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 OUTLINES OF ORYCTOLOGY. 
 
 AN 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO 
 
 THE STUDY 
 
 OF 
 
 FOSSIL ORGANIC REMAINS; 
 
 ESPECIALLY OF THOSE FOUND IN 
 
 t tttititib Strata : 
 
 INTENDED TO All) 
 
 THE STUDENT IN HIS ENQUIRIES 
 
 RESPECTING 
 
 fte Nature of dFo$sil, 
 
 AND 
 
 THEIR CONNECTION 
 
 WITH 
 
 THE FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 WITH ILLUSTRATIVE PLATES. 
 
 BY JAMES PARKINSON, 
 
 Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons, Member of the Geological Society 
 
 of I. on, Inn, the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh, and of 
 
 the Csesarean Society of Aloscow. 
 
 Uontfou : 
 
 PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR; 
 
 AND SOLI) BY 
 
 SHERWOOD, NEELY, AND JONES, PATERNOSTER ROW 
 
 and 
 W. PHILLIPS, GEORGE YARD, LOMBARD STREET. 
 
 1822.
 
 THE following pages are dedicated to the 
 service of those Admirers of Fossils who have not 
 yet entered into a strict examination of the dis- 
 tinctive characters of these interesting substances. 
 
 An attempt is made, in this slight but compre- 
 hensive sketch, to show the difference of forms and 
 structure in the numerous organised beings with 
 which the earth was peopled before the creation of 
 man ; to mark the several circumstances in which 
 they agreed with, or differed from, the inhabitants 
 of the present world ; and to point out, from the 
 strata in which they exist, the order in which they 
 probably were formed. The limits of this pub- 
 lication will not always allow a full statement of 
 those minute distinctions which are the objects of 
 research of the more advanced enquirer ; but suffi- 
 cient, it is hoped, will be introduced to enable the 
 student to detect the more decided and more im- 
 portant characters of these substances, and to place 
 them under their appropriate genera. 
 
 ' 
 
 It may, it is hoped, thus become a useful Vade- 
 mecum for the intelligent traveller who may not yet 
 
 2O90932
 
 VI PREFACE. 
 
 have attended to these enquiries. At present, dis- 
 appointment frequently occurs, from the too limited 
 accounts of the fossil remains which offer themselves 
 for examination in different parts of the world : the 
 observer is perhaps satisfied, for instance, with 
 stating that the rocks were found to contain the re- 
 mains of shells, and that these remains were chiefly 
 of bivalves or of univalves, when, by a little farther 
 investigation of even the fragments of these fossils, 
 aided by reference to a manual of this kind, their 
 genera might have been ascertained, and such marks 
 noted, as, by subsequent comparison with the more 
 correct and elaborate labours of Lamarck, Sowerby, 
 &c., would admit of their species being ascertained, 
 and of important information being yielded on 
 points which, at present, are the subjects of con- 
 troversy. 
 
 The student, already delighted with the contem- 
 plation of surrounding creation, will be hereby led 
 into another field of observation, where he will per- 
 ceive decided traces of the vast changes which this 
 planet has sustained ; and will see the remains of 
 those beings with which it was inhabited previous 
 to the creation of man. Circumstances will be ob- 
 served, apparently contradictory to the Mosaic ac- 
 count, but which, it is presumed, serve to establish 
 it as tht revealed history of creation.
 
 PREFACE. VH 
 
 The discordance appears to be removed by the 
 assumption of indefinite periods for the six days of 
 creation : an interpretation adopted by many learned 
 and pious men, and which derives confirmation from 
 innumerable circumstances agreeing with the import- 
 ant fact of certain fossils being found to be peculiar 
 to particular strata; and especially from the remains 
 of widely differing races of animals being found in 
 such situations as evince that their creation must 
 have taken place at very distant periods. 
 
 . 
 For the several imperfections in this work, which 
 
 may have escaped the author's attention, he craves 
 indulgence ; hoping that they will not be found of 
 such importance as to render the wish too presump- 
 tuous of having it considered as a humble subsidiary 
 to that scientific and most valuably comprehensive 
 work, " Outlines of the Geology of England and 
 Wales" by the Rev. W. D. CONYBEARE and 
 W. PHILLIPS. 
 
 s <, ; ? . - 
 
 LONDON, 
 July 1822. 
 
 /a*
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 Page 8, line 5, for " combustible"' read " incombustible." 
 11, 3, for " disposed" read " arranged" 
 
 57, 36,/or " pappillosum" read ft papillosum." 
 64, five lines from the bottom,/or u resepores'' read " retepores." 
 71, last Hne,/or " formation'' read " formations." 
 77, line 25, for concluding sentence, read " tortuous Tallies which 
 
 held the polypes, and thus separated them.'' 
 79, 14,/or " Explanariae" read " Explanaria." 
 
 101, 5, dele " &. 
 
 147, last line, insert " ," after " smooth." 
 
 170, liqe 13, dele " considerable." 
 
 297, six line? from the bottom, for " similiarity" read " similarity." 
 
 302, line 14,/or " and" read " or." 
 
 302, 16, dele " in." 
 
 303, 28, for as" read ft than." 
 
 The reader is requested to observe also, that the figure intended to illustrate 
 Alreolites incrustans, page 66, and for which a reference is given 
 to PL II, fig. 5, will be found at PI. X,'fig. 11; and that it 
 having been thought necessary to give an illustrative figure of 
 Tubipora unastomosans, page 71, it is introduced PI. IX, fig. 10.
 
 OUTLINES 
 
 OF 
 
 ORYCTOLOGY 
 
 VrRYCTOLOGY is the science which enquires into the 
 nature, origin, and formation of those bodies which 
 possess the figures, markings, or structure of vegetables 
 or animals, whilst their substance evinces their having 
 been preserved through many ages, by certain changes 
 effected in subaqueous or subterranean situations*. 
 
 The substances of which these bodies are formed 
 being generally of a mineral nature, the term FOSSILS 
 is applied to them, as declaratory of their having been 
 dug from subterranean situations. They have also been 
 termed adventitious, extraneous, or secondary fossils, 
 to distinguish them from those fossils or original mine- 
 ral substances which are found in their native state 
 and situations. But as the term fossil, alone, declares 
 these bodies, bearing the obvious and characteristic 
 marks of vegetable or animal organization, to have been 
 
 * The term Oryctology is liable to the objection of not being sufficiently 
 confined, it including, in fact, every substance dug out of the earth; the 
 term Fossil, also, is exposed to the same objection: in excuse for their 
 employment, it must be observed, that this language was formed, and theie 
 terms were adopted and had received the stamp of authority from usage, 
 whilst utter ignorance prevailed respecting the nature of the substances to 
 which they were applied. Either, then, the best of these terms must be 
 admitted, a new vocabulary he formed, or perpetual periphrasis be had 
 recourse to: the first has been preferred. 
 
 B
 
 obtained from the mineral kingdom, the employment of 
 any of these epithets appears to be unnecessary. 
 
 By whatever mode organic remains, in subterranean 
 or subaqueous situations, may be preserved from reso- 
 lution of their substance for a considerable time, it is 
 obvious that they must be liable to be impregnated 
 with whatever matters may be held in solution in the 
 fluids with which they may be thus imbued . From this 
 source mineral matters may be deposited, by intromis- 
 sion, into the original interstices and cavities of the 
 organic body ; or may, by substitution, fill the spaces 
 which have been produced by the partial removal 
 of the original organic substance ; or lastly, may, by 
 impregnation and consolidation of the chemically al- 
 tered organic matter itself, produce the several earthy 
 or metallic fossils. 
 
 The earthy substances which enter into the composi- 
 tion of fossils, or, as in these cases they may be termed 
 petrifactions, are chiefly of the calcareous, siliceous, and 
 argillaceous kinds, in different states, and in various 
 mixtures. The most common of the calcareous genus 
 are the several species and varieties of carbonates ; 
 limestone, marble, stinkstone, chalk, spar, oolite, &c. 
 Fluate of lime sometimes occurs as the matrix, and, 
 very rarely, it forms the substance of fossils. Sulphate 
 of lime, though sometimes found crystallized in their 
 cavities, has not been mentioned as forming the sub- 
 stance of fossils. Sulphate of barytes, or baroselenite, 
 is said sometimes to form the substance of fossils, but 
 the instances are very rare. Silex enters, in different 
 combinations, into the composition of fossils: quartz, 
 chert, agate, calcedony, jasper, flint, pitchstone, and 
 semiopal, have all been found forming their substance 
 or constituting the masses in which they have been 
 contained. Alumine frequently also enters into the 
 composition of fossils, as well as of their containing
 
 * 
 
 matrices ; clay frequently fills their cavities, and forms 
 the beds in which they are found. Bituminous shale, 
 slate, and argillaceous iron stone, often contain fossils. 
 Fullers'-earth has sometimes, though rarely, been found 
 to contain some particular fossils. The nuclei of fos- 
 sil shells have been formed of hornblende, and both 
 vegetable and animal fossils have been found in sub- 
 stances designated as basalt, wacke, and trap. 
 
 The metals which most commonly contribute to the 
 formation of fossils are iron and copper, rarely lead or 
 zinc, and still more rarely silver ; they generally exist 
 in the form of carbonates or of sulphurets. The car- 
 bonates as well as the sulphurets of iron are chiefly 
 found in vegetable remains. Ligneous fossils of this 
 species present a very curious fact : although the tex- 
 ture of the wood appears to be nearly unaltered, its 
 substance has been so intersected by the crystallizations, 
 that on decomposition it is resolved into an impalpable 
 efflorescence. The specimens of wood which have 
 been mineralized by copper sometimes possess a con- 
 siderable degree of beauty, from the brilliant colours of 
 the malachite which enters into their composition. The 
 sulphuret of lead, galena, has been found in fossil 
 wood; and blende, the sulphuret of zinc, has been 
 found, with quartz crystals, investing fossil shells. Sil- 
 ver is said to exist in a fossil somewhat resembling 
 the ears of corn, found in the mines of Frankenberg, 
 in Hesse. 
 
 Casts or nuclei of organic remains are formed by 
 different mineral substances filling their cavities, and 
 thus taking the impressions of their internal forms and 
 markings. Impressions of the external surface are 
 formed by investment by the surrounding matrix and 
 by its subsequent induration. After this is accom- 
 plished, and the original substance removed, a cavity 
 or mould is left in the matrix corresponding in its figure
 
 4 
 
 and markings with the removed substance. Any mine- 
 ral matter being introduced into this mould, acquires, 
 as it hardens, a renewal or redintegration of the ex- 
 ternal form of the original substance. This cast is 
 sometimes hollow, having been formed by crystalliza- 
 tions which have only invested the inner surface, but 
 have not been sufficient to fill the cavity. 
 
 The casts or nuclei of shells, fruits, reeds, &c. re- 
 quire to be examined to ascertain whether the substance 
 of the fossil is similar or not to that of the matrix in 
 which it is found. If it is similar, the cast may be con- 
 sidered as having been simultaneous in its formation 
 with the bed in which it exists : if not, its substance 
 may have been yielded by percolation and subsequent 
 crystallization in the mould ; or it may have been formed 
 in some former bed, on the breaking up of which it may 
 have been deposited among the materials of the suc- 
 ceeding rock in which it is now found. 
 
 Vegetable or animal substances deprived of life, and 
 exposed to the action of the air, in combination with 
 moisture, are rapidly decomposed ; the softer and more 
 volatile of their constituent principles are dispersed un- 
 der new forms, and their more solid parts, such as wood 
 and bone, are sometimes left cohering and displaying 
 the form of the original skeleton. When in this state, 
 deprived of those principles which conduce to che- 
 mical changes, these substances become capable of 
 continuing unaltered in their forms, in different si- 
 tuations, for comparatively very long periods. But 
 either vegetable or animal substances, when placed, 
 under the influence of moisture, in situations excluding 
 the access of atmospheric air, undergo certain pecu- 
 liar chemical changes.
 
 Vegetable Fossils. 
 
 WHEN vegetable matter is accumulated in so large a 
 quantity that the compactness of the mass may in a 
 great degree exclude the atmospheric air from the in- 
 ternal parts of the mass, a considerable and peculiar 
 change is effected: the vegetable matter soon loses 
 its green and acquires a brownish colour ; its flavour 
 and odour are changed, and heat is produced, terminat- 
 ing, unless air is freely admitted, in combustion. The 
 vegetable matter, thus changed into Hay, acquires, 
 among its other new properties, that of powerfully 
 resisting any further change upon exposure to the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 But should vegetable matter be thus accumulated 
 in a situation in which moisture has almost constant 
 access to it, a very different result ensues. Another 
 process takes place, by which the vegetable matter, as 
 the process goes on, loses its original forms, and be- 
 comes a soft magma, of a dark colour and peculiar 
 appearance ; no traces of its former mode of existence 
 being discoverable, except in the accidental presence 
 of such vegetable matter as shall not have undergone 
 a complete conversion. When dried, it forms a readily 
 combustible substance, of a reddish brown colour, 
 readily absorbing and tenaciously retaining water, and 
 yielding, whilst burning, a strong bituminous odour. 
 This is the substance termed peat, immense accumu- 
 lations of which are formed in various parts, favour- 
 able to the collection of water and the growth of the 
 sphagnum palustre, a plant, by the conversion of which 
 the supply of this substance is chiefly supported. In 
 the peat-bogs or mosses, as the natural magazines of 
 this substance arc called, trunks of trees are often 
 found imbedded, and partaking of the nature of the
 
 surrounding bituminous mass. This change is effected 
 in different degrees : the deeper in the mass, and conse- 
 quently the longer exposed to the process of bitumini- 
 zation, the more perfect is the conversion. Some 
 pieces are found to have nearly lost their ligneous ap- 
 pearance, their respective lines and markings having 
 been molten down in different degrees during their b*- 
 tuminization ; whilst others, in which the nature of the 
 substance is also entirely altered, are found still to 
 retain almost all their characteristic markings. This 
 substance has long been known by the designation of 
 bituminous wood. 
 
 "Wood of a very different character, called Moss Fir, 
 is also frequently found in the peat mosses or bogs. 
 It much resembles, in its colour and general external 
 appearance, ordinary decayed fir-wood ; but on exami- 
 nation it appears that the fibre of the wood is strongly 
 imbued with resin, and that all its interstices are filled 
 with resinous matter. It is so highly inflammable, as 
 to be employed, by the poor of the districts in which 
 it is found, not only as fuel, but as torches. 
 
 As the real nature of this substance is not perhaps 
 known, it would be very desirable that further enquiries 
 might be made respecting it; it might then be deter- 
 mined whether the opinion which is here offered be 
 correct or not. From its retaining the colour and 
 appearance of decayed wood, it is conjectured to be 
 wood which, by exposure to the atmosphere, had sus- 
 tained the abstraction of all its constituent parts, ex- 
 cept the resin and ligneous fibre impregnated therewith ; 
 and from its having been thus rendered almost an 
 entirely resinous mass, it has not been affected by 
 the bituminizating process. 
 
 Subterranean collections of bituminized wood ancP 
 ether regetable matter are found at various depths 
 in different parts of the world. The substance thu*
 
 found is generally a compact, light, glossy, combusti- 
 ble substance ; of a dark brown colour, and frequently 
 almost black; splitting longitudinally into plates of 
 various thicknesses, breaking transversely with an im- 
 perfect conchoidal fracture, with a shining resinous 
 lustre, and sometimes yielding the appearance of the 
 markings of wood. This is the suturbrand of Iceland, 
 the Bovey coal of this country, and the common brown 
 coal of Thomson. 
 
 The fossil wood, now described, may be said to pass 
 intojW, which is found, especially in the neighbour- 
 hood of Whitby, in Yorkshire, hi a state very nearly 
 approximating to that of bovey coal. It exists in 
 plates, generally from half an inch to about an inch in 
 thickness, between which a film of carbonate of lime, 
 with pyrites, is disposed: excepting that it more fre- 
 quently shows marks of ligne.ous texture, its characters 
 may be said to be those of jet; its colour, velvet black; 
 internal lustre, shining, resinous ; fracture perfect, 
 large, conchoidal ; fragments, sharp edged, soft, ra- 
 ther brittle ; easily frangible ; very light. Jet is found 
 in other situations, in a different form ; resembling, in 
 its shape, and the markings of its surface, parts of the 
 branches or trunks of trees, but rarely possessing, in- 
 ternally, any marks of vegetable origin ; a circumstance 
 easily accounted for, if its previous softening be ad- 
 mitted. 
 
 Cannell Coal, of which some of the finest specimens 
 are found in Lancashire, differs from jet chiefly, per- 
 haps, in its holding a greater portion of earth in inti- 
 mate mixture with it. It never manifests internally any 
 traces of vegetable structure, but sometimes bears on its 
 surface evident marks of impressions formed on it 
 whilst in a soft state. 
 
 Common Coal is composed of a similar bituminous 
 matter, divided by films of calcareous spar mingled
 
 a 
 
 with pyrites, intersecting each other nearly at right 
 angles : its fracture is thus rendered small grained, and 
 uneven, and its fragments mostly cubical or trapezoidal. 
 By this division and enclosure of the inflammable bi- 
 tuminous matter in combustible septa, the accension 
 and combustion of this substance are rendered more 
 slow, and better adapted to the purposes for which it is 
 destined. Traces of vegetable structure are very rarely 
 discoverable in coal, except in the impressions of 
 cactuses and of various dorsiferous and succulent plants. 
 
 Impartiality here requires that the opinion of Pro- 
 fessor Jameson on this subject should be noticed. The 
 Professor, speaking of the coal found in the neighbour- 
 hood of Edinburgh, says, " the coal, which is black 
 coal, occurs in beds, seldom more than a few inches in 
 thickness, and is generally contained in the bituminous 
 shale or slate clay, rarely in the sandstone. By the 
 gradually increasing mixture of clayey matter, it passes 
 into bituminous shale. The accompanying bituminous 
 shale and slate clay contain impressions of ferns, a 
 fact which has been adduced in support of the opinion 
 which maintains the vegetable origin of black coal. 
 We are inclined to call in question the supposed vege- 
 table origin of this kind of coal, and are rather dis- 
 posed to consider it as an original chemical formation ; 
 and that the occurrence of vegetable impressions in the 
 adjacent rocks no more proves its vegetable origin, than 
 the existence of fossil quadrupeds in the gypsum of 
 Paris proves that rock to have been formed from the 
 debris of animals of the class mammalia *." 
 
 To these opinions it appears to be sufficient to op- 
 pose the following deductions of Dr. Macculloch, from 
 his experiments on certain products obtained from the 
 
 * Geognostical Description of the Neighbourhood of Edinburgh. Edin- 
 burgh Journal, vol. i, p. 354.
 
 9 
 
 distillation of wood, &c. The Doctor considers him- 
 self as authorised to state, that, " Examining the al- 
 teration produced by water on common turf, or sub- 
 merged wood, we have all the evidence of demonstra- 
 tion that its action is sufficient to convert them into 
 substances capable of yielding bitumen on distillation. 
 That the same action having operated through a longer 
 period has produced the change in the brown coal of 
 Bovey is rendered extremely probable by the geognostic 
 relations of that coal. From this to the harder lignites, 
 suturbraud and jet, the transition is so gradual, that 
 there seems no reason to limit the power of water to 
 produce the effect of bituminization in all these varieties ; 
 nor is there aught in this change so dissonant from 
 other chemical actions, as to make us hesitate in adopt- 
 ing this cause." Satisfied that jet, the bituminous lig- 
 nite which approaches the nearest to coal in its chemi- 
 cal characters, is the result of the action of water on 
 vegetable matter, Dr. Macculloch was induced to try 
 if this substance could, by heat under pressure, be con- 
 verted into coal : the result of his experiment was, that 
 the produce exhibited the true characters of coal, hav- 
 ing not merely the colour and inflammability, but the 
 fracture of coal and its odour on burning *. These ex- 
 periments and observations, taken with those of Mr. 
 Hatchett, appear to be sufficient to set the question, as 
 to the vegetable origin of coal, at rest. 
 
 The vegetable origin of naphtha, petroleum, and 
 asphaltum, is not yet positively ascertained. Amber, 
 from its being found generally in beds of fossil wood ; 
 the blue clay resin found at Highgate and at Sheppey 
 among the pyritified wood ; and the retinasphaltum of 
 Mr. Hatchett, discovered among the Bovey coal, may 
 either owe their origin to the changes effected in vege- 
 
 * Transactions of the Geological Society, vol. I, p. 2. 
 C
 
 10 
 
 table matter during its subterraneous deposition, or 
 may be vegetable resins, the original product of the 
 trees which they accompany, and which, from their 
 resinous nature, may have resisted the bituminizating 
 process. 
 
 The argillaceous ironstone nodules which accompany 
 coal, contain, with the remains of many other unknown 
 vegetables, parts of various cryptogamous plants, the 
 recent analogues of a very few of which have been said 
 to be found in some of the tropical regions. On 
 these nodules being broken, the preserved remains are 
 generally discovered on each of the broken sides of the 
 nodule ; not, as might be expected, displaying different 
 sides of the vegetable, but the same side of the leaf, 
 for instance, on each broken surface ; in one, in alto 
 in the other, in basso relievo. The explanation of this 
 curious circumstance, which long puzzled the orycto- 
 logists, is found in the vegetable matter, during its 
 passing through the bituminous change, having become 
 softened, and having filled its own mould with its 
 melted and softened substance; the nodule, on being 
 broken, showing on one side the surface of the adhe- 
 rent bituminous cast, and, on the other, the correspond- 
 ing mould. 
 
 In the argillaceous and bituminous slate forming the 
 floors and roofs of coal mines are vast collections of 
 the black bituminized remains of gramma, junci, cryp- 
 togami, and of numerous other plants, agreeing in their 
 general characters with those of succulent plants, but 
 differing from the recent ones known in Europe by their 
 vast magnitude, and by the richness of the ornamental 
 markings which appear on their trunks. 
 
 Description cannot succeed in an attempt to give an 
 idea of the beauty and varieties of the figures which are 
 displayed on the surface of many of those fossils, and 
 lyhich have been supposed to owe their markings to the
 
 11 
 
 bark of different trees of supposed antediluvian existence. 
 Some are ornamented by regularly disposed straight 
 plain ribs, disposed longitudinally or transversely over 
 their whole surface ; some by the decussation of nearly 
 straight lines obliquely disposed ; and many, by the 
 alternate contact and receding of gently waving lines, 
 forming areas regularly, but most singularly varying 
 in their forms, and having in their centres tubercles 
 and depressions from which spines, or setae, have 
 in all probability proceeded. In others, lines ob- 
 liquely disposed intersect each other at angles, va- 
 rying in their acuteness in different specimens, in, it 
 would seem, an almost endless variety; forming sur- 
 faces apparently covered with squamae disposed in 
 an imbricated manner, and frequently in quincunx 
 order. 
 
 Among the fossils of this description, the one which 
 claims our first attention, is, I. Phytolithus verrucosus 
 of Martin; Petrificata Derbienfia, PJ. 11, 12, 13, and 
 13*; Organic Remains, vol. i, PI. Ill, fig. 1; and on a 
 very small scale, PI. I, fig. 1 and 2 of the present work. 
 This fossil appears to have foiled every one who has 
 attempted to explain its original nature and mode of 
 existence. It is, according to Mr. Martin's correct 
 account, a subscylindrical, subramose, tuberculated 
 trunk, PI. I, fig. 1, with suppressed tubercles in quin- 
 cunx order, (a) having linear lanceolated leaves ho- 
 rizontally disposed, fig. 2 (V). In some parts of it is a 
 deep longitudinal sulcus, fig. 1 (c), beneath which is a 
 rough imbricated body of a slender cylindrical form, 
 fig. 2 (d) . This, Mr. Martin observes, after a certain 
 distance, appears to strike out laterally, and form a 
 branch ; the trunk is then continued for some length, 
 without the furrow or the imbricated body ; after which 
 it again appears, and another branch is put out in 
 another direction.
 
 12 
 
 Various opinions have been entertained respecting 
 this interesting fossil, so unlike any of the vegetable sub- 
 stances of the present day, by Da Costa, Woodward, 
 Whitehurst, and others. The author of these pages had 
 conjectured that it belonged to some body resembling 
 the strobilus or cone of some vegetable, while the inge- 
 nious Mr. Martin describes it as above. The examina- 
 tion of this fossil has been since very assiduously pro- 
 secuted by the Rev. Henry Steinhauer (Transact, of 
 the American Philosophical Society, New Series, 
 Vol. I). This gentleman is satisfied that "those bodies 
 which were supposed by Mr. Martin to be leaves pro- 
 ceeding from the trunk, were cylindrical fibres which 
 shot out from the trunk of this vegetable, whilst grow- 
 ing in a horizontal position : he supposes this fossil to 
 have been a cylindrical root or trunk growing in this 
 direction, in the soft mud at the bottom of fresh water 
 lakes or seas, without branches, but sending out fibres 
 from all sides : that it was furnished in the centre 
 with a pith of a structure different from the surround- 
 ing wood or cellular substance, more dense and dis- 
 tinct at the older end of the plant, and more similar to 
 the external substance towards the termination which 
 continued to shoot." 
 
 These points being assumed, Mr. Steinhauer says, 
 "the manner in which the reliquia were formed is 
 easily explained. Annual decay, or an accumula- 
 tion of incumbent mud, having deprived the trunk of 
 the vegetative principle, the clay would be condensed 
 by superior pressure around the dead plant, so as to 
 form a species of matrix : if this took place so rapidly, 
 that the mould had obtained a considerable degree of 
 consistency before the texture of the vegetable was 
 destroyed by putrefaction, the reliquium w r as cylindri- 
 cal ; if, on the contrary, the new formed stratum con- 
 tinued to subside, while the decomposition was going
 
 13 
 
 on, it became flattened, and the inferior part might 
 even be raised up towards the yielding substance in 
 the inside, so as to produce the groove, or creesh, as 
 Woodward calls it, on the under side, in the same 
 manner as the floor in coal-works is apt to rise where 
 the measures are soft and the roofs and sides have 
 been secured. While the principal mass of the plant 
 was reduced to a soft state, and gradually carried 
 away or assimilated with mineral in filtrated matter, 
 the central pith being unsupported would sink towards 
 the underside, and this the more sensibly where its 
 texture was most distinct; whilst its anterior extre- 
 mity would go into putrefaction with, and be lost in 
 the most tender part of the plant. The mineral matter 
 introduced would now form an envelope round the 
 pith, when this resisted decomposition for a sufficient 
 length of time ; and when it was ultimately removed, 
 if the surrounding mass was still sufficiently pervious, 
 would be also filled with argillaceous matter, or, if it 
 was too much indurated, be left empty, which is the 
 case occasionally." 
 
 But the ingenious author of these observations has 
 omitted to notice the imbricated or reticulated surface 
 of the central substance which has been already noticed, 
 and which, it is presumed, will furnish us with some 
 of the required information; since these configura- 
 tions doubtlessly depended on the attachment of some 
 parts of the vegetable, and probably were the bases 
 on which were placed those delicately formed tubular 
 processes, which, in the representation of another fossil, 
 from Organic Remains, Vol. I, PL IX, Jig. 1, an as- 
 sumed fossil strobilus or cone (PI. I, fig. 3, a), are seen 
 to pass from the internal substance to the surface of the 
 vegetable body. From all the information that has been 
 obtained, it appears that this fossil, Phyt. verrucosus, 
 was a plant of the succulent tribe, differing from ve-
 
 14 
 
 getables of the present world, by its containing a more 
 solid part within its succulent substance, from which 
 proceeded a delicate organization by which a commu- 
 nication was preserved with the external surface. It 
 also appears that the species of this genus, distin- 
 guished by their characteristic markings, may have 
 been numerous : that the different situations in which 
 the internal part is found in different fossils are attri- 
 butable to the resolution of the tenderly organized in- 
 termediate part connecting the included substance with 
 the surface, and to the other accidents dependent on 
 partial and irregular decomposition, pressure and dis- 
 tortion, occurring during its passage from the vege- 
 table to the mineral kingdom, and very probably in 
 the manner in which it is represented by Mr. Stein- 
 hauer. 
 
 II. Sulciculmis and Striaticulmis of Luid, PL V, 
 184, 6 ; Scheuchzer, PL IV, 1. ; Volkmanni Sites. Sub- 
 ter. VII, 7; VIII, 6; Martin, 8, 25, 26; Organic Re- 
 mains, I, PL III, 3, with a reeded, jointed trunk, 
 is said to resemble the young shoots of the Surinam 
 bamboo. 
 
 III. Phytolithus Cancellatus. Volkman. Siles. Subt. 
 VIII, 10, 11, 12, 13; Martin, 13, 50; Organic Re- 
 mains, Vol. I, PL I, 6, II, 4. Mr. Steinhauer has 
 taken considerable pains to detect and explain the dif- 
 ferent appearances under which the fossil remains of 
 this plant are seen. He has ascertained that there are 
 three distinct kinds of configurations proceeding from 
 it, originating in the epidermis, the bark, and that 
 which may be considered as holding the situation of 
 the wood of the plant. The first, the epidermal, is 
 formed of rhombs, divided by lines forming a network 
 in a manner difficult to express, by drawing or de- 
 scription, which leaves the rhombs still approximate. 
 The impression of this part is represented PL I, fig. 4.
 
 15 
 
 In the second, the cortical, the lines between the rhombs 
 are of more breadth, the ridge is broader and less 
 defined, and forms with the contracted superior eleva- 
 tion a protuberance, and the central part assumes the 
 figure of a squamula. PI. I, fig. 5, represents the ma- 
 trix or cast of this part. The third, the ligneous, con- 
 figuration differs extremely from the two former, and 
 only close observation determines that it originates 
 from the same plant. The cancellated appearance is 
 here entirely lost ; the surface is slightly striated with 
 a scarcely perceptible rising under the central ridge, 
 and a minute but distinct raised dot in the place of the 
 depression in the epidermis. It has all the appearance 
 of a peeled plant, which had been furnished with small 
 branches or spines in quincuncial order (PI. I, fig. 6). 
 From the various modifications of these forms, the 
 different aspects of this protean fossil, Mr. Steinhauer 
 thinks, may be explained. 
 
 IV. Phytolithus parmatus. This fossil is figured by 
 Scheuchzer, Herbar. Diluv. p. 119 : it is distinguishable 
 by a singular organization observable on its surface ; 
 a series of circular or oval scutellae, or shields, are 
 placed close to each other in a right line across the 
 surface. There are three distinct appearances; two of 
 these, the epidermal and ligneous, somewhat resemble 
 each other, but the latter is seldom met with. " In the 
 epidermal," Mr. Steinhauer observes, " the parmae are 
 surrounded by a raised margin, the included disk swells 
 towards the central umbo or boss in curiously disposed 
 rugae, and the boss is generally more or less excavated 
 in the centre. These configurations on the surface of 
 the shields vary in almost every specimen ; yet so that 
 it is not difficult to trace their analogy and the identity 
 of their different marks. The raised margin is constant, 
 and there is always a tendency of the other lines and 
 protuberances towards the centre ; not in the direction
 
 16 
 
 of the radii, but in a manner slightly resembling the 
 figures on the back of an engine-turned watch, pro- 
 duced by describing several circles whose centres are 
 situate in the circumference of another circle round the 
 middle of the plate. 
 
 V. Phytolithus imbricatus, Organic Remains, PL I, 
 fig. 6. This is the fossil figured by Mr. Martin, 
 PL III, fig. 4, and to which Mr. Steinhauer has 
 given the name of Phytolithus Martini. The trunk is 
 round and tapering, sometimes branched, leafy, covered 
 with scales. Leaves crowded, seemingly one from each 
 scale ; subulate, marked with a strong rib : scales 
 rhomboidal, sharp pointed, slightly carinated or keeled, 
 close, imbricate, covering each other in such a manner 
 that the whole surface of the stem appears regularly 
 divided into rhombs. 
 
 VI. Phytolithus transversus of Steinhauer appears to 
 be the fossil already referred to, page 13, and figured 
 (PL I, fig. 3, a), in illustration of Phytolithus verru- 
 cosus. 
 
 VTI. Phytolithus nolatus and Dawsoni of Steinhauer 
 appears to belong to the same vegetable. Perhaps 
 the former, Phyt. notatus, bearing longitudinal series 
 of cicatrices of a rounded pentagonal form, with a 
 central marking, and the series separated by very dis- 
 tinct sulci, bears the marks of the epidermal character, 
 whilst the latter shews the marking of the ligneous part. 
 
 VIII. Phytolithus tesselatus. Surface tesselated with 
 rhomboidal plates, formed by the transverse separations 
 of longitudinal costae ; or of longitudinal sulci, if in the 
 impressions of the matrix. 
 
 Although much is still left for investigation respect- 
 ing these fossils, there is very little doubt that the in- 
 genious observations of Mr. Steinhauer may lead the 
 industrious enquirer to making still more definite and 
 important distinctions. These observations are interest-
 
 17 
 
 ing, not only as yielding collateral eviden.ce of the ve- 
 getable origin of coal, but as leading to a probable con- 
 jecture of the particular plants which have been the 
 chief source, from which the vast stores of that be- 
 neficent provision for man has been derived. These 
 remains, in common with all others found in slate, are 
 almost always in a flattened state, from which some 
 deception has arisen with respect to their original 
 forms. But the examination of the vegetable fossils 
 contained in the accompanying beds of limestone and 
 sandstone, where compression has not taken place, 
 yields the important information that these vast sub- 
 stances which have been here found imbedded, and 
 which have been hitherto considered as fossil trees, are 
 the remains of similar vegetables with those found in 
 the beds of slate, but here existing in their original 
 forms, and agreeing in their size with those succulent 
 plants which are now known to be growing within the 
 tropics. 
 
 Many accounts have been given of the trunks of 
 trees, whose cortical markings were entirely unknown, 
 having been found in the sandstones of Staffordshire, 
 Derbyshire, Lancashire, and, indeed, in all those parts 
 in which the coal formations have been explored. 
 Having been favoured with the opportunity of ex- 
 amining several specimens of this nature, through 
 the kindness of Thomas Botfield, Esq. of Bewdley in 
 Worcestershire, I am enabled to say, that these are not 
 generally the remains of trees, but of succulent plants, 
 the firm cortical parts of which having been converted 
 by the bituminizating process into jet, have formed that 
 firm tube which is often found, in these instances, filled 
 with sandstone, agreeing with that of the general ma- 
 trix, and possessing the space left by the waste of the 
 internal succulent part of the plant. The description 
 of the last announced fossil of this kind, found in the 
 
 D
 
 neighbourhood of Glasgow, agrees exactly with the 
 general account of these supposed fossil trees, and 
 will, it is presumed, corroborate the opinion which has 
 been just advanced. 
 
 In a quarry of sandstone belonging to the coal form- 
 ation on which Glasgow is built, and in the neighbour- 
 hood of that city, it is stated, that " the quarrymen 
 came upon the cast of a tree in situ just as it had been 
 growing. The trunk is about twenty-six inches in di- 
 ameter, not quite round but somewhat oval, so that the 
 north and south diameter is several inches longer than 
 the east and west diameter. The ^body of the tree it- 
 self is composed of sandstone precisely similar to the 
 rest of the quarry; but the bark has been converted into 
 perfect cherry coal, which adheres firmly to the tree, 
 and renders it easy to remove the rock with which 
 it is incrusted. About three feet of the bottom part 
 of the tree has been uncovered ; this portion is situ- 
 ated about forty feet below the surface of the earth 
 in a solid quarry of sandstone. The upper part of 
 the trunk and branches has not been discovered : in- 
 deed, it is some time since the upper portion of the 
 quarry was removed. The roots may be seen dipping 
 down into the earth precisely as the roots of living 
 trees do. Four very large roots may be seen issuing 
 from the trunks, and extending, some of them, about 
 a foot before they are lost in the surrounding stone. 
 There is nothing to indicate the species of tree of 
 which the mould has been here preserved. From the 
 appearance of the roots it is obvious that it was not a 
 fir ; it had more resemblance to a beech : the bark has 
 been so completely bituminized, that its usual characters 
 are effaced . The petrifaction, however, is not without 
 its value ; it demonstrates that the sandstone has been 
 formed at a period posterior to the existence of large 
 trees, and that the water-worn appearance of the quartz
 
 19 
 
 pebbles of which the sandstone is composed is not a 
 deceitful indication." Hence the ingenious observer is 
 led to observe, that " if the sandstone, which consti- 
 tutes so great a proportion of the coal beds, be a form- 
 ation posterior to the earth being covered with wood, 
 we can entertain no doubt that this is the case also 
 with the slate clay and the coal which alternate with 
 this sandstone. Indeed, if the coal formation exists 
 as a portion of the old red sandstone, we can en- 
 tertain no reasonable doubt that the old red sandstone 
 itself has been formed after the earth was covered with 
 wood." Annals of Philosophy, Nov. 1820. 
 
 The size which these fossil plants have attained, 
 compared with that of the cactuses known in Europe, 
 must, as in the fossil last mentioned, lead to a doubt 
 as to this opinion of their agreement with the recent 
 cactus. But to be enabled to form a correct judgment 
 on this point, it is necessary to know the state in which 
 these plants exist where the soil and climate aie such 
 as to allow them to develope themselves in their native 
 luxuriance. The researches of the celebrated Hum- 
 boldt, in the equinoctial regions, supply us on this 
 head with the most appropriate and satisfactory in- 
 formation. The following detached observations of 
 that philosopher will show not only the size to which 
 these plants may arrive, but the vast tracts which, un- 
 der favourable circumstances, they may overrun, as 
 well as the great probability of their having been the 
 first vegetable clothing of the earth. " The hill of 
 calcareous breccia, which we have just regarded as an 
 island in the ancient gulph, is covered with a thick 
 forest of columnar cactus and opuntia, some thirty or 
 forty feet high, covered with lichens, and divided into 
 several branches in the form of candelabras, wearing 
 a singular appearance. Near Maniquarez, at Punta 
 Araya, we measured a cactus, the trunk of which was
 
 20 
 
 four feet nine inches in circumference. The European, 
 acquainted only with the opuntia in our hot-houses, is 
 surprised to see the wood of this plant become so hard 
 from age, that it resists for centuries both air and wa- 
 ter, and that the Indians of Cumana employ it in 
 preference for hords and doorposts. Cumana, Coro, the 
 island of Margaretta, and Curacao, are the places in 
 South America that abound most in the plants of the 
 family of the nopals. There, only, a botanist can 
 compose a monography of the genus cactus, the spe- 
 cies of which vary not only in their flowers and fruits, 
 but in the form of their articulated stem, the number 
 of costae, and the disposition of the thorns : the divi- 
 sions of property are marked by hedges formed of the 
 agave and cactus. At San Fernando, S. A., the soil 
 abounds in aquatic plants with sagittate leaves, and he 
 remarks that some of these succulent plants are from 
 eight to ten feet high. In Europe their assemblage 
 would be considered a little wood." He also mentions 
 a kind of bamboo which the Indians call jagua, which 
 is found near San Fernando, more than forty feet in 
 height. These, he observes, cannot but remind the 
 admirer of fossils of the vast fossil bamboos which are 
 found in the sandstones accompanying coal. Speaking 
 of a rock of considerable height and magnitude, he ob- 
 serves, " Euphorbium, cacalia, kleinia, and cactus, 
 which are become wild in the Canary Islands, as well 
 as in the south of Europe and the whole continent of 
 Africa, are the only plants we see on this arid rock, 
 being plants which draw their nourishment rather from 
 the air than from the soil in which they grow." He 
 also remarks, " It is not, in general, by mosses and 
 lichens that vegetation in the countries near the tropics 
 begins. In the Canary Islands, as well as in Guinea and 
 in the rocky coasts of Peru, the first vegetables that 
 prepare the mould for others are the succulent plants."
 
 21 
 
 These interesting observations, taken into considera- 
 tion with the appearances yielded by the fossils accom- 
 panying coal, lead to the further consideration of the 
 formation of that substance. From its chemical cha- 
 racters, its bearing the impressions of vegetables, and 
 being surrounded with vegetable remains in the roofs 
 and floors of the mines and the accompanying coal- 
 measures, its vegetable origjn, it is presumed, maybe 
 fairly inferred. The examination of the various fossil 
 vegetables which accompany it has determined that 
 they chiefly belong to the grasses, reeds, the cryp- 
 togamous and the succulent plants, and point out the 
 kind of vegetables which most abounded, and, per- 
 haps, to the exclusion of trees and aborescent plants, 
 at that period when the land first escaped from the do- 
 minions of the waters. It is true, that an exact agree- 
 ment between the forms and markings of these fossil 
 remains, and of those of the succulent plants which 
 are offered to our observation in the present day, is not 
 observable; but it should be considered that analogy 
 will not authorise the expectation of an exact agree- 
 ment, since it is very rarely to be found between the 
 fossil remains and the animals now existing, owing to 
 the extinction of whole tribes from which those fossil 
 remains have proceeded. Besides, considerable differ- 
 ences must result from the greater size observable in 
 the fossil vegetables, especially in those of the succu- 
 lent tribe, and which may be corroborated by observ- 
 ing how much the succulent plants of Italy differ in 
 size and form from those of South America and of o_ther 
 regions in the warmer climates. 
 
 Proceeding now to the examination of vegetable 
 fossils, in which the introduction of earthy or metallic 
 particles has taken place, it may be necessary again to 
 observe, that wood or other vegetable matter is not 
 likely to undergo this kind of impregnation whilst in a
 
 22 
 
 state of soundness and integrity, but that the states 
 most favourable for this kind of change are that kind of 
 decay which has been produced by the abstraction of 
 almost all the constituents except the ligneous fibre, 
 leaving that substance to which is generally applied the 
 term rotten wood, and that spongeous state which ac- 
 companies bituminization. The admission of water in 
 this latter state, strongly impregnated with earths or 
 metals, must, as the deposition and consequent earthy 
 or metallic change proceeds, stay the further progress 
 of the biturainizating process, and, giving solidity to the 
 mass, secure the conservation of the form and even 
 structure which the mass possessed at the period when 
 this impregnation commenced : and here it may be ob- 
 served, that specimens of silicified wood exist, in 
 which it may be seen that petrifaction has arrested 
 the bituminizating process in wood in almost all its 
 stages. 
 
 I. CALCAREOUS VEGETABLE FOSSILS. Lime is not 
 very frequently the mineralizing matter of vegetable 
 fossils ; it is however sometimes found introduced into 
 the remains of wood in the form of spar, and some- 
 times it becomes, in the form of limestone, the internal 
 substance of fossil reeds and of various succulent 
 plants. 
 
 1. Calcareous spathose wood previously decayed. 
 Colour light brown, surface rough and dull, but sus- 
 ceptible of polish; fracture dull, uneven, and rather 
 spicular ; interstices filled with nearly colourless spar. 
 The lime being removed from this fossil by muriatic 
 acid, a considerable portion of light-coloured flocculent 
 substance is deposited Found in alluvia and in the 
 oolite formation. 
 
 2. Calcareous spathose wood previously bitumin- 
 ized. Colour darkish red brown ; surface commonly 
 rough, but partially glossy ; fracture dull, uneven, and
 
 23 
 
 rather spicalar, veined with spar of a lightish brown 
 colour. Found in the clay of bituminous slate accom- 
 panying the lyas. 
 
 The lime being removed by the muriatic acid, a con- 
 siderable volume of dark brown powder remains, which, 
 when dried, is remarkably combustible, burning with a 
 flame resembling that of some of the pyrophori. On 
 the brown spar being subjected to the action of diluted 
 muriatic acid, the bituminous matter with which it is 
 coloured rises in a film to the surface of the solution. 
 
 The polished surface of both these fossils being ex- 
 amined with a lens, the spathose substance is seen to 
 have permeated the minutest woody fibres in all their 
 directions. The powder deposited during the solution 
 of both these fossils is undoubtedly the woody fibre 
 reduced to this state of minute division, in conse- 
 quence of its penetration in every direction by the spa- 
 those crystallization. 
 
 II. SILICEOUS VEGETABLE FOSSILS. The mineral- 
 ization of vegetable substances is most frequently ef- 
 fected by those impregnations in which silex is the 
 principal constituent ; the fossils thus formed being re- 
 markable for the correctness with which their forms 
 and markings have been preserved. 
 
 1. Siliceous wood. Its colour is generally greyish 
 and yellowish white, thence passing into ash grey, 
 greyish black, and different shades of brown. Its in- 
 ternal lustre is glistening, its fracture more or less per- 
 fect conchoidal, showing the ligneous texture. The 
 fragments sharp-edged and translucent. It is harder 
 than opal, and easily frangible. 
 
 It is found in many parts of the world, but some 
 of the finest specimens are obtained in the neighbour- 
 hood of Schemnitz and at Telkabanya in Hungary. 
 
 It is frequently found in this island in the diluvian 
 detritus, and in almost the whole of the green sand
 
 24 
 
 formation. Very large fragments are found in the Port- 
 land stones, the interstices of which are often beau- 
 tifully sprinkled with quartz crystals. Interesting spe- 
 cimens are also discovered in the gritstone of the same 
 formation in the Blackdown-pits of Devonshire, which 
 are frequently rendered very interesting by the delicate 
 amianthine form in which the silex is disposed. Spe- 
 cimens are also found in the sands of Bedfordshire. 
 It is but rarely found in chalk; it however forms the 
 nucleus of a flint nodule which is said to have been ob- 
 tained in Berkshire. 
 
 Besides the general characters of siliceous wood, 
 the peculiar resinous glistening lustre which it often pos- 
 sesses demands particular notice. It exists in so many 
 degrees, and under such distinct modifications, as to 
 divide it into several species. This peculiar lustre, so 
 nearly resembling that of wax or rather of resin, giving 
 such an appearance as might be expected from a mix- 
 ture of fluid silex and bitumen, and existing in speci- 
 mens in which strong and indisputable markings of the 
 woody fibre were to be seen, gave rise to the opinion 
 offered in a former work, that these specimens were the 
 result of the siliceous impregnation of wood in different 
 degrees of bituminization ; the gently contorted and 
 softened lines of the ligneous texture presenting the 
 appearance of their having been in a softened state 
 previous to their petrifaction. 
 
 With the hope of determining whether bituminous or 
 even carbonaceous matter existed in these specimens 
 or not, several experiments have been employed; but 
 when the fugacious nature of bitumen and the refrac- 
 tory nature of silex, yielding only to the most destruc- 
 tive processes, are considered, the difficulty of the ne- 
 cessary separation and analysis must be obvious, and 
 the following results must at least be admitted to show 
 the propriety of still further extending the enquiry.
 
 25 
 
 By the exposure of opaline wood in a retort to the heat 
 of a furnace, the presence of carbon was determined ; 
 a strong empyreumatic smell, and an oily sublimated 
 matter possessing the same odour, was produced : the 
 same results have proceeded from a similar treatment of 
 pitchstone, bearing a ligneous appearance. Mr. Klap- 
 roth, on igniting the brown red semiopal of Telke- 
 banya in an open crucible, found that the iron con- 
 tained in the fossil was reduced to a reguline state, 
 although there had been no admixture of any charcoal, 
 or of any other substance with a nearer affinity with 
 oxygen, showing that the carbonaceous principle existed 
 in the fossil itself. The same celebrated chemist ana- 
 lyzing the hydrophanous opal of Saxony, obtained, as 
 Mr. Pepys had done from opaline wood, a water 
 having an empyreumatic smell, and covered with a 
 thin greasy pellicle : he also determined afterwards 
 the actual presence of bitumen in the semiopal of 
 Mahren. 
 
 Specimens exist which show the union of silex with 
 bituminous wood in all its different stages of bitumini- 
 zation. In one specimen of black siliceous wood, 
 pieces of coal exist in its internal part : in one silici- 
 fied specimen with evident characters of previous bitu- 
 minization, patches are seen on its surface of a jet 
 black, and possessing the resinous lustre : in another 
 are spread drusy crystals of quartz, of a dark black, 
 from the union of black bitumen with silex ; whilst the 
 black bitumen may also be seen thus intimately com- 
 bined with silex in the quartz crystals, and imbedded, 
 unaltered, in the interstices of the same specimen. 
 But whether it be admitted or not that the resinous 
 lustre proves the previous bituminization of the fossil 
 wood, the different degrees, and the presence or ab- 
 sence of this character, may be had recourse to in 
 
 E
 
 26 
 
 marking its different varieties, and their approximation 
 to other mineral substances. 
 
 The varieties of siliceous wood depend not only on 
 the nature of the combinations forming the lapideous 
 matter of which it is chiefly constituted, but also, as 
 has been already observed, on the state of the wood 
 previous to its petrifaction. When the fossil is light 
 coloured and of a shivery texture, the wood may be 
 presumed to have been previously in a decayed state, 
 or, as it is termed, rotten wood ; and when close, com- 
 pact, and dark coloured, it may have suffered previous 
 bituminization. 
 
 A. Chalcedonic wood. In the most common form in 
 which this variety appears, the colour is of a yellowish 
 white, the substance resembling that of withered wood. 
 The surface rough and splintery, the splinters fre- 
 quently so minute as to be wafted with the slightest 
 breath. The internal part solid, chiefly formed vof the 
 translucent siliceous matter, which fills the interstices 
 and such cavities as may have been formed by the tere- 
 dines and other insects, and also sometimes invests the 
 ends of the specimen in a inammillated or stalagmitic 
 form. Specimens occur in which previous bitumin- 
 ization also appears to have taken place, and in which 
 the clear siliceous substance appears as if it had trans- 
 uded into the cavities, and had exuded at the ends of 
 the specimens. 
 
 Here must be referred those amorphous specimens 
 which possess a rough surface, scarcely any lustre, with 
 patches of apple green colour and of a quartzose hard- 
 ness, intermixed with others of a light or light grey 
 colour, considerably softer. When cut and polished, 
 the white parts display evident marks of vegetable tex- 
 ture ; either that of very fine-grained woods, or of some 
 of the palms or reeds, the spaces between being filled
 
 7 
 
 with siliceous matter, either translucent, or of an apple 
 green colour. 
 
 B. Jasperine wood displays all the colours and ap- 
 pearances belonging to common jasper, so disposed as 
 to mark the existence of ligneous texture, and fre- 
 quently so varied as to give the resemblance of dif- 
 ferent woods. It is usually opaque, but sometimes 
 translucent at the edges, and sometimes in patches, 
 where it appears as jasper-agate. Its fracture passes 
 from conchoidal to flat and earthy : its internal lustre 
 is generally dull, but sometimes approaching to resin- 
 ous ; its interstices are frequently set with minute crys" 
 tals. The texture of the wood is discoverable in some 
 very rare specimens of Heliotrope, or bloodstone. 
 
 C. Opaline wood occurs in pieces of a yellowish 
 or yellowish-white colour, passing into different shades 
 of brown: surface generally marked by the ligneous 
 structure, and possessing a resinous lustre. The frac- 
 ture more or less approaching to perfect conchoidal, 
 showing the ligneous marking and a glistening lustre. 
 Fragments sharp-edged, and somewhat translucent: 
 the surface sometimes dull, like wood, and the internal 
 substance transparent. 
 
 It is considered by Dr. Thompson as consisting of 
 wood penetrated by opal, and as being 'Mo intimately 
 connected with opal, that it would perhaps be better 
 to unite them. 
 
 D. Pitchstone wood. Specimens of fossil wood, evi- 
 dently showing its original texture, and answering to 
 the characters of pitchstone, are frequently seen: its 
 colours are yellow, brown, reddish brown, red, black, 
 white, and grey, with various intermediate shades; 
 fracture is flattish, imperfectly large conchoidal ; lustre 
 varying between dull, vitreous and resinous. 
 
 The woody texture is to be traced also in numerous
 
 28 , 
 
 lapideous substances bearing the intermingled cha- 
 racters of pitchstone, opal, jasper, chalcedony, jasper- 
 agate, &c. 
 III. ALUMINOUS VEGETABLE FOSSILS. 
 
 1. Bituminous slate, schistus, and shale, containing 
 vegetable remains, are frequently met with in the neigh- 
 bourhood of coal. These remains, as have been already 
 mentioned, are of various gramina, cryptogami and suc- 
 culent plants. On allowing some of these bodies to 
 remain in water, their substance becomes softened down, 
 and is resolved into a mass in which the vegetable 
 matter is obvious. 
 
 2. Aluminous wood. The wood which has been thus 
 named by different authors, by its proneness to com- 
 bustion, and by the other properties which they de- 
 scribe it to possess, should be considered as pyritous 
 wood, having obtained its change in the ferruginous 
 clay in which it has been imbedded. 
 
 The mineralizing matter of metallic fossil vegetables 
 is most commonly the pyrites or sulphurets and car- 
 bonates of iron, copper, zinc, or lead. 
 
 I. FERRUGINOUS FOSSIL WOOD. 
 
 1. PyriticaL In this fossil the sulphuret of iron 
 pervades the charcoal into which the vegetable matter 
 has been ct u .verted. When first found it generally 
 possesses metallic brilliancy, is sufficiently hard to 
 scratch glass; emits sparks on collision with steel, 
 and displays the forms and markings pointing out its 
 vegetable origin ; but it soon begins to suffer from de- 
 composition, when its characters change, and it finally 
 resolves into a saline flocculent substance. 
 
 2. Carbonated. In these specimens, which are of 
 different shades of brown colour, and generally of an 
 uniform substance, the marks of the vegetable origin 
 are easily observable, although not so distinct as in the
 
 29 
 
 specimens of the preceding species before the com- 
 mencement of decomposition. 
 
 II. FERRUGINOUS FOSSIL SEEDS, &c. 
 Innumerable seeds, seed-vessels, &c. have been 
 
 found, by Mr. Crow and others, in the blue clay of 
 Shepey, in the state of pyrites. Most of these belong 
 to plants unknown to our botanists ; the existing plants, 
 to which the others seem to approximate, are some of 
 those of the warmer climates. 
 
 III. CUPREOUS FOSSIL WOOD. 
 
 1. Pyritical. This fossil is distinguishable from the 
 ferruginous pyritical wood, by the pyrites being of ra- 
 ther a darker colour, but chiefly by the blue or green 
 colour which partially pervades the fossil. 
 
 In some specimens, in which the general appearance 
 is that of bituminous wood, the metallic impregnation 
 can only be detected by the weight of the fossil and the 
 blue or green hue on its surface. 
 
 2. Wood converted into carbonate and hydrate of 
 copper. Cupreous wood in this state forms very beau- 
 tiful specimens, displaying, not only on its surface, 
 but in its substance, mingled with the charred wood, 
 the most vivid blue and green colours, with patches of 
 the carbonate in the state of malachite. 
 
 The finest specimens of cupreous wood are obtained 
 from the copper mines of Siberia. 
 
 3. Wood mineralized by lead. Specimens of wood 
 containing galena, the sulphuret of lead, have been 
 chiefly discovered in Derbyshire. 
 
 The leaves of plants, except those of gramina, junci, 
 and of the cryptogamia, are seldom found in a mineral- 
 ized state. The lobes and pinnulae of ferns, as has 
 been before mentioned, are frequently found in a bi- 
 tuminized state in nodules of ironstone, and in im- 
 mense quantities with the remains of gramina and
 
 30 
 
 succulent plants in the schistose and slaty coverings of 
 coal. 
 
 Among the numerous remains of plants very few are 
 found which agree in their specific characters with any 
 known species, and many indeed differ so much as to 
 render it difficult to determine even the genus under 
 which they should be placed. 
 
 The leaves of trees are only found in substances 
 which appear to be of modern formation. Among 
 these are said to have been found those of the willow, 
 the pear-tree, mulberry-tree, and of several others. 
 These have been found in fossil calcareous stone, 
 chiefly in that of Oeningen, and in the calcareous tufa 
 bordering those lakes and rivers which abound in cal- 
 careous matter. Leaves are sometimes found in sand- 
 stone which somewhat resemble those of trees, but 
 which most probably have belonged to aquatic plants. 
 
 In the grey chalk, small white ramose forms are found, 
 which pervade the chalk, and have the appearance of 
 being of vegetable origin. My attention was first drawn 
 to these remains by Mr. Mantell, of Lewes, who, it is to 
 be hoped, may be able to present some further inform- 
 ation respecting them in his forthcoming work on the 
 Fossils of the South Downs. 
 
 "Wood, and other vegetable substances, are frequently 
 found in clay and limestone in the state of charcoal. 
 It cannot always be ascertained by what means this 
 change has been effected ; but in that which is found in 
 the blue clay, and in other situations in which pyrites 
 prevail, the change may safely be attributed to the de- 
 composition of the pyrites with which those substances 
 had been impregnated. 
 
 Mosses, Conferva, fyc. Rounded pebbles, called 
 moss agates, are frequently found on the coast of the 
 North Riding of Yorkshire: and Dr. Macculloch de-
 
 31 
 
 scribes them as having been found on the shore at Dun- 
 glas, in Scotland, containing substances which have 
 the appearance of vegetables. 
 
 Daubenton and Blnmenbach had expressed their 
 conviction of the vegetable origin of these substances; 
 still many considered them as entirely mineral: but 
 Dr. Macculloch, pursuing this enquiry with his usual 
 zeal and acuteness, observes, that deception is very 
 likely to arise in these specimens, from the well known 
 metallic arborizations emulating the vegetable forms, 
 becoming blended with the real vegetable; and from 
 the actual investment of the whole plant with car- 
 bonate of iron; but the most common source of de- 
 ception and obscurity, in the Doctor's opinion, " will 
 be found in the whimsical and fibrous disposition 
 occasionally assumed by chlorite, its colour often 
 imitating the natural hue of a plant as perfectly as 
 its fibrous and ramified appearance does the disposi- 
 tion and form of one." All the plants that have 
 been discovered in this state of envelopement in 
 quartz appear to belong to certain species of the 
 cryptogamia class, chiefly byssi, confervae, junger- 
 manniae, and the mosses. The stones found at Dun- 
 glas, Dr. Macculloch observes, "contain remains of 
 organized substances of an epocha at least equally 
 antient with that in which the vegetable remains found 
 in the floetz strata existed. As the species ascertained 
 by Daubenton have, in all probability, been preserved 
 in recent formations of chalcedony," so the Doctor 
 thinks that " those which he describes have been pre- 
 served in the chalcedonies of former days *." 
 
 The moss agates of the Yorkshire coast appear to 
 be of the ancient, whilst other specimens which I pos- 
 sess prove the correctness of Br. Macculloch's opi- 
 
 * Geological Transactions, vol. ii, p. 511, 518.
 
 32 
 
 nion, that some of these fossils are of recent form- 
 ation. 
 
 The remarks of Dr. Macculloch on the mode in 
 which these curious investments were accomplished, 
 deserve particular attention. " The remains are, in fact, 
 (if I may use such an expression) embalmed alive. To 
 produce this effect, we can only conceive a solution 
 of silex in water, so dense as to support the weight 
 of the substance involved, a solution capable of soli- 
 difying in a short space of time, or capable at least 
 of suddenly gelatinizing previously to the ultimate 
 change by which it became solidified into stone *." 
 
 Dr. Macculloch describes and figures a congeries of 
 tubuli contained in an oriental agate : similar substances 
 are found in the pebbles on the Yorkshire coast; and 
 in one which I possess the tubules are disposed in a 
 confused radiated form, giving more of the idea of a 
 zoophyte than of a vegetable substance. 
 
 A knowledge of the vegetable fossils peculiar to the 
 different strata will, in all probability, open to us con- 
 siderable stores of instruction ; we may thereby learn, 
 not only the nature of the several vegetable beings of 
 the earlier ages of this planet, but may ascertain the 
 order in which the several tribes were created : and, 
 reckoning upon the considerable advance which has 
 been made in our knowledge of the structure of the 
 earth, and upon the eagerness with which enquiries re- 
 specting the organic remains of former periods are 
 pursued, the attainment of such knowledge, it may be 
 presumed, is not far distant. 
 
 At present we know of no vegetable remains of ear- 
 lier existence than those which belong to the coal form- 
 ation; and these appear to be chiefly derived from 
 various grasses and reeds, and plants of the cryptoga- 
 
 * Geological Transactions, vol. ii, p. 522.
 
 33 
 
 motis and succulent tribes, many of which are not known 
 to exist on the surface of the earth at present. From 
 the latter of these the coal itself appears to have chiefly 
 proceeded. In the mountain limestone, above the coal, 
 and in the different members of this formation ex- 
 isting between this and the blue lyas, vegetable remains 
 appear to be of but rare occurrence; so that parti- 
 culars of such as have been discovered in these situa- 
 tions may furnish much useful information, and espe- 
 cially with respect to those fossils which are sup- 
 posed to have derived their origin from wood. 
 
 It has been assumed that wood, or parts of trees, have 
 been found in coal and in the accompanying coal- 
 measures, but some confirmation of these accounts seems 
 to be required. The description of these fossils has sel- 
 dom been so particular and exact as to yield positive 
 evidence of their original nature; and, as has been 
 already shown, the instances are by no means infre- 
 quent in which the traces, and even the remains of 
 cactuses and other succulent plants, had given rise to 
 the belief of the existence of fossil trees in these strata. 
 This opinion may therefore have obtained seeming con- 
 firmation from the ligneous hardness which large plants 
 of this kind might have acquired, and which, perhaps, 
 might be traced in their mineralized remains. 
 
 The earliest stratification in which fossil wood exists 
 is not perhaps at present determined ; but it seems that 
 the earliest appearance in this island of fossil wood, 
 which by its uniformity of character appears to belong 
 to a particular bed, is the spathose bituminous wood of 
 the blue lyas, as found at Lyme in Dorsetshire, and in 
 the neighbourhood of Bath (p. 22). In the next form- 
 ation, and particularly in that of the green sand, sili- 
 ceous fossil wood occurs frequently. Very delicate 
 specimens are found in the sandstone, the whet-stone 
 
 F
 
 34 
 
 of the Blackdown hills of Devonshire. The specimens 
 of fossil wood found in the Portland stone are fre- 
 quently of very considerable size, and hear all the cha- 
 racteristic marks of wood : these are also siliceous, and 
 are often beautifully sprinkled on their interior surfaces 
 with quartz crystals. Siliceous fossil wood is also 
 found in other situations, as in the sands of Wooburn in 
 Bedfordshire : it also occurs at Folkstone in Kent, in that 
 part of the green sand where it approximates to the super- 
 incumbent marl, in which it is also found. Traces of 
 wood are hardly ever discovered in the chalk itself, and 
 so rarely in the accompanying flint nodules, that the 
 knowledge of but one specimen, an instance of this 
 occurrence, is known to the writer of these pages. 
 But in the blue clay, incumbent upon this immense 
 accumulation of chalk, fossil wood, pierced with tere- 
 dines, and impregnated with calcareous spar, is ex- 
 ceedingly abundant: and in almost every sunken part 
 of this bed, and even of the whole surface of this 
 island, the remains are discoverable of vast forests 
 which have suffered little other change than that of 
 having undergone different degrees of bituminization. 
 
 By these facts we learn that, at some very remote 
 and early period of the existence of this planet, it must 
 have abounded with plants of the succulent kind, and, 
 as it appears from their remains, in great variety of 
 forms and luxuriancy of size. These, from what is 
 discoverable of their structure, beset with seta and 
 spines, were not formed for the food of animals ; nor, 
 from the nature of the substances of which they were 
 composed, were they fitted to be applied to the various 
 purposes to which wood, the product of the earth at a 
 subsequent period, has been found to be so excellently 
 adapted, by man. Their remains, it must also be re- 
 marked, are now found in conjunction with that sub-
 
 35 
 
 stance which nature has, in all probability, formed from 
 them ; and which, by the peculiar economical modifica- 
 tion of its combustibility, is rendered an invaluable 
 article of fuel. If this be admitted to be the origin of 
 coal, a satisfactory cause will appear for the vast 
 abundance of vegetable matter with which the earth 
 must have been stored in its early ages : this vast, and 
 in any other view useless, creation, will thus be ascer- 
 tained to have been a beneficent arrangement by Provi- 
 dence for man, the being of a creation of a later 
 period. 
 
 Animal Fossils. 
 
 THE mineralized remains of animals are found in sub- 
 terranean situations, in almost every part of the globe 
 which has been explored. The immense number, the 
 high antiquity, and the general disagreement of these 
 remains with those animals which now exist, give rise 
 to the most interesting and important conjectures. 
 Correct investigation is therefore demanded : a careful 
 comparison of the respective characters of these sub- 
 stances must be made, and the various circumstances 
 belonging to their present extraneous situations be en- 
 deavoured to be ascertained. 
 
 Zoophytes. These substances, possessing an animal 
 nature under forms approaching to those of vegetables, 
 frequently occur in a mineralised state. The inquiries 
 respecting them will, for obvious reasons, be first di- 
 rected to those which are of the simplest forms and 
 structure. 
 
 Sponge is, in its recent state, a polymorphous, 
 soft, porous, flexible and elastic body, manifesting a 
 small portion of irritability and vitality. It is com- 
 posed of fibres of a peculiar substance disposed rather 
 in a membranaceous form, blended with minute spictilae 
 of various figures ; the whole connected in a variously 
 formed network, and invested by a light gelatinous matter.
 
 36 
 
 Count Marsilli, who had the most favourable oppor- 
 tunities of examining into the nature of this substance, 
 was satisfied, although led to the belief of its being a 
 vegetable, that he had many times observed a regular 
 systole and diastole taking- place in some of its more 
 circular apertures. But neither M. Peron nor M. 
 Bosc have been able to confirm these observations *. 
 
 With the hope of facilitating the distinction and ar- 
 rangement of those sponges which may be discovered 
 in a mineralised state, it has been thought advisable ta 
 give the following table of the divisions of sponges 
 which have been adopted, and of the species which 
 have been noticed by M. Lamourouxf; adding those 
 specific characters which appear to be most distinctive 
 and most likely to be discoverable in the fossil speci- 
 mens. 
 
 * The following remarks on. the nature of this substance merit atten- 
 tion: Although the animal nature of sponge is generally admitted, BO cir- 
 cumstance which may serve to illustrate its history, and tend to dispose of 
 it in i ts proper place in the system of nature, should: be unnoticed. The 
 following observations of Dr. Fyfe may indeed be considered as adducing 
 very important evidence on this subject. Sir Humphrey Davy had pro- 
 cured iodine from several of the fuel and ulva^ but not ftoei the alkaline 
 matter manufactured at Sicily, Spain, and the Roman states, nor did 
 lie find that the ashes of coral or of sponge appeared to contain, it. From 
 various experiments Dr. Fyfe was enabled to conclude that iodine was 
 confined not only to- the class cryptogamia, bqt to the marine productions 
 of this class. Sponge being however considered to belong to the animal 
 world, forms an apparent objection to this conclusion. But it must be re- 
 membered that Linnaeus was inclined to regard sponge as a vegetable sub- 
 stance, and to place it in the class cryptogamia, subdivision alga-, aquation- : 
 but was doubtful of the correctness of this arrangement. " May not the 
 fact," Dr. Fyfe observes, " that sponge contains iodine, be an argument in 
 favour of the opinion of Livmvus, that this substance properly belongs to the 
 vegetable world, class cryptoganiia, from the plants of which iodine is ob- 
 tained?" Account of some Experiments, made teith the view of ascertaiiung 
 the, different Substances from which Iodine can be procured. By Andrew 
 Fyfe, M. D. Tlic Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. i t p. 2:>4. 
 
 t Histoire dcs Polypiers Coralligenes flexibles, &c. paj- J. V. F. 
 Lamouioux, D.E>S. Caen, 181 G.
 
 37 
 
 I. Sessile masses, simple or lobated, either covering or 
 enveloping. 
 
 Species. 
 
 1. S. communis. . 
 
 Large flattish masses, rather 
 convex ; pores large ; crevices 
 and grooves chiefly beneath. 
 -Surface finely porous, downy 
 
 and jagged ; edges ciliated. 
 Tissue fibrous and stiff; holes and 
 
 crevices numerous and deep. 
 Stiff and hard, very cavernous; 
 mammillated, and irregularly 
 porous. 
 
 Rudely shaped ; irregularly lobed ; 
 cavernous, and jagged as if 
 eroded. 
 Rather glomerated, and a little 
 
 branchy ; fibres veiy lax. 
 . Fibre shaggy and rather straight, 
 resembling the beard of a goat. 
 Fibres in fasciculi, terminating 
 
 in pencils at the surface. 
 Terminating in jagged, braaehy 
 
 lobes. 
 Formed of numerous bundles of 
 
 distinct filaments. 
 Surface membranaceous ; nearly 
 covered with subangular, irre- 
 gular cells. 
 
 Beset with subangular cells; in- 
 terstial membranes full of 
 pores* 
 
 13. septosa. . . . With nearly erecf lamellae, de- 
 cussating and forming irregular 
 cells. 
 With reticulated fibres, in unequal 
 
 and wintfing divisions. 
 -Encrusting; deeply lobed, with 
 thick, erect, flattish, conoidal 
 lobes. 
 
 Flat, oblong, nearly undivided; 
 full of pores. 
 
 2. lacinulosa. 
 
 3. sinuosa. . . 
 
 4. cavernosa. 
 
 5. cariostf. ... 
 
 6. lichewformis, 
 
 7. barba 
 
 8. fasciculatus. 
 
 9. lacera 
 
 10. filameuCosa. 
 
 11. favosa. . . . 
 
 12. ceffulosa. . 
 
 14. fenestrata. 
 
 15. crassUoba. 
 
 16. tabula. . .
 
 38 
 
 Species. 
 
 17. S. placenta. . . Obliquely circular, plano-con- 
 
 vex; rigid, full of pores, radi- 
 ated in grooves at the edges. 
 
 18. byssoides. . . Flat; formed of distinct fibres, 
 
 and loosely cancellated. 
 
 19. pulvinata. . Smooth, like a cushion ; rarely 
 
 lobed. 
 
 20. carbonaria. Black and mishapen. 
 
 21. incrustans. Investing, with a thin crust. 
 
 22. agaracina. Compressed, lobed, reticulated, 
 
 and externally covered with a 
 downy substance. 
 
 23. cristata. . . Flat,with erect and delicate ridges 
 
 growing in the shape of cocks' 
 combs. 
 
 24. domuncula. Convex, smooth, slightly papil- 
 
 lary, and very cellular. 
 
 25. globosa. . . . Rounded, firm, and very caver- 
 
 nous ; the surface sprinkled 
 with smooth papillae. 
 
 26. macida. . . With white, crustaceous fibres, 
 
 terminating in points. 
 
 27. panicea. . . Resembling, in its form, crum 
 
 of bread ; and composed of 
 bundles of fine needle-like 
 fibres, crossing each other. 
 
 28. papillaris. Crustaceousj tender, soft, and 
 
 with perforated papillae. 
 
 29. urens Very brittle and soft, and in- 
 
 terwoven with very minute 
 spines. 
 
 30. acicularis. . White, solid, porous and scabrous 
 
 externally ; with fibres in fas- 
 ciculae converging to the centre. 
 
 II. Subpediculated masses, contracted toward their 
 base ; simple or lobated. 
 
 31. S. angulosa. . . Sides angular ; various, unequal, 
 
 and numerous foramina on the 
 edges of the angles.
 
 39 
 
 Species. 
 
 32. S. pluriloba. .- Lobes erect and fissured ; nume- 
 
 rous small pores with inter- 
 spersed round ones. 
 
 33. rimosa. . . . Lobes erect, fibrose and rather 
 
 woolly ; surface hollowed out 
 with longitudinal grooves. 
 
 34. penicillosa. Surface bristled with brushes of 
 
 straight and hard fibres. 
 
 35. turgida. . . . Substance fibrous; fibres loosely 
 
 interwoven with a terminating 
 foramen. 
 
 3G. bombycina. . Ventricose ; many lobes on the 
 upper surface; fibres naked and 
 lax ; harsh and hispid at the 
 surface. 
 
 37. flammula. . .Lobes erect, of an ovato-lan- 
 
 ceolated form ; fibres loose. 
 
 38. myrobolans. Mass oval, rather flat. 
 
 39. pes leonis. . . Pedicle short, sustaining a 
 
 roundish, oval, soft compressed 
 mass; texture very porous. 
 
 40. anatipes Entirely fibrous ; longitudinal 
 
 fibres stronger than the trans- 
 verse ones ; the meshes of the 
 net-work elongated ; pedicle 
 hard and porous. 
 
 41. rubra Reddish, depressed, subrotund, 
 
 with elevated tubercles ; and 
 pores of equal size. 
 
 42. peziza Yellow and ramous, branches 
 
 resembling the peziza. 
 
 43. nigra Globose, smooth; black ex- 
 
 ternally, internally of an ash- 
 colour. 
 
 III. Pediculated masses; flat, flabelliform ; simple or 
 lobated. 
 
 44. S. plancella. . . . Truncated oval form, flat; not 
 
 thick; curved on one of its 
 edges ; tissue lightly en crusted, 
 and finely porous.
 
 40 
 
 Species. 
 
 45. S.pala Spatulifonn, openings round 
 
 on its upper margin. 
 
 46. flabelliformis. Fan-formed ; elegantly reticu- 
 
 lated, with superficial undu- 
 lating stripes, decussating on 
 the disk. 
 
 47. pluma Finely fibrous, spread fan-like. 
 
 48. carduus Dilated like a fan ; with la- 
 
 mellated wrinkles on both sides, 
 and echinated with spines. 
 
 49. panned. . . . Flabelliform, with a cloth-like 
 
 texture. 
 
 50. fissurata. . . . Fan-formed, more or less lo- 
 
 bated, and covered with small 
 irregular crevices. 
 
 51. cancellaria. . Low, flabelliform, compressed ; 
 
 ramifications coalescent, dis- 
 posed in a trellised form, and 
 bristled on the edges. 
 
 52. lyrata. .... . Erect, compressed, fan-formed 
 
 lobes, with connected tubes; 
 upper margin rounded and set 
 with foramina. 
 
 53. deltoidea. . . . Erect ; truncated in the upper 
 
 part; (frequently encrusted with 
 vermiculae on both sides.) 
 
 54. sartaginula. . Circular and smoothish ; con- 
 
 cave on one and convex on the 
 other side ; with small round fo- 
 ramina disposed almost inrows. 
 
 55. appendiculata. Subpediculated, oblong, spa- 
 
 tuliform, with finger-formed ap- 
 pendices. 
 
 IV. Concave expanded masses; cup or funnel-formed. 
 
 56. S. usitatissima. . Turbinated ; soft, tomentous, 
 
 very jagged and porous. 
 
 57. tubulifera. . . . With tubuliferous lobes. 
 
 58. stellifera Cup-formed, with thickly set 
 
 stelliform pores in the hollow 
 part.
 
 41 
 
 Species. 
 
 50. S. striata. .... Funnel-formed, with rough 
 longitudinal striae on the sides. 
 
 Co. campana. . . . Bell-formed, with lamelloso- 
 reticulated sides. 
 
 61. turbinata. . . Turbinated, narrow and long, 
 
 cavity echinated. 
 
 62. vasculum. . . . Turbinated; surface smooth, 
 
 edge woolly. 
 
 (53. brassicaria. . Expanded, subfoliaceous, 
 lobes large, surface smooth. 
 
 64. cyathina. . . . Cyathiform; with small, scat- 
 
 tered, round openings. 
 
 65. Otaheitica. . . Cyathiform ; slightly lobed, 
 
 with longitudinal crevices. 
 
 66. costifera. . . . Turbinated, with longitudinal 
 
 ribs on the sides. 
 
 (57. labellum. . . . Labelliform, like slips of 
 paper; striated with longitudi- 
 nal thread-like risings. 
 
 68. pocillum. . . . Caliciform, with fine pores 
 
 and clefts. 
 
 69. venosa Open cyathiform, and reticu- 
 
 lated with vein-like white, dis- 
 tinct fibres. 
 
 70. sportella. . . . Basket-formed ; reticulated. 
 
 71. bursaria. . . . Wedge-shaped, purse-like, 
 
 connected in a fan-form. 
 
 72. bilamellata. . Flabelliform, terminating in 
 
 two ample straight, parallel 
 lamellae. 
 
 73. calix Turbinated, stipitated ; the 
 
 substance thick and lax, inter- 
 nally rather gibbous. 
 
 74. ficiformis. . . . Turbinated, apex open. 
 
 75. compressa. . . A compressed cone, with lon- 
 
 gitudinal fissures internally. 
 
 V. Tubulous or fistulous masses, not expanding. 
 
 76. S. lacnosa, . . . Cylindrical; externally exca- 
 vated by irregular and winding 
 lacunae.
 
 42 
 
 Species. 
 
 77. S. tubaformis, . Long simple tubes, tubercu- 
 
 lated externally. 
 
 78. fistularis. ... Long, aggregated, simple 
 
 tubes, gradually enlarging. 
 
 79. plicifera. . . . Approaching to the infundi- 
 
 biliform, with external, tortu- 
 ous anastamosing plicae. 
 
 80. scrobiculata. . Oblong top-form ; with une- 
 
 qual furrows and roundish cells. 
 
 81. vaginalis. . . .Oblong and tubular; the 
 
 outer surface with rough, flat- 
 tish tubercles. 
 
 82. digitalis. . . . With longish processes, slight- 
 
 ly connected ; the surface mu- 
 ricated and ragged. 
 
 83. bullata Branched, tubulous, with in- 
 
 flated nodes, and terminating 
 in points. 
 
 84. syphono'ides. . Tubes elongated in the form 
 
 of a syphon. 
 
 85. colus Erect, clavelliform, and tubular. 
 
 86. tubulosa. . . . Full of tubes, branched, erect 
 
 and slender at the end. 
 
 87. muricina. . . . Subramose tubes, every 
 
 where muricated with acute 
 tubercles. 
 
 88. confederata. ,. Formed of many connected 
 
 tubes. 
 
 89. intestinalis. . With many hollow, unequal 
 
 lobes. 
 
 90. coronata. . . . Minute, a tube crowned with 
 
 radiating little spines. 
 
 91. tubularia. . . . Sessile, compressed, porous, 
 
 with longitudinal tubules. 
 
 92. citiata Conical, bending tube, becom- 
 
 ing smaller upwards, and cili- 
 ated at the apex. 
 
 VI. Foliaceous masses; divided in flat, leaf- formed 
 
 lobes. 
 
 98. S. perfoliata. . . Plain stalk, with round foli- 
 aceous lobes, disposed spi- 
 rally on the stalk.
 
 43 
 
 Species 
 
 94. 
 
 9G. crispata. 
 
 97. 
 
 98. lamellaris. 
 
 S. pennatula. . . With erect, rounded, wedge- 
 formed, foliaceous lobes, very 
 porous. 
 
 95. cactiformis. . Ramose ; with flat, flabellated 
 expansions rounded or muria- 
 ted at the summit, and small 
 dispersed excavations on one 
 face. 
 
 With contorted, bubbly, sup- 
 pellucid, curled, coalescent ex- 
 pansions, of very fine fibrous 
 texture. 
 
 basta. (panache noir). Black, fibrose, fron- 
 dose-cristated ; with separat- 
 ing convoluted folds of loosely 
 connected fibres. 
 
 Sessile, frondose, with many 
 soft, erect, and nearly parallel 
 lamellae, broadest in the upper 
 part. 
 
 endivia In soft spatuliform thin plates, 
 
 wrinkled on their edges and 
 surface. 
 
 Green, obovate, narrow and 
 ragged at the top. 
 
 Of different forms ; cavernous, 
 with conical bending tubes, 
 with elevated tubular pores. 
 polyphilla. . With pediculated fronds; with 
 convoluted plaited lobes and 
 longitudinal fibres. 
 . With sub-proliferous, roundish 
 fronds; with foramina on one 
 side. 
 
 . With foraminated expansions, 
 dividing in a multitude of plates, 
 lobated, turned, and as it were 
 crimped, in various directions. 
 
 heterogona. . Expansions, so turned as to 
 
 form imperfect tubes. 
 
 thiaroides. , , Many narrow erect lobes, 
 
 emulating a muricated crown. 
 
 99. 
 
 100 
 101 
 
 102 
 103 
 104 
 
 105 
 106 
 
 urceolus. . 
 
 mamifleris 
 
 pavoma. 
 
 scariola.
 
 Species. 
 
 107. S. xerampelina. 
 
 108. juniperina. . 
 
 109. raphanus. . 
 
 110. mesenterina. 
 
 111. leporina, . . 
 
 112. laciniata. . . 
 
 113. frondifera'. , 
 
 114. fimbriata. . . 
 
 44 
 
 Ramose, with ovate incised 
 fronds, with a tow-like in- 
 crustation. 
 
 Ramose, fronds with the fibres 
 arranged like a lattice work. 
 
 Substance like tow, and po- 
 rous ; with ovate frond-like 
 lobes, with longitudinal grooves 
 and wrinkles on both sides. 
 
 With broad lamellae, plaited 
 in winding forms. 
 
 Frondose, deeply fringed; di- 
 lating and sublobated towards 
 the apex. 
 
 Frondose, with many erect 
 aggregated jagged lyre-formed 
 lamella?. 
 
 Slightly ramifying, with round- 
 ish., proliferous lobes, the limb 
 fimbriated with curled fibres. 
 
 Slightly ramifying, with ovato- 
 subrotund fronds, the limb 
 fimbriated with curled fibres. 
 
 VII. Branched masses, phytoidal or dendroidal; the 
 ramifications distinct. 
 
 115. S. arborescens. Ramose ; branches subcoin- 
 
 pressed ; apex palmated, digi- 
 tiform. 
 
 116. virgultosa. . Branches roundish ; with erect 
 
 twigs, rather pointed. 
 
 117. lonyicuspis. . Base, a trellisse formed of 5 
 
 or 6 meshes ; whence rise from 
 6 to 9 straight long branches, 
 sometimes coalescing, forming 
 thin digitations or long points. 
 
 118. asparagus. . Ramose, erect, many stems. 
 
 119. dichotoma. . With erect, round, subulated 
 
 dichotomous branches. 
 
 120. cchidnea. . , With erect, rigid branches, all 
 
 over muricated.
 
 45 
 
 Species. 
 
 121. muricata. . . Thinly branched ; substance 
 
 like cork ; branches cylindrical, 
 and beset with obtuse shaggy 
 tufts. 
 
 122. vulpina. . . . With ramose lobes, rather lat- 
 
 ticed, with compressed pa- 
 pillae. 
 
 123. spicalifera. . Branches erect, sub-cylindri- 
 
 cal tubercles, muricated with 
 spiculee. 
 
 124. carlinoides. .Thickly branched ; angulated 
 
 branches, with subspinous and 
 membranaceous expansions. 
 
 125. amaranthina. With compressed, divided and 
 
 lobated branches, dilated up- 
 wards, and longitudinally stri- 
 ated. 
 
 126. strigillata. . Flabelliform, flat branches, 
 
 with echinated papillae. 
 
 127. nervosa. . . . Branched fan-like ; nervous 
 
 sub-reticulated branches. 
 
 128. rubispina. . Branched fan-like ; with di- 
 
 vided branches, rather coales- 
 cent ; echinated with pointed 
 tubercles. 
 
 129. abietina. . . . With stipitated, flat, incrusted 
 
 branches, with acute papilla? 
 terminating in threads. 
 
 130. elo?igata. . . Sub-ramose, with a few rather 
 
 cylindrical branches ; with very 
 long naked and sub-reticulated 
 fibres. 
 
 131. selaginea. . . Compressed, ill-formed branch- 
 
 es; with frequent spinous 
 keel-like ridges. 
 
 132. aspericornis. Rather round, elongated, and 
 
 aculeated branches. 
 
 133. hispida. . . . Ramose, ill-formed, hispid 
 
 with subulated jags. 
 
 134. serpentina. . Round branches, the smaller 
 
 contorted in various directions. 
 
 135. -* oculata. . . . Compressed, roundish, with bi- 
 
 fid and trifid ascending branch- 
 es, with eye-like openings.
 
 Species. 
 
 136. S. botellifera. 
 
 137. palmata. . 
 
 138. lanuginosa. - 
 
 139. typhina. . . . 
 
 140. tupha 
 
 141. fornicifera. . 
 
 142. scmitubulosa. 
 
 143. alicorms. . . 
 
 144. damcecornis. 
 
 145. caudigera. . 
 
 146. loricaris. . . 
 
 147. cancellata. . 
 
 148. stuposa. . . . 
 
 149. linteiformis. 
 
 46 
 
 With erect, tuberculated, groov- 
 ed and ill-formed branches. 
 
 , Branched and palmated ; digi- 
 tiform smaller branches, with 
 forked terminations. 
 
 -Dichotomously branched, rather 
 compressed previously to being 
 divided, woolly, and formed of 
 very fine naked fibres. 
 
 Ramose; with round, erect, 
 woolly branches. 
 
 Ramose; with cylindrical ob- 
 tuse omentiform branches. 
 
 With flat, small villous ramifi- 
 cations coalescing in a vaulted 
 lattice. 
 
 With numerous cylindrical and 
 tortuously divaricating branch- 
 es, some tubular and pierced. 
 With many stems; branches 
 compressed and subdichoto- 
 mous ; the apices attenuated ; 
 the fibres minute. 
 With compressed porous 
 branches, with clefts on one 
 side ; apices palmated. 
 With forked lobes; the last 
 being very long and caudiform . 
 Loose branches, narrow like 
 straps ; a little compressed, 
 divided and irregularly curved. 
 Ramose, flabellated, and in- 
 crusted; with round flexuous 
 branches, forming, by coales- 
 cing, cancellae ; the surface 
 finely reticulated. 
 -Ramose, round ; towey and 
 villous ; short and obtuse 
 branches. 
 
 In a rounded bush-like form ; 
 the branches rather narrow, 
 jaggedly fringed, rough and 
 sharp to the touch.
 
 47 
 
 Species. 
 
 150. S. clathrus Many branches, crowded to- 
 
 gether, and by coalescing form- 
 ing cancellae ; the apices ob- 
 tuse, and rather turgid. 
 
 151. coalita Dilated base, inclosing other 
 
 bodies ; numerous roundish, 
 compressed branches ; fibres 
 closely applied at the surface. 
 
 152. faveolaria. .. With elongated, sub-cylindri- 
 
 cal, coalescent branches ; the 
 apices conical ; the surface un- 
 equal ; having little pits on 
 the surface, and being rough 
 on the edges. 
 
 153. macrodactyla. With long round compressed 
 
 finger-like processes. 
 
 154. botryoides. . . With oblong, ovate lobules, 
 
 apices hollow and open. 
 
 155. radiciformis. . With tortuous, dichotomous 
 
 branches, compressed at the 
 apex. 
 
 156. prolifera. . . . Palmated, with frequent divi- 
 
 sions, and distinct finger-formed 
 processes. 
 
 157. ossiformis. . . . White, subramose ; apex 
 
 thickened and jagged. 
 
 158. membranosa. With cellular membranes, ex- 
 
 ternally muricated. 
 
 159. fulva Amorphous and subramose. 
 
 160. floribunda. . . Confluent, with ramose fasci- 
 
 culi ; having a chaffy flosculent 
 down, and being obtuse and 
 thicker at the apex. 
 
 161. baccillaris. .Erect, caulescent; with po- 
 
 rous branches, applied to each 
 other. 
 
 The existence of fossil sponge in the transition or 
 in the mountain limestone has not been ascertained, 
 or in the different beds of the lias formation ; but the te- 
 nuity, in general, of its substance, and the nature of the
 
 48 
 
 matrices in which it has been sought, may perhaps oc- 
 casion its concealment. Of its presence in the several 
 oolitic beds, I have not been able to acquire any satis- 
 factory information, except that in the Portland freestone 
 I have seen semi-sphaeroidal masses, about eighteen 
 inches in diameter, divided into flattish, foliaceous, la- 
 ciniated, erect lobes, and which appear to possess a 
 spongeous structure. Specimens are sometimes found 
 in the green sand formation, but not so frequently as 
 may have been expected : the specimens which are most 
 frequently found, are, I suspect, those which are ad- 
 herent to the accompanying fossil shells. 
 
 The richest collection which is known of these fossils 
 is, I believe, that of the gravel pits of the iron sand at 
 Farringdon, where they are found mingled with the 
 fossils of some of the early formations. Some of these 
 specimens are of considerable size, and are in such ex- 
 cellent preservation as to allow, at least, of their ar- 
 rangement under the more comprehensive divisions 
 of the genus. Among the specimens are round and 
 cavernous, resembling sp. globosa ; pediculated, sub- 
 pediculated, lobated and flabelliform, ramous, folia- 
 ceous, cyathiform, funnel and ficiform. In most of the 
 specimens the structure and form of the animal are so 
 obvious, as to raise the hope that the determining of 
 their specific characters, and their consequent arrange- 
 ment by some zealous investigator of these interesting 
 relics, may be expected. 
 
 Fossil remains of this substance are frequently found 
 in the chalk, and most numerously perhaps in the lower 
 series of this formation; but from the delicate texture of 
 the membrane of the sponge, and from its cavities being 
 filled by the chalk itself, there are no means by which 
 the fossil can be extricated from its matrix. Indeed, it 
 frequently happens that these substances, agreeing as to 
 colour with the chalk, would exist there undetected, but
 
 49 
 
 by the greater degree of hardness which it possesses, 
 and by the asperities which it presents at the surface. 
 They are sometimes pointed out by the strong tint 
 which they derive from having sustained a ferruginous 
 impregnation ; and in these instances, although a suf- 
 ficient separation from the surrounding chalk to allow 
 the developement of the form cannot be obtained, yet, 
 by their being carefully rubbed down to a smooth sur- 
 face, something of this may be discovered, with, ge- 
 nerally, a tolerable display of the internal structure. 
 
 The nodules of chalk flint frequently contain the 
 silicified remains of sponge, and in a state which will 
 allow their form and structure to be much more easily 
 traced than in the chalk itself. The most common forms 
 in which these occur are oblong or nearly globular: and 
 they are either imbedded in the chalk, or scattered on its 
 surface, or in the neighbouring declivities. These may 
 be frequently found on the Sussex downs, the Gog- 
 magog hills of Cambridgeshire, and, indeed, on or about 
 most of the chalk hills. These nodules appear to have 
 been formed round fragments of sponge of different forms 
 and structure, and to be more or less filled, according 
 to the degree of decomposition and subsequent removal 
 which the included substance had sustained after its 
 inclusion. In some specimens, particularly among those 
 of Wiltshire, which have been collected by the liberal 
 encouragement of Miss Benett, a tuberous or ramified 
 body, and, in some instances, two such bodies, are 
 extended across the cavity of the flint, and covered over 
 with a fine white powder of chalk and silex blended. 
 These bodies appear to be casts in the cavities of sponge, 
 the substance of which has passed away. In others 
 the substance which had been included appears to have 
 been broken down and removed, and its place occupied 
 by chalk which has intruded in a pulverulent state; 
 whilst in others the cavity alone remains. Oblong 
 
 n
 
 50 
 
 nodules, found on Stokenchurch Hill, and for some 
 distance on the Oxfordshire side, very frequently ex- 
 hibit specimens, which, on being broken, display the 
 structure of the Zoophyte in great distinctness. In the 
 chalk marl at the foot of the cliff at Beachey head, are 
 botryoidal and lamelliform masses, which not only from 
 their external forms, but the appearances yielded on 
 their fracture, lead us to the recollection of the masses 
 of fossil sponge at Farringdon, and which, in all pro- 
 bability, have been yielded by the chalk marl. 
 
 Fossil sponge of a very fine texture, and in a pulvi- 
 nated form, is sometimes found investing the shells ac- 
 cumulated in the cliffs at Walton and Harwich. 
 
 A flint stone, found on the shore at Dawlish in De- 
 vonshire, bears decided marks of its having derived its 
 form from the siliceous impregnation of sp. mammillaris. 
 
 Several fossils of the tribe of Zoophytes having been 
 noticed in a former work, which, although not possess- 
 ing the decided characters of the genus, were still, with 
 expressed doubt, placed among the Alcyonia ; an at- 
 tempt at a better classification of some of these bodies 
 is here attempted. 
 
 The first of these, are those bodies which are distin- 
 guishable by bundles of tubuli passing through a sponge- 
 ous substance, and which may be thus characterised. 
 
 Siphonia. A fossil animal, with a polymorphous 
 body, supported by a stem proceeding from a fusiform 
 or ramose root-like pedicle ; the original substance 
 spongeous, and pierced by a bundle of tubes derived 
 from the pedicle, passing through the stem, then ramify- 
 ing and terminating on the surface of the body. 
 
 The various spongeoid fossils, bearing the forms of 
 cups, funnels, fruits, &c. described by M. Guettard, 
 as obtained from Verest, near Tours and Saumur, and 
 at Montrichard, in Touraine, and by the Rev. J. 
 Townsend, as found in the green sand of the Vale of
 
 51 
 
 Pewsey*, as well as those which are figured, PL IX, 
 fig. I, 4, 5, 7, 11, 12, 13, PI. X,^gf. 6 and 13, of the 
 second volume of Organic Remains, &c. are of the 
 same genus. 
 
 Since the publication of the last mentioned work, 
 Mr. Webster made the discovery of those interesting 
 fossils in the Isle of Wight, which from their long 
 seeming stalks, and from their tulip-formed superior 
 terminations, obtained the name of tulip alcyoniaf. 
 These fossils decidedly agree in the characters which 
 have been assumed for this genus. 
 
 Soon after the discovery of these fossils, Miss Be- 
 nett, whose exertions have much aided this depart- 
 ment of Natural History, favoured the Geological So- 
 ciety with a suite of drawings, and of fossil speci- 
 mens of various forms, but decidedly of this genus, 
 which had been found in the sand, chiefly in the 
 neighbourhood of Warminster. This valuable collec- 
 tion is rendered extremely interesting, by the great 
 variety of forms which these fossils have assumed; 
 cylindrical, straight, ramified, round, oblong, ovoid, 
 wide and narrow, short and long, cup or funnel-formed ; 
 elongated like a cucumber, as in Organic Remains, 
 Vol. II, PI. X, fig. 6 ; tulip-formed, exactly agreeing 
 with those discovered by Mr. Webster, and assuming 
 also the forms ofspongici turgida, sp. alcicornis fy dami- 
 cornis, and indeed many other of those forms which 
 sponge offers to our observation. Among the most 
 interesting specimens are those which are lobated, and 
 
 The Character of Moses, &c. PI. I, fig. 1, PI. II, fig. 1, 2, 3, PI. Ill, 
 fig- 1,2,3. 
 
 + Geological Transactions, Vol. II. The importance of this discovery 
 of Mr. Webster will be observed, when it is considered that the remains 
 of this animal, known perhaps only in this formation, are found in consi- 
 derable numbers in the Leith Hill of Surry, in the green sand of Wilt- 
 shire, Devonshire, &c. and in the free-ston* of Portland, approximating to 
 the green sand.
 
 52 
 
 in which from two to five or six lobes, closely united 
 together, are found upon one stem ; and in one speci- 
 men, two stems arise from v the same base, one of 
 which terminates with three and the other with four 
 lobes*. 
 
 Flints are sometimes found of a roundish form, 
 pierced internally with numerous tubules passing in 
 every direction, and giving the idea of the flint having 
 invested a small hispid leafless shrub. It is extremely 
 probable that these fossils may have originated in a 
 species of this genus, bearing this form, and having 
 the tubuli thus radiating through the spongeous part ; 
 the siliceous impregnation having solidified this part, 
 and left the tubules unfilled. 
 
 It is not to be doubted that, when the specific dis- 
 tinctions of the several specimens belonging to this 
 genus have been ascertained, the number of its species 
 will be found to be very considerable*. 
 
 At PI. I, fig. 8, is represented a transverse section 
 of one of the stems of a tulip-formed specimen, in 
 which the bundle of tubules are shown ; and at fig. 7, 
 the superior extremity of the same fossil is given, 
 with the numerous terminations of the tubuli. These 
 may be also generally discovered on the sides of the 
 
 * From the account given by Miss Benett to the Geological Society, re- 
 specting these fossils, it appears, that they are found in the Valley or Com- 
 mon of Warminster, in the reddish yellow sand, at a depth seldom exceeding 
 two feet, on the sides of the hills. At Whitburn near Claythill,in the same 
 neighbourhood, the green sand comes to the surface, and these fossils are 
 found in it. At Boreham, on the east side of Warminster, the grey sand is 
 uppermost, and there, but most rarely, are found fossils of the same kind. 
 " These fossils,'' it is observed by Miss Benett, "appear to belong to the top 
 of the sand formation, without regard to the sort of sand. The yellow sand 
 appears to be the grand depot of them: in the green sand, large specimens 
 predominate; but those of the grey sand are in a higher state of preser- 
 vation." These fossils were discovered by Mr. George Warren of War- 
 minster, to whom Miss Benett states herself to be indebted for them.
 
 53 
 
 depression or cavity which sometimes exists in the 
 superior termination. 
 
 The existence of these animals appears to have been 
 confined to that sea from whose waters the green sand 
 formation was deposited; no traces of their remains 
 being mentioned as found in the strata of any of the 
 preceding or subsequent formations. 
 
 Animalisation has, in this genus, proceeded a degree 
 beyond that in which it exists in sponge; since, 
 added to the spongeous texture, is the bundle of tubes 
 which has been here considered as yielding its generic 
 distinction. 
 
 In the fossils next to be examined, a different and 
 more distinct kind of organisation is discoverable : tubes 
 here exist also in considerable number, and are con- 
 nected by transverse intercurrent tubules. The or- 
 ganisation existing in this animal seems to authorise 
 its being placed in a distinct genus ; and it is presumed 
 that the designation which is here assumed for it will 
 not be disapproved. 
 
 Mantellia. An animal with a fusiform or ramose, 
 root-like pedicle, a stem and body formed of tubuli, 
 anastomosing in a basket-like texture, with openings 
 on the internal surface. 
 
 The most common species of this genus is the fossil 
 which has been described by Mr. Mantell, as a species 
 of Alcyonium*. But whilst removing this fossil from 
 the genus under which Mr. Mantell had placed it, it 
 must be observed, in justice to this gentleman, that it 
 had been stated by the present writer, that " although I 
 shall in general speak of these bodies as alcyonia, I 
 am aware that, when their histories have been eluci- 
 dated by the inspection of more illustrative specimens, 
 several of them may claim other designations!." In 
 
 * Description of a fossil Alcyonium from the chalk strata, near Lewes. 
 Transactions of the Liunaeau Society, Vol. XI, 1815, Part 2, page 401. 
 t Organic Remains of a former World, Vol. II, page 89.
 
 54 
 
 conformity with this opinion, Mr. Mantell chose to 
 speak of this body as an alcyonium; his judgment, at 
 the same time, directing him, to do it with due reserve ; 
 he also " wishing it to be allowed only a temporary ad- 
 mission into this situation, till future discoveries shall 
 point out more precisely its situation in the scale of 
 animated nature." 
 
 The specimen PL I, Jig. 9, reduced from Vol. II, 
 PL XI, fig. 1, of Organic Remains, belongs to a species 
 of this genus, and appears to have been part of a stem. 
 In this species, it will be observed, that tha- trans- 
 verse anastomosing vessels are but few, and smaller 
 than those which proceed in a perpendicular direction. 
 InthespecimenP/. 1,^.10; reduced fromP/. XI, fig. 6, 
 of Organic Remains, the characteristics of the genus 
 are more decidedly shown, the intervening vessels are 
 much more numerous, and approach nearly in thickness 
 to those which they connect. In other specimens de- 
 picted in the work just referred to, the characters of 
 other species may be perceived; thus in Organic Rem., 
 Vol. II, PL XI, fig. 3, the anastomosing is formed 
 by the oblique arrangement of the tubuli ; and in Jig. 7 
 of the same plate the same effect is produced by the very 
 frequent ramifications and inosculations of the vessels. 
 It is indeed extremely probable, from the appearance of 
 numerous imperfect specimens, that the industrious 
 collector will be enabled to place many more species 
 under this genus. 
 
 The remains of this genus are almost all confined to 
 the chalk.; but in one or two specimens, appearances are 
 observable which lead to the supposition that they may 
 have been deposited in some part also of the chalk marl. 
 
 Alcyonites.-~TheTc are very few animals to which we 
 can have access in their living state, whose nature and 
 structure are so little understood as the Alcyonium ; 
 and hence have arisen considerable difficulties when 
 examining them in their fossil state. The definition and
 
 55 
 
 descriptions of M. Lamouroux, with the observations 
 which he has made on their structure, are so likely to 
 yield useful information in the examination of their 
 fossil remains, that I feel no hesitation in introducing 
 them. 
 
 "Alcyonium. A polymorphous polype bearing animal, 
 formed of a fleshy animated mass, sometimes inert, 
 sometimes sensible, and filled with retractile polypi 
 which expand on its surface. In the dry state this 
 mass appears composed, of fibres reticulated and in- 
 terlaced at the centre, radiating to the circumference, 
 and covered with a firm cellular, coriaceous or creta- 
 ceous covering*." 
 
 The number of tentacnla are said to vary in different 
 species, but M. Lamouroux only examined the polypes 
 of Alcyonium lobatum, and found them not to agree 
 with those attributed by Dr. Solander and Dr. Spix to 
 this species. 
 
 In the following catalogue, as in that of the sponges, 
 the most obvious characters, and those which are most 
 likely to be detected in the fossil, are particularised. 
 
 1. Alcyonium arboreum. With papillary pores dis- 
 
 posed in lateral and terminal tuberosities. Gmelin, 
 p. 381 0,n. 1. 
 
 2. A. palmatum. With a simple stem, subramous, and 
 
 papillous at the extremity. Marsilli, Tab. XV, n. 
 74, 75. 
 
 3. A. lobatum. With a grey, tuberous crust; lobated; 
 
 with numerous impressed porea. 
 
 1. A. digi&rfiat.ordead man's toesof-EHi*, CoraLTab. XXXII, a : . A.a. 
 9. A. exos. Spinx, An. du Mia. Tom. XIII, Tab. XXXIII, fig. 8 to 14. 
 
 4. A. rubrum. Red, soft, and encrusting; entirely 
 
 covered with points or stars with eight rays. 
 
 5. A, cydomum. An oval or elliptical mass, convex 
 
 above, concave beneath, irregularly grooved and 
 notched ; cells discoverable if the skin is not injured. 
 
 6. A.massa. Irregularly shaped. 
 
 * Histoire dcs Polypiers Coralligenes flexibles, &c. par J. V. F. Lamou- 
 roux, A. Caen, 1816, p, 317. 9$ fffif*
 
 56 
 
 7. A.cidaris. Fixed, globose, and hard ; excavated by 
 
 tortuous sinuses ; terminal depression large ; fre- 
 quent, small, substellated openings. Donat. Adr. 
 p. 56, Tab. IX. 
 
 8. A. vesparium. Fixed, erect, large, ovato-oblong ; 
 
 apex, obtuse ; internally cavernous ; many minute 
 openings. 
 
 9. A. incrustans. Lobated ; spongio-fibrous within ; 
 
 numerous small substellated pores. 
 
 10. A. serpens. Fleshy, tape-like ; tortuously creeping ; 
 with wart-like prominences with subradiated open- 
 ings. 
 
 11. A.trigonum. Carnous, cellular, subtrigonal, cover- 
 
 ed all over with small openings. 
 
 12. A.foratum. Oblong, smoothish ; surface subreti- 
 culated ; foramina rather large and scattered. 
 Spongia ? 
 
 13. A. cribrarium. Coriaceous, widely incrusting. 
 
 14. A. phallo'ides. Pedicle short and thick, supporting 
 wide tortuous lobated branches, heaped in a dense 
 mass, with small scattered oscula. 
 
 15. A. pyramidale. Cylindrico-conical ; red and fleshy 
 within. 
 
 16. A. pulmonaria. Pulpous, olive-coloured and livid ; 
 
 compressedly lobated ; covered with very small 
 stellated oscula. EllisCorall. p. 97, n. 1, Tab. XVII, 
 b, B, C, D. 
 
 17. A. lyncurium (Orange du mer). Globose, fibrous, 
 yellow, warted. Plane. Conch. Min. 2, p. 44, 
 app. 2, p. 114, n. 3 ; Marsil p. 82, Tab. XIV, n. 72, 
 73. 
 
 18. A. alburnum. White, very branched, thin, sub- 
 divided, with tubular-terminal pores. 
 
 19. A.plicatum. Wide, rounded, lamelliform, with 
 thick lamellae windingly plaited, subcristated, with 
 minute scattered foramina. 
 
 20. A. sinuosum. Lamellated; erect, thick lamina, tor- 
 tuously winding like the folds of the brain, with nu- 
 merous marginal openings. Spongia ? 
 
 21. A. manus diaboli. Polymorphous, perforated, with 
 obtuse protuberances. 
 
 22. A. diffusum. Very ramose, diffused and ill-formed. 
 
 23. A. sceptrwn. Long, cylindrical, obsoletely cla- 
 vated.
 
 57 
 
 24. A. ensiferum. Long branches, rather flat and bent 
 like a sabre. 
 
 25. A.junceum. Very long, roundish, but compressed, 
 
 soft branches. 
 
 26. A. quercinum. Frondose, with flat, winding, lo- 
 
 bate processes. 
 
 27. A. asbestinum. Stem reddish, nearly cylindrical, 
 beset with oblong pores, set in quincunx order. 
 
 28. A. cranium. White, tuberous, set with seta?. 
 
 29. A. papillosum. Sessile, incrusting, and variously 
 lobated and papillated with spinous tubercles and 
 echinulated interstices. 
 
 30. A. tuberosum. Tuberous, yellowish: tops often 
 subdivided ; set with tubular pores. 
 
 31. A. ficus. Fig or pear-formed; tuberous, rather 
 ovate ; pulpy and livid. Mars. p. 87, Tab. XVI, 
 n. 79. 
 
 M. Lamouroux observes that there is reason for be- 
 lieving that there exists in the Mediterranean two 
 bodies of the same figure : the one belonging to 
 sponge, the other to alcyonium. Solander considers 
 that figured by Ellis to be sponge. 
 
 32. A. cylindricum. White and round. 
 
 Lamarck considers this as only being a detached por- 
 tion of a ramose alcyonium. 
 
 33. A. radicatum. Substance homogeneous, like cork ; 
 with very small scattered pores ; base divided by 
 many clefts. No bark discoverable. 
 
 34. A gelatinosum. Cylindrical or compressed, pel- 
 lucid and watery within, irregularly compressed 
 and branching. Plane, ed. 2, p. 115, c. 29, Tab. 
 X, A; Ellis, Cor. p. 102, n. 5, Tab. XXXII, fig. 
 dD. 
 
 In Parkinson's Herbal, he considers it as a 
 sponge : others have thought it an ulva or sucus. ' 
 
 35. A. pappillosum. Encrusting, covered with large 
 convex papillae .Mars. p. 80, Tab. XV, fig. 76-78. 
 
 36. A. distomum. Encrusting, with red scattered pa- 
 pillae, each with two openings. 
 
 37. A. gorgonoides. Ash-coloured, flesh mixed with 
 sand ; radiated wart-like cells. Solander and Ellis, 
 p. 181, n. 8, Tab. IX, Jig. I, 2. 
 
 38. A. corniculatum. Four stellated pores surrounding 
 a central papilla, with four erect terminal crescents. 
 
 i
 
 58 
 
 39. A- stelhttvm, Terminations distinguished by two 
 
 stellated cells. 
 
 40. A.fiuviatile. Encrusting, polymorphous; set with 
 pentagonal tubular pores. 
 
 The following compose the second section of the 
 AJcyonia of Lamarck, who distinguishes them from 
 the former by the openings of the cellules not appear- 
 ing on the dry specimen. M. Larnouroux considers 
 them as doubtful, and perhaps as intermediate be- 
 tween the Alcyonia and the Sponges. 
 
 41. A compactum. Tuberous, globoso-pulvinate ; sur- 
 face smooth. 
 
 42. A. medullare. Lamarck assumes for this species 
 the synonymous alcyonium of Ellis, Cor. Tab. 
 XVI, fig. D, d, D 1. 
 
 48. A. testudinarium. Elliptical ; rather flattened con- 
 vex, spread, slightly reticulated, with many dorsal 
 ridges, with slightly interrupted cristae. 
 
 44. A. orbiculatwm. Compressed, rounded, thick; sur- 
 face rough and very porous, unequal sized pores. 
 
 45. A. radiatum. Circular; upper surface concave, 
 
 smooth, folds radiating to the margin; with about 
 six conoidal tubercles ; lower surface convex, 
 radiated with fibrous costae. 
 
 46. A. cuspidiferum. Sessile, erect, hollow; slit up- 
 wards in many long, straight, sword-shaped lobes, 
 with a surface very slightly porous. 
 
 47. A. granulosum. Hemispherical, gelatinous, semi- 
 peilucid; raggedly grooved underneath; surface 
 granulated and wool-like. 
 
 48. A. putridosum. Ventricoso-globose, somewhat 
 pear-shaped ; thin at the edges and slightly reticu- 
 lated; surface set with tubular openings. 
 
 49. A.purpureum. Of an intense purple; flattish, car- 
 no-spongeous ; surface smooth. 
 
 50. A. boletus. Substipitated, clavated ; internally, ra- 
 
 mose fibres, latticed with dilated lamellae; surface 
 iuc rusted, porous and tuber cula ted. 
 
 51. A. boletiforme. Sessile, simple, rounded ; flat on 
 one side, convex on the other ; with small tubercle- 
 formed risings sprinkled with small cells.
 
 59 
 
 Although difficulties may attend the attempt to ar- 
 range, by these characters, substances so vaguely formed 
 as the alcyonia, especially those which exist ih a fossil 
 state; yet it will be found that the above table will 
 afford considerable advantage to the student of fossils. 
 He will by a comparison with the characters of the 
 species as there given, and by attention to the following 
 observations, gain a nearer approximation to the true 
 character of the substance under examination, and will 
 be frequently enabled to give to it a name and place. 
 
 Difficulties must frequently arise whilst endeavouring 
 to make the required distinctions in fossils of this kind, 
 arising- from the inability which is frequently found 
 of ascertaining, in fossil specimens, the nature of its 
 texture ; it sometimes happening that no assistance can 
 be yielded either by the form of the fossil or by the ap- 
 pearance of its surface. The ambiguity arising from the 
 form depends on the fossils of this genus being some- 
 times found under the same specific forms which belong 
 also to SpongiteSj Syphonites, and Mantellites : this Is 
 particularly the case with the cyathiform and fructiform 
 species, which may be found in all these genera. 
 
 There are therefore four distinct genera under which 
 fossils bearing the same general forms may be placed ; 
 and the characteristic marks of each genus will, in ge- 
 neral, be found sufficiently evident on their surfaces to 
 mark the situations, which, in classification, each of 
 them should hold. 
 
 If a cellular texture, such as would be formed by the 
 irregular decussation of membranous substance, can 
 alone be traced, without any appearance of tubuli, the 
 place of the fossil would appear to be undet the genus 
 sponge; but if, in addition to the spongeous texture, 
 straight or regularly divaricating simple tubuli should 
 appear, its place would be under syphonia. If, whe-
 
 60 
 
 ther spongeo,us texture appear or not, simple tubes 
 are discovered connected laterally either by anastomos- 
 ing or intercurrent tubules, the fossil may be consi- 
 dered as belonging to Mantellia ; but should the more 
 compact part of the fossil, or its porous surface, dis- 
 play the evident labours of polypes, no doubt should be 
 entertained of placing it among the species ofAlcyonium. 
 This may be instanced, as has been just mentioned, in 
 those fossils which bear the forms of fruit : in sponge, is 
 Sp.Jiciformis', in syphonia, a correspondent form fre- 
 quently occurs; in Mantellia, the fossil figured, Or- 
 ganic Remains, Vol. II, PL XI, Jig. 3, may be in- 
 stanced ; and in Alcyonium, is both A. Jicus and A. cy- 
 donium. 
 
 Although M. Lamouroux has not thought proper to 
 reject from the preceding table several bodies which 
 have been considered as Alcyonia, he is himself of opi- 
 nion, that the number should be much diminished : con- 
 sidering those only as Alcyonia which are evidently 
 the production, and have been the habitation of polypes. 
 He accounts for Lamarck having intermingled and 
 confounded these animals, by his having too frequently 
 judged of them from the dry specimens; but is of 
 opinion that they may be readily distinguished either in 
 their living or dead state. 
 
 In the recent alcyonia, the polypes or their cells 
 may be always seen on taking them out of the sea ; but 
 nothing similar is discoverable in sponges. In the alcy- 
 onia not only is that pulsatory motion observable which 
 is attributed to sponge, but, in those alcyons which are 
 ramified, the branches are sometimes seen to be curved 
 and afterwards straightened again. This is particularly 
 observable in A. lobatum. The difference between the 
 two animals is also apparent on the examination of 
 the dried specimens. On a section, cither transverse
 
 61 
 
 or vertical, being made of dried sponge, no difference 
 of substance is discoverable ; from the centre to the 
 circumference is the same organisation; but on making 
 a section in any direction through the centre of the 
 dried alcyonium, a structure more or less fibrous, 
 and a substance more or less grooved, will be seen 
 passing from the centre to the circumference, and on 
 the surface will be found a distinct skin or bark-like 
 covering, with numerous foramina, some of which are 
 hardly perceptible. These foramina appear to be the 
 openings of the radiating fibres, or tubes rather, and in 
 some species are very evident. 
 
 To endeavour to trace the fossil remains of Alcyonia 
 to the strata in which they were originally infixed, has 
 hitherto been accompanied with but little success: this 
 has been partly owing to the incorrect accounts which 
 have been given, respecting these and similar sub- 
 stances by the earlier writers on fossils : and partly to 
 the difficulty of discovering these fossils when imbedded 
 in stone, in the more obvious characters of which 
 they are likely to participate, and thereby become more 
 difficult of detection. 
 
 The fructiform figures which the spongeoid fossils 
 so frequently possess, had obtained for them, to a late 
 period, the names of those fruits which it was thought 
 they most nearly resembled ; and even when, in a former 
 work, the present writer removed these substances 
 from the vegetable kingdom, he was still unable to 
 discover in them such characters as would allow him to 
 decide which specimen should be considered as sponge 
 and which as an alcyonium. It is a remarkable cir- 
 cumstance, and not easy of explanation, that, after nu- 
 merous eager examinations with powerful glasses, he 
 has never seen, to his knowledge, the characteristic 
 radiating or decussating fibres of the internal part of
 
 62 
 
 the Alcyonium. In the fossils represented, Organic 
 Remains, Vol. II, PL XI, fig. 4 and 8, where the ap- 
 pearance of a cortical substance led to the belief that 
 these substances are of alcyonic structure, and although 
 the specimen, fig. 4, in particular, possesses such a 
 degree of transparency as allows the discovery of or- 
 ganic structure, in that part which is connected with its 
 cortical covering, no appearance of fibres can be dis- 
 covered. 
 
 But the establishment of the genus Siphonia, it is 
 hoped, will considerably assist in the required arrange- 
 ment of this class of fossils: the obvious tubular struc- 
 ture in the fossils of this genus will readily enable the 
 student to effect their separation from those of Spongia 
 and Alcyonium : and in consequence of this abstraction, 
 it will in future be only required to determine to which 
 of these two genera the remaining ambiguous fossils of 
 this class are to be attached ; or failing in this, to en- 
 deavour to detect in them the characters of some un- 
 dcscribed genus. 
 
 With respect to the ascertaining of the stratum or 
 even the formation to which the alcyonic fossils be~ 
 long, little more than negative information can be 
 given. It does not appear that they exist among the 
 Syphonia in the green sand ; none having been spoken 
 of as existing in the rich mines of Warminster, in the 
 Portland freestone, or in the Black-down hills of De- 
 vonshire. 
 
 Some fossils, which have been considered as belong- 
 ing to this genus, have possessed appearances which 
 have led to the suspicion that they had been imbedded 
 in some of the strata of Oolitic formation; but no po- 
 sitive evidence has been adduced of their having been 
 found in such situations ; nor do any statements appear 
 to have been made of their remains having been detected
 
 61* 
 
 in any of the subjacent formations of lyas, mountain 
 limestone, &c. 
 
 It is from the examination of the matrix of some 
 fossils apparently of this genus that the conjecture is 
 offered that the chalk marie is the stratum to which 
 the alcyonia more peculiarly belong. 
 
 Tethia. A tuberous, snbglobose polypifer, fibrous within; the fibres 
 rather fasciculated ; divaricating or radiating from the centre to the peri- 
 phery, and glued together by a small portion of pulpy matter; cells in a 
 cortical crust disposed to fall off. 
 
 The characteristic difference of this genus, and by which it is proposed 
 to separate it from A Icyonium, is the diverging, radiating, internal fibres, 
 being collected in fascicule. 
 
 From the description of this genus and of some of its 
 species, there does not appear to be any reason for sup- 
 posing that it may not be as susceptible of those 
 changes on which petrifaction depends, as some of the 
 species of Alcyonia are known to be. Fossils indeed, 
 resembling in form Tethya lyncurium, (Orange du Mer) 
 figured by Marsilli, Donati, and Esper, are not infre- 
 quent among the assumed fossil remains of Alcyonia. 
 
 Geodia. A free, carnose, tuberiform polypifer, hollow and empty, and 
 firm and hard when dry; the outer surface being all over porous; and 
 has on the side a separate circular area, pierced with larger pores. 
 
 This animal is perhaps described only by Lamarck, 
 who has seen but one specimen of it, which he pur- 
 chased at the sale of the cabinet of M. Turgot, Go- 
 vernor of Guiana: nothing has been stated respecting 
 its existence in a fossil state. 
 
 Palythoa. M. Lamouroux has very properly formed 
 a genus for the reception of two animals which Solander
 
 62* 
 
 had placed among the Alcyoniums, but which differ 
 from that genus in manifesting more complexity of or- 
 ganisation ; the cavities, which are distinct, are divided 
 by longitudinal lamellae, being each appropriated to a 
 single polype. 
 
 Palythoa. A polypifer, flat, covered with numerous, cylindrical, united 
 mammilla?, of more than a centimetre in height, with isolated cavities or 
 cellules, almost longitudinally chambered, and each containing a single 
 polype. Lam. 
 
 Sp. 1. P. mammillosa. The polypiferous cellules with a stellated 
 opening. Sol. and Ellis, p. 179, n. 5, Tab. I, Jig. 4, 6. 
 
 Sp. 2. P.occllata. Rugous mammilla? ; opening stellated and radi- 
 ated. Sol. and Ellis, p. 180, n. 6, Tab. I, fig. 6. 
 
 A sketch of this species in its recent state, from Ellis, is given Plate I, 
 fig- 14. 
 
 One specimen has been seen by the writer which he 
 considered as the fossil remains of the second species ; 
 it possessed the general external characters, and also 
 had the peculiar ochraceous appearance which is attri- 
 buted to it by Solander. 
 
 Advancing on the scale of organisation, we arrive at 
 that division of Zoophytes in which our admiration 
 is excited by the minuteness and elegance of forms, 
 observable in their receptacles ; the habitations of the 
 animals appearing like minute plants of beautiful forms, 
 whilst the animals who formed and inhabit these dwell- 
 ings require the aid of the microscope to examine into 
 their nature, and oftentimes even to discover their ex- 
 istence. These little architects are divided into those 
 which form their domiciles of a soft and yielding sub- 
 stance, and those which have the property of secreting 
 and depositing for this purpose a substance rapidly in- 
 durating and acquiring a hardness almost approaching 
 to that of stone; the latter alone require attention here.
 
 63 
 
 POLYPI FERS formed like Ntt-teork. 
 
 a. -A submemb rations, flexible, lapidcscent polypifer, frondescent, 
 or expanded in a thin crust, formed by nunierons rows of cells, disposed as 
 if woven together, on one, or on the two opposite surfaces. The cells ses- 
 sile, contiguons, adherent, short and oblique; the terminating mouth rather 
 gaping, and in some dentated or ciliated. 
 
 The following are given by Lamarck as fossil specio, bat of which the 
 genera appear to be doubtful*. 
 
 1. Fl. tesselata. Incresring, with septa; rounded forward; cells depressed 
 
 upwards; the mouth small and nearly round. Desmarets and Le 
 Suettr, Bull, des Sc. 1814, p. 55, Pi. II, fig. 2. 
 
 Found on the fossil bodies, such as echinites, belemnites, &c. of the envi- 
 rons of Paris. 
 
 2. Fl. reticulata. Formed of maderately thick fronds with eeUs on both 
 
 sides ; the cells long oval ; the septae rather prominent; and the mouth 
 rather transverse. Desmarets and Le Suenr, Bull* de& Sc. 181-1, p. 53, 
 PI. 11, fig. 4. 
 
 Found in the sands of the environs of Valogne, with the baculites, 
 belemnites, &c. 
 
 3. Fl. luadraia. lucrusting and radiated, with cells formed in squares or 
 
 parallelograms. Desmarets and Le Sueur, Bull, des Se. 1814, p. 53> 
 PI. II, fig. 10. 
 On the cast of a fossil bivalve. 
 
 4. Fl. crassa. Incrustiug; thick; with septze, prominent, but depressed 
 
 upwards; the cells short ; a large crescent-formed mouth. Desmarets 
 and Le Swtur, Bnll. des &;. 1&14, p. 53, PI. II, fig. I. 
 On a fossil oyster of Grignon. 
 
 5. Fl. eretaeen. Intrusting; thick; with ovately oblong cells. Desmarets 
 
 and Le Sneur, Bull, des Sc. 181-*, p. 53, No. 6, PI. II, Jiff. 3. 
 On a fossil murex in the environs of Plaisance. 
 
 6. Fl. trfrtcKfem. Incrusting; with rather depressed ovate cells, widest 
 
 behind; the mouth small and placed forwards. Desmarets and Lc 
 Sueur, Bull. dtcSc.1814, p. 51, Pi II, fig. ft. 
 On fossil echinites of the chalkt. 
 
 In addition to these, M. Lamouroux particularises 
 the following: 
 
 7. Fl. bifurcata. Foliaceous ; the fronds dichotcuions, with bifurcated 
 
 smnaiit.i, and set with hexagonal cellules on both surfaces. Desmarets 
 and Le Sueur, BnU. des Sc. 1814, p. 53, PI. II, fig. 6. 
 
 8. Fl. microstoma. Incrusting ; thin ; with oval, sightly convex, indistinct 
 
 cells ; the mouth very small and round, and placed in the middle. 
 Desmarets and Le Suev, BuJL let Sc. 1814, p. 54, Pi. II, fig. 9. 
 On the large fossil oysters of Sceaux. 
 
 * HUtoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebras, par M. le Cher, de 
 Lamarck. 
 
 t Histoire des Polypiers coralligenes flexibles, vulgairement nomrnes 
 Zoophytes, par J. V. F. Lamouroux, D.E.S. Cf, J816.
 
 64 
 
 II. Ccllepora.\ sublapideAus polypifer, internally porous, expanded in 
 a crust, or raised in flat, stiff, lobated or ramose, slightly convoluted fronds, 
 bearing cells on their outward surface. The cells, rather membranous, 
 urceolated, veutricose, close, rather projecting, and confused ; the mouth 
 constricted. 
 
 Desmarets and Le Sueur have, in the Bulletin des Sciences, already 
 referred to, ascertained the existence of two fossil species. 
 
 1 . Cell, megastoma. Incrusting ; with very distinct ovate cells, irregularly 
 
 heaped together ; the mouth large, PI. II, fig. 5. 
 On chalk fossils. 
 
 2. Cell, globulosa. Itici listing ; with distinct globulose cells, and a trans- 
 
 verse mouth. 
 On chalk fossils. 
 
 The fossil Celhpora are distinguishable from the 
 fossil flustree, by their cells being urceolated and irre- 
 gularly placed, and by the constricted appearance of 
 the mouths. 
 
 No species of Tubulipora has been found fossil. They 
 might be distinguished by their cells being longish, 
 tubular, and not connected together by any lateral adhe- 
 rence ; and by their mouth being round and regular. 
 
 Neither has any species of the genus Discopora been 
 described as seen in a fossil state : they might be distin- 
 guishable by their form, which is that of a discoidal un- 
 dulated plate, the upper surface covered with numerous 
 small, short cells, in quincunx order, the mouth not be- 
 ing constricted. They differ from the tubulipores, in the 
 cells being more sunk and less free ; aud from the celle- 
 pores in having no lobated, convoluted, or ramose ex- 
 pansions. 
 
 Eschara also has not been found fossil ; its species 
 would be discovered by their flat, lamelliform, thin ex- 
 pansions, with cellules in quincuncial order disposed 
 on both sides, by which they may be distinguished from 
 the millepores and resepores. 
 
 Adeona might be placed in the same genus as Es- 
 chara, but for its peculiar stem, which is sub-articulated 
 and covered with a superficial crust, and its leaf-formed 
 expansions, which are covered with cellules.
 
 65 
 
 Retepora has also thin and flat expansions composed 
 of branches sometimes free, but most frequently anas- 
 tomosing in web -work or in fillets. The cells are dis- 
 posed only on one side, which distinguishes it from 
 the adeonas and escharas. It is not incrusting, which 
 distinguishes it from the cellepores. 
 
 A fossil species has been found in the environs of 
 Angers, in small pieces, by M. Menard, which is thus 
 described: Ret. frustulata. In flat pieces, in lattice 
 work, with pores on one side 
 
 Aheolites. A lapideous polypifer, either incrasting or in a free mass 
 composed of many concentric tables, involving each other. The tables 
 are formed of tubulous, alveolar, prismatic, short, contiguous, and parallel 
 cellules, connected externally in a net-work. Lam. 
 
 The greater part of the substances belonging to this 
 genus, Lamarck observes, are yet only known in a 
 fossil state ; and of these he particularises the following : 
 
 1. Alveolites escharoides. Subglobose, the surface, webbed with rhom- 
 
 boidal cells: the margiu of the cells hiporons. 
 
 Found fossil, in the environs of Dusseldorf. In the cabinet of Chevalier 
 de Lamarck. A subglobular irregular mass, as big as a middling-sized 
 apple, formed of numerous layers, rather thin, enveloping each other. 
 
 2. Alv. suborbicularis. Hemispherical ; the surface perforated with 
 
 oblique subimbricated cells. 
 
 Fossil, from the environs of Dusseldorf, in the cabinet of Chevalier de 
 Lamarck. 
 
 These are in masses rather large; they are convex, and almost tnrbi- 
 nated on one side; flattened and even a little concave on the other; 
 being of irregular hemispherical shapes. The beds are of a moderate 
 thickness, the inner ones being the thinnest; the tubes which by 
 their union form these layers are very much inclined. 
 
 3. Alv. madreporea Oblong, smooth, subramose, and reticulated on the 
 
 hollow surface. Guiltard. Mem. Tom. Ill, PI. 56, /. i!. 
 
 Fossil, from the environs of Dax, in the cabinet of Chevalier de Lamarck. 
 
 This alveolite has the appearance of a long, rolled fossil madrepore, with 
 cells, not projecting as in the Madrepora porites ; but the exami- 
 nation of its interior part discovers a considerable difference, and 
 shows that the mass is a compound of pentagonal and hexagonal ta- 
 bular cellules, placed in layers on each other. 
 
 4. Alv. incrustans. Incrusting marine bodies, the outer surface reticulated ; 
 the ceils prismatic, vertical, unequal, and close together. 
 
 Its crust is composed of a single layer of closely set tubes; the surface 
 presents outwardly a net-work of small, unequal, pentagonal, or hexa- 
 gonal meshes. 
 
 K
 
 These fossils are perhaps not very frequent in this 
 island : I know but of two ; one of which appears to 
 belong to the last species, Alv. incrustans. The poly- 
 gonal septa dividing the meshes exist in the cavities and 
 pass into the substance of a gravel flint, with the loca- 
 lities of which I am uninformed. A portion is shown, 
 PI. II, fi s . 1. 
 
 The other is of an hemispherical form, and is, com- 
 paratively, a very large mass, being more than fifteen 
 inches in diameter. It is composed of concentric tables, 
 about half an inch in thickness, involving each other, 
 and formed of alveolar, prismatic, parallel and conti- 
 guous cells. It was found in a mass of Portland stone ; 
 and by exposure to the weather has undergone such 
 separations of its external table, as have shown its right 
 to be considered as of this genus, and probably as 
 Alv. suborbicularis. 
 
 Ocellaria. A lapitlcons polypifer, expanded in a membranous form; 
 variously convoluted and rather infiinJibuliform ; with an arenaceous sur- 
 face, porous on both sides; pores cylindrical, in quincunx order, with 
 a solid axis in a raised cenlre. 
 
 These bodies have the appearance of an eschara, or a retepora ; but arc 
 distinguished particularly by the solid central axis which is raised to the 
 orifice of each pore, and forms there a species of papilla. 
 
 There are but two species, both of which are fossil. 
 
 1. Ocellaria nuda. Infundibuliform, expanded and branching in various 
 
 ways. Ramond Voyage au Mont Perdu, p. 128, PI. II, Jig: 1, and 
 p. 345 : Bulletin des Sciences, No. 47, p. 177. 
 Found in the lime-stone of Mount Perdu in the Pyrenees. 
 
 2. Ocellaria inclusa. Conical, involved in flint. Guettard. Mem. Vol. 
 
 Ill, PI. XLl; Ramond, PI. U, fig. 2 ; Bulletin des Sciences, p. 177. 
 Found in Artois. 
 
 Daclijlopora. A lapideons free polypifer, of a cylindrically clavated 
 form, with a perforation in the narrower extremity. The surface reticu- 
 lated with rhomboidal meshes, the net-work itself porous. 
 
 It differs from retepora, in being a loose, simple polypifer, without lobes, 
 ramifications or frondescence. It possesses an opening essential to it. 
 The net-work is double, interior and exterior, which unite near tliu opcnini'. 
 
 D. Cyiindracea. 
 "1. Fossil. Reteporite. Bosc Journal de Physique, Jitin 1S06.
 
 67 
 
 FORAMINATKI) PoJ,VPIFKRS. 
 
 Stony, solid, and internally compact; \vithperforatiugortubular cells 
 not furnished with laminae. 
 
 OKuJites. A stony, free, oviform, or cylindrical, polypifer ; hollow 
 within; the extremities generally perforated, and minute pores regularly 
 diffused over the surface. 
 
 Known only as a fossil; very small, not exceeding two millimetres in length. 
 
 The openings are suspected to have proceeded from injury. Grignon. 
 Sp. 1. O.margaritula. Oval, with very minnte pores. Grignon. 
 
 it. O. elongata. Cylindrical; the extremities truncated. Grignon. 
 
 Lunulites. A free, stony, circular polypifer, with one side convex, the 
 other concave. 
 
 The convex side striated in rays, with interstitial pores; the concave 
 side radiated with diverging rugae and grooves. 
 
 Sp. 1. L. radiata. The concave side with radiating striae, the convex with 
 pores. 
 
 Fossil. Grignon. 
 
 2. L. urceolata. Cupola-formed, the convex side latticed with numerous 
 pores. 
 
 It resembles in form the cup of an acorn or a thimble. 
 
 Fossil, from Fames and Liancourt. 
 
 It is also found in the green sand of Wiltshire. 
 
 Orbulites. A free, circular, stony polypifer; flatfish; porous on both 
 sides, or at the margin ; resembling the nummulites. 
 
 Set with minute pores, sometimes scarcely visible, regularly disposed, 
 but not in a spiral order. 
 
 It differs from Lunulites in having pores on both sides. 
 
 1. O. marginalia. With a porous margin ; both sides fiat. 
 Recent. 
 
 2. complanata. Thin, fragile, flat and porous on both sides. 
 
 Fossil. Grignon; Guettard, Mem. Ill, p. 4,34, Tab. XIII, fig. 30, 32. 
 
 3. lenticulata. Upper surface convex, the lower flatfish. 
 Fossil. 
 
 4. coneara. Convex on one side, and concave on the other; surface 
 
 rather rugous. 
 Fossil. 
 
 5. macropora. Rather flat, with the centre depressed ; rather large 
 
 pores on each side. 
 Fossil. 
 
 6. pileolus. Convex on one side and concave on the other; a groove 
 
 round the margin, no pores visible. 
 Fossil. 
 
 Distichopora. A stony, solid, fixed, ramose and rather compressed poly- 
 pifer. The pores unequal and marginal, placed on the two opposite edges, 
 in longitudinal rows, and in the form of sutures ; stelliform ; wart-like 
 projections are scattered on the surface of the branches.
 
 68 
 
 This genus is formed by Lamarck for the reception 
 of what has been considered as a millepore, mille- 
 pora violacea of Pallas ; but which from its form, and 
 the arrangement of its polypiferous pores, he thinks 
 requires to be separated from that genus. 
 
 1. Dist. violacea.' Ramose, with flexnous ascending branches smoothly 
 
 compressed. Pallas. Zooph. p. 253; Ellis and Sol. p. 140. 
 Not known fossil. 
 
 Millepora. A stony, internally solid, polymorphous, ramose or frondes- 
 cent polypifer, pierced by simple, not lamellated pores. 
 
 The pores cylindrical, and perpendicular to the axis or to the expansions 
 of the polypifer; for the most part small and sometimes not apparent. 
 
 1. With the polypiferous pores apparent. 
 
 In this class are disposed the following species of Linnaeus, Solander, &c. 
 M. Squarrosa, complanata, alcicornis, aspcra, truncata, tubulifera, 
 pinnata, and rubra. 
 
 2. With the pores scarcely or not at all apparent. (Nullipores.) 
 Among these are placed, M, informis, racemus, fascieulata, byssoides, 
 
 caJcarea, and agariciformc. 
 
 None of these are represented as having been seen in 
 a fossil state, but the separations adopted here and in 
 the subsequent genera are too important not to be par- 
 ticularised, since by an attention to such distinctions 
 fossil substances may be traced back to recent ana- 
 logues little suspected. At PL IX, fig. 12, is the repre- 
 sentation of, apparently, a minute frondescent fossil 
 millepore, from Chippenham. 
 
 Favosites. A stony, simple polypifer, in various forms, composed of 
 parallel, prismatic, fasciculated tubes. The tubes are pentagonal and hex- 
 agonal ; regular or irregular ; contiguous and rarely articulated. 
 
 The Favosites resemble the honey-comb in appear- 
 ance. Lamarck describes two species, both fossil. 
 
 Sp. 1. F. ahcolata. Tuibinated, irregular, transversely sulcated on the 
 outside; the tubules rather large and subhexagonal ; the inside of the 
 partitions striated. Esp. Supp. II, Tab. IV. 
 
 This fossil is particularised as being a turbinated 
 mass, as if truncated at the summit, its upper surface
 
 69 
 
 showing the terminations of unequalized pentagons and 
 hexagons, appearing like a net-work. The descriptions 
 agree with the fossil from Dudley, represented Organic 
 Remains, Vol. II, PL VII, fig. 3 and 7, and the fossil, 
 Organic Remains, Vol. II, PI. V, fig. 9, is perhaps 
 referrible to this genus. 
 
 2. F. Gotklandica. With solid, parallel, contiguous, and hexahedral prisms. 
 Amain. Acad. I, Tab. IV, fig. 27. 
 
 This fossil is very interesting. It differs from the other 
 species in the prisms being parallel with each other, as is 
 observed by Lamarck, like the prisms of basalt. lu 
 the specimen which I possess, the angular tubes are so 
 filled with earthy matter as not to allow the discovery 
 of the state of the septa. 
 
 Lamarck has thought it necessary to separate Tubi- 
 pora catenulata, chain coral, from the genus Tubipora, 
 and to place it in a distinct genus, Catenipora, and to 
 form a genus, Tubipora, for the reception of T. musica 
 only. But, by this arrangement, eight species, placed 
 by Gmelin under this genus, besides the fossil species 
 radians and ramulosa*, are removed, and no other 
 genus proposed for their reception. 
 
 But the chief generic character of these animals, as 
 derived from their ascertained structure, is, that the 
 animal substance contained in each tube so communi- 
 cates with the whole mass by an intercurrent organiza- 
 tion, as to render it one connected system ; and, by 
 retaining the original arrangement of the perspicacious 
 Linnaeus, with a very small change in his definition, 
 the genus will be found sufficiently distinct and com- 
 prehensive; and the several species, the structure of 
 which is known, will be characterised by the different 
 modes of organization by which this communication is 
 effected. 
 
 * Organic Remains, Vol. II, p. 15, PI. I, p. 18, F/.III, Jig. \.
 
 70 
 
 Tttbipom.A stony polypifer formed by cylindrical or oval tubes, cojn- 
 municating laterally with each other. 
 
 Sp. 1. T. mqsica. Formed by erect, cylindrical, parallel, and distinct 
 genicnlated tubes, containing an internal tubular organization, con- 
 nected by small radiating tubuli passing through the external tubes 
 and the transverse plates, by which the tubes arc supported and united. 
 Recent. 
 
 2. T. radians. With erect parallel tubes, including others, which, by ra- 
 
 diating horizontally through the external tubes, connect the whole. 
 Org. Rem. Vol. II, p. 13, PL I, frontispiece. 
 Fossil. 
 
 3. T. catenulata. With erect, oval, parallel tubes, laterally porous, and 
 
 placed in vertical lamina', which, by anastomosing, form a chain- 
 work. Amcen. Ac. Tab. IV, fig. W. It is also represented, Org. 
 Rem. PI. Ill, jig. 4, 5, 6. 
 Fossil. 
 
 4. T. amllans. With very short, distant, erect, cylindrical tubes, placed 
 
 in the connecting angles of flexuous vertical laminae. Millep. Serpent. 
 Amcen. At. I, Tab. IV, fig. 26. 
 Fossil. 
 
 6. T. ramulosa. Formed of tubes connected by sub-dichotomous ramifi- 
 cations. Org. Rem. Vol. II, p. 1, PL III, fig. 1. 
 Fossil. 
 
 6. T.fasdcularis.O. Fabr. Fn. Groenl. 45:9. 
 Fossil. 
 
 7. T. ramosa.Koelruter Act. Petrop. p. 374, Tab. X, fig. 3. 
 Recent. 
 
 8. T. pinnala. Pallas el. Zooph. p. 247, n. 151. 
 Recent. 
 
 y. T. penicillata. O. Fabr. Fn. Groenl. p. 429, n. 430. 
 Recent. 
 
 10. T.fiabellarit. O. Fabr. Fn. Groenl. p. 430, n. 431. 
 Recent. 
 
 11. T'.steUata.Modeer. . Act. Stockh. 1768, n. 10, Tab. VII, fig. 1. 
 Fossil. 
 
 12. T. ttrues. Modeer. n. Act. Stockh. 1788, 4, n. 1. 
 Fossil. Org. Rem. Vol. II, p. 16, PI. II, fig. 1. 
 
 An interesting fossil is found among the diluvial sub- 
 stances of the Farringdon gravel, which has not hitherto 
 been described, and which appears to belong to this 
 genus. 
 
 It is formed of tubes about the size of a crow's quill, 
 inosculating frequently at its base ; the cavities of the 
 Jubes are divided by very closely-set transverse plates, 
 pierced with a small, well-defined central foramen. 
 Further opportunities of examining the fragments of 
 this fosil are necessary to allow of determining whether
 
 71 
 
 there exists any other communication between the tubes 
 besides that resulting from their early inosculations^ 
 Until then its specific characters can hardly be consi- 
 dered as ascertained ; but, should nothing contradictory 
 be discovered, it may be distinguished as T. anas- 
 tomosans. 
 
 This fossil is seldom found in a state which will lead 
 to a suspicion of its nature. The broken tubes, for 
 they are generally in fragments, have mostly a whitish 
 and shelly appearance ; but, on their surface being ex- 
 amined with the aid of a lens, it is found somewhat 
 to resemble that of shagreen skin, and to give the 
 notion of its having been covered by the labours of 
 some parasitic animalculae : but on examining the sub- 
 stance at the fractured ends, it was found exactly to 
 accord with the external surface, being composed of 
 small, crumbly, rather oblong, particles, appearing 
 as if held together by an imperfect adherence. The 
 substance of the Tubipora musica being also examined, 
 it was found to be of the same construction. 
 
 LAMELLATED POLYPIFERS. 
 
 Stony polypifers, with lamcilated stars; or with undulating grooves, 
 fnrnished with lamellae. 
 
 LAMELLATED POLYPIFERS, ivith terminal stars. 
 
 Stylina. A stony polypifcr, formed of simple thick masses, ecliinatod 
 in the upper part. Numerous cylindrical fasciculated tubes, containing 
 radiating lamella!, with a solid axis : the solid styliform axes projecting 
 beyond the tubes. 
 
 St. echinulata. Recent, from the South Seas. 
 
 The recent species which Lamarck considers as the 
 type of this genus, and which is the only one with which 
 he is acquainted, was brought from the South Seas by 
 Perron and Le Sueur, and furnishes us with another in- 
 stance of the astonishing fact of animals whose remains 
 are found in the formations containing the reliques of 
 animals of the earliest creation; no traces of which 
 have been seen in any of the subsequent formation, but
 
 72 
 
 which are now found in a living state in the seas of the 
 opposite hemisphere. 
 
 Different species of this genus are found in the tran- 
 sition limestone ; in one of these, the fossil is simple, 
 of a turbinated or rather of a longish clavated form, 
 terminating at its upper end in a round, lamellated star, 
 with a projecting style-like axis in the centre, PI. X, 
 fig. 4. In another species, a similar structure exists, 
 except that instead of the periphery being circular, it 
 is angular, and generally either pentagonal or hexagonal. 
 In a third species, the fossil is of a compound con- 
 struction, being formed by the union of polygonal, 
 chiefly hexagonal tubes. This fossil has a highly orna- 
 mented surface; a projecting sharp ridge surrounds 
 every star ; the styloid projecting axis rises from a 
 depression in the centre, and from its sides the sur- 
 rounding lamellae ascend with an undulating sweep 
 to the acute surrounding ridge ; the whole giving to 
 each star somewhat of a floriform appearance. A small 
 portion of this fossil is represented PL X. 
 
 Not having the opportunity of reference to the speci- 
 men referred to by Lamarck, the classification of these 
 fossils must be indeed considered as conjectural: but it 
 must be observed, that they appear to accord with the 
 characters of Stylina ; and that there does not appear 
 to be any other genus in which they can be placed. 
 
 Sarcinula. A stony polypifer, formed in a free, simple, thick mass, 
 by tubes united together. The tubes numerous, cylindrical, parallel, and 
 vertical, accumulated in bundles, by intermediate and transverse septae. 
 Radiating lamellae within the tubes. 
 
 It differs from tubipora in its tubes being lamellated, and, from stylina, in 
 having no central style. 
 
 1. Sore, perforala. 
 
 This species is only known recent. 
 
 2. Sarc. organum. 
 
 This is described as being found recent in the Red Sea. Fossil specimens 
 are also found on the coast of the Baltic. -Madrep. Organum. Am. Ac. 
 Tab. IV, fig. 6.
 
 73 
 
 Curyophillia. A stony fixed polypifer, simple or ramified ; the item 
 and branches rather turbinated, and striated longitudinally, each being ter- 
 minated by a cell, radiated in a stelliform figure. 
 
 These substances are separated by Lamarck from the 
 Madreporae, in which they were placed by Linnaeus, 
 and retained by Solander. Their distinctive character 
 is, that their polypiferous cells are really terminal ; the 
 extremity of the stem, or of each branch, being ter- 
 minated by a single lamellated star. 
 
 Under this genus are placed : 
 
 I. Those with simple stems, solitary or fasciculated. 
 
 1. Car. Cyathus. Mad. Cyathus, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XXVIII, fig. 7; 
 Organic Remains, II, PI. IV, fig. 1. 
 
 Fossil. 
 
 2. Calycularis. Mad. Lin. Esper. Tab. I, fig. 16. 
 
 Fossil. 
 
 3. truncularis. Aggregated; with thick cylinders, externally reticu- 
 
 lated and connected by a lamellated crust, with radiating stars and a 
 striated edge. 
 Recent. 
 
 4. Car. fasciculata. Mad.fascic\da,ris. Lin. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XXX. 
 Well preserved fossil specimens of this coral arc fomul in the transition 
 
 limestone of Gothland. 
 Fossil. 
 
 5. astreata. Mad. musicalis. Esper. I, Tab. XXX, fig. 1. 
 
 6. musicalis. Mad. musicalis. Lin. 
 
 Fossil in the mountain limestone of Ireland. 
 
 II. Those with divided stems or ramified. 
 
 7. ftexuosa. Mad. Lin. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XXXII, fig. 1 ; Or- 
 ganic Remains, II, PI. VI, fig. . 
 
 Fossil in the mountain limestone of the neighbourhood of Bristol. 
 
 8. cespitosa. Mad. flesuosa.Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XXXI, Jig. 5,6. 
 
 9. anthophyllum. Mad. anthophyllites.Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XXIX. 
 
 10. cornigera. Mad. ramea, tar. Esper. I, Tab. X. 
 
 11. ramea. Mad. Lin, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XXXVIII. 
 
 It. fastigiata. Mad Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XXXIII. 
 
 13 angulosa. Mad. Esper. I, Tab. VIII. 
 
 14. sinuosa. Mad. angulosa. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XXXIV. 
 
 15. carduus. Mad. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XXXV. 
 
 Turbinolia. A stony polypifer; free, simple, turbinated or cuneiformed ; 
 longitudinally striated on the outside ; the base pointed, the terminating cell 
 stelliformly lamellated and sometimes oblong. 
 
 These bodies are considered, by Lamarck, as dif- 
 fering from Caryophillia in not being fixed or adherent. 
 
 L
 
 74 
 
 Lamarck enumerates eight species, all of which are 
 fossil. 
 
 1. Turk, patellata. Organic Remains, II, Pi. IV, fig. 6. 
 
 An interesting specimen of this species is formed by a spathose cast 
 retaining satisfactory marks of its origin. 
 
 2. turbinata. Mad. Am. Acad. I, Tab. IV, fig. 2, 3, 7, Organic 
 
 Rem.Il, Pl.lV,fig.S, 10, 11. 
 
 3. cyathoides. Mad. turbinata. Am. Acud. I, Tab. l\ T ,fig,3; Organic 
 
 Remains, II, PI. IV, fig. 3. 
 
 4. . compressa. Organic Remains,!!, PI. IV, Jig. 9. 
 
 5. . . crispa. Cuneiform, sulcated externally with longitudinal undulated 
 grooves ; the star oblong, with rough lamella; on the side. Grignon. 
 
 G. sulcala. Cylindrical!}- striated ; with longitudinal grooves, the 
 
 interstices transversely striated. Grignon. 
 
 7. . Clttus. Clavatedty turbinate, straight, with longitudinal granu- 
 lated and subdentated stria?. Agin, and Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 8. Caryophyllus. Roundish, but turbinated, with simple stria? exter- 
 
 nally. Organic Remains, Pi. XIII, fig.W. 
 
 Cyclolites. A stony free polypifer, orbicular or elliptical ; convex and 
 lamella ted in the upper part, with a central groove ; flat beneath, with sunk, 
 concentric circular lines ; one lamellated star occupying the upper surface, 
 with entire, smooth, and very slight lameHse. 
 
 1. Cycl. numismalis. Mad. porpita ; Lin. Am, Ac. I, Tab. IV, fig. 1, 
 
 a. b. 
 
 2. hemitphtvrica Scheuch. Herb. Dilut. Tab. XIII, Jig. 1 . 
 
 3. cristata. Orbicular ; convex and lamellated on the upper side, 
 
 with variously crested, slightly decussating ridges. 
 
 4. elliptica. Convex on the upper part; stellated by obsolete la- 
 
 mella; ; with an elongated central groove. Gnett. Mem. Vol. Ill, 
 Tab. XXI, fig. 17, 18. 
 Fossil. Perpignan. 
 
 Only known as fossils. 
 
 Lamarck observes, that this last fossil is the largest 
 of the known species of this genus, and that its oval 
 or elliptical figure is peculiar to it. The fossil here 
 described is the same as is figured, Org. Rent. Vol. II, 
 PL X, fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, and its nature enquired into, 
 p. 113. 
 
 The superior part of this fossil, possessing the lon- 
 gitudinal groove, derives a smooth downy appearance, 
 from innumerably fine striae, formed by articulated
 
 75 
 
 fibres, which, proceeding from the margin of the in- 
 ferior surface, pass round every part of the upper 
 surface, and terminate in the sides of the central 
 longitudinal groove. The inferior surface is nearly 
 flat, and is marked by concentric linear ridges and 
 corresponding depressions, intersected by numerous 
 lines, radiating from the centre to the circumference. 
 The examination of this peculiar organization evinces 
 it to be probable that it gave to this animal the power 
 of fixing itself, like the remora or sucking-fish; whilst, 
 by the opening ,in its superior part, it alternately 
 received and ejected the sea water, the medium of its 
 nourishment. 
 
 Supposing the animal laid with ifs inferior surface, 
 on any substance wet with the sea water, the retraction 
 of the fibres upwards, about the centre of that surface, 
 would produce a cavity and a vacuum between that 
 surface and the surface of the body on which the ani- 
 mal was placed : and there would be obtained such a 
 degree of adhesion, that no removal of it from that 
 spot could take place, whilst the vacuum was preserved. 
 On the other hand, on the contracting of the perpen- 
 dicular muscular fibres terminating on the edge of the 
 inferior surface, the edge would be raised ; air would 
 gain access to the vacuum, and the animal be imme- 
 diately loosened. But whilst fixed by its inferior sur- 
 face, the muscular fibres of the upper convex surface 
 would, by their contraction, draw down the whole upper 
 surface, and at the same time widen the central longi- 
 tudinal opening, and necessarily expel the contents of 
 the ventricular cavity. The immediate subsequent 
 relaxation of these fibres would then occasion the re- 
 filling of the cavity ; and Urns the alternate filling and 
 emptying of the ventricular cavity would be continued. 
 The examination of the figure given by Guettard, Me- 
 moires, Table XXI, fig. 17, 18, confirms this opinion.
 
 76 
 
 The figure given by Scheuchzer, Herb. Diluv. Tab. 
 XIII, fig. 1, appears lo be a correct representation of 
 the second species, C. hemisphcerica. 
 
 Fungia, A stony, free polypifer, simple, orbicular or oblor.g ; convex 
 and lamellated in the upper part, with an oblong central groove ; con- 
 cave and rough beneath. The star single, lamellated, and subprolife- 
 rous, occupies the upper part ; the lamellae are dentated or rough on 
 the side. 
 
 The extensive surface which almost every species of this genus pos- 
 sesses, formed by a single star, probably the labour of a single animal, 
 shows the propriety of placing it in a distinct genus. 
 
 S^>. 1. F. semilunata. Compressed at the sides, striated outwardly ; the 
 edge bowed ; a longitudinal groove, and a short 
 pedicle. Fossil. 
 
 2. compressa. Indian Seas. 
 
 3. cyclolites. Indian Seas. 
 
 4. patelluris. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XXVIII, Jig. 1-4 
 
 5. agariciformis Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XXVIII, Jig. 5, 6. 
 
 6. icutaria. . . Ruwph. Amb. VI, Tab. LXXXVIII, fig. 4. 
 
 7. litnacina. . . M. pilcus, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XLV. 
 
 8. talpa Seba, III, Tub. HI, fig. VI, 4- Tab.CXll,fg.3l: 
 
 9. pileus. . . . Rumph. Amb. VI, Tab. LXXXVIII, Jig. 3. 
 
 Fossils of this genus have been found at Steeple Aston. 
 
 Pavonia. A stony polypifer, fixed and frondescent ; the lobes flat, 
 subfoliaceous, erect or ascending, with stelliferous ruga or grooves 
 on each side. 
 
 The stars lamellated, in rows, sessile, and rather imperfect. 
 
 None of the species of this genus have been found fossil. 
 
 Sp.l. Pav. agaricites. Mad.agariciles. Lin.Sol.ffEll.Tab.lX.lll. 
 
 2. cristata. . Knorr Delic. Tab. A. X. Jig. 1. 
 
 3. lactuca. . Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XLIV. 
 
 4. boietiformis. Mad. Cristata. Ellis and Sol. Tab. XXXI, 
 
 Jg. 3,4. 
 
 5. divaricata. Indian Seas. 
 
 6. plicata. . . Esper. Supple. I, Tab. LXVI. 
 
 7. obtusangla. Indian Seas. 
 
 8. Jrondifera. South Sea. 
 
 Agaricia. A .stony polypifer, fixed, with flat, subfoliaceous expan- 
 sions, the upper surfaces only having stelliferous grooves. 
 
 The stars lamellous, sessile, and in rows, most frequently imperfect 
 and hardly distinct. 
 
 The Pavoniae and the Agariciae agree in some re- 
 spects; the stars are disposed in grooves or on rugae 
 in lines which give the first idea of the Meandrinae.
 
 77 
 
 But in the Pavonioe, both surfaces of the foliaceous 
 expansion are constantly furnished with stelliferous 
 wrinkles or grooves, whilst in the Agariciae only one 
 surface is thus furnished ; and although, from the fold- 
 ing of the expansions, contradictory appearances may 
 be seen, the correctness of this observation will be 
 ascertained by minute inspection. 
 
 Sp. 1. Ag. cucullata. Mad. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XLII. 
 
 2. undata. . . Mad. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XL. 
 
 3. ampliata. . Mad. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XLI, Jig. 1. 
 
 4. mgosa. . . South Sea. 
 
 5. papillosa. . South Sea. 
 
 6. lima ..... South Sea. 
 
 7. eiplanulata. Mad. pileiis. Esper.I, Tab. VI. 
 
 No fossil specimens have been described. 
 
 Meundrina. A stony polypifer, fixed, in a simple hemisphaerical or 
 bphseroidal mass. 
 
 On the convex surface are excavated, open, winding, 
 ambulacrae, lamellated on each side. The lamellae are 
 transverse and parallel, adhering on each side of hillock- 
 shaped ridges. 
 
 The lamellae abut upon the hillock -like ridges: and 
 the Ambulacra may be compared to tortuous vallies, 
 separated by corresponding hills : the lamellated ridges 
 occupy the interstices of the tortuous vallies which holds 
 the polypes and thus separates them. 
 
 Sp. 1. Meand.labyrinthica. Mad. labi/rinthica, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. 
 
 2. - cerebriformis. Shaw's Miscel. IV, Tab. CXVIII. The 
 
 American Seas. Seba Mus. Ill, Tab. CXII, 
 fig. 5, 6. 
 
 3. deedalea. . . Mad. dtedalea, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XLVI, 
 
 fig.\. 
 
 4. - pectinata. . . Lin. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. LXVIII, Jig. I. 
 
 5. - areolata. . . .Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XLVII, fig. 4, 5. 
 
 6. - crispa ..... Seb. Mus. Ill, Tab. CVIII, fig. 3-5. 
 
 7. - gyrosa. . . . Mad. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. LI, Jig. 2. 
 
 8. - phrygia. . . Mad. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XLVlIl,Jig. 2. 
 
 9. filograna. . . Mad.filograna, Gmelin. 
 
 None of these species are mentioned as having been 
 found fossil; they are however found in this state: 
 some fine specimens are in the British Museum. Very 
 beautiful specimens, impregnated with quartz, are in the
 
 78 
 
 collection presented by Dr. Nugent to the Geological 
 Society, collected by him on the Island of Antigua, 
 with several other siliceous remains of Astrea, Mad- 
 repora, &c. 
 
 Hydnophora. A stony polypifer, fixed and incrusting other bodies ; 
 either forming a subglobose, gibbous, or lobated mass, or spread in 
 subfoliaceous lobes ; the upper surface is set with little stars raised 
 in pyramids or little mounts. 
 
 The stars project and are conical, or like little hillocks; the central 
 axis is solid, simple, or dilated, surrounded by radiating lamellae ad- 
 hering to it. 
 
 In the Hydnophorae, as in the Meandrinse, the raised 
 cones and little hillocks are the parts which occupy 
 the interstices which are left by the polypes between 
 them; the polypes existing in the vallies, where they 
 adhere to each other. In the Hydnophorae, the cones, 
 as well as the little hillocks, are insulated and circum- 
 scribed; whilst the hillocks in the Meandrinae are not. 
 
 The necessity of placing these fossils under a distinct 
 genus was seen by M. Fischer, of Moscow, who dis- 
 tinguished it by the name Hydnophora. Lamarck also, 
 seeing the necessity of their separation, formed the 
 genus Monticularia for their reception. 
 
 Sp. \. Hydnoph. folium. Recent. 
 
 2. i lobatum. Recent. 
 
 3. ______ polygonatum. Recent. 
 
 4. i i microconos. Mad. exesa. Pallas Zooph. p. 290. Sol. <$' 
 
 Ell. Tab. XLTX, Hydnophora Pallasii, Fisch. 
 
 5. ' i meandrinum. 
 
 6. ... Cuvieri, Fossil. Russia Fisch. Rech. No. 4, Tab. I, 
 J&3. 
 
 7. Molii. Fossil. Russia Fisch. Rech. No. 5, Tub. I, 
 
 &! 
 
 8. - Knorrii. Fossil. 4 Fisch. Rech. No. 6, Guettardlll, 
 
 PI. XXVH,/g. 2. 
 
 9. Guettardi. Fossil. Fisch. Rech. No. 7, Guettard III, 
 
 Pl.LXlV,jig. 1,4, 5. 
 
 10. i Bourguetii. Fossil. Fisch. Rech. No.Q, Guettardlll, 
 
 PL XLIV, fg. 5, 7, 8. 
 
 The figures represented, PI. Ill, fig. 19, 21, 22, & 23 ; VIII, Jig. 40 ; 
 lX,_/fg. 41 ; X,Jig. 46, in Bourguet's Trait, belong to this genus. 
 
 The fossils represented Organic Remains, Vol. II, PI. VI, jig. 4? 
 PI. XII, fig. 1, 2, 4, 6, 11, 13, arc also of this genus.
 
 79 
 
 Echinophora. A stony polypifer, fixed, flat, expanded in a rounded 
 membrane, free and bearing the form of a leaf, finely striated on 
 both sides. The upper surface is echinulated with small papillae; is 
 besides supplied with rose-formed, convex, tubercles, considerably echi- 
 nated, and pierced with one or two holes, each covering a laraellated star. 
 
 The stars are scattered, circular, and covered ; the lamellae unequal, 
 rather confused, projecting from the bottom and sides, and partly filling 
 up the cavity. 
 Sp. 1. Echinoph. Rosularia. Recent. Sea of New Holland. 
 
 Explanaria. A stony polypifer, fixed, expanded in a free, foliaceous, 
 undulated, or convoluted and sublobated membrane, with one stel- 
 liferous surface. 
 
 The stars scattered, sessile, and rather distinct. 
 
 Explanarice differs from the following genus, Astrea, 
 in its never, like the latter, heaping into a globular or 
 hemispherical mass ; but its expansions, at every age, 
 preserving their foliaceous form, and allowing their 
 under surface to be seen. The stars are only on the 
 upper face ; and are circumscribed, and not plunged in 
 wrinkles or grooves. 
 
 Sp. 1. Expl. infundibulum. Pall. Zooph. p. 332. 
 
 2. mesenterina. . Mad. Cinarescens. Sol. fy EU. No. 26, 
 
 Tab. XLIII. 
 
 3. gemmacea. . . Mad. Scubrosa? Sol. 4' Ell. p. 156. 
 
 4. aspera Mad. aspera. Sol. 4- EU. Tab. XXXIX. 
 
 5. ringeus American Seas. 
 
 6. cristata Mad. Acerosa? Sol. % Ell. No. 30. 
 
 Astrea. A stony polypifer, fixed, conglomerated, incrusting other 
 bodies, or formed in a subglobose but rarely lobated mass. 
 
 The upper surface set with sessile, lamcllatcd, round or subangular 
 stars. 
 
 The stars in this genus are circumscribed. The substance is never 
 raised in extended expansions, or developed in leaves, as in the Expla- 
 nariffi, or ramified like the Madrepores. 
 
 The stars are in some separated from each other by interstices, and 
 in others', though circumscribed, they are contiguous. 
 
 Stars separate, even from their base. 
 
 Sp. 1. Astr. radiata. . . . Mad. radial a, Sol. # EU. Tab.XLVH,jig. 8. 
 
 2. argus Mad. Cavernosa, Esp. Suppl. 1, Tab. 
 
 XXXVII, (the great Astroites) 
 
 3. annularis. . . Mad. annularis, Sol. $ Ell. Tab. LIII, 
 
 fie- 1,2.
 
 80 
 
 4. Astr. rotulosa. . . . Mad. rotulosa,Sol 4- Ell. Tab. LV, fig. 1-3. 
 
 5. ananas. . . . Mad. ananat, Sol. # Ell. Tab. XLVI[,^g. 6. 
 
 6. detrita. .... Mad. detrita, Esper. Suppl. I, Tub. XLVI. 
 
 7. . porcatn. . . . Mad. porcata, Esper. Suppl. I, Tab. LXXI. 
 
 8. punctifera. . Mad. Indian Seat. 
 
 9. myriopthalmia. Mad. Indian Seas. 
 
 10. micropthalmia. Sea of New Holland. 
 
 11. pleiades. . . . Mad.pleiades,S l. fyEll.Tab. UII,jig.7, 8. 
 
 12. Stellulata. . Mad. stellulata? Sol. If Ell. Tab. LIU, fig. 
 
 3,4. 
 
 13. obliqua. . . . Sea of Guiana. 
 
 14. palifera. . . . South Sea. 
 
 15. ' pulvinaria. . South Sea. 
 
 Contiguous Stars. 
 
 16. Astr. dipsacea. . . . Mad.favosa, Sol. & Ell. Tab. L,fg. 1. 
 
 17. favosa Mad.favosa, Esper. Suppl. I, Tab. XLV, 
 
 fig. I. 
 18. denticulata. - - Mad. dentieulata, Sol. % Ell. Tab. XLIX, 
 
 fig-l- 
 
 19. versipora. - - - Indian Sea. 
 
 20. deformis. - - - - Indian Sea ? 
 
 21. reticularis - - - Mad.favosa. Am. ac. Tab. IV, fig. 16. Fre- 
 
 quently found fossil. 
 
 22. abdita. Mad. abdita. Esper. Supp. Ta&.XLV,^. 2. 
 
 23. retiformis. Resembles in its network, Mad. retepora^Sol. 
 
 $ Ell. Tab. LIV, Jig. 3-5, which, however, 
 is a true species of Forties. 
 
 21. heliopora. - - ~ South Sea. 
 
 25. crispata. - * - - Indian Sea. 
 
 26. diffluens. - - - - South Sea. 
 
 27. ca/ycularis. Sea of New Holland. 
 
 28. intersepta. - - - South Sea. 
 
 29. emardata. - - Fossil ; Grignon. 
 
 Glomerated ; the surface reticulated ; the 
 stars snbpentagonal, hollow, contiguous; 
 very few lamellae separate from the axis. 
 
 SO. siderea. - - . - Mad. siderea. Sol. $ Ell. Tab. XLIX,^. 2. 
 
 31. galaxea. - - Mad. galaxea, Sol. $ Ell. Tab. XLVII,^g-.7. 
 
 The corals of this genus will be frequently found in former writers, 
 under the name Astroites. 
 
 At PI. IX, fig. 11, is represented the section of an 
 Astrea in calcedony, from Antigua, by Dr. Nugent. 
 
 Forties. A stony polypifer, fixed; ramified; or lobated and obtuse ; 
 the outer surface stellated all over. 
 
 The stars are regular, nearly contiguous, superficial or excavated ; no 
 margin, or an imperfect one; the lamellae filamentous, interrupted 
 or cuspidated.
 
 81 
 
 Porites resembles both Astrea and Madrepora in 
 some respects; but their stars differ materially. They 
 are not at all or but partially circumscribed ; their la- 
 mellae are but filaments, like the points of pins, and are 
 either tuberculated or cuspidated. The edge of each 
 star is dentated or echinated, so as to be confounded 
 with the interstices which are often echinated in the 
 same manner. 
 
 Sp. 1. For. reticulala. . Mad. retepora. Sol. Ell. Tab. LIV../&.5-5. 
 
 2. conglomerata Absqtie descriptione, Sol, % Ell. Tab. 'KLl t Jig. 4. 
 
 3. astreoides. - American Ocean. 
 
 4. arenacea . - Mad.arenosa? Gmelin. 
 
 5. clavaria. Mad. porites. Sol. 6; Ell. Taft.XLVH, fg. 1. 
 
 6. scabra. - - - Mad. digitala. Sol S$ EH. No. 74. 
 
 7. elongata. 
 
 8. ii farcata. 
 
 9. angulata. - - South Sta. 
 
 10. subdigitata. South Sea. 
 
 11. cervina. - - - Indian Sea. 
 
 12. verrucosa. - -Mad. spongiosaf Sol. % Ell. No. 49. 
 
 13. tuberculosa, 
 
 14. complanala. 
 
 15. rosacea. var. Mad.foHosv? Sol. $ Ell. Tab. Lll. 
 
 16. spumosa. - - Knorr. delic. Tab. A. I, fg. 4. 
 
 Pocillopora. A stony polypifer, plant-formed, ramose or lobalcd ; the 
 surface set with deep cellules, as if scooped out, with porous interstices. 
 
 The cells few, distinct, hollowed into pits, the edges rarely prominent; 
 obsoletely stellated ; the lamellae very narrow, sometimes none. 
 
 The pocilliforra shape of the cells, and the margins having little or 
 no projection, separate this genus from Madrepora ; and the depth 
 and fewness of the lamellae from porites. 
 
 Sp. 1. Pocill. acvta. Mad. dai*icrni*. Sol. $ Ell. N. 73. 
 
 2. damicornis - Mad- dafnicornis. Pall. Zooph. p. 334, Var. A3- 
 
 3. verrucosa. - Mad. verrucosa, Sol. $ Ell. No. 78. 
 
 4. breviconit . Indian Ocean. 
 
 5. ~- ftnettratn. - ~-South Sea. 
 
 6. stignataria. Mad. muricala 1 Esp.Suppl. 1, Tab. LIV, A, 
 
 Jig. 
 
 7. casrulea. Mad. caentlea. Sol. Ell. Tab. XII, Jig. 4. 
 
 Madrepora. A stony polypifer, fixed, subdendroidal, ramified ; the 
 surface furnished on every part with projecting, muricated cells ; 
 the interstices porous. 
 
 The cells scattered, distinct, cylindrical, tubular, and prominent; 
 hardly any stclla; the lamellae of the internal parietes very narrow. 
 
 Linnaeus and Pallas, it is noticed by Lamarck, gave 
 the name of Madrepores to all the lamellated polypifers ; 
 
 M
 
 82 
 
 in consequence of which, bodies essentially different 
 have been classed together. Lamarck having separated 
 all those laniellated polypifers which appeared to bear 
 distinctive generic characters, retained under the genus 
 Madrepore those only which are not found in form of 
 incrustation, and whose substance is divided in plant- 
 like lobes or branches, with a surface muricated by the 
 sharp projections from stelliform, oblique, subcylin- 
 drical, tubular, and slightly laminated cells, and by the 
 finely porous and echinulated interstices. 
 
 Sp. 1. Mad. palmata. - - - Mad. muricaia. Esper. Suppl. 1, Tab. LI, 
 LXXX1II. 
 
 2. jlabellum. American SPMS ? 
 
 3. corymbosa. - - Rumph. Amb. 6, Tab. LXXXVI, fg. 2. 
 
 4. planlaginea. Mac/, rnv.ricata, E.j>. Suppl. 1, Tab. LIV. 
 
 5. pocillifera. - - Indian or South Seas. 
 
 6. laxa ----- South Seas. 
 
 7. abrotanoides. Mad. muricaia. Sol. k Eil. Tab. LVII. 
 
 8. cervicornis. - Seba. mm. 3, Tab. CXlV,Jig. 1. 
 
 9. pro/ifera. - - - ~Esp. Suppl. 1 , Tab. L. 
 
 Serlatopora. A stony fixed polypifer, with thin and rather cylindri- 
 cal branches. 
 
 The cells perforated, slightly lamellated, or ciliated in their edges, 
 and placed in rows, transversely or longitudinally. 
 
 This separation from Madrepores is founded on the cells thus placed 
 in rows,, having only their margins set with very small plates, or 
 rather hair-like points, instead of plates projecting inwards. 
 Sp. 1. Ser. Suf.ulata Mad. scriata. Sol. Ell. Tab. XXXI, /g-. 1, 2. 
 
 2. ' annulata. South Sea. 
 
 3. nuda. 
 
 Oculina. A stony polypifer, most frequently fixed ; ramose and den- 
 droidal ; the branches smooth, spread, and for the most part very short. 
 
 The stars, some terminal, the others lateral and superficial. 
 
 Although ramified and dendroidal, like the Madre- 
 pores, the Oculinae are distinguishable by their sub- 
 stance being solid, smooth, hardly at all porous, and 
 their stars not numerous, 
 
 Sp. 1. Oc. virginea. - - - - -Mad. virsinea. Sol. $ Ell. Tab. XXXVI. 
 
 2. hirtella. - - - - Mad. hirfella. Sol. $ Ell. Tab. XXXVII. 
 
 3. i d(ffv3a. . - - - American Sea. 
 
 4. axillaris. Sol. Ell. Tab. XIII, jig. 5. 
 
 5. prolifera. - - Sol. Ell. Tab. XXXII, fig. 2 
 
 6. ec/udnea. - - . - Mad. rosea. Eip. 1, Tab. XV. 
 
 7. infundiiulifera. 
 
 8. ftabettifoimit. - - Sela Mus. 3, Tab. CX, fg. 10. 
 
 9. rosea. ...... American Ocean.
 
 83 
 
 CORTICIFEROLS Poi.YPIFEUS. 
 
 Phyloidal or dendroidal, composed of two sorts of distinct parts; 
 one a solid, central axis, and the other a fleshy incrustmcnt, which 
 covers it, and contains the polypes. 
 
 The axis is full, inorganic, either horny, or in part or entirely stony. 
 
 The polypifeious incrustraent constitutes, after its removal from the 
 water, a corticiform celluliferous envelope, more or less friable. 
 
 Cornllium. A fixed polypifer, dendroidal, not articulated, rigid and 
 corticiferous. 
 
 The axis caulescent, ramose, stony, solid, and striated on the surface. 
 
 The cortical part, whilst living, is soft, fleshy and polypiferous ; after 
 drying it is hardened and porous, with octovalved cells. 
 
 The propriety of allotting to this suhstance a distinct genus must be 
 evident; it is not articulated, therefore is not an Isis, with which 
 Linnaeus had blended it ; and its stony axis will not permit its being 
 placed among the Gorgonia,as proposed by Solander. 
 
 Sp. \ Cor. rulrum. Isis nobiliSf'Lm. Gorgonia nobilis, Sol. and Ellis, 
 Table XIII. 
 
 This substance is very rarely discovered fossil ; but 
 Scilla states that he found it in the neighbouring hills 
 of Messina, in a mineralised state, reduced to lime, 
 mixed with echini, shells, &c. in a similar state. He 
 found the coral in beautiful branches as well as in 
 fragments; the whole surface deprived of its colour; 
 although, in some of the thicker fragments, a purplish 
 hue might still be found in the internal parts*. 
 
 Silicified fragments of this substance are sometimes 
 found among the Blackdown fossils, showing, by their 
 transparency, the beautiful red colour remaining in the 
 internal part. 
 
 Melitaa. A fixed dendroidal polypifer, composed of an articulated^ 
 nodose axis, and of a permanent corticiform incrustation. 
 
 The central axis is caulescent, ramose, formed of stony substriated 
 portions joined by rather spongy and tumid articulations. 
 
 The cortical crust, in a living state, is fleshy and polypiferous; when 
 dry, it is thin and cellular. 
 
 * De Corporibus marinis lapidesccutibus, &c. Angustino Scilla, 
 Roma, p. 55, Tab. XX, fg. 1.
 
 84 
 
 The Melitaeas differ from the Isides, the following genus-, in the cha- 
 racter of their articulations, the joints in the former, though stony, 
 being spongy and tumid; but in the latter, horny and contracted. 
 
 Sp. 1. Mel. ochracca. . Isisochraceu. Lin. Soland. 
 
 2. retifera. . Isis avreulia. Esp. SuppL II, Tub. IX. 
 
 3. textijbrmis. South Seas. 
 
 4. coccinea. . Isis coccinea. Sol. and Ellis, Tub. XII, Jig. 5. 
 
 This genus has not been described as a fossil ; but the 
 writer is of opinion that a fossil specimen of one of its 
 species is in his possession. 
 
 Isis. A fixed dendroidal polypifer, composed of a jointed axis and a 
 corticiform crust, not adherent. 
 
 The axis central, caulescent, and ramose, formed of stony striated 
 portions, connected by a contracted horny substance. 
 
 The cortical part, in a living state, is fleshy and poly- 
 piferous ; but separates entirely or partly from the stem, 
 on being removed from the water. 
 
 Sp. 1. Tsis kipptiris. . Sol. and Ellis, Tub. Ill, t fig. 1-5 
 
 2. elongtita. Esper. I, Tab. VI. 
 
 J3. dichotonia. Esper. I, Tab. V. 
 
 *. < " E>im'?//<t. Sea's of New Holland. 
 
 5. i coratloidcs. South Seas. 
 
 It was the disjointed members of some species of tills 
 gains which were found by Scilla in the mountains of 
 Sicily, and which he at first believed to be the Mbine of 
 some animal; but on referring to Imperatus (Hist. Nat. 
 lib. 27J, he was soon convinced of his mistake, and 
 enabled to trace them to their real origin*. 
 
 Antipatkes.'*- A fixed, subdettdroidal polypifer, composed of a central 
 axis, and a corticiform, fugacious and deciduous crust. 
 
 The axis is flattened and fixed at its base, caulescent, sub-ramose, 
 horny, solid, flexfible, rather fragile, and mostly set with small spines. 
 
 The cortical crust is gelatinous and polypiferous, covering the living 
 axis and branches, and falling off t>fi rite removal of the specimen from 
 the water. 
 
 Antipdthes Ipiralis, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XlX, fig. 1-6 ; fall. Zooph. 
 p. 217; Esper. 2, Tab. VIII, may be referred to as the type of the gemis 
 of which seventeen species have been particularised. 
 
 * De Corporibus marinis lapidescentibus, Tab. XIX. Organic Re- 
 mains, &c. Vol. II, p. 72, PI. VIII, fig. 2, 4, 7, 9.
 
 85 
 
 Gorgonia. A fixed dendroidal polypifer, composed of a central 
 axis and a corticiform crust. 
 
 The axis flattened and fixed at the base, caulescent, ramose, sub- 
 striated, solid, horny, and flexible. 
 
 The cortical crust covering the nxis and branches, in the living state, 
 is soft, fleshy and polypiferous; in the dry state spongy, porous, and fri- 
 able ; the surface pierced with the superficial or the projecting openings 
 of cells. 
 
 Gorgonia reticulata, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. XVII, will serTe as an ex- 
 ample of this genus, forty-eight species of which have been observed. 
 
 No specimen of either of these genera appears to 
 have been noticed in a mineralised state, a circum- 
 stance which, at first consideration, appears difficult of 
 explanation, since the axis seems, in general, to be 
 sufficiently solid to authorise the belief, that it might 
 remain long enough in a subterraneous or subaqueous 
 situation to admit of its impregnation with earthy par- 
 ticles, previous to its becoming entirely decomposed. 
 But on farther consideration of the original nature of 
 the substance, which does not owe its solidity to the 
 intermixture of earthy particles, but merely to the con- 
 densation of a horny or membranaceous substance, 
 its decomposition, under the circumstances mentioned, 
 should rather be expected than its preservation. 
 
 Corallina. The fixed, phytoidal, ramified poiypifers 
 ranging under this genus, have not, as far as have come 
 to our knowledge, been discovered in a mineralised 
 state : a circumstance which may perhaps be sufficiently 
 accounted for, by their extreme delicacy, and by the 
 frequent separations or articulations into which their 
 substance is divided. By these circumstances their 
 adherence together sufficiently long after death to allow 
 of impregnation would be prevented; although tbe 
 dense calcareous crust investing their filiform axis might 
 appear to be well adapted to admit it. 
 
 Tfae delicacy of structure and the prevalency of cor- 
 neous membrane in the substance of Petiicilbts and 
 Flabellaria seem also to be sufficient to account for
 
 86 
 
 neither of these bodies having been found fossil. From 
 similar considerations the remains of the tubulifcrous 
 polypi can hardly be expected to be discovered in a 
 mineralised state. 
 
 Encrini and Pentacrini. Our attention is now claimed 
 by a series of animals rendered interesting, not only by 
 their curious forms and extraordinary structure, but also 
 by their being among the earliest inhabitants of this 
 planet. Hence they are so far aliens of this world, that 
 whilst immense tracts of rocks are literally formed of the 
 entombed remains of different species in a mineralised 
 state, only five or six fragments of the remains of one of 
 these numerous species have yet been discovered in a 
 recent state. 
 
 The general characters which embrace the different 
 genera and species of these animals are, an acepha- 
 lous animal, attached by a radiciform, subarticulatcd 
 base, from which arise cylindrical, oval, or pentagonal 
 vertebrae possessing pentaphylloidal or stelliform arti- 
 culating surfaces and central openings, and forming 
 an articulated tubular spine, supporting a pelvis from 
 which proceed articulated arms, hands, fingers, and 
 tentaculae, forming a body which bears a floriform 
 appearance. 
 
 These animals appear to have had a considerable 
 range for the seizure of their prey, without possessing 
 absolute locomotion ; the peculiar mode of the articu- 
 lation of their vertebras affording them a great degree 
 of mobility, with considerable security against dislo- 
 cation. They have been hitherto classed under two 
 genera ; one, the Echinus, with chiefly cylindrical ver- 
 tebrae ; the other, the Pentacrinns, with principally 
 pentagonal vertebrae. 
 
 The Encrinus has been divided into species, which 
 have been hitherto distinguished chiefly by, and named
 
 37 
 
 according to, the characters of the base of the flori- 
 form part of the animal, with which the uppermost 
 vertebra is articulated. 
 
 Sp. 1. The Lily Encrinus, Organic Remains, Vol. II, 
 PL XIV, has this part formed of five wedge-shaped 
 bones, ossa innominata, which constitute the smooth 
 circular central part, round which are disposed five tra- 
 pezoidal pieces, ribs. On the upper edge of each of 
 these is placed an ossicle termed a scapula, and on the 
 two superior oblique surfaces of this little bone are 
 disposed the first ossicles of two anns, each of which 
 divide into articulated fingers and tentaculae, which when 
 closed bear a lily-like appearance, and when opened 
 and expanded form a nearly circular net of jointed 
 meshes. These, on closing, would secure the prey and 
 direct it into the stomach, which was in all probability 
 placed in the central cavity formed by the pentagonal 
 base and its superincumbent ossicles. 
 
 The pentagonal base of this animal is represented 
 at PL IX, fig. 1; the surface of one of the cylindrical 
 vertebrae termed a trochite at PI. IX, Jig. 4 ; and three 
 of these conjoined at PI. IX, Jig. 6: when thus united 
 they form a body which is named an Entrochite. 
 
 No remains of this species have been found in this 
 island; but in Lower Saxony, Westphalia, and parti- 
 cularly in Brunswick, they are very abundant : the re- 
 mains of the upper part of the animal are sometimes, 
 though rarely, found in their connected floriform state : 
 their matrix appears to be a limestone of the lias 
 formation. 
 
 Sp. 2. The Cap Encrinite. Differs from the preced- 
 ing in being of a more globose form in its lower part ; 
 the base, PL IX, Jig. 3, partakes of the same round- 
 ness, and is more simple and plain in its construction 
 than that of the preceding species ; its arms also differ
 
 88 
 
 in being unequally and dissimilarly divided. Organic 
 Remains, Vol. II, PI. XV, fig. 9. 
 
 The fossil vertebral remains of this animal literally 
 constitute the rocks, considered as mountain limestone, 
 which traverse part of Yorkshire, Lancashire, West- 
 moreland and Derbyshire ; the remains thus preserved 
 forming a most useful and ornamental marble. But 
 extraordinary as it may appear, although these remains 
 exist to so immense an extent, only one body, with the 
 arms, &c. of the animal, has been yet stated to have 
 been found ; and this was so far imbedded in its matrix, 
 as to restrict our knowledge of the structure of the 
 animal to the particulars abovementioned. Organic 
 Remains, Vol. II, PI. XV, fig. 9. 
 
 Sp. 3. The Turban Encrinite. The existence of this 
 species was only made known by the preservation of 
 its pentagonal base with some indistinct fragments, in 
 a specimen of limestone, of the earliest formation, 
 from Wenlock edge : the superior elegance of the form 
 of the pentagonal base, PI. LX.,fig. 7, decidedly marked 
 this animal to be of a different species from the pre- 
 ceding. 
 
 The radical termination or organ of attachment of this 
 animal, Organic Remains, Vol. II, PL XV, fig. 5, ma- 
 nifests a very curious structure : it terminates in very 
 frequent ramifications, which are jointed by numerous 
 crenulated articulations, admitting a certain degree of 
 mobility. 
 
 The limestone in which the remains of this animal 
 are found also contains the remains of madrepores and 
 tubipores, particularly of the chain-coral : the antiquity 
 of its deposition is manifested by its being repeatedly 
 seen alternating with sandstone, above the coal. 
 
 Sp. 4. The Pear Encrinite (Organic Remains, Vol. 
 IT, PI. XVI). The radical termination or organ of at-
 
 89 
 
 tachment of this species is of a flat and extended form, 
 and possesses a purplish hue. It has the appearance 
 of having been covered by several coats of a ligamen- 
 tous or cartilaginous substance possessing crenulated 
 articulations : from this proceed the vertebrae, which 
 are very thin and finely eremilated, and at their lower 
 termination participate with their base in a portion of 
 membranous or cartilaginous matter, which is extended 
 over them. As they approach their superior termination 
 they enlarge rather suddenly, both in width and thick- 
 ness, receding so far from each other internally as to 
 leave vacuities between them about their centre, which 
 is also pierced by a large foramen. On the uppermost 
 of these vertebrae is placed a flattish body divided into 
 five compartments, answering to the five separated 
 clavicles of the lily encrinite ; and on this, the ossicles 
 corresponding to the scapulae, arms, &c. are disposed 
 in such order, as to form a pear-shaped body, con- 
 taining in its centre a ventricular cavity, and set round 
 at its upper part with twenty depressions, from which 
 proceeded the fingers of the animal. 
 
 AVith respect to the geognostic situation of these 
 remains, we obtain the following information from 
 Mr. Townshend, who considers it as a fossil of the 
 great Oolite. "Among the extraneous fossils, im- 
 bedded in the white clay, (on the surface of the upper- 
 most bed, but not in the body of the rock,) the most 
 interesting are the Encrinites first noticed by the Rev. 
 Benjamin Richardson, at Burfield, Wiltshire, near the 
 summit of the hill on the southern hanging of which 
 Bradford stands; they were next discovered south of 
 the river, on the surface of the rock, in the same bed of 
 white clay, but more than one hundred feet lower than 
 Burfield, and a little elevated above the level of the 
 river : finally, they were traced on the high summit of 
 
 N
 
 90 
 
 the opposite hill, yet always deposited in their pro- 
 per bed*." 
 
 Remains of this animal, agatised, have been found 
 at Soissons; its remains are also found at Pfeffingen 
 in Germany, it appearing that the remains found there 
 belonged to much larger animals than those from which 
 the Wiltshire fossils proceeded. 
 
 Sp. 5. The Nave Ecrinite. This appellation was em- 
 ployed as a temporary designation of this fossil, de- 
 rived from its form, it being thought to resemble the 
 nave of a wheel, to which five spokes were attached. 
 This fossil was first noticed by that industrious natu- 
 ralist, Martin Lister, who describes it as being about 
 the size of a wallnut, but hollow, and rounded into five 
 double points, in the figure of crescents, and having 
 on its bottom the impression of a trochites, or a tro- 
 chites itself yet adhering : the surface he describes as 
 being formed of rough polygonal platesf. Several 
 specimens of these fossils are represented, Organic 
 Remains, Vol. II, PL XVII, since which Mr. Cum- 
 berland has favoured us with the figures of several others 
 of very curious structure, in a very interesting commu- 
 nication, in the fifth volume of the Geological Transac- 
 tions. 
 
 Among the benefits resulting from the researches of 
 the fossilist, is that of being sometimes able to trace, by 
 the contained fossils, beds of marl and clay to the rocks 
 from the decomposition of which they have proceeded. 
 Thus several of the specimens discovered by Lister were 
 described as having been found in the soft earth in the 
 villages of Braughton and Stock in Craven, whilst their 
 subsequent discovery in the mountain-lime of Mendip, 
 aad in that neighbourhood, manifests the original bed 
 
 * The Character of Moses established, &c. p. 268. 
 f Philosophical Transactions, Vol. X.
 
 91 
 
 into which they had passed. Thus, the pear encri- 
 nite may be found rather to belong to the magnesian 
 limestone rocks than to the white clay, as it is termed, 
 which may have proceeded from the decomposition of 
 those rocks. Dr. Capeller, in a letter to Scheuchzer, 
 describes and figures some of these fossils, with the 
 fingers attached, from the magnesian limestone of the 
 island of Gothland. 
 
 Sp. 5. The Plumose Encrinite. This fossil is dis- 
 tinguished by its long fingers, partly naked and partly 
 furnished with articulated tentacula, disposed like the 
 feathery appendages on the sides of a quill. This fos- 
 sil was described in Organic Remains, Vol. IT, p. 224, 
 from a specimen from Dudley in the possession of Mr- 
 Donovan : I have since seen a specimen, apparently, of 
 this species, in the possession of Geo. Hawker, Esq. 
 of Stroud, in Gloucestershire. 
 
 In Volume LII of the Philosophical Transactions, is 
 figured the representation of the body of an encrinite 
 or pentacrinite found at Pyrton Passage, Gloucester- 
 shire, bearing, when closed up, the form of a fig ; a si- 
 milar specimen has been since found also, on the banks 
 of the Severn, by Mr. G. Hawker. 
 
 Sp. 6. The Tortoise Encrinite (Organic Remains, 
 Vol. II, PL XIII, fig. 24:) is formed of various angu- 
 lated plates, disposed in a purse-like form; five of 
 which are pentagonal and surround the mouth, having 
 in the upper edge of each a semicircular notch, from 
 which proceeded a jointed arm dividing subdichoto- 
 mously : under these is a row of hexagonal plates, and 
 beneath these pentagonal ones, every plate being 
 striated from the centre to the margin, and united by 
 fine crenulations with the adjoining ones. 
 
 Various small substances are found, chiefly in the 
 chalk, possessing the characters of this tribe of animals, 
 and of which no recent prototypes are known ; such are,
 
 92 
 
 1. the straight encrinite, PL IX, fig. 5, possessing an 
 organ of attachment, with vertebrae, pelvis, and rami- 
 fying superior extremity ; 2. the bottle encrinite, pos- 
 sessing a utricular form, but divisible in its upper 
 portion into parts corresponding with the clavicles, sca- 
 pulae, &c. of the lily encrinite, PI. IX, fig. 13 ; 3. the 
 stags-horn encrinite, PL IX, fig. 14, in which the arms, 
 &c. proceed directly in a ramose form, from the trunk 
 of the animal; 4. the clove encrinite, (caryophillus 
 lapideus of Lhwydd, and other oryctologists) PI. IX, 
 fig. 15; 5. the digitated encrinite, distinguished by the 
 extraordinary manner in which its spines or arms are 
 connected by numerous digitated processes ; the oval- 
 spined encrinite, and many others whose forms and 
 characters seem to mark them as closely allied to, if 
 not actually belonging to this family. 
 
 The Pentacrinus was an animal with a pentagonal, 
 articulated, vertebral column, from the superior part of 
 which, from five bases, proceeded as many articulated 
 arms, speedily dividing into ramifications, closely beset 
 with jointed fingers, bearing much of a plumose appear- 
 ance. 
 
 The form and structure of the fossil remains of the 
 different species of this genus plainly show that the 
 animal possessed similar powers of seizing the sur- 
 rounding objects of its prey, as the encrinus, but on 
 a wider range. 
 
 The fossil vertebras of this genus are small, flat, and 
 generally pentagonal, stelliform stones, ornamented on 
 both their upper and under surfaces with five petal-formed 
 figures, from the supposed resemblance of which to five 
 lilies the name of the genus, pentacrinus, has been de- 
 rived : these form, by their union, asterice columnares, 
 or columnar star-stones, being parts of the pentagonal 
 spine ; in the figure of which, as well as in the forms of 
 the markings of the vertebrae, considerable differences 
 occur in different species.
 
 93 
 
 On the upper extremity of the spine are disposed the 
 parts which form a pelvis, being in all probability the 
 ventricular cavity, and those parts also which give 
 support to the limbs. As the use of these parts is 
 more obvious in this genus than in that of the encrinus, 
 an excuse will be more readily admitted for adopting 
 for them those terms which are applied to the supposed 
 corresponding parts in the more perfect animals. 
 
 On each of the five sides of the upper end of the 
 spine, PL IX, fig. 16, three pieces are disposed, the 
 largest of which (a) performs the office of scapula, its 
 upper cotyloidal surface receiving the first bone of the 
 ann (c) : on this is placed the second bone (d), the up- 
 per part of which is divided into two obliquely disposed 
 surfaces, on which the two first bones (e) of a new 
 series, as of the forearm, are articulated, and which first 
 dividing subdichotomously afterwards give out innume- 
 rable articulated fingers. Firmness appears to have been 
 given to this arrangement, by the interposition of a small 
 body, b, between each scapula, which appears to per- 
 form the office of a clavicle by retaining the scapulae 
 in connection with the trunk. At various distances, in 
 different species, jointed vertebral processes are given 
 out from the spine, apparently for the purpose of aiding 
 the fingers in seizing and retaining the hold of dif- 
 ferent substances. As there is reason for believing that 
 the jointed spine was of considerable length, and as 
 the fingers were evidently capable of being fully ex- 
 panded, the range of the animal, though fixed at one 
 extremity, must have been very extensive. 
 
 There are undoubtedly several species of this genus ; 
 but from the smallness of connected specimens, and 
 from their being often rendered indistinct by their being 
 imbedded, and from other circumstances, the necessary 
 distinction and separation are but seldom capable of 
 being made. The fossils of this genus, however, which
 
 94 
 
 are found in Dorsetshire, manifest characters sufficiently 
 important and determinate to be assumed for specific 
 distinction : it is to this fossil I presumed to give the 
 name briarean pentacrinite, remarking that it was cha- 
 racterised by its numerous and widely comprehensive 
 arms, &c. and by its long jointed arm-like spinous pro- 
 cesses given off from every side of each vertebra. 
 
 The fossil remains of this species are particularly 
 abundant in the Cliffs of Lymc and of Charmouth in 
 Dorsetshire. The remains of other species distinguish- 
 able from this by the vertebral processes being given 
 off, not from every vertebra, but at certain distances, 
 are found in the lias in different parts of Glouces- 
 tershire, and in the more north-eastern parts of the 
 Island; but the discovery of more perfect specimens 
 than those which are at present known will be neces- 
 sary to be obtained, before the particular characters of 
 the species can be ascertained: more also is required 
 to be known respecting the fossil of M. Hiemer, spoken 
 of in p. 256 of the second volume of Organic Remains, 
 before it can be considered as being of a distinct 
 species. 
 
 Whilst this part of the present work was in the hands 
 of the printer, I had the gratification of receiving Mr. 
 Miller's Natural History of the Crinoidea or Lily-shaped 
 Animals : the pleasure which I experienced in contem- 
 plating the scientific and successful enquiries of this 
 gentleman, in subjects on which, as a student, I had 
 myself toiled, led me to hope that, by pointing out the 
 importance and extent of his discoveries, I should dif- 
 fuse pleasure among my readers, and, by giving them a 
 glimpse of the treat there prepared for them, render them 
 eager to partake of a banquet so rich and so cheap, it 
 containing fifty illustrative lithographic plates.
 
 95 
 
 In this work the numerous and interesting animals of 
 former worlds, which have been loosely ranged as En- 
 crinites and Pentacrinites, are classed as the members 
 of one distinct and peculiar family, distinguished as 
 CRINOIDEA or Lily-shaped Animals. The members 
 of this family are placed under four principal divisions, 
 comprising nine genera, each containing several species, 
 with most of which we had hitherto been but imperfectly 
 acquainted, and of some entirely ignorant. 
 
 I. ARTICULATA, in which joints forming the superior 
 cup-like body of the animal articulate to each other, 
 are divided into three genera: i.Apiocrinites, the pear- 
 like lily-shaped animals, dividing into two species, 1. 
 Ap. rotundus, and, 2. Ap. ellipticus. n. Encrinites, 
 the true lily-shaped animal, of which Mr. Miller knows 
 but of one species, 1. Enc. moniliformis. in. Pentacri- 
 nites, five angled lily-shaped animals, comprising five 
 species, 1. Pent, caput medusa. 2. Pent, briarceus. 
 3. Pent, subangularis. 4. Petit, basaltiformis. 5. Pent, 
 tuberculatus. 
 
 II. SEMIARTICULATA, in which the plate-like joints, 
 which form the cup containing the viscera, articulate 
 imperfectly with each other, furnish but one genus, 
 i. Poteriocrinites, a vase-like lily-shaped animal, one spe- 
 cies of which only, 1. Pot. crassus, will serve as the type 
 of the generic character ; the other species, 2. tenuis, 
 having its plates adhere only by sutures and not by 
 articulations, may be considered as forming the transi- 
 tion to the next division. 
 
 III. INARTICULATA, in which the plates adhere by 
 sutures, lined by muscular integument. These are di- 
 vided into, i, Platycrinites, broad-plated, lily-shaped 
 animals, in which five broad plate-like scapulae proceed 
 from a saucer-shaped pelvis, formed of three unequal 
 pieces. The species are, 1. Icevis; 2.rugosus; 3. tu- 
 berculatns; 4. granulatus ; 5. striatus ; 6. pentangular is.
 
 96 
 
 n. Cyathocrinites, cup-like, lily-shaped animals, with a 
 saucer-shaped pelvis of five pieces, on which are placed, 
 in successive series, five costal plates, five scapulae, 
 and an intervening plate ; from each scapula proceeds 
 one arm having two hands. Sp. 1. planus, 2. tubercula- 
 tuSy 3. rugosus, 4. quinquangularis. in. Actynocrinites, 
 radiated, lily-shaped animals ; the pelvis formed of three 
 plates, on which five first costals and one irregular cos- 
 tal adhere ; succeeded by second costals and intercostals, 
 and the scapulae, from whence five arms proceed, each 
 forming two hands, with several tentaculated fingers. 
 Sp. 1. Triaconta dactylus ; 2. polydactylus ; 3. Icevis. 
 iv. Rhodocrinites, rose-like, lily-shaped animals, pelvis 
 formed of three pieces supporting five square plates, in 
 the spaces of whose lateral bevelled angles are inserted 
 five heptagonal first costals : from the scapulae proceeds 
 an arm supporting two hands. There is only one spe- 
 cies, 1. R. verus. 
 
 IV. COADUNA.TA; the joints of the pelvis an chylos- 
 ing to the first columnar joint, i. Eugeniacrinites, a 
 clove-like, lily-shaped animal, of which but one spe- 
 cies is known, 1. E. quinquangularis. 
 
 Fossil pentagonal plates are frequently found in chalk, 
 which are sometimes connected, and form a body of a 
 marsupial form : considering these remains as belonging 
 to an animal of the family of the encrinites, I introduced 
 them in Organic Remains, Volume II, Table XIII, 
 fig. 24, as portions of the tortoise encrinite, deriving 
 its name from its plates. Since which, Mr. Mantell, of 
 Lewes, has investigated the remains of this animal with 
 so much care, as to have ascertained it to have been 
 an unattached animal, and without a column : from its 
 purse-like form Mr. Mantell has denominated the fossil 
 Marsupites. An interesting account of this fossil may 
 be hoped in the work of Mr. Mantell on the South 
 Down fossils; a work, which, considering the ingenious
 
 97 
 
 author's abilities and advantageous situation for the 
 pursuit of these enquiries, may be expected to yield 
 considerable gratification. 
 
 The observations of Mr. Miller, on the geological distri- 
 bution of the Crinoidea, are highly interesting; and I am 
 pleased with the opportunity of pointing out to the stu- 
 dent the localities of the different species from Mr. 
 Miller's work ; and to add, that the localities of the spe- 
 cimens which I possess, serve to confirm these impor- 
 tant observations, and to encourage the opinion that the 
 different genera and species of this family have com- 
 menced and terminated their existence at different 
 periods. 
 
 Cyathocrinites rugosus is found amongst the earliest 
 traces of organic remains, imbedded in the TRAN- 
 SITION LIMESTONE formation, in Shropshire, Here- 
 fordshire, the Islands of Oeland and Gothland, and in 
 Dalecarlia. C. quinquangularis occurs in the magnesian 
 variety of the MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, at Clevedon; 
 and in MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, at the Black Rock, near 
 the Avon. 
 
 Poteriocrinites crassus is found in the MAGNESIAN BEDS 
 OP MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, Clevedon; andinMOUNTAiN 
 LIME, at Bristol; and P. tenuis, in the MOUNTAIN LIME 
 of Mendip and of Bristol. 
 
 Platycrinites Itevis occurs in the MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE 
 of Mendip, and in the BLACK ROCK, near Bristol, Dublin 
 and Cork. P. rugosus, in MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE of Men- 
 dip and Caldy Island. P. tuberculatus, in MOUNTAIN 
 LIME strata. P. striatus, MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, near 
 Bristol. P.pentangularis, MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, Bris- 
 tol, Mendip, and Mitchel Dean ; and in the TRANSITION 
 LIMESTONE, Dudley and Dinewaur park. 
 
 Cyathocrinites plamis, in MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, 
 Clevedon, and Black Rock, Bristol. 
 
 o
 
 98 
 
 C. tuberculaius, in MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, Dudley? 
 C. rugoms, in TRANSITION LIMESTONE, Shropshire, 
 Herefordshire, the Islands of Oeland and Gothland, 
 and in Dalecarlia*. C. quinquangularis, in MAGNE- 
 SIAN LIMESTONE, Clevedon, and MOUNTAIN LIME- 
 STONE, Black Rock. 
 
 Actinocrites triaconta dactylos, in MOUNTAIN LIME- 
 STONE, in Craven in Yorkshire, the Mendip-hills, and 
 Black Rock, Bristol. A. polydactylus, in MOUNTAIN 
 LIMESTONE of the Mendip-hills and Caldy Island. 
 A. IcBvis in MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE of Mitchel Dean. 
 
 Rhodocrinites. R. verus, TRANSITION LIMESTONE, 
 Dudley, MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE near Bristol, Mendip- 
 hills, and Mitchel Dean. 
 
 It appears that all the preceding remains occur in 
 the transition, the mountain and the magnesian lime- 
 stone deposits, " where," as Mr. Miller observes, " they 
 are lost, (as far, he says, as I have been able to ascer- 
 tain) and make room for the different species of Pen- 
 tacrinites, which may be traced through the beds of the 
 lias, oolite, and chalk : and of which one species, the 
 pentacrinus caput medusce, has continued from the form- 
 ation of the lias to our times, and is now met with, 
 though very rarely, in a recent state." 
 
 The Apiocrinites rotundus is only found adhering to 
 a bed of the oolite formation, and the Apiocrinites ellip- 
 ticus in chalk. 
 
 The radiated Echinodermata. The first section of 
 animals under this division contains the Stelleridce, dis- 
 tinguished by their possessing a coriaceous skin, not 
 irritable, but moveable in several points ; the body dc- 
 
 * It was the body of this animal which I saw in Mr. John Hawker's 
 Collection, and which, from its general form, and the figure of its plates, 
 I considered as belonging to the tortoise encriuite, or the niarsupite of 
 Mr. Mantell.
 
 99 
 
 pressed, wider than long, with radiating marginal an- 
 gles or lobes, more or less numerous and moveable. 
 They are furnished with spines, which are fixed on 
 moveable tubercles; and in some of the genera of 
 this section there exists on the back, opposite to the 
 mouth, a short tubercle, or a reticulated disk ; but it has 
 not yet been ascertained what office this part performs. 
 The mouth of these animals is surrounded by five little 
 ossicles or granular substances. 
 
 This family is cjivided, by Lamarck, into four genera: 
 1. Comatula; 2. Euryale; 3. Ophiura ; 4. Asteria. 
 
 Comatula. An orbicular, depressed, radiated body, 
 having two sorts of rays, dorsal and marginal, all sup- 
 plied with calcareous joints. The dorsal rays are very 
 simple, small, cirrous, s and filiform, disposed like a 
 coronet on the back of the disk. The marginal rays are 
 always pinnated, and much larger than the simple rays ; 
 their inferior pinnulae arc elongated, flattened beneath, 
 and surround the ventral surface. The mouth is be- 
 neath, central, isolated, membranous, tubular, and pro- 
 jecting. 
 
 The dorsal rays of this animal, by which it clings 
 to other substances whilst seeking for or retaining its 
 prey by its pinnated rays, with its membranous pro- 
 jecting mouth in the form of a purse, are characters 
 sufficiently distinctive of this genus. 
 
 Some of the species of this genus are described 
 among the Stella of Linck, as in Tab. XXII, fig. 34. 
 Asteria multiradiata, Lin.? Stella, rosacea, Linck, Tab. 
 XXXVII, Jig. 66, &c. 
 
 Euryale. An orbicular, depressed body, with a 
 naked back ; divided at its circumference in a row of 
 long, thin, dichotomous, frequently divided, cirrous 
 rays ; these rays being flat beneath* and cylindrical on 
 the back. Ten long openings exist in the under part 
 and towards the margin of the disk. The mouth is be-
 
 100 
 
 neath, and central. The stomach fills, and, of course, 
 possesses the form of the central semiglobular ventri- 
 cular cavity. 
 
 The very fine capillary terminations of the almost 
 innumerable rays of the animals of this genus, and the 
 oblong openings in the lower surface of the disk, two 
 between each ray, serving for the passage of retractile 
 organs, are characters strongly distinctive of this genus. 
 
 This genus is distinguished, by Linck, by the name 
 Astrophyton, and was designated, by Gmelin, as As- 
 terias euryale et Asterias caput Medusce. The species 
 to which this name applies is the only one which was 
 known to Linnaeus. 
 
 Ophiura. An orbicular, depressed body, with the 
 back naked; having, at its circumference, a row of 
 long, thin, simple, cirrous rays ; papillous or spinous, 
 and nearly pinnated on their sides ; the spines being 
 jointed only at their base. The lower surface of the 
 rays flat, and without any groove or channel; the mouth 
 beneath, and central, with several openings round it: 
 the stomach possesses a subglobose form. 
 
 Several species of this genus are described and 
 figured, by Linck, as Stella longicauda, S. lacertosa, 
 &c., and others are to be found among the Asteria of 
 Linnaeus, as Asterias aculeata, &c. 
 
 Asterias. A suborbicular, depressed body, divided 
 at its circumference into angles, lobes, or rays, dis- 
 posed in a stelliform figure. The lower surface of these 
 lobes, or rays, is furnished with a longitudinal groove, 
 bordered on each side with moveable spines, and with 
 holes for the passage of tubular and retractile feet. 
 The mouth is beneath, and central, and placed in the 
 point where the grooves unite. 
 
 The mouth, in these animals, opens directly into the 
 stomach, which has no other opening. It is, in fact, a 
 cul- de-sac > augmented laterally by ten elongated and
 
 101 
 
 pinnated caecums, two in each ray, which proceed from 
 the sides of the stomach through three-fourths of the 
 length of the ray. 
 
 These are the animals commonly known by the names 
 of star-fish, Stella 8$ marina, &c. 
 
 Lamarck has had recourse to an arrangement of these 
 bodies, which is better adapted to facilitate their dis- 
 tinction and examination than any which has been hi- 
 therto employed. He divides them into the scutellated 
 and the radiated Asteria : under the former of which he 
 places those with continuous margins, such as Penteta- 
 gonaster regularis, Pentaceros plicatus fy concavus, &c., 
 of Linck ; and, under the latter, the numerous stelliform 
 species. 
 
 The fossil remains of the Stelleridce are not frequently 
 found; circumstances proceeding, in a great measure, 
 from the proneness to decomposition of the membrana- 
 ceous connecting matter. 
 
 Fossil remains, referrible to the genera Comatula, or 
 Euryale, have been supposed to have been found by 
 Rosinus and by Lhwydd ; but there is sufficient reason 
 for supposing, that the remains which they described 
 belonged to some species of Pentacrinites, of which we 
 have yet to speak. Two fossil specimens, apparently 
 referrible to this genus, are figured by Baier, in Supple- 
 menta Oryctographia Noricce, Tab. Ill, fig. 3, 4. 
 
 Fossil remains of the genus Ophiura are very rarely 
 to be met with. A specimen is figured by Bourguet, 
 Traite des Petrifications, Planche LIX, 438, in which 
 a considerable portion of the central part of the animal 
 of one of the species is preserved. A very perfect spe- 
 cimen of this genus, imbedded in chalk, was purchased 
 by Mr. Donovan at the sale of the Leverian Museum. 
 
 Fragments of the genus Asterias are found more fre- 
 quently than of the preceding genera ; and, of the scu- 
 tellated sort, more frequently than of the radiated. A
 
 102 
 
 fossil specimen of the former, approaching to Pentago- 
 naster semilunatus of Linck, is figured by Schultz, Ber- 
 trachtung der Versteinerten, Tab. II, Jig. 6, from Pirna. 
 A similar specimen is figured, Organic Remains, PL I, 
 jig. 1 ; and at PL I, fig. 3, is represented a chalk fossil 
 resembling Pentagonaster regularis., Linck ; Asterias re- 
 gularis, Lamarck. Mr. Knorr gives the figure of an 
 impression in flint of an asterite of this kind. 
 
 A fossil, in a yellowish coloured limestone, in the 
 writer's cabinet, bears a tolerably close resemblance to 
 Astropecten echinatus minor, Linck, Tab. VIII, No. 12. 
 Some fragments of an asterite apparently similar are 
 figured in the supplement to Knorr's work, PL VII, 
 Book III', and a petrification, somewhat similar, from 
 Malesme, in France, is figured by Guettard, Mem. de 
 I'Acad. An. 1763. Similar fossils are also found in the 
 blue clay of Sheppey island. Fossils of minute ani- 
 mals approaching to some of the preceding genera, de- 
 serving eareful examination, appear to exist in St. 
 Peter's mountain, and in the neighbourhood of Verona. 
 
 The facte which had been pointed out in a preceding- 
 work, respecting the structure of such of the encrinital 
 and pentacrinital remains as were then known, evinced 
 that the animals to which they belonged ought not to 
 be placed, as has been done by our justly celebrated 
 teacher, Lamarck, among the polypi natantes, but rather 
 among the echinodermata radiata. Agreeable to this 
 opinion they were placed, in the present work, next to, 
 but preceding this order of animals. Their most proper 
 station in the scale of nature could not be so perfectly 
 ascertained until further knowledge respecting their in- 
 ternal organization had been obtained. The examina- 
 tion made by Mr. Miller has furnished us with that in- 
 formation ; he has shown that they well deserved to be 
 considered as forming a distinct family ; and his obser- 
 vations have also manifested that, both in their structure
 
 103 
 
 and habits, they agree with the stelleridce. Thus far 
 the anatomical observations of Mr. Miller have been 
 in accordance .with the opinions entertained by the pre- 
 sent writer, who, however, would, had he been so happy 
 as to have obtained an earlier view of Mr. Miller's la- 
 bours, have been disposed to place the Crinoidea, from 
 their greater complexity of structure, at the end of, 
 rather than before, the Stellerida. 
 
 After having examined the distinctive characters of 
 Opldura, Euryale, and Asteria, and ascertained that 
 neither of them approximated particularly to the Cri- 
 noidea, Mr. Miller proceeded to the examination of 
 the Comatula;, by which he discovered such a con~ 
 forraity of structure, and so many points of accordance, 
 as to allow him to say that Comatula might be defined, 
 with sufficient precision, as a Pentacrinus destitute of 
 its column. But, as the characters hitherto given of 
 Comatula do not allude to those parts of its organiza- 
 tion which mark the link between it and the Crmoidea, 
 Mr. Miller thought it necessary to propose the following 
 new generic character : 
 
 " GtiNUs. COMATULA. An unattached animal, hav- 
 ing a depressed orbicular body, formed of calcareous 
 plates containing the viscera. The mouth in the centre 
 (capable of being elongated into a proboscis), sur- 
 rounded by tentaculated arms, or fingers, composed of 
 numerous joints : near the base of the body, below the 
 fingers or arms, many jointed auxiliary side-arms ter- 
 minating in a hooked point." 
 
 It was found, on dissection, that the Comatulai have 
 series of calcareous secretions, or ossicula, exactly si- 
 milar in their general plan and arrangement to the Cri- 
 noidea, and especially to the genus Pentacrinus, and 
 intended, like theirs, to sustain muscular action : that, 
 at the base of the subglobose body of the Comatula
 
 104 
 
 there exists a pentagonal plate, analogous in situa- 
 tion to the first columnar joint of the Crinoidea ; and 
 an interesting affinity was found to exist between the 
 plates forming the pelvis of Comatula and of Pentacri- 
 nus ; and it was manifested that the auxiliary side-arms 
 proceeding from the pelvis-like plate of Comatula, the 
 formation of their joints, and their hook-like termin- 
 ations, resemble, in every particular, those of Penta- 
 crinus caput Medusa, only that they are much shorter, 
 and formed of a less number of joints. 
 
 Having pointed out several other particular circum- 
 stances, proving the accordant structure of the Comatula 
 and Pentacrinus, Mr. Miller observes, that " The Scapula 
 resemble also those of the Pentacrinus caput Medusa, 
 but are much more angularly pointed at their superior 
 surface, and are also tied laterally together by an in- 
 tegument. 
 
 " From each of the Scapula in the different spe- 
 cies proceed either two arm-like fingers, or two arms, 
 each of the latter formed of a common and cunei- 
 form joint, from which, on one side the first finger, and 
 on the other a continuation of the arm sets off, which, 
 again, by the intervention of cuneiform joints, divides 
 into two or more fingers, and then forms a hand like in 
 other Crinoidea. Each joint of the arms and fingers 
 sends off, from alternate sides, a tentaculum formed of 
 many articulated small joints, resembling, in formation, 
 those of Pentacrinus caput Medusce. An integument 
 extends over the abdominal cavity, the groove in -the 
 arms, fingers, and tentacula, and is, like that in Penta- 
 crinus, also protected by numerous minute calcareous 
 plates*." 
 
 * A Natural History of the Crinoidea, or Lily-sliaped Animals, by 
 J. S. Miller, A.L.S., p. isi.
 
 105 
 
 Echinidee. This order is filled by those animals which 
 have been hitherto named Echini. 
 
 The Echinus is one of the radiated echinodermata 
 of Lamarck, and is distinguished from the preceding 
 section of this order, the Stellerid<e, by the mouth and 
 vent being separate : the body, which is short, vari- 
 ously formed, and generally quinquepartite, is inclosed 
 in a crustaceous, porous and spiniferous covering, 
 formed by numerous polygonal assulae, or little plates 
 joined by finely serrated vertical sutures, crossed by 
 others rather more linear: the whole is still farther 
 connected by an investing cuticle. 
 
 The crust or shell readily separates into five trian- 
 gular sections, one of which is represented, PL X, 
 fig. 6 : each of these is divisible into four sections ; 
 two larger, a. a. termed Areas, ornamented with roundish 
 tubercles on which are articulated the larger spines; 
 and two smaller, 6. 6. termed ambulacra, which are per- 
 forated by numerous pores, from which proceed retrac- 
 tile tubules, terminating in strongly adhering sucker- 
 formed feet. Each of these five triangular sections di- 
 viding thus into four smaller, the whole crust, it ap- 
 pears, is formed of twenty vertical sections. 
 
 Besides the almost innumerable pores from which the 
 feet proceed, there are other larger pores at the upper 
 part of each section, for the exclusion of the ovae : 
 two large openings also exist for the mouth and vent. 
 The mouth is always on the lower part, and in most 
 kinds has in its middle five teeth, collected together and 
 terminating in a firm point, bearing the appearance of 
 enamel : these teeth are fixed in a testaceous craticular 
 apparatus, which has been termed Diogenes' lantern. 
 The vent is variously situated, and is surrounded by tu- 
 bercles, from which generally proceed numerous spines. 
 
 The fossil remains of Echini are frequently found 
 
 p
 
 106 
 
 in so perfect a state of preservation, as must suggest 
 many subjects deserving earnest inquiry : the most im- 
 portant of these is the degree of agreement of the fossil 
 remains with the correspondent parts of the existing ani- 
 mals. But to make this comparison, it is obvious that 
 knowledge must be obtained respecting those genera and 
 species which have been already discovered, either in 
 their recent or fossil states,. To communicate this 
 knowledge in the most correct and impressive manner, 
 different systematic arrangements of these animals have 
 been formed. 
 
 Among the earliest attempts of this kind was that of 
 Dr. Woodward, in his catalogue of the foreign fossils 
 in his collection : a sketch of it is given here, not only 
 as serving to show the state of the science at that 
 period, but as likely to be useful for reference, since 
 many of our early writers on these subjects adopted 
 the nomenclature which Dr. Woodward had employed. 
 
 Marine Echini. 
 
 Part I. Those having two openings and very small tubercles on the 
 surface are called Spatagi. 
 
 Sect. I. Those having a remarkable groove at one side, Cordiformes. 
 
 Art. 1. With the openings at the sides, one under the groove, the other 
 at the opposite side. 
 
 2. Cordiform Spatagi, with, one opening in the middle of the base, 
 the other in the groove. 
 
 Sect. II. Spatagi, having no lateral groove, and with both openings in 
 
 the base of the shell. 
 Art. 1. With one opening in the edge of the base, and the other near 
 
 to the opposite margin, called Galeati. 
 
 2. Spatagi, with one opening in the centre of the base, the other 
 in the margin. 
 
 Dim. 1. With porous lines extending from the vertex to the margin. 
 Member l. Of a conoidal figure, or Pileati. 
 
 2. Of a compressed form, or Discoides.
 
 107 
 
 Din's. 2. With rows of lines proceeding from the vertex, but not reaching 
 to the margin*. 
 
 Part II. Echini, in which the shell has only one opening, and that 
 placed in the centre of the base. 
 
 Sect. I. Echini, set with very small tubercles, with ten rows of short 
 lines not reaching to the margin, but so disposed as to form 
 a figure on the surface resembling the leaf of cinquefoil, 
 and therefore not improperly called Pentaphylloides. 
 
 II. Echini with larger and more prominent tubercles, and with 
 vows of lines or tubercles reaching from the vertex to the 
 mouth, called Orariit. 
 
 The indefatigable Klein, in his Naturalis dispositio 
 Echinodermatum, published in 1734, not only improved 
 the classification, but added considerably to our know- 
 ledge of these substances: from the situation of the 
 mouth, he distinguished them into Emmesostomi, when 
 the mouth was placed in the centre of the base; and 
 Apomesostomi when out of the centre. When the vent 
 was in the upper part, he designated them Anocysti; in 
 the under part, Catocysti ; and in the side, Pleurocysti. 
 Considering these as classes, he formed the following 
 arrangement, by placing under each of the three last as 
 many of these substances as respectively accorded with 
 the class, but which differed from each other in some 
 respects as to their general form, and the situation of the 
 mouth : these he subdivided, according to other less but 
 constant distinctions, into genera. 
 
 * These he instances in a specimen of Scutum or Echinanthus. 
 
 t In this arrangement of Woodward it will be observed that he divides 
 these substances into two divisions ; Spatagi, having two openings, and 
 Echini, having only one opening, at the base of the shell.
 
 108 
 
 Class 
 
 I. Anocysti. 
 
 Sect. 
 I. Cidaris*.(lJ 
 
 II. Clipti.(<2) 
 
 Gen. 
 
 I. Miliares 
 II. Variolatec 
 
 III. Mam'milluttt 
 
 IV. Coronales 
 
 IV. Corollares 
 VII. Assulata; 
 VIII. Botryoides 
 L IX. Toreumatica: 
 
 II. Catocysti. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. Cassides. (4) 
 
 III. Scuta. (5) 
 
 IV. Placenta. (6) 
 I. Arachnoides. (7) 
 
 I. Conuli 
 II. Discoides 
 
 I. Galea: 
 II. Galeolte 
 
 I. Angularia 
 II. Grata 
 I. Mellitce 
 II. Lagance 
 III. 
 
 III. Pleurocysti. 
 
 II. Con/a marina. (U} I 
 III. Ot-a marina. (9) \ 
 
 I. Spatangi 
 II. Spatagoides 
 
 I. jBrissi 
 II. Brissoides. 
 
 * .4s most of the terms employed for these sections have been since 
 adopted as the names of genera, it was thought proper to subjoin the gene- 
 ral characters of the substances to which they were here applied. 
 
 Cl.J Cidaris. Turban-formed, with areas ornamented with prominent 
 tubercles and porous ambulacra? ; the mouth in the centre of the base, 
 the vent in the apex. 
 
 (2.) Clipeus. Round, shield-formed ; the mouth nearly in the centre of 
 the base ; the vent at nearly the same distance on the other side of the 
 centre of the apex. 
 
 (3.) Fibula. Conical or discoidal ; the mouth in the centre of the base, 
 the vent in the margin. 
 
 (4.} Cassis. Helmet-formed ; the mouth and vent at the opposite ends 
 of the base. 
 
 (5.) Scutum. Angular or ovate shield-formed ; the ambulacra crenatcd 
 and porous, disposed in the form of five petals ; the mouth in the centre, 
 and the vent near the margin, in the base. 
 
 (&.) Placenta. Nearly flat ; the upper surface slightly convex ; lower 
 flat ; margin acute j the mouth in the centre; vent nearly mid-way between 
 the mouth and the margin. . 
 
 (7.) Arachnoid**. Placenta-formed ; the mouth in the centre ; the vent 
 square on the upper surface, at the margin. 
 
 (8.) Corda marina. Cordiform; the smaller end truncated, the mouth 
 labiated, near the larger end of the base; the vent in the truncated smaller 
 end. 
 
 (H.) Ova marina. Egg-formed ; smaller end truncated ; mouth labiated 
 near the larger end of the base ; the veiit in the truncated smaller end.
 
 109 
 
 Brcyn, in Schediasm. de Echinis, reduced the num- 
 ber of genera to seven, forming them upon the situa- 
 tions of the mouth and vent, and assuming, for his 
 groundwork, the sections of Klein as genera. 
 
 Genus I. Echinometra - Cidaris of Klein. 
 
 II. Echinoconus - Fibula of ditto. 
 
 III. Echinocorys - Cassis of ditto. 
 
 IV. Echinanthus - Scutum of ditto. 
 
 V. Echinospatagus Spatangus and Spatagoides of ditto. 
 VI. Echinobrissus - Brissus and Brissoides of ditto. 
 VII. Echinodiscus - Placenta and Arachnoides of ditto. 
 
 Van Phelsum, adopting almost the whole of the ge- 
 nera suggested by Klein, and being under the necessity 
 of forming new ones, rendered his classification too 
 extensive, forming them into twenty genera. 
 
 Genus 1. Echinus - - - 
 y. Echinometra 
 
 3. Echinosinus - - 
 
 4. Echinites - - - 
 b. Echinoneus - - 
 
 6. Echinodiscoides - 
 
 7. Echinodiscus 
 
 8. Echinoplacos 
 
 9. Echinocyamus - 
 
 10. Echinus salinaris 
 
 11. Echinus pelagius 
 
 12. Echinomitra - - 
 
 13. Echinanthus - - 
 
 14. Echinorodum 
 
 15. Arachnoides - - 
 
 16. Amygdala - - 
 
 17. Ota --.- 
 
 18. Nuces - - - - 
 
 19. Campana - - - 
 
 20. Echinocardium 
 
 Cid. Miliaris, Klein. 
 
 Cid. Variolata and Mammillaris, ditto. 
 
 Clipeus, ditto. 
 
 Conulus, ditto. 
 
 Discoides, ditto. 
 Laganum, ditto. 
 Mellita, ditto. 
 
 Galea and Galeola, ditto. 
 
 Galea, ditto. 
 
 Conulus, apice obtuso, ditto. 
 
 Scittum, ditto. 
 
 Scutum, ditto. 
 
 Brissoides, ditto. 
 
 Brissoides, ditto. 
 
 Brissus, ditto. 
 
 Spatangus, ditto. 
 
 Spatangus and Spatagoides, ditto. 
 
 Aided by these labours, N. G. Leske, Professor of 
 Natural History at Leipsic, in his Additamenta ad Ja- 
 cobi Theodori Klein, Naturalem Dispositionem Echino- 
 dermatum, &c. formed the following arrangement of 
 these animals, which was published in 1778 :
 
 110 
 
 O. Echinus. 
 
 Genus I. Cidaris. Genus VI. Echinanthus^. 
 
 II. Clipeus, VII. Echinodiscus \\. 
 
 III. Echinites*. VIII. Echinocyamus ** . 
 
 IV. Echinoneust. IX. Echinarachnius tt. 
 V. Eckinocorysl, X. Spatangus JJ. 
 
 * Klein, it may be seen, p. 108, had divided his section Fibula into two 
 genera, Conulus and Discoides ; but Leske seeing no material difference 
 between these two genera, included them in one under the name of Echi- 
 nites ; being evidently led to this from the variety of figures assumed by 
 the casts of this genus, which, from their very freqnent occurrence in va- 
 rious parts, had acquired the name of Echinites vulgar es ; and which, in 
 many instances, have so depressed an appearance, and are so rounded at 
 their top, as hardly to possess a conical figure. These different forms 
 Klein considered as constituting merely so many varieties; whilst Plielsum, 
 regarding them as so many distinct species, gave to them specific names 
 adapted to their forms. These differences were, however, considered by 
 Leske, as dependent on compression, which he supposed might have 
 taken place during the process of petrifaction, and therefore he could not 
 so separate them. 
 
 Another circumstance requires to be taken into consideration : In nu- 
 merous specimens that have not suffered mutilation by fracture, it appears 
 that this form has proceeded from a deficiency of the infiltrated siliceous 
 matter of which the casts have been formed. They have evidently been 
 subjected to this infiltration whilst placed in their natural situation, on 
 their base, and hence have been filled chiefly from below upwards ; and, 
 consequently, if from any circumstance the infiltration has ceased before 
 the mould has been filled, the more pointed upper part would be wanting, 
 and the remaining part would be nearly level or rounded on its upper sur- 
 face. Others, indeed, possessed originally a compressed discoidal figure; 
 but these, as well as those which have been just described, are considered 
 by Leske as properly referrible to Conulus. No reason is offered by this 
 attentive observer, nor does any appear, for their being placed under a genus 
 bearing another name. 
 
 t This genus was formed by Phelsum, and agrees, as is observed by 
 Leske, with the Discoides of Klein, except in the periphery being ovate, 
 or oval rounded, and never angular, and the vent being oblong and nearer 
 to the mouth. 
 
 | In this genus he includes the two genera Galea and Galeola of Klein. 
 
 Includes all the scutiform echini of Klein, whether ovate or angular. 
 
 |) Is substituted for the Placenta, of Klein it had been previously adopt- 
 ed by Breyn. 
 
 ** This is a new genus formed by Phelsum, the generic characters of 
 which are Nuciform ; ten stelliform, biporous, ambulacra ; the mouth and 
 vent near to each other, about the centre of the base. 
 
 tt This agrees with Arachnoides of Klein, the name only being changed. 
 
 ft The sections of Klein, Cor Marinum, divided into the genera Spatan- 
 gus and Spatagoides, and the section Ovum marinum divided into Brissus 
 and Brissoides, were, after much consideration, included by Leske in this 
 genus Spatangus ; he separating the members of this genus into four fami- 
 lies. 1. Cordated Spatangi, with a sulcated vertex. 2. Cordated Spatangi, 
 not sulcated. 3. Brissi, oval spatangi, the ambulacra sulcated. i. Bris- 
 soides, oval spatangi, not sulcated.
 
 Ill 
 
 M. Leske concludes with particularising some fossil 
 Echinites, which he thinks might serve to form a new 
 genus between Echinanthus and Spatangus ; they agree- 
 ing with the former in the situation and structure of 
 the mouth, and, with the latter, in the situation of 
 the vent. 
 
 Le Chev. de Lamarck, to whom the lover of natural 
 history is so much indebted, afterwards proposed a con- 
 siderable change in the arrangement of these animals, 
 and in the denominations by which they should be dis- 
 tinguished, employing the form and size of the ambu- 
 lacra among the generic distinctions. 
 
 The arrangement thus made was the following * : 
 
 Division of Echinidece. 
 
 1. The vent below the margin, in the lower surface, 
 or in the margin. 
 
 * The mouth beneath, always central. 
 Scutella 1 
 
 Clypeaster r Ambulacra contracted. 
 Fibularia 
 
 Echinoneus > . 
 
 ~ , ., Ambulacra complete. 
 
 Galerites 3 
 
 ** The mouth beneath, not central, but approach- 
 ing to the margin. 
 Ananchites. 
 Spatangus. 
 
 2. The vent above the margin, and consequently 
 dorsal. 
 
 a. The vent dorsal, but approaching to the margin. 
 Cassidulus. 
 
 Nucleolites. 
 
 b. The anus dorsal and vertical ; the shell regular. 
 Echinus. 
 
 Cidarites. 
 
 * Histoire Naturelle des Animaux satis Vertebres, Tom. Ill, p. 6.
 
 112 
 
 Scutella, the first genus, comprises Placenta of Klein 
 (Echinodiscus of Breyn and Leske), and Echinarach- 
 nius of Klein and Leske. 
 
 The admission of Echinarachnius within the limits 
 which Lamarck has prescribed to this genus cannot be 
 allowed. The ambulacra, extended only to the margin, 
 and the mouth placed on the upper side of the margin, 
 must exclude it from a genus, comprised in a section, 
 the members of which are described as having the am- 
 bulacra complete, and the mouth beneath the margin. 
 Of the name of the genus, it may be observed, that it 
 is not more expressive than that which it is proposed to 
 supersede ; and is, besides, the diminutive of the word 
 (Scutum), by which another widely different genus has 
 been designated. 
 
 Clypeaster is a new, but does not appear to be a 
 more distinctive, name for this genus than Scutum of 
 Klein, or Echinanthus of Leske, Breyn, &c. 
 
 Fibularia is proposed as a denomination preferable 
 to that of Echinocyamus , which had been adopted for 
 this genus by the assiduous Phelsum. No reason, how- 
 ever, for this preference appears, and the term, Fibu- 
 laria, is so far objectionable, as it resembles Fibula 
 employed by Klein, with equal propriety, for a section 
 including echini of very different characters. 
 
 Echinoneus is applied in the same manner as by La- 
 marck. 
 
 Galerites is assumed as appropriate to the genus the 
 first species of which is Conulus albo-galerus of Klein, 
 and is followed by those other fossil echini to which 
 have been applied the more apt name of Conulites. 
 
 Ananchytes is employed in the place of Cassis of 
 Klein, or of Echinocorytes of Leske. 
 
 Spatangus is applied nearly in the same manner as 
 by Leske ; its species are divided into those with four 
 and those with five ambulacra.
 
 113 
 
 Cassidulus is the name of the genus proposed by La- 
 marck for the reception of those echinites which Leske 
 described as having the mouth in the centre of the 
 base, and the vent above the margin, possessing, as it 
 were, those generic characters which would form a 
 genus between Echinanthus and Spatangus. 
 
 Nucleolites. The echinites of this genus are ad- 
 mitted, by Lamarck, to agree so closely with those of 
 the preceding genus, that they might be united ; the 
 only material difference being, that the ambulacra in 
 the Cassiduli are contracted, but, in the Nucleolites, 
 are radiated to the mouth. 
 
 The genus Cidaris is divided, by this naturalist, into 
 two genera. The one, named by him Echinus, is in- 
 tended to comprise all those species which have the 
 tubercles, on which the spines are placed, entire ; the 
 other, distinguished as Cidarites, "contains all those 
 whose tubercles are perforated for the transmission of 
 what is considered to be a muscular cord. The species 
 of this latter genus he divides into two families, the 
 turbans and the diadems. 
 
 In forming the following arrangement, the classifica- 
 tion of Lamarck being the latest, and having the sanc- 
 tion of a name so justly celebrated, has been almost 
 exactly followed. 
 
 From the situations of the mouth and of the vent are 
 formed the chief generic distinctions. AVhen the mouth 
 is central, the echini are said to be Emmesostomous ; 
 and when towards the margin, dpomesostomous : when 
 the vent is in the vertex, they are distinguished as Ano- 
 cystous, when in the base as Catocystous, and, when 
 in the side, as Pleurocystous. The more obvious cir- 
 cumstances dependent on the ambulacra, and on the 
 general form and surface, complete the characters of 
 each genus. From the more subordinate distinctions 
 of form, &c. result the several specific characters.
 
 114
 
 115 
 
 GENUS I. Echinus. With a roundish, testaceous or 
 crustaceous internal skin, inclining to oval ; the mouth 
 beneath, and central, armed with five ossiculas ; the vent 
 vertical. Ten areas, five large and five smaller, set with 
 imperforate tubercles for the articulation of spines; and 
 ten porous ambulacra, or bands, interposed between 
 the areas, are disposed vertically from the mouth to the 
 vent. PL II, fig. 1. 
 
 It has been thought advisable to adopt, with Lamarck, 
 the division of Cidaris of Klein, Leske, &c., into two 
 genera, Echinus and Cidaris : the former having the tu- 
 bercles entire, and the spines which are set on them, 
 moved only by the muscular fibres in the investing cu- 
 ticle; the latter having them perforated through their 
 centre, for the passage of a muscular cord, which, being 
 attached to the base of the spines, serves to augment and 
 to direct their motions *. 
 
 The Echini are distinguishable, not only by their im- 
 perforated tubercles, but by the spines which are arti- 
 culated on these tubercles, which are simple in their 
 forms, and either smooth or very finely granulated. In 
 some, which have somewhat of an oval form, the spines 
 are of different sizes and shapes on the same shell; 
 these are considered as approximating to Cidaris. The 
 ambulacra are not here so regularly formed, nor so dis- 
 tinctly separated from the areas, as in those species 
 which belong to the other genus. 
 
 Sp. 1. E. escwfenfas. Subglobose, rather hemisphe- 
 rical ; areas, with tubercles not large. The ambulacra 
 with six rows of pores, disposed obliquely ; the spines 
 acicular. Recent and fossil. 
 
 2. saxatilis. Suborbicular and rather depressed ; 
 
 * It must he observed, that the difference, forming here a generic cha- 
 racteristic, may be found in the individuals of another genus. Spatangus 
 purpureus has its tubercles perforated.
 
 116 
 
 eight rows of tubercles in the larger areas, the third 
 from the sides larger than the rest; four rows in the 
 lesser. The ambulacra narrow, with three double rows 
 of pores ; the spines acicular and longitudinally stri- 
 ated. Recent and fossil. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. 
 XXXI, fig. A, D. 
 
 3. E. angulosus. Rather depressed, and subangular ; 
 two rows of larger tubercles in both large and small 
 areas, surrounded with smaller. The ambulacra with 
 three double rows of pores, the outer ones in a straight, 
 the inner ones in zigzag lines. Recent and fossil. 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. II, fig. 7. 
 
 4. excavatus. Nearly hemispherical ; the areas 
 with two rows of miliary, surrounded by granular tu- 
 bercles ; the ambulacra depressed as if excavated, and 
 having a double row of alternating pores. Fossil. 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XLIV, fig. 3, 4. 
 
 5. fenestratus. Roundish, the base smooth and 
 widely open ; the larger areas with six rows of tubercles, 
 the two intermediate rows largest; the smaller areas 
 with two rows of larger tubercles ; the surface of the 
 areas granulated with minute tubercles. The ambulacra 
 granulated and pierced with three pair of pores, trans- 
 versely slanting; the spines setose. Recent and 
 fossil. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. IV, jig. 3. 
 
 It is doubtful if Ech. lucunter is not a variety of this 
 species. 
 
 6. rupestris. Subelliptical ; areas with two rows 
 of larger tubercles, with smaller ones between in a 
 serrated line ; the ambulacra with the pores in curved 
 lines ; spines acicular. Recent and fossil. Leske 
 ap. Klein, Tab. V, jig. a, b, c. 
 
 7. variegatus. Orbicular, rather depressed; larger 
 areas with tubercles of a medium size ; smaller ones a 
 little more raised, with three rows of smaller tubercles ;
 
 117 
 
 ambulacra with three pairs of rows of pores ; mouth 
 nearly round, slightly waved ; vent round. Recent 
 
 and rare. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. X, Jig. B, C. 
 
 8. E. pustulosus. Hemispherical and depressed ; 
 larger areas with medium-sized tubercles, beginning at 
 the ends with, and extending in the middle to six, in 
 transverse rows; smaller areas with two longitudinal 
 rows of smaller tubercles ; ambulacra with four or five 
 pairs of rows of pores, wide towards the mouth ; the 
 mouth large, widely sinuous ; vent small. Recent. 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XI, Jig. A, B, C, D. 
 
 9. granulatus. Suborbicular, slightly angulated ; 
 larger areas with seven rows of smallish tubercles on 
 each side, leaving a space in which the joining of the 
 assulae is seen ; smaller areas with four rows on each 
 side ; ambulacra with pores in three pairs of rows, dis- 
 posed in quincunx order ; mouth rather small, slightly 
 winding ; vent circular. Recent. Leske ap. Klein, 
 Tab. XI, fig. E, F. 
 
 10. tesselatus. Suborbicular, slightly conical; 
 areas showing the assula?, and bearing slight traces 
 only of a row of tubercles ; ambulacra with two rows 
 of closely-set pores ; mouth circular, small, and turned 
 inwards; vent small. Fossil. Leske ap. Klein, 
 Tab. XI, fig. G. 
 
 11. botryoides. Subglobular; larger areas with 
 two rows of largish tubercles ; those of the smaller not 
 discoverable with precision, but these areas are more 
 raised than the larger; ambulacra with two rows of 
 transversely bent lines of pores. Fossil. Leske 
 ap. Klein, Tab. XI, jig. H. 
 
 12. toreumaticus. Nearly hemispherical; vertex 
 rather raised ; areas with two rows of tubercles with 
 crenated margins surrounded by granular tubercles, 
 almost to the ambulacra. The larger areas have 
 four rows of excavated transverse lines, two of which
 
 118 
 
 lie nearest to the ambulacra, and separate them from 
 the largest tubercles, and two are placed within the 
 rows of tubercles ; the outer and inner rows of lines 
 are opposed to each other, alternating with the tuber- 
 cles, whilst the inner adjacent rows alternate with each 
 other. In the lesser areas only two rows are placed 
 between the tubercles ; these excavated lines exist only 
 from the vertex to the widest part of the periphery. 
 Ambulacra with pores disposed in serrated row r s ; 
 mouth small, retracted. Recent and fossil. Leske 
 
 ap. Klein, Tab. X, fig. D, E. 
 
 13. E. pentagonus. Pentagonal and subpyramidal ; 
 the sides nearly flat ; the porous fascia3 with two rows 
 of pores ; the areas, on the upper part, with but few 
 small tubercles, but, on the lower, thickly set with tu- 
 bercles surrounded by circles. Fossil, found in 
 the upper oolite. 
 
 This species is very interesting : its form is so de- 
 cided as to authorise it to be considered as possessing 
 a depressed, obtuse, five-sided subpyramidal form. The 
 upper parts of all the areas are remarkably bare; but, 
 about the rounded margin, the verrucee, surrounded by 
 rings, as in Echinanthus, become frequent, and, particu- 
 larly over the whole of the base, they are set very 
 thickly, but distinctly, between the interposed biporous 
 bands. 
 
 The descriptions given, by Lamarck, of several of 
 the species of Cidaris, brought by MM. Peron and Ee 
 Sueur, give reason for believing that the recent ana- 
 logues of more of our fossil echini maybe discovered in 
 the South Seas. 
 
 14. virgatus. Hemispherical, rather raised ; sub- 
 ventricose, assulae apparent; the middle of the areas 
 thin of tubercles, and striped with violet ; the ambulacral 
 bands with three double rows of pores. Recent. 
 Lam.
 
 119 
 
 15. E. ylobiformis. Nearly spheroidal ; red or orange 
 coloured, with white-eyed tubercles ; four rows of pores 
 in the areas. Recent. Lam. 
 
 16. polyzonalis. Hemispherical, rather depress- 
 ed ; subpentagonal ; greenish, with transverse white 
 zones decussating white porous rays ; the lower surface 
 concave. Recent. Lam. 
 
 17. maculatus. Hemispherical ; white, with spots 
 of a greenish yellow disposed in transverse zones; 
 areas slightly verrucous. Recent Lam. 
 
 18. variegatus. Hemispheric ally globose, varie- 
 gated with green and white ; the pores in two pairs of 
 rows at the sides of the areas ; the spines green. 
 Recent. Lam. 
 
 19. bigranularis. Hemispherical, rather depress- 
 ed ; ambulacra rather bare ; the pores in four rows : 
 the areas with large tubercles in double rows. 
 Fossil. Lam. 
 
 20. arenatus. Hemispherical ; ambulacra with 
 pores in four rows; the tubercles of the largest areas 
 but small, the rest as if covered with sand. 
 Fossil. Lam. 
 
 21. sardica. Orbicular, depressed ; base nearly 
 flat ; areas multifariously tuberculated ; the larger with 
 eight or twelve, the smaller with four or six rows. A 
 suture passes down the middle' of the areas. Ambula- 
 cra sunken, with five double rows of pores; mouth 
 small, with ten grooves. Recent, large as a child's 
 head. Tuscan and Adriatic Sea. Leske ap. Klein, 
 Tab. IX, fig. A, B. 
 
 22. flammea. Nearly hemispherical, depressed ; 
 the larger areas with twelve rows of tubercles at the 
 broader part ; the less, more raised, and with three rows 
 in the middle part; ambulacra narrow; mouth 'small. 
 
 Recent. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. X, fig. A. 
 
 23. mammillata. Subelliptical, depressed ; six-
 
 120 
 
 teen or eighteen imperforate papillae in the larger areas, 
 and fourteen in the smaller, the largest being about the 
 margin, and followed by others of a middling size : 
 all encircled by others of a granular appearance ; the 
 ambulacra rising broad from the mouth with four or five 
 pairs of pores, and terminating in one sinuous pair ; 
 the mouth large, and the vent pentangular *. 
 Recent and fossil. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. VI. 
 
 GENUS II. Cidaris. With a spheroidal or depressed 
 orbicular crustaceous or testaceous internal solid skin, 
 furnished with tubercles perforated through their sum- 
 mits, supporting moveable spines, the largest of which 
 are bacciliform. The ambulacra are complete, reach- 
 ing from the vertex to the mouth, and bordered by two 
 multiporous bands. The mouth beneath, central, and 
 supplied with teeth. The vent above, vertical. 
 
 In the species of this genus, in which the tubercles 
 are pierced through their apex, for the passage, it is 
 presumed, of a muscular thread, the ambulacra are 
 narrower and more regular than in those in which the 
 tubercles are imperforate ; the little porous bands, too, 
 which border the ambulacra are less diverging and 
 more nearly approximated. Their spines are various, 
 never uniformly setous, but either large and sudiform 
 and as if truncated, or long and crenulated, with others 
 very small and numerous, surrounding, as with a little 
 collar, the base of the larger ones. In some of the 
 species of this family, the margins round the papillous 
 tubercles are regularly crenulated. Lamarck divides 
 these echini with perforated spines into turbans and 
 
 * Spines are of the pallisadoe kind, sudes fortalitiorum, Klein; and are 
 placed on the large mammillary tubercles; small, spatulous ones being at- 
 tached to the smaller tubercles. Some of the fossil specimens resembling 
 this species deserve rather to be considered as distinct species, having very 
 long cylindrical spines, denticulated in longitudinal stiiap. Some in the 
 writer's collection anc more than three inches in length.
 
 121 
 
 diadems. By the former term ke designates those 
 which are rather elevated, but nearly spheroidal, with 
 tlie ambulacra winding ; by the latter he means those 
 which have a round depressed shell, with straight am- 
 bulacra, and with spines generally hollow. 
 
 Sp. 1. Cid. imperialis. Subglobose, depressed on 
 both sides ; the ambulacra and smaller spines of a vio- 
 let colour ; the larger spines cylindrical, but rather ven- 
 tricose, striated in their apex, and marked with white 
 rings. 
 
 Cid. papillata major. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. VII, 
 
 fig. A. 
 
 This Cidaris differs from Cidaris mammillata, Kl. in 
 its shell being more globular, and in its tubercles being 
 pierced. 
 
 2. C. diadema. Nearly circular: the vertex depress- 
 ed; the base rather convex; the mouth large, and the 
 vent circular. The larger areas have tv/o rows of large 
 tubercles next the ambulacra ; between which are two 
 rows of small, surrounded by others still smaller. These 
 tubercles are pierced in their tops, and their surround- 
 ing rings are finely crenulated. The ambulacra are 
 bordered, and have three pair of rows of pores in their 
 widest part, which lessen as the space is contracted. 
 The spines are acicular, and are surrounded at their 
 base with a ring, within which is the excavated bulb 
 that articulates with the perforated papillary tuber- 
 cle. Recent and fossil. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. 
 XXXVII, fig. 1, 2. 
 
 3. papillata. Orbicular, but the vertex depress- 
 ed and the base flattish ; the areas with two rows in 
 each of perforated papillae, each surrounded by a cir- 
 cle of granular tubercles and punctured spaces. Be- 
 tween each two winding biporous bonds, or ambulacra, 
 a band is raised which corresponds with the smaller 
 areas : the mouth is nearly round ; the vent varies in its 
 
 R
 
 form. Recent and fossil. Leske ap. Klein, 
 
 Tab. VII. 
 
 In some fossils, probably of this species, the spines 
 assume a ventricose, clavated form. These have been 
 long known by the name of Lapides judaici. 
 
 4. C. atratus. Ovately hemispherical, rather de- 
 pressed ; of a violet colour, inclining to black. The 
 tubercles large; the dorsal spines short, obtuse, and 
 imbricated ; those at the circumference subspathulated. 
 
 Recent. Cid. violacea, Leske. 
 
 5. crenularis. Subglobose ; with two rows in 
 the larger areas of large tubercles, crenulated round 
 the papillae. Fossil, from Switzerland. Bourguet 
 Petrif. Tab. LII, 344, 347, 348. 
 
 6. pseudo-diadema. Depressedly hemispherical; 
 the bands straight and biporous ; and two rows of large 
 tubercles in each area. Fossil. 
 
 7. calamaris. Spheroidal, rather depressed ; the 
 larger areas, with distant papillary tubercles, surround- 
 ed by a granular surface ; two rows of tubercles in the 
 smaller. The ambulacra, with pores, in four divisions; 
 the spines hollow, and possessing much of the structure 
 of a quill. Recent. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XLV, 
 
 fig. 1-4. 
 
 8. radiata. Circular, depressed ; the vent sur- 
 rounded by plates forming a star of five angularly 
 pointed rays, with a foramen in the point of each ray. 
 From each termination of these rays proceed two other 
 rays forming another star ; these, being the ambulacra, 
 are pierced with numerous pores. The interstices, or 
 areas, are filled with differently sized tubercles. On 
 the base is also a stelliform expansion, in the middle 
 of which are five semilunar openings. 
 
 This is a large recent echinus ; EchinantJvus major, 
 Seb&.Komet groote, Phelsum. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. 
 XL1V, fig. 1.
 
 123 
 
 The following fossils appear to belong to this ge- 
 nus, but their specific characters are not so ob- 
 vious : 
 
 9. Coronalis. Nearly hemispherical; the areas al- 
 ternately wide and narrow, with scattered papillae ; 
 the ambulacra flat, uniting at the top, and forming a 
 flat space round the vent. Fossil. LesJce ap. Klein, 
 Tab. VIII, fig. A, B. 
 
 10. Corollaris. Various siliceous nuclei have been 
 placed under this head which have doubtlessly belong- 
 ed to different species of Cidarites. Leske ap. Klein, 
 Tab. VIII, fig. C. 
 
 The fossil specimen, named Cidaris asterizans, by 
 Klein, does not appear to deserve, as is justly observ- 
 ed by Leske, to be considered of a different species, 
 being a spathose fossil of C. diadema, or of one of its 
 varieties, the striae, in the engraving, having been too 
 much helped by the artist. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XLVI, 
 fig. 5. 
 
 GENUS III. Clypeus. Of a roundish subconical form; 
 the base rather concave; the mouth beneath, nearly 
 central ; the vent near the apex; the ambulacra bowed, 
 striated across, bordered by pores, and disposed in five 
 pairs, each pair forming a petaloidal figure, and are 
 then continued in the form of bands to the mouth. The 
 smaller areas are contained within the petaloidal figures, 
 and the larger surround the ambulacra, and are ex- 
 tended over the rest of the surface, which is covered 
 with small tubercles, separated from each other by dis- 
 tinct circlets. PI. II, Jig. 6. 
 
 Synon. Echinobrissus, Breyn. 
 
 Sp. 1. Cl. sinuatus. Nearly orbicular, depressed ; 
 one of the larger areas is divided by a longitudinal 
 groove, commencing near the apex and continued nearly 
 to the margin ; the ambulacra are bowed and broad,
 
 124 
 
 are transversely divided by bars, leaving intervening 
 openings, and are bordered by rows of thickly set 
 pores; each pair of ambulacra approximate towards 
 the margin, and thus almost enclose the smaller areas. 
 The base is divided by five bands, proceeding from the 
 ends of the petaloidal ambulacra and terminating at the 
 mouth ; the mouth is small and pentagonal ; the vent 
 opened laterally in the apex of the groove which exists 
 in the upper surface. 
 
 This is the polar stone of Plott. 
 
 No recent species of this genus is known. 
 
 This genus is not even mentioned by Lamarck : and 
 the first species here noticed is offered by him interro- 
 gatively, as similar to Galerites umbrella, with which, 
 however, it does not agree, since one of the generic 
 characters of Galerites is the having of the vent placed 
 in, or beneath and near to, the margin. 
 
 2. Cl. conoideus. A spathose petrifaction ; the figure 
 conoidal; the circumference subrotund, inclining to the 
 elliptical. The divisions and situations of the areas, 
 with the structure of the ambulacra, and the nature of 
 the surface, point this fossil out, in the opinion of 
 Leske, as being a species of this genus. 
 
 CL hemisph(Bricus and CL quinquelabiatus are names 
 given to two mutilated fossil specimens, possessing, in 
 Leske's opinion, uncertain claims to places under this 
 genus. The first, he thinks, resembles Galea Wa- 
 grica, Klein ; and the second does not appear to have 
 been in a state, the vent not being discoverable, to 
 allow a correct judgment being formed respecting even 
 its generic characters. 
 
 GENUS IV. Cassidulus. Ovate or subcoidifxmn, 
 and rather raised ; the mouth beneath, subceatral ; the 
 vent at one end, considerably above the margin; the 
 ambulacra porous, subpetaloidal, and reaching nearly 
 to the margin. PL II, fig. 7.
 
 125 
 
 These echinidae were pointed out by Lcske as requiring 
 to be placed under a distinct and new genus, the mouth 
 being placed nearly in the centre of the base, and bear- 
 ing the character of Echinanthus ; the vent situated on 
 the upper part of one end, ag in Spatagus. Leske hav- 
 ing declined giving a name to the genus, it received it 
 from Lamarck. 
 
 Sp. 3 . Cass. pyriformis. Ovate and gibbous, the base 
 rather flat ; the surface, particularly of the base, tuber- 
 cular ; and the back slightly carinated ; the ambulacra 
 obsoletely porous ; the mouth roundish, subpentagonal, 
 and with five rather prominent lips ; a double row of 
 pores, forming a five-rayed star, round the mouth ; the 
 veut round. Fossil. 
 
 2. lapis cancri. Convex and obtusely ovate ; the 
 vertex exeentric and perforated with four pores ; the am- 
 bulacral lines of pores double, and forming subp.eta- 
 loidal figures, with the terminations open; the mouth 
 not exactly in the centre, but nearer to the narrower 
 end ; the vent round. Fossil. 
 
 3. patellaris. Oval and flattish ; the back very 
 slightly raised, and the base as slightly concave ; the 
 ambulacra biporous; the pores linearly connected in 
 the form of a star, and rather separated from the rest of 
 the surface by an obsolete line. 
 
 Lamarck, who considers that the characters of the 
 ambulacra should be reckoned among the distinguishing 
 generic characters, has instituted the following genus 
 for the reception of such of the echinidae as accord with 
 the preceding genus, Cassidulus, in every respect, except 
 in the state of the ambulacra. These, in this genus, 
 reach only to the margin ; but those which belong to the 
 following geaus are extended to the centre of the base. 
 
 GENUS V. Nucleolites. Ovate or subcordiform, ra- 
 ther raised; the mouth beneath and subcentral; the
 
 126 
 
 vent at the end, much above the margin ; the ambula- 
 cra radiating to the centre of the base. 
 
 Synon. Echinobrissus, Breyn. 
 
 Sp. 1. Nucl. scutata. Elliptical and rather quadrila- 
 teral ; slightly convex and widest behind, where it is 
 sulcated ; vent dorsal. Fossil. 
 
 Lamark places under this species, Spatagus depressus 
 of Klein. This is an interesting fossil. From its form 
 and sulcus, and from the situation of the mouth and 
 vent, it "approximates to Clypeus ; and, from its four 
 radiating ambulacra, with the fifth passing along the 
 sulcus, it resembles Spatagus. 
 
 2. colombaria. Obovate, rather elevated, and 
 widest behind; ambulacra with biporous lines, with 
 faint striae ; the mouth pentagonal. Fossil. 
 
 3. ovulum. Ovate and pulvinated; with thinly 
 scattered tubercles with surrounding rings ; the ambu- 
 lacral lines subbiporous. Fossil. 
 
 4. amygdala. Ovate and rather gibbous, the ver- 
 tex rather prominent ; the ambulacra very narrow ; the 
 vent beneath a small projection. Fossil. 
 
 A figure illustrative of this genus appears to be un- 
 necessary, as it would differ from that of the preceding 
 genus only in the form of the ambulacra. 
 
 GENUS VI. Echinarachnius. Circumference subpen- 
 tagonal ; the upper surface slightly raised, rather conoid- 
 ally, in the centre ; the under surface flat ; the areas se- 
 parated by ten tortuous crenated lines ; and immediately 
 between the approximating larger areas are interposed 
 five straight slightly sulcated lines, which, passing over 
 the margin, are extended to the mouth ; thus dividing 
 the surface into five equal parts. The mouth is beneath, 
 and central ; the vent square, on the upper side, close 
 to the margin. 
 
 The whole of the surface is marked by elegant
 
 127 
 
 tracings, as if with ink, bearing somewhat of the ap- 
 pearance of a spider's web. PL II, jig. 8. 
 
 But one species is known, which has only been seen 
 recent, and is placed by Lamarck under his genus Scu- 
 tella ; but the situation of the vent, decidedly on the 
 upper surface, appears to claim for it a distinct genus. 
 
 GENUS VII. Galerites. Conoidal or subpyrainidal, 
 rising from nearly a circular base, and terminating in a 
 vertex more or less obtuse ; the mouth beneath, central ; 
 the vent beneath, in or near to the margin ; the surface 
 divided into larger and smaller areas by ten pair of am- 
 bulacral lines passing from the vertex to the mouth, 
 the area in which the vent is placed being the largest. 
 PL II, fig. 3. 
 
 Synon. Conulus, Klein. Echinites, Leske. Ecfiino- 
 conus, Breyn. 
 
 No remains of these animals are known to exist but 
 in a mineralised state. These petrifactions have been 
 distinguished by various appellations Scolopendritte, 
 BufonittB, Cap-stones, &c. 
 
 Sp. 1. Gal. albogalerus. Conical; circumference 
 subovate, there being a slight extension on that side in 
 which the vent is placed ; the vertex perforated with five 
 foramina, in the tips of the lesser areas; the surface 
 is beset with minute tubercles, and the sutures con- 
 necting the assulae are generally visible : the ambu- 
 lacral lines of pores are placed close in straight double 
 rows ; the mouth round ; the vent oval, the shell round 
 it being vaultedly convex. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XIII, 
 fig. A, B. 
 
 2. depressus. Circumference circular ; the divi- 
 sion of the areas marked by the sutures, but the assulae 
 not shown ; the mouth rather small ; the vent large and 
 oval. 
 
 3. vulgaris. Under this vague and comprehensive
 
 128 
 
 designation are placed those numerous small fossil spe- 
 cimens which are common in many parts of the world ; 
 possessing the characters of the genus, 4 but varying so 
 indeterminately in their minor distinctions, as not to 
 allow of their being described as definable varieties. 
 They are found, sometimes, to vary so in their figures, 
 as if they were the members of some undescribed genus : 
 instead of possessing the complete conical form, the 
 vertex is depressed as if truncated ; and sometimes the 
 slight angles are entirely removed, and the sides are so 
 rounded that the fossil possesses almost a globular 
 form. Even the mouth and vent, though in their regular 
 situation, are frequently found to vary in their size and 
 form. The areas vary considerably, being sometimes 
 raised, other times sunk; some bear the marks of the 
 assulae, and others not. The ambulacra vary in their 
 breadth, as well as in their depth or elevation, and 
 sometimes, but rarely, show the two lines of pores. 
 
 As these fossils, which are almost all siliceous casts, 
 bear the markings of the inner surface of the shell 
 which they filled, their surfaces must necessarily differ 
 from the outer surfaces of the shells from which they 
 proceeded; and endless, indeed, are the differences 
 which have resulted from the various degrees of cor- 
 rectness in the casts, and which must have depended 
 not only on the condition of the mould, but on the 
 state of the injected matter and the degree of perfec- 
 tion to which the crystallizing process had been allowed 
 to proceed. 
 
 4. Gal. quaterfasciatus. Nearly globular or acutely 
 conieal; four small and four large areas divided by eight 
 ambulacra ; the mouth and vent quadrangular. 
 Fossil. Siliceous. 
 
 5. sexiesfasciatus Subconical ; vertex obtuse ; six 
 large and six small areas, separated by twelve tubercu-
 
 129 
 
 lated ambulacra; vent round, and larger than the mouth. 
 Fossil. Siliceous. 
 
 These fossils are exceedingly rare. 
 
 The following species are also particularised by La- 
 marck : 
 
 6. Gal. abbreviates. Fossil, from France and Ger- 
 many. 
 
 7. fissuratus. Fossil, from the north of Germany. 
 
 8. hemisphcericus. 
 
 It is doubted whether this may not be the same as 
 E. subuculus of Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XIV, fig. L O. 
 
 9. depressus. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. ^L,fig. 5, 6. 
 
 10. rotularis. This is referred to Ech. subuculus 
 of Gmelin and of Leske, Tab. XIV, but is supposed 
 to be dissimilar from G. hemisphcericus. 
 
 11. conoideus. Large ; conoidal, nearly circular ; 
 the mouth transverse, surrounded by a hollow. 
 Fossil. Italy. 
 
 12. scutiformis. Resembles that figured by Klein, 
 Tab. XLII, fig. 2, 3. 
 
 13. ovatus. Ovato-conoidal; depressed at t ne 
 sides. Fossil. 
 
 14. semi-globus. Orbicular and hemispherical; the 
 vertex excentrical. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XLII, 
 fig. 5. 
 
 15. cylindricus. Cylindrical; short; the back 
 rounded, but nearly flat. 
 
 16. patella. Orbicular, depressed, and rather 
 convex ; the ambulacral grooves elegantly striated ; one 
 of the areas excavated by a longitudinal groove. En- 
 cyclop. PI. CXLIII, fig. 1, 2. 
 
 17. umbrella. Is questioned as being Clypeus si- 
 nuatus of Klein, with which the description agrees ; but 
 Lamarck has not adverted to the vent in Clypeus being 
 on the upper surface. 
 
 18. excentricus. Ovate, convexly gibbous; the 
 
 s
 
 130 
 
 vertex excentrical, from which proceed four ambulacra ; 
 the lower side sulcatedwith five grooves. 
 
 This curious and irregularly formed fossil is described 
 as being as large as the preceding. Its habitat is not 
 mentioned. 
 
 19. G. subuculus. Discoidal; vertex subrotund ; base 
 rather concave ; the whole surface of the areas set with 
 minute rings ; the ambulacra biporous ; the mouth small 
 and circular ; the vent even, minute, and circular ; the 
 vertex sometimes scutellated in those specimens in 
 which the shell remains. Fossil. 
 
 Echinites subuculus of Leske, figured by Klein, Tab. 
 XIV, /, m, n, o. 
 
 GENUS VIII. Clypeaster. -Oval, elliptical, sub- 
 angular; sometimes raised and gibbous in the centre; 
 the margin thick and rounded, the under side concave 
 at the centre ; the mouth, armed with six bony pieces, 
 is beneath, and central; the vent beneath, and in or 
 near to the margin ; the ambulacra, on the upper sur- 
 face, in a pentapetalous form. PL II, fig. 2. 
 
 Synon. Scutum, Klein. Echinanthus, Leske. 
 
 Sp. 1. Cl. humile. Ovate; margin winding ; ambula- 
 cra with two rows of pores connected by small trans- 
 verse grooves, and so disposed as to form the sides of 
 five petaloidal figures; the larger areas are disposed 
 around, the smaller ones circumscribed by these ambu- 
 lacra, and somewhat raised; the surface covered by 
 granular tubercles, set in rings, with numerous smaller 
 grains interposed ; the base flat towards the margin, and 
 concave in the middle ; the mouth deeply seated in the 
 centre, of an obtuse pentagonal form; the vent trans- 
 versely oval. Recent and fossil. 
 
 2. altum. Subovate ; vertex conoidal, consider- 
 ably vaulted ; areas granulated, the larger without, the 
 smaller within, the petaloidal spaces formed by the 
 ambulacra.
 
 131 
 
 This species is only known in a petrified state. It is 
 distinguishable by its size, being, sometimes, six inches 
 long, and two inches in height, by its rising in a round 
 vaulted form, and by its ambulacra being large and 
 wide. Fossil. 
 
 The casts of the two last species form very interesting 
 fossils, Org. Remains, PL II, fig. 8, and PL IV, Jig. 7. 
 
 3. C. ovatus. Ovate; the margin not waving, the 
 upper part convex, with four pores in the vertex ; the 
 ambulacra, in petaloidal forms, not united at their 
 lower terminations, but the one side of each ray extend- 
 ing farther than the other ; the surface covered with mi- 
 nute tubercles ; the base flat ; the mouth subreniform, 
 with five prominent lips, from the hollowed spaces be- 
 tween which proceed five grooves ; the vent in the mar- 
 gin. Recent and fossil. 
 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XX, fig. c, d. 
 
 4. orbiculatus. This is a fossil which was 
 placed, by Leske, under this genus, with considerable 
 doubt, it being so injured that the state of the under 
 part could not be ascertained. 
 
 5. marginatus. With a convex stelliferous vertex; 
 with short ovato-acute ambulacra; the margin rather 
 thin, expanded, and broad. 
 
 Scilla, Corp. mar. Tab. XI, fig. inferior. 
 
 6. scutiformis. Elliptical; the back flattish and 
 submarginated. 
 
 Seba. mus. Ill, Tab. XIII, fig. 23, 24. Encyc. PI. 
 CXLVI, fig. 1, 2. 
 
 7. laganum. 
 
 Echinodiscus laganum. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XXII, 
 fig. a, b, c. 
 
 8. excentricus. Suborbicular, depressed, but ra- 
 ther convex ; five narrow ambulacral compartments di- 
 varicating from the excentric vertex ; the vent marginal. 
 
 Encyc. PL CXLIV, fig. I, 2.
 
 132 
 
 9. C. oviformis. 
 
 JEchinanthus ovatus, Leskeap.Kl. Tab. XX,^. c, d. 
 Recent and fossil. Found in the South Seas. 
 
 10. politus. Ovate, inflated, and smooth ; with 
 five long narrow ambulacral compartments, open at 
 their terminations. Fossil, from Sienna. 
 
 11. hemisph<ericus. Orbicular, convex, and semi- 
 globose ; with five ambulacral divisions radiating from 
 the excentrical vertex. Fossil. 
 
 12. stelliferus. Ovate and tumid ; with five long 
 narrow ambulacral divisions, the contained areas rather 
 prominent. 
 
 Knorr. Petr. p. 11, Tab. E. in, fig. 5. 
 
 GENUS TX. Scutella. Rather flat or discoidal; 
 slightly convex on the upper surface ; with four large 
 pores in the vertex ; the margin rather thin and acute ; 
 and the base flat. The ambulacra short, disposed in a 
 pentapetalous figure; the mouth beneath, central; the 
 vent beneath, between the mouth and margin. PL II, 
 fig. 10. 
 
 The mouth is armed with five pieces, divided into two 
 branches, and vertical irregular plates are interposed 
 between the two branches. 
 
 Synon. Placenta, Klein. Echinodiscus, Breyn, Leske, 
 and others. 
 
 Sp. 1. Scut . dentata. Orbicular, depressed ; the disc 
 entire ; the posterior part of the margin dentated. 
 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XXII, fig. E, F. 
 
 2. digitata. Orbicular, depressed ; the disc pierc- 
 ed in the fore part by two or four openings. 
 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XXII, Jig. A, B. Decius 
 digitatus. Fig. C, D. Octies digitatus. 
 
 '3. emarginata. Orbiculato-elliptical, depressed ; 
 with six foramina, five of which cut into the margin. 
 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. L, Jig. 5, 6. 
 
 4. sexforis. Orbicular, depressed, and as if trun-
 
 133 
 
 cated; with six oblong foramina; the vent near to the 
 mouth. 
 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. L, fig. 3, 4. 
 
 5. 5. quinquefora. Orbicular, depressed, and sub- 
 reniform ; with five oblong foramina ; the vent near to 
 the mouth. 
 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XXI, jig. C, D. 
 
 6. quadrifora. 
 
 This appears to be only a variety of Scutella emar- 
 ginata, in which only two of the three posterior fora- 
 mina reach the margin. It however differs in being 
 somewhat subreniform. 
 
 7. bifora. Obtusely trigonal and depressed ; with 
 two oblong foramina at the posterior part; the vent 
 distant from the mouth. 
 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XXI, jig. A, B. 
 
 8. bifissa. Cordato-orbicular, depressed; with 
 two slits on the wider side, and an intermediate, pro- 
 jecting, truncated lobe. 
 
 Echinus Auritus, Leske ap. Klein, p. 202. 
 
 9. lenticularis. Orbicular, rather convex ; with 
 five short ambulacra with open apices ; the vent mar- 
 ginal. Fossil. Grignon. 
 
 10. orbicularis. Circular, and depressed towards 
 the margin; the back rather convex in the centre; 
 ovato-acute ambulacra ; the vent between the mouth and 
 the margin. 
 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XLV, jig. 6, 7. 
 
 11. fibularis. Small, orbicular, depressed, and 
 rather thick, the margin rounded ; the vent between the 
 mouth and the margin. 
 
 Tutmg.lap.fig. Tab. XXXV, fig. ult. 
 
 12. placenta. 
 
 This is the name applied by Lamarck to the echinus 
 which has been assumed above as the type of the genus 
 Arachnius.
 
 134 
 
 13. S. parma. Orbicular ; the back rather convex ; 
 with five subovate ambulacra, disjoined at the apices ; 
 and five ramified grooves in the lower part ; the vent 
 marginal. Recent. 
 
 14. subrotunda. Orbicular; the back rather con- 
 vex ; with five subovate ambulacra, contracted in their 
 apices ; the vent beneath the margin. 
 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XLVII, fig. 7. 
 
 15. placunaria. Elliptical, depressed, and widest 
 in the fore part; with narrow linear ambulacra, dis- 
 joined at their apices ; the vent near to the margin. 
 Recent. South Sea. 
 
 16. latissima. Very large, depressed, elliptical, 
 
 subpentagonal, and truncated posteriorly ; with oblongo- 
 oval ambulacra; the vent near to the margin. 
 Recent. South Sea. 
 
 17. ambigena. Ovato-elliptical ; the back rather 
 convex ; the sides rather winding ; the ambulacra ovato- 
 oblong, pulvinated ; the vent near to the margin. 
 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XIX, fig. C, D. 
 
 An Echinanthus? This appears to approach nearly 
 to the genus Clypeaster. 
 
 GENUS X. Fibularia. Subglobular, ovoid, and 
 nearly round, with no determinate margin : the ambu- 
 lacra forming petaloidal, short, narrow, and circum- 
 scribed figures; the mouth beneath, central; the vent 
 near to the mouth, or midway between it and the side. 
 PL II, fig. 4, 5. 
 
 Synon. Echinocyamm, Phelsum and Leske. 
 
 The known species of this genus are of very small size. 
 
 Sp. 1. Fib. nucleus cerasi. Circumference circular; 
 upper surface globose ; sides rather sulcated ; the base 
 narrow and flat in the middle ; the small areas petal- 
 formed and rather pulvinated; the vertex excentric 
 with four pores ; the mouth circular ; the vent smaller 
 than the mouth, and oblong.
 
 135 
 
 2. jP. vertice centrali. This differs from the preceding 
 only in the vertex fyeing central. 
 
 8. ervum; Globose ; the circumference inclining 
 to oval ; the base narrow ; sides sulcated ; and the am- 
 bulacra somewhat raised. 
 
 4. craniolaris. Anterior surface globose, the pos- 
 terior subangular, pulvinated, and abrupt ; the circum- 
 ference elliptical ; the vertex excentric ; the base rather 
 narrow. 
 
 The 5th, 6th, and 7th species of Phelsum, turcica, 
 vicia, and ovata, appear to be merely varieties of the 
 fourth species (Craniolaris). The 8th and 9th species, 
 lathyrus and equinus, do not appear to be marked by 
 any characters decidedly distinctive. 
 
 10. angulosa. Appears to be distinguishable from 
 the circumference possessing somewhat of a quinquan- 
 gular form. 
 
 11. ovalis. This, besides being of an obtusely 
 oval form, is marked by four pores existing in the 
 vertex. 
 
 12. itifequalis. Bearing the form of an apple-pip, 
 or seed, ovate, very slightly pentagonal ; the back un- 
 even and anteriorly gibbous, posteriorly slanting and 
 flattish ; base subglobose and rather narrow ; sides sul- 
 cated ; petals sub-pulvinated ; the apex central. 
 
 13. cor ranee, and Sp. 14. F. paddehart. Appear 
 to be varieties of the twelfth (F. inasqualis). 
 
 These small echini have been, it appears, found only 
 recent in the Adriatic, and on some parts of the Ame- 
 rican coast. 
 
 14. ovulum. This is the least known of these 
 echinidae, being about the size of a pea; globosely 
 ovate; the base rather narrow; ambulacra short, and 
 separate at their terminations. 
 
 15. tarentina. Ovately elliptical ; rather convex ; 
 plano-convex beneath ; ambulacra short and disjoined.
 
 136 
 
 GEM us XI. Echinoneus. Obovate or suborbicular, 
 rather depressed, of a boat-like form; the ambulacra, 
 formed by ten grooves, radiating from the vertex to the 
 base. 
 
 These echini differ from those of the preceding genus 
 by their extended ambulacra ; they are also larger, and 
 of a more oblong form. 
 
 Sp. 1. Echinon. cyclostomus. Ovato-oblong, rather 
 depressed, though pulvinated; five pores in the vertex ; 
 the mouth round. Recent. 
 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XXXVII, fig. 3, 4. 
 
 2. semilunaris. Ovato-oblong, rather depressed ; 
 with four pores in the vertex ; the mouth oblong, ob- 
 liquely transverse. Recent. 
 
 Echin. minor, Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XLIX, fig. 
 8, 9. 
 
 3. gibbosus. Ovate, turgid, irregular ; vertex ex- 
 centrical ; ambulacra waved ; the mouth oval, acute, 
 and obliquely transverse. Recent. 
 
 One species remains which is placed under this genus, 
 but not without some hesitation. It is figured, by Scilla, 
 Tab. XI, fig. 1, 2, and is named, by Phelsum, Echi- 
 noneus scutiformis; but its characters are such as to 
 render it difficult to determine under what genus it 
 should be placed. 
 
 It is placentiform, its circumference oval; the am- 
 bulacra striated, passing from the vertex nearly to 
 the mouth, where they terminate in slightly depressed 
 grooves ; the mouth is in the middle of the base, ob- 
 tusely pentagonal ; the vent towards the margin. 
 
 The striated rays, with the grooves in the base, agree 
 with Clypeus; the structure and disposition of its am- 
 bulacra with Clypeaster ; whilst its outline and form, 
 with the position of the mouth and vent, approximate 
 it to Scutella. 
 
 No figure of this genus is given, since, to obtain an
 
 idea of its appearance, it is only necessary to connect 
 its ovoidal boat-like form with the situation of the 
 mouth and vent, as in the preceding genus, the ambu- 
 lacra being continued from the vertex to the base. 
 
 GENUS XII. Ananchytes. Irregularly helmet-formed, 
 ovate or conoidal; the ambulacra radiating from the 
 vertex to the margin, and even to the mouth; the mouth 
 labiated and subirans verse, near the margin, at one end ; 
 the vent at the opposite end. 
 
 The species of this genus are only known fossil. 
 
 Synon. Cassia, Galea, and Galeola, Klein. Echino- 
 corytes, Leske. 
 
 Sp. I. An. ovata. -Obovato-conoidal; the vent ovate. 
 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. LIII, fig. 3. 
 
 Fossil, near Paris. 
 
 2. striata. Ovato-rotund, raised, and much stri- 
 ated; the back convex, somewhat compressed, with 
 numerous vertical stria? ; the assulae obsolete. 
 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XLII, jig. 4. 
 Fossil, Picardy. 
 
 3. gibba. Ovate, raised ; the back ventricose, but, 
 at the top, compressed ; the sides depressed inferiorly, 
 with light ambulacral interstices ; the vertex duplicate. 
 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XV, fig. A, B. 
 Fossil, from Normandy. 
 
 4. pustulosa. Ovato-conical, pointed towards the 
 top; depressed, and showing the assulae at the sides; 
 the biporous lines of the ambulacra disposed in pairs ; 
 the vertex double and impressed. 
 
 Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XVI, fig. A, B. 
 Fossil. 
 
 5. bicordata. Obovate ; slightly grooved at each 
 extremity ; the back smooth, with a double vertex. 
 
 Spatangites bicordatus, Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XLVII, 
 fig. 6. 
 
 Fossil, from Mons. 
 
 T
 
 188 
 
 6. A. cat mata. Cordated, slightly grooved forwards ; 
 the back carinated in the middle. 
 
 Spatangites carinatus, Leske ap. Klein, Tab. LI, 
 
 fig- 2, 3. 
 
 7. elliptica. Ovato-elliptical and pulvinated ; with 
 two remote vertices ; assulae nearly obsolete. 
 
 Knorr, Pelr. Tab. E. in, fig. 6. 
 
 8. cordata. Cordato-conical ; assulae evident ; 
 dented in at the anterior part; the ambulacra in bands, 
 with four rows of pores; the vertex not divided. 
 
 Spatangus ananchytis ? Leske ap. Klein, Tab. LIII, 
 fa 1, 2. 
 Fossil. 
 
 9. spatangus. Cordated, convex; ambulacra im- 
 pressed and continued to the mouth ; a groove in the 
 carinated posterior part. 
 
 Fossil, from France. 
 
 10. semiglobus. Ovate-hemispherical ; base flat ; 
 ambulacra narrow, with ten biporous lines, approx- 
 imated in pairs; the vertex undivided. 
 
 Echinocorytes minor. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XVI, 
 
 fig. C, D. 
 Fossil. 
 
 11. pillula. The least; ovato-globulose ; rather 
 convex beneath ; vent in the upper part of the edge. 
 
 Fossil, from near Beauvais. 
 
 12. cor avium. Subcordated, convex; ambulacra 
 widely striated; the fifth obsolete. 
 
 Spatangus ovatbs, Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XLIX, 
 fig. 12, 13. 
 
 Fossil. 
 
 GENUS XlII. Spatangut. Gibbous, heart or egg- 
 shaped; the mouth beneath, near to the wider end, 
 transverse, labiated, and without teeth; the vent on 
 the side, at the opposite end ; the ambulacra, four or 
 five, short and unequal.
 
 139 
 
 The striking difference of form between the egg- 
 shaped and heart-shaped species of this genus had 
 almost induced Leske to divide these bodies into two 
 genera, and to have considered the former as Brissi, 
 and the latter as Spatagi; but further consideration, 
 and the concurring opinion of Muller, as to the identity 
 of the animals themselves, led him to retain them under 
 one genus, separating them by divisions, chiefly found- 
 ed on these characters, into the two families of Brissus 
 and Spatagus. Lamarck has thought proper to effect 
 this separation in a more simple manner ; he divides the 
 species into those which have four ambulacra, Brissi, 
 and those which have five, Spatangi ; the general form 
 and characters of both of which are represented. 
 
 Brissus (Ovum-marinum) , PL II, jig. 13; Spatangus 
 (Cor. marinum), fig. 11. 
 
 * With four ambulacra (Brissi) . 
 
 Sp. 1. Spatangus pectoraKs. Ovato-elliptical, de- 
 pressed, large; four ambulacra, with the interstices 
 elegantly granulated ; the assulae elongated at the mar- 
 gin. Recent. 
 
 Seba. Mus. Ill, Tab. XIV, fig. 5, 6. 
 
 2. ventricosus. Ovate, inflated, obsoletely assu 
 lated ; with four oblong canaliculated ambulacra ; the 
 larger tubercles placed in zig-zag. Recent. 
 
 Brissus ventricosus, Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XXVI, 
 fig. A. An. Scill. Corp. Marin. Tab. IV, jig. 1, 2. 
 
 3. purpureus. Cordated ; with four smooth lance- 
 olate ambulacra , the larger tubercles placed in zig-zag. 
 
 Recent and fossil. 
 
 Spatangus purpureus, Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XLIII, 
 fig. 3-5; Tab. XLV, fig. 5. 
 
 Scill. Corp. Marin. Tab. II, No. I, fig. I. 
 
 4. ovatus. Ovate ; semicylindrical ; depressed 
 backwards, with four excavated canaliculated ambula- 
 cra, the fore ones oblique.
 
 140 
 
 Spatangus brissits unicolor., Leske ap. Klein, Tab. 
 XXVI, Jig. B, C. 
 Recent. 
 
 5. S. carinatus. Ovate, inflated, and a little turgid 
 at the sides ; ambulacra four, the fore ones transversely 
 divaricated ; the dorsal area carinated backwards, and 
 obtusely projecting. Recent. 
 
 Spatangus brissus, late carinatus, Leske ap. Klein, 
 Tab. XLVIII, fig. 4, 5. 
 
 6. columbaria. Oval; vertex depressed; with 
 four shortish ambulacra, the hinder ones straight. 
 
 Recent. Seba, Mus. Ill, Tab. X, fig. 19. 
 
 7. compressus. Small, ovate, as if compressed at 
 the sides, and not spotted; the back carinated; four 
 impressed ambulacra. 
 
 Recent, from the Isle of France. 
 
 8. crux andrece. Ovate, depressed; with four lan- 
 ceolate ambulacra, obliquely divaricating; with ocel- 
 lated interstices. Recent. South Sea. 
 
 9. sternalis. Ovate, assulated, spotted ; with four 
 ambulacra ; with a carinated sternum on the lower sur- 
 face. Recent. South Sea. 
 
 10. planulatus. Elliptical, depressed; with four 
 narrow lanceolate ambulacra, obliquely divaricating; 
 interstices subocellated. Recent. South Sea. 
 
 ** With five ambulacra (SpatangiJ . 
 
 11. canaliferus. Cordato-oblong, gibbous in the 
 hinder part; with five open impressed ambulacra, the 
 foremost the deepest, and channel-formed. 
 
 Spatangus lacunosus, Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XXVII, 
 jig. A. 
 
 Recent, in the Indian Sea. Fossil. 
 
 12. atropos. 
 
 An spatangus lacunosus ? Leske ap. Klein, Tab. X, 
 fig. A. B. 
 
 Recent and fossil.
 
 141 
 
 13. S. arcuarius. Cordated, inflated, gibbous poste- 
 riorly; with five ambulacra, the side ones resembling 
 double bows ; the mouth subcentral. 
 
 Spatangus pusillus, Leske ap. Klein, Tab. XXIV, 
 fig. c, d, e, and Tab. XXXVIII, fig. 5. 
 
 14. punctatus. Cordated, convex ; the back cari- 
 nated posteriorly, with small punctiform tubercles ; the 
 ambulacra crenulated. 
 
 An spatangus cor anguinum ? Leske ap. Klein, Tab. 
 XXIII*, fig. C. 
 Fossil. 
 
 15. cor anguinum. Cordate, subconvex ; five im- 
 pressed ambulacra, with four rows of pores ; two rows 
 of pores extended beyond the ambulacra. PL \l,fig. 11. 
 
 Spalangus cor anguinum, Leske ap. Klein, Tab. 
 XXIII, ^gr. A, B, C, D; Tab. XLV,fig. 12; and Tab. 
 XXIII, fig.e,f. 
 
 16. returns.^ Cordiform, raised in the hinder part 
 of the back ; convex, but depressed, narrower and 
 grooved before; with five ambulacra, the fifth in the 
 dorsal groove. Fossil. 
 
 Echino-spatagus, Breyn, Tab. V,fig. 3, 4. Spatangus 
 depressus. Leske? 
 
 17. subglobosus. Cordato-orbiculate ; convex on 
 both sides ; with five ambulacra, doubly biporous ; the 
 mouth reniform ; the vent ovate. 
 
 Fossil. Leske ap. Klein, Tab. LIV, fig. 2, & 
 
 18. gibbus. Cordato-abbreviated ; convex ; sub- 
 gibbous; depressed in the fore part ; the hinder part rais- 
 ed; with five ambulacra, doubly biporous; the vent ovate. 
 
 Fossil. Encyc. fig. 4, 5, 6. 
 
 19. prunella. Subglobose; gibbous in the back 
 part ; five short ambulacra with four rows of pores ; the 
 
 * There exists a variety of this species, Spat. cor. anguinum, tulcis critpit, 
 in which the ambulacra are slightly bent, and have their transverse stria- 
 rather broader.
 
 142 
 
 vent at the highest part of the marginal area. 
 
 Fossil, from Maestricht. 
 
 20. S. radiatus. Ovate, raised, grooved before, and 
 there rather depressed ; five ambulacra, the fifth rather 
 obsolete in the groove. 
 
 Fossil, from Maestricht. 
 
 Spatangus striato-radiatus, Leske ap. Klein, Tab. 
 XXV. 
 
 No echinital remains appear to have been discovered 
 in either the transition or the mountain limestone. 
 They occur, but not frequently, in the lias formation ; 
 and, from the size and form of the spines, small and 
 setose, they may be supposed to belong to some of 
 the species of Cidaris, or of the Lamarckian genus, 
 Echinus. 
 
 No remains of these animals are found in the sandy 
 beds of the inferior oolite, which have been deposited 
 over the lias ; but, in the fuller's earth of the inferior 
 oolite, placed over these, the Cidaris subangularis of 
 Klein, and the Echinus angulosus of Lamarck, with one 
 or two more of the Lamarckian genus Echinus, are 
 found. Here are also first discovered remains of the 
 genus Clipeus: Clipeus sinuatus of Plot, and Clipeus 
 clunicularis, are here found in very good preservation. 
 These fossils are afterwards found in all the succeeding 
 superior beds of the oolite series. 
 
 Echinidal spines, of a long, acicular form, so well 
 preserved as to retain traces of their original colour, 
 are found in the Stonesfield slate. 
 
 In the combrash, and in the clay over the great 
 oolite, are found a very depressed conular Echinus, 
 which might, at first sight, be mistaken for Cl. sinuatus. 
 The situation of the mouth and vent would characterise 
 it as a depressed Galerites, but that the petaloidal 
 forms in which its ambulacra are disposed would place 
 it rather among the Clypeasters.
 
 143 
 
 Several species of Cidarites also occur in the beds of 
 the oolite, and principally in the cornbrash, in the clay 
 over the great oolite, and in the upper beds of that 
 rock. Three beautiful species are found chiefly in the 
 coral rag: 1. Cid. papillata, Org. Remains, Vol. Ill, 
 PI. I, fig. 9, very closely agreeing with that which is 
 found in the chalk. 2. Cid. intermedia, Org. Remains, 
 Vol. Ill, PL I, fig. 6. 3. Cid. diadema, fig. 4 of the 
 same plate. In this bed, probably the last in which 
 they occur, none h,aving been spoken of as found in 
 any strata of posterior formation, Clipeus sinuatus, and 
 clunicularis, are found in excellent preservation. 
 
 The green sand presents some very curious and in- 
 teresting facts respecting these fossils. In the waters 
 which deposited this formation, the Spatangi appear to 
 have first existed ; no remains of this genus having been 
 discovered in any of the subjacent formations. It is also 
 deserving of observation, that they are not found again 
 but in the chalk, and in the seas of the present world. 
 These, like almost all the fossils of the green sand, are 
 siliceous, and are rendered more interesting from the 
 white quartz crystals which fill their cavities, and from 
 their excellent preservation, by which the minutest 
 markings on their surfaces are shewn. 
 
 If the fossil, which has been so frequently considered 
 as Clipeus clunicularis, be not ranged under Galerites, 
 Lam. (Conulus), it is in this formation that Galerites 
 first appears in a very small species. 
 
 Two of the genus Cidarites are found in the neighbour- 
 hood of Heytesbury, which have been figured, Organic 
 Remains, Vol. Ill, PI. I, fig. 12 and 13, and are re- 
 markable for the appendages which are attached on the 
 upper surface, round the superior opening, and which 
 extend over nearly a third of the surface. In one of 
 these, fig. 12, this appendage is formed of roundish 
 plates, their margins having obtained somewhat of a
 
 144 
 
 polygonal form, apparently from the lateral pressure 
 against each other from the increase of their size : a 
 foramen is generally discoverable in the centre of each 
 plate, and numerous short filaments connect them with 
 each other. Repeated examination of this structure, in 
 numerous specimens, has led to the suggestion, that 
 this appendage may have been formed by the young 
 animals, just escaped from their ovulae, and thus at- 
 tached to the surface of the parent. The fossil, repre- 
 sented fig. 13, is furnished with appendages formed 
 by raised lines, crossing each other in an irregular 
 trellissed form. No explanation has yet been offered 
 which will account for the existence of this structure. 
 May it not have proceeded from corrugations of the soft 
 cuticular surface occasioned by the attachment of the 
 young, as noticed in the preceding fossil ? 
 
 The chalk marl does not appear to contain any fossil 
 echinida3 whatever. 
 
 It is in the chalk, and chiefly, perhaps, in that with 
 interspersed flints, that these fossils are most abundant. 
 Ananchytes, Lam. (helmet-shaped), is found here only: 
 no individual has been noticed as having been found 
 in any of the preceding subjacent formations ; nor are 
 any found in the posterior formations, or among the 
 echinidae of the present seas. Specimens of the Gale- 
 rites, Lam. frequently occur here ; but, as has been ob- 
 served respecting Clypeus and Ananchytes, this genus 
 is only known in its mineralised remains. 
 
 The Spatangites are also frequently found in the 
 chalk. 
 
 Numerous specimens of the genus Cidarites are also 
 found in the chalk, and particularly in the Kentish chalk 
 pits, where several different species are discovered, and 
 not uncommonly those, which, from their being highly 
 ornamented, may be termed Diadems, many of which 
 have their tubercles perforated in the centre, and have
 
 145 
 
 also the bases of their papillary projections, on which 
 the spines articulate, ornamented by regular crenula- 
 tions. 
 
 Siliceous casts of the different species which exist in 
 a mineralised state are frequently found in the gravel 
 derived from the chalk ; particularly of the smaller Ga- 
 leritce, and which, from their general diffusion, and 
 from the irregular variation of their forms, not allowing 
 their separation into distinct species, have been spoken 
 of as Echinitce vulgares. 
 
 Shells. Recent shells are divided into univalves, 
 bivalves, and multivalves ; the univalves being also 
 divided into those which have one or more chambers, 
 being unilocular or multilocular. But another section 
 is necessary for the reception of those extinct shells 
 of the former world which have been found in the 
 earlier strata, and which, though hearing the outward 
 appearance of bivalve shells, are divided by septa into 
 several chambers. Such are Productus of Sovverby, first 
 noticed by Martin ; and Pentamerus discovered by Mr. 
 Aikin in the mountain limestone of Shropshire, the na- 
 ture of which shell has been so successfully investigated 
 by Mr. Sowerby*. These shells may be distinguished 
 as multilocular bivalves. 
 
 Univalves vary considerably in their forms, being tu- 
 bular, discoidal, fusiform, turbinated (the spire passing 
 suddenly from the tumid belly of the shell), or turricu- 
 lated (the turns gradually enlarging, so as to form an 
 elongated cone); they are also ovoid, elliptical, &c. 
 The surface also varies considerably, being smooth, 
 striated, trellised, grooved, &c., and is, in some shells, 
 beset with rounded or sharp ribs, spines, foliaceous pro- 
 cesses, &c. The shell (PL IX, fig. 2) terminates su- 
 periorly with the top of the spire, which is pointed, obtuse, 
 
 * Mineral Coneliolofv, Vol. I, p. 154, &c. 
 U
 
 146 
 
 er globular, and sometimes decollated, as is chiefly ob- 
 servable in some shells of the genus Bulimus. The spire 
 fa} is formed by the union of the turns, or whirls (b), 
 which are counted by reckoning the lower turn, con- 
 taining the opening to where the left lip is attached, as 
 one, and reckoning on the same line to the top of the 
 spire. The turns generally go in a direction from the 
 right to the left ; they very rarely pass in the opposite 
 direction, and, when that is the case, they are termed 
 reversed shells. The line at which the whirls are united 
 to each other is termed the suture. The whirls are either 
 plain, keeled, grooved, crenulated, or crowned with 
 points, tubercles, or spines, &c. 
 
 The back (c) is the external tumid part of the last 
 turn which forms the opening ; the belly (d) is the cor- 
 responding concavity, reaching to the part where the 
 cavity contracts, which is called the throat. The open- 
 ing (e) is circular, semicircular, oval, angular, &c., 
 and is whole, or terminates in a groove or a notch, 
 which is either straight or reverted : when the opening 
 is longer than wide, it is said to be longitudinal; when 
 wider than long, transverse; and when straight and 
 narrow, linear. The edge, or margin of the opening, is 
 divided into the right and left lips : the right, or outer 
 lip (f), reaches from that point where it rests on the 
 last turn but one of the spire to the base of the shell. 
 This lip is notched at its base in the buccinums, and 
 channelled or grooved in the murexes, and has a fissure 
 or notch in its side in pleurotomas. In several shells, 
 as in the helixes, it extends over to the left side ; in 
 some shells the right lip is eared, having an appendix, 
 differing in different species ; being straight, smooth, 
 digitated, &c. The left lip (g) is opposite, of course, 
 to the right, being that part which is attached to the se- 
 cond turn of the spire, and is but of small extent in 
 those shells the opening of which is entire. The colu-
 
 147 
 
 mella (h), the substance round which the turns are 
 formed, is on the left side of the shell, and terminates 
 at its base ; sometimes in a point, and sometimes in a 
 hollow, which is termed an umbilicus: the surface of 
 the columella varies considerably in different genera, 
 being smooth or flat, or rounded, and sometimes plaited, 
 transversely or obliquely ; and sometimes dentated, 
 channelled, tuberculated, &c. : in some instances the 
 umbilical termination is filled, as if 'by an exudation of 
 callus. The opening is sometimes filled by a testaceous 
 or, sometimes, a cartilaginous body of a convex ex- 
 ternal surfa'ce, but flat on the side next the animal, 
 where it is marked with a spiral line ; this is termed the 
 operculum. 
 
 Bivalve shells, when their valves are similar in size 
 and form, are said to be equivalved,\\\Qt,ineqiiivalved; 
 when the anterior part agrees in form and size with the 
 posterior, they are said to be equilateral, if not, inequi- 
 lateral. The valves are connected at their base by a 
 ligament, with or without a hinge, this ligament being 
 placed either externally or internally : the belly, PL IX, 
 jig. 8 (a), is the most tumid part; the disk (6) is that 
 part between the belly and the margin (c), which is 
 considered to refer to the external side, or, as it may be 
 termed, when the shell is placed on its base, the upper 
 side ; then the eminences, umbones ( d), are beneath the 
 hinge, and terminate in the points or beaks (mucrones) 
 (e), which are incurved, reflexed, earformed, &c. The 
 beaks are frequently, in particular shells, accompanied 
 by two external impressions ; one of these, the corselet 
 (f), is on the anterior surface, and is separated from the 
 disk, generally, by a ridge, an angle, or a sunken line, 
 and is often distinguishable by its difference of colour 
 as well as by other circumstances: it is sometimes 
 spinous, carinated, lamellated, &c., but it is generally 
 smooth when it is said to be naked. The other, the
 
 148 
 
 lunule (g), is placed at the bottom of the posterior sur- 
 face : it is variously shaped, oval, oblong, lanceolated, 
 &c., and is sometimes edged, toothed, &c. The shell 
 being placed on the hinge, the anterior side being for- 
 ward, that is considered as the right valve which an- 
 swers to the left hand, and that as the left valve which 
 answers to the right hand of the observer. The length 
 of the shell is measured from the hinge to the outer or 
 upper edge, and the width from the end of the anterior 
 to that of the posterior margin. Those shells, whose 
 length exceeds their width, are considered as longitudi- 
 nal shells, and those, whose width exceeds their length, 
 transverse shells. The forms and markings of bivalves 
 are too numerous to be noticed in this place. Shells 
 are necessarily distinguished into free, such as are ca- 
 pable of being moved; and fixed, being such as become 
 adherent to other solid bodies. On the internal surface 
 of the valves are impressions of a regular form, varying 
 in that respect as well as in their number, in different 
 shells : these are the places where the animal was at- 
 tached to the shell by its tendinous attachment, and may 
 be called the muscular impressions. These vary in their 
 number, according to the number of muscles employed 
 for this purpose, being one, two, or even more, on each 
 valve. The hinge (h) is placed in the most solid part 
 of the shell, generally in its base, beneath its beaks. 
 It is usually formed of teeth, which either shut into 
 each other or into the opposite valve. Those teeth 
 which are most decidedly beneath the beaks, in the 
 middle, are termed the cardinal or hinge teeth, and the 
 distant ones the lateral or accessory teeth. In some 
 shells there are no decided teeth ; the motion being re- 
 gulated by the ligament being attached to a testaceous 
 protuberance, termed a callus. The teeth themselves 
 vary also in their forms, situations, &c., as will be seen 
 in the description of the several genera.
 
 149 
 
 A knowledge oi' the action of the ligament, which, it 
 has been mentioned, serves to attach the valves, is ne- 
 cessary to be possessed by those who enter into the 
 investigations frequently demanded respecting fossil bi- 
 valves. This ligament is sometimes placed externally, 
 and sometimes internally. When external, it necessa- 
 rily becomes stretched when the shell is closed; and 
 then, if the muscle which holds the valves together be- 
 comes relaxed, it opens them by its elasticity only : but, 
 if internal, between the valves, it becomes compressed 
 when the valves are closed, and then opens them by its 
 elasticity, as soon as the muscular action diminishes or 
 ceases. 
 
 Multivalve shells differ materially in their form and 
 structure: some, as the pholas, may be considered, 
 from their having their two sides of the same form and 
 dimensions, as equivalved; others, as the anomia, are 
 inequivalved. Some have their valves joined by a 
 squamose kind of suture, as the balanus ; others have 
 their valves united in a tendinous peduncle ; whilst, in 
 others, the valves are contained in a testaceous 
 tube. 
 
 The illustrious Linuseus disposed all the shells which 
 were known in his time under thirty-six genera, founding 
 their generic distinctions, in the univalves, chiefly on 
 the characters of their openings, and, in the bivalves, 
 on those of their hinge. But these genera were found 
 insufficient for the necessary distinctions : shells essen- 
 tially different being crowded together under the same 
 genus; and the fossil shells which were subsequently 
 discovered differed so much from those w r hich were be- 
 fore known, as to render an addition to the number of 
 the genera absolutely necessary. This work was com- 
 menced by M. Bruguiere; and has been since most suc- 
 cessfully conducted by Le Chev. de Lamarck, to whom 
 we are much indebted for making the required augmen-
 
 150 
 
 tation of the number of genera, and for suggesting se- 
 veral other important changes in the classification. 
 
 In this part of the present work it is proposed to give 
 the most prominent characters of the known genera, with 
 sketches illustrative of their distinctive differences. 
 
 Univalves. 
 
 GENUS 1. Planospirites. A flat univalve, nearly 
 circular, with a cord-like ridge passing from the edge 
 on to the inferior surface, and curving backwards in a 
 spiral direction. Fossil, St. Peter's, Maestricht, 
 
 PL IU,fig.I. 
 
 2. Oscana. An oval univalve, slightly vaulted; no 
 spire, semitransparent, and nearly coriaceous. 
 Recent. PI. Ill, fig. 2. 
 
 3. Testacella. An obliquely conical univalve ; apex 
 turned ; opening oval ; the left edge turned inwards. 
 Recent. PL III, jig. 3. 
 
 Grows on the caudal termination of an animal gene- 
 rally resembling a slug. 
 
 4. Patella. A shield-formed, subconical univalve; 
 no spire, and without perforation of the disk, or mar- 
 ginal fissure *. Recent and fossil. PL III, jig. 4. 
 
 * Patella mitrata, Lin. and P. cornucopia and dilatata, Lam. have the 
 peculiar property of being attached to an operculum, or nndervalve, by a 
 muscle, the mark of attachment of which, especially on the lower valve, 
 bears somewhat of the figure of a horse-shoe ; this valve being attached by 
 the other side to other bodies. 
 
 This shell, which has been named Hipponix, is considered by M. de 
 France, its discoverer, as an univalve, the animal of which has the power 
 of forming this additional portion to raise it above the substance by which 
 it is supported. 
 
 Mr. G. Sowerby, who has given a very interesting account of this shell 
 in his valuable work on the genera of recent and fossil shells, considers it 
 as being decidedly a bivalve shell. 
 
 It has not either cardinal ligament or hinge : and it is worthy of remark, 
 similar muscular impressions are observable on other valves which have 
 been attributed to other species of Patella.
 
 151 
 
 5. Wssurella. A shield-formed, subconical univalve ; 
 no spire ; the vertex perforated with an oblong opening. 
 
 Recent and fossil. PI. Ill, fig. 5. 
 
 6. Emarginula. An obliquely conical univalve ; the 
 vertex inclined, and the posterior margin notched. 
 Recent and fossil. PI. Ill, fig. 6. 
 
 7. Concholepas. An oval univalve, convex upwards ; 
 the vertex inclined on the left side ; the cavity plain, 
 terminating at the base of the right edge with two teeth 
 and a groove. Recent. PL III, fig. 7. 
 
 8. Stomatia. An oval, earformed univalve, with a 
 prominent spire ; opening ample, entire, and longer 
 than wide ; disk not perforated. Recent. PL III, 
 
 fig- s. 
 
 9. Argonauta. An involuted univalve ; the spire 
 turning into the opening; very thin, % with a tubercular 
 double dorsal keel. Recent, and very rarely fossil. 
 PL III, fig. 9. 
 
 10. Carinaria. A subconical univalve ; flattened at 
 the sides, very thin; the apex turned in a small spiral; 
 the back furnished with a dentated keel ; the opening 
 entire, oblong, and contracted toward the keel. 
 Recent. PL III, fig. 10. 
 
 11. Sigaretus. An oval, Saltish, and earformed uni- 
 valve, with a short spiral columella ; the opening entire, 
 ample, longer than wide, and spread out towards the 
 right lip. Recent, and but rarely fossil. PL III, 
 fig.ll. 
 
 12. Haliotis. An oval, flattish, and earformed uni- 
 valve, with a depressed spire and row of round holes 
 along the right edge ; the opening large, and longer than 
 wide. Recent. PL III, fig. 12. 
 
 18. Calyptrcea. A conoidal and spiral univalve ; the 
 apex entire, and rather depressed ; with a folded tongue- 
 like process proceeding from the internal summit. 
 Recent and fossil. PL III, fig. 13.
 
 152 
 
 14. Infundibulttm. A conical univalve ; hollow be- 
 neath, spirally twisted, with a central spiral columella, 
 and a spirally decurrent plate or valve within ; mouth 
 round, expanded; lip entire and sharp. Recent and 
 fossil. PI. Ill, fig. 14. 
 
 I have adopted Mr. Sowerby's description of this 
 genus, agreeing with that gentleman in the propriety of 
 separating this shell from the genus Calyptraa, as has 
 been done by M. Denys de Montfort. 
 
 15. Crepidula. An oblong, vaulted univalve; the 
 apex inclined to the edge ; the cavity partially divided 
 by a simple diaphragm. Recent, and very rarely 
 fossil. PI. Ill, fig. 15. 
 
 16. Dentalium. A tubular, tapering, slightly bowed 
 univalve ; open at both ends *. Recent and fossil. 
 PI. Ill, fig. 16. 
 
 17. Siliquaria. A tubular univalve, spiral at the be- 
 ginning, and continued in an irregular tubular form; 
 partially divided at the side by a narrow sharply dent- 
 ated slit, and sometimes formed into chambers by par- 
 tial septa. Fossil. PL III, fig. 17. 
 
 The commencing spiral turn is omitted in the figure* 
 to give a better opportunity of showing the peculiar 
 characteristic of the shell, its dentelated fissure. 
 
 18. Vermicularia. A tubular, free univalve, commenc- 
 ing spirally, and continued more or less contorted ; the 
 sides entire, and the opening simple and round. 
 Recent and fossil. PI. Ill, fig. 18. 
 
 The spiral commencement of Vermicularia is not 
 marked in the figure, it having been more desirable to 
 show the form in which this shell is generally found as a 
 fossil. Indeed, they occur so frequently in this form, 
 as to give reason for supposing either that the straight 
 Vermicularia forms a distinct species, or that, the spiral 
 
 * Dentalium, Siliquaria, Vermtcularia, awl Sfrpula, belong to Lest An- 
 ntlUet Sedentairrs. Lam.
 
 153 
 
 commencement being assumed as a generic distinction, 
 another genus should be formed for the reception of the 
 straight ones. Perhaps some of the smaller fossil ver- 
 micular shells, resembling those in the preceding figure, 
 may be found to belong rather to Vermilia, Lam. 
 
 10. Serpula.A. tubular, adherent univalve, variously 
 twisted and grouped ; sometimes divided by entire septa. 
 Recent and fossil. PL HI, fig. 19. 
 
 The protean character of the fossil shells of this genus 
 is very remarkable, they imitating the forms of the shells 
 of several other genera. 
 
 20. Conus. A turbinated, convoluted, and reversedly 
 conical univalve ; the aperture long, narrow, toothless, 
 and not contracted at its base. Recent and fossil. 
 PL III, fig. 22. 
 
 21. CypivEa. An ovate and vaulted univalve ; spire 
 small, and nearly covered over; the opening narrow, 
 the length of the shell; the margins involuted and 
 toothed on each side. Recent and fossil. PL III, 
 ^.23. 
 
 22. Ovula. An obovate univalve, tumid in the middle, 
 and more or less elongated ; the opening, the length of 
 the shell, with a channel at each end ; with no teeth on ' 
 the left side. Recent. PL III, jig. 24. 
 
 23. Bulla. A univalve of a roundish oval form, the 
 spire not projecting ; the opening the length of the shell, 
 and widest at the lower part. Recent and fossil. 
 PL III, fig. 25. 
 
 24. Terebellum. A spiral and convoluted univalve, 
 with a pointed apex ; the opening long and narrow up- 
 wards, toothless, and notched at the base. Recent 
 and fossil. PL III, fig. 26. 
 
 M. de Montfort has separated a shell which had been 
 included in the genus Terebellum, and has formed of it 
 the following genus, since adopted by Mr. Sowerby^ 
 
 25. Seraphs. A convoluted, elongated, univalved 
 
 X
 
 154 
 
 shell ; spire internal, concealed ; base truncated ; mouth 
 longitudinal, extending to the apex of the spire; lip 
 sharp; columella smooth. It differs from Terebellum 
 chiefly iu having its spire entirely internal. 
 
 26. V^lvaria. A cylindrical and convoluted uni- 
 valve ; the spire scarcely extruded ; the opening narrow, 
 the length of the shell ; the columella plaited at its base. 
 
 Recent. PL IV, fig. I. 
 
 27. Oliva. A spiral and nearly cylindrical univalve, 
 notched at the base ; the turns of the spire separated by 
 a small groove ; the columella obliquely plaited. 
 Recent and fossil. PI IV, Jig. 2. 
 
 28. Ancilla. An oblong, subcylindrical univalve, 
 with a short spire; the sutures not grooved; the aper- 
 ture spread ; the base notched ; a thick oblique fold at 
 the base of the columella. Recent and foaail. 
 PI. IV, fig. 3. 
 
 29. Valuta. A subfusiform, more or less tumid, uni- 
 valve ; apex obtuse or papillated ; base slightly grooved, 
 not channelled ; columella plaited, the lower plaits be- 
 ing the largest or the longest. Recent and fossil. 
 PL IV, fig. 4. 
 
 30. Mitra. A subfusiform univalve, with a pointed 
 apex; base notched, but with no channel; the colu- 
 mella plaited, the lower plaits being the smallest. 
 
 Recent and fossil. PI. IV, fig. 5. 
 81. Columbella.An oval univalve, with a short spire ; 
 the base grooved, but not channelled; the lip crenulated, . 
 and tumid on the inner side ; folds or teeth on the colu- 
 mella. Recent. PL IV, jig. 0. 
 
 32. Marginella, An oval univalve, with a short 
 spire; lip with a thick border; base slightly grooved; 
 columella plaited. Recent and fossil. PL IV, 
 
 Afc% 
 
 33. Cancellarid. An oval and subturretted univalve ; 
 lip transversely grooved op. tbe iftsicje; base, slightly
 
 155 
 
 notched, sometimes entire; coluinella with 3narp but 
 compressed plaits. Recent and fossil. PL IV, 
 
 fig. 8. 
 
 34. Fasciolaria.A. subfusiform univalve ; the base 
 grooved ; no projecting siitnres ; columella with two or 
 three very oblique folds. Recent. PI. IV, fig. 9. 
 
 35. Turbinellus. A subfusiform univalve ; the base 
 grooved ; with from three to five compressed transverse 
 plaits on the upper part of the columella. Recent. 
 PL IV, fig. 10. 
 
 36. Buccinum. A suboval univalve; opening ob- 
 long, notched at the base, but not channelled; colu- 
 mella convex and full. Recent and fossil. PL IV, 
 
 fig. 11. 
 
 37. Eburna.-~A. suboval univalve; the lip thick; 
 opening oblong and grooved at the bottom ; the colu- 
 mella umbilicated and slightly grooved at its base. 
 Recent and fossil. PL IV, fig. 12. 
 
 38. Terebra. A longish turriculated univalve; the 
 opening about One third of its length, notched at its 
 base ; columella terminating obliquely. Recent 
 and fossil. PL IV, fig. 13. 
 
 39. Doliwm,. A ventricose, nearly globose univalve ; 
 ribbed transversely; the lip ribbed through its whole 
 length; the opening wide, notched at the bottom. 
 Recent. PL IV, fig. 14. 
 
 40. Harpa. An oval aud ventricose univalve, with 
 longitudinal compressed ribs terminating upwards in an 
 angle or point ; the opening terminating in a notch ; the 
 columella smooth, with an acute base. Recent 
 and fossil. PL IV, fig. 15. 
 
 41. Cassis. A ventricose univalve; the aperture 
 long, terminating in a short reflected groove ; the lips 
 subdentated : the left lip flattened, and forming a ridge 
 on the body of the shell ; the columella plaited on its 
 lower part. Recent and fossil. PL IV, fig. 16.
 
 156 
 
 42. Nassa. An oval univalve; the opening termin- 
 ating interiorly by an oblique reflected notch ; a callo- 
 sity on the left side covers the columella, forms into a 
 transverse fold in the upper part, and has its base ob- 
 liquely truncated. Recent. PI. IV, fig. 17. 
 
 43. Purpura. An oval and sometimes tuberculated 
 or spinous univalve ; the opening terminating in a short 
 oblique groove, notched at the extremity. The colu- 
 mella naked, flat in the whole of the lower part, and 
 finishing at its base in a point. Recent and fossil. 
 PI. IV, fig. 18. 
 
 44. Strombtts. A slightly ventricose univalve, ter- 
 minating inferiorly by a short truncated or notched 
 groove; the right edge dilating with age into a wing 
 or lobe, having a sinus distinct from the notched ca- 
 nal at the base. Recent and fossil. PI. IV, 
 fig. 19. 
 
 45. Pterocera. A ventricose univalve, terminating 
 inferiorly by an elongated canal ; the right edge dilating 
 with age into a digitated wing, with a sinus at its sum- 
 mit. Recent. PI. IV, fig. 20. 
 
 46. Rostellaria. A subturriculated or fusiform uni- 
 valve, terminating at its base with a lengthened canal, 
 with a sharp beak ; the lip, dilating with age, is either 
 whole or dentated, with a groove at the lower end, and 
 a sinus extending to the summit of the spire. Re- 
 cent and fossil. PI. IV, fig. 21. 
 
 47. Murex. An ovate or oblong univalve, with rough, 
 spinous, or fringed longitudinal sutures ; base channelled. 
 
 Recent and fossil. PI. IV, fig. 22. 
 
 48. Fusus. A subfusiform univalve; ventricose in 
 the middle or lower part, but with no variees; the 
 spine longish ; the base channelled ; columella generally 
 smooth ; and lip entire. Recent and fossil. PL IV, 
 fig. 23. 
 
 49. Pyrula. A somewhat pyrilbnn univalve, with-
 
 157 
 
 out vaiices ; the spire short ; the base channelled and 
 caudated; the columella smooth, and the lip entire. 
 Recent and fossil. PL IV, fig. 24. 
 
 50. Pleurotoma. A turriculated and subfusiform 
 univalve ; the lower part of the opening channelled ; a 
 notch in the upper part of the right lip. Recent 
 and fossil. PI. IV, fig. 25. 
 
 51. Clavatula. A subturriculated univalve, the open- 
 ing terminating by a short channel or notch ; a sinus in 
 the upper part of the right lip. Recent. PL IV, 
 fig. 26. 
 
 52. Cerithium. A turriculated univalve, the opening 
 oblique, terminating at the base by a truncated or re- 
 curved canal, and upwards in a groove more or less 
 distinct. Recent and fossil. PL IV, jig. 27. 
 
 53. Melania. A turriculated univalve, the opening 
 oval or oblong ; the inner lip spread out at the base of 
 the columella, which is smooth. Recent and fos- 
 sil. Pl.V,fig.l. 
 
 54. Turritella. A turriculated univalve; the open- 
 ing roundish; the margin disjoined in the upper part; 
 a sinus in the right lip. Recent and fossil. PL V, 
 
 *.* 
 
 55. Pyramidella. A turriculated univalve ; the open- 
 ing entire and semi-oval ; the columella projecting, fur- 
 nished with three transverse plaits, and perforated at its 
 base. Recent. PL V, fig. 3. 
 
 56. Auricula. An oval or oblong univalve, with a 
 raised spire ; the aperture oblong, entire, and contract- 
 ed above; the lips united; the columella with plaits in- 
 dependent of the decurrence of the outer lip. Re- 
 cent and fossil. PL V, fig. 4. 
 
 57. Achatina. An oval or oblong univalve; the 
 opening oblong and entire; the columella smooth. 
 Recent. PI. V, fig. 5.
 
 158 
 
 58. Lymn&a. An oblong, subturricnlated univalve; 
 the opening entire and oblong ; the right lip rising with- 
 in the opening, and forming an oblique fold on the co- 
 lumella. Recent and fossil. PL V, fig. 6. 
 
 59. Turbo. A conoidal and subturriculated univalve ; 
 the opening roundish ; the columella smooth ; the mar- 
 gin disjoined at the upper part. Recent and fos- 
 sil. PL V, fig. 7. 
 
 60. Monodonta. An oval or conoidal univalve ; the 
 opening roundish and entire ; the columella forming a 
 tooth-like process by its projecting base; the margin 
 disjoined at the upper part. Recent. PI. V,fig. 8. 
 
 61. Bulimus. An ovate or oblong, and subturricu- 
 lated univalve; the opening entire, longitudinally ob- 
 long, having, in adults, a reflected right lip ; the colu- 
 mella smooth, neither truncated nor expanded at its 
 base. Recent and fossil. PL V, fig. 9. 
 
 62. Phasianella. An ovate and thick univalve ; the 
 opening longitudinal, ovate, and entire ; with a sharp 
 plain lip ; the columella smooth and attenuated at its 
 base. Recent and rarely fossil. PL V, fig. 10. 
 
 63. Vivipara. An oval or oblong univalve, with a 
 regularly elevated and rounded spire ; the opening en- 
 tire, longitudinal, and oblong ; the lips united angularly 
 above. Recent and fossil. PL V, jig. 11. 
 
 64. Helix. A globose univalve, with a convex or 
 conoidal spire; the opening entire, wider than long, 
 and diminished in its upper part by the projection of 
 the penultimate turn of the spire. Recent and 
 fossil. PL V, fig. 12. 
 
 65. Helicina. A subglobose univalve; the opening 
 entire and semiovate; the columella callous, with no 
 umbilicus; depressed and flattened at the lower part. 
 
 Recent; one or two fossil species? PL V,
 
 159 
 
 . 66. Ampullaria. A subglobose univalve ; the open- 
 ing longer than wide, and entire; umbilicus at the base 
 of the columella, but no thickening of the left lip. 
 Recent and fossil. PL V, Jig. 14. 
 
 67. Natica. A subglobose, umbilicated univalve ; 
 opening semicircular and entire ; the columella trans- 
 verse, without teeth, and callous externally, the callus 
 contracting or even covering the umbilicus. 
 
 Recent and fossil. PL V, jig. 15. 
 
 68. Netita. A semiglobose univalve ; the columella 
 nearly transverse and flat, with an acute and generally 
 dentated edge. Recent and fossil. PL V,fig. 16. 
 
 69. Cyclostoma. A subdiscoidal or subpyramidal 
 univalve, with round turns, the last of which is the 
 largest ; the opening round, or nearly so ; the edge cir- 
 cularly united, forming a wide continuous margin. 
 Recent and fossil. PL V, Jig. 17. 
 
 70. Pupa. A somewhat cylindriform univalve; the 
 spire long, the last turn not being larger than the pre- 
 ceding one; the opening irregular, rounded or oval; 
 the edges circularly united. Recent. PL III, 
 
 ^0.20. 
 
 71. Scalaria. A turriculated univalve; the turns 
 rounded and nearly separate, with acute and longitudi- 
 nal, raised ribs; the opening nearly circular; the margin 
 uninterrupted and reflected. Recent and fossil, 
 PL V, Jig. IS. 
 
 72. Delpkbuila. A subdiscoidal, thick, pearly, and 
 umbilicated univalve ; the turns generally muricated ; 
 the opening round ; the margin circular and uninterrupt- 
 ed. Recent and fossil. PL V, jig. 19. 
 
 73. Cirrus. A spiral and conical univalve, without 
 a columella; funnel-shaped beneatk; volutions united. 
 
 Fossil. PI. V, Jig. 20. 
 
 74. Planorbis. A discoidal univalve ; spire depress- 
 ed; turns visible on both sides; opening entire, botdi-
 
 160 
 
 tarnished by the projection into it of the preceding- 
 whirl. Recent and fossil. PI. V,Jig. 21. 
 
 75. Euomphalus. An involute and compressed uni- 
 valve; the spire depressed; concave beneath, or largely 
 umbilicated ; aperture mostly angular. Fossil. 
 PL V, jig. 22. 
 
 76. Janthina.A. subglobose univalve; the opening 
 triangular, with an angular sinus on the right edge. 
 Recent. Pl.V, fig. 23. 
 
 77. Trochus. A conical univalve; the opening al- 
 most quadrangular, transversely depressed; the axis 
 oblique on the plane of the base. PI. V, fig. 24. 
 
 78. Solarium. A conical univalve, with an open 
 umbilicus underneath ; the inner edges of the whirls 
 crenulated ; the opening nearly quadrangular. 
 Recent and fossil. PL V, Jig. 25. 
 
 Multilocular Univalves. 
 
 M. Denys de Montfort, author of an interesting and 
 important work, Conchyliologie Systematique, has, with 
 much careful discrimination, separated into different 
 genera the multilocular univalves ; the microscopic 
 shells into sixty ; and those which are within the power 
 of the naked eye, being those which had been in- 
 cluded in Nautilus, Ammonites, Belemnites, Orthocera- 
 tites, Spirula, Scaphites, Nummulites, and Siderolites, 
 into forty genera; forming almost every shell, marked 
 by a slight difference, into a distinct genus. These 
 separations, although, perhaps, founded on accurate 
 discrimination, appear to be too frequent; and their 
 multiplicity bears too much on the memory, and de- 
 prives it of the aid which it seeks to derive from clas- 
 sification. These observations are applicable only, 
 perhaps, to the larger kinds; for, as to the micro- 
 scopic shells, the eccentricity of their forms, their vast 
 variety, and the peculiarity of character which mark
 
 161 
 
 their ornaments, must render their classification a very 
 difficult task; every different shell appearing to repel 
 all association. A more intimate knowledge of their 
 nature and characteristics seems to be necessary be- 
 fore an appropriate arrangement of them can be adopt- 
 ed. The larger tribe has been separated into twenty- 
 two genera, all of which have been found in a fossil 
 state : whilst one genus only, Nautilus, is known to exist 
 in a recent state. Two opinions are entertained re- 
 specting this great disproportion between the number 
 of fossil and of recent shells of this tribe. Some sup- 
 pose that those genera, of which only fossil shells are 
 found, have become extinct ; whilst others believe that 
 these shells are still existing in a recent state ; but are 
 pelagian shells, their inhabitants constantly residing at 
 the bottom of the deep.. This opinion is entertained 
 by some of the latest French writers, particularly by 
 Mons. de Montfort. 
 
 But an examination of these shells proves, that, so 
 far from their inhabitants having been destined to a 
 constant residence at the bottom of the ocean, they pos- 
 sessed, beyond all other testaceous animals, the power 
 of rising up to, and remaining at, the surface of the sea. 
 Supposing them still to live, they would occasionally, 
 as the Nautilus is, be seen at the surface ; but not a 
 single instance being known of a shell of these genera 
 having been thus seen, their existence may be reason- 
 ably doubted. 
 
 The apparatus enabling the animal to raise or sink 
 himself at pleasure is plainly discoverable in the fossil 
 shell of the Nautilus : but the most important part of 
 this organ, the continuous siphuncle, is not discoverable 
 in the dried specimens of the recent shell. The shell 
 in the Nautilus (PI. VI, Jig. \) is formed of a number, 
 more or less, of chambers, divided by pierced septa. 
 
 Y
 
 162 
 
 The animal resides in the largest and last formed 
 chamber ; an elastic tube, proceeding from the animal, 
 passes through the pierced septa and the several cham- 
 bers, and terminates in the first. Now, assuming that 
 the office of this tube is analogous with that of the 
 swimming bladder of fishes, it is by no means difficult 
 to conceive how the required changes of situation may 
 be produced. The weight of the shell is so counter- 
 balanced by the empty chambers, that the siphuncle 
 passing through these chambers, accordingly as it is 
 dilated with gaseous or with aqueous fluids, will alter 
 the specific gravity of the whole mass, and cause it 
 either to swim or to sink. Supposing the animal to be 
 lying at the bottom of the sea, saturated with food, and 
 the siphuncle filled with a fluid ; as the food is digested 
 and decomposed, detached gas may pass into the si- 
 phuncle, and gradually take the place of the water ; 
 when, in proportion as the specific gravity of the whole 
 mass is thus diminished, it will rise, probably into that 
 region of the waters in which the food of the animal 
 most abounds. Here, on obtaining sufficient fooc}, or 
 on alarm from an enemy, the animal admits water into 
 the siphuncle, and immediately sinks. 
 
 In all the other genera of this tribe, an apparatus, 
 formed of vacant chambers and a membranous siphun- 
 cle, exists, capable of producing similar effects with 
 those produced by that of the Nautilus ; but necessarily 
 differing in some respects, from variety of modification 
 of the form and structure peculiar to each genus. The 
 siphuncle is often very well displayed in sections of the 
 Orthoceratite, and in these this tube will > be found to 
 have been capable of being dilated to a very consider" 
 able extent.
 
 163 
 
 Multilocular Spiral and Discoidal Shells. 
 
 GENUS 1. Nautilus. A multilocular, spiral, and sub- 
 discoidal shell ; the turns contiguous, the outer one in- 
 cluding the others; the chambers separated by plain or 
 nearly plain transverse septa, concave outwards, and 
 perforated by shelly tubes connected by a tubular mem- 
 brane so as to form a complete siphuncle. Recent 
 and fossil. PI. VI, Jig. I. 
 
 2. Orbulites. A multilocular, spiral, and subdiscoi- 
 dal shell ; the turns contiguous, the outer one including 
 the others ; the chambers separated by winding septa, 
 pierced by a siphuncle at the outer side of their margin. 
 
 Fossil. 
 
 The shells of this genus agreeing in their external 
 form with that of the shells of the preceding genus, 
 Nautilus, the difference being internal, from the septa 
 being winding, and the siphuncle marginal, an illustra- 
 tive figure was unnecessary. 
 
 The propriety of the adoption of this genus seems to 
 be indisputable, its shells possessing the external cha- 
 racters of Nautilus, and the internal characters, the 
 winding septa and marginal siphuncle, of Ammonites. 
 But there are other fossil shells, which, possessing the 
 exterior of Nautilus, have only one of the characteristics 
 of Ammonites, as in Organic Remains, PL VII, fig. 15, 
 in which the winding septa are without the marginal 
 siphuncle ; and in Jig. 16 of the same plate, where the 
 marginal siphuncle exists without the winding septa. 
 Indeed, the situation of the siphuncle is too variable, 
 existing in every point on a line from the centre, and, 
 perhaps, from the posterior to the anterior margin, to 
 allow of its being assumed alone as a distinctive generic 
 character. 
 
 3. Planulites. A multilocular, spiral, flattish, and 
 discoidal shell ; the turns contiguous and apparent; the
 
 164 
 
 chambers separated by plain septa pierced with a mar- 
 ginal siphuncle. Fossil. 
 
 As the shells of the preceding genus have possessed 
 the outer appearance of Nautilus, with the internal cha- 
 racters of Ammonites, so this shell possesses the exter- 
 nal appearance of Ammonites, and, at the same time, is 
 characterised by the plain concave septa of Nautilus. 
 As its external form agrees with that of the following 
 genus, another figure is not requisite. 
 
 4. Ammonites. A multilocular, spiral, and discoidal 
 shell, with contiguous apparent turns ; the chambers 
 divided by winding septa, pierced by a siphunculus 
 always placed at the outer side. Fossil. PL VI, 
 
 fig- 2. 
 
 Two very different shells have been placed under the 
 genus Ellipsolithes (Sowerby), both oval and discoidal 
 shells ; but one possessing the involved whirls and the 
 plain septa of Nautilus, and the other the whirls, ap- 
 parent on both sides, and the "winding septa of Am- 
 monites. It being desirable that the student should be 
 apprised of the forms and characters of these fossils, 
 their figures and a description of their characters are 
 given ; but although, for the sake of discrimination, a 
 name is added to each, it is not intended to urge a 
 claim for their being considered as distinct genera. In 
 this I am glad to concur with Mr. Sowerby, who ob- 
 serves, that " The genus Ellipsolithes must certainly be 
 abolished, and its species ranged under Ammonites, the 
 oval form being quite accidental." 
 
 5. Nautellipsites. A multilocular, tumidly discoidal 
 and elliptically spiral shell ; the turns contiguous, the 
 outer one including the others ; situation of the siphun- 
 cle nearly central. Fossil. PI. VI, Jig. 3. 
 
 6. Ammonellipsites. A multilocular, flatly discoidal 
 and elliptically spiral shell ; the turns contiguous and 
 apparent on both sides ; the chambers separated by
 
 165 
 
 winding septa ; the siphuncle marginal. Fossil. 
 
 PL VI, fig.*. 
 
 7. Nummulites. A multilocular, lenticular shell ; the 
 spire internal, formed of several plates, connected with 
 each other on both sides by numerous transverse septa, 
 the internal plates being involved by the more external. 
 
 Fossil. PL VI, fig. 5. 
 
 8. Siderolites. A flattish shell, convex above and be- 
 neath, set with pointed tubercles, with four or five short 
 unequal rays on the edge, not manifesting any real 
 pores. 
 
 An idea of this fossil may be formed by considering 
 the radiating appendices as proceeding from bodies like 
 the Nummulites. Faujas St. Fond, who has given the 
 best representation of these bodies, delineates them as 
 being multilocular, somewhat like the Nummulites. 
 
 9. Scaphites. A multilocular shell, commencing with 
 spiral turns, the last of which, after being enlarged and 
 elongated, is contracted and reflected. Fossil. 
 PL VI, fig. 6. 
 
 10. Spirula. A multilocular shell, partly spiral and 
 partly straight ; the whirls circular, separate from each 
 other, and the last elongated in a straight line. The 
 septa plain, concave outwards, and pierced, nearly at 
 the margin, with a shelly tube. Recent and fossil. 
 PL VI, fig. 7. 
 
 11. Lituites. A multilocular shell, partly spiral and 
 partly straight ; the whirls circular and contiguous, but 
 the last elongated in a straight line; the septa trans- 
 verse, concave outwards, and pierced, nearly at their 
 outer margin, with a siphunculus. 
 
 The figure of the preceding genus will suffice for this, 
 only with the conceived difference of the whirls being 
 contiguous, and a greater length of the straight part. 
 The student should be guarded in his conclusions with
 
 166 
 
 respect to the contiguity of the whirls in these fossils. 
 The contact is, necessarily, only in a line passing hori- 
 zontally through the middle of the spiral ; and as these 
 fossils are constantly imbedded, this line of contact can 
 only be seen when the artist is so successful as to make 
 his section exactly in this line : if the section is made 
 the least too high or too low, the whirls will not be seen 
 in contact, but will appear separate, in proportion as 
 the section is distant from the centre. 
 
 12. Hamites. A multilocular hook-formed shell, with 
 sinuous septa, pierced with a marginal siphuncle. PL VI, 
 
 fig.*. 
 
 13. Orthoceratites. A multilocular straight, or 
 slightly bent, cylindrical, or slightly conical shell ; the 
 chambers separated by plain septa, concave towards 
 the larger end, and pierced with a siphunculus. PL VI, 
 
 fig- 9- 
 
 14. Baculites. A multilocular straight, or slightly 
 bent, cylindrical, or slightly conical, shell ; the cham- 
 bers separated by sinuous septa, pierced with a mar- 
 ginal siphunculus. PL VI, Jig. 10. 
 
 15. Belemnites. A conical or fusiform stone, of brown 
 radiating spar, generally terminating at the small end in 
 a point, and having at the larger end a conical cavity, 
 naturally retaining a conical testaceous body, divided 
 into chambers by plain concave septa, and pierced by a 
 siphuncnlus. PL VI, fig. 11. 
 
 16. Hippurites. A straight or conical shell, furnish- 
 ed internally with transverse septa, and with two lateral, 
 longitudinal, obtuse, and converging ridges. PL VI, 
 fig. 12. 
 
 It was endeavoured to show, in a former work, that 
 the spathose substance in the Belemnite was originally a 
 light substance, of a texture somewhat similar to cork, 
 and was the float to the animal, which rendered it so
 
 167 
 
 nearly equal to the weight of water as to allow it to 
 rise or fall, as the siphuncle was filled with air or with 
 water. 
 
 Jn the fossil last described a peculiar modification of 
 structure in its covering appears to have accomplished 
 the same purpose : the shelly enclosure has evidently 
 been of a peculiar light texture, by which such a dimi- 
 nution of the gravity of the mass would be obtained as 
 would fit it for being similarly acted upon by the inter- 
 nal presence of gas or of water, as in the instance of 
 the Belemnite. 
 
 17. Turrilites. A spiral, turriculated, multilocular 
 shell ; the turns contiguous, and all visible ; the cham- 
 bers separated by winding septa ; with a siphuncle in 
 their disks ; the aperture round. PL VI, fig. 13. 
 
 18. Fasciolites. A subcylindrical shell, formed of 
 multilocular tubes, narrowing at both their ends, dis- 
 posed contiguously and parallel; the tapering ends 
 transversely and obliquely folded on each other. PI. 
 VI, fig.U. 
 
 19. Acamas. A multilocular, straight, and conical 
 shell ; mouth round and horizontal ; siphuncle central ; 
 summit pierced by eight small tuberculated apertures, 
 disposed round a stelliform figure; the septa conical, 
 plaited at the bottom and plain at the edge. The sub- 
 stance spathose, similar to that of the Belemnite. 
 
 This fossil is figured and described by M. de Mont- 
 fort. It was also noticed by Knorr ; and was found by 
 Annone in the neighbourhood of Prattelen, in the Canton 
 of Basle. The termination of its summit is represented 
 in PL VI, fig. 15. 
 
 20. Amplexus. A nearly cylindrical shell, divided 
 into chambers by numerous transverse septa ; the septa 
 embracing each other with their reflexed margins. 
 Fossil. PL VI, fig. 16. 
 
 We are indebted to Mr. Sowerby for the addition of
 
 168 
 
 this interesting genus to the multilocular shells. The 
 fossil which was subjected to this gentleman's examina- 
 tion was found in the Black Rock, at Limerick ; and 
 bearing much of the appearance of a coral or madre- 
 pore, received the specific designation of Amplexus 
 coralloides, its specific characters being, " Tube irre- 
 gularly bent, longitudinally striated; margins of the septa 
 deeply reflexed and regularly plaited. The septa are a 
 fourth or a fifth part of the diameter distant from each 
 other, with the margin reflexed to the next septum. 
 The folds on the margin of the septa correspond in 
 width to the longitudinal striae of the tube, and are so 
 deep as to form elongated cells, opening into the cham- 
 bers ; the lines of growth are close, and rather unequal 
 in depth *". 
 
 21. Conularia. A conical, hollow, univalve shell, 
 divided by imperforate septa ; the mouth half closed. 
 PI. VI, fig. 17. 
 
 This fossil was first described and figured by the 
 Rev. Mr. Ure, in his " History of Rutherglen and East 
 Kilbride." It has also been particularly noticed by 
 Mons. Denys de Montfort, as having been found in St. 
 Peter's mountain, near Maestricht, and has been dis- 
 tinguished, by him, by the term Pyrgopolon, with the 
 specific designation of Mosce, but to which, perhaps, 
 the term teres would be more applicable, the specimen 
 figured by De Montfort agreeing, I conjecture,, with 
 C. teres of Mr. Sowerby, Min. Conch., Tab. CCLX, 
 fig. 1, 2. We are obliged to Mr. Miller, of Bristol, 
 for having instituted this genus. Mr. Sowerby describes 
 and figures two species, C. quadrisulcata, fig. 17, and 
 C. teres. 
 
 Besides the multilocular shells which are here parti- 
 cularised, many more, both in a recent and mineralised 
 
 * Mineral Conchology, Vol. I, p. 16;>, Tab. LXXII.
 
 109 
 
 state, have been described by Bianchi, Soldani, Fich- 
 tell, Moll, Boys, Walker, and others, which are so 
 minute as to require microscopical aid to discover, with 
 correctness, even their forms. These objects of admi- 
 ration occur in such variety of forms, of structure, and 
 of richly varied markings, as nearly to foil the natural- 
 ist in his attempts at classification, and almost to au- 
 thorise the mode of M. de Montfort, who places almost 
 every shell under a distinct genus. Sixty genera have 
 been already formed of these interesting domiciles, and 
 many more, doubtlessly, lie hidden to reward the dili- 
 gence of future enquirers. 
 
 When it is considered that these belong to only one 
 division of shells, and that there remain to be added to 
 these the microscopic univalved and bivalved shells, 
 their multitude will certainly authorise these minute 
 shells being described and treated of in distinct works ; 
 although their connection with the larger subjects of 
 this class of Nature's works will demand their being 
 studied with them, both by the conchologist and the 
 oryctologist. 
 
 It has, however, been thought proper to introduce 
 here, three of these shells to the reader's notice, on ac- 
 count of some particular circumstances in their history. 
 
 Miliolites saxorum, Lam. (PL VI, fig. 18.) This mi- 
 nute species of fossil shell is known to form the princi- 
 pal part of the masses of stone in some of the quarries 
 in the neighbourhood of Paris, Versailles, Champagne, 
 &c. The recent shell has been found on Fucus, near 
 the island of Corsica ; and by Mr. Boys and Mr. Walker 
 on our coasts, and was, by the latter writer, named 
 Serpula subovalis intorta *. It was also mentioned by 
 Mr. Montague as Vermicutum intortum. 
 
 Cornu Ammonis Ariminieme, Plane. (PL VI, jig. 19), 
 
 * Testae- iniinit. iarior. Tab. I, ff. 1 .
 
 170 
 
 is the shell which Plancus and others classed with the 
 Cornu Ammonis, considering them as the recent shells 
 of this genus ; but the discovery of fossil microscopic 
 shells exactly analogous with the minute recent ones has 
 shown their correspondence with each other, and that 
 they are entirely different from the shells of the genus 
 Ammonites. 
 
 Gyrogonites.A spheroidal hollow fossil, of the size 
 of a middling pin's head, haying two poles, in which 
 terminate five tubules turning from right to left, and 
 making one revolution and a half round the spheroid. 
 PL VI, fig. 20. 
 
 M. Leman has been enabled to discover a consider- 
 able close agreement between the form and structure of 
 this fossil and of the seed-vessel of a small aquatic 
 plant, Chara vulgaris, which has been described and 
 figured by Gaertner ; but, as the origin of this fossil is 
 not, perhaps, fully determined, it is not removed from 
 the situation which it has so long held. 
 
 These three last fossils are figured of their natural size, 
 and as magnified by the microscope. 
 
 It may not be improper to observe, that the great 
 numbers in which these and various other minute fossil 
 shells have been found in different strata, render them 
 very desirable objects of research to the scientific en- 
 quirer. There are several circumstances by which the 
 oolitic bodies, which occur in such myriads as to give 
 name to the formation in which they are contained, are 
 pointed out as requiring still further examination with 
 lespect to their original mode of existence, and more 
 satisfactorily to prove that they were not of animal 
 origin. 
 
 Confining ourselves to the univalve multilocular shells 
 which may be examined by the naked eye, it still re- 
 mains to advert to some of those shells which have been 
 marked by M, de Montfort with generic designations,
 
 171 
 
 and to notice the claims which they may possess tor 
 such distinction. 
 
 Atigulithes. A multilocular shell, with the characters 
 of Nautilus, the mouth being of a triangular form. 
 Triangular nautilite of Havre. 
 
 Bellerophron. The Shuttle Nautilus. Le Nautile de . 
 prime. Sonnini. 
 
 Oceanic. Le petit Nautile ombilique. Favamie. 
 
 The distinctions marking these shells can hardly be 
 considered as- more than specific characters ; and it is 
 with still less reason that the species of Ammonites now 
 distinguished, by De Montfort, by the generic names 
 Aganides, Pelagus, Canthropes, Simplegades, anAAmal- 
 thca, are removed from their original genus ; since, if 
 such differences as these exhibit are to be admitted as 
 generic, with^equal right generic titles might be claimed 
 for many more of the hundreds of different shells which 
 are numbered under the genus Ammonites. 
 
 Several of the additions which this author has made 
 to the genera of straight multilocular shells appear to 
 be founded on insufficient or even erroneous assump- 
 tions. 
 
 Paclites is a fossil which Mr. Walch had described 
 as a Belemnite, having a small circular hole at the ex- 
 tremity of a curved point, and, beneath this, a long 
 narrow opening. This is described, by M. de Montfort, 
 as terminating in a stellated sphincter, and having a 
 plaited lateral slit ; which does not accord with that of 
 Mr. Walch, who both describes it and figures it as a 
 Belemnite, with a small circular hole at the extremity of 
 a curved point, and, beneath this part, a narrow small 
 opening. De Montfort speaks of its having chambers 
 and a central siphuncle, but does not state whether these 
 are formed in the spathose substance, or whether they 
 are of a shelly substance and fixed as an alveolus in the 
 spathose substance.
 
 17-2 
 
 Thalamus. The fossil which is here referred to does 
 not appear to have a single pretension to be placed in a 
 distinct genus. The Belemnites polymitus of Scheuch- 
 zer is taken for its type, and the external markings 
 which designate its generic characters are thus accu- 
 rately described by Scheuchzer: " Belemnites cuj us 
 superficies undique circulis concentricis est obsita." 
 Lapid. figurat. Lub. p. 15. Walch, who noticed the 
 same marking's, was of opinion that they were merely 
 accidental, and were probably produced by the adhe- 
 sion of flat spiral shells. But similar markings are fre- 
 quently found on the green-sand fossils. I have it in 
 several instances, and particularly on a Belemnite ex- 
 actly agreeing with the description of the Belemnites 
 polymitus of Scheuchzer. These markings are formed 
 of patches of chalcedony, in rude sub-concentric forms, 
 having somewhat of a stalagmitic appearance : I have 
 seen a mass of chalcedony, its surface thus covered, 
 and its substance apparently thus formed, from Devon- 
 shire, as large as a man's fist. 
 
 Amimomus. The fossil for which this genus is formed 
 is said to be figured in the Supplement to Knorr's work, 
 Tab. IV, fig. 2, but no such fossil appears in the place 
 to which we are referred. 
 
 Tiranites is the name of a genus under which it is 
 proposed to place a fossil described and figured by 
 Knorr, Supp. Tab. XII, fig. 1 to 5 ; and also found in 
 the neighbourhood of Rouen by M. de Montfort, who 
 thus describes it : " A free, chambered, straight, tubular 
 cone; chambers undulated on the edges; the mouth 
 oval, undulated, and horizontal ; the top pointed, and 
 the siphon central." Fragments only are found, some 
 of which are three inches in diameter at their base ; but 
 the characters of the whole fossil do not appear to be 
 sufficiently known to warrant the founding on them a uew r 
 genus. It appears undoubtedly to have been a multilo-
 
 173 
 
 cular shell of a considerable size; but, previously to 
 removing it from the genus Orthoceratites, and forming 
 of it a genus by itself, it is certainly necessary that more 
 of its generic characters should be determined. 
 
 Molossus is a genus formed for the reception of a 
 fossil, which is named, by Professor Blumenbach, Or- 
 thoceratites gracilis, and is described as a free, cham- 
 bered univalve; straight, conical, tubular, and inter- 
 sected ; chambers plain, in form of a drum ; siphon 
 lateral, continuous, round, and serving for a mouth; 
 the top pointed ; the base horizontal. Blumenbach de- 
 scribes the joints as being pyritical, which leads, with 
 the account of the chambers being intersected, and the 
 necessity of pointing out the continuity of the septa, to 
 believe there might be an agreement between these bo- 
 dies and the pyrites found at Dorking, which are cylin- 
 drical, pyritical bodies with slender points passing out 
 at each end, much resembling those figured by M. de 
 Montfort. 
 
 Echidnisis a similar fossil with that which is figured 
 as a species of Orthoceratites fOrg. Remains, Vol. Ill, 
 PI. VII, fig. 14), its specific character being the alter- 
 nate circular risings and depressions on its surface ; but 
 certainly no characters have yet been shown which mark 
 it to be of a distinct genus. 
 
 Achelois. The fossil, figured by De Montfort, as the 
 type of this genus, as being of a conical form, with co- 
 nical septa, and for which reference is also made to 
 Knorr, Tom. II, sect. 1, PL II, A. VIII, and Supp. 
 Tab. IV, fig. 1, is very unsatisfactorily described ; nor 
 is this description aided by reference to Knorr, the 
 figures there not agreeing with either De Montfort's ac- 
 count or figure. A sufficient knowledge of the cha- 
 racters of this fossil is certainly not yet known to war- 
 rant a genus being fonned from it. 
 
 Calirrhoe. This genus is formed for the reception of
 
 174 
 
 a fossil which is, undoubtedly, only the camerated 
 alveolus of a Belemnite, such as is seen in situ, PL VL 
 fig. 11, and which is frequently seen bearing all the ap- 
 pearances attributed to this fossil. 
 
 Telebois is appropriated to a fossil, the nature of 
 which has been undoubtedly mistaken by De Montfort. 
 It is, obviously, part of a vertebral column of the tur- 
 ban Encrinite, as hereafter described, and as figured in 
 Organic Remains, Vol. Ill, PI. XV, Jig. 8, and was, 
 indeed, considered as such by Mr. Walch. 
 
 Cetocis. Mr. Walch considered this fossil as a Be- 
 lemnite ; but it having a stellated opening at its pointed 
 termination, it is placed, by M. de Montfort, in this 
 genus. 
 
 Hibolithes is a genus formed to receive the fusiform 
 Belemnite figured in Vol. Ill, PI. VIII, fig. 13, of Or- 
 ganic Remains. The form of this fossil, which possesses 
 every character of the Belemnite, cannot be considered 
 as more than a specific difference. 
 
 Porodragus is a genus formed, by this author, on a 
 Belemnite, bearing the same form as the last described ; 
 but having a round horizontal mouth; central siphon, 
 conic, smooth partitions ; a groove on the outer surface ; 
 and being superficially pierced with numerous longitu- 
 dinal pores. The partitions, siphon, &c., of this fossil 
 are those which are to be found in every species of Be- 
 lemnite ; but the pores, existing on the surface, are dif- 
 ficult of explanation. If formed by the animal belonging 
 to the shell, as supposed by M. de Montfort, we may 
 have a right to conclude that the Belemnite was invested 
 by the animal which formed it. 
 
 Bivalves, Conchifera, Lam. 
 
 Tubicolce bivalve shells, contained in a tubular sheath 
 distinct from the valves : and which are either incrusted
 
 175 
 
 entirely, or in part, in the sides of the sheath, or project 
 beyond it. 
 
 GENUS 1. Aspergillnm. A tubular, testaceous sheath, 
 diminishing gradually towards its fore part, where it is 
 open, and enlarging to a club-shaped form towards the 
 other extremity; the club having two valves incrusted 
 on the side of its inner substance. The terminal disk 
 of the larger end is convex, furnished with subtubular 
 foramina, and has a fissure in the centre. PL III, 
 Jig. 21. 
 
 Serpula penis, Lin. 
 
 2. Clavagella. A tubular testaceous sheath, diminish- 
 ing to an opening anteriorly, and terminating behind in 
 an oval and club-shaped form, set with spiniform tubes ; 
 the clavated termination displaying, on one side, one 
 valve fixed in its substance, the other valve being loose 
 in the sheath. 
 
 Fistulana echinata. Ann. du Mus. Tom. VII ; Teredo 
 echinata, Brocch. Vol. II, Tab. XV, fig. I. 
 
 3. Fistulana. A tubular, and, most frequently, a 
 testaceous sheath, lessening towards its anterior end, 
 which is open, and including a loose bivalve shell, 
 gaping when the valves are united. 
 
 This differs from the preceding Tubicoke in neither of 
 the valves of the included shell being imbedded in the 
 substance of the sheath. 
 
 Fistul. ampullaria, Ann. du Mus. Vol. VII, p. 428. 
 
 4. Septaria. A very long testaceous tube, tapering 
 in its fore part, and internally subdivided by vaulted 
 septa, generally i?icomplete. The anterior part of the 
 tube is terminated by two other very thin tubules, not 
 internally divided. 
 
 Serpula polytlialamia? Lin. 
 
 These are generally of considerable size ; but La- 
 marck is of opinion that they, perhaps, should not be 
 separated from the preceding genus.
 
 176 
 
 6. Teredina. A cylindrical, tubular, testaceous sheath, 
 closed posteriorly, and showing the two valves of the 
 shell at the open anterior extremity. 
 
 Fistulana personata, Ann. du Mus. Vol. VII, p. 429 ; 
 Vol. XII, PL XLIII, fig. 6, 7. Organic Remains, 
 Vol. Ill, PL XIV, fig. 10. 
 
 6. Teredo of Lamarck, is the genus in which he has 
 disposed T. navalis. 
 
 Mr. Sowerby, who has considerably illustrated this 
 genus, describes it as " a bivalve, gaping ; back and 
 posterior side closed by membrane or shelly valves ter- 
 minating an accessory shelly tube ; hinge with one tooth 
 in the right valve ; a long free process arising from the 
 beaks contained in each valve. 
 
 " The principal valves are longer than broad, striated 
 and gaping at both sides and at the back ; in the poste- 
 rior side of each is a deep rectangular sinus ; in the an- 
 terior side is a corresponding small rounded sinus ; the 
 front is lanceolate, with an internal tubercle at the ex- 
 tremity ; one of the accessory valves lies over the beaks, 
 and is lobed ; another is trapezoidal, covering the sinus 
 at the posterior side ; it has a line down the middle 
 where there may possibly be an opening, or it may in- 
 dicate two valves. The membrane which covers the 
 shell is extended over the anterior side, forming a taper 
 tube many times longer than the proper shell, and 
 strongly impregnated, at a little distance from the valves, 
 with shelly matter: in the extremity of this lie two 
 spatulate valves, attached by muscles to the animal, 
 and capable of closing the aperture, in which is placed 
 a longitudinal septum ; this tube is slightly attached to 
 a tortuous passage bored in the wood by the animal, 
 and is elongated, and gradually increased in diameter, 
 as the animal recedes further into the wood.' ; 
 
 Mr. Sowerby refers to the recent species, T. navalis, 
 and (o the fossil species which he terms T. antenantfe.
 
 177 
 
 from their having existed before ships were invented, 
 he refers all those found in calcareous or siliceous wood. 
 Among the former he has seen none which show any of 
 the accessory valves, except the tube and the two spa- 
 tulate valves attached to the animal. Even the mem- 
 brane that is preserved in the fossil ones covering the 
 proper shells, and attaching them to the outside of the 
 tube, is not discoverable in the recent specimens *. 
 
 Pkoladairice bivalves, either with or without acces- 
 sory pieces, and gaping anteriorly. 
 
 1. Pholas. An equivalved, transverse bivalve, gaping 
 on each side ; with various shelly accessory pieces 
 placed above or beneath the hinge ; the posterior or 
 inferior border of the valves reflected upwards. 
 Recent. 
 
 2. Gastrochcena. An equivalved, subcuneiformed 
 bivalve ; the opening anteriorly oblique, very large and 
 oval ; posteriorly, hardly any. The hinge linear, mar- 
 ginal, and without teeth. 
 
 This genus of Spengler differs from the preceding 
 chiefly in being without accessory pieces. 
 
 Solenacece bivalves elongated transversely, without 
 accessory pieces, and gaping only at the lateral extre- 
 mities ; the ligament external. 
 
 1. Solen. An equivalved bivalve, elongated trans- 
 versely; gaping at the ends; the beaks very small, not 
 projecting ; small cardinal teeth, varying in their num-, 
 ber, sometimes none ; the ligament external. Re- 
 cent and fossil. PL VII, fig. 24. 
 
 2. Panopcea. A transverse, equivalved bivalve, 
 gaping unequally at the sides ; one conical hinge tooth 
 
 * Mineral Conchology, Vol. II, p. 229. The accompanying figure*, 
 PI, CIJ, are very satisfactorily illustrative of the nature of this genus. 
 
 A a
 
 178 
 
 in each valve, with a short, compressed, ascending cal- 
 losity ; the ligament external, fixed to the callosities on 
 the longer side of the shell. 
 
 3. Glycimeris. A transverse bivalve, gaping very 
 much on each side ; the hinge callous, without teeth ; 
 nymphae projecting outwardly ; the ligament external. 
 Recent and fossil. PL VI, fig. 27. 
 
 Myarite Bivalves ; inequilateral and subequivalved ; 
 a spoon-formed tooth on one or both valves, giving at- 
 tachment to the ligament; the shell gaping at one or 
 both extremities. 
 
 1. Mya. A transverse bivalve, gaping at both sides; 
 one large, compressed, and dilated roundish cardinal 
 tooth, to which the ligament is attached, projects almost 
 vertically, and, when the valves close, lies upon the 
 ligamental pit of the other valve. Recent and 
 fossil. PL VII, fig. 16. 
 
 2. Anatina. A transverse, subequivalved, gaping 
 bivalve, with a flat spoon-shaped tooth on each valve ; 
 with, sometimes, a falcated plate running obliquely be- 
 neath the hinge teeth. Recent. 
 
 Mactraceee equivalved bivalves ; generally gaping 
 at the lateral extremities ; the ligament internal, with or 
 without a complication with the external ligament. 
 
 1. Lutraria. An inequilateral bivalve, transversely 
 oblong or rounded, gaping at the lateral extremities; 
 the hinge w ith one tooth as if plaited into two ; or two 
 teeth, one of which is simple; with an adjoining oblique, 
 deltoidal pit, internally projecting ; no lateral teeth ; 
 ligament internal. Recent and fossil. PL VII, 
 
 ^.29- 
 
 2. Mactra. A transverse, inequilateral, subtrigonal 
 
 bivalve, a little gaping at the sides ; the beaks promi- 
 nent; a compressed grooved cardinal tooth, with an
 
 179 
 
 adjoining pit; two lateral compressed inserted teeth; 
 ligament internal. Recent and fossil. PL VII, 
 
 jig. 30. 
 
 3. Crassatella. An inequilateral, suborbicular, or 
 transverse, close shell ; hinge complicated, two cardinal 
 teeth slightly diverging with a pit at the side ; ligament 
 internal ; lateral teeth, obsolete or none. Recent 
 and fossil. PI. VIII, fig. 9. 
 
 4. Erycina. A transverse, subinequilateral, equi- 
 valved bivalve, seldom gaping ; two unequal, diverging 
 cardinal teeth, with an interposed pit ; two lateral, ob- 
 long, compressed, short penetrating teeth ; the ligament 
 internal. Recent and fossil. PL VIII, fig. 10. 
 
 This is an equivocal genus; the character of the 
 hinge being, with difficulty, ascertained. 
 
 5. Ungulina. A longitudinal or subtransverse bi- 
 valve, nearly equilateral, and with close valves ; one short 
 subbifid cardinal tooth on each valve by the side of an 
 oblong marginal pit, nearly divided in two ; the ligament 
 internal. Recent. 
 
 6. Solemya. An equilateral, equivalved, trans- 
 versely oblong bivalve; beaks hardly distinct; a di- 
 lated, compressed, very oblique cardinal tooth in each 
 valve, with a slight concavity receiving the ligament. 
 
 Recent. 
 
 7. Amphidesma. A transverse, inequilateral, sub- 
 oval bivalve, sometimes a little gaping at the sides; 
 the hinge with one or two teeth, and a narrow small pit 
 for the internal ligament, there being another external. 
 
 Corbulea. 
 
 1. Corbula. A regular unequivalved, inequilateral 
 bivalve ; a hinge tooth on each valve ; conical, curved, 
 and elevated, with a pit at the side ; no lateral teeth ;
 
 180 
 
 ligament internal. Recent and fossil. PL VII, 
 
 fiff- 20. 
 
 2. Pandora. A regular, unequivalved, inequilateral, 
 transversely oblong bivalve ; the upper valve flat, with 
 two oblong obtuse teeth, the lower one convex. 
 Recent. 
 
 Mr. G. Sowerby considers that this shell possesses 
 only one obtuse tooth on the flat valve. 
 
 The lithophagous shells, without tube, or accessory 
 pieces, are rounded or obtuse at the ends, more or 
 less gaping forwards, with the ligament external. They 
 are divided, by Lamarck, into three genera : 
 
 1. Saxicava. A transverse bivalve; hinge without 
 teeth. 
 
 2. Petricola. A transverse, inequilateral bivalve, 
 narrower in the fore part ; with two teeth on one, or on 
 both valves. PL VII, fig. 22. 
 
 3. Venerupis. A transverse, inequilateral shell, very 
 short in the hind part ; the hinge with two teeth on one 
 valve and three on the other, and sometimes with three 
 on each valve.' 
 
 NymphacecR with two cardinal teeth, at the most, 
 on the same valve ; a little gaping at the lateral extre- 
 mities ; the ligament external ; the ligamental cartilage 
 projecting. 
 
 1. Sanguinolaria.A transverse subelliptical shell, 
 gaping a little at the sides ; the upper margin bowed, 
 not parallel with the lower ; the hinge with two approx- 
 imated teeth in each valve. Recent, PL VII, 
 fig. 25. 
 
 2. Psammobia. A transverse, elliptical, or oval- 
 oblong bivalve, ralher flat, and a little gaping on each
 
 181 
 
 side ; the beaks prominent ; the hinge with two teeth on 
 the left valve, and only one, penetrating, on the oppo- 
 site valve. 
 
 3. Psammotea. A transverse, oval, or oval-oblong 
 bivalve, a little gaping at the sides ; one cardinal tooth 
 in one, and sometimes in both, valves. 
 
 The three preceding genera bear somewhat of the 
 form of Tellens. 
 
 4. Tellina. A transverse or orbicular shell, for the 
 most part flattish; angular on the anterior side, on 
 which is a flexuous and irregular fold ; one or two 
 hinge teeth on the same valve ; two lateral teeth, gene- 
 nerally remote. Recent and fossil. PL VIII, fig. 16. 
 
 5. Tellinides. A transverse, inequilateral shell, 
 rather flat, and slightly gaping at the sides ; the beaks 
 small ; no fold on the margin ; the hinge with two di- 
 verging teeth on each valve ; two lateral, nearly obso- 
 lete teeth, the posterior one of which, in one valve, is 
 placed near to the hinge. 
 
 Only one species is known. 
 
 6. Corbis. A transverse, equivalved bivalve, with- 
 out any irregular fold at the anterior border ; the beaks 
 curved inwards, opposite to each other; two hinge 
 teeth ; two lateral teeth, the hinder of which comes 
 near to the hinge ; the impressions simple. Recent 
 and fossil. 
 
 Separated from Lucina by the impressions not being 
 complicated; and, from Tellina, by having no fold. 
 
 7. Lucina. A suborbicular, inequilateral bivalve, 
 with small, pointed, oblique beaks ; two diverging hinge 
 teeth, one of which is bifid, these being variable or dis- 
 appearing with age ; two lateral teeth, one of which ap- 
 proaches the hinge; two lateral impressions, one of 
 which is considerably extended posteriorly; the liga- 
 ment external. Recent and fossil. PI. VIII, 
 fg. 15.
 
 182 
 
 8. Donax. A transverse, equivalved, inequilateral 
 bivalve, the anterior side very short and obtuse ; two 
 hinge teeth on each valve, or on one only ; one or two 
 lateral teeth, more or less remote ; the ligament exter- 
 nal, short, and at the lunule. Recent and fossil. 
 PL VIII, fig. 11. 
 
 9. Capsa. A transverse, equivalved, close shell, 
 the binge having two teeth on the right valve, one bifid 
 penetrating tooth in the other valve ; no lateral teeth ; 
 the ligament external. 
 
 A general idea of the hinge of this genus may be 
 gained from PL VII, fig. 22. 
 
 10. Crassina. A suborbicular, transverse, close, 
 equivalved, subinequilateral bivalve; the hinge with 
 two strong diverging teeth on the right valve, and two 
 unequal teeth in the other ; the ligament external, and 
 in the longest side. 
 
 This shell is distinguishable from a small Crassatella 
 by the situation of the ligament; and, from Venus, by 
 having only two teeth on each valve. 
 
 Lamarck forms the family of Concha for the recep- 
 tion of the following shells : 
 
 Fresh-water shells Cyclas, Cyrene, and Galathea. 
 
 Sea shells Cyprina, Cytherea, Venus, and Veneri- 
 cardia. 
 
 1. Cyclas. An oval, rather tumid, transverse, and 
 equivalved bivalve ; the hinge teeth very small, some- 
 times hardly any; sometimes two on each valve, of 
 which one is divided into two ; and sometimes there is 
 only a plicated or lobated one on one valve and two 
 on the other; the lateral teeth are compressed, and 
 extended transversely; the ligament is external. 
 
 The recent shells are very thin and fragile, and some- 
 times transparent.
 
 183 
 
 2. Cyrena. A roundish, trigonal, solid, thick, tu- 
 mid, inequilateral shell ; the hinge with three teeth on 
 each valve, the lateral ones always two, and of which 
 one often approaches the cardinal ones ; the ligament 
 external, attached to the largest side. 
 
 These have been confounded with the Cyclades. They 
 are not known in Europe in a recent state ; some of the 
 species have their lateral teeth serrulated. PI. VIII, 
 
 fig- 14. 
 
 3. Galathea. A subtrigonal, equivalved bivalve; 
 the hinge teeth grooved ; two in the right valve, united at 
 their base ; and three in the other valve, the intermediate 
 one being distinct and forward ; the lateral teeth remote ; 
 the ligament external. 
 
 Vemis paradoxa, Born. Galathea radiata, Ann. du 
 Mus, Tom. V, PL XXVIII. 
 
 Concha Marini. Rarely with epidermis or lateral 
 teeth. 
 
 1. Cyprina. An equivalved, inequilateral, and ob- 
 liquely cordated bivalve ; three unequal cardinal teeth ; 
 one lateral tooth on the anterior side, sometimes obso- 
 lete. 
 
 2.^ Cytherea. An equivalved, inequilateral, subor- 
 bicular, trigonal or transverse shell ; four cardinal teeth 
 on the right valve; three diverging, approximated at 
 their base, and one, entirely separate, under the lunule ; 
 three diverging corresponding teeth in the other valve ; 
 with a separate pit. No lateral teeth. 
 
 3. Venus. An equivalved, inequilateral, transverse 
 or suborbicular shell ; three cardinal approximated teeth 
 on each valve, the lateral ones diverging from the sum- 
 mit; the ligament external. Recent and fossil. 
 PI. VIII, fig. 7.
 
 184 
 
 Cardiacece teeth irregular either in form or situa- 
 tion. 
 
 1. Venericardia.An. equivalved, inequilateral, sub- 
 orbicular bivalve, most commonly with longitudinal 
 ribs ; the hinge, two cardinal teeth, in the same direc- 
 tion. Recent and fossil. PL VIII, Jig. 2. 
 
 2. Cardita. A free, inequilateral, equivalved bi- 
 valve ; the hinge with two unequal teeth, one short and 
 straight under the beaks, the other oblique and mar- 
 ginal, extended beneath the corselet. Recent and 
 fossil. PL VII, fig. 27. 
 
 3. Cardium. A subcordiform equivalve, protuberant 
 at the base, the valves plicated or dentated on their 
 inner margin. The hinge with four teeth in each valve : 
 two oblique approximating cardinal teeth, those of each 
 valve receiving each other crosswise ; two lateral ones, 
 remote and inserted. Recent and fossil. PL VIII, 
 
 foV. 
 
 4. Cypricardia. An equivalved, inequilateral bi- 
 valve, extended transversely and obliquely, with three 
 teeth under the beaks, and a lateral one under the 
 corselet. 
 
 Differing from Cardita in having, instead of one tooth 
 under the beaks, three, like Venus. 
 
 5. Isocardia. An equivalved, cordiform, ventricose 
 bivalve ; the beaks separate, diverging, and turned -in 
 a spiral ; two flat, inserted cardinal teeth, one of which 
 is recurved under the beak ; a lateral tooth extended be- 
 neath the corselet ; the ligament external. Recent 
 and fossil. PI. VIII, jig. 8. 
 
 ArcacecB with numerous small penetrating teeth dis- 
 posed on both valves in a straight or bent line. 
 
 1. Cucullea. An equivalved, inequilateral, trape- 
 zifonn, ventricose shell, with detached beaks, sepa-
 
 185 
 
 rated by a ligamental area; the impression forwards, 
 form-ing a projection with an angular border ; the hinge 
 linear, straight, set with small transverse teeth, with 
 from two to five at the ends, disposed obliquely. 
 Recent and fossil. PI. VIII, Jig. 20. 
 
 2. Area. A transverse, subequivalved, inequilate- 
 ral shell, with distant beaks, separated by the liga- 
 mental area; the hinge straight and linear, formed by 
 numerous teeth closely set in a row : the teeth of one 
 valve inserted between those of the other ; the ligament 
 external. Recent and fossil. PL VIII, Jig. 17. 
 
 3. Pectunculus. An orbicular, almost lenticular, 
 equivalved, close, and subequilateral bivalve ; the hinge 
 with numerous teeth, obliquely inserted in bent rows, 
 obsolete and scarcely any in the middle ; the ligament 
 external. Recent and fossil. PL VIII, fig. 19. 
 
 4. Nucula. A transverse, ovato-trigonal or oblong, 
 equivalved and inequilateral bivalve ; no intermediate 
 areas ; the hinge linear, with numerous teeth like those 
 of a comb ; the beaks contiguous, inflected backwards ; 
 the ligament marginal, partly internal, inserted in a pit 
 at the hinge. Recent and fossil. PL VIII, 
 Jig. 18. 
 
 Trigonice. With lamelliform teeth, transversely stri- 
 ated. 
 
 1. Trigonia. An equivalved, inequilateral, trigonal, 
 and, sometimes, suborbicular bivalve ; the hinge teeth 
 oblong, flat on their sides, diverging, and grooved trans- 
 versely , the two on the right valve being grooved on 
 both sides, and received between the two on the left 
 valve, which are double and grooved only on the in- 
 sides; the ligament external and marginal. Recent 
 and fossil. PL VIII, fig. 3. 
 
 2. Castalia. An equivalved, inequilateral, trigonal 
 shell; the beaks recurved; the hinge with two teeth;
 
 186 
 
 one backward, short, and slightly trilamellated, with 
 transverse striae ; the other forward, longitudinal, and 
 lateral ; ligament external. Recent. 
 
 A rare shell, apparently from fresh water. 
 
 Naiades. 
 
 Fresh, water shells, having one irregular hinge tooth, 
 simple or divided, and one longitudinal tooth extended 
 under the corselet: sometimes, without any tooth; but 
 having, along its base, irregular, granular tubercles. 
 Impression posteriorly compound ; furnished with an 
 epidermis worn off at the beaks. 
 
 1. Unio. A transverse, equivalved, inequilateral 
 bivalve; impression complicated; the hinge with two 
 teeth in each valve; one, short, irregular, simple or 
 divided, and substriated hinge tooth ; the other, lateral, 
 compressed, and elongated under the corselet; ligament 
 external. Recent and fossil. PL VII, fig. 19. 
 
 2. Hyria. An equivalved, obliquely trigonal, eared 
 bivalve, with a straight and truncated base ; the hinge 
 formed of two spreading teeth; the hinder, or cardi- 
 nal, divided into many parts, of which the inner are the 
 smallest ; the other, the anterior or lateral, very long 
 and lamellar; the ligament external and linear. 
 
 This genus resembles Anodonta in its form. 
 
 3. Anodonta. An equivalved, inequilateral, trans- 
 verse bivalve; the hinge linear, with no tooth; a smooth 
 cardinal plate, truncated so as to form a sinus at its an- 
 terior extremity, forms the base of the shell ; the im- 
 pressions are two, remote and lateral ; the ligament is 
 external and linear, placed at the anterior extremity in 
 the groove of the hinge plate. Recent. PI. VI, 
 fig. 26. 
 
 4. Iridina. Differs from Anodonta only in its hinge 
 line being irregularly tuberculated. Its shell has consi- 
 derable pearly lustre.
 
 187 
 
 % 
 
 Chamacece. Inequivalved, irregular, and attached, 
 with one large tooth at the hinge, and two impressions. 
 
 1. Diceras. An inequivalved, adherent bivalve, 
 with very large, conic, divaricating beaks, turned in 
 irregular spires; a large, thick, concave, subauricular 
 tooth in the larger valve ; two muscular impressions. 
 
 One species oflly has been seen of this shell, and that 
 in a fossil state. 
 
 2. Chama. An irregular, inequivalved, fixed bi- 
 valve, with recurved beaks; the hinge one thick, oblique, 
 subcrenulated tooth, received in a pit in the opposite 
 valve; two distant lateral impressions; the ligament 
 external, sunk. Recent and fossil. PL VII, 
 fig. 17. 
 
 3. Etheria. An irregular, adherent, unequal-valved 
 bivalve, with short beaks, as if sunk in the base of the 
 valves ; the hinge without tooth, waved and rather sinu- 
 ous and unequal ; two distant, lateral, oblong, muscular 
 impressions ; the ligament external, tortuous, and partly 
 penetrating into the shell. 
 
 A very rare large shell, of beautiful pearly lustre, ad- 
 herent to the rocks at great depths. Only known in a 
 recent state *. 
 
 Tridacnce. Transverse, equivalved ; One large late- 
 rally extended impression. 
 
 t. Tridacna. A regular, equivalved, inequilateral, 
 transverse bivalve, gaping at the lunule ; the hinge with 
 two compressed, unequal, forward, inserted teeth; the 
 ligament external and marginal. Recent and fossil ? 
 PL VII, fig. 26. 
 
 2. Hippopus. Difiers from the preceding in its lu- 
 nule being close. 
 
 * This genus is beautifully illustrated in Mr. G. Sowerby's work on the 
 genera of shells, from which this definition has beeu taken.
 
 188 
 
 Mytilacea. Hinge, an almost internal, marginal, li- 
 near ligament. Many of these shells attach themselves 
 by a byssus. 
 
 1. Modiola. A subtrans verse, equivalved bivalve, 
 very short on the hinder side ; the beaks sublateral, lying 
 on the shorter side ; the hinge lateral, linear, and without 
 teeth; the cardinal ligament rather internal, placed in 
 the marginal groove ; one sublateral, hatchet-formed im- 
 pression. Recent and fossil. PL VI, fig. 25. 
 
 2. Mytilus. A longitudinal, equivalved, regular bi- 
 valve, pointed at its base; the beaks nearly straight, 
 terminal and pointed ; the hinge lateral, generally with- 
 out teeth; the ligament marginal, and rather internal; 
 one long, clavated, and sublateral impression. 
 Recent and fossil. PL VI, fig. 24. 
 
 3. Pinna. A longitudinal, wedge-formed, equivalv- 
 ed bivalve, gaping at its summit, pointed at its base, 
 and having straight beaks; the hinge lateral, without 
 teeth; the ligament marginal, linear, very long, and 
 rather internal. Recent and fossil. PL VI, 
 fy.23, 
 
 Malleace<e. A marginal, sublinear ligament, either 
 simple or interrupted by rows of teeth, or crenulae ; the 
 shell lamellous. 
 
 1. Crenatula. A flat, lamellated, subequivalved, 
 rather irregular bivalve; the hinge sublateral, linear, 
 marginal, and crenulated ; the crenulae in rows, callus 
 hollowed into pits, which receive the ligament; no 
 groove for byssus. Recent and fossil. PL VIII, 
 fig. 22. 
 
 2. Perna. A subequivalved, flattish bivalve, with 
 lamellar texture ; the hinge linear, marginal, formed of 
 transverse, parallel, sulciform teeth, not penetrating, 
 and between which the ligament is inserted ; a posterior
 
 189 
 
 groove, rather gaping, for the byssus, under the extre- 
 mity of the hinge, with callous sides. Recent and 
 fossil. PL VIII, fig. 21. 
 
 3. Malleus. A rough, subequivalved bivalve, gene- 
 rally elongated ; sublobated at the base ; with small di- 
 varicating beaks ; the hinge edentulous ; an oblong, 
 conical small pit under the beaks, traverses obliquely 
 the ligamental groove ; the ligament, which is short and 
 almost external, is inserted in the sloping depression in 
 each valve. Recent. PL VII, fig. 5. 
 
 4. Avicula. An inequivalved, fragile, rather smooth 
 bivalve ; the base transverse and straight, with produced 
 extremities and caudiform anteriorly; the left valve 
 notched ; the hinge linear, with a tooth in each valve 
 beneath the beaks ; the ligamental area marginal, narrow 
 and grooved, not traversed by the byssus. Recent 
 and fossil. PL VII, fig. 6. 
 
 5. Meleagrina. 
 
 This genus differs from Avicula in being nearly equal 
 valved, of a roundish square figure, with no hinge 
 tooth, and in having its ligamental pit always dilated in 
 its middle part. 
 
 Pectinidea. Ligament chiefly internal ; the shell, in 
 general, regular and compact. 
 
 1. Pedum. An inequivalved, slightly eared bivalve, 
 the valves terminating at the base in a triangular disk, 
 with a furrow across that of the lower valve, and a 
 cicatrix across that of the upper, for the attachment of 
 the hinge ligament ; the hinge toothless; the lower valve 
 notched in the left side near the hinge *. Recent. 
 
 PL VII, fig. 7. 
 
 * The chief particulars respecting this genus are derived from Mr. G. 
 Sowerby's more extended, and, necessarily, more complete description, in 
 the work already referred to.
 
 190 
 
 2. Lima.' A longitudinal, subequivalved, eared bi- 
 valve, gaping a little on one side of the valves ; the 
 beaks separated, their inner surface rather everted; 
 the hinge toothless; the hinge-pit, receiving the liga- 
 ment, partly external. Recent and fossil. PL VII, 
 fig. 3. 
 
 3. Plagiostoma. A free, subequivalved, slightly eared 
 bivalve; the base transverse and nearly straight; the 
 beaks rather separated, their inner surfaces extended in 
 flat, transverse areas, disposed rather externally; one 
 straight, the other inclined obliquely ; the hinge without 
 a tooth ; a conical hinge-pit under the beaks, partly in- 
 ternal, and opening externally. Fossil. PL VII, 
 fig. 12. 
 
 4. Pecten. A free, regular, unequal valved, eared 
 bivalve; the lower edge transverse and straight; the 
 beaks contiguous ; the hinge without teeth, with a tri- 
 gonal hinge-pit entirely internal for the ligament. 
 Recent and fossil. PL VII, Jig. 2. 
 
 5. Plicatula. An unequal valved bivalve, contract- 
 ed towards its base; the upper margin rounded, and 
 subplicated ; the beaks unequal, and with no cardinal 
 areas ; the hinge with two strong teeth on each valve, 
 with a pit between receiving the ligament, which is en- 
 tirely external. Recent and fossil. PL VIII, 
 fig. 4. 
 
 The shell, named Harpax, in Org. Remains, Vol. Ill, 
 and figured, PL XII, fig. 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18, differs 
 from Plicatula of Lamarck, in being an attached shell, 
 and in having its teeth not disposed like those of Spon- 
 dylus, but in the form of a V, and in being crenulated. 
 It appears to agree, in its specific properties, with 
 P. tubifera of Lamarck. 
 
 6. Spondylus. An unequal valved, adherent, eared bi- 
 valve, rough or echinated ; the beaks unequal ; the lower
 
 191 
 
 valve having a flat external cardinal area, divided by a 
 groove ; the hinge has two strong teeth on each valve, 
 with an intermediate pit for the ligament, communicating 
 by its base with the outer groove ; the ligament internal. 
 Recent and fossil. PI. VIII, fig. 6. 
 
 7. Podopsis. An unequal valved, subregular bivalve, 
 not eared, adhering by the beak of its lower valve ; the 
 lower valve is larger and more convex than the upper, 
 and has its beak more advanced; the hinge is without 
 teeth, and the ligament internal. 
 
 These shells are only known as fossils : the upper 
 valve has no curved or projecting beak, nor is the lower 
 beak recurved over the side or the upper valve, as in 
 Gryphcea. They more resemble the Pectens in the regu- 
 larity of their forms and their longitudinal striae. 
 
 Ostracece. The ligament internal or semi-internal; 
 the shell irregular and foliaceous, or even, sometimes, 
 papyraceous. 
 
 1. Gryphcea, An unequal valved free bivalve, the in- 
 ferior valve large and concave; the beak large, incurved, 
 and terminating in an involuted Spire ; the upper valve 
 small and flat like an operculum ; the hinge edentulous ; 
 the hinge-pit oblong and bowed; one impression. 
 Recent and fossil. PL VII, fig. 1. 
 
 Le Chev. de Lamarck states his having seen, at Paris, 
 one species in a recent state. 
 
 2. Ostrea. An adherent, inequivalved, irregular bi- 
 valve, the beaks disjoined ; the valves becoming more 
 unequal with age, so that the upper valve is gradually 
 protruded; the hinge is toothless; the ligament semi- 
 internal, affixed in the hinge-pit, which, in the lower 
 valve, increases with the beak to a considerable length. 
 
 Recent and fossil. PL VI, fig. 29. 
 
 3. Vulsella. A long, subequivalved, irregular, free 
 bivalve, with equal beaks ; the hinge having, upon each 
 valve, a projecting callosity, with a conical ligamental
 
 192 
 
 pit obliquely bowed. Recent and fossil. PL VII, 
 
 fig. 4. 
 
 4. Placuna. A free, irregular, flat, subequivaled bi- 
 valve ; the hinge has interiorly, on one valve, two longi- 
 tudinal sharp ribs, approximated at their base, and di- 
 verging in the form of a V ; and, on the other, two cor- 
 responding depressions; at this part the ligament is 
 attached. Recent and fossil. PL VIII, fig. 5. 
 
 5. Anomia. An unequal valved, irregular, opercu- 
 lated bivalve, adherent by its operculum ; one valve, 
 which is pierced, is generally flat, having a hole or notch 
 at its base ; the other, a little larger, whole and con- 
 cave; the operculum is small, elliptical, and subosseous, 
 and is aflixed to various marine bodies. Recent 
 and fossil. PI. VII, fig. 10. 
 
 Under the designation Les Rudistes, Lamarck places 
 those shells in which neither the hinge, the ligament of 
 the valves, nor the muscle of attachment, is discover- 
 able: these he places under six genera Spherulites, 
 Radiolites, Calceola, Birostrites, Discina, and Crania. 
 
 1. Splierulites. An unequal valved, orbiculato-glo- 
 bose bivalve, a little depressed at the top ; outwardly 
 echinated with large subangular scales ; the upper valve 
 small, opercular, and flattish, and furnished, on its 
 inner surface, with two unequal, subconical, curved tu- 
 berosities; the lower valve larger, rather subventricose,* 
 with squamae radiating beyond its border ; the cavity is 
 obliquely conical, having, on one side, a keel or ridge, 
 as if formed by a fold of the inner surface, which is 
 transversely striated ; the hinge is unknown. 
 
 Fossil. 
 
 There is only one species known. From the Isle of 
 Aix, 
 
 2. Radiolites. An unequal valved bivalve, striated 
 externally with longitudinal rays; the lower valve,
 
 193 
 
 which is the larger, is turbinated ; the superior is con- 
 vex or conical, like an operculura; the hinge is unknown- 
 Fossil. PL VI, fig. 22. 
 
 3. Calceola. An unequal valved, triangular, subtur- 
 binated bivalve, flat beneath ; the large valve like a hood, 
 obliquely truncated at its opening; the hinge-margin 
 straight and transverse, being slightly notched and dent- 
 ated in its middle ; the upper margin bowed ; the less 
 valve flat, semiorbicular, like an operculum, with two 
 lateral tubercles on its hinge-margin, and, in its centre, 
 a small pit. Fossil. PL VIII, fig. 24. 
 
 4. Acardo. A flat, nearly equivalved bivalve, hav- 
 ing neither hinge nor ligament, with one impression in 
 the centre of the valves. Recent. PL VI, fg. 21 . 
 
 This shell is admitted, by Lamarck, in La Systeme 
 de la Nature, but is not mentioned in his Histoire Na- 
 turelle des Animaux sans Vertebres. 
 
 5. Birbstrites. An unequal bicornuted bivalve; the 
 disks of the valves raised into unequal, rather straight, 
 obliquely divaricating cones, resembling horns, the base 
 of the shortest being surrounded by that of the other. 
 
 Found only as a Fossil. Its locality does not appear 
 to be known. 
 
 6. Discina. An unequal valved, ovate, roundish bi- 
 valve, a little depressed ; the valves equal in size, with 
 a very distinct orbicular disk on each ; the disk of the 
 upper valve submammillated and undivided, the mam- 
 millae surrounded by fine radiating striae; the other valve 
 very white, and divided by a transverse slit : there is no 
 trace of hinge, ligament, or impression. Recent. 
 
 7. Crania. An unequal valved, suborbicular bi- 
 valve; the under valve flat, fixed beneath, the inne 
 surface pierced with three unequal and oblique fora- 
 mina; the upper valve is convex, subgibbous, with 
 two prominent callosities at its base. Fossil. 
 The under valve. PL Vlf, fig. 21. 
 
 c c
 
 194 
 
 Brachiopodes, conchifera : Having, near their mouths, 
 two opposite elongated ciliated arms rolled in spirals 
 when at rest. Mantle, with two lobes separated for- 
 wards, wrapping up or covering the body. A bivalve 
 shell adherent to marine bodies either immediately or 
 by a tendinous cord. 
 
 The genera of this family are Orbicula, Terebra- 
 tula, and Lingula. 
 
 1. Orbicula. A suborbicular, unequal valved bi- 
 valve, with no perceivable hinge; the lower valve is 
 very thin, flat, and affixed beneath ; the upper valve is 
 subconical, with a pointed top, more or less prominent. 
 
 This shell is described, by Muller, Zool. Dan. J, 
 p. 14, Tab. V, fig. 1-7; and, by Poli, Conch. Vol. II, 
 p. 189, Tab. XXX, fig. 15. 
 
 A fossil shell of this description is found in the iron 
 stone nodules in Shropshire and Worcestershire. 
 
 2. Terebratula. An inequivalved, regular, subtri- 
 gonal bivalve, attached to other bodies by a short ten- 
 dinous pedicle ; the largest valve has an advanced beak 
 generally incurved, and pierced either by a round hole 
 or a notch, through which its organ of attachment 
 passes; the hinge with two teeth. In the inner part 
 are two subosseous, thin, forked, and variously rami- 
 fied branches, proceeding from the disk of the small 
 valve, and supporting the animal. Recent and 
 fossil. PI. VII, fig. 23. 
 
 3. Lingula. A subequivalved, flat, ovally oblong 
 bivalve, truncated at its top ; rather pointed at its base ; 
 raised on a fleshy tendinous pedicle, and fixed to ma- 
 rine bodies ; the hinge toothless. Recent and fossil. 
 PL VI, fig. 28. 
 
 Cirrhipeda. Soft animals, without head or eyes, 
 fixed and testaceous. The shell either sessile, or raised 
 on a flexible tendinous pedicle.
 
 195 
 
 Sessile. Shell fixed generally on marine bodies : the 
 mouth in the upper and anterior part. 
 
 1. Tubicinella. A straight cylindraceo-tubular oper- 
 culated shell, attenuated towards its base, girt with 
 transverse annular ribs; truncated at both ends, shut 
 at the bottom by a membrane, and open at the top. 
 The operculum formed of four small obtuse valves. 
 
 Attached to the whale ; but not known in a mineral- 
 ised state. 
 
 2. Coronula. A sessile, suborbicular, or subconical 
 shell, the extremities truncated; the sides thick; hol- 
 lowed out internally into radiating cells. The opercu- 
 lum formed by four small obtuse valves. Recent 
 and fossil. * 
 
 PL VIII, fig. 27 The figure given here is of the fos- 
 sil Coronula of the whale. 
 
 3. Balanus. A sessile, affixed, conical univalve, the 
 apex truncated ; the base closed by an adherent testa- 
 ceous plate ; the opening subtrigonal or elliptical ; the 
 operculum internal, with four moveable valves inserted 
 near the inner base of the shell. Recent and fossil. 
 PL VIII, 'fig. 26. 
 
 4. Acasta. A sessile body, composed of separable 
 pieces, with a convex base, and a four-valved oper- 
 culum. Recent. 
 
 5. Creusia. Sessile and subglobular, formed of four 
 valves, and having an internal bivalved operculum. 
 Recent. 
 
 6. Pyrgoma. Sessile, subglobular, with a bivalved 
 operculum: found on Astrece, Madrepores, &c. 
 Recent. > 
 
 Pedunculated. Supported by a moveable, coriaceous, 
 tubular peduncle, attached by its base to marine bodies. 
 
 1. Anatifa.\ pedunculated, five-valved shell; the 
 valves unequal, pressed together so as to be nearly con-
 
 196 
 
 tiguous ; the lowest on the sides being the largest. 
 Recent. PL VIII, fig. 28. 
 
 2. Pollicipes. A pedunculated shell, formed of thir- 
 teen or more subcontiguous, unequal valves; the lowest 
 at the sides, being the smallest. Recent 
 
 Lepas scalpellum, Lin.; Lepas mitella, Lin.; Lepas 
 pollicipes, Gmelin. 
 
 3. Cineras, Leach. 
 
 A pedunculated shell, with five oblong separate valves, 
 not entirely covering the body ; two at the sides of the 
 opening, the others dorsal. Recent, 
 
 Lepas coriacea, Pallas. 
 
 4. Otion. A pedunculated shell, with two separate 
 small semilunar testaceous valves adhering near the 
 lateral aperture. Recent. 
 
 Lepas aurita, Lin. 
 
 Trigonellites. A slightly rounded, trigonal, thick 
 shell, gaping on each side. The inferior margin nearly 
 on a straight line ; the anterior and superior margins 
 in a gently waving line. The outer surface of each 
 valve pierced by numerous foramina, which, passing 
 nearly through its substance, give it the cancellous ap- 
 pearance of bone ; the inner surface smooth, but marked 
 with striae, agreeing, in their direction, with the posterior 
 and anterior margin. The assumed hinge completely 
 linear, without teeth ; there being only, on the posterior 
 margin of each valve, an appropriate, linear surface for 
 the attachment of cartilage or ligament externally. There 
 is no appearance of muscular attachment. PI. VIII, 
 fig. 29. 
 
 The nature of the substance placed under this vague 
 designation and description is entirely unknown. It 
 bears no resemblance in its structure to any known tes- 
 taceous, crustaceous, or bpney fabric. Its appearance, 
 as fixed in the calcareous fissile stone of Pappenhejm, 
 In the above figure, gives the idea of the valves of a
 
 197 
 
 shell ; but examination shows, that, if these valves were 
 brought together, they would touch only at two points, 
 leaving all else, except at the inferior line, open. 
 
 The following shell is, in fact, neither univalve nor 
 bivalve ; for, though a bivalve in form, the two parts are 
 connected, not by a hinge, but rather by suture. 
 
 Hyalfea.An inequivalved, tumid, and transparent 
 shell; tricuspidated at the base; gaping beneath the 
 prominent beak. Recent. PL VII, fig. 7. 
 
 We are indebted to the scientific and successful en- 
 quiries of Mr. Sowerby, for the formation of the fol- 
 lowing genera, in addition to Cirrus, Plagiostoma, and 
 Euomplialus, which have been already noticed : 
 
 Dianchora. An attached, inequivalved bivalve ; the 
 attached valve having an opening instead of a beak, 
 the other beaked and eared ; hinge without teeth. PL 
 VII, fig. 11. 
 
 Productus. An equilateral, unequal valved bivalve^ 
 with a reflexed, more or less cylindrical margin ; hinge 
 transverse, linear; beak imperforate; one valve con- 
 vex, the other flat or concave, externally. Fossil. 
 PL VII, fig. 13. 
 
 This genus was formed, by Mr. Sowerby, for the re- 
 ception of those fossils which had been placed, by 
 Mr. Martin, under Conchyliothus (Anomites) Scabricu- 
 lus, Petrif. Derb. ; and, of others, which he had ob- 
 tained from the limestone which forms a part of the in- 
 dependent coal-formation of the Lothians, Scotland. 
 
 The characters and classification of the shells of this- 
 family are not, however, yet determined : with the hope, 
 therefore, of leading to more decisive information re- 
 specting these points, the structure of the hinge, as ex- 
 isting in a shell bearing the external appearance of one 
 of this family from the mountain limestone of Shrop-
 
 19H 
 
 shire, with which the writer was favoured by the Rev. 
 Mr. Hallifax, of Standish, in Gloucestershire, is shewn, 
 PL IX, Jig. 9. 
 
 Magas. An inequivalved, equilateral bivalve; one 
 valve with an angular sinus along an incurved beak ; 
 line of the hinge, and back of the other valve, straight, 
 with two projections near the middle. A partial longi- 
 tudinal septum, with appendages, are attached to the 
 hinge within. Fossil. PL VII, Jig. 14. 
 
 Spirifer. An ^ equilateral, inequivalved bivalve; the 
 valves beaked; one valve with a large angular sinus 
 along the inside of the beak ; hinge transverse, long, and 
 straight ; two spirally-coiled tubular appendages nearly 
 filling the stall. Recent. PL VII, fig. 15. 
 
 Astarte. Suborbicular or transverse ; ligament exter- 
 nal ; lunette on the posterior side ; two diverging teeth 
 near the beak. Fossil. PL VIII, Jig. 1 . 
 
 Inoceramus. An inequivalved, inequilateral bivalve, 
 slightly eared; hinge formed of alternate ridges and 
 furrows on the margin of the eared part ; the substance 
 of the shell spathose, vertically striated. Fossil. 
 
 PL VIII, fig. 23*. 
 
 Pentamerus. An equal-sided, inequivalved bivalve ; 
 one valve divided by a longitudinal, internal septum 
 into two parts ; the other, by two septa, into three parts 
 or valves; the beaks incurved, imperforate. 
 Fossil. PL X, fig. 7. 
 
 H& The figure, intended to illustrate the genus Photos, 
 page 177, will be found in PL VIII, fig. 25. 
 
 * I have placed this shell among those, for the name and description of 
 which, I believe, we are indebted to Mr. Sowerby, although I have not 
 yet been able to ascertain in what work his account of the genus is to be 
 found.
 
 199 
 
 A LIST of the SPECIES of FOSSIL SHELLS particu- 
 larised by Le CHEV. DE LAMARCK, in Les Annales 
 du Museum, and Histoire Naturelle des Animaux 
 sans Vertebres; with a specification of their most 
 distinguishing characters. 
 
 Note. "When the size of the shell is mentioned, it is to be taken as ge- 
 nerally meaning the larger size : by smalt, is meant less than half an inch ; 
 and, by vety small, less than a quarter of an inch. 
 
 Chiton. 
 
 Grignonensit : octovalvisr 
 
 Patella. 
 
 elongata : obtusely radiated, apex much inclined. 
 
 dulcis : snbconical, apex inflected. 
 
 scutatella : very small, apex central. 
 
 dilatata : rugose, depressed. 
 
 cornucopia : obliquely conical, impression semicircular. 
 
 spirostris : rudely striated. , 
 
 retortella: spire obliquely lateral. 
 
 pennata: subimbricated posteriorly. 
 
 syuamieformis : flattisli and smooth. 
 
 Fissurella. 
 
 labiata : subsquainose, stria? decussating. 
 
 Emarginula. 
 
 costata: ribbed longitudinally, apex hooked. 
 clypeata: cancellated, back grooved. 
 radiola : with radiating costulae. 
 
 Calyptraea. 
 
 trochiformis : echinated, apex subcentral. 
 crepidularis : subovate : var. of former? j, 
 
 Conus. 
 
 antedilurianus: long, spire pointed, wreaths crenulated. 
 
 deperditus: spire not much raised, the wreaths not crenulated, but 
 grooved on the top, 
 
 turritus : subfusiform, whirls oblique. 
 
 stromboides : spire obtusely nodose, whirls obtuse. 
 
 tintiquus: dilated upwards, lip bowed, spire smooth, slightly canalicu- 
 lated S| inches. 
 
 Betulinoidex.- oblongo-conical, smooth, spire convex, pointed, base 
 rounded 4 inches. 
 
 dacatus.- conico-clavated, striae longitudinal and bowed, spire ele- 
 vated, rather pointed, wreaths convex 3 inches.
 
 200 
 Conus, continued. 
 
 intermedius . smootb, base transversely sulcated, spire acutely convex, 
 
 wreaths not striated 2j inches. 
 avellana .' short, base substi iated, spire rather convex and pointed 
 
 1 inch. 
 
 Cypraea. 
 
 pediculus : transversely striated. 
 
 influta : smooth, obscurely marginated. 
 
 leporina . ventricose, subraarginata, opening dilated at the base 
 
 If inch. 
 
 mus .' the perfect analogue of the recent shell known by this name. 
 pyrula . obtuse, narrowed behind, lip bordered 1| inch. 
 utriculata . inflated, subumbilicated, lip obsoletely marginated 
 
 l inch. 
 
 rufa .* agrees with the recent shell of the same name. 
 antiqua.- ventricose, rough, rather flat beneath, opening narrow 
 
 1J inch Ronca. 
 nideralis . ovately oblong, rough, obsoletely marginated on the sides 
 
 1 inch JRonca. 
 
 fabagina . subventricose, obscurely marginated on one side J inch. 
 flavicuht.' ventricose, marginated on one side, back yellowish, with 
 
 white spots 1 inch. 
 ambigwi . contracted at tlie extremities, convex beneath, opening 
 
 winding f inch. 
 
 colombarid . one lip marginated, rather projecting forwards j inch. 
 dactylosa .' oblong, verUricose, rather cylindrical, obtuse, sulcated 
 
 transversely, no flattening on the under surface, no longitudinal 
 
 groove on the back, spire not apparent 1| inch. 
 C. sulcosa of Les Annales duMus. 
 
 sphariculata . transversely sulcated, no dorsal groove, lip marginated. 
 coccinella.' variety of the preceding? 
 pisolina . pisiform, back smooth ; opening curved, plicatedly dentated 
 
 \ inch. 
 
 oruluta . obtuse in the fore part, smooth ; columella obsoletely dent- 
 ated. 
 
 Ovula. 
 
 passerinalis . smooth, scarcely beaked, lip lightly bowed J inch. 
 birostriss exterior lip marginated, columella with an oblique fold 
 1 inch. 
 
 Terebellum. 
 
 convolutum * : subcylindrical, no spire, opening the length of the shell 
 
 1 J inch. 
 fusiforme: spire extremely obtuse, opening shorter than the shell 
 
 vi inches. 
 
 Oliva. 
 
 canalifera: callus of the columella having a canal. 
 mitreola : columella striated. ' 
 Laumontiana : columella biplicated. 
 
 * Bulla sopita, Brand, Foss. No. 29.Bvlla valuta ejutdem, No. 75.
 
 201 
 
 Oliva, continued. 
 
 plicaria .' long, spire pointed, rather short ; coluraella longitudinally 
 
 plaited 1 inch. 
 clacata.' spire prominently pointed, columella with numerous striae 
 
 | inch. 
 
 Ancilla. 
 
 buccinoides : margaritaceous. 
 subulata : spire elongated. 
 olivula : unidentated at the base. 
 ca-alifera : canal between the right lip and the spire. 
 glandtformis / subventricose, rather pointed at the summit, callous in 
 the lower part, sutures of the whirls concealed 2 inches. 
 
 Voluta. 
 
 hurpa : longitudinal ribs with two spines at their tops, five folds on the 
 
 columella 3 inches. 
 tpinosa*: subcostated; short, pointed spinous spire; four or five 
 
 folds 1 inch. 
 
 musicalis: longitudinal ribs with one spine, four large folds 5 inches. 
 muriciiid : ribbed and spinous in the tipper part, smooth and caudated 
 
 in the lower, deeply grooved between the four columellar folds 
 
 3| inches long. 
 costaria : elongated, fusiform, subcaiulated, ribs plain, longitudinal 
 
 2| inches. 
 lyra : spire short; plain longitudinal ribs, denticulated towards the apex 
 
 -~a inches. 
 bicorona : ribbed longitudinally, no transverse striae ; turns of the spire 
 
 bicoronated 2 inches. 
 
 crenulutai: ribs crenatedly granulated 1& inch. 
 harpula : finely ribbed, the ribs smooth, whirls subcanalicnlated, two 
 
 very strong folds 1| inch. 
 
 labrella : ovate, snbventricose, wreaths sharply carinated, spire denti- 
 culated if inch. 
 depressa : ribbed upwards, base transversely grooved, spire subcoro- 
 
 netted, columella flat about t$ inch. 
 variculosa; with a marginal and sometimes a dorsal varix ; four slight 
 
 folds about of an inch. 
 mitreola : lip obsoletely bidentated. 
 heteroclita.- base smooth, spire ribbed, rather tuberculatcd, colnmella 
 
 with the smallest plaits upwards, as in Mitm~%& inches. 
 digitalitia.' decussated, snbgranular, spire short 1 inchperhaps a 
 
 variety of F. crenulata. 
 clathrata .' subcoronetted, cancellated, columella with numerous plaits 
 
 1| inch. 
 ambigua t . transversely striated, longitudinally ribbed, spire subden- 
 
 ticulated, lip sulcated internally, the lower folds on the columella 
 
 the largest 1|- inch. 
 
 * Strombus spinosus, Brand, Foss. No. 65. 
 f Murex suspensus, Brand, Foss. No. 70. 
 t Strombus ambifuus, Brand, Foss. No. 69. 
 
 ud
 
 202 
 
 Voluta, continued.. 
 
 ficulina.' transversely striated, last wreath crowned with spines, lip 
 subniarginated, striated inside, and bowed at the top '2 inches. 
 
 rarispina .' with two or three dorsal spines, lip rather bordered, 
 spire small, with five or six dentelated turns 1 inch. 
 
 Mitra. 
 
 crebricosta : ribs obsolete in the lower part, four folds inch. 
 monodonta: smooth, but striated in the upper part small. 
 marginata: a crenulated border on each turn. 
 pllcatella: margin of the turns subplicated f inch. 
 labratula: ribs decussated with transverse stride % inch. 
 mixta : resembles marginel/a, but has the folds of the mitres f inch. 
 cancellina : lip internally striated. 
 terebelfam: narrow, fusiform small. 
 fusellina: smooth, base striated small. 
 grantformis: longitudinally ribbed very small. 
 mutica: no stria? on the spiral wreaths, four folds 1 inch. 
 elongata: fusiform, smooth, five folds 2 inches. 
 citharella : distant longitudinal ribs, four folds, no left lip. 
 
 Marginalia. 
 
 eburnea: spire conoidal, the borders of the turns confluent. 
 
 dentifera: smooth, spire subpyramidal. 
 
 otulata : lip grooved internally, four folds f inch. 
 
 Cancellaria. 
 
 costulata: longitudinal, decussated, ribbed, three folds to | inch. 
 volutella : with the varices of a murex, the folds of a volute, and the 
 notch of a bu-ccinum | inch. 
 
 Purpura. 
 
 topilhis * . acutely ovate, ribs transverse, lip subdentated. 
 Buccinum. 
 
 stromboides: oblongo-ovate, smooth, a groove between the right lip 
 
 and spire 2 inches. 
 
 striatulum: the turns rounded, striae transverse small. 
 terebrale : long, smooth, rather turriculated inch. 
 decussatum: the whirls convex; opening subdentated $ inch. 
 bistriatum : striae alternately larger and smaller, a slight border on the 
 
 lip 1 inch. 
 cluvatulatum : long, Up emarginated in the upper part very small. 
 
 Terebra. 
 
 plicatula : the last turn smooth, the rest plaited 1 inch. 
 scalarina: longitudinally ribbed, turns convex 1 inch. 
 
 Harpa. 
 
 mutica: ribs plain, not pointed ; decussating intercostal striae 1 inch. 
 * Uvccinum lapillus, Lin.
 
 203 
 
 Cassis. 
 
 harpa/ormia : ribs longitudinal, with a transverse row of tubercles at 
 
 their upper part 2 inches. 
 
 cancellata: with two rows of tubercles, lip dentated. 
 carinata* : with five carinated girdles, the upper tubiiculose. 
 
 S trombus. 
 
 canvlis: longitudinally ribbed ; the lip notched. 
 
 Rostellaria. 
 
 macroptera t . lip large and round, running up the spire from 6 to 
 
 7 inches. 
 
 colombaria : lip alaefoi ui, bent upwards on the spine 2 inches. 
 fissurella : longitudinally ribbed ; lip small, passing up the turns and 
 
 forming a groove 1 inch. 
 
 Murex. 
 
 tripterusl: trigonal, with angular, winged, membranaceous pro- 
 cesses 2 inches. 
 
 tricarinatus : ovato-oblong, with curled, frondose, subspinous pro- 
 cesses 1 inch. 
 f contabulat us : spire long, subpyramidal ; mouth subtrigonal var.? 
 
 calcitrapa: ovate, frondose ridges, terminating in points; columella 
 subunibilicated. 
 
 crispus: ovate, with about nine frondose but not spinous ridges; the 
 mouth and canal short f inch. 
 
 frondosus: ovato-oblong, with about nine curled frondose varices; 
 the canal rather long inch. 
 
 clathratus: ovate, ribbed, sulcated transversely, lip dentated, canal 
 short very small. 
 
 cingulatus: ovato-oblong; transverse encircling ruga?, squamose be- 
 tween ; canal covered over lj inch. 
 
 striatula : oblong, with transverse stria?, and but few longitudinal con- 
 vex ribs; lip dentated f inch. 
 
 cancellinus : ovato-oblong, cancellated ; opening winding and toothed : 
 resembles the white grimace. 
 
 pyraster:, ovate, caudated, transversely sulcated, with subnodulo 1 :? 
 ribs ; the opening rounded ; grooved internally 1^ inch. 
 
 textiliosus : ovate, obsoletely ribbed, transversely striated, squamous 
 between ; one tooth on the columella; subumbilicated ij inch. 
 
 colubrinus : elongated, subfusiforoi ; with fine transverse granular 
 stria? ; few varices 1 inch. 
 
 riperintm: elongated, with transverse stria? slightly granulated ; tail 
 small ; very small indistinct ribs on the upper part $ inch. 
 
 nodulariiis : ovate, subcancellated ; transverse nodular stria?, the no- 
 dules disposed in ribs ; the tail short and curved out wards 1 inch. 
 
 reticulosus : ovate, pointed at both ends, reticulated ; opening triangu- 
 lar ; lip toothed small. 
 
 tubifer : ovate, pointed ; four rows of ridges ; with fistulous, bowed, 
 erect spines, with short tubes between. 
 
 * Buctinum nodosum, Brand, Foss. No. 131. 
 t Strombus amplus, Brand, Foss. No. 76. 
 J Brand, Foss. No. 79 and 80 ?
 
 204 
 
 Fusus. 
 
 rugosus * : long, subcancellated ; spire, nodular ; canal long, straight, 
 and nearly covered over 3 inches. 
 
 Note: long, transversely striated ; the top ofeacli whirl depressed and 
 plicated 3| inches. 
 
 longanusi: long, thick and smooth; last turns rather flat on their tops; 
 spire nodular, striated 4 inches. 
 
 clavellatus J : fusiformly clavellated ; transversely striated ; ribs nodu- 
 lar ; tail very long ; turns of the spire not flat. 
 
 aciculatus : fusiformly linear, very narrow striae with decussating 
 plicae : different from F. rugosus 1 inch. 
 
 subulutus . longitudinally ribbed ; tail shorter than the spire 1 inch. 
 
 hordeolus : fusiformly tnrriculated ; tail short very small. 
 
 intortus : subcancellated in the upper part, in the lower the transverse 
 striae most evident ; columella as if twisted 1 inch. 
 
 polygonus : ovate, with many ribs ; transversely rugose ; the edges of 
 the turns raised against the preceding; opening dontated 
 1 j inch. 
 
 abbrevialus : ovato-conical, rugous transverse rings ; nodose ribs; coin 
 mclla obsoletely umbilicated $ inch. 
 
 excisus: columella as if cut obliquely J inch. 
 
 minutus: ovate, ribs numerous ; transverse stria: united in bands very 
 small. 
 
 asperulus: ovate, turreted, ribbed, rough transverse striae ; canal 
 short small. 
 
 plicatus : ovate, turreted ; ribs smooth, longitudinal ; base short ; no 
 transverse stria? small. 
 
 scalaroidfs: numerous distinct fine ribs, obsolete transverse striae; ca- 
 nal short f inch. 
 
 coronatus : ovate, conical both ways ; spire crowned with numerous 
 small nodules, lower half finely striated small. 
 
 alligatus: ovate, turreted, prominent, transverse rugae ; canal short- 
 small. 
 
 marginatus: fusiform, turreted; spire nodulous, and the upper edge of 
 each turn raised small. 
 
 nodulosus : ovate, small, nodulous ribs ; columella obliquely biplicated. 
 
 nngulatus: fusiform, ventricose; thick, acutely angular ribs ; transverse, 
 prominent striae 1 inch. 
 
 uniplicatvs : rough, with ribs and decussating striae ; columella with one 
 plait 1 inch. 
 
 funiwlosus : lonp, fusiform; transverse rugae, alternating in size; colu- 
 mella slightly plaited 1 inch. 
 
 heptagonus : seven rows of ribs with decussating stria? ; columella ra- 
 ther plaited nearly 2 inches. 
 
 subcarinatus : ovate, short and turgid ribs, angular at their ends ; turns 
 carinated angularly, Saltish at their tops. 
 
 * Mvrex porrectus, Brand, Foss./g". 35. 
 t Murex longcetus, Brand, Foss. fig. 40, 73, 93. 
 \ Murex dtformiit, Brand, Foss. Jig . 37, 38. 
 Murex, Brand, Foss. Jig-. 36.
 
 205 
 
 Fusus, continued. 
 
 Jiculneus: ovate, almost globular; about fifteen ribs like folds, forming 
 at about two-thirds of their length a row of tubercles across the 
 shell ; the base bowed ; columella twisted, with an oblique fold 
 1 inch. 
 
 Pyrula. 
 
 lavigata: obovate, very thick, especially on the left side; obtusely 
 
 striated, the spire pointed 2 inches. 
 
 subcarinata: smooth, back obtusely carinated ; turns concave up- 
 wards ; spire pointed. 
 
 tricurinata : clavated, last turn decussated and with three transverse 
 prominent distant striae 1 inch. 
 
 elegans : decussated, the transverse striae raised and undulating. 
 
 clathraia : ovately clavated, decussated, the transverse stria? alternately 
 large and small. 
 
 nerilis*: ovately clavated, decussated, the transverse striae largest. 
 
 bulbiformis t : ovate, ventricose, rather smooth ; spire hooked ; tail 
 rather bowed ; the left side thickened as by a callus on the colu- 
 mella "2% inches. 
 
 terebralis : girt with transverse and granulated stria? ; whirls dentatedly 
 carinated, spire like a screw small. 
 
 citharellus: turreted, with smooth narrow ribs ; base short small. 
 
 Itetigatus: fusiform and turreted; spire smooth and conical, with a 
 ntammUlary termination. 
 
 striatulus: fusiform and turreted; the turns flat on their tops and sides, 
 with very fine equal striae very small. 
 
 biplicatus: ovate, transversely striated; longitudinal ribs; columella 
 with two folds very small. 
 
 variabilis : many ribbed, turns subangular small. 
 
 Iruncatulatus : ovate and turreted, the margins of the spiral turns trun- 
 cated, the spire plicated small. 
 
 Pleurotoma. 
 
 filosa, : ovato-fusiform, lip alaeforra 1 inch. 
 
 lineolata: ovato-fusiform var.? 
 
 clavicularis : fusiform, turreted, whirls bordered with striae on the up- 
 per part, lip alated 2 inches. 
 
 glabrata: fusiform, base transversely grooved 1 1 inch. 
 
 rnarginata : turns bordered upwards by a cord-like margin, aud sepa- 
 rated by two or three grooves with sunk points. 
 
 transversaria : fusiform, deeply grooved transversely, whirls carinated 
 2 inches. 
 
 catenata : fusiform, decussated ; the transverse striae strongest, like a 
 chain of tubercles on every turn '2 inches. 
 
 dentata : fusiform ; a dentated keel on each turn 1 inch. 
 
 undatu: fusiform/turreted ; whirls creuulated, with undulated ribs on 
 their upper part, the tail short l inch. 
 
 multinoda: fusiform, turreted; whirls subinargiuated, nodulous in the 
 middle | inch. 
 
 crenulata : fusiform, turreted ; straight ribs, like cogs of a wheel on 
 each whirl f inch. 
 
 * Murex nexilis, Brand, Voss.fig. DO. 
 t JUurex bulbus, Brand, fo&s.jig. 54.
 
 206 
 Pleurotoma, continued. 
 
 . bicatenata: fusiform, turreted; with two rows of nodes on the upper 
 part of the whirls f inch. 
 
 costeflala: oval, fusiform ; whirls with longitudinal ribs f inch. 
 
 plicata : fusiform, turreted ; whirls with rather curved plaits small. 
 
 sulcata: fusiform, turreted; decussated in the lower part ; wb'rls with 
 longitudinal ribs small. 
 
 curvicosta : ovato-fusiform ; bent ribs, as if split or bifid at their tops 
 finch. 
 
 furcata: whirls, with ribs contracted above their middle, and forked 
 underneath. 
 
 nodulosa: ovato-fusiform; spire pyramidal, with nine rows of short no- 
 dulous ribs | inch. 
 
 ventricosa: ovato-fusiform, ventricose and caudated finch, 
 
 lerebralis: fusiform^ with transverse granulated stria* and dentated 
 keels f inch. 
 
 granulata: subturreted, granulated, base short finch. 
 
 inflexa : subturreted ; spire long, plaits separate in their rr'ddle, a gra- 
 nulated keel small. 
 
 turrella : subturreted ; the whirls carinated ; spire tuberculated in the 
 upper part small. 
 
 striarella : fusiform, turreted, almost smooth, pl? ; ts and striae hardly 
 discoverable small. 
 
 decussata: fusiform, turreted; spire small, long, and nodulous, with 
 two rows of tubercles, one small the other large \ inch. 
 
 Cerithium. 
 
 interruptum : pyramidal ; transverse striae in rows, alternately large and 
 small; ribs bowed, last turn ventricose If inch. 
 
 hexagonum: with five or six longitudinal ribs ; last whirl tumid, with 
 five or six spinous tubercles 2 inches. 
 
 serratum: tnrreted, echinated ; two rows of compressed teeth on each 
 turn, the lower smallest ; four internal plaits on right side 2| in. 
 
 Iricarinatus : pyi amidate ; three denticulated keels, t ! ie lowest by 
 much the largest 2 inches. 
 
 vittatum: turreted ; upper whirls smooth, lower ones with three tuber- 
 culated bands 2 inches. 
 
 clacatulatum: rough, with transverse tubercular keels, three at the 
 upper part, and decreasing to one on the lowest turn ; notched 
 like a pleurotoma 1 J inch. 
 
 echinoides .' rather heptagonal, with tubercles a little pointed, in two 
 or three rows j twelve or fourteen turns, sometimes orange co- 
 loured l^inch. 
 
 angulosum : pyramidate, twelve tui js, with transverse striae, and a 
 central angulated keel, points at the angles if inch. 
 
 cristatum: turreted; whirls with a dentated keel in the middle; the 
 base transversely sulcated 1 inch. 
 
 calcitrapoides : turreted, with transverse muricated ribs, no striae 
 
 1 1 inch. 
 
 ' lienticitlutum : spire subolated and smooth at the top, the other whirls 
 denticulated with points in their upper parts, and striated be- 
 neath | inch.
 
 207 
 Cerithium, continued. 
 
 umbrellatum : the upper margins of the whirls denticulated, the under 
 ones crenulated and expanded in the teeth of the next whirl, no 
 striae, top of the spire smooth 1 inch. 
 lamellosum : ttirreted, subplicated ; distant transverse striae, base with 
 
 three transverse lamellae \\ inch. 
 thiara: turreted, rather cylindrical; whirls crowned with tubercles, 
 
 flat beneath ; the lip alated | inch. 
 
 mutabile : three transverse striae on each whirl, the lower whirl with 
 the upper stria tuberculated stronger than the others, upper whirl 
 with the striae all alike 1$ inch. 
 
 semieoronatum : turreted j three granular striae on each whirl, the up- 
 permost thickest ; a plait on the colmnella 1 inch. 
 cinctum : conical, turreted ; three granular striae, rather equal in size ; 
 
 a plait on the columella If inch. 
 plicatum : turreted, subcylindrical ; whirls granulated longitudinally 
 
 i inch. 
 conoideum: short, conoidal, three or four rows of grannlae on each 
 
 whirl ] inch. 
 confluens : turreted, with three transverse granulated keels, the lowest 
 
 the largest, granulae confluent inch. 
 davits : subulate; two or three transverse granular stria;, vertically 
 
 confluent ; base short and twisted $ inch. 
 baccillum : subulate, with eight or nine unequal obscure granular 
 
 stria? | inch. 
 scabrum : pyramidate ; echiuated with two deutated keels, the lower 
 
 the largest | inch. 
 asperellum : conical, with two dentated keels, teeth very small var.? 
 
 small. 
 tttrritellatum : turreted ; whirls convex, with three transverse striae, 
 
 and vertical bowed ribs 1 inch. 
 >nilra : conical, with four vjsrtical striae, crossed by small granular 
 
 ribs small. 
 pl&trotomoides : conical, turreted, with two rows of obtuse tubercles ; 
 
 a notch in the light lip small. 
 inrolutum : conical, turreted ; turns smooth, imbricating ; columella 
 
 twisted 1 inch. 
 tubwculosum : turreted; two rows of tubercles, the upper largest, the 
 
 lower margins crenulated 1J inch. 
 bicarinatum : turreted, with subangulated keels ; four transverse striae 
 
 at the base f inch. 
 
 trochleare : conical, subturreted; two transverse keels, raised and 
 dentated, crossed by vertical ribs, giving an alveolated appear- 
 . ance small. 
 trochiforme: conical, short; stria? obsolete; longitudinal ribs very 
 
 small. 
 muricoides: conical, ventricosej tubercular and granular stria? ; whirls 
 
 convex J inch. 
 
 purpura: conical, short; transversely striated, and distinctly tuber- 
 culated var.? & inch. 
 cenoidak : short ; the whirls flat, with unequally truncated and snbtn- 
 
 bercular striae small. 
 
 ntbulatum . turreted, with noduliform ribs and transverse obsolete 
 stria? ; opening oblong.
 
 208 
 Cerithium, continued. 
 
 lapidorum: turreted ; whirls convex, sub tubercular in the middle; 
 
 bowed vertical ribs, nearly obsolete Ij inch. 
 pttricoliim tnrretetl, smooth, with a thick border on the upper part 
 
 of the whirls, transversely grooved beneath 1 inch. 
 spiratum : round, tnrreted, smooth ; turns flat and channelled in the 
 
 upper part ; base with one groove, plicated outwardly 2| inches. 
 columnare : subulate, transverse and vertical striae decussating, with a 
 
 marginal groove beneath the upper margin 1 inch. 
 substriatum : conical, turreted, almost smooth ; the lower whirls with 
 
 simple distinct striae, the upper with obsoletely crenulated ones 
 
 1 inch. 
 quadrisulcatum subulate, turreted ; turns flat, with four grooves 
 
 | inch. 
 nmbilicittum subulate ; whirls flat with four transverse grooves ; the 
 
 columella umbilicated $ inch. 
 perforation : subulate ; whirls rather convex, finely striated ; columella 
 
 perforated inch. 
 clavosum : smooth, tnrreted, with obsolete striae ; the lower whirls 
 
 involving the upper \ inch. 
 cancellation: subulate, turreted; cancellated whirls convex; columella 
 
 subplicated small. 
 semigranosum : turreted, decussated with snbgranulated crossing striae ; 
 
 canal very short inch. 
 
 acicula : subulate, smooth ; whirls subcai inated inch. 
 terebrale : turreted, smooth convex; whirls with obsolete transverse 
 
 stria? small. 
 inversum : tnrreted, subulate, left-turned ; the whirls cancellated by 
 
 transverse keels and suboblique vertical striae f inch. 
 melanoidcs: oval, turriculated, with transverse stria; opening much 
 
 like that ofmelania very small. 
 larva: turreted, cylindrical ; whirlftwith two equal transverse granular 
 
 keels very small. 
 
 gracile : turreted and subulate ; whirls inversely imbricated *mall. 
 incertum : tnrreted ; whirls convex, with distant transverse striae and 
 
 more numerous vertical ones. 
 
 emarginatum : turreted, transversely sulcated, upper grooves granu- 
 lated, upper borders of the whirls subcanaliculated; the lip 
 
 notched 2 inches. 
 mgosum turreted, upper whirls decussatedly granulated, the lower 
 
 slightly sulcated with one groove, lowest rugous beneath 1$ inch. 
 giganteum : turreted, very long ; transversely striated ; whirls nodose 
 
 upwards; columella with one plait; opening oblong, oblique, 
 
 with a canal which rather terminates backwards ; upper part of 
 
 the right side with a lateral auriform elongation. 
 nudum : turreted ; whirls plicated in the upper part, numerous trans- 
 verse striae ; no plait on the columella 3 inches. 
 unisulcatum : turreted, numerous transverse striae, no plicae ; the turns 
 
 have a single, nearly central groove f inch. 
 turrit ellatvm ; turreted ; convex whirls with transverse unequal stria; ; 
 
 a notch in the right border of the opening small.
 
 209 
 Trochus. 
 
 crenularis: pyramitlate, transversely tuberculated, the lower margins 
 
 of the whirls thickly crenated with large tubercles; columella 
 
 truncated 1 inch. 
 Resembling trochus mauriiianus. 
 monilifer : conical, imperforate, transversely granulated in four rows ; 
 
 columella obliquely subtnincated; eight concentric rows of 
 
 grains on the base- \ inch. 
 sulcatus : conical, subperforated, transversely and elegantly grooved ; 
 
 the lower margin prominent. Analogous in some respects with 
 
 T. granulatus and conulus \ inch. 
 alligatvs : conical, imperforate, spotted ; whirls flat, with six unequal 
 
 lines, lowest thickest 1 inch. 
 ornatus : conical, imperforate ; whirls with numerous oblique ribs on 
 
 their upper part, on the lower two rows of small tubercles | inch. 
 subcarinatus : abbreviated, conical ; whirls smooth, the inferior borders 
 
 forming an obtuse keel ; base rather convex, finely striated circu- 
 larly, and perforated not inch. 
 bicarinatus: conical, imperforate; whirls smooth, with two distant 
 
 keels. 
 asglutinans*: conical, depressed, dilated at the base; whirls rude, 
 
 polyedral ; umbilicus internally plaited. 
 
 Solarium. 
 
 patulum : convex, with smooth whirls, with carinated and crennlated 
 
 borders ; umbilicus open f inch wide. 
 sulcatum : convex, with radiating grooves beneath ; whirls smooth 
 
 with a doubly-grooved border ; umbilicus concave, with crenn- 
 lated margins | inch. 
 canaliculatum : convex, with transverse grooves formed between strings 
 
 of grains ; umbilicus crenated and canaliculated 3 inch. 
 plioatum : convex, depressed, rugous, vertically sulcated ; umbilicus 
 
 crenated with large plicae nearly i inch. 
 spiratum : conoidal, smooth, snbstriated ; whirls flat, subcanaliculated 
 
 and crennlated in the upper part ; umbilicus granulated and cre- 
 
 nulated within. 
 ammonites: depressed, discoidal; turns flat, with snlcated vertical 
 
 rugae ; umbilicus open, crenated very small. 
 patellatum: depressed, discoidal, carinated ; turns flat, except on their 
 
 borders ; a platter-formed umbilicus ; margin subcrenulated 
 
 very small. 
 disjunctum : discoidal, carinated, smooth ; spire flat, lower surface 
 
 convex, the last whirl disjoined ; umbilicus serrated. 
 bifrons : discoidal, obtuse, smooth, spire sunk ; opposite side also sub- 
 
 umbilicated, the last turn including the rest very small. 
 
 Turbo. 
 
 squamulosus: conoidal, pointed, umbilicated; whirls convex, with five 
 
 squamose grooves not \ an inch. . 
 radiosus: globosely conoidal, five whirls deeply sulcated in the middle, 
 
 above and below radiate ly striated small. 
 
 * Trochus umbilicaris, Brand, Foss./g-. 4 and 5, wow Linnaei. 
 EC
 
 210 
 
 Turbo, continued. 
 
 helic inoides : depre$sedly couoidaJ, polished, a little spotted; four 
 
 whirls, smooth; base rather callous. 
 Resembles troch. vestiarius, Lin. 
 denticulat us : globosely conoidal, transversely striated; whirls four, 
 
 with two denticulated kels in the middle; base umbilicated very 
 
 small. 
 
 culcar : spire depressed ; whirls rough, keeled in the middle, keel armed 
 
 with spines nearly 1 inch widr. 
 lima: orbiculato-convex, rough, trans versely striated, ectinated with 
 
 concave sqnamous strije ; whirls round, but subangulate inch. 
 conica : conically pyramidal ; whirls smooth but bicariaated, last turn 
 
 disjoined small. 
 turbinoidev: obtusely conical, whirls obsoletely keeled, with minute 
 
 striae small. 
 marginata : roundish ; whirls smooth, umbilicus lessened by a border 
 
 small. 
 striata : roundish, transversely striated ; whirls subangular ; umbilicus 
 
 spiral very small. 
 sulcata : roundish, depressed j whirls deeply sulcated, lip serrated 
 
 very small. 
 canalifera: roundish ; smooth; margin of the umbilicus plaited; a ca- 
 
 nal passing spirally up its sides very small. 
 
 (Cyclostoma. 
 
 coruupastoris: orbiculato-convex ; transversely striated, whirls round, 
 
 detached at the base very small. 
 spiruloides : orbicular, smooth, pellucid very small. 
 planorbida : round, solid, umbilicated beneath very small. 
 macrosioma : orbicular, pellucid, mouth very open minute. 
 mumia: cylindraceo-conical; solid, longitudinal and transverse striae ; 
 
 opening ovate f inch. 
 turritellata : turreted; turns convex, with decussating striae very 
 
 small. 
 
 Planorbis. 
 
 nitidulu : smooth ; polished ; opening round very small- 
 subangulata : obsoletely carinated ; opening round but rather angular 
 
 very small. 
 
 bicarinata : transversely striated ; bicarinated. 
 spirorbis : belongs, perhaps, to Delphinula. 
 
 Scalaria. 
 
 crispa : turreted ; ribs numerous, subangulated at the base ; whirls 
 
 ventricose ineh. 
 ducussata : turreted ; long, transversely striated ; ribs longitudinal ; 
 
 whirls contiguous J inch. 
 
 dewtdata : turreted, ribs few, whirls distant inch. 
 monocycla: conical, whirls contiguous, a raised stria on the base of 
 
 the last turn -| inch. 
 plicata : turreled, small plicae-formed i ibs.
 
 211 
 
 Turritella. 
 
 imbricataria : subulated ; whirls flat, imbricated, transversely striated, 
 finely granulated intermediately 3 inches. 
 
 sulcata : conical, transversely sulcated, lowest grooves deepest, fine 
 vertical bowed striae 2 inches. 
 
 subcarinata: conical, transversely sulcated, grooves unequal, sepa- 
 rated by keels 1 inch. 
 
 fatciata : conical ; two grooves in ttie upper part of the wliirls ; aflat 
 zone in the middle divided by a fine striae f inch. 
 
 multisulcata : conical, whirls convex, numerous ; nearly equal grooves 
 1 inch. 
 
 terebellata: long, subulated, whirls subconvex, striated; with small in- 
 terstitial whirls .5 inches. 
 
 perforata: subulated, whirls flat and imbricating, with thrte transverse 
 striae and a raised margin ; columella perforated through its 
 whole length 1 inch. 
 
 vnisulcata : subulate; smooth flat whirls, one groove at the lower mar- 
 gin 1 inch. 
 
 uniangularis : conical, subulate, one transverse angle in the middle of 
 each whirl inch. 
 
 melanoides: conical, whirls flat with transverse stria; and grooves inter- 
 mixed ^ inch. 
 There exist numerous varieties of these species. 
 
 Bulla. 
 
 orulata: transversely striated, spire involved inch. 
 
 striatella : short, finely striated ; spire obtuse, upper edges of each 
 
 whirl carinated small. 
 
 cylindrica ' striae chiefly on the base, vertex umbilicated ' i inch. 
 corondta . oblong, snbcylindrical vertex umbilicated, the margin coro- 
 
 netted. 
 
 Bulinras. 
 
 albidus .' ovate, smooth, whirls rather convex ; opening semiovate. 
 Seems not to be fluviatile f inch. 
 
 citharellus . ovate conical ; transversely striated, longitudinal ribs, 
 
 apex papillated very small. 
 Marine ? Auricula ? 
 
 terebellatus.' turreted, umbilicated, very smooth, opening oval, angu- 
 lar at both sides f inch. 
 
 acicularis . turreted, long, thin small. 
 
 nitidus.- turreted, very smooth, whirls rather convex, lip sharp small. 
 
 sextonus . turreted, six smooth convex whirls, opening ovate small. 
 
 conulus.- conical, upper part of the whirls channelled, spire acute 
 very small. 
 
 clavulus.- whirls flat, striae transverse very small. 
 
 striatulus .' whirls convex, very finely striated very small. 
 
 nanus . whirls convex, with very small vertical plicae very small. 
 Several other shells are placed, doubtfully, under this genus, which 
 are hardly distinguishable from twbo, cyelost omus, &c. 
 
 Phasianella. 
 
 turbinoides . ovate; variously coloured, whirls smooth 5 inch.
 
 212 
 
 Lymnaea. 
 
 palustris.* oblong, substriated, with rather convex whirls, opening 
 ovate. 
 
 Melania. 
 
 costellata .' turreted, subulate, transversely striated, the upper part of 
 
 the lip channelled within 1 inch. 
 lactta .* turreted, thick whirls convex, lower, smooth ; upper striated 
 
 vertically 1 inch. 
 marginata . conical, tut reted, striae transverse, distant, whirls subca- 
 
 nalicula ted in the upper parts, opening bordered 1 inch. 
 hordacea .' turreted, striae transverse ; opening small small. 
 canalicularis : tnrreted, subulate, whirls convex, with fine transverse 
 
 striae small. 
 
 corrvgatu.- turreted, whirls decussated on their upper parts | inch. 
 semiplicata .' conical, transversely striated, vertically subplicated ; 
 
 opening with a produced sinus | inch. 
 nilida . subulate, pointed, whirls smooth and shining 4 inch. 
 semistriata.' upper whirls vertically striated; lower ones smooth 
 . small. 
 
 cochlearella .' with small long grooves ; lip produced somewhat like 
 
 cerithium J inch. 
 
 Jragilis . convex whirls, longitudinal grooves very small. 
 du/tia . o vato-conical ; ribbed vertically, striae small and transverse , 
 
 columella truncated small. 
 
 Auricula. 
 
 sitlcata . ovato-conical, transversely snlcated ; spire acute ; columella 
 with one plait f inch. 
 
 ot-ata.' ovato-acnte, snbventricose smooth; lip bordered internally; 
 columella subtriplicated \ inch. 
 
 ringens .' ovato-acute, rather turgid ; transversely striated ; lip bor- 
 dered with a callous margin; columella subtriplicated very 
 small. 
 
 miliola.- ovato-conical ; smooth, columella with one fold very small. 
 
 hordeola.- ovato-conical, smooth; lip striated within ; columella with 
 one fold small. 
 
 acicula . tnrreted, subcylindrical, smooth ; columella one fold small. 
 
 terebeUata,' turreted, smooth, opening semiovate; columella with 
 three folds small. 
 
 Volvaria. 
 
 bulloides .' cylindrical, transversely striated ; spire pointed and nearly 
 included inch. 
 
 Arapullaria. 
 
 pygma'u.' ventricose, smooth; base umbilicated; aperture long 
 very small. 
 
 excavata.' ventricose, smooth; columella with a sinuous excavation 
 small. 
 
 conica." ovato-conical, whirls smooth and convex ; umbilicus half co- 
 vered | inch. 
 
 scuta.' ventricose, spire short and pointed ; umbilicus half covered 
 I inch.
 
 213 
 
 Ampullaria, continued. 
 
 acuminata.- ventricose ; spire long and pointed ; umbilicus covered. 
 
 spirata .' snbventricose ; whirls flat on the top, with an acute border. 
 
 depressa.' globose, turns convex on the upper part; columella de- 
 pressed in the lower part 1 inch. 
 
 canaliculata .' globose ; spire short and canaliculated ; a spiral groove 
 accompanying the umbilicus \ inch. 
 
 patula*.' ventricose; spire short; umbilical groove covered over; 
 lip wide, subanriculated if inch. 
 
 sigaretina . ventricose, imperforate ; spire short; lip large if inch. 
 
 crassatina .' globose, thick, imperforate; base of the columella spread 
 out ; spire canaliculated 3 inches. 
 
 hybrida.' globose, imperforate ; columella effused Ij inch. 
 
 Serpula. 
 
 intorta . rather angtilated, contortedly agglomerated, plicae transverse. 
 
 cristata .' round, with denticulated ribs ; contorted in a discoidal spire, 
 the other end extended France. 
 
 spirulcea.- compressed, smooth; discoidal spire, fore part disjoined, 
 sharp edge Bayonne. 
 
 minima .' capillary, glomerated Grignon. 
 
 echinata . flexuous, with snbspinous ribs. 
 
 sulcata / round, subglomerated, straight forward, numerous subdentated 
 longitudinal folds Tonraine. 
 
 costalis . angtilated, loosely contorted, base subspirated. smooth, lon- 
 gitudinal. 
 
 denttfcra.' round, contorted, with two or three dentiferous longitudinal 
 folds Italy. 
 
 Balanus. 
 
 sulcatus.' conical, obtnse long grooves ; radiating trans verse stria?. 
 
 lintinnabulum . conical, sub ventricose ; longitudinally lineated, trans- 
 verse striated rays ; rostrated backwards Italy. 
 
 cylindraceus . narrow base, elongated, snbventricose Turin. 
 
 miser.- gregarious, short, valves straight, back in the lower part with 
 two or three grooves; opening dilated; valves of operciilum 
 pointed Italy. 
 
 pustularis .' short, subconical ; valves smooth, six rays, two solitary, 
 the rest in pairs Piedmont. 
 
 crispatuss conical; five distinct rays; valves naked at the apex, 
 muricated at their base Italy. 
 
 Clavagella. 
 
 echinata.' ventricose, echinated all over; on one side with tubular 
 
 spines Grignon. 
 
 Fistulana echinata, Ann. du Mus. Tom. VII, p. 429, PI. XII, fig. 43. 
 cristata.' a crest of tubular spines on one side -Grignon. 
 tibialis . naked, compressed ; valve discoverable Grignon. 
 Brocchii . pyrifonn, set with short tubes Italy. 
 
 Fistulana. 
 
 ampullaria: sheath ampullaceous, produced, opening bicaritiated Grig. 
 pyrum .* sheath pyriform, plain Italy. 
 
 * Helix mutabilit, Brand, Foss. No. 51.
 
 214 
 
 Teredina. 
 
 personate .' straight, sinus and lobules like a mask CourtagnoH. 
 buccillum . solid, straight, and round Italy. 
 
 Solen. 
 
 vagina." linear, straight ; one tooth Grlgnon. 
 
 coarctatus . oblong, transversely striated, contracted in the middle. 
 
 fragilis . analogue ofsoten cultdlus ? 
 
 ejfusus . ovato-oblong, straight, smooth, subangulated forward. 
 
 Somewhat resembling solen vespertinus. 
 strigilalus , ovato-oblong, with oblique imbricating strrse. 
 appendiculatus . elliptical, smooth ; an appendicnlar part at the base 
 small. 
 
 Glycimeris. 
 
 margaritaceu . ovate, truncated forwards Grignon. 
 
 Lutraria. 
 
 solenoidess transverse, rugaeform striae; foreside very long; apex 
 
 rounded, gaping much Mount Marius. 
 elliptica . transverse striae very small Bordeaux. 
 crassidens . solid, opaque, substria ted ; cardinal tooth thick. 
 
 Mactra. 
 
 dt'ltoides .' ovato-trigonal, shorter behind ; elegantly plicated by the 
 corselet and lunnle Grignon and Bonrdeaux. 
 
 Crassatella. 
 
 tumida." ovato-trigonal; gibbous and thick with age; the foreside 
 angulated ; base transversely snlcated ; margin dentated within. 
 
 siiiuata.- obliquely trigonal; foreside angulated, winding Bordeaux. 
 
 striatula.' ovato-trigonal, with numerous fine transverse grooves or 
 strize St Brieux. 
 
 compressa.' ovato-orbiculate, rather flat; angulated forwards ; trans- 
 verse striae, most prominent at the base Grignon & Conrtagnoii. 
 
 lamellosa . transversely oblong, with distant erect lamelliform ridges ; 
 valves crennlated Grignon. 
 
 trigonata . orbicularly trigonal ; transversely grooved ; base rather 
 smooth ; border smooth Grignon. 
 
 lutissima . elliptical, compressed ; unequally sulcated transversely ; 
 border smooth Saint Iries. 
 
 Erycina. 
 
 ketiss orate, polished j striae very fine, transverse; hinge with two 
 
 teetb. 
 
 pellucida.' ovato-orbicular ; with one very small tooth. 
 trigona . ovato-triangular ; one smooth tooth. 
 inequilateral.' obovate, tumid, smooth ; two small teeth. 
 fragUif .' ovato-transverse ; thin and pellucid ; two teeth. 
 elliptica .* depressed in the middle ; transverse striae, very fine ; two 
 
 hinge teeth ; pit intermediate.
 
 215 
 
 Corbula. 
 
 gallic* .' ovate-transverse ; larger valve turgid, finely striated to the 
 
 base, that being smooth Grignon.' 
 
 costulata . the less valve with radiating longitudinal i ibs ; base smooth. 
 rugwa.' trigonal, ventricose; thick transverse grooves; angulated 
 
 forwards, rather pointed Grignon. 
 striata . ovato-transverse ; rather beaked, elegantly striated trans- 
 
 versely Griguou and Courtagnou. 
 
 Petrieola. 
 
 chamoidcs.- ovate, inflated, thick; with longitudinal ruga;, curled and 
 lamellated toward the margin on the upper side; the foreside 
 widest Italy. 
 
 Psainmotaea. 
 
 soletioiJes , oWongo-elliptical, smooth ; base ratlier prominent ; hinge 
 about the middle, one toeth-^Grignon, 
 
 Tellina. 
 
 paldlaris . elliptical, rather compressed ; fine transverse stria? ; hinge 
 with two teeth Grignon. 
 
 scalaroides . rotundato-ovate; with transverse, fine, distant raised striae; 
 two teeth Grignon. 
 
 roslralis . oblongo-transverse, narrow ; transversely sulcated ; beaked 
 on the foreside Grignon. 
 
 zonaria . ovate, flat ; very finely striated transversely ; brownish mi- 
 equal zones, rather acutely angulated forwards. 
 
 pat ellaris . approaches to T. remies, Lin. If inch Grignon. 
 
 scularoides . ovato-elliptical ; transverse strias, raised, distant, and 
 regular, like the steps of a ladder l|inch long Grignon. 
 
 carinulata . orbiculato-elliptical, rounded at both tides ; rather remote, 
 elevated and carinated stria. 
 
 sinuata .' ovato-elliptical, short and obtuse forward ; a depression on 
 the disk rendering it sinuous ; striae transverse, very fine Grign. 
 
 donacialis." ovato-oblique, smooth; very short on the foreside, scarcely 
 inflected ; two wedge-like teeth, one grooved Grignon. 
 
 rostralis . oblongo-transverse, narrow, transversely sulcated ; the fore- 
 part beaked, subbiangulated ; two very small teeth on one valve, 
 and one on the other Parnes and Grignon. 
 
 comeola . ovate, subpellncid, angulated forwards ; very small trans- 
 verse stria;. 
 
 pusilla . ovate, pellucid, smooth, with an oblique small pit added to 
 the hinge tooth- Grignou. 
 
 rudis .' oblongo-ovate, transverse, rather smooth ; the foreside ob- 
 tusely angulated Grignon. 
 
 Corbis. 
 
 lamellosa . transversely elliptical ; cancellated, but on the posterior 
 
 part, the lamellae only dentated Grignon. 
 petunculug . round, ventricose; cancellated at the back part, the 
 
 transverse lamellae plaited and serrated Granville.
 
 216 
 Lucina. 
 
 mu.ta.Hlis.' orbiculato-ovate, compressed radiating stria inside the 
 valve ; the teeth lost with age. Two teeth, one divided, giving 
 the appearance of three 3 or 4 inches Grignon. 
 
 cuncentrica . orbicular ; rather flatly convex ; raised concentric la- 
 mellae, with minute longitudinal interstitial striae, sometimes 
 none Grignon. 
 
 circinana . orbicular ; subaugulate forwards ; very small transverse 
 s trite ; hardly any lateral teeth Grignon. 
 
 columbella, .' suborbicular; transversely sulcated on the side; base 
 projecting with deep grooves, bowed obliquely Touraine. 
 
 Donax. 
 
 retusa . wedge-form, flat, blunt forwards ; fine transverse stria?, mar- 
 gins entire 1 inch wide Parnes. 
 
 incompleta . ovato-triangular ; smooth, round on the foreside ; two 
 hinge teeth, no lateral ones small Beynes. 
 
 tellinella.- ova to-oblong, finely striated transversely; remote lateral 
 teeth ; margins entire small Grignon. 
 
 nitida.- ovato-obloug, smooth, polished ; two lateral teeth small. 
 
 lunnlata . orbiculato-ovate, flat ; blunt at the foreside, the striae very 
 fine | inch Houdau. 
 
 obliqua . longitudinal, ovately oblique, smooth ; margins entire ; one 
 tooth on one valve and two on the other; vestiges only of lateral 
 ones. 
 
 Cyprina. 
 
 gigas.' large, cordato-rotund, with fine remote stria; large opening 
 beneath the beaks ; lateral teeth obsolete :> inches Italy. 
 
 islandica .- cordate; striated transversely ; retains epidermis; foreside 
 rather angular ; no posterior depression Sienna. Italy. 
 
 Piedmontana .' round, thin ; transversely grooved ; posterior opening 
 oblong ; lateral tooth obsolete 2 inches environs de Turin. 
 
 corrugata.' o vato -cordate ; grooved transversely, with interstitial ver- 
 tical strias ; impression posterior 4- inches Italy. 
 
 tridacnoides . transversely ovate ; corrugated, striae vertical ; plicated 
 on the upper surface. 
 
 tenuistria .' longitudinally ovate, thick brown, white within, transverse 
 concentric striae, border crenated ; no posterior opening, with an 
 isolated tooth as in cytherea concentricn. 
 
 islandicoidfs / roundish ; longer than wide ; cordated, stria trans- 
 versely upwards ; foreside not angulated ; no posterior opening. 
 
 umbonaria . rounded and cordate, subantiquated ; delicately striated 
 
 transversely ; base tumid ; no opening beneath the beaks. 
 Venus angulata, Sowerby. 
 
 Cytherea. 
 
 erycinoldes .' rather depressed, white spotted with brown, transverse 
 
 grooves, very obtuse Bordeaux. 
 Analogue, ce do nvlli 2 
 
 multilamella .' inequilateral, distinct, transverse grooves Montmarin. 
 scutellaria .' suborbicular, thin, rather flat ; striae distant 2$ inches. 
 demisulcata .' ovato-trigonal ; on the upper part of the foreside trans- 
 versely sulcated ; sides flat ; corselet sunk Grignon.
 
 217 
 
 Cytherea, continued. 
 
 nitidula . ovate, inequilateral ;, small transverse striae, sometimes obso- 
 lete Grignon. 
 
 polita . ovate, rather flat ; beaks very small, recurved, pointed. 
 
 antiquata .' trigonal, subcordated, transversely striated; grooves be- 
 neath the beaks \\ inch wide Pontchariu. 
 
 IcEi-igata.' ohlongo-transverse, smooth, polished; beak obtuse, recurv- 
 ed Grignon. 
 
 telliwria.' obovato-trigonal, smooth; lunule ovato-oblong Grignon. 
 
 elegans . ovato-orbiculate ; with transverse, parallel grooves ; lunule 
 ovate inch. 
 
 deltoidea .' ovato-trigonal ; fine transverse stria? ; hinder side rounded 
 small. 
 
 corbulina.' suborbicular, ventricose; transverse striae very slight; 
 valves very thick and concave very small. 
 
 Venus. 
 
 casinoidca . cordated, oblique, compressed, angulated forwards ; trans- 
 verse, sublamellous grooves, most numerous in the upper part of 
 the valves Italy. 
 Resembles V. casina. 
 
 paphia , subcordate, subcompressed, oblique, with thick transverse 
 rugae North Carolina. 
 
 aratina . subcordated, trigonoidal ; concentric, transverse striae ; inner 
 margin crenulated Touraine. 
 
 obliqua .' long and rounded, rather smooth ; beak obliquely recurved. 
 
 cullosa .' orbiculato-cordated, subangulate; beaks prominent, obliquely 
 incurved ; valves callous internally, externally striated Grignon. 
 
 texta .' ovate ; cancellated by the intersections of oblique lines ; la- 
 nule oval. 
 
 Venericardia. 
 
 planicosta . obliquely cordated, very thick ; transversely ribbed, rib* 
 
 flat; entire. 
 
 Chama rhomboiden, Brocch. 
 petuncularis . orbicular, snbeqnilateral; ribs convex, snbimbricated, 
 
 laterally muricated Beauvais. 
 imbricata . snborbicular ; ribs convex, imbricatedly squamous, nodose, 
 
 rough Grignon. 
 a&tticosta / suborbicular ; ribs carinated, squamoso-dentated, rather 
 
 rough . 
 mitis . suborbicular; numerous, separate, compressed ribs ; back 
 
 smooth, crennlated behind Boves. 
 senilis.' obliquely cordated, very inequilateral, with large convex, ob- 
 
 soletely crenulated ribs Angers. 
 coneentrica . snborbicular, rather depressed ; concentric, elevated, la- 
 
 mellose striae, with grooves Chamont. 
 decussatas suborbicular; longitudinal ribs cancellated by transverse 
 
 striae ; hinge teeth divaricated Grignon. 
 
 elegans.' suborbicular; numerous elevated, compressed ribs, backs 
 squamosely serrated Grignon. 
 
 F f
 
 21 H 
 Cardiuin. 
 
 distant .' tumid, subequilateral ; sixteen ribs, obtuse, smooth, and dis- 
 tant England. 
 
 ech'tatum . tumid ; ribs flat, grooved, with thick earformed papilla. 
 
 IturJigalinum .' gaping forward*, ribs smooth in the middle, errato-spi- 
 nose before, and crenato sqnamous in the hinder part ; border of 
 the opening deeply seriated Bordeaux. 
 
 parulosum . margin serrated with ligulated teeth; ribs carinated, cre- 
 nulated, and pornlous at their base Grignon. 
 
 sulcdlinum .- longitudinally sulcated; corselet and Innule smooth. 
 
 rhnmboidcs.' suMrausverse: sixteen distant ribs, transversely sulrated. 
 
 diturianuin . angulated in the foie part-, fourteen* ribs, distant, con- 
 vex; corselet raised, subcai iuated Sienna. 
 
 wrigerum .' thirty ribs, with serraifbrm teeth; sharpest on the fore- 
 .-idr Grignon. 
 
 Telluris . shaped somevviiat Kkc cardium cardissa ; the carinatcd back 
 of the valves sulcated ; the anteiior side flat; back part convex; 
 with obtuse entire keels Mons and St. Jean d'Asie. 
 
 lithoctirdimn . subtrilateral; valves with carinated ribs on the back, 
 diminishing upwards, very sharp. 
 
 cijmlmlaria .' long, subtrilateral; valves with carinated ribs, diminish- 
 ing to points upwards ; longitudinally sulcated Valogne. 
 
 umbonare .' obliquely cordated; seventeen rib*, transversely striated; 
 base large Sienna. 
 
 Hillanum .' obliquely cordaied ; transveipp, close, concentric striae ; 
 longitudinally sulcated on the foreside England. 
 
 hibernicum . rounded; valves snlcated and cammed ; sides trans- 
 veisely produced, pervious at tlie extremity, hinder part shortest, 
 truncated, projecting in the middle England. 
 
 discors.' subcordated, thin, rather smooth; with longitudinal striae 
 anteriorly, and transverse ones posteiir.r!y. 
 
 poruloium . subcordated ; edge serrated ; ribs raised, crenulated, 
 carinated, thin, poruious at the base. 
 
 aspemlum .' roundish, cor^ated, >ubecliii^ited ; numerous stibsqunmous 
 convex ribs, about tbirty-tw o ; with erect fornicated tquamae. 
 
 calcitrapoides .' roundish cordated ; fore part echinated; convex ribs, 
 twenty to twenty-two, mostly smooth, bot sharp in the fore part. 
 
 Cardita. 
 
 ga.ttica.na: romided'y riiomboidal, obliqne; ribs radiating, subsqmt- 
 mose ; upward, the squamae more distant Angers. 
 
 rudista : obliquely cordated, transverse; ribs round, separated; 
 sqiiamose'.y echinated in the forepart Siemia. 
 
 F.lrusca: obliquely cordated ; ribs nearly fl^t and smooth Sienna. 
 
 crassa: oblong, rather winding backwards; ribs thick, rounded, im- 
 bricatedly squamose; squamae obtuse. 
 
 Cypricardia. 
 
 caralliophapa : thin, oblong, rather cylindrical ; decussatedly striated ; 
 
 compressed before ; marginal striae prominent in lamina? Italy. 
 mndiolaris: oval-oblong; tumid; transverse, bowed striae; Iiinuie 
 
 ovate, impressed Caen.
 
 219 
 Cypricardia, continued. 
 
 obliqua: obliquely cordated, convex, rather smooth; upper border 
 
 rounded ; no transverse striae Mouliers. 
 trigona: cordato-trigona!, short: with very small transverse striae. 
 
 Isocardia. 
 
 Cor: cordato-globose, smooth Italy. 
 
 arietina: oblongo-cordate, with deep longitudinal grooves; bases large, 
 terminating in two contorted turns Italy. 
 
 Cucullaea. 
 
 crassatina: subcordated, ventricose, with interrupted longitudinal 
 grooves, sometimes none; a very short internal auricle Beauvais. 
 
 Area. 
 
 scapha: transversely oblong, veutrifose, many ribbed; the ribs flat; 
 
 nmbos oblique Demifossil Timor. 
 diluvii : ovato-transverse, ventricose, many ribbed ; ribs thirty-two 
 
 to tliirty-six, fiat, transversely striated ; area sloping ; margin 
 
 crenated 2 inches wide Plaisance. 
 biungula : transversely oblong; decussated, with grannlato-squamous 
 
 striae, the foreside produced, with two angles lj inch wide. 
 scapulina: oblongo-ovate ; transverse, windingly contracted in the 
 
 middle; with longitudinal grooves closely granulated Grignon. 
 Area barbatula, Anuales dii Mus. 
 
 interrupta: ovato-oblong ; transverse, depressed, longitudinally groov- 
 ed ; hinge interrupted, with few teeth ; beaks contiguous Fames. 
 clathrata: ovato- trans verse, depressed, finely cancellated ; foreside 
 
 oblique, beaks approximated f inch Angers. 
 angusta: transversely oblong ; narrow, rather depressed; decussated; 
 
 beaks approximated Grignon. 
 quadrilatera : transverse, oblongo-qnadrate, windiugly depressed iu 
 
 the middle, decussating striae ; the long stride most conspicuous. 
 myti loides : oblong, very smooth, obsoletely striated longitudinally ; 
 
 valves compressed in the middle Plaisance. 
 
 Pectunculus. 
 
 puliinattis: orbiculated, transverse, snbequilateral ; with longitudinal 
 
 grooves and striae -, beaks small Grignon. 
 Analogue of P. glycemeris ? 
 
 ear: obliquely cordate; tumid; with longitudinal, rather distinct 
 grooves ; base subturgid Bordeaux. 
 
 oboi-utus : convex, subeqnilateral ; very thick, superior margin round- 
 ed ; no longitudinal stria; Weissenstein. 
 
 planicostalis : ovato-orbiculatc; ribs numerous, small, flat, angular on 
 one side ; transverse striae obsolete Pontchartrain. 
 
 transcersus : elliptical transversely, rather tumid ; equilateral ; re- 
 mote longitudinal grooves, with very fine decussating striae. 
 
 nitdicardo: transversely elliptical, lun-.id , hinge, without teeth in the 
 middle ; but few at the extremities. 
 
 subconcentricus : suboval, rounded, convex, longitudinally striated; 
 
 some distant, transverse, concentric grooves on the upper part. 
 An P. desnssatus, Sowprby .'
 
 220 
 
 Pectunculus, continued. 
 
 nummiformis : lenticular, not eared, rather smooth ; transversely con- 
 centric, and longitudinal stria?, blended or separate Touraine. 
 
 pygmtBus : orbicular, subequilateral, depressedly convex, small, with 
 transverse and decussating longitudinal striae Grignon. 
 
 nuculatus : inequilateral, obliquely transverse; very fine transverse 
 striae , beaks conniving Grignon. 
 
 Nucula. 
 
 rostralis : transverse, oblong, gradually rostrated forwards, base tumid , 
 
 corselet concave, lanceolated Bourgogne. 
 
 emarginata : ovate ; striae obliquely transverse ; foreside produced. 
 deltoidea : triangular, inflated ; foreside obliquely truncated ; rounded 
 
 backward ; corselet flat Grignon. 
 ptacentina : ovately transverse ; rattier large, oblique, longitudinally 
 
 striated, pearly within, margin crenulated. 
 margaritacea : obliquely ovate, subtriaugular, rather smooth, internally 
 
 pearly ; prominent hinge tooth Grignon. 
 ttriata : ovate, subplicated forwards, with elegant transverse stria- ; no 
 
 hinge tooth Grignon. 
 
 Trigonia. 
 
 tcabra : ovato-trigonal, produced forwards, with transverse tubeicu. 
 
 latedly scabious ribs. 
 T. spinosa?St. Paul-Trois chateaux. 
 
 crenulata : ovato-trigonal, produced forwards, many ribbed ; ribs trans- 
 verse, bowed, obliquely crenated, with numerous oblong crenula- 
 tions -Mons. 
 
 asperu: ovato-trigonal, subcompressed, produced forwards; ribs trans- 
 verse, remote, tuberculatedly rough ; corselet raised, more smooth,' 
 but carinated. 
 
 tUedalea: ovato-rhomboidal, subangulated, rather depressed, forepart 
 with rather large hemispherical tubercles in transverse rows ; 
 hinder, with smaller tubercles in varying directions Coulaines. 
 
 nan'.? : ovato-trigonal ; extended and compressed forwards ; longitudi- 
 nal tuberculato-nodose ribs ; hinder area flat, transversely ribbed. 
 
 costata: ovatu-angulated ; trigonal; ribs smooth, transverse; corselet 
 large, longitudinally grooved, carinated in the upper part Havre. 
 
 lulcataria: trigonal, subcuneated, produced anteriorly, and becoming 
 thinner ; posterior transverse and 'anterior longitudinal grooves ; 
 corselet striated transversely. 
 
 sinuosa: ovato-angulated, trigonal; transverse smooth ribs, sinuously 
 angular ; corselet smooth. 
 
 rugosa: ovato-trigonal, depressed, subangulated, with transverse ru> 
 gaeform ribs; anterior ones smooth, posterior subtuberculated. 
 
 crassatellina : trigonal, depressed, with transverse angularly plaited 
 grooves ; margin crenulated. 
 
 cardissoides : cordated, depressed on the sides, valves raised iu a flat 
 
 keel on the back ; beaks prominent, rather remote. 
 Assumed to be of this genu, but the hinge not known.
 
 221 
 
 Trigonia, continued. 
 
 inflata: trigonal, turgid, produced forwards, wedge-shaped, rather 
 
 smooth, truncated behind ; the posterior area much cordated. 
 Bourguet, Petrif. 15 "3. 
 
 arcuata : trigonal ; longitudinal, bowed ribs ; obsolete, decussating 
 transverse grooves ; beaks compressed. 
 
 Chama. 
 
 l<evigata : left-turned, smooth, fixed obliquely ; small valve flat, sub- 
 concave. 
 
 gryphina: left-turned, imbricated ; with unequal, for the most part, 
 depressed squama? on the smaller valve ; the border partly cremi- 
 lated Piedmont. 
 
 lacernata: the smaller valve fiat, suban liquated; thick waving trans- 
 verse frills, back longitudinally striated Mont Marine. 
 
 turgidula: rounded, turgid; small valve convex, imbricated, with 
 short overlying lamellae ; back striated. 
 
 echinulata : oval, tumid, echinated with numerous subtubulated sqna- 
 muize Plaisance. 
 
 unicornaria; subimbricated, rough, with unequal, semierect, vaulted 
 squamae ; base of the larger valve extended. 
 
 lamellosa : ovate, rounded, transversely plicated, with pointed, fimbri- 
 ated, concentric, lamelliferous folds; lamellae dentated Grignon. 
 
 calcarata : orbiculate, with acute distant transverse folds ; the upper 
 ones echinated in rays with very long caualiculated spines. 
 
 Tridacna. 
 
 pustulosa : transversely fusiform, ribbed, waved, sprinkled with nu- 
 merous pustules; lips of the lunule reflected Normandy. 
 
 Modiola. 
 
 subcarinata : oblong, smooth ; lower margin keeled ; upper curved in- 
 ward Grignon. 
 
 tulipea: oblong, windingly contracted upwards; obsoletely keeled be- 
 neath; scutellum of the beaks circumscribed with ribs Havre. 
 
 cordata : oblong, snbcordated beneath ; ribs at the beak, very tumid. 
 
 solenoides : elongate, narrow, roundedly angulate, rather bowed ; fore- 
 part obliquely sulcated ; no keel Chauffeur. 
 
 lithophagites : long, straight, roundish beneath, thin ; upper part rather 
 
 depressed. 
 Presumed fossil. 
 
 Mytili. 
 
 scapularis: subtrigonal, ovatcdly wedge-form; forepart obliquely 
 rounded, margin sharp ; hindpart blunt, grooved longitudinally, 
 subdecussated Coulaines. 
 
 margaritaceus : oblong, thin, pearly, tumid, posteriorly forming a longi' 
 tudinal smooth rib ; longitudinal and transverse striae England. 
 
 Pinna. 
 
 subquadrivalvis : narrow, wedge-form ; rabtetragonal ; doual angle of 
 the valves lit Parma.
 
 222 
 
 Perna. 
 
 majcillata: trigonal, convexo-depressed, thick; hinge very broad, fur- 
 rowed with numerous long snlciform teeth Virginia. 
 mytiloides: ovato oblong, depressed, base pointed; hinge oblique. 
 
 Avicula. 
 
 trigonata : very small ; wing very oblique ; foreside subtruncated, with 
 
 a bowed sinus Grignon. 
 phalcenacea : small, wing very oblique, hinder ear longitudinally 
 
 grooved Bordeax. 
 
 Lima. 
 
 xputhulata : oblongo-ovate, depressed upwards, rays squamalous, hiuge 
 
 straight Grignon. 
 mutica: ovate, oblique, inequilateral, botli sides gaping, rays smooth, 
 
 rather sharp. 
 plicata : ovate, inequilateral, subtrnncated forwards ; rays plicaeform, 
 
 obtuse, rather smooth, obsoletely squamous Touraiae. 
 vitrea: oblong, thin, pellucid, depressed, hinge oblique Grignon. 
 dilatata: roundedly ovate, oblique, depressed, rays thin, obsolete, 
 
 distant. 
 
 Plagiostoma. 
 
 transversal large, transversely ovate, upper part rounded ; lower sides 
 oblique ; numerous longitudinal grooves, transversely striated 
 6 inches wide. 
 
 semilunaris : large, trigonal, smooth, very wide on the foreside, semi- 
 circular, with a sharp edge, hinder side truncated, thick, subcon- 
 cave, one-eared Calvades. 
 
 turgida: longitudinally grooved, upper valve witli sharp serrulated 
 grooves; the other with smooth and obtuse ones Chateau de Loir. 
 
 depressa : suborbicular, lower part rather thin, upper rounded, small 
 longitudinal striae divaricating to the side. 
 
 sulcata : ovate, lower part subacute, longitudinally radiiform, subca- 
 rinated grooves. 
 
 inequicahis: upper valve flat, longitudinally striated ; near the border 
 rough with vaulted squaniulze Bordeaux. 
 
 Pec ten. 
 
 solarium: suborbicular; rather convex on both sides; rays 6fteen or 
 
 eighteen, distinct, flat, scarcely any longitudinal stria? Doue\ 
 multiradiatus: convex on both sides ; eighteen to twenty rays, distinct, 
 
 convex, and smooth. 
 rugosus: convex on both sides; fourteen to eighteen convex rays; 
 
 transversely rugose Normandy. 
 laticostatus : suborbicular, large, convex on both sides, seven to ten 
 
 flat, very broad, faint, rays ; grooves longitudinal, obsolete. 
 The largest pecten known 8 inches wide. 
 rotundatus : suborbicular, convex on both sides ; fourteen to sixteen 
 
 distinct convex rays, flat towards the circumference Vence. 
 burdigalense : suborbicular, very wide, convex, radiated on both side?, 
 
 from twelve to fourteen convex rays, becoming flat towards the 
 
 circumference 5| inches.
 
 2-23 
 Pecten, continued. 
 
 aculicosta : suborbicnlar, rather convex on both sides, with twenty-one 
 rays on the back, acute and smooth ij inches. 
 
 asper : suborbicular, convex on both sides; twenty to twenty-two rays, 
 longitudinal, imbricated, squamous, rough, divided by grooves 
 05 inches. 
 
 bened ictus : inequivalved, upper valve plano-concave. lower very con- 
 vex ; twelve to fourteen flat rays, distinct, transversely striated. 
 
 eiongatus : ovalo-oblong; twenty-six to thirty rays, thin, unequal, sub- 
 denticulated j inches Mons. 
 
 subacuttis: longitudinal, ovately wedge-form : twenty-four close, equal 
 rays, sharp on the back 1 inch. 
 
 phased us : very small, oblongo-trigonal ; lower valve bowed inwards; 
 rays smalt, close, striaeform, equal | inch Coulaines. 
 
 tequicostutus : unequal valved, trigonal, upper valve flat; under valve 
 tumid, bowed inwards ; twenty-eight to thirty rays, close, equal, 
 smooth Mons. 
 
 reraicostatus : unequal valved, trigonal; upper valve flat ; under valve 
 tumid, bowed, curved inwards; numerous close rays, some remote, 
 others more raised Mons. 
 
 costangularis : unequal valved ; lower valve bowed, curved inwards ; 
 four large anjuliform, longitudinal, grooved rays Decize. 
 
 orbicular is : suborbicular, depressed, rather convex, no rays, striae 
 transverse, concentric Coulaines. 
 
 discors: subinequi valved, roundedly trigonal, rays ten , fine transverse 
 rugae on the other valve Chauffonr. 
 
 pulmatus : ovato-rotundate, rive or six faint rays ; one ear very large. 
 
 iepidolaris : ovato-rotundate ; with twenty squamoso-imbricated rays : 
 squamae small, disposed in many rows 1 inch Boutonnet. 
 
 sieniensis : suborbicular, convex on both sides ; stria? longitudinal 
 1$ inch. 
 
 striatulus : suborbicular, convex on both sides ; ten or twelve thick 
 rays; interstices longitudinally striated 1| inch. 
 
 imequicvstalig : suborbicular, twelve to fourteen unequal rays, with the 
 interstices longitudinally striated lj inch. 
 
 ttutularis: ovato-rotuudate, subdepressed, small; twenty to twenty- 
 five equal rays, rather sharp on the back J inch Bourgogne. 
 
 icabrellus : suborbicular, with fifteen sulcated rays, squamously denti- 
 culated ; tars unequal l^ inch Italy. 
 
 plebcius: suborbicular, with twenty-five to thirty angulato-sulcated 
 rays ; sides squamosely scabrous Grignon. 
 
 pumibis : very small, roundedly ovate ; ten or twelve rays. 
 
 squamula: very small, orbicular. 
 
 Plicatula. 
 
 artgulosa : oblong, wedge-formed ; with large unequal folds, backs an- 
 gular, squamose 2 inches. 
 
 radiola : rounded ; plano-concave upwards ; with numerous subsqua- 
 mous radiating ribs; margin plaited | inch. 
 
 placunea: obliquely oval, plano-concave upwards; with squamous rti- 
 berculated radiating ribs and stria? ; margin plain Env. de Paris ? 
 
 ostrfiforme : rounded, irregular ; with oblique folds, snbsquauiose.
 
 224 
 Plicatula, continued. 
 
 tubifera : subirregular, varied, windingly flattish ; echiuated with short 
 
 tubular squama;. 
 rugosa: oval, very hollow; upper valve flat, longitudinally sulcated ; 
 
 obsolete, transverse, concentric ruga?, margin entire 2| inches. 
 
 Spondylus. 
 
 crassicosta: rounded, very wide; ribbed and grooved longitudinally. 
 
 rasiellum : sublongitudinal, thick, very hollow, ribs and grooves lon- 
 gitudinal, rough, with unequal squamae 3 inches long and 2$ 
 wide Turin. jp 
 
 radula: obliquely rounded; with slight longitudinal grooves, rough 
 from squamae ; with others, interstitial, smaller and smoother 
 ij inch Grignon. 
 
 podopsideus : trigono-cuneate, rather smooth on the upper part, longi- 
 tudinally sulcated, distant tuberculiferous ribs on the larger valve; 
 tubercles fornicated '2$ inches Havre. 
 
 Podopsis. 
 
 truncata : longitudinal, wedge-formed, rounded upwards, suboblique ; 
 
 with fine longitudinal striae, sometimes rough with a few spines; 
 
 the extended beak crenated Touraine. 
 gryphoides : ovato-rotundate, extremely ventricose beneath, smooth, 
 
 adherent by the larger beak. 
 
 Gryphaea. 
 
 columba: ovately rotundate, dilated smooth, with a small oblique 
 hook Mons. 
 
 fymbium : ovately rotundate, rather smooth, upper valve concave, hook 
 slightly oblique. 
 
 arcuata: oblong, incurved, transversely rugose; with a large sub- 
 oblique hook. 
 G. incurva, Sowerby. 
 
 secunda : oblong, with oblique beak. 
 
 lituo/a: larger valve fiat on one side; with tuberculated rib, subcari- 
 nated on one side. 
 
 plicata: bowed, carinated beneath; folds oblique; with a lateral 
 hook Gazonfier. 
 
 distans : variable, oblong, oblique ; hook twisted, lateral ; the folds of 
 growth bowed, concentric and distant Mons. 
 
 angusta : oblong, narrow, curved, obsoletely carinated beneath ; hook 
 lateral Rochelle. 
 
 plicatula : oval, oblique, underneath slight oblong folds, hook la- 
 teral Mons. 
 
 silicea : oval, oblique ; no folds ; hook lateral Rochefort. 
 
 Ostrea. 
 
 Valves plaited, margin dentated, 
 
 serra : suborbicular, sinister, gigantic, thick ; teeth of the margin large, 
 erect, acntangulate 6 inches wide. 
 
 diluiiuna : suborbicular, right, teeth acntangulate 3 inches Mons. 
 
 Jiabellum : flabellatedly ovate; long subdivided, convex folds, obso- 
 letely squamoiu ; bowed on each side -2f inches.
 
 225 
 
 Qstrea, continued. 
 
 flabelloides : snbtrigonal, Ihickly plaited ; plaits large, with sharp backs, 
 subimbricated ; oblique at the sides. 
 
 placunata : .semicircular, flat and plaited on both sides ; with squamous 
 plaits, divaricating to the siJes. 
 
 flabellula: oblong, wedge-form, rounded upwards, rather bowed; with 
 longitudinal rugose folds, one beak produced Grignon. 
 
 pectiiiala : oblong, bowed, pectinated in folds, valves convex, margin 
 serrated, with a middle groove 3 or 4 inches. 
 
 phyllidiana: oblong, thick, back convex, with subimbricaled plaits on 
 both sides 4 inches Angers. 
 
 leporina: oblong, bowed, thick; disks convex, carinated ; two rows of 
 plaits ; outer margin prominently rounded 4* inches. 
 
 carinata : oblong, upper and under valve rather acute ; sides flat, 
 bowed; valves complicated, backs carinated, with transverse 
 plaits. 
 
 colubrina: oblong, narrow, bowed, plaited; valves semicomplicated, 
 outer side convex. 
 
 scolopendra: oblong, narrow, reduced to\vard the apex, plaits in two 
 rows; oblique, becoming gradually shorter If inch Mons. 
 
 larva : oblong, curved, plicated on the sides ; rows of plicae unequal ; 
 margins crenated Maestricht. 
 
 pennaria : oblong, subarcuate, plicated in two rows ; plicae of the sides 
 oblique, curved Champagne. 
 
 bifrons : ovato-rotund ; upper valve convex, smooth ; lower longitudi- 
 nally plicated ; margin crenated Grignon. 
 
 vndata: ovato-oblong, thick, obsoletely plicated, plica; mutate, imbii- 
 
 cato-squamous : one beak produced Bordeaux. 
 Valves not plicated. 
 
 crassissima: elongate, very thick, ponderous; beak long, wide, chan- 
 nelled, striated transversely ; apex rather hooked. 
 
 longirostris : lower valve thick, subcucu Hated ; beak very long, con- 
 torted Sceaux. 
 
 canalis: ovato-oblong, very thick ; lower valve, with prominent beak, 
 channelled, with a flat margin on each side 5 inches. 
 
 callifera : ovato-rotr.nd, a thick callus near the base ; rather eared, ex- 
 cavated internally Rocquenconrt. 
 O. hippopus, Annales du Mus. 
 
 brevialis: rotundato-trigonal, base rather pointed, very thick; liga- 
 mental canal produced, apex bowed on one side 3 inches. 
 
 scalarina: oblong, reduced toward the base, with transverse, bowed, 
 rather distant, step-like rugae 2 inches. 
 
 edulina : reduced at the base, with imbricating, undulating lamellae, 
 
 upper valve flat. 
 bellovacina: oblongo-cuneated, rounded upwards ; larger valve grooved 
 
 at the base radiatedly. 
 
 mullilamellata: oblong, apex dilated, rather bowed, thick ; with nu- 
 merous, imbricated, depressed lamellae 3| inches. 
 lingitatula : ovato-spathulated, oblique, rather flat; lower valve ros- 
 trated. 
 
 erenuJata : oval, depressed, slightly lamella ted, crenulated ; chiefly on 
 the inner margin size of O. edtilis. 
 
 Gg
 
 226 
 Ostrea, continued. 
 
 cucullaris: cuueato-spathulate, base rostrated. 
 
 O. cochlearia, Annales du Mas. 
 vesicularis : semiglobose, base retuse, smooth; lower valve ventricose ; 
 
 upper plano-concave Meudon. 
 /nauriculatu : semiglobose, base truncated, biauriculated ; lower valve 
 
 very ventricose; upper valve flat, opercultform 2j inches. 
 obliqua: obliquely ovate, smooth ; lower valve ventricose; upper valve 
 
 flat ; hinge very short. 
 lingularis : elongate, sublinear, flat, narrow towards the base, lamella' 
 
 compact 2 inches Mons. 
 
 xipiama.: ovato-trigonal, flat, but rounded upwards; concentric trans- 
 verse rugae ; with internally decumbent cyliudraceous tubercles 
 
 size of a finger nail. 
 anomialis: suborbicular, thin, smooth, convex beneath, upwards 
 
 flatter. 
 psf udo-cliama : irregularly orbicuiate, ligamental pit narrow, very 
 
 oblique 2 inches. 
 cyuthulu : suborbiciilate, with imbricated lamellae, lower valve'concave, 
 
 margin crenulated 1| inch. 
 
 defonnis: deformed, subdepressed on one side, very irregular. 
 untinata: semiorbiculate, hooked, depressed; a lamellous sinus on 
 
 one side. 
 
 Vulsella. 
 
 deperdita : oblong, sublingulate, convexo-dcprcssed ; striae transverse, 
 concentric ; base retuse Grignon. . 
 
 Placuna. 
 
 pectinoides: obliquely trigonal, flat upwards ; radiated with costellae, a 
 little convex beneath. 
 
 Sphaerulites. 
 
 foliacea: The only species known. 
 
 Radiolites. 
 
 rotularis: valves forming opposite, short, nearly equal cones. 
 ventricosa .- lower valve turbinated, upper valve ventricose; opercule 
 retuse. 
 
 Calceola. 
 
 sandalina: formed like the point of a slipper: the only species 
 known. 
 
 Birostrites. 
 
 iiupquiloloba: two long, conical, rostriform, unequal valves, disposed in 
 an obtuse or rather open angle, and united at their base, but the 
 edge of one overlapping that of the other. 
 
 Discina. 
 
 ostreioitles small, flat, ovato-rotundate: adhering to the stones on the 
 sea-coast.
 
 227 
 Crania. 
 
 personala : orbiculate ; the upper valve conical ; the lower valve 
 
 with three little pits. 
 nummulus : suborbicular, free, flat, radiatedly striated within ; three 
 
 little pits ; margin thick, not crenulated. 
 Only one valve known, perhaps the under, but with no marks of 
 
 adherence on the back Sweden. 
 Nummulus Brattenbvrgii. 
 
 Parisiens-is : resembles the former; but shows marks of adherence. 
 anliqua: lower valve adhering only by its beaked termination under 
 
 the hinge, striated beneath concentrically ; three pits ; the upper 
 
 valve very convex, with three impressions answering to the pits 
 
 of the under valve Nehou. 
 striata : very small, rounded; lower valve flat, subtruncated, adherent ; 
 
 prominent calluses within ; the free valve orbicular, back raised, 
 
 radiatedly striated. 
 
 Orbicula. 
 
 Nprwegica : 
 
 Patella anomala, Mull. 
 
 Terebratula. 
 
 Smooth; not grooved. 
 
 subundata: subglobose, smooth; with tine concentric stri;r, margin 
 subundulated ; valves nearly equally ventricose Warmihster. 
 
 carneu : subrotnnd, subdepressed, smooth ; with five concentric stria? ; 
 beak elevated, incurved ; foramen very small near Norwich. 
 
 depressa: oblong; transversely dilated, contracted and obtuse up- 
 wards ; with smooth concentric striae ; beak produced, not in- 
 curved ; foramen large St. Saturin. 
 
 m-alis : transversely and superiorly dilated ; with concentric, smooth 
 striae ; beak incurved. 
 
 numismalis: depressed, subrotund, smooth ; a sinus in the upper part 
 of each valve ; distant concentric stria? ; beak short; foramen 
 very small. 
 This shell, though round, shows five angles. 
 
 umbonella: elongated, turgid, transversely compressed; above obtuse; 
 smooth, with a raised uiubo; beak incurved Montigny. 
 
 digona: elongated, subgibbous, grooved upwards, smooth, terminating 
 
 in two angles ; beak raised and incurved near Bath. 
 This species generally shows very plainly a beautifully punctated 
 surface : a similar surface is observable in several of the smooth 
 species. 
 
 deltoidea : compressed, transversely dilated, triangular, smooth ; mar- 
 gin straight in the upper part, winding in the middle. 
 
 iriangulus : elongated, triangular, smooth ; the lower valve reflected 
 on the upper, with a groove on the margin. 
 
 cor: cordiform, subglobose, a deep sinus in the upper part ; decussated 
 with delicate striae. 
 
 birostris : subglobose, smooth ; contracted upwards, siuuated in the 
 middle ; sinus with two angles, margin not plicated.
 
 228 
 
 Terebratula, continued. 
 
 ampulla: subrotund, inflated, antiquated; upper margin obscurely bi- 
 plicated Italy. 
 
 Mrinata : subqtiadi angular, smooth ; lower valve rather flattish ; upper 
 valve diedral, the two surfaces divided by a longitudinal keel, 
 formed by their union at an obtuse angle. 
 
 concaru . small, lower valve flat ; upper one larger and concave, with 
 concentric striae Meudon. 
 
 semiglobosa : elongate, ovate, tumid, very smooth ; umbo raised, mar- 
 gin entirely without plicae Warminster. 
 
 punctata : oblong, subdepressed, upward biplicated, with concentric 
 stria; ; and with minute points disposed in undulating lines. 
 
 phaseolina: small, subcompressed, subrotund, with concentric striae j 
 upper margin subbiplipated ; beaks short Mons. 
 
 ovula : ovato-oblnng, subcompressed, smooth ; with distant concentric 
 striae; beak produced Heytesbury. 
 
 biplicata: subrotund, subglobose, smooth, biplicated upwards; con- 
 centric striae ; beak incurved ; plane of the foramen horizon- 
 tal Cambridge. 
 
 bisinuala: subrotund, subdepressed, antiquated, smooth, upwards bipli- 
 cated ; beak produced, not incurved ; plane of the foramen in- 
 clined upon that of the valves Grignon. 
 
 Klcinii ; ovate, depressed, subantiquated, smooth, biplicated upwards ; 
 finely and closely punctated ; beak incurved. 
 
 Pitdinontana: subrotund, subdepressed, transversely striated, biangu- 
 lated upwards; umbo elevated, beak recurved. 
 
 tjuadrifiila : triangular, depressed, dilated ; four angles upwards, beak 
 short. 
 
 angulata: subtrigonal, ventricose, upper margin deeply grooved, with 
 three acute angles, longitudinally striated. 
 
 multicarinata : large, round, pectiuifoim, with numerous carinated 
 ribs ; margin not grooved 3 inches long by 3j. 
 
 lelraedra: gibbous; upper valve deeply grooved; in the groove and 
 siues three or four angulated ribs; beak incurved Aynhoe. 
 
 plicata: subtetraedral, plicated, not grooved; five or six ribs obtuse 
 at the base, angulated at the margins ; beak short. 
 
 canalijera: trigonate, gibbous, longitudinally sulcated with a deep 
 groove ; hinge straight, beak large, striated perpendicularly to the 
 hinge. 
 
 lavicnsta: trigonate, gibbous, grooved in the sides: a sinus in the mid- 
 dle of the larger valve, and a broad rib in the less, both smooth ; 
 stria? transverse ; hinge straight ; beak short Bemberg. 
 intermedia: subtetraedral, dilated, plicated, grooved; four plaits to 
 
 the groove and five to the sides; beak short. 
 aJata : subtrigonatc, dilated ; a deep sinus upwards, beak short. 
 1 concinna: globose, subsinuate, plicated; five to seven raised plaits 
 
 in the middle, ten to twelve on the sides ; beak produced. 
 )iifilia : subtrigonate, gibbous, sinuate, plicated, six plicae in the mid- 
 dle, seven or eight on the sides; beak subrecuryed Aynhoe. 
 pcctita : subrotund, larger valve bubconvex, smaller rather flat, with la- 
 dialing plaits; beaks produced, recurved Horuingsham.
 
 229 
 Terebratula, continued. 
 
 cardium: elongato-ovate, convex, plicated, with thick longitudinal 
 rounded grooves, beak rather prominent. 
 
 dijformis: trigonate, dilated, subdepressed; margin unequal, wiudiugly 
 bent in the middle ; beak rather produced Havre. 
 
 lyra : subglobosc, contracted forwards ; beak so produced as to equal 
 in length the smaller valve Horuingsbam. 
 
 Menardii : globose, truncated in the base, larger valve having a deep 
 longitudinal groove ; margin sinuously deflected Coulaines. 
 
 decussatu: subpentagonal, subconvex ; larger valve canaliculated ; striae 
 fine, decussating ; beak rather produced, foramen large. 
 
 spinosa : globose, dilated, with small spinous grooves ; beak very short, 
 pointed. 
 
 spathica: subtrigonate, subglobose, smooth; upper margin grooved, 
 beak pointed, subproduced From the hills to a great extent near 
 Mons. 
 
 compressa : dilated ; upper margin dentated, subflexuous ; beak pro- 
 duced, pointed Mons. 
 
 granulosa: subdepressed, rounded ; upper margin rostriforui, produced 
 forwards ; grooves granular ; beak short Mount Marius. 
 
 arliculus: trigonal, depressed, delicately striated longitudinally; upper 
 margin angular, beak short. 
 
 radiata: subdepressed, rounded; contracted in the lower part, dilated 
 in the upper ; radiating longitudinal grooves ; margin subflexuous. 
 
 pumila: very small, compressed, small valve flattish, radiated with lon- 
 gitudinal grooves, beak pointed, produced Maestricht. 
 
 spir'tfera: trigonate, transversely dilated, with spiral bodies placed 
 in the inside over the lower border, which is angular; beak 
 short, perforated Derbyshire *. 
 
 Almost all the above English Terebratula; are contained in Mr. Sowerby'a 
 elegant work on Mineral Conchology. 
 
 * The shells possessing the characters here particularised form the genus 
 Spirifir of Mr. Sowerby.
 
 230 
 
 In accordance with the important fact ascertained by 
 Mr. William Smith, of peculiar fossils being found in 
 and characterising particular strata, the fossil shells in 
 the succeeding table are arranged in the order of the 
 strata in which they occur, commencing with the ear- 
 liest. Each genus is placed under the formation in 
 which it is first found ; and each succeeding stratum is 
 marked, in which the several species are discovered. 
 But as, previously to Mr. Smith's " Strata identified by 
 Organized Fossils," and Mr. Sowerby's Mineral Con- 
 chology, with an arrangement of strata, shells, and 
 places, by Mr. Farey, contained in the last mentioned 
 Avork, no publication has regularly particularised the 
 strata in which the described fossils have been found, I 
 have availed myself of the information yielded by Mr. 
 Sowerby's work for the facts which the table contains. 
 It is however proper to observe, that, in the present 
 state of our knowledge, this table must necessarily be 
 far from perfect. Many shells must exist in the differ- 
 ent strata, of species, and even of genera, which have 
 not yet been noticed; and various circumstances may 
 have led to erroneous conclusions : but, notwithstand- 
 ing this, it is hoped, that sufficient will be rendered 
 evident by it to establish the important and valuable 
 facts stated by Mr. Smith, and to assist the student in 
 this part of his enquiries. 
 
 It is presumed also, that, by pursuing this mode of 
 arrangement, we may assist and correct our conjectures, 
 whilst contemplating the relative periods of the crea- 
 tion, duration, and extinction of the animals, which are 
 only known to us through their mineralized or otherwise 
 preserved fossil remains. To obtain complete informa- 
 tion on these points may be impossible, but every ap- 
 proximation must be accompanied by interesting in- 
 struction.
 
 a &ablc of Eitttel) df owtl 
 
 Each GENUS and each SPECIES being placed hi the Order of the Strata in 
 which they occur. 
 
 The number (or letter) at the end of each species, points out the plate in 
 Mr. Sowerby's Mineral Conchology in which that species is depicted. 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Strata. 
 
 PRODUCTUS. 
 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 
 ongispinus 68 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 ?lemingii 68 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 spinulosus 68 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 scotitnis 69 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 S/MJMUUA 69 
 
 ditto _ 
 
 
 aculeatus 68 
 
 Limestone rock (coal measures). 
 
 
 icabriculus 69 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 aculeatus 68 
 
 ditto 
 
 CONULARIA. 
 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 
 quadrisukata 260 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 teres 
 
 ditto 
 
 AMP LEXUS. 
 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 
 coralloides 7% 
 
 ditto. 
 
 PENTAMERUS. 
 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 
 Knightii 28 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 l<EViS 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Atjlesfordn 29 
 
 ditto 
 
 ORTHOCERA. 
 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 
 annulata 133 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 circulturis 60 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 siriata 58 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 gigantea. 246 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 cordiformis 247 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 undulttta 59 
 
 Grey limestone (coal measures). 
 
 
 lireymi 60 
 
 Limestone shale. 
 
 
 Steinhaurii 60 
 
 Coal shale. 
 
 
 conica 6( 
 
 Alum shale. 
 
 NAUTILUS. 
 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 
 discus lo 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 pentagonus 249 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 liiloliatux 249 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 tubercttlatus 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 complanatua 261 
 
 Slaty limestone. 
 
 
 truncatua It: 
 
 Blue lias. 
 
 
 striatus 182 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 i/Ttermedius 125 
 
 Blue lias and crag. 
 
 
 Ihieatus 41 
 
 Lower oolite. 
 
 
 siwuatu.s 19< 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 obelus 114 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 simplex 1 22 
 
 Green sand. 
 
 
 undulatut 40 
 
 ditto
 
 232 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Strata. 
 
 NAUTILUS. 
 
 
 
 
 intequalis 40 
 
 Chalk marl. 
 
 
 elegans 116 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Comptoni 121 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 imperialis 1 
 
 London clay. 
 
 
 centralis 1 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 ziczae 1 
 
 ditto 
 
 AMMONITES. 
 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 
 striatus 53 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 sphcericus 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Walcotiv 106 
 
 /Alum shale. Lower oolite. 
 \ Upper oolite. 
 
 
 Henslowi 262 
 
 Grey limestone, Isle of Man. 
 
 
 Lis/m 280 
 
 Coal shale. 
 
 
 annulalus 222 
 
 Alum shale. Lower oolite. 
 
 
 ellipticus 92 
 
 White lias clay. 
 
 
 planicosta 73 
 
 f Upper lias clay. Marston or lias 
 X marble. Chalk marl. 
 
 
 communis 10? 
 
 White lias clay. 
 
 
 armatus 95 
 
 Lias clay. 
 
 
 angulatus 107 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Bucklandii 13C 
 
 Blue lias. 
 
 
 Coneybeari \ 31 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Greenoughi 132 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 fimbnatus 164 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 obtusus 167 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Henleyi 172 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Lose omit 183 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 BircAi 267 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 roo/ IPO 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Uechei 230 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Brongniarti A 
 
 Lower oolite. 
 
 
 Banksii 200 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Blagdeni 201 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Brocchii 202 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Sowerbii 213 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Browni 263 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Gereillii A 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Strangewaysi 254 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 falcifer 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 nodosus 92 
 
 Clay under the lower oolite. 
 
 
 discus \t 
 
 Cornbrash. 
 
 
 Calloviensis 104 
 
 Kelloway rock. 
 
 
 Koenigi 263 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Duncani 157 
 
 f CInnch clay under coral rag, or 
 \ Oxford clay. 
 
 
 ej-cavafw* 105 
 
 Calcareous grit beneath coral rag. 
 
 
 vertebralis 165 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 plicatilis 166 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 splendens 103 
 
 Coral rag. Chalk marl.
 
 233 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Strata. 
 
 AMMONITES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 jugosus 
 
 92 
 
 Clay under the lower oolite. 
 
 
 elegans 
 
 94 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 concatus * 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 cordatus 
 
 17 
 
 Kentish rag. 
 
 
 rotundus 
 
 293 
 
 Kimmei idge clay. 
 
 
 Lamberti 
 
 242 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Leachi 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 omphaloides 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Mplicalus 
 
 92 
 
 PorUand freestone. 
 
 
 stellaris 
 
 93 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 giganteus 
 
 126 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Goodhalli 
 
 256 
 
 Green sand, Devon. 
 
 
 Nutjieldiensis 
 
 108 
 
 Green sand. 
 
 
 monile 
 
 117 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 inflatus 
 
 178 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 auritus 
 
 134 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 rostratus 
 
 173 
 
 Chalk marl. 
 
 
 minutus 
 
 53 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 carians 
 
 lOfi 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Mantelli 
 
 55 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 rusticus 
 
 177 
 
 Lower chalk. 
 
 
 biiilex 
 
 293 
 
 Blue clay, Suffolk. 
 
 .decipiens 
 
 294 
 
 ditto 
 
 acutus 
 
 17 
 
 Blue clay, Sheppey. 
 
 binus 
 
 92 
 
 Crag. 
 
 quadratus 
 
 17 
 
 ditto 
 
 .serratus 
 
 24 
 
 ditto 
 
 NAUTELLIP- l 
 SITES. ] 
 
 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 
 otatus 
 
 37 
 
 ditto 
 
 AMMONEL- \ 
 LIP SITES, f 
 
 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 
 funatus 
 
 32 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 compressus 
 
 38 
 
 ditto* 
 
 EUOMPHALUS. 
 
 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 
 pentangulus 
 
 45 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 catillus 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 nodimus 
 
 46 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 discors 
 
 52 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 rugosus 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 angulosus 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 CIRRUS. 
 
 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 
 acutus 
 
 141 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 nodosus 
 
 
 Lower oolite. 
 
 Note. Nodosus, jugosus, elegans, concatus, should precede Lower Oolite, 
 page 232. 
 
 * Remains of other species, bearing, with the oval form, the characters 
 of Nautilus or Ammonites, are found in some of the succeeding strata, but 
 most frequently in the chalk marl and lower chalk. 
 
 Hll
 
 234 
 
 Genera. 
 CIRRUS. 
 
 PLANORBIS. 
 
 .eachi 
 licatus 
 
 SP1RIFER. 
 
 TEREBRATULA 
 
 Species. 
 
 219 
 
 qualis 140 
 
 uomphalus 
 
 adiatus 
 
 emistoma 
 
 ens 
 
 ylindricus 
 
 btusus 
 
 uspidatas 
 
 rigonalis 
 
 hiatus 
 
 flaber 
 
 >btusvs 
 
 triatus 
 
 ringuis 
 
 Mantiet 
 
 Wilsoni 
 
 ateralis 
 nplicata 
 
 12( 
 268 
 
 269 
 
 27( 
 27 
 
 11 
 8^ 
 
 83 
 
 mnctata 15 
 
 subrotunda 
 
 ornithocephala 10 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 'ampas 
 digona 
 
 obovata 
 
 intermedia 
 
 obsoleta 
 
 concinna 
 
 media 
 
 tetraedra 
 
 cornea 
 
 inconstans 
 
 dimidiata 
 
 ptctinata 
 
 Strata. 
 
 Chalk marl. 
 
 ditto 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 ditto 
 
 ( Lower oolite. Green sand. 
 ( Above the London clay. 
 Green sand. 
 London clay. 
 Above the London clay. 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 f Mountain limestone. Clay of 
 I upper oolite. 
 f Mountain limestone. Green 
 \ sand. Chalk marl. 
 r Coal shale. Blue lias marble 
 \ (Marston). 
 
 Marly sandstone of lower oolite. 
 f Ditto. Cornbrash. Chalk 
 \ marl. 
 
 Upper lias clay. Cornbrash. 
 Lower oolite 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 f Lower oolite. Oxford clay. 
 I Cornbrasii. 
 Cornbrash. 
 
 Cornbrash. Green sand. 
 Cornbrash. Crag. 
 Clay in oolite. 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 Great oolite. Upper chalk. 
 Kimmeridge clay. 
 Green sand, Devon. 
 Green sand 
 
 ditto?
 
 235 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Strata. 
 
 TEREBRATULA 
 
 
 
 
 yra 
 
 Green sand. 
 
 
 semiglobosa 18 
 
 Chalk marl. 
 
 
 subundata 
 
 Upper chalk. 
 
 
 tlicatilis 118 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 octoplicata 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 obliqua 277 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 ovoides 100 
 
 Green sandstone in Alluvium. 
 
 
 lata 
 
 ditto 
 
 GRYPHJEA. 
 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 
 incurca 112 
 
 Blue lias. Kelloway stone. Crag. 
 
 
 
 (Under oolite. Chinch clay. 
 
 
 dilatata J4< 
 
 Portland freestone. London 
 
 
 
 clay, Alluvia. 
 
 CARDIUM. 
 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 
 hybernicum 82 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 elongatum 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 killanum 14 
 
 Green sand, Devon. 
 
 
 proboscideum 156 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 umbonatum 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 semigranu- \ 144 
 Zofww / 
 
 London clay. 
 
 
 nit ens 1- 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Parkinsoni 49 
 
 Crag 
 
 HELIX. 
 
 
 /4th LIMESTONE, above the 
 1 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 
 
 
 carinalus 10 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 GewJii 145 
 
 Green sand. 
 
 
 g-Zofcosiis 
 
 Above the London clay. 
 
 LJNGVLA. 
 
 
 COAL SHALE. 
 
 
 mytilloides 1 9 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 tennis 
 
 London day. 
 
 
 otalis 
 
 Crag. 
 
 VNIO. 
 
 
 COAL SHALE. 
 
 
 
 <ic ul us 3i 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 untformis 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 subconstrictus 
 
 Coal shale, alluvial clay. 
 
 
 hybridus 144 
 
 Magnesian limestone. 
 
 
 Listen 1 54 
 
 Magnesian limestone. Crag. 
 
 
 crosis#iwius 153 
 
 Lias. Portland freestone. 
 
 
 crass'msculus 185 
 
 London clay. 
 
 PLA GIOSTOMA. 
 
 
 LIAS. 
 
 
 gigantea. 77 
 
 White lias. Blue lias. 
 
 
 pectinoides 114 
 
 Blue lias. 
 
 
 punctata 113 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 ot-a/is 114 
 
 Fullers' earth. 
 
 
 cardiifurmis 113 
 
 Upper oolite. 
 
 
 obscura 114 
 
 Kelloway rock.
 
 236 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Strata. 
 
 1'LAGIOSTOMA 
 
 
 
 
 rigida 114 
 
 Portland freestone. 
 
 
 spinosa 7f 
 
 Lower cbalk. Upper chalk. 
 
 TROCHUS. 
 
 
 LIAS. 
 
 
 anglicus 142 
 
 Blue lias. 
 
 
 aJibreviatus 1 9o 
 
 Under oolite. 
 
 
 concavus 181 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 dimidiatus 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 duplicates 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 elongatas 193 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 punctatus 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 agglutinaus 98 
 
 London rlay. 
 
 
 ttenettice 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 laiigatus 181 
 
 Crag. 
 
 
 simzVis 
 
 ditto 
 
 MODIOLA. 
 
 
 LIAS. 
 
 
 '<ecis 8 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 dcpressa 
 
 Alum shale. London clay. 
 
 
 elegans 9 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 mrallela '.' 
 
 Upper oolite. 
 
 
 tallida 8 
 
 Green sand. 
 
 MELANIA. 
 
 
 LIAS. 
 
 
 stnulu 4? 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Heddingtonensis 
 
 Upper oolite. 
 
 
 sulcata 39 
 
 London clay. 
 
 HELICINA. 
 
 
 LIAS. 
 
 
 compressa IQ 
 
 ditto 
 
 CARDITA. 
 
 
 LIAS. 
 
 
 iVo/a 197 
 
 Lias. Cornbrasli. 
 
 
 obtusa 
 
 Under oolite. 
 
 
 similis V3t 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 unulala 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 iroducia 
 
 Ditto. Cornbrash. 
 
 
 ihrupta 89 
 
 Great oolite. 
 
 
 triata 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 lelloidea 197 
 
 Cornbrash, Kelloway stone. 
 
 
 tuberculata 143 
 
 Green sand. 
 
 MYA. 
 
 
 LIAS. 
 
 
 iciipia 224 
 
 Lias. Kelloway rock. 
 
 
 tngulifera 
 
 Fullers' earth bed, near Bath. 
 
 
 iterata 
 
 Grey limestone, near Scarborough. 
 
 
 mandibula 4.S 
 
 Green sand. 
 
 
 )/owa 76 
 
 Sand under London clay. 
 
 
 ntermedia ^ 
 
 London clay. 
 
 
 ubangulata 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 at a 81 
 
 Crag. 
 
 PECTEN. 
 
 
 UNDER OOLITE. 
 
 V 
 
 ftbrosus 136 
 
 f Under oolite. Cornbrash. Kel- 
 L loway rock.
 
 237 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Strata. 
 
 PECTEN. 
 
 
 
 
 barbatus 231 
 
 r Under oolite. Cornbrasb. Kel- 
 \ loway rock. 
 
 
 equivalvis 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 obscura 205 
 
 Stoncsfield slate. 
 
 
 fens 
 
 Cornbrash. 
 
 
 similis 
 
 Forest marble. 
 
 
 rigida 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 arcuata 20g 
 
 Coral rag. 
 
 
 'amellosa 239 
 
 Cliicksgrove limestone. Green sand. 
 
 
 orbicularis 18t> 
 
 Green sand. 
 
 
 quudricostata 66 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 qulnquc costata 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 licateri 158 
 
 Chalk marl. 
 
 
 cornea 204 
 
 London clay. 
 
 ASTARTE. 
 
 
 UNDER OOLITE. 
 
 
 lurida 137 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 elegans 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 exeat at a 233 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 incata 171 
 
 f Oaktree clay over Sussex marble, 
 
 
 
 L or Kimmeridge clay. 
 
 
 cuncata 137 
 
 Portland stone. 
 
 
 ilanata '257 
 
 Indurated marl at Guntou. 
 
 
 ilana. 179 
 
 Crag. 
 
 
 obliquuta 
 
 ditto 
 
 TRIGONIA. 
 
 
 UNDER OOLITE. 
 
 
 costata 85 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 iriuta 237 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 clavellata 87 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 gibbosa 236 
 
 Tisbury limestone. 
 
 
 \uplicaia V38 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 l&dalea 8 
 
 Green sand, Devon. 
 
 
 pinosa 86 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 ccenfrica 208 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 aj^nis i.'37 
 
 ditto 
 
 CVCULLMA. 
 
 
 UNDER OOLITE. 
 
 v % 
 
 blonga 206 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 'ccussata 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 arinala 207 
 
 Green sand, Devon. 
 
 
 fibrosa 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 "labra 67 
 
 Green sand. 
 
 NERITA. 
 
 
 UNDER OOLITE. 
 
 
 (Evigata 217 
 
 ditto 
 
 LUTRARIA. 
 
 inuosa 
 
 Cliilmarsli, near Tisbury. 
 MIDDLE or GREAT OOLITE. 
 
 
 "ibbosa -12 
 
 Middle oolite. 
 
 
 mbigua 227 
 
 Cornbrash. 
 
 
 caii ^26 
 
 Corubrasb. Upper oolite. 
 
 irattt '2 l & 
 
 Limestone at Norton Edge.
 
 238 
 
 OSTREA. 
 
 VENUS. 
 
 
 MIDDLE OOLITE. 
 
 amplus 7 
 
 ditto. 
 
 pectinatus 282 
 
 Kimmeridge clay. 
 
 antiquorum 275 
 
 Crag. 
 
 akeformis 275 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 GREAT OOLITE. 
 
 acuminat l"7 ^ F u '' ers ' earth of great oolite. Clay 
 1 { over oolite, and on Wooburn sand 
 
 Marshii 48 Cornbrash. 
 
 palmetto, 111 
 
 Oxford clay. 
 
 deltoidea 148 
 
 f Oxford clay. Kimmeridge clay. 
 1 Clay over Sussex marble. 
 
 gregaria 111 
 
 Coral rag. Green sand. 
 
 expansa 238 
 
 Tisbury limestone. 
 
 undulata 
 
 Farley, near Salisbury. 
 
 Meadii 252 
 
 Somersetshire. -, 
 
 canaliculala 135 
 
 Upper chalk. 
 
 Iffnpr 0^*9 
 
 tcner -6 O2 
 
 Charlton. 
 
 gigantea 64 
 
 London clay. 
 
 milchra 279 
 
 London clay and gravel. 
 
 flabelhilu 253 
 
 ditto 
 
 ossil oysters occur also in the Lias formation. 
 
 
 CORNBRASH. 
 
 raricosa 245 
 
 ditto 
 
 lineolata 20 
 
 Green sand. 
 
 planus 
 
 ditto 
 
 angulata 65 
 
 ditto 
 
 equalis 21 
 
 Green sand. Crag. 
 
 incrassata 155 
 
 London clay. 
 
 margaritacea 297 
 
 ditto 
 
 gibbosa 
 
 Crag. 
 
 rustica 196 
 
 ditto 
 
 (en^brinu 203 
 
 ditto 
 
 turgida 256 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 CORNBRASH. 
 
 minima 295 
 
 ditto 
 
 fener 295 
 
 Kelloway stone. 
 
 rostrata 295 
 
 Upper oolite. 
 
 sulcata 295 
 
 Loud, clay (only a single individual) 
 
 
 CORNBRASH. 
 
 lanceolata 281 
 
 Neighbourhood of Scarborough*. 
 
 marg-an/acea 
 
 London clay. 
 
 1SOCARDIA. 
 
 PINNA. 
 
 * I have taken the liberty to place this fossil under the Cornbrash, from 
 the appearance of the matrix of that which I possess. I think that the 
 Rev. Mr. Marsh, of Felmersham, has favoured me with fragments of this 
 fossil from his neighbourhood.
 
 239 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Strata. 
 
 VERMICULA- \ 
 RIA. ) 
 
 urata 57 
 
 UPPER OOLITE. 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 concata. 
 
 Green sand. 
 
 
 umbonata 
 
 Chalk marl. 
 
 SOLARIUM. 
 
 crassa 
 
 London clay. 
 UPPER OOLITE. 
 
 
 conoideum 11 
 
 ditto 
 
 HA MITES. 
 
 discoideum 11 
 oatulum 10 
 
 spinulosus 216 
 tennis 61 
 
 London clay, 
 ditto 
 GREEN SAND, DEVON. 
 
 ditto 
 Chalk marl. 
 
 
 rotundus 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 attcnuatus 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 compressus 
 adpressus 
 maximus 69 
 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 
 
 intennedivs 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 gibbosus 
 armatus 
 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 
 
 spiniger 216 
 lodosus 
 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 
 
 ubei-culatus 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 urgidus 
 
 licatulis 23^] 
 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 
 CHAM A. 
 
 analiculata 25 
 
 GREEN SAND, DEVON. 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 laliotidea 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 recurvata 26 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 conica 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 >licata 
 
 ditto 
 
 CORBULA. 
 
 digit at a 174 
 
 cevigata &09 
 globosa 
 
 ditto 
 GREEN SAND, DEVON, 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 
 
 risum 
 gigantea 
 revoluta 
 
 London clay, 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 
 ARCA. 
 
 
 GREEN SAND 
 
 
 carinata fa 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 subacutn 
 
 Chalk marl. 
 
 PERNA. 
 
 Branderi 276 
 appendiculata 
 
 Crag, 
 ditto 
 GREEN SAND. 
 
 
 aviculoides 66 
 
 Blue marl under green sand.
 
 240 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Strata. 
 
 VIVIPARAr 
 
 
 GREEN SAND. 
 
 
 extensa? S 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 fltiviorum 
 
 Sussex marble. 
 
 
 lenta 
 
 London clay. 
 
 
 condnna 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 suboperta 
 
 Crag. 
 
 D I AN CHORA. 
 
 
 GREEN SAND. 
 
 
 striata 8 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 lata 
 
 Lower chalk 
 
 TURRILITES. 
 
 
 GREEN SAND. 
 
 
 coslata 3 
 
 Green sand. Chalk marl. 
 
 
 obliquu 7 
 
 Green sand. 
 
 
 tuberculatu 7 
 
 Chalk marl. 
 
 
 undulata ? 
 
 ditto 
 
 SCAPHITES. 
 
 
 GREEN SAND. 
 
 
 equalis 1 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 obliquu ,s 
 
 Chalk marl. 
 
 NUCULA. 
 
 
 CHALK MARL. 
 
 
 pectinala 19 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 minima 
 
 London clay. 
 
 
 similis 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Cobboldia 18 
 
 Crag. 
 
 
 anceolata 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Icecigata 
 
 ditto 
 
 MAG AS. 
 
 
 CHALK. 
 
 
 wmilis 
 
 Upper chalk. 
 
 INFUNDIBU. \ 
 
 
 /LONDON CLAY, SAND 
 
 LVM. J 
 
 
 I UNDER 
 
 
 ihinulatum 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 obliquum 97 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 rectum 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 uberculatum 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 pinulosum 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 ectum 
 
 Crag. 
 
 PECTUNCULUS. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 tlumstediensis 27 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 ostatus 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 'fcussatus 
 
 ditto 
 
 EMARGINULA. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 crassa 33 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 eticuluta 
 
 London clay. Crag./ 
 
 CYPRJEA. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 viformis 4 
 
 ditto 
 
 OLIVA. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 Iranderi 288 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Salisburiana 
 
 ditto 
 
 ANCILLA. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 veniformis 99 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 urritdla 
 
 ditto
 
 241 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Strata. 
 
 CASSIS. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 riuta 6 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 arinata 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 catenatas 151 
 
 Crag. 
 
 AMPULLARIA. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 cuta 284 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 atula 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 igaretina 
 
 ditto 
 
 NAT 1C A. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 'aucinoides b 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 milis 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 epressa 
 
 Crac. 
 
 ROSTELLARIA. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 u-idit 9 1 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 mosa 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 nacroptera 29[< 
 
 ditto 
 
 SCALARIA. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 emicostata 16 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 icuta 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 milis 
 
 Crag. 
 
 TEREBELLUM. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 fusiforme 287 
 
 ditto 
 
 SERAPHS. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 mvolutus 286 
 
 ditto 
 
 PLEUROTOMA. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 ttcnuata 146 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 xorta 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 ostrata 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 cuminata 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 omma 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 emicolon 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 olon 
 
 ditto 
 
 CERITHIUM. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 melanoides 147 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 gerninatum 127 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 tyramidale 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 funatum 12 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 funiculutum 14 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 intermedium 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 dnliium 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 cornucopite 18 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 giganteum 
 
 ditto 
 
 FUSUS. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 longatus 60 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 hifnsciatus 22 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 acunmiatvs 27 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 asper 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 rugosus 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Imllnformis ?9 
 
 ditto 
 
 I 1
 
 242 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Strata. 
 
 VOLUTA. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 magorum 290 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 luctator 1 15 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 ambigua 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 spinosa 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 costata 290 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 magorum 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Lambert i 119 
 
 London clay. Craa;. 
 
 MUREX. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 latus 35 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 Bartonensis 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 trilineatus 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 coniferus 1 87 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 regularis 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 carinella 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 fistulosus 189 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 gradatus 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 tuber osus 229 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 mi mix 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 tubtfer i 89 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 cristatus 230 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 coronalus 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 rugosus 199 
 
 ditto , 
 
 
 curtuS 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 striatus 2* 
 
 Crag. 
 
 
 contrarius 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 rugosus 34 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 corneus 35 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 costellifer 1 99 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 echinatus 
 
 ditto 
 
 VENERTCARDIA 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 planicosta 50 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 deltoidea 268 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 carinata 259 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 senilis 258 
 
 Crag. 
 
 SANGUINO- \ 
 LARIA. } 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 Hollowaysii 159 
 
 ditto 
 
 SOLEN. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 affinis 3 
 
 ditto 
 
 TEREDO. 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 antenautte 1 02 
 
 ditto 
 
 BALANUS. 
 
 
 
 LONDON CLAY. 
 
 
 tesse talus ,84 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 cras.sus 
 
 ditto 
 
 BUCCINUM. 
 
 
 CRAG. 
 
 
 elongatum 1 10 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 granulatum 110 
 
 ditto
 
 243 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Specjes. 
 
 Strata* 
 
 BUCCINUM. 
 
 
 
 
 
 rugosum 
 
 Crag. 
 
 
 
 reticosum 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 EBURNA. 
 
 
 CRAG. 
 
 
 
 fglabrata'Q.'R.I 
 I HI. 5,255 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 TELLINA. 
 
 
 CRAG. 
 
 
 
 obliqua 161 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 ovata 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 obtusa 179 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 PHOLAS. 
 
 
 CRAG. 
 
 
 
 cylindricits 198 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 PHASIANELLA. 
 
 
 SAND ABOVE LONDON 
 
 CLAY. 
 
 
 orbicularis 175 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 minuta 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 angulosa 178 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 LYMNEA. 
 
 
 SAND ABOVE LONDON 
 
 CLAY. 
 
 
 fusiformis 169 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 minima 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 CYCLAS. 
 
 
 SAND ABOVE LONDON 
 
 CLAY, 
 
 
 deperdita? 162 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 cuneiformis 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 obovata 
 
 ditto. 

 
 244 
 
 The following LIST of FOSSILS of the MOUNTAIN 
 LIMESTONE and the TRANSITION LIMESTONE near 
 CORK, kindly communicated by Mr. Miller, the 
 Author of the Natural History of the Crinoidea, is, 
 in many respects, extremely valuable, and particu- 
 larly, from its showing the general accordance of the 
 Fossils with those of the corresponding formations of 
 this Island. 
 
 Fossils of the Mountain Limestone, near Cork. 
 
 Nautilus, an unfigured species deeply umbilicated, showing from three to 
 four volutions ; septa slightly undulated. 
 
 Ellipsolites ovatus, Sowerby, Tab. xxxvii. 
 
 compressus, Sow. Tab. xxxviii ) These two Ellipsolites are evi- 
 
 funatus, Sow. Tab. xxxii ) dently compressed Ammonites. 
 
 Orthocera striata, Sow. Tab. Iviii. 
 
 Euomphalus pentangularis, Sow. Tab. xlv, fig. 1 , 2. 
 
 Cirrus accut us, Sow. Tab. cxli, Jig. 1. 
 
 Natica, undescribed. 
 
 Cardium hibemicum, Sow. Tab. Ixxxii, Jig. 1, 2. 
 
 Terebratula lateralis, Sow. Tab. Ixxxiii, fig. 1. 
 
 Spirifer cuspidatus, Sow. Tab. cxxx. 
 
 .... pinguis, Sow. Tab. cclxxi. 
 
 .... trigonalis, Sow. Tab. cclxr. 
 
 .... striatus, Sow. Tab. cclxx. 
 
 Product us scabricu lus, Sow. Tab. Ixix, Jig. 1. 
 
 ...... undescribed ; frequently much compressed. 
 
 Trilobite, similar to that in mountain limestone near Bristol. 
 
 Platyciinites Itevis, Miller's Crinoidea, p. 74. 
 Round crinoidal columns of a Cyathocrinites? 
 
 Amplexus corralloides, Sowerby, Tab. Ixxii : this has no claim to be consi- 
 dered as a multilocular shell, but is a coral approaching to the genus 
 Caryophillia. 
 
 Flustra, assuming sometimes a conic runnel-shaped form. 
 
 Turbiiiolia.
 
 Transition Limestone. 
 
 Orthocera unulata, Sowerby, Tab. cxxxiii; Park. Org. Rem. Vol. Ill, 
 
 PI. vii, fig. 14. 
 
 circulai-is, Sow. Tab. Ix, fig. 6 and 7. 
 
 pyramidalis 1 Fleming's Annals of Phil. Mtsc.1815. 
 
 sulcata, ibid. 
 
 Conttlaria quadrisulcata, Sowerby, Tab. cclx, Jig. 2 to 6. 
 Euomphalus rugosus, Sow. Tab. lii, fig. t. 
 
 discors, Sow. Tab. lii, ,/zg. 1. 
 
 ...... angulosus, Sow. Ta6. lii, ^ig 1 . 3. 
 
 (Delphinula), Park. Org^. .Re/n. Vol. Ill, Pi. v, ^. 18. 
 
 //e/io; striutus, Sow. Ta6. clxxi, ^. 1. 
 
 Tubulites geniculatus natwforscher, Sow. Tafc. iv, fig . 2. 
 
 Pentamerus Knightii, Sow. Ta&. xxviii. 
 
 Aylesfordii, Sow. Tat. xxix. 
 
 beet's, Sow. Tab. xxviii. 
 
 Terebratultt, with the perforated beak not incurved. 
 
 Trllobitc, Park. Org-. Um. Vol. Ill, Tab. xvii, ./&. 11, 14, 19. 
 
 Tab. xvii, fig. 17. 
 
 Cyathocrinites rugosus, Miller's Crinoidea, p. 89. 
 
 Rhodocrinites vents. Mill. Cronoidea, p. 106. 
 
 Actinocrinites? moniliformis, Mill. Cronoidea, p. 115. 
 
 Tubipora catenulata, Park. Org-. Kewz. Vol. II, Taft. iii, ^/ig-. 4 to 6. 
 
 Astrea lithostrotion, a larger species than Astrea basaltiformis figured by 
 
 Lhwydd and Parkinson. 
 
 Madrepora truncata, Park. Org-. Rem. Vol. II, Tab. v, fig. 2. 
 Madreporite, Park. Org. Rem. Vol. II, Ta6. vii,^/?g-. 3. 
 
 i Ta6. vii, fig. 10. 
 
 Favosites.
 
 246 
 
 Order of Arrangement of Shells in the different Forma- 
 tions. -It has been conjectured by some naturalists who 
 had become convinced of the comparatively late creation 
 of land animals and of man, that the peopling of this pla- 
 net had commenced, in the enduing with the principles 
 of life, beings of the simplest forms and organization ; 
 and, that by the influence of certain external causes, 
 acting through passing ages, those changes had been 
 gradually wrought in succeeding animals, from which 
 have resulted the numerous differences which constitute 
 the various tribes: rising from the almost lifeless 
 sponge to the highly complex and more perfect ani- 
 mal, man. On this hypothesis it might have been ex- 
 pected that those beings which had possessed life under 
 its most simple modifications, would be found in 
 the earliest formed strata ; and that, in proportion to 
 the lateness of the period at which the stfata were 
 formed, would be the degree of complexity in the or- 
 ganization of the inhabitants whose remains they would 
 contain. But investigation has ascertained, and the 
 preceding table manifests most decidedly, at least, 
 with respect to the class of animals of which we are 
 now treating, that such a conjecture is ill founded. In 
 the carboniferous and the mountain limestone are the 
 remains of shells of the earliest creation, which are un- 
 expectedly found, with hardly an exception, to exceed, 
 in complexity of structure, all the shells which have 
 been discovered, either in any subsequent formation, 
 or living in our present seas. It is in this early cre- 
 ation that those shells are found which possess that 
 complicated structure, very rarely found in the shells 
 of this day, which enabled their inhabitants to rise and 
 sink with them in the water. Such are the many-cham- 
 bered univalves, the Nautilus, Ammonites, Orthocera-
 
 247 
 
 i 
 
 tites, &c. The bivalves and multi valves of that era 
 also seem to have been endued with a similar property. 
 The curious structure of Spirifer, PL VII, Jig. 15, and 
 the multilocular construction of Productus of Martin, 
 PI. VII, fig. 13 ; of Pentamerus, PI. X, fig. 7 ; Am- 
 plexus, PL VI, fig. 16, and of Conularia, PL VI, fig. 17, 
 imparted, in all probability, to their inhabitants, a power 
 of a similar kind. The fissure, noticed in one of the 
 valves of the shells, bearing a close analogy with the 
 Productus of Martin, and figured, Organic Remains, 
 Vol. Ill, PL XVI, fig. 10, may, with reason, be sup- 
 posed to have been also part of an arrangement for- en- 
 abling the animal to accomplish a corresponding process. 
 
 But the existence in the mountain limestone, and 
 others of the "early strata, of shells bearing the form of 
 the snail-shell, is a circumstance so apparently contra- 
 dictory to the notions which have been just suggested, 
 and, indeed, to opinions which are very generally en- 
 tertained, that it should not pass as supported by the 
 authority of Mr. Sowerby, without determining how far 
 that authority has been given. 
 
 The first fossil of this kind, which is noticed by Mr. 
 Sowerby, is Helix Carinatus (Min. Conch. Tab. X), 
 found in the grey limestone, near Settle in Yorkshire ; 
 after which he saw the cast of a shell found in the mi- 
 caceous sand formation near the Devizes, Helix Crentii t 
 of which he says : " I presume it to be an Helix, as 
 somewhat according with Tab. X." But on the subse- 
 quent examination of two other fossils of the mountain 
 limestone, Mr. Sowerby was led to observe: " Had 
 not the general form strongly resembled the Helix 
 abovementioned, I might have been induced to have 
 placed this as a Trochus, although it does not posi- 
 tively accord with the characters of that genus. I might 
 have formed a new genus of the two, to which the 
 following species should have been added, did they
 
 248 
 
 not differ materially from each other in the characters 
 which should distinguish it: besides, the aperture is 
 .very imperfect in them all. It is probable that other 
 species may be found, and that by their help, and that 
 of more perfect specimens, the genera they belong to 
 may be determined, or the characters of new ones 
 ascertained; and this is the more desirable, as they 
 appear from their localities to be marine inhabitants, 
 rather than land shells *." 
 
 In consequence of the agreement in form of the first 
 mentioned shell with the latter ones, they become all 
 involved in the same ambiguity : possessing the exterior 
 characters of the snail-shells of the present day, and 
 being imbedded among the earliest shells, those which 
 possessed the power of rising and sinking themselves 
 in the water. But a question here arises, and it is pre- 
 sumed that on these subjects, involved in the darkness 
 of distant ages, questions and conjectures founded on 
 analogy may be allowed : May not these shells have 
 been actually of a genus different from Helix; and 
 might not they have been furnished with such a struc- 
 ture as gave them the same powers as were possessed 
 by their associates ? 
 
 This conjecture derives support from the fact, that 
 shells of such a description exist even now in the seas 
 of the warm climates. Such is lanthina, PI. V,fig. 23 : 
 this shell had always been considered as a Helix by 
 Li nna3iis, and by his successors, until the time of La- 
 marck, who determined it to be necessary to place it in 
 a distinct genus. He ascertained that the inhabitant of 
 this shell differed 'essentially from the snail. That organ 
 which would by its situation be considered as the foot 
 in the snail, was found not to be formed for crawling 
 but for swimming; being covered with air bladders 
 
 " Min. Condi., Vol. II, p. 159.
 
 249 
 
 which could be filled or emptied according to the im- 
 pulse of the animal. The shell, which is very thin 
 with four whirls in its spire, is, like the fossil shells 
 of the same form found in the mountain limestone, 
 striated both longitudinally and transversely, and, as 
 if to diminish its gravity, possesses no solid columella*. 
 When the sea is calm, the lanthines, it is said, are 
 seen, in great numbers, swimming on the surface of 
 the sea with their shells reversed, by means of their 
 distended air-bladders ; but on the sea becoming agi- 
 tated, the air in the bladders is absorbed, the animals 
 contract within their shells, and the whole immediately 
 sink. 
 
 This power is, indeed, possessed by other shell ani- 
 mals of the present day, besides the lanthines; the 
 Lymnaa Stagnate (Le Grand buccin de Geoffroy) is 
 known to swim on the surface of the water in a re- 
 versed position, and, when desirous of returning to the 
 bottom, it compresses itself within the shell, thus ex- 
 pelling the air which had supported it; and, by this 
 simple process, sinks immediately to the bottom. 
 
 The opinion that these shells of early creation, bear- 
 ing the external characters of snails, might have been 
 natant animals, having the power of swimming "to the 
 surface, like their associates, derives some confirma- 
 tion from analogy ; since the multilocular, natant shells 
 are not only found in their own peculiar forms, as Nau- 
 tili, Ammonita, &c., but have also assumed the pecu- 
 liar form, as in Turrilites, of unilocular, turriculated 
 shells, which do not appear to have been created until 
 a much later period. 
 
 In the lias formation, which succeeds to the mountain 
 limestone, the contained fossils differ considerably from 
 those which preceded them : only a few species of 
 
 * This is also the ca*e with Cirrus, and, perhaps, with Euomphattu. 
 Kk
 
 250 
 
 some of the multilocular univalves, and of the terebra- 
 tulas, being here discoverable. The fossil shells found 
 in this formation chiefly consist of bivalves of the genus 
 Ostrea, Gryphcea, Plagiostoma, Plicatula, Avicula, 
 Afya, and Cardita, with the single trochiform shell, 
 Trochus Anglicanus of Lister, not perhaps met with in 
 any of the succeeding strata ; a shell of the genus Heli- 
 cina, and the first simple unilocular shell bearing a tur- 
 viculated form, being a species of the genus Melania. 
 
 In the strata above the lias, belonging to the Under 
 Oolite, as well as in those of the Middle and Upper 
 Oolite, including the Cornbrash, Kelloway Rock, &c. 
 numerous genera are found which are not known in the 
 preceding subjacent formations. The small proportion 
 which the univalves bear to the bivalves, which was ob- 
 servable in the preceding formation, is here more ob- 
 vious. Various species are found of Pecten, Lima, 
 Astarte, Trigonia, Lutraria, Mytilus, Modiola, Venus, 
 and Isocardia, with the tubular shell Vermicularia, and 
 the single univalve Solarium. 
 
 In the superjacent green sand formation, including 
 the whetstone of Devonshire, many new genera of bi- 
 valves are found : Cardium, Corbula, Perna, Dianchora, 
 Nuwda, Venericardia, occur here, with the simple tur- 
 riculated shells of the genus Turritella, and the sub- 
 globose univalve, Auricula. Here, also, are first found 
 the multilocular turriculated shells of the genus Turri- 
 lites and the hooked shells of the genus Hamites. 
 
 The blue marl and the chalk marl which next super- 
 vene, display the genus Scaphites and Inoceramus, with 
 the oval multilocular shells, distinguished in this work 
 as Ammonellipsites and Nautellipsites, and some other 
 curiously formed multilocular shells much resembling, 
 in their general characters, Nautili and Ammonites; and 
 deriving their peculiar forms, perhaps, merely from 
 compression.
 
 251 
 
 The chalk, although containing many interesting spe- 
 cies of the genera which had appeared in preceding 
 strata, has perhaps only two genera of shells which 
 originated in the waters by which it was deposited, 
 Crania and Alagas. 
 
 The fossil shells which are found in the immense stra- 
 tum of blue clay resting on the chalk, manifest that a 
 considerable difference existed between the inhabitants 
 of the waters by which the two formations had been 
 deposited. Hardly a shell is to be found in the blue 
 clay of any genus which has been seen in the chalk. 
 The waters from which the clay and the succeeding 
 crags proceeded, appear to have been chiefly stored 
 with testaceous animals differing from any which had 
 been before in existence. This formation is remarkably 
 characterised by the simple univalves, which in the pre- 
 ceding formations had existed, comparatively, in small 
 numbers, but which now seem to have come into ex- 
 istence in a very predominant superiority. A slight 
 view of the shells of this formation, with occasional 
 reference to those of the preceding formations, it is 
 presumed, will lead to interesting and useful conclu- 
 sions. 
 
 Of the multilocular univalves, or of the bivalves of 
 complicated structure, occurring so frequently in the 
 earlier formations, perhaps none are to be found in the 
 blue clay except such as have been dislodged, by allu- 
 vial action, from the early matrices in which they had 
 been originally imbedded. About thirty- two genera of 
 bivalves had been found in the more antient strata, and 
 only five or six new genera have been found in the blue 
 clay ; but, on the other hand, the more antient strata 
 had been found to contain only twelve or fourteen 
 genera of simple turbinated or turriculated univalves ; 
 whilst the blue clay, and its accompanying sands and 
 crag, have yielded thirty-two genera of turriculated
 
 252 
 
 shells : twenty-five of which, with about sixteen other 
 genera not known to have yet existed in a mineralised 
 state, people the waters of the present world with the 
 myriads supplied by their numerous species. 
 
 We hence learn, that almost all the waters from 
 which have proceeded strata containing testaceous re- 
 mains were inhabited by genera, many of which, though 
 multiplied in numerous species, and in myriads of indi- 
 viduals, have become entirely extinct; the proofs of 
 their having existed being only to be traced in their en- 
 tombed and mineralized remains. We thus also learn, 
 that, in the succeeding waters, new and totally different 
 beings filled the deficiencies which had been thus oc- 
 casioned. These circumstances, observed in all, is 
 more distinctly manifested in the later formations of 
 the chalk and blue clay. Of the genera of fossil shells 
 which exist in the chalk, hardly an individual can be 
 detected in the blue clay ; but in their places are found 
 the remains of shells not known to exist in any of the 
 preceding strata. Investigation has ascertained them 
 to be the remains of an entirely new series of animals ; 
 not formed by the gliding of one genus into another, or 
 by changes induced in the structure of the animals by 
 the gradual and continued agency of external circum- 
 stances ; but, as far as the state of our knowledge will 
 allow us to judge, by a new creation, adapted to the 
 nature of the fluid, for the peopling of which it was 
 decreed; and to the especial purposes which Provi- 
 dence had destined it to accomplish in future ages. 
 
 Links varying from each other by minute determin- 
 ate characters, and secured in their integrity, and in 
 their connection with each other, by certain laws de- 
 creed at the beginning, are, in all probability, the no- 
 tions which are in general conveyed by the figurative 
 expression of the chain of creation : the loss of a sin- 
 gle link being supposed to be productive of disturb- 
 ance, and ultimately of the annihilation of the whole.
 
 253 
 
 By those who have been misled by this figure to the 
 adoption of the idea of a concatenation of beings de- 
 pendent on each other for their existence, the opinions 
 now proposed must be rejected. They are, however, 
 it is hoped, most accordant with a reverential idea of 
 the great Creator ; who is thus supposed to have con- . 
 ducted from the beginning, and to be still directing, the 
 affairs of the world, by a special care and providence, 
 to the termination of some certain period, and for the 
 accomplishment of great and important purposes. 
 
 The geological enquirer will derive some assistance 
 from the examination of fossil shells, whilst endea- 
 vouring to ascertain how far the earth contained in the 
 testaceous and crustaceous coverings of marine animals 
 has contributed to the formation of calcareous rocks. 
 It has been conjectured, that besides adding to the bulk 
 of the limestone or chalk by the accumulation of their 
 remains still bearing their original forms, that they have 
 also contributed to the surrounding matrix by a solu- 
 tion and subsequent precipitation of the lime which had 
 entered into their composition. If this had been the case, 
 we might expect to find those remains which still bear 
 their original forms, manifesting eveiy degree of resolu- 
 tion, from the slightest influence of the agent in de- 
 stroying the finest striae to the smoothing of ridges, and 
 even the diminution or removal of projecting points. 
 But nothing of this is discoverable in the fossils of 
 either the flint, the limestone, or the chalk. In the 
 latter, which, by the fineness and purity of its sub- 
 stance, gives strong evidence of its having been depo- 
 sited by precipitation, not the slightest appearance of 
 chemical action on its contained fossil shells is observ- 
 able. If preserved at all, they are preserved with their 
 sharpest ridges and minutest points in the most perfect 
 state.
 
 254 
 
 Shells of alternating Marine and Fresh-water Forma- 
 tions. On examining the crags, the beds of gravel and 
 fossil shells lying over the London clay, numerous fossil 
 shells are found approximating in their characters to the 
 recent shells of our present seas. These, it has been 
 supposed, are the remains of the inhabitants of that 
 sea which covered, at a very distant period, the surface 
 of the planet, and which were left by it when it was 
 withdrawn to its present level. On this point no de- 
 cisive opinion can be offered : it cannot, however, fail 
 to call to our contemplation the consequences of that 
 revolution which this planet sustained, when its surface 
 was broken up, and extensive tracts entirely removed, 
 even to the solid granite, by the inconceivable agen- 
 cies of Divine power. 
 
 To give to the world, formed anew from the shattered 
 fragments of that which preceded it, that state and 
 form which were requisite for the purposes to which it 
 had been decreed by the Almighty, numerous and ex- 
 tensive operations must have been ordained ; and from 
 some of these, it is not improbable that the phenomenon 
 just mentioned may have resulted ; and to similar causes 
 may, perhaps, be referred numerous other phenomena 
 observable in the structure of the earth. One of these, 
 the appearance of considerable tracts, bearing marks 
 of the sea and fresh water having borne alternate sway 
 over them, demands the earnest attention of those who 
 have engaged in these studies. 
 
 That the tracts here referred to have been formed 
 partly by deposition from fresh water, is supposed to 
 be proved by the near agreement of many of the fossil 
 shells which they contain, with those which are now to 
 be found actually living in our rivers and marshes, and 
 on the surface of the earth. The first of these, consi- 
 dered as the lower fresh-water formation, is found over
 
 255 
 
 fossil sea shells : and in France, with alternate beds of 
 gypsum and of marl, and with the remains of land ani- 
 mals which, it is supposed, inhabited the borders of 
 the lakes in which the inhabitants of those shells lived. 
 Above this formation are found marine shells, and above 
 these, another fresh-water formation. 
 
 From these facts M. Brongniart inferred that these 
 different beds demonstrated the repeated alternations of 
 sea and of fresh water on the same tract ; and that, at 
 the period when the sea was forming marbles, schists, 
 Sec., the fresh-water lakes might also have had the qua- 
 lity of depositing stony beds, such as gypsum, fresh- 
 water marbles, Sec., and of enveloping in them the ani- 
 mals and vegetables which lived in these waters, or 
 on their borders. But, whilst forming these opinions, 
 M. Brongniart found it necessary to admit that the 
 formation of gypsum might also have taken place both 
 in fresh and in salt water ; and was obliged to allow, that 
 in some places, as in the quarries of Beauchamp, the 
 river and the sea shells are really mixed together. 
 
 These opinions, particularly as to the alternation of 
 deposition, have been strongly opposed by Messrs, de 
 la Metherie, Brard, and Faujas St. Fond. By the first 
 of these it is said, that as laud shells are found in these 
 formations, they, as well as the bones of the land ani- 
 mals, must have beeu carried in by currents ; and, there- 
 fore, it is probable, that the fresh- water shells might also 
 have been carried into the sea in the same manner, 
 and thus have formed the present beds. M. Brard 
 and Faujas St. Fond are of opinion, that all shells, 
 previous to these depositions, existed in water of the 
 same nature ; but that, in the process of time, perhaps 
 from the increase of the saltness of the sea, a separa- 
 tion took place, the inhabitants of the shells which are 
 at present found in fresh water, or on land, having mi-
 
 256 
 
 grated to situations more congenial to their nature*. 
 M. Faujas St. Fond, too, having found Ampullaria 
 and Melanice, with a shell much resembling those of the 
 genus Planorbis in bituminous marl between beds of 
 coal, concluded that their presence here could only be 
 accounted for by supposing them to have been brought 
 by the torrents of an overwhelming sea ; and takes the 
 opportunity of thus attacking Cuvier, who had pointed 
 out the errors he had committed whilst describing some 
 of the fossils of Maestricht. " Those (he says) who 
 please themselves with their systems of lakes, finding 
 here the remains of various animals, suppose that 
 these animals of the burning zones had their dwellings 
 on the sides of these lakes, where they came to quench 
 their thirst : that the peaceable stag, the fragments of 
 whose antlers are found petrified by the side of the large, 
 the medium, and the small Paleotheriums, lived here in 
 company with animals equally unsociable ; and that the 
 borders of these charming fresh-water lakes, shaded by 
 African or Asiatic palms, were the delightful asylums 
 of animals of such opposite genera : for it was not pos- 
 sible to deny the existence of these palms, said those 
 who possessed these grand ideas, since there had been 
 found some pieces of petrified trunks above, as well 
 as beneath, the remains of these quadrupeds. No 
 more, in a word, was wanting than to bring into this 
 scene, birds who should come to drown themselves and 
 then to become incrusted with gypsum, to complete a 
 zoological collection, unique in its kind; and thus to 
 deny to the waters of the sea the power of producing 
 equally astonishing accumulations of fossil organic 
 bodies f." 
 
 With the hope of ascertaining which of these hy- 
 potheses had the best foundation, recourse was had 
 
 * Annales du Mus. Tom. XIV, p. 314. t Ibid. Tom. XV, p. 155,
 
 257 
 
 to more strict examinations of the fossil shells which 
 had been discovered in these fresh-water tracts, which 
 led to the proposal for a more illustrative arrangement 
 of them. 
 
 M. Brard, upon examining the masses containing 
 Lymnece, Planorbes, and other fresh-water shells, found 
 also shells which had hitherto been considered as sea 
 shells, a species of Cerithium, for instance ; and re- 
 marks, that this circumstance had been passed silently 
 over by Brongniart and Cuvier. He adds too, that 
 these supposed fresh-water shells are sometimes found 
 scattered among a multitude of acknowledged sea 
 shells, as, Oysters, Venus s, &c. He, also, in answer 
 to M. Brongniart's having asserted that these fossil 
 shells " were alike in every respect to those which 
 we find in our marshes," declares that they differ deci- 
 dedly ; that there is not one of them whose living ana- 
 logue is to be found among the fresh-water shells of 
 France ; and observes, that Bulimus pygmaus, whose 
 fresh-water origin had been assumed, agrees, in some 
 respects, with shells found in the calcareous rocks of 
 Mayence, and which had been supposed to have been 
 of fresh-water origin ; but the living analogues of which 
 Faujas St. Fond had found on the shores of the French 
 ocean and of the Mediterranean Seas, as well as in 
 some of the salt-water marshes. M. Brard adds, that 
 in five places out of six where he had found the Lym- 
 nece, &c. they were imbedded in isolated blocks, which, 
 he supposes, had been broken up from the sides of the 
 waters where these animals had lived, and had been 
 brought to these places by a diluvial torrent*. 
 
 On the other side, M. Brongniart, in proof of the 
 agreement of these fossil shells with the recent, states 
 his having found amongst them the cast of a Cydostoma 
 
 * Annales tin M us. Tom. XV, p. 366. 
 Ll '
 
 258 
 
 elegans, and mentions several of these shells which he 
 thinks very nearly agree with recent species. M. Brard 
 having figured ad described a species of Melania, Me- 
 lanie effilte, as existing among these fresh-water shells, 
 M. Brongniart says, that he discovered, by his own 
 examination, what he should never have found by 
 M. Brard's description or figure, that this sea shell was 
 Cyclostoma mumia, a land shell : and as to the Bulimi 
 of Faujas St. Fond, both those which were found fossil 
 and recent, he was satisfied were also Cyclostomce. 
 But, with respect to the Cerithium mentioned by Brard, 
 he denies its being a sea shell, and finds it necessary to 
 consider it as belonging to the marshes adjoining the sea, 
 or to the salt water of the mouths of rivers : and finding 
 other species as having been said to be found in these 
 situations, he thinks it necessary to form a genus for 
 their reception, founded rather upon the habits of the 
 animal than on the characters of its shell. Thus we 
 arrive at the first of these supplementary genera. 
 
 Potamides. A turriculated shell ; opening nearly se- 
 micircular, pinched up, as it were, at the base of the 
 columella, and terminated by a very short, straight 
 canal, which is hardly grooved ; no groove at the upper 
 extremity of the right side, but the outer lip dilated. 
 
 Of the particular shell mentioned by M. Brard, he 
 makes a species of this genus, and terms it Potamides 
 Lamarckii*. By thus dividing genera into those of sea, 
 
 * This conciliatory compliment to M. Lamarck appears to have been by 
 no means unnecessary. For those who attempt to explain the circumstance 
 of the mixture of sea, river, and land shells, by their having lived in a com- 
 mon medium, contend for the difficulty of distinguishing the difference be- 
 tween these shells; whilst those who contend for alternations of sea and 
 fresh water, think the practised conchologist might find but little difficulty : 
 yet Lamarck, after examining and naming sixty species of Cerithia, says 
 decidedly, " Lea Cerites rirent toutes dans la Mer ;'' but now another genus 
 is formed of several species of fresh-water shells out of these, showing, 
 certainly, that the distinction cannot be easily made.
 
 259 
 
 of land, &c., M. Brongniart expects to prevent its be- 
 ing concluded that these Lymnefe, &c., were sea shells, 
 or that revolutions of which, he says, there exists no 
 trace, carried these fresh-water shells into the ocean, 
 and mixed them with the sea shells. 
 
 Brongniart and Cuvier had founded their opinion of 
 the fresh-water origin of the upper beds of gypsum, 
 chiefly on the presence of a shell found in the gypsum, 
 which appeared to be a Cyclostoma, and was supposed 
 to be a fresh-water shell. Of these shells two only 
 were found in the gypsum ; one of which, in the pos- 
 session of Brongniart, had its mouth unluckily con- 
 cealed ; but the other, in the possession of Faujas St. 
 Fond, as fortunately, had it displayed so as to show 
 that it agreed with Cyclostoma, mumia of Lamarck, who 
 had only named it so provisionally, since, from its 
 thickness, he had supposed it to be a sea shell. M. 
 Brard hence concludes, that the fresh-water origin of 
 the gypsum does not derive any support from this 
 shell*. 
 
 He describes, as existing among the marine fossils of 
 Grignon, two minute land Bulimi, the conical and py- 
 ramidal; and one still more minute, the cylindrical, 
 which approaches in form to many of the small species 
 of Pupa. This shell has six turns, very projecting, 
 deeply separated, and derives a cylindrical form from 
 the last three turns being nearly of the same diameter. 
 He also mentions impressions and fragments of minute 
 Planorbes among decidedly marine shells, and supplies 
 a list of forty-eight river and land shells found by La- 
 marck among the fossil sea shells of Grignon. 
 
 But this mixture of these supposed land and fresh- 
 water with sea shells, is not confined, according to 
 M. Brard, to the lately discovered formations of the 
 
 * Annalcs du Mus. Tom. LXXII, p. 448.
 
 260 
 
 environs of Paris; since he has ascertained that they 
 are found together in several other parts of France, at 
 a considerable distance from Paris. Buxweiller, May- 
 ence, Caen, Francfort, Orleans, Gergovia, the Brecciae 
 of Nice, the volcanico-marine valley, as it is called by 
 St. Fond, of Ronca, and the island of Sheppey, are 
 among those places in which he states them to have 
 been found. Whilst speaking of the Brecciae of Nice, 
 he reprehends Cuvier for having entirely omitted to 
 mention the sea shells which are found there, although 
 he particularised the land shells, and this, after Faujas 
 St. Fond had stated his having found there, Turbinites 
 and Serpulce, both marine shells. 
 
 The shells of the valley of Ronca, as noticed by the 
 Abbe Fortis, are very interesting, they being mostly 
 filled with very minute shells. Their substance, too, is 
 changed into lamellar carbonate of lime ; and they are 
 found to have acquired a considerable increase of 
 thickness. From this frequent discovery of sea, river, 
 and land shells thus mixed. M. Brard hopes that the 
 optnion of their all having lived originally in a similar 
 fluid is confirmed. 
 
 M. Brongniart, anxious to support the position, that 
 the shells in the fresh-water and accompanying forma- 
 tions were separately deposited by the alternation of 
 fresh and sea water, experienced, however, a consi- 
 derable difficulty from Lamarck having already ad- 
 mitted that, among the accumulation of fossil sea shells 
 in the environs of Paris, there were nearly fifty species 
 which were referrible to land or fresh-water shells. To 
 meet this, we have seen that he admits that these may 
 have been derived from the mouths of rivers, and from 
 the marshes adjoining the sea ; and that it is therefore 
 necessary that the genera already formed should be so 
 subdivided, that genera should be established for the 
 complete separation of sea, river, and land shells ; a
 
 261 
 
 labour in which he said M. Lamarck was already en- 
 gaged. 
 
 Cerithium, he observes, he has already divided into 
 Cerithium and Potamides. Turbo is generally a sea 
 shell, though sometimes found in ponds of salt water. 
 The sea and river Patella, it is acknowledged, differ 
 hardly at all in their shells, but must thus be placed in 
 different genera : and the same must be remarked of tho 
 Crepidultf, he, I believe, meaning Calyptrea. Cyclos- 
 toma must be divided into Cyclostoma for the land 
 shells, and Paludina for the aquatic shells. Marine 
 Bulimi must be separated from the land Bulimi, and 
 be disposed in a new genus, or joined to Phasianella. 
 Melania, Auricula, Ampidlaria, Planorbis, and Nerita, 
 all demand subdivision. Pupa, also, he says, requires 
 subdivision ; but, as in the case of Patella, the shells 
 would be difficultly distinguishable. 
 
 The editor of the Journal de Physique for 1811 ob- 
 served, " Les Naturalistes des autres Contrees, et par- 
 ticulierement la Societ6 Geologique de Londres, ne 
 manqueront pas de faire des recherches analogues." 
 The supposition of M. de la Metherie was soon verified 
 by the interesting discoveries of similar formations in the 
 Isle of Wight, by the highly judicious and zealous exer- 
 tions of Mr. Webster, who not only pointed out a basin, 
 probably of some ancient lake, formed in a depression 
 in the chalk stratum, corresponding with that of Paris ; 
 but also showed that a very close agreement existed be- 
 tween the respective beds of the two basins, and that 
 the beds in the Isle of Wight basin were lying above the 
 London clay. He ascertained that the beds of shells 
 of the several formations are to be found distinctly se- 
 parate, but, as might be expected, sometimes mingled. 
 He also pointed out the great basin of the London clay, 
 and noticed the mixture of fresh-water shells with sea 
 shells, which it contains ; observing on Lymnea, Mela-
 
 262 
 
 nice, and other fresh-water shells, being found in the 
 Sheppey clay, " These shells (he says), which are how- 
 ever very few in number, do not prove the existence of 
 fresh-water formations in this place similar to those in 
 the basins of Paris and of the Isle of Wight. Being 
 found among the remains of vegetables and marine ani- 
 mals, we may suppose that they were carried down to- 
 gether with the branches of trees and fruits, by the nu- 
 merous streams and rivers that must have flowed into 
 this gulph *." 
 
 That the shells in the Petworth marble are fresh- 
 water shells, and that this formation existed in Hamp- 
 shire, as well as in Sussex, appears to have been well 
 known to Woodward. In his catalogue of marine 
 bodies, chiefly shells, grouped together in lapideous 
 masses, he mentions a mass with Cochlitte in it, Pet- 
 worth, Sussex; and says, they seem to have been 
 moulded in the Cochlea fasciata vivipara fluviatilis, 
 Listen . 
 
 This marble, as he observes, has been employed in 
 many of our cathedrals. The most antient coffin in 
 Salisbury, that of, I believe, Kynrick the Saxon, which 
 
 * Geological Transactions, Vol. II t. 
 
 t Bi a 1 paper-,, read at the meeting of the Geological Society, on Nov. 2, 1E21, it 
 appears, that Mr. Webster having recently examined the Hampshire coast, found 
 that Ilordwell cliff was not formed' of the London clay, as was generally sup- 
 posed, and as he had' stated, from the accounts of others in the former paper 
 published in- the Transactions of the Geological Society ; but that it was composed 
 of beds' analogous to thelower fresh-water formation of the Isle of AVight. Under 
 these bed> which dip to the east, is another of while satid ; and below this; 
 in the next cliff to the \west, appears the bed similar to the London clay, and 
 which- contains tile-well-known fossils published by firander. This forms also the 
 inferior part of the coast still farther to the west, called the High cliff, which 
 reaches nearly to Muddiford. 
 
 TtiisTserievof beds bring similar to those on- tlie opposite side of the island at 
 Hfeaden. Hill, Isle of Wight,, is considered, by Mr. Webster, as affording a strong 
 confirmation of the opinion he had formerly advanced respecting the extent of 
 tlie Isle of "Wight basin. 
 
 Mr. Webster also enumerates several fossil fresh-water shells which he found at 
 Hordwell cliff, and, among other remains, are fossil capsules, or seed-vessels, 
 in considerable numbers. Annals of Philosophy, March 1822.
 
 263 
 
 was removed thither from Old Sarum, and has been ge- 
 nerally supposed to be of granite, is formed of this mar- 
 ble. This marble, we know, exists also at Purbeck. 
 
 Dr. ]Vugent has, I think, pointed out a very import- 
 ant fact respecting these formations. In a siliceous 
 specimen with which T was favoured by Dr. Nugent, 
 from Antigua, several moulds may be seen bearing 
 very strong marks of their having been filled by shells 
 of the genus Planorbis ; with a nearly perfect shell, 
 whose mouth points it out as a species of the genus 
 Melania, and whose size and finely rugated surface 
 give it a close resemblance to M. fragilis of Lamarck. 
 In this specimen, also, I think the opening of the Me- 
 lania is apparent. 1 trust that the farther investigations 
 of that gentleman will determine the existence of fresh- 
 water formations in the West Indies*. 
 
 Insects. The delicacy of the structure, and, indeed, the 
 nature of the substance, which enters into the formation 
 of those animals which are generally comprised under 
 this term, render them so unfit to sustain those changes 
 which would be necessary for the conservation or mine- 
 ralisation of their remains, that very few become the 
 subjects of our examination. The crustaceous cover- 
 ings of the bodies and limbs, and the hard wing-cases 
 of some of the genera, are the chief, and, perhaps, 
 the only fossils which can be properly referred to this 
 class. 
 
 The Trilobites, or Dudley fossil, the living analogue 
 of which is at present unknown, and the original nature 
 of which is so little understood, that it has, by some, 
 been considered as a crustaceous insect, and, by others, 
 as a bivalve shell, and has hence been designated, by 
 Linnaeus, as Entomolithus paradoxus; by Dacosta, as 
 
 * For further illustration of this subject, the reader is referred to Mineral 
 Conchology, No. LIX.
 
 264 
 
 Pediculus marinus; by Hermann, as Pectunculus trilo- 
 bus imbricatus ; will demand the student's attentive in- 
 vestigation. 
 
 Its superior covering, PI. ~&,fig. 1, which is the only 
 part with which we are acquainted, is oblong, ovate, 
 convex, and marginated; the anterior wider part is 
 gibbous, and furnished with two semilunar tubercular 
 projections resembling palpebrae ; and posterior to, and 
 on the inner side of each of these are two round tuber- 
 cles. Adjoining to this part commences a series of tri- 
 arcuated, imbricating, transverse slips, so disposed that 
 the three bows of these connected slips form three lon- 
 gitudinal transversely divided lobes, gradually diminish- 
 ing to the lower termination. In some specimens the 
 fossil is almost globular, showing that the animal pos- 
 sessed the power of coiling itself occasionally in this 
 form. No elongated caudal termination is seen in this 
 species; nor in the published representations of any 
 of the preserved remains of this animal have the traces 
 of any organs of progressive motion been given ; still 
 it may be conjectured that this animal was furnished 
 with articulated and unguiculated feet*. This fossil 
 has been found in the neighbourhood of Dudley nearly 
 three inches in length. 
 
 Another species is found in the schistose strata of 
 Llandilo in Carmarthenshire. In these the outline of 
 the animal approaches rather to that of a long ellipsis 
 than to an ovate form : the lateral lobular divisions of 
 the dorsal plates or slips are nearly three times as wide 
 
 * I have seen the sketch (on the fidelity of which I think I can depend) 
 of a fossil animal of this kind, corresponding, in its feet, with the above 
 description ; and have also seen a specimen of the animal at Clun, in 
 .Shropshire, in which I believed the points of the feet appeared from be- 
 neath the superior covering ; but, on endeavouring to detach the piece of 
 rock in which it was imbedded, and though working with the utmost care, 
 the specimen was entirely shivered.
 
 265 
 
 as those of the central part. The crustaceous coverings 
 are, in these species, generally removed, leaving in 
 some parts, however, a very accurate impression of the 
 inner surface, with regularly disposed longitudinal mi- 
 nute rugae, appearing as if they had been formed by the 
 subjacent soft cuticle. Organic .Remains, Vol. Ill, 
 PI. XVII, fig. 13. 
 
 In another species, or, perhaps, approximating genus, 
 on a grey limestone, the locality of which is not known, 
 the head part differs materially from that of the pre- 
 ceding, it being nearly covered by three large round and 
 rough protuberances, two of which possess the situa- 
 tion of the eyes, and the third, which is the largest, is 
 placed anterior to and between these ; but each appears 
 to have possessed a similar porulous and granular struc- 
 ture. Organic Remains, Vol. Ill, PL XVII, fig. 16. 
 
 A third species, found by Thomas Botfield, Esq., of 
 Hopton Court, Shropshire, in an iron stone nodule, 
 differs much from either of the preceding : " The head 
 is large, semiorbicular, lunated posteriorly, and termi- 
 nates at the sides in an acute angle. The body, which 
 has only five transverse plates, is remarkably short ; its 
 sides going directly off from the head, and meeting spee- 
 dily at an obtuse angle. From this part proceeds the 
 tail of the animal, a long central spine-like process, 
 which is of a greater length than that of both the head 
 and body." Org. Remains, Vol. Ill, p. *267. This 
 fossil appears to be the same with Monoculites lunatus 
 of Mr. Martin, PL JLLV,fig. 4, who supposed it to ap- 
 proach nearer, in size and figure, to the Monoculum apus, 
 than to any other known recent species of that genus. 
 
 The remains of another species are found in the beds 
 of fuller's earth, but the caudal termination of these 
 have only been as yet described. This species appears 
 from the form of its plates to have approached the 
 
 M m
 
 266 
 
 nearest to that which is found in the Dudley limestone; 
 but the dorsal plates gradually dimmish in size, and, at 
 last, finishing in an elongated caudal termination. 
 
 Mr. Benjamin Henry Latrobe rebates, in the second 
 volume of the American Philosophical Transactions., 
 that among the fish resorting to the waters of the Tjark 
 River, the alewife or oldwife (Clupeq nondescripta) ar- 
 rivesv in very considerable shoals, from March to May. 
 In this season each of these alevvives carries in her> 
 mouth an insect, about two inches long, hanging with 
 its back downwards, and firmly holding by its fourteeji 
 legs to the palate. The fishermen call this insect the 
 louse. Mr. Latro.be names it Oniscus prcegustator. 
 
 Whether our unknown fossil animal had antennae or 
 feet, as 1 suspect, or not, canjotot perhaps be deter- 
 mined, and therefore the characters of an Oniscus can- 
 not be claimed for it; and yet the structure of its body, 
 with its transverse imbricating slips, is so much in 
 agreement with this living insect, as to induce me to 
 place the figure of the latter before the reader, (PL X, 
 fig. 2,) with the hope of its leading to a more successful 
 investigation as to the origin of the fossil. 
 
 Lhwydd relates that he found, in coal slate, the fosail 
 remains of spiders, and other remains approaching, in 
 their forms, to those of Scarabcei. In the Stonesfield 
 oolitic slate are impressions with a slight brownish/ 
 stain, the origin of which has not yet been ascertained. 
 They bear a figure which somewhat resembles, in its 
 outline, that of the figure by which a crown is repre- 
 sented: by some they have been considered as bearing 
 a resemblance to, two united wings of a butterfly; and, 
 by others, have been supposed to have, been the im- 
 pressions of the detached plates of some, species of 
 tortoise. 
 
 We find, in the invaluable work of the Rev. W. D.
 
 Coneybeare arid W. Phillips, speaking, most probably, 
 in reference to these fossil remains, that " specimens, 
 which have been decided ly pronounce^, 'by Dr. Leach, 
 to be the Elytra of Coleopterous insects, occur in the 
 Stonesfield slate; they are of two or three different 
 species *." 
 
 In the yellow fossile limestone of Pappenheim, @enin 
 gen, &c., are found the remains of insects ; but these 
 are also in such a state as wfTl not allow their generic 
 characters to be ascertained. The head, which is very 
 indistinct, appears to have been connected with the 
 trunk by % a very contractile neck. The thora;x is shorter 
 and thicker than the abdomen, which is of a lanceolate 
 form, and separated into eight divisions by annular 
 risings. Neither wings nor legs are discoverable. 
 
 Crabs. The number of fossil crabs is very considera- 
 ble. They are found in the Stonesfield slate, and in the 
 limestone of Pappenheim, &c. It is stated by Knorr, 
 that the remains of cray-fish, Astaci, are found only in 
 a narrow district, reaching from Gunzenhausen, in An- 
 spach, to Aichstaedt, a length of about seven or eight 
 leagues, bordered on one side by the river Altmuhl. 
 The matrix of these fossils is evidently a portion of the 
 same stratification which occurs at Pappenheim, &c. in 
 which the remains of fishes are so frequently discovered. 
 Crabs and lobsters are frequently found in the London 
 clay. In the London Museum there were more than 
 thirty species of crabs from the Island of Sheppey ; 
 and Mr. Donovan, the proprietor, who also possessed, 
 perhaps, one of the finest collections of the recent ani- 
 mals iri this kingdom, was satisfied that he had no recent 
 analogue of any of the species in his fossil collection. 
 Verona, Malta, and Anjou, produce these fossil re- 
 
 * Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales, by the Rev. W. D. 
 Coneybeare and W. Phillips, Vol. I, p. 208.
 
 268 
 
 mains : they are also found imbedded in a hard, light 
 coloured, pyritous, and argillaceous stone, resembling 
 indurated London clay, from some parts of China. 
 
 Birds. Their remains are very rarely found in a 
 fossil state. Bones, which may be considered as refer- 
 riblej;o this class, are, however, imbedded in the calca- 
 reous schist of Oeningen, and in the oolitic schist of 
 Stonesfield. The foot of a bird has been found in- 
 crusted in gypsum, near Montmartre ; Blumenbach de- 
 scribes the bones of a water-fowl in the Pappenheim 
 stone; and Faujas St. Fond has figured two feathers 
 found in the calcareous stone of Vestena Nuova. 
 
 Cuvier, whose zealous exertions are always conduct- 
 ed by science, has not only ascertained the existence of 
 fossil remains of this class, but has furnished the stu- 
 dent with information which must aid him in his inves- 
 tigations with respect to these fossils. The foot, he 
 observes, in birds, has a single bone in the place of the 
 tarsal and metatarsal bones. Birds, too, form the only 
 class in which the toes all differ as to the number of 
 joints, and in which this number, and the order of the 
 toes which have them, is nevertheless fixed. The great 
 toe has two ; the first toe, reckoning on the inside, 
 three; the middle, five; and the outermost five. The 
 crocodile has the same number of phalanges ; but, as 
 these have a tarsal and metatarsal bone, they cannot be 
 mistaken. Some birds have no great toes, but, in these, 
 the other toes preserve the usual order : the ostriches 
 and cassowars have three toes. Although the crocodile 
 has the same number of phalanges, yet, as every one 
 of the toes is supported by a particular metatarsal 
 bone, the distinction is easily made. 
 
 From an attention to the different specific characters, 
 Cuvier ascertained the existence of the remains of five
 
 269 
 
 or six different species of birds in the plaster quarries 
 near Paris. Among these are the bones of a pelican, 
 less tha.nPelicanus onocratulus, and larger than P. carbo; 
 of one of the larger curlews, with a naked neck (Tan- 
 talm, Gmelin) ; of a woodcock, a starling, and a sea- 
 lark (Alouette de Mer}. 
 
 He also describes and figures a bird, found in the 
 quarries of Montmartre, which appears to have fallen 
 on its belly on the newly-formed gypsum, without having 
 been quite involved in it ; and having, probably whilst 
 in this state, been deprived of its head and the whole 
 of the right leg. The result of a careful examination 
 of this fossil is, that it belongs to some exotic quail, 
 rather larger than the one known in France. 
 
 Fishes. The fossil remains of fishes are found in 
 such various states, under such different circumstances, 
 and in the formations of such distant periods, as cannot 
 but lead the zealous inquirer to expect that he shall de- 
 rive, from their examination, information of consider- 
 able importance. 
 
 The fish, in some specimens, are found nearly entire ; 
 the harder parts all in their natural situations, with their 
 scales, and even their skin, preserved. In others, all 
 the other parts are removed except the skeleton; the 
 bones of which either retain their original relative situ- 
 ations, or have undergone considerable distortion, and 
 even dislocation. In some instances, not only separa- 
 tion of these parts has taken place, but the greater part 
 of the skeleton has been removed ; the harder parts, 
 the grinding sulcated or tuberculated teeth having only 
 remained. This circumstance may be accounted for by 
 supposing that, in these instances, the fish were of the 
 cartilaginous kind, and that their skeletons might have 
 undergone that decomposition which these parts, from 
 their structure or superior degree of hardness, had been
 
 270 
 
 able to resist. In other instances, the bones are found 
 partly surrounded iby a whitish, spathose, and rather 
 opaque substance, which conjecture will "be disposed 
 .to consider as~t>eing probably the flesli of the animal, 
 which had been converted to adipocire, and subse- 
 quently mineralised by impregnation with carbonate of 
 lime assuming .a spathose state. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no class of animals the remains 
 of which, found in a fossil state, are capable of being 
 referred to so many living analogues. According to 
 Mr. Lacepede, more than thirty Asiatic, African, and 
 American species of fishes have been found fossil in the 
 neighbourhood of Verona. 
 
 At Nanterre, near Paris, a fossil fish was obtained, 
 nearly resembling Coryphena Chrysurus, Lacepede ; an- 
 other was found, by Faujas St. Fond, in the mountain 
 on which the castle of Rochesauvre is built, which has 
 been ascertained to be Idus, pinna ant radiis 13, venire 
 piano. Among these fossils are fish whose analogues 
 live in the Indian Ocean, and in different seas of Africa, 
 and of North and South America. M. Bozza, the pro- 
 prietor of an immense collection of fossil fish collected 
 from Monte Bolca, observes, that he possessed many 
 whose living analogues were not known, and that, among 
 more than a hundred which are known, there were four 
 which are peculiar to the sea of Otaheite ; Polynemus 
 Plebeius, or Emoi of the Otaheiteans ; Gobius Striatus, or 
 Jaipoa; Gobius Occellaris; and Chcetodon Triostegus. 
 
 The remains of the following fish have been ascer- 
 tained to exist in a mineralised state in different parts 
 of Italy, France, and Germany : the pike, carp, perch, 
 eel, sea-scorpion, mackarel, turbot, sword-fish, lod, 
 scarus, chetodon, batistes, gobius, fistularia Of Japan, 
 and pegasus of Brazil. This list may be expected to 
 be soon considerably extended, since some of the 
 French naturalists, it is understood, are engaged in
 
 271 
 
 making the necessary investigations* for enabling" them; 
 to distinguish between those remains of^ this- class of 
 animals. which are referrible to known and to unknown 
 genera. 
 
 In* the neighbourhood of Naples, in the Vinoentino, 
 at Pappenneim and Oeningen, near thf lake of Con- 
 stance; at Aix in Provence, and in numerous other 
 places on the continent, the remains of fishes are found 
 either in limestone, or in a yellowish or fawn-coloured 
 calcareous fissile stone. At Eisleben, and in Mansfeldt, 
 in Upper Saxony, fishes are found an a black schist'; 
 and the metallic appearance which they derive from the 
 pyrites, with which they are imbued, readers them fre- 
 quently very splendid and beautiful specimens. 
 
 Fishes are frequently found in a mineralised state in 
 this island: their fossil remains have been found 'in a 
 variety of situations, sufficient to warrant the conjecture 
 tha4: they, were among those animals which were of the 
 earliest creation-, and 5 whose existence has - wet' been ' 
 since interrupted. 
 
 It : does not appear that any skeletons or anqr con 1 ' 
 nected remains of fish have been found in; the mountain 
 limestone ; sufficient detached parts have, however, 
 been discovered to prove that fish existed in the waters 
 by which this formation was deposited. The mostin'- 
 teresting of these are the fossil remains which seem to 
 be referrible to the spinous radii of some species of 
 Batistes? or of some other genus which was armed with 
 d entaled radii, accompanying^ or being in the place of 
 fins*. 
 
 Another fossil which appears to have been obtained' 
 frem this early formation , bears ^considerable agree- 
 ment with the sword of the Xipkias: the fossil alluded 
 
 * I am indebted fur au interring, fossil of this: kind <to tfo<Rfev. Mr. 
 Hallifax.
 
 272 
 
 to is round and tapering, but has been broken at the 
 smaller end before either of these maxillary processes 
 had terminated. Two species of Xiphias have been 
 described: in one, the elongated jaws or beaks are 
 of a flattish form; in the other, to which the name 
 Makaira is considered as most applicable, the beaks 
 form a long, round, tapering weapon : it is with this 
 latter species alone that the fossil referred to should be 
 compared. But although it was thought right to men- 
 tion this fossil as probably belonging to the mountain 
 limestone, it is by no means meant to contend for its 
 claim to this locality, since it has not the decided evi- 
 dence of an adherent matrix. 
 
 The remains of fish are much more frequently found 
 in the strata of the lias formation. They have been 
 figured by Mr. Nicholls, in his History of Leicestershire, 
 Vol. Ill, but the figures are so very indistinct as not to 
 allow a well-founded conjecture on the genera to which 
 they belong. The figure in the Rev. Mr. Tpwnsend's 
 work, although doubtlessly performed with every regard 
 to fidelity, docs not convey any decisive information 
 respecting the genus to which it may be referred. Two 
 specimens are in the possession of the writer, con- 
 tained in the lias in the neighbourhood of Lyme, 
 which are flat and of a trigonal form, about twelve 
 inches in length and nine in width, and are remarkable 
 for their square, highly polished, black and compara- 
 tively large scales. One of the scales, detached and 
 showing its root, is figured, Organic Remains, Vol. Ill, 
 PI. XVIII, fig. 9. In another specimen, several of 
 these scales are involved in a nodule of lias from the 
 neighbourhood of Whitby. These fishes, from the si- 
 tuation of their eyes not being discoverable, and from 
 no traces of their fins appearing, afford no means of 
 determining in what part of the icthyological system
 
 273 
 
 they are to be disposed *. Hero are also to be found 
 the armour, the spinous radii, of some fish, having fluted 
 sides, terminating in a strong pointed extremity, and 
 bearing sharply-pointed spines on their posterior sides. 
 A very fine specimen of one of these fossils is figured 
 in Mr. Townsend's work, " The Character of Moses," 
 PL XI. These are by no means unfrequent in this 
 formation, and have, until lately, been considered as 
 part of the jaw of an unknown animal. The leech- 
 like palate teeth of some species of fish are also found 
 in some of the strata of the lias. Numerous teeth, 
 of a small size, are also found in these situations, 
 very much resembling those of the shark ; with others 
 bearing the same form, but differing in their surface, 
 which, instead of being smooth, is rendered rough by 
 numerous grooves and ridges disposed in radiating and 
 sinuous directions. 
 
 In the upper beds of the oolite, and particularly in 
 the calcareous slate of Stonesfield, the remains of fish 
 frequently occur. These are chiefly the hemispherical, 
 or obtuse teeth, which, when changed by mineralisation, 
 and possessing a dark brown colour, with a consider- 
 able polish, are named Bufonites. These are some- 
 times found imbedded in the Stonesfield slate, in the 
 regular order and rows in which they were placed in the 
 jaws of the animal, but without any of the surrounding 
 bone in which they had been disposed. From this cir- 
 cumstance, and from such few vertebrae, and no skele- 
 tons having been found in these beds, may it not be 
 presumed that these remains belong to fishes of a car- 
 tilaginous structure, the bones of which had been gra- 
 dually removed, whilst imbedded ? These fossil teeth, 
 
 * It appeals, that a paper by M. de la Becbe, which was read at a 
 meeting of the Geological Society, June 28, 18^0, describes a fossil fob 
 from Lyme, which appears to agree very nearly with those which are men- 
 tioned above. It is named, hy M. de la Beclie, Dnpcdium pnlitnm. 
 
 Nil
 
 274 
 
 Bufonites, appear to be the round molar teeth with 
 which the jaws and palates of fish of the genera Anarr- 
 hricas and Sparus are furnished. In PL I, Jig. 11, 12, 
 and 13, are represented teeth of other forms from the 
 Stonesfield slate. 
 
 In the different beds which occur between those of the 
 oolite and of the chalk formation, detached fragments 
 of fish are sometimes found ; and remains, still bearing 
 the form of the fish, have been found in very good 
 preservation in some of the Purbeck beds. 
 
 The chalk, in its several divisions, frequently mani- 
 fests that fish abounded in the waters by which it was 
 deposited. These remains are chiefly the different sul- 
 cated palates, detached vertebrae, and irregular masses 
 with the scales of fishes. But it is with great satisfac- 
 tion the reader is informed, that Mr. Mantell, of Lewes, 
 in his forthcoming work, will evince the zeal and assi- 
 duity with which he has pursued his researches respect- 
 ing these fossils in the chalk formation. 
 
 That gentleman has kindly informed me, that he has 
 been enabled to ascertain the presence of the following 
 fish in the chalk, near Lewes ; and that plates of the 
 several specimens are prepared for his work. 
 
 Squalus cornubicus. 
 
 mustelus. 
 
 - zygena. 
 galeus. 
 
 .Diodon, an unknown species of. 
 
 Batistes, an unknown species of. 
 
 Murtena Lewesiensis. 
 
 Anarrhicas lupus, molar teeth and jaws. 
 
 Salmo Lewesiensis. 
 
 Esox Lewesiensis. 
 
 Arnica ? Lewesiensis. 
 
 Zeus Lewesiensis. 
 The remains of fishes are frequently found in the
 
 London clay, in various degrees of preservation: not 
 only are the numerous teeth of cartilaginous fishes 
 found here in their various figures triangular, conical, 
 single pointed, tricuspidated, tridentated, lanceolated, 
 &c., and from more than an inch in length to very small 
 sizes but others, belonging to spinous fishes, varying 
 considerably in their forms and sizes, are found still 
 affixed in their bony sockets. The skeletons of some of 
 these fishes still remain, but so fixed in their hardened 
 matrix as to be very difficultly separable. 
 
 The teeth are mostly referrible to different species of 
 the genus Squalus ; and are spoken of, by former \\ i i- 
 ters, under the different appellations, Plectronites, Ros- 
 trago, &c. The bony tongue and palates of different 
 species of the genus Raia, particularly of Raia pasti- 
 nacea, are also found completely mineralised in this 
 formation. 
 
 Ceti. The fossil remains of whales are much sel- 
 domer found than might be expected. Part of the long 
 projecting and spirally-twisted tooth of the Narwhal, 
 improperly termed Monodon monoceros, exists in a fos- 
 sil state, and, from its adherent matrix, appears to 
 have been obtained from the London clay. A tooth, 
 apparently of some species of this family, is imbedded 
 in grey limestone from near Bath. 
 
 Amphibia. Fossil bones of the Lamantin (ManatusJ 
 have been dug up on the sides of the river Layon, to 
 the south of the Loire, in a calcareous bed formed of 
 fossil shells. They were accompanied by other bones, 
 belonging to Phocce and Cetacea. Among these were 
 fossil bones, determinately belonging to a Manatus, but 
 different from any known species. Some of these bones 
 were the bones of a seal, twice and a half as large as 
 those of the common seal, P. vitulina. 
 
 No decided remains of the Trichecus rosmarus, or
 
 276 
 
 Walruss, have been found ; though several fossils have 
 been supposed to belong to this animal. 
 
 Sauri *. We have been taught by the instructive la- 
 bours of Cuvier, to whom science is so much indebted, 
 not only the external characters which distinguish the 
 several subgenera and species of existing crocodiles, 
 but also those characters observable in the skeleton, by 
 which the kind and degrees of accordance between the 
 existing and fossil animals of this genus may be ascer- 
 tained ; and which also serve as points of comparison 
 between the genus crocodile and those fossil saurian 
 remains which demand to be placed under other ge- 
 nera. 
 
 Crocodile. A saurian reptile, characterised by coni- 
 cal teeth disposed in a single row; a broad tongue not 
 extensible ; a tail flattened on its sides ; the hind feet 
 palmated, or semipalmated ; with scales, nearly square 
 on the back, belly, and tail. Besides these more 
 general and comprehensive characters, the following 
 have also been found in every animal of the genus 
 which has been yet examined, and may sometimes be 
 traced in their fossil remains. The feet, with five toes 
 before and four behind ; only three of these on each foot 
 armed with nails; hence, two before and one behind 
 are without nails. The nostrils form a long narrow 
 canal, terminating in the gullet. The vertebrae of the 
 neck bear a species of false ribs, which, touching at 
 their extremities, hinder the animal from turning its 
 head entirely on one side. The sternum, extended be- 
 yond the ribs, gives rise also to a particular species of 
 false ribs, which do not articulate with the vertebrae, 
 but terminate in the aponeurotic expansion. 
 
 * ravpw, a lizard.
 
 277 
 
 The genus is divided into the following subgenera : 
 
 1. Alligators. The head oblong, its length being 
 to its width, at the articulation of the jaws, as 3 to 2; 
 the length of the skull being more than a fourth of that 
 of the whole head ; the muzzle wide ; the teeth unequal 
 in size; and, at the least, nineteen, and sometimes 
 twenty-two in number, below, on each side; and, at 
 least, nineteen, and often twenty above. The first of 
 the lower pierce, at a certain age, the upper jaw, and 
 the fourth, which are the longest, are received into 
 holes in the upper jaw, in which they are hidden when 
 the jaw is shut. The toes are connected in only half 
 their length by a short membrane. The holes in the 
 skull, behind the eyes, in the species in which they ex- 
 ist, are very small. 
 
 2. Crocodiles (generally so called). The head ob- 
 long, its length double its width ; the skull being less 
 than a quarter of the length of the whole head. The 
 teeth unequal, fifteen on each side below, and nineteen 
 above ; the fourth tooth of the lower jaw, being the 
 longest on each side, passes through a groove OH each 
 side of the upper jaw. The skull has two large oval 
 holes behind the eyes. The hind feet are palmated. 
 
 3. Gavials. The skull hardly a fifth of the length 
 of the whole head ; the jaws narrow, elongated, nearly 
 cylindrical, and a little enlarged at the end. The teeth 
 nearly of a size, from twenty-five to twenty-seven on 
 each side below, and twenty-seven or twenty-eight 
 above ; the two first and the two fourth of the lower 
 jaw pass through grooves on the outsides of the upper 
 jaw. 
 
 The student, it is presumed, will be aided in his en- 
 quiries respecting the fossil remains of the Saurian 
 animals in general, by reference to the following me- 
 moranda of the most prominent peculiarities observable 
 in the skeleton of the crocodile, as instanced by Cuvier
 
 278 
 
 in the Crocodile a losange; observing, that the su- 
 tures and the member of the bones of the head are the 
 same in every species, although their figures may be 
 changed in consequence of the difference in the form of 
 the head itself. 
 
 The most anterior of the bones of the head are the 
 intermaxillary bones, which hold the fore-teeth. At the 
 junction of these bones is the opening of the nostrils in 
 their upper part, and in their lower part are the incisory 
 holes. The maxillary bones are immediately behind 
 these, each extending in a long apophysis which holds 
 the last teeth, and is inserted between the jugal bone 
 and an unnamed bone situated in the sides of the palate. 
 The anterior parts of the palate bones are received be- 
 tween the maxillary bones ; and the posterior parts, 
 having widened a little, are applied to the anterior part of 
 the internal pterygoidal apophyses which here form the 
 lower part of the nasal canal, and, becoming extended, 
 form a wide horizontal and triangular plate, at the pos- 
 terior border of which the nasal canal opens. The un- 
 named bones on each side, already alluded to, join the 
 lateral margins of this surface, and are united obliquely 
 to the dental apophyses of the maxillary bone, leaving 
 in the roof of the mouth, on each side, a large oval 
 opening, surrounded by the bone already^ mentioned, 
 which is considered by Cuvier as the external ptery- 
 goidal apophysis, by the maxillary, the parietal bones, 
 and the plates of the internal pterygoidal apophysis. 
 
 The jugal bone joins, anteriorly, the posterior apo- 
 physis of the maxillary bone, passes under the orbit, 
 and terminates behind in a point which forms the outer 
 margin of the condyloidal apophysis or prominence of 
 the skull. 
 
 The space which is commonly filled by one or two 
 frontal bones is, in this genus, occupied ^ five distinct 
 bones : a middle one, between the eyes, which articu-
 
 279 
 
 lates with the hinder part of the nasal bones, and is 
 notched at its sides by the orbits, and forwarder by two 
 other bones, supposed, by Geoffrey, to belong to the 
 ethmoidal bone, and which form, by vertical apophyses, 
 part of the orbital margin; the two other bones, decidedly 
 parts of the frontal, yield apophyses which correspond 
 to the post-orbital apophyses of the frontal bone, and, 
 with that of the jugal bone, fill up the back part of the 
 orbital frame, as in the ruminants. 
 
 The lower jaw is formed by six bones. The dental, 
 in which are the sockets of the teeth : these bones unite 
 in front, and form the anterior angle of the jaw. The 
 opercular, which covers all the inner surface of the jaw, 
 excepting at the fore part, which is formed by the 
 dental alone. The coronoidal and angular, the former 
 the uppermost, receive in their fore part the end of the 
 dental, leaving between them a large oval opening. 
 The angular bone turns upwards so as to fill a space on 
 the inner surface of the jaw. Between this and the oper- 
 cular bone is another oval, but smaller opening ; and, 
 beneath that, a considerable vacuity, as the coronoidal 
 does not turn over on to the inside : the anterior point 
 of this vacancy is bordered by a small crescent-formed 
 bone. The condyle is formed by one particular bone, 
 named the articular bone. The coronoidal has not, in 
 the crocodile, any apophysis, as is the case in other 
 reptiles. 
 
 The teeth are of the same number at all ages, and 
 are never solid in the centre. They are pointed and 
 enamelled ; their surface is striated longitudinally, and 
 they have a cutting edge on the fore and back part. It 
 appears that they are frequently shed, since they are 
 never found much worn, in very old, or even in fossil ani- 
 mals. The renewal of the teeth appears to be effected 
 in this manner : the germ, at the bottom of the socket, 
 gradually enlarging on the inside of the existing tooth.
 
 280 
 
 occasions in it a depression, and then, penetrating and 
 splitting its substance, causes it to be shed. The 
 first and the fourth teeth below, and the third above, 
 are the longest and thickest; and then, in the croco- 
 diles and the alligators, the eleventh below, and the 
 eighth and ninth above, are the next in size. In the gavi- 
 als, the rest after the fourth are nearly of the same size. 
 The fourth tooth below, it is observed by Cuvier, may 
 bear the name of the canine-tooth, as it answers to the 
 suture of the intermaxillary and maxillary bones of the 
 upper jaw. The five or six last teeth of each side are 
 more obtuse and more compressed than the others, and 
 the crown is distinguished from the tooth by an evident 
 contraction; this, however, takes place only in the 
 crocodiles and alligators; it is not observable in the 
 gavials. 
 
 The vertebra are sixty : seven cervicals, twelve dor- 
 sals, five lumbar, two sacral, and thirty-four caudals. 
 All the vertebrae have the anterior surfaces concave 
 and the posterior convex, and both circular : and the 
 annular part is joined to the body by a suture peculiar 
 to this genus and to the tortoise. 
 
 The atlas is formed of six pieces, which are distinct, 
 being united only by cartilage. The axis is formed of 
 five pieces. The annular part is joined to the body of 
 the vertebrae by suture ; and the odontoidal apophysis 
 is united to the anterior surface by a cartilage. 
 
 From the other cervical vertebrae proceed those little 
 false ribs or processes, which, by their pressure against 
 each other, restrain the motion of the neck. The articu- 
 lar apophyses, although disposed in a position oblique 
 to the horizon, are parallel with the axis of the spine : 
 the spinous apophyses are high, narrow, and slightly in- 
 clined backwards ; and beneath is a small spinous pro- 
 cess bent a little forwards. 
 
 The first of the dorsal vertebrae has its spinous apo-
 
 281 
 
 physis inclined as in those of the cervical ; the inferior 
 spinous apophyses are continued only in the five or six 
 first. The four first have only one costal facette on the 
 body, and one on their transverse apophyses ; the sir 
 following have two on their transverse apophyses ; and 
 the two last have none. 
 
 The lumbar vertebrae differ from the dorsals in not 
 having any of these facettes; and the spinous apo- 
 physes, as in the dorsal, are straight, wide, and square. 
 
 The two sacral vertebrae are distinguished by their 
 strong, prismatic, transverse apophyses, for the sup- 
 port of the iliac bones. 
 
 The vertebrae of the tail resemble those of the loins, 
 except in their bodies becoming more and more thin 
 and compressed; their transverse apophyses diminish 
 to the fifteenth or sixteenth, and then cease; their spi- 
 nous apophyses become narrower and longer to the 
 twenty-second or twenty-third, and then again diminish, 
 and in the latter ones disappear entirely. Each ver- 
 tebra from the second has beneath, at its posterior 
 edge, two facettes to carry a branched chevron-formed 
 bone, like an inferior spinous apophysis. 
 
 The ribs are twelve on each side, not reckoning the 
 appendices of the cervical vertebrae. The two first 
 and the last are not joined by a cartilage to the sternum. 
 Under the belly are five pair of cartilages without ribs, 
 which are attached to the aponeurosis of the muscles, 
 the two last being fixed to the sides of the pubis. 
 
 The scapula is very small for the size of the animal. 
 Its flat part forms a narrow isosceles triangle, and has 
 no spine: its neck becomes cylindrical, then turns in- 
 wards, becomes spread, and presents a long surface to 
 the clavicle; at the external part, forwards, is an apo- 
 physis, which, with a corresponding apophysis of the 
 clavicle, forms the pit in which the head of the hu- 
 merus is received
 
 282 
 
 The clavicle agrees very closely in its form, both in 
 its head and body, with the scapula; the edge of its 
 flat part being united to the sternum. 
 
 The humerus is curved in two directions ; the upper 
 part is convex forwards, the inferior concave. 
 
 The cubitus has no olecranon nor sygmoid surface ; 
 the upper extremity articulates with the external con- 
 dyle of the humerus by an oval pit, widest on the radial 
 side ; its body is rather compressed transversely, and 
 curved outwardly. Its lower end is the smaller, is 
 compressed transversely, and is wider and descends a 
 little lower on the radial side. 
 
 The radius is nearly cylindrical, and thinner and 
 shorter than the cubitus. Its upper extremity is oval, 
 the lower oblong, thinner towards the cubitus. 
 
 There are but four carpal bones ; a carpal and a. 
 
 - cubital, the first of double the size of the other, and 
 
 both contracted in the middle; a third, which may 
 
 be considered as a pisiform bone ; and a fourth, len- 
 
 ticularly formed, placed between the cubital carpal 
 
 bone and the metacarpal of the index and middle 
 
 . finger. 
 
 The metacarpal bones have a general resemblance to 
 those of quadrupeds. 
 
 The thumb has two phalanges, the index three, the 
 middle and the next four, and the little finger three. 
 These' two last having no nail, the terminating phalanx 
 is very small. 
 
 The bone of the ilium is placed vertically : it is con- 
 cave outwardly, and convex inwards. 
 
 The ischium is .nearly in the form of the clavicle. It 
 is united to its fellow by a flat part in the form of an 
 isosceles triangle ; its neck is thick, and its head is still 
 more so. It has two facettes ; one rough, which joins 
 the ilium, and a smooth one which contributes to form 
 the cotyloidal cavity. From the neck there passes for-
 
 283 
 
 wards, and a little outwards, a flat apophysis which 
 supports the pubis. 
 
 The pubis is a flat bone forming an isosceles triangle, 
 supported by a cylindrical pedicle, which articulates 
 with the apophysis of the neck of the ischium. The 
 bones of the pubis do not touch, but are carried 
 obliquely forward* and rather inwards, and are sup- 
 ported by the same aponeurosis which retains the false 
 abdominal ribs. 
 
 The femur is a little longer than the humerus, and is 
 curved in a contrary way. Its head is compressed in 
 nearly a horizontal direction. Its only trochanter is a 
 bluntish projection at about a quarter of its length from 
 the top. Its lower extremity is widest in its trans- 
 verse direction, and divides behind into two distinct 
 condyles. 
 
 The tibia differs less than the cubitus does from the 
 general form in quadrupeds. The fibula is thin and 
 cylindrical ; the head is very compressed ; the low er 
 extremity rather triangular. 
 
 The calcaneum does not differ from those of other 
 quadrupeds, as do the other bones of the extremities. 
 The astragalus is of a very different figure from that 
 which it in general possesses. It has four surfaces : an 
 dpper one, small and square, to receive the fibula; an 
 inner one, oblique and elongated, for the tibia ; an ex- 
 ternal one, in the form of a crescent, which bears 
 against the fibularian prominence of the calcaneum. 
 All the lower part is occupied by an irregular tumid 
 surface, the posterior part of which rests on the astra- 
 galian, apophysis of the calcaneum, and the remainder 
 supports the two first metatarsals. There arc three 
 other bones which may be reckoned among the tarsal 
 bones. 
 
 The metatarsals are not particularly remarkable : 
 they are larger and more equal than the metaciupal.
 
 284 
 
 The number of the phalanges are, beginning witli the 
 great toe, two, three, four, four; the little toe has no 
 nail. 
 
 It is necessary to observe, that the preceding sketch 
 is referrible to all the -species of crocodiles ; even the 
 head of the Gavial, the head which has so particular a 
 form, has the same bones as the others, but, to render 
 them conformable to the great lengthening of the muzzle, 
 they exist in different proportions. 
 
 Cuvier notices a curious modification of the sphe- 
 noidal plates which form a vault over the palate bones, 
 making, instead of a semicylindrical canal, a hollow 
 of 'the size of a hen's egg, which communicates with 
 the nasal canal only by a middling-sized opening. He 
 has not seen it in the little Gavial; and from having 
 seen this part more inflated in the old crocodiles from 
 the Indies than in the young, he is not sure that it 
 may not be, as in other sinus's, the result of age. 
 
 Fossil Crocodiles and other Saurian Animals*. 
 
 ORDER. Sauri. 
 
 Division I. Agreeing with recent genera, but speci- 
 fically distinct. 
 
 Genus 1. Crocodilus. 
 
 The two species of Honfleur and Havre f. 
 The Crocodilus priscus of Soemmering (Munich 
 Transactions). 
 
 Having been favoured by the Rev. W. D. Conybenre with a syste- 
 matic arrangement of the subjects of this section, and a compendious 
 statement of their respective characters, I have introduced this valuable 
 communication into the text ; placing, in notes, snch collateral matter a* 
 appeared to be required. 
 
 t The remains of crocodiles have been found in the neighbourhood of 
 Honfleur and Havre, respecting which the celebrated Cuvier has ascer- 
 tained the most interesting circumstance?. These bones are stated lo h\r
 
 285 
 
 Species found in England: One specimen was ob- 
 tained from the Purbeck stone (now in the possession 
 
 been found in a bed of greyish blue calcareous marl, which, from the sub- 
 sequent researches of M. de la Beche, appears to be the same with the 
 blue clay occurring immediately beneath the green jsand in the Weald of 
 Kent, the Isle of Wight, &c. The under jaw is shown to be that of a 
 crocodile by its shape ; by the conical striated teeth, with cutting edges, 
 placed in distinct sockets, and with a cavity receiving the replacing 
 tooth. The sutures also show that the bones of the jaw are six in number 
 on each side, nearly agreeing in their forms with those in the gavial ; but 
 in these jaws the branched part is longer than the anterior united part, and 
 the angle made by the branches is not so open as in the gavials. The sepa- 
 ration of the branches extends more among the teeth, there being in these 
 jaws seven teeth in each branch ; whilst, in those of the gavial, there are 
 but two or three ; and, at the same time, the whole number is less in the 
 "fossil than in the recent gavial, there being in the fossil but twenty-two on 
 each side, whilst in the gavial there are twenty-five. Nor is .the oval hole 
 to be seen in the outer side of the branch, as in the lower jaw of the gavial. 
 In these jaws the anterior end finishes in a point, instead of spreading out 
 as in the gavial. The jaw, too, is less depressed and more cylindrical than 
 in the gavial ; but, in one specimen, a greater approximation to the snout 
 of the gavial, especially as to its flatness, was observable, from which the 
 existence here of two fossil species was suspected. 
 
 This supposition appears to have been confirmed by the examination of 
 the accompanying vertebrae. The genus to which these belonged was de- 
 termined by the body and the angular part being joined by a suture, which 
 occurs only in crocodiles and tortoises, whilst several other characters de- 
 cidedly show that they belonged to two different and to two unknown 
 species. 
 
 In one specimen, containing the atlas and axis, a particular species was 
 evinced by the tubercle of the axis appearing to be adapted for the articu- 
 lation of two heads of a false rib, as in the succeeding cervicals ; whilst in 
 the existing crocodile there is but one. Another character, still more 
 striking, is observable here, and in the succeeding vertebrae ; the posterior 
 surface, which is convex in all known crocodiles, is here concave; the. 
 anterior surface of the succeeding vertebra? being of a convexity adapted 
 to the posterior concavity of the axis. This concavity, however, appears 
 to diminish in some of the succeeding vertebrae, and, in some, the two sur- 
 faces appear to have been similar, nearly Mat. 
 
 The transverse apophysis arises by four ridges which form for it a pyra- 
 midal base , and in the place of a single inferior spinous apophy^ as iu
 
 286 
 
 of Mr. Johnson of Bristol), and another was found in 
 Oxfordshire, at Gibraltar, on the Cherwell, in cornbrash 
 (now in the Oxford Museum). 
 
 These are clearly distinct from Cuvier's first species, 
 but may perhaps agree with his second. Vertebrae, ap- 
 parently of that species, are found between the Kim- 
 meridge clay and coral rag, near Weymouth. Croco- 
 dilian vertebrae are also mentioned as existing in the 
 Sussex chalk, and vertebrae of the same species with 
 those of Honfleoir are found in clay between, the green 
 sand and the iron sand of that county *. 
 
 known crocodiles, two ridges exist here, each terminated by a tubercle. 
 The bodies of this series of vertebras are more contracted in their middle 
 than they are in the known crocodiles. 
 
 But in the same bed, and often mixed with these, are found the vertebrae 
 of the other unknown crocodile alluded to. These vertebra are not con- 
 tracted in the middle; their transverse apophyses are not formed by the 
 union of projecting ridges; and the chief circumstance in which they differ 
 from the fossil species already mentioned, and from the recent crocodile, 
 is, that neither anterior nor posterior surface of their bodies is convex, but 
 both of them slightly concave. The sutures, and the disposition of the 
 apophyses, are, at the same time, such as generically distinguish cro- 
 codiles. 
 
 * It was with peculiar satisfaction, that, whilst this part of the work was 
 in the printer's hands, I was favoured by William Rhodes, Esq., with some 
 fossil bones which had been found in a pit dug in the London clay, at 
 the depth of eighteen feet from the surface, in Hackney Fields. Finding 
 these to be the remains of a crocodile, and being aware that no such re- 
 mains had hitherto been found in this formation, I immediately repaired to 
 the pit, with the hope of securing the remaining parts of the skeleton ; 
 but too late : all the other fragments were irrecoverably lost, except a few 
 broken vertebrae. On perceiving the skeleton, which, I was informed, 
 was lying in a cnrved position, the workmen rushed on it with their pick- 
 axes and shovels, each striving to obtain a portion of the supposed mon- 
 ster, until its demolition was accomplished. 
 
 The pieces which I obtained were two small fragments of the upper, and 
 one of the lower, jaw, with a series of the vertebrae, and two obscure 
 fragments of the leg. 
 
 Fortujjptely, the two pieces of the upper jaw, on being placed together,
 
 287 
 
 It is uncertain whether the remains from Whitby 
 (lias), described in the Philosophical Transactions, are 
 really crocodilian *. The remains described by Stuke- 
 ley, in the Philosophical Transactions, and which were 
 
 gave the formation of the snout, from the ninth tooth to its anterior ter- 
 mination, anil yielded a complete view of the grooves for the lateral ad- 
 mission of the large fourth tooth on each side of the lower jaw. The 
 teeth were broken off to the margin of their alveoli: but they thus 
 showed, in their transverse section, their cutting ridges, their striated 
 surfaces, and their central cavity, beautifully encrusted with bright py- 
 rites. The fragment of the lower jaw also was of its anterior termination, 
 but of only half the length of the two fragments of the upper jaw, and 
 contained four teeth on the left and two on the right side. 
 
 The form of the two conjoined pieces of the upper jaw, gradually ta- 
 pering anteriorly, but enlarging at the termination, with the lateral grooves 
 for the fourth tooth on each side of the lower jaw, proved decidedly that 
 it was not the jaw of a gavial, or of the same species with the one whose 
 jaw was discovered at Honfleur. The characters possessed by the jaw are 
 those of the recent species, Crocodile a museau aigti. 
 
 The fragments of the vertebrae, though slightly mutilated, furnish useful 
 and interesting information. Unlike the vertebrae of the two fossil species 
 of Honflenr, as described by Cuvier, they have, throughout the whole 
 spinal column, the anterior surface concave, and the posterior convex, 
 and so strongly so, as fully to equal, if not exceed, those of the recent 
 species in this respect. 
 
 I could procure only twelve vertebra : of these, two were cervical ; one, 
 anterior dorsal; seven, posterior dorsal and lumbar; and two, probably 
 anterior caudal ; hut the marks for the articulation of the chevron-bone 
 were not visible. They corresponded so very nearly with the vertebra of 
 the recent crocodile in every particular, as to require no farther description 
 than that which is given by Ctwier of these; his figures would also equally 
 serve to represent them, for they differ only in having the extremities of 
 their spinous and transverse processes generally broken off. 
 
 Of the uncertain fragments, one bears somewhat of the curved outline 
 of the humerus, but, of the other, no opinion can be safely proposed. 
 
 It does not appear, from what is at present known respecting this fossil 
 animal, that it specifically differs from the recent crocodile. 
 
 * " The bones (Mr. Conybeare says) which I have seen from Whitby, 
 are of the Ichthyosaurus and Plesiotanrus ; I have seen no other. 1 '
 
 288 
 
 supposed by Cuvier, from the incorrectness of the 
 plate, to belong to crocodile, are decidedly remains of 
 Plesiosaurus ; nor have any crocodilian remains been 
 found in the lias of the south-western countries. The 
 crocodile said to have been found in the Derbyshire 
 mountain Ijme, is asserted to have been a distorted 
 Orthoceratite. 
 
 Genus II. Monitor. 
 
 Some species of this genus are found in Thu- 
 ringia*. 
 
 Division II. Enalio sauri f, comprising genera dif- 
 fering from the recent, and fitted to live entirely 
 in the sea. 
 
 * In the cuprous and bituminous schists of several parts of Thuriocia are 
 found numerous impressions of fishes, and of other animals which had been 
 supposed to be the remains of crocodiles and of some species of apes. 
 This schist, which at Mansfeldt, Eisleben, and Ilmenau, is so celebrated for 
 the beautifully pyritical impressions, rests upon a red sandstone, which, in 
 many parts, contains coal, and has over it beds of limestone containing be- 
 lemnites, terebratnke, entrochi, and the remains of other animals of very 
 early creation, and of marine origin. 
 
 The remains of fishes, thus found, have been considered as belonging to 
 fresh-water fish ; and Cuvier observes, that the observations made by him 
 respecting the supposed crocodilian remains of this schist, must serve to 
 confirm this opinion, he having ascertained them to belong to some of the 
 numerous species of animals, comprised by Linnaeus under the term of 
 Lazerta monitor; and of Tupinambis, by Daudin : animals which frequent 
 marshes and the shallow beds of rivers. Thus, as our justly, celebrated 
 teacher instructs us, we have here fresh proofs of fresh-water animals being 
 covered by immense masses of the most ancient marine productions, and 
 showing that the sea has repeatedly covered our continents. 
 
 The fossil remains which have been thus given to their proper animals, 
 are 1st, tlie supposed Crocodile of Spence ; 3d, the supposed Crocodile 
 of Link; 3d, the Sapajou of Swedcnbourg; 4tb, a skeleton in the Royal 
 Museum of Berlin. The supposed skeleton of a crocodile in the Cabinet 
 of Dresden is supposed also to belong to the Monitors, 
 
 1 tr*Aioc, marine, and 2u{, a lizard.
 
 289 
 
 Ichthyosaurus*. A marine, oviparous animal ; closely 
 agreeing in the whole osteology of the head and sternum 
 with" the saurian tribe, except that the bones are usually, 
 as in fish, united by squamous sutures; and approx- 
 imating to fish in some parts of the structure of its ver- 
 tebral column, and, in others, being sui generis. The 
 four extremities are decidedly sui generis, and may be, 
 in some respects, considered as forming a link between 
 feet and fins : these are called paddles. 
 
 The following are the most essential particulars re- 
 specting its structure: Dentition. The teeth are not 
 lodged in separate alveoli, as in mammalia and croco- 
 diles, nor do they adhere by a bony union to the inner 
 side of the maxilla, as in other saurians, but lie loosely, 
 retained only by the fibrous substance of the gum in a 
 continuous furrow formed along the maxillae ; this fur- 
 row being only slightly contracted between the teeth. 
 The secondary teeth, which replace the first set, are 
 not formed in separate alveoli in the maxilla, but close 
 
 * Naturalists are under great obligations to Sir Edward Home and Pro- 
 lessor Buckland for their long continued perseverance in the investigations 
 respecting the nature of this fossil animal. 
 
 At the desire of Mr. Conybcare I state, that, iu drawing up the 
 following notice, which includes an outline of the progress made in deve- 
 loping the structure aud relations of this animal since his communication to 
 the Geological Society, he wishes to acknowledge his obligations to the 
 same friend to whom he has alluded ii> the published memoir, as inclined to 
 refer the Ichthyosaurus rather to the lacertian division of the Sauri than to 
 the crocodilian type. It has been his own endeavour to expose, as fairly as 
 possible, its relations with both. 
 
 The account above given of its dentition is now confirmed by a suite of 
 decisive specimens of teeth, both in, and detached from, the jaw, contain- 
 ing every stage of the process. It will at once be seen, that it differ' 
 most essentially from that of the Monitor, Sec. in whose teeth a large bony 
 secretion, supplying the place of the root, unites them to the maxilla, with 
 which this osseous mass is organically incorporated : the new teeth, formed 
 
 in distinct alveoli, pierce laterally, or transversely, across this osseous mass. 
 
 
 
 P p
 
 290 
 
 on the inner side of the roots of the first, which are 
 deeply excavated to receive them ; thus they penetrate 
 into and grow up within the interior of the old teeth, 
 which they finally push or rather lift out. All the ap- 
 pearances in these stages of growth are absolutely con- 
 formable to those exhibited in the teeth of the crocodile, 
 excepting that, in the crocodile, the old tooth, from the 
 size of the conical alveolus containing it, does not ad- 
 mit of being pushed out without being previously split. 
 But after these stages a difference takes place, for, in> 
 the crocodile, the teeth always remain hollow, a very 
 frequent and reiterated succession of new teeth taking 
 place ; whereas, in the Ichthyosaurus, as in Monitors 
 and other Lacertce, their succession being less frequent, 
 the hollow becomes filled in age by the ossification of the 
 pulpy matter. This is the only point in which the den- 
 tition of these animals agrees. The bones of the lower 
 jaw nearly resemble those of the crocodile, excepting 
 that the temporal muscle, rather than the masseter, ap- 
 pears to have been employed in raising it, whereas in 
 most species of crocodile the former muscle is a 
 mere rudiment : hence the coronoid process is more de- 
 veloped, and the great oval hole, so characteristic of 
 the crocodile's lower jaw, and probably serving for at- 
 tachment to the masseter, is reduced to a long deep 
 sinus. In these respects the Ichthyosaurus resembles 
 the Monitor and other lacertians, but differs in the ge- 
 neral contour of all this part and of its constituent 
 bones, especially in the almost entire concealment of 
 the articular bone within it, which, in these, forms all 
 
 In the Ichthyosaurus theie is no similar osseous union, bat the base of the 
 tooth, which lies quite freely in its place, is a simple prolongation of the co- 
 nical body of the tooth, exactly as in the crocodile. The dentition is a point 
 so important, that it has been necessary to dwell upon it more at length. 
 The illustration of these points will form the subject of a memoir shortly 
 to be laid before the Geological Society.
 
 291 
 
 the external and posterior part ; the Ichthyosaurus agrees 
 in these points with the crocodile. 
 
 In the head the position of the nostrils is peculiar, 
 being behind the snout, and close in front of the orbits ; 
 but the posterior opening of the nasal canal into the 
 throat is placed far back, behind^the internal pterygoid 
 processes, which, as in the crocodile, form a continu- 
 ous plate beneath it ; consequently the whole structure 
 of the roof of the mouth assumes an arrangement com- 
 pletely agreeing with the crocodile, and entirely distinct 
 from that of the other lacertians. The bones surround- 
 ing the orbit are not very distinctive, but agree rather 
 with the crocodile than with other lacertae ; the scle- 
 rotica, however, resembles that of the latter class, by 
 its division into scales. 
 
 The cavities behind the orbits, compared in the Geo- 
 logical Transactions to those similarly placed in the 
 crocodile, bear, in their extent, a greater analogy to 
 the temporal fossae of other lacertae, since the temporal 
 muscle which is attached near their edges, being in both 
 the Ichthyosaurus and lacertians the principal mover 
 of the lower jaw, requires greater space, whereas, in 
 the crocodile, it is scarcely called into play, except in 
 the gavial, where these fossae necessarily have their di- 
 mensions much enlarged. These post-orbital fossae of 
 the crocodiles, however, may be considered as the true 
 analogues of the temporal fossae in the other lacertae, 
 serving the same purposes and surrounded by the same 
 bones, so that the difference in this respect is not ma- 
 terial; it arises only from the greater employment of the 
 temporal muscle, and cannot be compared with the 
 differences, in the same respect, between different spe- 
 cies of the crocodile, for instance between the Caiman 
 a paupitres osseuses and the Gavial. 
 
 The most striking difference, perhaps, in the whole 
 osteology of the head of crocodiles, and other lacertae,
 
 292 
 
 is in the posterior parts of the head ; the position and 
 mode of connection of that division of the temporal 
 bone which articulates with the lower jaw, and the place 
 of the meatus auditorius. In these respects, the Ich- 
 thyosaurus approaches nearly to the crocodile, and re- 
 cedes entirely from the other lacertae. 
 
 The vertebrae agree with neither class of Saurians, 
 but, by their deeply hollowed and double concave form, 
 approximate to those of fishes, closely resembling those 
 of the shark in their proportions : in order further to 
 facilitate motion in every direction, the annular part has 
 a distinct articulation with the body ; a provision pecu- 
 liar to this animal. 
 
 The humero-stemal parts consist like those of the 
 lacertae generally, and of most oviparous animals, ex- 
 cept fishes, of the furcula or clavicular arch*, the 
 scapulae, two bones representing the coracoid pro- 
 cesses, and humeri. These last support the paddle, 
 consisting of many series of small polygonal bones, 
 very greatly surpassing, in number, the phalanges of 
 quadrupeds, or even the analogous bones in the fins of 
 fish. 
 
 Species I. /. communis. The apex of the teeth forms 
 a cone less acutely pointed than in the follow- 
 ing species. The head, figured in the Philo- 
 sophical Transactions for 1819, PL III, be- 
 longs to it. 
 
 Sp. II. /. tenuirostris The apex of the teeth is 
 more elongated and more acute. The head, 
 figured in the Philosophical Transactions for 
 1820, PL XV, belongs to it. 
 
 Sp. III. I. platyodon. The teeth are more flat and 
 smooth than in the former species. It is not 
 yet figured. 
 
 * The crocodile is destitute, however, of the claricnlar part.
 
 293 
 
 All these species, in which the teeth form the most 
 obvious distinguishing mark, are found in the lias ; one 
 other species, at least, is found in the Kimmeridge clay, 
 and is sufficiently characterised by the contour of the 
 cervical vertebrae, but the difference would not admit of 
 description in an elementary work. The remains of 
 the Ichthyosaurus are also found in the calcareous grit 
 under the coral rag, and in clay above the iron sand ; 
 so that it may be considered as common to all the 
 beds between the red marl and green sand, or perhaps 
 chalk. 
 
 Plesiosaurus*. Mr. Conybeare observes, he has 
 nothing to add here to the generic description given in 
 the paper in the Geological Transactions, except that 
 the dentition appears to have been as in crocodiles, and 
 the teeth to be placed in alveoli f. 
 
 * ffX)$o$, approximate to, and Zecvgo;, a lizard. 
 
 t To render the present account more perfect, it has been thought pro- 
 per to introduce, from the paper of Messrs, de la Beche and Conybeare, 
 the following abridged account of their observations : 
 
 The newly-discovered animal adds another to that family, which, ap- 
 proaching closely to the lizard family, and especially to tbe genus Crocodile, 
 differs from it in many important characters, especially in tbe structure of 
 their paddles, which possess _an intermediate structure between the feet 
 of quadrupeds and the fins of fishes, and approaches, in many respects, 
 most nearly to the paddles of turtles. 
 
 This animal appears to be intermediate between the Crocodile and Ich- 
 thyosaurus ; but whilst the Ichthyosaurus recedes from the forms of the 
 lizard family, and approaches those of fishes, the new animal approximates, 
 in these respects, more nearly to the Crocodile : they therefore describe 
 Plesiosaurus as a marine animal, intermediate in its structure between the 
 Ichthyosaurus and Crocodile. 
 
 The teeth have not been decidedly ascertained : a peculiar tooth, how- 
 ever, not belonging to any species of Ichthyosaurus, yet evidently of the 
 crocodilian type, occurs in the lias, and may, with great probability, be 
 referred to this animal. 
 
 I am happy in having been favoured by Mr. Conybeare, siuce the pub-
 
 294 
 
 Species I. PL priscus. The cervical vertebrae in this 
 species are the thickest in the series. All the 
 bones of this genus, figured in the Geological 
 Transactions, belong to this species. It oc- 
 curs in lias. 
 
 lication of his paper, with the following account of the head of this ani- 
 mal, which has been lately found : 
 
 " Of the head of this animal only a single specimen approaching to com- 
 pleteness has yet occurred. It was discovered by Mr. Thomas Clarke, in 
 the lias of Street, near Glastonbnry : unfortunately, it is much crushed, 
 but is yet sufficiently perfect to exhibit its most essential osteological cha- 
 racters. 
 
 " These characters when viewed collectively, present, as might have 
 been expected, an assemblage sui generis; taken separately, they exhibit 
 partial approximations to the Ichthyosaurus, the Crocodile, and the Lacer- 
 tian family (more strictly so called, as considered exclusively of the croco- 
 dilian branch), nor is there any structure which may not be paralleled from 
 one of these three types : on "the whole, we should be inclined to pro- 
 nounce (though not without hesitation) the approximations to the latter 
 class to be most close and important. 
 
 " Its general contour, the character of its temporal fossae, and the po- 
 sition of its ossa quadrata, resemble the Lacerta, Iguana, &c. ; but the 
 small size of the nostrils, the conformation of the palatal and pterygoidal 
 parts of the roof of the mouth (as far as the specimen enables us to judge 
 of them), and the dentition, remove it from this type. 
 
 " It agrees with the Ichthyosaurus in the position and small size of the 
 nostrils, and in the structure of the palatal and pterygoidal parts (in which 
 both animals approximate to the crocodilian type); but it differs in the 
 comparative shortness of its snout, which gives an entirely dissimilar cha- 
 racter to its whole contour, in carrying its teeth in distinct alveoli instead 
 of a continuous furrow, *and in all these points which we have mentioned, 
 as peculiarly resembling the proper lacertian tribe. 
 
 " The only circumstances of peculiar analogy with the crocodile, are the 
 dentition (as before stated) in distinct alveoli, and the distribution of the 
 holes in the maxillary bones giving passage to the branches of the maxillary 
 nerve. We have already mentioned the analogies which are common to 
 itself and the Ichthyosaurus. 
 
 11 Like the Ichthyosaurus, then, this animal seems, in a certain degree, to 
 have blended the characters of the lacertian branch of Saurian* (pro- 
 perty w called) with those of the crocodile, and to have been, in the same
 
 295 
 
 Species II. PI. recentior ? The cervical vertebrae in 
 this species are the thinnest in the series, and 
 scarcely thicker in their proportions than those 
 of the Ichthyosaurus; while the dorsals are 
 
 manner, distinguished from all recent Saurian* by an inferior developement 
 of the olfactory organs.'' 
 
 The vertebras agree more nearly with the crocodile than with the Ichthy. 
 osaurus ; their annular part is attached to the body by sutures, and there 
 are transverse processes throughout the greater part of the dorsal vertebras, 
 which, together with the whole of the annular part, very nearly resemble 
 the corresponding forms in the crocodilian type. They differ from them, 
 
 J. In place of being concave at one extremity and convex at the other, 
 thus articulating by a species of ball and socket-joint, they are slightly con- 
 cave at both extremities of their body, but again slightly swelling in a con- 
 trasted curve near the middle of the circular area. In these features, how- 
 ever, Mr. Conybeare observes, they agree with one species, at least, of those 
 found in a fossil state in England, France, and Germany, and all the fossil 
 species appear to have this structure in the posterior part of the column. 
 
 2. They differ from both the fossil and recent crocodiles in ranch nar- 
 rower proportions ; though far less so than do those of the Ichthyosaurus. 
 
 o. The number of cervical and dorsal vertebra? in this animal appears to 
 be forty-six; a number almost double that of any recent saurian animal, 
 and greater than even that of the Ichthyosaurus, which does not seem to 
 possess above forty-one. 
 
 4. They farther differ from both recent and fossil crocodiles, in having 
 the ribs through the greater part of the dorsal series articulated only to the 
 end of the transverse processes ; at least, twenty-eight appear to be thus 
 circumstanced, whereas this takes place in the three last of the crocodile 
 only; in the other saurian animals, however, all the ribs are thus borne. 
 
 Colonel Birch's specimen exhibits a series of sixty-three vertebrae, but 
 several appear to be missing, and it comprises only the first twelve of 
 the tail : there are as yet no means of snrmising even the number of 
 caudal vertebrae. M. de la Beche has a continuous chain of eighteen mid- 
 dle dorsal ; and, in the late Mr. Calcott's collection, there is another conti- 
 nuous series of nine, the eighth of which carries the last short rib ; this 
 specimen seems fortunately to have succeeded almost immediately to the 
 former. The cervical and first dorsal vertebrae appear to have possessed 
 similar forms. They have no transverse processes ; the line of suture with 
 the annular part is angular, and they have on either side of the body ft 
 double notch, into which appears to have been inserted, by a double stem,
 
 -296 
 
 of the same proportions as the former species. 
 The annular part of the vertebrae is also per- 
 manently distinct from their body, articulating 
 in a regular socket, as in the Ichthyosaurus; 
 
 a tubercular process corresponding to the infeiior tubercle in the cervical 
 and anterior dorsal vertebrae of crocodiles, and, like it, bearing the false 
 ribs which protected the neck and the first true ribs. 
 
 The position of this double notch is near the bottom of the side in the 
 first vertebra, and gradually ascends till it almost rises to and runs into the 
 annular suture in the twelfth. In the course of the succeeding four ver- 
 tebrae, the upper of the two notches runs into and extends the margin of 
 the annular suture ; and, in the next (the eighteenth), the lower notch be- 
 comes a distinct tubercle ; thus two articulating surfaces are afforded, one 
 on the tubercle, and a second on the cavity formed by the prolongation 
 of the lip of the suture, of which the former must receive the head, and the 
 latter the tubercle of the anterior ribs. A similar structure exists in the 
 cervical and anterior dorsal vertebrae of the Ichthyosaurus; and it cor- 
 responds also in some degree, at least, in the office of these parts, with 
 the first dorsal vertebra of the crocodile, in which the transverse process is 
 not yet fully developed, and remains only a tubercle. At length the lower 
 tubercle also disappears, and is swallowed up in a still longer prolongation 
 of the margin of the annular suture ; at the same time, the stems by which 
 the annular part was attached to the body expand their bases laterally, so 
 as to form incipient transverse processes. All the vertebras, from the first 
 devetopement of the transverse processes (twenty-seven iu number), carry 
 the ribs on a single articulating surface at the end of that process, like the 
 three last dorsals in the crocodile, and the whole series in most other 
 saurians. The pointing upwards of the transverse processes in the middle 
 of the series seems intended to give a wider sweep to the ribs flanking the 
 thorax and the abdomen. 
 
 The lumbar and caudal vertebra? appear to differ in form from one ano- 
 ther only in a less inflection of the lower margin, for the purpose shortly 
 to be mentioned ; they are, however, very distinct from all the others : 
 they have no regular transverse processes, but, instead of them, two sepa- 
 rate bones flattened at the extremities, and articulated into a socket near 
 the upper part of the sides of the bodies of the vertebrae ; their posi- 
 tion is exactly horizontal. The Ichthyosaurus appears to have had similar 
 bones. The lower margin of these vertebras on the posterior extremity is 
 inflected so as to form two regular indentations, exactly as in the croco- 
 dile, for the reception of trje chevron-shaped bone beneath the tail. The 
 middle dorsals are considerably larger than those of the extremities of the
 
 297 
 
 and not anchylosing in the adult animal, as in 
 PI. priscus : yet the general analogy of the 
 bones, as far as hitherto ascertained, seems to 
 warrant their being regarded as a distinct spe- 
 cies. It has not yet been described. 
 
 column. There have been, as yet, no means of even surmising the num- 
 ber of caudal vertebrae. 
 
 It appear;, then, that the vertebral column of the Plcsiotaums recedes 
 from that of the Ichthyosaurus in all the points in which the latter ap- 
 proaches to the fishy structure; that the intervertebral substance must 
 have been disposed much as iu the Cetacea, and that on this account, as 
 well as because the annular parts were firmly attached to the bodies, and, 
 therefore, by the locking into one another of their articulating processei, 
 must have given a considerable degree of stability to the column, it mint 
 have possessed, in a much less perfect manner, the flexibility which facili- 
 tates the peculiar motion of the Ichthyosaurus and of fishes. But this was 
 much less necessary to these animals, inasmuch as the structure of their 
 extremities rendered them much more powerful instruments of progression. 
 
 Mr. Conybearc states, that he has never seen the hone which he had 
 called, in the Ichthyosaurus, the furcula or sternal arch, which be thinks 
 it is most probable, from the form of the scapula, must have existed in this 
 animal also. 
 
 The bones of the anterior extremity, the flat clavicles similar to those 
 of the Ichthyosaurus, the scapula and humerus, were found, though loose 
 and detached. Two bones were also found to which were assigned the 
 office of radius and ulna, their 'articulating surfaces agreeing at one end 
 with those of the hnmerus, and, at the other, with those of tiie paddle. 
 
 The three fii st paddle or carpal bones have a general resemblance to 
 the phalanges of reptiles, but are more flattened. The series of small 
 bones forming the paddle was very numerous, approaching, in this respect, 
 to the structure of the analogous part in the Ichthyosaurus, with a series 
 of ronnd bones like those which form the external bones of the Ichthyo- 
 saurian paddle. 
 
 Thus, therefore, Mr. Cony beare observes, a general similarity of organisa- 
 tion between this important member in the Plesiosaurus and Ichthyosaurus 
 appears to be established ; whilst, on the other band, a comparison with 
 the paddles of the sea-turtle will exhibit such fresh analogies as to indicate 
 that, in respect of the various forms of the animal extremities, the Plesio- 
 taurus holds, as it were, a middle place between it and the Ichthyosaurut.
 
 298 
 
 Its geological habitat is the Kimmeridge 
 clay near Weym'owth, and in tlte Jteadington 
 quarries near Oxford. 
 
 J&tyalosaurus*. 
 
 An animal, apparently approaching the Monitor in 
 its mode of dentition, &c., not yet described. It is 
 found in the calcareous slate of Stonesfield, subordinate 
 to the upper part of the lower or great oolitic series, in- 
 cluding the forest marble, &c. Drawings have been made 
 of the most essential parts of the animal, now in the Mu- 
 seum at Oxford; and it is hoped a description may 
 shortly be given to the public. The animal must, in 
 some instances, have attained the length of forty feet, 
 and stood eight feet high. 
 
 Mosasa'arus. The saurus of the Meuse, the Maes- 
 
 tricht animal of Cuvier. 
 
 As Cuvier has not yet given it a name, this name 
 is suggested by Mr. Conybeare until he has 
 done so. 
 
 Species I.. Described by Cuvier. 
 
 II. Lacerta gigantea of Soemering. 
 
 This animal is considered, by Cuvier and A. Camper, 
 as sui generis; its head placing it irrevocably between 
 the Monitors and the Iguanas. But, as i& observed by 
 Cuvier, how enormous is its size compared with all 
 known Iguanas and Monitors. None of these have a 
 head longer than five inches ; and that of this- fossil ani- 
 mal approaches to four feet. 
 
 Its mode of dentition distinguishes it from the croco- 
 erfte. Its teeth have a central hollow, only whilst grow- 
 ing ; this at length fills up, and tiiey generally become 
 
 , great, and Zi/at, a Ifiard,
 
 299 
 
 entirely solid, being fixed to the jaw by raeaqs of an os- 
 seous and fibrous body, which, although they are inti- 
 mately united with it, is very different from the proper 
 substance of the teeth. The replacing tooth grows in 
 its particular alveolus, which is formed at the same time ; 
 and, at length, it pierces the osseous body bearing the 
 former tooth, at its side or across its substance ; and, 
 as it grows, it detaches this body by interrupting its or- 
 ganic connection with the jaw, and occasions it to fall, 
 like the horn of the stag, by a spesjes of necrosis, the 
 old tooth falling with it : the new tooth, with its osseous 
 body, improperly called its bony root, takes the place 
 the old tooth has left. 
 
 In the lower jaw are fourteen teeth, nearly regular in 
 size, and about ten or twelve foramina, or rather holes, 
 for the passage of vessels, &c. The coronoid apophy- 
 sis is raised, obtuse, and wide in its anterior margin, 
 as in the Monitors. In these, and other points, the 
 jaws agree more with that of the Monitor than with any 
 other saurian. But the palate bones, unlike those of 
 the Monitor, were fouad to be armed with teeth, a cha- 
 racter belonging to, the Iguanas. These palatine teeth, 
 eight in number, and necessarily small, appear to have 
 grown, and to have been fixed, shed, and renewed, 
 like those in the jaw itself. 
 
 All the teeth are pyramidal, a little bowed ; their outer 
 surface is flat, and distinguished by two sharp ridges 
 from the inner surface, which is xound, or rather semi- 
 conical. 
 
 The vertebrae, like those of the greater part of the 
 saurians and ophidians, have their bodies concave for- 
 wards, and convex backwards. From the form of 
 those, and particularly from the great size of the chev- 
 ron bone, it appears that the tail was, like that of the 
 crocodile, long- and flattened on its sides, and that it 
 acted sideways. A distinguishing character in this ani-
 
 300 
 
 mal is, that the chevron-bones are not articulated with, 
 but are united to, and form one body with the vertebra. 
 The number of the vertebras appears to be one hundred 
 and twenty-eight. The length of the tail appears to 
 have.been ten feet; of the trunk, nine feet five inches; 
 which, with three feet nine inches for the length of jaw, 
 makes the whole length of the animal about twenty-three 
 feet. The indefatigable Cuvier determines, from his re- 
 searches, that this animal was of an intermediate genus 
 between the*tribe of saurians with an extensible forked 
 tongue, like the Monitors and ordinary Lizards, and 
 those with a short tongue and a palate armed with teeth, 
 as in the Iguanas, Anolis, &c. Without doubt, he says, 
 it will appear strange to some naturalists to see an ani- 
 mal surpassing so much, in its dimensions, the genera 
 to which it approaches the nearest in the natural order, 
 and to find its remains with marine productions, since 
 no saurian is now known to live in salt water ; but these 
 singularities, he observes, are of very little considera- 
 tion in comparison with so many others which offer 
 themselves to our observation among the numerous mo- 
 numents of the natural history of the ancient world. 
 
 The only fossU remains by which the presence of any 
 saurian reptile could be determined in the Montmartre 
 quarries, was a frontal bone of a crocodile of a small 
 size. 
 
 Tortoise. The carapace, or buckler, of these ani- 
 mals, is formed by the eight pair of ribs and the annular 
 portions of the nine dorsal vertebrae, which spread so as 
 to unite, by suture, into one piece. The plastron, or 
 breast-plate, is a second buckler formed by the ster- 
 num, which in tortoises is composed, according to M. 
 Qeoffroy, of nine bones, commencing at nine points of 
 ossification, but not always meeting so as to form a 
 continuous surface.
 
 301 
 
 The sea-tortoise (Chelone, Brongniart), which agrees 
 with the soft tortoise (Trionyx, Geoffrey), as respects 
 its breast-plate, resembles the common tortoise in an- 
 other point ; the whole circumference of the carapace 
 is girt with bony pieces united to each other and to the 
 ribs. These encircling pieces, which M. Geoffrey com- 
 pares to the cartilaginous parts of ribs, are wanting in 
 the soft tortoises, or, at least, always remain cartila- 
 ginous or membranous, so that the middle part only of 
 the carapace is supported by a bony disk. 
 
 To distinguish the genus to which any of these co- 
 verings may belong, as Cuvier teaches, it is only neces- 
 sary to ccmbine, with the foregoing characters, such 
 as are yielded by their forms. These are, in the land- 
 tortoise, always oval and pointed forwards ; in the sea- 
 tortoise, elliptical and tumid ; in the land-tortoise, ellip- 
 tical ; and more or less depressed in the fresh-water 
 tortoise ; with a rough and shagreened surface in the 
 soft tortoises ; and raised in different projections in the 
 chelydes and the serpentine. 
 
 The feet also furnish distinguishing characters of the 
 subgenera of these animals : thus, they are very long, 
 with very unequal toes in the sea-tortoise ; the toes are 
 exceedingly short in the land-tortoise ; moderately long, 
 and rather equal, in the fresh-w r ater tortoise and the 
 chelydes; and, in the soft tortoises, it is to be observed, 
 that three only of the toes bear talons ; but the bones 
 of the toes, in a fossil state, having lost their connect- 
 ing medium, can only be judged of from their forms. 
 
 The head of the chelydes is known by its flatness, 
 and by its transverse jaws ; that of the sea-tortoise, by 
 the temporal region being covered by a bony vault; 
 and that of the soft tortoises, by the long and bowed 
 fringe. 
 
 The ossification of the intervals between the ribs is 
 performed slowly, and,, proceeding from the middle part
 
 302 
 
 towards the edge, it is terminated generally later than 
 that of the ribs themselves. 
 
 The fossil remains of these animals are, with diffi- 
 culty, referrible to even the several genera into which 
 they are divided. 
 
 Jt is only, of course, the hard parts of the animal 
 which are preserved by petrifaction ; hence the bones 
 of the toes, losing their connecting medium, become 
 detached, and it will only be, by their forms that 
 any conjecture can be made whether they were dis- 
 tinct, clubbed, or webbed. In all those species, too, 
 of the genus Emys, in which the carapace was in a soft 
 state, some ambiguity will arise, since it will not be 
 always easy to determine whether the irregularity and 
 apparent imperfection of form has depended on the 
 original structure of this part, or has proceeded from 
 violence. Thus, in the fossil remains of one of these 
 animals, found in the neighbourhood of Melsbroeck, 
 near Brussels, was determined, by Lacepede, to have 
 belonged to Testudo mydas, Linn. ; and Camper de- 
 scribes the back of a fossil tortoise which was four feel 
 in length and only six inches in width ; the preserved 
 part in this, and similar specimens, being the hard and 
 osseous part of the animal which extended along the 
 vertebral column, the difficulty having arisen from the 
 Joss of the coriaceous or horny covering with which, in 
 that species, the remaining part of the superior cover- 
 ing had been formed. 
 
 A fossil carapace from Melsbroeck, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Brussels, was supposed, by M. Faujas St. Fond, 
 to belong to Test, mydas ; but Cuvier observes, that, in 
 the fossil specimen, the intervals of the ribs are com- 
 pletely ossified, there being no space between their os- 
 sification and the border, which is much wider than in 
 its supposed analogue; and, on other 'considerations, 
 he determines <t.Jwrt it is of an unknown species. This
 
 303 
 
 .u ute anatomist has observed that M. Faujas St. Fond 
 has erred in considering some fossil remains of tor- 
 toiseg, found in St. Peter's mountain, Maestricht, as 
 possessing specific characters derived from their forms ; 
 since those forms have been produced, in one case, by 
 their having lost a part, and, in the other, the whole of 
 their bony margin : and he is satisfied that these fossils 
 belong to sea-tortoises of unknown species. 
 
 In the mountain named Plattenberg, near Claris, 
 have been found the fossil remains of tortoises, and 
 which are supposed, by Cuvier, to have been sea-tor- 
 toises, but respecting their species he cannot form any 
 judgment. In the neighbourhood of Aix are found the 
 remains and impressions of tortoises, which, from their 
 vaulted forms, are considered as the remains of land- 
 tortoises. 
 
 The fossil remains of tortoises do not appear to have 
 been found in any formation older than that of the lias, 
 unless that fossil should be exoepted which Know states 
 to have been found near Glaris, the matrix of which he 
 describes as being a black schist. 
 
 Mr. Johnson, of Bristol, was rewarded, during a 
 .zealous and judicious search in the lias on the borders 
 ..of the Severn, with some very interesting remains of 
 tortoises. Their remains have also been found in the 
 calcareous slate of the oolite formation at Stonesfield ; 
 but in no place have their remains been found much 
 more perfect as in the London clay in the Island of 
 Sheppey. 
 
 The soft tortoise f Trtont/*, GeofFroy) appears to 
 have furnished the fossil remains of this genus in the 
 plaster quarries of Montmattre. It should be remem- 
 bered, that the ribs in this subgenus do not have the 
 spaces between their ribs ossified in their whole length ; 
 that their ribs do not articulate at their outer ends with 
 the bony margin ; and that their surface is always aha-
 
 greened ur . grooved with an infinity .of little irregular, 
 pits, by which the soft skin, the only tegument with 
 which the carapace, in this subgenus, is covered, is 
 rendered .more adherent The trionyx is not known to 
 live in any other situation but in fresh water. 
 
 There appear, besides these, to be the remains of two 
 species of fresh-water tortoises, Emydes: and no fossil 
 remains of sea-tortoises have been discovered in these 
 quarries. 
 
 ' In the neighbourhood of Verona, and chiefly in the 
 valley of Ronca, a formation, bearing a close accord- 
 ance with that of the London clay, the fossil remains 
 of tortoises are also found, but in fragments too small 
 to yield any characteristic marks of the species to which 
 they belong. 
 
 Solipedes. The Horse : The fossil teeth of horses 
 have long been described by different authors ; and 
 have sometimes been attributed to giants, hippopotami, 
 &c. ; but, although they have been found in a state 
 of petrifaction, and in the same caverns with the re- 
 mains of tigers, rhinoceroses, and hyaenas, and even in 
 the same deposits with unknown animals, there are no 
 anatomical differences discoverable in the skeletons of 
 the fossil animals which will distinguish them from 
 those which are found in alluvial deposits, or from 
 those of horses which are now existing. 
 
 The remains of this animal are frequently found in 
 peat beds, and in alluvial depositions. I do not know 
 of any instance of their being found imbedded in a la- 
 pideous mass. 
 
 'The ox, or the buffalo, are the animals with whicji , 
 th^ remains of the horse are most likely to be con-, 
 founded; to prevent which, Cuvier has favoured us . , 
 wifh the distinctive characters of the several bones of 
 both animal,. But, . as the bones are, generally, ex\
 
 305 
 
 ceedingly mutilated, it appears to b sufficient here to 
 point out the differences between the teeth of these 
 animals. 
 
 The teeth of the upper jaw of the horse are, like those 
 of the ox and buffalo, of a prismatic form, with four 
 double crescents, and with an additional one in the mid- 
 dle of the inner margin. The lower teeth are more com- 
 pressed, they also have four crescents in the horse as in 
 the ox ; but, in the former, instead of being parallel, 
 two and two, they are alternate, the first of the inner 
 side corresponding with the interval between the two on 
 the outer side. 
 
 Ruminantia or JSisulca. The preserved remains of 
 the different genera of this tribe of animals are, from 
 the general agreement in their characters, very difficult 
 to be distinguished. Horns, resembling those of the 
 common stag, are very frequently found in beds of allu- 
 vial formation. But they are also found associated with 
 the remains of elephants, rhinoceroses, and hippopo- 
 tami, in beds of a greyish calcareous deposition in the 
 upper parts of the London clay in Essex, and at Brent- 
 ford in Middlesex. 
 
 Irish Elk. The remains of this animal were formerly 
 found only in the boggy soil of some parts of Ireland, 
 and hence it has obtained its distinctive appellation. 
 They have, however, within these few years, been 
 found on the Rhone, near North Dreighton in York- 
 shire, and, a few years ago, I found some of their re- 
 mains at Walton in Essex. The magnitude of these 
 horns may be presumed, from the distance between 
 the extreme tip of each horn, which is ten feet ten 
 inches. It is rendered certain, by a careful comparison, 
 that this animal is at present unknown, and was mate- 
 rially different from the reindeer or elk of these times, 
 
 R r
 
 300 
 
 Horns have been found in Scania resembling those 
 of the fallow deer, but one third larger. These are sup- 
 posed, by Cuvier, to have belonged to some unknown 
 animal. 
 
 In blocks of sandstone, in the neighbourhood of 
 Etampes, are found small stag's-horns of a size be- 
 tween the stag and the roebuck; they are small, thin, 
 and rather flat ; and although the root is nearly round, 
 the beam immediately becomes flat. These are not the 
 horns of young animals, their epiphyses being found 
 in union with their bones. There is no known animal 
 to which these bones can be referred Horns, re- 
 sembling those of the roebuck, have been found among 
 the remains of lost animals in the quarries of Monta- 
 busard. 
 
 Very large fossil heads of the ox kind have been found 
 in different parts, respecting which it has been found 
 difficult to determine, whether they were or not similar 
 species with those which are now in existence. 
 
 M. Faujas was satisfied that the large fossil heads of 
 the ox were of two distinct species. In the first spe- 
 cies the cores were placed in a horizontal position, and 
 measured, though the animal was young, more than 
 twelve inches and a half in circumference, and the 
 distance from one orbit to the other was more than thir- 
 teen inches. The distance from the upper extremity of 
 the forehead to the edge of the occipital foramen was 
 little more than four inches and a half; and on the fore- 
 head, between the commencement of the two horns, is a 
 slight protuberance of an oval form. In the second spe- 
 cies, the horns formed a kind of crescent inclining down- 
 wards ; the circumference of the core of the horns, at 
 their base, was thirteen inches ; and from the upper edge 
 of the forehead to the edge of the occipital foramen but 
 four inches. The forehead, which was quite flat, is 
 to be considered, at its Upper extremity, as forming a
 
 307 
 
 line with a little convexity, rather than a protuberance. 
 Cuvier considers that the horns of the first species, 
 which Faujas attributed to a species of ox, belongs to 
 the Auroch; but this he does not appear to have esta- 
 blished. The second species is supposed, by Cuvier, 
 to have belonged to that wild race from which our 
 present domesticated oxen proceeded. Pallas supposes 
 a fossil skull, found in Siberia, to have belonged to the 
 common buffalo of India, or to a very large species 
 named Amis; but Cuvier believes it to have belonged 
 to a species entirely different from the buffalo, the amis, 
 the ox, or the aurochs. Pallas also discovered a fossil 
 skull of another species in Siberia, which he believed 
 to belong to the musk-ox of Canada, an opinion in 
 which Cuvier concurs. 
 
 Jt appears that the fossil ruminants belong to two 
 orders of alluvial deposits, and consequently to two 
 different geological epochs ; the one having been bu- 
 ried in an age distant from the period in which we live, 
 but the others at a far more distant period ; in that 
 revolution in which the elephants, rhinoceroses, mas- 
 todons, &c. inhabitants of the torrid zone, were de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 It does not appear that the teeth of boars have been 
 found but in modern alluvial depositions, and no ways 
 differing from those of the recent animals. 
 
 Ossiferous Breccia. In the rock of Gibraltar, at 
 Concud near Arragon, in the northern part of Corsica, 
 in Daknatia, the islands of Cherso and Ossero ; in se- 
 veral of the islets of the Adriatic, on the northern shores 
 of the Mediterranean, and in many parts, several leagues 
 distant from each other, the solid rocks appear to have 
 been split in different directions, but chiefly perpendi- 
 cularly, and their fissures to have been filled with frag- 
 ments of calcareous rocks, and the bones of various
 
 308 
 
 animals, lying in all directions, and most of them bro- 
 ken : sometimes mingled with -the shells of snails and 
 pieces of calcareous spar of a darkish brown colour; 
 and which having been long exposed to the action of 
 water, have become enveloped and cemented toge- 
 ther by stalagmitic depositions. Sometimes the spa- 
 those matter is colourless, and, at other times, of a 
 yellowish and reddish brick colour. The concreted 
 masses resemble each other in their colour and compo- 
 sition in most of the places in which they are found, 
 except in the Vincentin and Veronese, and at Concud, 
 where their cementing matter is of a much lighter co- 
 lour. Some of these bones have been found at fifty- 
 seven feet above high-water mark. 
 
 It was long believed that many of these bones were 
 human : of this opinion, at one time, was Abbe Fortis, 
 and even Mr. John Hunter; but it is now ascertained 
 that they are not so, and that they belonged chiefly 
 to quadrupeds. Cuvier believes all those which he 
 examined to be the bones of ruminants, hardly the 
 size of a deer ; and from no horns or branches being 
 found, and from appearances yielded by some of the 
 bones, he is disposed to refer them to the antelope. 
 This friend to science found, in the Breccia of Cette, 
 the bones of the common wild rabbit; of another rabbit, 
 one-third smaller; of a field-mouse; of a bird of the 
 size of the common wagtail ; and of the common adder. 
 At Nice and Antibes, the remains of horses and of ru- 
 minating animals, of the calf and the stag, were found. 
 In the Breccia of Corsica, bones belonging to Rosores 
 only were found, resembling those of the rabbit, guinea- 
 pig, or rat : an enormous quantity of the bones of the 
 water-rat, and, perhaps, of the land-mouse (Mm terres- 
 tris, Linn.), was also found in this Breccia. The head 
 of an animal of the genits Lagomys, Guv., was also 
 Found here, but which did not a^ree in size of propo*-
 
 turns with any known species. From the accounts which . 
 he collected, as well as from his own observation, Cuvier. 
 concludes, that the phenomena respecting these bones 
 point them out as posterior to the last resting of the 
 sea on our continents, since there are no sea shells, 
 mixed with them, and they are not covered, by any other 
 beds; that the bones, stones, and other matters, haye 
 fallen successively into the clefts> and that the stones. 
 have proceeded from the rock itself; that the bones are, 
 of herbivorous animals, and that the greatest number 
 belong to known animals, and even to those which still 
 exist in those parts; and that the formation of these 
 breccias is modem, compared with the great strata of 
 stone, and with the alluvial strata containing the bones 
 of unknown animals; but is still ancient with respect to 
 us, since some of them contain the bones of unknown 
 animals. But the phenomenon which, in the opinion of 
 Cuvier, is most interesting, is the facility with which 
 these rocks appear to have been thus divided by clefts 
 in which these substances have been deposited. 
 
 . 
 
 Pachydermata. Elephant: Fossil remains of thj* 
 
 genus have been found in many parts of Europe, and> 
 indeed, in most parts of the known world. That the 
 East-Indian and African elephants are specifically dif- 
 ferent is now well known. This is most obvious in the 
 structure of the teeth : the plates of which the teeth are 
 chiefly formed, are composed of the bony part of the 
 tooth, surrounded by enamel, and held together by 
 a connecting substance, the crust a petrosa. In the 
 East-Indian elephant these plates, disposed across the 
 tooth, are flat, and, all through, of an equal thick- 
 ness, their sides being covered with numerous rough 
 longitudinal striae ; but, in the African, the form of the 
 lamellae is different, being more lozenge -fo rmed ; an an- 
 cular vertical projection on the middle .of .their sides
 
 keeping these lamellae at a greater distance from each 
 other at their ends, and necessarily occasioning there 
 to be fewer plates than in the Indian. These plates, in 
 both species, terminate inferiorly in digitated or rather 
 radical processes, which appear on the surface when the 
 tooth is worn down low. 
 
 The teeth of the fossil elephants differ materially from 
 those of either of the recent species : their plates, in 
 one of the fossil species, are thinner, and, consequently, 
 exist in greater number than in the recent teeth. In the 
 recent teeth, even of the East-Indian species, there are 
 seldom more than ten or twelve plates brought into use 
 at once ; but, in the fossil teeth, they are frequently from 
 eighteen to twenty, and sometimes twenty-four, to be 
 seen at the grinding surface. Cuvier observes two other 
 distinctive characters ; that the lines of enamel are 
 thinner and less crenulated in the fossil than in the re- 
 cent ; and that the width of the fossil exceeds that of the 
 recent in the proportion of eight to six. It is therefore 
 established that, at least, one species of elephants ex- 
 isted in the former world, of which no analogous ani- 
 mal is known in a recent state. The grinding surface 
 of the common fossil tooth is represented PL X,, fig- 8. 
 
 Many, and some rather ludicrous, mistakes have 
 been made respecting the fossil remains of elephants' 
 teeth. One of the plates of a tooth was considered, by 
 Kundman, as the petrified paw of a large baboon ; 
 the flesh, nails, and veins having been all supposed to 
 be discoverable in it. The plates are connected by the 
 unorganised crusta pelrosa, which becoming disinte- 
 grated during the inhumation of the fossil, occasions 
 the separation of the plates ; the digitated processes of 
 which, in this instance, gave rise to the mistake as to 
 the existence of the fingers. 
 
 An attention to this circumstance will, it is believed, 
 establish the existence of, at least, one more species of
 
 311 
 
 fossil elephants than had been noticed by Cuvier. The 
 examination of the teeth of both the recent species and 
 of the fossil species examined by Cuvier, shows that 
 the dental plates are entirely detached from each other, 
 so that, on the decomposition of the crvsta petro&a, 
 they separate; in which state they are frequently found. 
 But in three different specimens which I possess, in- 
 stead of the plates of enamel, enclosing the bony part, 
 being carried straight across the tooth, they are conti- 
 nued in dsedalean lines. One double deeply undulating 
 line of enamel forming the sides of one wide and deeply 
 indented compages of osseous matter ; filling the space, 
 which, in the teeth of the other species, would be oc- 
 cupied by four or five plates. PL X, Jig. 9. 
 
 The specific difference in these teeth will evidently 
 appear, when it is considered that the undulating forms 
 of the plates must be accompanied by a very different 
 arrangement of the bony substance and enamel with 
 respect to the crusta petrosa ; and entirely prevent the 
 separation into flat plates, as in the teeth of the other 
 fossil elephants. 
 
 In another fossil tooth, I believe from Warwickshire, 
 the characters of another species appear. The sides of 
 the lines of enamel are smoother than in any of the 
 other fossil teeth, and the digitated parts of the plates 
 reach to the surface even in the anterior part of the 
 tooth. But the most characteristic difference exists in 
 the thickness and in the number of the plates of this 
 species. 
 
 The thickness of the plates may be taken at nearly 
 double that of the plates of fossil teeth in general ; and 
 their number must be proportionally fewer. In a fossil 
 tooth from Essex, of the length of eight inches and a 
 half, are twenty-two plates (PL X, fig. 8) ; whilst in 
 this tooth, which is eight inches long, there are only 
 thirteen plates, nine only of which are seen on the tri-
 
 312 
 
 .titrating surface, which is of the length of six inches 
 (PI. X, fig. 10). But it is not merely from the struc- 
 ture of the teeth that specific differences are inferred 
 between the recent and the fossil elephants ; Cuvier 
 having ascertained some determinate differences be- 
 tween the skulls of the recent and the fossil species. 
 He supposes that the fossil remains are of a species 
 differing more widely from the Asiatic elephant (to which 
 it approaches nearer than to the African), than the horse 
 does from the ass. 
 
 No peculiarity of character is discoverable in the 
 tusks of the fossil elephant. 
 
 Elephantine remains are generally found in the looser 
 and more superficial parts of the earth, in various parts 
 of the world. They have been found, as has been 
 already mentioned, in some of the caverns containing 
 animal remains, and frequently in thin grey-coloured 
 beds on the surface of the London clay. 
 
 Rhinoceros. There appear to be three existing spe- 
 cies of rhinoceroses : 1. That of India: a unicorn 
 with a rugous coat; with incisors, separated, by a space, 
 from the grinders. 2. That of the Cape: a bicorn ; 
 the skin without rugae, and no incisors. 3. That of 
 Sumatra : a bicorn ; the skin but slightly rugous, thus 
 resembling that of the Cape; but having incisive teeth 
 like that of India. In every adult rhinoceros there are 
 twenty-eight grinders; seven on each side at the top 
 and bottom. In the lower jaw are two large incisors, 
 placed at the anterior angle ; and between these are two 
 very small incisive teeth, which remain concealed within 
 the gums. There are also two large incisors in the 
 upper jaw ; and Cuvier has discovered, that there are 
 also two very small incisors, which are disposed con- 
 trary to those of the lower jaw, on the outside of the 
 large incisors.
 
 313 
 
 The fossil remains- ol the rhinoceros have" generally 
 been found in similar situations to those in which the 
 elephantine remains are met with ; in Germany, at 
 Darmstadt, Grubenhagen, on the banks of the Rhine, 
 in the neighbourhood of Cologne, hi Westphalia, ami 
 in various parts of France. The fossil remains of this 
 animal have also been found in several parts of this 
 island; in Warwickshire, Gloucestershire, Essex, and 
 Middlesex. 
 
 We are indebted to Cuvier for ascertaining, by various 
 comparisons of the fossil remains with the skeleton and 
 with the living animal, that the animal whose fossil re- 
 mains have been discovered differed materially from 
 the rhinoceroses of the present day. The head of the 
 fossil species is not only absolutely much larger than 
 the living species, but it is much larger in proportion to 
 the height of the limbs. The following circumstances, 
 particularised by Cuvier, with others less striking, ma- 
 nifest that the differences between the recent and fossil 
 animals must have been considerable. The occipital 
 surface, which, in the recent skull, is nearly perpendi- 
 cular, and, in the unicorn, even inclines forwards, ex- 
 tends backwards in all the fossil skulls. The meatus 
 auditorius has its axis vertical in the living species, but 
 is oblique in the fossil species. The fossil species has 
 two horns, but the skull is not shaped like the bicorn of 
 Africa : there is a considerable space between the bases 
 of the two horns in the fossil species, whilst, in the 
 rhinoceros of Africa and of Sumatra, the bases touch. 
 The form of the bones of the nose, and their junction 
 with the incisor bones, differ not only from the other rhi- 
 noceroses, but from all other known animals. The point 
 of the nasal bones instead of terminating in a distinct 
 projection, at a certain distance above the incisive, 
 descends, without becoming thinner, before the nasal 
 
 as '
 
 314 
 
 notches; and after being separated in three projecting 
 tubercles, becomes united by a portion, which is a 
 little thinner, to the incisive bones, where they form 
 of themselves two other tubercles. All these four 
 bones become so consolidated together, that the sutures 
 by which they were connected, as well as that which 
 distinguished the intermaxillary from the maxillary 
 bones, are not perceptible at only a moderately ad- 
 vanced age. This structure, it is observed by Cuvier, 
 so solid, was doubtlessly intended for the support of 
 the horn, and gives us reason for supposing that it was 
 more strong, and could be applied with more power in 
 this species than in any of those which now exist. 
 
 As to the incisive teeth, Cuvier thinks, that the fossil 
 animal had them not, at least, in the upper jaw; and, if 
 in the lower jaw, they differed in size, and probably in 
 form, from those of the living species. 
 
 The head of the rhinoceros brought to this country 
 by Mr. Campbell, differing in the form and size of its 
 horn from the common African rhinoceros, renders it 
 desirable that it should be ascertained how far it agrees 
 in character with the head of the fossil rhinoceros. The 
 head of the fossil animal, as is shown above, differs 
 from the bicorn of Africa, in having a considerable space 
 between the bases of the two horns ; and Mr. Campbell, 
 with a due attention to correctness, states, " The com- 
 mon African rhinoceros has a crooked horn resembling 
 a cock's spur, which rises about nine or ten inches 
 above the nose, and inclines backwaid: immediately 
 behind this is a short thick horn; but the head they 
 brought had a straight horn projecting three feet from 
 the forehead, and about ten inches from the tip of the 
 nose. The projection of this great horn very much 
 resembles that of the fanciful unicorn in the British 
 arms. It has a small thick horny substance eight inches
 
 315 
 
 long, immediately behind it, which can hardly be ob- 
 served on the animal at the distance of one hundred 
 yards." 
 
 It appears, therefore, that the newly-discovered head 
 of the African bicorn agrees with the common African 
 bicorn, and differs from the fossil species in not having 
 the space between the horns *. 
 
 Pallas found many of these fossil remains in Siberia, 
 and, particularly, a complete rhinoceros, still covered 
 by its skin, and buried in the sand on the borders of the 
 river Wiluji. Hence Cuvier infers, that this unknown 
 animal had not been brought from afar, nor had ceased 
 to exist by any slow, but by some sudden, change 
 of the earth. How could the animal found by Pallas, 
 he asks, have come there from the Indies, or from any 
 other warm country, without falling to pieces? How 
 could it have been preserved, if the ice had not involved 
 it suddenly ; and therefore how could it have been in- 
 volved in this manner, if the change of climate had been 
 gradual and insensible ? 
 
 Hippopotamus. The existence of fossil remains of 
 this animal was for some time disputed ; but the fact 
 was ascertained by Cuvier, by the examination of some 
 fossil remains from Languedoc. Since that time simi- 
 lar remains have been found in various parts, and, par- 
 ticularly, in this island, in those situations in which the 
 remains of elephants have also been discovered. They 
 were found by Mr. Trimmer in the Clay at Brentford, 
 and I have obtained several interesting specimens during 
 my researches on the Essex coast. But the most im- 
 portant discovery respecting this animal was made by 
 
 * Travels in Sooth Africa, undertaken at the request of the London 
 Missionary Society, being a Narrative of a Second Journey in the Interior 
 of that Country. By the Re*. John Campbell.
 
 316 
 
 Cuvier, in the examination of some fossil remains, the 
 locality of which could not be ascertained. By a care- 
 ful investigation he was able to ascertain that they were 
 the bones of an unknown species of hippopotamus. This 
 animal, it appeared, could not have exceeded half the 
 size of the existing species ; it being evident, from the 
 state of its teeth and the advanced progress of ossifi- 
 cation, that its small size had not proceeded from its 
 having been a young animal, but from a difference of 
 species. 
 
 * 
 
 Tapir. The only known species of this genus is an 
 inhabitant of South America. It is formed like the hog, 
 but is as tall as the ass, with its snout elongated into a 
 moveable trunk. It has, in each jaw, six incisors and 
 two canine teeth which are not longer than the incisors. 
 Its skin is black, and almost without hair. It lives on 
 the banks of rivers. 
 
 Two portions of the lower jaws which had been dis- 
 covered in the black mountain, at Issel, in Languedoc, 
 were found, by Cuvier, to agree generally with the 
 tapir of South America. The differences were, that, in 
 the tapir of South America, all the molares have their 
 crown divided into two transverse risings, of an equal 
 width ; but, in the fossil animal, the three first molares, 
 instead of transverse risings, have a kind of points or 
 pyramids, the foremost of which is larger than that 
 which is behind it. The anterior part of the muzzle is 
 more narrow and long in the common tapir than in the 
 fossil animal. In the tapir, also, the first molar is 
 longer than any of the four or five following ones ; but, 
 in the fossil jaw, this is the shortest. M. Cuvier named 
 this animal, The small fossil tapir. 
 
 A molar tooth was found in the neighbourhood of 
 Vienna, and which appeared to have belonged to some 
 large animal, supposed to resemble the tapir. Another
 
 317 
 
 specimen was found near St. Lary, in Couserans ; and 
 similar teeth are said to have been also found in Italy. 
 But the most illustrative specimens were two halves of 
 a jaw, with five molar teeth in each, found at Com- 
 minge, by the side of Breine. 
 
 The teeth of the recent tapir are divided by five 
 transverse risings. Similar risings on the crown are 
 observable in the teeth of the lamantin (Trichecus ma- 
 natusj, and in those of the kangaroo. Such an agree- 
 ment was discoverable, by Cuvier, in the teeth and in 
 other circumstances between the tapir and the fossil 
 animal, as induced him to consider these fossil remains 
 as having belonged to a large animal, approximating to 
 the known tapir, but which, he supposed, must have 
 been one-fourth taller than the rhinoceros : this animal 
 he calls, The large fossil tapir. 
 
 Mastodon. The fossil remains of this enormous ani- 
 mal were first discovered in Albany in New England, 
 rather more than one hundred years since ; it being then 
 described as a prodigious unknown animal, having the 
 tusks of the elephant, with the grinders of the hippo- 
 potamus. 
 
 From a careful investigation of its remains, Cuvier 
 thinks that we have a right to conclude that the masto- 
 don did not exceed the elephant in height, but was 
 rather longer in proportion ; its limbs rather thicker, 
 and its belly smaller. It appears to have had a trunk, 
 and to have agreed with the elephant in having tusks, 
 and in the whole of its osteology, excepting in its teeth, 
 which differ so much in every respect from those of the 
 elephant, as to forbid its being placed in the same 
 genus. 
 
 The teeth are formed of an internal bony substance, 
 with a thick cap of enamel. The crown is oblong,
 
 318 
 
 nearly rectangular, and divided by widely-spreading 
 grooves intersected by another in a longitudinal direc- 
 tion, into two rows of large pyramidal points, over 
 which the enamel is thickly disposed. The roots of the 
 teeth are inserted into distinct and separate cavities in 
 the mass of bone forming the jaws. 
 
 From the points and depressions of the teeth fit- 
 ting into each other like the teeth of two saws, they 
 must have been, Mr. Peale observes, incapable of lateral 
 motion, and, consequently, of trituration ; he therefore 
 inferred, that it must have been a carnivorous animal : 
 but, in the opinion of Cuvier, its food must have 
 been similar to that of the hippopotamus and boar; 
 preferring, perhaps, the roots and fleshy parts of vege- 
 tables. 
 
 According to Mr. Peale, there are but six vertebrae of 
 the neck ; nineteen dorsal vertebrae, and as many ribs 
 were found, and one was supposed to be lost; three 
 vertebrae remained, belonging to the loins. 
 
 The vertebrae agree, in general, with those of the 
 elephant ; but the ribs differ, in being thin towards the 
 cartilage, and thick and strong towards the back. The 
 scapula appears to possess the characters of the sca- 
 pula of the elephant. The larger bones of the fore ex- 
 tremity are much thicker than those of the hind extre- 
 mity. The enormous mass of the os femoris, and par- 
 ticularly its width, exceeds that of the existing as well 
 as of the fossil elephant. The bones of the hind feet 
 are remarkably smaller than those of the fore feet: it 
 seems that the uiigual phalanges had more motion than 
 they have in the elephant, and approached nearer to 
 those of the hippopotamus. 
 
 Other teeth of this animal have been found in several 
 other parts of the world. In the neighbourhood of J>ax 
 and of Orleans; in Piedmont, in different parts of Lom- 
 bardy ; at Peru ; the field of giants, near Santa Fe in
 
 319 
 
 Terra Firma, and in the province of Chiquilos, in Pa- 
 raguay. 
 
 From the investigations made byCuvier, he considers 
 that there are five species of this genus : ] . The Mas- 
 todon of the Ohio. 2. The Mastodon with narrow 
 teeth, found at Simorre. 3. The small Mastodon, that 
 with small teeth. 4. The Mastodon of the Cordilleras; 
 the large animal with square teeth. 5. The Mastodon 
 of De Humboldt, which is the smallest. 
 
 He was also able to determine, that, in an upper jaw 
 of the second species, there had been three teeth ; the 
 foremost having four points, and one at the hinder 
 part; the middlemost, six pair of points and two supple- 
 mentary behind ; and the hindmost, five pair of points, 
 and one supplementary and undivided. 
 
 A tooth of the mastodon of the Cordilleras was found, 
 by De Humboldt, at the height of twelve hundred toises, 
 near to the volcano of Imbaburra, in the kingdom of 
 Quito. 
 
 In the cliffs at Harwich are found fragments of bones ; 
 flat, seldom more than three inches wide and twelve 
 inches long ; their surfaces smoothed, as if by attri- 
 tion; highly ferruginous, and yielding a sharp sound 
 when struck upon. From the uniformly flat shape of 
 the fragments, nothing can be inferred from them re- 
 specting the animal to which they belonged. 
 
 Within these few years, a tooth, with a similar ferru- 
 ginous impregnation, was found on the beach at Har- 
 wich. This tooth had suffered much from bowklering, 
 but still bore sufficient of its original form to give strong 
 proof of its having belonged to this animal. 
 
 The success attendant on the labours of Cuvier whilst 
 determining the generic characters of fossil bones; the 
 distinguishing of the bones of the fossil elephant from 
 those of the rhinoceros, or those of the bear from those 
 of the hyaena, was not more than might have been ex-
 
 320 
 
 pected. But to detect in fragments of fossil bones such 
 differences as should determine with what recent species 
 the fossil species agreed, and in what respects they dif- 
 fered from all known species, appeared to be a result 
 beyond hope. His exertions and successes, however, 
 did not stop here : from the discovery of a few detached 
 bones in the plaster of Paris beds, he was led to suspect 
 the existence of the remains of some animals of even 
 different genera from any which were known in a living 
 state : his researches were therefore continued with his 
 usual perseverance, and terminated in the discovery of 
 seven or eight different species of two entirely unknown 
 genera. 
 
 He ascertained that the grinders of these animals 
 were those of the herbivorous pachydermata; those of 
 the upper jaw possessing a crown formed of two or 
 three simple crescents ; unlike those of the ruminants, 
 in which the crescents are double, and have each four 
 lines of enamel. These grinders he found, by a care- 
 ful examination, were decidedly of different characters, 
 and belonged to two different genera, one of which 
 possessed canine teeth, the other not. To the former 
 he gave the name Palfeotherium, or ancient large ani- 
 mal or beast; and, to the other, Anoplotherium, or 
 beast without weapons, thereby implying its distin- 
 guishing character, its want of canine teeth. 
 
 ' 
 
 Palceotherium, or large ancient animal. This ani- 
 mal, he ascertained, had seven grinders on each side 
 qf the lower jaw, the first being small, compressed, 
 and rather sharp. Before the first small grinder, the 
 jaw. is void of teeth or sockets for a little space, 
 and at the end of this space is the canine tooth. This 
 tooth is not a tusk projecting out of the mouth, as in 
 many species xf hogs; it is rather concealed by the lips, 
 as in the tapir, hippopotamus, and Mexican hog. 
 
 .
 
 3-21 
 
 incisive teeth are of the common wedge-like form, and 
 are six in number, as in the tapir. In the upper jaw 
 are also six incisors, two canine teeth, and the grinders, 
 having four roots, whilst those of the under jaw have 
 only two. By the most ingenious investigations it was 
 ascertained, that this animal possessed a kind of snout 
 or trunk, resembling that of the tapir. 
 
 Correspondent bones were found of different sizes, 
 by a careful and anxious comparison of which, the in- 
 defatigable enquirer ascertained that there existed in 
 these quarries the remains of four species of this ani- 
 mal. One of which, of the size of a common cow or 
 small horse, he named Palteotherium magnum; the 
 next in size, nearly as large as a common hog, he 
 named P. medium. From several other bones, remark- 
 able for their thickness, he determined on the existence 
 of another species, which he distinguished as P. eras- 
 sum; and, from several fragments, he was enabled to 
 determine that there also existed the remains of an ani- 
 mal of this genus, which could not be larger than a fox, 
 to which he gave the name of P. minus. 
 
 By numerous accurate enquiries it was also ascer- 
 tained that the feet of this animal were tridactyle ; that 
 (he neck was longer than that of the tapir and hog, ap- 
 proaching those ruminants with a neck of a moderate 
 size and with a slight form, such as the stags and the 
 antelopes ; and that the ribs were sixteen in number. 
 
 Imperfect remains of another animal were found, by 
 Professor Herman, in the mountain of St. Sebastian, 
 one of the lowest in the chain ot Vosges. In this ani- 
 mal, as in the Palceotherium, were both incisors and 
 canine teeth, but it had one molar tooth less, and no 
 space between the first molar and the canine tooth, 
 'fhe other characters leave no doubt that this animal 
 approached to the Palaeotherium. 
 
 The Anoplothcrium was traced from several grinding 
 T t
 
 3-2-2 
 
 teeth having been found which appeared to belong to 
 an animal which had no canine teeth: it indeed ap- 
 peared, that in the lower jaw of this animal there had 
 been fourteen grinding and six incisive teeth, without 
 any canine tooth or intervening space. The teeth of 
 the upper jaw appear to correspond with those of the 
 lower jaw; there not being any canine tooth, or any 
 space between the incisors and the grinders. 
 
 Besides other particularities of structure, it was 
 found that, in this animal, the hind leg had two perfect 
 toes articulated with two metatarsal bones, which re- 
 mained distinct and separate through life: a structure 
 unknown among living animals. 
 
 The most common species of this animal, An. com- 
 mune, appears to have rather exceeded, in its size, the 
 wild boar. The foot of A. medium was of a size which 
 would have agreed with that of a sheep of a middling 
 size. A. minus, reckoning from the size of its foot, was 
 about the size of the hare. 
 
 After the examinations of various specimens of se- 
 parate bones, during eight years, two skeletons were 
 fortunately obtained which were nearly complete. The 
 first was of an animal of nearly the size of a small 
 horse. The ribs were found to be twelve, and the tail 
 was ascertained to be of vast magnitude, being formed 
 of, at least, twenty-two vertebrae ; and equalling, if not 
 suipassing, the body in length: there were reasons also 
 for supposing that the thickness of the tail must have 
 been as enormous as its length. 
 
 Half the jaw of a small carnivorous animal of the 
 genus Cants, of an unknown species, was also found in 
 these quarries, and the astragalus of some carnivorous 
 animal, one third smaller. Remains of tortoises and 
 lacerta were also found here ; but, of the latter, only 
 one or two specimens. 
 
 Agreeable to the important remarks of Cuvier, we
 
 323 
 
 find that, in the country in which these quarries exist, 
 so extensive as to reach twenty leagues from east to 
 west, hardly any bones have been found but of one fa- 
 mily, the Pachydermata. He is hence led to remark, 
 that the present state of large islands, as New Holland 
 in particular, may teach us what may have been that of 
 the country which was inhabited by the fossil animals 
 of these quarries. In these quarries one carnivorous ani- 
 mal only has been found, and eight species of Pachyder- 
 mata. In New Holland live-sixths of the quadrupeds 
 also belong to one family, Pedimanes, or marsupial 
 quadrupeds ; whilst the countries forming the two great 
 continents are inhabited by all the families of quadru- 
 peds, according to climate, nature of soil, &c. 
 
 In the loose soil of vallies and large plains, he ob- 
 serves, are found the bones of eleven species, differ- 
 ing from the known species of the order Pachyder- 
 mata: a rhinoceros, two hippopotamuses, two tapirs, 
 an elephant, and five mastodons, the latter being of a 
 genus distinct and unknown, and the former, though 
 belonging to known genera, differing from all known 
 species. These bones he considers as having been en- 
 veloped by the last, or one of the last, catastrophes of 
 this globe ; and being frequently covered with remains 
 of marine animals, but not with regular beds of conchi- 
 ferous stone, he concludes this catastrophe to have 
 been a great but transient inundation of the sea. Be- 
 fore this catastrophe these animals lived, he therefore 
 supposes, in the climates in which we now dig up their 
 bones. 
 
 Tardigradi. The Megatherium of Paraguay, and the 
 Megalonyx of Virginia, are among the last animals of a 
 former world, for a just knowledge of the nature of 
 which we are indebted to our illustrious teacher,- Cu- 
 vior, who has ascertained thai they are two species of
 
 324 
 
 the same genus belonging to the family of Edentata, 
 and may ue placed between the sloths and the ant- 
 eaters, but nearer to the former than to the latter. The 
 wonderful anatomy of the sloths, displaying such devi- 
 ations from that beautiful adaptation of parts to the 
 offices which they are to perform, and producing the 
 personification, as it were, of wretchedness, manifests 
 such peculiarities of structure as can hardly fail to be 
 recognised in any tolerably preserved remains. The 
 arm and fore arm together are nearly twice as long as 
 the leg and thigh, so that, when the animal would walk 
 on all four, it is obliged to trail along on its elbows r 
 the pelvis is so wide, and the cotyloid cavities turned 
 o backwards, that it is obliged to keep the thighs wide 
 asunder. The construction of the articulation of the 
 hind feet appears as if it was intended to prevent the 
 animal from having any power of using them. Instead 
 of the articulation with the astragalus, allowing the 
 foot to bend on the leg, the fibula is inserted, like a 
 pivot, in a conical pit on the top of the astragalus, the 
 foot turning round like a vane on its staff; and the foot 
 is so placed that the sole cannot be put to the ground 
 but by stretching out the leg in almost a horizontal 
 direction. 
 
 The toes of the animal are inclosed quite to the nails 
 in a stiff skin, which will allow only of their being bent, 
 and straightened altogether ; and to add to its difficulty 
 of motion, several bones, which in other animals are 
 always distinct, are here joined together. The nails, 
 which are of an enormous length, are bent, when the 
 animal does not use them, under the foot, with their 
 convex side towards the ground. 
 
 In the western part of Virginia is a limestone, abound- 
 ing with large caverns, in digging the floor of one of which, 
 a fragment of a femur, the two condyles being nearly 
 entire, a radius, an ulna, three claws, and half a dozen
 
 325 
 
 other bones ot the feet, were discovered;- onto of th 
 elaws being seven inches and a half long. To the ani- 
 mal to which these bones belonged the name was giveti 
 of Megalonyx, from the size of its claws. 
 
 Cuvier, on examining the casts of these bones, was 
 enabled to determine that they were the remains of an 
 animal of a species of sloth (Bradypus) hitherto un- 
 known. The bones of the fore arm are about a sixth 1 
 longer than those of a common ox ; and on the suppo-: 
 sition that the other parts were in the same proportion* 
 the animal must have equalled, in size, the largest oxen 
 of Switzerland or Hungary. 
 
 About the same time that the above remains of fix 
 Megalonyx were found in North America, several ex- 
 traordinary and unknown bones were found in the banks 
 of the river Luxan, about three leagues west of Buenos 
 Ay res. Bones of a similar animal were also found at 
 Lima and at Paraguay. The bones found at Luxan were 
 sent to Madrid, and, being carefully connected, formed 
 a skeleton, which is preserved in the Royal Museum. 
 
 From a general view of the skeleton some well- 
 founded conjectures may be formed of the animal itself. 
 Cuvier instructs us, that his teeth prove he lived on ve- 
 getables ; and his fore feet, robust, and armed with 
 sharp claws, point out that roots were the chief objects 
 of his search. His claws supplied him with arms suffi- 
 cient for his defence His progress was not swift, nor 
 was it requisite that it should be, since he was not 
 under the necessity of flying or of pursuing. Cuvier 
 adds, if he still exists, where can he be ? or can he 
 have escaped from all the researches of naturalists and 
 huntsmen? The bones of the Megatherium are one 
 third larger than those of the Megalonyx. 
 
 
 Gnawers. In different peat mosses, and in other situ- 
 ations in which their remains might be expected to be
 
 326 
 
 found, the remains of Beavers have been discovered, 
 though not very frequently. Their teeth are known by 
 the enamel of the crown, in those of the upper jaw, 
 being so disposed as to form a line with three turns in- 
 wards, on the outer border, and on the inner side a 
 single one ; and by the arrangement of the enamel, in 
 the teeth of the under jaw, being exactly reversed. But 
 in none of the heads, which have been thus found, have 
 any characters been observed different from those of 
 the existing animals. 
 
 In the beds of calcareous and marly schists of Oeniu- 
 gen, &c. was found the remains of one of this class of 
 animals, which Cuvier believes to be a species of Cavia. 
 Another was also found, in a similar situation, at 
 Walsch in Bohemia, resembling Mus terrestris. 
 
 Fossil Bones in Caverns. The phenomena which are 
 here offered to our observation differ essentially from 
 those which we have just viewed. Here the bones are 
 almost all of carnivorous animals, either lying loosely 
 at the bottom of caverns covered with animal earth, or 
 encased in stalagmitic concretions. Many of these ca- 
 verns have been mentioned by different authors, as ex- 
 isting in several parts of Germany. Leibnitz describes 
 Bauman's Cave, near Blankenbourg ; Einhornshcele 
 in Scharzfeld is described by M. de Luc ; and several, 
 in the chain of the Hartz, are particularised by Beh- 
 rens, in his Hercynia Curiosa. They exist, indeed, in 
 many parts of Germany. 
 
 The most remarkable are the caverns of Gaylenreuth 
 near Bayreuth. The opening to these is at the foot of a 
 rock of limestone (oolite ?), passing into a grotto about 
 three hundred feet in circumference, which is divided by 
 the form of the roof into four caves. Fragments of 
 bones are still found in these caves, and, it is said, 
 were once as mrmerous as in the interior of the grot-
 
 327 
 
 toes. The second grotto was found to be sixty feet 
 long, about forty feet wide, and beautifully set with 
 stalactites; the floor being so covered with a sparry 
 crust, as to prevent any search there for bones. On 
 passing through a hole three feet high, an entrance waa 
 gained into the third grotto, about thirty feet across 
 and nearly round, the sides being fantastically adorned 
 by its stalactitical hangings, and its floor covered with, 
 a wet and slippery glazing, through which several 
 bones, jaws, and teeth projected. Hence a descent 
 of about twenty feet led to the inferior caverns, where 
 M. Esper, the narrator, expected to be left to aug- 
 ment the number of zoolites contained in these ter- 
 rific mansions. The rock itself was here thickly beset 
 with teeth and bones, and the floor covered w r ith a loose 
 earth, the result of animal decomposition, which also 
 contained numerous bones. A gradual descent led to 
 another grotto, which, with its passage, was forty feet 
 in length. Twenty feet further was a terrible gulph, at 
 the bottom of which was another grotto about the same 
 s4ze as the last, and also covered with animal earth and 
 numerous bones. Several intricate passages and five 
 other caves terminated in a grotto above forty feet long 
 and wide. Here the prodigious quantity of animal 
 earth, the vast number of teeth, jaws, and other bones, 
 and the heavy grouping of the stalactites, produced so 
 dismal an appearance, as to lead Esper to speak of it 
 as " a model for a temple for a god of the dead *." 
 
 The bones which have been discovered in similar 
 caverns, over an extent of more than two hundred 
 leagues, are almost all found in the same state, and 
 under the same circumstances, and appear to belong to 
 
 Descriptien des Zoolites nouvcllement deconvertes d'Animaiix, Quad. 
 rupedes, inconnue, et des Cavernes qni les rcnferment, par J. F. 
 
 1774.
 
 328 
 
 similar animals. Rosenmuller and Camper were satis- 
 fied that these bones were chiefly of the bear : and Blu- 
 menbach was able to distinguish two species; one, with 
 a raised forehead, only known in these situations, which 
 he named Ursus spelceus ; and another, which he consi- 
 dered, with Camper, as the white or polar bear, Ursus 
 arctoideus. Cuvier also examined these remains, and 
 was of opinion that they were those of two species hi- 
 therto unknown among the living species. 
 
 The following is an abridged account, from The An- 
 nals of Philosophy, March 1822, of Professor Buck- 
 land's interesting paper, read before the Royal Society, 
 on an English cavern, resembling, in its contents, those 
 which have been just mentioned : 
 
 This paper gives a detailed account of a den of 
 hyaenas discovered in the summer of 1821, at Kirkdule, 
 near Kirby Moorside, in Yorkshire, about twenty-five 
 miles north-east of York. 
 
 " The den is a natural fissure, or cavern, in oolitic 
 limestone, extending three hundred feet into the body of 
 the solid rock, and varying from two to five feet in height 
 and breadth. Its mouth was closed with rubbish, and 
 overgrown with grass and bushes, and was accidentally 
 intersected by the working of a stone quarry. It is on 
 the slope of a hill, about one hundred feet above the 
 level of a small river, which, during great part of the year, 
 is engulphed. The bottom of the cavern is nearly ho- 
 rizontal, and is entirely covered, to the depth of about 
 a foot, with a sediment of mud deposited by the diluvian 
 waters. The surface of this mud was, in some parts, 
 entirely covered with a crust of stalagmite ; but on 
 the greater part of it there was no stalagmite. At the 
 bottom of this mud, the floor of the cave was covered
 
 from one end. to the other with teeth- and fragments of 
 bone of the following animals: hyasna, elephant, rhi- 
 noceros, hippopotamus, horse, ox, two or three spe- 
 cies of deer, bear, fox, water-rat, and birds. 
 
 " The bones are for the most part broken, and gnawed 
 to pieces-, and the teeth lie loose among the fragments 
 of the bones ; a very few teeth remain still fixed in 
 broken fragments of the jaws. The hyaena bones are 
 broken to pieces as much as those of the other animals. 
 No bone or tooth has been rolled, or in the least acted 
 upon by water, nor are there any pebbles mixed with 
 them. The bones are not at all mineralised, and retain 
 nearly the whole of their animal gelatin, and owe their 
 high state of preservation to the mud in which they 
 have been imbedded. The teeth of hyaenas are most 
 abundant ; and of these, the greater part are worn down 
 almost to the stumps, as ifl by the operation of gnaw- 
 ing bones. Some of the bones have marks of the 
 teeth on them ; and portions of the foeeal matter of the 
 hyaenas are found also in the den. These have been 
 anaiised by Dr. Wollaston, and found to be composed 
 of the same ingredients as the album grcecum, or white 
 faeces of dogs that are fed on bones, viz. carbonate of 
 lime, phosphate of lime, and triple phosphate of am- 
 monia and magnesia; and, on being shown to the 
 keeper of the beasts at Exeter Change, was immedi- 
 ately recognised by him as the dung of the hyaena. 
 The new and curious fact of the preservation of this 
 substance is explained by its affinity to bone. 
 
 " The animals found in the cave agree in species with 
 those that occur in the diluvian gravel of England, and 
 of great part of the northern hemisphere : four of them, 
 the hyaena, elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, 
 belong to species that are now extinct, and to genera 
 that live exclusively in warm climates, and which are 
 found associated together only in the southern portions 
 
 u u
 
 330 
 
 of Africa, near the Cape. It is certain, from the evi- 
 dence afforded by the interior of the den (which is of 
 the same kind with that afforded by the ruins of Hercu- 
 laneum and Pompeii), that all these animals lived and 
 died in Yorkshire, in the period immediately preceding 
 the deluge; and a similar conclusion may be drawn 
 with respect to England generally, and to those other 
 extensive regions of the northern hemisphere, where the 
 diluvian gravel contains the remains of similar species 
 of animals. The extinct fossil hyaena most nearly re- 
 sembles that species which now inhabits the Cape, 
 whose teeth are adapted beyond those of any other ani- 
 mal to the purpose of cracking bones, and whose habit 
 is to carry home parts of its prey to devour them in the 
 caves of rocks which it inhabits. This analogy ex- 
 plains the accumulation of the bones in the den at Kirk- 
 dale. They were carried in for food by the hyaenas ; 
 the smaller animal;?, perhaps, entire; the larger ones 
 piecemeal ; for by no other means could the bones of 
 such large animals as the elephant and rhinoceros have 
 arrived at the inmost recesses of so small a hole, unless 
 rolled thither by water ; in which case, the angles would 
 have been worn off by attrition, but they are not. 
 
 " Judging from the proportions of the remains now 
 found in the den, the ordinary food of the hyaenas seems 
 to have been oxen, deers, and water-rats ; the bones of 
 the larger animals are more rare ; and the fact of the 
 bones of the hyaenas being broken up equally with the 
 rest, added to the known preference they have for putrid 
 flesh and bones, renders it probable that they devoured 
 the dead carcases of their own species. Some of the 
 bones and teeth appear to have undergone various 
 stages of decay by lying at the bottom of the den while 
 it was inhabited, but little or none since the introduc- 
 tion of the diluvian sediment in which they have been 
 imbedded. The circumstances of the ca.ve and its con-
 
 331 
 
 tents are altogether inconsistent with the hypothesis of 
 all the various animals of such dissimilar habits having 
 entered it spontaneously, or having fallen in, or been 
 drifted in by water, or with any other than that of their 
 having been dragged in, either entire or piecemeal, by 
 the beasts of prey whose den it was. 
 
 " Five examples are adduced of bones of the same 
 animals discovered in similar caverns in other parts o* 
 this country, viz. at Crawley Rocks near Swansea, in 
 the Mendip Hills at Clifton, at Wirks worth in Derby- 
 shire, and at Oreston near Plymouth. In some of 
 these, there is evidence of the bones having been intro- 
 duced by beasts of prey ; but in that of Hutton Hill, 
 in the Mendips, which contains rolled pebbles, it is 
 probable they were washed in. In the case of open 
 fissures, some may have fallen in. 
 
 " A comparison is then instituted between these ca- 
 verns in England, and those of Germany described by 
 Rosenmuller, Esper, and Leibnitz, as extending over 
 a tract of two hundred leagues, and containing analo- 
 gous deposits of the bones of two extinct species of 
 bear, and the same extinct species of hyaena that oc- 
 curs at Kirkdale. 
 
 " In the German caves, the bones are in nearly the 
 same state of preservation as in the English, and are 
 not in entire skeletons, but dispersed as in a charnel 
 house. They are scattered -all over the caves, some- 
 times loose, sometimes adhering together by stalagmite, 
 and forming beds of many feet in thickness. They are 
 of all parts of the body, and of animals of all ages ; 
 but are never rolled. With them is found a quantity of 
 black earth derived from the decay of animal flesh ; and 
 also, in the newly-discovered caverns, we find descrip- 
 tions of a bed of mud. The latter is probably the 
 same diluvian sediment which we find at Kirkdale. The 
 unbroken condition of the bones, and presence of black
 
 332 
 
 animal earth, are consistent with 1ihe iiafeit of bears, 
 being rather addicted to vegetable than animal 
 and, in this case, not devouring the dead individuals of 
 their own species. In the Jiyaena's cave, on the other 
 hand, where both flesh and bones were devoured, we 
 find no black earth ; but, instead -of it, we -discover HI 
 the album gr&cum evidence of the fate that has attended 
 the carcases and lost portions of the bones whose 
 fragments still remain. 
 
 *" Three-fourths of the .total number <ef bones in the 
 German caves belong to two extinct species of bear, 
 nd two-thirds of the remainder to the extinct hyaena of 
 Kirkdale. There are also bones of an animal of the 
 cat kind {resembling the jaguar, or spotted panther of 
 South America), and of the wolf, fox, -and polecat, and 
 rarely of elephant and rhinoceros *. 
 
 " The bears and hyaena of all these ca^enrs, as well 
 afc ftie elephant, rhinoceros, and thippopotetows, belong to 
 'same extinct species that occur also fossil in the 
 'gravdi ; whence it follows itaut the period in 
 -which they inhabited these regions was <that hnmediatdy 
 preceding $ie form-atid* of this gra-vei by that toanskwrt 
 and universal inundation which has left traces -of its 
 ravages 'Committed t o wry distaart period over the 
 swfaoe of the whole globe, and since which no im- 
 portant or -general physical changes appear 40 have af- 
 fedted*. 
 
 " Both in 'the case of the English and German ca- 
 verns, the booes an4er consideration twe wever 4ncluded 
 In tlie solid rock ; they occur in cavities of limestone 
 ToCk of raris ages wnd formations, ibit 1mve no fur- 
 
 that the liears -not only lived and died, ;fcut 
 Atere a<o born, in tbe SMIK> oavens in vfhieb tkeir bents have bcea tbus 
 deUtnulated ; <and4lte same conclusion follows from the facts olerd in 
 the cave in Yorkshire.''
 
 ther connexion with the rocks themselves, than. 
 arising from the accident of their being lodged in ca- 
 vities produced in them by causes wholly uncon- 
 nected with the animals, that appear for a certain 
 time to have taken possession of them .as their habita- 
 tion*." 
 
 We cannot quit these monuments of fawner worlds 
 without alluding to the incontrovertible evidence they 
 present of the exercise of Almighty Power and of the 
 perpetual influence of a Divine Providence. 
 
 In the several formations composing the outer part 
 f the earth down to the primitive rocks, ast accumu- 
 lations exist of the fossil remains of organised beings, 
 varying in each formation, and essentially differing 
 from those beings which now exist. The discovery -of 
 animals peculiar to certain formations, and the general 
 -agreement with each other of the fossils of the same 
 formations, .have led to the .belief that these .several 
 formations were the consequences of successive changes 
 effected on the earth's surface; and that their coa- 
 -taired fossils are the preserved remains of the se ve- 
 ral creations which had been successively formed to 
 accord with the state of the planet wader its several 
 chaages. 
 
 In the lower and consequently eadier formed strata, 
 
 * The hyaena's habit of digging human bodies from the grave, and 
 dragging them to their den, and accumulating around it the bones of all 
 kinds o'f animals, is thus described by Busbeqnius, in speaking df the 
 Turkish custom t>f : laying great stones on ftieir -graves -to igmrfllheffl 'from 
 the hyaenas : 
 
 " Hyna *egionH>ufi dis sate frequens sepubchanaWFodit, extvahitqve ca- 
 davera portatque ad suam speluncam juxta quam vtderi cst ingcntcBi cumu- 
 Itina ossium humanorum vetoiinarioium ct reli^uorum ojunc genus anima- 
 lium." Lfg, Turc. Epist. 1.
 
 334 
 
 the beds associated with coal, are found the bituminised 
 remains of unknown vegetables : and in the masses oi 
 mountain limestone, &c., are immense accumulations 
 of crinoideal and terebratular remains, of the numerous 
 species of which tribes scarcely a living individual 
 can now be found. In these situations also exist the 
 mineralised remains of multilocular univalve and bi- 
 valve shells, and of others of more simple forms, pos- 
 sessing such a structure as enabled the animals which 
 inhabited them to rise or sink in the water as circum- 
 stances required. Many genera of this tribe are here 
 found in their mineralised state, as Ammonites, Belem- 
 nites, Orthoceratites, &c., some of which, as the Am- 
 moniteSy are spread through the succeeding superior 
 formations, in myriads ; but no living individual of these 
 genera is known. The genus Nautilus is the only one 
 whose existence, through a few species, is continued 
 to the present day. 
 
 The fossils of the succeeding superior formation, the 
 lias, yield strong proofs of their having been the pro- 
 duction of a distinct creation. Among them is found 
 the first trochiform univalve, Trochus Anglicanus; with 
 numerous genera of bivalves, differing essentially and 
 generically from those contained in the preceding form- 
 ation ; such are the different species of Ostrea, Gry- 
 phtea, Trigonia, and several others. 
 
 But the most decided proofs of these fossils being 
 the remains of another world, and of a distinct crea- 
 tion, is their containing the relics of a tribe of enor- 
 mous marine animals : quadrupeds, possessing the 
 blended structure of fish and lizard ; the Ichthyosaurus, 
 Plesiosaurus, &c., no traces of which have been disco- 
 vered in any of the preceding strata. 
 
 The fossil remains through the succeeding higher 
 formations of oolite, green sand, chalk, and clay, show 
 new genera both of saurian and testaceous animals; 
 among the former are crocodiles, monitors, &c. ; and
 
 335 
 
 among the latter are numerous turbinated and turretted 
 kinds. But when we follow, on the surface of the vast 
 mass of upper clay, the traces of diluvial torrents and 
 the desolation which accompanied the last grand catas- 
 trophe which the planet appears to have sustained, we 
 there find the remains of another creation, the terres- 
 trial quadrupeds; a new order of animals, differing 
 in almost every respect from those which had preceded 
 them, and of which not a single bone is to be found 
 in any of the preceding formations. 
 
 It appears that the devastating effects accompanying 
 the vast change which this planet then underwent were 
 so extensive, that not only some species of quadrupeds 
 were entirely removed, of some genera, such as the 
 elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, of which other 
 species still remain ; but that other genera, as Mastodon, 
 PalcBotliermm, and Anoplotherium, were completely an- 
 nihilated through all their species. 
 
 These changes in the state of the planet, and this 
 partial destruction of quadrupeds, appears to have 
 been succeeded by the creation of man, and of such 
 quadrupeds and other animals as were fit inhabitants of 
 the earth after its last change. But man did not retain 
 his dominion uninterrupted long. The Scriptures teach 
 us, that a flood of waters was brought upon the earth, 
 which prevailed on it for an hundred and fifty days, 
 and by which the whole race was nearly destroyed. 
 The Mosaic account of this deluge has, however, been 
 doubted, from the total absence of the fossil remains 
 of man. But reference will show that no circumstances 
 are stated in that account which will authorise the sup- 
 position, that the deluge was accompanied by such sub- 
 versive violence as would bury its victims in those 
 situations which would dispose to the mineralisation of 
 their remains. 
 
 The assumption of successive creations with accord-
 
 336 
 
 ant changes in the state of the planet, does not, indeed, 
 agree with, the Mosaic account of the creation ; at least, 
 in;its ordinary acceptation. The facts, however, appear 
 to be as they ara stated. May not the discordance de- 
 pend! on a misconception of the Sacred Writings^ 
 Once more, with submission and deference may not 
 the days of creation be considered as periods of long 
 and indefinite duration.? 
 
 This system of successive creations fitted to the 
 existing or predestined state of the planet, appears, 
 not only not to derogate from die wisdom and power 
 of the Almighty, but to be perfectly in agreement with 
 the agency of Providence as taught by the Divine Au- 
 thor of our "religion. The world is seen, in its form- 
 at ion and continuance, constantly under the providence 
 of Almighty God, without whose knowledge not one 
 sparrow falls to the ground. 
 
 Under these impressions, we view the results of these 
 several- changes and creations as manifesting the pre- 
 science,, the power, and the benevolence of our great 
 Creator. The general form of the earth's surface, va- 
 ried by the distribution of hills and vallies, and of land 
 and water; the prodigious accumulations of coal de- 
 rived from the vegetables of- a former creation, with the 
 accompanying slates and schists ; the useful, durable, 
 and often beautiful, encrinital and shelly limestones ; 
 the immense formations of chalk and flint, and the va- 
 rious series of clays; all demonstrate a careful provi- 
 sion; for the wants of man. The several breaks and 
 faults in the stratified masses, and the various inclina- 
 tions of the strata, as well as the vast abruptions by 
 which these several substances are brought to the hand 
 of man, may be regarded as most beneficent provisions 
 resulting from catastrophes too vast and tremendous 
 for human intellect to comprehend. 
 
 From these several creations it appears that beings
 
 337 
 
 have proceeded, gradually increasing in 1 superiority, 
 from testaceous animals to reptiles, marine and fresh 
 water amphibia, quadrupeds, and lastly to man, who, 
 in his turn, is destined, with the earth he inhabits, to 
 pass away, and be succeeded by a new heaven and 
 a new earth. 
 
 XX
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 ACAMAS - 
 
 - 167 
 
 Antipathes - 
 
 84 
 
 Acardo ... 
 
 - 193 
 
 Apiocrinitcs - . - 
 
 95 
 
 Acasta ... 
 
 - 195 
 
 Area - - . 
 
 185 
 
 Achatina - . < . - 
 
 - 157 
 
 , species of - 
 
 21i> 
 
 Achelois ... 
 
 - 173 
 
 Arcaceae - 
 
 184 
 
 Actynocrinites - - . 
 
 - 1'6 
 
 Argonauta - - - - - 
 
 151 
 
 Adeona ... 
 
 - 64 
 
 Aspergillum - 
 
 175 
 
 Agaricia - - ' - 
 
 - 76 
 
 Asphaltum - 
 
 9 
 
 Alcyonites - 
 
 - 54 
 
 Astarte .... 
 
 198 
 
 Alcyonia, species of 
 
 - 55 
 
 Asteriai .... 
 
 100 
 
 Alligators ... 
 
 - 277 
 
 Astrea - 
 
 70 
 
 Alveolites - 
 
 - 65 
 
 Avicula .... 
 
 189 
 
 Amber 
 
 9 
 
 , species of 
 
 222 
 
 Amimomus ... 
 
 - 172 
 
 Auricula - 
 
 157 
 
 Ammonellipsites - 
 
 - 164 
 
 , species of - 
 
 *1 
 
 Ammonites 
 
 - ib. 
 
 
 
 Amphibia - - - 
 
 - 275 
 
 Baculites .... 
 
 166 
 
 Amphidesma 
 
 - 179 
 
 Balanus .... 
 
 195 
 
 Amplexus - 
 
 - 167 
 
 , species of 
 
 213 
 
 Ampnllaria - - . - 
 
 - 159 
 
 Beavers .... 
 
 326 
 
 , species of 
 
 - 913 
 
 Beleninites - 
 
 166 
 
 Ananchytes 
 
 - 137 
 
 Belleropliron - . . 
 
 170 
 
 Anatifa 
 
 - 195 
 
 Benett, Miss ... 
 
 49 
 
 Anatina ... 
 
 . 178 
 
 _ Wiltshire f-li- 
 
 
 
 Ancilla 
 
 - 154 
 
 discovered by 
 
 ib. 
 
 i, species of 
 
 - 201 
 
 Birds 
 
 268 
 
 Angulithes 
 
 - 171 
 
 Birostrites ... i93, 
 
 226 
 
 Anodonta 
 
 - >86 
 
 Bivalves .... 
 
 174 
 
 Anomia ... 
 
 192 
 
 Boars 
 
 sor 
 
 Anoplotheiium 
 
 - 321 
 
 Bovey Coal 
 
 r 
 
 Antigua - 
 
 - 26S 
 
 Bractiipodei 
 
 194
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Brachipodes Conchifera . 194 
 
 Cellepora 
 
 . 64, 
 
 Brard M . 255 
 
 Cerithiuin . . 
 
 . J57 
 
 &,- passim 
 
 , species of . 
 
 . 206 
 
 Brecciae, ossiferons . . 307 
 
 
 , 275 
 
 ... of Gibraltar, Concud, 
 
 Cetocis 
 
 . 174 
 
 Cherso, Corsica, &c. . ib. 
 
 Chama . . , 
 
 . 187 
 
 Brongniart, M. . 255 
 
 -, species of 
 
 . 220 
 
 Sf passim 
 
 Chamaceae 
 
 . 187 
 
 Bnccinnm . - - .202 
 
 Chiton 
 
 . 199 
 
 Bnckland, Professor . . 289 
 
 Cidaris 
 
 . 120 
 
 4f passim 
 
 , species of 
 
 . ib. 
 
 Bnfonites .... 273 
 
 Cineras . 
 
 . 196 
 
 Btilimus . . 158 
 
 Cirrhipeda . . 
 
 . 194 
 
 , species of . .211 
 
 Cirrus 
 
 . 159 
 
 Bulla . - . 153, 211 
 
 Clavagella . 
 
 175, 213 
 
 
 Clavatula 
 
 . 157 
 
 Cactus .. 19 
 
 Clypeaster . 
 
 . ISO 
 
 .. t large growth of . 20 
 
 , species of . 
 
 . ib. 
 
 Calcareous Fossil Vegetables 22 
 
 Clypeus . 
 
 . 123 
 
 Wood . . . ib. 
 
 _ ? species of 
 
 . ib. 
 
 Calceola . . . .193 
 
 Coal, origin of, supposed 
 
 9 
 
 Calirrhoa . . . .173 
 
 , cannell 
 
 7 
 
 Calyptrea . . . .151 
 
 , common . . 
 
 7 
 
 , species of . 199 
 
 Columbella 
 
 . 154 
 
 Cancellaria . ^ 154 
 
 Comatula . . 
 
 . 99 
 
 , species of . 202 
 
 Concholepas 
 
 . 151 
 
 Capsa . ..- 182 
 
 Conularia . . . 
 
 . 168 
 
 Cardiaceae .... 184 
 
 Conns 
 
 . 153 
 
 Cardita . . . .218 
 
 , species of 
 
 . 199 
 
 
 Conybeare, the Rev. W. 
 
 D. . 28 A 
 
 Carinavia .... 151 
 
 
 If passim 
 
 Carnivorous Animals . . 326 
 
 Corallina 
 
 . 85 
 
 Caryophyllia ... 73 
 
 Corallium . . . 
 
 . 83 
 
 Cassidulns . . . .113 
 
 Corbia 
 
 . 181 
 
 -, species of . .124 
 
 , species of 
 
 . U5 
 
 
 C orb nl ft 
 
 179 
 
 ., species of . . 203 
 
 -, species of 
 
 . 215 
 
 Cavern, containing Bones, in 
 
 Coronula . . 
 
 . 195 
 
 Germany . . 326 
 
 Crabs . . 
 
 . 267 
 
 ., in V-nprland 3<R 
 
 Crania 
 
 , 193
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Crania, species of . . 226 
 
 Dianchora . . 
 
 . 197 
 
 Crassatella . . .179 
 
 Diceras 
 
 . 187 
 
 , species of . .214 
 
 Discina . . . 
 
 193, 226 
 
 Crassina . . . .182 
 
 Discopora . . . 
 
 . 64 
 
 Creations, successive . . 334 
 
 Distichopora . 
 
 . 67 
 
 Crenatula .... 188 
 
 Dolium . . . 
 
 . 155 
 
 Crepidula . . . 152 
 
 Donax 
 
 . 182 
 
 Creusia . . . -195 
 
 , species of 
 
 . 21 
 
 Crinoidea .... 95 
 
 Dudley fossil . . 
 
 . 263 
 
 -_,.._ < >, 
 
 
 
 
 , localities of . .97 
 
 Eburna . . . 
 
 . 155 
 
 Crocodile . . . . 276 
 
 Ecbidnis . . 
 
 . 173 
 
 , fossil . . . 284 
 
 Echinaracunins . 
 
 . 126 
 
 found in Honfleur 
 
 Echini, arrangement of, 
 
 by 
 
 and Havre . . . 284 
 
 Woodward 
 
 . 106 
 
 
 Klein 
 
 10R 
 
 
 Breyn 
 
 . iwO 
 
 inO 
 
 
 Van Phelsuni . ib. 
 
 stone .... 285 
 
 Leske . .110 
 
 Cucullea .... 184 
 
 Lamarck 
 
 111, 114 
 
 , species of . . 219 
 
 Echinidae . . . 
 
 . 105 
 
 Cyathocrinites ... 95 
 
 Ecbinocyamns . 
 
 . 134 
 
 Cyclas . . . .182 
 
 Echinodermata 
 
 . 98 
 
 Cyclolites . . .74 
 
 u* !* j 
 
 . ib. 
 
 
 Cyclostoma . 159 
 
 Ecbinoneus . 
 
 . 136 
 
 "pecics of "10 
 
 ^ ^ snecics of 
 
 ib. 
 
 Cypraea . . ... 153 
 
 Echinopbora ' . . 
 
 . 79 
 
 , species of . . 200 
 
 Echinus . . . 
 
 . 115 
 
 Cypricardia . . .184 
 
 , species of 
 
 . ib. 
 
 
 Elephant 
 
 . 309 
 
 
 Cyprina .... 183 
 
 i , teeth of 
 
 . ib. 
 
 
 Elk, Irish . 
 
 . 305 
 
 
 Cyrena . . . .183 
 
 Emarginula . 
 
 . *51 
 
 Cytherea ib. 
 
 "-, species of 
 
 . 199 
 
 , species of . .216 
 
 Encrinite . 
 
 . 87 
 
 
 , lily . 
 
 . ib. 
 
 Dactylopora ... 66 
 
 -, cap . 
 
 . ib. 
 
 Dalmatia . -. . . 307 
 
 - turban 
 
 88 
 
 Delphinnla .... 159 
 
 .. Pear . 
 
 . ib. 
 
 ., species of . . 21O 
 
 , nave . 
 
 . 90 
 
 Deluge .... SS9 
 
 -, plumose 
 
 . 91
 
 34'J 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Enciinite, tortoise 
 
 91 
 
 
 *77 
 
 , straight 
 
 . ib. 
 
 
 61* 
 
 . ., bottle 
 
 . ib. 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 . 307 
 
 , Etagshorn . 
 
 . ib. 
 
 Glycimeris . 
 
 . 178 
 
 Erycina . . . 
 
 . 179 
 
 -, species of . 
 
 . 214 
 
 , species of 
 
 . 214 
 
 Gnawers . . 
 
 . 325 
 
 Esciiara 
 
 . 64 
 
 Gorgonia 
 
 . 85 
 
 Etheria 
 
 . 187 
 
 Gryphaea 
 
 . 191 
 
 Engeniacrinite 
 
 . 96 
 
 , species of 
 
 . 224 
 
 Euompbalus 
 
 , 160 
 
 Gyrogonites . 
 
 . 170 
 
 Euryale . . . 
 
 . 98 
 
 
 
 Explanaria . . . 
 
 . 79 
 
 Haliotis 
 
 . 151 
 
 
 
 Hamites 
 
 . 165 
 
 Farey, Mr. . . 
 
 . 230 
 
 
 , 155 
 
 Fasciolaria . 
 
 155 
 
 . , species of . 
 
 . 202 
 
 Fasciolites . 
 
 . 167 
 
 Harpax 
 
 . 190 
 
 Faujas St. Fond . 
 
 . 256 
 
 Helicina 
 
 158, 250 
 
 
 fy passim 
 
 Helix . . . 
 
 158, 248 
 
 Favosites 
 
 . 68 
 
 carinatus 
 
 . 247 
 
 Fib ulii riii 
 
 . 134 
 
 
 . ib. 
 
 i species of 
 
 . ib. 
 
 
 174 
 
 Fishes 
 
 . 269 
 
 Hippopotamus 
 
 . 315 
 
 -, in the chalk 
 
 . 274 
 
 Hippopus 
 
 . 187 
 
 Fissurella . 
 
 . 151 
 
 Hippurites 
 
 . 166 
 
 i , species of . 
 
 . 199 
 
 Home, SirEverard 
 
 . 289 
 
 Fistiiliinu 
 
 . 175 
 
 
 306 
 
 , species of . 
 
 . 213 
 
 Horse - ... 
 
 . 304 
 
 _,.,,. 
 
 87 
 
 
 197 
 
 Flnstra 
 
 . 63 
 
 Hyaena . . . 
 
 328, 329 
 
 Fossils 
 
 1 
 
 Hydnophora . 
 
 . 78 
 
 , animal . 
 
 . 35 
 
 
 186 
 
 
 
 .11 , extraneous, &c. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 , vegetable 
 
 5 
 
 lanthina 
 
 . 248 
 
 Fresh-water formations . 
 
 . 254 
 
 Ichthyosaurus 
 
 . 289 
 
 Fnngia 
 
 . 76 
 
 . cominunis 
 
 . 292 
 
 Fusus .... 
 
 . 156 
 
 teuuirostris 
 
 . ib. 
 
 , species of . 
 
 . 204 
 
 platyodon 
 
 . ib. 
 
 
 
 Impregnation 
 
 a 
 
 r* 1 -it-pj. 
 
 IBS 
 
 
 3 
 
 Galerites . 
 
 XO7 
 
 . 127 
 
 Int'umiibulum 
 
 . 152 
 
 Gaitrocbcena . 
 
 . 177 
 
 Inoccramui . 
 
 . 198
 
 INDEX. 
 
 343 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Pg* 
 
 Insects .... 
 
 263 
 
 Marine Formations 
 
 254 
 
 Intromission .... 
 
 2 
 
 
 . *^T 
 tf seq. 
 
 Iridina ..... 
 
 186 
 
 Marsupitt'S 
 
 96 
 
 Isis . 
 
 84 
 
 Mastodou . . 
 
 . 317 
 
 Isocardia .... 
 
 184 
 
 Meandrina 
 
 . 77 
 
 
 219 
 
 Megalonyx 
 Megalosaurus . 
 
 . 323 
 . 298 
 
 Jameson, Professor 
 
 8 
 
 Megatherium 
 
 . 323 
 
 J<* ..... 
 
 7' 
 
 Melania . 
 
 . . 157 
 
 
 
 , species of 
 
 . 212 
 
 Lacerta Gigantea 
 
 j!9& 
 
 Meteagrina . 
 
 . 189 
 
 Lacerta-, see Sauri 
 
 
 Melitaea 
 
 . 83 
 
 Lily Encrinite 
 
 9:3 
 
 Miliolites 
 
 .169 
 
 Lima .... 
 
 190 
 
 Miller, Mr. 
 
 94 
 
 , species of . 
 
 222 
 
 
 if passim 
 
 Lingula .... 
 
 194 
 
 , Monograph of Crinoidea 95 
 
 Lituites 
 
 165 
 
 Mitra 
 
 . 154 
 
 Lucina .... 
 
 181 
 
 , species of . 
 
 . 202 
 
 y. species of 
 
 216 
 
 Modiola 
 
 .188 
 
 Lunulitcs . . 
 
 67 
 
 . , species of 
 
 . 221 
 
 Lutraria .... 
 
 17 
 
 Molossus . . 
 
 . 173 
 
 - , species of . 
 
 214 
 
 Monitor 
 
 288 
 
 Lymnea .... 
 
 158 
 
 Monodonta . 
 
 . 158 
 
 , species of . . 
 
 212 
 
 Mosasaurus . 
 
 298 
 
 , stagnalis . 
 
 218 
 
 Moss Fir 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 in Calcedony 
 
 . 30 
 
 Mactra .... 
 
 178 
 
 Murex . 
 
 156 
 
 , species of 
 
 214 
 
 species of . 
 
 . 203 
 
 Mact racea? 
 
 178 
 
 
 . 178 
 
 Macculloch, Dr. on bituminous 
 
 
 
 ib. 
 
 
 
 wood .... 
 
 & 
 
 Mytilaceee 
 
 . 188 
 
 Madrepora .... 
 
 1 
 
 Mytilus 
 
 . ib. 
 
 Magas ... 
 
 198 
 
 
 . 221 
 
 
 Malleaceae . . 
 
 188 
 
 
 
 Malleus . . 
 
 189 
 
 Naiades 
 
 . 185 
 
 Alan . 
 
 339 
 
 Nassa . . . 
 
 . 156 
 
 Man tell Mr. 
 
 SS 
 
 
 159 
 
 Mantellia .... 
 
 tfff 
 ib. 
 
 Nautellipsitet 
 
 . 164 
 
 Marble, Petworth 
 
 262 
 
 Nautilus 
 
 . 161 
 
 Marginella .... 
 
 154 
 
 Nerita 
 
 . 159 
 
 , species of . 
 
 202 
 
 Nuclei 
 
 3
 
 344 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Nucleolites . 
 
 . 15(5 
 
 Pectinida- 
 
 . 189 
 
 Nucola 
 
 . 185 
 
 Pectunculus 
 
 . 185 
 
 , species of . 
 
 - . 220 
 
 , species of 
 
 219 
 
 Nugent, Dr. on Antigua Fossil 263 
 
 Pedum 
 
 . 189 
 
 Niimmulites . . 
 
 . 165 
 
 Penicillus 
 
 . 85 
 
 
 
 Pentacrinus 
 
 86, 92, ?5 
 
 Ocellaria 
 
 . 66 
 
 Pentameros . 
 
 . 198 
 
 Oculina . . 
 
 . 82 
 
 Perna 
 
 182 
 
 Oliva 
 
 . 154 
 
 , species of 
 
 . 222 
 
 , species of 
 
 . 200 
 
 Petricola 
 
 . 180 
 
 Oniscus praegustator 
 
 . 266 
 
 , species of 
 
 215 
 
 Ophiura 
 
 . 100 
 
 Petrifactions 
 
 2 
 
 Opuntia 
 
 19 
 
 ' Petroleum . 
 
 9 
 
 of large growth 
 
 . 20 
 
 Petworth Marble 
 
 . 262 
 
 Orbicula 
 
 . 194 
 
 Phasianella . 158 
 
 ,211,261 
 
 Orbulites 
 
 . 266 
 
 Pholadaria: . 
 
 177 
 
 Orthoceratites 
 
 163, 166 
 
 Pholas 
 
 . i&/ 
 
 Oryctology . 
 
 1 
 
 Phytolithus cancellatos 
 
 . 14 
 
 Oscana 
 
 . 150 
 
 r 
 
 16 
 
 
 Ostraceae 
 
 . 191 
 
 iinbricatus 
 
 . ib. 
 
 Ostrea 
 
 . ib. 
 
 A _ ^ 
 
 . ib. 
 
 1 ^^ notatus 
 
 ~. , species of 
 
 . 224 
 
 parmatus 
 
 . 15 
 
 Otion 
 
 . 196 
 
 
 4 f 
 
 Ovula . 
 
 153, 200 
 
 
 lo 
 
 *A 
 
 Ovulites 
 
 67 
 
 verrncosus 
 
 TO. 
 
 . 11 
 
 Ox 
 
 . 306 
 
 Placuna 
 
 . 192 
 
 
 
 _:__ ^f 
 
 226 
 
 
 Pachydermala 
 
 309 
 
 Plagiostoma . 
 
 190 
 
 Paclites 
 
 . 171 
 
 -., species of 
 
 . 222 
 
 Palaeotherhim 
 
 . 320 
 
 Planorbis . 
 
 . 159 
 
 Paludina 
 
 261 
 
 , species of . 
 
 . 210 
 
 Palytlioa 
 
 . 61 
 
 Planospirites 
 
 . 150 
 
 Pandora 
 
 . 180 
 
 Planulitcs 
 
 . 163 
 
 Panopcea 
 
 . 177 
 
 Platycrinites 
 
 95 
 
 Patella 
 
 . 150 
 
 Plesiosaurus 
 
 . 293 
 
 , species of 
 
 199 
 
 priscus . 
 
 294 
 
 Pa vfini*) 
 
 76 
 
 
 4O*C 
 
 XT aVOUIa 
 
 Pear encrinite 
 
 . 95 
 
 Pleurotoma . 
 
 2*yo 
 . 157 
 
 Peat 
 
 5 
 
 , species of 
 
 . 05 
 
 Pecten 
 
 . 18V 
 
 Plicatula 
 
 . 189 
 
 i , species of 
 
 . 222 
 
 ii , species of . 
 
 . 22S
 
 INDEX. 
 
 345 
 
 
 ** Page 
 
 Pocillopora , 
 
 , 34 
 
 Seraphs . . . 153 
 
 Podopsis 
 
 - 191 
 
 Serpula . . . ( -&. 
 
 , species of . 
 
 . 224 
 
 , species of . .212 
 
 Pollicipes 
 
 . 196 
 
 Siderolites . . 155 
 
 Po rites 
 
 . 80 
 
 Sigaretns . . .151 
 
 Porodragus . 
 
 . 1Z4 
 
 Siliceous fossils . . 33 
 
 Potamides 4 
 Poteriocrinites 
 
 . 258 
 . 95 
 
 1 '- vegetables ib. 
 Siliquaria . . . 154} 
 
 ' Productus . 
 
 . 197 
 
 Siplionia . _ 50 
 
 Psammobia . 
 
 . 180 
 
 , discovered by Mr. 
 
 Psamniotea 
 
 181,215 
 
 Webster. . . 5j 
 
 Pterocera 
 
 . 156 
 
 Smith, Mr. W. . . 330 
 
 Pupa 
 
 . 159 
 
 V paastnt 
 
 Pnrpnra 
 
 156 
 
 Solarium . . . igo 
 
 - , species of . 
 
 . 202 
 
 , species of . . 209 
 
 Pyramidella 
 
 . 157 
 
 jSoJemya . . . 179 
 
 Pyrgoma 
 
 . 195 
 
 So Jen . .177 
 
 Pyrula . 
 
 156 
 
 , species of . . 214 
 
 1 ' , species of 
 
 . 205 
 
 Solenaceas . . -177 
 
 
 
 Solipedes . . .304 
 
 Radiolites 
 
 . 193 
 
 Spatangus . . . 138 
 
 , species of 
 
 . 226 
 
 , species of . ib. 
 
 Retepora 
 
 . 65 
 
 Sphssrulites . . 199,226 
 
 pustulata 
 
 tf. 
 
 Spirifer . . . 193 
 
 Rhinoceros . 
 
 312 
 
 Spirula . . .165 
 
 Rhodiocrinites 
 
 . 9C 
 
 Spondylus . . . JQQ 
 
 Rosores, sec Gnawers 
 
 
 , species of . $#4 
 
 Rostellaria . 
 
 157 
 
 Sponge . . 56 
 
 , species of 
 
 . 203 
 
 if seq. 
 
 Rudistes 
 
 . 192 
 
 fossil, at Farringdon 48 
 
 Sarcinula 
 
 . 72 
 
 - in uuaiK, etc. \b. 
 Steiiihauer, the Rev. . 12 
 
 Sauri . . 
 
 . 276 
 
 lfeq. 
 
 enalio . 
 
 . 288 
 
 Stelleridas . . -98 
 
 fossil . . 
 
 284 
 
 Stomatia . . . 151 
 
 Scalaria 
 
 . 159 
 
 S trombus . . .156 
 
 , species of . 
 
 . 210 
 
 , species of . 203 
 
 Scaphites 
 
 . 165 
 
 Substitution . . .2 
 
 Scutella 
 
 . 132 
 
 Succulent plants . . 17 
 
 , species of . 
 
 . ib. 
 
 fossil, mistaken for 
 
 Septaria 
 
 - 175 
 
 fossil tree* . . ib.
 
 346 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Succulent plants have probably 
 
 
 Turbinellus - 
 
 155 
 
 contributed to the forma- 
 
 
 Turbinolia - 
 
 - 73 
 
 tion of Coal 
 
 21 
 
 Tnrbo 
 
 158, 209 
 
 Sulciculmis ... 
 
 14 
 
 Turrililcs 
 
 - 167 
 
 Suttirbrand ... 
 
 7 
 
 Turritella 
 
 - 157 
 
 
 
 , species of 
 
 - 211 
 
 Tapir 
 
 316 
 
 
 
 Tardigradi ... 
 
 323 
 
 Vegetables, fossil 
 
 - 10 
 
 Telebois ... 
 
 174 
 
 Venericardia - 
 
 - 217 
 
 Tellina 
 
 181 
 
 Venus 
 
 - 183 
 
 , species of - 
 
 815 
 
 , species of 
 
 - 217 
 
 Tellinoides - 
 
 181 
 
 Vermicular! a - 
 
 - 152 
 
 Tercbellum - 
 
 153 
 
 Vivipara 
 
 - ib. 
 
 } species of 
 
 200 
 
 Volvaria 
 
 - 154 
 
 Terebra ... 
 
 155 
 
 
 - 212 
 
 
 , species of - - 
 
 202 
 
 Voluta 
 
 - 154 
 
 Terabratnla - 
 
 194 
 
 , species of - 
 
 - 201 
 
 :,* n f 
 
 226 
 
 
 
 
 Teredina ... 
 
 176 
 
 Ungnlina 
 
 - 179 
 
 , species of 
 
 214 
 
 Unio 
 
 - 11J6 
 
 Teredo 
 
 176 
 
 Univalves 
 
 - 145 
 
 Testacella - 
 
 150 
 
 . muitilociilar 
 
 - 160 
 
 Tethia 
 
 61 
 
 
 
 Thalamus ... 
 
 172 
 
 Webster, Mr. 
 
 - 261 
 
 Tiranites ... 
 
 ib. 
 
 
 Sf passim 
 
 Tortoise ... 
 
 500 
 
 Wight, Isle of 
 
 - 261 
 
 Tridi&cnfi 
 
 1 Rf 
 
 basin of 
 
 - ib. 
 
 , species of - 
 
 luf 
 
 221 
 
 Wood, fossil - 
 
 22 
 
 Trilobites 
 
 263 
 
 calcareous 
 
 - ib. 
 
 caudated 
 
 206 
 
 
 - 26 
 
 of Dudley - 
 
 26-1 
 
 cupreous 
 
 - 29 
 
 T landiln 
 
 263 
 
 ferruginous 
 
 - 28 
 
 LJlallUliU - 
 
 
 Shropshire 
 
 265 
 
 jasperine 
 
 - 25 
 
 Trochus . 
 
 ifif) 
 
 
 - 26 
 
 
 1 liv 
 
 209 
 
 
 - 27 
 
 
 
 ,p u; ; it 
 
 iQi 
 
 
 23 
 
 AUDlCinciul ... 
 
 Tubipora 
 
 iyo 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 Tabulipora * 
 
 64 
 
 Zoophytes - 
 
 . 35
 
 
 
 Jfc.. 
 
 Vfc
 
 Pl.l. 
 
 ed far the Author July 2Jf 21

 
 PIM. 
 
 ublishf d for the^ulher July J 1811.
 
 run.
 
 EXPLANATION of the PLATES. 
 
 Pate 
 
 Fig. 
 
 1. Phytolithus verrucosus. 
 
 a. suppressed tubercles. 
 
 c. longitudinal sulcns. 
 
 2. Phytolithus verrucosus. 
 
 b. traces of leaves. 
 
 d. included, cylindrical body 
 
 3. Fossil strobilus. 
 
 a. tubular processes passing 
 from the internal part 
 to the surface. 
 
 4. Phytolithus caucellatus, epider- 
 
 mal surface. 
 
 Fig. 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 7. 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 
 Phytolithus cancellatus, cortical 
 
 surface. 
 Phy tolithus cancellatus, ligneou* 
 
 surface. 
 Transverse section of Sipho- 
 
 nia. 
 Upper extremity of Siphonia 
 
 \Vebsteri. 
 
 Species of Mantellia. 
 
 Fossil teeth from Stoneineld 
 slate. 
 
 Palythoa. 
 
 Pate JBE. 
 
 Bf. 
 
 1. represents the general form and 
 
 characters of the genus Echi- 
 nus and Cidaris ; the tuber- 
 cles being perforated in the 
 latter genus. 
 
 2. Clypeaster. 
 
 3. Oaleritei. 
 
 4 ) 
 > Fi 
 
 Fibularia. 
 
 riff. 
 
 6. Clypeus. 
 
 7. Cassiduhu. 
 
 8. Echinarachnius. 
 
 9. Ananchytes, the upper surface. 
 
 10. Scutella. 
 
 11. Spatangus (Cor. Marinum). 
 
 12. Ananchytes, the under surface. 
 
 13. Spataogtis (Oruin Marinum, 
 
 Brissus). 
 
 Pate 
 
 Fig. 
 
 1. Plaaospirites. 
 
 2. Oscana. 
 
 3. Testacella. 
 
 4. Patella. 
 
 5. Fissurella. 
 
 6. Emarginula. 
 
 7. Concholepas. 
 
 8. Storaatia. 
 
 9. Argonauts. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 10. Carinaria. 
 
 11. Sigaretus. 
 
 12. Haliotis. 
 
 13. Calyptrea. 
 
 14. Infundibulum. 
 
 15. Crepidula. 
 
 16. Dentalium. 
 
 17. Siliquaria. 
 
 18. Vermicularia 
 
 Fig. 
 
 19. Serpula. 
 
 20. Pupa. 
 
 21. AspergiUum. 
 
 22. Conus. 
 
 23. Cypra?a. 
 
 24. Ovula. 
 
 25. Bulla. 
 
 a. Terebellnm.
 
 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES 
 
 
 Pate 
 
 Fig. 
 
 1. Volvarfo. 
 
 2. Oliva. 
 
 3. Ancilla. 
 
 4. Voluta. 
 
 5. Mitra. 
 
 6. Columbella. 
 
 7. Marginalia. 
 
 8. Cancellaria3. 
 
 9. Fasciolaria. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 10. Turbtnellus. 
 
 11. Buccinum. 
 
 12. Eburna. 
 
 13. Terebra. 
 
 14. Dolinm. 
 
 15. Harpa. 
 
 16. Cassis. 
 
 17. Nassa. 
 
 18. Pupnra. 
 
 1J. 
 
 pate 
 
 Fig. 
 
 1. Nautilus. 
 
 2. Ammonites. 
 
 3. Nautellipsites. 
 
 4. Annnonellipsites. 
 
 5. Nummulites. 
 
 6. Scapbites. 
 
 7. Lituites. 
 
 8. Hamites. 
 
 9. Ortboceftttites. 
 10. Baculites. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 1. Grypliaea. 
 
 2. Pecten. 
 
 3. Lima. 
 
 4. Vulsella. 
 
 5. Mallens. 
 
 6. Avicula. ' 
 
 7. Fed uiii. 
 3. Hyalaia. 
 
 9. Orbicufa. 
 10. Anomia. 
 
 11. Belenmites. 
 
 12. Hippurites. 
 
 13. Turrilites. 
 
 14. Fasciolites. 
 
 15. Acamas. 
 
 16. Amplexus. 
 
 17. 'Conularia. 
 
 18. Miliolites. 
 
 19. Cornu Amuionis 
 
 Ariminiense. 
 
 19. Strombns. 
 
 20. Pterocera. 
 
 21. Rostellaria. 
 
 22. Murex. 
 
 23. Fusus. 
 
 24. Pyrula. 
 
 25. Plcurotoma. 
 
 26. Clavatula. 
 
 27. Cerithium. 
 
 Tig. 
 1. Melania. 
 
 Fig. 
 10. Phasianella. 
 
 Fig. 
 18. Scalaria. 
 
 2. Turritella. 
 3. Pyratnidella. 
 4. Auricula. 
 
 11. Vivipara. 
 12. Helix. 
 13. Helicina. 
 
 19. Delphinula. 
 20. Cirrus. 
 21. Planorbis. 
 
 5. Achatina. 
 6. Lymmca. 
 7. Turbo. 
 
 14. Ampullaria. 
 15. Natica. 
 16. Nerita. 
 
 22. Euomphalus. 
 23. lanthina. 
 24. Trochus. 
 
 8. Monodonta. 
 
 9- Bulimus, 
 
 17. Cyclostoma. 
 
 25. Solarium. 
 
 Fig: 
 
 11. Dianchora. 
 
 12. Plagiostoma. 
 
 13. Productus. 
 
 14. Magas. 
 
 15. Spirifer. 
 
 16. My a. 
 
 17. Cliania. 
 
 18. Hippopoilitun. 
 
 19. Unio. 
 
 20. CorbtilR. 
 
 20. Gyrogonites. 
 
 21. Acardo. 
 
 22. Radiolites. 
 
 23. Pinna. 
 
 24. Mytilus. 
 5. Modiola. 
 
 26. Anodonta. 
 
 27. Glycimeris. 
 
 28. Lingula. 
 
 29. Ostrea. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 21. Crania. 
 
 22. Petricola. 
 
 23. Terebratnla, 
 
 24. Solen. 
 
 25. Sangninblar'ra. 
 
 26. Tridacna. 
 
 27. CartHta. 
 
 28. Paphia. 
 
 29. Ltrtruria. 
 
 30. Mactra.
 
 P/.IV. 
 
 J Jpnnysfvft . Dfl 't Jr/p

 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 Published fcrlhe^ut/icr. Juty J.I&22.

 
 I'l.M.
 
 /Y.I7/
 
 PLVJU.
 
 PUX. 
 
 
 / 
 
 or the Author JufylJ.J2Z.
 
 d tir the jtuihor July JJS3Z.
 
 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 11. Dora*. 
 
 12. Card iii 111. 
 
 13. Cy there*. 
 
 14. Cyrena. 
 
 15. Lucina. 
 
 16. Tellina. 
 
 17. Ai'oa. 
 
 18. Nncnla. 
 
 19. Pectfflaculus. 
 
 20. Ciicullaja. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 1. Astarte. 
 
 2. Venericardia. 
 
 3. Trigonia. 
 
 4. Plicatula. 
 
 5. Placuna. 
 
 6. Spondylus. 
 
 7. Venus. 
 
 3. Lsocardia. 
 9. Crassatella. 
 10. Erycina. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 1. The base of the Lily Encrinus, 
 
 or Encrinites Moniliformis. 
 
 2. Univalve shell. 
 
 3. The base of the Cap Encrinite 
 
 of Derbyshire, Lancashire, 
 &c. 
 
 4. Trochite,orencrinital vertebra. 
 
 5. The straight Encrinite. 
 
 6. Entrorhite, or part of an encri- 
 
 nital spine. 
 
 7. The bise df the turban Encri- 
 
 Fig. 
 
 1. Dudley Fossil, or T-rilobite. 
 
 2. Oniscus Pnegustator. 
 
 3. Part of a Jaw from the Stones- 
 
 field slate. 
 
 4. Stylina, simple. 
 
 5. Stylina, compound. 
 
 6. Portion of an Echinus. 
 
 7. Pentamerus. 
 
 Fig-. 
 
 21. Pcrna. 
 
 22. Crenatula. 
 
 23. Inoceramus. 
 
 24. Calceola. 
 
 25. Pholas. 
 
 26. Balanus. 
 
 27. Coronula. 
 
 28. Anatifa. 
 
 29. Trigonellites. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 % Bivalve Shell. 
 
 9. Internal part of the valve of a 
 species of Productus. 
 
 10. Tubipora Auastomosans, p. 71. 
 
 1 1. Astraea in Calcedony. 
 
 12. Frondescent Millepore. 
 
 13. Bottle Encrinite. 
 
 14. Stagshorn Encrinite. 
 
 15. Clove Encrinite. 
 
 16. Head of a Pentacriiiitc. 
 
 x. 
 
 fig. 
 
 8. Ordinary Fossil Tooth of the 
 
 Elephant. 
 
 9. Fossil Tooth of the Elephant, 
 
 the plates winding. 
 10. Fossil Tooth of the Elephant, 
 the plates of extraordinary 
 thickness. 
 
 F 1 N 1 S. 
 
 James Compton, Trinter, Cloth Fair, London.
 
 Work* % JAMES PARKINSON, published by Sherwood, Neely, 
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