maqqeph the shortening of the vowel is not regularly 
 observed, even in biblical Chaldee ; (e.g. Dan. 6: 12 WW, 
 Deut. 2: 28 *TW, 7: 11 ijjj) 'igjty. 2. Short vowels are ex- 
 changed for long ones very frequently at the end of sentences 
 where the voice falls (in pause) : e. g. nx Gen. 4: 11, S)&a Dan. 
 2: 32, S* Dan. 4: 6, wri> Gen. 34: 4, in Gen. 34: 22, *q Exod. 
 
32 7. MUTATIONS WHICH AFFECT THE VOWELS. 
 
 2: 2, mh\m Gen. 20: 16, $ta Gen. 24: 19, N*#o Exod. 4: 13, 
 fibttjn Gen. 38: 17, ds^in Gen. 30: 31 ; (yet this is not universal) ; 
 comp. Dan. 2: 9, 17. Exod. 8: 16 j 1 further, before a Guttural 
 which would regularly have been doubled : T^y? for Tp5 , 
 wn&ra for fc^fcra , (yet this does not always occur, especially 
 when the Guttural is n or fi, Dan. 4: 16, 24) ; less often before 
 other consonants, e. g. JUT* for )^ii Gen. 6: 2. Jon., fnf3*H for 
 ynppa Gen. 38: 9. Jon. ; see 20. 4) ; also SWqj for !Fjtg (14. 1) ; 
 again, when a Quiescent which should have a composite Sheva, 
 coalesces with the preceding vowel, e.g. V$wi| for *? & , ttrib&n for 
 W*$3 Dan. 6: 24, jTfchkan for fa^Ki Joel 1: 13 ('i^ for "tn^); and 
 finally where, by elision, a short vowel would stand in the open 
 syllable; as, K instead of S*^ a\N ( 6. a). 3. It is for the 
 sake of greater ease of pronunciation, that final syllables which 
 close with a Guttural, have commonly __ instead of what would 
 otherwise be the proper vowel ; e. g. riW? for tfa& , nzti for nsttj , 
 and also that a heterogeneous vowel in a syllable which terminates 
 with a Quiescent, is exchanged for one homogeneous with the 
 latter: spo'ia for Sf*t$*. 
 
 The case, in which a short vowel passes into a long one in a sylla- 
 ble which has become simple, cannot be adduced here ; since in most 
 examples the short vowel has been retained by the punctuators, and 
 forms, like ICftJti&i V*5 are found only here and there in particular 
 editions. 
 
 b) Vowels are transposed, partly in some monosyllabic forms of 
 verbs, which have the vowel between the last two consonants ; 
 namely, when a Pronoun is added to them : ftbag from btt> ; 
 partly in cases, like *tga for ^fctftt , where the vowel of the qui- 
 escent falls back to the consonant before it, and thus stands in a 
 situation to admit of quiescence. 
 
 c) Vowels are rejected, in the last syllable of words, when ad- 
 ditions are made to them in the process of formation, which do 
 not constitute a syllable by themselves, yet far less frequently 
 than in Hebrew ; e. g. arabs from t&s , *pVl8 & om ^g > ^^? 
 
 1 The reverse sometimes takes place in connection with a conjunctive ac- 
 cent; comp. Dan. 2: 16, 32. 3: 14. Ezra 4: 19. 
 
8. PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 33 
 
 from ins , ')&)?'? from bttj^> . This takes place oftenest with 
 
 *T "7! > "7! > T 
 
 d) Finally, vowels are assumed: 1) When at the beginning of 
 a syllable two vowelless consonants would follow each other in 
 succession ; e. g. fcoj^ from bap , ^bisb from T\?Q . In such a 
 case, - is commonly inserted as a helping vowel (in which a 
 vowelless s then quiesces ; e. g. nrm from srp^ , ^sw from 
 prrr 1 ! . If, however, the following consonant be a guttural with 
 a composite Sheva, the consonant which is to receive the vowel 
 takes then a short vowel, corresponding to that of the Sheva ; 
 e. g. "nDxb ; here, also, belong cases, like ynnrn Ezra 7: 18 in- 
 stead of yH^|n (yet at the same time V*Wn)i J$ for 1JWJ, 
 nnnnn Ezra 4: 15 for ns^njii. 2) Sometimes in pause, Gen. 4: 
 9. Jon. Kjx instead of &s< Gen. 46: 30. Onk. 
 
 Rem. In the lust two , some particular cases of contraction, and 
 especially of the uniting of two independent words into one, have been 
 adduced, as sitfa for W yq , Sb^ for ifcs ^n . This tendency goes 
 much further still in the Talmudic Chaldee, and even the later Tar- 
 gums present examples of very violent contractions, i. e. of such as are 
 not confined to the absorption of single consonants or vowels ; as, 
 Lev. 16:21. Jon. Igniaa for H ffnyflg R$1J (with K prosthetic), Gen. 
 19: 34 &Orroi* for aorra DTO . The rv4 instead of rv^ 2>6 has 
 
 t : - t : - - t 
 
 become general. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 The Pronoun. 
 
 8. 
 Personal and Possessive Pronouns. 
 
 1. The Personal Pronouns are divided, as in Hebrew, into 
 two principal classes. One class consists of those which exist 
 separately, monosyllabic or dissyllabic words (Pronomina sepa- 
 rata) ; the other consists of forms abbreviated from these, which 
 5 
 
34 
 
 8. PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 are annexed to verbs and nouns (Pronomina suffixa). The for- 
 mer express, with few exceptions, the Personal pronouns in the 
 casus rectus; the latter, in the casibus obliquis. The Pronom. 
 separata, are the following : 
 
 1 com. 
 
 2 com. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 t -: V t -: 
 
 M : , rag 
 (Dan. ra$) 
 
 (sin) gfti 
 
 I 
 thou. 
 
 he. 
 she. 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 m. 
 
 awria, ajnls. 
 
 m. 
 
 pina, 'phj* 
 
 f 
 
 j^Hlgf; "prus 
 
 m. 
 
 W (I s *?) 
 
 
 i-ar? , -pEn 
 
 f 
 
 wti (r.^) 
 
 we. 
 
 ye. 
 
 they. 
 
 pall and iftft occur only in the bibl. Chaldee, the former Dan. 2: 
 34 sq. 3: 22 ; the latter, Ezra 4: 10. 5: 5. 7: 17 sq. ; #1 is found Prov. 
 25: 20. 
 
 The Suffixes (inseparabilia) are attached to verbs, the signs of 
 the cases ($56), and to prepositions and nouns. In the last case, 
 they are translated in English and Latin by possessive pronouns, 
 but they express most directly the Genitive of the personal pro- 
 nouns, precisely like the mode of speaking in Greek, as in na- 
 rr]Q [iov, ijfioov, etc. 
 
 The Suffixes to Verbs are the following : 
 
 us. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1 com. 
 
 9-ii ^ me. 
 
 (h) >-; , w (r-y 
 
 i* 
 
 ~~'} , I thee. 
 
 1? 
 
 r m. 
 3 > 
 
 (*_) a- him. 
 it, "*ji 
 
 lC F- 
 
 ( / 
 
 (h) m, *- her. 
 
 |, vs. ii-r 
 
 you. 
 
 them. 
 
 Which of these forms should be used in each particular instance, 
 will be stated in 16, where also will be explained the nature and use 
 of the Nun epenthetic, so called, which is often inserted between the 
 verbal form and the suffix, and which modifies to some extent the forms 
 of the suffixes. To deny this altogether is useless ; though no doubt 
 a 3 has been sometimes considered as epenthetic, which belongs to 
 the suffix or the verbal form itself, as in ybftVdg or even MftjifeH?. 
 
8. PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 35 
 
 3. The Suffixes to Nouns, again, divide themselves into two 
 classes, according as they are attached to nouns in the Singular, 
 or nouns in the Plural (and which express, consequently, the pos- 
 sessive pronouns in the Sing, or the Plur. mens, met; noster, nostri, 
 etc.). The latter are distinguished for the most part by their 
 longer forms, in which the * of the plural termination may be 
 discerned. They are in general the following : 
 
 1. Suffixes to Nouns Singular. 
 
 1 com. 
 
 4* 
 
 Sing. 
 
 my. 
 
 jthy. 
 
 | his. 
 I her. 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 com. 
 
 T T 
 
 ( m. 
 
 fa, Bi= 
 
 if. 
 
 B 
 
 ( m. 
 
 fin, oin 
 
 if 
 
 t*j 
 
 our. 
 
 your. 
 
 their. 
 
 K- is found twice instead of in- Dan. 4: 15, 16. 5: 8 ; but some- 
 times in the Targums Ihl Gen. 1: 12, 21 ; very often plene BV Num. 
 24: 7. For \0 and "pn we very frequendy find fOr\ and yffTw in 
 the Venetian copies Ps. 149:2. Joel2i23Difi occurs; e.g. Gen. 9: 
 23. 10: 5. 22:6. 40:3. Jon., tfo Gen. 17: 12. Jon.; this was also 
 the Phoenician pronunciation. In connection with the words 1!* , nx 
 and dn , which before the suffixes become JQK etc., the suffixes of 
 the second and third Pers. Sing, appear in the form Tj , "*3, NH (h) ; 
 the last of which occurs also elsewhere as a noun-suffix ; e. g. xnan 
 Gen. 3: 5; Kfiia'n and amfittj Esth. 1: 12. 
 
 7 T T T T : \ 
 
 These Suffix-forms are also attached to the prepositions b , a , *|a , 
 rflb , as well as to the sign of the accusative ; e. g. *A , Kjb ()b Gen. 
 3:2. Jon.), "jab , wb, finib, )fo|B 
 
 1 com. 
 
 3 
 
 m. 
 
 S 
 
 2. Suffixes to Nouns Plural. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 4 
 
 my. 
 
 
 jthy. 
 
 tiT, *i 
 
 his. 
 
 ^ri- 
 
 her. 
 
 !m. 
 / 
 
 ( m. 
 
 i / 
 
 Plur. 
 
 fclfci 
 
 1T- 
 
 our. 
 your. 
 
 their. 
 
36 9. OTHER PRONOUNS. 
 
 These plural suffixes are regularly attached only to Masculine nouns 
 (from the plural termination of which also the i in the second person 
 Sing, and in the Plur. is derived) ; on the contrary, Feminine nouns 
 receive fully as often the singular suffixes i , ft~. , etc. Gen. 20: 17. 
 Dan. 5: 2. 2: 23, 32. Ezra 4: 17. 6: 18. Isa. 1: 4. 17: 21. 64: 5. Prov. 
 1: 18. Gen. 47: 9), since the representative of the plural idea already 
 exists here in the termination in . In Syriac this always takes place ; 
 and the Chaldee, therefore, occupies in this respect strictly a middle 
 position between the Hebrew and the Syriac. 
 
 The suffix t] h - is written in some editions T^\ or ^- ( 4.), 
 often also it appears in the abbreviated form t\- Dan. 5: 10. 2 Sam. 
 11: 8, 24. Ps. 119: 4. So likewise in some editions instead of the 
 Fern. T^- we find the form ?|- , so that the two genders are no longer 
 distinguished, Isa. 49: 18, 23, VeneL The third Pers. sing. fern, makes 
 fftl Dan. 7: 7 and ttfc Dan. 7: 19 ; on the contrary, X^- Deut. 21: 
 12. Jon. For W%- stands W- Deut. 32: 27. Jon. 
 
 T T T 
 
 Rem. 1. The possessive pronoun can be expressed also in Chaldee 
 separately from its noun, namely by writing the suffixes of the verb 
 with V^ (derived from *i relat. and b dot.) or (which is less common) 
 % f^i (derived from *h and "r Gen.) ; e. g. *$?**) 'Jjte rex, qui tibi i. e. 
 tuus, ?jMH bb Gen. 14: 23. Jon. omne tuum. In like manner, these 
 forms are employed also substantively, e. g. 2 Kings 6: 11 m^H our 
 possessions, and even indeed as predicate of a sentence, Gen. 31: 43 
 ftMtt *&h *Tn ft^l bb all which thou seest, that is mine. 
 
 Rem. 2. The suffixes of plural nouns are connected also with such 
 prepositions as are originally nominapluralia; e. g. ^nns , ifift* , fl^jta , 
 see 38. 2. In like manner rVfll (Hebr. tij), rV4 and KE3 as, receive 
 the suffixes of plural nouns, e.g. WK, Wirpa, yowiS:, "jfthftj, 
 fllnrfQa , and the suffix is here to be translated by the Nominative. 
 
 9. 
 
 Other Pronouns. 
 1. The Demonstrative Pronoun is as follows : 
 
 Singular. 
 Hft 53 1 fa (HO Jer. 26: 9). | that. 
 
 V. tf#*J Gen. 24: 65. 37: 19. 13*3 Job 9: 24. I this. 
 
 / 5| , jtfi this, that. 
 c. KJ7 (nyj), TJ 1 ! (Ps. 24: 6. 32: 8), jjft. 
 
9. OTHER PRONOUNS. 37 
 
 Plural. 
 
 c. J**, ntyj Jer. 10: 1), $rtf (Dan. 3: 12) these, those. 
 
 The personal pronouns of the third Pers. and the demonstratives, 
 united with the Heb. article, as Kfthh , *pk&tti Exod. 20: 1) express our 
 English this very, precisely this. So are to be explained IMrT*K ('irvx), 
 WVT1* , KrT*K (Ruth 1:16. Lam.l: 4). That the demonstratives, moreover, 
 can be employed in different cases by means of prepositions, will be 
 understood without remark; e. g. 1 Sam. 25: 21 )^b to this (masc), 
 Dan. 5: 6 &Hb to this (fem.). 
 
 2. The Relative Pronoun is vj (Hebr. Jit) 1 or as prefix *i (which 
 never occurs in biblical Chaldee), for both Genders and Numbers. 
 In general usage, it denotes the Nominative (more rarely the Ac- 
 cusative) ; how the (other) oblique case3 are expressed, is de- 
 scribed in the Syntax $41. 1. 
 
 3. The Interrogative Pronoun is represented, partly after the 
 analogy of the Hebrew, by )q who ? (used of persons), and vco , m 
 (l-nj 1 Sam. 14: 43) what? (used of things), partly by a combina- 
 tion of the interrogative particle ^ and the demonstrative Pro- 
 noun ; e. g. iwqj m. ao^x f. (T*rt, kwi). Yet the latter is the 
 more energetic expression, who then ? The cases of both Inter- 
 rogatives are formed in the usual manner : e. g. )xb to wlvom ? 
 NEb for what ? TT& to whom then ? 1 Sam. 6: 20. 
 
 With yq prefixed is found for the second Interrog. ^tT'TV? Esth. 7: 
 6, as well as (aa?) y*p} *X Jon. 1: 8, but with ^ prefixed, "pna "X . 
 
 The first Interrog. is sometimes united with the personal or demon- 
 strative pronoun (quis hie, quid hoc), and is then contracted with this 
 into one word ; e. g. (Vq for #i ftj Prov. ?0: 6. 27: 4. )^q Jer. 26: 
 9 (on the contrary, Gen. 26: 27. Jon. )^ TIB). 
 
 On the designation of the reflexive and reciprocal (self) pronouns, 
 comp. the Syntax $ 43, 1. 
 
 1 Upon the Egyptian-Aramaean inscriptions this is written : i| and kt- 
 
38 10. DERIVATION AND INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Verb. 
 
 10. 
 Derivation and Inflection of the Verb in general. 
 
 1. The verbs are in their origin partly 'primitive, partly deriva- 
 tive. The former compose the great majority ; the latter, which 
 come from verbs (verbalia) or from nouns (verba denominativa), 
 particularly the last, are few ; and, as would naturally be sup- 
 posed, present themselves commonly in the derived conjugations ; 
 e. g. '&$ to outroot, tt^nm to take root, from tth5 root, ^^} to 
 
 pitch a tent, from fc^riK a tent, W ( WJtf to furnish with provis- 
 ions, from kyij viaticum, sniEnm from sKia an acquaintance. 
 
 Verbs admitted into Chaldee from the occidental languages, par- 
 ticularly Greek, are only few and such chiefly as denote technical 
 manipulations ; e. g. fcjpa ylvcpuv ; from rd^ig was formed D|5^ . 
 
 2. The stem-form of the verb consists usually of three conso- 
 nants, which are pronounced in one syllable with the vowel a or 
 e (less frequently o), under the second radical. Yet there are 
 also some verbs with four letters (quadrilittera), which are accus- 
 tomed to take the vowels -, - ; e.g. ta'no to cover; and two en- 
 tire classes of verbs are in the stem-form biliteral, d , p^ . The 
 stem-form of the verb is at the same time the tempus praeteritum, 
 and from it are derived, most directly, not only the other tenses 
 and modes, but also a Passive with its corresponding tenses and 
 modes. 
 
 3. But as in Hebrew, so here the ground-form of the verb lies 
 at the basis of certain other forms which express the idea of their 
 stem under some particular modification ; and like that, may not 
 only be inflected through all the usual tenses and modes, but are 
 furnished also with Passives of their own, which undergo the same 
 inflection. These forms are two: btsg and ^p. They are 
 called (as well as the ground-form itself) Conjugations. There are, 
 
10. DERIVATION AND INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 39 
 
 therefore, in Ghaldee three (ordinary) Conjugations. In regard 
 to some others, less frequent, Schaphel, Poel, Pilel, see below $ 14. 
 4. The characteristics and signification of the derived Conjuga- 
 tions are as follows : 1. The characteristic of the second Conj. 
 or Pael is the doubling of the second stem-letter (corresponding 
 to the Hebr. Piel). In signification it has generally an intensive 
 meaning as compared with the verbal idea of the ground-form ; 
 e.g. *rxr\f ranger e, *ian confringere, nbra to send ', n!ru3 to send away. 
 It is often causative, especially when Peal is intransitive ; e. g. 
 dan to be wise, Pael D3n to make wise ; *nn to be white, ^n to 
 make white, to wash; p^p to be red, pEb to redden, to dye red; 
 pbt? to ascend, p^o to cause to ascend (also to take away, to remove) ; 
 sometimes merely with the application to consider, declare, treat 
 a person or thing as that which the Peal expresses ; e. g. 'laa to 
 lie, 12D to declare one a liar, to convict one of falsehood. So a de- 
 nominative verb expresses in Pael the result of that which 
 the noun denotes ; e. g. u*:: from aia to spot, defile, also priva- 
 tion ; e. g. Th to take away ashes, bjso to remove stones, (comp. in 
 English Jiead, behead). 2. The third Conj. or Aphel is charac- 
 terized by N (n) prefixed to the stem-form and the vowel e or i 
 in the last syllable. Its signification is usually causative of Peal 
 (mostly in verbs, where Paelis not used, seldom if that Conj. exists 
 at the same time ; e. g. pro , p^r ) ; e.g. nnp to be near, a^x to 
 bring near (to present), iab to put on, tiabj* to cause to put on, to 
 clothe, bap to be dark, obscure, bapx to obscure, son to sin, *vnx 
 to entice to sin) ; or with the application to declare, etc. (like Pael) ; 
 e. g. P^x to declare just, (judicially) to acquit. The causative is 
 to be recognized also in cases, where in English an intransitive ex- 
 pression is employed : e. g. la^x to rain (comp. 6 Zevg vet), Tfrzx , 
 ftttftt etc. 
 
 The several conjugations are not used in all verbs; a great number 
 of verbs occur merely in Peal, others merely in Pael. In respect to 
 the latter limitation, comp. e. g. *tbt , *iari, 32P, fcpo, hb&, ip-i; yet 
 even then the intensive signification may be traced without difficulty 
 in the Pael. If Pail and Aphel exist at the same time, they are gene- 
 rally different in their signification ; e. g. T|b*? to advise, ^bEX to ap- 
 
40 10. DERIVATION AND INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 point as king, hzp accepit (obedivit), i^pl* obscuravit. But sometimes 
 both conjugations coincide in meaning ; comp. p12q and p&K . 
 
 5. The Passives of all the conjugations are characterized by the 
 prefixed syllable na (bibl. nrt), of which the following is to be re- 
 marked : a) When the verbal form begins with n , T , * the n as- 
 similates itself to the following letter and is denoted by Dag. forte ; 
 e. g. WW, insisa, *antf, from "fitft^ ns;: and 'nnn (more rarely 
 and only in the later Targums the same takes place before other 
 consonants) ; e. g. Bfttiftf Eccl. 12: 10, b*$ap* (for tapftpt) Ps. 49: 
 13, m$jl Ezek. 23: 48. Gen. 13: 7. 38: 9. Exod. 13: 10. 29: 43. 
 Jon.) ; b) If the verbal form begins with a sibilant i , K , D , t , 
 the KB is inserted after these letters ; e. g. pnmJa . In that case 
 also, sn after 2 passes into 8, after t into i; e. g. 2*0$* (for 
 IHtJfitr) )^y$ (f r l^!^). To both these specifications, verbs 12 con- 
 stitute, for the most part, an exception, inasmuch as in these the n 
 of the prefix is doubled in Ithpeal and Ittaphal; as, )Wtp , 1^^. 
 Lam. 1: 1. Dan. 2: 5. Isa. 1: 12. The signification is not merely pas- 
 sive, but frequently also reflexive 1 or reciprocal (e. g. 5tnm to wash 
 one's self, S'npns to nourish one's self, TjbEJnat to take counsel, deliberate, 
 1 Kings 12: 6). But the idea of reflexiveness is to be taken here in 
 the wider sense, similar to that expressed by the Middle voice in 
 Greek ; e. g. "gin&K to be useful to one's self, to derive advantage. 
 Even where we speak actively, the original reflexive application 
 is still to be detected ; e. g. writt or WfiK to become a Jew (to 
 cause or suffer one's self to be made a Jew), p^na to flee (to 
 let one's self be put to flight). Accordingly, we might better 
 perhaps term these forms with tm Reflexives (as in fact the Hebr. 
 Hithpael together with Niphal was originally only Reflexive) ; but 
 in the Aramaean where no other proper Passives exist, the pas- 
 sive signification has acquired in this conjugation the ascendancy, 
 and they may hence also apotiori be denominated Passives. 
 
 Together with these Aramaean Passives, others (not merely in the 
 
 1 We are not to consider this, but the passive signification as the original one ; 
 for the origination of a special form for the latter idea was a more urgent, nay, 
 indispensable want of the language. 
 
11. FLEXION OF THE REGULAR VERB. 41 
 
 bibl. Chaldee) formed after the Hebrew (Pual and Hophal) sometimes 
 present themselves ; comp. 12, 2. 4. 5. 6. 
 
 6. In regard to Tenses and Modes, the Chaldee has, in all the 
 conjugations enumerated : a) a Praeter and Future ; b) an Infini- 
 tive, Imperative (the latter in the Passives also), and a Participle 
 (which in all the Actives is double). All these forms arise from the 
 ground-form, directly or indirectly (as the Fut. immediately from 
 the Imp.) by the addition of formative letters (* , a ), by a varied 
 pronunciation of the radical consonants, or in both ways. But 
 the personal inflection in the Praeter and Imperative is effected, 
 as in Hebrew, by sufformative syllables, in the Future by prae- 
 formative and sufformative syllables, at the same time. These 
 syllables are fragmentary forms, derived from the personal Pro- 
 nouns. 
 
 7. As in the formation of verbs, all the stem-letters remain un- 
 altered, or one or two of them suffer a change by suppression or 
 some mode of commutation, all verbs in Chaldee divide them- 
 selves into two principal classes. The former are called regu- 
 lar verbs, the latter irregular. This distinction we must here fol- 
 low. 
 
 11. 
 Inflexion of the Regular Verb. 
 
 1. With the Praeter connects itself most directly the Impera- 
 tive in all the conjugations ; from the Imperative proceeds the 
 Future. The Imperative of Peal is characterized by the obtuse 
 vowel ( x ) ; the Imperatives of Pael and ApJiel, as well as those 
 of all the Passives, are identical in form with the Praeter. 
 
 2. The Futures arise from the Imperatives by prefixing \ 
 which in Peal is pronounced with - , in Pael with - , in Aphel 
 (where the a is elided) with - , but in all the Passives with T (rp). 
 
 3. The Infinitives are formed from the Praeters, in a two- fold 
 way : a) in Peal by the prefixed syllable "a ; b) in the other 
 conjugations and all the Passives, by the annexation of a. 
 
 6 
 
42 
 
 11. FLEXION OF THE REGULAR VERB. 
 
 4. The Participles also arise most immediately from the form 
 of the Praet., and are formed : a) In Peal merely by a varied 
 pronunciation of the stem-consonants (bag, ^p) ; b) In all 
 the other conjugations and the Passives, by the prefixed , which 
 in Pael is pronounced without a vowel, in Aphel with - , in the 
 Passives with - (n). Of the two Participles of the active con- 
 jugation the first, with - in the last syllable, has always an active 
 signification, the second, with - in the last syllable, a. passive sig- 
 nification. 
 
 5. The personal inflection is most simple in the Praeters and 
 Imperatives, most complicated in the Futures. The formative let- 
 ters and syllables are exhibited in the following table : 
 
 Praeter. 
 
 Imperat. 
 
 Future. 
 
 3. Sing. m. 
 
 rw 
 
 
 -n 
 
 2. Sing. m. 
 
 / 
 
 n_ or n- 
 
 : t 
 
 n- 
 
 h 
 
 -n 
 
 1. Sing. com. 
 
 n- 
 
 
 -K 
 
 3. Plur. m. 
 
 **7 
 
 
 
 2. Plur. m. 
 f 
 
 15- 
 
 
 Vi_n 
 
 1. Plur. com. 
 
 T 
 
 
 -3 
 
 6. When sufFormatives are added, which take the tone : a) The 
 vowels -, -, and - (the latter only in the Fut. Peal) in the 
 last syllable of the verb, are dropped, provided the sunormatives 
 begin with a vowel ; on the contrary, before the sufFormative *i 
 and a of the third person Praet. and that of the second person of 
 the Imp., to which the tone is not transferred, these vowels are re- 
 tained; b) In the third fern, and first com. of the Praet. sing, in 
 Peal and Ithpeal, when in this way two vowelless consonants 
 would come together, the helping -vowel T is assumed. 
 

 
 11. FLEXION OF THE REGULAR VERB. 43 
 
 The most essential deviation of the personal inflection of the Chal- 
 dee verb from the Hebrew consists in this, that the second Pers. sing. 
 Praet is the same in both genders; on the contrary, the third 
 Pers. plur. Praet along with the Masc. has also a Fern, ; and that the 
 third plur. Fut.fem. is formed by the praeform. i (not n). Moreover, 
 the sufformatives of the Fid. (e. g. ")_) may here be more easily ex- 
 plained than in the Hebrew. 
 
 The Paradigm of all the conjugations of the regular verb is now 
 as follows : 
 
 
 
44 
 
 REGULAR 
 
 
 
 Peal. 
 
 Ilhpeal. 
 
 Pael. 
 
 Praei 
 
 I 3. m 
 
 ^fi 
 
 bwpm 
 
 5% 
 
 
 3. f. 
 
 jrifetjjl 
 
 rfi&M 
 
 ni?sj 
 
 
 2. m. 
 
 n .V-P. 
 
 tfovpri* 
 
 rto unVlb 
 
 
 2. / 
 
 n'Vap 
 
 rfrapna 
 
 
 
 1. c. 
 
 plsi 
 
 r^Dpna 
 
 n&ifc 
 
 Plur. 
 
 3. m. 
 
 &> 
 
 i^DjjnK 
 
 &% 
 
 
 3. f. 
 
 *6bp 
 
 Vbpri 
 
 *bM 
 
 
 2. m. 
 
 pm^Djp yn^nM 
 
 yv6w 
 
 
 2- / 
 
 I^P-i 
 
 'pgbagnM 
 
 ]tf>pk 
 
 
 I. c. 
 
 *$&?. 
 
 M^ijjjri* 
 
 aaVibj? 
 
 Injin. 
 
 
 ^t? 
 
 HVbpnk 
 
 kVbj? 
 
 Imp. 
 
 2. m. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Vapna 
 
 ^8R 
 
 
 2. f. 
 
 ^fej 
 
 fytopti* 
 
 "$ 
 
 Plur. 
 
 2. m. 
 
 *s%j 
 
 bbprm 
 
 ^te 
 
 
 2- / 
 
 K&BJJ 
 
 tt^bprJM 
 
 *&Bj? 
 
 Fut. 
 
 3. m. 
 
 ^?.P? 
 
 ^W! 
 
 *W! 
 
 
 3. / 
 
 ^P3 
 
 btypjrn 
 
 ^.Rfi 
 
 
 2. m. 
 
 fcpi 
 
 !?aprin 
 
 i 
 
 !?apn 
 
 
 2- / 
 
 pVopn 
 
 j^ajpnn 
 
 j^Dp.n 
 
 
 1. c. 
 
 5|3J? 
 
 i6j>n* 
 
 &* 
 
 Plur. 
 
 3. m. 
 
 fw 
 
 l^ttj?.^ 
 
 Ti^p-'i 
 
 
 3. / 
 
 fefe 
 
 iV^ni 
 
 ftjj 
 
 
 2. m. 
 
 p^apn 
 
 l^bjjwi 
 
 j^apri 
 
 
 2- / 
 
 fttjjjn 
 
 ]!?bj?nn 
 
 mi* 
 
 
 1. c 
 
 ^*4p. 3 ' 
 
 bkpra 
 
 ^kti 
 
 1 ~D^ 
 
 < m. 
 
 fc$ 
 
 ^oprjfi 
 
 ^.p- 53 . 
 
 1. ran. \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 i6o^nti 
 
 ^Bj?a 
 
 2. Part 
 
 \ 
 
 m. 
 
 / 
 
 
 l6ttpB 
 
ve un. 
 
 45 
 
 Ithpaal. 
 
 Aphel. 
 
 Ittaphal. 
 
 ^taj>rui 
 
 ^H 
 
 bvpps 
 
 rf?Bj?n 
 
 rkup* 
 
 nVopn 
 
 nWp.nit JPfcOfctt 
 
 ^ M&ofc* 
 
 nVopiix 
 
 nbapnx 
 
 n'ropa 
 
 rS&P.ih* 
 
 ri&Dprm 
 
 riVapN 
 
 rtjtaj?n 
 
 fyigfiik 
 
 Wp* 
 
 ^bpns* 
 
 xVbprix 
 
 &&?* 
 
 abbpna 
 
 jwVapnx 
 
 }VqjW 
 
 ^nyopnx 
 
 jn^pna 
 
 jnVapK 
 
 jnVapnx 
 
 btfSbjWiii 
 
 w^bpa 
 
 ftfej>ri 
 
 Vbj&r^ 
 
 
 *6bpna 
 
 Wpj* 
 
 te.m 
 
 yjpnst 
 
 ^%n* 
 
 'fyypk 
 
 ^bpnK 
 
 ibfynift 
 
 *bbj* 
 
 <6bpn 
 
 
 awVapa 
 
 WV^KFM 
 
 bv&y* 
 
 ^.P- 
 
 ia*^ 1 ! 
 
 Vap_nn 
 
 Vup.n 
 
 yopnn 
 
 -# 
 
 ^j>n 
 
 yop'nn 
 
 j^oprin 
 
 j^iopn 
 
 j^qp.^P] 
 
 ^ru* 
 
 SsJii 
 
 ^p< 
 
 pifl$E 
 
 i*fe 
 
 pjrqjjwj 
 
 wii 
 
 # 
 
 ft*?. 1 ?! 
 
 pVajyin 
 
 pVqpri 
 
 pDp.feh 
 
 "jViap.rin 
 
 lV4p>- 
 
 ftopi 
 
 toagna 
 
 fc#>? 
 
 iflbpra 
 
 Vi:p_na 
 
 ^.P* 
 
 ^apnn 
 
 N^Qflft 
 
 *6'qpa 
 
 jiVopna 
 
 mVbpb 
 
46 12. REMARKS ON THE PARADIGM OF THE REG. VERB* 
 
 12. 
 
 Remarks on the Paradigm of the Regular Verb. 
 
 1. In general. 
 
 1. The verbal forms with - are often written plene *- or with 
 i - , namely : a) The ending of the first person sing., as well 
 as of the second plur. fern, of the Praeter, e. g. ft^Bitf Gen. 3: 10, 
 tm& 1 Sam. 25: 20, tma 1 Kings 18: 13, 18, W&ty% Deut. 29: 
 5, 'pfrfctf Exod. 1: 18. b) The Pa'el and 4p&eZ, e. g. "pgna 2 Kings 
 6: 23, r^j5 Ps. 16: 2, "C^lj Josh. 18: 8, hwih Deut. 29: 5, Jon., 
 hVfcB Gen. 4: n > ^rapri Hos. 6:3. c) The Partic. act. in Peal, 
 e. g. nrtj Dan. 4: 20, rttai Gen. 3: 15, p*$ Cant. 5: 8. On the 
 other hand, the Part. Pe'il appears seldom as i$n Dan. 5: 27, and 
 in Pa'el and Aphel - , is sometimes shortened into - before suf- 
 formatives which begin with a consonant (yiri^j Joel 3: 5, araptt* 
 2: 32. 3: 3 ; see below 2, 1. 
 
 2. Praeter. The second pers. smg\ masc. assumes often the form 
 *r&tjj r^jgjj Prov. 23: 8. 2 Sam. 14: 13, $tt|ft etc. Dan. 5: 22. 
 6: 13. Gen. 4: 10. 20: 9. 22: 16. 31: 26. Judg. 5: 11 ; and in the Prae- 
 ter of Pa'el and Aphel, as well as in the Praeter Peal of such verbs 
 as have their vowel in e or o, this form is the predominant one ; 
 comp. Dan. 2: 47 $$} , 5: 27 K$J?n , Gen. 3: 17 nb:n , 18: 5 Mriia , 
 24: 14 arfflBt , 32: 28 W}i&$8 etc. To the third pers. Plur. masc, 
 in the later Targums, is sometimes attached the paragogic } ; e.g. 
 jMgj Gen. 3: 7, )mEV Ps. 148: 7. With a similar addition, occurs 
 the third plur. fern. 'j'JhanK Gen. 3: 7. Jon. T; K 3fcK) Exod. 4: 19 
 (T. H.), instead of - , both these forms have sometimes - under 
 the second radical (especially in Ven.) ; e. g. watij Gen. 8: 3. Josh. 
 9: 1, K5*a Gen. 41: 7. 
 
 7 tt : 
 
 3. Future. Instead of the formative i , we find also 3 in the 
 Targum of the Proverbs, in imitation of the Syriac ; e. g. iwia Prov. 
 16: 10, D*ttrflj| 10: 3, IBM 2: 9, pDSW 10: 31, iRW 27: 18, iaplnW 
 12: 27, n|KM 29: 2 ; comp. Dathe de ratione consensus vers. Chald. 
 et Syr. Prov. p. 16. Instead of "p the third pers. Pto. ends in i Ez- 
 ra 4: 12 sittirp. 
 
12. REMARKS ON THE PARADIGM OF THE REG. VERB. 47 
 
 4. Infinitive. The ending of the Infinitive in Ithpecd and the fol- 
 lowing conjugations, becomes sometimes in bibl. Chaldee n- - , in- 
 stead of a- - ; e. g. Dan. 2: 12, 14. Ezra 7: 14. Dan. 6: 4 ; but in the 
 Targums \ (n*) ; e. g. nyi Exod. 13: 21. Ezek. 13: 20, *ty*pfc Ps. 
 102: 23. 119: 6. Num. 9: 17. 11: 17. Isa. 8: 12. Esth. 1:5. 2: 8. In oth- 
 er instances the characteristic termination K - - is wanting ; e. g. 
 1 Sam. 26: 25. 30: 8. In Pael and Apltel, as well as in the Pas- 
 sives, the Infinitive has occasionally a prefixed a ; e.g. aofcrja Cant. 
 1:7, xui<n^Deut.32:23(T. H.), fcttrwra Ps. 118: 9, N^r? Exod. 
 21: 20. Lev. 5: 21 (T. H). Lev. 26: 15. Jon. Exod. 7: 3. Jon. 
 Infrequent are forms of the Infinitive like ^iapp Lev. 13: 7. Jon. 
 vnrn Gen. 22: 5. Jon. {**** Gen. 2: 9. Jon.), *tt| Esth. 2: 3, 
 ffWn Ps. 92:3, ^inra Job 1: 13, ^io^ Deut 18: 10 (T. H.), 
 with *- parag. 
 
 5. Passive. The prefix r\ , for which in bibl. Chaldee and of- 
 ten elsewhere nn is employed (Ezra 6: 2. 7: 15. Dan. 3: 27, 28. 
 6: 22. 5: 27, etc.), only a few times nx, comp. $ 25. 2, is some- 
 times exchanged for na in the Praet. and i/t/^ in the later Chaldee ; 
 e. g. "ib^ni 1 Sam. 23: 7 (which is closely related to the Rabb. 
 conjugation Nitfipael). In the Participles, the is but seldom 
 omitted; e. g. M^ffrtg Job 28: 21, y^nna Gen. 31: 15, T. H. ; 
 on the contrary, the Infinitives sometimes assume it : see No. 4. 
 
 2. Remarks on the conjugations severally. 
 
 1. Peal. The distinguishing vowel of the ground-form {Praet.) 
 in a considerable number of verbs, particularly such as have an 
 intransitive signification, is - (\) or - (*-), less frequently l; 
 e. g. a) bna to be sad, ttJKS to be bad, ixia to be good, arn to sit, 
 nrj, n^atf to lie, C]pn to be strong, b) '^ra'i to sleep, Gen. 2: 21, 
 rrnn to be dry, Von to be bereaved, to be an orphan. In most of 
 these verbs, the Syriac and Arabic agree in this punctuation ; 
 comp. nnn, tri, pnd, a^to), and the distinction of verbs in a 
 and e is in general more strongly marked in the Aramaean than 
 in Hebrew. Occasionally both forms are in use at the same time ; 
 as, Wtj , srn ; prri , p*ri-\ ; jjtfi and ^nan . 
 
48 12. REMARKS ON THE PARADIGM OF THE REG. VERB. 
 
 The vowels e (i), o remain ; a) In the other persons of the 
 Praet. as inflected, where in other verbs - is pronounced (mAkuj 
 Ezra 5: 9, )$$() Josh. 24: 13, *Ufi*J Judg. 15: 10, ft|A$ Ezra 
 4: 12, toiin Jer. 49: 4 ; also the third fern, and first com. retain 
 regularly the vowel under the second radical ; as, tii2j Ezra 4: 
 24, nn'^n Ezek. 26: 2, th^m Prov. 10: 7, WHfftf 1 Sam. 14: 43, 
 n*Og 2 Chron. 25: 19, nwbn Gen. 37: 6, Ven. Sometimes, 
 however, a shortening of the - into - takes place in closed sylla- 
 bles; e. g. ajiatf, T^Wl J Sam - 1: 21 - 12: 13> Jud S* 13: 6 - Ezra 
 5: 91. 2 Chron. 25: 16. b) In the Jmper. y verbs in e have com- 
 monly - or - {-) ; e. g. tt5nV 1 Kings 22: 30, *srp t Job 2: 5. Ruth 
 2: 14. Josh. 24: 14, itK or ^ta Gen. 22: 2. 1 Sam. 3: 9. Ps. 34: 
 12. Joel 1: 12, 13 ; but in the Fut. (-_) ; e. g. ti5nbn Dan. 5: 16, 
 nsw? Dan. 4: 24; or (-), e. g. SWain Deut. 28: 30; or i, e. g. 
 t)ipn? Gen. 31: 35, ^m&n Exod. 20: 5. "When in one verb two 
 forms of the Fut, in - and -, or in - and i , exist together, each 
 has uniformly a peculiar signification; e. g. n'np? Num. 1: 51 he 
 will approach (Futurum), S^p? Isa. 5: 19 may he approach ( Op- 
 tative) Exod. 3: 5 ; t]ph? Gen 25: 23 he will overpower, t)ipn? Gen. 
 31: 35 fa will be mighty (valebit); taittj? Dan. 5: 7 ^e s^a/Z rule, 
 ttftitf? Eccl. 8: 9 he is accustomed to rule. Verbs with \ on the 
 contrary, form the Fut. in si; e. g. ^Wtj Ps. 121: 4. 
 
 In the P meter of verbs in a, such forms as rfeap and rv^ap 
 
 7 - t I : t >: 
 
 occur in the Ven. text along with fbap , r&ap , for which the Lon- 
 don edition has ribap ($ 15. Rem. 3) and rbzp (Gen. 30: 16. 
 1 Kings 18: 13. Ruth 2: 14. Josh. 24: 11. Jer. 36: 31). The third 
 plural also is written 6ttj3 in the Ven. ; see above 1. 2. 
 
 The Infinitive has sometimes, in the later Targums, the termi- 
 nation (of the Stat, emphat. K-; e. g. K*j5pa Ps. 118: 7. Lev. 27: 
 10 (T. K), still more frequently iajja Job 29: 6. Ruth 4: 6. Gen. 
 16: 5. Jon. or Vrop? Esth. 9: 1. Gen. 15: 12. Jon. Ruth 3: 4. Isa. 
 20: 6. (the latter together with the forms in -) ; uncommon are 
 the Hebraizing forms h\up or Viag ; e. g. Gen. 49: 6. Ruth 2: 1. 
 Judg. 9: 54. Ps. 105: 14 (even with Suffix.). 
 
 Imperative. The scriptura plena of this form bjttJg occurs only 
 sometimes; e. g. *>p>irrtD 2 Sam. 13: 20, ttWtJ Ps. 31: 24. There 
 
12. REMARKS ON THE PARADIGM OF THE REG. VERB. 49 
 
 is found also, after the Hebrew analogy linn Ps. 26: 2, :ro Jer. 
 36: 28, l^ntj Gen. 21: 10. Jon. It is but very seldom that the 
 vowel stands under the first radical in the second fern. sing, plur., 
 as sinbd Isa. 32: 1. 
 
 2. Ithpecd. Two forms prevail here bapna; (especially in verbs 
 3. and 2. Gutt., but also elsewhere Job 30: 18. Jer. 13: 11. Gen. 
 14: 15. Judg. 12: 1. Obad. 6.) and hu%m or (still more frequently 
 hl|$itt , b^rK ; e. g. C^pna* Jer. 50: 23, ta^nns Job 33: 25, b*pn 
 Amos 9: 1, Vjpna 1 Sam. 14: 39, wwna Eccl. 12: 11, A*i|rtt 
 45: 3, orrjWi Dan. 3: 28, np^nniaa Jer. 49: 25, rehannat Isa. 1: 2, 
 Fut. p^trn Amos 7: 17, pnran Dan. 2: 24, pnrrcj? Gen. 4: 13. Lev. 
 4: 20, ip Isa. 23: 18, p^Bn? Lev. 27: 20, ba^n? 2 Kings 7: 4. 
 Gen. 24: 11, participles flfjljn| Ps. 84: 13, n^rorra Esth. 8: 8, 
 ^4fl0 Exod. 3: 2. Of the form in a, the third fern. sing. Fraet, 
 even in verbs not Gutt, sometimes makes rta^rx (see above) ; 
 e. g. Isa. 50: 2, and of the verbs in e, the first pers. sing, may oc- 
 cur with three syllables; as, rv^prna Ps. 119: 31. 
 
 3. Pael. The first pers. Fut. has sometimes - under the pre- 
 formative ; e. g. *teSK Isa. 42: 9, tarbDS Isa. 63: 3, also the full 
 vowel i- ; e. g. **T< Deut 32: 1. Jon. 
 
 4. Ithpaal. The vowel of the last syllable is in the Praeter 
 sometimes -or T ; e.g. Ottfina Hos. 4: 16, '4*HIM Ps. 105: 25, 
 tiN^^M Judg. 15: 9. The third fern, and first com. sing, is found 
 often, especially in the Venet text, with four syllables ; as, nbapna 
 or nbapna (Gen. 21:2. Jon. Ruth 2: 19. Isa. 1:7); on the con- 
 trary, the third persons plur. are reduced to three syllables ; as, 
 ^apna , ft^ggftt Hos. 4: 6, 17. Isa. 60: 8. A Hebraistic Pual form 
 occurs ffpm Isa. 53: 5, "pjaB Gen. 28: 17. Jon., Tfgtfta Gen. 37: 
 3. T. H. 
 
 5. Aphel. In the bibl. Chaldee, n appears commonly as the 
 preformative of this conjugation, and this has been retained even 
 in the Fut. and Part, between the preformative and the verb (af- 
 ter the manner of Vjprj) ; e. g. nyitt Ezra 5: 12, WSh Dan. 5: 
 29, rchbn, JinDirrr Ezra 4: 19, wnn Ruth 1: 21, b&irrv> Dan. 7: 
 24, pf^ffj Ezra 4: 13, TTSQTQ Ezra 6: 10, *S#rfl Ezra 6: 11. 
 The same occurs in verbs ^B and p also in the Targums ; e. g. 
 
 7 
 
50 13. PERSONAL INFLECTION OF THE PARTICIPLES. 
 
 W**?in Ps. 77: 15, rvwin Ezek. 20: 11, y^rth Ps. 16: 11, pfown Job 
 15: 13 comp. further Gen. 1:24. 38: 24. Exod. 29: 46. Deut.7:21. 
 Jon. In the Praeter, the forms which according to the Paradigm 
 reject the characteristic vowel of the final syllable (especially in 
 Ven.), retain the same; e. g. Num. 8: 17 rrohjw, Jer. 50: 13 
 tti*flM . Instead of the Aphel, the exact punctuation of the Hiphil 
 is several times found in the bibl. Chaldee ; e. g. ^2*^ Dan. 7: 
 22. 5: 20. 
 
 6. Ittaphal. The place of this conjugation, which occurs very 
 seldom anywhere, is always supplied in the bibl. Chaldee by 
 Hophal; e. g. Ezra 4: 15. Dan. 4: 33. 7: 11 (with - or ^i), from 
 the Targums, comp. Jon. fqm Exod. 15: 17, te*w Num. 8: 24. 
 
 13. 
 
 Personal Inflection of the Participles . 
 
 1. The Participles of all the conjugations, in order to express 
 the finite verb, are united, as in the Hebrew, with the separable 
 pronouns (of the first and second pers.) ; e.g. fcoa bttjj I kill, 
 47. 1. But it is peculiar to the Aramaean, that here the Parti- 
 ciples (in the sing, as well as plur.) flow together with these pro- 
 nouns into one word, whereby a sort of new tense arises ; e. g. 
 &ubt3, aAttga (1 Kings 18: 15). We give here the inflection of 
 both participles in Peal, in full : 
 
 Active. 
 
 Passive. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. m. 
 
 M$*nj 
 
 1. m. 
 
 8*9 
 
 / 
 
 Kgtfbtag 
 
 / 
 
 **W 
 
 2. m. 
 
 - : 't 
 
 2. m. 
 
 ytrvidg 
 
 f 
 
 ta^og 
 
 / 
 
 **!# 
 
 1. m. 
 
 t&q/lf 
 
 1. W. 
 
 if***?!? 
 
 / 
 
 KjeAojj 
 
 f 
 
 l*** 
 
 2. m. 
 
 *&$ 
 
 2. m. 
 
 frrirwf* 
 
 f 
 
 mite% 
 
 / 
 
 vfcitt 
 
 
 
 
 
14. UNUSUAL CONJUGATIONS, ETC. OF VERBS. 51 
 
 2. But the power of the language for such combinations ex- 
 tends still further. In the biblical Chaldee, a passive Praeter is 
 formed by uniting the Part. Pei'l with the sufformatives of the 
 Praeter. The compound, thus obtained, supplies the place of the 
 Ithpeal. It is inflected thus : 
 
 i 
 
 2. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 m. V^p m. ^Bp 
 
 I^PW 
 
 1. c. fiV^I? c. ^H? 
 
 Comp. Dan. 5: 27, 28, 30. 6: 4. 7: 4, 6, 11. Ezra 5: 14. That we 
 are not to consider these forms as Prod. Peal with - , is shown partly 
 by the passive signification which they have in these passages, partly 
 by the circumstance that other forms of these verbs are used in the 
 Pratt, in an active sense. 
 
 According to the Ven. ed., similar formations from the active parti- 
 ciples also are found in the Chaldee of the Targums ; e. g. vrafc Cant 
 1: 1, nnnB Gen. 4: 11, and with t in the second syllable rv^SX Ruth 
 2: 17, from tdk , nrfi , *nn:s , etc. 
 
 14. 
 
 Unusual Conjugations and Qtiadriliteral Verbs. 
 
 1. As in Hebrew, so here there are certain less frequent con- 
 jugations in addition to those in ordinary use, and which are pro- 
 duced sometimes by the insertion of a quiescent, sometimes by 
 the reduplication of a stem-consonant. Some of these are found 
 uniformly in certain classes of the irregular verb, namely : 1 ) Po- 
 el and ItJipoal, with the same characteristics which it has in He- 
 brew; e. g. pfi'iD Hos. 13: 5, p^io Deut 2: 7. Jon., isno Num. 
 11: 12, annioa Gen. 45: 1, p^Htt) Ezra 6: 3, from 55, Qgfiti, Qgin$j ; 
 2) Palel with Ithpalel trara, tte$nia Ps. 143: 4. So likewise 
 Polel with Itlipolal (in Verbs 55) ; e. g. train Ps. 75: 8. Dan. 4: 34, 
 tnffa Jer. 12: 19, crainna Dan. 5: 23. Ps. 107: 25. 3) Palpel (with 
 
 
52 15. GUTTURAL VERBS. 
 
 a repetition of the first and second stem-consonant) and Ithpalpal; 
 e.g. bsbn Gen. 11: 9, tfTOOT (from trta) Judg. 3: 22, bb (from 
 ft*) Lam. 3: 3, *fW (from ^^) Ps. 143: 3 (see the verbs s^and ?). 
 Infrequent are, 4) Schaphel and Ischthaphal; e. g. bb:stt$ Ezra 
 4: 12. Gen. 49: 10, iwrojK Gen. 49: 10, Jtawtf? Ezra 4: 13, or 
 Taphel; e. g. djnn to interpret. 
 
 Under No. 1. can be embraced also forms like 5^? (tfraT^ Exod. 
 5: 23), HS&Viti 1 Sam. 30: 22, )Wqf& Josh. 22: 31, XStflfa 1 Sam. 
 22: 1. Fut. 2V*tih Dan. 3: 17. etc. But they approach much nearer to 
 PaeZ, inasmuch as the reduplication is compensated by a long vowel ; 
 comp. 7. a. (ypttS for ^TOJ) ; also K^Mf Ezra 6: 15 (*&Q Gen. 2: 2), 
 Pass. lapiniBSSi Ps. 23: 26 to complete (which others consider as Scha- 
 phel from K2' 1 ), appears to belong here. 
 
 2. The quadriliteral verbs have commonly the form of PaeZ; 
 e. g. rrrjjp Syr. ^f^-o (xatTiyoQew) Job 37: 20, iy-ifc Job 20: 15, 
 afrflb and Xfattyk Ps. 106: 13. Prov. 12: 19, b^O Prov. 12: 27, 
 Cfchfi Gen. 22: 10 T. H., Hjib Num. 16: 14. Jon., db& and fitting , 
 oyjfi and di'nsrw;, tftjj and B1?3W ^ s - 39: ** Their origin must 
 be explained essentially in the same manner as in the Hebrew- 
 language. See Gesenius, Lehrgebaude, p. 861 sq. 
 
 The forms 3JTtt3 , ^3pd and "1J5 can also be regarded as a con- 
 jugation Saphel (softened from Schaphel) from 3IJJ , bnp , TO . In- 
 deed, the quadriliteral verbs generally and these more infrequent con- 
 jugations are closely related and flow easily into each other. 
 
 15. 
 
 Guttural Verbs. 
 
 As the Gutturals (2 , in , n , a , and in part "i) have the same prop- 
 erties in Chaldee as in Hebrew, it follows that the same rules for 
 substance apply to the inflection of the guttural verbs here, which 
 apply to them there. Presupposing, therefore, an acquaintance 
 with these rules, we subjoin at once a summary of the inflection 
 of such verbs (with the necessary references), followed by some 
 more particular explanations in regard to details. 
 
15. GUTTURAL VERBS. 53 
 
 Verbs 1. Guttural. 
 
 Peal Praet in? 3./ rnn? 2. m. pVtk 1. Sing, nin?, rtjjpt, 
 /mp. in?, in? ("nns Gen. 6: 14. Ps. 34: 5), frjtt (tag), ^nx Exod. 
 3: 4, plur. rWMJ Gen. 34: 10. Judg. 9: 49, vrex (rraK Dan. 2: 9. Gen. 
 12: 13), Infin. ia , wra , JFw*. -mrp , p^r; , ins? , ins? (vnnr? , 
 
 pinsn Ezra 7: 18. see 7. d.), Part. ISO}, *vn*. Ithpeal. 
 
 mrrx, insna. Pael Praet*\v$ > Fat. 133^ Ithpaal. 
 
 insna Aphel Praet w, ^na, n^na, i^. ^brr , o$rn , 
 
 Part, qbrra . 
 
 Verbs 2. Guttural. 
 
 PeaZ Proc. inn 3.^wt. nnrv? , Ljtf^fi rvw, 2^. ',rn ("pro), 
 na (Josh. 24: 14 sq.), Jfyfri. inn? (ar Ps. 19: 8), Fut. inn?, 
 
 Part, inn , "pnn .- - Ithpeal. lnnps , "pnnnx , ananK . Pa e Z 
 
 Pra<tf. tsnn, ina, ?pa, ?ftn, Pw*. arjfj (fVJBf Gen. 3: 3), 2w/?n. 
 xnip . ^1 j9 & e Proe*. inn etc 
 
 Verbs 3. Guttural. 
 
 Peal Praet n^v 3./ nnnti, imp. rod, ^n?^, rij| (Joel 1: 
 14. Exod. 5: 18), wnjj, wgn Joel 2: 15, PwJ. ro, r&o? ({TO)f 
 
 Part, nnrc , i yqk , sn3 , rro . Ithpeal. nnntia 3./ nronm . 
 
 Pa el Praet and Imp. nsd, ini, nn (Ps. 22: 25), Fut. 
 
 Ttg$* 9 nifij Part, act rurtjsj Dan. 4: 34. Ithpaal. nsr-jx, 
 
 ^aanx. Aphel Praet nnwx, rnnirx. 
 
 1. The vowelless N of verbs 1. guttural often falls away in Ithpeal, 
 and the n of the prefix then receives Dag. forte ; e. g. "Jritna for ^nxrx , 
 TOW for "H^ftt , TDPiK for WgTlM Job 34: 31. Num. 15: 1& 35: 33. 
 Hag. 1: 6. Job 34: 31. 1 Sam. 26: 20. On contracted forms of Ithpaal, 
 like nana , see 21. 
 
 2. Some verbs 2. X take ** in the second conjugation; e. g. 1*tt$ 
 Exod. 10: 12. Jon., from ^ , ij Ps. 106: 14. 137: 3. 
 
 3. In verbs 3. gutt., the third Pers. sing. fern, of the Praeter ends 
 sometimes in - - or (the latter especially on the occurrence of a 
 *i); e. g. nsnti Ruth 2: 14, TThyq 1 Kings 21: 11, nnnfi Deut 11: 6, 
 rrinn Exod. 5: 6, nnnn Esth. 1: 12, ma* Gen. 30: 16, n*raK Dan. 5: 
 
54 16. REGULAR VERBS WITH SUFFIXES. 
 
 10, rvnsn Gen. 16: 3, rnagruNi Gen. 35: 19, nn^sina Job 6: 13, KJtMjrt 
 Dan. 3: 34. This formation is less frequent in the first sing. ; e. g. 
 Dan. 2: 25 nnsttjn for nrpm. In verbs 2. gutt., the third sing, is 
 sometimes inflected in the above manner ; e. g. fi^HI Judg. 13: 10. 
 
 4. The composite Sheva, which appears in these verbs instead of 
 Sheva simple, is uniformly ; verbs KB only have in the Imper. Peal 
 usually - , e. g. IKK Dan. 2: 4, 9, ita Gen. 22: 2 ; in like manner, 
 verbs JiB in Infin. Peal, e. g. 'VtiJQ Cant. 5: 3. On those verbs KB 
 which are treated as verbs quiesc. 1. rad., see 21. 
 
 5. Forms like "ptpHM Dan. 7: 22, i^Sixri are to be considered as Hiph., 
 not as Aphel. 
 
 16. 
 Regular Verbs with Suffixes. 
 
 Of the suffixes enumerated above in $ 8. 2, those which begin 
 with a vowel are, as a general usage, naturally connected with 
 verbal forms which end with a consonant <, and, vice versa, those 
 beginning with a consonant are connected with verbal forms which 
 end with a vowel. The Imperatives and Participles only form 
 here an almost uniform exception ; since they receive suffixes (of 
 the first pers. sing, imdiplur.) which are commonly destitute of a 
 connective vowel; e. g. ^&J? ("&bjj 1 Sam. 20: 8), Att|5, ^J2, 
 tfjflpjft comp. Num. 11: 12, 15. Judg. 9: 54. 1 Sam. 20: 8. Hos. 8: 
 2. Gen. 27: 34, 38. Ps. 25: 2. 41: 11. Besides, the suffix third pi. 
 is usually appended to the third fern. sing, of the Praeter in the 
 form )*b and f^J ; see 2. a. [In general, the accession of the per- 
 sonal Pronoun to the verbal form itself is far more common than 
 its connection with the sign of the accusative hjj. 
 
 2. The changes which the verbal forms undergo in consequence 
 of the addition of the suffixes, affect almost exclusively the vowels ; 
 these are sometimes rejected, sometimes transposed. The fol- 
 lowing particulars may be specified : 
 
 a) Before suffixes which have a connective vowel, the third 
 Pers. sing, in the Praet. Peal assumes the form bap, and the/era. 
 that of hW| (rbv$) > e * & ^i? he has killed thee, xA^g he has 
 killedus, "J^Bg he has killed them (eos), T|rf?Bp she has killed me, 
 snrqw Exod. 2: 5, pf*ap Judg. 9: 54. 14: 17 (with gutt. m^ Judg. 
 

 16. REGULAR VERBS WITH SUFFIXES. 55 
 
 15: 6, yaryA^ Deut. 11: 6. Exod. 15: 12). Before fte and 15, the 
 original form remains ; on the contrary, before }0 and *p:s, the third 
 fem. becomes rbu% (Gen. 31:32. Jon., jwqjji), in gult. verbs nnbia 
 (Exod. 15: 2 ^ar^ba, see above). The third j9Zw. rwasc. is pro- 
 nounced Aag , but before fia and *]3, becomes yfclfE (comp. $ 12. 
 1, 2) ; the second plur. masc. remains unchanged before suffixes 
 beginning with a vowel rarbsp , "pttnba^) ; those which begin 
 with 5 are attached to the form irAojs ; e. g. *^nbttp , Kj^nVjp . 
 The third plur. fem. makes hup_ ; (e. g. h ?^E, T&ap). The sec- 
 ond sing, undergoes no change; e. g. ^anbap, ^rnrVjp , yurtop; 
 but for the fem. sometimes occurs *rbu% Jer. 15: 10. Judg. 11: 35. 
 The first sing, makes r\bt$, seldom ^nbap Num. 23: 11. Jer. 30: 
 14, the first plur. }btt ; e. g. TjJ^i? , TObap , yojbajs , only the 
 fem. Tj- connects itself with aba . 
 
 In ed. Ven. the ground-form retains the vowel under the second radi- 
 cal before suffixes ; e. g. ^nbw , rrnbd Jer. 28: 15. Exod. 4: 28. In 
 other copies also thi3 occurs ; e. g. Josh. 24: 17. Lond. KJ^J . 
 
 b) The persons of the Imper. Peal suffer so much the less 
 change, since the regular suffixes assumed here are without the 
 tone, as ^abap (^biapp Judg. 9: 54), Nsbap; the second plur. fem. 
 only is shortened into aba . But in the Fut, when the verbal 
 form ends with a stem -consonant, the - of the last syllable falls 
 away before suffixes which begin with a vowel ; e. g. ^asbaj^ , 
 fibtapa Gen. 4: 14. Esth. 5: 14 etc. 
 
 c) The Jnfin. and the Participles Peal are treated in conformity 
 with their character as nouns ; but according to the light in which 
 f hey are viewed, either as parts of the verb or as substantives, 
 ti. ey may take the suffixes of the verb or noun ; e. g. *bup? (Dan. 
 6: yi. Exod. 2: 14. 21: 34. Num. 18: 23 etc. and rfefa*. 
 
 d) In all the persons of Pael and Aphel, which terminate in the 
 third radical, the vowel - is rejected on the accession of a suffix 
 which has a connective vowel ; e. g. RJpfB , fibiapx , ^bapx The 
 same takes place (on account of the tone being thrown forward) 
 in the form3 *iba , ibrajsa . Further, the terminations of the sec- 
 ond Pers. sing, fem., of the second Pers. plur. masc. and the 
 
56 16. REGULAR VERBS WITH SUFFIXES. 
 
 first Pers. plur. in the Praeter are the same that were mentioned 
 above in the Peal ; and the first sing. Praet. is formed like ribrsg ; 
 e. g. Judges 13: 14 firings I have directed her. 
 
 e) The Infinitives of all the conjugations except Peal usually 
 take before suffixes the ending rrt; e. g. WhAtsg (Exod. 20: 8), 
 W*tefM| (Dan. 3: 16. Exod. 2: 3), fiawfcttgrw* Ezek. 6: 8. Num. 
 16: 9. 20: 12. 12. 1, 4 ; sometimes, especially before the suffix 
 third plur., the Infinitives of every termination appear without 
 this connective syllable ; e. g. Jirm^K Deut 7: 10, fir^ana 
 Judg. 3: 26. 
 
16. REGULAR VERBS WITH SUFFIXES. 
 
 57 
 
 PARADIGM 
 
 OF THE REGULAR VERB WITH SUFFIXES IN PEAL. 
 
 3. m. 
 
 Praeterite. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 3. / 
 
 (p&Dp.j 
 
 Sprfajp 
 
 2. m. 
 
 psn^ap 
 
 2. / T^Bp 
 
 I. c. "qrjVop. 
 
 jisriVap 
 
 jisnVap* 
 
 
 jis^qp. 
 
 TlSbjJ 
 
 FiDinVap 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 BjfrW'j 
 
 
 .Bwperaiwe. 
 
 riVqp 
 
 
 / Ttep. 
 
 ]i3^ap 
 jisropa 
 
5S 17. IRREGULAR VERB IN GENERAL. 
 
 Rem. 1. Between the verbal form and the suffix, a 3 (Nun epenthetic) 
 is often inserted ; e. g. Sg&BJJ'? , W-ilJg; Dan. 2: 5, 9, or even an en- 
 tire syllable D- ; e. g. V&&Q* , 1$'^ , KjAtt Jjri (Num. 16: 34), BFIJJfcfet , 
 fgh&g Cant8: 2 - Dan- 4: ]. 6: id Jer. 22:' 4. Gen. 37: 27. Exod. 5: 
 3. Deut. 18: 18. Ps. 91: 16. 28: 3. Job 33: 33. Mich. 7: 9. Judg. 14: 13, 
 etc. (peculiar in Ezra 7: 21 is 'p3Dbxtt5?). This occurs as the prevail- 
 ing usage in the Fut. (that is, in those persons of the FuL, which termi- 
 nate in the third stem-consonant), less frequently in the Imper. Prov. 4: 
 21 (TO$g) and Praet., e. g. Ps. 16: 7. Isa. 63: 9. Gen. 6: 2. Judg. 13: 
 1, 23. 2 Kings 20: 13. Job 41: 2. 1 Kings 18: 13. Josh. 24: 25. Num. 
 ]8: 11, and still less often in the Infin. Prov. 22: 21. Cant. 6: 11. 
 
 Rem. 2. A * epenthetic also occurs in the Targ. Prov. ; e. g. ipnjtori , 
 ffljpan 4: 6, 8. 6: 24, unless any one should prefer, with Fiirst (p. 195), 
 to regard this > as a fragment of the pronominal forms WTW (nj T ) , 
 tp- , not, however, a very natural explanation. 
 
 17. 
 Irregular Verb in general. 
 
 1. The irregular verbs form, as in Hebrew, two principal classes, 
 verba defectiva {imperfecta) and quiescentia. The irregularity af- 
 fects, for the most part, only one stem-consonant ; those which 
 are anomalous in two of the consonants, are called verba duplici- 
 ter imperfecta, or doubly anomalous. 
 
 2. The first general class, the verba defectiva, embraces under 
 it two kinds, namely verbs }% , as p&j , and s>5> as nnp ; the sec- 
 ond general class, the verba quiesc., contains four kinds, namely 
 verbs as, as tea ; *to, as STjJ.; 13, as trtp; and i, as K3pg> 
 The last named include at the same time those verbs, which 
 exist separately in Hebrew as nS . 
 
 13. 
 
 Verbs *js. 
 
 The irregularity of these verbs arises from the same causes 
 as in Hebrew, and is in nearly all respects precisely the same. 
 1 ) The stem-consonant 3 in the middle of a word, where it would 
 terminate a mixed syllable, is assimilated to the following conso- 
 
18. VERBS IB. 59 
 
 nant; e. g. pBE for pwa. 2) It falls entirely away in the Im- 
 per. Peed, where it would stand without a vowel at the beginning 
 of the syllable ps for pfi3 , 6. c. (yet see ^B3 Jer. 25: 27). Fur- 
 ther, as regards the vowels employed, the prevailing punctuation 
 in the Inf. is pB? ; and in the Imp., is found pB together with p*iB 
 or pB even in verbs where no guttural occurs, fully as often as in 
 others; e. g. po (as well as p&), 2D ; the further inflection of 
 these forms proceeds generally as in *QO , *po , fitt Gen. 44: 17. 
 Num. 16: 6. Josh. 9: 11. Isa. 56, 1, yet also *ao Jer. 29: 6. The 
 Fut. has - as often as "i or - (i). 
 
 Of No. 1 there are various exceptions, not only in verbs, whose 
 second stem-letter is a guttural, e. g. BlSia? Isa. 5: 9, 'WJB Prov. 29: 
 13 (on the contrary, nn? is always inflected according to the above 
 rule ; e. g. Fut. nin? for rfiFP , Apkd n^na), but also in other cases, 
 e. g. flpp, "jnih Dan. 2: 16. Ezra 7: 20, 1na? 4: 13, VlBan, bfitt? 
 Esth. 6: 13, p Ps. 91: 7, pMjK , pBpn Ezra 5: 14 (even pfijnn Job 
 15: 13) Hoph. nnjn Dan. 5: 20. This in Chaldee is the more easily 
 explained, since here the resolution of the one form by the other, i. e. 
 the substitution of 3 for a doubling of the initial consonant of the verb, 
 had become not an uncommon usage of the language. In some verbs, 
 the regular and the assimilated forms exist together ; e. g. *\S* > ^!?I? 
 Num. 6: 5. Forms like pB*vo instead of pBE , except in connection 
 with a guttural, are infrequent, and are found only in ed. Ven. ; e. g. 
 nb^E , p&^E . In respect to the manner in which verbs "|B pass into 
 the inflection of verbs ^B , as also the reverse, see 20. 4. 
 
 The verb "]M has in the Fid., as its characteristic vowel ; e. g. 
 ina Exod. 25: 16, inn Deut 21: 8. In the biblical Chaldee, the full 
 form occurs instead of this : insn (see above), once even )tw Dan. 
 2i 16. 
 
 
60 
 
 18. VERBS "|B. 
 
 
 
 Peal. 
 
 Aphel. 
 
 Ittaphal. 
 
 Praet. 
 
 3. m. 
 
 Pfts 
 
 pBtf 
 
 pbfm 
 
 
 3. / 
 
 np.si 
 
 np_B 
 
 np_Bn 
 
 
 2. 771. 
 
 nps3 
 
 W&& 
 
 ripBnx 
 
 
 2- / 
 
 npsi 
 
 npBM_ 
 
 rjpfiigN 
 
 
 1. c. 
 
 n'p'si 
 
 ripBa 
 
 rij?Bn 
 
 Plur. 
 
 3. m. 
 
 lpB3 
 
 IpEK 
 
 ipJEna 
 
 
 3- / 
 
 ^ PB3 
 
 teSfc 
 
 ttpfeftM 
 
 l T 
 
 
 2. Ttt. 
 
 jinps] 
 
 |ttipB 
 
 pnpBna 
 
 
 2- / 
 
 jnpSD 
 
 jnpBix 
 
 jripEna 
 
 
 1. c. 
 
 napjba 
 
 3pi 
 
 K3pE% 
 
 In/in. 
 
 
 j?BB 
 
 Mpiit 
 
 KpBnM 
 
 It t ~* 
 
 Imp. 
 
 m. 
 
 pB, pB 
 
 pfett 
 
 psna 
 
 
 / 
 
 ^pB 
 
 tpia 
 
 ^ferrK 
 
 Plur. 
 
 m. 
 
 IpB, *lpB 
 
 IpBtt 
 
 4pfefcM 
 
 
 / 
 
 JWPJS 
 
 JMpBM 
 
 MpBRK 
 
 Fut. 
 
 3. ?7i. 
 
 P?, pEP 
 
 pBl 
 
 W! 
 
 
 3. / 
 
 psn, psn 
 
 psn 
 
 pBnn 
 
 
 2. m. 
 
 pBn, psn 
 
 ftm 
 
 penti 
 
 
 2- / 
 
 ppBn 
 
 fjjKj 
 
 ppsnn 
 
 
 1. c. 
 
 PBM, pBM 
 
 j?B 
 
 psna 
 
 Plur. 
 
 3. m. 
 
 "* w& 
 
 VV* 
 
 ppErp 
 
 
 3. / 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 fljpfe 
 
 
 2. m. 
 
 ppBn 
 
 ppsn 
 
 ppsnn. 
 
 
 2. / 
 
 wm 
 
 )?M 
 
 IpB'nn 
 
 
 1, c. 
 
 PB3, pB3 
 
 pB3 
 
 ps_ru 
 
 1. Part 
 
 c m. 
 
 1 / 
 
 pB3 
 ttp&O 
 
 ' t ;-r 
 
 MPjBfi 
 
 pBnfc 
 
 KfcBFiB 
 
 2. Par/. 
 
 t m. 
 
 / 
 
 *pjB3 
 
 PE* 
 ttpBB 
 
19. VERBS 52. 61 
 
 19. 
 
 Verbs y$ or s doubled. 
 
 1. The anomalies of these verbs, which are parallel only in part 
 to those in Hebrew, are such as the following : 
 
 1 ) The body of these verbs, in the ground -form, consists of two 
 letters, and has, therefore, the characteristic vowel under the first 
 radical, p*i . The reduplication of the second radical in Peal appears 
 only in the two participles pp"j , p*p*i , very seldom in the in- 
 flexion of the Praet. ; e. g. rtot Gen. 16: 4. Jon., nrri} Job 7: 4, 
 15} Esth. 6: 1). On the contrary, a) in the forms of the Praet 
 and Imp. Peal, whose 3ufformative begins with a vowel, the sec- 
 ond radical is sharpened by a Dag. forte, as n^"i, Jip 1 ?, Jipn (i^S 
 Joel 1: 13) ; only in a few instances is the vowel lengthened in- 
 stead of this, producing forms which coincide with 15 ; e. g. ^ 
 for VJ Dan. 2: 35 and ^as for 4? Gen. 7: 9. Jon. b) Else- 
 where the reduplication is thrown back upon the first stem-conso- 
 nant ; e. g. p-ix , p'w P"!T9 ( m the Put. and Inf. Peal and through- 
 out Aphel), or appears in a prolongation of the vowel under the 
 preformative, as tin?, rtg, Deut. 20:14. 15:19. The latter takes 
 place of course regularly, when the first radical is a guttural : e. g. 
 wn Ps. 2: 12, bwj Isa. 26: 2 $>?* , fto/* Num. 5: 22. 8: 15), Jqg 
 Prov. 23: 12, 6*qpJ Cant. 2: 5). [Sometimes the Dag. forte is re- 
 solved into a; e. g. bran Dan. 2: 21. 4: 3. Gen. 19: 10. Jon.]. 
 
 Aphd of the verb pi has the form ^roiifc* (with the suffix), Deut 
 1: 15. Jon. as if from a verb ^fc . 
 
 2. Instead of Pael and Ithpaal, winch are formed regularly (see 
 Dan. 4: 10. 7: 20. Ps. 35: 15. 42: 7), Palpel and likpalpal (e. g. 
 P^y P^p Job 9: 17. 30: 14. Isa. 21: 9, bpbp, bpbpnx Isa. 3: 
 12. Jer. 49:7, raroinx Gen. 33:4. Jon.), or Pool and Mpoal (e. g. 
 bViprix Gen. 8: 8. Jon., Job 9: 6 tjsVnrra) are mostly in use. 
 
 The participles of Peal, as has been already remarked above, are 
 generally inflected with a reduplication of the last consonant ; comp. 
 Isa. 58: 4. Ps. 72: 6. 1 Sam. 25: 4. Jer. 22: 7. Yet the active parti- 
 ciple often occurs in the form p^ derived from *$, or pal Jer. 10: 3. 
 
62 19. VERBS 33 . 
 
 Ps. 57: 7. 58: 9. The Peil appears once in the form pig 1 ! (according 
 to 1. b.) Exod. 32: 20. 
 
 The Ithpeal, likewise, is found reduplicated f\taftK , Hos. 8: 8. Isa. 
 24: 3. fWn Amos 7: 1. Jer. 50: 27. Isa. 24: 3 ; but sometimes (with 
 an approach to 12) iHfta Isa. 53: 5. Lev. 16: 27. 
 
 From the biblical Chaldee are to be further adduced, as Hebraizing 
 forms : Aph. *{M*1 Dan. 6: 25 (pittj Dan. 2: 40), vtyft Dan. 2: 24, 
 Hoph. tort, AS! Dan. 5: 13, 17. 
 
19. VERBS SS. 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 Peal. 
 
 Aphel. 
 
 Ittaphal. 
 
 Pratt. 
 
 3. m. 
 
 n 
 
 p-a 
 
 p^nx 
 
 
 3- / 
 
 ^}?[ 
 
 njj*^ 
 
 np/ifl 
 
 
 2. ra. Fjp^i 
 
 Mhtn 
 
 np~s< 
 
 np^nx 
 
 
 2- / 
 
 npi 
 
 ftj^Bt 
 
 np"riN 
 
 
 1. c. 
 
 n$ 
 
 n'p-x 
 
 np%i 
 
 Plur. 
 
 3. m. 
 
 ip*- 
 
 lp%$ 
 
 ip^na 
 
 
 3. / 
 
 *ft 
 
 Np3. x - 
 
 Rg^CM 
 
 
 2. m. 
 
 W.1 
 
 ^npnx 
 
 fWfBOlN 
 
 
 2- / 
 
 *?.?.- 
 
 |fc#w 
 
 TP*i 
 
 
 1. c. 
 
 *p;- 
 
 
 ,!- 
 
 Infin. 
 
 
 p-a 
 
 fitj?^K 
 
 iraN 
 
 Imp. 
 
 2. m. 
 
 p'~ 
 
 p-J< 
 
 p 
 
 
 2. / 
 
 # 
 
 yfcto 
 
 ^krm 
 
 Plur. 
 
 2. m. 
 
 ip'- 
 
 ip^x 
 
 ip^nx 
 
 
 2- / 
 
 3p*f 
 
 MP*W 
 
 wap^inM 
 
 Fut. 
 
 3. TO. 
 
 FT 
 
 PT. 
 
 F5F 
 
 
 3./. 
 
 P 
 
 pliFl 
 
 p^nn 
 
 
 2. m. 
 
 p^n 
 
 p-n 
 
 p^nn 
 
 
 2. / 
 
 T^p 
 
 JTO 
 
 rtife^i 
 
 
 I. c. 
 
 -* V* 
 
 Y 
 
 p~j< 
 
 pi*!* 
 
 Plur. 
 
 3. m. 
 
 PP? 
 
 t 
 
 pp^ 
 
 
 3. / 
 
 fc* 
 
 1ET- 
 
 OTR 
 
 
 
 2. m. 
 
 pro 
 
 vm 
 
 ypym 
 
 
 2- / 
 
 fetf) 
 
 ig* 
 
 irm 
 
 
 1. c. 
 
 P^: 
 
 F:i? 
 
 
 
 1. a* \ f 
 
 KfcP.3 
 
 
 
 2. Part. 
 
 m. 
 f. 
 
 
 p-n 
 
 KpTO 
 
64 20. verbs * (is). 
 
 20. 
 Verbs *m (is). 
 
 1. Verbs which in the ground-form have i for their first radi- 
 cal (sn? , tfgj , iH^ $ 12. 2, 1), are also in Chaldee of three kinds ; 
 namely, verbs properly % verbs originally is, and finally those 
 in which the is not treated as a quiescent, but assimilated after 
 the manner of verbs IS . 
 
 2. Verbs is, which compose the greater number, a) cast off 
 the first stem-consonant in the Imper. Peal (which commonly 
 takes the vowel - , less frequently -), e. g. an from Jg , nri from 
 3QJ, yTi from aw; b) In the .Fw. PeaZ, they allow Yodh to 
 quiesce in - , and the last syllable then receives the characteris- 
 tic vowel -i- or *% (with a guttural -), e. g. iV*, SpWj, T2 (ac- 
 cording to $6., the quiescent * is often omitted here in writing ; 
 e. g. Prov. 11: 25. Ps. 104: 4. Job 3: 4) ; c) They resume their 
 original 1, throughout the third Conj. where it quiesces in Hho- 
 lem; e.g. tpt?ia, fc)&iK, Fut.tfft*, Sp&V*, Ittaph. irhm , q&ima. 
 
 The lthpeal 5rV>ITtX , as well as the whole second conjugation (SSg , 
 ^5-W> '"'J?-)* i g fr the most part regular, except only that in the lat- 
 ter, some verbs take also 1 as the first stem-letter ; e. g. "ipy Prov. 10: 
 
 2, ICPWl Ps. 88: 13, aH3ina Eccl. 9: 3. In Aphel, forms with fi after 
 the preform. Fut. and Part, are not uncommon ; in ST* occur even 
 regularly SHifi Dan. 2: 15. Ps. 77: 15, and STjfall Ps. 16: 11. 1 Sam. 
 14: 12, etc. 
 
 3. In verbs ^S, the first radical quiesces, a) in the Fut. Peal 
 commonly in - ; e. g. *!&* , fcp? 2 Kings 1: 14. Ps. 102: 12 (on 
 the contrary, y<&* Isa. 7: 18); b) In Aphel, in - ; e.g. n^, 
 bww Ps. 49: 19. Jer. 10: 5. Mich. 1: 8. Less frequently is i 
 movable : comp. *M*K . From that form of Aphel now would 
 arise an Ittaphal like arwa ; but in all the passages adduced by 
 Fiirst, p. 177 (Isa. 50: 13. 62: 5. Jer. 49: 33), the punctuation is 
 uncertain, and the text of the polyglotts has lthpeal or lthpaal. 
 
 But the distinction between these two classes of verbs is not so 
 strictly maintained, that the forms (particularly of Aphel) are not often 
 interchanged with each other. Thus with S*WK coexists also laoix 
 Gen. 17: 16, with ih^MK also kqtt Ps. 66: 6, with W also ^K; 
 and p5% which in Hebrew i3 ifi, makes in Aph. p^ltf, pTJIK. 
 
21. VERBS KB. 66 
 
 The Paradigm of verbs IB and ^s is, accordingly, as follows : 
 
 VERBS ^B 
 
 VERBS *B 
 
 Peal. 
 
 Procter. 
 
 3. p. 
 
 - : ' - : 
 
 i^? , wwj 
 
 
 
 \.p. 
 
 nnb? etc. 
 
 hwj etc. 
 
 
 Imper. 
 
 
 srt 
 
 an (n-n) 
 
 
 Inf. 
 
 
 4Na 
 
 
 
 Fut. 
 
 
 4*5 
 
 
 
 Part. 
 
 
 *n^j, 1I5 
 
 
 Ithpeel. 
 
 Praet. ib?nK 
 
 (T*b?nK), r*rrx 
 
 
 Pa el. 
 
 Praet. 
 Fut. 
 
 
 
 
 Ithpaal. 
 
 Praet. 
 
 
 l A?pj 
 
 
 Aphel. 
 
 Praet. 
 
 
 tW 
 
 
 aw 
 
 aa^ 
 
 aw 
 
 a->tt^ 
 
 4. A number of verbs of this class assimilate their * to the fol- 
 lowing consonant in the Inf. and Fut. Peal, as well as in Aphel, 
 and are in this respect, therefore, not different from verbs }* . 
 This is exemplified not only in m* Aphel rrsK , sar Aphel srari 
 Deut. 34: 6. Jon., C]p^ Aphel rppK , but in particular forms of m , 
 Inf. *W0 Gen. 15: 13, Fut. jj 1 Sam. 20: 30 (even Ttp Isa. 4: 15. 
 Dan. 2: 9) at the same time an*" , ar^ Inf. anp Ps. 133: 1, Fut. 
 an? Deut 8: 12. 1 Sam. 22: 5. 2 Sam. 16: 18, Sh Inf. baa Num. 
 13: 31, Fut. ba;< Ezek. 7: 19. Dan. 3: 29. 
 
 21. 
 
 Fer&s kb. 
 
 Verbs KB are treated not only as guttural verbs ($ 15), but at 
 the same time as quiescents ; a) Most of them allow the a in 
 the Fut. and Inf. Peal to quiesce in _ ; e. g. bsK? Dan. 7 : 23, 
 laa? Jer. 10: 11, -raK? Dan. 2: 7, "ra&w Dan. 2: 9, and in addition 
 to this, change it commonly into i; e. g. ba^ Gen. 2: 16. 24: 33, 
 Exod. 2: 20. Lev. 19: 16, Jfl* Job 16: 6, fiV* Deut 18: 9, TJ*, 
 W Gen. 30: 16. 21:30. 1 Sam. 23: 26. Judg. 15: 12. Josh. 7: 12; 
 9 
 
66 22. verbs is (*). 
 
 but throughout 4^^ tne Y change it into 1 ; e.g. k^Ufc, KJta, 
 .Fw. igY* , p^.^ IS&tJ "^^J ^an. 2: 24 > -%2w. fcnnia , Particip. 
 WR*, Tftfraa Deut 8: 20. Mich. 5: 7 (peculiar is b^ft Deut. 32: 13. 
 Jon. and T. H., as also "P5JJ3 ( Syr.) Prov - 23: 30. A Hoplial lain 
 occurs Dan. 7 : 11. 6) "laa, &)ia, a&a prefer in the i<W. and 
 Part. PaeZ the contracted form tjfcaa , t]fexa , from which a com- 
 monly falls out; comp. |Bf4 Deut. 5: 31, ya^n Isa. 30: 10, tftyq 
 Dan. 4: 1, ifcra 2 Kings 20: 5. c) Some omit the tf also in 7^- 
 ^(2<z/, its vowel being transferred to the preformative which re- 
 ceives then Dag. forte; e. g. *i|WM for hM&jaj (iN9$) 1 Sam. 2: 5. 
 Ezek. 47: 11. 
 
 pa, in the third conjugation, takes the Hebrew form ^l] (^tt), 
 
 359^ r^! Gen - 15: 16 - Job 4: 8 - 15: 22< A P ass ive form TOHn? 
 occurs Gen. 42: 20. Respecting Ktt* , see 24. 2. 
 
 In addition to the forms above explained, are sometimes found 
 others also, in which the quiescence has not taken place ; thus with 
 fpTItt occurs at the same time Spn&rta Eccl. 7: 17. 
 
 22. 
 
 Verbs is (^s). 
 
 For the verba quiescentis S , i. e. verbs whose middle stem-letter 
 quiesces, the type of the verba IS is usually employed in Chaldee 
 throughout their whole inflection (with a few exceptions). A 
 still greater interchange of verbs is and is takes place in Chaldee 
 than in Hebrew. The following particulars are to be remarked: 
 
 1. In the first conjugation (with the exception of the Part. Be- 
 noni), and the third, the stem of these verbs appears throughout 
 as monosyllabic : d , d72 , d^K , and we can scarcely doubt, that 
 this is the original form (Fiirst, p. 157 sq.). The preformatives of 
 the Fut. and Inf. of both conjugations receive usually - , though 
 in the later Targums they have also (in Peal) not unfrequently 
 - or _ (^-) ; e. g. rro;* Ruth 1: 17, iwi Gen. 27: 4, anrhj Exod. 
 4: 18, r^s Gen. 2: 17. 27: 5, )yz Joel 3: 12, bjja Num. 16: 9, 
 D*ip*3 Gen. 3: 18. Jon. (peculiar is ^ft Fut. Peal from T^n Ezra 5: 
 5. 6: 5 ; comp. Gen. 20: 13. Jon.). The active Participle appears 
 constantly with two syllables, as &; or &2* (like iog). 
 
22. verbs i* (*). 67 
 
 tfpfteZ has sometimes, in the later Targums, the form of the verbs *t ; 
 e. g. t^pia, piW Ps. 37: 24. 53: 3. 78: 13. Gen. 18: 16. 19: 28. Jon. 
 Prov. 22: 7, and still another variety fiYW Lev. 1: 1. Jon. In other 
 places, the punctuation fluctuates between G^pK and tP|3K Deut. 11: 
 4. Exod. 16: 18. Jon. Dan. 5: 19. The Participle is unusual as it ap- 
 pears in mi Judg. 20: 33., n^ns Jer. 8: 6. ; in the biblical Chaldee 
 occurs once E^pira Dan. 2: 21. The Inf. Peal has sometimes the form 
 Ertpa or Dips Ps. 69: 3. Exod. 4: 21. Jon. 
 
 2. In Ithpeal, the first radical is pronounced with - or T , and 
 the n of the prefixed syllable is doubled, 1 BF>n , tpriK . Occa- 
 sionally, the principal syllable has - ; e. g. trpna Jer. 33: 22. Gen. 
 38:26. (T. H.) Dan. 4: 9. 
 
 3. Pac7and Ithpaal are formed as in B*p, o*pnK (E*prs<), and 
 are inflected regularly (toJgiJK , IWgP^ Num. 14: 38. Hab. 2: 4 ; 
 on the contrary, !jjno;j Invp. WNffpk Ezek. 20: 25. Jer. 27: 17 ; 
 comp. also riagg Exod. 6: 8). For these conjugations, however, 
 many verbs employ the reduplicated form of the Poll nap or 
 Palpel fipttg with their Passives. The Ittapkal occurs only in 
 the contracted form n^pna (i. e. a^pxna) or njjna ; yet in printed 
 texts, the Ithpeal and Ittapkal are often interchanged. 
 
 4. The following verbs are inflected as ^ : a) D'n , ffm s*0 , 
 d^ir , Spt in Peal, where the Praet is declined : n^p , nn^p , rwo , 
 nn^, *W*B| ITW? etc. Gen. 27: 1. 35:19. Exod. 4: 19. Prov. 23: 
 22. 1 Sam. 12: 2. The Imp. 6t, ---r Ezra 4: 21. The Fut. 
 tpt? Deut 15: 6. b) *pn , in Ithpeal where it makes fully "j^nna , 
 or contracted "jana Job 11: 12. 23: 5. 37: 14. Prov. 1: 2. 
 
 Rem. Those verbs which have 1 movable for the middle radical, do 
 not, of course belong here, but are regular in their inflection ; e. g. b^ , 
 P5Ji Wji *3-fj njj i AJ* etc. Their number is greater in Chaldee 
 than in Hebrew. Some verbs of this class exist at the same time with 
 verbs 13? quiescent, and have then a different signification from the lat- 
 ter ; e. g. "AH to view, -ilH to be white, TVM to sink down, nvj to sprout. 
 
 1 Fdrst, p. 164, rejects this reduplication ; but its reality seems to be confirmed 
 by the fact, that the n of the prefixed syllable in the Ithpeal of these verbs is 
 never inserted after the sibilants ; see 10, 5. Indeed, FUrst himself has dag- 
 heshed these forms in his Concordance; comp. y\R\ P 349. The repetition 
 serves here to strengthen the syllable ; as in, &* , p* , and the like. 
 
 
68 22. verbs 
 
 Peal. Ilhpeal. Pael. Ithpaal. 
 
 Praet. 3.m. Dj? BpjTlN D*j> D*pfl 
 
 3./ nap ndgp'ik nap_ ihB*j^lri 
 
 2. m. naps nap napna nap_ no*jj 
 
 2./ nap napria nap &**!*! 
 
 i. c. riaj? rapjna ria*p_ naspra 
 
 p/wr. 3.wi. iap IBpria $p*p la'pna 
 
 3./ tmjs mJKtw &*?_ ^j>r>a 
 
 2. i. ]inap_, fifiajj fififi^ "pHBg* -]ina*prux 
 
 2. /-[nap, ]Fiap inaprix inB'p flftpj&tf* 
 
 Infin. 
 
 
 (Dipa) apa 
 
 Napmx 
 
 kbp_ 
 
 T T l ~ * 
 
 Imp. 
 
 2. m. 
 
 nip 
 
 hfvm 
 
 Q.!E 
 
 D*JftW 
 
 
 2-/ 
 
 #ip 
 
 iapn 
 
 ia>j5 
 
 ^ap_nN 
 
 Plur. 
 
 2.m. 
 
 iaip 
 
 lapnx 
 
 iap_ 
 
 iB*p_n 
 
 
 2-/ 
 
 5&ip 
 
 wBpn 
 
 *b~? 
 
 aja^pna 
 
 Fut. 
 
 3. m. 
 
 Dip 1 ; 
 
 nprn 
 
 B*j 
 
 P!Eff. 
 
 
 3./ 
 
 Dipn 
 
 opnm 
 
 D !.E r ! 
 
 Dp_nn 
 
 
 2. m. 
 
 aipn 
 
 cppn 
 
 apn 
 
 *p_nn 
 
 
 2-/ 
 
 ptnpn 
 
 j^apr.n 
 
 fwgri 
 
 pB*p_nn 
 
 
 1. c. 
 
 B^> 
 
 opna 
 
 Ojp 
 
 fipp_na 
 
 Plur, 
 
 . 3. m. 
 
 paip? 
 
 ]iapn^ 
 
 jfeg) 
 
 ]iapn? 
 
 
 3./ 
 
 I^F! 
 
 TO? 
 
 J*R 
 
 PSW! 
 
 
 2.m. 
 
 paipn 
 
 ]iapnn 
 
 ]ia*pn 
 
 pa:pnn 
 
 
 2-/ 
 
 laipn 
 
 WP,nn 
 
 ]$ 
 
 !J1B 
 
 
 1. c. 
 
 cip: 
 
 cpns 
 
 D*p_3 
 
 Dp_n3 
 
 ( m. 
 l.PaW.j 
 
 5.1E' CtS lE 
 NX T.B 
 
 apna 
 
 It j 
 
 xapr.a 
 
 c*p_a 
 Na'pa 
 
 t;I~ ; 
 
 a*pna 
 'a*pna 
 
 . _ ( m. cp apa 
 
 2. Part.} . ' -'- : 
 
 (/ wn^p b*&b 
 
w. 
 
 69 
 
 
 Aphel. 
 
 Ittaphal. 
 
 Poel. 
 
 Ithpoal. 
 
 
 QT* 
 
 D7.FI* 
 
 naSp 
 
 nnHprw 
 
 naw, 
 
 rrtrpa 
 
 na^ra 
 
 na.aip 
 
 paaip pa 
 
 fib^k, 
 
 , na h px 
 na^K 
 
 na/pna 
 
 rarnp 
 paaip 
 
 paaippa 
 
 paaippa 
 
 n TO*.' 
 
 , pb/^x 
 
 na;pFix 
 
 paaip 
 
 raaipna 
 
 
 w$* 
 
 wpra 
 
 iaa'->p 
 
 laaippa 
 
 
 ' "J 
 
 KB*$P 
 
 N 'r-."~ 
 
 aBaipna 
 
 
 pnapx 
 
 1PBP8 
 
 i .. .1.. - : 
 
 wal* 
 
 pra^na 
 jra-'priN 
 NDa^prix 
 
 ppaa'ip 
 ".aaip 
 waaip 
 
 ppaaippa 
 jpaaipp.x 
 
 
 NBpa 
 
 aappa 
 
 aaaip 
 
 aaaippa 
 
 
 
 
 atrip 
 atrip 
 
 aaippa 
 rqaippa 
 
 
 la-'px 
 
 wsj&rm 
 
 waip 
 
 laaipna 
 
 
 wap 
 
 jwa^rit* 
 
 bnafcrip 
 
 xsaa'ipriw^ 
 
 
 n^ 
 
 o^w; 
 
 atrip* 
 
 naipn 1 ; 
 
 
 n"pn 
 
 U WP. 
 
 na'ipFi 
 
 atrip fp 
 
 
 fcrfffj 
 
 Vfpy\ 
 
 naipn 
 
 aaippp 
 
 
 
 ya^tirj . 
 
 n^pnx 
 
 j^aaipn 
 caipwv 
 
 paaiprp 
 aaSprja 
 
 
 pa^pri 
 D 7. 3 . 
 
 "ja/pn 1 ; 
 
 pa^p-p 
 
 ja/ppp 
 
 EPpra 
 
 pBB'ip* 
 
 liaaipri 
 
 pjq'ipp 
 
 atnpa 
 
 paaipry; 
 
 jaaipp* 
 jiaaip-n 
 
 jaaippp 
 na_ipr ; ] 
 
 
 o^pa 
 
 o^pna 
 
 aa/ipa 
 
 aaippa 
 
 
 nb^pb 
 
 Brta^na 
 
 aaaipa 
 
 ' aaaippa 
 
 npa 
 
 BpB 
 
 naipB 
 aaaipa 
 
70 23. verbs *6 (>*). 
 
 23. 
 
 Verbs & ($). 
 
 These comprehend the two classes of verbs which are distin- 
 guished in Hebrew as hi and vh , the difference between which 
 has disappeared here, as well as in Syriac. The stem termi- 
 nates regularly, in biblical Chaldee, in a T , more rarely in fi T (Dan. 
 2: 16. 4: 8. 6: 3) ; in the Targums, on the contrary, particularly 
 the later of them, it terminates uniformly in "<- or ^ T , so that with 
 reference to their mode of inflection, these verbs might perhaps, 
 with more propriety, be denominated *b . 
 
 It is very seldom that a in occurs in the Targums as the third, stem- 
 consonant of the ground-form ; comp., however, Fijtt Num. 5: 26. 
 
 1. As now * has a tendency to take the place of X even in the 
 ground-form, so in the inflection also of these verbs it maintains 
 the decided ascendancy as final stem- consonant. As regards 
 those forms which terminate in the third (quiescent) radical, it 
 may be observed that x and i appear with equal frequency in 
 the Inf. and Partic. Peal (fcnpa together with *njjta , feng together 
 with "vjg) ; on the contrary, in all the other formations i is pre- 
 dominant ; e. g. ft|p , ^ij , *6SK etc. But * quiesces regularly in 
 the Fut, Imper., Inf., and Partic. act. of Peal in - ; in the other 
 conjugations, in - . 
 
 As less common may be mentioned, a) IX instead of i in Ithpeal 
 Isa. 53: 2. Pro v. 6: 6, in Ithpaal Jer. 23: 25. Pro v. 18: 9. b) *- in the 
 several conjugations except Peal ; e. g. Ps. 78: 11. 2 Kings 8: 8 (Jlphel) 
 c) %, in Imp. Peal occurs almost as often as the other form, Deut. 
 31: 14. Dan. 5: 4. Ps. 45: 1. 1 Sam. 25: 25. 
 
 2. In the personal inflection with sufformatives, a trace of the a 
 appears but seldom ; viz. the third sing. fem. Praet. Peal rbl , 
 the third pi. masc. Praet. and second pi. masc. Imper. ftj , lis , the 
 second fem. pi. Imper. j$j|a\ aj^fia , jba , the forms of the Put. in 
 jV and }1 , as b phh , *phn , yb$* , jfeji , point to an absorbed a (nxisi , 
 )V&$1 , ajaia), which is still written in the common form of the Imp. 
 Peal njttfta ; on the contrary, the third pi. Praet. Peal na&Ji and 
 the Jn^w.. ii&Aa , rixiJiK etc., according to an analogy found else- 
 where ("WB, tt$97B) come more probably from ia. 
 
23. verbs &<b (">b). 71 
 
 3. i is decidedly retained as third stem-consonant ; a) As ^wi- 
 escen* before sufformatives of the first and second sing, and plar. 
 Praet, as well as in the third plur. masc. ("nba) via, t*JK, rvi} , 
 ^rrfp , wn^V?*! > N r^- ^) ^- s mova ^^ e before sufformatives of all 
 the Futures in "j- , as "jjbrp , Ijfcr , X$i! < in tne third fern. sing. 
 Praet. r^rs , frtaa , and here even doubled r^bana , hjkj , in 
 forms of the Infinitive ??, >"C?K, in the other (more frequent) 
 inflection of the second sing. Praet. Peal T+b% , rnba , finally in the 
 second Participle of Peal and Aphel "i^a , ^bra . 
 
 4. A double mode of formation i3 clearly apparent in several 
 forms, namely in Peal in third plur. Praet. ft} and Tbs , fiaba and 
 iprtba , and third plur. masc. Praet. of the other Conjug., *% and 
 W&a , v4} and ^bax , which latter forms occur frequently even 
 in Onkelos; the fluctuation between *- and *-. (see above) im- 
 ports less in consequence of the present low condition of the 
 punctuation. That difference may indeed have some connection 
 with the original distinction between verbs xb and ^b (as very 
 many of the latter kind still exist in Arabic) ; but it is preserved 
 here in scarcely a single verb throughout, and it must appear 
 very fanciful to divide the verbs xb transmitted to us in Chaldee, 
 with reference to their inflection, into verbs with final a and i 
 sounds, as Fiirst has attempted to do, though not without some 
 ingenuity ($ 164 sq.) 
 
 As regards particular examples, the explanation of n^ba, r^b}, 
 which Fiirst gives, in order to refer them back to a final a, is improba- 
 ble. Why should the sufformative of the first person in these verbs 
 have been m T ? In die regular verb P- exists already, and from this 
 arises very easily PKbi , tv^ba . And why in verbs whose final sound 
 was a, did not the language produce such formations as "prxba , "JPttba , 
 which would so readily have presented themselves, and which occur 
 in Hebrew ? It is far more simple in the forms "prvba , '{P^ba y to re- 
 gard > as the third stem-consonant. 
 
 Verbs with n movable as third radical, as Pna , n*p , ?rop etc. are 
 of course entirely regular in their inflection ; e. g. *irnp Jer. 36: 16, 
 Fut. rnrn Job 37: 1, Ithpeal tf^pn Eccl. 1: 12. [Hiph KW) in the 
 Talm.). ' 
 
 nnb, from a verb lib with n movable as second stem-letter, forms 
 its Aphel ^Pba 2 Kings 3: 34, Schaphd ^nb'J Job 16: 7. Isa. 44: 12, Isch- 
 tapk ^fibpua Ps. 102: 1. Job 4: 1 (P^bp^K Ps. 68: 10). 
 
72 23. verb 
 
 Pea). Ithpael. 
 
 Pr. 3. m. nh} Ws (iip) (i ) *Vww 
 
 3. / nVa n*aD , n^ao . (n* )n*Vin 
 
 2. m. irba , rvV5 rpo ^*$r$ 
 
 i. c. n4$v "ffti ffi W'iTO 
 
 P/. 3. m. $5 T3D, ftfb* . Qis^-r ) ityfji 
 
 3. /: nfcfcl ' rwab m^B'cim 
 
 2. m. "pri^a pn*JKa ^n^arua 
 2 - / I'T^ 3 . ^n^D "ri^'aria 
 
 Injin.(nblp, rytyto) K&& Mfepw 
 
 Imp. m. ^5,(^3)^3 tfffij* 
 
 f. ' $ ,' abi K^rJM 
 
 J^k m. V;?a iftria 
 
 /: Ai, m6a stftina 
 
 Fut.3.m. (i-*) ^3* (a-) ''Van'] 
 
 3. / (>-) aVan (***) ^w*i 
 2. m. 0^) t/kpm ( ) 'barn 
 
 2. / ]^ajn if^i*! 
 i. c. (i ) ftibax &hr) 4* r i? 
 
 p/. 3. w. "jiVa? pVarp 
 
 3. / -j^a"; !$jrn 
 2. m. -pVan fi^>5nn 
 2. f. ybjpi pVafrn 
 i. c. (*sr) s&Ja (a ) "nana 
 
 ( m. i^a , Va $apn 
 

 73 
 
 Pad. 
 
 Ithpaal. 
 
 Aphel. 
 
 Ittaphal. 
 
 % 
 
 (>-) Varwj 
 
 (57-) ^aj 
 
 6ana 
 
 m*\h nfta 
 
 n^ana 
 
 n^jia (nao-r ) n*Vifia 
 
 rpVa 
 
 rpVani* 
 
 (n 1 '-) rrSaa 
 
 n^ana 
 
 ri^a 
 
 rv'janq (n^) rfca* 
 
 tr , fen 
 
 rr^a, wVa 
 
 Tirana 
 
 vpVaa 
 
 TyVa.PK 
 
 %, T^a0ttO4-)rVan Ci^ ) i^ix 
 
 yh*m 
 
 *Va 
 
 n^yajja ( 
 
 'naj* )a*?iia 
 
 &Sipj* 
 
 n^a_, ]in^3_ 
 
 prrVanx 
 
 yin^KMt 
 
 jin^aks 
 
 rt, l l l% 
 
 KT^lp*! 
 
 vrt-j? 
 
 jn^aria 
 
 W^Vj, M^a_ 
 
 aa/Vana 
 
 aa^'aa 
 
 a^Vana 
 
 rwtVa 
 
 ns&ana 
 
 x -r 
 
 rlaj?aa,n^>aa 
 
 nstbanN 
 
 % %* 
 
 ^na 
 
 (^) ^aa 
 
 tyfy*. 
 
 aVa 
 
 aVaria 
 
 tt&M 
 
 i&atna 
 
 hVa_ 
 
 SVa_n 
 
 Y?aa 
 
 'i?iei* 
 
 wVa 
 
 BaVin*. 
 
 *g$jjl| 
 
 aa/Vana 
 
 (Shr) l\ 
 
 (a-^) fyarfc 
 
 (a^) 
 
 (Sr) a^arn 
 
 O^pVan 
 
 (*tr) ^MW 
 
 () ^an 
 
 (Nr) akann 
 
 (s^pVari 
 
 (frrr) 1^5nH 
 
 (a-) ^an 
 
 0%)*i#w 
 
 f^M 
 
 p&nn 
 
 r^ 
 
 Hariri 
 
 (j(^)^3 
 
 (a-) ^ajia 
 
 (n ) 4.3a 
 
 (*srj M^anM 
 
 W*! 
 
 jftarn 
 
 wx 
 
 ]iVan_'; 
 
 raj 
 
 ^SarJ 1 ; 
 
 r% 
 
 ft*?! 
 
 jiVin 
 
 jiVann 
 
 pai| 
 
 pann 
 
 ttl" 
 
 ^jsriri 
 
 r-. 5 .n 
 
 $arin 
 
 (*t?) H\jj3 
 
 Git ) ^ana 
 
 0-) '4a;. 
 
 (-) i|jp}3 
 
 (K^VaB 
 
 (a^) ^ana 
 
 (-) i^aa 
 
 abarifi 
 
 ^Vaa 
 
 a^ann 
 
 a$aa 
 
 a^'ana 
 
 -r ; j 
 
 "to, 
 
 
 ^aa 
 
 
 ii^att 
 
 
 irtoo 
 
 
 10 
 
74 23. verbs vb (-4). 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1. Praeter. The third pi. masc. in Praet. Peal terminates sometimes 
 after the Hebrew mode in *i ; e. g. inig Lam. 2: 3, *ft$ Num. 26: 64, 
 *M Gen. 33:4. Jon. In Ithpeal, this person occurs with a doubled % 
 WSn.K Gen. 2: 4. 3: 7. Jon. The third fern. pi. Praet. makes in 
 the later Targums )&~U as l^P Ruth 4: 17, or contracted )^ Gen. 
 4: 8. T. H., I^p^il Gen. 19: 32, 35. Jon. For second sing. Praet. 
 in Peal nw is once written Dan v 4: 19. From the first pi. fcO^ the 
 form Ki^J , a compound of the Partic. act. with SOI* ( 13. 1) must be 
 distinguished. There are but few instances of Peal with J* prosthetic ; 
 e. g. *S3 Prov. 20: 12, wm Dan. 5: 4 (W*nfo Joel 3: 3). 
 
 2. Future. Instead of 1*1 the ending of the third Plur. is sometimes 
 made regularly in f ; e. g. )m* Dan. 5: 2, ftffr Dan. 4: 13, Itolji 
 (from >Wj ) Ezek. 47: 11, or the ) is apocopated, as "lap? Isa. 53: 8. Dan. 
 5:10. 
 
 3. Imperative. The second pers. fern. sing, in Peal ends sometimes 
 in - Isa. 47: 2. Gen. 4: 8. T. H. ; that of the pi. is formed as ^fj Exod. 
 2: 20, nu5K is at the same time prosthetic and apocopated Gen. 24: 14 ; 
 see below. 
 
 4. Infinitive. The Inf. Peal has almost exclusively the form Kj!?!na , 
 where, united with a preposition, it serves as a Gerund, Prov. 25: 27. 
 Esth. 5: 14. Ezra 5: 9. As Inf. abs. the form tibto is in use Isa. 61: 
 10. Amos 5: 5. Gen. 26: 28. The Infinitives of the other conjuga- 
 tions end in the later Targums sometimes (after the Talm. formation) 
 
 in W|j e.g. ^i*r$* Num - 12: 8 - Jon -> ^"3 Ps - 89: 16 - The In f- 
 absol. in Aphel makes KJptf Gen. 3: 16. Jon. 
 
 5. Participle. In the form *b$ , Peil has a composite Sheva under 
 the first consonant, even when it is not a guttural, Dan. 2: 19, 30 ipV, 
 ibj , Ezra 4: 18 *$$ . The passive Participles in Peal and Aphel end 
 sometimes in K- : as, Wsrom Gen 43: 19. On the declension of Par- 
 
 t ' ' t - : 
 
 ticiples from verbs vh, see 34 on Paradigm VII. 
 
 Rem. 1. Apocopated Futures and Imperatives are less frequent in Chal- 
 dee than in Hebrew, and this mode of formation has far less effect here 
 upon the general form of the word ; comp. e. g. Fut. apoc. MlSn Hab. 2:16, 
 W ( tftj Eccl. 11: 3 as in Hebr. *in?), Wl , TO , KTIK Gen. 41: 40. Jon. 
 1 Sam. 14:40. Exod. 22: 31 from Kjq (otherwise fcOrr;, aynn) Gen. 
 1:29. 17:4. 24:14,18. Jon.; w, inn, inn, ins, )inty f in? or ina 
 from rWl Deut. 4: 1. Prov. 15: 27. Gen. 20: 7. 2 Kings 1:2. 8:10 (the 
 signification is mostly optative)] Imp. apoc. ntiil* (with X prosthet.) Gen. 
 
24. VERBS DOUBLY ANOMALOUS. 75 
 
 24: 14, W (Pail) Gen. 44: 1, in Gen. 37: 16, tTW (^p/iZ). 'tpb is an 
 apocopated Partic. Aphel instead of ^rra Deut 32: 39. 
 
 Rem. 2. In the biblical Chaldee, certain peculiar forms occur in the 
 personal inflection of fcOtt , in connection with b prefixed, after the 
 analogy of the Fut. : DjtVjS (rYiSifc) Dan. 2: 20, 28, 41. 3: 18. Ezra 7: 23 
 etc., Ill* Dan. 2: 43. 6: 2 sq. 27. Ezra 6: 10. 7: 25 and )^h Dan. 5: 
 17. That they are to be regarded as Future admits of no doubt, 
 whether we consider their form, or the context in which they are 
 found (for in all instances only a pure Fut. or an optative or Imper. is 
 required); their grammatical explanation is difficult Formerly, b 
 was considered as a conjunction (that\ and the preformative of the Fut 
 was supposed to have been lost in this particular combination (Gesen. 
 Thesaur. I. p. 370) ; but against this, lies the fact that this b does not oc- 
 cur elsewhere in Chaldee, and also that the sense which arises in this 
 way is not in every place appropriate. Hence Beer (Inscriptiones et 
 papyri vett Semitici in Aegypto reperti P. I. p. 18 sq.), who believed 
 that he had found the form Wfb also upon the Carpentr. inscription, 
 would take the b as a more unusual preform. Fut. (which has become 
 frequent in the Talm.) instead of 1 ; for only the third Pers. sing. masc. 
 or the plur. masc. and fem. is denoted by those forms, while the regu- 
 lar fconn occurs in immediate connection for the third sing. fem. This 
 explanation suits also at all events Exod. 10: 28 T. H. vA) ttottA bttil 
 *ax T^b yqv ^nb, where indeed the Inf. would be more strictly 
 antithetic, and Exod. 22: 24 "pino ift* nrfcl *v\b2 lWJn Kb Jon., 
 where the singular of the verb (according to 49. 1) can occasion no 
 surprise. Comp., besides, Dietrich de sermonis Chald. proprietate, 
 p. 51 sq. 
 
 24. 
 Verbs doubly anomalous. 
 
 By this class of verbs are meant those in which two of the let- 
 ters that are accustomed to occasion irregularities, occur together. 
 In the inflection of such verbs, the peculiarities of both letters may 
 be exhibited, or only those of one of them. They are the following : 
 
 1. Verbs }t and &6 (rib) ; e. g. an? , sd? , Kg} , 2*? , mra . These 
 leave the first radical, where it closes a syllable, unassimilated ; 
 e. g. Fut. Peal fqt Exod. 21: 22, ^pn Deut. 9: 7, ^oaa (ttT*$3 Ps. 
 78: 56), ^arra Gen. 22: 1 T. K, ^ Lam. 2: 6. 
 
76 25. DEFECTIVE VERBS AND MIXED FORMS. 
 
 2. Verbs a& and a"b; e. g. an;*, ata, a&a, asa, ana. Praet. 
 3. f. ntja, 2. m. arwa, Fut. iff* Deut. 29: 20, M* Gen. 33: 
 14. Gen. 49: 10, Imp. ana 2 Sam. 14: 32, isa Exod. 16: 23, pi. 
 ina Dan. 3: 26, per aphaeres. *fri} Prov. 9: 5 (Lond. *ina), i^/?ra. 
 aya (ap?) Dan. 13: 19, *) Dan. 3:2, Particip. act. nna, ^a 
 Dan. 7: 13. Gen. 33: 1, pass, ata (ata) Dan. 3: 22. Pail *$*, 
 Part. &* 2 Kings 20: 5. Deut. 32: 39 (^&ari Job 13: 4). Ithpeal 
 ^&tna Lev. 13: 18, Part. *Brna Lev. 2: 4, -FW. WWJ Lev. 13: 2. 
 Ithpaal ^Stta 2 Kings 5: 13. Isa. 51: 8. Aphel wa Gen. 4: 
 4 (nrijh Dan. 6: 17), wrvK Jer. 6: 7, *iawa 1 Chron. 22: 4, 
 JW. wa , Imp. ro$rYH$ Num. 23: 5 or KWft Dan. 5: 2, I^rc. ^ima 
 Ps. 105: 31, Part, wig Gen. 6: 17. [The passive form of ^?M 
 Dan. 3: 13, *WQ 6: 18 flJMi, is altogether peculiar]. Ittaph. 
 rwrnna Gen. 33: 11, on the contrary, *j;]rrw Ps. 45: 11. 
 
 3. Verbs * and a^; e. g. Wf* (^T)> *%$ Future Peal W 
 Ps. 50: 16, Aphel Praet. **fHk Ps. 75: 2, wa Exod. 13: 19, irna 
 Gen. 19: 22, plur. ^ia Ps. 30: 5, Wiia Ps. 33: 2, 1. pers. aj'ria 
 Ps. 75: 2, jFW. ^ Isa. 5: 19, J^/t. narna Exod. 12: 33, Part. 
 ^yra Prov. 28: 13, Imp. siYia Judg. 5: 2 [Pae'Z from tyv with 1 as 
 first radical ijjf Lev. 16: 21, ^W 26: 40]. 
 
 Rem. Verbs with middle 1 , which have a as their third stem-let- 
 ter, do not belong here, since 1 is pronounced as a consonant ; e. g. 
 an, mmr. 
 
 t : ' t -: 
 
 25. 
 Defective Verbs and Mixed Forms. 
 
 1 . There are only a few verbs, of which all or even most of the 
 modes and tenses are in actual use. So far as this has its origin 
 in the limited extent of the written remains of the Chaldee lan- 
 guage, it is not surprising, and does not belong to the province of 
 grammatical inquiry. But in some verbs of frequent occurrence, 
 it will be found that certain forms are constantly avoided, and 
 that certain others, derived from synonymous verbs, have been 
 universally retained in their place. This species of deficiency is 
 different from the other, and must be noticed by the grammarian. 
 
26. IRREGULAR VERBS WITH SUFFIXES. 77 
 
 The following may serve as examples of such defective verbs; 
 1) arn and *)M to give. The former is used in the Praet. and Im- 
 per. Peal as well as in Ithpeal; the latter, chiefly in the Fut. and 
 Inf. Peal. 2) pbo and pD3 to ascend. The latter is used in the 
 Inf. and i?wper. JFfeoZ and in Aphel, Deut. 9: 9. 10: 1. 2 King3 17: 
 4 (also in Ithpaal Lev. 6: 22) ; the former in the Praet. Peal, in 
 the Pa'el and the Passives of the first and second conjugations. 
 3) Riy\ and kjjib to drink. The former occurs in Peal, the latter 
 in Aphel. 4) Tj^ri and t|Wi to go. The latter is found in the ^/I 
 and -Fta. Pea/, the former particularly in Pael. 
 
 An example of a double inflection united in the same word occurs 
 in ST*. The Fut. makes commonly S'n? 20. 4, only the first person 
 P]g (Ps. 39: 5. 101: 4) yet also 3HJK Dan. 2: 9. Comp. besides, 
 20. 3. Rem. and 21. Rem. 
 
 2) The examples which have been usually adduced as mixed 
 forms, do not deserve this appellation ; for rwsw* Dan. 7: 15 and 
 dsinm Dan. 4: 16 are in fact the Syriac punctuation of the Praet. 
 Ithpeal and the Ithpoal; and the first pers. Fut. sntnK Judg. 15: 7 
 (ed. Ven.) instead of antra is not destitute of all analogy, comp. 
 Hebr. fhjiji Gesen. Lehrgeb. p. 312. ^ in Hos. 4: 2, is hardly 
 to be considered as a compound of the Part, and Fut. ; since the 
 Fut. Peal of this verb has the form ij?*J , the third fern. plur. might 
 be flgrw after the analogy of "j^n Jer. 3: 19. 
 
 26. 
 
 Irregular Verbs with Suffixes. 
 
 1. The forms of most irregular verbs before suffixes are the 
 same essentially as those of the regular verb, and so far as respects 
 the verbs "(B, 32, W, ^B, will be readily inferred from $ 16. The 
 following examples may suffice for the purpose of illustration : 
 a) J; prjkj Judg. 20: 32, t|*t|? Ps. 91: 12, r^ajn Ps. 28: 3, 
 iryq 1 Sam. 20: 21. Jer. 36: 14, Aph. l^pBX Exod. 32: 12, ^npBa 
 Job 10: 18, KMnpfca Num. 20: 5, wipe* Exod. 16: 32, b) S2; 
 fNtif; Jer. 20: 5, Aph. RflWti Dan. 7: 23, }p=b Ps. 44: 20, ^h 
 Dan. 2: 24, anbsN Judg. 19: 3, c) 12; ^rnsto Gen. 50: 26, n?b 
 
78 26. IRREGULAR VERBS WITH SUFFIXES. 
 
 Ezra 5: 14, mtiwi Dan. 7: 23, Pa. Pp&fe Ps. 105: 10, ^SWJD 
 Ps. 30: 4, V0*e? Jer - 33: 7 -4P^ ^P 2 * Dan. 3: 2 > ^t?^? Hos. 
 6: 2, Imp. Wglj Ps. 41: 12, aonrjK Jer. 31: 18, M^Wj Ezra 5: 
 11, d) ifi; t|?7? Ezek. 28: 19, wot Deut 22: 2, 4p&. WsiKina 
 Dan. 5: 7, Wjy#i Dan. 2: 13, wyyirfc Dan. 2: 26. Similar are 
 the inflections of as: sprtefin Ezek. 16: 19. tn&y\* Num. 11: 4, 
 
 1 : tt : * 
 
 (Wiyiri Prov. 1: 32, lAdtM 7mj. Prov. 25: 21. 
 
 2. Less conformed to the regular type are the forms of verbs i 
 before suffixes. The following cases may be noted : 
 
 a) x quiescent, at the end of the Praet. Peal, is but seldom re- 
 tained with its vowel ; e. g. 'oain Prov. 8: 22, fctffn Gen. 38: 15 : 
 
 <-> - - t : ' tt -: 7 
 
 the suffix usually so connects itself with this verbal form, that a is 
 expelled: *Hth Judg. 19: 3, injn Ezra 5: 11, Wj^Jj Jer. 36: 21, 
 y&t} Isa. 42: 5. 
 
 &) i quiescent, at the end of the Praet. and JW., is apt to be re- 
 jected with its vowel, while the suffixes assumed, particularly in 
 the Fut, are those with a epenthetic; e.g. n|tn^ Lev. 13: 21, 
 Wfrh Exod. 33: 20, 1<IIH Ps. 139: 8, Pae7 BWtot 1 Kings 11: 34, 
 WftJ Dan. 5: 7, i^sa Josh. 9: 27, Aphelwytix Gen. 2: 15, \Wf% 
 2 Sam. 8: 7, ifi% Judg. 18: 4, WjriJ 1 Sam. 5: 1, firiajfM 5: 6, 
 KJ|tnK Judg. 13: 23 ; * seldom occurs as movable ; e. g. Bjyi 
 Esth. 10: 2, TJ^t3 Exod. 2: 14, *&$* Gen. 41: 51, ij(*ppk Deut. 4: 
 36. Ezek. 11: 25. Gen. 34: 2. Obad. 7. 
 
 c) i quiescent is retained in the Imperatives of all the conju- 
 gations ; e. g. Wfj Exod. 4: 3, x^tnx Judg. 1: 24, f^rm Exod. 
 33: 18 (on the contrary KSTjp Jer. 36: 15). 
 
 d) The i of the third plur. Praet. Peal and of the Imper. is 
 changed into \ , but the ending l*L into *n ; e. g. "^Wi Jon. 1: 12, 
 KHWj Lam. 1: 7, SfVntty* Isa. 3: 12, tflrXpS* Isa. 1: 8 (on the con- 
 trary Vfooh Jer. 38: 9, ittirra Josh. 9: 18, fl&tft Josh. 10: 27). 
 
 e) The persons of the Praeters in rv^- and sn^- remain un- 
 changed ; e. g. *?iwi Jon. 2: 4, fowm Gen. 44: 28, spy*** Isa. 
 42: 6, Wttttx Ps. 71: 20. 
 
 On the In/in. Peal and the Participles, see below 34. The Infini- 
 tives of the several conjug. with the exception of Peal (comp. 16. 
 2. c.) have the termination ni ; e. g. "phTiirtia Jer. 33: 5, WWtfp Gen. 
 35:17. 
 
27. THE DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 79 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Noun. 
 
 27. 
 TAe Derivation of Nouns. 
 
 1. The Chaldee nouns are, like the Hebrew, partly primitive, 
 partly derivative. Among the primitive, we are to reckon those 
 nouns of one or two syllables which express simple ideas, i. e. 
 nouns which are the names of such objects and conceptions 
 as it must have been most necessary to mark in the first stage of 
 the development of language, and which according to principles 
 now admitted in Hebrew (Gesenius, Lehrgeb. p. 478 sq.) are con- 
 sidered there also as underived ; e.g. na , *Q ', &k , ra , b't* , 1J > 
 TO, sna, Dto, trjh, in, y*jn (the simple Numerals generally). 
 The derivatives, which constitute the great majority here, as in 
 Hebrew, come chiefly from verbs, but some also from other nouns ; 
 and hence they are subdivided into verbals and denominatives. 
 
 To deny the existence of primitive nouns in the Semitic languages 
 is un psychological ; and it must be viewed as a species of pedantry 
 only to derive, e. g. *n from ITf , "jn from 1133 , or to insist on lost 
 roots for rTT , sna (y^). Still the eastern languages, it is to be re- 
 membered, were formed under the influence of that stronger view, 
 that mote vivid conception of nature and its phenomena, which was 
 peculiar to the oriental ; and it is undeniable that many nouns were 
 derived from verbal ideas, which we might consider as primitive, and 
 that the whole number of primitive nouns to be found here is in fact 
 very small. Hence on the question of more or less, there will always 
 be room for dispute. 
 
 2. The derivation of nouns 1 is effected, either, a) as in the 
 inflection of verbs, merely by a varied punctuation of the stem 
 (of two consonants or three) ; e. g. ?? king, from ^a , ^ox com- 
 mand, from ids , TOJ small, from *Xgi , phmpart, from pbn , t Tftl 
 
 1 A catalogue of the verbal nouns, arranged in classes, is given by Opitz, 
 Chaldaism. p. 152sq. 
 
80 27. NOUNS DERIVED FROM THE REGULAR VERB. 
 
 splendor, from *ifit (sometimes even this is omitted, and the noun 
 coincides entirely with its stem-word ; e. g. *o from ^i&a) ; or, 
 b) by a reduplication of one (commonly the second), or of two of 
 the stem-consonants (particularly in order to express intensity or 
 augmentation) ; e. g. ^ powerful, from TO} , a thief, from Stt , 
 d-isn wise, from aan , fcteio migration, from ta) ; or, c) by the 
 use of formative letters, which are prefixed or annexed to the 
 original word (sometimes both) ; e. g. yr2t< destruction, from ^as , 
 liana want, from T&q , tifcja M?w, from ttJM , hfra eos, from 
 nyi , TnjVli jow^Z, from "Tgi , snin inhabitant, from srn , 1*QW5 ser- 
 vitude, from 1!$3 . The formative letters assumed at the begin- 
 ning are most frequently K , a , n , seldom n , * , 115 ; those as- 
 sumed at the end are chiefly 1 and a , in the case of feminine 
 nouns x and n, as vbtflfear, tm&q encampment. 
 
 3. In the course of the inflection itself of the verb, two forms 
 arise, the Inf. and Particip., in which the verbal idea takes the 
 character of a noun ; and, it will be found, that most substantives 
 derived from verbs manifestly depend on one of these formations 
 as their general model and basis. Thus abstract nouns are derived 
 most directly from the Infinitive, and with various modifications 
 represent also its form ; while concrete nouns correspond with a 
 like diversity of signification and appearance to the Participles. In 
 order to justify indeed this classification of nouns under Infin. and 
 Particip., respect must be had to other Semitic dialects, particu- 
 larly the Arabic ; and it is not to be forgotten also, that some for- 
 mations may occur in both classes ; e. g. iw . "We shall, there- 
 fore, in the sequel present all the principal forms of Chaldee 
 nouns, in conformity with the three-fold division noticed above 
 under No. 2, and so advance from the simple and earliest forma- 
 tions to the later and more artificial. 
 
28. NOUNS DERIVED FROM THE REGULAR VERB. 81 
 
 28. 
 Nouns derived from the Regular Verb. 
 
 a) Derivatives with the stem-consonant unchanged. 
 
 1. bap (bap), bap, hup, b'rjp (corresponding to the Hebr. Segho- 
 kte forms), which denote usually abstract ideas; e.g. -ibo book, 
 o^d taste, ?\r need, rppn strength ; less frequently concrete ; e. g. 
 Tjbp king, ina man. 2. bap (with long, unchangeable <z between 
 the last two stem-consonants) ; e. g. iro writing, nnp war, tabia 
 peace. 3. bap (dissyllabic) the form of the first Particip. Peal, em- 
 ployed in a concrete sense, especially for the designation of pursuits 
 or employments, ytnpriiM, rap rinc-dresser, ribs husbandman, then 
 of inherent qualities : toj <-//?/, bad foolish. 4. b^ap (second 
 Part. Peal), b^ap , br^p , biap (with long i, o or u between the 
 last two radicals), likewise in a concrete sense (especially as ad- 
 jectives) ; e. g. ^rn fearful w* bitter, prwn anointed, tW 
 small, rppn strong, bK ^o/^, ptoj suckling ; as expressive of 
 abstract ideas, e. g. b^rti planting, r m r^ terror, piaio remission, 
 tr*nb raiment, i WK fozwr/. The dissyllabic form b-op (Hebr.) is 
 uncommon; e.g. n*n wear. 5. b-j^ip, baJip, baip (a long, un- 
 changeable vowel after the first stem-consonant) ; the first, prin- 
 cipally adjectives for the expression of inherent qualities, espe- 
 cially of colors ; e. g. ByiK black, pM red ; the second or con- 
 crete terms, as 0"4w young man; the third (seldom) as abstract, 
 but which are properly concrete, e. g. Dnin seal, (pp. he or that 
 which seals), nn'ix dcstmction. 
 
 b) Intensive forms with a reduplication of one or more of the stem-consonants. 
 6. bap , in part concrete, which express a permanent, accus- 
 tomed action or performance, e. g. IfQ thief, naa cook, tins horse- 
 man, from a quadril. W^B shepherd. in part, but less frequently 
 abstract, as ban destruction, km* outcry. 7. bap, e. g. n strong, 
 flft tongue, }P$ flax. 8. bap, mostly adjectives which denote 
 physical properties, especially defects ; e. g. aba dwm, tinn <&a/: 
 9. b*iap, abstract (considerably frequent), "rtpB prescription, spaa 
 11 
 
82 28. NOUNS DERIVED FROM THE REGULAR VERB. 
 
 oppression, }*? strength, "WWI longing, IWl mockery, *)**$ nor^. 
 
 10. b*Mg and it^p, which are employed mostly as adjectives, 
 e. g. Wp Ao/y, I'M first fruits, fcppn powerful, ^B'tf fair. Both 
 forms are strengthened from V^ttJ* and brj^ip , and in some words 
 they are found together; e. g. fcf*i$ and Spifc, psto and pEto. 
 
 11. Reduplicated forms like iAto round, iB'nsiB daw, i*i3&? 
 tempest, "MCTth thought, a somewhat extensive class (yet more 
 numerous and varied still in the Rabbinic). 
 
 c) With consonants added. 
 12. iap? , btsptt (iapo), e. g. bnrpa tower, ttJyra examination, nasa 
 action, Kndrra thought, 150E mourning; especially of the place 
 where the act which the verb expresses is performed ; e. g. na'ra 
 a/tar (from nn 1 ! to sacrifice), ^"ye pasture (from *Q*J to drive), 
 n^ya east (from Wj to go wp), or the instrument, e. g. pitt 00w 
 (from p'nt to spjinkle), bgtra weight (from igin to weigh). 13. 
 Uttptt , e.g. 1WK}3 conflagration. 14. bapto , e. g. th^tiB sanctuary, 
 all three Infinitive formations. 15. iag^ and V^MpE (Partic. 
 Pael and Aphel) as concrete; e. g. ttjaiaa servant, with the adjec- 
 tive ending : , )T , aiBE , rfOOTTO , "psfe? informer, and btsp^i (Pual) ; 
 e. g. flpso preparation. 16. With prefixed tf (fi) ftV&tfg, e. g. 
 Ktori^ possession, rrotpri concealment (from Aphel). 17. Viaps , 
 e. g. feitfHB sto?m 18. W^m and Vrjp^ (Schaphel), e. g. "WSStt? 
 servitude, ^ymti glory. 19. b^pr\ , e. g. KTj'ilon recompense, N^pfin 
 arrangement, and iz3p>in , e. g. KabuHn recompense, XBptrtn occasion, 
 KhniBtti praise. 20. The forms in "j- , which are derived from the 
 stem without the intervention of another noun ($30), viz. "jiap and 
 ^i^p, e. g. insa victory, 'jrfpto service, "jtj^fi reckoning, account. 
 They rest indeed upon the form h23 (ansi) an ^ Kh!?>i3 ( n V s ) as 
 their type, but in many cases have been derived directly from the 
 verbal stem. 21. Derivatives of the passives, as NTfalWi toto, 
 &ui$rinN, rwwna, etc. 
 
29. NOUNS DERIVED FROM THE IRREG. VERB. 83 
 
 29. 
 
 Nouns derived from the irregular Verb. 
 
 1. From verbs IB: 12. ^q saw, ns^ planting, ynyq custom, fcCi^E 
 prison, "i^a acquaintance. 13. Stfm burden. 15. p**a demon 
 (properly the injurious). 16. an^inax war, nwjK illumination. 
 20. With the annexed syllable *j- : Ig^a departure. 
 
 2. From verbs 23 : a) Monosyllabic forms : pn /ww, "jn favor, 
 ah /*eo, fern, alb? wwd; 6) Polysyllabic: 4. n^nn /aveo*, 10. pijpi 
 thin, 12. jbsrs entrance, and with reduplication (No. 11) W>a tMee/, 
 iwba revolution, nbsbi s&w#. 
 
 3. From verbs KB : b^nfood, *0tt word, which forms resolve 
 themselves into No. 12, and are properly Infinitive. 
 
 4. From verbs ^B : rw knowing (Infin.). 4. w knowledge. 
 10. ^p? costly, * excellent; with prefixed formative letters: 
 iVna &>/*, *)&n plain (Infin. Pea/), snia aZ>oa, nnia present, Kroin 
 correction, ^rhr\inlwbitant, ^^acquaintance (from Aphel), mbjjk 
 a55ocia^w>n. 
 
 5. From verbs 15 (^s) : a) Monosyllabic forms as concrete and 
 abstract (from Part and Infin.), p3 narrow, w?% pillar, fcWta jfeep- 
 ingr, n'in , win debt, y^joy, then n*nn return, t\^oend; b) Dis- 
 syllabic, 13? 1 ! treading to pieces, trituration ; with a doubling of the 
 second stem-letter ; 6. jj'i judge, 1*1 inhabitant, also abstr. p*2 
 affliction. 9. pWP distress, ws image, concr. wa stranger; c) 
 with prefixed formative letters : 2. naa punishment of death, da 
 position (Infin. Peal.). 4. d^raa oppression, fiBwa covering, "pro 
 yooa 7 , from Aphel IP^ee mocker, KBjfi movement, motion. 
 
 6. From verbs &6 : a) xs'i , ^d*i ^wre, ^Oit physician, "in 
 swee (participial forms of Pea/, for the expression of concrete 
 ideas, comp. 3. and 4.), nwi purity, n-ib} captivity, nwa e#w- 
 nence, purely abstract ; 6) Kj'in yoy, Kjbsin sweetness, "jjaa wmi- 
 for (&oa), kjsb ioW, with the third stem-consonant movable; 
 c) with a reduplication : ^3T guiltless, i? (same as "|T*?X K |I 
 wJwremonger, comp. No. 6. ; a*) with prefixed letters, e. g. 
 jw number, IW^pj winnowing -shovel, ftjq reproof. 
 
84 30. DENOMINATIVE NOUNS. 
 
 30. 
 
 Denominative No uns. 
 
 Here belong a) some nuda, especially of the form bag , e.g. 
 ",Bd seaman (comp. aj^Bd s^p), jn^g archer, from ap fow; 6) the 
 most awcto in ^ (^-7), /m. ria- (n^-), and in ^ chiefly adjec- 
 tives (the former, ordinal numerals, ox patronymics and gentiles), 
 e. g. in-iD rebel, (from S^d), Tjax destruction, (from ^ia), T^n de- 
 spised, TJpatt despiser, from *)d3E , 'jjaiTa seZ/er, *)ri?3*id discerning, 
 15W stranger, ^ara Egyptian, nis Tyrian, ^siin foreigner, ^nyva 
 oriental; c) many feminines in M and r^-, e. g. mWj goodness, 
 from na , mbfca kingdom, from ^ , nwia vofor, from d*&a , rvrakNi 
 dumbness, from dibis; , nsnttb&t widmvhood, from *,^?2!< widower, nsixai? 
 yow^, from d^s , Wlta^ first-birth, seniority, from ^an , |WjV|iO 
 discernment, from "jripasib , n^tthttJ extirpation, from ttfaia . 
 
 Rem. Greek and Latin nouns which passed over into the Chaldee 
 in great numbers (see p. 19), were either retained with their ending 
 where the form allowed it, and inflected according to the Chaldee 
 analogy, e. g. Mil few??, d^dS fidaig, d^V^B res^a^'os, 'jiW'p x<htwj>, 
 iWn dugov, "JipM J*c5f>, plur. pjftp*!! Gen. 4: 6. Jon., or they re- 
 ceived a Chaldee termination instead of their foreign one ; e. g. KBpdsfta 
 yXwaaoxopov Gen. 50: 26. Jon., fcJ^fMK odariones Exod. 14: 51, 
 tf^d sudarium Exod. 34: 33. The other changes which such words 
 underwent in pronunciation were but few, and confined almost exclu- 
 sively to those points in which adaptation to the organs of the oriental 
 required them ; e. g. Ki:dp ^eaTTjg, fcfrtBDK anrjladiov, 'jVibjHlJ 
 &iaTQ0V ( 6. e.), "VuAp'lBG speculator, difiilpBK inlrgonog. 
 
 31. 
 Gender and Number of Nouns. 
 
 1. Nouns have two genders, Mzsc. and .Fern, (the absence of 
 the Neuter being common to all the Semitic languages) ; but the 
 feminines were not in all cases either originally or constantly dis- 
 tinguished by their form from the masculines. In addition to the 
 concrete (animate) objects, which are feminine by nature, those 
 also are treated as such according to the vivid, oriental mode of 
 
31. GENDER AND NUMBER OF NOUNS. 85 
 
 conception, with which we associate the ideas of mildness, deli- 
 cacy, weakness, dependence, care, nourishment, support. In 
 this respect, the Chaldee agrees perfectly with the Hebrew. 
 See Ewald, Krit. Grammatik, p. 299 sq. The necessity, how- 
 ever, of forms or terminations for distinguishing the feminine 
 gender, was early felt, and the final syllables a- (si-), \ t ^t* 
 i (w, m T , rvi), were created for this purpose. Yet with ref- 
 erence to the first of these, great caution is necessary ; since the 
 masculines also in a certain formation (status emphaticus, see 
 32) terminate in K T . Our only safe rule, therefore, will be 
 to consider those nouns merely as feminine, which are likewise 
 such in other Semitic dialects, or which are clearly shown to be 
 of this gender by the grammatical connection. 
 
 The ending ii- is chiefly a Hebraizing form, and occurs for the 
 most part in adjectives and participles (in Dan. and Ezra) ; in the Chal- 
 dee itself, it appears regularly only in feminines which come from mas- 
 culines in i- ; e. g. SiX^7E from Wig . Besides, fi- is found in 
 a few substantives, whose second radical is X ; e. g. JiftJtD , hxp , 
 JiiJB , or which are founded on an Infin. from tib ; e. g. MJOiK , ii&oix ; 
 but in his , rwrra , it co-exists with X- . 
 
 The full ending m^ occurs only in the absolute state of feminine 
 adjectives (especially patronymics), which are derived from masculines 
 in V ; e. g. rvribn , rWBJ^ , rpanisv . 
 
 According to the above, the number of words in the Chaldee, which 
 are feminine without a feminine, ending, is not less than in Hebrew 
 (and Syriac) ; and it may be added that to a very great extent they are the 
 same ; e. g. "jriK stone, rTn& path, 3n$ earth, 'j'lix ear, n*]H sword. 
 These must be learned individually from the lexicon ; though the stu- 
 dent can hardly fail to remark in every instance an exemplification of 
 the principle which has been mentioned, as leading to the usage in 
 question. Other nouns have the double gender (gen. commune), e. g. 
 nx sign, &NEK fire, KSfiia vine (so the numerals from twenty to a hun- 
 dred inclusive.) 
 
 2. There are also two numbers, singular and plural; for the 
 few dual forms in use are borrowed from the Hebrew, and are 
 found only in the biblical Chaldee (Dan. 2: 34. 7: 4, 7) ; on the 
 contrary, in the Targums, objects which exist in pairs are ex- 
 pressed by the plural ($ 55. 3), while that which is two-fold, or 
 
86 31. GENDER AND NUMBER OF NOUNS. 
 
 the idea of duality, is denoted by the numeral "p'lin . The plural 
 of masculines is characterized by the termination , p_ ; that of 
 feminines, by the termination )- ; since the ending ru , analogous 
 to the Hebrew hi , is employed in Chaldee only for the stat. constr. 
 ( 32. 2.) 
 
 In the case of most masculines which end with a radical, the above 
 termination is merely appended to the form of the singular ; e. g. *"flO 
 rock, PL "p^W, )vb , 'paisi ; only those in V; or ^ have yr$- ; while 
 those in K- or v. (derivatives from &6) form their plural in *p-. 
 Feminines in tf change this termination into "J ; those in si , * and 
 i pronounce these consonants in the plural, and terminate, therefore, in 
 
 j; and ij; e.g. mjoWj PL/jtDSa, rvnuJE PL^tj^b, rr\irjPL 1 )j:| , i 
 
 finally, those in rix- (from masculines in ">-) receive the ending f- 
 e. g. OX7l2 PI* "C?^ It is a singular usage of the later Targums, 
 that the ending }- in feminines of the first kind, instead of being ap- 
 pended directly to the stem, is sometimes added to the stat. constr., 
 as l^^nn Esth. 2: 2, )r\w\$ 2: 8. 4: 4. In the place of this, the 
 London text has IQ^n and J9*4V. 
 
 In the Talmudic Chaldee, "J of the masculine ending )* regularly 
 falls away, and a shortened plural in i- is also in use, e. g. ^ON for 
 FT* Gen - 39: 20 and oftener in Jon., e. g. Gen. ]: 21. 8: 22. 12: 6. 
 Yet other nouns take this form in stat. constr. ; see 56. 1. 
 
 3. As in Hebrew, so here many masculine forms in the singu- 
 lar have a feminine ending in the plural, and the reverse ; e. g. 
 *n$j PL H'jJi, htaj* PL "paa, v&n PL *p!?a, asn PL *psri, aan 
 PL J*W}, aittj PL ytiiQ* Comp. Fiirst, p. 214. 
 
 In some nouns, both plural terminations are employed, even in the 
 the same Targum, e. g. KEa PL }*m and )mx , "SjJ PL T*g 
 and I^Ha (as if from the Sing, n^fii), b^tH PL |^| and TJ^tK, 
 KM Pi 1^ and ^} Isa. 66: 17. 1: 29, na PL ^rtj and JJWj (ijnk), 
 igrm PL 1%3|J^ and }$jglJ5i igh ,/feZrf PL "pVpi and ta ,bpn jer. 
 32: 43. Hos. 10: 4, Bfri ofai/ PL TW and yg'^ Gen! 8: 10. Ezra 4: 15, 
 K^n blessing PL fyja and 'ptflS Num. 32: 20. Deut 28: 8, etc. In 
 this case, a difference of signification sometimes distinguishes the two 
 numbers. Thus "pig PL from bjj signifies tropically tonitrua Exod. 
 9: 23, on the contrary "jbjj voces Ps. 93: 4. Epicene nouns also must 
 be distinguished from the above examples ; e. g. D^D PL p&*lO and 
 IJMd 2 Kings 5: 9. 2: 11. 
 
 Some nouns occur only in the plural ; e. g. f*Q &/e, KJOT htaven, 
 OTB countenance, particularly such as denote periods of life, as : "paiw 
 
32. DIFFERENT RELATIONS OF NOUNS. 87 
 
 youth, 'pilfQ age of virginity, T*)W boyhood (yet several of these words 
 are also singular in M). Others are found only in the singular, as re- 
 sults naturally from their signification ; e. g. the names of the metals, 
 as, srn gold, VnB iron, r,0? silver (PI. *pBO? argenta Gen. 42: 25, said 
 of coined silver). 
 
 32. 
 Different Relations (Status) of Nouns. 
 
 1. The number of the states (status) so called, in which a noun 
 may be placed, is greater in Chaldee than in Hebrew. In addi- 
 tion to the absolute and construct state, we have here also the status 
 emphaticus, or emphatic state, as it is termed, and which was de- 
 signed originally to express the noun with the definite article. 
 (Similar in Danish is Konungen from Konung.) Yet in practice 
 this form has acquired extensively a weakened sense, and the 
 status emphaticus has almost uniformly taken the place of the 
 status absolutus. 
 
 The indefinite article a, an, was denoted, when perspicuity required 
 it, by the numeral in placed after the substantive ; e. g. Dan. 2: 31. 
 6: 18. Ezra 4: 8. 2Chron. 18: 7. 
 
 2. The characteristic endings of the status constr. are the fol- 
 lowing : a) The plural termination of masculines "p- is changed 
 into ^ (in the sing, of such nouns the st. constr. has no separate 
 form distinct from that of the absol). b) The singular termina- 
 tion of feminines in a- (n-) passes into r- ; in the plural, 
 into r-. Feminines in *i and ^ T retain their original n in the 
 st constr. sing. ; e. g. HO&g , in the Plur., agreeably to the above, 
 1J and ",; become rvi and rn. 
 
 The relation of the genitive can be expressed in the Aramaean in 
 various ways, as well as by the form of the stat. constr. One mode 
 is that of prefixing *1 to the second word ; e. g. KSHK 1 ! K2^73 the king 
 of the land. See in respect to this, Syntax 56. 
 
 3. The status emphaticus is characterized in both genders and 
 numbers by the termination a- (but in masculines in *- , by it-). 
 In the singular, a) masculines, with the exception of such as ter- 
 minate in x- or *- , merely assume this ending without change, 
 
88 33. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
 
 e. g. atoto from &*hd ; but masculines in K- and *>- exchange 
 these syllables, the first for i- , the second for a- , e. g. ajij from 
 aij , h^jng from itfig . 5) Feminines in K_ receive as the 
 ending of the st. emphat. n- , e. g. ansia from aolro ; but 
 those in tta- take HJ-; , e. g. an^g from fajyjg ; finally, those 
 in *i and v appear with the full termination M and h*^ , e. g. 
 Ktjttia . In the plural, a) the masculine ending y^ is changed 
 into kj- , e. g. Kjaba ; but in nouns which have *** in the Sing., 
 it is changed into %+ , e. g. "flppjg from V^yjB , in the Bible \fc 
 comp. Ezra 4: 9. 5: 1. 6: 7 etc. b) In feminines, the a- of the 
 st. emphat. is added to the st. constr., e. g. Bryra , KftJ^E , **^ J > 
 those, however, which terminate in the Sing, in nj$- resume their 
 original % e. g. Kg*$7Q from Hfij^n^ . 
 
 4. Before suffixes (in stata suffixo) the final syllables of nouns 
 undergo the following modifications : a) Masculine derivatives 
 in % receive K- , e. g. fi^7 from *W ; those in x- (from verbs 
 &&) change these letters, in the Sing., into i movable, e. g. frtj 
 from &6}; 6) All Plur. masculines reject the ending yv? (l?-) 
 and take in their place the suffixes of nouns plural; c) Femi- 
 nines in a- change these letters in the Sing, into n , e.g. *r&Va 
 from P^ft those in \ and !** appear in the form of the st. constr. , 
 e. g. nin-is^; those in a; (radic.) end in rv T , e. g. ftr^?}, those 
 in iia- (from masc. in ^-) resume their original Yodh, e. g. inrvwg; 
 d) In the plural of feminine nouns, the suffixes are always at- 
 tached to the form of the st. constr., e. g. ^g^p} , fV ^ tt ^ TM , 'pnrvobE . 
 
 33. 
 
 Declension of Nouns. 
 
 When nouns are inflected, i. e. when in accordance with what 
 has been stated, they are changed into the different states {status) 
 of the Sing, and Plur., or suffixes are attached to them, this takes 
 place (the tone being moved forward more or less according to the 
 nature of the form of the word) either without any further change, 
 especially in the vowels required for pronunciation, or with some 
 change in this respect. Hence nouns are naturally divided, with 
 
33. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 89 
 
 reference to their inflection, into two great classes, which we may 
 designate by the terras changeable and unchangeable. The first of 
 these, since the vowel -changes depend on the peculiar forms of 
 the noun and, accordingly, are very various, must be referred to 
 several Paradigms, which occupy the place of declensions in the 
 occidental languages. These Paradigms of masculine, as well 
 as feminine nouns, are exhibited in the following Table. 
 
 12 
 
90 
 
 33. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
 
 
 
 
 1. Decli 
 
 3NSION OP 
 
 
 I. 
 
 
 II. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 a. 
 
 b. 
 
 a. 
 
 b. 
 
 
 rock 
 
 murder 
 
 law 
 
 hero 
 
 St. absoL 
 
 "no 
 
 m% 
 
 n 1 
 
 133 
 
 St. constr. 
 
 -iia 
 
 br*z 
 
 rn 
 
 n33 
 
 St. emphat. 
 
 anica 
 
 xbSup 
 
 arm 
 
 i033 
 
 With suffix. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. absol. 
 
 VTia 
 
 pVittj? 
 
 rm 
 
 P33 
 
 St. constr. 
 
 nro 
 
 ^.is-j? 
 
 **$ 
 
 *M 
 
 St. emphat. 
 
 i^Jyto 
 
 r "" It 
 
 arn 
 
 T T 
 
 With suffix. 
 
 
 
 ^ni-i3 T 3 
 ji3*i33 
 
 V. 
 
 
 
 VI. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 a. 
 
 b. 
 
 c. 
 
 
 murderer 
 
 6ac& 
 
 goat 
 
 people 
 
 St. absol. 
 
 hvprm 
 
 35 
 
 $ 
 
 fitf 
 
 St. constr. 
 
 b'qppn 
 
 3* 
 
 *?. 
 
 DM 
 
 St. emphat. 
 
 aVajpna 
 
 K33 
 
 KJJ 
 
 R&tt 
 
 With suffix. 
 
 nVoj?na 
 
 fi33 
 
 PIT? 
 
 jna 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. absol. 
 
 ^bpfnn 
 
 i$ 
 
 r^ 
 
 va&i 
 
 St. constr. 
 
 ^tjfsrja 
 
 ^33 
 
 >*? 
 
 yyi 
 
 St. emphat. 
 
 *;3j>ra 
 
 M>33 
 
 i*55 
 
 H!a 
 
 With svffix* 
 
 ps^djwia 
 
 f'' 5 '?. 3 - 
 
 fid^j 
 
 fis^a* 
 
33. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 91 
 
 Masculine Nouns. 
 
 
 
 
 
 III. 
 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 
 a. b. 
 
 a. 
 
 b. 
 
 
 c. 
 
 age priest 
 
 king 
 
 twrce 
 
 
 eye 
 
 uby ]-3 
 
 *a 
 
 1*. 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 tjVo 
 
 JO* 
 
 
 n 
 
 aaby nana 
 
 hsVq 
 
 IOt 
 
 *r? 
 
 H99 
 
 nr&j rujpja 
 
 je&i 
 
 torn 
 
 fcrv. 
 
 nr? 
 
 jiiaVy jtearra 
 
 P 3 .? 3 - 
 
 P 33 . a . T . 
 
 
 $*j% 
 
 paV* pjna psfca pjbi py* 
 
 rf? ^-s & *$x w, *gf 
 
 $y&% n-dhs i^2$a '^ a .! *!?''?.' *U 
 
 ttftrig h rn:n3 itfiB&i TiiDtJT vpr?, Tnry 
 
 p^aVy jip^na p'sVa jis^d? p 3 " 1 ?; 1 ?.' V^w 
 
 VII. VIII. 
 
 first 
 
 rwaip 
 Ra*7p 
 
 \Ntanj? 
 \vanj? 
 
 a. 
 
 revealer 
 
 b. 
 
 
 ^5B 
 
 Si 
 
 x^ia 
 
 
 ^a 
 ***^a 
 
92 
 
 33. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
 
 2. Declension op Feminine Nouns. 
 A. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 St. absol 
 
 a. 
 province 
 
 b. 
 
 army 
 
 c. 
 kingdom 
 
 St. constr. 
 
 tx?*m 
 
 nWpa 
 
 n13^53 
 
 St. emphat. 
 
 MBawd 
 
 trvniwg 
 
 unfaba 
 
 With suffix. 
 
 1 Tpriqgqfe 
 
 RfVnm 
 
 ftnnSfi 
 
 primes 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. absol. 
 
 in a . 
 
 i: 
 
 npa 
 
 )$>& 
 
 St. constr. 
 
 nr^a 
 
 ir-joa 
 
 naa&S 
 
 St. emphat. 
 
 HQJ^IQ 
 
 KirnjbB 
 
 HWSJJfB 
 
 With suffix. 
 
 finnrTO 
 
 jinnnpa 
 
 linrnsfaa 
 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 a. 
 widow 
 
 A 
 b. 
 discoverer 
 
 first 
 
 St. absol. 
 
 akin* 
 
 hV& 
 
 
 KiigytE 
 
 St. constr. 
 
 nVfc)"i 
 
 rnVs 
 
 
 nsaip. 
 
 St. emphat. 
 With suffix. 
 
 
 T T 
 
 nrv^a 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. absol. 
 St. constr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. emphat. 
 With suffix. 
 
 
 
 
34. REMARKS ON THE PARADIGMS OF THE NOUNS. 93 
 
 34. 
 
 Remarks on the Paradigms of the Nouns. 
 1. Declension of Masculine Nouns. 
 
 No. I. embraces all unchangeable nouns, i. e. all those which 
 have v. , v.-, i , i before the last consonant They may consist 
 of only one or of several syllables ; e. g. )^fsh, Di"> day, jrn /ieoo 7 , 
 *vi*na ofooc, ^pm* wi, ertw y<w////, t't-d herald, 3IWJJ wear. 
 
 No. II. comprehends nouns in - , without respect to the num- 
 ber of syllables, whether one or more ; as, b voice, ns sign, naia 
 remainder, j'js Zwwc, ",^x free, l^bio dominion, Djne zeora 7 , ^$0 as- 
 cent a) The - passes regularly in the stat. constr. into - , Gen. 
 3: 22. Exod. 40: 39. Lev. 21: 17. Josh. 6: 19. Deut 26: 14. Jon. 
 Ezra 6: 19. 7: 18. Dan. 2: 18. Hos. 9: 11. Obad. 14. Esth. 1: 17; 
 on the contrary, see Gen. 3: 10. Joel 2:5^, Ps. 112: 2 vj, 110: 
 1 l^a, Dan 6: 8 o;j5. b) Before suffixes which begin with a 
 vowel, it remains unchanged; e. g. ijflfA Ps. 45: 2, *#& Ps. 19: 1, 
 HJ$*ti lsa. 22: 21, plur. wnaa Exod. 15: 4, fi*rijg?*p Ps. 16: 4, 
 Hos. 9: 4, Xpcbf) Joel 3: 10, VP$)Qta Lev. 23: 31, ))3nagQg Deut. 
 1: 34 (comp. Exod. 12: 20. Lev. 1: 6. Deut. 28: 12. Jer. 48: 7. Judg. 
 7: 5). So also it remains in the stat. absol. and emphat. plur., and 
 for the most part in stat. constr. plur. (comp. e. g. ^jjftf Joel 1: 12, 19, 
 njj? Jon. 2: 7, ^nis? Exod. 20: 13) ; only the form baip rejects uni- 
 formly the vowel; e. g. tf^sia Joel 1: 17, rcpK 2 Kings 16:8. 24: 
 13. c) Before suffixes which begin with consonants, the punc- 
 tuation fluctuates between T and - ; e. g. "p&ig lsa. 58: 4, y&n'iq 
 Dan. 2: 11, "paiAis Dan. 3: 31, prrjKia Jer. 15: 9, yorYi Dan. 2: 9, 
 y*UH4 Ps. 5: 10. Gen. 45: 12, which is less surprising, since many 
 of these nouns are already written with - in the stat. absol. sing. 
 
 By an unusual mode of inflection, ttfSK makes in the plur. )^tH , 
 KJBia (from a form tftft) in the sing.) Dan. 2: 27. 4: 4. 5: 7 etc. 
 
 J5 (",5<5), the Hebr. *,xx , retains regularly its - before suffixes of 
 every kind; e. g. ^s, fiUJ* Gen. 30: 31. 31: 28. Exod. 10: 9, V 13 ?? 
 Exod, 12: 32. Deut 12: 6. 1 Sam. 8:17. lsa. 61:5, fiSTO Jer. 3: 24. 34: 
 28; though before suffixes of the second and third plur., - is also fre- 
 quently written; as, "pass Exod. 10:24, fum Gen. 34: 28. 50: 8, frW 
 
94 34. REMARKS ON THE PARADIGMS OF THE NOUNS. 
 
 Exod. 2: 17. On the contrary, qjSJ Deut. 7: 13 is probably an error of 
 the press merely. 
 
 No. Ill comprehends nouns in - or - , which either consist 
 merely of two consonants, e. g. 12 hand, )i sort, kind, fitt3 name 
 (so also the prepos. br), or have two full syllables, e. g. fibs , ba , 
 yviK, iwjj 1?M| sattJa (Infin. PeaZ). These vowels are re- 
 jected in all the forms, to which a suffix is attached beginning 
 with a vowel; see Dan. 4: 1. Ps. 18: 7. Gen. 9: 24. Exod. 13: 8. 
 19: 6. Deut. 17: 6. Isa. 61: 10. 1 Sam. 26: 20. 2 Kings 4: 16. Ezek. 
 33: 6. Judg. 9: 24 (yetcomp. Sfgl Ezek. 32. 6). 
 
 The fact that the forms b|5 (Partic. Benoni) have also the orthogra- 
 phy fiiyg (with shortened -) Dan. 5: 25. Ezra 6: 9. Gen. 2: 17. 49: 10. 
 3: 5, is to be attributed to the variable vocalization of the Chaldee. Ac- 
 cording to Hebrew analogy, it should be written "pVjjg. 
 
 Under this Paradigm belongs bns St. emph. Kinfi Dan. 3: 34. 
 Before yo and frH , monosyllables in - , as in Hebrew, have - or 
 -; e.g. fttVOh Zeph. 1:17, fffa Gen. 43: 12. Josh. 9:11. Isa. 1:15, 
 fih^n Ezra 5: 8 etc. (on the contrary, fftTi Gen. 37: 22). yn& from 
 tin; Ezek. 27: 2 is peculiar. 
 
 No. IV. Here are to be reckoned all forms which correspond 
 to the Hebrew segholate nouns, whether they contain two vowels 
 (of which the last is always vocalis furtiva) , e. g. rfm , tfen (almost 
 exclusively in the bibl. Chaldee), rvn (tKp), or merely one, be- 
 tween the last two consonants, e. g. ?fen , *if& . Their inflection 
 coincides almost entirely with that of similar nouns in Hebrew, 
 except only that ; a) in the st. abs.plur. of the form "qbri and iSp , a 
 contraction of the word takes place such as is usual in the other va- 
 riations of inflection, S&g "ffifi . b) The form tthp sometimes leaves 
 the Hholem unchanged or assumes T (*i), e. g. KrrviK 1 Kings 13: 10 
 (together with WTJ), fcArd Ezra 5: 8 (together with *imb 1 Kings 
 6: 6 and b&nsi 2 Kings 4: 10 etc.) ; nh has always WtiN\\ c) In 
 the form of rra , the quiescence of * is frequently omitted, e. g. 
 W Dan. 7: 8, *5*f Dan. 4: 13, RWja Ezra 5: 3, Wtffc Dan. 5: 23, 
 W^? Eccl. 4: 8. In the inflection of nouns which are pointed with 
 , ana * > the same vowel (-) , (-) , or very rarely (-), 
 usually maintains its place under the first radical, as in Hebrew. 
 The vowel - appears, e.g. in ifin, #gi 4 }aj, nt, "ton, 'j&h, 'ato, 
 
34. REMARKS ON THE PARADIGMS OF THE NOUNS. 95 
 
 rraa, irb, *, WTJ, b;?, ^ns, p*is, bnp, trjp, ttJgttf; the vowel 
 - in e. g. im, laa, tn, 1$| Dan. 4: 6. 5: 12. Gen. 32: 16. Isa. 
 53: 2. A Pattahh is found in all nouns whose first or second con- 
 sonant is a guttural, agreeably to the nature of such words ; e. g. 
 Cisi3 M&gtg , Kg* XB3? , 13* son? . In regard to rnn , see below 35. 
 
 The proper Chaldee form of nouns like V*}p is "pttK or yi*\& ()1&) 
 KOfim, tfjto Job 4: 12 pi. "pniK Ps. 115: 6. 
 
 rnn , which also belongs under this Paradigm, lias the form "pFrtn 
 Cant. 5: 10, along with the regular Plur. ^n^n (so likewise Fem. KFTin 
 Isa. 66: 22 along with NrViH). 
 
 No. V. comprehends those nouns in which the vowel of the final 
 syllable falls away in the course of inflection, and the third conso- 
 nant from the end receives then the helping vowel - (in gutt. -). 
 To this declension belong the Participles of Ithpeel. 
 
 No. VI. embraces those nouns which double their final conso- 
 nant on the accession of formative syllables and suffixes; as, 
 as people, tr sea. They are mostly monosyllabic, and derivatives 
 from verbs 22. The vowels -, 1, and (yet not always, comp. 
 Num. 25: 15. Ps. 117: 1) ^ pass over into the corresponding short 
 vowels ; but in some nouns, - is employed instead of - , e. g. 
 ling from rs, am from *ix Exod. 19: 23, f$$^ from btii Dan. 
 7:9. In the bibi. Chaldee, bb has in the sL empliat. &t!bb (with 
 tone on the penultimate) Dan. 2: 40, on the contrary, with suffix 
 yiniDD Dan. 2:38. 7: 19, in the Targums, commonly *i instead of-, 
 e. g. nlbto, A, ftfoo Gen. 25: 25. Job 34: 13. Isa. 22:2. 13: 6, 
 or - , as frta Mich. 2: 12, fD>3 Deut. 4: 22. 
 
 No. VII. embraces the derivatives from verbs a6 in K_ (n-) or 
 i_ t ^ t i_ , e . g. b; , aba , ^n , vm , 'ija , tyfJQ . They consist 
 of participles, infinitives, and nouns. It may be laid down as a 
 general rule that * appears as the third radical, and throughout 
 the singular attaches itself to the formative addition or the sufT, 
 and is, therefore, movable. In the forms with final a- , the as- 
 sumed a is consequently displaced, as Kjbj , 6jn , and in such 
 words as 1S3 , "yi , ^n , a short vowel, in conformity with a well 
 known law of the language, is pronounced under the first radical, 
 e. g. fc^an , aw , fcdn , aoss , n^s from ^ss> . The st. abs.pl. makes, 
 
96 34. REMARKS ON THE PARADIGMS OF THE NOUNS. 
 
 according to 31. 2 ^}, $MU^ but also contracted JO 1 ;, )ten Isa. 
 42: 2. Jer. 23: 5. Isa. 1: 15. Ezek. 47: 8. Jon. 3: 10. Amos 6: 7. 
 Joel 1:16. Josh. 9:20. Gen. 37: 13. 41:23. Exod.2:13. Jon. (more 
 rarely, according to Hebrew analogy, )\; e. g. Job 1: 13. Lam. 1: 
 3) ; but in the st. constr. and emphat., every trace of the radical 
 * is lost ; e. g. *bi , K*iii . 
 
 "T ' T -T 
 
 The following are peculiar forms of this declension: I'lS PL with 
 # V^V : ^a. 10: 2 *j PZ. *j Lev. 19: 10 (Onk.) *g& PJ. ^prt 
 Deut. 6: 3. T. H. *$ , *1j has a double PZur., # 1 Sam. 10: 3 
 and "pawa Deut. 32: 14. Jon. The stat. constr. of the first form makes 
 m$ Gen. 27: 9. 
 
 The Infin. Peal of verbs tib are either inflected regularly according 
 to this Paradigm, e. g. B^Sp? Dan. 4: 23, wnrro 2 Sam. 13: 6, HJ$p 
 (s. emph.) Ezra 5: 9 or X of the termination is entirely lost, e. g. 
 ^"O 1 Kings 18: 16, tfm 2 Sam. 13: 5, fl^Wtt Josh. 3:3, RStW 
 Gen. 23: 2. 
 
 No. VIII. Here belong those nouns which end in the forma- 
 tive syllable s (**-), see above, $ 30. They are mostly gentiles, 
 patronymics, and ordinal numerals. They all have this common 
 property, that * is changed in the course of inflection into a , and. 
 connects itself, as littera mobilis, with the following syllable, in 
 consequence of which the - is lengthened into - . That the st. 
 emph. pi. terminates here in \ , and, therefore, agrees in form 
 with the st. constr., has been already remarked above. The bibl. 
 Chaldee, however, forms an exception to the last rule ; comp. 
 Dan. 2: 5 **#?, 3: 2 IWflpri 3: 8. Ezra 4: 9 K^ftfe and 4: 12, 
 13 W*i&#. 
 
 - t : 
 
 This Paradigm includes also certain derivatives from vb , which ter- 
 minate in i~ , without being passive Participles (see No. VII) ; e. g. 
 * PI. **Sf3 Gen. 1: 6. T. H. Ps. 104: 13, *$} st. emphat. fiK3t PL paflft 
 Jer.l9:4 T 
 
 2. Paradigms of the Feminines. 
 
 A. This Paradigm embraces all unchangeable feminines, i. e. 
 those in K- , n (i) and ^ T , when these final syllables begin with a 
 single consonant, e. g. a^n height, xxy counsel, Hfjteji strength, 
 tft3 sealing-ring, u&to roll, tow goodness, wat? dross, rn.!? ordi- 
 
34. REMARKS ON THE PARADIGMS OF THE NOUNS. 97 
 
 nance, WB nurse, \ff\ myriad. Formative syllables and suffixes 
 are appended to such nouns without change. 
 
 Nouns of the form Kbap (^b^p) exhibit in some editions a varia- 
 ble punctuation, inasmuch as - , when the last radical closes the syl- 
 lable, is sometimes retained, sometimes shortened into - ; e. g. KrTOt 
 Num. 22: 18. Judg. 15: 2 (on the contrary KrYTgt Gen. 29: 16), nnbs'i 
 Josh. 9: 1. 1 Kings 10: 27, fiprqn Esth. 2: 17. The word aba? has in 
 the Lond. text a double inflection : a) ttrbns Jer. 36: 30. 1 Kings 
 13:24, nrjbaa Lev. 11:39, ^rbna Deut 28: 26. 1 Kings 13: 22, fR*^ 
 Lev. 12: 11 . 24: 36, hfcya Lev. 5: 2. Jer. 16: 18. W*3J Lev. 11:40, fSTttj^Sf 
 Isa.26: 19. Deut. 14: 8, even Prnbn? Josh. 8: 29;' b) W$3J 1 Kings 13: 
 29. Jer. 7:33, nrbns Deut.21:22, ftvtf&f Lev. ll:28 T (theHebr.ntaa 
 appears likewise with - purum and impart/ m, irtM, Btjbai , on 
 the contrary, ^rbn? Isa. 26: 1!)) ; Mtyto , also, in the Lond. text, regularly 
 shortens its - , e. g. wroiw Gen. 24: 43. Isa. 7: 14. Pro v. 30: 19, Kfirroiw 
 Exod. 2: 5 (Jahn has Kh^fcVto). 
 
 B. To this Paradigm belong all those feminines, the final syl- 
 lable of which begins with tivo consonants ; e. g. a) ttijo (a measure 
 of grain), KBb lip, WtMjn praise ; b) ^io^^ oroA^, taj purity \ 
 As prayer; c) N;bs? , RJ^pg . Since in the i$W. of nouns like 
 those under a, two vowelless consonants are brought together in 
 one syllable on the accession of the st. emplutt., and of the suffixes ; 
 e. g. Wjfito) arnnrn, a short vowel - or - (more rarely -) must 
 be inserted under the first of these consonants, e.g. arsb , area xrjttx , 
 xrra Ktyrra , Knrqirn , xrsn from orj ; but if this consonant be a 
 (in nouns which terminate in rix T ), the vowel - is assumed, and 
 K quiesces in it ; e. g. fiifD , WJRtJ , nxs , anas . The forms under 
 b are inflected regularly in the Sing. ; but in the Plur. the same 
 necessity arises, and the supplied vowel is also here - or - , e.g. 
 tel PL "^t constr. rvot Deut 33: 21. Ps. 84: 10. 
 
 The form xnbb^ from xb!?2 is peculiar. Nouns like it&jo form 
 their Plur. (and Dual) with quiescent X, as "jnKG (V?r.*<0) or (as if 
 from siKO) "jJNO comp. Ezra 6: 17. Gen. 18: 6. 2 Kings 7: 1. 
 
 The forms under c are feminines in KJ (derivatives from xb), as 
 a;b; (pp.xAj), Kjiim, *$?$ In the stat. emphat. Sing, and before 
 suffixes of the Sing. y they receive a furtive vowel, as in the instance 
 just remarked and for the same reason. This vowel is the homoge- 
 neous - , so that i quiesces in it 
 13 
 
98 35. ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 
 
 C. Here belong feminines in fix T , which are derived from mas- 
 culines in i- (No. VIII). In the stat. emphat. Sing, and Plur., and 
 before suffixes, the X is changed into i mobile, yet perhaps oftener 
 into i-: or *-; e. g. ItfBftt'V, [Krimg , n^M Lev. 19: 24. 25: 21, 
 22. Dent 15: 9 (on the contrary t6$fitS Dan. 7: 19). In the Plur. 
 absol and constr., the form 1'7g , ma^E is the usual one, yet there 
 is also found f*VW Gen. 31: 15. 
 
 't t : 
 
 Rem. 1. An affinity exists here, as in Hebrew, between the several 
 declensions of feminine nouns, and their forms are sometimes inter- 
 mixed with each other; e. g. tfbs PL )$9 (as if from *&), Kfito PZ. 
 *to ; rrttfjfc has in the PL fffi* Exod. 28: 10, but also Sjfttffc Lam. 
 4: 1. Nouns in n-- are not numerous in Chaldee, and are inflected 
 as in Hebrew, e. g. rraa stat. emphat. KlrnaK . 
 
 Rem. 2. When a feminine is to be formed from a masculine noun (ad- 
 jective or substantive) by adding the terminations K- or 1 and \ (motio 
 nominis), the vowels which are affected by this removal of the tone, 
 are treated after the manner of the above Masc. Paradigms in the stat . 
 emphat. Sing., e. g. N^ihsfrom t&W, HOtnfn from fc^3h according to No. 
 I. ; fcHax from ^X according to No. II. ; fcijfib and finite from ^ia 
 according to No. III. ; a;*]!* from v^ , a;^ from *KJ ( Jer. 46: 20) 
 according to No. VII. 
 
 35. 
 Anomalous and Defectiv e Nouns. 
 
 Some nouns, precisely those as a class which were in most 
 common use, deviate more or less in their inflection from the pre- 
 ceding Paradigms ; inasmuch as two different ground-forms may 
 be united in one word, or, the same ground-form being retained 
 for all relations, it may not subject itself perfectly to the general 
 laws which regulate the declension of nouns. We give the fol- 
 lowing alphabetical catalogue of such words. 
 
 2tift, father, St. emph. xzx , before Suffi.mt, e.g. ?|fal$, KWfe^, 
 WQI* ("ns&J, 'flttj Gen. 22: 7. 34: 6. Jon.), K|*fc, $**&, f*TOa, 
 on the contrary, ^na (Dan. 5: 13), P/^r. Irian, co/w^r. nriaa, ew2?A. 
 anriaa , with Sw^nrjna my fathers (also ^nrna Gen. 47: 30), TjnrjaK , 
 KMjnasj , V^nrinx Exod. 3: 13, on the contrary, }Hrtnrj}j* Exod. 4: 5. 
 
35. ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 99 
 
 n% brother, St.emph.xnx, with Suff. *nK,^mt, WW* (^HK 
 Gen. 4: 8. T. H.), )*&*%] -P^. TWi with ^#T!N, T^ % 
 brothers, yp^ , 
 
 02* mother, St. eniph. H53K , JPZ. yj^K , with jS?^ ^hlH^natt Jer. 
 16: 3. but also fWWIt Lam. 4: 3. 
 
 aaa maid-servant, St. emph. anaa , with Suff. ^rraa Gen. 21: 
 12, Tpnw Job 31: 13; PI. ta ,rraa, with Suff, ttrrpq% Gen. 12: 16. 
 20: 17. 
 
 ax (contracted raa) man, St. emph. KttfoK; PZ.*praN, contracted 
 fth Ps. 62: 10, cow^r. *ttK. 
 
 ioa physician, St. emph. k;ds ; PZ. yoa , pA. anjDX Gen. 50: 2. 
 
 *nn lion, St. emph. W*fi; PI *?*! *wpA> P^TJ Jud S- 14: 5 - 
 2 Kings 17: 25. 
 
 annx (nnnaa Job 25: 4) in pause sin Gen. 12: 19. Exod. 6: 20 
 (nins) woman, St. constr. nna, with Suff. w, ^nnj<; P/. ^tt?3, 
 emph.vwn, constr.^. 
 
 n?a fowse, S*. emph. &rm (arv^a), *. cwwir. rvo (rn Exod. 7: 28. 
 Jon.); PI. ptna, fifc. eTwp/i. a;na, <Sfc. co?w^. naa, with Suff WJ3, 
 aana, yo^na. 
 
 in so7i, St. emph. ara, with Suff Tftn, wn; PZ. foa (from "ja), 
 St. emph. aoan , constr. ^an , with Suff. wan , pman etc. With this 
 exists also a Syriac form with xprosthet. xaax Pro v. 23: 27. 
 
 na daughter, St. emph. arna , constr. rnn ( Syr. Z^), with Suf. 
 Tjrna, Pttf#\ PI "^ (from aaa), *. ewz^/a. anan, with Sw^aanaa, 
 yiainan . 
 
 15 the middle, St. constr. ia (aha), with Sw/: Wi, fljj). 
 
 on father-in-law, with <S^ man , 5JWQ . 
 
 4o foy, St. emph. &rt ; PZ. ^Vj , p*tt , erap&. Kjbtt (^ba Prov. 
 1: 4) with &# *V$g Gen. 22: 3. Jon. 
 
 *j foi?wZ, Sfc. emph. &H? , with K prosthet. H^K , with &^ WJJ , tj'jj , 
 wr?; but }V?jg, V 13 ^ Isa - 1: 15 - Ezra 5: 8 J -^ TT (with <S^ 
 WJJH Prov. 21: 1). 
 
 aoaa prophet, St. emph. a;na; PI. pftftty , comfr*. ^aa 1 Kings 18: 
 19, ewp/i. KJNpaa, with Suff. Tjjaa, w*aa 1 Kings 22: 22 sq. 
 
 os people, PL "jiaas (as in Syr.), ewap^. xjaas. 
 
100 36. ADJECTIVES AND NUMERALS. 
 
 ***( fruit, Pl^T* Gen. 1: 11 or tins, but with Suf.^t Prov. 
 8:19. 
 
 ^p city, #. emph. x;*ip Prov. 8: 3, WYjg Gen. 49: 11. KTfJI? Ezra 
 4: 15, KVip, K+flfc (in T. H.), (with Suf. )i^p_ Gen. 34: 20), 
 PI. ^rip (with S&i&rfc, V^^P Isa. 1: 27. Josh. 9: 17), & 
 absol. &wip Jer. 36: 6, also "pTrtp, l^p, & era^. Xft^p . 
 
 tt$*3 tod, *. emph. xw ; P/. ^(jij , once after the Hebr. forma- 
 tion diiT^an Ezra 5: 10. 
 
 T 
 
 dttJ, Mtt* name, St. emph. KM, with Suff. y\mw Ps. 16: 4; PI. 
 jiittp, constr. nrratt, with <Sz# finwwJi Gen. 2: 20. 25: 16. 
 
 36. 
 Adjectives and Numerals. 
 
 1. Adjectives are treated in their inflection, not as a distinct 
 class of words, but according to their form ; and hence, as there 
 is no adjective form which does not belong also to substantives, 
 it follows that their mode of declension has been already illus- 
 trated in the table of the nouns. But though the characteristics 
 of adjectives are the same as those of substantives, the reverse 
 is not true, that there are no substantive forms which are not 
 found at the same time among adjectives. The most frequent 
 forms of the latter are: &gg, Wftj, i*tg, less common bap, bwp; 
 many also, which are formed from other nouns, end in *- and 1- . 
 
 The Chaldee, like the Hebrew, has no separate forms for compari- 
 son ; the manner in which the degrees of comparison are expressed by 
 the use of other words and circumlocution, is explained in 58. of the 
 Syntax. 
 
 2. The Numerals are divided into cardinal and ordinal ; for the 
 distributive and multiplicative numbers are denoted by circum- 
 locution ($ 59). The Cardinals have the same peculiarity as in 
 Hebrew, viz. that from 3 to 10 the feminines have a masculine 
 ending, while the masculines have a feminine ending. From 20 
 to 100 inclusive, only one form is constantly employed for both 
 genders. The cardinal numerals from 1 to 10 are, in both gen- 
 ders and states, as follows. 
 
36. ADJECTIVES AND NUMERALS. 
 
 101 
 
 St. constr. 
 
 St. absol 
 
 r 
 Fern. 
 
 \ 
 
 Masc. 
 
 1. nin 
 
 H3 
 
 2. imn 
 
 yfj 
 
 3. ^nbn 
 
 nnbn 
 
 5. 
 
 inran 
 
 w^jn 
 
 6. 
 
 *rrogj 
 
 nn'j 
 
 7. 
 
 wsia 
 
 - : 
 
 8. 
 
 "cjys*? 
 
 WJ5*} 
 
 9. 
 
 wwn 
 
 nsu3n 
 
 10. 
 
 wo? 
 
 rv-tos 
 
 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 *jri 
 
 *I 
 
 W?5 
 
 p^J 
 
 r&n 
 
 t t : 
 
 *%y& 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 (**??tt) 
 
 tn/n 
 
 M$Bti 
 
 5) n*ttj 
 
 KW 
 
 4. ^jjwk rwiH (nsnna) 
 
 (Gen. 3: 14. Jon. ad j 
 
 no? &ne>s (l*J*f*) 
 With "^n , suffixes are frequently connected ; and this numeral as- 
 sumes then the form *jf) , e. g. ftl^jfl in they both Gen. 2: 52, liy^plj ye 
 both Gen. 27: 45. Gen. 4: 8. 'ir'nn u?e both. In the case of other nu- 
 
 't : - 
 
 merals, this takes place more rarely, e. g. Ezek. 1: 8 'prinrn'nK . 
 
 The tens from 30 90 are denoted, as in Hebr., by the plurals 
 of the cardinals 3 9, e.g. "prbn 30, f&fy* 40, p tt ja r] 50, *pni 60, 
 T^fi 70, "psr, paoij 80 (":-:r i. e. "prcn Exod. 7:7. Num. 4: 48 or 
 lyoQ Josh. 14: 10. 1 Sam. 22: 18. Jer. 41: 5 etc.), J^Ti 90. The 
 number 20 is expressed by the plural of the number 10, namely 
 
 r?Ri r?w ( Gen - 18: 31 - Num - 3: 30 - Dan - 6: *) An these piu - 
 
 rals are Gen. comm. 
 
 The expression for 100 is n$) , for 200 pQtta or , j$rg , for 300 
 hWj rt^j , for 400 h&tt snnx , for 800 h^j ^n etc. (i. e. with units 
 prefixed in the masculine form). The expression for 1000 is t)b 
 masc, for 2000 y*tbx flhij , for 3000 "psbx xnbn etc. (i. e. with units 
 prefixed in the feminine form) ; for 10,000 S%1 fem., for 120,000 
 XPP 7f(i *KT$ ( Jon - 4: 11) comp. Ezek. 48: 35. 
 
 The intermediate numbers 11 19 are formed by a union of the 
 units with *&$ Masc. and vffi Fern., in reference to which, how- 
 ever, it is to be remarked : 1) That the units do not all retain in 
 this connection their appropriate form ; 2) That in the later Tar- 
 
102 
 
 36. ADJECTIVES AND NUMERALS. 
 
 gums (especially of Pseudo-Jon. and T. H.) the units with "ipS 
 (&OD3?) and nw are sometimes contracted into one word. The 
 following table exhibits a complete view of both these combi- 
 nations. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 11. *nm tfjn OtW?) 
 
 12. nw w^Wi win (^wa) 
 
 13. +m tbr\ 
 
 14. ^ps swa 
 
 15. *)D? ttafj 
 
 16. !*5b? or miti (^pn^) 
 
 17. **3 saw f*!$9Q) 
 
 18. *J^( iran or ^sn (^trvran) 
 
 (^P^n) 
 
 19. ^02 sot 
 
 "to? ^ 
 
 -iw rtn or atnin) \ " " : } 
 - _: T: tt :/ ( ibirAn J 
 
 1; 
 
 *lp$ KftttJ 
 
 -105 Ns:nii3 
 
 ( won ) 
 
 ( 8*>iEn ) 
 
 (np^n) 
 
 CVS?) 
 
 win 
 
 wnin 
 
 ( "fljj^ji ) 
 
 C"ip^n) 
 (*Q*nftt) 
 
 (winan) 
 
 nps asran (*ip 
 
 The unit stands sometimes in the slat, constr., e. g. Lev. 23: 6 
 M*tyS0 KV-qn : Num. 28: 17 tfTW ntten ; Exod. 12: 6 *np? r&flK . 
 
 The intermediate numbers 21 29, 31 39 etc. are denoted by 
 a union of the tens T*1W , *pr&n with the units, in which case the 
 latter stand last and are connected with the tens by 1 , e. g. 
 21 "in? TT?? Mwc and srtrn "p-ip? .Fern. ; 28 K^BM "pro* Masc. and 
 GCT}} j^wFem.] 35 Mwc. ItafcBIJ ftkn Num. 1:37. Comp. Gen. 
 12: 11. 5: 15. Num. 2: 11. 3: 46. Exod. 38: 28. Jer. 52: 28. For 
 examples of the greater numbers, compounded of tens and units 
 (as 365, 3023, 45650), see Gen. 5: 23. Jer. 52: 28. Num. 1: 25. 
 Exod. 38: 28 etc. 
 
 3. The ordinals 310 (comp. 1 Chron. 24: 7sq. 27: 4 sq.) are 
 formed from the above cardinals by adding to them the termina- 
 tion ** (^-) Masc. and hK- (w-) emphat. an or Kn* T (iVn*-)Fem. ; 
 but for primus and secundus, a special word is employed, namely 
 for the former *a*Tg , for the latter tjn (derived most directly from 
 ^5t3). Yet the cardinals stand also in certain cases for the ordi- 
 nals ; see $ 59. 3. 
 
36. ADJECTIVES AND NUMERALS. 
 
 103 
 
 
 Fern, 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 absol. 
 
 emphat. 
 
 absol. 
 (inin Dan. 5: 7) 
 
 emphat. 
 (nbnEzra T 6:4) 
 
 4. 
 
 *3r?? 
 
 
 - : 
 
 rc$pj 
 
 (W9 1 ?) 
 
 5. 
 
 riN^an 
 
 an^^n 
 
 ybvn 
 
 
 t t -: 
 
 6. 
 
 
 
 KjWn|J 
 
 (inta Gen. 30:19) *&&$ 
 
 
 narnruo 
 
 t t : 
 
 7. 
 
 
 
 
 -y^v 
 
 
 t t : 
 
 8. 
 
 
 
 anpan 
 
 *pVQ 
 
 
 rtjg^tj 
 
 9. 
 
 
 
 Krosntan 
 
 t : 
 
 V&n 
 
 
 t t : 
 
 10. 
 
 
 
 Krww 
 
 *yaa 
 
 
 n&nw 
 
 The ordinals from 20 and onward are expressed as in Hebrew, 
 by the corresponding cardinals ; comp. Num. 7: 72. Jer. 39: 2. 
 Esth. 9: 17. 1 Kings 16: 23 and elsewhere. 
 
 But the intermediate numbers 11 19 etc. may be formed by 
 uniting the ordinal 10 with the cardinal units, in which case the 
 latter stand first, and T^ fl j being contracted, coalesces with them 
 so as to make one word ; e. g. wf yf^ eleventh, Num. 25: 8. Jon., 
 qy y (wtrnn) twelfth, thirteenth Mantrtn 1 Chron. 24: 13, Fern. 
 rvnt&n or rvnpibn Gen. 2: 21. Jon., fourteenth njjciorni* , fif- 
 teenOir^r^n, sixteenth rarjO*^, seventeenth n&oipaia, eighteenth 
 nsotnatth t nineteenth nsot^jr ( 1 Chron. 24: 14 sq.). Yet in desig- 
 nations of time (the eleventh year, month, etc.) the compound 
 cardinals above enumerated are usually selected ; comp. 59, 3. 
 
 On the mode of expressing distributives and numeral adverbs, see 
 Syntax 59. 4, 5. 
 
104 37. ADVERBS. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Particles. 
 
 The Chaldee particles divide themselves into two classes, one 
 of which embraces those that were originally employed for this 
 purpose ; the other, those that were transferred to this use from 
 other parts of speech in the progress of the language. The latter 
 compose by far the greater number, inasmuch as the relations 
 which are expressed by particles, were viewed by the orientals, 
 for the most part, not abstractly, but with concrete vividness (i. e. 
 as substantive and verbal ideas). The former, again, are of two 
 kinds, either primitive and, therefore, their own stems, e. g.l , Kb , 
 *}, ^K, or derived from a stem-word (without, however, so far as 
 we can trace the language, having ever performed any other of- 
 fice than that of particles), e. g. i?, yn, tnp. 
 
 37. 
 Adverbs. 
 
 1. The following may be considered as primitive : )# where ? 
 *tya when ? ab not, g]K also. 
 
 2. Derivative (from nouns) with a characteristic ending are: 
 txF by day, BOW to-day, aofBOK anxiously, rpanrn&E in haste, rvisrjn 
 again. 
 
 3. Transferred adverbs (i. e. from other parts of speech which 
 still exist as such) are : a) Verbal forms (Infinitives or Partici- 
 ples), e. g. n*in again (revertendo), S^Btt backwards, b) Pronouns 
 and nouns, sometimes with prepositions, e. g. fhfi so, aorft much, 
 very, &OH2 at the same time, (comp. at one, together), "iyo im- 
 mediately, (off hand) ; sometimes without addition or change, 
 as *i5 (firm) certain, right, tfaujp rightly, bbs entirely, ^T\m now 
 (xnanan this hour). 
 
 Expressions like tppra violently, -nanpn shortly, ?^M every mo- 
 
38. PREPOSITIONS. 105 
 
 merit, KBttjIfja sincerely, or even tttop fd (ej aXrj&Biag), K'nptab in 
 vain (1 Sam. 25: 21) do not, according to oriental feeling, present 
 merely a single idea, but the substantive and the preposition retain 
 still their separate force, as in our language, in truth, with violence, etc. 
 This can be denominated only a periphrasis of the adverb ; and in 
 this manner its place may be supplied by forms of the verb. The 
 consideration of this usage belongs to the Syntax, comp. 52. 
 
 Compound adverbs are : T^P* 1 * how ? 'TWSt ccquando ? JX2tt 
 hence (from }v and SO), K3W2 whence ? DHtt thence. The Adv. rPK 
 and the compound rnb (from ab and fi^K) express, united with 
 pronouns, the verb to be, not to be, see above, 8. Rem. 2. 
 
 In reference to the interrogative adverbs, it is to be remarked, 
 that the simple question is indicated by the prefix rr (but before a 
 vowelless consonant and before k, n), e. g. rVH, b"jp^ri, -inbh 
 Gen. 17: 17. Dan. 3: 24. Jer. 26: 19. Exod. 3: 7. Jon. (V^n). 
 When pronouns or adverbs are to receive an interrogative signifi- 
 cation, ^a is prefixed to them, e. g. ijp "^ wlience ? ^x six who ? 
 'P'is ^K fow; ? Before interrogative adverbs, *<x possesses merely 
 an intensive force, e. g. ^rs ^K when then ? 
 
 39. 
 
 Prepositions. 
 
 1. Original prepositions are, a) the inseparabUes a , a , b , which 
 are always united with a noun or a pronoun. They are pointed 
 with - before a consonant which has a vowel, but in other cases 
 with - , or before Skeva compos, with the short vowel which cor- 
 responds to such Sheva ; e. g. iB&n , isaao , lasb . In the latter 
 case, contraction sometimes takes place, e. g. nriban Dan. 6: 24. 
 janbab Dan. 5: 23 (on the contrary, fibxb Ezra 6: 9). See above 
 $ 24. 5) The monosyllabic separabiles b? , "pa , DS , njb , rraD , rvo . 
 As trans/erred prepositions occur : spin instead of, n'lnn under, 
 "inn q/ter (i. e. "lrxn m the place), abn without. 
 
 2 is sometimes written as an independent word h D Cant. 1: 9, 13, 
 from which, however, it could not be inferred, that this preposition is 
 a contraction from rYO or 'pa . Single prefixed letters could be em- 
 14 
 
106 39. CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 ployed for such simple relations as n , 3 etc. express, as well as for the 
 cases of nouns ; besides, it is with violence only, that 3 can be referred 
 to a separate word ; while |i is entirely opposed to such an artificial 
 view). 
 
 2. Of prepositions that were originally nouns, or, though derived 
 from verbs, assume the forms of nouns, some appear before suf- 
 fixes : a) as feminine forms, e. g. *T&tKMMg , aorfctoa Job 3: 23. 
 Ps. 115: 1 (but before yin and yo, Jir&ttMj Ps. 106: 26. 58: 8); 
 
 b) others as plurals, 1) always: i$, e. g. ^bsj Dan. 3: 12, 
 Vfty 1 Kings 13: 3, ftf^ Exod. 6: 9, fi:rt| Ezra 5: 1 ; dfj(j , e. g. 
 Wg Dan. 2: 9, Jiynjftg Josh. 9: 24, JOTWg Jer. 36: 15, ^TCfJlJ Dan. 
 7: 13 ; ^in&tfa, e. g. N7T#fl|5 2 Sam. 10: 9, Wtjio^a Ezek. 2: 10 ; 
 
 2) frequently: "pn, e.g. wra, Wrq (*yq for ;<yq inter 
 me Gen. 31: 44. Jon. 1 Sam. 24: 16) ; ^nn, e. g. ^rq, ^nrnn 
 Gen. 24: 5. 17: 19; 35 (h|j) ( e. g. *nfi and ^ Job 19: 4. 10: 
 17, t)^n, e. g. infcsiin and KhMta Judg. 15: 2. Job 28: 15, &|6n 
 and vns^n 1 Kings 21: 2. 2: 35; rnnn, e. g. irtmn and srvirn 
 2 Sam. 22:37. Gen. 2:21. 
 
 The Prepos. )"n either stands as a separate word (KriS'TO ya), or is 
 pronounced in immediate connection with the nouns which it accom- 
 panies. Before such words as begin with an ordinary consonant, 3 is 
 assimilated to the following letter ; e. g. hgS , y*na ; before gutturals 
 it is pronounced a , as in Hebrew, e. g. K3H&W , ttJarra . Before suf- 
 fixes, this preposition is constantly pointed 2a , e. g. MB , I'lSSE ? V" 1 * 1 ^? 
 
 Compound prepositions are ^3jpb , E^p^ , ta*j]D ^ ("O&fea), ba , the 
 latter before infinitives (Isa. 1: 6 KtBK3&&B , 1 Sam. 1: 6 iapaba), "pin 
 and i^tj on account of, ^A , isa , "An^W , and the like. 
 
 39. 
 Conjunctions and Inter j ections . 
 
 1. Original conjunctions are: J ara2, 3 as, when, "jr\ if, 13 since, 
 ia or ; derivative are : d"nn to, yib therefore, ^"}that; compound: 
 tib *l or, Kab*? in order not, *i T2 until that, I t]bn and 1 WtJ ow 
 &is account, y^ i? , fc^ b2 because that, "i yi*>3 o/ter, inasmuch. 
 
 2. The conjunctiones inseparabiles, 3 and 1 , are prefixed accord- 
 
39. CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. 107 
 
 ing to the same laws, as the praepositiones inseparabUes ($ 38. 1) ; 
 but i takes the vowel sound *i (as in Hebr.) before a consonant 
 with simple Sheva and before t), , 9 (Dan. 4: 12. 7: 22). 
 
 3. The interjections are for the most part onomatopoitica^ e. g. 
 an behold! *d , wb would that (utinam) ! ">i wo / aZas / (wze). On 
 the other hand, derived from other parts of speech, are : waa (i. e. 
 rvisns on request) quaeso, Vinri aZas / (comp. jMrii /), laijj co7?ie on, 
 (agite, imp. from ait). 
 
 With an tefcoW, the personal pronoun of the first Pers. sing, is some- 
 times united into one word KJKri behold I (heie am I) Gen. 22: 11. Jon. 
 (Onk. K3K MR) ; on the contrary, the other pronouns, even in the later 
 Targums, are used with it separately, e. g. Gen. 20: 3 FiJK Krj , 47: 
 1 yOM% xri , Josh. 9: 25 KjnjJK an . Comp. further the contraction 
 Deut. 1: 10 ftSHfUpy ecce vos estis. 
 
PART III. 
 SYNTAX 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 The Pronoun. 
 
 40. 
 
 Use of the Personal and Possessive Pronoun. 
 
 1. The separate personal pronouns, when they form the subject 
 of a sentence, include the substantive verb, e. g. 1 Sam. 9: 21 
 *:* f i g ffi DM "in a son of the tribe of Benjamin {am) I, Gen. 42: 
 14. Jon. p&ft ibia spies (are) ye Gen. 34: 23. Jon. pWji Kji'n 
 Kbn fiimwn-ia (are) they not ours? Num. 14:40 pplbs KJTOK we 
 are going up (we go up), Gen. 6: 2. Jon. "JWi "j^Bis (for fi) Cfoy 
 axe fair. So also "jiSK rra signifies wfotf are if^ey ? Ezra 5: 4. Zach. 
 1: 9. 1 Sam. 25: 10. The pronouns of the third Pers., where the 
 subject of the sentence is the first or second Pers., sometimes sup- 
 ply the place of the copula, e.g. Ezra 5: 11 R^fijt *i wnn? 1*1 wnsa; 
 we are servants, etc. Dan. 2: 38, BKjm *i Wj&n K*h fil-ipx ^o?/ art &e 
 Aeac?, etc. 
 
 2. Separate pronouns as well as suffixes are often used incor- 
 rectly in respect to gender, e. g. Ruth 1: 8, 9 , ) s Dfi? (said of the 
 daughters-in-law of Naomi), or are constructed according to the 
 sense, e. g. Jon. 1: 3 yifiBS which refers to the seamen, the idea 
 being already implied in xabx . The plural forms also (in many 
 editions) are frequently employed instead of the Sing., from which 
 they distinguish themselves for the most part only by the scriptio 
 plena, e. g. "prr^*? Ps. 149: 2 instead of ffcfyq , WC^^9 Num. 
 24:7. Exod. 31:4. Jon. 
 
40. PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 109 
 
 There is no enallage of number Gen. 3: 18. Jon. and T. H. rW^a 
 3&3 n*p . The suffix my (not our) is selected with reference to the fact, 
 that labor belongs more immediately to the man as head and sup- 
 porter of the family. 
 
 3. The suffixes are often used pleonastically (though not so fre- 
 quently, as in Syriac, comp. Hoffmann, p. 316), namely, in the 
 following three cases : a) In connection with a noun which go- 
 verns a Genitive, e. g. Gen. 7: 10. Jon. ntorra^ fibaw, Gen. 19: 
 38. Onk. "pa? ^a *i "pmaK , Dan. 3 : 8. W + WV *i I 'fr Hy yg , 3: 9. 
 na^a 1 ? ^ SjJJ , 3: 25. K|pwi Wijl , Dan. 2: 20. 3: 26. Prov. 16: 
 13. 12: 3. 13: 24. Jer. 23: 26. Jon. 2: 4. Gen. 3: 15. Jon. (comp. in 
 English the rich their pride, etc.) ; b) In connection with a pre- 
 position which follows immediately with the noun itself, e. g. Ezra 
 4: 11. mj^rj^JH b? *t$&i.t Dan. 5: 12. bawa fin . c) Less fre- 
 quently in dependence on a verb, where the object-noun likewise 
 follows (Hos. 13: 1. Kjrasb I'mb Tp Knw .) 
 
 4. The repetition of the pronoun in cases like *h S)X ip^S Gen. 
 27: 34, is not an instance of pleonasm. For this is more empha- 
 tically expressed, than simply to have said '^a , comp. further 
 Gen. 20: 5. A similar emphasis is intended, where the separate 
 pronoun is repeated after the suffix, Ezra 7: 21. nnownrrix ksk ^a 
 wa d^b Dan. 7: 15. The latter idiom occurs when a substantive 
 precedes, e. g. Gen. 4: 26. Jon. *TWjK Mfi t]K nufc . 
 
 5. The suffix of the noun denotes often the object, as ttnbrn 
 his fear, i. e. fear on account of him, Exod. 20: 20, nnjK its (the 
 ship's) hire, i. e. the money to be paid for the ship, for convey- 
 ance in it ; the verbal suffix expresses commonly the Accusa- . 
 tive. To this, however, there are some exceptions, e. g. Dan. 5 : 
 6 tplOj VffPi his form was changed in him (v. 9, 'tttV*). 
 
 6. The possessive pronouns my, thine, etc. are expressed in 
 Chaldee not only by means of the noun-suffixes ($ 8, 3), but by 
 separate forms, derived from b*} and the suffixes of the verb, as 
 ^7 my, nb^ his, vb"i our, etc., see $ 8, 3. Rem. 1. It is to be re- 
 marked further as a peculiarity here, that instead of my father, it 
 is customary to say merely the father (as often at present in Ger- 
 man, and in the older English), e. g. Gen. 31: 42 K||*i Kr* the 
 
110 41. USE OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 
 
 God of the (my) father, 19: 34. 20: 12. 27: 12. Ex. 18: 4. Judges 
 6: 15 etc. So also in the Vocativeya^er, not my father, Gen. 22: 
 7. 27: 34. 
 
 7. Two words, standing in the relation of Genitive to each 
 other, are regarded as one idea ; hence the suffix attaches itself 
 to the second, e. g. Lev. 26: 38 f&*fi 'isn your foes, Is. 56: 7 
 tfjftlf rflj ray fo>24se of prayer, Joel 2: 28. ^OTp hTl my holy mount. 
 
 41. 
 Use of the Relative Pronoun. 
 
 1. The form of the relative pronoun *i or *j expresses directly 
 of itself only the Nominative or Accusative, (e. g. Exod. 32: 34. 
 Num. 20: 12. Gen. 3: 9. Jon. Joel 3: 2) ; yet the latter is also de- 
 signated, especially where an ambiguity is to be avoided, by add- 
 ing the personal suffix to the verb, e. g. Ps. 1: 4 WMbJNtfh *1 quern 
 dispellit. The Dative cui appears in its simplest form in iA*i 
 Deut. 4: 8 ; yet the Dative and Genitive of the relative are usu- 
 ally expressed by means of the personal pronoun, placed after ^ 
 or *i , which serves then merely to give a relative signification to 
 the pronoun, e. g. Deut. 28: 49. HraW WttHj &6 *1 8B2> whose lan- 
 guage thou wilt not understand, Ps. 144: 8. Ifetttt "plto** *} whose 
 mouth speaketh, Deut. 8: 8. Here *1 , 1 is manifestly a mere sign 
 of relation, precisely as when it occurs in connection with prepo- 
 sitions which are prefixed to a pronoun, and which may be joined 
 immediately to the relative ; as, Obad. 8 m*t in which, or, which 
 is more common, may follow at a distance in the sentence, Exod. 
 6: 4 rnn *annrttjrt sna land in which, Isa. 43: 7 ^n&H )*$*&% 
 from which, 1 Kings 18: 15 ^JT^jg WOTttta **} before whom I serve, 
 Deut. 1: 22 W^i bttfc **} KJ*}J? cities to which we, etc., Jer. 1: 2 
 rfla? nxiina wna ajm with whom, etc. In the last case, however, 
 the personal pronoun with its preposition is sometimes wanting, 
 especially when the preposition has occurred already in connec- 
 tion with the antecedent to which the relative belongs. Gen. 3: 
 Syb^rn wara on the day on which, Gen. 35: 13. Jon. m? Mftfl 
 K^&O in the place in which {we), 1 Sam. 25: 15 sq. But, as de- 
 
41. USE OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. Ill 
 
 signations of place and time in general are expressed ($ 57. 1) 
 without a preposition, the relative stands in this case alone, e. g. 
 Joel 2: 25 xjsp? fatf* wn 1 ? Kjwj S)bn anna KJHj -,'iDb t&m * 
 stead of the years which (in which) they plundered you, etc. Exod. 5: 
 11. 
 
 2. When the relative is connected with adverbs, it gives them a 
 relative sense ; e. g. Gen. 13: 3 "pan atnfi'i where t also Exod. 20: 
 21 JfMTi , Gen. 3: 22 h ,Enp "WHJ 1 } unde (e terra) creatum est (v. 19 
 
 3. It is frequently necessary to supply the pronoun he, that, etc. 
 before the relative, especially when a preposition or a sign of the 
 case is connected with the relative, e. g. Mich. 2: 1 8hyj tp$ to do 
 /wtf wfo'cA w m/, Num. 22: 6 ^nn "*i n? (^e) w/wwra fc blessest, 
 Exod. 15: 7 TOgf* Ktran tJcose who Jiad lifted themselves up, Gen. 
 43: 16 *f&f*b ^i< to him who, Gen. 31: 1 aop K$*ft4& ispa /row 
 that which (belongs) to our father, etc., Gen. 4: 8. Jon. tfJ'TPS *paa 
 fo&er fcfam 2fowe who, etc. Gen. 43: 11. 1 Sam. 25: 8. So also in 
 designations of time and place, e. g. Num. 21: 19 ny fot ffi q qmot 
 he had been born, Gen. 3: 24. Jon. anjaw ngji *lfyt} W 
 
 4. The relative is sometimes omitted, when it would regularly 
 be repeated (though less frequently in Chaldee than among the 
 Hebrews), e. g. Isa. 43:7 "jwrvna Tff'V} "fa^S! ^ ^iW? "jtaWTJ* . . 
 e (^05) creavi (but Dan. 7: 27 does not belong under this rule as 
 Lengerke supposes ; it is to be translated his kingdom is an ever- 
 lasting kingdom. 
 
 Where in Hebrew ittJK is omitted after a stat. constr., e. g. Exod. 
 4: 13 fib^n *nn, the Targums are accustomed to place not only the 
 relative, but more fully *1 )*, e. g.)n TO hb^Tsb "i^J by the hand of 
 him who w expert, etc. Lam. 1: 14 'ftl i^J fr4*J "ja *J$ 
 
 5. The relative is employed, in not a few instances, with a sort 
 of redundancy, where it might be omitted ; e. g. t fetfT T q *i M^Q 
 ^e temple which is in Jerusalem Dan. 5: 2, i^M i 1 ! NnTO 2/*e c&a- 
 efeZ wfc/* w in Media Ezra 6: 3. 
 
112 42. DEMONSTRATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 
 
 * 42. 
 
 Use of the Demonstrative and Interrogative 
 Pronoun. 
 
 1. When the demonstrative occurs twice in succession, con- 
 nected by the copula 1 , it is to be translated this and that (similar 
 in Latin is hie et hie for hie et ilk), Dan. 4: 6. 7: 3. 
 
 2. The feminine of the demonstrative supplies sometimes the 
 place of the neuter, Joel 1:2X1 n^rtri - - an wq6 hear this whether 
 etc. 3: 9. 2 Chron. 25: 16. Nah. 19: 14 ; W% bb all this Gen. 41: 
 39. Jon. Therefore is commonly expressed by )^ )>$ , and thus 
 (secundum hoc) by ^ftjBf* 
 
 3. The interrogative pronoun is to be taken as Genitive, when 
 a noun in the form of the stat. constr. immediately precedes ; 
 e. g. Gen. 24: 23 Fix yq rtt the daughter of whom [art) thou ? 1 Sam. 
 12: 3 K^^B T? **!* f rom the hand of whom etc. 
 
 43. 
 
 Expression of the Pronominal Forms which 
 are iv anting in Chaldee. 
 
 1. The reflexive pronoun self selves, as already stated (} 10. 5), 
 is contained in the passive conjugations ; comp. Jon. 3: 6 Kisto %?rte 
 he covered himself with sackcloth, 2 Sam. 16: 6 *nfinp&ji take heed to 
 thyself Judg. 13: 4 ; but it is usually expressed by the suffix of 
 the third person, e. g. Gen. 22: 3 ^l^ctfW* )^r\ - r* *b*i tfTO he took 
 with himself, 1 Kings 18: 23 ary\r\ prft ^$! they may choose for 
 themselves (sibi), Esth. 6: 1 "httfjg Hxrw!? IE a he commanded to 
 bring before himself, Judges 20: 40 "piT^ra )**$% l7 ^fin.K 
 behind themselves, Exod. 5: 29. Sometimes terms are employed, 
 which describe the reflexive pronoun in a periphrastic way ; as, 
 Gen. 18: 12 KTOoa ITjto rfi?n laughed with herself This takes 
 place particularly when the pronoun which is made reflexive, is 
 the first and second person, e. g. Deut. 4: 9 ?]^Ba "H3 custodi ani- 
 
43. PRONOMINAL FORMS. 113 
 
 mam tuam (te) ; Jer. 37: 9 1WQ^J IfWp) vb ; Isa. 26: 9 i3m 
 nfcbsb anarra I desire, I long. Comp. Dan. 1: 15. 
 
 Those passages do not properly belong here, in which ^a^a is ap- 
 plied to God in a reciprocal sense ; as, Gen. 17: 2. Jon. "pn Wp inst 
 Hya rjpasi between me and thee, Gen. 9: 12. Onk. ~pn n?v> &OK *1 d;p HfiJ 
 JIS'VJ* , * v f tj S i Exod. 31: 13. Lev. 26: 46. On the expression 
 toord of God as equivalent to God, in the Targums, see Paulus, Com- 
 ment liber das N. T. IV. 1. p. 8 sq. Winer, Dissert, de Onkoloso p. 44 sq. 
 comp. also de Jonathanis paraphrasi Chald. Spec. 1. (Erlang. 1823. 4.) 
 p. 25 sq. 
 
 2. The pronoun he that, is regularly omitted before the relative 
 ($ 41. 3) ; sometimes it is denoted by "ja, e. g. Dan. 3: 6 *T"T? 
 is? vb he who does not fall down, 4: 14. Exod. 32: 33 art *j fl he 
 wJlo sins ; yet the latter corresponds more to the general, indefi- 
 nite expression og av, quisquis. 
 
 3. Every, each is expressed : a) When it stands substantively, 
 by * , e. g. Joel 2: 8. Exod. 15: 3. Isa. 53: 6. Jon. 3: 8. 1 Sam. 
 25: 13, or tt Judg. 9: 55, also repeated Exod. 36: 4, lajr-'ina 
 WJWlflHU ina they came every one (man by man) from his busi- 
 ness ; b) WTien used adjectively, by a repetition of the substan- 
 tive, e. g. Kas m* every nation, 2 Kings 17: 29. Esth. 1: 22, or by 
 bb . Quieunque, qiwdcunque is yq " bs , fia - ba Joel 2: 14. Gen. 
 3: 19. Jon. 
 
 4. Some one, any one, is iz53K Lev. 1: 2. 4: 2. 5: 1. Something, 
 anything, is expressed by K^jns (Hebr. ^n) "Gen. 18: 14 K&srw 
 aa jns *i a^g - "ja can anything be concealed from God ? So also ad- 
 jectively of a person, some one, any one, with a preceding stat. 
 constr. of a tww&. abstr. fiihfi rvra? Deut. 24: 1. In expressing 
 distribution, the idea somewhat, something, is contained in the parti- 
 tive preposition ft , e. g. Dan. 2: 33 bns *i yinaa iriftjn his feet 
 
 yrow them (was somewhat, a part) of iron. No one, where it stands 
 opposed to the idea of every, is denoted, as in Hebrew, by Vd - - vb 
 or ab--ib , e. g. Gen. 3:1 ^ Hw ffcpn xb , Exod. 12: 16 xTos-ba 
 iasri^ - BtV, Lev. 3: 17 y&y5 xb an^n-ba (the not eating is 
 intended to apply to every fat thing, i. e. no fat, no sort of fat shall 
 ye eat) ; but, besides, it is expressed as in Latin, by the simple &6 
 
 15 
 
 
 
114 44. USE OF THE TWO LEADING TENSES. 
 
 Gen. 15: 3 -fcj rarri vb -b to me thou hast given no child, Deut. 15: 
 3. Nothing, as substantive, is denoted by D^to - - tib , e. g. Gen. 
 39: 6 wto ms yn b, Deut. 8: 9 or lYra -&A Job 6: 6 : -in Kb 
 
 -T T .... T J T 
 
 signifies number {also, even) not one, 2 Sam.13: 30 nn )1rtin "lanm xb 
 no single one is left. 
 
 5. The one, the other, alter, alter is denoted ; a) By a repetition 
 of the Pron. demonstr. ; e. g. Isa. 6: 3 fiH TO fh yifffff one called 
 to the other, Dan. 5: 6 tttos tf-b an ttinn^a his knees smote one 
 
 ' ' t ' : t t : t t \ : - 
 
 against the other, or of the numeral nn Exod. 17: 12. 1 Sam. 14: 
 40 ; b) By *i$ with ha , e. g. Gen. 13: 11 Wirta h$a "i5|| ^anx 
 iAey separated one from the other, Deut. 1: 16, or "inri within, 
 e. g. Judg. 6: 29, the latter even of inanimate objects, Ezek. 37: 
 7 wn nn nib aa-tt RJSfJj W$! ^ fowes approached, one to the 
 other, Dan. 7: 20, also TO with Tnn Esth. 1: 17 frtfitygf 
 
 6. 2%e same, or fo# ver?/, is expressed ; a) By the Pronom. 
 person, or demonstr. with the Hebr. article, e. g. Lev. 20: 4 KUrfli K'jaa , 
 see above. 6) By the pronoun, placed before the substantive, 
 Dan. 3: 6, 15 Ktygg fin m the same moment (Gen. 22: 10. T. H. 
 KtjStth as), Dan. 3: 7, 8 awat m at the same time, for which, Cant 
 1: 13 KTOt K*^ ^5 . So frequently in Syriac, see Hoffmann, p. 330. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Syntax of the Verb. 
 
 44. 
 
 Use of the two leading Tenses. 
 
 1. The existing Tense-forms are employed in Chaldee with 
 far less variety of signification, than in Hebrew. The Praeter 
 denotes the past in all its relations, and is, therefore, also the 
 usual historical tense ; since the Chaldeans have no Vav conversive, 
 e. g. Gen. 9: 1 rib rn J? Tp? 5 ! , instead of the Hebr. tR5?3 . In 
 subordinate clauses, it is used as Pluperfect, e. g. Gen. 2: 2 Van 
 
44. USE OF THE TWO LEADING TENSES. 115 
 
 tjg; *} SW3?) quodfccerat, Jon. 1: 10; and in indirect or hypo- 
 thetical discourse, it is to be taken as this tense with its modifica- 
 tions in the Subjunctive ; e. g. Num. 14: 2 ajtVUtfJ i$ would that 
 we had died, Isa. 11: 9 aw^raa ff$P% "Sfi 1 !? that we had perished 
 as the inhabitants of Gomorrah, Judg. 14: 18 *W\aa ycr$$% V^Z&lti 
 iWjVi Jj&n&^itfjA ^b if ye had not searched it out, ye would not have 
 found it, Job 3: 13. Gen. 20: 16. 31: 27. Jon. Esth. 7: 4. 
 
 2. The Present is denoted by the form of the Praeter, especially 
 in verbs which express an existence or a condition, or an act which 
 is not limited to a definite time ; e. g. Ps. 10: 3 Ityvjft Wffi#$ 
 awsa anri to, 14: 2 kd ^n bs p*T& KJS^ J?; see further 
 $74. 
 
 The PracJ. propheticum is not used in Chaldee ; the Targums have 
 employed always the Future, e. g. Exod. 17: 4. Isa. 1: 31 5 and where 
 in Hebrew, the Praeter expresses the Imperative according to the de- 
 mands of the context, they choose regularly the Future, e. g. Gen. 6: 
 21. 27: 44. 33: 10. 
 
 3. The Future expresses usually and far more constantly than 
 in Hebrew the future time; but it is employed also to denote kin- 
 dred relations of tense and mode, namely ; a) The Optative, 
 e. g. 1 Kings 17: 21 jrawi area i?a nnnri oh that it might return, 
 Job 3: 3 Ntt'p ^airn pereat dies; b) The Imperative, some- 
 times after another Imperative, Gen. 27: 4. Esth. 6: 5, sometimes 
 and principally in warnings and prohibitions, Exod. 20 : 13 Kb 
 tti&a Viapn , 14 span Kb , Joel 2: 17 'jnn bK ne des, Jon. 3: 7. Gen. 
 46: 3 brnn Kb . Hence the command which the Imperative ex- 
 presses, occasionally connects itself with a prohibitory Future, 
 
 Ruth 1: 20 sjfc Jftg fj|j Qpgi Kb etc. c) The idea owg-fo, 
 
 should, can, may, e. g. Gen. 2:16 bto'Ti Zfow may est, canst eat, Gen. 
 3: 2 iwa KP.?} ]fef$ TT^ we way eat, Judg. 14: 16 ^rtK $?$%& Tfb 
 fow should I show it to thee ? Jon. 4:11 rws b trtHK Kb K5K should 
 I not spare Nineveh? 
 
 On the contrary, the Future wherever it denotes the past in He- 
 brew, is constantly exchanged in the Targums for the Praeter or Par- 
 ticiple, comp. Isa. 10: 12. 1 Kings 3: 16. Gen. 2: 6, etc. They have 
 also employed the Participle (in questions) for the Future in the sense 
 
116 45. EXPRESSION OF FINITE TENSES. 
 
 of the Present, Job 1: 7. Gen. 3: 15. Judg. 15: 9. Jon. 1: 8 [Does the 
 Praeter occur Josh. 9: 8 in the sense whence are ye come ?] 
 
 4. Further, within the scope of theFuture falls also the expression 
 of that which is hypothetical ; Job 10: 18 wherefore hast thou brought 
 me forth from the. womb? *^|3t>h vb KJW ITOhH \ I should have died 
 and no eye had, etc., as well as that which is merely intentional 
 or designed ; hence the Future stands regularly after the particles 
 that, in order that, e. g. Gen. 11: 7 )WB& && 1 ? that they may not 
 hear, Lev. 10: 7 jiWrttJi xxk*i that ye may not die, Ezek. 20: 26. 
 Dan. 2: 16, 23. So frequently after j that, e. g. Exod. 5: 1 hk^j 
 jWp} ^tTJ send away my people and they shall observe a feast, 
 i. e. that they may observe, Exod. 2: 7. Jon. Judg. 14: 15. Gen. 27: 
 4. Jon. 1: 11. 
 
 45. 
 Modes of expressing certain Finite Tenses. 
 
 1. In the later Targums, the Praeter of a verb stands sometimes 
 connected with the Praeter of the substantive verb in the same 
 person, particularly in subordinate (relative) clauses, and is then 
 to be taken as Pluperfect or Imperfect, e. g. Gen. 4: 1. Jon. 
 KS^ab n^^ gi yy r] njn -nj< yij who desired (had desired), Cant. 
 1: 12 ftt i frq pB? vm rian mig tt i had gone out, etc. 
 
 2. The Future is sometimes described by i*W (ready) prefixed 
 to an Infin. with b or a finite verb with *i , e. g. Nah. 1: 2 WSJ 
 S^SnaA J" Jehovah will punish, puniturus est, Gen. 3: 15. Jon. 
 "laid Jtfij ^fflj (also v. 20). Joel 1: 15. 2: 31. Gen. 21: 7 ttffQ 
 YF$ pAj'IfcPj f$J paritura estfilios, Dan. 3: 15 JWeljfcl *i TT*S! l^^tW 
 audituri estis. Similar to this is the construction of aoq, fol- 
 lowed by an Inf. with i , except only that by means of the in- 
 flection of this verb all the forms of the Latin Fut. may be peri- 
 phrastically expressed, e. g. Gen. 15: 12 h&A aisattJ PW ^e sww was 
 on the point of going down, i. e. would go down. In both constructions, 
 the Infin. act. is sometimes to be taken passively, e. g. Deut 31: 
 17 ton* yirrt they shall be consumed, Eccl. 11: 7 ^tf *nJ$A *nn* 
 HJp^'nS they shall be enlightened (they stand ready to be, etc.). 
 
46. USE OF THE IMPERATIVE AND INFINITIVE. 117 
 
 Both expressions are in a certain measure united, Deut 32: 29. Jon. 
 
 ^rrob W W fi* > where it could be written either ab YW rra or 
 
 46. 
 Use of the Imperative and Infinitive. 
 
 1. When two Imperatives are connected by 1 , the second in 
 animated or sententious discourse sometimes declares a conse- 
 quence of the first, and hence is essentially a Future, as in the 
 well known phrase " divide et impera," e. g. Isa. 45: 22 y^f^f iafinx 
 Ip'nfirw turn to me and be ye happy, for and ye shall be happy, 
 8: 9 (comp. Grammat N. T. 288). 
 
 2. The Infin. united with prepositions (especially a or a), must 
 often be resolved, particularly in historical discourse, into the finite 
 verb and a conjunction ; yet this construction occurs more rarely 
 than in Hebrew, and the writers of the Targums have generally 
 changed such Hebr. Infinitives into the finite verb with is as, 1 cjin 
 that, etc., according to the requirement of the context, e. g. Gen. 2:4. 
 12: 14. 39: 18. Exod. 16: 7. Deut 7: 8. Isa. 60: 15. Yet comp. Gen. 
 33: 18 D'ix yntfa irpmgj at his coming, i. e. as he came, 44: 30 "TWj 
 TjW rnb wfora I come to thy servant, Exod. 11: 1 B rjff flffi wforc 
 he shall release (here in Hebr. stands the finite verb) Isa. 29: 23, 
 Judg. 6: 18 ^rvtt 1? until I come, Joel 3: 19 HJflJ *aJ tparra orc 
 account of the oppression, because iJiey oppressed, and negatively 
 Gen. 27: 1 ^H qfe ^^ ^e could not see, Gen. 11:8 ^saba IC^WJIj te 
 /tey could not build, 38: 9. The Infin. has also sometimes, in such 
 cases, an object in the accusative, TpJ^ot , y l i ^fib^n Ps. 119: 7. Isa. 
 29: 23 fl}Q} Wtrran wfon fo beholds the glory. 
 
 3. When the iw/fo. depends on a preceding verb which ex- 
 presses design, command, or ability, or upon a noun, it is generally 
 to be connected with the same (and indeed oftener than in Hebr.) 
 by \ (to), e. g. Exod. 2: 15 bop^A awn fo sow^fa to kill, 1 Kings 3: 
 7 pfc^b rj; m rrt J cannot go out, etc., Gen. 41: 1. Jon. siBSpnx 
 ^iiab ^y conspired to throw, Dan. 3: 20 rinss!? -isa fo commanded 
 to bind, Gen. 29: 7 tttoari? Iff* b it is not time to collect, Esth. 6: 
 
118 47. USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 1. 2: 9. Yet this b is also omitted, especially when the Infin. de- 
 pends on nouns, e.g. Josh. 10: 27 xtin-ti ig*jg yj$. 
 
 When the Infin. with b follows ri^K , Kb or n*4 , fiE , it is to be 
 translated i is permitted, is not permitted, it may, may not, etc. Dan. 6: 
 9 hjjttjnb Kb **1 KSM a writing 'which may not be changed, Gen. 4: 
 8. T. H. SIJ *ttlj -jnob Kb, Jer. 7: 8. Eccl. 4: 1. comp. Ewald, 622. 
 
 4. The Infin. is often placed with its finite verb, in order to ren- 
 der the verbal idea in some way more intensive, e. g. Gen. 2: 17. 
 3: 4 tftxm FWtt moriendo morieris, thou shalt surely, inevitably die, 
 Gen. 26:11 baprvi Kb-jpriK Gen. 2: 16 bw^n b^a thoumayest 
 
 freely eat, Gen. 43: 3 Kjn t'HbM tf^fi&K he has earnestly, solemnly 
 declared, 1 Sam. 20: 6 baraJK KbKrutfK he earnestly asked, Gen. 43: 
 7 S'nEn jtrj; K^iii cow&Z we tfow fo^ra;, 1 Sam. 6: 12 bra *pbtK *foy 
 w?e^ straight onward. Comp. Exod. 5: 23. 18: 18. Joel 1: 7. Gen. 
 40: 15. Deut. 3: 26. Esth. 6: 13. Judg. 15: 2. 
 
 A special form for this Infin. absol. has not been developed in the 
 Chaldee. A tendency to it is observable Gen. 49: 6 Map *ibap , Ps. 
 40: 2 tmsfi KW^te, Ps. 132: 15 JpSK KS'nna and in verbs Kb: K'irra 
 ^ftJIJ Isa. 61: 20,' K^th Ktrra Gen. 26: 28^ * '^Kbn HKbs Exod. 18: 18. 
 Yet these forms are by no means constantly employed for the Infin. 
 absol. 
 
 Where the Infin. stood or seemed to stand directly for the finite 
 verb in Hebr., the writers of the Targums have always changed it into 
 the proper tense, e. g. Ezek. 1: 14. Jer. 14: 5. 2 Sam. 3: 18, etc. 
 
 5. The personal suffix attached to the Infin. is not always to be 
 understood of the subject of the action ; as, Gen. 33: 18 wrron on 
 my coming, i. e. as I came, 2 Kings 2: 42 T]&r> rfhB on the day of 
 thy going out, i. e. when thou goest out, (see above No. 2), but 
 also of the object, and in the last case is to be resolved conse- 
 quently by the Acctcs., as Dan. 6: 20 qnWttSb to deliver thee. 
 
 47. 
 
 Use of the Participle. 
 
 1. The use of the Participle, a) with the substantive verb, 
 for the purpose of representing the finite tenses, is in Chaldee 
 
47. USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 119 
 
 (Syr. and Talm.) far more frequent than in Hebrew, and is em- 
 ployed principally in those cases in which a continued action is 
 to be described, e. g. Exod. 15: 14 fiirjH iin they inhabit, 
 1 Sam. 25: 15 rniJ K^in id wfore we dwe/, Dan. 2: 31 rvnn ntn 2fo?w 
 
 ' t t t -: t :--: t 
 
 sawetf, Joel 3: lS T?oS* pi ^liH it shall go forth and water, Esth. 
 6: 1 T^Jiya ton &ey were read, Dan. 7: 2 iiri tH^W Eccl. 
 5: 6. Zach. 10: 9 fWJ illi ^ey remember, [Ruth 1: 20 ^5 a6 
 jsiihn ye sAa# wctf ca#, Hos. 7: 13 ; &) With the personal pro- 
 noun or with r^ (= ti*) and rvi , the Participle serves likewise 
 to supply the place of the finite tenses, commonly of the Present, 
 more rarely and only where the reference of the context to the past 
 and future is clear, that of the Praeter and Future, Gen. 32: 11 
 K3K b^rn I/ear, Joel 1: 19 &$ wx I pray, Jon. 1: 12 am an; I 
 know, Gen. 23: 29 "noiab bttv nx thou askest after my name, Gen. 
 19: 13 sbnifc f**rtb we will destroy, 15: 14 &ok jiri I will judge, 
 Hos. 7: 13. Hag. 1: 9. Eccl. 4: 16. Deut 32: 52. Judg. 14: 3. In 
 sentences which contain a wish or exclamation, this construction 
 is also sometimes to be explained as optative, Ruth 3: 10 hyHfc 
 roa blessed (be) thou, 1 Sam. 25: 32. With Itpk and M , see Judg. 
 6: 36 p^B^a tax if thou wilt deliver, Isa. 36: 5 Wij aaa WJ I am 
 not able, Jon. 2: 9 pjfi; "jsisk rrb , Deut 4: 22. Gen. 42: 13. Jon. 
 
 The Participle seldom stands alone for the finite verb, e. g. Job 1: 
 13 prajj y4a ^ian , Dan. 2: 5, 7, 38. 
 
 2. If the Participles govern a noun, they are, a) either treated 
 as nouns, i e. they stand in the stat. constr., or the accompanying 
 noun has 1 Genit., e. g. Joel 1: 5 irfi inti Ae wine-drinkers, 1: 2 
 asni* Wi; inJwbvtants of the land, 1 Kings 2: 7 Tftirfi ^58 wfo eo 
 at thy table, 1 Kings 18: 19. Gen. 34: 24. Jon. ann ipw bs o# ilwt 
 go through the gate, Deut 32: 24 C)*t3 flftSSt devoured by birds, Ps. 
 24: 4 fcj"^ i?J .pwre of hands; on the contrary, Gen. 22: 12 xbm 
 ^ji fearing God, Gen. 49: 26 *tHriih &J*$ separated from Ms 
 brethren ; b) Or they are treated as parts of the verb and take 
 the noun as direct object in the Accus., e. g. Exod. 25: 20 'jD^S 
 fnrr^Wi spreading out their wings, Isa. 53: 2 ttb xa'm desiring him, 
 1 Kings 22: 10 ftySfeS ff&& clotliedin robes, comp. 50. 2. 
 
120 48. THE OPTATIVE. 
 
 3. The Participle, where it occurs as adjunctive, expresses regu- 
 larly the Present, or in narration the Praeter ; the latter, e. g. Gen. 
 19: 14 iwija 'aw who took his daughters. Where in Hebrew, on the 
 contrary, the Participle stands for the Future in a sentence which 
 refers to future time, the writers of the Targums have generally 
 resolved it into **$, e. g. Exod. 11: 5. Ps. 22: 32. 
 
 48. 
 
 Th e Op tative . 
 
 For the expression of a desire or [wish, the Future is employed 
 in Chaldee ($ 44. 3), especially in the following applications: 
 a) In the form of a question, Judg. 9: 29 fctta? h; iba? )n would 
 that this people were committed to me, 2 Sam. 15: 4 &*} ia|3? "ja 
 would that I were appointed judge. Deserving of special remark is 
 the use of )t "ja , an imitation of the Hebrew, in expressions like 
 Deut. 28: 67 anss )W )-q would it were evening. b) With iii 
 preceding, e. g. Gen. 17: 18 ^'Jg tt5B* ^i would that he might live 
 before thee. If the wish has respect to the past, the Praeter is 
 naturally employed ; as, Num. 20: 3 aorm vb would we had died. 
 
 49. 
 
 Number and Person of the Verb. 
 
 1. In the use of the Persons of the verb with reference to their 
 subject, irregularities sometimes occur : a) In respect to the gen- 
 der, Exod. 12: 16 tow ai Kiwis, Ruth 1: 8 ^mas *i for 
 1073? Esth. 1: 20 "JUS^ ;ttfc-ta for ^ , Jer. 7: 20 in "ron , Exod. 
 2:18. Jon. yavffm for IJQFFfti*. (Comp. nana at the beginning 
 of the verse). b) In respect to the number : a) Collec- 
 tive nouns often have their verb in the Plur., Jer. 28: 4 rTjtfiJ rfiij , 
 wi$n$J Gen. 33: 13 k is )***?. Gen - 35: 1]L n #?J d ^ **S 
 Tgs filtj b paa^3 , Isa. 52: 14. 53: 8. 1 Sam. 14: 41, 45. Num. 10: 3, or 
 a verb in the Plur. refers to a preceding collective noun, Exod. 5: 
 1 lian^i **3rn? nirc release my people and they shall, etc., 2 Chron. 
 
49. NUMBER AND PERSON OF THE VERB. 121 
 
 25: 15. p) The verb when placed first, may be in the Sing., while 
 
 its subject follows in the Plur. ; e. g. 1 Sam. 1: 2 'pn hJJ^b HJhl , 
 
 Isa. 1: 7. Joel 1: 13 fj^ WR*P **?*?* In this case either the 
 
 subject was not yet distinctly present to the mind of the writer, or 
 
 was viewed as a unity, as a complete whole. See below $ 6. 
 
 Gen. 4: 26. Jon. is not to be considered as a case of enallage in the 
 
 gender to Seth was born a son, trolj FnWJ " rp FHpsi and s/ie caZ/ec? fa'm 
 
 (i. e. the mother called him, who in other instances also gives the 
 
 name). So perhaps Deut. 14: 7. Some of these discrepancies are 
 
 probably errors in writing or printing; as, Lev. 8: 15, Klp&a for WW . 
 
 2. The third pers. Sing, is often used impersonally in both gen- 
 ders, 1 Sam. 30: 6 njnb fig? David was afraid, Gen. 21:31 4 ^fin 
 *Hri&b it serves for a witness. 
 
 b 3. The indefinite one, they, is expressed in Chaldee ; a) By the 
 third pers. Sing., Gen. 11: 9 mxo &n they called the name of it, 
 48: 1 $)Qt4 "rgB owe to&?, & was tofo? to Joseph, b) By the third person 
 plural, Isa. 47:1 f ft g yi pfc^inab they shall no longer call thee, Isa. 52: 
 15. Joel 2: 17 ; so likewise with plural Particip. Dan. 3: 4 "pab 
 'P'tok. This construction (especially the latter phraseology) is very 
 frequent in Chaldee and must be rendered directly by the Passive, 
 e. g. Dan. 2: 30 psnirn asbisb ansje *h to iAe interpretation be 
 made known, 4: 13 "pr^ nnnb his heart shall be changed; c) By the 
 second person jSz'wg-., Isa. 41: 12. 
 
 4. In Chaldee far more frequently than in Hebrew (Ewald, 
 p. 596 sq., Winer's Simonis Lexic. p. 103), a noun is put with Pas- 
 sives in the Accusative, which we should expect rather as sub- 
 ject in the Nominative, e. g. Gen. 21: 8 prJpTrj b'Wnx Isaac was 
 weaned, 17: 5 O^na ?\tf " rp TO "fJJtU Kb thy name shall no more be 
 called Abram. It is said in this case that hj is sign of the Nomi- 
 native (nota nominativi) ; but probably the writers originally re- 
 garded the preceding verb as impersonal : one, they weaned Isaac, 
 (comp. ablactandum fait fUiam), let not one any more call thy name, 
 etc. By degrees, however, the original sense of the construction 
 was forgotten, and it was applied in practice indiscriminately to 
 cases, where its subject preceded or followed the Passive. Addi- 
 tional examples are found : Exod. 3: 7 ** wijhlHf] ^?Jg ty , 
 16 
 
122 50. CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS WITH DATIVE AND ACCUS. 
 
 Gen. 31: 42. Jon. ^ egg *} ^sws-n?, 21: 5 prw-n* tb T^na, 
 Exod. 10: 8. Jon. mtf-r^ fc^flftb T^ Gen. 34: 5. Onk., Josh. 9: 
 24 ** igri ft* Tftnrb Kjnna njjjn, Deut. 1: 34. So also with neu- 
 ter verbs, Exod. 6: 5. Jon. *jfi) p**^ HJ *8 is ^W^P Deut. 30: 1. 
 Jon. a^ar* ba m iwito Wh 1 * "id . 
 
 5. The plural of the first person stands sometimes as pluroMs 
 majestaticus in cases where a king or important personage is intro- 
 duced as speaking, e. g. Ezra 7: 24 " pytirt tt dbb ive make known to 
 you, Dan. 2: 36 "raw WJtjJi , comp. Ezra 4: 18. 
 
 6. In connection with several subjects, the verb stands some- 
 times in the singular, e. g. Exod. 21: 4 Wi Wtnj* anna , Esth. 7: 
 1 'jesij asia i&<2 , sometimes and more frequently in the plural 
 Ps. 85: 11. Gen. 41: 1. Jon. The singular is used particularly when 
 the nouns which form the subject, stand after the verb, Gen. 8: 16. 
 Num. 20: 11. 1 Sam. 14: 41, or when if the verb follows, a 
 special prominence is designed to be given to some one of the 
 subjects over the others, as Exod. 21: 4. 
 
 50. 
 
 Construction of Verbs with Dative and Ac- 
 cusative. 
 
 1. The external distinction between the Dative and Accusative 
 is not so clearly defined in Chaldee as in Hebrew ; since even the 
 latter case is sometimes denoted by h praejizum, e. g. Dan. 2: 
 24 sq. 5: 4. Gen. 40: 1. Jon. Taking as a guide, however, those 
 passages where the Accusative is denoted by rn and the analogy 
 also of Hebrew usage, we may lay it down as a general rule, that 
 the following verbs, which are intransitive in Latin and German 
 syntax,* are treated in Chaldee as transitive, and accordingly take 
 their object in the Accusative : 1) An Accusative of the person, 
 n-ina to answer Judg. 8: 8, fttjj wn&t they answered him 1 Sam. 
 25: 10, *jj> to meet (accidere), befall, Gen. 42: 29 -,inni ytfj bb all 
 which had happened to them 1 Sam. 25: 20. Josh. 2: 23, ifct command, 
 
 * For the most part also in English syntax, though not, as the student will 
 perceive, in all the examples adduced. Tr. 
 
50. CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS WITH DATIVE AND ACCUS. 123 
 
 Gen. 7: 9, fib n? '* 1*fctfi a^s as Jehovah had commanded Noah, 
 Deut. 1: 16,18 sq. ^-qt} to trust Judg. 11:20 taffjl^w; yirPD y^fi &6 
 he trusted not Israel, OTtt? to serve Gen. 49:4. Ezek. 44: 12 etc., 
 i&n to announce 2 Sam. 18: 19 (on the contrary, wn is con- 
 nected with Dat. Pers. 2) Verbs also which signify to be satis- 
 fied and to satisfy, to be full and to fill, to be wanting and to fail, 
 are connected with the Accusative of the object, with, from or 
 on which one is satisfied, filled, etc. ; e. g. Eccl. 4: 8 iwi xb 
 Pfjn? EHjtti , Jer. 31: 14 rn tb* sntoat Iwill satisfy my people with 
 my goodness, Joel 2: 19 Jnn^ 'psaton ye shall be satisfied tJierewith, 
 Job 20: 11 rt%*1 toArpfnk t Gen. 6: 13 "pel an K3na nx^nx, Joel 
 2: 24. Gen. 1: 20 Ktrsa tfifj"} Kgq i^rrp fo wators shall swarm with, 
 etc., Jer. 9: 18 fWp wji? T^^T? *^ 0W ^ 5 overflow with tears, 
 Lam. 3: 48. Deut. 2: 7 D?-n? rn&n?&& thou hast had need of nothing, 
 Gen. 18: 28 atttan "past pirsn pttyj! tras if perhaps there lack five 
 of the fifty righteous. Yet verbs of filling and satisfying (being satis- 
 fied) are also construed with n (2 Kings 9: 24, etc.) ; see 51. 4. 
 On the Accusative with Passives, see 49. 4. 
 2. Some verbs are followed by two Accusatives : a) The Con- 
 jugations Pael and Aphel, when they have a causative significa- 
 tion, e. g. 2 Kings 20: 13 ^fiim itaj ba HJ "^StriK fo &tf */wm see his 
 treasures, Job 39: 19 KSpJin R*}Jg ttJ^sbn &>w clothest his neck with 
 power, Gen. 37: 23. Jon. n^iris - rg JflT? - r -inVrx ^ey drew o#~ 
 />om Joseph his raiment*), 1 Sam. 14: 12 K^jns 'p 31 ?!? W^ we ^^ 
 teach it to you, Gen. 41: 39. Jon. hb rn ^n; Vg rru*, Exod. 15: 25 
 k:?n 51 ttifibx , Exod. 29: 9 WW TV** fntn ; 6) Verbs in Pea/, 
 
 ttt: : ' 't:v' :~ t t * ' ' 
 
 which signify to ewer, and cZo^e, Exod. 36: 34 anrn nbh ifitri n; ; 
 to sow, Lev. 19: 19 jqiTK 3njn Kb ^ppn; to sfow, requite (good or 
 evil, Tiotar rwa ffi) 1 Sam. 24: 18 anna ^rfo?}, Gen. 30: 29 *} rn 
 Tjnnbs ; to request (rogare aliquem aliquid) and answer, Deut. 14: 26 
 T^rsa ?]|ba;:?n *!. ! Kings 18: 21 djna Jin; anas mj^ &6; to c<w&- 
 mission, 2 Sam. 1 1: 22 n50*> tiPQh$j Deut 1:18 ; to raa&e ^ tflNff 
 into another, Exod. 30: 25 TOE Wg; ^nsn or Lev. 24: 5 ifcirj 
 jx^a anj bake it to a cake. 
 
 * But instead of the Accus. of the thing, a is also sometimes employed in this 
 construction, e. g. Jer. 6:26 t02t:)p # a psro'n ttift- 
 
124 51. VERBS WITH PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 When in these verbs the construction is applied passively, the Ac- 
 cusative of the thing remains of course unchanged (Gesen. Lehrgeb. 
 821). 1 Kings 22: 10. The writers of the Targums, however, have 
 generally adopted easier constructions in the place of this, e. g. Mich. 
 2: 10. The passage adduced here by Gesenius, Isa. 1: 20 Asxrj S^tl 
 stands in the Targums thus : 1*littgrri iii*i& S^Hn . 
 
 4. The Dative, in addition to the usual cases, stands, a) after 
 &np to call, Gen. 3: 9. Judg. 16: 25 etc., after pttj? to kiss, Gen. 27: 
 26. Exod. 4: 27, after i$J consulere, Job 8: 8 ; 6) after Passives, 
 in order to denote the cause from which the effect proceeds, e. g. 
 Ezek. 14: 3 'jihb ianirst I was asked by them, Exod. 12: 16. 
 
 Rem. A noun which depends on a verb, is usually placed after the 
 verb. To this simple construction which characterizes the Semitic 
 languages generally, there are some exceptions, e. g. Dan. 2: 16 
 rrinnb antra, 18 awsab Tarn, 4:15 vrvtit fttwn rux rvnn w&n rw 
 TDK; 1 Kings 18: 23 ywngj i xniax Esth. 1: 19. This inversion 
 takes place sometimes for the sake of contrast, sometimes because the 
 noun is to be made more prominent. 
 
 51. 
 
 Verbs with Prepositions. 
 
 1. With a (in, on), are construed verbs, which signify taking, 
 holding upon Prov. 4: 13 rfrrjttj ptnna , Num. 11: 17 iwa^ J*"^*!} 
 (on the contrary, nn&jt with Acc.pers. seize as an enemy [xgareiv riva] 
 1 Sam. 23: 26. Judg. 7: 25) ; acknowledging or denying, Gen. 
 25: 34 Kjna r ftn rtt ^S? (T. H.) he denied the resurrection of the dead, 
 Gen. 25: 29. Jon. as^n xbftfi into Deut. 32: 15. T. H. Jer. 2: 27. 
 Ps. 12: 5. (comp. the expression, which is an imitation of this, 
 ofjioloyeiv ev nvi Gr. N. T. p. 178) ; seeing, hearing, smelling, etc., 
 when the accessory idea of earnestness and perseverance is in- 
 volved, to witness, to gaze, to smell at, hearken, e.g. Gen. 21: 16 
 Kjyj*J WjiW *m ab I cannot witness the death of the lad, Exod. 30: 
 38 fin xn^b to smell thereat, Deut. 26: 14. Jon. *1 K^a ^ KJ2ti5 
 we listened to the word, Jon. 1: 14 Mrwa ^3 hear our prayer ; 
 aversion, disgust (towards a person or thing), 1 Sam. 25: 14 )i ra y% ; 
 invoking (in prayer), Gen .4:26 J*i xa^ n*$fcA; ruling over any one, 
 
51. VERBS WITH PREPOSITIONS. 125 
 
 Joel 2: 17 vbwb finn in order to rule over them ; treating, Jem. 
 (to do to any one thus or so), Dan. 4: 32 *!* xj^ia ^na comp. Gesen. 
 Monum. Phoen. p. 229. 
 
 As a of the object, we are to consider also such cases as Gen. 4: 2 
 KSnxn nb& he cultivated the land, and 2 Sam. 23: 10 ^KtjttibBn Vd|J te 
 slew {among) the Philistines. 
 
 As in Hebrew, so here 5 is prefixed to a noun denoting the vessel 
 out of which one eats or drinks, e. g. Gen. 44: 5 Pin ^i2Ti *ty&\ fn fctbrt , 
 Dan. 5: 2. This mode of speaking is founded on the same conception 
 that appears in English in such phrases as to eat on silver, or in Latin 
 auro bibere, Seneca Thyest 453 etc. Gr. N. T. p. 372. Rem. 
 
 2. With b (elg) are connected verbs which denote becoming 
 something, a making into sometJdng, Jer. 9: 11 }^pb tfyatrv* n? inx , 
 Exod. 4: 16 l&ftfonb Tjb ^ , Joel 1: 7 *T& *? ^W *** iJJj , comp. 
 also Gen. 17: 4. 1 Sam. 4: 9. Joel 3: 19. Dan. 4. 27 ; see Len- 
 gerke on the passage (yet comp. $ 50. 2) ; more rarely those which 
 express being accounted as something, 1 Kings 10:21 &tb n^ttJnnK 
 tvvab (Xoyi&c&cu eig Rom. 2: 26. 9: 8 etc.). 
 
 3. Verbs which denote affections of the mind, are followed by 
 i? ; viz. compassion, anger, Deut. 28: 50. Joel 2: 17 sq. Jon. 3: 9. 
 4: 9, 10. Isa. 11:1 *4sj drnn /oy and sorrow, Jon. 4: 6 fr yp bs nn , 
 Zeph. 3: 17 t? ptt?; Joel 1: 11 fXfh b$ ^bn (yet the former 
 are also construed with n, Isa. 25: 9. Gen. 34:19. Hab. 3:18); 
 contempt, 2 Sam. 6: 16 Hhft'sj rnsn, 12: 9 forbearance, Joel 2: 18 
 pwn&t bs ^ Dn Jon. 4: 11, then, in another application, covering and 
 protecting, Num. 16: 33 K1g ifort* n$n, Ezek. 37: 6. 2 Kings 20: 
 6 Krvnjj is pajj (hence also -1B5 bs in the sense to expiate, Exod. 29: 
 36. Lev. 1:4. 4: 20, etc.) ; pressing upon, i. e. being burdensome, 
 2 Sam. 13: 25 ^bs> C]$ro &6 ; charging, transferring, as, 2 Chron. 
 36: 23 "Vnb $ ^jss he charged me to build. 
 
 4. With )v are construed verbs ; a) Which denoteyearm^, taking 
 care, feeing, abstaining (before, from something) Ps. 40: 12 rsisn &6 
 *>2? Tpjrn , Deut. 1: 21 ptfn ybmn xb , Ps. 119: 64. b) Frequently 
 verbs, which signify being full, filing, wanting (in, with something) 
 Prov. 1: 31 "jwnp? yirro fo q, Eccl. 4: 8 anin^-j? *raB3 TP Wyj. 
 The 1^ in this case refers to the mass, from which or out of which 
 (partatively) something is filled (yet comp. $ 50. 1); c) The 
 
126 52. USE OF VERBS IN THE PLACE OF ADVERBS. 
 
 verb ba|5 in the sense to hearken, to obey, Gen. 21: 12 nap ba 
 hearken to her, 37: 27 etc. (properly to receive from any one the 
 direction which he gives us) ; on the contrary, the command, the 
 order which one obeys, is expressed in the Dative, Gen. 3: 17 
 qnna **?<& *#te, 16: 2. Deut. 11: 13. 
 
 5. With "inn are connected verbs which signify to follow {to pur- 
 sue, to persecute), Gen. 44: 4 MWp inn fc^m. 
 
 52. 
 
 7se 0/ Verbs in the Place of Adverbs. 
 
 Two verbs are often connected together in such a manner, that 
 one of them must be taken as equivalent to an adverb. Here be- 
 long particularly the words CpOiK to add, for again, further, n^aia 
 to make good, for good, excellently, d^g to come before, to anticipate, 
 fox first, before, n'ln to return, for again, *Tna< to hasten, for quickly, 
 ^da to multiply, for rawc^, e. g. Gen. 4: 12 n^n i?niab q^din ab Gen. 
 8: 10. Gen. 3: 24. Jon. nb^b nipdia Jon. 2: 5. rjjfa rp rAia tppw 
 Ps. 33: 3. annttb *5P|*1K Gen. 49: 8. iaiaai 'P9* I B 1 9 JIM Gen. 26: 
 18 *Tg rvj ftqi an comp. Jer. 36: 15, 28. ^rriK arfbira r ^ s>in 
 oe to ^ee agmn, etc. 2 Chron. 17: 6. Gen. 22: 9. Jon. Gen. 27: 20 
 Knnir&tb rwrna, Exod. 2: 18. Jon. *rp& ^n^nix fn rra w% come 
 ye so early, Esth. 6: 10 tai nj nd wik, Gen. 31: 28. wrab anb^dtf 
 thou hast acted foolishly, Joel 2: 20 "f ttto W^b ^tpx /&e tos dorae 
 rawc^ e^ (evil in abundance). 
 
 53. 
 
 Constructio praegnans, Br achy logy and El- 
 lipsis of the Verb. 
 
 1. A noun is sometimes connected with a verb by a preposition, 
 which must be referred in the mind of the reader to some other 
 verbal idea, that has been omitted {constructio praegnans), e. g. 
 Num. 14: 24 ^rbvn inn db^a perfecte sectatus est reverentiam mei 
 Isa. 21: 9 xs^vb )*P*}pT. NftrvjSB ^isjrij to the earth were they 
 (thrown and) dashed in pieces, Dan. 4: 13 flflgy M^r]an^ , (see 
 
54. USE OF NOUNS FOR ADJECTIVES. 127 
 
 Lengerke on the passage), Deut 1: 16. In a different manner, 
 two sentences may be brachyologically combined in one, 1 Sam. 
 10: 9 Itpmifi xal? * n*>b ^tth Jehovah changed to him another heart, 
 i. e. changed him and gave to him, etc. 
 
 2. Sometimes the verb of the sentence is entirely omitted, and 
 must then be supplied from the parts of the predicate, which are 
 expressed, e. g. 1 Kings 22: 36 WffJl ^W *&$& ^ every one 
 (betook himself) to his city, every one to his country. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Syntax of the Noun. 
 
 54. 
 
 Use of Nouns for Adjectives, and Expression 
 of Concrete Substantives . 
 
 1. The Chaldee language has comparatively but few adjectives; 
 and instead of employing them, it was more in consonance with 
 the oriental style of thought to make use of nouns for this purpose. 
 Nouns when so employed follow the nomens regens in the Geni- 
 tive, e. g. Dan. 3: 5 Nnrri cbs image of gold, i. e. golden image, Ps. 
 2: 9 abnri anasin iron rod, Gen. 3: 14. Jon. pqjttfj KQ*& deadly 
 poison (comp.40: 1), Gen. 3: 21. Onk. ypf* p#dj) costly garments, 
 (Exod. 29: 29) Gen. 17: 8 obs r aorta eternal possession. 
 
 When the word that expresses the adjective quality stands as the 
 nomen regens, it has die effect of giving a special prominence to this 
 idea, e. g. Exod. 13:3 ^ tpptt with strength of hand, Lev. 7:21 rsapO 
 Kljja uncleannessofaman(m the sequel, SS&toa tfTW^ So every one 
 (all) is constantly expressed by Vd (universitas). 
 
 2. Concrete, particularly personal qualities, whether they are 
 denoted by adjectives or substantives, are described by certain 
 concrete substantives, viz. by brn , igj , *$ , la , e. g. Exod. 4: 10 
 b^ia*! "na man of discourse, i. e. eloquent, Gen. 37: 19 KJ^jn *ya 
 dreamers, 2 Kings 1: 8 Yj?o bsa hairy, Gen. 29: 1 wma 9) in- 
 
,3B 
 
 12S 55. USE OF NUMBERS AND RELATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 habitants of the east, Exod. 12: 5 aati *o owe year old. Specially 
 frequent is K^ i^n /oe, fosft&, Exod. 15: 9. 
 
 55. 
 Numbers, and the Repetition of Nouns. 
 
 1. The plural is sometimes used in an indefinite manner, when, 
 in strict propriety of speech, the thought should have been ex- 
 pressed in the singular, e. g. Judg, 12: 7 ^J iYipn lajjnK, he was 
 buried in the cities (in one of the cities) of Gilead, (as in Liv. 1. 4. 
 in silvis natus); on the contrary, Gen. 8: 4 fng *ytO i? bttiwn mna 
 wpow Zfo Carducian mountains, is rather to be taken collectively 
 upon the Carducian range, comp. also Job 21: 32. 
 
 2. The nouns fhflj and "p?1*l , are employed as Plur. excellentiae 
 (of a person), yet, on the whole, not with great frequency, Gen. 
 40: 1 tpyi-cft &&vb wrs'iyA, Isa. 1: 3 jrwi a^x a*ran rn. On 
 the contrary, the Plur. y*tok denotes always a plurality, 1 Sam. 6: 
 2 ; fifty the Most High, as applied to God, is found only in the 
 bibl. Chaldee, Dan. 7: 18. 
 
 3. The plural is also used for the designation of things which 
 exist in pairs, where in Hebr. the dual is employed, e. g. Amos 4: 
 6 fftf , Exod. 11:5 BWT) , Num. 19: 36 X$R** But where the He- 
 brew dual stood for objects which are two-fold in their nature, 
 and expresses the numeral two, the writers of the Targums have 
 added f*jt} to the plural, e. g. Exod. 16: 29 ppfr ft*y biduum. 
 
 4. A noun is doubled, stands twice in succession : a) Without 
 a copula, in order to denote multitude, abundance, Gen. 14: 10 
 perna t*T3 ( Vulg. puteos multos), Joel 3: 14 l*Jt*B Xfifa h sts on 
 hosts, or to describe a distribution, or the idea of every, Gen. 32: 
 16 tfW KTO every &erd singly, herd by herd, Num. 14: 2 jRJt&n 
 ITOptl, 2 Kings 17: 29 kes kb? nation by nation, Num. 9: 10 *na 
 QJ wa/i fo/ wa. 5) With the copula 1 between them, in order 
 to express a diversity or a progress, Deut. 25: 13 igrra*i bgrra diverse 
 (two kinds of) weights, Esth 3: 4 Kip'*} IM)^ day by day, daily. 
 
 Of a different nature from this is the repetition of a word in the ani- 
 
56. DESIGNATION OF THE CASES. 129 
 
 mation of discourse. Deut. 16: 20. Jer. 4: 10. comp. Isa. 52: 11. Cant. 
 6: 12. This belongs to the province of rhetoric, not of grammar. 
 
 Designation of the Cases. 
 
 1. The relation of Genitive is expressed either, as in Hebrew, 
 by the stat. constr. ( 32. 2), or, which is more common, by the *i 
 (praejiocum) or *} before the second word; examples of both 
 methods are : aobia 'flna , bCPJin aobia ariba itq *l Rm , Ezra 5: 
 16, aab* ^ Kiy*i5 Dan. 2: 15. 'WO^l bO| 1 Sam. 17: 14, ario? 
 TTRJ M*jV3 r^* 8 25: 18 - * n specifications of time b also occurs 
 as n#ta Genitivi, e. g. Gen. 8: 5 WTj^b inn , 2 Kings 12: 1 ttWj rrrn 
 Kirr^b in Z/ae seyen years of Jehu, Ezek. 1: 5. The b auctoris 
 has also been retained in the titles of the Psalms. Further, the 
 signification of the Genitive is sometimes objective, e. g. Gen. 7: 
 10. Jon. ntep m*i RJ$W ^ mourning for Meth. Job 3: 26. Isa. 53: 
 18 KJ9? h rtS2jt} subjection of the nations, i. e. subjection which they 
 effect, Gen. 3: 24 "jb^K rnix way to the tree ; the Genitive of the 
 mate-rial, out of which anything is made, is likewise frequent 
 in Chaldee, Dan. 5: 7 xnrri ^ &c^n comp. 54. 1. 
 
 In the later Targums, this mode of representing the relation of the 
 Genitive sometimes fails, e. s. Esth. 1: 9 KWfa KDttJa Gen. 6: 17. 36: 
 
 ' D t -: t : 
 
 21. Jon. In other places, on the contrary, it is expressed doubly : 
 that is, *i , **} is employed, although the stat. constr. precedes, e. g. 
 Dan. 7: 10 TO 1*1 ^ns, Gen. 2: 7 ijtyi rw^jb 4: 11. Jon. 
 
 The form of the staf. constr., especially in the plural, stands often in 
 the Targums for the stat. absol., e. g. Gen. 1: 10 ^ K^p , Gen. 39: 20 
 iyfl^ n^n , Prov. 12: 24 Kerb pt* *#J3 Prov. 1: 22. 10: 26. 12: 24. 
 Gen. 37: 32. Job 3: 26. 1 Chron. 22: 15. Exod. 5: 11. See above 
 31. 2. 
 
 2. The characteristic sign of the Dative is b , that of the Accu- 
 sative b (almost always in the Targum of the Proverbs), or more 
 commonly rn : yet the latter is often without any designation at 
 all, and its relation as the object- case must be deduced from the 
 simple structure of the sentence. The Vocative is generally ex- 
 
 17 
 
130 57. DESIGNATION OF SUBORDINATE RELATIONS. 
 
 pressed by the form of the stat. emph., e. g. Jer. 22: 29 biO'OT asm 
 
 57. 
 
 TAe Noun in the Designation of subordinate 
 Relations . 
 
 1. In addition to the office of the noun, when governed directly 
 by another noun or a verb, it occurs in sentences as co-ordinate, 
 in order to denote* certain dependent relations, or qualifying cir- 
 cumstances. These are, a) most frequently designations of time 
 and measure, more rarely of place (in answer to the question ivhere?) 
 Gen. 8: 12 yw smi5 TO Tpia he waited still seven days, Jon. 2: t. 
 Judg. 14: 12 KJiJttfcj tdV' rratt *4 fin; "jsmnri da unll ye declare it to 
 me the seven {in the course of the seven) days of the feast, 1 Sam. 15: 
 15. Exod. 12: 30 RjWj ntihto d Pharaoh rose up by night, Gen. 
 7: 20 Htaj l * ,, ptJ B&3$9 T1W T3&?? t&ijj ^ wote/- rose fifteen cubits, 
 Gen. 38: 11 ?fi3K tTO KStfjK *an remain . . . in the house of thy fa- 
 ther. 
 
 Motion Jo a place is usually denoted by b , 1 Kings 11: 40. Gen. 27: 
 3. 18:22. Obad.3; residence in a place by 3, Gen. 18: 1. In desig- 
 nations of time, !3 stands often also in answer to the question when, 
 e. g. Gen. 19: 5 KjV&J w tfte ragR 
 
 2. In other instances, b) such a qualifying noun is designed 
 to limit a single, comprehensive idea, and can then be translated 
 by in respect to, e.g. Gen. 41:40 ^ T^ ^nx Btwpig w*d Wi in 
 respect to the throne will Ibe more honored, Lam. 4: 7 )"o *W; ^ltn sip^^so 
 -p^nii redder of countenance than, etc. Esth. 2: 2. This con- 
 struction is, however, less common than in Hebrew, ar/d the 
 writers of the Targums have often employed for it the preposi- 
 tion a, 2 Sam. 21: 20. 1 Kings 15: 23, or some other expression, 
 Deut. 33: 11. 
 
 3. More rarely, c) we find it used to. express adverbial modi- 
 
 * The Greeks employ here commonly the Accusative ; but in a language 
 where the idea of case was so imperfectly apprehended, we should hardly be au- 
 thorized to speak of an Accusative as casus adverbialis. The Hebrews and Ara- 
 maeans used the noun directly in such cases, without having any thought about 
 its particular government in the sentence. 
 
58. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 131 
 
 fications in general, e. g. Josh. 9: 2 amp xr&xb WkanK Kin K^b 
 
 O I O TT |j TT - : - : : t -: t 
 
 ^y assembled themselves together to fight, a multitude, i. e. iunctim 
 comp. $ 37. 3. But where this phraseology occurred in the He- 
 brew, the Targumists have more frequently selected another mode 
 of expression, 1 Sam. 15:32. Ezek. 11: 13. 
 
 53. 
 
 Expression of the Comparative and Superla- 
 tive. 
 
 1. The comparative of adjectives is expressed, as in Hebrew, 
 by prefixing the preposition ", to the object with which the com- 
 parison is made, e.g. Gen. 3: 1 Kin nin Vs tris more subtle Hum all 
 animals (separating himself in respect to subtilty/row all animals, 
 leaving them behind himself), Ezek. 28: 3 SspSTTO r\K trnn an , 
 Gen. 4: 8. Jon. IfT^fl "pStt better than thine, 3: 24. Jon. Deut. 7: 14. 
 Jon. 4 : 8 'TUtftB r.raKi n:j & w better that I die, than Hurt Hive. 
 Sometimes iw or inii is added for the purpose of rendering the 
 comparison still stronger (multo),Eccl. 7: 2 KrrasTaiw k;j"j K3d itt, 
 Ps. 119: 103 5&ri vq -nm wsa, Amos 6: 2. Ruth 1: 3 4 i*i 
 1ib|iQ irtfi . The latter example must be viewed at the same time 
 as brachylogical : it is more bitter for me Hum for you (quam vobis), 
 comp. Ttefco ; a construction which occurs oftener in comparative 
 sentences, e. g. Joel 1: 6 yv+\& inn Wfana for K in ^n-on, Isa. 5: 
 29 K;ian &J ijgh5 for K^iKn. See also Deut. 1: 17. 
 
 2. The superlative is indicated by modes of expression similar 
 to those in Hebrew, e. g. Ps. 94: 8 KE?n ijittj ^e stupid among the 
 people, i. e. ^e mosi stupid, Dan. 4: 14 aiiMK ^Stfj ^e lowest, Isa. 53: 
 7 KW ^S^n , Lev. 24: 9 tfyyo *&& the highest heaven, Exod. 26: 
 33 ^1ip trip the most Jujly place, Dan. 2: 37 Kjnbtt ^b-a the mightiest 
 Icing. 
 
 On the contrary, phrases like na nij or Kin? *ppn Gen. 1: 31, de- 
 note merely a very high degree ; they do not, therefore, belong here. 
 
132 59. CONSTRUCTION OF THE NUMERALS. 
 
 59. 
 
 Co instruction of the Nu m erals. 
 
 1. The Numerals from 2 10, when they are used adjectively 
 (in stat. absol.), can stand either before or after the substantive, 
 a) Gen. 8: 10 pit* bCjati , Lev. 27: 6 ta p3&& ttfcgfj Gen. 6: 10 'pi ixnbn 
 Judg. 14: 17 ; 6) Dan. 3: 24 fc$bn yncja 3: 25 TO^K a comp. 
 Ezra 6: 4. Dan. 6: 3. 7: 7. 1 Sam. 1: 24. If the Numeral is used 
 in the stat. constr., as is often the case in Hebrew, and hence 
 substantively (a threeness of men for three men), it then naturally 
 precedes the noun, e. g. Num. 2: 3. Jon. 'pins ^n 1 ?:* , Num. 34: 
 13. Onk. paniD HpfQ, 1 Sam. 24: 8. 2 Sam. 9: 10. Gen. 29: 29. 
 Jon. 
 
 2. The Numerals from 1119 and 20 100 stand before the 
 substantive Plur., 2 Sam. 9:10 yvx nps TO^n , Exod. 26: 25 "tap Wjtj 
 p^fjg, Num. 1:44 yn^J Ito *nn, 2 Kings 13: 10 *pittj ^w rvtj},, 
 Lev. 27: 7 "prit? nw wn, Exod. 26: 19 -p^D 'pswx, Judg. 11: 
 33 ptjg TTftJJg , Gen. 7: 4 1*rj3ttJ P?578 Tne tens > however, are 
 also placed after the noun in giving total numbers, e. g. Gen. 32: 
 14 sq. "pntjig Hj *i} 'pip? BJSjjW 15n^ 'S? etc., somewhat as we say 
 goats 200, bucks 20, rams 20, etc. 
 
 A half is expressed in a similar manner to that in Hebrew, viz. ; 
 three halves by two and a half Exod. 25: 10 Kjbfi*! "ptiX IptJJQi nine and 
 a half Josh. 14: 2 KB^ti *&$* "p'-?^ ftj^ri nine <n'6es and Me ftaZ/*o/ 
 a H6e. The fractional numbers | , T \j , } , etc. are formed either by 
 separate substantives, as XOT^in a fifth part, or described by the parti- 
 tive h ,B , e. g. Ezek. 4: 11 aO^rin KFittS yq TH one sixth of a hin, Exod. 
 16: 36 Kttl 'paM? rirq &n&3> pa "in an^S an omer is ^ of three seahs. 
 
 In designations of measure and weight, the word denoting these ideas, 
 is sometimes omitted, Gen. 37: 28 tfe^ P"??^ f or 20 (shekels "pS&G) of 
 silver. But in most of the passages, where this ellipsis occurs in He- 
 brew, the Targumists have supplied the substantive, comp. Gen. 20: 16. 
 24: 22. Ruth 3: 15. In designations of time, the word &W is more fre- 
 quently wanting, Gen. 8: 13. Lev. 23: 32. 
 
 3. Instead of the ordinal numbers, so far as such exist, viz. 
 1 io and 1 1 19, the Cardinals may be employed in designations 
 
60. CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. 133 
 
 of time, as occasionally in English, 2 Kings 12: 1 mr*4 snu W^3 
 m Z/*e year seven o/* ^Aw, Num. 7: 22 "ito nn RB^ on the day 
 eleven, Jer. 39: 2 ; so also (with the ellipsis above mentioned), Gen. 
 8: 13 btTTvi 'inn on the first (day) o/7/^e month, Lev. 23: 32. 
 
 4. The Distributives are expressed by repeating the Cardinals 
 (without the copula 1 ), Gen. 7: 2 Ksnti awns? se#m semi, by sevens. 
 Gen. 7: 9 y*ir\ y*yr\ bini,inpairs y Gen. 18: 29 sq. Jon. ariias antes deni. 
 
 5. The numeral adverbs, a) which denoteyoZc?, are represented by 
 the Cardinals with "in prefixed, e. g. Dan. 3: 19 wnte in seven-fold 
 (another mode of designation, see 2 Sam. 12: 6 fttSPW Ill is bfc^J); 
 b) those which denote times, by the addition of ajiat , Josh. 6: 
 3 Bin arc? one time, once, Gen. 27: 36 fty) TV& twice, Exod. 34: 
 23 "p3T?t nbn ^ree ftmes, 2 Kings 6: 10 f*01 ntes Zen ta'raes, Gen. 
 31: 7. KJT?t, however, is also omitted, e. g. Gen. 3: 14. Jon. &Hn 
 pate nteb owce in seven years. 
 
 60. 
 Construction of Adjectives . 
 
 1. The adjective, as predicate of a sentence, may stand before 
 or after the subject, the latter, e. g. Gen. 19: 20 an-np brthltttjig, 
 Prov. 15: 15 "ptf ^n NjDOrn ^'i" 1 "^?- The adjective is placed first, 
 when an emphasis is intended to be expressed, e. g. Gen. 4: 13 
 tain ^b , Ps. 33: 4 *jl IWJWD pfcli , Eccl. 7: 2 xao arate so 2 Chron. 
 24: 11. 
 
 2. The principal (yet only apparent) exception to the rule, that 
 the adjective must agree with its noun, is that collectives in the 
 Sing., take a predicate in the Plur. (comp. above $ 49. 1), 2 Sam. 
 3: 1 f#lM! T^J$ ^TJ n ^> ! Sam. 6: 13 ymn ^ste rvo Joel 2: 8. 
 Exod. 20: 18. In this construction, the Fern. Sing, (as abstract) 
 is commonly connected with the Masc. of the predicate. 
 
 3. If the adjective denote an attribute, it stands regularly after 
 its substantive, Gen. 1: 16 VHTfl V^Mf* I)an - 2: 9 n ?7 : ? n ^ Dan * 
 2: 10, 48 ffffl *$m Prov. 17: 1. Ps. 141: 2. Gen. 6: 3, though 
 sometimes separated from it by several words (where the idea of 
 
134 61. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 the adjective is to be more strongly presented) Joel 2: 6 
 tpjsrn isrij b$ p^D 2: 31. 
 
 4. If a substantive be subjoined to an adjective for the purpose 
 of limiting more exactly its application, the former stands in the 
 stat.constr. (in respect to) Pro v. 16: 19 tgto baui, Ps. 24: 4 wn 
 ajirn, Isa. 53: 9 kj&m TP^Ri J o 34: 34 asb "zftjn, Deut. 28: 50. 
 Esth. 1: 11 wm P\yipg. The preposition n is sometimes prefixed 
 to the substantive, Gen. 39: 6 Kjmn ;; more rarely, the limiting 
 substantive is joined to the adjective without any construction to 
 mark the closeness of the relation, comp. $ 57. 2. 
 
 5. The neuter of adjectives (and numerals) is ordinarily ex- 
 pressed by the Femin., Gen. 42: 30 "jJBJg dura, Isa. 53: 8. Joel 2: 
 26 -j^s mirabUia, Deut. 10: 21. Ps. 27: 4 wsn xrvn unumpetii. 
 
 61. 
 
 No mi native Ab solute. 
 
 The noun is sometimes placed as subject before a sentence 
 grammatically complete, without any dependence upon it for gov- 
 ernment (nominativus absolutus), e. g. Dan. 5: 6 aob fyiK 
 tts^rn? WI3WJ WHS vjv'T so Z&erc ^e &mg-, &w cofor cJmnged 
 and his thoughts terrified him, 2 Chron.l3:10 XJ^^n **] fchya H&tTMg . 
 This takes place particularly in sentences of more than ordinary 
 length. In this case, the subject, sometimes for the sake of 
 greater simplicity of construction, sometimes in order to direct at- 
 tention more strongly to the principal word, is placed as expo- 
 nendum at the head of the sentence. Comp. Dan. 2 : 30 
 4 *a rm an--ao 7: 28 vfrm* wfap ***B ^E *W 
 Exod. 32 : 1 w4 *JTi m ^3^^^ i - - im^a , Num. 14 : 24 
 tofcwi - - ala iTO, Jer. 18: 23. 23: 17. Lev. 10: 19. T. H. 
 Gen. 4: 24. Jon. 
 
62. 63. THE PARTICLES. 135 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Syntax of the Particles. 
 
 62. 
 Adverbs and Prepositions. 
 
 1. Adverbs repeated denote, a) a very high degree ($ 58. 2. 
 Rem.), Gen. 7: 19 annb K'lhb W*fi n^ts very much, extraordinarily ; 
 b) a progress or augmentation, Exod. 23: 30 wt *psj (of time) 
 a little, a little, i. e. by and by, paulatim, Deut. 28: 43. (Ewald, 
 Krit. Gramm. p. 638). 
 
 For the manner in which certain adverbs are expressed by verbs, 
 see 52. 
 
 2. The prepositions which stand before a noun, are often not re- 
 peated before a word in apposition, Jon. 3: 2 Knan Ktrtj? rwsb btx , 
 1 Sam. 25: 14 baa MK b^nnxb, 14: 39 TO inrhn, Gen. 23: 18. 
 32: 18; on the contrary, 1 Sam. 25: 8 iy* rtfb , 2 Chron. 31: 4. 
 Gen. 40: 1. Jon. In like manner, the preposition is sometimes 
 written once in the case of several words connected by and; as, 
 Gen. 18: 27. Jon.D2p>i iMb VTW &uk, Esth.lill. ; sometimes it is re- 
 
 -I t t : : t -: ' ' 
 
 peated before each, e.g. Gen. 19:24. Jon. ban Diio b? P?^ r T*SI 
 rryto^, 40: lsq. 
 
 63. 
 i7se 0/ /ie Negatives . 
 
 1. The two negative particles mb and b are in their use as 
 distinct from each other, as in Hebrew "pa and & The former, 
 as derived from rv^ &tb , includes always necessarily the verb of 
 existence, e. g. Gen. 38: 29 xawn tfi^ tv4 , and hence stands often 
 with pronouns or participles, Exod. 5: 10 a*frJJ wx rvb I give not, 
 see $ 47. 1. 
 
 2. In oaths )tt or dk is constantly to be taken in sense as nega- 
 tive, because an ellipsis of the apodosis occurs in such phrases, 
 
136 64. THE PARTICLES OF INTERROGATION. 
 
 e. g. Isa. 62: 8 "jtna dis; I will not give, pp. if I give, I will not 
 live (Ezek. 5: 11); Gen. 14: 23 sfex dtf I will not receive. On 
 the other hand, vh da is affirmative, Josh. 14: 9. Isa. 5: 9. 
 
 3. That not is frequently denoted by ba before the Infinitive, 
 e.g. Lev. 26: 19 *nt|$ annate "prijn KJWiS nj h ,nx that they pour 
 not down rain (pp. from pouring down), 2 Chron. 25: 13. 
 
 64. 
 TAe Particles of Interrogation. 
 
 1. The simple question is denoted either by the praefix n or 
 not at all, and in the latter case must be discovered solely from 
 the context, comp. Gen. 27: 24. 2 Sam. 18: 29. 
 
 2. The double question is generally expressed by tik m 'H t 
 Num. 13: 20 Wfa da R$$ft, 1 Kings 22: 15 WBTfl da - - Wfcr;. 
 
 3. The question with ate (nonne) is often employed in such 
 a manner as to serve merely to awaken attention, and ate can 
 be translated behold, Deut. 11: 30 KJTjyj a'Wn -^a ate behold, 
 they lie on the other side of the Jordan, 1 Sam. 20: 37 tXV>% ate 
 yp t 2 Kings 15: 21 f^W )W* ate, Isa. 5: 20. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 BY THE TRANSLATOR. 
 
 NO. L TARGUMS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 
 
 See Gr. p. P. 
 
 The reference which is made here to the Targums, and which oc- 
 curs so constantly in the subsequent pages of the Grammar, may ren- 
 der it convenient for the student to have before him some informa- 
 tion respecting their origin and character. The following are the 
 principal facts in relation to them, as stated by the best authorities 
 on the subject. 
 
 1. Their origin. 
 
 The term Targum is a Chaldee word Dirnn , Brawn translation, 
 from o:nn (quadrilit.) to translate. See Buxtorf, pp. 26, 42. The ori- 
 ental Jews applied it at first to any translation from one language into an- 
 other ; but in process of time they came to employ it by way of eminence 
 of those translations of the Hebrew Scriptures into Chaldee or the 
 popular dialect of Palestine, which were made for the benefit of the 
 common people and which the change of their language during the 
 Babylonish captiyity had rendered necessary. The more immediate 
 occasion which led to these translations was the establishment of the 
 synagogue- worship, so generally practised after the reign of the Se- 
 leucidae. Even as early, however, as the time of Ezra (Neh. 8: 8), 
 the law was read publicly with an accompanying oral translation into 
 Chaldee ; and the practice, thus introduced, undoubtedly perpetuated 
 itself with various modifications and changes in the mode, till the 
 wants of the nation produced our present written translations or the 
 Targums so called. These translations in the first instance were 
 confined, most probably, to those books or parts of books of the Old 
 Testament, which were read in the synagogues ; but by degrees they 
 extended themselves, as was natural, to the remaining portions. 
 18 
 
 
138 APPENDIX. 
 
 2. The Targum of Onkelos. 
 This embraces the whole of the Pentateuch; and of all the Chaldee 
 translations none was held by the Jews in higher estimation than this. 
 The purity of its language and its general fidelity to the original were 
 among the principal causes which gave it this pre-eminence. Of the 
 person and history of Onkelos we possess only very scanty and uncer- 
 tain information. The writers of the Babylonian Talmud allude to 
 him occasionally ; but not with much fulness, or even indeed with 
 entire consistency in their accounts. The best supported opinion 
 perhaps is that he flourished a short time before the birth of Christ, 
 that he was a pupil of the celebrated Hillel, the grandfather of Gama- 
 liel the teacher of Paul, and that residing himself at Jerusalem, he 
 translated the Pentateuch for the use of the#Palestine Jews. The 
 tradition (which is not, however, a uniform one, but appears only in 
 some of the Jewish writings) that he was a Roman by birth and be- 
 came a proselyte to Judaism, arose probably from his being confounded 
 with another translator of the Old Testament, of whom this was true. 
 Eichhorn and Bertholdt dissent from this view in part ; they maintain 
 that he was a native, not of Palestine, but of Babylon, and appeal in 
 evidence of this to the character of his Chaldee, and the fact that 
 neither the Jerusalem Gemara nor the church fathers, Origen and 
 Jerome, make any mention of him. But to this those who support the 
 other opinion reply, in the first place, that we have no contemporary 
 monuments of the Chaldee dialect as spoken in Palestine in the age 
 of Onkelos, and hence that it is impossible for us to judge whether he 
 has employed a language more or less pure than that which existed 
 among the Palestine Jews at that period. In the second place, the 
 mere silence of the Jerusalem Gemara deserves but little weight, be- 
 cause it cannot be shown that the writers of it had any necessary occa- 
 sion for speaking of Onkelos, and because it stands opposed to posi- 
 tive testimony from other sources, asserting explicitly his Palestine 
 origin. Finally, as to the fathers referred to, it is allowed that they 
 have left us no record of their opinion on this subject ; and consider- 
 ing how limited an acquaintance they had with the literature of the 
 Old Testament, that they appear to have confined themselves in their 
 inquiries respecting it to the Hebrew text and the Greek translations 
 made from it, it is not surprising that they have said nothing in respect 
 to the authorship of the Targum in question. 
 
 The view of the linguistic character of this Targum, expressed by 
 Winer in the body of the Grammar, is that which scholars generally 
 
TARGUMS. 139 
 
 entertain. Havernick remarks, somewhat more in detail, that the 
 language of Onkelos, while it exhibits a Hebrew coloring, is still less 
 Hebraistic than the biblical Chaldee ; that it avoids numerous Ara- 
 maeisms, which prevailed at a later period (such as the contraction 
 of nouns) ; that it contains comparatively few words of Greek origin, 
 and none at all from the Latin ; while, on the other hand, it is not 
 free from a number of obsolete or obscure expressions which even the 
 Talmudists were unable to explain. His style of translation is in 
 general remarkably literal ; and the term paraphrase, which has been 
 so extensively applied to this class of writings, is by no means just in 
 its application here. The occasional deviations from this method 
 which present themselves, consist for the most part of a change in the 
 words or construction for the sake of greater clearness, for the expla- 
 nation of tropical terms, for the sake of euphemism, or for the purpose 
 of avoiding expressions which were supposed to savor in any way of 
 heathenism, or to be wanting in a proper reverence for the Deity. To 
 this uniform character of the translation, only occasional exceptions 
 occur. One of the most remarkable of these is furnished in the man- 
 ner in which Onkelos has translated or rather paraphrased the forty- 
 ninth chapter of Genesis. His freedom here is so great that it is almost 
 impossible to identify it with the original. 
 
 3. The Targum of Jonathan on the Prophets. 
 
 The Jonathan to whom this Targum is attributed, is usually termed 
 Jonathan ben Usiel. The Jews show the estimation in which they 
 held him by the high antiquity which they ascribe to him, and by the 
 source from which they say he received his version. Some of their 
 writers make him a contemporary of the prophets Haggai, Zechariah 
 and Malachi, and affirm that he was aided by their special co-operation 
 in the performance of his labor. His translation embraces the prophets 
 of the Old Testament according to the Jewish application of this term ; 
 that is, the books of Joshua, Judges, 2 Samuel, 2 Kings, Isaiah, 
 Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the twelve minor prophets. The Jewish fic- 
 tion as to the time when he lived is of course worthless ; but critics 
 are far from being agreed in respect to the period to which he really 
 belongs. Not a few of them suppose that he is older somewhat than 
 Onkelos, on the ground partly of intimations which seem to imply this 
 in the Talmud. But the evidence from this source is by no means 
 uniform, and is too slight to establish an opinion either way. The 
 probability is, that there was no very great interval between them ; 
 
140 APPENDIX. 
 
 but it is impossible to say certainly to which of them the higher anti- 
 quity belongs. It has been said that the Targum of Onkelos shows 
 an acquaintance with that of Jonathan, and must have been therefore, 
 subsequent to it ; but the resemblance between them, which is alleged 
 to exist in certain passages, is not great, and could be explained 
 equally well by the contrary supposition, that Onkelos wrote first, and 
 that Jonathan borrowed from him. 
 
 The view of Eichhorn and some other critics that the writer of this 
 Targum must have lived as late certainly as the second or third cen- 
 tury after Christ, is now almost universally discarded. They attribute 
 a character to the Targum in affirming this, which it does not possess. 
 It was said by them that the writer of it discovers an evident anxiety 
 to explain away the Messiah from those passages which Christians are 
 accustomed to refer to him, and that he must have lived consequently 
 after Judaism and Christianity had come into collision with each other. 
 But Gesenius denies altogether the correctness of this representation. 
 He pronounces it entirely at variance with the facts in the case an 
 assertion which no one would make who had carefully read this ver- 
 sion for himself. He affirms, on the contrary, that the most important 
 passages which Christians regard as Messianic are recognized as hav- 
 ing this character here ; and, in general, that the Hebrew prophecies 
 are explained here in remarkable coincidence with the manner in 
 which they are applied in the New Testament. The writer ac- 
 knowledges, for instance, the doctrine of a suffering and atoning 
 Messiah as taught in the prophets, and explains, in accordance with 
 this idea, the memorable declarations relating to this subject in the 
 fifty-third chapter of Isaiah. 
 
 In his style of translation, this author is much more free than On- 
 kelos, so that his work may be termed a paraphrase rather than a ver- 
 sion. He carries this characteristic so far as frequently to sacrifice the 
 sense of the sacred writers. He gives us in many instances the tra- 
 ditions and dogmatic views of his time, or, possibly, his own indi- 
 vidual fancies, instead of the meaning of the Hebrew. He has taken 
 this license more especially in the prophetical books ; in the historical, 
 he has shown himself much more true to the original. His language 
 resembles very much that of Onkelos. According to Eichhorn, and 
 Bertholdt, he is said to be full of foreign words ; but, this multitude 
 of foreign words, says Gesenius, I confess myself unable to discover, 
 and find the judgment of Carpzov fully confirmed, who ascribes to him 
 nitorem sermonis Chaldaei ct dictionis puritatem, ad Onkelosum proxime 
 accedentem et parum deflectentem a puro tersoque Chaldaismo biblico. 
 
TARGUMS. 141 
 
 4. The Targum of Pseudo- Jonathan on the Pentateuch. 
 The Targum so designated was also attributed by some of the Jews 
 to the Jonathan ben Usiel, who wrote the one last described. But the 
 grounds which disprove such an authorship of it are perfectly decisive. 
 Some of these are : first, the barbarian and heterogeneous character 
 of the dialect, which contains a multitude of foreign words, particu- 
 larly from the Persian, Greek and Latin languages; second, the evi- 
 dent use which the author, whoever he was, has made of the Targum 
 of Onkelos ;* third, the numerous allusions which occur in it to sub- 
 jects several centuries later than the time of the true Jonathan ; as, 
 for example, the mentioning of Constantinople (Num. 24: 19), Lom- 
 bardy (ib. v. 24), of the Mishna, which originated as late at least as 
 the middle of the second century ; and finally, the circumstance that 
 among all the Jewish writers of the middle ages no one discovers any 
 knowledge of any Targum on the books of Moses, except that of On- 
 kelos. Most critics would bring down its origin as late as the ninth 
 century ; some few, by assuming the interpolation of such passages as 
 treat of more modern subjects, suppose it possible that the bulk of it 
 may have been produced as early as the fourth or third century ; but 
 all admit that the author is unknown. His object as inferred from the 
 production itself, seems to have been, not so much to promote a cor- 
 rect knowledge of the Pentateuch, as to advance his own particular 
 opinions ; or, more probably in most cases, those of his cotemporaries 
 on various topics which he has forced upon the sacred text rather 
 than found in it. He has paraphrased the original with even greater 
 freedom than either of the Targumists already mentioned. With this 
 professed translation he has intermixed numberless tales and fictions, 
 the absurdity of which is exceeded by nothing except the similar nar- 
 rations in the collections of the Talmud. 
 
 5. The Jerusalem Targum on the Pentateuch. 
 The work which bears this title, is not so much an original work 
 as a fragmentary recension of the Targum of Pseudo-Jonathan on the 
 Pentateuch. It does not extend over the whole five books of Moses, 
 but omits extensive portions of them, sometimes entire chapters, and 
 still more frequently several successive verses. It consists of transla- 
 tions and remarks gathered from various writers, especially from the 
 
 * This argument, it is obvious, is valid only in case itj be allowed that the 
 age of Jonathan is earlier than that of Onkelos. As has been stated, this is a 
 disputed point. 
 
142 APPENDIX. 
 
 Targum of Pseudo- Jonathan. The greater part of these, it has been 
 conjectured, may have been collected at first by some student for his 
 own private use ; and these, afterwards passing into other hands, may 
 have been gradually increased to their present size. The manifest want 
 of unity, which characterizes them, renders it impossible that they 
 should be from a single writer. The Chaldee of this Targum is very 
 impure. It abounds in Latin, Greek, and Persian words, and shows 
 decidedly the reflection of a comparatively modern age. It cannot be 
 referred, possibly, to a higher antiquity than the sixth century, and may 
 have been composed much more recently still. The decision of this 
 question would depend in part, obviously, on the date which we as- 
 sign to the Targum of Pseudo- Jonathan, upon which it shows so close 
 a dependence. 
 
 6. The remaining Tar gums. 
 
 There are still other Chaldee translations of parts of the Old Testa- 
 ment ; but either from the age in which they were produced, or from 
 their inferiority in respect to language or exegetical value, they have 
 acquired much less importance than those which have been noticed. 
 These are a Targum on Proverbs, Job and the Psalms, one on the 
 five Megilloth as they are called, viz. Ruth, Esther, Lamentations, 
 Ecclesiastes and Canticles, and one on the Chronicles. These are 
 usually cited, for the sake of convenience, as the Targum on the Ha- 
 giographa, though they do not coincide precisely with the division 
 which the Jews were accustomed to designate by this term. The book 
 of Esther, on account of its peculiar historical interest, was a favorite 
 one with the later Jews, and exists in two other Targums besides that 
 mentioned above. No one holds any longer to the Jewish tradition, 
 which attributes the Targums to a single translator; for it is incon- 
 sistent with the undeniable diversity of style and character which they 
 exhibit. The five Megilloth, says Zunz (p. 65), may have proceeded 
 possibly from the same hand ; both their association as a class and a 
 certain resemblance of language renders this not improbable. On this 
 latter ground particularly, it has been supposed that the version of Job, 
 the Psalms and Proverbs may have been the work of the same indi- 
 vidual. Still less foundation is there for the opinion of some of the 
 later Jews, that these translations were made by Joseph the Blind, as 
 he is called, who lived in the first part of the fourth century and pre- 
 sided over a school at Sora in Babylonia. Such an early production of 
 them is not consistent with their contents, and is disproved by the ar- 
 
TARGUMS. 143 
 
 guments and testimony of Jewish writers of the thirteenth century. 
 They are, in all probability, the most recent of all the Chaldee ver- 
 sions. It is one proof of this that they betray, in their formation, un- 
 deniable evidence of the use of Pseudo- Jonathan and the Jerusalem 
 Targum on the part of their authors. 
 
 The Targums here in question exhibit very different degrees of fidel- 
 ity to the original, and possess consequently very different degrees of 
 value for the interpreter. That on the Proverbs is distinguished above 
 the others for its adherence to the text, the deviations from it being few 
 and unimportant. Next to this in point of accuracy stands the version 
 of Job and Psalms. All these three books exhibit, as compared with the 
 others, a striking agreement with the Syriac translation ; but yet not 
 greater in the opinion of many critics,than might naturally have resulted 
 from the similarity of the dialects in which they are written, and from 
 their common conformity to the Hebrew text. The supposition that 
 these portions were translated from the Syriac rather than the Hebrew, 
 cannot be established by any sufficient evidence, drawn from this cir- 
 cumstance. 
 
 In addition to the Targums which have now been mentioned, the 
 writers of the Talmud refer also to others, of which no trace can any 
 longer be found. From the nature of the case, it cannot well be sup- 
 posed that the Chaldee versions which have come down to us or which 
 are known to us (for some may still exist that have not been brought 
 to light), are the only ones which were ever made. On the contrary, 
 considering how widely dispersed the Jews were, and for how long a 
 time and how extensively they employed some form of this dialect, we 
 can readily imagine that such translations may have been multiplied 
 to almost any extent. 
 
 7. Sources of Information. 
 
 Among the writers that may be consulted in relation to the Targums, 
 are Gesenius, Comm. iiber Jesaia, Einl. p. 65 sq. Zunz, Gottes- 
 dienstliche Vortrage der Juden, p. 65 sq. Havernick, Einl. in das 
 A. Test, zweite Abh. p. 73 sq. Winer, De Onkeloso ejusque para- 
 phrasi Chald. Eichhorn, Einl. in das A. Test. erst. B. p. 430 sq. De 
 Wette, Einl., etc., p. 89sq. ; Mr. Parker's Translation of the same, Vol. 
 I. p. 210 sq. Herbst, Einl. in das A. T. erst. Th. p.173 sq. Rosenrniil- 
 ler, Handbuch fur d. Literat. III. 3 sq. Danz, Universal-Worterbuch, 
 etc., art. Targumim. Jahn, Intr. to the O. Test. p. 64 sq. Home, Intr. 
 V. II. p. 157 sq., etc. 
 
144 APPENDIX. 
 
 8. Editions of the Tar gums. 
 
 The Targums have been frequently printed both separately and in 
 connection with other works. The following very full, if not complete, 
 list of these publications, is taken from Dr. Petermann's recent Chal- 
 dee Grammar.* The Rabbinic Bibles, as they are called, and which 
 contain these Targums either entirely or in part, I omit for the sake 
 of brevity. 
 
 1. Targum Onkelosi in Pentateuchum. 
 
 Pentateuchus Hebr. et Chald. c. commentar. Raschii. Bononiae 1482. 
 
 fol. editio princeps.. 
 Pentateuchus Hebr. et Chald. sine punctis, cum commentar. Raschii. 
 
 Venet. Bomberg 1523. fol. 
 Idem Hebr. et Chald. cum quinque Megilloth Hebr. ibid. 1527. 8. 
 Idem. Hebr. et Chald. cum 5 Megilloth. ibid. 1543. 8. 
 Targum Onkelosi Latine versum ab Alphonso de Zamora (e bibl. 
 Polyglottis Compl. deinde ab Aria Montano recogn et emend.) se- 
 orsim editum. Antwerp. 1835. 8. et cum versione bibliorum Latina 
 Vulgata. Venet. 1609. fol. et Antwerp. 1616. fol. 
 Pauli Fagii expositio dictionum Hebraic, literalis et simplex in IV. 
 priora capita Geneseos. Isnae 1542. 4. 
 
 (In calce adjecta est Paraphrasis Chald. Onkelosi in eadem capita 
 cum. vers. Lat.) 
 Targum h. e. Paraphrasis Onkeli Chald. in sacra biblia, ex Chald. in 
 Lat. fidelissime versa, additis in singula fere capita succinctis anno- 
 tationibus. Autore Paulo Fagio. Pentateuchus. Tomus I. (et 
 unicus). Argentorati 1546. fol. 
 Pentateuchus c. Targ. Onkelosi, vers. arab. Saadiae, vers, persica Ta- 
 
 wus et commentario Raschii. Constantinop. 1546. fol. 
 Pentateuchus Hebr. et Chald. cum Megilloth (Hebr.) et Haphtharoth. 
 
 Venet. apud M. A. Justinianum. 1547. 8. 
 Idem Hebr. et Chald. cum commentariis Rabbin, et 5 Megilloth Hebr. 
 et Chald. cum commentar. Raschii. Venet. per Dan. Bomberg. 
 1548. fol. 
 Pentateuchus Hebr. et Chald. cum comment. Rabbin., item 5 Megil- 
 loth Hebr. et Chald. Cracov. apud Isaac ben Aaron Prostitz. 
 1587. fol. 
 Pentateuchus Hebr. et Chald. cum comment. Rabbin. . item 5 Megil- 
 loth cum Targum et Raschi, ac denique Haphtharoth c. comm. 
 Kimchi. Basil. 1606. fol. ap. Conr. Waldkirch. 
 Pentateuchus cum comment. Rabb. ; item 5 Megilloth cum Targum 
 et Raschi, et Haphtharoth. Prag apud Mosen ben Jos. ben Beza- 
 lel. 1618. 2 Voll. 4. 
 
 * A notice of this Grammar will be found in the Christian Review, June,1845, 
 p.313sq. 
 
TARGUMS. 145 
 
 Pentateuchus Hebr. et Chald. et 5 Megilloth Hebr. Amstelod. Henr. 
 
 Laurentii. 1631. 4. 
 Idem Hebr. et Chald. per Menasse ben Israel. Amsterold. 1631. 4. 
 Pentateuchus cum Targum et Raschi, item 5 Megilloth et Haphtha- 
 
 roth. Venet. per Jon. Martinelli. 1642 4. 
 Pentateuchus cum 5 Megilloth Hebr. et Chald. Venet. 1671. 8. 
 
 etc. etc. 
 
 Cf. Le Long. Biblioth. sacra ed. Masch. Tom. I. p. 95. sqq. et 
 Wolfii Biblioth. Hebr. T. H. p. 385 sqq. 
 Willi, Fr. Htzd, Geneseos ex Onkelosi Paraphrasi Chald. quatuor 
 
 priora capita, una cum Danielis cap. II. Chaldaice. Lemgov.1788. 8. 
 
 II. Targum Pseudo-Jonathanis et Hierosolymitanum in Pentateuchum. 
 
 Pentateuchus Hebr. cum triplici Targum et comment. Raschi et 5 
 Megilloth, cum ejusdem comment, et duplici Targum in Esther, 
 cum praef. R. Aschir Phorins. Venet. de Gara. 1591. 8. 
 
 Pentateuchus cum Targum triplici, per quatuor columnas, itemque 
 Raschii commentario contextui substrato. Venet. apud Jo. de Ga- 
 ra. 1594. 3 Voll. 
 
 Vol. tertio 5 Megilloth cum Targum et comm. Raschi item super 
 Esther Targum Scheni (i. e. alterum) continentur. 
 
 Targum Pseudo-Jonathanis in Pentateuchum cum duplici Paraphrasi 
 in Esther. Basil, apud Waldkirchium. 1607. fol. 
 
 Pentateuchus Hebr. cum triplici Targum, 5 Megilloth Hebr. et Child, 
 cum comment. Raschi, item Haphtharoth. Hanov. apud. Hans 
 Jacob Hene. 1614. 8. 
 
 Expositio vocum difficiliorum in Targum Onkelosi, Jonathanis et Hie- 
 rosolymitano obviarum, cum triplici isto Targum. Hanov. 1614. 8. 
 et Amstelod. 1646. 4. per R. Pheibel ben David. 
 
 Pentatecchus Hebr. cum triplici Targum itemque 5 Megilloth Hebr. 
 et Chald. Amstelod. per Menasse ben Israel. 1640. 4. 
 (Insunt praeterea comment. Raschi et Targum secundum super 
 Esther, item Haphtharoth.) 
 Pentateuchus cum triplici Targum. Prag. 1646. 8. 
 
 Targum Hierosolymitanum in Pentateuchum Latineversum cum notis 
 marginalibus ad illustranda loca difficiliora opera Franc. Taittri. 
 Londini 1649. 4. 
 
 Pentateuchus cum Targum Pseudo-Jonathanis et Hierosolymitano, 
 item cum commentario rabb. Amst. Jos. Athias. 1671. lol. 
 
 Pentateuchus cum triplici Targum comment. Raschi, excerptis ex 
 Bial Turim, 5 Megilloth cum Targum scheni (secundo) super 
 Esther et Haphtharoth. Amstelod. apud Uri Veibs 1670. 4. et ibid, 
 apud David ben Uri Veibs. 1674. 4. 
 
 Pentateuchus cum triplici versione Chald. tribusque commentariis Ra- 
 schii, Raschbam et A ben Esrae, cura et typis Dan. Em. Jablonsky. 
 Berol. 1705. 5 tomi. 4 min. 
 
 Pentateuchus Hebr. cum paraphr. Chald. Onkelos et Jonathan, etc. 
 Metz 1766. 4. 
 
 19 
 
146 APPENDIX. 
 
 III. Targum Jonathanis fil. Uzielis in prophetas priores et posteriores. 
 
 Targum Jonathanis in Prophetas cum textuHebr. et comment. Kim- 
 chii et Levi ben Gerson. Editio princeps. Leiriae (in Lusitan.) 
 
 1494. fol. 
 Chaldae Jonathae Uzielis filii interpretatio per Joh. Mercerum. Paris 
 
 ex offic. Car. Steph. 1557. 4. 
 Prophetae posteriores cum Targum, item commentariis Raschii, Aben 
 Esrae et Kimchii, variis item lectionibus ex multorum exemplarium 
 
 diligenti collatione in margine adscriptis. Parisiis per Rob. Ste- 
 
 phanurn. 1556. 4, 
 Jonathanis Targum in XII. Prophetas minores cum vers. Lat. Joh. 
 
 Mercer i. Paris 1559. 4. 
 Targum Jonathanis in XII. Prophetas minores Latine versum ab Im- 
 
 man. Trcmellio. Heidelb. 1567. 8. 
 Hoseas Hebr. et Chald. cum verss. Lat., commentariis Hebraicis Ra- 
 
 schi, Aben Esrae et Dav. Kimchi, Masora item parva, ejusque et 
 
 commentariorumLatina quoque a Jo. Mercero facta versione. Acce- 
 
 dunt in fine succinctae sed necessariae annotationes GuiL Coddaei. 
 
 Leidae 1621. 4. 
 Targum Jonathanis in Hoseam cum versione Lat. Alph. de Zamora. 
 
 Leidae 1621. 4. 
 Idem sine versione Lat. Helmst. 1703. 4. 
 Targum Jonathanis in Jonam. Utraj. 1657, et 1692. 8. 
 Idem in Joelem et Abdiam. ibid. 1657. 8. 
 Idem in Joelem et Micham. Witteb. 1565. fol. 
 Idem in Abdiam. Bremae 1673. 4. 
 Hoseas Hebr. cum Targum Jonathanis et comment. Raschii, Aben 
 
 Esrae et Kimchii cura Herm. von dcr Hardt. Helmst. 1702. 4. 
 Ed. II. cura J. D. Michaelis. Gott. 1775. 4. 
 Hoseas, Joel, Amos, Abdias et Jonas, Hebr. et Chald. cum comment. 
 
 Rabbinorum et Masora. Paris, apud Rob. Stephanum 1556. 4. 
 Targum Jonathanis in Hoseam, Joelem et Amosum, ut et Anonymi 
 
 Paraphrastae in Ruth et Threnos Lat. vers, a Quinquarboreo cum 
 
 notis ejusdem Paris 1556. 4. 
 Targum Jonathanis in Joelem Lat. versum a Gilb. Gencbrardo. Pa- 
 ris 1563. 4. 
 Joel et Micha. Hebr. Chald. Gr. Lat. et Germ, studio Jo. Draconitis. 
 
 Witteb. 1565. fol. 
 Joel et Abdias Hebr. Chald. et Lat. c. comment. Rabbinorum, et 
 
 notis philologicis (eodem ordine ut Jonas) auctore Joh. Leusden. 
 
 Traj. ad Rh. 1657. 8. 
 Amos, Obadia et Jonas Chald. per J. Mercerum, Paris, ex officina 
 
 Car. Stephani. 1557. 4. 
 Targum Jonathanis in Abdiam et Jonam Lat. vertit. Joh Mcrcerus. 
 
 Paris 1550. 4. 
 Targum Jonathanis in Abdiam, Jonam et Sophoniam Lat. versum ab 
 
 Arnoldo Pontaco. Paris 1566. 4. 
 Obadiae prophetia Hebr. Chald. Syr. et Arab, speciminis loco edita 
 
TARGUM3. 147 
 
 per Ludov. Mich. Crocium. Br em. 1623. 4. (cum vers. Lat. etcom- 
 
 mentariis Rabb.) 
 Obadias Hebr. et Chald. cum Masora utraque et tribus Rabbinis Jar- 
 
 chi, Abeu Esra et Kimchi, studio Matthaei Wasmuthi. Jenae 1678. 
 
 12. 
 Jonas Hebr. et Chald. cum Masora utraque, comment. Raschii, Aben 
 
 Esrae, Kimchii et Abarbanelis, cura Prederici Alberti Christiani, 
 
 Ex-Judaei, cujus Lexicon succinctum vocum Hebr. accedit. Lips. 
 
 1683. 8. 
 Jonas illustratus Hebr. et Chald. et Latine, per paraphrasin Chaldai- 
 
 cam, Masoram magnam et parvam, et per trium Rabbinorum tex- 
 
 tum Rabbinicum punctatum, nee non per verias notas philologicas, 
 
 auctore ,///. Leusden. Traj. ad Rh. 1656. 8. ed. II. 1692. 8. 
 Jonas Vates expositus cum Targum Jonathanis, Masora utraque, Ra- 
 
 schi, Esra, Kimchi, ben Melech et Abarbanel, cura M. Georg. 
 
 Christiani Burcklini. Francof. a. M. 1697. 4. 
 Micha, Nahum, Habacuc, Sophonia, Hagg., Zachar. Malach., Chald. 
 
 Paris 1552. 4. 
 Targum Jonathanis in Haggaeum Lat. vertit Hfercerus. Paris 1551. 4. 
 Malachias, Hebr. Chald. Gr. Lat. et Germ., studio Eliae Hutteri. 
 
 Norimb. 160 i. 4. 
 
 IV. Jose phi Coeci Targum in Hagiographa. 
 
 Psalmi Davidici Chaldaice. Rom. 1510. 4. 
 
 Augustin. Justimianus: Psalterium Hebraeum, Graec. Arab, et Chald. 
 
 cum tribus Lat. interprett. et glossiss. Genuae 1516. fol. 
 Psalterium Hebr. Gr. Chald. et Lat. Colon. 1518. fol. 
 Psalterium Hebr. Chald. Gr. Lat. et Germ, studio Jo. Draconitis. 
 
 Witteb. 1565. fol. 
 Duodecas Aureorum Psalmorum Davidicorum, eorum, qui sunt prae- 
 
 cipui prophetici de Jesu Christo, nempe II, VIII, XVI, XXII, XL, 
 
 XLV, LXVIII, LXIX, LXXII, XCVII, CX et CXVIII. Hebr. 
 
 Chald. cum Lat. versione, et Graec. Brem. 1614. 8. 
 Psalterium Hebr. Chald. Syr. Arab. Gr. et Lat. cum interpretatione 
 
 Jac. Gerschovii. Rostoch. 1643. fol. 
 Psalmus CXIX. Hebr. Chald. Syr. et Arab, cum commentariis Rabb., 
 
 e regione posita versione textuum istorum Latina et notarum Ma- 
 
 sorethicarum. Argentorati. 1700. 4. 
 Targum in Proverbia, editum opera Jo. Merccri. Paris 1561. 4. 
 Proverbia Salornonis Hebr. Chald. Gr. Lat. et Germ., studio Jo. Dra- 
 conitis. Witteb. 1565. fol. 
 Targum in Jobum Latine versum opera Victorii Scialac. Rom. 1618. 8. 
 Liber Ijobi Chaldaice et Latine cum notis, item Graece cmyjiQcog cum 
 
 variantibus Lectionibus, ed. Jo. Terevtius. Franekerae 1663. 4. 
 Canticum Canticorum Hebr. et Chald. addita versione Hispanica cum 
 
 commentario R. Abraham Laniado. Venet. 1619. 4. 
 Canticum Canticorum Chald. cum versione Italica. Venet. 1672. 8. 
 
 per Christoph. Ambrosini. 
 Canticum Canticorum. et Ecclesiastes Chaldaice et Latine per Oswal- 
 
 dum Schreckenfuchsium. Basil. 1553. 8. 
 
148 APPENDIX. 
 
 Targum Koheleth h. e. ChaldaicaParaphrasisEcclesiastisLatina facta 
 
 auctore Pit. Custo, cui Salomonis Ecclesiasten ex translatione 
 
 Vulgata adversum posuimus. Lugduni 1554. 4. apud Matthiam 
 
 Bonhomme. 
 Targum in Ecclesiasten, emendatum per Jo. Mercerum. Paris 1562. 4. 
 Targum in Ruth cum versione Lat. et scholiis Jo. Merceri. Paris 
 
 1564. 4. 
 Collegium Rabbinico-Biblicum studio /. Benedicti Carpzovii et filii 
 
 ejus. Lips. 1703. 4. 
 
 (Continet librum Ruth Hebr. et Chald. cum vers. Lat, Masora 
 
 utraque et commentariis Rabb.) 
 
 ed. II. cura Adriani Rtlandi. Troj. ad Rh. 1710. 8. 
 Targum II. in Esther cum Ketubim. Venet. 1518. fol. apud Dan. 
 
 Bombergium. 
 Targum duplex in Esther cum Targum Jonathanis in Pentateuchum. 
 
 Basil. 1007. fol. apud Conr. Waldkirch. 
 VersioGermanicarhythmica Targum II. in Esther. Amstelod.1649. 4. 
 Targum Prius et Posterius in Estheram, nunc primum urbe donatum 
 
 et in linguam Latinam translatum, studio et opera Franc. Taileri, 
 
 Angli. Londoni 1655. 4. 
 Paraphrasis Chaldaica, libri Chronicorum cura Matthaei Beckii. 
 
 T. I. Augustae Vindelic. 1680. T. II. 1683. 4. 
 Paraphrasis Chaldaica in librum priorem et posteriorem Chronicorum 
 
 ed. Dav. Willcins. Amstelod. 1715. 4. 
 
 No. II. Talmud, Mishna, Gemara. 
 Gr. p. 10. 
 
 The writings of the Jews, which are known under these designa- 
 tions, contain their most important traditions, and an acquaintance 
 with them, forms, even at the present day, an essential part of a learned 
 education among the Jews. Zunz, in his Gottesdienstliche Vortrdge 
 dtr Juden, etc. (Berlin, 1832), has treated largely of these collections, 
 and has there given one of the most exact, authentic accounts of them 
 to be found in any work. Comp. especially pp. 45 61. The stu- 
 dent is referred also to an excellent article on the same subject in the 
 Bibl. Repository, Oct. 1839, by the late Dr. Nordheimer, himself a 
 Jew by birth and thoroughly skilled in Rabbinic studies. See also 
 the additions of Dr. Robinson in Calmet's Diet., pp. 609 and 876. 
 
 A few paragraphs will present all which it is necessary to exhibit in 
 this connection. The term Mishna signifies second law (fiSIBtt , from hjia 
 to repeat), and is so called in distinction from the first or written law, 
 in the Pentateuch. It contains, according to the popular Jewish belief, 
 the oral instructions and explanations which Moses is said to have re- 
 ceived from God at the time of the giving of the law on Sinai, and 
 
TALMUD, MISHNA, GEMARA. 149 
 
 which he directed to be taught to the people by their religious teachers, 
 as of equal authority with the written word itself. These traditions 
 were at length collected into a single body, about the middle of the 
 second century, and compose the Mishna. This work was performed 
 chiefly by Rabbi Judah the Holy, as he is called. Maimonides, as 
 cited by Dr. Nordheimer, represents the contents of this collection as 
 somewhat more miscellaneous and less unique in their origin. He says 
 that from the death of Moses until this compilation was formed, " no 
 book had been composed for public instruction containing the oral 
 law; but in every generation the chief of the tribunal or the prophet 
 who lived at the time, made memoranda of what he had heard from 
 his predecessors and instructors, and communicated it orally to the 
 people. In like manner each individual committed to writing for his 
 own use, and according to the degree of his ability, the oral laws and 
 the information he had received respecting the interpretation of the 
 Bible, with the various decisions that had been pronounced in every 
 age, and sanctioned by the authority of the grand tribunal." 
 
 The Gemara (fit^a completion, from 1BI to complete) is a commen- 
 tary on the Mishna. It has its name from its professed supplementary 
 character as completing or finishing the Mishna of Rabbi Judah. 
 This Gernara consists of two portions, one of which is known as the 
 Jerusalem Gemara, the other as the Babylonian. The former was 
 written at Tiberias, which was the seat of a flourishing Jewish school, 
 by Rabbi Jochanan; and cannot be referred to a later period, says 
 Zunz, than the first half of the fourth century. It was called the Je- 
 rusalem Gemara either from the dialect in which it was written, or 
 because it represented the views of the Palestine Jews, whose capital 
 was Jerusalem. The Babylonian Gemara was composed at Babylon, 
 and contains evidence of having been written with a knowledge of the 
 Jerusalem Gemara. It is the work of Rabbi Ashi, and his cotempora- 
 ry and friend Rabbi Abhina, who lived near the beginning of the fifth 
 century; though some additions appear to have been made to it at the 
 close of this century by another hand, Rabbi Jose. Both of these 
 works had the common object of presenting an explanation of the 
 Mishna, and at the same time of adding to it the important decisions 
 on questions of the law, which had been received into the established 
 religious code since the time of Rabbi Judah. " They contain also," 
 says Nordheimer, " historical and biographical notices, legends, dis- 
 quisitions on astronomy and sympathetic medicine, aphorisms, apo- 
 logues, parables, short and pithy sermons, and rules of ethics and of 
 practical wisdom in general." Considering the range of human in- 
 
150 APPENDIX. 
 
 quiries at that period, it is not easy to see what else they could have 
 contained. Of the character of many of these traditions in their 
 bearing on the Scriptures, sufficiently clear intimations are furnished 
 in the New Testament. An analysis of the contents of the Babylonian 
 Talmud may be found in the Repository as already referred to. 
 
 Talmud (ittbn doctrine, from the Chaldee *ttk to teach) is a gene- 
 ral term applied both to the Mishna and the two Gemaras. The 
 Mishna constitutes what may be called the text of this body of Jewish 
 traditions the Gemaras, a running commentary on this text ; while, 
 under the appellation of Talmud, we include at once both the text and 
 the commentary. Some parts of the Talmud , as originally constituted, 
 have been lost; but the portions that remain compose, as usually 
 printed, twelve large folio volumes. 
 
 No. III. Is the Aramaean still spoken in the East ? 
 
 Gr. p. 19. 
 
 The statement of Dr. Winer in regard to the utter extinction of the 
 Aramaean as a living language, requires correction. Had the reports 
 of the most recent travellers in the East fallen under his notice, he 
 would certainly have modified the unqualified representation which he 
 has made on this subject. It is undoubtedly true that neither the 
 Chaldee nor the Syriac exists any longer, in the precise form in which 
 the ancient monuments of these dialects present them to us ; but that 
 a product of the Aramaean, or rather the Aramaean itself in its essen- 
 tial features is still spoken in Asia, is now established beyond all dis- 
 pute. It will be sufficient to adduce in confirmation of this the testi- 
 mony of Rev. J. Perkins, D. D., a missionary from this country at 
 the present time among the Nestor ians of Oroomiah. In his work 
 Residence in Persia among the Nestorians, p. 11 sq., he says : 
 
 " Their ancient language is the Syriac. This language is still the lite- 
 rary language of the Nestorians. Their books are nearly all written in it. 
 They conduct their epistolary correspondence in it ; and though a dead 
 language, the best educated of their clergy become able to converse 
 in it with fluency. Their written character diners considerably from 
 that of the western, or Jacobite, Syrians, which is the character best 
 known to European scholars. 
 
 " There are twenty-two consonants in the present language of the 
 Nestorians, the same as in the ancient Syriac, with a modification of 
 Gimel(g), by a scratch of the pen underneath to express j, ch or gh; and 
 of Pe (p) by a half Vav placed under it, to express ph. B, G, D, K, P, 
 and Th, are also subject to aspiration, which is indicated by a point 
 
ARAMAEAN LANGUAGE. ZABIAN DIALECT. 151 
 
 below them and the reverse by a point above, the same as in the an- 
 cient language. There are seven vowels, corresponding to long a, 
 short a, long e, short e, long and short t, long o and double o, or u. 
 The vowels used by the Nestor ians are points, and not the Greek 
 vowels inverted, as used by the Western Syrians; and where the lat- 
 ter use omicron (short o), as in Aloho, God, the Nestorians use the 
 open sound of a, as Alalia, God. 
 
 " The vernacular language of the Nestorians, is a modern dialect 
 of the ancient Syriac, much barbarized by inversions, contractions, 
 and abbreviations, and by the introduction of a great number of Per- 
 sian, Koordish and Turkish words, each class prevailing respectively 
 in a particular district, in proportion as it is situated near to the peo- 
 ple using either of those languages. Though thus corrupted, how- 
 ever, as now spoken by the Nestorians, the body of the language 
 comes directly from the venerable ancient Syriac, as clearly as the 
 modern Greek comes from the ancient. It is a softer language than 
 the ancient Syriac, its guttural words being fewer, and its nouns even 
 more extensively ending in open vowel sounds. The accent is almost 
 invariably upon the penult syllable. The noun is declined by means 
 of a preposition, having properly no construct state, though the first of 
 two nouns has an affix pronoun, indicating possession, thus, Brooncr, 
 (his son, instead of Broona, son,) d 'Ordham, son of Abraham. The 
 objective case, after an active verb, is indicated by the particle, I, pre- 
 fixed ; the dative is expressed by the same particle, meaning to, or for ; 
 and the ablative is governed by prepositions. The passive voice is 
 formed by a distinct auxiliary verb, and not by a syllable prefixed, as 
 in the ancient language. The Nestorians of the Koordish mountains 
 speak dialects more nearly resembling the ancient Syriac, both in 
 words and in sound, than the inhabitants of Oroomiah, alike from 
 their limited intercourse with foreign nations and their more rude and 
 hardy character." 
 
 No. IV. The Zabian Dialect. 
 
 Gr. p. 30. 
 
 This is the dialect of an early religious sect (Christian, it has been 
 sometimes called,) variously known as the Zabians, Nazoraeans, Men- 
 daeans, or Christians of St. John. Neander (Allg. Gesch. etc. II. p. 646), 
 derives the first of these names from y*xi i. e. ^U7iriazca ; but some 
 others regard it as a geographical term, and suppose it to refer to the 
 country where the Zabians dwelt. A remnant of this sect, as it is 
 generally believed to be, was discovered about the middle of the 17th 
 century, by certain Carmelite missionaries, in the region of Basrah and 
 Susa. These missionaries applied to them the name of Johannites or St. 
 John Christians ; although they called themselves Nazoraeans or Men- 
 daeans. The account which they give of their origin is that they came 
 
152 APPENDIX. 
 
 from the Jordan, and were compelled to escape thence in consequence 
 of the persecutions of the Mohammedans. " There is reason to believe," 
 says Neander, " that they are the descendants of certain disciples of 
 John the Baptist, who after the martyrdom of the latter still adhered to 
 his cause, instead of attaching themselves to Christ ; and who thus took, 
 contrary to the spirit and instructions of their master, a hostile direction 
 against Christianity." The Zabian dialect is the dialect of this people, 
 and contains their sacred books. It belongs to the Aramaean family 
 of languages, and occupies in its characteristics a sort of middle po- 
 sition between the Syriac and Chaldee. Its forms approach sometimes 
 the one, sometimes the other ; while occasionally the idiom is found to 
 be altogether peculiar. In writing the language, its vowels, unlike the 
 oriental dialects generally, are inserted in the same line with the other 
 letters; though in printed works this peculiarity is not regarded, 
 the vowel-signs being represented as in Syriac. The remains of this 
 dialect are contained principally in the five books, entitled Diwan, 
 Book of Adam, Book of John, Kholasteh and Book of the Zodiac. 
 Of these the second only has been published in full : Codex Nasaraeas, 
 liber Adami appellatus, Syriace transcriptus Latineque redditus a 
 Matth. Norberg, 3 torn. Lond. Gothor. 1815 16. 4to. Copious ex- 
 tracts from the third, accompanied by a learned commentary, have 
 been printed in Staudlin's Beitrdge zur Philos. u. Gesch. der ReL u. 
 Sittenlehrc, Th. 5, and in his own Museum fur bibl. u. morgend. Lit. 
 Bd. I. St. 1. These remains are not without value to the Hebrew 
 student, inasmuch as various words in the Hebrew language receive il- 
 lustration from this source, the signification of which is otherwise ob- 
 scure. As examples of this, Gesenius mentions R}$, ^J and fc l^fc, 
 iiras , ^ni , etc. See these articles in his lexicon. 
 
 - :- ' tt ' 
 
 For fuller notices on this topic, comp., among others, Mosheim, 
 v. I. p. 34 sq n. 7. Gieseler, v. I. p. 40. n. 4. Neander, ut supra. 
 Gesenius, in Bibl. Repos. v. III. p. 23. and in Ersh and Gruber's En- 
 cyclop, art. Zabier. Of the writers who have specially investigated 
 this dialect or illustrated in any way the history of the sect, a complete 
 list will be found in Danz's Univ. Worterbuch der theol. kirch. u. rcl. 
 Literat. p. 1024. The principal of these, in addition to those al- 
 ready mentioned, are Walch, Barkey, Tychsen, Bruns, Lorsbach, 
 Brammer, and Gregoire. 
 
 y^ 
 
I