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GIFT
SOME CONTINUATION
SCHOOLS OF EUROPE
By
EDWIN G. COOLEY
PUBLISHED BY
THE COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO
1912
SOME
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
OF EUROPE
BY
EDWIN G. COOLEY
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
I Organization of the Industrial Con-
tinuation Schools of Crefeld
II Pre- Apprenticeship Schools of London
III The Scottish System of Continuation
Schools.
These three articles are some of the
results of an investigation of Industrial
education in Europe undertaken for the
Commercial Club of Chicago.
REPRINTED FROM VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS
PEORIA, ILL.
ORGANIZATION OF THE INDUSTRIAL CONTINUATION
SCHOOLS OF CREFELD,
THE city of Crefeld in the Rhine Province has a population of
110,000 inhabitants. It is a prominent manufacturing center,
and is well supplied with industrial schools. Besides the usual
elementary and secondary schools, it has an Industrial Art School, a
Royal Weaving School, a Royal Dyeing School, and a well organized
system of industrial continuation schools. In the following sketch I
have tried to show what Crefeld is doing to care for its boys between
the ages of fourteen and eighteen, who are compelled to leave school
and enter the industries. I have tried, too, to show how the good people
of Crefeld, while providing industrial education for their boys, have
given careful attention to their physical, social and moral education.
AIM OF THE SCHOOL.
The industrial continuation school tries to equip young working
men to meet the demands of the present economic life, as well as to
furnish them general instruction during the important years between
fourteen and eighteen. The problem of these schools is difficult in that
the youth must be considered first, as an individual ; second, as a member
of a trade; and third, as a citizen of the state. The school tries to
harmonize these points of view so as to make good men, efficient
workers, and good citizens.
The industrial continuation school applies the lever at the point of
the boy's greatest interest, his chosen vocation, turning to use the eager
expectation and joyous ardor with which at fourteen he enters into
industrial life. The ever changing demands of modern life with the
corresponding changes in methods of production make the master's shop
the best place to learn the practical side of a trade. The industrial
continuation school has, however, provided school work-shops for some
of the trades, not with the idea of replacing the master's instruction, but
of supplementing it logically under technical leadership, thus making it
possible to turn out a better all-around workman.
At this time in a boy's life, he naturally demands the "how" and
"why" of everything he sees and does. In the workshop of the master
there is no time for this theoretical instruction which is absolutely
necessary if the boy is to become a thoughtful worker and not a mere
machine. In the master's workshop the economic struggle claims all
251727
4 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
the powers of the worker, and demands every minute for productive
work. The industrial continuation school, therefore, tries to give this
information in the school workshops in immediate connection with
practical work. It seeks to unite technical and economic knowledge
with the practical ability to do.
The theoretical instruction of the industrial continuation school
must provide for :
(A) The purely technical side in:
1. Industrial science.
2. Technical drawing.
3. Technical mathematics.
(B) The business or economic side in:
1. Bookkeeping.
2. Calculations of cost of production.
3. Business correspondence.
TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF THE WORK.
(1) Industrial Science teaches the pupil the origin, qualities, peculiarities,
value, methods of preservation, and application of all materials and supplies;
the construction, methods of use, manufacture and mechanical laws of working
tools, implements and machinery; the aims of labor, division of labor, and the
resulting demands upon the workman.
(2) Technical drawing trains the eye and hand to represent ideas graph-
ically, and gives the power to read intelligently from drawings the plans of others.
(3) Technical mathematics does not stand detached from the other subjects
of instruction, but is, in reality, a mathematical way of looking at industrial
science. It applies the skill in reckoning gained in the elementary schools to the
numerous problems of vocational life.
BUSINESS OR ECONOMIC ASPECTS.
(1) Calculations of cost of production, as presented in technical mathe-
matics, furnish a foundation upon which a fair price can be calculated, taking
into consideration materials and trimmings, wages, the general cost of running
the business and a reasonable profit. The examples furnished by the study of
industrial science and technical drawing deepen the student's insight in the ele-
ments to be considered in fixing a reasonable price for products.
(2) The instruction in bookkeeping is simple, but shows the boy the value
of a systematic setting down of the incidents of business. Even the so-called
laborer learns a practical system of keeping his household accounts which trains
him to book his income and outgo, and to keep them balanced.
(3) The instruction in business correspondence teaches the pupil systematic
composition, the neat setting down of business letters, petitions to authorities,
documents of all sorts, and the usual filling out of business forms.
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS OF CREFELD 5
TRAINING FOR CITIZENSHIP.
The industrial continuation schools must do more than train a mere
workman. The apprentice will later be a citizen with duties and
rights. If he is to perform his duties and to assert his rights, he must
know them, not only in a general way, but in the spirit in which they
originated. The school must, therefore, teach the young citizen the
organization of the state and community, and his relations to them both
as a citizen in general and as a person carrying on a trade. It will
make a special effort to familiarize him with the idea that order is the
only possible foundation of general welfare, and that the weal or woe
of individuals or of classes is dependent upon that of the whole com-
munity; that improvements in the conditions of the individual must be
brought about without burdening the whole community. It must train
the pupils to submit to law and authority, and to subordinate himself
in an organization for the purpose of reaching a common aim.
Training for citizenship is closely connected with training for
morality and virtue. Many opportunities offer themselves to the genuine
teacher of awakening the feeling of the young man for what is good and
noble in his relations to others, to the family, to master and customer,
to employer and inferior, to the poor and the weak, to friend and
enemy. Examples and habit work effectually upon the pupil to trans-
form the right feeling into the right deed in order that he may fulfil
in himself the words of the poet: "Let man be noble, helpful and
good."
BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF THE INDUSTRIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOL.
The Board of Directors consists of nineteen men presided over by
the Assistant Burgomeister. The majority of the Board hold their
positions by virtue of their connections with the city government. The
others are chosen by the city council. Four are expert schoolmen; one
is the Royal School Inspector, one the Director of the Industrial Arts
School of Crefeld, one a teacher in the Classical School, and one the
Director of the Continuation School. Five of the Board are manu-
facturers: one is a velvet manufacturer, one a silk manufacturer, one
a silk printer and dyer, one a manufacturer of machinery and one a
publisher. Seven are master mechanics: one is the head master of the
Carpenter and Cabinet-maker's Guild, one the head master of the
Tailor's Guild, one the head master of the Baker's Guild, one a jeweler,
6 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
and one a plumber. The Board also includes one professional architect
and one merchant.
Every one of these men ought to contribute to the success of the
Board. With the exception of the Assistant Lord Mayor and the
four schoolmen, they are all actively interested in commerce or in-
dustry. The four schoolmen are carefully selected with the view of
keeping the continuation school in close touch with the other schools
of the city and state, and insuring consideration for cultural ideals in
the management of the continuation schools.
Besides the director there are fourteen teachers who are employed
exclusively in the continuation school, and thirty-eight who devote a
part of their time to this work, while their main employment is else-
where. Of the thirty-eight, twelve are elementary school teachers, two
are technical teachers from the Royal Weaving School, and 'twenty-four
are mechanics or engineers. Friends of the industrial schools in Germany
insist very strongly that the technical part of the instruction of the
apprentices must be given by men in the trades; and that the elementary
teachers employed in teaching even such subjects as German and mathe-
matics must acquire in some way practical knowledge of the trades
followed by the pupils. The report for 1909 shows that during the
year one elementary teacher took a three week's course in the experi-
mental school for bakers and millers in Berlin. Another devoted some
time to the study of the art of hair-dressing. Another took a three
week's course of training in artistic script or lettering in the Industrial
Arts School of Crefeld. Another took a course in single and double-
entry bookkeeping which lasted six months. A four week's course in
the pedagogical methods of industrial school work was given to me-
chanics and engineers during the summer vacation. Building inspectors
and engineers from the various cities of the Rhine Province were called
to Crefeld to take part in this conference.
During the fiscal year the receipts consisted of the following items:
Tuition 17,340 marks
Contributions from Guilds, Unions and Donations 200 marks
Other receipts 120 marks
Contributions from the commercial and industrial authorities 26,000 marks
Contributions from the City Treasury 49,890 marks
Total . . 93,550 marks
Personal expenditures 87,067 marks
Expenditures for supplies 6,483 marks
Total . 93,550 marks
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS OF CREFELD 7
Besides this, the city furnished the schoolrooms and bore the cost
of maintenance, lighting, heating, cleaning, and fire insurance. These
items amount to 12400 marks.
The regular tuition fee is six marks a year, but for voluntary outside
pupils, twelve marks a year. It is paid quarterly by the parents or by
the employers.
Of the 517 hours of instruction of the past year,
242 hours were given in the time from 7-1 a. m., or 47%
111 hours were given in the time from 2-6 a. m., or 21%
164 hours were given in the time from 6-8 a. m., or 32%
This table shows that nearly half of the work is done before one
o'clock p.m., over two-thirds before six o'clock, and a little less than
one-third of the work is done between six and eight p.m. The masters
and teachers cooperate in arranging a study plan that will not interfere
too seriously with the workshop, and that will, at the same time, make
it possible for the boy to do his studying at an hour when he is physically
able to accomplish something. Both masters and teachers realize that
the old plan of utilizing the fag end of a boy's energies for his education
in the late evening hours and on Sunday is a mistake.
HOURS OF INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS TRADES.
In all trades, at least four hours of instruction per week is given,
the average being six hours ; two hours is given to industrial science and
civics, one hour to technical mathematics, including bookkeeping and
orte hour to business correspondence. Besides this minimum of four
hours per week, the various apprentices receive additional instruction as
follows, the figures indicating hours per week:
1. Bakers, none.
2. Confectioners, first three half years, 2 of drawing; three following half
years, 2 in decorative confectionery.
3. Butchers, in all cases, 2 of zoology.
4. Waiters and cooks, 2 of setting tables and serving.
5. Barbers and hairdressers, 2 of instruction in the practice of cutting and
dressing hair.
6. Tailors, 3 of technical drawing and technical instruction in sewing.
7. Shoe and leggin makers, 4 of technical drawing and practical workshop
instruction.
8. Sadlers, 2 of technical drawing and manufacture of models.
9. Cushion makers and decorators, 2 of technical drawing, cushion-making and
decorating.
8 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
10. Builders, 2 of technical drawing.
11. Gardeners, 4 of botany, surveying, and drawing of plants.
12. Carpenters and cabinet makers, 2 of technical drawing.
13. Wagon makers and wagon-smiths , 2 of technical drawing.
14. Horseshoers, 2 of technical drawing, and 2 of practical instruction in horse-
shoeing.
15. Builders and artistic blacksmiths, 2 of technical drawing.
16. Sheet-iron workers and plumbers, 2 of technical drawing.
17. Machine smith workers, 2 of technical drawing.
18. Mechanical and electrical engineers, 4 of technical drawing and physics.
19. Engravers, 3 of technical drawing.
20. Typesetters and printers, 2 of lettering and spacing.
21. Bookbinders, 2 of technical drawing; 2 of pasting, and preparation of
marbled paper.
22. Lithographers, 2 of technical drawing.
23. Dyers, none
24. Finishers and cloth printers, none.
25. Weavers and spinners, third year, 2 of practical work in the weaving room.
26. Designers, 4 of technical drawing.
27. Helpers, none
28. Merchant apprentices, in all 6 of science of commerce, counting-room work,
commercial arithmetic, penmanship, commercial geography, study of
commercial wares and bookkeeping.
29. Errand boys, none.
30. Apprentices failing in the journeyman examination, 2 of drawing.
31. Feeble-minded, 2 of manual training, instruction in wood and paper work.
SUMMARY OF ATTENDANCE ACCORDING TO PRINCIPAL GROUPS OF WORKERS.
School Year 1907-08 1908-09 1909-10
Mechanics' apprentices 1369 1439 1418
Apprentices in the factories 571 795 1018
Unskilled 430 520 641
Total 2370 2754 3077
In the school year 1908-09 and in the school year 1909-10 appren-
tices in the textile industry with their associated branches were required
to attend the Continuation School. The youthful employees in the trades
of weavers, spinners, colorers and finishers were counted in as appren-
tices. This explains the comparatively great increase in the number of
apprentices in the factories. (See accompanying table.)
ABSENCES IN THE INDIVIDUAL TRADES.
The absences in percentage run from 4.3% in the case of the shop-
keeper's apprentices; to 9.8% with the waiters and cooks. The waiters
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS OF CREFELD
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10 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
and cooks also have the highest percentage of unexcused absences, 4.7% ;
the wagon and carriage-makers having the lowest, .7%. The highest
percentage on account of illness was charged to the engravers, 6.1%;
while the lowest, .6%, was given to the gardener's apprentices. The
percentage of absences was highest in the case of apprentices from small
industries, absences of apprentices from the large industries usually be-
ing the fault of the boy himself. Absences of apprentices from the
small industries were usually the result of stress of work in the shops.
The school authorities regarded this year's showing of percentage as
high and made an earnest appeal to the masters to keep their appren-
tices in school. It should also be mentioned that the law punishes
the boy, parent, and master for unexcused absences from the continuation
school.
The following classes of persons are excused attendance at the con-
tinuation school.
First: Those entitled to the privilege of one year's military service as volun-
teers.
Second: Pupils who attend the Industrial Day School of Crefeld for a year
with a good record.
Third: Pupils of the commercial schools of the Chamber of Commerce.
Fourth: Those apprentices and workers employed in Crefeld but living
outside who bring evidence, which is recognized as satisfactory by the president
of the city government, that they are attending a continuation school at their home
town.
Fifth : Pupils of special ability who may be transferred to the hand workers'
and industrial arts school. This arrangement applies to pupils who arc qualified
for drawing of a higher character than that given in the continuation school, and
f?ho now receive their drawing instruction, as well as their workshop instruction,
in the industrial arts school. Journeymen who have completed the continuation
school for apprentices, but who are still compelled to attend a continuation school
may substitute for this time in the hand-workers' and industrial arts school.
In the summer of 1909 only thirty pupils were excused and in the winter only
thirty-three.
RELATIONS WITH THE GUILDS AND UNIONS.
During the past school year the relations between the guilds and
other unions of workers and the schools have been very friendly. At
the invitation of the guilds the school was represented by the director or
by technical teachers at most of the examinations of the apprentices for
journeymen's certificates or at the conclusion of their apprenticeship.
The shoemakers' and tailors' guilds made, as in earlier years, con-
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS OF^-GBgWlQ**^^ 11
siderable contributions to the cost of the workshop instruction of their
apprentices, and have shown their lively interest in the school by frequent
visits. Several guilds have provided prizes for their apprentices.
By authority of the president of the board of education and at the
wish of the shoemakers' and tailors' guilds, the Easter and the Whitsun
holidays were lengthened one week for the classes in this trade so that
in the future they will comprise two weeks before and one week after
the holiday. The time lost will be made up between Easter and autumn.
On a petition of the Guild of Confectioners, the Christmas holidays
were extended thru the entire month of December. The loss will be
made good by an increase in the time of instruction of one hour per
week in the months of January, February, and March.
Negotiations with the representatives of the business owners con-
cerned led to the placing of the instruction of commercial apprentices
upon two half days before noon, so that the instruction of these pupils
now comes twice in the morning between seven and ten, instead of
three times between seven and nine, a change which is as beneficial to
the instruction as it is to the business.
The citizens of Crefeld are greatly interested in the physical, social,
and moral education of their apprentices. All Germany, in fact, is
awaking to the importance of providing instruction for the apprentices
that shall aim at something more than making a good workman. In
almost every city are to be found organizations of public spirited citizens
who are supporting the school in its efforts to provide the physical, social,
and moral training so necessary to the fourteen year old boy. Germany
is beginning to treat the continuation school as if it were a separate
independent institution, as much entitled to a home, to a special faculty
of teachers, to places of amusement, etc., as any other school.
ENTERTAINMENTS.
The continuation school of Crefeld gave three public entertainments
during the year. They were attended largely by members of the board
of education, representatives of the industrial unions, parents of the boys,
and the public generally. The following program is typical and is very
much like programs of entertainments given by other sorts of schools.
It was a surprise to the author, however, to find young men in the
apprentice school carrying thru successfully such a program as this,
furnishing the speaking, turning, music, etc., from their own number:
12 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
PROGRAM
1. Overture to "Wallenstein's Lager" Kerling
2. Address given by Head Teacher Rosellen.
3. "Heil dir im Siegerkranz," sung in unison.
Sei's truber Tag, sei's heitrer Sonnenschein,
} Wir wollen Preussen, wollen Preussen sein. 1
4. Two Selections on Stringed Instruments. { < a) En S elmacht *"*<
[ (b) Andante rehgioso Loeschorn
5. Upon the Death of Queen Louisa (1810) Poem by M. von Schenkendorff
Spoken by HEINRICH LAUWIGI
6. To Queen Louisa Poem by Theodor Koerner
6. Funeral March Chopin
7. "Das Lied vom Schill" Poem by E. M. Arndt
Spoken by PAUL KLAPPORTT
8. "The Good Comrade," sung in unison.
9. "Die Opfer zu Wesel" Poem by Schmidt
Spoken by ERNEST WINDOLPH
10. (a) "The Dead Soldier" 1
(b) "Kriegslied" J School choir with accompaniment
11. "On to Victory," March Blon
12. "Freiheit, die ich meine," sung in unison.
13. "Aufruf" Poem by Theodor Koerner
Spoken by THEODOR GRUNDMANNS
14. "An die Gewehre," March Lenhardt
Accompanied by exercises of the turning division of the Industrial
Continuation School.
15. "Prussian Song," sung in unison.
16. (a) "Reiterlied" Poem by Fr. von Schiller
(b) "Krigers Zuversicht" Poem by E. M. Arndt
School choir with musical accompaniment
(Melody: Old Prussian Army March)
17. "Prussian Tattoo" Saro
with closing song
18. "Deutschland, Deutschland, uber alles," sung in unison.
Music: City Orchestra.
Choir: 300 Continuation School Pupils.
Five evenings of the week are used for turning, under the leader-
ship of a trained conductor. Both of the city halls, lying on opposite
sides of the city, stand at the disposal of the pupils in order to make
atendance easier. On 176 evenings, 7,050, pupils took part in these
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS OF CREFELD 13
exercises, an average of about forty pupils per evening. On three
occasions, the continuation school held something like an American
'field-day" where the various turning teachers had an opportunity to
carry out their performances on a greater scale.
Play in the open is zealously cared for. The city play grounds are
crowded on the days set aside for this school. On each one of the
sixty-four Sundays and holidays of the past year, about 500 young people
took part in the play. The director of games permits the boys to reg-
ulate the games so far as possible.
EXCURSIONS.
Excursions conducted by the teachers have not generally been satis-
factory. Teachers are unable and unwilling to leave their families on
Sunday and give these excursions the attention they deserve. The young
people, too, love freedom, and the supervision of the teacher awakens
among them a feeling of compulsion and guardianship. As the purpose
of the school is to develop self-control, independence, and a feeling of
responsibility, the school faculty have limited their activity to promoting
the formation of excursion clubs, and giving them advice. The club
chooses its own leader out of the circle of present or former pupils, the
school faculty having the right of veto. Every leader of the six clubs
formed up to the present time has received from the faculty a map of
the neighborhood of Crefeld. The marching plan and cost of every
excursion is given by the leader a few days before by means of placards
on the school walls. From time to time the leaders are called in by the
faculty to give a report of the last excursion. The conduct of the
excursion clubs up to the present time has been satisfactory. The
number of young people who have been induced to take part in these
excursions has steadily increased. The lack of a grown-up conductor
has had no bad results, as the leaders have insisted upon strict order.
Besides the free school excursions, special excursions under the conduct
of a teacher have been taken by the classes for the purpose of visiting
various industrial plants.
During the school year the pupils have made zealous use of the
opportunities offered for baths and swimming. The city authorities
have provided a swimming tank in the city bath for the industrial
continuation school pupils on Sunday mornings. For a fee of ten pf.
(two cents and a half) on 48 Sundays about 4,941 continuation school
boys, an average of 103 per morning, have taken a swim. The greatest
14 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
attendance (274) was on the 7th of August, and the smallest attendance
(32) on the 2d of January. A special swimming teacher gives the
pupils free swimming lessons. Quite a number of swimmers have
secured the "free swimming certificate."
The school library is enjoyed by the industrial continuation school
pupils. The manager of the library has a printed list of books which
is furnished to the pupils. Books are given out on Sunday morning
from 10-12, and on Wednesday evenings from 7:30-8:30. In 40 school
weeks on 72 evenings, 4,757 books were loaned to 482 pupils. The
library has proved not only an effective means of combatting trashy
literature, but a rich source for supplementing and deepening the in-
struction given in the school.
SAMARITAN COURSE.
Twenty reliable students of the upper grade have been admitted into
the Samaritan course for pupils of the industrial continuation school.
The course is conducted by a special teacher who has been especially
trained for this work, and who is an active member of the Crefeld
Samaritan Union of the Red Cross. The purpose of this course of
instruction is to promote the effective interest of the young men in first
help to the injured in the workshop, in the house, and on the street.
The pupils follow the theory with active interest and are dexterous in
the practical exercises.
A course in stenography has been offered by an experienced teacher
who has imparted instruction to seventeen pupils in correspondence sten-
ography, and to eighteen pupils in court reporting. Some of the pupils
in the beginning course were brought up to 100 syllables a minute.
The rivalry of the boys was spurred on thru prizes.
The pupils of the music course number twelve, and practice one
evening a week under the conduct of a concert master. At these
rehearsals the pupils gain skill in the handling of their instruments free
of cost. On the evenings of school entertainments the school orchestra
has performed valuable service, and its excellent work has won the
approval of all.
APPRENTICE HOME.
To keep the pupils off of the street and away from the drinking
houses on Sunday afternoons and in winter when the weather prevents
play in the open, and at the same time to entertain them and employ
them usefully is the work of the Apprentice Home. This has existed for
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS OF CREFELD 15
four years and with every year has increased the scope of its work.
During the past year six convenient rooms have been in use. The
management of these rooms was in the hands of a special continuation
school teacher who was helped by many public-spirited citizens.
In order to work against the inordinate desire for amusement and
the wastefulness of youth, the industrial continuation school has sought
to awaken a sense of economy by means of school savings banks. The
treasury is supervised by school officials, and inspected by a head cashier
chosen by the chairman of the school committee. Depositors are paid
back their money at any time, upon request. During the last school year
35,925 marks (about $8,982) was deposited by 509 pupils, an average
of 90 marks weekly upon which 4% interest has been paid.
Pupils and their parents are often in need of friendly advice in
matters connected with the training and employment of the children.
This is provided them at the consultation office, which is under the
management of the director of the Continuation School. The office
is in great demand by pupils, parents, and masters.
These various organizations have bound the pupils of the school
together in a strong bond of friendship. The influence of the school
and its teachers upon the pupils is strengthened in this way. The pupils
feel that the school is their friend, interested in their education and
welfare. The boy is treated as a whole boy, and not merely as a
machine for turning off work. He is not merely trained for life, but
actually lives while he is in the school.
Many contributions were made to the apparatus and books of the
school in the course of the school year by the Prussian Ministry of
Commerce and Industry, many owners of industrial plants, teachers,
mechanics and former pupils of the school.
Legacies and Bequests in which the Industrial Continuation School
has an interest, include the following:
1. Friederich Wilhelm bequest for granting of scholarships to
pupils of such schools as aim at the study of industrial subjects; approved
by order of the Ministry on the 9th of October, 1902. Amount of
capital, 12,198 marks.
2. Legacy of the deceased Assistant Councillor, Ludwig Friederich
Senffardt, for the support of the elementary and continuation schools;
approved by the order of the Ministry on the 24th of November, 1901.
Amount of capital, 155,885 marks.
16 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
3. Legacy from Heinrich Dediger for the support of pupils in the
continuation school; approved by the order of the Ministry on the 18th
of January, 1904. Amount of capital, 2,255 marks.
4. The funds for scholarships in the industrial schools (granted by
the painters' guild) for the purpose of supplying apparatus to needy
scholars. Amount of capital, 568 marks.
INDUSTRIAL DAY SCHOOL.
The industrial day school is a preparatory school for handwork and
technic, and provides a partial substitute for the industrial continuation
school. It takes the pupils immediately upon leaving the elementary
school, and gives them a year's preparation for their trade.
The industrial day school in one year with 38 hours of instruction
per week reaches the goal which the continuation school reaches in three
years. While the continuation school pupils in three years with six hours
per week for forty weeks, receive 720 hours of instruction, the day school
pupils in one year receive 1,520 hours of instruction, r~ore than twice
the amount of the entire continuation school instruction.
Attendance at the industrial day school is especially to be recom-
mended to those who have chosen a technical or industrial arts vocation
in which a thoro preparation in drawing is necessary.
According to Paragraph 3 in the local ordinances concerning the
industrial continuation school, those pupils who have done good work in
the industrial day school for a year are excused from attendance at the
industrial continuation school. After the year, they enter practical life,
but they may prepare themselves further by voluntary attendance at the
handworkers' and industrial arts school. They can be accepted as all-
day pupils in the above named institutions, and receive their practical
education in the workshops there.
One of the advantages of the industrial day school is that here many
pupils are prevented from making an unsatisfactory choice of a trade.
Here it will be often shown that they do not possess the bodily and
mental strength necessary for certain trades, while they may be admirably
fitted for another trade. In many cases it will be possible to get hold of
the pupils early enough to protect them from the disappointment that
results from a mistaken choice of trade.
Pupils are admitted into the industrial day school regularly at
Easter, and in exceptional cases, in autumn. Only such pupils will be
accepted as have finished the elementary school, and can show in all
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS OF CREFELD 17
subjects taught there a satisfactory knowledge. Applications can be
made at the consultation office of the industrial continuation school.
The tuition amounts to 60 marks per year, and is paid in half-yearly
installments of thirty marks (about seven dollars and a half). For
needy, ambitious scholars this may be entirely or partially omitted at
the discretion of the Director.
The industrial day school is managed by a Board of Education, and
is under the special direction of the Director of the industrial con-
tinuation school.
COURSE OF STUDY.
NUMBER OF HOURS
Class A Class B
Course for
SUBJECTS Technical Decorative
Course Trades
1. Religion and moral teaching 2 2
2. Industry and science 2 2
3. Industrial composition and correspondence 2 2
4. Industrial bookkeeping 1 1
5. Study of materials 2 2
6. Industrial arithmetic 3 5
7. Algebra 3
8. Geometry 4 4
9. Natural history 2 2
10. Linear and perspective drawing
11. Technical and special drawing
12. Ornamental special drawing 3 8
13. Perspective drawing after models and patterns. ... 3
14. Workshop instruction 3 3
Total 38 38
With the beginning of the year 1910, workshop instruction is to be
introduced as an experiment. It will be a counterbalance to the purely
theoretical training by providing a body of observation and experience.
It should heighten the respect for manual work and should increase
the joy of work.
In conclusion I would say that the aim, organization, and spirit of
the continuation school of Crefeld would meet with approval in a far
more democratic country than Germany. This school really aims at the
development of the individual and citizen as well as of the producer.
The course of study appears simple, practical and not crowded with fads.
The boy is considered as a probable manager of a small business, and
the course provides both business and technical training.
18 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
The Board of Education is, on paper at least, ideal in that it includes
officials, employers, workmen and representative schoolmen. Managers
of big business organizations devote the necessary time to the supervision
of the continuation school. Representatives of the various trades are
given an equal share. The merchant and architect stand for the business
and professional world. The educators on the Board are men actively
engaged in various phases of school work. The sole purpose of this
Board is the care of the continuation schools of Crefeld.
In Crefeld, as elsewhere in Germany, you find both elementary
teachers and men from the trades employed as teachers in the industrial
schools. The number of teachers whose time is fully taken up with
work in the continuation school is on the increase in Germany. Writers
on the subject believe that the majority of the teachers in such schools
should be employed for full time and should make the work in the
continuation school their main occupation, thus giving the continuation
school system a more independent character.
The proportion of the elementary teachers employed in Crefeld is
smaller than in most German cities. Those employed in the continuation
schools are given some practical training in the shop, while on the other
hand, men from the trades are required to acquaint themselves with
ordinary teaching practice. Considerable prejudice exists in Germany
against the ordinary school teacher as a continuation school teacher.
The elementary teachers are inclined to rely too much upon theory and
device, and often seem to believe that by such means they can do without
practical knowledge of the trades. The best schoolmen, however, be-
lieve that even to teach the mother-tongue, civics, and mathematics of
the continuation school more practical knowledge is required. The
subjects are not taught as mere subjects but as applied to a definite aim,
some trade.
The systematic and thorogoing consideration of the boy's welfare
as a boy, that cares for his general culture and amusements as well as
for his shop training, will be a surprise to many who have been reading
about industrial schools. Even in our American cities it will be hard
to match the showing made by Crefeld in this respect. By means of
these welfare organizations the Crefeld schools have developed among
the boys a sense of loyalty that brings them back at times of reunions
and festivals, that leads to gifts and work for the school by former
pupils. The increasing use made of the consultation office by parents
and pupils shows the confidence of the people in the Crefeld or-
ganization.
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS OF CREFELD 19
The full-day industrial school is a comparatively new feature in
the German school system. I saw a similar school in Dresden, and
there are one or two others in Germany. It serves a very useful
purpose in preventing disappointments on the part of young people
due to the selection of a wrong vocation. It enables gifted boys to
enter the industrial arts school without loss of time, and to develop
their special talent to the great advantage of themselves and the
community. Many schoolmen, while approving of such pre-apprentice
schools, regard it as a mistake to exempt their students from con-
tinuation school work during their apprenticeship. The resulting
separation between practical work and the school is a disadvantage.
Then, too, the work will be better done by the boy if carried on during
the three years of growth (14 and 18), than it can be if crowded into
a single year. The value of the continuation school in forming proper
intellectual and moral habits is a most important consideration. Such
intellectual and moral habits can be best secured by systematic, long-
continued training and influence during these critical years of adol-
escence.
PRE-APPRENTICESHIP SCHOOLS OF LONDON.
MR. Robert Blair, Education Officer of the London County
Council, in an address to the Imperial Educational Conference
held in London in the summer of 1911, made the following
statement of the need of vocational training for the English youth.
Of the total industrial population of England and Wales employed in
factories and workshops London holds one-seventh. London engages one-quarter
of all the clerks in England and Wales. Besides this vast industrial and com-
mercial system, there are in London enormous services of a more or less un-
skilled character. One-quarter of all the men and boys over fourteen years of
age are engaged in unskilled employments. About one-third of the children
leaving the elementary schools enter a form of occupation which can by any
stretch of imagination be called skilled. The remainder drift into unskilled
occupations where, for the most part, they learn little that is useful, and where
the mental and moral effects of their school training are too soon dissipated.
Seventy per cent, of the London dock laborers have been born in London ; the
skilled trades are largely recruited by immigrants; newcomers from home and
abroad constituting one-third of the London population. The system of in-
dentured apprenticeship has largely disappeared. An exhaustive inquiry made
for the County Council in 1906 showed that it would appear to be only a waste
of time and money to attempt to revive an obsolete system.
In consequence of extensive competition and of extensive subdivision of
labor, opportunities for an all-round training can scarcely be said to exist in the
London workshops. In one direction the skill developed is extreme, but the
training is either one-sided or no training at all; and a change in the circum-
stance of a trade generally means a new venture in life for many of its workers.
London is not the only city of which these things are true. They exist in
Liverpool, in Birmingham, in Leeds and so on; but because of its great size,
and the almost infinite variety of its activities, these things exist in a more intense
degree in London; the struggle is greater, success is greater for the more
adaptable; failure involves greater disaster. In London, therefore, with the
endless possibilities of dislocation of occupations and with its enormous services
of an unskilled character, the first essential quality for the worker is character
to keep his head up under changing circumstances; and the second (perhaps the
same as the first), is a genius in adaptability. Character and adaptability are
the aim of the whole educational system. But in addition to all the general
efforts in this direction, something of a specific character can be done, and is
being done, for those pursuing or intending to pursue an industrial career. The
curriculum of the Central Schools has an industrial or commercial bias. The
evening schools make some provision for those wholly occupied in the daytime.
For those who can secure a half-day or two half-days per week of "time off"
from their daily employment, "part-time" classes are provided. For those who
20
PRE-APPRENTICESH1P SCHOOLS OF LONDON 21
have not yet entered upon an industrial career, but who are prepared to give an
undertaking to enter specific skilled occupations at or about 16 years of age,
the trade schools have been established.
CHIEF PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRIES OF LONDON.
Some statistics founded on the census of 1901 throw light on the
situation. In 1901, there were 1,098,106 men in twenty-five groups
of occupations; 391,411 under twenty years of age, of whom 92,944
attended evening classes. There were 1,422,423 women in 28 oc-
cupations; 420,475 under twenty years of age, of whom only 68,920
attended evening classes. In 1906, London had 740,256 children in the
elementary schools.
The industrial and technical classes supplementing these evening
classes are made up of children taken from the elementary schools during
the last years of the school course, no child being admitted to the trade
schools under thirteen years of age. Attempts were made to base the
organization of these schools upon the productive industries of London.
According to the census of 1901, the numbers in these industries were
as follows:
Dress, 220,000: tailors, milliners, dressmakers, shoemakers.
Building, 143,000: carpenters, joiners, bricklayers, painters, decorators,
glaziers, plumbers.
Printing, 96,000: printing, lithographers, bookbinders.
Engineering and Machine-Making, 94,000: blacksmiths, fitters, etc.,
metal trades, shipbuilding.
Furniture, 62,000: cabinet-makers, and french polishers, upholsterers.
Precious Metals, Watchmaking and Instruments, 39,000: gold and silver
smiths, jewelers and watchmaking, electrical apparatus making.
Skin and Leather, Hair and Feather, 27,000: leatherworkers, saddlers
and harness-makers, hair and feather workers.
Chemical, 20,000.
Textile, 15,000.
Food, Tobaco, Drink and Lodgings, 188,000.
The first type of vocational schools mentioned by Mr. Blair is the
CENTRAL SCHOOL.
Besides the ordinary elementary schools, the London County Council
has recently organized a certain number of Central Schools providing
general instruction, but with a commercial or industrial bias. These
schools are organized with a view of providing for boys and girls who
can remain in school until over fifteen. The city of London has been
divided into sixty districts; and it is expected that each district will
22 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
be provided with such schools. Pupils are taken from the ordinary
schools between the ages of eleven and twelve, and are chosen partly
on the results of the competition for Junior County Scholarships and
partly on the results of interviews with head teachers and managers.
Some of the pupils above the age of fourteen receive financial assistance
from the County Council.
These schools are modifications of the older Higher Elementary
Schools, and are distinguished from the ordinary elementary school
by the fact that the pupils are selected and go thru a complete four
years' course with a special curriculum. They are unlike the older
secondary schools with a commercial bias in the fact that they provide
free education, and have a curriculum framed with a view to enabling
pupils of 15 }/2 years of age to earn a better living. It is claimed that
the training secured in these schools prepares for apprenticeship at six-
teen, but, in view of Mr. Blair's statement about the decline of ap-
prenticeship, this consideration is not very important. Whether such
schools will be of more practical value than the ordinary elementary
and secondary schools is uncertain. They seem likely to be dominated
by the same ideals ; to be managed in the same general way ; and taught
mainly by teachers with only the usual academic training.
Up to the present time, 39 such schools have been organized; 13
with an industrial bias, 13 with a commercial bias, and 13 with both an
industrial and commercial bias.
EVENING SCHOOLS.
Coming more directly to the subject of vocational training given
to workmen in England, we find that they mainly obtain their technical
education, so far as schools are concerned, first, in evening classes;
second, in technical day classes.
In the words of Mr. Blair "No one can understand the system of
technical education in England who has not fully grasped the meaning
of the evening school work. In these evening schools are to be found
those students who have felt most the need of education; those who are
prepared to make the greatest sacrifices for it, and consequently those
who gain benefit from it. The efficiency of the system is, however,
limited by the exhaustion of the long day's toil before the evening school
begins." (Italics mine.)
These evening schools are of three kinds: free schools, ordinary
evening schools, and commercial and science and art centers. In the
free schools, instruction is provided in the usual academic subjects of
PRE-APPRENTICESH1P SCHOOLS OF LONDON 23
reading, writing and arithmetic, English, history and geography; as
well as in a long list of subjects including vocal music, gymnastics and
physical drill, swimming, first aid, home nursing, cooking, laundry
work, millinery, dressmaking and needle work. In some of the schools
an industrial course in technical drawing and workshop arithmetic is
taken preparatory to the industrial course at the technical institutions.
Instruction is also given in woodwork, wood carving and metalwork.
In the "ordinary evening schools" practically the same subjects are
taught, but the work is of a more advanced character. In addition,
elementary instruction is given in commercial subjects such as book-
keeping, shorthand, typewriting and office routine. Students are also
prepared for the examinations for the minor appointments in the civil
service. Classes are held in many schools for courses in English liter-
ature and foreign languages.
The commercial centers provide courses covering two or three years,
consisting of two or three subjects so arranged as to provide a progressive
course of study. Students under eighteen years of age are admitted to
the centers only on the condition that as a rule they join a course and
guarantee to attend regularly for at least three evenings a week. In
addition to the more advanced work in the commercial subjects taken
in the ordinary schools, such subjects as accounting, banking, commercial
law, etc., are taken.
Science and art centers provide elementary and intermediate in-
struction in science and art subjects leading up to the advanced work
in the technical institutions and schools of art and the polytechnics. The
free and ordinary schools are open usually on three evenings a week
between the hours of 7 :30 and 9 :30 ; the centers on four evenings a week
for about two and a half hours an evening. The total number of
evening schools is 274. Students pay a fee of one shilling a session in
the ordinary schools; two shillings six pence in the commercial centers;
and five shillings a session in the science and art schools.
PART TIME SCHOOLS.
The evening and Saturday afternoon schools are, of course, the most
important industrial schools of England. The English apprentice
usually works 54 hours a week, and is supposed to be free during the
remaining time to carry on school work. Still he finds it difficult to
meet the demands of both his school and shop, and the tendency of the
present day is very strong for part-time work for apprentices and other
24 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
persons who are unable to give up full time to the schools. The part-
time school is, of course, only a modification of the evening classes,
differing only in this respect; that the training is given in the day time
or in the early evening instead of the late evening; employers allowing
their young work people time off without deduction of pay during a
portion of the day to attend classes which will improve their work.
Many employers are beginning to do this, some permitting their appren-
tices to attend classes in the morning. The feeling is becoming quite
general in England that it is expecting too much of a boy to require him
to work nine or ten hours during the day and get his school training
at night. In this they are following, at a distance, the lead of the
German continuation school.
TECHNICAL DAY SCHOOLS.
Technical day schools include: (a) trade preparatory schools intended
to cover the period between leaving the elementary school and the age
of apprenticeship (16) ; and (b) trade schools proper which attempt to
replace apprenticeship. The number of the trade schools for boys,
however, is limited to a few groups of boys' trades such as silversmithing,
tailoring, cooking and bakery. The membership in some of these boys'
trade schools is confined to sons of the masters, and they may be
neglected in any general description of the scheme of vocational edu-
cation. The women's trade schools which attempt to prepare girls for
work as "improvers" teach the following trades: dressmaking, retail and
wholesale ladies' tailoring, waistcoat making, millinery, corset making,
upholstery, laundry work, cooking, embroidering, and photography.
The girls' trade schools, which attempt to replace apprenticeship, seem
to be very popular. Their courses are short (two years), and appear
to me to be lacking in cultural and artistic elements. Statements have
been made by persons connected with these schools that the girls receive
enough training to enable them to get other women's positions by under-
bidding them, but not training enough to prevent their being overtaken
by the same fate later on. Many competent critics believe that girls
would be better served by good artistic training in the schools and prac-
tical training in the master's shop.
The trade preparatory school, however, has no thought of serving
as a substitute for apprenticeship, but aims to prepare for apprenticeship
or for further instruction in the technical institutions. They undertake
to give instruction in the principles common to a group of handi-
crafts, giving that power of adaptation which may be needed on account
PRE-APPRENT1CESH1P SCHOOLS OF LONDON 25
of changes in the industrial conditions and methods of production.
Many believe that ignorance of these fundamental principles is an
important factor in increasing the number of unemployed when changes
in the industries occur. The training of the engineer may lead to the
making of guns and motors; the well trained carpenter can easily learn
to make cabinets, ladders, picture-frames, and cricket bats; in the work
of the carpenter and fitter the foundation is broad enough to lead into
the profession of the architect and engineer. The work in all these
schools should result in the recognition of the dignity of labor, and the
perception that the work of a skilled artisan is as worthy as that of a
clerk and much more stimulating to the intellect.
The curriculum of the trade preparatory schools is usually three years
in length ; the pupils being permitted to leave the elementary school and
enter the trade preparatory school at about thirteen. The studies and
time given to them differ in different cases, and has been stated by Mr.
Blair as about eight hours a week in English, eight or ten hours in
mathematics and science, eight or ten hours in drawing and manual
work during the first year. In some schools, however, fully half the
time is given to drawing and manual work. During the first and second
years the curriculum is more general and is suitable as a general prepara-
tion for a number of trades. In later years, the pupils are permitted to
specialize according to their particular career.
The classes are usually held in buildings of technical schools, whose
main purpose is evening work. There is a decided advantage of this
bringing together of the day and evening work, as it will lead, in some
cases, to the pupils shifting to day work for full time in place of a few
hours of evening work; and in other cases will lead a boy who has
been compelled to leave the day classes to continue work in the evening
after entering upon a trade. This correlation between day and evening
classes is very important, especially now when the number in the day
classes is very small. According to the census of 1909-1910, there were
only 700 boys in the day classes of technical schools and 620 girls. The
boys and girls in these schools are required to pay tuition, but the
statistics of the year I have just quoted show that only 224 boys and 195
girls paid tuition fees.
Mr. Blair enumerates ten day technical schools for boys, eight main-
tained by the County Council and two aided by it; and four day trade
schools for girls maintained by the Council and two aided by it. The
courses in these schools vary slightly in the proportionate amount of
workshop instruction to academic subjects. A somewhat detailed sketch
26 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
of the work done in the school of building at Brixton will, perhaps, be
the best means of presenting a picture of the work of this group of in-
dustrial schools.
SCHOOL OF BUILDING AT BRIXTON.
The prospectus of this school states that "a day school for boys has
been established at this institution with the object of providng a sound
scientific and technical training for boys preparing to enter the building
trades and allied vocations." It is not suggested that this training
should replace the apprenticeship system, but the institution should give
instruction which it is almost impossible for the boy to get anywhere
else. The whole of the training is preliminary, and should be continued
in evening schools in the Council's institutes or polytechnics, after the
pupil enters upon his life work.
The course is for three years, and is confined to boys between thirteen
and fifteen who have passed the sixth standard of the elementary school,
or its equivalent. The curriculum which is common to all students
during the first years, includes:
8 hours per week workshop practice;
6 hours per week technical and drawing office instruction;
4 hours per week elementary science;
10 hours per week English, mathematics, and art applied to
building ;
2 hours per week physical instruction.
At the end of the first year the principal advises the parents of the
boy attending the school as to the most suitable trade to select for their
boy; this recommendation is based upon any special aptitude shown
during the first year, upon reports from the master, the character of the
boy, and the position of the parents.
In the second and third years the courses are divided into two main
sections: (a) the artisan course for bricklayers, carpenters, masons,
plumbers, painters, etc.; (b) the higher course for architects, builders,
and surveyors. During these two years the instruction in building con-
struction for all students is of a more advanced character, and the
general elementary science with reference to building materials and
mechanics of building is more directly applied. Students taking the
artisan course specialize in the trade which they intend to follow. The
pupils in the higher course receive weekly instruction in the various
trades in rotation; builders' quantities, architectural drawing and land
surveying are added to the curriculum.
PRE-APPRENT1CESHIP SCHOOLS OF LONDON 27
In the second year :
6 hours per week is given to technical and drawing office
work ;
10 hours per week are devoted to the specialized instruction;
4 hours per week to elementary science;
8 hours per week to English, mathematics, and art applied
to building;
2 hours per week to physical instruction.
In the third year:
15 hours per week are devoted to the specialized instruction;
5 hours per week to technical and drawing office work;
4 hours per week to science;
4 hours per week to English, mathematics, and art applied to
building ;
2 hours per week to physical instruction.
Towards the end of the third year, as opportunities arise, the boys
are placed. The principal is of opinion that it is undesirable to insist
upon the completion of the three years, as it would be extremely difficult
to place, or assist in placing, groups of fifty boys leaving simultaneously.
Workshops are provided and equipped for the practical teaching of
several building trades under conditions similar to those met with in the
builders' shops. The school of architecture gives instruction in the
history of buildings, and for the study of architectural design and plan-
ning, together with the preparation of architectural drawings. Lecture,
classrooms, drawing offices and laboratories have been arranged in con-
nection with the workshop, so that the practical work of the school may
be combined with class study in building construction, drawing, architec-
ture, and the chemistry and physics of materials. Every facility is given
for fullsize work, and various trades act in conjunction for this purpose.
A portion of the large hall of the school is devoted to this work. Great
importance is attached to the practical combination of the studies in the
several trades and branches as required by a master-builder, foreman, or
architect ; and an architectural director of the school has been appointed
for this purpose. Facilities are, therefore, given for combining architec-
tural studies in drawing and theoretical work in the workshop, lecture
room, and drawing office. Courses of special lectures, open to all stu-
dents, are held each season upon architectural and scientific subjects in
connection with the work of the schools.
28 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
EVENING CLASSES.
In the practical trade schools of this institution, admission is given
only to those engaged in the trades. These classes are intended to sup-
plement workshop classes, and not to teach trades. Students in these
classes are expected to attend the lectures and drawing office work in
connection therewith, and those who fail to do so are not allowed to
continue the workshop practice. Classes are held in the evening, two or
three times a week, from 7:30 to 9:30. The work of the school is
divided into three departments, as follows: First, trade classes, in-
cluding brick work, carpentry and joinery, staircasing and hand railings,
masonry, pipe work, sanitary engineering, stone carving, wood carving,
modeling, wrought iron work. Second, building instruction in allied
subjects; builders' bookkeeping, estimating, office routine, construction,
mechanics of building, constructional steel work, building or quantity
surveying, chemistry and physics of building materials, geometry, land
surveying and valuation, workshop arithmetic, practical mechanics.
Third, architecture and drawing; architectural design, working details
and perspective drawing, architectural history, freehand and model
drawing, lettering and inscriptions for drawings, sketching and measur-
ing buildings and details. These courses are held at the Victoria and
Albert Museums at South Kensington.
Other vocational schools for boys follow the same general plan as the
Builders' school. Some do more shopwork; some less; some pay more
attention to the industrial arts; some less. Altogether they are a mere
handful compared to the masses attending the evening classes (126,000)
and the larger masses getting no vocational instruction. All of them
try to use the period from about twelve to sixteen years for the pre-
apprentice training.
VOCATIONAL AND GENERAL EDUCATION.
For the young man who can work all day and study nights, England
makes ample provision. What strikes the observer who has seen the
day work provided in Germany is the excessive demand made by the
English system upon the physical endurance and will power of the rising
generation. My observation leads me to believe that the demand is too
great, and is sapping the vitality of the English youth.
In my opinion the Germans are wiser in preserving the elementary
school up to fourteen, the beginning of adolescence, for general culture,
PRE-APPRENT1CESHIP SCHOOLS OF LONDON 29
including hand training, and then compelling supplementary vocational
training in the day time up to the age of eighteen for those obliged to
go to work. I believe no boy should be compelled or permitted to
choose his vocation before the age of fourteen, and further, that no one
can do it for him intelligently before that time. I believe the boy's
general welfare demands no shortening of the period of infancy or child-
hood, no premature entering into the ranks of the breadwinners. Let
vocational training wait until childhood ripens and youth begins.
THE SCOTTISH SYSTEM OF CONTINUATION SCHOOLS.
IN the article on the Crefeld Schools, published in the November
number of VOCATIONAL EDUCATION it was pointed out that the
continuation school is a supplement to the apprenticeship system of
Germany. The master's shop is the basis and center of the industrial
education of the apprentice, the school being called in to supplement it
especially on the theoretical side. (The existence of a strong, well- -
organized system for training the youth thru apprenticeship is an ad-
vantage the German has over the English, Scotch or American; an
advantage which makes it comparatively easy for him to deal with the
problem of the vocational training of the youth.
In the article in the January number, an attempt was made to show
the English method of dealing with the problem ; a method that seemed
to the writer to be worthy of careful study, but far less effective than
the one employed in Germany. Part of the difficulty in England is
due to the lack of a well-organized system of apprenticeship and part
of it to the lack of faith on the part of the ordinary Englishman in
sd 1 3 as instrumentalities for promoting efficiency. The Englishman, Jr
too, has neglected to give adequate consideration to the inability of the
ordinary youth of fourteen to bear up under the two-fold strain of
shopwork in the day time and school work in the evening. Up to the
present time, English authorities have not required by law attendance
at continuation schools on the part of youth who have left the elementary
school at fourteen and gone to work. At present many things indicate
a desire to change this situation, and to provide for both compulsory
attendance in industrial schools, and to arrange for at least a part of
the work in the day time. The Scotch have already taken one decided
step in this direction.
Conditions in Great Britain resemble those in America. A sketch
of the situation, as it presents itself in Scotland, seems likely to be
especially instructive and helpful to Americans who are considering
the question of industrial education for the youth.
The Scotch have already secured legislation which must be noted
by everyone studying their industrial schools. The following are the
sub-sections :
30
THE SCOTTISH SYSTEM 31
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE ACT.
(1) Without prejudice to any other power of a school board to provide in-
struction in continuation classes, it shall be the duty of a school board to make
suitable provision of continuation classes for the further instruction of young per-
sons above the age of fourteen years with reference to the crafts and industries
practiced in the district (including agriculture if so practiced and the domestic
arts), or to such other crafts and industries as the school board, with the consent
of the Department, may select, and also for their instruction in the English lan-
guage and literature, and in Gaelic-speaking districts, if the school board so
resolve, in the Gaelic language and literature. It shall also be their duty to
make provision for their instruction in the laws of health and to afford opportunity
for suitable physical training.
(2) If it shall be represented to the Department on the petition of not less
than ten ratepayers of the district that a school board are persistently failing
in their duty under the foregoing subsection, the Department shall cause inquiry
to be made and call upon the board to institute such continuation classes as appear
to the Department to be expedient, and, failing compliance, may withhold or
reduce any of the grants in use to be made to the board.
(3) It shall be lawful for a school board from time to time to make, vary,
and revoke byelaws for requiring the attendance at continuation classes, until
such age, not exceeding seventeen years, as may be specified in the byelaws, of
young persons above the age of fourteen years within their district who are not
otherwise receiving a suitable education or are not specially exempted by the school
board from the operation of the byelaws, and that at such times and for h
periods as may in such byelaws be specified. Such byelaws may also require all
persons within the district having in regular employment any young person to
whom such byelaws apply, to notify the same to the board at times specified in
the byelaws, with particulars as to the hours during which the young person is
employed by them :
Provided that no young person shall be required to attend a continuation
class held beyond two miles measured along the nearest road from the residence
of such young person.
(4) This subsection provides for the application of the Public Health Act
>f Scotland.
(5) If any person fails to notify the school board in terms of any such bye-
laws in regard to young persons employed by him, or knowingly employs a young
person at any time when his attendance is by any such byelaw required at a con-
tinuation class, or for a number of hours which, when added to the time required
under any such byelaw to be spent at a continuation class, causes the hours of
employment and the time so spent, taken together, to exceed in any day or week,
as the case may be, the period of employment permitted for such young person by
any Act of Parliament, he shall be liable on summary conviction to a penalty not
exceeding twenty shillings, or in case of a second or subsequent offence, whether
relating to the same or another young person, not exceeding five pounds.
32 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
(6) If any parent of a young person by wilful default, or by habitually
neglecting to exercise due care, has conduced to the commission of an offence under
the immediately preceding subsection or otherwise, thru failure on the part of
the young person to attend a continuation class as required in any such byelaw,
he shall be liable on summary conviction to the like penalties as aforesaid.
Sub-section 1, of the Scottish Education Act referred to, provides
that it shall be the duty of school boards to make suitable provision
in continuation classes for the further instruction of young persons
above the age of fourteen years with reference to the crafts and in-
dustries practiced in the district. It will be noticed that this includes
agriculture and domestic arts; and that the Act further provides for
instruction in languages and literature, together with the laws of health
and physical training. The work here is left to the local boards of
education, and not referred to special boards created for the management
of these schools, as is usually the case in Germany, and as is provided
by the laws of Wisconsin. Germany's experience has seemed to indicate
^~that the coupling up of the management of these two types of schools
has not usually been successful.
Sub-section 2 provides for a method of compelling boards of edu-
cation to do their duty in providing such continuation classes; and
provides for penalizing them by reduction of their grants in case of
disobedience. This provision seemed necessary on account of the hide-
bound conservatism of some educational boards who will neglect the
new and unorganized form of education for the old and established one.
Germany has found it best to entrust the new form of education, at
least in the beginning, to separate organizations of men interested in
the new movement.
Sub-section 3 permits local school boards to compel attendance of
youth at the continuation classes up to, and not exceeding, seventeen
years of age, unless already in attendance at another school, or specially
exempted by the school board from the operation of the byelaw. This
sub-section contains a further very important provision: that all persons
having in their employment any young person to whom any such byelaw
applies must notify the school board at certain specified times, stating
particulars as to hours during which the young persons are employed
by them. Some such provision is absolutely necessary for the successful
working of the law.
Sub-section 5 compels employers to provide time for the attendance
of young persons in their employment at the continuation school; and
THE SCOTTISH SYSTEM 33
further provides that the hours spent in continuation classes are to be
counted in computing the hours of employment of such young persons.
This will prevent the practice of employing people a full number of
hours in the shop, and then requiring them to do their school work in
the evening. It will lead, in many cases, to employers granting time
during the day for such continuation classes, as employers who cannot
keep the boy at work will be willing that his school instruction shall
be carried on at such times as are best calculated to render him more
efficient. This provision is very important, and under intelligent super-
vision will lead to a gradual transfer of a large part of the evening
continuation class work to day classes, where it will be possible to do
genuine educational work.
Sub-section 6 compels parents to assist school officials in carrying out
this Act. Taken with the provision relating to employers, it will make
it possible for any community so desiring to establish a genuine system
of continuation classes providing for regular attendance at such hours
and place as will make possible thoro and efficient work.
Taken together, the provisions of the Scottish Act seem to provide
for taking a long step in the direction of proper vocational instruction
for youth. Altho it does not provide for general compulsory attendance,
it enables communities, desiring it, to have it. While it does not provide
for day instruction, the general tendency of the act will be to promote
this most important phase of the work. The Act places Scotland a
long way in the advance of England, altho it seems probable that
Parliament will soon enact a similar law for England.
Steps have already been taken in some school districts in Scotland
to provide for compulsory continuation classes. The matter is being
discussed in both of Scotland's greatest cities Glasgow and Edinburgh.
Both of these cities have vocational schools, but have not yet taken full
advantage of the provision of the Scottish Education Act with reference
to compulsory attendance. Rivalry between these cities is intense; and
one or the other will soon get into line with the provisions of this Act.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF SCHOOL BOARDS.
Sir John Struthers, Secretary of the Scotch Education Department,
in his report for the year 1910-11 discusses the purposes of the Law, and
the responsibilities of School Boards in carrying it out. His statement
34 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
is very important, and I shall give a large part of it. I have seen
nowhere else so clear and thoro a statement of the case for the con-
tinuation school.
Up to recently, it has been no part of the duties of the school board under the
statutes (or, indeed, of any other public body) to take cognizance of the period
of adolescence ; to reinforce parental authority at the time when it is most needed,
but is, in point of fact, weakening from natural causes ; to guide and advise young
persons as to choice of occupation, or even to put before them much needed infor-
mation on the subject; to ascertain what further systematic instruction is needed
to enhance the efficiency of all persons in their several occupations, and to make
them more useful citizens ; or to see that suitable means of further education with
these practical ends in view are actually provided. It is broadly true that school
boards, as such, have hitherto stood in no sort of relation to young persons over
fourteen years of age, or had any responsibility for providing for educational
reeds of adolescents.
It is becoming increasingly clear that a national system of education founded
on such principles can be at best but a qualified success; that is the experience
of other countries as well as of our own, and everywhere the progressive nations
of the world are bestirring themselves to make the proper instruction, control and
discipline of adolescents a matter of State concern.
Besides laying a definite responsibility upon school boards for the further
education of adolescents, the Legislature has indicated generally, but without
prejudice to the provision of other forms of instruction, certain lines which that
further education should follow, viz:
1. The maintenance and improvement of the health and physique of the
young people ;
2. The broadening and refining of their interests and sympathies by the
influence of good literature;
3. The equipping them with a competent knowledge of some craft, industry
or occupation which offers a reasonable chance of providing a means
of livelihood in adult years.
To this may be added a system of training adolescents in the responsibilities
and duties of communal life, as well as of its rights and privileges.
The foundation of all continuation class instruction should be laid in the Sup-
plementary Courses of the day school, and it is to the proper organization of this
part of the work of the day school that the attention of boards should, in the first
place, be directed. Some course of the kind should be placed within the reach of
every day school pupil between 12 and 14. Much greater pains should be taken
to adapt the instruction to the probable future occupations of the pupils, and a
vigorous effort be made to ensure that a much smaller proportion of the pupils
leave the day school without something approaching to two years' experience of
Supplementary Course work.
THE SCOTTISH SYSTEM 35
In the more populous districts of Scotland, it has been found more convenient
to provide the equivalent of Supplementary Courses of instruction, for pupils who
have left school without it, in classes distinct from those of the day school. Hitherto,
such classes have been held in the evenings, and it may be difficult owing to indus-
trial conditions to make any great change in that respect. But the disadvantages
attached to evening class instruction, following upon full time occupation during
the day, are undoubtedly very grave ; so grave, indeed, in some cases as to make
it doubtful whether they do not outweigh the advantages. Public opinion among
employers should favor attendance at suitable evening classes as a part of that
instruction in a trade or industry which an employer is supposed to provide for his
employees in those trades in which there is a regular system of apprenticeship, and,
therefore, as nominally falling within the regular hours of employment. It is
even more important that a sense of responsibility for the future of young persons
in their employment should be created among employers in those industries in
which there is no semblance of an apprenticeship, and in which the labor of ado-
lescence is too often in no sense whatever a preparation for earning an independent
livelihood. School boards in industrial districts have no more pressing task before
them than the fostering by all means in their power of a movement for the better
use of the years of adolescence as a preparation for adult life. They must associate
with themselves representatives of employers and employed, and must join hands
with every agency having for its object the industrial efficiency and social well-
being of the community. They must also have regard to the exigencies of par-
ticular employments, and adapt their classes thereto both as regards the times at
which they are held and the nature of the instruction given therein.
To recapitulate, it is suggested that as a discharge in some measure
of the duties laid upon them by the recent Act :
I. School boards should, according to their opportunities, see to
the establishment in their day schools of efficient Supplementary Courses
with in all cases satisfactory provision of practical work for both boys
and girls as indicated in Schedule VI. of the Code.
II. When the provision of properly qualified teachers of certain
subjects of the Supplementary Course is beyond their resources, they
should invoke the help of the Secondary Education Committee, who
may provide such teachers for groups of schools, and also aid in the
supply of any necessary equipment.
III. The work of the primary school should be so ordered as to
secure to pupils of average ability and diligence from one and one-half
to two years of Supplementary Course instruction before leaving the
Day School.
IV. Arrangements should be made whereby pupils who have not
received this minimum of instruction should obtain it either by further
36 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
attendance at the day school at certain seasons of the year (rural dis-
tricts), or by attendance at classes specially provided (Preparatory
Courses, Division III., of Continuation Class Code).
V. The larger school boards for themselves, and in other cases
the Secondary Education Committees, should, in cooperation with the
relative Central Institutions, establish at suitable centers within their
districts classes for the further instruction of those who have received
the aforesaid minimum of Supplementary Course Instruction (Division
III. Classes).
VI. The organization of these classes should be based upon a care-
ful survey of the occupations of the district, distinguishing between those
which do and those which do not offer a prospect of employment suitable
for adults.
VII. In so far as the subject-matter of these courses involves the
treatment of principles of science or of art, the study of which may be
carried to a higher stage, the classes should be definitely affiliated to
the appropriate Central Institution 1 and the program of work definitely
related to that of those institutions. In addition, every endeavor should
be made to bring the wlole work of these classes within the sphere of
influence of the Central Institutions, so that all forms of technical
work, even of the lowest grade, may benefit by the knowledge and ex-
perience of the best experts available.
VIII. As an important, if subsidiary, part of the program of work
of such classes, arrangements should always be made for the instruction
of the students in English, in the laws of health, and the duties of
citizenship, while opportunity should be offered for suitable physical
exercise.
IX. Each Board should for itself make a census of young persons
between 14 and 18 in its district with a view to ascertaining the extent
to which they are profiting by the opportunities offered, and to con-
sidering whether or not they should avail themselves of their powers
under the Act to make byelaws requiring attendance at continuation
classes in certain circumstances.
X. Before applying compulsion every effort should be made, by the
provision of suitable instruction at convenient hours, by conferences with
employers and associations of workmen and by cooperation with other
'Higher technical, art and commercial schools cooperating with the continua-
tion schools.
THE SCOTTISH SYSTEM 37
agencies, to stimulate voluntary attendance. When compulsion is
resorted to, it might be limited in the first instance to those who have
not received the minimum of Supplementary Course instruction specified
above before leaving the day school.
XI. The information as to young persons and their employments
necessarily accumulated for the proper organization of continuation class
work may be turned to useful account in another direction, viz., in
facilitating the work of agencies established under the Act for aiding
young people and their parents in the choice of employment. The
establishment of such agencies, in industrial districts at all events, is a
matter of the highest importance; and it is almost equally important
that such agencies should be in close relationship to the public authority
charged under the present Act with the duty of making suitable pro-
vision of continuation classes for the further instruction of young persons
above the age of 14 years with reference to the crafts and industries
practiced in the district.
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN EDINBURGH.
Edinburgh is carrying out this plan of operation in a most thoro
way. I shall attempt a description, using freely the reports published
by the Edinburgh school authorities. The following is a general outline
of the scheme of construction proposed for the session of 1910-11 in
accordance with the new Code of regulations for the continuation classes.
The subjects of instruction as outlined by the Scottish Education De-
partment are grouped as follows:
Division I. Classes for the Completion of General Elementary
Education.
English and Arithmetic, and one or more of the fol-
lowing: The Empire, Civics, The Laws of Health,
Drawing, Woodwork, Common Commercial Docu-
ments, Needlework, Cookery, Laundry Work, Dress-
Making, Millinery.
These classes are intended for pupils who have not had a full course
of elementary instruction in the day school; or, who, by reason of not
proceeding directly to the continuation classes on leaving school, find it
necessary to review the elementary subjects before entering upon one of
the courses for specialized instruction. Pupils under the age of 14 years
are not admitted unless they have been exempted from attendance at the
38 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
day school. The work of these classes corresponds generally with that of
the Supplementary Courses recommended by Sir John Struthers, which
are given in the last two years of the elementary school.
Division II. Classes for Specialized Instruction. This division
shall comprehend classes for the elementary instruction of pupils in
special subjects especially such as may be of use to pupils who are
engaged in or preparing for any particular trade, occupation, or pro-
fession.
Pupils may be admitted to classes under Division II. at the discretion
of Managers, provided that due regard is had to the previous instruction
of the pupils in elementary subjects, and to their fitness to profit by
the instruction given.
The following classes of pupils will be eligible to enter Division II :
I. Pupils over 16 years of age at the date of joining the class.
II. Pupils under 16 years of age who
(a) Have been one year in an approved Supplementary
Course; or
(b) Have attended at least thirty meetings of a course
conducted under Division L, and obtained a cer-
tificate of satisfactory proficiency from the managers
of such course; or
(c) Have been in attendance for at least one year as duly
qualified pupils at a Higher Grade School or De-
partment, or at a Secondary School.
heads :
SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION.
The subjects of instruction may be classified under the following
(A.) English Subjects English, geography, history, the life and duties of
the citizen.
(B.) Languages The study of any language, ancient or modern, approved
by the Department.
(C.) Commercial Subjects Commercial arithmetic, handwriting, bookkeep-
ing,, shorthand, commercial correspondence, business procedure,
commercial geography. The study of any language (including
English) with a direct view to its use in business.
(D.) Art Drawing and modeling; elementary design.
(E.) Mathematics Elementary geometry, algebra, mensuration, dynamics.
(F.) Science The elementary study, theoretical or practical, of physical or
natural science, or any branch thereof.
THE SCOTTISH SYSTEM 39
(G.) Applied Mathematics and Science
(a) General Practical mathematics, including technical arith-
metic and the use of mathematical instruments and tables;
mechanical drawing.
(b) Special The application of mathematics and science to spe-
cific industries. Machine construction, building construc-
tion, naval architecture, electrical industries, mining, navi-
gation, architecture, horticulture, or any other industry the
scientific principles underlying which admit of systematic
exposition.
Where the nature of the subject requires it, previous
or concurrent study of (G) (a), or of the related branch of
(E) or of (F), will be made a condition of taking any sub-
ject under (G) (b).
(H.) Handwork Elementary instruction in the use of tools woodwork, iron-
work with concurrent instruction in drawing to scale, and the
practice of such occupations as needlework, cookery, laundry work,
dairy work, with accompanying explanations of processes.
(I.) (a) Ambulance work (practice and theory),
(b) Physical exercises.
The class in each subject or group of related subjects attended by
the same pupils must meet not less than one day a week for such length
of session as may be approved by the Department. When a session of
less than twenty weeks is proposed a statement of the circumstances in
which a shorter session is thought desirable should be given. Each
meeting shall be of not less than one hour's duration or, in the case of
subjects of practical instruction, 1^ hours.
By practical instruction is meant instruction under heads (F), (G),
or (H) which proceeds mainly by means of actual experimental work
on the part of the pupils themselves in properly equipped laboratories
or workshops, supplemented by the necessary explanations and demon-
strations. Supplementary theoretical instruction may be reckoned as
part of the practical course, but to an extent not exceeding one-half
of the time occupied by the pupils in practical work.
Division III. Courses for Specialized Instruction. This division
shall comprehend organized courses of systematic instruction arranged
with a view to fitting students for the intelligent practice of particular
crafts, industries, or occupations. Courses to be recognized under this
division must, as a rule, extend over at least three years, and must pro-
vide for such minimum of instruction in each year as may in each
particular case be proposed by Managers and approved by the Depart-
40 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
ment. For the benefit of pupils who intend to take such a course but
are not yet qualified, Managers may form a class preparatory to and
distinctly related to the Division III. course with a curriculum to be
approved by the Department as of sufficient breadth.
Courses may be instituted under Division III. to provide technical
instruction appropriate to any crafts, industries, or occupations, ap-
proved by the Department as suitable in the particular circumstances.
Such courses may be classified under the following heads:
(a) Commercial and literary courses.
(b) Art and art crafts.
(c) Engineering civil, mechanical, electrical, mining, sanitary,
etc.
(d) Naval architecture.
(e) Navigation.
(f) Architecture.
(g) Building and allied trades,
(h) Textile industries.
(i) Chemical industries.
(j) Printing processes.
(k) Women's industries.
(1) Agriculture and rural industries.
(m) Other suitable industries or occupations not included
under any of the above heads.
Students who fulfil the requirements of Division II. will be eligible
for admission to the Preparatory class.
Students who have passed successfully thru the Preparatory class
or any year of a course in Division III. will be eligible" for admission to
the succeeding year of that course.
Students (a) over 17 years of age who are certified by His Majesty's
Inspector to be qualified to benefit by the instruction; or (b) who have
been more than one year in an approved Supplementary Course and have
gained a Certificate of Merit; or (c) who have been two years in an
approved Intermediate Course; will be eligible for admission to the first
year of a Division III. course.
Students who have gained an Intermediate Certificate of the Scotch
Education Department will be eligible for admission to the second year
of a Division III. course.
Students who have had a Post-Intermediate course in a Secondary
School, and have gained a Technical or Commercial, or Leaving Cer-
THE SCOTTISH SYSTEM 41
tificate, may be admitted to a third year of any Division III. course to
which their certificates are relative.
Students producing satisfactory evidence of other qualifications
which may be accepted by the Department as equivalent to any of those
specified in the five preceding Articles will be eligible for admission to
the year of the Division III. course corresponding to their qualification.
Classes in Division III. must meet not less than twice a week for at
least twenty weeks, each meeting to be of not less than one hour's
duration, or in the case of subjects of practical instruction, one and one-
half hours.
Division IV. Auxiliary Classes. This division shall comprehend
classes for instruction in physical exercises, military drill, vocal music,
woodcarving, fancy needlework, elocution (if taken in connection with
an English course), or such other subjects as may be recognized by the
Department as suitable for grants under this division.
These classes shall be open to all pupils who are free from the ob-
ligation to attend school as required by the Education Act, but it shall
be a condition of grant that the Department shall be satisfied that
Managers are using all reasonable endeavor to encourage the attendance
of the pupils at classes of other divisions also.
CLASSES IN THE SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS.
Continuation classes are carried on in Edinburgh in 25 schools: 6 of
the schools are set apart for young women and girls; 6 for young men
and boys; 10 for both sexes; and 3 for adults over 20 years of age.
Classes for the completion of general elementary education are conducted
in 17 of the schools. Provision is made for one or more courses of
specialized instruction in each school. Courses in domestic art are
organized in all schools to which girls and young women are admitted,
excepting the two commercial institutes.
English courses are taught in 11 schools
Commercial courses in 22 schools
Technical courses in 14 schools
Art courses in 6 schools
Domestic courses in 17 schools
There are six schools in which instruction in physical exercise is given. Swim-
ming and life-saving are taught in the four school baths belonging to the Board.
Vocal music is taught in 10 schools
Wood carving in 3 schools
Elocution in 3 schools
42 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
The total number of classes in the continuation schools for the year terminating
1911 is as follows:
Division I. Classes for the completion of general elementary education. 35
Literary English classes 11
Commercial English classes 306
Technical English classes 74
Art classes 20
Domestic classes 288
Recreative classes 87
Total 821
There are 421 teachers employed in the continuation schools; 122
are trained, certificated teachers. The Board has arranged courses of
lectures on the art of teaching, illustrated by practical demonstration
lessons for the remaining 299 teachers.
The continuation school session extends over a period of 26 weeks,
beginning about the end of September and closing about the end of
March. During the last four years, the school has had a summer session
of 12 weeks, beginning in April and terminating in June.
In all the schools, except those for adults, the fee is five shillings for
the session, which is returned to each pupil who makes 80% of at-
tendance and is given a satisfactory report from the head-master as to
conduct and progress. Pupils who enrol for one night's attendance a
week must make 90% of attendance in order to obtain the return of
their fee. The classes in physical exercises are open free to all pupils
of the Board's continuation classes, and to others on payment of a fee
of five shillings which is returned at the close of the sessions to those
who make 90% of the attendance possible for the whole session Prizes
are given for attendance and progress.
COORDINATION WITH CENTRAL INSTITUTIONS.
Reference has been made to Central Institutions which cooperate
with the continuation schools. This includes the Heriot Watt College
and the Edinburgh College of Art. The general principle of the scheme
is that the elementary instruction in English, commercial, technical, and
art subjcts should be given in the continuation schools ; and that students
who have successfully completed a two or three years' course, as the
case may be, should be granted a certificate based upon the results of
class work and class examinations, as well as on attendance qualifying
THE SCOTTISH SYSTEM 43
them for admission to the advanced or specialized classes in the cor-
responding department of the Heriot Watt College or Edinburgh
College of Art. The scheme for coordination, so far as technical work
is concerned, is a success, but in art and commercial subjects the results
have not been quite so satisfactory.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS.
Among the important steps recently taken may be mentioned the
Educational Census made by the Board in the summer of 1910, with a
view to ascertaining the extent to which young persons between 14 and
18 are taking advantage of the continuation classes, and with a view
to studying the groups of occupations followed by them. The formation
of Advisory Committees to offer suggestions as to the courses of in-
struction and the equipment required for the various classes should be
referred to as showing the intention of the Board to direct continuation
class instruction to profitable and practical ends.
During the last two years considerable progress has been made in
the provision of suitable instruction with reference to the crafts and
industries practiced in the district. Special classes have been organized
for plumbers, brass-finishers, metalworkers, leather-workers, tailors,
plasterers, upholsterers, French-polishers, chemists, and for the higher
rates of speed in shorthand, in addition to the classes which existed
previous to 1909 for mechanical and electrical engineers, masons, car-
penters, cabinet-makers, bakers, confectioners, printers, art craftsmen,
for those engaged in commercial occupations, and for domestic training.
In connection with the new school at Tynecastle a range of 18
workshops has been erected where proper facilities will be provided for
the instruction of plumbers, tinsmiths, engineers, pattern-makers, brass-
finishers, moulders, cabinet-makers, tailors, upholsterers and plasterers.
In the construction of the workshops the strictest economy has been
observed. In order to prevent the possibility of over-lapping with the
Heriot Watt College and the Edinburgh College of Art, and the con-
sequent waste of public money, the Board have had the advice and
guidance of the practical experts of these Institutions and also of some of
the practical men on the Advisory Council of the Educational In-
formation and Employment Bureau in drawing up the schemes of work
and in fitting up the workshops.
44 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
QUESTIONS FOR FUTURE CONSIDERATION.
Among the questions which now claim the attention of the Board the
following are worthy of note, viz :
(1) The best means of reaching the 7,000 young persons in the
city at present receiving no instruction.
(2) The provision of more suitable classroom and workshop ac-
comodation for adolescents.
(3) The prevention of overlapping and waste by judicious schemes
of coordination with the Central Institutions.
(4) Increased attention to the teaching of citizenship and physical
exercises.
(5) The training of practical experts in the art of teaching.
(6) Further cooperation with employers with a view to the in-
stitution of day continuation classes.
EDUCATIONAL INFORMATION AND EMPLOYMENT BUREAU.
In September, 1909, the Board opened an Educational Information
and Employment Bureau in their offices under the direction of the
Organizer of continuation classes. Since that time almost 2,500 appli-
cations for advice regarding further educational courses and suitable
occupations have been dealt with. Over 1,500 pupils have made
personal application to the Bureau for employment, and almost 1,200
of them have been placed in occupations for which they appear suited
by natural bent and educational equipment. The services of the Bureau
have been utilized by almost 600 individual employers.
The operations of the Bureau appear to have exercised a strengthen-
ing effect on the link between the day school and the continuation school
classes, as is shown by the large percentage of leaving pupils who now
proceed directly to the continuation classes. In order to bring home to
parents the great importance of selecting suitable occupations for their
children and of allowing little or no break between the day school and
the continuation classes, the members of the Board now address in
February of each year, meetings of leaving pupils and their parents.
COOPERATION WITH LABOR EXCHANGE.
In January, 1910, the Board of Trade opened a Labor Exchange
in Edinburgh. As the Juvenile Department of the Exchange and the
Board's Bureau were performing related duties, so far as the employ-
THE SCOTTISH SYSTEM 45
ment of young persons was concerned, it was felt that in the interest
of economy and effective industrial organization a scheme of cooperation
was very desirable. As the result of negotiations between the School
Board and the Board of Trade, an arrangement has been made whereby
the work of both departments is carried on jointly in the present office
of the School Board. All young persons between 14 and 17 years of
age are dealt with there.
The Labor Exchange has provided an officer to carry on the work
of registration of applicants for employment and of vacancies intimated
by employers. The School Board's officer continues to do the work of
advising boys and girls when leaving school as to the pursuits for which
they are suited and as to the opportunities which exist in the various
occupations. It is also his duty as organizer of continuation classes to
keep the system of further education in real touch with the industrial
needs of the locality, and to supply information regarding the edu-
cational courses suitable for groups of allied trades.
ADVISORY COUNCIL SECTIONAL COMMITTEES
The Bureau is under the charge of a standing committee of the
Board consisting of five members. Associated with the committee there
is an Advisory Council comprising representatives of public bodies, trade
associations, employers, and educational experts. It is the duty of the
Advisory Council to give advice to the Board on all matters connected
with the education required for the various trades and occupations in the
city and on the conditions of employment. In order that the attention
of each member may be concentrated on the industry with which he or
she is connected, 18 Sectional Committees have been formed to deal with
the following subjects, viz:
1. Printing. 10. Upholstery.
2. Engineering. 11. French Polishing.
3. Brassfinishers' Work. 12. Baking and Confec-
4. Tinsmiths' Work, tionery.
5. Molding. 13. Tailors' Work.
6. Building Construction. 14. Plasterers' Work.
7. Plumbers' Work. 15. Art.
8. Carpentry and Joinery. 16. English.
9. Cabinet-Making. 17. Commercial Subjects.
18. Domestic Subjects.
46 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
The duties of these Sectional Committees are as follows:
(a) To visit the particular classes which they are chosen to deal
with.
(b) To offer suggestions to the Board as to the equipment and
schemes of work of those classes, and as to further means cal-
culated to increase the interest on the part of the workers
concerned.
(c) To make an annual report to the Board.
The work of the Sectional Committees has been carried on with
much earnestness, and valuable reports have been furnished to the Board.
In this way the workshop, the counting-room, and the business establish-
ment are brought into close contact with the school, and a definite
practical bent is given to the instruction.
EDUCATIONAL CENSUS.
In the summer of 1910, an educational census was taken of the
children and young persons in the city of Edinburgh with a view to
determining two main points: (a) the actual number of young persons
for whom continuation class arrangements should be made; (b) the
nature of the industries of the various districts in which these young
persons are at present employed. The census was confined to houses of
a rental of 130 per annum and less. It was ascertained that on June
1st, 1910, the number of young persons between 14 and 18 years of age
was 14,988, and that of these 3,366 or 22.4% were attending con-
tinuation classes or other institutions for further study not including
day schools; 7,674 or 51% were not taking advantage of any facilities
for further study.
Calculated on the basis of the 1901 Census the total number of
young persons between 14 and 17 in Edinburgh in 1910 may be stated
to be 19,094, the number receiving instruction during the day 5,021,
and the number attending continuation classes, central institutions, and
private schools 5,758. Apparently then there were on June 1st, 1910,
in round numbers, 8,000 or 43.5% of the total population between 14
and 17 who were not in attendance at either day or evening classes.
Almost 1,000 of these have since been enrolled in the continuation
schools.
There were 43 occupations in the city in which more than 50
workers between the ages of 14 and 18 are engaged. These important
groups of industries will be carefully surveyed with a view to showing
THE SCOTTISH SYSTEM 47
to what extent provision has already been made in the continuation
schools for giving instruction in the subjects which are directly related
to them, and what further organization is required to meet the necessities
of occupations still unprovided for. Valuable assistance in this con-
nection will be given by the Sectional Committees of the Advisory
Council.
When the scheme of cooperation between the Board and the Labor
Exchange has been fully developed there will be issued to pupils at the
close of their day-school career leaflets and pamphlets giving information
about the conditions of employment, the rates of wages in the district,
the general nature of the opportunities and prospects in each industry,
the qualifications most required on the part of the learners or ap-
prentices, and the technical and commercial instruction required for
each occupation. One such leaflet concerning employment for girls has
been published.
One is impressed by the thoroness with which the Scotch have
undertaken the work of vocational education. While the Germans have
accomplished more on account of larger experience and more favorable
conditions; the Scotch in Edinburgh have developed a plan that com-
pares favorably with that of most German cities.
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