1 ^WMll^^^^^m^^^^^ , , . ... . . . , - Q A A.f HE IV /?, A. P. Soule, ' EHGLAM) AGENT. /*fr-l cO v) ~ ~r-r^ . r. )' Father and Sons for Liberty. BARNES' HISTORICAL SERIES B R I IS F H I H T (..) R Y UN: TED STATES COPTHIGHT, 1871, 1HT9, 1880, 1885, BY A. S. BARNES & COMPANY NEW YORK AND CHICAGO OF A A. P, Soule, new EHGLANQ AGENT. PUBLISHERS' NOTICE. This revision can be used in class with the old. edition, as the pages correspond throughout the text. BARNES' BRIEF HISTORY SERIES. BARNES' BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 12MO. ILLUSTRATED. BARNES' BRIEF HISTORY OF FRANCE, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FOR PRIVATE READING. 12MO. ILLUSTRATED. BARNES' BRIEF HISTORY OF ANCIENT PEOPLES FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FOR PRIVATE READING. 12MO. ILLUSTRATED. BARNES' BRIEF HISTORY OF GREECE, With Select Readings from Standard Authors. 12mo. BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATF-D. BARNES' BRIEF HISTORY OF ROME, Witn Select Readings from Standard Authors. 12MO. BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED. BARNES' BRIEF HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL AND MODERN PEOPLES, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FOR PRIVATE READING. 12MO. ILLUSTRATED. BARNES' BRIEF GENERAL HISTORY. The Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Peoples, BOUND IN ONE VOLUME. 12MO. ILLUSTRATED. BARNES' POPULAR HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, FOB PRIVATE READING AND FOR REFERENCE IN SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. ROYAL gvo. BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED. THIS work has been prepared with the following design, viz. : to state only those important events in our history which every American citizen should know, and to tell them in such a way as to arouse the pupil's interest and inspire enthu- siasm for the study. In carrying out this idea, the author has sought to avoid all sectional and partisan statements ; to explain, from the standpoint of the Union, those principles which, coming to an issue at different times, have been decided by the progress of events ; and, incidentally, to inspire, by the sweep of the story, a love for our common country, and an intelligent solicitude for her destiny. Experience has taught the value of certain general methods of teaching this study. 1. To divide the history into Epochs, giving each a characteristic name. 2. To precede each Epoch by a map and questions in order to familiarize the pupil with the localities of the events about which he is to read ; and to follow each Epoch with a Chronological Table and a list of Reading References for further study. 3. To furnish copious notes containing collateral facts, minor events, sketches of the lives of presidents and noted men, and, especially, those anecdotes of heroism and devotion that so brighten the record of our national growth. 4. To give each paragraph a distinct title to aid the pupil in learning, and the teacher in hearing, the lesson ; and to arrange these topics in such a way as to form a systematic analysis of the subject. 2098176 2 PREFACE. 5. To make the great battles easy of remembrance by associating with the description of each the pivotal point on which its issue turned. 6. To introduce something of the philosophy of history by stating the plan of each campaign, and the objects sought by, and the results of, important engage- ments, thus leading pupils to appreciate the fact that events hinge upon each other. 7. To stimulate flagging interest, and also induce a more comprehensive study of history, by means of review questions like the Historical Recreations of this series. The constantly-increasing adoption of this book, since its appearance in 1871, has shown the excellence of the plan on which it was prepared. New plates and illustrations being now called for, the author has seized the opportunity to revise the text carefully, and to introduce blackboard analyses, additional chapters on civilization, and fresh material on manners and customs. It is his hope that his fellow teachers will find the book as much more useful as it is attractive. This work is offered to American youth in the confident belief that, !is they sttidy the wonderful history of their native land, they will learn to prize their birthright more highly, and treasure it more carefully. Their patriotism must be kindled when they come to see how slowly, yet how gloriously, this tree of liberty has grown, what storms have wrenched its boughs, what sweat of toil and blood has moistened its roots, what eager eyes have watched every out-springing bud, what brave hearts have defended it, loving it even unto death. A heritage thus sanc- tified by the heroism and devotion of the fathers can not but elicit the choicest care and tenderest love of the sons. J. D. S. ELMIKA, N. Y., Sept., 1885. PAGE INTRODUCTION 9 Remains of Prehistoric Peoples 9 The Mound Builders 10 The Indians and their Characteristics 10 The Coming of the Northmen 15 The Division of American History into Six Great Epochs 16 References for Reading 17 Blackboard Analysis of the Introduction 18 FIRST EPOCH. EARLY DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS 19 The Commercial Problem of the Fifteenth Century 19 Christopher Columbus and his Voyages 20 Naming the New Continent : 24 The Cabots and their Discoveries 25 Some Spanish Explorers 20 Some French Explorers 30 Some English Explorers 34 New Netherland 39 Settlements at the End of the Sixteenth Century 40 Sea-life in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries 41 Table of Contemporary European Sovereigns 4is Chronological Summary'. 4fe References for Reading 43 Blackboard Analysis of the First Epoch 44 SECOND EPOCH. DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLONIES.. 45 Settlement of the Thirteen Colonies. 45 The Four Inter-Colonial Wars ... . . . 77-90 CONTENTS. PAGE Colonial Civilization ... 91 General Condition of the Colonies 91 Manners and Customs , 93 Education 90 Table of Contemporary European Sovereigns 97 Chronological Summary 97 References for Beading 99 Blackboard Analysis of the Second Epoch 100 THIRD EPOCH. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 101 Causes of the Separation from Great Britain , 101 The Seven- Years Struggle for Independence 106-14S Condition of the Country at the Close of the War 142 Adoption of Federal Constitution and Formation of Parties 143 Rural Life One Hundred Years Ago .. 141 Chronological Summary 146 References for Reading 147 Blackboard Analysis of the Third Epoch 148 FOURTH EPOCH. DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES 149 Washington's Administration 149 Adams' Administration 154 Jefferson's Administration 155 Madison's Administration 159 Second War with Great Britain 160 Monroe's Administration 172 John Quincy Adams' Administration 174 Jackson's Administration 175 Van Buren's Administration 178 Harrison and Tyler's Administration 180 Polk's Administration 185 War with Mexico 185 Taylor and Fillmore's Administration 191 Pierce's Administration . . . . ( 194 Buchanan's Administration . s 196 Secession of the South 198 New States 200 Civilization 210 Distinctions of Dress the Five Classes 210 The Laborer 210 The Schools 210 The Middle of the Century 211 Chronological Summary 211 References for Reading 213 Blackboard Analysis of the Fourth Epoch 214 CONTENTS. FIFTH EPOCH. PAGE THE CIVIL WAE 215 Lincoln's Administration 215 The Five- Years Struggle for National Unity 216 "What the War Cost 275 Assassination of the President 275 New States 277 Chronological Summary 277 References for Reading 279 Blackboard Analysis of the Fifth Epoch 280 SIXTH EPOCH. RECONSTRUCTION AND PASSING EVENTS 281 Johnson's Administration 281 Grant's Administration 287 Hayes' Administration 294 Garfield and Arthur's Administration 296 Cleveland's Administration 298 Harrison's Administration 300 New States 301 Progress of Civilization 302 Blackboard Analysis of the Sixth Epoch 312 APPENDIX. Questions for Class Use . 313 Historical Recreations 328 Declaration of Independence 334 Constitution of the United States, with Questions, and Notes 338 Table of States 352 Table of Presidents 354 Index . , . 355 LIST OF MAPS, EARLY VOYAGES AND DISCOVERIES H., IH. DEVELOPMENT OF COLONIES Opposite 45 REVOLUTIONARY WAR THE COLONIES " 101 REVOLUTIONARY WAR CAMPAIGNS NORTH AND SOUTH 120, 121 WAR OF 1812, AND WAR WITH MEXICO " 149 CAMPAIGNS IN WAR OF 1812, AND WAK WITH MEXICO " 160, 161 THE CIVIL WAE " .... 215 CAMPAIGNS OF THE CIVIL WAR " 222, 223 PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN 236 VICINITY OF VICKSBURG 245 VICINITY OF CHATTANOOGA 247 VICINITY OF Q-ETTYSBUEG 252 GRANT'S CAMPAIGN AROUND RICHMOND 261 TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNITED STATES Opposite 281 ILLUSTRATI ON S. FATHER AND SONS FOB LIBERTY. Frontispiece. PREFACE (mustrated Heading) 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Illustrated Heading) 3 INTRODUCTION (Illustrated Head- ing) 9 Relics of Early American Races. 11 Scene in Indian Life 13 Indian Hieroglyphics 14 Landing of Northmen 15 EPOCH I. (Illustrated Heading) 19 Tomb of Columbus 24 Burial of De Soto 28 La Salle at the Mississippi 35 EPOCH II. (Illustrated Heading) ... 45 Smith Trading with Indians 47 The Ruins of Jamestown 52 Puritans Q-oing to Church 54 Canonicus Receiving Powder and Shot 55 Morning Attack by Indians 58 The Charter Oak 63 Dutch Trading at New York. ... 66 Mr. Dustin Defending his Chil- dren f rom the Indians 78 An Incident of Washington 82 Quebec in Early Times 88 A Scold Gagged 92 New England Kitchen Scene... 94 EPOCH m. (Illustrated Heading). . . 101 Retreat from Lexington 107 Prayer before Bunker Hill 109 Capture of Ticonderoga 110 Surrender of Rail... . 117 PAGE Arnold at Saratoga 123 In Camp at Valley Forge 126 Capture of Stony Point 131 Development of the Flag (Col- ored Plate) 138 Capturing a Fort at Yorktown.. 141 EPOCH IV. (Illustrated Heading).. 149 Battle of Tippecanoe 158 Constitution and Guerriere 162 Death of Lawrence 167 Battle of New Orleans 170 View of Salt Lake City 182 Homes of Eminent Americans. 184 Taylor at Buena Vista 186 Washing out Gold 191 San Francisco Bay and City 207 EPOCH V. (Illustrated Heading) 215 Jackson at Bull Run 219 Attack on Fort Donelson 224 Federal Leaders 227 Monitor and Merrimac 232 Confederate Leaders 238 Battle of Missionary Ridge 249 Grant Writing the Telegram . . . 256 Guarding a Train 257 Sheridan at Cedar Creek 264 Sinking the Alabama 268 Sherman's March to the Sea... 271 Death of J. E. B. Stuart 276 EPOCH VI. (Illustrated Heading). . . 281 Landing the Atlantic Cable 285 Ouster's Death 293 Riot at Pittsburgh, Pa 294 Progress of Inventions 304 Progress of Inventions 305 PORTRAITS. PAGE COLUMBUS 20 PENN 71 LA PAYETTE 119 FRANKLIN 127 MARION 134 WASHINGTON, HAMILTON, JEFFERSON. 151 JACKSON 176 HARRISON PAGE TAYLOR 177 CLAY, CALHOCN, WEBSTER 192 LINCOLN 198 DAVIS 199 GRF.ELEY 290 GARFIELD . . 297 CLEVELAND 298 . 301 THE following method of using this work has been successfully employed by many teachers. At the commencement of the study, let each pupil be required to draw an outline map of North America, at least 18 x 24 inches in size. This should contain only physical features, viz., coast-line, mountains, lakes, and rivers. If desired, they may be marked very faintly at first, and shaded and darkened when discovered in the progress of the history. As the pupils advance in the text, let them mark on their maps, day by day, the places discovered, the settlements, battles, political divisions, etc., with their dates. They will thus see the country growing afresh under their hand and eye, and the geography and the history will be indissolubly linked. At the close of the term, their maps will show what they have done, and each name, with its date, will recall the history which clusters around it. Recitations and examinations may bs conducted by having a map drawn upon the blackboard with colored crayons, and requiring the class to fill in the names and dates, describing the historical facts as they proceed. In turn, during review, the pupil should be able, when a date or place is pointed out, to state the event associated with it. It will be noticed that the book is written on an exact plan and method of arrangement. The topics of the epochs, chapters, sections, and paragraphs form a full analysis ; thus, in each Presidential Administration, the order of subjects is uniform, viz. : Domestic Affairs, Foreign Affairs, and Political Parties the sub- sidiary topics being grouped under these heads. The teacher is therefore recom- mended to place on the board the analysis of each Epoch, and, when possible, conduct the recitation from that without the use of the book in the class. Specimen Analyses are given at the close of each Epoch. These are merely suggestions, and should be used to elicit other and more elaborate ones from the 8 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. pupils. In these analyses may also be inserted the titles of additional material gathered by teacher and class. Good analyses thus, incidentally, serve as pigeon- holes for classifying as well as preserving one's knowledge. The Heading References at the end of each Epoch contain a list of books that will be found valuable for additional information. It is not the intention to make the References a mere catalogue of United States Histories and biographies of celebrated Americans, but simply to name a few works to interest a class and furnish matter for collateral reading. Bancroft's and Hildreth's Histories, Irving'n Life of "Washington, and Sparks' American Biographies are supposed to be in every school library. They are, therefore, not referred to in these lists. The Lives of the Presidents, the Histories of the different States, and all works of local value are useful, and should be secured, if possible. The Magazine of American History will be found serviceable for reference on disputed points of Ameiican History and Biography. The recent volumes of Harper's Magazine, and the Century abound in excellent articles on special subjects. The American Cyclo- pedia and Thomas' Dictionary of Biography will afford material for preparing essays. "With a little effoi^a poem, a prose selection, or a composition on some historical topic may be offered by the class each day to enliven the recitation. Formal debates, oral or written, should be held, to stimulate research, upon such subjects as the tariff, civil service reform, treatment of the Indians, etc. For Courses of Reading, and for information concerning the value and char- acter of various historical works, refer to Adams 1 Manual of Historical Literature a most reliable and excellent bibliography. Hall's Methods of Teaching History will also furnish the teacher with suggestive ideas. The Tables of Contemporary European Sovereigns, inserted at the end of the early Epochs, should be used to link American history to that of the old world, in which it had its origin. The Suggestions on page 313, upon the subject of topical recitation, are com- mended by universal experience. At each recitation, let some of the pupils write a few of the paragraphs on their slates, on paper, or on the blackboard ; after- ward, let other pupils criticise the language, spelling, punctuation, use of capitals, etc. Remember, however, that the chief end of class-work is to kindle an interest in history. The reading of a beautiful poem, or the narration of a curious cir- cumstance, a noble sentiment, or a deed of heroism, in some way connected with an event, will arouse attention and fix the fact perfnanently in the mind. For example, the third attack on Charleston (page 132), is a dry, dull statement, but how it brightens when we read the reply of Colonel Moultrie, who was there taken prisoner, to the offer of money and the command of a British regiment in Jamaica, if he would desert the American cause: "Not the fee simple of all Jamaica would induce me to part with my integrity." . The class may care little about the former way of choosing the Vice-President ; but they will be eager to see how Adams, the federalist, and Jefferson, the republican, came to be elected together. The inauguration of Van Buren will take on a new meaning when the pupil is told that Van Buren, with General Jackson at his side, rode to the Capitol in a carriage made of wood from the ship Constitution, and, as they passed, the crowd shared its cheers between " Old Hickory " and " Old Ironsides ". Just so, Stedman's, "Oh, evil the black shroud of night at Chantilly", will stir a class when reading the second Bull Run campaign ; while "Whittier's " Angels of Buena Vista " will temper the patriotic ardor aroused by that bloody victory. _ Who first -a^^T i ^Ulini""i' l .\INFy3UIJC- i iMUN|^'- EJR*r^' 3 ^ : ?MiMdB F settled Amer- ica ? This cori- tinent was probably first peopled from Asia, the birthplace of man. In what way it happened, we do not know. Chinese vessels, coasting along the shore according to the custom of early voyagers, may have been driven by storms to cross the Pacific Ocean, while the crews were thankful to escape a watery grave by settling an unknown coun- try ; or, parties wandering across Bering Strait in search of adventure, and finding on this side a pleasant land, may have resolved to make it their home. American Antiquities. In various parts of the con- tinent, remains are found of the people who occupied this country in prehistoric times. Through the Mississippi valley, from the Lakes to the Gulf, extends a succession of defensive earth-works.* The largest forest trees are * It is a singular fact that banks of earth grassed over are more enduring than any other work of man. The grassy mounds near Nineveh and Babylon have remained unchanged for centuries. Meantime, massive buildings of stone have been erected, have served long generations, and have crumbled to ruin. 10 INTRODUCTION. often found growing upon them. The Indians have no tradition as to the origin of these structures. They gen- erally crown steep hills, and consist of embankments, ditches, etc., indicating considerable acquaintance with military science. At Newark, Ohio, a- fortification exists which covers an area more than two miles square, and has over two miles of embankment from two to twenty feet high. Mounds, seemingly constructed as great altars for religious purposes or as monuments, are also numerous. One, opposite St. Louis, covers eight acres of ground, and is ninety feet high. There are said to be 10,000 of these mounds in Ohio alone. A peculiar kind of earth-work has the outline of gi- gantic men or animals. An embankment in Ada ins County, Ohio, represents very accurately a serpent 1,000 feet long. Its body winds with graceful curves, and in its wide-extended jaws lies a figure which the animal seems about to swallow. In Mexico and IN-ru, still more wonderful remains have been discovered. They consist not only of defensive works, altars, and monuments, but also of idols, temples, aqueducts, and paved roads. The Mound Builders is the name given to the people who erected the mounds of North America. The old pits where the Mound Builders dug copper are still found in the mining region of Lake Superior. They seem, also, to have occupied Central America, and there to have developed a high civilization. They built cities, wove cotton, worked in gold, silver, and copper, labored in the fields, and had regular governments. The Indians who were found on this continent east of the Mississippi, by the first European settlers, did not exceed 200,000 in number. In Mexico, Peru, and the INTRODUCTION. 11 Indies, however, there was an immense population. The Indians were the successors of the Mound Builders and 1. CUFF-mVELLEi:s <>K NEW MEXiro. 2. WJULPTUUKD IEAI> FROM YUCATAiT. 3. INDIAN VASE. 4. INCENSE BURNER. 5, B. STONE lIATrm'T \NI) VASE FROM MEXICO. 7. FORTIFIED ONONDAGA VILLAfiE. s. MnINDS AT Sl'KING CHEEK, TENNESSEE. 9. TEMPLE IN YUCATAN. were by far their inferiors in civilization.* We know not why the ancient race left, nor whence the Indians came. * This view was generally accepted until recently. Many now hold that all the aboriginal inhabitants of this country were of one race; and that the agriculture, pottery, and other ;n-ts ci rho Mound Builders, as well as of the Indians, came from the superior civili/./it j. , < >i < 'entral America and Mexico, illustrating what is termed '- the northern drift i civilization " on this continent. 12 INTRODUCTION. It is supposed that the former were driven southward by the savage tribes from the north. Indian Characteristics.* Arts and Inventions. The Indian has been well termed the "Red Man of the For- est ". He built no cities, no ships, no churches, no school- houses. He constructed only temporary bark wigwams and canoes. He made neither roads nor bridges, but followed foot-paths through the forest, and swam the streams. His highest art was expended in a simple bow and arrow. Progress and Education. He made no advancement, but each son emulated the prowess of his father in the hunt and the fight. The hunting-ground and the battle- field embraced every thing of real honor or value. So the son was educated to throw the tomahawk, shoot the arrow, and catch fish with the spear. He knew nothing of books, paper, writing, or history. Domestic Life. The Indian had neither cow, nor beast of burden. He regarded all labor as degrading, and fit only for women. His squaw, therefore, built his wig- wam, cut his wood, and carried his burdens when he journeyed. While he hunted or fished, she cleared the land for his corn by burning down the trees, scratched the * The chief exceptions to this description of the Indians within the present limits of the United States were the Mobilians, who lived along the South Atlantic and tho G-ulf ; the Iroyuois Confederacy, or the Five Nations of Central New York ; and the Pueblos or Village Indians of New Mexico and Arizona. (1.) The Mobttian* worshiped the sun ; built timber houses, sometimes clustered in towns and fortified with a ditch and wall ; made pottery, and cultivated corn, hemp, and flax. (2.) The Iroqumx Confederacy was styled the " Long House ", because these Indians dwelt in wigwams often 250 feet in length and 30 feet wide, and each holding 20 or 30 families. This league formed, in fact, a republic, with a chief magistrate, a cabinet, and a congress of the sachems of the different tribes. Pierce, blood-thirsty, and fond of conquest, the Iroquois would probably have subdued the continent if the white man had not. come. Early travelers called them the Romans of tho new world. (3.) The Pueblo Indians lived in huge stone or adobe buildings, a single one often containing several thousand people. They tilled the land, and dressed in cloth of sMieir own manufacture I INTRODUCTION. 13 ground with a crooked stick or dug it with a clam-shell, and dressed skins for his clothing. She cooked his food by dropping hot stones into a tight willow basket containing materials for soup. The leavings of her lord's feast sufficed for her, and the coldest place in the wigwam was her seat. SCENE IN INDIAN LIFE. Disposition,. la war, the Indian was brave and alert, but cruel and revengeful, preferring treachery and cun- ning to open battle. At home, he was lazy, improvident, and an inveterate gambler. He delighted in finery and trinkets, and decked his unclean person with paint and feathers. His grave and haughty demeanor repelled the stranger ; but he was grateful for favors, and his wigwam always stood hospitably open to the poorest and meanest of his tribe. Endurance. He could endure great fatigue, and in 14 INTRODUCTION. his expeditions often lay without shelter in the severest weather. It was his glory to bear the most horrible tort- ures without a sign of suffering. Religion. If he had any ideas of a Supreme Being, they were jfague and degraded. His dream of a Heaven was of happy hunting-grounds or of gay feasts, where his dog should join in the dance. He worshiped no idols, but peopled all nature with spirits, which dwelt not only in birds, beasts, and reptiles, but also in lakes, rivers, and SPECIMEN OF INDIAN HIEROGLYPHICS.* water-falls. As he believed that these had power to help or harm men, he lived in constant fear of offending them. He apologized, therefore, to the animals he killed, Mini made solemn promises to fishes that their bones should be respected. He placed great stress on dreams, and his camp swarmed with sorcerers and fortune-tellers. The Indian of the Present. Such was the Indian two hundred years ago, and such he is to-day. He opposes * This cut represents a species of picture-writing occasionally used by the Indians. Some Indian guides wished to inform their comrades that a company of fourteen whites and two Indians had spent the night at that point. Nos. 9, 10 indicate the white soldiers and their arms ; No. 1 is the captain, with a sword ; No. 2 the secre- INTRODUCTION. 15 the encroachments of the settler, and the building of railroads. But he can not stop the tide of immigration. Unless he can be induced to give up his roving habits and cultivate the soil, he is doomed to destruction. It is to be earnestly hoped that the red man may yet be Christianized, and taught the arts of industry and peace v The Northmen (inhabitants of Norway and Sweden) claim to have been the discoverers of America. Accord- ing to their traditions, this continent was first seen about the year 1000, by one Biorne (be ernO, who had been tary, with the book ; No. 3 the geologist, with a hammer ; Nos. 4, 5, 6 are attend- ants; Nos. 7, 8 are the guides, without hats; Nos. 11, 12 show what they ate in camp ; Nos. 13, 14. 15 indicate how many fires they made. 16 INTRODUCTION. driven to sea by a tempest. Afterward, other adventurers made successful voyages, established settlements, and bar- tered with the natives. Snor'ri, son of one of these settlers, is said to have been the first child born of European parents upon our shore.* The Northmen claim to have explored the coast as far south as Florida. How much credit is to be given to these traditions is uncertain. Many his- torians reject them, while others still think there are traces of the Northmen remaining, such as the old tower at Newport, R. I., and the singular inscriptions on tho rock at Dighton, Mass. Admitting, however, the claims of the Northmen, the fact is barren of all results. No per- manent settlements were made, the route hither was lost and even the existence of the continent was forgotten. The true history of this country begins with its dis- covery by Columbus in 1492. It naturally divides itself into six great epochs. First Epoch. Early Discoveries and Settlements. This epoch extends from the discovery of America in 1492, to the settlement at Jamestown, Va., in 1607. Dur- ing this period, various European nations were exploring the continent and making widely scattered settlements. Second Epoch. Development of the Colonies. This epoch extends from the settlement at Jamestown, Va., in 1607, to the breaking out of the Revolutionary War in 1775. During this period, the scattered settlements grew into thirteen nourishing colonies, subject to Great Britain. Third Epoch. Revolutionary War. This epoch ex- tends from the breaking out of the Revolutionary War * Snorri was the founder of an illustrious family. One of his descendants is said to have been Albert Thorwaldsen, the great Danish sculptor of the present century. The beautiful photographs of Thor'wald sen's " Day ", " Night ", and " The Seasons ", which hang in so many American parlors, thus acquire a new interest by being linked with the pioneer boy born on New England shores BO many centuries ago. INTRODUCTION. 17 in 1775, to the adoption of the Constitution in 1787. During this period, the colonies threw off the govern- ment of England and established their independence. Fourth Epoch. Development of the States. This epoch extends from the adoption of the Constitution in 1787, to the breaking out of the Civil War in 1861. During this period, the States increased in number from thirteen to thirty-four, and grew in population and wealth until the United States became the most prosperous nation in the world. Fifth Epoch. The Civil War. This epoch extends from the breaking out of the Civil War in 1861, to the surrender of Lee's army in 1865. During this period, a gigantic strife was carried on between the Northern and the Southern States, the former struggling for the per- petuation of the Union, and the latter for its division. Sixth Epoch. Reconstruction and Passing Events. This epoch extends from the close of the Civil War in 1865, to the present time. During this period, the seceding States have been restored to their rights in the Union, peace has been fully established, and many inter- esting events have occurred* ?6 REFERENCES FOR READING. BeamlsK's Discovery of America by the Northmen. Bradford's American Antiquities. Baldwin's Ancient America. Squier and Davi*' American Antiquities, and Discoveries in the West. Binding's History of Scandinavia. Catlings North American Indians. Thatcher's In- dian Biography. Stone's Life and Times of fled Jacket, and Life of Brandt. Cooper's Leather Stocking Tales. Morgan's League of the Iroquois. Schoolcraft's Memoirs of Residence Among the Indians, and other works by the same author. Foster's Prehistoric Races of the United States of America. Bancroft's Native Races. Matthew's Behemoth, a Legend of the Mound Builders (Fiction). Lowell's Chippewa Legend (Poetry). Whittier's Bridal of Pennacook (Poetry). Jones' 1 Mound Builders of Tennessee. Goodrich's So-catted Columbus. Ancient Monuments in America, Harper's Magazine, vol. 21 ; The First Americans, The Pueblos, and Visit of the Wklngs, vol. 65 ; also many excellent articles on American History, vols. 66 and 67. The Old Mill at Newport, Scribner's Monthly, vol. \l.Tl>t Beginning of a Nation, Century, vol. 25. 18 BARNES' BRIEF HISTORY. BLACKBOARD ANALYSIS. 1. "Who first settled America. 2. American Antiquities. 3. The Mound Builders. 4. The Indians. H b P < 1 H 6. The Northmen. 6. Natural Divisions of United States History. 1. Mounds. 2. Earthworks. 3. Peruvian and Mexican Ruins. 1. Their Number. 2. Indian Characteristics. 3. The Indians of To-day. 1. Who were they ? 2. Story of Biorni. 3. Who was Snorri ? 4 Traces of Northmen. 6. The Results. 1. First Epoch. 2. Second Epoch. 3. Third Epoch. 4. Fourth Epoch. 5. Fifth Epoch. 6. Sixth Epoch. a. Arts and Inven- tions. b. Progress and Edu- cation. c. Domestic Life. d. Disposition. e. Endurance, j. Religion. r L t- Map to Illustrate EARLY VOYAGES AND DISCOVERII NORTH AMERICA Scale of Miles O UT H V M K 11 I C A Copyright, 1886, EARllY DISCOVERIES AND StTTLDMENTS. ;ographical Knowledge in the Fifteenth Century. The people of Europe had then never heard of America. About that time, a great desire for geo- graphical knowledge was awak- ened. The compass and the astro- labe an instrument for reckoning latitude had given a new impulse to navi- gation. Voyagers were no longer compelled to creep along the shore, but began to strike out boldly into the open sea. The art of printing had just come into use, and books of travel were eagerly read. Marco Polo y a mr ions on tl><- G <'offi-nf>liif of the First Epoch. In the accompanying map there are no divisions of the continent, as none existed at that time. When they are called for in the following questions, the object is to test the pupil's knowledge. Locate the West Indies. San Salvador, [now called G/uanahani (gwah nah hah ne), though many assert a neighboring island to be the true San Salvador], Cuba. Hispaniola or Hayti (ha ti). Cape Breton. Roanoke Island. Manhattan Island. Describe the Orinoco River. Mississippi River. St. Lawrence River. James River. Ohio River. Colorado River. Columbia River. Where is Labrador ? Central America f Florida 1 Mexico ? New Mexico ? Cali- fornia? Oregon? Peru? Locate St. Augustine. Santa Fe (sahn tah fa). New York. Montreal. Quebec. Albany. Jamestown. Port Royal. Isthmus of Darien. Cape Henry. Cape Charles. Cape Cod. Chesapeake Bay. Hudson Bay. 20 EPOCH I. [1474. and other adventurers returning from the East told won- derful stories of the wealth of Asiatic cities. Genoa, Florence, and Venice, commanding the commerce of the Mediterranean, had become enriched by trade with the East. The costly shawls, spices, and silks of Persia and India were borne by caravans to the Red Sea, thence on camels across the desert to the Nile, and lastly by ship over the Mediterranean to Europe. The great problem of the age was how to reach the East Indies by sea, and thus give a cheaper route to these rich products. Columbus * conceived that by sailing west he could reach the East Indies. He believed the earth to be round, which was then a novel idea. He, however, thought it much smaller than it really is, and that Asia extends much far- ther round the world to the east than it does. Hence, he argued that by going a few COLUMBUS. hundred leagues west, he would * Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy, about 1435. He was trained for the sea from his childhood. Being the eldest of four children, and his father a poor wool-comber, much care devolved upon him. It is said that at thirty his hair w;is white from trouble and anxiety.- His kind and loving disposition is proved by the fact that in his poorest days he saved part of his pittance to educate his younjj brothers and support his aged father. Columbus was determined, shrewd, and intensely religious. He believed himself to be divinely called to " carry the true faith into the uttermost parts of the earth ". Inspired by this thought, no discouragement or contumely could drive him to de- spair. It was eighteen years from the conception to the accomplishment of his plan. During all this time his life was a marvel of patience, and of brave devotion to his one purpose. His sorrows were many ; his triumph was brief. Evil men maligned him to Ferdinand and Isabella. Disregarding their promise that he should be gov- ernor-general over all the lands he might discover, the king and queen sent out an- 1483.] COLUMBUS. 21 touch the coast of Eastern Asia.* He was determined to try this new route, but was too poor to pay for the neces- sary ships, men, and provisions. Columbus at the Court of Portugal. He accordingly laid his plan before King John of Portugal, who, being pleased with the idea, referred it to the geographers of his court. They pronounced it a visionary scheme. With a lurking feeling, however, that there might be truth in ilJ;he king had the meanness to dispatch a vessel secretly to le^t the matter. The pilot had the charts of Columbus, but lacked his courage. After sailing westward from Cape Verde islands for a few days, and seeing nothing but a wide waste of wildly tossing waves, he returned, ridiculing the idea. 'Columbus at the Court of Spain. Columbus, disheart- ened by this treachery, betook himself to Spain. During seven long years, he importuned King Ferdinand for a reply. All this while, he was regarded as a visionary fellow, and when he passed along the streets, even the children pointed to their foreheads and smiled. At last, the learned council declared the plan too foolish for further attention.! Turn- ing away sadly, Columbus determined to go to France. other governor, and "by his order Columbus was returned home in chains 1 No wonder that the whole nation was shocked at such an indignity to such a man. It is sad to know that although Ferdinand and Isabella endeavored to soothe his wounded spirit by many attentions, they never restored to him his lawful rights. From fluent promises they passed at last to total neglect, and Columbus died a grieved and disappointed old man. At his request, his chains were buried with him, a touching memorial of Spanish ingratitude. * Several facts served to strengthen the faith of Columbus in the correctness of his theory. The Azores and the Madeira, Canary, and Cape Verde islands being the most westerly lands then known, were the outposts of geographical knowledge. There had been washed on their shores by westerly winds, pieces of wood curiously carved, trees, and seeds of unknown species, and especially the bodies of two men of strange color and visage. t " It is absurd", said those wise men. " Who is so foolish as to believe that there are people on the other side of the world, walking with their heels upVard, and their heads hanging down? And then, how can a ship get there? The torrid zone, through which they must pass, is a region of fire, where the very waves boil. And 22 EPOCH I. [1492. Columbus Successful. His friends at the Spanish court, at this juncture, laid the matter before Queen Isabella, and she was finally won to his cause. The king remained indifferent and pleaded the want of funds. The queen in her earnestness exclaimed : " I pledge my jewels to raise the money." But her sacrifice was not required. St. Angel, treasurer of Aragon, advanced most of the money, and the friends of Columbus the remainder. Columbus had succeeded at last, after eighteen years of waiting. Columbus' Equipment. Though armed with the king's authority, Columbus obtained vessels and sailors with the greatest difficulty. The boldest seamen shrunk from such a desperate undertaking. At last, three small vessels were manned ; the Pinta (pi'n'ta), Santa Maria (ma r'i'a), and Nina (run' ya). They sailed from Palos, Spain, Aug. 3, 1492. ^fncidents of the Voyage. When the ships struck out boldly westward on the untried sea, and the sailors saw the last trace of land fade from their sight, many, even of the bravest, burst into tears. As they proceeded, their hearts were wrung by superstitious fears. To their dismay, the com- pass no longer pointed directly north, and they believed that they were coming into a region where the very laws of nature were changed. They came into the track of the trade-wind, which wafted them steadily westward. This, they were sure, was carrying them to destruction, for how could they ever re- turn against it ? Signs of land, such as flocks of birds and fresh, green plants, were often seen, and the clouds near the horizon assumed the look of land, but they disappeared, and only the broad ocean spread out before them as they advanced. The sailors, so often deceived, lost heart, and in- even if a ship could perchance get around there safely, how could it ever get back f Can a ship sail up hill?" All of which sounds very strange to us now, when hun- dreds of travelers make every year the entire circuit of the globe. 1492.] COLUMBUS. 23 pisted upon returning home. Columbus, with wonderful tact and patience, explained all these appearances. But the more he argued, the louder became their murmurs. At last, they secretly determined to throw him overboard. Although he knew their feelings, he did not waver, but declared that he would proceed till the enterprise was accomplished. Soon, signs of land silenced their murmurs. A staff artifi- cially carved, and a branch of thorn with berries floated near. All was now eager expectation. In the evening, Columbus beheld a, light rising and falling in the distance, as of a torch borne by one walking. Later at night, the joyful cry of " Land ! " rang out from the Pinta. In the morning, the shore, green with tropical verdure, lay smiling before them. Tfc^ Landing* Columbus, dressed in a splendid military suit of scarlet embroidered with gold, and followed by a reti- nue of h is officers and men bearing banners, stepped upon the new world, Friday, Oct. 12, 1492. He threw himself upon his knees, kissed the earth, and with tears of joy gave thanks to God. He then formally planted the cross and took posses- sion of the country in the name of Ferdinand and Isabella. The wondering natives, who crowded the shore, gazed on the spectacle with awe. They supposed the ships to be huge white-winged birds, and the Spaniards to have come from heaven. How sadly and how soon these simple people were undeceived ! Further Discoveries. Columbus found the land to be an island, which he named St. Salvador. He supposed that he had reached the islands lying off the eastern coast of India, and he therefore called the dark-hued natives, Indians. Careful inquiries were also made concerning the rich prod- ucts of the East, such as spices, precious stones, and espe- cially gold. But the simple people had only a few golden ornaments. These they readily bartered for hawks' bells. 24 EPOCH I. [1493. Cuba, Hayti, and other islands were discovered and visited in the vain hope of securing Oriental treasures. Columbus even sent a deputation into the interior of Cuba, to a famous chief, supposing him to be the great king of Tartary ! At last, urged by his crew, he relinquished the search and turned his vessels homeward. His Reception, on his return, was flattering in the ex- treme. The whole nation took a holiday. His appearance was hailed with shouts and the ringing of bells. The king and queen were dazzled by their new and sudden acquisi- tion. As Columbus told them of the beautiful land he had discovered, its brilliant birds, its tropical forests, its delightful climate, and above all, its natives waiting to be converted to the Christian faith, they sunk upon their knees, and gave God thanks for such a signal triumph. Subsequent Voyages. Colum- bus afterward made three voy- ages. In 1498, he discovered the mainland, near the Orinoco River. He never, however, lost the delusion that it was the eastern coast of Asia, and died ignorant of the grandeur of his discovery. How the Continent was named. Americus Vesputius (6 mSr'i -eus v6s p\i'shl fts), a friend of Columbus, accompa- nied a subsequent expedition to the new world. A German named Waldsee-Muller published * The body of Columbus was buried at Valladolid. It was thence transported, in 1513, to the Carthusian Monastery of Seville, where a monument was erected by Fer- dinand bearing the famous inscription" To Castile and IJeon, Colon gave a new world." In 1536, his body was removed to the city of Saint Domingo, Hayti. But, in TOMB OF COLUMBUS AT HAVANA.* 1499.] THE CABOTS. 25 a spirited account of this mariner's adventures, and sug- gested that the country should "be called America. This work, being the first description of the new world, was very popular, and the name was soon adopted by geographers. Y John Cab' ot, a navigator of Bristol, England, by studying his charts and globes, decided that since the degrees of longi- tude diminish in length as they approach the pole, the short- est route to India must be by sailing north-west instead of west, as Columbus had done. He easily obtained authority from King Henry VII., to make the attempt. After a pros- perous voyage, he came in sight of the sterile region of Lab- rador,* and sailed along the coast for many leagues. This was in 1497, FOURTEEN MONTHS BEFORE COLUMBUS DISCOVERED TIIK CONTINENT. Cabot supposed that he had reached the territory of the " Great Cham ", king of Tartary. Neverthe- less, he landed, planted a banner, and took possession in. the name of the king of England. On his return home, he was received with much honor, was dressed in silk, and styled - the "Great Admiral". Sebastian Cabot continued his father's discoveries^ During the same year (p. 24) in which Columbus reached the shore of South America, and Vasco da Gama found the sea-route to India (p. 41), Sebastian, a youth of twenty- one, discovered Newfoundland and coasted as far south as 1796, the remains, as was supposed, were taken to Havana with imposing ceremo- nies. The tomb in. the Cathedral is inscribed in Spanish : " O, rest thou, image of the great Colon, Thousand centuries remain, guarded in the urn, And in the remembrance of our nation." In 1877, however, while excavating near the Cathedral in Saint Domingo, the vault was opened and a leaden coffin found containing human bones, and inscribed in Spanish " Illustrious and renowned man, Christopher Columbus ". It is therefore thought that the body carried to Havana was not that of the great admiral. * Very little is definitely known of John Cabot, and even the time and place of his birth and death are matters of conjecture. Sebastian went with his father on the first voyage, and some give him the credit of all that is attributed above to John Cabot. 26 EPOCH I. [1498. Chesapeake Bay. As he found neither the way to India, nor gold, precious stones, and spices, his expedition was consid- ered a failure. Yet, by his discoveries, the English acquired a title to a vast territory in the new world. Though he gave to England a continent, no one knows his burial-place. We shall now follow the principal explorations made within the limits of the future United States, by the SPANISH, FRENCH, ENGLISH, and DUTCH. The Spanish ex- plored mainly the southern portion of North Amer^36, ; the French, the northern ; and the English, the middle portion along the coast. Af > SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. Feeling in Spain. America, at this time, wa.s to the Spaniard a land of vague, but magnificent promise, where the simple natives wore unconsciously the costliest gems, and the sands of the rivers sparkled with gold. Every returning ship brought fresh news to quicken the pulse of Spanish enthu- siasm. Now, Cortez had taken Mexico, and reveled in the wealth of the Montezumas; now,Pizarro had conquered Peru, and captured the riches of the Incas ; now, Magellan, sailing through the strait which bears his name, had crossed tho Pacific, and his vessel returning home by the Cape of Good Hope, had circumnavigated the globe. Men of the highest rank and culture, warriors, adventurers, all flocked to the new world. Soon, Cuba, Hispaniola, Porto Rico, and Ja- maica were settled, and ruled by Spanish governors. Among the Spanish explorers of the sixteenth century we notice the following : Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da la on') was a gallant soldier, but an old man, and in disgrace. He coveted the glory of conquest to restore his tarnished reputation, and, besides, he 1512.] SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. 27 had heard of a magical fountain in this fairy land, where one might bathe and be young again. Accordingly, he equipped an expedition, and sailed in search of this fabled treasure. On Easter Sunday (Pascua Florida, in Spanish), 1512,* he came in sight of a land gay with spring flowers. In honor of the day, he called it Florida. He sailed along the coast, and landed here and there, but returned home at last, an old man still, having found neither youth nor glory. Bal bo a crossed the Isthmus of Darien the next year, and from the summit of the Andes beheld a wide expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Wading into its waters with his naked sword in one hand, and the banner of Castile in the other, he sol- emnly declared that the ocean, and all the shores which it might touch, belonged to the crown of Spain forever. De Narvaez (nar va'Sth) received a grant of Florida, and ( 1 5 2 8 ) with 300 men attempted its conquest. Striking into the interior, they wandered about, lured on by the hope of finding gold. Wading through swamps, crossing deep rivers by swimming and by rafts, fighting the lurking Indians who incessantly harassed their path, and nearly perishing with hunger, they reached at last the Gulf of Mexico. Hastily constructing some crazy boats, they put to sea. After six weeks of peril and suffering, they were shipwrecked, and De Narvaez was lost. Eight years afterward, four per- sons the only survivors of this ill-fated expedition reached the Spanish settlements on the Pacific coast. ^ Ferdinand de Soto, undismayed by these failures, under- took anew the conquest of Florida. He set out with 600 choice men, amid the fluttering of banners, the flourish of * Sight years afterward, De Ayllon (da lie yon') made a kidnapping expedition to what is now South Carolina. Desiring to obtain laborers for the minea and planta- tions in Hayti, he invited some of the natives on board his vessels, and, when they were all below, suddenly closed the hatches and set sail. The speculation did not, how- ever, turn out profitably. One vessel sunk with all on board, and many of his cap- 28 EPOCH I. [1580. trumpets, and the gleaming of helmet and lance. For month after month, this procession of cavaliers, priests, soldiers, and Indian captives strolled through the wilderness, wherever they thought gold might be found. They traversed what is now Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. In the third year BURIAL OF DE SOTO. of their wanderings (1541), they emerged upon the bank of the Mississippi. After another year of fruitless explora- tions, De Soto died. At the dead of night, his followers sunk his body in the rjver, and the sullen waters buried his hopes and his ambition. "He had grossed a large part of the continent," says Bancroft, "and found nothing so re- markable as his burial-place." De Soto had been the soul of the company. When he died, the other adventurers were tives, preferring starvation to slavery, died on the voyage. History tells us that in 1525, when De Ayllon went back with the intention of settling the country, the Indians practiced upon him the lesson of cruelty he had taught them. IT is m.-n were lured into the interior. Their entertainers, falling upon them at night, slew the larger part, and De .Vyllou was only too ghul to i s.-apc with his life. 1565.] SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. 29 anxious only to get home in safety. They constructed boats and descended the river, little over half of this gallant array finally reaching the settlements in Mexico. Menendez (ma ngn' dth), wiser than his predecessors, on landing (1565), forthwith laid the foundations of a colony. In honor of the day, he named it St. Augustine. THIS is THE OLDEST TOWN IN THE UNITED STATES.* Explorations on the Pacific. California, in the six- teenth century, was a general name applied to all the region north-west of Mexico. It is said to have originated in an old Spanish romance very popular in the time of Cortez, in. which appeared a queen whose magnificent country bore this name. The Mexicans told the Spaniards that most of their gold and precious stones came from a country far to tho north-west. Cortez, therefore, turned his attention in that direction and sent out several expeditions to explore the Californias. All these adventurers returned empty- handed from the very region where, three centuries after- ward, the world was startled by the finding of an El Do ra'do such as would have satisfied the wildest dreams of Oortey. and his credulous followers. Cabrillo \\iSL breJ'yo) made the first voyage along what is now the California coast (1 54 2 ); he died in San Diego harbor, but his pilot went north past the present limits of Oregon. New Mexico was explored and named by Espejo (s pa' ho) who (1582) founded Santa Fe, whioii is the second oldest town in the United States. This was seventeen years after the settlement of St. Augustine. Extent of the Spanish Possessions.! Spain, at the close of the sixteenth century, held possession not only of the * Many Spanish remains still exist. Among these is Port Marion, once San Marco, which was founded in 1565 and finished in 1755. It is built of coquina (ko ke'na) a curious stone composed of small shells. t The conquests of the new world enriched Spain, which became the wealthiest 80 EPOCH I. [1600. West Indies, but of Yucatan, Mexico, and Florida.* The Spanish explorers had traversed a large portion of the present Southern States, and of the Pacific coast. All this vast territory they claimed by the rights of discovery and pos- session. FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. The French were eager to share in the profits which Spain was acquiring in the new world. Within seven years after the discovery of the continent, the fisheries of Newfound- land were frequented by their mariners.! Verrazani (za'nl), a Florentine, was the first navi- gator sent by the French king to find the new way to the Indies. Sailing westward from Madeira (1 524), he reached land near the present harbor of Wilmington. He supposed this had never been seen by Europeans, although we know that Cabot had discovered it nearly thirty years before. He coasted along the shores of Carolina and New Jersey, entered the harbors of New York and Newport, and returned with a glowing description of the lands he had found. He named the country New France. Cartier (kar tya') ascended the River St. Lawrence \ (1 535) to the Indian village of Hochelaga (ho she la'ga), the present site of Montreal. The town was pleasantly situated and most powerful country in Europe. This made other nations all the more anxious to find the western passage to India. The routes by the Cape of Good Hope and by the Strait of Magellan were long and dangerous. To discover the shorter north- western route now became the great wish of all maritime nations, and has been anxiously sought down to the present time. * A writer of that time locates Quebec in Florida ; indeed, the Spaniards applied the name, Florida, to all North America, as far as Canada and Newfoundland. t Oape Breton (brit'un) was named by the fishermen in remembrance of their home in Brittany, France. t The name, St. Lawrence, was that of the day on which Cartier entered the gulf. 1535.] FKENCH EXPLORATIONS. 31 at the foot of a lofty hill, which Carticr climbed. Stirred by the magnificent prospect, ho named it Mont Real v mong ra SI'), Regal Mountain. John Ribaut*(re bo') led the first expedition (15 6 2) under the auspices of Coligny (ko len ye' ). f The company landed at Port Royal, S. 0. So captivated were they, that when volun- teers wore called for to hold the country for France, so many came forward " with such a good will and joly corage ", wrote Ribaut, "as wo had much to do to stay their importunitie ". They erected a fort, which they named Carolina in honor of Charles IX., King of France. The fleet departed, arid this little band of thirty were left alone on the continent.. From the North Pole to Mexico, they were the only civilized men. Food became scarce. They tired of the eternal solitude of the wilderness, and finally built a rude ship, and put to sea. Here a storm shattered 11 10 i r vessel. Famine overtook them, and, in their extremity, they killed and ate one of their number. A vessel at last hove in sight, and took them on board, only to carry them captives to England.^ Thus per- ished the colony, but the name still survives. Laudonniere (16 do'ne er), two years after, built a fort, also called Carolina, on the St. John's River. Soon the colonists * Jean Ribaut, as his name is given in Coligny's MS. and in his own journal. t Coligny was an admiral of France, and a leader of the Huguenots (hu' go noz), as the Protestants were then called. He had conceived a plan for founding an empire in America. This would furnish an asylum for his Huguenot friends, and at the same time advance the glory of the French. Thus religion and patriotism combined to induce him to send out colonists to the new world. $ The most feeble were landed in France. It is said that Queen Elizabeth, while conversing with those sent to England, first thought of colonizing the new world. The history of this colony records an amusing story concerning the long life of the natives. A party visited a chief in the midst of the wilderness, who gravely assured them that he was the father of five generations, and had lived 250 years. Opposite him, in the same hut, sat his father, a mere skeleton, whose " age was so great that the good man had lost his sight, and could speak one onely word but with exceeding great paine ". The credulous Frenchmen gazed with awe on this wonder- ful pair, and congratulated themselves on having come to such a land, where cer- tainly there would be no need of Ponce de Leon's fabled fountain. 32 EPOCH I. [1564. were reduced, to the verge of starvation.* They were on the point of leaving, when they were reinforced by Ribaut. The French now seemed fairly fixed on the coast of Florida. The Spaniards, however, claimed the country. Menendez, about this time, had made a settlement in St. Augustine. Leading an expedition northward through the wilderness, in the midst of a fearful tempest, he attacked Fort Carolina and massacred almost the entire population. Champlain (sham plan'), at the beginning of the seven- teenth century, crossed the Atlantic in two pigmy barks - one of twelve, the other of fifteen tons and ascended the St. Lawrence on an exploring tour. At Hochelaga all was changed. The Indian town had vanished, and not a trace remained of the savage population which Cartier saw 1 hciv seventy years before.f Champlain was captivated by the charms of the new world, and longed to plant a French empire and the Catholic faith amid its savage wilds. De Monts (m5ng) received a grant of all the territory be- tween the fortieth and forty-sixth parallels of latitude. J Th is tract was termed A ca'di a, a name afterward confined to New Brunswick and the adjacent islands, and now to Nova Scotia. With Champlain, he founded Port Royal, N. S., in 1605. THIS WAS THE FIRST PERMANENT FRENCH SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA. It was three years before a cabin was built in Canada, and two before the James River was discovered. Champlain returned in 1608, and established a trading tan >rc * Their sufferings were horrible. Weak and emaciated, they fed themselves with roots, sorrel, pounded fish-bones, and even roasted snakes. "Of centimes," says Laudonniere, " our poor soldiers were constrained to give away the very shirts from their backs to get one fish. If at any time they shewed unto the savages the exces- sive price which they tooke, these villaines would answer them roughly : ' If thou make so great account of thy merchandise, eat it, and we will eat our fish ' ; then fell they out a laughing, and mocked us with open throat." t This fact illustrates the frequent and rapid changes which took place among the aboriginal tribes. t Between the sites of Philadelphia and Montreal. 1608.] FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. 33 post at Quebec. THIS WAS THE FIRST PERMANENT FRENCH SETTLEMENT IN CANADA. The next summer, in his eager desire to explore the country, he joined a war party of the Hurons against the Iroquois, or Five Nations of Central New York.* On this journey he discovered the beautiful lake that bears his name. Amid discouragements which would have overwhelmed a less determined spirit, Champlain firmly established the authority of France on the banks of the St. Lawrence. " The Father of New France ", as he has been termed, reposes in the soil he won to civilization. The Jesuit Missionaries. The explorers of the Missis- sippi valley were mostly Jesuit priests. The French names \vh i< ',h they gave, still linger throughout that region. Their hope was to convert the Indians to the Christian faith. They pushed their way through the forest with unflagging energy. They crept along the northern shore of Lake Ontario. They traversed the Great Lakes. In 1668, they founded the mis- sion of St. Mary, the oldest European settlement in Michigan. Many of them were murdered by the savages ; some were scalped ; some were burned in rosin-fire ; some scalded with boiling water. Yet as soon as one fell out of the ranks, an- other sprung forward to fill the post. "We shall name but two of these patient, indefatigable pioneers of New France. Father Marquette (mar kef), hearing from some wander- ing Indians of a great river which they termed the " Father of Waters", determined to visit it. He floated in a birch- bark canoe down the "Wisconsin to the Mississippi (1673), and thence to the mouth of the Arkansas (ar'kan saw).f * Th.e interference of Champlain with, the Indians secured the inveterate hostility of the Iroquois. Not long after, they seized the missionaries who came among them, tortured and put them to death. This cut off any further explorations toward the south. The French, therefore, turned their attention toward the west. The Iro- quois afterward made an alliance with the English (see p. 77). t Soon after, while on another expedition, he went ashore for the purpose of quiet 34 EPOCH I. [1628. La Salle (sal) was educated as a Jesuit, but had estab- lished a trading-post at the outlet of Lake Ontario. Ho undertook various expeditions full of romantic adventure. Inflamed with a desire to find the mouth of the Mississippi, he made his way (1 6 8 2) to the Gulf of Mexico. He named the country Louisiana, in honor of Louis XIV., King of France. Results of French Enterprise. Before the close of the seventeenth century, the French had explored the Great Lakes, the Fox, Maumee. (ma mee'), Wabash (wa'bash), Wisconsin, and Illinois rivers, and the Mississippi from the Falls of St. Anthony to the Gulf. They had traversed a vast region extending from Newfoundland to Texas ; * and planted, here and there in the wilderness, rude settlements the beginnings of civilization. In 1688, New France pos- sessed a population of 11,000. Y^ ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS. We have seen how the Oabots, sailing under an English flag, discovered the American continent, exploring its coast from Labrador to Albemarle Sound. Though the English claimed the northern part of the continent by right of this discovery, yet during the sixteenth century they paid little attention to it. At the close of that period, however, mari- time enterprise was awakened, and British sailors cruised on every sea. Like the other navigators of the day, they were eager to discover the western passage to Asia. Frobisher (frSb'ish er) made the first of these attempts to go north of America to Asia Cabot's plan repeated. He devotion. After waiting long for his return, his men, seeking him, found that he had died while at prayer. He was buried near the mouth of the Marquette. Years after, when the tempest raged, and the Indian was tossing on the angry waves, he would seek to still the storm by invoking the aid of the pious Marquette. * As we shall see hereafter, the English at this time clung to a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast, but their colonies contained 200.000 inhabitants. 1570.] ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS. 35 LA SAI.I.K AT THE MOCTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI. pushed through unknown waters, threading his per- ilous way among icebergs, until (1576) he entered Baffin Bay. Here he heaped a pile of stones, declared the country an appendage of the British crown, and returned home.* Sir Francis Drake was a famous sailor. In one of his expeditions on the Isthmus of Panama, he climbed to the top of a lofty tree, whence he saw the Pacific Ocean. Looking out on its broad expanse, he resolved to "sail an English ship on those seas". Returning to England, he equipped a squadron. He sailed through the Strait of Magellan, coasting along the Pacific shore to the south- err] part of Oregon. Having refitted his ship, probably * One of the sailors brought back a stone which was thought to contain gold. A fleet of fifteen vessels was forthwith equipped for this new El Dorado. The north- west passage to Cathay was forgotten. After innumerable perils incident to Arctic regions, the ships were loaded with the precious ore and returned. Unfortunately, history iieglecta to tell us what became of the cargo 1 36 EPOCH I. [1579-80. in Bodega Bay (1579), he sailed westward, and returned home by way of the Cape of Good Hope.* Sir Humphrey Gilbert was not a sailor, but he had studied the accounts of American discoveries and concluded that, instead of random expeditions after gold and spices, com- panies should be sent out to form permanent settlements. His attempts to colonize the new world, however, ended fatally. Sailing home in a bark of only ten-tons burden, in the midst of a fearful storm the light of his little vessel sud- denly disappeared. Neither ship nor crew was ever seen again. Sir Walter Raleighf (raw' 11), a half-brother of Gilbert, adopted his views of American colonization. Being a great favorite with Queen Elizabeth, he easily obtained from her a patent of an extensive territory, which was named Virginia in honor of Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen. Raleigh's first attempt to plant a colony was on Roanoke Island. The settlers made no endeavor to cultivate the soil, but spent their time in hunting for gold and pearls.J At * He was thus the first Englishman who explored the Pacific coast, and the second European who circumnavigated the globe. t Raleigh was not only a man of dauntless courage, but he also added to a hand- some person much learning and many accomplishments. Meeting Queen Elizabeth one day while she was walking, he spread his mantle over a wet pl*ce in her path. She was so pleased with his gallantry that she admitted him to court, and he con- tinued a favorite during her entire life-time. Conversing with her once upon the singular properties of tobacco, the new Indian weed which was coming into use, he assured her that he could tell the exact weight of smoke in any quantity consumed. The incredulous queen dared him to a wager. Accepting it, Raleigh weighed his tobacco, smoked it, and then carefully weighing the ashes, stated the difference. Paying the bet, Elizabeth remarked that she " had before heard of turning gold into smoke, but he was the first who had turned smoke into gold ". This incident illus- trates the friendly relations between Raleigh and the queen. After her death, he was accused by James I. of treason, was imprisoned for many years, and finally, executed. On the scaffold, he asked for the ax, and feeling the edge, observed, with a smile, "This is a sharp medicine, but a sound cure for all diseases." Then com- posedly laying his head on the block, and moving his lips as in prayer, he gave the fatal signal. \ They were told that the Roauoke River had its head-waters in gulden rocka, by 1586.] ENGLISH K X PL O RATION'S. 87 last, they were nearly starved, when Drake, happening to stop there on one of his exploring tours, took pity on them and carried them home. (See page 42.) They had lived long enough in America to learn the use of tobacco from the Indians. This they introduced into England. The custom of "drinking tobacco", as it was called, soon became the fashion.* (p* Raleigh's Second Attempt. Raleigh,undiscouraged by this failure, still clung to his colonizing scheme. The next time, he sent out families, instead of single men. John White was appointed governor of the City of Raleigh, which they were to found on Chesapeake Bay. A granddaughter of Gov. "White, born soon after they reached Roanoke Island, was the first English child born in America. The governor, on returning to England to secure supplies, found the public attention absorbed by the threatened attack of the Spanish Armada. It was three years before he was able to come back. Meanwhile, his family, and the colony he had left alone in the wilderness, had perished. How, we do not know. The im- agination can only picture what history has failed to record. Raleigh had now spent about $200,000, a great sum for that day, on this American colony ; and, disheartened, trans- ferred his patent to other parties (1589). Trading 'Voyages. Fortunately for American interests, trading ventures were more profitable than colonizing ones. English vessels frequented the Banks of Newfoundland, and, probably, occasionally visited Virginia. Gos'nold,f a master the Pacific Ocean, and that the walls of a great city near its fountain were thickly studded with pearls. * An amusing story is told of Kaleigh while he was learning to smoke. On enter- ing his study one morning to bring his master a cup of ale, his servant saw a cloud of smoke issuing from Sir Walter's mouth. Frantically dashing the liquor in his face, he rushed down stairs imploring help, lest his master should be burned to ashes ! t The English ships were at that time accustomed to steer southward along the cuast of Spain, Portugal, and Africa, as far as the Canary Islands ; then they followed 38 EPOCH I. [1602. of a small bark, discovered (1602) and named Cape Cod and some of the islands about Martha's Vineyard. Loading his vessel with sassafras-root, then highly esteemed as a medi- cine, he returned home to publish the most favorable reports of the region he had visited. Some British merchants ac- cordingly sent out the next year a couple of vessels under Captain Pring. He discovered several harbors in Maine, and brought back his ships loaded with furs and sassafras. As the result of these various explorations, many felt an earnest desire to colonize the new world. James I. accord- ingly granted the vast territory of Virginia, as it was called, to two companies, the London and the Plymouth. The London Company, whose principal men resided at London, had the tract between the thirty-fourth and thirty- eighth degrees of latitude. This was called South Virginia. They sent out a colony in 1607 under Captain Newport. He made at Jamestown* THE FIRST PEKMANENT ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN" THE UNITED STATES. The Plymouth Company, whose principal men resided at Plymouth, had the tract between the forty-first and forty- fifth degrees of latitude. This was called North Virginia. The Charter granted to these companies was the first under which English colonies were planted in the United States. It is therefore worthy of careful study. It contained no idea of self-government. The people were not to havt - 1 ho election of an officer. The king was to appoint a council, the track of Columbus to the West India Islands, and thence past the coast of Florida northward to the point they wished to reach. Navigators knew this was a round- about way, but they were afraid to try the northern route straight across the Atlantic. G}t>snold made the voyage directly from England to Massachusetts, thus shortening the route 3,000 miles. This gave a great impulse to colonization, since it was in effect bringing America, 3,000 miles nearer England. * The river was called James, and the town Jamestown, in honor of the King of England. The headlands received the names of Cape Henry and Cape Charles from the king's sons , and the deep water for anchorage " which put the emigrants in good comfort", gave the name Point Comfort. 1606.] DUTCH EXPLORATIONS. 39 to reside in London and have general control of all the col- onies ; and also a council, to reside in each colony and have control of its local affairs. The Church of England was the established religion. Moreover, for five years, all the pro- ceeds of the colonial industry and commerce were to be ap- plied to a common fund, no person being allowed the fruit of his individual labor. DUTCH EXPLORATIONS. During all this time, the Dutch manifested no interest in the new world. In the beginning of the seventeenth cen- tury, however, Captain Henry Hudson, an English navi- gator in the Dutch service, entered the harbor of New York. Hoping to reach the Pacific Ocean, he afterward ascended the noble river which bears his name (1609).* On this discovery, the Dutch based their claim to the region extending from the Delaware River to Cape Cod. They gave to it the name of New Netherland. EXTENT OF THESE EXPLORATIONS. 1. The Spanish confined their explorations to the West Indies and the adjacent mainland, and in the United States made settlements only in Florida .and New Mexico. 2. The French claimed the whole of New France and made their first settlements in Acadia and Canada. 3. The English explored the Atlantic coast at various points, and claimeJ this vast territory, which they termed Virginia, having made their first se ttlement at Jamestown, f * It is now believed that Verrazani (p. 30) was the true discoverer of this stream, over three quarters of a century before. t After this time, the English is the only nation that directly influences the his- 40 EPOCH T. f!613. 4. The Dutch laid claim to New Netherland, but made no settlement till 1613. The Rival Claims. These four claims overlapped f one another and necessarily produced much confusion. While the first few settlements were separated by hundreds of miles of savage forests, this was of little account. But as the set- tlements increased, the rival claims became a source of con- stant strife and were decided principally by the sword. The Permanent Settlements. At the close of the six- teenth century, neither the English nor the French had planted a single stable colony, and the only permanent settlements, north of the Gulf of Mexico, were those of the Spaniards at St. Augustine and Santa Fe. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, permanent settle- ments multiplied. They were made, as we have seen, by The FRENCH at Port Royal, N. S., in 1605 ; The ENGLISH at Jamestown, in 1607*; The FRENCH at Quebec, in 1608 ; The DUTCH at New York, in 1 6 1 3 ; J The ENGLISH at Plymouth, in 1620. tory of the United States. The country was settled mainly by emigrants from Great Britain, and in the next epoch all the colonies became dependencies of that empire. t It is noticeable that the English grants extended westward to the Pacific Ocean ; the French, southward from the St. Lawrence to the Gulf ; and the Spanish, north- ward to the Arctic Ocean. None of the European nations had any idea of the im- mense territory it was donating. $ Here lay the shaggy continent' from Florida to the Pole, outstretched in savage slumber along the sea. On the bank of the James River was a nest of woe-begone Englishmen, a handful of fur-traders at the mouth of the Hudson, and a few shiver- ing Frenchmen among the snow-drifts of Acadia; while, deep within the wild monotony of desolation, on the icy verge of the great northern river, Champlain upheld the banner of France over the rock of Quebec. These were the advance guard of civilization, the messengers of promise to a desert continent. Yet, not content with inevitable woes, they were rent by petty jealousies and miser- able quarrels, while each little fragment of rival nationalities, just able to keep up its own wretched existence on a few square miles, begrudged to all the rest the smallest share in a domain which all the nations of Europe oould not have sufficed to fill. fttrkrnan. 1789.] EARLY NAVIGATORS. 41 SB A -LIFE IN THE FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES. AT the opening of modern history, the known world comprised only Europe, south- western Asia, and a strip of northern Africa. The southernmost point in Africa then discovered was Cape Non (Nun), so called because it was considered the limit of navi- gation. The most absurd ideas prevailed with regard to the regions beyond. The water at the equator was thought to be boiling hot; the tropic sun, it was said, would permanently blacken the skin of any white man who ventured farther south ; while the unknown seas were supposed to be peopled by terrible sea-monsters. To the Portuguese belongs the glory of having dissipated many of these errors, and opened the way to the discovery of new lands. In the fifteenth century, they were the most enlightened and enterprising people in Europe. Prince Henry devoted himself to the study of astronomy, founded an observatory and a naval college, col- lected all existing information concerning the earth's surface, and prepared new and more accurate charts for navigators. His father, John I., and his grand-nephew, John II., encouraged maritime explorations. Under such auspices, the Portuguese sailors discovered the Azores'* and Cape Verde Islands, crossed the dreaded equator, and finally descried the southern extremity of Africa. Diaz (dee'ath), the discov- erer, well named it the Stormy Cape ; but the king, believing the long-desired route to India was now found, rechristened it the Cape of Good Hope. His hope was realized fifteen years later, when Vasco da Grama rounded the cape and reached India. The problem of a sea-route (p. 20) was solved. The Portuguese quickly established settlements and opened a direct trade by sea between India and Europe. The old land-routes to India across the Mediterranean and the Levant being aban- doned, Venice and the other Italian cities lost the profitable Eastern trade. The sixteenth century, however, had already dawned. The discoveries of Colum- bus had kindled the zeal and fired the imagination of Spain, then fast becoming the leading nation of Europe. Pope Alexander VT. had apportioned the unknown regions of the Earth to the Portuguese and the Spaniards, giving to the former all east and to the latter all west of an imaginary line running north and south 100 leagues west of the Azores. Spanish warriors who "united the valor of the knight-errant with the rapacity of pirates", nocked to the new world. The "West Indies, Mexico, Peru, and Chili were discovered and conquered, and the spoils were sent to Europe. Soon, the coffers of Spain were running over with American gold and silver. While the Spanish flag was planted, step by step, on the eastern coast of America, " from the St. John's to the river Platte ", the whole western coast of South America fell into Spanish hands. The Spanish explorations in America surpassed the Portuguese in Africa. Portugal was too busy with her discoveries to turn aside, except to possess the territory of Brazil, and Spain was left unmolested to prosecute her conquests. While Spain was thus building up an empire in the western world, English sea- men were content with a humbler harvest in the Newfoundland fisheries. During the reign of Elizabeth, however, English navigators began to dispute with Spain the sovereignty of the sea. The British Channel swarmed with privateers " sea-dogs ", * The explorers were accustomed to take formal possession of the country they discovered. Thus Cartier (p. 30) erected a cross thirty feet high, on which he hung a shield containing the arms of Prance and the inscription, " Vive le Roi ". Gilbert (p. 36) raised a pillar in Newfound- land with a lead plate, on which were engraved the queen's arms. A piece of turf and a bit of twig were presented to him, and he received these symbols of possession with a hazel waud. EPOCH I. [1577. as they were called and it was a lucky galleon that could run the gauntlet of these swift cruisers. The greed of gold, the love of adventure, a chivalrous contempt of danger, and the bitter hatred then existing between Protestant England and Catho- lic Spain, combined to inspire the sea-dogs to the most daring deeds. In 1577, Drake set sail with five ships, his own scarcely larger than a channel schooner, the others still smaller, resolved to fly the English flag in waters where it had never been seen. The first of Englishmen to pass through the Strait of Magellan, he swept along the coast of Chili and Peru, plundering towns and vessels, and capturing the great gul- leon that yearly sailed from Lama to Cadiz with precious stones, gold dust, and silver ingots. Finding a squadron was stationed in the Strait of Magellan to intercept him on his return (p. 35), he took the bold resolution of crossing the Pacific and going home via the Cape of Good Hope. His venture succeeded, and he reached Plymouth, England, after an absence of three years. Though he had escaped with only one ship the Golden Hind it was laden with treasure to the amount of 800,000. The queen received a large share of the spoils, knighted the freebooter, wore his jewels in her crown, and ordered the Golden Hind to be preserved in memory of this remarkable voyage. Open war having at last broken out between England and Spain, Drake again went to the "West Indies, plundered the towns of St. Domingo and Car- thagena, burned Ports San Antonio and St. Augustine, and, visiting Virginia, brought back the remains of Raleigh's colony (p. 37). The success of these adventures, lured other freebooters to the " Spanish Main ". Cavendish fitted out a fleet and sailed thither (158G) ; he roamed about for months, burning villages and capturing coast- ing vessels, until at last he overhauled the Santa Anna, a merchantman loaded with a rich cargo of gold, silver, and spices, from the Manillas. Returning via the c;ti', he was the second Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. The English privateers, however, could fight for their country as well as for gain, and Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher were in the very front of the little fleet that destroyed the "Invincible Armada" (1588) and broke the Spanish power. CONTEMPORARY EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS. ENGLAND. Henry VII.... 1485 Henry VLLL . . 1509 Edward VI... .1547 Mary ... ..1553 FRANCE. Charles Vm.. 1483 Louis XH 1498 Francis 1 1515 Henry LI 1547 GERMANY. Frederick IH..1440 Maximilian I. . 1493 Charles V 1520 SPAIN. Ferdinand & Isabella 1479 CharlesI 1516 Elizabeth 1558 James T 1603 Francis n 1559 Charles IX.... 1560 Henry TTT 1574 Ferdinand I.. .1556 MaximilianI 1. 1564 Rudolph n....!576 Philip H 1556 Henry IV 1589 Matthias 1612 Philip III 1598 CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY. PAGE 1492. Columbus discovered the new world, October 12 . . . . . . 23 1497. The Cabots discovered Labrador, June 24 25 1498. The Cabots explored the Atlantic Coast 25 South America was discovered by Columbus, August 10 . . . . 24 Vasco da Gama sailed round the Cape of Good Hope and discovered a passage to India ...... ...... 41 CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY. PAGE 1513. Ponce de Leon discovered Florida, March 27 27 1513. Balboa saw the Pacific Ocean, September 26 27 1519-'21. Oortez conquered Mexico 26 1520. Magellan discovered and sailed through the strait which bears his name, into the Pacific Ocean ; his vessel returning home by the Cape of Good Hope, made the first circumnavigation of the globe. 26 1524. Verrazani explored the coast of North America 30 1528. Narvaez explored part of Florida 27 1534-'35. Cartier explored the Q-ulf of St. Lawrence and ascended the river . 30 1539-'41. De Soto rambled over the Southern States and in 1541 discovered the Mississippi Eiver 28 1542-'43. Cabrillo explored California and sailed along the Pacific Coast. . 29 1562. Ribaut attempted to plant a Huguenot colony at Port Royal . 31 1564. Laudonniere attempted to plant a Huguenot colony on the St. John's River. It was destroyed by the Spaniards .... 31 1565. Menendez founded a colony at St. Augustine, Florida ; first perma- nent settlement in the United States 29 1576-'77. Frobisher tried to find a north-west passage ; entered Baffin Bay, and twice attempted to found a colony in Labrador, but failed . 34 1578-'80. Drake sailed along the Pacific Coast to Oregon, and circumnavi- gated the globe 35 1582. Espe.io founded Santa Fe ; second oldest town in the United States, 29 1583. Gilbert was lost at sea 36 1584-'87. Raleigh twice attempted to plant a colony in Virginia .... 36 1602. Gosnold discovered Cape Cod, May 15 * 37 1605. De Monts established a colony at Port Royal, Nova Scotia ; first permanent French settlement in America 32 . 1607. The English settled Jamestown; first permanent English settle- ment in America, May 13 38 1608. Champlain planted a colony at Quebec; first permanent French settlement in Canada, July 3 32 1609. Hudson discovered the Hudson River 39 Champlain discovered Lake Champlain 33 1613. Settlement of New York by the Dutch 39 1620. Pilgrims settled at Plymouth; first English settlement in New England, December 21 40 REFERENCES FOR READING. Irving'* Cohimbu*. Parkman's Pioneers of France, Jesuits in North America, and Dis- covery of the Great West. Longfellow 's Sir Humphrey Gilbert (Pnem).~-De Vere's Eomance of American History. Abbott's Biography of Illustrious Men and Women. T. Irving' 1 * De Soto in Florida. Help's Spanish Conquest of America. Biddies Sebastian Cabot. NlchoUs' John Cabot. Barlow's Vision of Columbus (Poem), and Poems on Columbus by Samuel Hogers and J. B. Lowell. Simms' Damsel of Darien (Poem).Prescott's Ferdinand and Isabella (Colum- bus). Hawks' History of North Carolina (Lost Colony of Eoanoke). Shea's Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley. Wallace's Fair God (Fiction). Barnes' Popular History of the United States. Harper's Magazine, Vol. 49, The First Century of the Sepublic ; Vol. 65, Overthrow of the French Power in America, and The Spanish Discoverers. Scribner's Monthly, Vol. 9, Pictures from Florida. Weise's Discoveries of America to the Year 1525. 44 BARNES' BRIEF HISTORY. BLACKBOARD ANALYSIS. 1. Geographical Knowledge in the Fifteenth Century. 1. His Views. 2. At Court of Portugal. 3. At Court of Spain. 4. His Success. 2. Columbus. 7. The Landing. 8. Further Discoveries. 9. His Reception Home. 10. Subsequent Voyages. 3. How America was Named. 4. The Cabots. 5. Spanish Explorations. 6. French Explorations. 1. John Cabot. 2. Sebastian Cabot. 1. The Feeling in Spain. 2. Ponce de Leon. 3. Balboa. 4. De Narvaez. 5. Ferdinand de Soto. 6. Menendez. \ a. falifornia. 7. Explorations on Pacific. -^ b. Cabritto. ( c. New Mexico. 8. Extent of the Spanish Possessions. 1. Newfoundland Fisheries. 2. Verrazani. 3. Cartier. 4. John Ribaut. 5. Laudonnidre. 6. Chatnplain. 7. De Monts and Port Royal. 8. Jesuit Missionaries. ( a. Visit to Hochelaga. ) b. Founds Quebec. 9. Results of French Enterprise. 1. British Claim and Maritime Zeal. 2. Frobisher. 3. Francis Drake. 4. Humphrey Gilbert. a. Their zeal. b. Marquette. c. La Salle. 7. English Explorations. 8. Dutch Explorations. 9. Extent of these Ex- plorations. 5. Raleigh. 6. Trading Voyages. 7. Companies formed. First attempt to plant a Colony. Second attempt. a. London Co. b. Plymouth Co. c. Their Charter. 1. Henry Hudson. 2. Dutch Claim. (a. The Spanish, b. The French, c. The JSnglish. d. The Dutch. 2. Result of these Rival Claims. 3. Permanent Settlements at the End of the Sixteenth Century and the Beginning of the Seventeenth Century. H II i i. ,- . i i FROM 1607 TO 1775 ~^HIS Epoch -L traces the early his- tory of the thirteen colonies Virginia, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Ne\v York, New .Jersey. Pennsylvania, Delaware, Mary- land, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia. The Cavaliers land in Virginia, and the Puritans in Massachusetts. Immigration increases a nd the settlements multiply along the whole coast. The colonies, however, have little history in common. Each by itself struggles with the wilderness, contends with the Indian, and develops the principles of liberty. Questions on the Geography of the Second, Epoch. Locate Jamestown. Salem. Boston. Swansea. Providence. Bristol. Hadley. Hatfleld. Portsmouth. Dover. Hartford. Wethersfleld. New Haven. Windsor. Saybrook. New York. Albany. Srhenectady. Elizabeth town. Wilmington. Philadelphia. St. Mary's. Charleston. Savannah. Haverhill. Deerfield. St. Augustine. Quebec. Louisburg. Locate Fort Venango. Oswego. Presque Isle. Fort Le Boeuf . Crown Point. Fort Ticonderoga. Fort Niagara. Fort Duquesne. Fort William Henry. Fort Edward. Describe the Ohio River. Monongahela River. French Creek. Chowan River. Ashley River. Cooper River. River St. John. Potomac River. James River. Hudson River. Connecticut River. Mohawk River. Delaware River. Kennebec River. Penobscot River. Miami River. St. Lawrence River. Locate Manhattan Island. Alleghany Mountains. Cape Breton. Massachusetts Bay. Chesapeake Bay. 4:6 EPOCH II. [1607. I. VIRGINIA. The Character of the colonists was poorly adapted to on- dure the hardships incident to a life in a new country. The settlers were mostly gentlemen by birth, unused to labor. They had no families, and came out in search of wealth or adventure, expecting, when rich, to return to England. The climate Avas unhealthy, and, before the first autumn, half of their number had perished. John Smith * saved the colony from ruin. First as a mem- ber of the council, and afterward as president, his services were invaluable. He persuaded the settlers to erect a fort, and to build log huts for the winter. He made long voyages, carefully exploring Chesapeake Bay, securing the friendship of the Indians, and bringing back boat-loads of supplies. He * Captain John Smith was born to adventure. Whi lo yet a boy ho leaves his home in Ijincolnshire, England, to engage in Holland wars. After a four-years sprvire he builds a lodge of boughs in a forest, where ho hunts, rides, and studies military tactics. Next we hear of him on his way to fight the Turks. Before reaching Franco he is robbed, and escapes death from want only by begging alms. Having embarked for Italy, a fearful storm arises ; he, being a heretic, is deemed the cause, and is thrown overboard, but he swims to land. In the East, a famous Mussulman wishes to fight some Christian knight "to please the ladies " ; Smith offers himself and slays three champions in succession. Taken prisoner in battle and sold as a slave, his head is shaved and his neck bound with an iron ring ; he kills his master, arrays himself in the dead man's garments, mounts a horse and spurs his way to a Russian camp. Having returned to England, he embarks for the new world. On the voyage, he ex- cites the jealousy of his fellows and is landed in chains ; but his worth becomes so apparent that he is finally made president of the colony. His marvelous es'.-npi-H seem now more abundant than ever. A certain fish inflicts a dangerous wound, but he finds an antidote, and afterward eats part of the same fish with great relish. Ho is poisoned, but overcomes the dose and severely beats the poisoner. His part.\ <>)' fifteen is attacked by Opechancanough (Ope kan'kano), brother and m Powhatan, with seven hundred warriors ; Smith drags the old chief by his long hair into the midst of the Indian braves, who, amazed at such audacity, immediately sur- render. He is shockingly burned on a boat by the explosion of a bag of powder at his side ; but he leaps into the water, where he barely escapes death by drowning. These and many other wonderful exploits he published in a book after liis return to England. Historians very generally discredit them. His services were, however, of unquestionable value to Virginia ; and his disinterestedness appears from the fact that he never received a foot of land in the colony his wisdom had saved. 1607. J DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 47 trained the tender gentlemen till they learned how to swing the axi-in the forest. He declared that "he who would not work, might not eat." He taught them that industry and self-reliance are the surest guarantees to fortune. Smith's Adventures were of the most romantic character. In one of his expeditions up the Chick a hom'i ny * he was SMITH TRADING WITH THE INDIANS. taken prisoner by the Indians. With singular coolness, he immediately tried to interest his captors by explaining the use of his pocket compass, and the motions of the moon and stars. At last, they allowed him to write a letter to James- town. When they found that this informed his friends of his misfortune, they were filled with astonishment, f They * This was undertaken by the express order of the company, to seek a passage to the Pacific Ocean, and tnus to India. Captain Newport, before his return to England, made a trip up the James River for the same purpose, but on reaching the falls con- cluded that the way to India did not lie in that direction. These attempts show what inadequate ideas then prevailed concerning the size of this continent. . t As another evidence of the simplicity of the Indians, it is said that having seized 48 EPOCH II. [1607. could not understand by what magical art he made a few marks on paper express his thoughts. They considered him a being of a superior order and treated him with the utmost respect. He was carried from one tribe to another * and at last brought to the great chief, Pow ha tan', by whom he was condemned to die. His head was laid on a stone, and the huge war-club of the Indian executioner was raised to strike the fatal blow. Suddenly, Po ca hon' tas, the young daughter of the chief, who had already become attached to the pris- oner, threw herself upon his neck and pleaded for his pardon.f The favorite of the tribe was given her desire. Smith was released, and soon sent home with promises of friendship. His little protector was often thereafter to be seen going to Jamestown with baskets of corn for the white men. A Second Charter (1609) was now obtained by the com- pany. This vested the authority in a governor instead of a local council. The colonists were not consulted with re- gard to the change, nor did the charter guarantee to them any rights. The " Starving Time." Unfortunately, Smith was dis- abled by a severe wound and compelled to return to England. His influence being removed, the settlers became a prey to disease and famine. Some were killed by the Indians. Some, in their despair, seized a boat and became pirates. The winter of 1609-10 was long known as the Starving Time. In six months, the colonists were reduced from 4 9 to 6 0. At last, they determined to flee from the wretched place. "None dropped a tear, for none had enjoyed one day of happiness." a quantity of gunpowder belonging to the colonists, they planted it for seed, expect- ing to reap a full harvest of ammunition for the next contest. * His route was over the peninsula, since made famous by McClellan's campaign. t This incident has been discredited because Smith did not mention it in his first account (1608) of his adventures, but describes it in the second one, published 16 years later. It should be remembered, however, that this conduct of Pocahontas 1610.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 49 The next morning, as they slowly moved down with the tide, to their great joy they met their new governor, Lord Dela- ware, with abundant supplies and a company of immigrants, All returned to the homes they had just deserted, and James- town colony was once more rescued from ruin. The Third Charter. Up to this time, the colony had proved a failure arid was publicly ridiculed in London. To quiet the outcry, the charter was changed (1612). The coun- cil in London was abolished, and the stockholders were given power to regulate the affairs of the company themselves. The Marriage of Pocahontas (1613). The little Indian girl had now grown to womanhood. John Rolfe, a young English planter, had won her love and wished to marry her. In the little church at Jamestown, rough almost as an Indian's wigwam, she received Christian baptism, and, in broken English, stammered the marriage vows according to the service of the Church of England. Three years after, with her husband, she visited London. The child-like simplicity and winning grace of Lady Rebecca, as she was called, attracted universal admiration. She was introduced at court and received every mark of attention. As she was about to return to her native land with her hus- band and infant son,* she suddenly died. First Colonial Assembly. Governor Yeardley (yeerd'll) believed that the colonists should have " a hande in the gov- erning of themselves ". He accordingly called at Jamestown, July 30, 1619, THE FIRST LEGISLATIVE BODY THAT EVER ASSEM- BLED IN AMERICA. It consisted of the governor, council, and deputies, or " burgesses ", as they were called, chosen from the various plantations, or " boroughs ". Its laws had to be was entirely in accord with. T-.idiau usage, while it does not seem, wise to drop out of our early history such a characteristic and beautiful legend. * This son became a man of distinction. Many of the leading families of Virginia have been proud to say that the blood of Pocahontas coursed through their veins. 50 EPOCH II [1619. ratified by the company in England ; but, in turn, the orders from London were not binding unless ratified by the colonial assembly. These privileges were afterward (1621) embodied in a WRITTEN CONSTITUTION the first of the kind in America. A measure of freedom was thus granted the young colony, and Jamestown became a nursery of liberty. Prosperity of the Colony. The old famine troubles had now all passed. The attempt to work in common had been given up, and each man tilled his own land and received the avails. Tobacco was an article of export. The colonists were so eager in its cultivation that, at one time, they planted it even in the streets of Jamestown Gold-hunting had ceased,* and many of the former servants of the comp;my owned plantations. Settlements lined both banks of the James for 140 miles. Best of all, young women of good character were brought over by the company. These sold readily as wives to the settlers. The price, at first, was fixed at the cost of the passage 100 pounds of tobacco but wives were in such demand that it soon went up to 150 pounds. Domestic ties were formed. The colonists, having homes, now became Virginians. All freemen had the right to vote. Religious toleration was enjoyed. Virginia be- came almost an independent republic. Slavery Introduced. In 1619, the captain of a Dutch trading vessel sold to the colonists twenty negroes, f They were employed in cultivating tobacco. As their labor was found profitable, large numbers were afterward imported. ~C Indian Troubles. After the death of Powhatan, the firm * In the early life of this colony, particles of mica glittering in the brook were mistaken for gold dust. " There was no talk, no hope, but dig gold, wash gold, refine gold, load gold." Newport carried to England a ship-load of the worthless stuff. Smith remonstrated in vain against this folly. t From this circumstance, small as it seemed at the time, the most momentous consequences ensued, consequences that, long after, rent the republic with strife, and moistened its soil with blood. 1622.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 51 friend of the English, the Indians formed a plan for the ex- termination of the colony. So secretly was this managed that on the very morning of the massacre (March 22,1622), they visited the houses and sat at the tables of those whose murder they were plotting. At a preconcerted moment, they attacked the colonists on all their widely-scattered planta- tions. Over three hundred men, women, and children fell in one day. Fortunately, a converted Indian had informed a friend whom he wished to save, and thus Jamestown and the settlements near by were prepared. A merciless war ensued, during which the colony was reduced from 4,000 to 2,500 ; but the Indians were so severely punished that they remained quiet for twenty years. Then came a fearful mas- sacre of five hundred settlers (1644), which ended in the natives being expelled from the region. Virginia a Royal Province. The majority of the stock- holders gladly granted to the infant colony those rights for which they were struggling at home. King James, becoming jealous of the company, because of its republican sentiments, took away the charter (1624), and made Virginia a royal province. Henceforth, the king appointed the governor and council, though the colony still retained its assembly. A Period of Oppression. The British Parliament en- forced the Navigation Act (1660), which ordered that the commerce of the colony should be carried on in English ves- sels, and that their tobacco should be shipped to England. Besides this, their own assembly was composed mainly of royalists, who levied exorbitant taxes, refused to go out of office when their term had expired, fixed their salary at about $ 9 per day (equal to $ 3 6 at the present time) , restricted the right of voting to "freeholders and housekeepers", and imposed on Quakers a monthly, fine of one hundred dollars for absence from worship in the English Church. Two parties 52 EPOCH II. [1676. gradually sprung up in their midst: one, the aristocratic party, was composed of the rich planters and the office-hold- ers ; the other comprised the liberty-loving portion of the people, who felt themselves deprived of their rights.* Bacon's Rebellion. These difficulties came to a crisis in 167 6 a century before Independence Day when Governor Berkeley failed to provide for the defense of the settlements against the Indians. At this juncture, Nathaniel Bacon, a patriotic young lawyer, rallied a company, defeated the Indians, and then turned to meet the governor, who had denounced him as a traitor. During the contest which fol- lowed, Berkeley was driven out of Jamestown and the village itself burned, f in the midst of this success, Bacon died. No leader could be found worthy to take his place, and the people * It is a curious fact that the royalists who fled from England in Cromwell's time took refuge in Virginia, and were hospitably entertained, while the "regicides" (the judges who con- demned Charles I.) fled to Massa- chusetts and were concealed from their pursuers. t Going up the James River, just before reaching City Point, one sees on the right-hand bank the ruins of an old church. The crumbling tower, with its arched doorways, is almost hidden by the profusion of shrubbery which siir- rounds it. Its moss-covered walls, entwined with ivy planted by loving hands which have since crumbled into dust, look desolately out upon the old church-yard at its back. Here, pushing aside the rank vines and tangled bushes which conceal them, one finds a few weather-beaten tombstones. A THE EUINS AT JAMESTOWN. huge button-wood-tree, taking root below, has burst apart one of these old slabs, and now, with its many fellows, spreads its lofty branches high over the solitary dead. And this is all that remains of that Jamestown whose struggles we have here recorded. 1620.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 53 dispersed. Berkeley revenged himself with terrible severity. On hearing of the facts, Charles II. impatiently declared, " He has taken more lives in that naked country than I did for the murder of my father." II. MASSACHUSETTS. The Plymouth Company made several attempts to explore North Virginia. Captain John Smith, already so famous in South Virginia, examined the coast from Penob- scot to Cape Cod, drew a map of it, and called the country NEW ENGLAND. The company, stirred to action by his glowing accounts, obtained a new patent (1620) under the name of the Council for New England. This authorized them, to make settlements and laws, and to carry on trade through a region reaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific and comprising over a million square miles. New England, however, was settled with 110 consent of king or council. 1. PLYMOUTH COLONY. Settlement. Landing of the Pilgrims* One stormy day in the autumn of 1620, the Mayflower, with a band of * They were called Pilgrims because of their wanderings. About seventy years before this time the state religion of England had been changed from. Catholic to Protestant ; but a large number of the clergy and people were dissatisfied with what they thought to be a half-way policy on the pa; of the new church, and called for a more complete purification from old observances and doctrines. !For this, they were called Puritans. They still believed in a state church, i. e., that the nation of England was the church of England ; and that the queen, as the head of both, could appoint churdti officers and prescribe the form of religious worship. They, however, wanted a change, and desired the government to make it to suit them. The government not only refused, but punished the Puritan clergy for not Tising the prescribed form of worship. This led some of them to question the authority of the government in religious matters. They came to believe that any body of Christians might declare itself a church, choose its own officers, and be independent of all external authority. When they began to form these local churches, they separated themselves from the Church of England, and for this reason are railed Separatists and Independents. One of these churches of SEPARATISTS was at Scrooby, in the east of England. Not being allowed to worship in peace, they fled to Holland (1608), where they lived twelve 64 EPOCH II. [1620. a hundred pilgrims, came to anchor in Cape Cod harbor. The little company,* gathering in the cabin, drew up a compact, in which they agreed to enact just and equal laws, which all should obey. One of their exploring parties landed at Plymouth,! as it was called on Smith's chart, December 21.J Finding the location suitable for a settlement, they all came ashore and, amid a storm of snow and sleet, com- menced building their rude huts. The Character of the Pilgrim settlers was well suited to the rugged, stormy land which they sought to subdue. They had come into the wilderness with their families in search of a home where they could educate their children and wor- ship God as they pleased. They were earnest, sober-minded men, actuated in all things by deep religious principle, and never dislpyal to their convictions of duty. Their Sufferings during the winter were severe. At one time, there were only seven well persons to take care of the sick. Half of the little band died. Yet when spring came, not one of the company thought of returning to England. The Indians, fortunately, did not disturb them. A pesti- lence had destroyed the tribe inhabiting the place where they landed. They were startled, however, one day in early spring years. But evil influences surrounded their children, and they longed for a land where they might worship G-od in their own way, and save their families from worldly follies. America offered such a home. They came, resolved to brave every danger, trusting to God to shape their destinies. * The exact number of the pilgrims was 102. t The little shallop sent out to reconnoiter before landing, lost, in a furious storm, its rudder, mast, and sail. Late at night, the party sought shelter under the lee of a small island. They spent the next day in cleaning their rusty weapons and drying their wet garments. Every hour was precious, as the season was late and their com- panions in the Mayflower were waiting their return ; but " being y e last day of y" week, they prepared there to keepe y Sabbath ". No wonder that the influence of such a people has been felt throughout the country, and that "Forefathers' Rock", on which they first stepped, is yet held in grateful remembrance. t This was Dec. 11, Old Style. In 1752, eleven days were added to correct an error in the calendar, thus making this date the 22d. Only 10 days should be allowed for 1620, and the correct date is the 21st, New Style. (Steele's Astronomy, p. 269.) Puritans Going to Church. ' Thanks be to God for winter time ! Tbat bore the Mayflower up, To pour amid New England snows the treasures of its cup, To fold them in its icy arms, those sturdy Pilgrim sires, And weld an iron brotherhood around their Christmas tires." B. P. TATLOB. 1621.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 55 by a voice in their village crying in broken English, " Wel- come !" It was the salutation of Sam' o set, an Indian, whose chief, Mas'sasoit, soon after visited them. The treaty then made lasted for fifty years. Ca non' i cus, a Narragansett chief, once sent a bundle of arrows, wrapped in a rattlesnake skin, as a token of defiance. Governor Brad- CANONICUS RECEIVING THE POWDER AND 8HOT SENT BY GOVERNOR BRADFORD. ford returned the skin filled with powder and shot. This significant hint was effectual. The Progress of the Colony was slow. Their harvests were insufficient to feed themselves and the new-comers. During the "famine of 1623," the best dish they could set before their friends was a bit of fish and a cup of water.* After four years they numbered only 184. The plan of working in common having failed here as at Jamestown, * As an illustration of their pious content, it is said that Elder Brewster was wont, over a meal consisting only of clams, to return thanks to God, who " had given them to suck the abundance of the seas, and of the treasures hid in the sands." 56 EPOCH II. [1627. land was assigned to each settler. Abundance ensued. The colony was never organized by royal charter ; therefore they elected their own governor and made their own laws. 'In 1692, Plymouth was united with Massachusetts Bay Colony, under the name of Massachusetts. 2. MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY. Settlement. John Endicott and five associates obtained a grant of land about Massachusetts Bay (1628). Having secured from King Charles I. a charter giving authority to make laws and govern the territory, the company afterward transferred all its rights to the colony This was a popular measure, and many prominent Puritan families flocked to the land of liberty. Some gathered around Governor Endi- cott, who had already started Salem and Charlestown, some established colonies at Dorchester and Watertown, and some, under the new governor, Winthrop, founded Boston (1630). Religious Disturbances. The people of Massachusetts Bay, while in England, were Puritans, but not Separatists. Having come to America to establish a Puritan Church, they were unwilling to receive persons holding opinions differing from their own, lest their purpose should be defeated. They accordingly sent back to England those who persisted in using the forms of the Established Church, and allowed only members'of their own church to voto in civil affairs. Roger Williams, an eloquent and pious young minister, taught that each person should think for himself in nil religious matters, and be responsible to his own conscience alone. He declared th,at the magistrates had, therefore, no right to punish blasphemy, perjury, or Sabbath-breaking. The clergy and magistrates were alarmed at what they con- sidered a doctrine dangerous to the peace of the colony, and he was ordered (1 636) to be sent to England. It was in the 1636.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 57 depth of winter, yet he fled to the forest where he found refuge among the Indians. Canonicus, the Narragansett sachem, gave him land to found a settlement, which he gratefully named PROVIDENCE. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, during the same year, aroused a violent and bitter controversy. She claimed to be favored with special revelations of Q-od's will. These she expounded to crowded congregations of women, greatly to the scandal of the clergy and people. Finally she, also, was banished. The Quakers, about twenty years after these summary measures, created fresh trouble by their peculiar views. They were fined, whipped, imprisoned, and sent out of the colony ; yet they as constantly returned, glorying in their sufferings. At last, four were executed. The people beginning to con- sider them as martyrs, the persecution gradually relaxed. A Union of the Colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plym- outh, New Haven, and Connecticut, was formed (1643) under the title of THE UNITED COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND. This was a famous league in colonial times. The object was a common protection against the Indians, and the en- croachments of the Dutch and French settlers. VlCing Philip's War. During the life of Massasoit, Plym- outh enjoyed peace with the Indians, as did Jamestown during that of Powhatan. After Massasoit's death, his son, Philip, brooded with a jealous eye over the encroachments of the whites. With profound sagacity, he planned a confed- eration of the Indian tribes against the intruders. The first blow fell on the people of Swansea, as they were quietly going home from church on Sunday (July 4, 1675). The settlers flew to arms, but Philip escaped, and soon excited the savages to fall upon the settlements high up the Connecticut valley.* * At Hadley, the Indians surprised the people during a religious service. Seizing their muskets at the sound of the savage war-whoop, the men rushed out of the 58 K P O C H II. [1075 The colonists fortified their houses with palisades, carried their arms with them into the fields when at work, and EARLY MORNINO ATTACK BY INDIANS. stacked them at the door when at church. The Narragansett Indians favored Philip, and seemed on the point of joining meeting-house to fall into line. But the foe was on every side. Confused and be- wildered, the settlers seemed about to give way, when suddenly a strange old man with long white beard and ancient garb appeared among them. Ringing out a quick, sharp word of command, he recalled them to their senses. Following their myste- rious leader, they drove the enemy headlong before them. The danger pulsed, ihi , looked around for their deliverer. But he had disappeared as mysteriously as he had come. The good people believed that God had sent an angel to their rescue. But history reveals the secret. It was the regicide, Colonel Goffe. Fleeing from the vengeance of Charles II., with a price set upon his head, he had for years wandered about, living in mills, clefts of rocks, and forest caves. At last, he had found an asy- lum with the Hadley minister. From his window he had seen the stealthy Indians coming down the hill. Fired with desire to do one more good deed for God's people, he rushed from his hiding-place, led them on to victory, and then returned to his retreat, never more to reappear. One learns with regret that recent research thr< >ws doubt over the truth of this thrilling story. Tt is curious to notice, also, that, there is nu proof that Philip possessed any eloquence or was even present in an.\ lii/l,t, though all these statements have hitherto been made by reliable historians. ,l. 73. w A r. & c- 1676.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 59 his alliance. They had gathered their winter's provisions, and fortified themselves in the midst of an almost inacces- sible swamp. Fifteen hundred of the colonists accordingly attacked them in this stronghold. The Indian wigwams and supplies were burned, and one thousand warriors perished. In the spring, the war broke out anew along a frontier of three hundred miles, and to within twenty miles of Boston. Nowhere fighting in the open field, but by ambuscade and skulking, the Indians kept the whole country in terror, Driven to desperation by their atrocities, the settlers hunted down the savages like wild beasts. Philip was chased from one hiding-place to another. His family being captured at last, he fled, broken-hearted, to his old home on Mt. Hope, near Bristol, E. I., where he was shot by a faithless Indian. New England a Royal Province. The Navigation Act (p. 51), which we have seen so unpopular in Virginia, was exceedingly oppressive in Massachusetts, which possessed a thriving commerce. In spite of the decree, the colony opened a trade with the West Indies. The royalists in England determined that this bold republican spirit should be quelled. The colony, stoutly insisting upon its rights under the charter, resisted the officer sent over to enforce the Navigation Act and the authority of the king ; whereupon, the charter was annulled, and Massachusetts made a EOYAL PROVINCE (1684). dbarles II. died before his plan was com- pleted, but James II. sent over Sir Edmund Andros, as first royal governor of New England (1686). He carried things with a high hand. The colonies endured his oppression for three years, when, learning that his royal master was de- throned,* they rose against their petty tyrant and put him in jail. With true Puritan sobriety, they then quietly re- sumed their old form of government. This, also, lasted for * The "English Revolution of 1688." (See Barnes' General History, p. 510.) 60 EPOCH II. [1892. three years, when Sir William Phipps came as royal gov- ernor over a province embracing Massachusetts, Maine, and Nova Scotia. From this time till the Revolution, Massa- chusetts remained a royal province. Salem Witchcraft (1692). A strange delusion known as the Salem witchcraft,* produced an intense excitement. The children of Mr. Parris, a minister near Salem, per- formed pranks which could be explained only by supposing that they were under Satanic influence. Every effort was made to discover who had bewitched them. An Indian servant was flogged until she admitted herself to be guilty. Soon, others were affected, and the terrible mania spread rapidly. Committees of examination were appointed and courts of trial convened. The most improbable stories WM-O credited. To express a doubt of witchcraft, was to indicate one's own alliance with the evil spirit. Persons of the high- est respectability, clergymen, magistrates, and even the gov- ernor's wife, were implicated. At last, after fifty-five persons had been tortured and twenty hanged, the people awoke to their folly. III. MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE. These Colonies were so intimately associated with Mas- sachusetts that they have almost a common history. Gorg< >s (Q6r' jSz) and Mason, about two years after the landing of the * A belief in witchcraft was at that time universal. Sir Matthew Halo, one of i lie most enlightened judges of England, repeatedly tried and condemned pei-sons accused of witchcraft. Blackstone himself, at a later day, declared that to deny witchcraft was to deny Revelation. Cotton Mather, the most prominent minister of the colony, was active in the rooting out of this supposed crimo. He published a book full of the most ridiculous witch stories. One judge, who engaged in this per- secution, was afterward so deeply penitent that he observed a day of fasting in each year, and on the day of general fast rose in his place in the Old South Church at Boston, and in the presence of the congregation handed to the pulpit a written con- fession acknowledging his error and praying for forgiveness. 1622.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 61 Pilgrims, obtained from the Council for New England the grant of a large tract of land which lay between the Merri- mac and Kennebec rivers . They established some small fishing stations near Portsmouth and at Dover. This patent being afterward dissolved, Mason took the country lying west of the Piscataqua, and named it New Hampshire ; Gorges took that lying east, and called it the province of Maine.* Massachusetts, however, claimed this territory, and, to secure it, paid about six thousand dollars to the heirs of Gorges. Maine was not separated from Massachusetts till 1820. The feeble se' ttlements of New Hampshire also placed themselves under the protection of Massachusetts. " Three times, either by their own consent or by royal authority, they were joined in one colony and as often separated," until 1741, when New Hampshire finally became a distinct royal province and so remained until the Revolution. IV. CONNECTICUT.^ ' flor the Pilgrims landed, Lord Say-and-Seal, Lord Brooke, and others, obtained from the Earl of Warwick a transfer of the grant of the Con- necticut f valley, which he had secured from the Council for New England. The Dutch claimed the territory, and, before the English could take possession, built a fort at Hartford, and commenced traffic with the Indians. Some traders from Plymouth sailing up the river were stopped by the Dutch, who threatened to fire upon them. But they kept on and * To distinguish it from the islands along the coast, this country had boon oulJC the Mayne (main) land, which perhaps gave rise to its present name. ^ e ^i^o f a shire was so called from Hampshire in England, Mason's home. Tb>> New Hampshire were long vexed with stiits brought by the men igfiQ people Mason's grant had fallen. - guarantee of t This State is named from its principal river Conned word for Long ffiver. 3Xtinguished ; On 62 EPOCH II, [1633. established a post at Windsor (-win' zer). Many people from Boston, allured by the rich meadow lands, settled near. In the autumn of 1635, John Steele, one of the proprietors of Cambridge, led a pioneer company " out west," as it was then called, and laid the foundations of Hartford. The next year, the main band, with their pastor Thomas Hooker, an elo- quent and estimable man came, driving their flocks before them through the wilderness. In the meantime, John Wiu- throp * established a fort at the mouth of the river, and thus shut out the Dutch. Here he planted a colony, named Saybrook, in honor of the proprietors. The Pequod War. The colonists had 110 sooner become settled in their new home than the Pequod Indians endeav- ored to persuade the Narragansetts to join them in a general attack upon the whites. Roger Williams hearing of this and forgetting all the injuries he had received, on a stormy night set out in his canoe for the Indian village. Though the Pequod messengers were present, he prevailed upon the old Narragansett chief to remain at home. So the Pequods lost their ally and were forced to fight alone. They com- menced by murdering thirty colonists. Captain Mason, therefore, resolved to attack their stronghold on the Mystic River. His party approached the fort at day-break (June 5, 1637). Aroused by the barking of a dog, the sleepy sentinel shouted " Owanux ! Owanux ! " (the Englishmen !) but it was too late. The troops were already within the palisades. The Indians, rallying, made a fierce resistance, when Captain Ma- son, seizing a fire-brand, hurled it among the wigwams. The - witcil J olm Winthrop appears in history without blemish. Highly educated and the colohv sne< *' ^ e was no * ess u P r ight an( l generous. In the bloom of life, he left his book full of thtT 500 * 8 * n *ke ^ WOI '1<1 to follow the fortunes of the new. When his secution was after 1nim8e ^ poor in nurturing the Hassaclmsetts colony, this noble son year, and on the day ol 118 own large inheritance to "further the good work". It was Boston, and in the presenc uence and PP ularit y at court that the liberal diartei- was fession acknowledging his e: whioh guaranteed freedom to Connecticut. 1637.] ' DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 63 flames quickly swept through, the encampment. The English themselves harely escaped. The few Indians who fled to the swamps were hunted down. The tribe perished 11 i a day. The Three Colonies. 1. The NEW HAVEN COLONY was founded (1638) by a number of wealthy London families. They took the Bible for law, and only church members could vote. 2. The CONNECTICUT COLONY, proper, comprising Hart- ford, Wethersfield, and Windsor, adopted a written constitu- tion in which it was agreed to give to all freemen the right to vote. This was THE FIRST INSTANCE IN HISTORY OF A WRIT- TEN CONSTITUTION FRAMED BY THE PEOPLE FOR THE PEOPLE. 3. The SAYBROOK COLONY was at first governed by the pro- prietors, but was afterward sold to the Connecticut Colony. This reduced the three colonies to two. A Royal Charter was obtained (1662) which united both these colonies and guaranteed to all the rights upon which the Connecticut colonists had agreed. This was a precious document, since it gave them almost independ- ence, and was the most fa- vorable yet granted to any colony. Twenty-five years after, Governor Andros marching from Boston over the route where the pious Hooker had led his little flock fifty years before, carne "glittering with scarlet and lace" into the assembly at Hartford, and demanded the charter. A protracted debate ensued. Tradition loves to relate that, as the people crowded around to take a last look at this guarantee of their liberties, suddenly the lights were extinguished ; on THE OHAKTEE OAK. 64 EPOCH II. [1687. their being relighted, the charter was gone ; Captain Wadsworth had seized it, escaped through the crowd and hidden it in the hollow of a tree, famous ever after as the Charter Oak. However, Andros pronounced the charter government at an end. "Finis" was written at the close of the minutes of their last meeting. When the governor was so summarily deposed in. Boston, the people brought the charter from its hiding-place, the general court reassembled, and the " finis " disappeared.* V. RHODE ISLAND. Settlement. Roger Williams f settled Providence Planta- tion in 1636, the year in which Hooker came to Hartford. Other exiles from Massachusetts followed,}; among them the celebrated Mrs. Hutchinson. A party of these purchased the island of Aquiday and established the Rhode Island Plan- tation. Roger Williams stamped upon these colonies his * Another attempt to infringe upon charter rights occurred in 1693.. G/overnor Fletcher ordered the militia placed under his own command. Having called them out to listen to his royal commission, he began to read. Immediately, Captain Wads- worth ordered the drums to be beaten. Fletcher commanded silence, and began again . "Drum, druml" cried Wadsworth. " Silence!" shouted the governor. "Drum, drum, I say 1 " repeated the captain ; _and then turning to Fletcher, with a meaning look, he added : " If I am interrupted again, I will make the sun shine through you." The governor did not press the matter. The story of the Charter Oak is denied by some, who claim that contemporary history does not mention it, and that probably Andros seized the charter, while the colonists had previously made a copy. t William. Blackstone, being as dissatisfied with the yoke of the "lords brethren " in Boston as with that of the " lords bishops " in England, some time before this removed to the banks of what is now called the Blackstone, near Providence. He, however, acknowledged the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. t Persecuted refugees from every quarter nocked to Providence ; and Williams shared equally with all, the lands he had obtained, reserving to himself only two small fields which, on his first arrival, he had planted with his own hands. 8 An island of a reddish appearance was observed lying in thi bay. This was known to the Dutch as Rood or Red Island. Hence the name of the island and State of Rhode Island. (Brodtiead.) The price paid was 40 fathoms of white wam- pum, 20 hoes, and 10 coats. 1643.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 65 favorite idea of religious toleration, i. e., that the civil power has no right to interfere with the religious opinions of men. A Charter. The colonists wished to join the New En- gland Union, but were refused on the ostensible plea that they had no charter.* Williams accordingly visited England and obtained a charter uniting the two plantations. On his return, the people met, elected their officers, and (1647) agreed on a set of laws guaranteeing freedom of faith and worship to all, " the first legal declaration of liberty of con- science ever adopted in Europe or America." VI. NEW YORK. Settlement. Soon after the discovery of^the Hudson, Dutch ships began to visit the river to traffic in furs with the Indians. Afterward, the West India Company obtained a grant of New Netheiiand, and under its patronage perma- nent settlements were made at New Amsterdam f and at Fort Orange (Albany). The company allowed persons who should plant a colony of fifty settlers to select and buy land of the Indians, which it was agreed should descend to their heirs forever. These persons were called " patroons " (patrons) of the manor.J The Four Dutch Governors (1626-'64). The early his- * Plymouth, in virtue of its charter, claimed to have " jurisdiction over the Rhode Island territory ". t Some huts were built by Dutch traders on Manhattan Island in 1613, and a trading-post was established in 1615. In the latter year, Fort Nassau was completed, south of the present site of Albany. In 1624, a party of Walloons (Belgian Protest- ants) was brought over by the company. About the same time, Port Orange was erected, and eighteen families built their bark huts under its protection. In 1626, Minuit, the first governor, arrived in New Amsterdam, and purchased Manhattan Island of the Indians for about $24, nearly 1 mill per acre. t Some of the old Dutch manors remain to this day. The famous anti-rent diffi- cult' s (p. 182) grew out of such titles. 66 EPOCH II. [1626. tory of New York is only an account of Indian butcheries, varied by difficulties with the Swedes on the Delaware, and the English on the Connecticut.* These disturbances are monotonous enough in the recital, but doubtless thrilled the blood of the early Knickerbockers. Peter Stuyvesant was the last and ablest of the four Dutch governors. He agreed with Connecticut upon the boundary line (1650), and, taking an THE DUTCH TRADING WITH THE INDIANS AT NEW YORK. armed force, marched upon the Swedes, who at once sub- mitted to him. But the old governor hated democratic in- stitutions, and was terribly vexed in this wise. There were some English in the colony, and they longed for the rights of self-government which the Connecticut people enjoyed. They kept demanding these privileges and talking of them to their Dutch neighbors. At this juncture, an English fleet * These disputes arose from the fact that the Dutch claimed the territory lying between the Delaware and the Connecticut. 1664] DEVELOPMENT OF KNOUSH COLONIES. 67 came to anchor in the harbor and demanded the surrender of the town in the name of the Duke of York. Stout-hearted old Peter pleaded with his council to fight. But in vain. They rather liked the idea of English rule. The surrender was signed, and at last the reluctant governor attached his name. In September, 1664, the English flag floated over Manhat- tan Island. The colony was named New York in honor of the proprietor. The English Governors disappointed the people by not granting them their coveted rights. A remonstrance against being taxed without representation was burned by the hang- man. So that when, after nine years of English rule, a Dutch fleet appeared in the harbor, the people went back quietly under their old rulers. But the next year, peace being re- stored between England and Holland, New Amsterdam be- came New York again. Thus ended the Dutch rule in the colonies. Andros, who twelve years after played the tyrant in New England, was the next governor ; but he ruled so arbitrarily that he was called home. Under his successor, Dongan, an assembly of the representatives of the people was called, by permission of the Duke of York (1683). This was but a transient gleam of civil freedom, for two years after, when the Duke of York became James II., King of En- gland, he forgot all his promises, forbade legislative assem- blies, prohibited printing-presses, and annexed the colony to New England. When, however, Andros was driven from Boston, Nicholson, his lieutenant and apt tool of tyranny in New York, fled at once. Captain Leisler (iis'ler), supported by the democracy but bitterly opposed by the aristocracy, thereupon administered affairs until the arrival of Governor Sloughter (slaw' ter), who arrested him on the absurd charge of treason. Sloughter was unwilling to execute him, but Leisler's enemies, at a dinner party, made the governor 68 EPOCH II. [1691. drunk, obtained his signature, and before he became sober enough to repent, Leisler was no more.* From this time till the Revolution, the struggles of the people with the royal governors for their rights, developed the spirit of liberty and paved the way for that eventful crisis. VII. NEW JERSEY. Settlement. The present State of New Jersey was em- braced in the territory of New Netherland, and the Dutch seem to have had a trading-post at Bergen as early as 1 6 1 8. Soon after New Netherland passed into the hands of the Duke of York, he gave the land f between the Hudson and the Dela- ware to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, In 1 664, a company from Long Island and New England settled at Elizabeth town, which they named after Carteret's wife. Th is was the first permanent English settlement in the Stale. East and West Jersey. Lord Berkeley sold his share to some English Quakers. This part was called WEST JERSEY. A company of Quakers soon settled at Burlington. Others followed, and thus West Jersey became a Quaker colony. Sir George Carteret's portion was called EAST JERSEY. After - For iriany years, the Atlantic Ocean was infested by pirates. A little after the events narrated above, William Kidd, a New York ship-master, was sent out to cruise against these sea-robbers. He turned pirate himself and became the most noted of them all. Returning from his cruise, he was at length captured while boldly walking in the streets of Boston. He was carried to England, tried, and hanged. His name and deeds have been woven into popular romance, and the song " My name is Gap- tain Kidd, as I sailed, as I sailed", is well known. He is believed to have buried his ill-gotten riches on the coast of Long Island or the banks of the Hudson, and these localities have been oftentimes searched by credulous persons seeking for Kidd's treasure. t This tract was called New Jersey iu honor of Carteret, who had been governor of Jersey Island in the English Channel. 1682.] DEVELOPMENT OP ENGLISH COLONIES. 6D his death, it was sold to William Perm and eleven other Quakers.* New Jersey United. Constant disputes arose out of the land titles. Among so many proprietors, the tenants hardly knew from whom to obtain their titles for land. The proprietors finally (1702) surrendered their rights of govern- ment to the English crown, and the whole of New Jersey was united with New York under one governor, but with a separate assembly. Thirty-six years after, at the earnest request of the people, New Jersey was set apart as. a distinct royal province. Till., IX. PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE. Settlement. The first permanent settlement in Dela- ware was made near Wilmington (1638), by the Swedes, on a tract which they called New Sweden. They also estab- lished the first settlement in Pennsylvania, a few miles below Philadelphia. The Dutch subsequently conquered these settlements, but they continued to prosper long after the Swedish and the Dutch rule had yielded to the con- stantly-growing English power. William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, was a cele- brated English Quaker, f He obtained from Charles II. a grant' of the land lying west of the Delaware. This tract, * It was settled, however, largely by Puritans and Scotch Presbyterians. The latter, having refused to accept the English form of religion, had been bitterly perse- cuted. Fleeing their native country, they found an asylum in this favored land. t The Quakers, avoiding unmeaning forms, aim to lead purely spiritual lives. Their usual worship is conducted in solemn silence, each soul for itself. They take no oath, make no compliments, remove not the hat to king or ruler, and " thee " and " thou " both friend and foe. Every day is to them a holy day, and the Sabbath simply a day of rest. We can readily see how this must have scandalized the Puritans. William Penn became a Quaker while in college at Oxford. Refusing to wear the customary student's surplice, he with others violently assaulted some fellow-students 70 EPOCH II. Perm named Sylvania, but the king insisted upon calling it Pennsylvania* (Penn's woods). The Duke of York added to this grant the present State of Delaware, which soon came to be termed the " Three lower counties on the Dela- ware". Penn wished to form a refuge for his Quaker brethren, who were bitterly persecuted in England. He at once sent over large numbers, as many as two thousand in a single year. In 1682, he came himself, and was received by the settlers with the greatest cordiality and respect. Philadelphia Founded. The year following (1683), Penn purchased land of the Swedes and laid out a city which he named Philadelphia, signifying BEOTHERLY LOVE. It was in the midst of the forest, and the startled deer bounded past the settler who came to survey his new home Yet within a year, it contained one hundred houses ; in two years, it num- bered over two thousand inhabitants ; and in three years, it gained more than New York had in half a century. The Great Law was a code agreed upon by the legisla- tive body which Penn called from among the settlers soon after his arrival. It made faith in Christ a necessary quali- fication for voting and office-holding ; but also provided that no one believing in "Almighty God" should be molested in his religious views. The Quakers, having been persecuted themselves, did not celebrate their liberty by persecuting and stripped them of their robes. For this he was expelled. His father would not allow him to return home. Afterward relenting, he sent him to Paris, Cork, and other cities, to soften his Quaker peculiarities. After several unhappy quarrels, his father proposed to overlook all else if he would only consent to doff his hat to the king, the Duke of York, and himself. Penn still refusing, he was again turned out of doors. He was several times imprisoned for his religious extremes. On the death of his father, to whom ho had once more been reconciled, he became heir to quite a fortune. He took the territory which forms Pennsylvania in payment of a debt of 16,000 due his father from the crown. * Penn offered the secretary who drew up the charter twenty guineas to leave off the prefix " Penn ". This request being denied, the king was appealed to, who com- manded the tract to be called Pennsylvania, in honor of William Penn's father. 1683.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 71 others. Penn, himself, surrendered the most of his power to the people. His highest ambition seemed to be to advance their interests. He often declared that if he knew any thing more that could make them happier, he wohld freely grant it. *% Penn's Treaty with the Indians* possesses a romantic interest. He met them un- der a large elm-tree f near Philadelphia. The savages were touched by his gentle words and kindly bearing. "We will live in love with William Penn and his chil- dren," said they, "as long as the sun and moon shall shine." J Penn's Return. Penn returned to England (1684), leaving the colony fairly established. His benevo- lent spirit shone forth in his parting words, "Dear friends, my love salutes you all." Delaware. "The three lower counties on the Delaware" WILLIAM PENN. * " We meet", said Penn, " on the broad pathway of good faith and good will ; no advantage shall be taken on either side, but all shall be openness and love. The friendship between you and me I will not compare to a chain ; for that the rains might rust or the falling tree might break. We are the same as if one man's body were to be divided into two parts ; we are all one flesh and blood." t This tree was carefully preserved until 1810, when it was blown down. A mon- ument now marks the spot. J The simple-minded natives kept the history of this treaty by means of strings of wampum, and they would often count over the shells on a clean piece of bark and rehearse its provisions. " It was the only treaty never sworn to, and the only one never broken." On every hand the Indians waged relentless war with the colonies, but they never shed a drop of Quaker blood. 72 EPOCH II. being greatly offended by the action of the council which Penn had left to govern in his absence, set up for themselves. Penn "sorrowfully" consented to their action, appointed a deputy governor over them and afterward granted them an assembly. Pennsylvania and Delaware, however, remained under one governor until the Revolution. Penn's Heirs, after his death (1718), became proprietors of the nourishing colony he had established. It was ruled by deputies whom they appointed ; but, in 1779, the State of Pennsylvania bought out their claims by the payment of about half a million of dollars.* X. MARYLAND. Settlement. Lord Baltimore f (Cecil Calvert), a Catholic, was anxious to secure for the friends of his church a refuge from the persecutions which they were then suffering in England.}; He accordingly ob tamed from King Charles a grant of land lying north of the Potomac. The first settle- ment was made (1634) by his brother, at an Indian village which he called St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Potomac. The Charter was very different from that granted to Yir- * A difficulty having arisen with Maryland about boundaries, it was settled by two surveyors named Mason and Dixon, who ran the line in 1763-'67. This " Mason and Dixon's Line " afterward became famous as the division between the slave and the free States. t His father, G/eorge Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore, with this same design had attempted to plant a colony in Newfoundland. But having failed on account of the severity of the climate, he visited Virginia. When he found that the Catholics were there treated with great harshness, he returned to England, took out a grant of land, and bestowed upon it, in honor of the queen, the name Mary's land (Terra Marice). Ere the patent had received the great seal of the king, Lord Baltimore died. His son, inheriting the father's noble and benevolent views, secured the grant himself, and carried out the philanthropic scheme. % It is curious to observe how largely this country was peopled in its earlier days by refugees for religious faith. The Huguenots, the Puritans, the Walloons, the Quakers, the Presbyterians, the Catholics, the persecuted of every sect and creed, all flocked to this " home of the free". 1634.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 73 ginia, since it gave to all freemen a voice in making the laws. An Assembly,called in accordance with this provision, passed (1649) the celebrated TOLERATION ACT, which secured to all Christians liberty to worship God according to the dictates of their own conscience. Maryland, like Rhode Island,* be- came an asylum for the persecuted. Civil Wars. 1. Clayborne's Rebellion (1635). The Vir- ginia colony claimed that Lord Baltimore's grant covered territory belonging to them. Clayborne, a member of the Jamestown council, was especially obstinate in the matter. He had already established two trading-posts in Maryland, which he prepared to defend by force of arms. A bloody skirmish ensued, in which his party was beaten. Clayborne, however, fled to Virginia, and, going to England, appealed to King Charles I. for redress. But the final decision fully sustained the rights of Lord Baltimore under the charter. In 1645, however, Clayborne came back to Maryland, raised a rebellion and drove Governor Calvert, in his turn, out of the colony. The governor, at last, raised a strong force, and Clayborne fled. This ended the contest. 2. Tlie Protestants and, the Catholics. The Protestants, having obtained a majority in the Assembly, made a most ungrateful use of their power. They refused to acknowledge the hereditary rights of the proprietor, assailed his religion, excluded Catholics from the Assembly, and even declared them outside the protection of the law. Civil war ensued. For years, the victory alternated. At one time, two govern- ments, one Protestant, the other Catholic, were sustained. In 1691, Lord Baltimore was entirely deprived of his rights as proprietor, and Maryland became a royal province. The s * Two years before, Rhode Island had passed an act protecting every kind of religious faith and worship. Maryland extended protection to all forms of Chris- tianity alone. 74 EPOCH II. [1691. Church of England was established, and the Catholics were again disfranchised in the very province they had planted. In 1715, the fourth Lord Baltimore recovered the govern- ment, and religious toleration was restored. Maryland re- mained under this administration until the Revolution. XI., XII. THE CAROLINAS. Settlement. Lord Clarendon and several other noble- men obtained (1663) from Charles II.* a grant of a vast tract south of Virginia, which was called in honor of the king, Carolina. Two permanent settlements were soon made. 1. The ALBEMAKLE f COLONY. This was a name given to a plantation already settled by people who had pushed through the wilderness from Virginia. A governor from their own number was appointed over them. They were then left in quiet to enjoy their liberties and forget the world.! 2. The CARTERET COLONY was established (1670) by English immi- grants. They first sailed into the well-known waters where Bibaut anchored and the fort of Carolina was erected so long before. Landing, they began a settlement on the banks of the Ashley, but afterward removed to the " ancient groves cov- ered with yellow jessamine", which marked the site of the present city of Charleston. The growth of this colony was rapid from the first. Thither came ship-loads of Dutch from New York, dissatisfied with the English rule and attracted by the genial climate. The Huguenots (French Protest- * This in Latin is Carolus n. ; hence the name Carolina. It was the same that Bibaut (p. 31) gave his fort,' in honor of Charles IX. of France. t Both colonies were named after prominent proprietors of the grant. t Except when rent day came. Then they were called upon to pay to the English proprietors a half -penny per acre. 1685.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. i5 ants), hunted from their homes, here found a southern welcome.* The Grand Model was a form of government for the colonies prepared by Lord Shaf tesbury and the celebrated philosopher, John Locke. It was a magnificent scheme. The wilderness was to be divided into vast estates, with which hereditary titles \vore to be granted. But the model was aristocratic, while the people were democratic. It granted no rights of self-government, while the settlers came into the wilderness for the love of liberty. This was not the soil on which vain titles and empty pomp could nourish. To make the Grand Model a success, it would have been neces- sary to transform the log-cabin into a baronial castle, and the independent settlers into armed retainers. The attempt to introduce the scheme arousing violent opposition, it was at length abandoned. (Seepage 96.) North and South Carolina Separated. The two colonies, the northern, or ALBEMARLE, and the southern, or CAR- TKRET, being so remote from each other, had from the begin- ning separate governors, though they remained one province. There was constant friction between the settlers and the proprietors. The people were jealous. The proprietors were arbitrary. Rents, taxes, and rights were plentiful sources of irritation. Things kept on in this unsettled way until (1729) the discouraged proprietors ceded to the crown their right of government and seven eighths of the soil. The two col- * In Charleston alone there were at one time as many as 16,000 Huguenots. They added whole streets to the city. Their severe morality, marked charity, elegant manners, and thrifty habits made them a most desirable acquisition. They brought the mulberry and olive, and established magnificent plantations on the banks of the Cooper. They also introduced many choice varieties of pears, which still bear illus- trious Huguenot names. Their descendants are eminently honorable, and have borne a proud part in the establishment of oxir Republic. " Of seven presidents who were at the head of the Congress of Philadelphia during the Revolution, three were of Huguenot parentage." 76 EPOCH II. [1732. onies were separated, and they remained royal provinces until the Revolution. XIII. GEORGIA. Settlement. The same year in which Washington was born (1732), this last colony of the famous thirteen which were to fight for independence under him, was planned. James O'glethorpe, a warm-hearted English officer, having conceived the idea of founding a refuge for debtors burdened by the severe laws of that time, naturally turned to America, even then the home of the oppressed. George II. granted him " in trust for the poor ", a tract of land which, in honor of the king, was called Georgia. Oglethorpe settled at Savan- nah in 1733.* A general interest was excited in England, and many charitable people gave liberally to promote the enterprise. More emigrants followed, including, as in the other colonies, many who sought religious or civil liberty, f The trustees limited the size of a man's farm, did not allow women to * He made peace with the Indians, conciliating them by presents and by his kindly disposition. One of the chiefs gave him in return a buffalo's skin with the head and feathers of an eagle painted on the inside of it. " The eagle," said the chief, " signifies swiftness ; and the buffalo, strength. The English are swift as a bird to fly over the vast seas, and as strong as a beast before their enemies. The eagle's feathers are soft and signify love ; the buffalo's skin is warm and means pro- tection ; therefore love and protect our families." t The gentle Moravians and sturdy Scotch Highlanders were among the number, and proved a valuable acquisition to the colony. The former had fled hither from Austria, for "conscience sake." Lutheran Salzburgers founded a colony in the pine forests and named it Ebenezer, taking as their motto " Hitherto hath the Lord helped us." When John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, came to America as a missionary with his brother Charles, he was greatly charmed with the fervent piety of this simple people. The celebrated George Whitefleld afterward founded at Savannah an orphan asylum, which he supported by contributions from the immense audiences which his wonderful eloquence attracted. On one occasion sixty thousand were gathered to hear him, and his open-air meetings were often attended by from twenty thousand to forty thousand people. 1752.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 77 inherit land, and forbade the importation of rum,* or of slaves. These restrictions were irksome, and great discon- tent prevailed. At last, the trustees, wearied by the fre- quent complaints of the colonists, surrendered their charter to the crown. Georgia remained a royal province unti the Revolution. / XIV. INTER-COLONIAL WARS. 1. KING WILLIAM'S "WAR (1689-'97). Cause. War having broken out in Europe between England and France, their colonies in America took up the quarrel. The Indians of Canada and Maine aided the French, and the Iroquois assisted the English. Attacks upon the Colonists. In the depth of winter, war parties of the French and Indians, coming down on their snow-shoes from Canada through the forest, fell upon the exposed settlements of New York and New England, and committed horrible barbarities. Schenectady, unsuspect- ing f and defenseless, was attacked at midnight. Men, women, and children were dragged from their beds and tomahawked. The few who escaped, half-naked, made their way through the snow of that fearful night to Albany.J * Rum was obtained in exchange for lumber in the West Indies. Hence this law prevented that trade and cut off a valuable source of profit. t The garrison felt so secure that it is said they had placed at the gate two snow images for sentinels. $ The histories of the time abound in thrilling stories of Indian adventure. One day in March, 1697, Haverhill, Mass., was attacked. Mr. Dustin was at work in the field. Hurrying to his house, he brought out his seven children, and bidding them "run ahead", slowly retreated, keeping the Indians back with his gun. He thus brought off his little flock in safety. His wife, who was unable to escape with him, was dragged into captivity. The party who had captured Mrs. Dustin marched many days through the forest, and at length reached an island in the Merrimac. Here she resolved to escape. A white boy, who had been taken prisoner before, found out from his master, at Mrs. Dustin's request, how to strike a blow that would produce 78 EPOCH II. [1689. Attacks by the Colonists. Aroused by these scenes of savage ferocity, the colonists organized two expeditions; one under Phipps (soon after, Governor of Massachusetts, p. 59), against Port Royal, Acadia ; and the other, a combined land and naval attack on Canada. The former was successful, MB. DU8TIN DEFENDING HIS CHILDREN FROM THE SAVAGES. and secured, it is said, plunder enough to pay the expenses of the expedition. The latter was a disastrous failure. Peace. The war lasted eight years. It was ended by the treaty of Ryswick (rlz'wlk), according to which, each party held the territory it had at the beginning of the struggle. instant death, and how to take off a scalp. Having learned these facts, in the night she awoke the boy and her nurse, and arranged their parts. The task was soon done. Seizing each a tomahawk, they killed ten of the sleeping Indians; only one escaped. She then scalped the dead bodies, in order to prove her story when she should reach home, and hastened to the bank, where, finding a canoe, they descended the river and soon rejoined her family. 1702.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 79 2. QUEEN ANNE'S WAR (1702-'13). Cause. England having declared war against France and Spain, hostilities broke out between their colonies. The Five Nations had made a treaty with the French, and so took no part in the contest. Their neutrality protected New York from invasion. Consequently, the brunt of the war fell on New England. Attacks upon the Colonists. The New England frontier was again desolated.* Remote settlements were abandoned. The people betook themselves to palisaded houses, and worked their farms with their guns always at hand. Attacks by the Colonists. 1. At the South. South Carolina made a fruitless expedition against her old enemies at St. Augustine (1702).f 2. At the .Worth. Port Royal was again wrested from the French by a combined force of English and colonial troops. * On the last night of February, 1704, a party of about three hundred and fifty French and Indians reached a pine forest near Deerfield, Mass. The snow lay four feet deep on the level, but it was covered by a thick crust, while the drifts reached nearly to the top of the palisades of the town. The stealthy invaders, watching an opportunity, skulked about till the unfaithful sentinels deserted the morning watch, when they rushed upon the defenseless slumberers, who awoke from their dreams to death or captivity. Leaving the blazing village with forty -seven dead bodies to be consumed amid the wreck, they then started back with their train of one hundred and twelve captives. The horrors of that march through the wilderness can never be told. The groan of helpless exhaustion, or the wail of suffering childhood, was instantly stilled by the pitiless tomahawk. Mrs. Williams, the feeble wife of the minister, had remembered her Bible in the midst of surprise and comforted herself with its promises, till, her strength failing, she commended her five captive children to God, and bent to the savage blow of the war-ax. One of her daughters grew up in captivity, embraced the Catholic faith, and became the wife of a chief. Years after, she visited her friends in Deerfield. The whole village joined in a fast for her deliverance, but her heart loved best her own Mohawk children, and she went back to the fires of her Indian wigwam. t Four years after, the French and Spanish in Havana sent a fleet against Charleston. The people, however, valiantly defenderi themselves, and soon drove off their assailants. 80 EPOCH II. [1710. In honor of the queen, its name was changed to Annapolis. Another expedition sailed against Quebec, but many of the ships were dashed upon the rocks in the St. Lawrence, and nearly one thousand men perished. Thus ended the second attempt to conquer Canada. Peace. The war lasted eleven years. It was ended by the treaty of Utrecht (u'trSkt), according to which, Acadia was ceded to England. 3. KING GEORGE'S WAR* (1744-'48). Capture of Louisburg. War having again broken out between England and France, the flame was soon kindled in the new world. The only event of importance was the capt- ure of Louisburg f on the island of Cape Breton, by a com- bined force of English and colonial troops. The latter did most of the fighting, but the former took the glory and the * This war was preceded by what is known as the " SPANISH WAR ", which grew out of difficulties then existing between England and Spain. Tt was marked by no important event in the colonies. Governor Oglethorpe invested (1740) St. Augus- tine with a force of two thousand men, but the strength of the Spanish garrison, and the loss by sickness, caused the attempt to be abandoned. The Spaniards, in their turn, sent (1742) an expedition against G-eorgia. By means of a letter which Gov- ernor Oglethorpe caused to fall into the hands of the Spaniards, they were made to believe that he expected large reinforcements. Being frightened, they burned the fort they had captured, and fled in haste. The colonies, also, furnished about four thousand men for an expedition against the Spanish settlements in the West Indies ; but only a few hundred returned from this disastrous enterprise. t Louisburg was called the " Gibraltar (gi bral'tar) of America ". Its fortifications were extensive, and cost upward of $5,000,000. The siege was conducted in the most unscientific way, the colonial troops laughing at military terms and discipline. When the place was captured, they were themselves astonished at what they had done. The achievement called forth great rejoicing over the country, especially in New En- gland, and had an influence on the Revolutionary War, thirty years after. Colonel Gridley, who planned General Pepperell's batteries in the siege, laid out the Amer- ican intrenchments on Bunker Hill. The same old drums that beat the triumphal entrance of the New Englanders into Louisburg, June 17, 1745, beat at Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775. " When General Gage was erecting intrenchments on Boston Neck, the provincials sneeringly remarked that his mud walls were nothing compared to the stone walls of old Louisburg." 1748.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 81 booty. Peace being made in 1748 by the treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle (aks la sha pgi'), England gave back Louisburg to the French. The boundaries between the French and the English colonies were left undecided, and so the germ of a new war remained. 4. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (1754-'63). Cause. The English occupied at this time a narrow strip along the coast, one thousand miles in length, *Lt was like a st ri ng to the great bow of the French territory which reached around from Quebec to New Orleans. Both nations claimed the region west of the Alleghany Mountains, along the Ohio River. The three previous inter-colonial wars had engen- dered bitter hatred, and occasions of quarrel were abundant. The French had over sixty military posts guarding the long line of their possessions. They seized the English surveyors along the Ohio.* They broke up a British post on the Miami (mea'mS).t They built a fort at Presque Isle (presk el'), near the present town of Erie, Perm. ; another, Fort le Bo3uf (leh bCif), at the present town of Waterford ; and a third, Fort Venango (v5 nang'go), about twelve miles south, on French Oreejc. These encroachments awakened the liveliest solicitude on the part of the colonists. Washington's Journey. Dtnwiddie, Lieutenant-Gov- ernor of Virginia, accordingly sent a message by George Washingtoii^then a young man of twenty-one\to the French commander of these forts, asking their removal. Washing- ton, the very day he received his credentials, set out on his * The claims of the real proprietors, the Indians, were overlooked by both the En- glish and the French. The Indians, feeling this, sent to the agent of the Ohio Com- pany the pertinent query, " Where is the Indian's land ? The English claim .11 on one side of the river, the French all on the other. Where does our land lie " t Tlie Indian allies of the French having captured the Miami chief who defeut'.ed his English friends, killed and ate him, in true savage style. 82 EPOCH II. [ITf);!. perilous journey through the wilderness from Williamsburg to Lake Erie. He found the French officer at Fort Venango loud and boastful. At Fort le Boeuf, the commandant, St. Pierre (sSn pe ^r 7 ), treated him with great respect ; but, like a true soldier, refused to discuss theories, and declared AN INCIDENT OF WASHINHTON'S RETURN. himself under orders which ho should obey. It was clear that France was determined to hold the territory explored by the heroic La Salle and Marquette. The shore in front of the fort was even then 'lined with canoes ready for an intended expedition down the river. Washington's return through the wilderness, a distance of four hundred miles, was full of peril.* At last, he reached home unharmed, and delivered St. Pierre's reply. * The streams were swollen. The snow was falling and freezing as it fell. The - gave out, and he was forced to proceed on foot. With only one companion, he quitted the usual path, and, with the compass as his guide, struck boldly out through the forest. An Indian, lying in wait, fired at him only a i S, I mi 1754.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 83 War Opens. Early the next spring, the French, at the fork of the Monorigahela and the Alleghany, drove off a party of English traders and erected a fort, which was called Duquesne (du kan'). Soon, among the blackened stumps, corn and barley were growing on the present site of Pitts- burgh. In the meantime, a regiment of Virginia troops, under Colonel Frye, Washington being second in com- mand, had been sent to occupy this important point. Learn- ing that the French had anticipated them, Washington hast ened forward with a reconnoitering party. Jumonville (zhoo mou vel'), who was hiding among the rocks with a detachment of French troops, waiting an opportunity to attacjv him, was himself surprised and slain.* On the death of Colonel Frye, soon after, Washington assumed command and collected the troops at the Great Meadows, behind a rude stockade, aptly named .FORT NECESSITY. Here he was attacked by a large force of French and Indians, and, after a severe conflict, was compelled to capitulate. The, Five Objective Points of the War. 1. FORT Du- yUKSNE was the key to the region west of the Alleghanies, and so long as the French held it, Virginia and Pennsyl- vania were exposed to Indian attacks. 2. The possession of LOUISBURG and ACADIA threatened New England, while it gave control over the Newfoundland fisheries. French privateers harbored there, darted out and captured English ships, and then returned where they were safe from pursuit. 3. CROWN POINT and TICONDEROGA controlled the route to missing, was captured. Attempting to cross the Alleghany on a rude raft, they were caught between large masses of ice floating down the rapid current of the mid- channel. Washington thrust out his pole to check the speed, but was jerked into the foaming water. Swimming to an island, he barely saved his life. Fortunately, in the morning the river was frozen over, and he escaped on the ice. * Washington's word of command to " fire ! " upon that skulking foe (May 28, 1754), was the opening of the campaign. Washington, himself, it is said, fired the first gun of that long and bloody war. 84 EPOCHII. [1755. Canada by the way of Lake George and Lake Ohamplain, and also offered a safe starting-point for French expeditions against New York and New England. 4. NIAGARA lay on the portage between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and thus pro- tected the great fur trade of the upper lakes and the West. 5. QUEBEC being the strongest fortification in Canada, gave control of the St. Lawrence, and largely decided the posses- sion of that province. We thus see why these points were so persistently at- tacked by the English, and so obstinately defended by the French. We shall speak of them, in order. I. Fort Duquesne. The First Expedition, (1755) was commanded by General Braddock, Washington acting as an aid-de-camp (ad'de k6ng). The general was a British officer, proud and conceited. Washington warned him of the dan- gers of savage warfare, but his suggestions were received with contempt.* The column arrived within ten miles of the fort, marching along the Monongahela in regular array, drums beating and colors flying. Suddenly, in ascending a little slope, with a deep ravine and thick underbrush on each side, they came upon the Indians lying in ambush. The terri- ble war-whoop resounded on every hand. The British regu- lars huddled together, and, frightened, fired by platoons, at random, against rocks and trees. ,The Virginia troops alone sprung into the forest and fought the savages in Indian style. Washington seemed every-where present. An Indian chief with his braves specially singled him out.f Four balls passed through his clothes. Two horses were shot under him. Braddock was mortally wounded and borne from the * " The Indians," said Braddock, " may frighten continental troops, but they can make no impression on the king's regulars ! " t Fifteen years after, this old Indian chief came " a long way " to see the Virginia officer at whom he tired a rifle fifteen times without hitting him, during the Monon- gahela fight. Washington never received a wound in battle. 1755.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 85 field. At last, when the colonial troops were nearly all killed, the regulars turned and fled disgracefully, abandon- ing every thing to the foe. Washington covered their flight and saved the wreck of the army from pursuit. Second Expedition (1 7 58). General Forbes led the second expedition, Washington commanding the Virginia troops. The general lost so much time in building roads that, in November, he was fifty miles from the fort. A council of war decided to give up the attempt. But Washington re- ceiving news of the weakness of the French garrison, urged a forward movement. He himself led the advance guard, and by his vigilance dispelled all danger of Indian surprise. The French fired the fort, and fled at his approach. As the flag of England floated out over the ruined ramparts, this gatM\\ H y of the West was named Pittsburgh.* 2. Acadia and Louisburg. 1. Acadia. Scarcely had iho war commenced, when an attack was made on Aca'dia. The French forts at the head of the Bay of Fundy were quickly taken, and the entire region east of the Penobscot fell into the hands of the English, f 2. Louisburg (1757). General Loudoun (low'don) col- lected an army at Halifax for an attack on Louisburg. After spending all summer in drilling his troops, " he gave up the * This was in honor of William Pitt, prime minister of England, whose true friend- ship for the colonies was warmly appreciated in America. He came into power in 1758, and from that time the war took on a different aspect. (Barnes' G/en. Hist. p. 534.) t This victory was disgraced by an act of heartless cruelty. The Acadians were a si mple-minded, rural people. They readily gave up their arms and meekly submitted to their conquerors. But the English authorities, knowing their sympathy with the French, drove old and young on board the ships at the point of the bayonet, and dis- tributed them among the colonies. Families were broken up, their homes burned, and the broken-hearted Acadians met every- where only insult and abuse. Longfel- low's " Evangelino " pathetically describes the misfortunes of these exiles. (Barnes 1 Popular History, p. 78.) Parkman, in Harper's Magazine, Nov., 1884, gives another version, and claims that the expulsion was justified on the part of the English and the colonists. 86 EPOCH II, [1758. attempt on learning that the French fleet contained one more ship than his own ! " The next year, Generals Amherst (fim'erst) and Wolfe captured the city after a severe bom- bardment, and took possession of the entire island.* 3. Crown Point and Ticonderoga. 1. Battle of Lake George. About the time of Braddock's expedition, another was made against Crown Point. The French under Dies- kauf (des'kcrw) were met near the head of Lake George. I Fortunately, General Johnson, being slightly wounded, early in the action retired to his tent, whereupon, General Lyman, with his provincial troops, regained the battle then nearly lost. This victory following closely 011 the heels of Brad- dock's disaster, excited great joy. Johnson was given barojietcy and $25,000 ; Lyinan, the real victor, received nothing. This battle ended the attempt to take Crown Point. Johnson built Fort William Henry near the ba I {In- field ; and, when winter sot in, dismissing the New England militia, went to his fortified stone mansion on the Mohawk. 2. Attack on Ticonderoga. On a calm Sunday morning, about four months before the fall of Fort Duquesne, a thou- sand boats full of soldiers, with waving flags and strains * Abandoning Louisburg, the English made Halifax, as it is to-day, their rendez' vous (ren'de vo~b) in that region. t The brave Dieskau was severely wounded. In the pursuit, a soldier found him leaning against a stump. As he fumbled for his watch to propitiate his enemy, the soldier, thinking him to bo searching for his pistol, shot him. $ Johnson, the English commander, received word of the approach of tin onfiny, and sent out Colonel Williams with twelve hundred men to stop them. In tho hkir- mish, Williams was killed. He was the real founder of Williams College, having by his will, made while on his way to battle, bequeathed a sum to found a free school for Western Massachusetts. Two years after, Montcalm (m6nt kam), the new French general, swept down from Canada and captured this fort with its garrison, although Webb was at Fort Edward, fourteen miles below, with six thousand men lying idly in camp. The vic- tory is noted for an illustration of savage treachery. The English had been guaran- teed a safe escort to Fort Edward. But they had scarcely left the fort when the Indians fell upon them to plunder and to slaughter. In vain did the French officers peril their lives to save their captives from the lawless tomahawk. " Kill me," cried Montcalm 1758.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 87 'of martial music, swept down Lake George to attack Ticon- deroga. General Abercrombie (ab'er krum bl) ordered an assault before his artillery came up, and while the battle raged lay hid away in the rear. A disastrous repulse was the result.* 8. Capture of both Forts. The next year (1759), at the approach of General Amherst with, a large army, both Ti- coinl'Toga and Crown Point were evar final inspection on the beautiful starlight evening before the attack, he remarked to those in the boat with him, " I would rather be the author of ' The Elegy in a Coun- try Church-yard ', than to have the glory of beating the French to-morrow "; and amid the rippling of the water and the dashing of the oars, he repeated : " The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Await alike the inevitable hour; The paths of glory lead but 1o the <-, r rave." 1759.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 89 by night with the ebb-tide, they landed, clambered up the steep cliff,* quickly dispersed the guard, and, at day-break, stood arrayed in order of battle on the Plains of Abraham. Montcalm, astonished at the audacity of the attempt, could scarcely believe it possible. When convinced of its truth, he at once made an impetuous attack. Wolfe's veterans held their fire until the French were close at hand, then poured upon them rapid, steady volleys. The enemy soon wavered. Wolfe, placing himself at the head, now ordered a bayonet charge. Already twice wounded, he still pushed forward. A third ball struck him. He was carried to the rear. " They run ! They run ! " exclaimed the officer on whom he leaned. 'Who run?" he faintly gasped. "The French," was the reply. "Now God be praised, 1 die happy," murmured the expiring hero. Montcalm, too, was fatally wounded as he .was vainly trying to rally the fugitives. On being told by the surgeon that he could not live more than twelve hours, he answered, " So much the better. I shall not see the sur- render of Quebec." Five days afterward (September 18, 1759), the, city and garrison capitulated. Close of the War.f Peace. The next year, an attempt w as made to re-capture Quebec. But a powerful fleet arrived from England in time to raise the siege. A large army marched upon Montreal, and Canada soon submitted. The English flag now waved over the continent, from the Arctic Ocean to the Mississippi. Peace was made at Paris in 1763. Spain ceded Florida to England. France gave up to En- * Although Wolfe rose from a sick-bed to lead his troops, he was the first man to laud. The shore was lined with French sentinels. A captain who xinderstood French and had been assigned this duty, answered the challenge of the sentinel near the landing, and thus warded off the first danger of alarm. t The five points which were especially sought by the English were now all capt- ured. Canada itself, worn out, impoverished, and almost in famine, because of the long war, was ready for peace. 90 EPOCH II. [1763. gland all her territory east of the Mississippi, except two small islands south of Newfoundland, retained as fishing stations; while, to Spain she ceded New Orleans, and all her territory west of the Mississippi. Pontiac's War. The French traders and missionaries had won the hearts of the Indians. When the more haughty English came to take possession of the western forts, great discontent was aroused. Poii' ti ac, a chief of the Ottawas, Philip-like, formed a confederation of the tribes against the common foe. It was secretly agreed to fall upon all the British posts at once. Eight forts were thus surprised and captured.* Thousands of persons fled from their homes to avoid the scalping-knife. At last, the Indians, disagreeing among themselves, deserted the alliance, and a treaty was signed. Pontiac, still revengeful, fled to the hunting-grounds of the Illinois. He was killed (1769), at Cahokia, by an Indian, for the bribe of a barrel of liquor. Effects of the French and Indian War. During this war, v the colonists spent $16,000,000, and England repaid only $5,000,000. The Americans lost thirty thousand men, and .suffered the untold horrors of Indian barbarity. The taxes sometimes equaled two thirds the income of the tax-payer ; * Various stratagems were employed to accomplish their designs. At Maumeo, a squaw lured forth the commander by imploring aid for an Indian woman dying out- side the fort. Once without, ho was at the mercy of the ambushed savages. At Mackinaw, hundreds of Indians had gathered. Commencing a game at ball, one party drove the other, as if by accident, toward the fort. The soldiers were attracted to watch the game. At length, the ball was thrown over the pickets, and the Indians jumping after it, began the terrible butchery. The commander, Major Henry, writ- ing in his room, heard the war-cry and the shrieks of the victims, and, rushing to his window, beheld the savage work of the tomahawk and the scalping-knife. Amid un- told perils, he himself escaped. At Detroit, the plot was betrayed by a squaw, and when the chiefs were admitted to their proposed council for "brightening the chain of friendship", they found themselves surrounded by an armed garrison. Pontiac was allowed to escape. Two days after, he commenced a siegf which lasted several months. In payment of the supplies for his army, he issued birch-bark notes signed with the figure of an otter. These primitive "government bonds" were promptly paid when due. 1763.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 91 yet they were levied by their own representatives, and they did not murmur. The men of different colonies and diverse ideas fought shoulder to shoulder, and many sectional jeal- ousies were allayed. They learned to think and act independ- ently of the mother country, and thus came to know their strength. Democratic ideasvhad taken root, legislative bodies had been called, troops raised, arid supplies voted, not by En- gland, but by themselves. They had become fond of liberty. They knew their rights and dared maintain them. When they voted money, they kept the purse in their own hands. The treatment of the British officers also helped to unite the colonists. They made sport of the awkward provincial soldiers. The best American officers were often thrust aside to make place for young British subalterns. But, in spite of sneers, Washington, Gates, Montgomery, Stark, Arnold, Morgan, Putnam, all received their training, and learned how, when the time came, to fight even British regulars. X : 15. COLONIAL CIVILIZATION.* There were now thirteen colonies. They numbered nearly 2,000,000 people. The largest city was Philadelphia, which contained about twenty-five thousand inhab- itants. There were slaves in all the colonies, those at the North being chiefly house servants. Three forms of government existed charter, proprietary, and royal. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut had charter governments. Mary- land and Pennsylvania (with Delaware) were proprietary that is, their proprietors governed them. Georgia, Virginia, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, and the Oarolinas were directly subject to the crown. The colonies were all Protestant. The intolerant religious spirit of early days had moderated, and there had been a gradual assimilation of manners and customs. The people had become Americans. In accordance with the customs of the age, the laws were severe. Thus in New England, at one time, there were twelve, and in Virginia seventeen, offenses punishable by death. The affairs of private life were regulated by law in a manner that would not now be endured. At Hartford, for example, the ringing of the watchman's bell in the morning was the signal for every one to rise ; and in Massa- chusetts a scold was sometimes gagged and placed near her door, while for other minor offenses the stocks and pillory were used. * Bead Barnes 1 Popular History of the United States, Chap. 4, Colonial Life. 92 EPOCH II. Social prejudices brought over from England still survived. Even in New England, official positions were monopolized by a few leading families, and often de- scended from father to son. The catalogues of Harvard and Yale were long arranged according to the family rank of the students. Several colleges had been established, Harvard (1036), William and Mary (1692), Yale (1700), Princeton (1746), University of Pennsylvania (1749), Columbia (1754), Brown University (1764), Dartmouth (1769), and Rutgers (1770). Educational inter- ests, however, were not fostered by the English government. Only one donation was given to found a college in the colonies that of William and Mary, an institu- tion named in honor of these sovereigns. Agriculture was the main dependence of the people, though manufactures, even at this early period, received much attention at the North. Hats, paper, shoes, house- hold furniture, farming utensils, and the coarser kinds of cutlery were made to some extent. Cloth weaving had been introduced, though most thrifty people dressed in homespun. It is said of Mrs. Washington that she kept sixteen spinning-wheels DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 93 running. Commerce had steadily increased principally, however, as coast trade, in consequence of the oppressive laws of Great Britain. The daring fishermen of New England already pushed their whaling crafts far into the icy regions of the north. Money was very scarce. In 1635, musket-bullets were made to pass in place of farthings, the law providing that not more than twelve should be given in one payment. Trade was generally by barter. The first printing-press was set up at Cambridge, in 1639. Most of the books of that day were collections of sermons. The first permanent newspaper, The Boston News Letter, was published in 1704. In 1750, there were only seven newspapers. The Federal Orrery, the first daily paper, was not issued till 1792. There was a pub- lic Library in New York, from which books were loaned at four and a half pence per week. The usual mode of travel was on foot or horseback. People journeyed largely by means of coasting sloops. The trip from New York to Philadelphia occupied three days if the wind was fair. There was a wagon running bi-weekly from New York across New Jersey. Conveyances were put on in 1766, which made the unprecedented time of two days from New York to Philadelphia. They were, therefore, termed " flying machines ". The first stage route was between Providence and Boston, taking two days for the trip. A post-office system had been effected by the combination of the colonies, which united the whole country. Benjamin Franklin was one of the early postmasters- general, lie made a grand tour of the country in his chaise, perfecting and maturing the plan. His daughter Sally accompanied him, riding sometimes by his side in the chaise, and sometimes on the extra horse which he had with him. It took five months to make the rounds which could now be performed in as many days. A mail was started in 1672, between New York and Boston, by way of Hartford, according to the contract the round trip being made monthly. (See p. 304.) manners and Customs. The colonists had brought with them the ideas and tastes of the mother country, and these long survived in spite of the leveling ten- dencies and the free spirit of the new world. Distinctions of dress, to mark the higher and the lower ranks of society, as in Europe, were sedulously preserved throughout even democratic New England. Calf-skin shoes, up to the time of the Revolution, were the exclusive property of the gentry ; the servants wore coarse " neat's leather ". Farmers, mechanics, laborers, and working-men generally were clothed in red or green baize jackets, leather or striped ticking breeches, and leather apron. On Sundays and holidays, a white shirt took the place of the checked one ; the stiff, hard leather breeches were greased and blacked, and the heavy cow-hide shoes, home-made, were set off by huge brass buckles. The com- mon laborer, even after independence was achieved, received only about " two shillings" per day, and, in rare cases, " two-and-six -pence ". Hired women wore short gowns of green baize and petticoats of linsey-woolsey. Their yearly wages never exceeded " ten pounds ". The colonial gentleman, however, was gay in his morning costume of silk or velvet cap and dressing-gown, and his evening attire of blue, green, or purple flowered silk or handsomely embroidered velvet, enriched with gold or silver lace, buttons, and knee-buckles. "Wide lace ruffles fell over his hands ; his street cloak glittered with gold-lace ; while a gold-headed cane, and a gold or silver snuff-box were indispensable signs of his social position. The New England people were strict in morals. Governor Winthrop prohibited cards and gaming-tables. A man was whipped for shooting fowl on Sunday. No 94 EPOCH II. man was allowed to keep tavern who did not bear an excellent character and possess property. The names of drunkards were posted up in the ale-houses, and the keepers forbidden to sell them liquor. By order of the colony of Connecticut, no person under twenty years of age could use any tobacco without a physician's order; and no one was allowed to use it^oftener than once a day, and then not within ten miles of any house. AH conduct was shaped by a literal interpretation of the Scriptures. The min- isters had, at first, almost entire control. A church reproof was the heaviest punishment, and knotty points in theology caused the bitterest discussions. Articles of dress were limited or regulated by law. No person whose estate did not exceed 200, could wear " gold or silver lace, or any lace above 2s. per yard ". The " select- men " were required to take note of the " apparel " of the people, especially their "ribbands and great boots". Only the gentility, including ministers and their wives, received the prefix Mr. and Mrs. to their names. Others, above the rank of servant, were called Goodman and Goodwife. In the early Plymouth days, every house opened on Sunday morning at the tap of the drum. The men and the women, the former armed to the teeth, assem- bled jn front of the captain's house. Three abreast, they marched to the meet- ing-house, where every man Bet down his uiiwket within easy reach. The elders DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 95 and deacons took their seats in front of the preacher's desk, facing the congrega- tion. The old men, the young men, and the young women each had their separate place. The boys were perched on the pulpit-stair or in the galleries, and were kept in order by a constable. The light came straggling through the little dia- mond-shaped window-panes, weirdly gilding the wolf -heads which hung upon the walls trophies of the year's conquests. The services began with the long prayer, and was followed by reading and expounding of the Scriptures, a psalm lined by one of the ruling elders and the sermon. Instrumental music was absolutely proscribed, as condemned by Amos v. 23. The sermon was often three or four hours long, and at the end of each hour the sexton turned the hour-glass which stood upon the desk. "Woe to the youngster whose eyelids drooped in slumber 1 The ever-vigilant constables, with their wands tipped on one extremity with the foot, and on the other with the tail of a hare, brought the heavier end down on the nodding head. The care-worn matron who was betrayed into a like offense, WHS gently reminded of her duty by a touch on the forehead with the softer end of the same stick. After the sermon, came the weekly contribution ; the congre- gation, marching to the front, and depositing their offerings in the money-box held by one of the elders. After dismissal, the people returned home in as orderly a way as they came. The Middle Colonies. The manners of the New York people were essentially Dutch. Many customs then inaugurated still remain in vogue. Among these is that of New Year's Day visiting, of which General Washington said, " New York will in process of years gradually change its ancient customs and manners, but whatever changes take place, never forget the cordial observance of New Year's Day." To the Dutch we owe our Christmas visit of Santa Glaus, colored eggs at Easter, doughnuts, crullers, and New Year's cookies. The Dutch mansion was built, usually, of brick. Its gable-end, receding in regular steps from the base of the roof to the summit, faced the street. The front-door was decorated with a huge brass knocker, burnished daily. While th& Connecticut mistress spun, wove, and stored her household linens in crowded chests, the Dutch matron scrubbed and scoured her polished floor and wood-work. Every family had a cow that fed in a common pasture at the end of the town, and their tinkling bells, as they came and went, of their own accord, at night and morning, proclaimed the milking-hour. The happy burghers breakfasted at dawn, dined at eleven, and retired at sunset. On dark evenings, as a protection for belated wanderers, lighted candles were placed in the front windows. Along the Hudson, the great patroons, supported by their immense estates and crowds of tenants, kept up the customs of the best European society of the day. Philadelphia wa& not only the largest city in the United States, but it was famous for its nagged side-walksthen a rare luxury in any city, the regularity of its streets, and the elegance of its brick and stone residences. The trees bor- dering the carriage-ways and the gardens and orchards about the houses made it just such a " fair greene country town" as Penn wished it to be. The Southern Colonists differed widely from the Northern in habits and style of living. In place of thickly-settled towns and villages, they had large plantations, and were surrounded by a numerous household of servants. The negro quarters formed a hamlet apart, with its gardens and poultry yards. An estate in those days was a little empire. The planter had among his slaves men of every trade, and they made most of the articles needed for common use upon the plantation. 96 EPOCH II. There were large sheds for curing tobacco, and mills for grinding corn and wheat. The tobacco was put up and consigned directly to England. The flour of the Mount Vernon estate was packed under the eye of Washington himself, and we are told that barrels of flour bearing his brand, passed in the "West India market without inspection. Up the Ashley and the Cooper, there were remains of the only bona fide nobility ever established on our soil. There the descendants of the landgraves, who received their titles in accordance with the Grand Model (p. 75), occupied their manorial dwellings. Along the banks of the James and the Rappahannock, the plantation often passed from father to son, according to the law of entail. The heads of these great Southern families lived like lords, keeping their packs of choice hunting dogs, and their stables of blooded horses, and rolling to church or town in their coach and six, with outriders on horseback. Their spacious mansions were sometimes built of imported brick. Within, the grand staircases, the mantels, and the wainscot reaching in a quaint fashion from floor to ceiling, were of solid mahogany, elaborately carved and paneled. The sideboards shone with gold and silver plate, and the tables were loaded with the luxuries of the old world. Negro servants thronged about, ready to perform every task. All labor was done by slaves, it being considered degrading for a white man to work. Even the superintendence of the plantation and slaves was generally committed to overseers, while the master dispensed a generous hospitality, and occupied himself with social and political life. Education. 1. The Eastern Colonies. Next to their religion, the Puritans prized education. When Boston was but six years old, $2,000 were appropriated to the seminary at Cambridge, now known as Harvard University. Some years after, each family gave a peck of corn or a shilling in cash for its support. Common schools had already been provided, and in 1647, every town was ordered to have a free school, and, if it contained over one hundred families, a grammar school. In Connecticut, any town that did not keep a school for three months in the year was liable to a fine. In 1700, ten ministers, having previously so agreed, brought together a number of books, each saying as he laid down his gift, " I give these books for founding a college in Connecticut." This was the beginning of Yale College named from Gov- ernor Yale, who befriended it most generously. It was first established at Saybrook, but in 1716 was removed to New Haven. The " town -meetings ", as they were styled, were of inestimable value in cultivat- ing democratic ideas. The young and old, rich and poor, here met on a perfect equality for the discussion of all local questions. In Hartford, every freeman who neglected to attend the town-meeting was fined sixpence, unless he had a good excuse. 2. The Middle Colonies already had many schools scattered through the towns. In New York, during the Dutch period, it was customary for the school-master, in order to increase his earnings, to ring the church-bell, dig graves, and act as chorister and town-clerk. In the English period, some of the schools were kept by Dutch masters, who taught English as an accomplishment. As early as 1702, an act was passed for the " Encouragement of a Grammar Free School in the City of New York ". In 1795, George Clinton laid the foundation of the common-school system of the State, and within three years nearly 60,000 children were receiving instruction. At Lewiston, Del., is said to have been established the first girls' school in the colonies. The first school in Pennsylvania was started about 1683, where " reading, writing, and cast- ing accounts" were taught for eight English shillings per annum. The Orrery DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 97 invented by Dr. Rittenhouse, in 1768, is still preserved in Princeton College. No European institution had its equal. Churches were established by the various denominations. The Swedes had a meeting-house erected even before the landing of Penn. Ministers' salaries were met in different ways, generally with produce wheat, corn, beans, bacon, wood, etc. In New York, the Dutch dominie was paid sometimes in wampum. The dominie of Albany on one occasion received one hundred and fifty beaver skins. 3. The Southern Colonies met with great difficulties in their efforts to establish schools. Though Virginia boasts of the second oldest college, yet her English gov- ernors bitterly opposed the progress of education. Governor Berkeley, of whose haughty spirit we have already heard, said, " I thank God there are no free schools nor printing-presses here, and I hope we shall not have them these hundred years." The restrictions upon the press were so great that no newspaper was published in Virginia until 1736, and that was controlled by the government. Free schools were established in Maryland in 1696, and a free school in Charleston in 1712. Private schools were early established by the colonists in every neighborhood. A farm of one hundred acres was set apart by law for each clergyman, and also a portion of the "best and first gathered corn " and tobacco. Absence from church was fined. In Georgia, masters were compelled to send their slaves to church, under a penalty of 5. CONTEMPORARY EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS. ENGLAND. James 1 1603 FRANCE. GERMANY. SPAIN. Philip m 1598 Charles 1 161)5 Com'nwealth .1649 Charles H 1660 James H 1685 William and Mary. . 1G89 Louis Xni.... 1610 Louis XIV. ...1643 Matthias 1612 Ferdinand II. .1619 Ferdinand m.1637 Leopold 1 1658 Philip IV 1621 Charles n 1665 Philip V 1700 Ferdinand VI. 1746 Charles m. ..1759 Anne 1702 Joseph 1 1705 George I 1714 Louis XV 1715 Charles VT 1711 PRUSSIA. George H 1727 George HL 1760 Louis XVI.... 1774 Charles VH. . .1742 Francis I* ....1745 Joseph nt ....1765 Frederick I.... 1701 William I... .1713 Frederick U. (The Great). . 1740 * Husband of Maria Theresa. t Son of Maria Theresa. CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY. PAGE 1607. Jamestown founded by the London Company. First permanent En- glish settlement in America, May 23 38, 46 1609. Virginia received its second charter, June 2 48 1610. " Starving Time " in Virginia 48 1612. Virginia received its third charter, March 22 49 98 EPOCH II. [1613. PAGE 1613. Pocahontas married Rolfe, April 49 Settlement of New York by the Dutch 65 1614. Smith explored the New England Coast 53 1615. Culture of tobacco commenced in Virginia 50 1619. First Colonial Assembly, July 30 49 Slavery introduced in the English colony at Jamestown ... 50 1620. Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. First permanent English settlement in New England, December 21 53 1622. Indian massacre in Virginia, March 22 51 New Hampshire granted to Gorges and Mason, August 10 . . . 60 1623. New Hampshire settled at Dover and Portsmouth 61 1629. Charter granted to Massachusetts Bay Colony, March 4 ... 56 New patent for New Hampshire granted to Mason, November 7 . 61 1630. First house built in Boston, under Governor Winthrop, July . . 56 1632. Maryland granted to Lord Baltimore, June 20 72 1634. Maryland settled at St. Mary's 72 1633-'36. Connecticut settled at "Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield . . 61 1635. Clayborne's rebellion in Virginia and Maryland 73 1636. Rhode Island settled at Providence, June . 64 1637. PequodWar 62 1638. New Haven Colony founded 63 Delaware settled near "Wilmington by the Swedes, April ... 69 1641. New Hampshire united to Massachusetts 61 1643. Union of the New England Colonies, May 29 ....'. 57 1644. Second Indian massacre in Virginia, April 18 51 Charter granted to Rhode Island. Providence and Rhode Island plantations united, March 14 65 1655. Civil "War in Maryland 73 New Sweden conquered by the Dutch, October 66 1660. Navigation Act, passed in 1651, now enforced . 51 1662. Charter granted to Connecticut, April 20 63 1663. Albemarle Colony formed, March 24 74 1664. New Netherland conquered by the English and called New York, September 67 New Jersey settled at Elizabethtown 68 1670. South Carolina settled on the Ashley River 74 1675-'76. King Philip's "War 57 1676. Bacon's rebellion, April 52 1679. New Hampshire made a royal province 61 1680. Charleston, S. C., founded 74 1682. Pennsylvania settled ... - 69 Delaware granted to William Penn by the Duke of York, Aug. 31 . 70 1683. Philadelphia founded by William Penn, February 70 1686. Andros arrived in Boston as governor of New England, Dec. 20 . 59 1689. King William's War 77 Andros deposed 50 1690. Schenectady burned by the Indians and the French .... 77 1682. Salem witchcraft .60 1697. Peace of Ryswick terminated King William's War .... 78 1702.] DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH COLONIES. 99 PAGE 1702, Queen Anne's "War commenced 79 Delaware secured a separate legislative assembly 72 1710. Port Royal, N. S., captured by the English, and named Annapolis . . 79 1713. Queen Anne's "War closed by the treaty of Utrecht 80 1732. Washington born, February 22 76 1733. Georgia settled by Oglethorpe at Savannah, February l;i . . . . 76 1739. The Spanish War began 80 1744. King George's War began 80 1745. Louisburg captured by the English, June 17 80 1748. King George's War ended by the treaty of Aix la Chapello ... 81 1753. Washington sent with a letter by Dinwiddie to St. Pierre, Oct. 31 . . 81 1754. Battle at Great Meadows, Fort Necessity captured by French . . 83 1755. The French driven from Acadia, June December 85 Braddock defeated in the battle of Monongahela, July 9 .... 84 The British defeated Dieskau at Lake George, September 8 ... 86 1756. War first formally declared by the English against the French . 83 French under Montcalm captured Fort Oswego, August 14 ... 87 1757. Fort William Henry surrendered to Montcalm, August 9 .... 86 1758. Abcrcrombio repulsed at Fort Ticonderoga, July 8 87 Louisburg taken by Amherst and Wolfe, July 27 86 Fort Frontenac captured by the colonists, August 27 87 Fort Duquesne taken by the English, November 25 85 1 759. Ticonderoga and Crown Point abandoned by the French .... 87 Niagara surrendered to England, July 25 87 Battle of Plains of Abraham, Quebec surrendered 89 1760. Montreal surrendered to the English, September 8 89 1761. William Pitt, the " Great Commoner ", resigned 1763. Peace of Paris 89 Pontiac's War 90 REFERENCES FOR READING. Palfrey's History of New England. Parkman's Conspiracy of Pontiac.Neal's History of the Puritans. Holmes' 1 Robinson of Leyden (Poem). Mrs. Hemans* Landing of the Pilgrims (Poem).Martyn's Pilgrim fathers of New England. Elliott's History of New England. Hopkins' 1 Youth of the Old Dominion. Simms' Smith and Pocahon,tas. Mrs. Sigourney's Poca- hontas (Poem). Longfellow's Courtship of Miles Standish, and Evangeline (Poems). Hollands's Bay Path. Irving's Knickerbocker's History of New York, and King Philip's War (Sketch Book). -^Cooper's Last of the Mohicans. 'f-James' Ticonderoga. Hubbard's History of Indian Wars in New England. Hall's Puritans and their Principles. Randatt's School History of New York.Paulding's Ode to Jamestown (Poem), and his Dutchman's Fire-Side (a novel). Street's Frontenac (a romance). Mrs. Childs' Hobomok (a novel). Margaret Smith's Journal (by Whit- tier). Harper's Magazine, Vol. 52, Up the Ashley and Cooper (Life in Colony of S. C.) ; Vol. 66, Maryland and the Far South, The Middle Colonies, New England in Colonial Period, and The French Voyageurs. Sanborn's History of New Hampshire. Holland's History of Western Massachusetts. Greene's History of Rhode Island. Hottister's History of Connecticut. Cooke's Stones of the Old Dominion. Eggleston's Pocahontas, The "American Commonwealths'' Series. Towle's Raleigh, Vasco da Gamx, etc. 100 BARNES' BRIEF HISTORY. BLACKBOARD ANALYSIS. Introduct ion . 1 . Virginia. What is told in this Epoch ? 1. Character of the Colonists. 2. John Smith. 3. The Second Charter. 4. The " Starving Time ". 5. The Third Charter. 6. Marriage of Pocahontas. 7. First Colonial Assembly. 8. Prosperity of the Colony. 9. Slavery Introduced (1619). 10. Indian Troubles. 11. Virginia Becomes a Royal Province. 12. Period of Oppression. . 13. Bacon's Rebellion. 2. Massachusetts. 1. Plymouth Colony. 2. Mass. Bay Colony. 3. Maine and New Hampshire. I. Settlement. 3. Three Colonies 4. Royal Charter. 1. Settlement. 1. Landing of Pilgrims. 2. Character of Pilgrims. " Sufferings of Pilgrims. The Indians. Progress of Colony. 1 Settlement. Religious Disturbances. Union of Colonies. King Philip's War. N. E. a Royal Province. 6. Salem Witchcraft. Connecticut. 5. Rhode Island. 6. New York. 7. New Jersey. Pennsylvania and Delaware. 10. Maryland. 11, 12. The Carol inas. -10 I 2. A Charter. ( 1. Settlement. -( 2. Four Dutch Governors. ( 3. The English Governors. I 1. Settlement. < 2. East and West Jersey. ( 3. Jersey United. 1. Settlement. 2. Philadelphia Founded. 3. The Great Law. 4. Penn's Treaty. 5. Penn's Return to England. 6. Delaware. 7. Penn's Heirs. 1. Settlement. 2. The Charter. 3. Civil Wars. 1. Settlement. 2. The Grand Model. 3. North and South Carolina Separated. 1. Settlement. 2. The Trustees. Inter-Colonial Wars. (1689-1763.) I 15. Colonial Civilization. 1 King William's (1689-'97.) War. a. Cause. 6. Attacks upon the Colonists, c. Attacks by the Colonists. , d. Peace. a. Cause. 2. Queen Anne's War. b. Attacks upon the Colonists. (1702-'18.) e. Attacks by the Colonists. >. d. Peace. s. King George's War. ' a. Capture of Louisburg. (1744-M8.) 6. Peace. r a. Cause. 6. Washington's Journey. 4. French and Indian War. . (1754-'63.) c. War Opens. d. Five Objective Points. e. Peace. /. Pontiac's War. ' g. Effects. >( WifiiiingUin Dar lington 'Keadinj * '/ l^jf.Y II'IMTY OK XKW YORK VICINITY OF B( CV>pyV*< '"^ iy PENNSYLVANIA THREE SECTION MAPS '' TO ILLUSTRATE <> THE ROUTES OF THE BRITISH ARMY IN THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR SCALE OF MILES 60 100 The doited lines indicate, routes take.n by the British ..THE,, I REVOLUTIONARY WARk. Remote Causes. En- gland treated the settlers as an inferior class of people. Her intention was to make and keep the colonies dependent. The laws were framed to favor the English manufacturer and merchant at the expense of the colonist. The Navigation Acts compelled the Amer- ican farmer to send his products across the ocean to En- gland, and to buy his goods in British markets. American manufactures were prohibited. Iron works were denounced Oiii-stioHx on the Geography of the Third Epoch. Locate Boston. Portsmouth. Newport. Philadelphia. Salem. Concord. Lexington. Whitehall. Cambridge. New London. Charleston. Charlestown. Brooklyn. New York. White Plains. North Castle. Cherry Valley. Elizabethtown. Trenton. Princeton. G-ermantown. Albany. Oriskany. Bennington. Yorktown. Monmouth C. H. Quebec. Dan- bury. Savannah. Augusta. Norfolk. Norwalk. Fairfield. New Haven. Elmira. Camden. Hanging Rock. Cowpens. Guilford C. H. Wilmington. Eutaw Springs. Locate Crown Point. Fort Ticonderoga. Port Edward. Port Q-riswold. Port Moultrie (Port Sullivan). Port Washington. West Point. Port Schuyler (Fort Stanwix). Stony Point. Port Lee. Fort Mifflin. Fort Mercer. Describe the Brandywine Creek. Mohawk River. Waxhaw Creek. Catawba River. Yadkin River. Dan River. Delaware River. Locate Valley Forge. Ninety Six. Dorchester Heights. Morristown. King's Mount .in. "" -emis' Heights. Wyoming, 102 EPOCH III. [1765. as "common nuisances". Even William Pitt, the friend of America, declared that she had no right to manufacture even a nail for a horseshoe, except by permission of Parliament.* The Direct Cause was an attempt to tax the colonies in order to raise money to defray the expenses of the recent war. As the colonists were not represented in Parliament, they resisted this measure, declaring that TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION is TYRANNY. The British government, how- ever, was obstinate, and began first to enforce the odious laws against trade. Smuggling had become very common, and the English officers were granted Writs of Assistance, as they were called, or warrants au- thorizing them to search for smuggled goods. Under this pretext, any petty custom-house official could enter a man's house or store at his pleasure. The colonists believed that " every man's house is his castle ", and resisted such search as a violation of their rights, f Tli e Stamp Act (1765), which ordered that stamps bought of the British government, should be put on all legal docu- ments, newspapers, pamphlets, etc., thoroughly aroused the colonists. J The houses of British officials were mobbed. Prominent loyalists were hung in effigy. Stamps were; seized. * The exportation of hats from one colony to another was prohibited, and no hatter was allowed to have more than two apprentices at a time. The importation of sugar, rum, and molasses, was burdened with exorbitant duties; and the Caro- linians were forbidden to cut down the pine-trees of their vast forests, in order to convert the wood into staves, or the juice into turpentine and tar for commercial purposes. "To print an English Bible would have been an act of piracy." t The matter was brought before a general court, held in Boston, where James Otis, advocate-general, coming out boldly on the side of the people, exclaimed, " To my dying day I will oppose, with all the powers and faculties God has given me, all such instruments of slavery on the one hand and villainy on the other." " Then and there ", said John Adams, " the trumpet of the Revolution was sounded." I The assembly of Virginia was the first to make public opposition to this odious law. Patrick Henry, a brilliant young lawyer, introduced a resolution denying the right of Parliament to tax America. He boldly asserted that the king had played the tyrant ; and, alluding to the fate of other tyrants, exclaimed, " Caesar had his Brut us, Charles I. his Cromwell, and George IH." here pausing till tho cry c if " Treason I 1766.] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 103 The agents were forced to resign. People agreed not to use any article of British manufacture.* Associations, called the " Sons of Liberty ",f were formed to resist the law. Delegates from nine of the colonies met at New York and framed a Declaration of Rights, and a petition to the king and Parlia- ment. The 1st of November, appointed for the law to go into effect, was observed as a day of mourning. Bells were tolled, flags raised at half-mast, and business was suspended.! Samuel and John Adams, Patrick Henry, and James Otis, by their stirring and patriotic speeches, aroused the people over the whole land. Alarmed by these demonstrations, the English govern- ment repealed the Stamp Act (1766), but still declared its right to tax the colonies. Soon, new duties were laid upon tea, glass, paper, etc., and a Board of Trade was established at Boston to act independently of the colonial assemblies. Mutiny Act. Anticipating bitter opposition, troops were sent to enforce the laws. The " Mutiny Act ", as it was called, Treason I " from, several parts of the house had ended, ho deliberately added "may profit by their examples. If this be treason, make the most of it." John Ashe, speaker of the North Carolina Assembly, declared to Governor Tryon, "This law will bo resisted to blood and to death." * The newspapers of the day meiition many wealthy people who conformed to this agreement. On one occasion, forty or fifty young ladies, who called themselves " Daughters of Liberty ", brought their spinning-wheels to the house of Rev. Mr. Morehead, in Boston, and during the day spun two hundred and thirty-two skeins of yarn, which they presented to their pastor. " Within eighteen mouths ", wrote u gentleman at Newport, R. I., " four hundred and eighty-seven yards of cloth and thirty-six pairs of stockings have been spun and knit in the family of James Nixon, of this town." In Newport and Boston, the ladies, at their tea-drinkings, used, instead of imported tea, the dried leaves of the raspberry. The class of 1770, at Cambridge, took their diplomas in homespun suits. t This name was assumed from the celebrated speech of Barre on the Stamp Act, in which he spoke of the colonists as " Sons of Liberty ". (Bancroft's TJ. S., ILL, 100.) $ At Portsmouth, N. II., a coffin inscribed " LIBERTY, aged CXLV years", was borne to an open grave. With muffled drums and solemn tread, the procession moved from the State House. Minute guns were fired until the grave was reached, when a funeral oration was pronounced and the coffin lowered. Suddenly it was proclaimed that there were signs of life. The coffin was raised, and the inscription " Liberty Revived " added. Bells rang, trumpets sounded, men shouted, and a jubilee ensued. 104 EPOCH III. [1768. ordered that the colonies should provide these soldiers with quarters and necessary supplies. This evident attempt to enslave the Americans aroused burning indignation. To be taxed was bad enough, but to shelter and feed their oppress- ors was unendurable. The New York assembly, having re- fused to comply, was forbidden to pass any legislative acts. The Massachusetts assembly sent a circular to the other colonies urging a union for redress of grievances. Parlia- ment, in the name of the king, ordered the assembly to re- scind its action ; but it almost unanimously refused. In the meantime, the assemblies of nearly all the colonies had de- clared that Parliament had no right to tax them without their consent. Thereupon, they were warned not to imitate the disobedient conduct of Massachusetts. -(^Boston, Massacre. Boston being considered the hot-bed of the rebellion, General Gage was ordered to send thither two regiments of troops. They entered on a quiet October morning, and marched as through a conquered city, with drums beating and flags flying. Quarters were refused, but the Sons of Liberty allowed a part to sleep in Faneuil Hall, while the rest encamped on the Common. Cannon were planted, sentries posted, and citizens challenged. Frequent quarrels took place between the people and the soldiers. One day (March 5, 1770), a crowd of men and boys, mad- dened by its presence, insulted the city guard. A fight en- sued, in which three citizens were killed and eight wounded. The bells were rung ; the country people rushed in to help the city ; and it was with difficulty that quiet was restored.* Boston Tea Party (Dec. 16, 1773). The government, alarmed by the turn events had taken, rescinded the taxes, * The soldiers were tried for murder. John Adams and Josiah Quincy, who stood foremost in opposition to British aggression, defended them. All were acquitted except two, who were found guilty of manslaughter. 1773.] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 105 except that on tea which was left to maintain the principle. An arrangement was made whereby tea was furnished at so low a price, that, with the tax included, it was cheaper in - America than in England. This subterfuge exasperated the patriots. They were fighting for a great principle, not against a paltry tax. At Charleston, the tea was stored in damp cellars, where it soon spoiled. The tea-ships at New York and Philadelphia were sent home. The British authorities refused to let the tea-ships at Boston return. Upon this, an immense public meeting was held at Faneuil (fSnli) Hall,* and it was decided that the tea should never be brought ashore. A party of men, disguised as Indians, boarded the vessels and emptied three hundred and forty- two chests of tea into the water, f The Climax Reached. Retaliatory measures were at once adopted by the English government.!. General Gage was appointed governor of Massachusetts. The port of Boston being closed by act of Parliament, business was stopped and distress ensued. The Virginia assembly protested against this measure, and was dissolved by the governor. * Faneuil Hall was the rendezvous of the Revolutionary spirits of that time- hence it has been called, the "Cradle of Liberty". t On their way home from the " Boston Tea Party ", the men passed a house at which Admiral Montague was spending the evening. The officer raised the window and cried out, " Well, boys, you've had a fine night for your Indian caper. But, mind, you've got to pay the fiddler yet." " O, never mind ", replied one of the leaders, " never mind, squire ! Just come out here, if you please, and we'll settle the bill in two minutes." The admiral thought it best to let the bill stand, and quickly shut the window. $ The public feeling in England was generally against the colonies. "Every man", wrote Dr. ITranklin, "seems to consider himself as a piece of a sovereign over America ; seems to jostle himself into the throne with the king, and talks of our subjects in the colonies." Marblehead and Salem, refusing to profit by the ruin of their rival, offered the use of their wharves to the Boston merchants. Aid and sympathy were received from all sides. Schoharie, N. Y., sent 525 bushels of wheat. The people of Georgia donated 63 barrels of rice and $720 in money. Paul Revere rode on horseback to New York and Philadelphia, scattering copies of the port-bill printed on mourning paper. * 106 EPOCH III. [1774. Party lines were drawn. Those opposed to royalty were termed Whigs, and those supporting it, Tories. Every-where were repeated the thrilling words of Patrick Henry, " Give me liberty or give me death." Companies of soldiers, termed "Minute men", were formed. The idea of a continental union became popular. Gage, being alarmed, fortified Boston Neck, and seized powder wherever he could find it. A rumor having been circulated that the British ships were firing on Boston, in two days thirty thousand minute men were on their way to the city. A spark only was needed to kindle the slumbering hatred into the flames of war. The First Continental Congress (Sept. 5, 1774) was held in Philadelphia. It consisted of men of influence, and rep- resented every colony except Georgia. As yet, few members had any idea of independence. The Congress simply voted that obedience was not due to any of the recent acts of Parliament, and sustained Massachusetts in her resistance. It issued a protest against standing armies being kept in the colonies without the consent of the people, and agreed to hold no intercourse with Great Britain. 1775. Battle of Lexington (April 19). General Gage, learning that the people were gathering military stores at Concord, sent about eight hundred men, under Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn, to destroy them. The patriots of Boston, how- ever, were on the alert, and hurried out messengers to alarm the country.* When the redcoats, as the British soldiers were called, reached Lexington, they found a company of * Paul Revere caused two lights to be hung up in the steeple of Christ Church. They were seen in Charlestown; messengers set out, and he soon followed on Iji.s famous midnight ride. (Read Longfellow's poein.) 1775.] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 107 minute men gathering on the village green. Riding up, Pitcairn shouted, "Disperse, you rebels; lay down your arms!" They hesitated. A skirmish ensued, in which THE BRITISH RETREATING FROM LEXINGTON. seven Americans the first martyrs of the Revolution were killed. The British pushed on and destroyed the stores. But alarmed by the gathering militia, they hastily retreated. It was none too soon. The whole region flew to arms. Every boy old enough to use a rifle hurried to avenge the death of his countrymen. From behind trees, fences, buildings, and rocks, in front, flank, and rear, so galling a fire was poured, that but for reinforcements from Boston, none of the British would have reached the city alive. As it was, they lost nearly three hundred men. 108 EPOCH III. [1775. Effects of the Battle. The news that American blood had been spilled flew like wild-fire. Patriots came pouring in from all sides. Putnam,* without changing his working clothes, mounted his horse, and, keeping the saddle for eighteen hours, rode to Boston, over 100 miles distant. Soon, 20,000 men were at work building intrenchments to shut up the British in the city. Congresses were formed in all the col- onies. Committees of safety were appointed to call out the troops and provide for any emergency. The power of the royal governors was broken from Massachusetts to Georgia. Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17). The patriot leader, General Ward, having learned that the British intended to fortify Bunker Hill, determined to anticipate them. A body of men, under Colonel Prescott, were accordingly assembled at Cambridge, and, after prayer by the president of Harvard University, marched to Charlestown Neck. Breed's Hill was then chosen as a more commanding site than Bunker Hill. It was bright moonlight, and they were so near Boston that the sentinel's "All's well", was distinctly heard. Yet so quietly did they work that there was no alarm. At daylight, the British officers were startled by seeing the redoubt which had been constructed. Resolved to drive the Americans from * Israel Putnam, familiarly known as " Old Put ", was born In Salem, Mass., 1718. Many stories are told of his great courage and presence of mind. His descent into the wolf's den, shooting the animal by the light of her own glaring eyes, showed his love of bold adventure ; his noble generosity was displayed in the rescue of a comrade scout at Crown Point, at the imminent peril of his own life. He came out of one encounter with fourteen bullet-holes in his blanket. At Fort Edward, when all others fled, he alone fought back the fire from a magazine in which were stored three hun- dred barrels of gunpowder, protected by only a thin partition. " His face, his hands, and almost his whole body, were blistered ; and in removing the mittens from his hands, the skin was torn off with them." In 1758, a party of Indians took him pris- oner, bound him to a stake, and made ready to torture him with fire. The flames were already scorching his limbs, and death seemed certain, when a French officer burst through the crowd and saved his life. The British offered him money and the rank of major-general if he would desert the American cause ; but he could neither be daunted by toil and danger, nor bribed by gold and honors. 1775.] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 109 their position, Howe crossed the river with three thousand men, and formed them at the landing. The roofs and steeples of Boston were crowded with spectators, intently watching HEFORE, THE RATTLE OF IUTNKER RILL. the troops as they slowly ascended the hill. The patriot ranks lay quietly behind their earth-works until the redcoats were within ten rods, when Prescott shouted "Fire ! " Ablaze of light shot from the redoubt, and whole platoons of the British fell. The survivors, unable to endure the terrible slaughter, broke and fled. They were rallied under cover of the smoke of Charlestown, which had been wantonly fired by Gage. Again they were met by that deadly discharge, and again they fled. Reinforcements being received, the third time they advanced. Only one volley smote them, and then the firing ceased. The American ammunition was exhausted. The British charged over the ramparts with fixed bayonets. 110 EPOCH III. [1775. The patriots gallantly resisted with clubbed muskets, but were soon driven from the field.* The effect upon the Americans of this first regular battle was that of a victory. Their untrained farmer soldiers had put to flight the British veterans. All felt encouraged, and the determination to fight for liberty was intensified. /"Capture of Ticonderoga (May 10). Ethan Allen'fand Benedict Arnold led a small company of volunteers to sur- prise this fortress. As Allen rushed into the sally-port, a senti- nel snapped his gun at him and fled. Making his way to the commander's quarters, Allen, in a voice of thunder, ordered him to surrender. "By whose authority?" exclaimed the frightened officer. " In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress ! " shouted Allen. No resistance was attempted. * General Warren was among the last to leave. As he was try- ing to rally the troops, a British officer, who knew him, seized a musket and shot him. Warren had just re- ceived his appointment as major-general, but had crossed Charles- town Neck in the midst of flying balls, reached the redoubt, and offered himself as a volunteer. He was buried near the spot where he died. By his death, America lost one of her truest eons. Gage said that his fall was worth that of five hun- dred ordinary rebels. t Ethan Allen was a native of Connecticut. With several of his brothers, he emigrated to what is now known as Vermont. A violent controversy had arisen between the colony CAPTURE OF FORT TICONDEROGA. . 1775.] THE R EVOLUTIONARY WAR. 11 J Largo stores of cannon and ammunition, just then so much needed by the troops at Boston, fell into the hands of the Americans, without the loss of a man. Crown Point was soon after as easily taken. (Map opp. p. 120.) The Second Continental Congress (May 10) met at Philadelphia in the midst of these stirring events. It voted to raise 20,000 men, and appointed General Wash- ington Commander-in-Chief. A petition to King George III. was prepared, which he refused to receive. This destroyed all hope of reconciliation. Condition of the Army. On Washington's arrival before Boston, the army numbered but 14,000 men.* Few of them were drilled ; many were unfit for service ; some had left their farms at the first impulse, and were already weary of the hardships of war; all were badly clothed arid poorly armod, and there were less than nine cartridges to each of Now York, on the one hand, and the colonies of New Hampshire, Massa- chusetts, and Connecticut, on the other, with reference to the territory. The gov- ernor of New Hampshire, regardless of the claims of New York, issued grants of land so extensively that the region became known as the New Hampshire Grants. New York having obtained a favorable decision of the courts, endeavored to eject the occupants of the land. Ethan Allen became conspicuous in the resistance that ensued. The " Green Mountain Boys " made him their colonel, and he kept a watchful eye on the officers from New York, who sought by form of law to dispossess the settlers of farms which had been bought and made valuable by their own labor. The Revolutionary War caused a lull in these hostilities, and the Green Mountain Boys turned their arms upon the common enemy. Allen subsequently aided Montgomery in his Canadian expedition, but, in a fool-hardy attempt upon Montreal, was taken pris- oner and sent to England. After a long captivity he was released, and returned home. Generous and frank, a vigorous writer, loyal to his country and true to his friends, he exerted a powerful influence on the early history of Vermont. * At Cambridge (July 3), beneath the spreading elm, ever since famous in si'ncr and story, Washington assumed command. He was a tall, finely-formed, dignified, man, with a noble air, and dressed, according to the fashion of the time, in a blue broadcloth coat, buff small clothes, silk stockings, and a cocked hat. As he wheeled his horse and drew his sword, a shout of joy went up from the crowd. Mrs. Adams wrote" These lines of Dryden instantly recurred to me : ' Mark his majestic fabric I His a temple Sacred by birth, and built by hands divine ; His soul's the Deity that lodges there: Nor is the pile unworthy of the God'." 112 EPOCH III. [1775. soldier. Washington made every exertion to relieve their wants, and, meanwhile, kept Gage penned up in Boston. Expedition against Canada. Late in the summer, General Montgomery, leading an army by way of Lake Champlain, captured St. John's and Montreal, and then appeared before Quebec. Here he was joined by Colonel Arnold with a crowd of half -famished men, who had ascended the Kennebec and then struck across the wilderness. Attach upon Quebec. Their united force was less than one thousand effective men. Having besieged the city for three weeks, it was decided to hazard an assault. In the midst of a terrible snow-storm, they led their forces to the attack. Montgomery advancing along the river, lifting at the huge blocks of ice, and struggling through the drifts, cheered on his men. As they rushed forward, a rude block- house appeared through the blinding snow. Charging upon it, Montgomery fell at the first fire, and his followers, dis- heartened, fled. Arnold, meanwhile, approached the oppo- site side of the city. While bravely fighting, he was severely wounded and borne to the rear. Morgan, his successor, pressed on the attack, but, unable either to retreat or ad- vance against the tremendous odds, was forced to surrender. The remnant of the army, crouching behind mounds of snow and ice, blockaded the city until spring. At the ap- proach of British reinforcements, the Americans were glad to escape, leaving Canada in the hands of England. 1776. Evacuation of Boston (March 1 7). Washington, in order to compel the British to fight or run, sent a force to fortify Dorchester Heights by night. In the morning, the English were once more astonished by seeing intreiichments which 1776.] THE KEVOLUTIONARY WAR. 113 overlooked the city. A storm prevented an immediate attack a delay which was well improved by the provin- cials. General Howe, who was then in command, remem- bering the lesson of Bunker Hill, decided to leave, and accordingly set sail for Halifax with his army, fleet, and many loyalists. The next day, Washington entered Bos- ton amid great rejoicing. For eleven months, the inhabit- ants had endured the horrors of a siege and the insolence of the enemy.* Their houses had been pillaged, their shops rifled, and their churches profaned. Attack on Fort Moultrie (June 28). Early in the sum- mer, an English fleet appeared off Charleston, and opened fire on Fort Moultrie. f So fearful was the response from Moultrie's guns, that, at one time, every man but Admiral Parker was swept from the deck of his vessel. General Clinton, who commanded the British land troops, tried to attack the fort in rear, but the fire of the riflemen was too severe. The fleet was so shattered that it sailed for New York. This victory delighted the colonists, as it was their first encounter with the boasted " Mistress of the Seas ". * The boys in Boston were wont to amuse themselves in winter by building snow- houses and by skating on a pond in the Common. The soldiers having disturbed them in their sports, complaints were made to the officers, who only ridiculed their petition. At last, a number of the largest boys waited on General Gage. " What 1 " said Gage, " have your fathers sent you here to exhibit the rebellion they have been teaching you ? " " Nobody sent us ", answered the leader, with flashing eye ; " we have never injured your troops, but they have trampled down our snow-hills and broken the ice of our skating-pond. We complained, and they called us young rebels, and told us to help ourselves if we could. We told the captain, and he laughed at us. Yesterday our works were destroyed for the third time, and we will bear it no longer." The British commander could not restrain his admiration. "The very children ", said he, " draw in a love of liberty with the air they breathe. Go, my brave boys, and be assured, if my troops trouble you again, they shall be punished." t Fort Sullivan, as it was first called, was christened Fort Moultrie, after its gal- lant defender. It was built of palmetto logs, which are so spongy that balls sink into them without splitting the wood. Here floated the first republican flag in the South. Early in the action, the staff was struck by a ball, and the flag fell outside the fort. Sergeant Jasper leaped over the breastwork, caught up the flag, tied it to a sponge- staff (an instrument for cleaning cannon), and hoisted it to its place. The next day, 114 EPOCH III. [1776. Declaration of Independence (July 4). During the session of Congress this summer, Richard Henry "Lee, of Virginia, moved that " The United Colonies are, and ought to be, free and independent States"; John Adams, of Massa- chusetts, seconded the resolution. This was passed (July 2). The report of the committee* appointed to draw up a DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, was adopted, July 4.f ^^ Campaign near New York. General Howe, after evacu- ating Boston, went to Halifax, but soon set sail for New York. Thither, also, came Admiral Howe, J his brother, with reinforcements from England, and General Clinton from the defeat at Fort Moultrie. The British army was thirty thousand strong. Washington, divining Howe's plans, now gathered his forces at New York to -protect that city. Ho had, however, only about seven thousand men fit for duty. Battle of Long Island (Aug. 27). The British army landed on the south-west shore of Long Island. General Governor Rutledge offered him a lieutenant's commission. He refused, saying, "I am not fit for the company of officers ; I am only a sergeant." * Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert E,. Livingston composed this committee. (See pp. 334, 337.) t During the day, the streets of Philadelphia were crowded with people anxious to learn the decision. In the steeple of the old State House, was a be|l on which, by a happy coincidence, was inscribed, " Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof." In the morning, when Congress assembled, the bell-ringer went to his post, having placed his boy below to announce when the Declaration was adopted, that his bell might be the first to peal forth the glad tidings. Long he waited, while the deliberations went on. Impatiently the old man shook his head and repeated, " They will never do it 1 They will never do it ! " Suddenly he heard his boy clapping his hands and shouting, "Ringl Ringl" Grasping the iron tongue, he swung it to and fro, proclaiming the glad news of liberty to all the land. The crowded streets caught up the sound. Every steeple re-echoed it. All that night, by shouts, and illuminations, and booming of cannon, the people declared their joy. $ Parliament authorized the Howes to treat with the insurgents. By proclamation they offered pardon to all who would return to their allegiance. This document was published by direction of Congress, that the people might see what England de- manded. An officer was sent to the American camp with a letter addressed to "George Washington, Esq." Washington refused to receive it. The address was then changed to "George Washington, &c." But Washington declined all commu- nications which did not recognize his position as commander of the American army. 1776. 1 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 115 Putnam, with about eight thousand men, held a fort at Brooklyn and defenses on a range of hills south of the city. The English advanced in three divisions. Two of these attacked the defenses in front, while Q-eneral Clinton, by a circuitous route, gained the rear. The patriots were fight- ing gallantly, when, to their dismay, they heard firing be- hind them. They attempted to escape, but it was too late. Out of about four thousand Americans engaged, one thou- sand were lost.* (Map opposite p. 1 2 0.) Had Howe attacked the fort at Brooklyn immediately, the Americans would have been destroyed. Fortunately, he delayed for the fleet to arrive. For two days, the patriots lay helpless, awaiting the assault. On the second night after the battle, there was a dense fog on the Brooklyn side, while in New York the weather was clear. At midnight, the Americans moved silently down to the shore and crossed the river. f In the morning, when the sun scattered the fog, Howe was chagrined to find his prey escaped. Washington,' 8 Retreat. The British, crossing to New York,! moved to attack Washington, who had taken post on * Many of the oaptives were consigned to the Siigar House on Liberty Street, and the prison-ships in Wallabout Bay. Their hard lot made the fate of those who per- ished in battle to be envied. During the course of the war, over 11,000 American prisoners died in these loathsome hulks. Their bodies were buried in the beach, whence, for years after, they were washed out from the sand by every tide. In 1808, the remains of these martyrs were interred with suitable ceremonies near the Navy Yard, Brooklyn ; and, in 1873, they were finally placed in a vault at Washington Park. t The Americans embarked at a place near the present Pulton Ferry. A woman sent her negro servant to the British to inform them of the movements of the Ameri- cans. He was captured by the Hessians, who were Overmans from Hesse Cassel, hired to fight by the British government. These, not being able to understand a word of English, detained him until the morning. His message was then too late. J Washington desiring to gain some knowledge of Howe's movements, sent Cap- tain Nathan Hale to visit the English camps on Long Island. He passed the lines safely, but on his way back was recognized and arrested by a tory relative. Being taken to Howe's head-quarters, he was tried, and executed as a spy. No clergyman was allowed to visit him ; even a Bible was denied him, and his farewell letters to his mother and sister were destroyed. His last words were, "I regret only that I have but one life to give to my country." 116 EPOCH III. [1776. HARLEM HEIGHTS. Finding the American position too strong, Howe moved up the Sound in order to gain the rear. Wash- ington then withdrew to WHITE PLAINS. Here Howe came up and defeated a part of his army. Washington next retired into a fortified camp at NORTH CASTLE. Howe, not daring to attack him, returned to New York and sent the Hessians to take FORT WASHINGTON, which they captured after a fierce resistance (Nov. 16). Flight through Neiv Jersey. Washington had now re- tired into New Jersey in order to prevent the British from marching against Philadelphia. Cornwallis, with six thou- sand men, hurried after him, and for three weeks pursued the flying Americans. Many of the patriots had no shoes, and left their blood-stained foot-prints on the frozen ground. Oftentimes, the van of the pursuing army was in sight of the American rear-guard At last, Washington reached the Delaware, and, all the boats having been secured, crossed into Pennsylvania.* Howe resolved to wait until the river should freeze over, and then capture Philadelphia, mean- while quartering his troops in the neighboring villages. Condition of the Country. It was a time of deep despondency. The patriot army was a mere handful of ragged, disheartened fugitives. Many people of wealth and influence went over to the enemy. New York and Newport the second city in size in New England were already in the hands of the British, and they were likely soon to seize Philadelphia. >T Battle of Trenton. Washington thought it time to * During this retreat, Washington repeatedly sent orders to General Lee, who was then at North Castle, to join him. Lee hesitated, and at last moved very slowly. Five days after this, while quartered in a small tavern at Baskingridge, remote from his troops, he was taken prisoner by the English cavalry. His capture was con- sidered a great misfortune by the Americans, who thought him the best officer in the army. The British were rejoiced, and declared they had taken the " Amer- ican Palladium ", 1776.] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 117 strike a daring blow. On Christmas night, in a driving storm of sleet, amid drifting ice, that threatened every moment to crush the boats, he crossed the Delaware with twenty-four hundred picked men, fell upon the SURRENDER TRENTON. Hessians at Trenton, in the midst of their festivities,* captured one thousand prisoners, slew their leader, f and * Hunt, a trader with friends and foes, a neutral, had invited Rail, the Hessian commander, to a Christmas supper. Card-playing and wine-drinking were kept up all night long. A messenger came in haste, at early dawn, with a note to the colonel. It was sent by a tory to give warning of the approach of the American forces. The negro servant refused admittance to the bearer. Knowing its importance, he bade the negro to take the note directly to the officer. The servant obeyed, but the colonel, excited by wine and the play, thrust it unopened into his pocket. Soon after daylight, the roll of drums was heard, and before the pleasure-loving officer could reach his quarters the Americans were in pursuit of his fleeing soldiers. t Before leaving Trenton, Washington and Greene visited the dying Hessian. It had been a time of splendid triumph to the American commander, but as he stood by the bedside, the soldier was lost in the Christian, and the victorious general showed himsrlt' in that hour only ;i sympathizing friend. 118 EPOCH II I. [1777. safely escaped back to camp, with the loss of only four men two killed and two frozen to death. (Map opposite p. 120.) The effect of this brilliant feat was electrical. The fires of patriotism were kindled afresh. New recruits were re- ceived, and the troops whose term of enlistment was expir- ing, agreed to remain. Howe was alarmed, and ordered Cornwallis, who was just setting sail for England, to return and prepare for a winter's campaign. 1777 Battle of Princeton (Jan. 3). Washington soon crossed the Delaware again, and took post at Trenton. Just before sunset, Cornwallis came up. His first onset being repulsed, he decided to wait till morning. Washington's situation was now most critical. Before him was a powerful army ; behind him, a river full of floating ice. That night,* leaving his camp-fires burning to deceive the enemy, he swept by country roads around the British, fell upon the troops near Princeton, routed them, took over two hundred prisoners, and by rapid marches reached Morristown Heights in safety. Cornwallis heard the firing and hurried to the rescue, but he was too late. The victory was gained, and the victors were beyond pursuit. * Washington had forty cannon. At night-fall, the ground was so soft that ho could not move them ; but, while the council was in session, the wind changed, and in two hours the roads were as hard as pavement. Erskine urged Cornwallis to attack the Americans that night, but he said he could " catch the fox in the morn- ing ". On the morrow, the fires were still burning, but the army was gone. None knew whither the patriots had fled. But at sunrise there was a sound of firing in the direction of Princeton. The report of the cannon through the keen frosty air could be distinctly heard, but Cornwallis believed it to be distant thunder. Erskine, how- ever, exclaimed, "To arms, general 1 Washington has outgeneraled us. Let us fly to the rescue at IMncetou ! " 1777.] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 119 These exploits won for Washington universal praise,* and he was declared to be the saver of his country. Campaign in Pennsylvania. Howe, having spent the next summer at New York, where he was closely watched by Washington, finally took the field, and maneuvered to force the patriot army to a general fight. Finding the "American Fabius" too wary for him, he suddenly embarked eighteen thousand men on his brother's fleet, and set sail. Washington hurried south to meet him. The patriot army numbered only 11,000, but when Washington learned that the British had arrived in the Chesapeake, he resolved to hazard a battle for the defense of Philadelphia. Battle of Brandywine (Sept. 11). The Americans took position at Chad's Ford, on the Brandywine. Here they were attacked in front while Cornwallis stole around to the rear, as Clinton had done in the battle of Long Island. Sul- livan, Stirling, La Fayette,f Wayne, arid Count Pulaski, in * Frederick the Great of Prussia is said to have declared that the achievements of Washington and his little band, during the six weeks following Christmas, were the most brilliant recorded on the pages of military history. t La Fayette's full name was Marie Jean Paul Boch Yves Gilbert Metier Marquis de La Fayette. At a banquet in honor of the brother of the English king, he flrsft heard the Declaration of Independence. He was won by its arguments, and from that time joined his hopes and sympathies to the American cause. Yet, how was he to aid it? The French nobility, though disliking England, did not indorse the action of her colonies. He was not yet twenty years of age ; he had just married a woman whom he tenderly loved ; his prospects at home for honor and happiness were bright ; to join the patriot army would take him from his native land, his wife, and all his cov- eted ambitions, and lead him into a struggle that seemed as hopeless as its cause wa* just. Yet, his /.c;il for America overcame all these obstacles. Other difficulties now arose. IT is family objected ; the British minister protested; the French king with- MARQTTIS DE LA FAYETTE. 120 EPOCH III. [1777. vain performed prodigies of valor. The patriots were routed, Philadelphia was taken, and the British army went into quarters there and at Germantown.* Battle of Germantown (Oct. 4). Washington would not let the enemies of his country rest in peace. A few weeks after they had settled down for the winter, he made a night march, and at sunrise fell upon their troops at Germantown. At first, the attack was successful, but a few companies of British desperately defending a stone house caused delay. The co-operation of the different divisions was prevented by a dense fog, which also hid the confusion of the enemy, so that the Americans retreated just at the moment of victory. ^Conclusion of the Campaign in Pennsylvania. After these battles, Howe turned his attention to the forts on the Delaware, which prevented his bringing supplies up to Philadelphia. The gallant defenders were soon forced by a severe bombardment to evacuate. Washington now retired to Valley Forge for winter quarters. Campaign at the North." While the British had been thus successful in Pennsylvania, their victories were more than counterbalanced by defeats at the North. An attempt to cut off New England from New York by an expedition along the old traveled French and Indian war route up Lake Champlain, ended in disaster, f held his permission. Still undaunted, he purchased a vessel, fitted it out at his own expense, and, escaping the officers sent to detain him, crossed the ocean. As soon as he reached Charleston, he hastened to Philadelphia, and offering himself to Congress asked permission to serve as a volunteer without pay. A few days after, his acquaint- ance with Washington began, and it soon ripened into a tender and intimate friend- ship. His valor won for him a commission as major-general before he was twenty-one. * The British army was sadly demoralized by the festivities of their winter quar- ters. Franklin wittily said, " Howe has not taken Philadelphia so much as Philadel- phia has taken Howe." t Besides the capture of Burgoyne's army (p. 125), several minor events occurred during the year, which served to encourage the people. (1.) Howe sent G/eneral Tryon with two thousand men to destroy the American stores at Danbury, Conn. Having accomplished his work, and set fire to the town, he began his retreat, plundering the k^?3S._t * 1 A LAKE CHAMPLAIN CAMPAIGNS IN THE NORTH . THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 1777.] /TMUB REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 121 i i Burgoyne's Invasion. In June, Burgoyne marched south from Canada with an army of over eight thousand British and Indians. Forts Crown Point, Ticonderoga, and Edward, and the supplies at Whitehall, successively fell into his hands. General Schuyler, having but a small force, could only obstruct his path through the wilderness, by felling trees across the road and breaking down bridges. The loss of so many strongholds caused general alarm. Lincoln with the Massachusetts troops, Arnold noted for his headlong valor, and Morgan with his famous riflemen, were sent to check Burgoyne's advance. Militiamen gathered from the neighbor- ing States,* and an army was rapidly collected and drilled. So much dissatisfaction, however, arose with Schuyler that people and devastating the country on his way. But the militiamen under Wooster, A mold, and Silliman, handled his forces so roughly that they were glad to reach thei r boats. General Wooster, who was mortally wounded in the pursuit, was nearly seventy years of age, but fought with the vigor of youth. Two horses were shot under Arnold, and he received the fire of a whole platoon at a distance of thirty yards, yet escaped uninjured. (2.) Colonel Meigs avenged the burning of Danbury. With about two hundred men he crossed in whale-boats to Long Island, destroyed a great quantity of stores, including twelve ships at Sag Harbor, took ninety prisoners, and escaped without losing a man. (3.) The Americans were anxious to offset the capture of General Lee. General Prescott, who then held command in Ehode Island, finding himself surrounded by ships and a superior British force, became very negli- gent. Accordingly, Colonel Barton formed a plan to capture him. Dexterously avoiding the enemy's vessels, he rowed ten miles in whale-boats and with about forty militia landed near Prescott 's quarters. Seizing the astonished sentinel who guarded his door, they hurried off the half -dressed general. A soldier escaping from the house gave the alarm, but the laughing guard assured him he had seen a ghost. They soon, however, found it to be no jesting matter, and vainly pursued the exult- ant Barton. This capture was very annoying to Prescott, as he had just offered a price for Arnold's head, and his tyrannical conduct had made him obnoxious to the people. General Howe readily parted with Lee in exchange for Prescott. * The outrages of the Indians along the route led many to join the army. None of their bloody acts caused more general execration than the murder of Jane McCroa. This young lady was the betrothed of a Captain Jones, of the British army. She lived near Fort Edward, in the family of her brother, who, being a whig, started for Albany on Burgoyne's approach. But she, hoping to meet her lover, lingered at the house of a Mrs. McNeil, a stanch loyalist, and a cousin of the British general, Eraser. Early one morning, the house was surprised by Indians, who dragged out the inmates and hurried them away toward Burgoyne's camp. Mrs. McNeil arrived there in safety. Soon, another party came in with fresh scalps, among which she recognized the long 122 EPOCH III. [1777. he was superseded by Gates just as he was ready to reap the result of his well-laid schemes. "With noble-minded patriot- ism, he made known to Gates all his plans and generously assisted him in their execution. The army was now stationed at Bemis' Heights, where fortifications were thrown up under the direction of Kosciusko* (k6s si -as' ko). Burgoyne's Difficulties. In the meantime, before Gates took command, two events occurred which materially de- ranged the plans of Burgoyne. 1. St. Leger had been sent to take Fort Schuylor,f thence to ravage the Mohawk Valley and join Burgoyne's army at Albany. General Arnold being dispatched to relieve that fort, accomplished it by stratagem. A half-witted tory boy who had been taken prisoner, was promised his freedom, if he would spread the report among St. Leger's troops that a large body of Americans was close at hand. The boy, having cut holes in his clothes, ran breathless into the camp of the besiegers, showing the bullet-holes and describing his narrow escape from the enemy. When asked their number, he mys- teriously pointed upward to the leaves on the trees. The Indians and British were so frightened that they fled pre- cipitately, leaving their tents and artillery behind glossy hair of her friend. The savages declared that she had been killed by a chance shot from a pursuing party ; whereupon they had scalped her to secure the bounty. The precise truth has never been known. Captain Jones secured the sad memento of his betrothed, and resigned. The government refusing his resignation, he de- serted, and for over fifty years lived remote from society, a heart-broken man. * This general was a Pole of noble birth. While in Prance he formed the acquaint- ance of Franklin, who recommended him to Washington. He came to America and offered himself " to fight as a volunteer for American independence ". " What can you do ? " asked the commander. " Try me ", was Kosciusko's laconic reply. Wash- ington was greatly pleased with him, and made him his aid. He became a colonel in the engineer corps, and superintended the construction of the works at West Point. After the war, he returned home and led the Poles in their struggles for independ- ence. At Cracow, is a mound of earth, 150 feet high, raised in his memory. It is composed of soil brought from the battle-fields on which the Poles fought for liberty. In the new world, his name is perpetuated by a monument at West Point. t Fort Stanwix, on the site of Rome, N. Y., in 1776 was named after Gten. Schuyler. 1777.1 THE REVOLUTIONARY WA 123 2. Burgoyne sent a detachment under Colonel Baum to seize the supplies the Americans had collected at Ben- nington, Vt. General Stark with the militia met him there. As Stark saw the British lines forming for the attack, he exclaimed. " There are the redcoats : we must AENOLD AT SARATOGA. beat them to-day, or Betty Stark is a widow." His pa- triotism and bravery so inspired his raw troops that they defeated the British regulars and took over six hundred prisoners.* The Two Battles of Saratoga (Sept. 19 and Oct. 7). Dis- appointed in his expectation of supplies and reinforcements from both these directions, Burgoyne now moved south- * One old man had five sons in the patriot army at Bennington. A neighbor, just from the field, told him that one had been unfortunate. " Has he proved a coward or a traitor?" asked the Bather. "Worse than that," was the answer; "he has fallen, but while bravely fightinp " " Ah." said the father, " then I am satisfied." 124 EPOCH III. [1777. ward and attacked Gates' army at Bemis' Heights near Sn ra- toga. The armies surged to and fro through the day, like the ebbing and flowing of the tide. The strife did not cease until darkness closed over the battle-field. For two weeks afterward, both armies lay in camp fortifying their positions, and each watching for an opportunity to take the other at a disadvantage.* Burgoyne, finding that his provisions were low and that he must either fight or fly, again moved out to attack the Americans. Arnold, who had been unjustly de- prived of his command since the last battle, maddened by the sight of the conflict, rushed into the thickest of the fight. f Gates, fearing that he might win fresh laurels, ordered Major Armstrong to recall him, but he was already out of reach. He had no authority to fight, much less to direct ; but, dash- ing to the head of his old command, where he was received with cheers, he ordered a charge on the British line. Urging on the fight, leading every onset, delivering his orders in person where the bullets flew thickest, he forced the British J to their camp. Here the Hessians, dismayed by these terrific attacks, fired one volley and fled. Arnold, having forced an entrance, was wounded in the same leg as at Quebec (p. 1 1 2), * The British camp was kept in continual alarm. Officers and soldiers were con- stantly dressed and ready for action. One night, twenty young farmers residing near the camp, resolved to capture the enemy's advance picket-guard. Armed with fowl- ing-pieces, they marched silently through the woods until they wore within a few yards of the picket. They then rushed out from the bushes, tho captain blowing an old horse-trumpet and the men yelling. There was no time for the sentinel's hail. " Ground your arms, or you are all dead men 1 " cried the patriot captain. Thinking that a large force had fallen upon them, the picket obeyed. The young farmers, with all tho parade of regulars, led to the American camp over thirty British soldiers. t So fierce was the battle, that a single cannon was taken and retaken five times Finally, Colonel Cilley leaped on it, waved his sword, and "dedicating the guri to the American cause ", opened it upon the enemy with their own ammunition. $ General Eraser was the mind and soul of the British army. Morgan soon saw that this brave man alone stood between the Americans and victory. Calling to him some of his best men, he said, " That gallant officer is General Fraser. I admire and honor him ; but he must die. Stand among those bushes and do your duty." In five minutes Fraser fell, mortally wounded. 177?.] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAft. 125 and borne from the field, but not until he had won a victory while Gates stayed in his tent. Effects of these Battles. Burgoyne now fell back to Sara- toga. Hemmed in on all sides, there was no hope of escape. Indians and tories were constantly deserting. Provisions were low and water was scarce, as no one, except the women, dared go to the river for it. The American batteries commanded the British camp. While a council of war. held in Burgoyne 's tent, was considering the question of surrender, an 1 8-lb. cannon-ball passed over the table around which the officers sat. Under these circumstances, the decision was quickly made. The entire army, nearly six thousand strong, laid down their arms, and an American detachment marched into their camp, to the tune of Yankee Doodle. General Burgoyne handed his sword to General Gates, who promptly returned it. A shout of joy went up all over the land at the news of this victory. From the despair caused by the defeats of Brandywine and Germantown, the nation now rose to the highest pitch of confidence. 1778. Winter in Valley Forge (17 7 7-' 7 8). The winter passed in Valley Forge was the gloomiest period of the war. The continental paper money was so depreciated in value that an officer's pay would not keep him in clothes. Many, having spent their fortune in the war, were compelled to resign, in order to get a living. The men were encamped in cold, com- fortless huts, with little food or clothing. Barefooted, they left on the frozen ground their tracks in blood. Few had blankets, and straw could not be obtained. Soldiers, who were enfeebled by hunger and benumbed by cold, slept ou 126 EPOCH III. [1778. the bare earth. Sickness followed. With no change of cloth- ing, no suitable food, and no medicines, death was the only relief. Amid this terrible suffering, the fires of patriotism burned brightly. Washington felt that his cause was just, and inspired all around him with his sublime faith.* IN CAMP AT VALLEY FORGE. Aid from France. In the spring, the hearts of all were gladdened by the news that, through the efforts of Frank- * During this winter, Washington was quartered at the house of Isaac Potts. One day, while Potts was on his way up the creek near by, he heard a voice of prayer. Softly following its direction, he soon discovered the General upon his knees, his cheeks wet with tears. Narrating the incident to his wife, he added with much emotion, " If there is any one to whom the Lord will listen, it is George Washington, and under such a commander, our independence is certain." Besides all the perils of want and famine which he shared with his soldiers, Washington was called upon to suffer from envy and calumny. General Conway, a cunning, restless intriguer, formed a cabal of officers against Washington, rheir plan was to wound his f eelings BO that he would resign. In that event, Gates, whose reputation was very high, would succeed to the command. Pennsylvania sent to Congress a remonstrance cen- suring Washington. The same was done by members from Massachusetts. Fort- unately, the army and the best citizens knew the inspiration of the movement to be jealousy, and their indignation was unbounded. Neither Conway nor Adams dared show himself among the soldiers, and the attack recoiled on the heads of its instiga- tors. Soon after this, England sent commissioners with liberal proposals, which, bo- fore the war commenced, would have been accepted ; but that day was past. Next, bribery was tried. Among those approached was General "Reed, of Pennsylvania. He was offered ten thousand guineas and high honors if he would exert his influence to effect a reconciliation. "I am not worth purchasing," said the honest patriot, "but such as I am, the king of Great Britain is not rich enough to buy me." 1778.] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 127 lin,* France had acknowledged the Independence of the United States, and that a fleet was on its way to help them in their struggle. Battle of Monmouth (June 28). Howe having returned to England, Clinton succeeded him. The British govern- ment, alarmed by the sending of the French fleet, ordered (Clinton to concentrate his forces at New York. Washing- ton rapidly followed the English across New Jersey and * Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston, 1706 ; died in Philadelphia, 1790. His father was a soap and candle maker, with small means, and Benjamin, being the youngest boy among 17 children, had little opportunity to gratify his desire for knowl- edge. By abstaining from meat, he man- aged to buy a few books, which he diligently studied. At seventeen years of age, he landed in Philadelphia with a silver dollar and a shilling in copper. As, with his extra shirts and stockings stuffed in his pockets, he walked along the streets, eating the roll of bread which served for his breakfast, his future wife stood at her father's door and smiled at his awkward appearance, little dreaming of his brilliant future, or of its interest to her. He soon obtained em- ployment as a printer. Being induced by false representations to go to England, he BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. found himself almost penniless in a strange land. With his usual industry, he went to work, and soon made friends and a living. Returning to Philadelphia, he established a newspaper, and in 1732 commenced to publish " Poor Richard's Almanac ", which for twenty years was quite as popular in Europe as in America. Its common-sense proverbs and useful hints are household words to this day. Retiring from business with a fine fortune, he devoted himself chiefly to science. His discoveries in electricity are world-renowned. (See Steele's New Physics, pp. 228, 251.) Franklin was an unflinching patriot. While in England he defended the cause of liberty with great zeal and ability. He helped to draft the Declaration of Independence, and was one of its signers. Having been appointed ambassador to France, he first invested all his ready money, $15,000, in the conti- nental loan, a practical proof of his patriotism, since its repayment was extremely improbable. His influence at the French court was unbounded. He was revered for his wit, his genius, his dignity, and his charming conversation. He became to the American cause in the old world what Washington was in the new. On his return, he was elected president of Pennsylvania for three successive years. He gave the whole of his salary, $30,000, to benevolent objects. In his eighty-second year, he was a member of the Constitutional Convention. At his death, twenty thousand persons assembled to do honor to his memory. 128 EPOCH III. [1778. overtook them at Monmouth. General Lee,* who conducted the attack, ordered a retreat. The men, entangled in a swamp, were becoming demoralized as they retired from the field, when "Washington, riding up, bitterly rebuked Lee, by his personal presence rallied the men, and sent them back against the enemy. The fight lasted all that long sultry day.f In the darkness of night, Clinton stole away with his men to New York. Campaign in Rhode Island. A combined attack on Newport was arranged to be made by the French fleet under D'Estaing (dSs t&ng'), and the American army under General Sullivan. Soon after the French entered Narragansett Bay, Howe arrived off the harbor with the English fleet. D'Estaing went out to meet him. A storm came on, which so shattered both fleets that they were compelled to put back for repairs. General Sullivan, being thus deserted, retreated just in time to escape Clinton, who came from New York with rein- forcements. The French gave no further aid during the year. The Wyoming Massacre. In July, a band of tories and Indians, under Butler, entered the beautiful valley of the Wyoming. Most of the able-bodied men had gone to the war. The old men and the boys armed for the defense. The women and children fled for refuge to a fort near the present site of Wilkesbarre. Taking counsel of their courage and their helpless mothers, wives, and children, a handful of * Charles Lee, for his conduct at Monmouth, and disrespectful letters to Washing- ton, and to Congress, was dismissed the army. He retired to his estate in Virginia, where he lived, with his dogs, in a rude house whose partitions were chalk marks on the floor an improvement upon walls on which he prided himself. t During the day, an artilleryman was shot at his post. His wife, Mary Pitcher, while bringing water to her husband from a spring, saw him fall and heard the com- mander order the piece to be removed from the field. Instantly dropping the pail, she hastened to the cannon, seized the rammer, and with great skill and courage per- formed her husband's duty. The soldiers gave her the nickname of Major Molly. Congress voted her a sergeant's commission warrant with half -pay through life. 1778] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 129 men sallied out to meet the invaders, but were quickly de- feated. All that night, the Indians tortured their prisoners in every way that savage cruelty could devise. The fort hav- ing been surrendered on promise of safety, Butler did his best to restrain his savage allies, but in vain. By night, the whole valley was ablaze with burning dwellings, while the people fled for their lives through the wilderness. 1779. Campaign at the South. At the close of the preceding autumn, the war was transferred to Georgia, and the South became henceforth the principal seat of conflict. Savannah and Augusta were captured, and soon the entire state was conquered. The English governor being restored, England could once more boast of a royal province among the colo- nies. The British general, Prevost (preh v5'), next marched against Charleston. He had scarcely summoned the city when he heard that Lincoln, his dreaded foe, was after him with the militia, and he was glad to escape back to Savannah. French--d.rnerican Mtach on Savan^^a7^. In September, D'Estaing joined Lincoln in besieging that city. After a severe bombardment, an unsuccessful assault was made, in which a thousand lives "were lost. Count Pulaski * was mortally wounded. The simple-hearted Sergeant Jasper died grasping the banner presented to his regiment at Fort Moultrie. D'Estaing refused to give further aid ; thus again deserting the Americans when help was most needed. * Count Pulaski was a Polish patriot who, having lost his father and brothers in the hopeless defense of his country, and being himself outlawed, came to fight for the freedom of America. At first, he served as a volunteer. He fought valiantly at the battle of Brandywine. During the second year, he commanded an independent corps, called " Pulaski 's Legion ". He was buried in the Savannah River. The corner- stone of a monument raised to his memory in Savannah, was laid by La Fayette while visiting that city during his triumphal progress through the United States. 130 EPOCH III. [1779. Campaign at the North. Clinton did little except to send out predatory parties. Norwalk, Fairfield, and New Haven, Conn, were either burned or plundered. Tryon, who commanded the Connecticut expedition,* boasted of his clemency in leaving a single house standing on the New England coast. The Capture of Stony Point, by General "Wayne, was one of the most brilliant exploits of the war. The countersign, which, curiously enough, was "The fort is ours ", was obtained from a negro who was in the habit of selling strawberries to the British. He guided the troops in the darkness to the causeway leading over the flooded marsh around the foot of the hill, on which the fort was situated. The unsuspicious sentinel, having received the countersign, was chatting with the negro, when he was suddenly seized and gagged. Wayne's men passed over the causeway and reached the base of the hill undiscovered. Forming in two divisions, with unloaded muskets and fixed bayonets, they commenced the ascent of the steep and nar- row path which led to the top. They had nearly reached the picket before they were discovered. Fire was at once opened upon them. Wayne was wounded, but commanded h is aids to carry him that he might die at the head of the column. The rush of his men was irresistible. An instant more, and a deafening shout told that the fort was won. The British lost in killed, wounded, and prisoners, about six hundred men. General Sullivan's Expedition. The atrocities of the Indians had kept the inhabitants of the Wyoming and Mohawk valloys in continued terror. In the summer, Gen- * General Putnam was at Horse Neck when Tryon was in the vicinity. Hastily gathering a few militia, he annoyed the British as long as possible, and then, com- pelled to flee before the enemy's overwhelming force, his men hid themselves in the adjacent swamp, while he, spurring his spirited horse over a precipice, descended a zigzag path, where the British dragoons did not dare to follow. 1779.] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 131 eral Sullivan led an expedition into the G-enesee country. Near Elmira, N. Y., he fought a fierce battle with the Indians and their tory allies. The savages, being defeated, fled in dismay, while Sullivan marched to and fro through that beautiful region, laying waste their corn-fields, felling their orchards, and burning their houses.* CAPTURE OF STONY POINT BY WAYNE. Naval Exploits. No American successes caused more annoyance to the British than those of the navy. In 1775, Washington fitted out several vessels to cruise along the New England coast as privateers. In the same year, Congress established a naval department. Swift sailing vessels, manned by bold seamen, infested every avenue of commerce. Within three years they captured * The Indians, in the fertile country of the Cayugas and Senecas, had towns and villages regularly laid out ; framed houses, some of them well finished, painted and having chimneys ; and broad and productive fields, with orchards of apple, pear, and peach trees. (See note, p. 12.) 132 EPOCH III. [1779. five hundred ships. They even cruised among the British Isles, and, entering harbors, seized and burned ships lying at English wharves. Paul Jones is the most famous of these naval heroes. While cruising with a squadron of five vessels off the north- east coast of England, he met the Serapis and the Countess of Scarborough convoying a fleet of merchantmen. At half- past seven in the evening of September 23, he laid his own vessel, the Bonhomme Richard,* alongside the Serapis, and a desperate struggle ensued. In the midst of the engage- ment, he lashed the ships together.! The crews then fought hand to hand. The Richard was old and rotten. Water poured into the hold. Three times both vessels were on fire. About ten o'clock, the Serapis surrendered. The Pallas, one of Jones' squadron, captured the Countess of Scar- borough, but his other ships gave no aid. Instead, Cap- tain Landis, of the Alliance, treacherously fired into the Richard, hoping to force Jones to surrender, that he him- self might have the glory of taking the Serapis and recov- ering the Richard. After the battle, Jones transferred his crew from "the fast sinking vessel to the captured frigate, and sailed for Holland. 1780. Campaign at the South. Georgia having been subdued, the war was now renewed in South Carolina. Charleston was attacked by land and sea. General Lincoln, after enduring a siege of forty days and a terrible bombardment, * Jones had given this name (Goodman Richard) to his ship in honor of Dr. Franklin, whose sayings as "Poor Richard" he warmly admired. t At this point, the contest had been raging an hour, and the ships had twice fallen foul of each other. The first time, the Serapis hailed the Richard, asking if she had "struck her colors". "I have not yet begun to fight", was the reply of Jones. 1780.] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 133 was forced to surrender. Marauding expeditions* were sent out which soon overran the whole State. Clinton returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis in command. Hattle of Camden (Aug. 16). General Gates, "the conqueror of Burgoyne ", now taking command of the troops at the South, f marched to meet the enemy under Cornwallis near Camden. Singularly, both generals had appointed the same time to make a night attack. While marching for this purpose, the advance guards of the two armies unexpectedly encountered each other in the woods. After some sharp skirmishing, the armies waited for day. At dawn, Cornwallis ordered a charge. The militia, demoralized by the fighting in the night, fled at the first fire, but De Kalb, with the continental regulars, stood firm. At last, he fell, pierced with eleven wounds. His brave comrades for a time fought desperately over his body, but were overwhelmed by numbers. The army was so scattered that it could not be collected. A few of the officers met Gates eighty miles in the rear with no soldiers. All organized resistance to British rule now ceased in the South. Partisan Corps. The Carolinas were full of tories. Many of them joined the British army ; others organized companies that mercilessly robbed and murdered their whig neighbors. On the other hand, there were patriot bands which rendezvoused (ren'da vood) in swamps, and sallied out as occasion offered. These partisan corps kept the * One of these, under the command of the brutal Tarleton, at Waxhaw Creek, over- took a body of four hundred Continental troops and a small party of cavalry, under Colonel Buford. The British gave no quarter, and after the Americans surrendered, mercilessly maimed and butchered the larger portion of them. " Tarleton 's Quarter " became, henceforth, a proverb at the South. t Lee met Gates on his way to join the southern army. His well- worded caution, " Beware your northern laurels do not turn to southern willows ", seems almost pro- phetic of the Camdeu disaster. 134 EPOCH III. [1780. country in continual terror. Marion,* Sumter,f Pickens, and Lee were noted patriot leaders. Their bands were strong enough to cut off Brit- ish detachments, and even successfully attack small gar- risons. The cruel treatment which the whigs received from the British | drove many to this partisan war- fare. The issue of the con- test at the South was mainly decided by these bold citizen soldiers. "^Continental Money had now been issued by Congress to the * A British officer sent to negotiate concerning an exchange of prisoners, dined with Marion. The dinner consisted of roasted potatoes, served on pieces of bark. Surprised at this meager diet, he made some inquiries, when he found that this was their customary fare ; that the patriot general received no pay ; and that this "Bayard of the South", as Marion was called, had then neither blanket nor hat. This devotion to liberty so affected the officer that he resigned his commission. t At Hanging Bock (Aug. 6), Sumter gained a victory over a strong body of British and tories. He began the action with only two rounds of ammunition, but soon sup- plied himself from the fleeing tories. Frequently, in these contests, a portion of the bands would go into a battle without guns, arming themselves with the muskets of their comrades as they fell. At King's Mountain (Oct. 7), a large body of independent riflemen, each company under its own leader, attacked Ferguson, who had been sent out to rally the tories of the neighborhood. Ferguson and four hundred and fifty-six of his men were killed or severely wounded, and the rest taken prisoners. $ An event which occurred in Charleston aroused the bitterest resentment. When that city was captured by the British, Colonel Isaac Hayne, with others, was paroled, but was afterward ordered into the British ranks. At this time, his wife and several of his children lay at the point of death with small-pox. The choice was given him to become a British subject or to be placed in close confinement. Agonized by thoughts of his dying family, he signed a pledge of allegiance to England, with the assurance that he should never be required to fight against his countrymen. Being afterward summoned by Lord Rawdon to join the British army, he considered the pledge annulled, and raised a partisan band. He was captured, and without being allowed a trial, was condemned to death. The citizens of Charleston vainly implored pardon for him. Lord Rawdon allowed him forty-eight hours to take leave of his children, when he was hanged. 1780.] THE REVOMTTIONA RY WAR. 135 amount of $200,000,000. At this time, it was so much de- preciated that $40 in bills were worth only $1 in specie. A pair of boots cost $600 in continental currency. A soldier's pay for a month would hardly buy him a dinner. To make the matter worse, the British flooded the country with counterfeits, which could not be told from the genuine. Many persons refused to take continental money. The siifferings of the soldiers and the difficulty of procuring supplies may readily be imagined.* The Pennsylvania regiments in camp at Morristown, claiming that their time had expired, demanded their discharge. At last, 1,300 strong, they set out for Princeton to secure redress at the point of the bayonet, but a committee of Congress succeeded in satisfying them.f Arnold's Treason. The English did little at the North, and the condition of Washington's army prevented his making any movement. Meanwhile, the cause of liberty suffered a terrible blow from one who had been its gallant defender. General Arnold, whose bravery at Quebec and Saratoga had awakened universal admiration, was stationed at Philadelphia while his wound was healing. He there married a tory lady, and lived in great extravagance. By various acts of oppression, he rendered himself so odious that on one occasion he was publicly mobbed. Charges being preferred against him, he was convicted and sen- tenced to be reprimanded by the commander-in-chief. Washington performed the duty very gently and consider- ately ; but Arnold, stung by the disgrace and desperate in fortune, resolved to gratify both his revenge and love of * In this crisis, Robert Morris, of Philadelphia, sent three million rations. Sol- diers' relief associations were organized by the women of that city. They made twenty-two hundred shirts, each inscribed with the name of the lady who sewed it. t Clinton's agents went among the troops and offered large rewards for desertion. The emissaries mistook their men, for the soldiers gave them up as spies. 136 EPOCH III. [1780. money by betraying his country. He accordingly secured from Washington the command of West Point, at that time the most important post in America. He then proposed to Clinton, with whom he had previously corresponded, to surrender it to the British. The offer was accepted, and Major Andre appointed to confer with him. Andre ascended the Hudson, and on the night of September 2 1 , went ashore from the English ship Vulture to meet the traitor. Morn- ing dawned before they had completed their plans. In the meantime, fire having been opened on the Vulture, she had dropped down the river. Andre, now left within the Amer- ican lines, was obliged to make his way back to New York by land. He had reached Tarrytown in safety, when, at a sudden turn in the road, his horse's reins were seized, and three men * sprung before him. His manner awakening sus- picion, they searched him, and, finding papers which seemed to prove him a spy, carried him to the nearest American post. Arnold was at breakfast, when he received a note announcing Andre's capture. He called aside his wife, and told her of his peril. Terrified by his words, she fainted. Kissing his boy, who lay asleep in the cradle, Arnold darted out of the house, mounted a horse, by an unfrequented path reached the river, jumped into his boat, and was rowed to the Vulture. He received, as the reward of his treachery, 6,315, a colonelcy in the English army, and the contempt of everybody. The very name, "Arnold the Traitor", will always declare his infamy. f Andre was tried and hanged as a spy. Every effort was made to save him, and his fate awakened universal sympathy. * The names of these men were Paulding, Van Wart, and Williams. Andre offered them his horse, watch, purse, and any sum they might name, if they would release him. The incorruptible patriots declared that they would not let him go for ten thou- sand guineas. Congress voted to each of them a silver medal and a pension for life. t Arnold was thoroughly despised by the British officers, and often insulted. Many 1781.] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 137 1781. Campaign at the South. General Greene, who was ap- pointed to succeed General Gates, found the army to consist of only two thousand half-clothed, half-starved men. A part of his force, under Morgan, was attacked (January 1 7) at COWPENS* by Tarleton. The militia fleeing, the continentals fell back to secure a better position. The British mistook this for a retreat, and were rushing on in confusion, Avhen the continentals suddenly faced about, poured in a deadly fire at only thirty-yards distance, and drove them in utter rout. Tarleton fled to Cornwallis, who set out in hot haste, eager to punish the victors and recapture the prisoners. Morgan started for Virginia, and crossed the Catawba just before Cornwallis appeared in sight. Night came on, and with it rain, which raised the river so high as to keep the impatient Cornwallis waiting three days. Greene's Retreat. General Greene now joined Morgan, and conducted the retreat. At the Yadkin, Just as the Amer- icans had reached the other side, it began to rain. When Cornwallis came up, the river was so swollen that he could not cross. He, however, marched up the stream, effected a stories are told illustrative of English sentiment toward him. A member of Parlia- ment, about to address the House of Commons, happening, as he rose, to see Arnold in the gallery, said, pointing to the traitor, " Mr. Speaker, I will not speak while that man is in the house." George the Third introduced Arnold to Earl Balcarras, one of Burgoyne's officers at Bemis' Heights. " Sire ", said the proud old Earl as he turned from Arnold, refusing his hand, "I know General Arnold, and abominate traitors." When Talleyrand was about to come to America, he sought letters of introduction from Arnold, but received the reply, " I was born in America ; I lived there to the prime of my life ; but, alas ! I can call no man in America my friend." * Colonel William A. Washington, in a personal combat in this battle, wounded Tarleton. Months afterward, the British officer, while conversing with Mrs. Jones, a witty American lady, sneeringly said, " That Colonel Washington is very illiterate. I am told that he can not write his name." " Ah, Colonel," replied she, " you bear evidence that he can make his mark." Tarleton expressing, at another time, his desire to see Colonel Washington, the lady replied, " Had you looked behind you at Cowpens, you might have had that pleasure." 138 EPOCH III. [1781. passage, and was soon in full pursuit again. Now came a race, on parallel roads, thirty miles per day, for the fords of the Dan. Greene reached them first, and Cornwallis gave up the chase. This signal deliverance of Greene's exhausted army awoke every pious feeling of the American heart, and was a cause for general thanksgiving.* Campaign Closed. Having rested his men, Greene again took the field, harassing the enemy by a fierce partisan war- fare. At GUILFORD COURT-HOUSE (March 15), he hazarded a battle. The militia fled at the first fire, but the conti- nental regulars fought as in the time of Be Kalb. The Americans at last retired, but the British had bought their victory so dearly that Cornwallis also retreated. Greene again pursuing, Cornwallis shut himself up in "Wilmington. Thereupon Greene turned into South Carolina, and, with the aid of Marion, Sumter, Lee, and Pickens, nearly deliv- ered this State and Georgia from the English. f In the battle of EUTAW SPRINGS (Sept. 8), the British were so crippled that they retired toward Charleston. Cornwallis, refusing to follow Greene into South Carolina, had already gone north into Virginia, and though a fierce partisan warfare * During this retreat, General Greene, after a hard day's ride in the rain, alighted at the door of Mrs. Elizabeth Steele, in Salisbury, N. C., announcing himself as " fatigued, hungry, cold, and penniless ". Quickly providing the honored guest with a warm supper before a cheerful fire, this patriotic woman brought forth two small bags of specie, her earnings for years. " Take these ", she said ; " you will want them, and I can do without them." " Never ", says his biographer, " did relief come at a more needy moment ; the hero resumed his dangerous journey that night with a lightened heart." Another story illustrative of the patriotism of the southern women is told of Mrs. Motte. The British had taken possession of her house, forti- fied and garrisoned it. On Colonel Lee's advance, she furnished him a bow and arrows, by means of which he threw fire upon the shingled roof. Her mansion was soon in flames, and the occupants, to save their lives, surrendered. t Congress voted the highest honors to General Greene, who, by his prudence, wisdom, and valor, had, with such insignificant forces and miserable equipments, achieved so much for the cause of liberty. He never gained a decided victory, yet his defeats had all the effect of successes, and his very retreats strengthened the confidence of his men and -weakened that of the enemy. ___ c. /'/ THE GROWTH OF 1. COLONIAL FLAG, used chiefly by Colonies of New England previous to Revolution 3. PINE-TREE FLAG OF THE NAVY, used by the American ships early in Revolutions* 5. FIRST NATIONAL FLAG, used in 1776, before the Declaration of l< 6. THE PRESENT "STAB SPANGLED BANNER." The stripes signify tl < R NATIONAL FLAG. War. 2. BUNKEB HILL FLAG, used by New England troops at battle of Bunker Hill. far. 4. RATTLESNAKE FLAG, used early in Revolutionary War. jendence. The thirteen stripes signified the thirteen colonies, ginal thirteen colonies; and the stars, the present number of States. 1781.] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 139 still distracted the country, this engagement closed the long and fiercely fought contest at the South.*. -) Campaign at the North. The traitor Arnold, burning with hatred, led an expedition into Virginia. He conducted the war with great brutality, burning private as well as public property. La Fayette was sent to check him, but with his small forcef could accomplish little. Cornwallis, arriving from the South, now took Arnold's place, and continued this marauding tour. Clinton, however, fearing "Washing- ton, who seemed to threaten New York, directed Cornwallis to keep near the sea-coast. so as to be ready to help him. Cornwallis, accordingly, after having destroyed ten million dollars worth of property, fortified himself at Yorktown. Siege of Yorktown. It was arranged to attack Corn- wallis at this place by the combined American J and French forces. Washington, by a feint on New York, kept Clinton in the dark regarding his plans until he was far on his way * At the battle of Eutaw, Manning, a noted soldier of Lee's legion, was in hot pursuit of the flying British, when he suddenly found himself surrounded by the enemy, and not an American within forty rods. He did not hesitate, but, seizing an officer by the collar, and wresting his sword from him by main force, kept his body as a shield while, under a heavy fire, he rapidly backed off from the perilous neigh- borhood. The frightened British officer when thus summarily captured, began Im- mediately to enumerate his titles : " I am Sir Henry Barry, deputy adjutant-general, captain in 52d regiment," etc., etc. "Enough," interrupted his captor; "you are just the man I was looking for." t La Fayette 's men, being chiefly from New England, dreaded the Southern climate, but when their beloved general appealed to their honor and offered to discharge any who wished, not one would abandon him. At Baltimore, he borrowed $10,000 to buy hats and shoes, and linen from which the Baltimore women made summer garments for his troops. Among those who now joined La Fayette, was Baron Steuben, who had been active in organizing the Virginia militia to beat back the British. Steuben was a veteran from the army of Frederick the Great, and tendered his services as a volun- teer at Valley Forge. With indefatigable zeal, he sought to introduce thorough disci- pline^ and European tactics among the ragged patriots (Pop. Hist. U. S. pp. 256, 329). $ During the preceding winter, Robert Morris sent to the starving army several thousand barrels of flour. He now issued his own notes for $1,400,000 to furnish sup- plies for this expedition. It is sad that this patriot, so often the resource of Washing- ton, lost his fortune in his old age, and was confined in prison for debt. Washington, while en route, visited Mount Vernon, which he had not seen for nearly six years and a half, yet he remained only about two days. 140 EPOCH III. [1781. south with the continental army.* On the 2 8th of Septem- ber, the joint forces, sixteen thousand strong, f took up their position before Yorktown. Batteries were opened;}; upon the city, and the vessels in the harbor fired by red-hot shells. Two redoubts were carried ; one by the Americans, the other by the French. The most hearty good-will prevailed. The patriots slept in the open air that their allies might use their tents. Breaches having been made in the walls, Cornwallis saw no hope of escape and capitulated (Oct. 19). The Scene of the Surrender was imposing. The army was drawn up in two lines, extending over a mile the Americans on one side with General Washington at the head, and the French on the other with Count Bochambeau (ro sh6ng bo'). The captive army, about 7,000 men, with slow step, shouldered arms, and cased colors, marched be- tween them. A prodigious crowd, anxious to see Cornwallis, had assembled; but the haughty general, mortified at his de- feat, feigned illness, and sent his sword by General O'Hara. The Effect. Both parties felt that this surrender virtu- ally ended the war. Joy pervaded every patriot heart. All the hardships of the past were forgotten in the thought * Clintcn sent Arnold on a pillaging tour into Connecticut in order to force Wash- ington to return. He, however, was not to be diverted from his great enterprise, and left New England to take care of herself. New London was pillaged and burned, Arnold watching the fire from a church steeple. At Port Griswold, the commander and half the garrison were butchered. After this fort had been taken, a British officer entering asked, "Who commands here?" "I did," said Colonel Ledyard, as he advanced to surrender his sword, "but you do now." With fiendish malignity, the officer seized the weapon and thrust it into the bosom of the brave colonel. t There were present about 5,500 continentals, 7,000 French, and, in addition, about 3,500 Virginia militia under Governor Nelson. $ Governor Nelson commanded the battery that fired first upon the British. Corn- wallis occupied the governor's fine stone mansion. The patriot pointed one of his heaviest guns toward his house, and ordered the gunner to fire upon it with vigor. The British could not make even the home of the noble Nelson a shield against his patriotic efforts. The house still bears the scars of the bombardment. S With a fine delicacy of feeling, Washington directed the sword to be delivered to General Lincoln, who, eighteen months before, had surrendered at Charleston. 1781.] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 141 that America was free. The news reached Philadelphia at the dead of night. The people were awakened by the watchman's cry, " Past two o'clock and Cornwallis is taken." Lights flashed through the houses, and soon the streets were thronged with crowds eager to learn the glad news. Some were speechless with delight. Many wept, CAPTURE OF A REDOUBT AT YORKTOWN. and the old door-keeper of Congress died of joy. Con- gress met at an early hour, and that afternoon marched in solemn procession to the Lutheran church to return thanks to Almighty God. All hope of subduing America was now abandoned by the people of England, and they loudly demanded the removal of the ministers who still counseled war.* The House of Com- * When ,Lord North, prime minister of Great Britain, heard the news of the defeat, he was greatly excited. With looks and actions indicating the deepest distress, he again and again exclaimed, " O God I it is all over. 142 EPOCH III. [1781. mons voted that whoever advised the king to continue hostilities should be considered a public enemy. Difficulties of the Country and Army.- The situation of the United States at this time was perilous. Commerce had been destroyed by the war. The currency was worth- less. War had been the main business of the country for years, and all trade, manufactures, and agriculture had been neglected. Villages had been burned, ships destroyed, and crops laid waste. The British held Charleston over a year, and Savannah and New York about two years after the surrender at Yorktown. George III. was obstinate, ajid war might be resumed. Yet the American army was in almost open rebellion. The soldiers, afraid they should be disbanded and sent home without pay, petitioned Congress, but received no satisfaction. The treasury was empty. At this crisis, Washington was invited to become king. The noble patriot spurned the proposal indignantly. A paper having been circulated advising violent measures, Washing- ton addressed the officers, and besought them not to mar their fair record of patriotic service by any rash proceed- ings.* His influence prevailed, both with the army and with Congress, and the difficulties were amicably settled. Peace. A treaty was signed at Paris (September 3, 1783) acknowledging the independence of the United States. Soon after, the army was disbanded. Washington bade his officers an affecting farewell, and retired to Mount Vernon, followed by the thanksgiving of a grateful people. Weakness of the Government. During the war, the thirteen States had agreed upon Articles of Confederation, but they conferred little .power on Congress. It could recom- mend, but not enforce ; it could only advise action, leaving * As he rose, he took off his spectacles to wipe them, saying, " My eyes have grown dim in the service of my country, but I have never doubted her justice." 1783.] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 143 the States to do as they pleased. Bitter jealousy existed among the several States, both with regard to one another and to a general government. The popular desire was to let each State remain independent, and have no national author- ity. A heavy debt had been incurred by the war. Congress had no money, and could not levy taxes. It asked the States to pay, but they were too jealous of Congress to heed its requests. " We are ", said Washington, " one nation to- day, and thirteen to-morrow." In New England, large bodies of men assembled, refusing to pay their taxes and threatening to overturn the government. This insur- rection, known as SHAYS' REBELLION, from the name of its leader, was put down by militia under General Lincoln. Constitution Adopted. In these circumstances, many of the best men of the land felt the need of a stronger na- tional government. A convention was called in Philadel- phia to revise the Articles of Confederation. Washington was chosen president. After much deliberation,* an en- tirely new constitution was adopted (September 17, 1787). In the ensuing year, the government was organized, and in 1789 it went into operation. During the next Epoch, we shall notice the growth of the country under the wise provisions of this constitution. * The new constitution met with the most violent opposition. The people were divided into two parties the federalists and the anti-Federalists. The former favored the constitution and sought to increase the powers of the national government, and thus strengthen the Union at home and abroad. The latter opposed the constitu- tion, were jealous of Congress, and feared too much national power, lest a monarchy should be established. The nation was agitated by the most earnest and thoughtful as well as the most virulent speeches on both sides. Within the year (1788), nine States ratified the constitution. This was the number necessary to make it binding. North Carolina ratified it in 1789, and Rhode Island in 1790. Presidential elections were held in each of the eleven States that had then adopted the constitution, except New York, where the Legislature had made no provision for the election. The ten States gave George Washington 09 electoral votes, and John Adams 34. At that time, the electors voted for two persons, the one who received the highest number being declared President, and the next highest Vice-President. (See p. 350.) 144 EPOCH III. RURAL LIFE ONE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. New England Farm and Village life in the 18th. century presented a strange contrast to that with which we are familiar. The house of the settler was built of logs, the chinks daubed with clay, and the roof thatched with long grass. In th later and better class of dwellings, the logs were hewn square so as to need no chinking ; or a frame was made of heavy oak timbers, some of them eighteen inches in diameter, and all mortised and braced together in a manner that would be bewildering enough to a carpenter of to-day. The sides were covered with split oak clapboards, and the roof with split cedar shingles, fastened by large wrought- iron nails. The windows consisted of two small lead frames, set with a few tiny, diamond-shaped panes of glass (or, sometimes, oiled paper), and hinged so as to open outward against the house. As the building stood exactly facing the south, the sun " shone square in " at noon, and gave warning of the dinner hour. The doors were of oak plank doubled and nailed together with spikes arranged in the form of diamonds. They were often hung on wooden hinges, and were securely fastened at night by heavy wooden cross-bars. In the center of the house, or, externally in the poorer dwellings, rose a stone or brick chimney, about twelve feet square at the base,* affording a fire-place large enough for seats to be placed at the side, where the children could sit in the winter evening and look up at the stars. To " lay the fire " was no small matter ; for the back, a huge " back- log ", perhaps four feet long, was rolled in ; then on the andirons was placed a " front log " ; between these were piled enormous quantities of smaller wood. The kitchen and the "best room" were the chief apartments. In the former, the center of attraction was the great fire-place with its roaring fire, its high- backed wooden settle, and its swinging crane with pot-hooks to hold the iron pots for cooking. The ceiling of the room was rarely seven feet high, and the sturdy farmer often brushed against it with his bear-skin cap. Prom the bare joists overhead, hung bunches of herbs, seed-corn, and long strings of drying apples. The walls of the room, in the better buildings, were plastered and whitewashed. The furniture was plain ; a tall wooden clock ; a dresser set out with the cher- ished pewter dishes brought over from England ; a spinning-wheel; and, perhaps, a loom for weaving. (See pages 93, 94.) The " best room " was used only on state occasions. Ordinarily, it was carefully closed and locked to keep out the flies and preserve its sacred precincts from, unlawful intruders. The andirons were of brass that shone like gold, and the fire- place in summer was garnished with asparagus branches. On the mantel-shelf, stood the high brass candlesticks, and the accompanying tray-and-snuffers. There was no carpet, but the floor was sanded and marked off by the housewife in many a quaint design. Against the walls, hung the family paintings, fondly cherished not only as mementos of the departed, but, also, of the life beyond the seas. Here, too, was the library containing a few well-read books, for books were scarce and costly, and reading was a serious matter, taken up for improvement and not * In the better houses, a brick oven was built in the chimney. This was heated by a fire of fine " kindlings " ; then swept clean, and the bread or beans set in to bake. The bricks retained the high temperature for a long time, and the " rye-and-Indian " bread, for which our New England grandmothers were noted, was left in the oven all night. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 145 for pastime. Among those few books were sure to be found the family Bible, Young's Night Thoughts, Watts' Improvement of the Mind, Fox's Laves of the Martyrs, Addison's Spectator, and Milton's Paradise Lost. As the tiny windows gave little light by day, so by night the home-made tallow candles, or the pine-knot on the hearth, shed but a faint or nickering illumination. In cold weather, the fire was heaped high for wood was abundant but through numerous chinks and crevices, the winter air poured in, so that, as an old writer remarks, "while one side of the inmate was toasting, the other was freezing." To make matters still worse, the smoke escaping into the room by no means favored study, or any employment requiring the use of the eyes. The food was served generally on wooden platters. It was plentiful but coarse. Fresh meat was rarely seen, except when game was taken. Salt pork or beef, salt fish, vegetables, and " rye-and-Indian " bread or " bannocks " * composed the staple diet. The farmer's breakfast often consisted mainly of " bean porridge " seasoned with savory herbs. Tea and coffee were unknown during the 17th century. The minister, we are told, had white bread provided for him as a special favor. Friction matches had not been invented, and the fire was carefully kept over night in the ashes. If it unfortunately " went out ", it was relighted by sparks from the flint-and-steel, or by live coals brought from a neighbor's hearth. Several vegetables and fruits now common were then unknown, or were unused as food. Tomatoes, or, as they were called, " love apples ", were thought to be poi- sonous, and were cultivated only in the flower-garden for the beauty of the bright red fruit. Rhubarb, sweet corn, cantaloupes, head-lettuce, and all the newer and finer varieties of pears, grapes, peaches, etc., have enriched the diet of a later generation. The fox-grape, which we consider a sour, ill-flavored fruit, was then a luxury to be attained only by the well-to-do. Ice in summer was unheard of, and the careful housekeeper cooled her butter for use by hanging it in a pail down the well. Geraniums and verbenas were not seen in the flower-gardens of our great-grand- mothers, who delighted their eyes with hollyhocks, sunflowers, lilacs, pinks, sweet- williams, peonies, etc. Narrow beds of these " posies " bordered the path leading from the front door, through the little front yard, which was carefully fenced off from the portion of the premises to which ordinary people had access. The front yard, the front door, and the best room were all considered too good for every- day use. There were no wheeled carriages or wagons until the middle of the 18th cen- tury, and few until after the Revolution. Everybody went on foot or rode on horseback, as his means permitted ; and the bridegroom, gentleman or workman alike, who sought a wife in a distant town, rode on horseback and brought home his bride on a pillion behind him. So little travel was there in those days, that a journey that now attracts no attention, then made one an object of public curiosity. So late as 1795, it is stated that a person who had been across the ocean was pointed out in the streets as a " man who had been to Europe ". * Bannocks were somewhat like the present " hoe-cake " of the South merely flat cakes of Indian meal, or rye, wet with water and baked over the hot coals on the hearth. 146 EPOCH III. [1765. CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY. PAGE 1765. The Stamp Act passed, March 8 102 1766. The Stamp Act repealed by Parliament, March 18 103 1767. A tax imposed on tea, etc., June 29 103 1768. The British troops arrived at Boston, September 27 104 1770. Boston Massacre, March 5 104 All duties except on tea repealed, April 12 105 1773. The tea thrown overboard in Boston harbor, December 1C . . . . 105 1774. "Boston Port Bill "passed, March 31 105 First Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, September 5 . . . 106 1775. Battle of Lexington, April 19 "... 106 Ticonderoga taken by Allen and Arnold, May 10 110 Crown Point taken, May 12 Ill Washington elected commander-in-chief, Juno 15 Ill Battle of Bunker Hill, Juno 17 108 "Washington took command before Boston, July 2-3 Ill Montreal surrendered to Montgomery, November 13 112 Battle of Quebec Montgomery lolled, December 31 112 1776. Boston evacuated by the British troops, March 17 . . . . . . 112 Attack on Port Moultrie, June 28 113 Declaration of Independence, July 4 114 Battle of Long Island, August 27 114 Battle of White Plains, October 28 110 Fort Washington taken, November 16 116 Washington's retreat through New Jersey 116 Battle of Trenton, December 26 ' . . . .116 1777. Battle of Princeton, January 3 118 Murder of Miss McCrea, July 27 121 Battle of Bennington, August 16 123 Battle of Brandywine, September 11 119 First battle of Saratoga, September 19 124 Philadelphia captured by the British, September 26 120 Battle of Germantown, October 4 120 Second battle of Saratoga, October 7 124 Surrender of Burgoyne, October 17 125 1778. American Independence acknowledged by France, February 6 . . 127 Battle of Monmouth, June 28 127 Massacre of Wyoming, July 3 128 French fleet arrived in Narragansett Bay, July 20 128 British captured Savannah, G-a., December 29 129 1779. Stony Point captured by General Wayne, July 15 130 Sullivan defeated the Indians near Elmira, August 29 131 Paul Jones' victory, September 23 132 D'Estaing and Lincoln repulsed at Savannah, October 9 .... 129 1780. Charleston surrendered to the British, May 12 133 Battle of Hanging Hock, S. C., August 6 134 Battle of Camden, August 16 133 1780.] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 147 PAGE 1780. Andre executed, October 2 136 Battle of King's Mountain, October 7 134 1781. Kichmond burned by Arnold, January 5 Battle of the Cowpens, January 17 137 Greene's celebrated retreat, January and February 137 Battle of Ghiilford Court-House, March 15 138 Battle of Eutaw Springs, September 8 138 Surrender of Cornwallis, October 19 140 1782. Charleston, S. C., evacuated, December 14 ....... 142 1783. Savannah evacuated by the British, July 11 142 Treaty of Peace signed at Paris, September 3 142 New York evacuated by the British, November 25 142 Washington resigned his commission, December 23 . . . . . 142 1787. Shays' Rebellion in Massachusetts 143 Constitution of the United States adopted, September 17 . . . : 143 1788. Constitution adopted by nine States 143 REFERENCES FOR READING. Lossing's Field Book of the Revolution. Garden's Anecdotes of the Revolution. Grace Greenwood's Forest Tragedy. Campbell's Gertrude of Wyoming (Poem). Halleck's Wyoming (Poem).Simms' Life of Marion ; also his Series of Historical Tales. Bryant's Song of Mar- ion's Men, and Seventy-six (Poems). Magoon's Orators of American Revolution. Headley's Washington and his Generals. Wirt's Life of Patrick Henry. G. W. Greene's Historical View of American Revolution, and Life of General Greene. Parton's Life of Benjamin Franklin. Longfelloiv's Paul Revere's Ride, and Pulaski's Banner (Poems). Headley's Life of La Fayette. Hawthorne's Ticonderoga (Twice Told Tales). Mrs. Ellet's Women of the American Revolu- tion. Watson's Camp Fires of the Revolution. Raymond's Women of the South. Sabine's Loyalists of the American Revolution. Lee's War in tJie Southern Department. Drake's Amer- ican Flag (Poem). Street's Concord, Bennington, and American Independence (Poems). Dwight's Columbia (Poem). Washington's Farewell Address. Sears' History of the American Revolution. Freneau's Poems. Life of General Joseph Reed, by Win. B. Reed. Cooper's novels (The Spy, The Pilot, and Lionel Lincoln). Motley's Morton's Hope, and Paulding's Old Conti- nental (novel). Winthrop Sargent's Life of Andre, and Loyalist Poetry of the Revolution. Moore's Songs and Battads, and Diary of the Revolution. Whittier's Rangers (Poem). Haw- thorne's Septimius Felton (Fiction). Winthrop' s Edwin Brothertoft (Fiction). Barnes' Brief History of France. Barnes' Popular History of United States. Harper's Magazine, Vol. 50, The Concord Fight; Vol. 51, Echoes of Bunker Hill; Vol. 53, Virginia in the Revolution; Vol. 55, 'Battle of Bennington; Vol. 67, The Swamp Fox. Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 37, Siege of Boston. Martin's Civil Government. Carrington's Battles of the Revolution. Carrington's Battle Maps and Charts. Lamb's His wry of the City of New Tork.Lossing's Our Country. Doyle's History of United States. McMaster's History of the People of the United States. Bryant and Gay's Popular History of United States, 148 BARNES' BRIEF HISTORY BLACKBOARD ANALYSIS. 1. Causes of American Revolution. the 1. Remote Causes. Direct Causes. English Treatment. Navigation Acts. Laws of Trade and Manufacture. Taxation. Writs of Assistance. Stamp Act. Mutiny Act. Boston Massacre. Boston Tea Party. Climax Reached. 2. First Continental Congress (1774). 3. Events of 1775. (1st Year of War.) 4. Events of 1776. (2d Year of War.) 5. Events of 1777. (3d Year of War.) 6. Events of 1778. (4th Year of War.) 7. Events of 1779. (5th Year of War.) i on Quebec. 1. Battle of Lexington. \ 4 ; Effe cts? 2. Battle of Bunker Hill. 3. Capture of Ticonderoga. 4. Second Continental Congress. 5. Condition of Washington's Army. f a. Montgomery. 6. Expedition against Can. { b. Arnold. L c. Attack o 1. Evacuation of Boston. 2. Attack on Fort Moultrie. 3. Declaration of Independence. ( a. Battle of Long Island. -T -rr I b. The Escape. 4. Campaign near N. Y. -j c . Washington's Retreat. I d. Flight through New Jersey. 5. Condition of the Country. 6. Battle of Trenton. f Effect" ' 1. Battle of Princeton. 2. Campaign in Penn. 8. Campaign at the North. a. Howe and the "American 6. Battle of Brandy wine. c. Battle of Germantown. d. Conclusion. a. Condition of Affairs. b. Burgoyne's Invasion. c. Burgoyne's Difficulties. d. Battle of Saratoga. { jj 1. Winter at Valley Forge. 2. Aid from France. 3. Battle of Monmouth. 4. Campaign in Rhode Island. 5. Wyoming Massacre. f a. Conquest of Georgia. 1. Campaign at the South. \ b. Attack on Charleston L c. Death of Pulaski and 2. Campaign at the North, j 8. Naval Exploits. J d Jasper. a. In Connecticut. b. Capture of Stony Point. c. Sullivan's Expedition. .1. Campaign at the South. 2. Continental Money. 3. Arnold's Treason. >I. Campaign at the South. < 2. Campaign at the North. 3. Siege of Yorktown. 10. Difficulties of the Army and Country. 11. Peace (1783). 12. Weakness of the Government. 8. Events of 1780. (6th Year of War.) 9. Events of 1781. (7th Year of War.) a. Capture of Charleston. b. Clinton and Cornwallis. c Battle of Camden. d. Partisan Warfare Marion, Sumter, Pickens, Lee, etc. a. Battle of the Cowpens. b. Greene's Retreat. c. Campaign Closed. Arnold, La Fayette, Cornwallis, and Clinton, a. Description. 6. Surrender, c. Effects. 13. Constitution Adopted. 1. The Convention. 2. Federalists and Anti-Federalists. 3. Ratification. 4. First Presidential Election. WAR WITH MEXICO ROUTE OF GEN. SCOTJT BETWEEN VERA CRUZ AND MEXICO I AVest Longitude from Greenwich 97 Copyright 1885 Oy A. MAP, TO ILLUSTRATE THE WAR OF 1812 SOUTHERN REGION OF THE WAR 1812-14 100Mllci ' ' liws C ' L - DEVELOPMENT Washington's Inauguration (April 30, 1789). In the choice of the first President of the ' United States, all hearts turned instinctively to Washington. With deep regret, he left his quiet home at Mount Vernon for the tumults of political, life. His journey to New York -yvtfA^K^r-^^i was a continual ovation. Crowds of gayly-dressed people bearing baskets and garlands of flowers, and hailing his appearance with shouts of joy, met him at every village. Questions on the Geography of the Fourth _Epoc/i. Locate New York. Phila- delphia. Baltimore. Detroit. York. St. John's. Montreal. Plattsburg. Sackett's Harbor. Frenchtown. Chippewa. New Orleans. Sacramento. San Francisco. Santa Fe. Queenstown Heights. Chrysler's Field. Horseshoe Bend. Lundy's Lane. Locate Fort Maiden. Fort Erie. Fort Meigs. Fort Stephenson. Fort Minims. (Minis). Fort McHenry. Fort Brown. Fort Schlosser. Describe the Maumee River. Hudson River. Tippecanoe River. Niagara River. St. Lawrence River. Raisin River. Thames River. Rio Grande River. Nueces River. Locate Sandusky Bay. Lake Champlain. Locate Palo Alto. Point Isabel. Resaca de la Palma. Matamoras. Monterey. Buena Vista. Vera Cruz. Puebla. Cerro Gordo. The Cordilleras. Mexico. The following names of places can be found on map, Epoch VI. Locate Ston- ington, Conn. Palmyra, N. Y. .Nauvoo, HI. Mount Verrion. Fort King. Columbia River. Tampa Bay. Cuba. Havana. 150 EPOCH IV. [1789. On the balcony of old Federal Hall, New York City,* he took the oath to support the Constitution of the United States.f * New York was only temporarily the capital. At the second session of Congress, the seat of government was transferred to Philadelphia, where it was to remain for ten years, and then (1800) be removed to the District of Columbia, a tract of land ten miles square ceded for this purpose by Alary land and Virginia. Here a city was laid out in the midst of a wilderness, containing ouly here and there a small cottage. The " Father of his Country" laid the corner-stone of the capitol (1793). The part of this District on the Virginia side of the Potomac was ceded back to that State (1846). t George Washington was born February 22, 1732 ; died December 14, 1799. Left fatherless at eleven years of age, his education was directed by his mother, a woman of strong character, who kindly, but firmly, exacted implicit obedience. Of her, Washington learned his first lessons in self-command. Although bashful and hesi- tating in his speech, his language was clear and manly. Having compiled a code of morals and good manners for his own use, he rigidly observed all its quaint and formal rules. Before his thirteenth year he had copied forms for all kinds of legal and mercantile papers. Hia manuscript school-books, which still exist, are models of neatness and accuracy. TTia favorite amusements were of a military character ; he made soldiers of his playmates, and officered all the mock parades. He inherited great wealth, and the antiquity of his family gave him high social rank. On his Potomac farms he had hundreds of slaves, and at his Mount Vernon home he was like the prince of a wide domain, free from dependence or restraint. He was fond of equipage and the appurtenamces of high life, and although he always rode on horseback, his family had a " chariot and four ", with " black postilions in scarlet and white livery ". This generous style of living, added perhaps to his native reserve, exposed him to the charge of aristocratic feeling. While at home, he spent much of his time in riding and hunting. He rose early, ate his breakf asc of corn-cake, honey, and tea, and then rode about his estates ; his evenings he passed with his family around the blazing hearth, retiring between nine and ten. He loved to linger at the table, cracking nuts, and relating his adventures. In personal appearance, Washington was over six feet in height, robust, graceful, and perfectly erect. His manner was formal and dignified. He was more solid than brilliant, and had more judgment than genius. He had great dread of public life, cared little for books, and possessed no library. A consistent Christian, he was a vestryman and regular attendant of the Episcopal Church. A firm advocate of free institutions, he still believed in a strong government and strictly enforced laws. As President, he care- fully weighed his decisions ; but, his policy once settled, pursued it with steadiness and dignity, however great the opposition. As an officer, he was brave, enterprising, and cautious. Hia campaigns were rarely startling, but always judicious. He was capable of great endurance. Calm in defeat, sober in victory, commanding at all times, and irresistible when aroused, he exercised equal authority over himself and his army. His last illness was brief, and his closing hours were marked by his usual calmness and dignity. " I die hard ", said he," " but I am not afraid to go." Europe and America vied in tributes to his memory. Said Lord Brougham, " Until time shall be no more, a test of the progress which our race has made in wisdom and virtue will be derived from the veneration paid to the Immortal name of Washington." Wash- 1780.] WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 151 Difficulties beset the new government on every hand. The treasury was empty, and the United States had no credit. The Indians were hostile. Pirates from the Bar- bary States attacked our ships, and American citizens were languishing in Algerine dungeons. Spain refused us the navigation of the Mississippi. England had not yet con- HAMILTON. WASHINGTON. JEFFEUSON. descended to send a minister to our government, and had made no treaty of commerce with us. We shall see how wisely Washington and his cabinet* met these difficulties. Domestic Affairs. Finances. By the advice of Alexan- der Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, Congress agreed to assume the debts contracted by the States during the Revolu- ington left no children. It has been beautifully said, " Providence left him childless that his country might call him Father." * Three executive departments were now established the Department of Foreign Affairs (now the Department of State), the Department of War, and the Department of the Treasury. The heads of these departments were called Secretaries, and, with the Attorney-General, formed the President's cabinet. 152 EPOCH IV. [1790. tion, and to pay the national debt in full, including the Con- tinental money. To provide funds, taxes were levied on imported goods and the distillation of spirits. A mint and a national bank were established at Philadelphia. By these measures, the credit of the United States was put upon a firm basis.* Whiskey Rebellion (1 794). Great opposition was made to raising money by taxation. In western Pennsylvania, it was agreed that no tax should be paid on whiskey. The rioters were so numerous and so thoroughly organized that fifteen thousand of tjie militia were ordered out to subdue them. Finding the government in earnest, the malcontents laid down their arms. Indian Wars. Two armies sent against the Indians of the north-west were defeated. At last, General Wayne "Mad Anthony" was put in command. Little Turtle, the Indian chief, now advised peace, declaring that the Americans had "a leader who never slepV'. But his coun- sel was rejected, and a desperate battle was fought on the Maumee (Aug. 20, 1794). Wayne routed the Indians, chased them a great distance, laid waste their towns for fifty miles, and compelled them to make a treaty f giving up about 25,000 square miles of land north of the Ohio. Foreign Affairs. England. Hardly had the war closed when complaints were made in England that debts could not be collected in America. On the other hand, the Americans charged that the British armies had carried off their negroes, that posts were still held on the frontier, and that our seamen * The credit of these plans belongs to Hamilton. Daniel Webster has eloquently said of him, " He smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant streams of revenue burst forth. He touched the dead. corpse of public credit, and it sprung upon its feet." t He told them, it is said, that if they ever violated this agreement he would rise from his grave to fight them. He was long remembered by the western Indians. 1794.] WASHING-TON'S ADMINISTRATION. 153 were impressed. Chief Justice Jay was sent as envoy ex- traordinary to England. He negotiated a treaty, which was ratified by the Senate (1795), after a violent opposition.* Spain and Algiers. The same year, a treaty was made with Spain, securing to the United States the free naviga- tion of the Mississippi, and fixing the boundary of Florida, still held by that nation. ', Just before this, a treaty had been concluded with Algiers, by which our captives were released and the Mediterranean commerce was opened to American vessels. France. The Americans warmly sympathized with France, and when war broke out between that country and England, Washington had great difficulty in preserving neutrality. He saw that the true American policy was to keep free from European alliances. Genet (zhgh na')> the French minister, relying on the popular feeling, went so far as to fit out, in the ports of the United States, privateers to prey on British commerce. He also tried to arouse the people against the government. At length, at Washington's request, Genet was recalled. But, as we shall see, the difficulty did not end. Political Parties. During the discussion of these vari- ous questions, two parties had arisen. Jefferson, Madison, and Randolph f became leaders of the republican party, which opposed the United States Bank, the English treaty, and the assumption of the State debts. Hamilton and Adams were the leaders of the federalist party, which sup- * This treaty enforced the payment of the English debts, but did not in turn forbid the impressment of American seamen. Its advocates were threatened with violence by angry mobs. Hamilton was stoned at a public meeting. Insults were offered to the British minister, and Jay was burned in effigy. t John Randolph of Eoanoke was not prominent in the republican (or demo- cratic-republican, as it was often called) party until a later administration, being ( .,. ,-tcf the Constitution, and did much to secure its adoption. TVom his political principles he was obliged, though reluctantly, to oppose Washington's administration, which he did in a courteous and temperate manner. He led his party in Congress, where he remained till 1797. The next year he drafted the famous " 1798-'99 Resolutions ", enunciating the doctrine of State rights, which, with the accompanying " Report " in their defense, have been the great text-book of the democratic party. He was Secretary of State to Jefferson. After his Presidential services, he retired from public station. Madison's success was not so much the result of a great natural ability as of intense application and severe accuracy. His mind was strong, clear, and well-balanced, and his memory was wonderful. Like John Quincy Adams, he had laid up a great store of learning, which he used in the most skillful manner. He always exhausted the subject upon which he spoke. " When he had finished, nothing remained to be said." His private character was spotless. His manner was simple, modest, and uniformly courteous to his opponents. He enjoyed wit and humor, and told a story admirably. His sunny temper remained with him to the last. Some friends coming to visit Mm during his final illness, he sunk smilingly back on his couch, saying : "I always talk better when I lie.' 1 ' 1 It has been said of him : " It was his rare good fortune to have a whole nation for his friends." 160 EPOCH IV. [1812. Foreign Affairs. England. This war aroused the people of the West against England. The impressment of our sea- men and the capture of our ships continued. The British government went so far as to send war vessels into our waters to seize our ships as prizes. The American frigate President having hailed the British sloop-of-war Little Belt, received a cannon-shot in reply. The fire was returned, and the sloop soon disabled ; a civil answer was then returned. The British government refusing to relinquish its offensive course, all hope of peace was abandoned.* Finally (June 19, 1812), war was formally declared against Great Britain. SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN (1812-'14). Surrender of Detroit (August 16, 1812). As in the pre- vious wars, it was determined to invade Canada. General William Hull accordingly crossed over from Detroit and en- camped on Canadian soil. While preparing to attack Fort Maiden (mawPden), he learned that the enemy were gather- ing in force, and had already captured Fort Mackinaw. He, therefore, retreated to Detroit. The British under General Brock and the Indians under Tecumseh followed thither, and, landing, advanced at once to assault the fort at that place. The garrison was in line, and the gunners were standing with lighted .matches awaiting the order to fire, when Hull, apparently unnerved by the fear of bloodshed, ordered the white flag a table-cloth to be raised. Amid the tears of his men, it is said, and without even stipulating for the honors of war, he surrendered not only Detroit, with its garrison and stores, but the whole of Michigan. ^__ * Madison, whose disposition was very pacific, hesitated so long, that one of the federalists declared In Congress that " he could not oe kicked into a fight ". This expression passed into a proverb. ORANEY BRITISH ATTACK ON BAI.TIBOKK ,WASHIK(iTON .ETC. 1812.] WAR OF 1812-'14. 161 Battle of Queenstown Heights (October 13). Late in summer, another attempt was made to invade Canada. Gen- eral Van Rensselaer (ren'se ler), finding that his men wero eager for a fight, sent a small body across the Niagara River to attack the British at Queenstown Heights. The English were driven from their position, and General Brock was killed. General Van Rensselaer then returned to the Ameri- can shore to bring over the rest of the army ; but the militia, denying the constitutional right of their commander to take them out of the State, refused to embark. Meantime, their comrades on the Canadian shore, thus basely abandoned, after a desperate struggle, were compelled to surrender. Naval Victories. These signal disgraces by land were in striking contrast to the successes on the sea. Constitution and Guerriere (August 1 9). The fight off the coast of Massachusetts, between the American frigate Con- stitution (popularly called Old Ironsides) and the Guerriere (gare e are') is memorable. The latter vessel opened fire first. Captain Isaac Hull* refused to answer until he had brought his ship into the exact position he desired, when he poured broadside after broadside into his antagonist, sweeping her deck, shattering her hull, and cutting her masts and rigging to pieces. The Guerriere soon became unmanageable, and was forced to surrender.! She was so badly injured that she * Nephew of General Hull. His bravery retrieved the name from its disgrace. t "Captain Hull sent an officer to take possession of the Querriero. When he arrived alongside, he demanded of the commander of the English frigate if he had struck. Dacres was extremely reluctant to make this concession in plain terms ; but, with a shrewdness which would have done honor to a Yankee, endeavored to evade the question. ' I do not know that it would be prudent to continue the en- gagement any longer ', said he. ' Do I understand you to say that you have struck? ' inquired the American lieutenant. ' Not precisely ', returned Dacres ; ' but I don't know that it will be worth while to fight any longer.' 'If you can not decide, I will return aboard', replied the Yankee, 'and we will resume the engagement.' 'Why, I am pretty much fiors de combat already ', said Dacres ; ' I have hardly men enough left to work a gun, and my ship ia in a sinking condition,' 'I wish to know, sir', 162 EPOCH IV. [1812. could not be brought into port ; while the Old Ironsides, in a few hours, was ready for another fight. Frolic and Wasp (October 13). The next noted achievement was the defeat of the English brig Frolic by the sloop-of-war Wasp, off the coast of North Carolina. When the former was boarded by her captors, her colors CAPTTTBE OF THE GUERRIERE BY THE CONSTITUTION. were still flying, there being no one to haul them down. The man at the helm was the only sailor left on deck unharmed. Other victories followed. Privateers scoured every sea, inflicting untold injury on the British commerce. During the year, over three hundred prizes were captured. peremptorily demanded the American officer, ' whether I am to consider you as a prisoner of war or an enemy. I have no time for further parley.' ' I believe there is now no alternative. If I could fight longer, I would with pleasure ; hut I must surrender myself a prisoner of war!' 1 " 1813.J WAR OF 1812-'14. 163 The* Effect of these Naval Victories was to arouse enthu- siasm and inspire confidence. Volunteer corps were rapidly formed. Madison was re-elected, thus stamping his war policy with the popular approval. 1813. Plan of the Campaign. Three armies were raised: (1) the ARMY OF THE CENTER, under General Dearborn, on the Niagara River ; (2) the ARMY OF THE NORTH, under General Hampton, along Lake Champlain ; and (3) the ARMY OF THE WEST, under General Harrison, of Tippecanoe fame. All three were ultimately to invade Canada. Proctor was the British general, and Tecumseh had command of his Indian allies. The Armies of the Center and North did but little. Gen- eral Dearborn * attacked York, General Pike gallantly lead- ing the assault. Unfortunately, in the moment of success the magaxirie blew up, making fearful havoc. Pike was mortally wounded, but lived to hear the shouts of his men as they hauled down the British ensign. At a sign from him, the captured flag was placed under his head, when he died, as he had wished, " like Wolfe, in the arms of victory ". Dear- born soon after resigned. Wilkinson, his successor, tried to descend the St. Lawrence, and join General Hampton in an attack on Montreal. A sharp action occurred at CHRYSLER'S FIELD, but news coming that Hampton had gone back to Plattsburg, the expedition was abandoned. (Mapopp. p. 160.) Thus ingloriously ended the campaign of these two armies. Army of the West. A detachment of General Harrison's men was captured f at Frenchtown, on the River Raisin, by * When the British heard that Dearborn had sailed away from Sackett's Harbor with the fleet, they immediately made an attack on that place. They were bravely repulsed by General Brown and a few regulars. t This party was stationed on the Maumee, under General Winchester. Having 164 EPOCH IV. [1813. Proctor, who then besieged Harrison himself at Fort Meigs (mSgz). Repulsed here, Proctor stormed Fort Stephenson, garrisoned by only one hundred and sixty men, under Major Croghan, a young man of twenty-one. Beaten again, he returned to Maiden. As yet, however, the British held Michigan and threatened Ohio, and the Americans had been as unsuccessful this year as they were the preceding, when a glorious triumph on Lake Erie gave a new aspect to the campaign. Perry's Victory (September 10). When Captain Perry, then only twenty-seven years old, was assigned the command of theT flotilla^inLake Erie, the British were undisputed mastersof the Take; while his fleet was to be, in part, made out of the trees in the forest. By indefatigable exertion he got nine vessels, carrying fifty-four guns, ready for action, when the British fleet of six vessels and sixty-three guns bore down upon his little squadron.* Perry's flag-ship, the Lawrence,f engaged two of the heaviest vessels of the enemy, and fought them till but eight of his men were left. He learned that the people of Frenchtown feared an attack from the Indians, he allowed his military judgment to yield to his humanity, and marched to their relief. He de- feated the enemy, but was soon attacked by a body of fifteen hundred British and Indians under Proctor. Winchester, being captured in the course of the battle, agreed to the surrender of his men under the solemn promise that their lives and property should be safe. Proctor, however, immediately returned to Maiden with the British, leaving no guard over the American wounded. Thereupon, the Indians, maddened by liquor and the desire for revenge, mercilessly tomahawked many, sot fire to the houses in which others lay, and carried the survivors to Detroit, where they were dragged through the streets and offered for sale at the doors of the inhabitants. Many of the women of that place gave for their ransom every article of value which they possessed. The troops were Kentuckians, and the war-cry of their sons was henceforth " Remember the Raisin". The great object of the Indians in battle was to get scalps, Proctor paying a regular bounty for every one. They were therefore loth to take prisoners. Proctor, brutal and haughty, was a fit leader under a govern- ment that would employ savages in a civilized warfare. * Perry had never seen a naval battle, while Captain Barclay, the British com- mander, was one of Nelson's veterans, and had lost an arm in the service. t From its mast-head floated a blue pennant, bearing the words of the dying Law- rence, " Don't give up the snip ". (See p. 166.) 1813.] WAR OF 1812-'14. 165 helped these to fire the last gun, and then leaping into a boat bore his flag to the Niagara. He had to pass within pistol- shot of the British, who turned their guns directly upon him ; and though he was a fair mark for every shot, he escaped without injury. Breaking through the enemy's line, and firing right and left, within fifteen minutes after he mounted the deck of the Niagara the victory was won. Perry at once wrote to General Harrison, " WE HAVE MET THE ENEMY, AND THEY ARE OURS." This laconic dispatch produced intense ex- citement throughout the country. Upon the result of this battle depended, as we shall see, important issues. Battle of the Thames. Proctor and Tecumseh were at Maiden with their motley array of British and Indians, two thousand strong, waiting to lay waste the frontier. Harrison, at Sandusky Bay, was nearly ready to invade Canada, and at the news of this victory pushed across the lake. Landing at Maiden, which he found deserted, Harrison hotly pursued the flying enemy and overtook them on the RIVER THAMES (tsmz). Having drawn up his troops, he ordered Colonel Johnson, with his Kentucky horsemen, to charge the English in front. Dashing through the forest, they broke the enemy's line, and forming in their rear, prepared to pour in a deadly fire. The British surrendered, but Proctor escaped by the swiftness of his horse. Johnson then pushed forward to attack the Indians. In the heat of the action, a bullet, fired by Johnson himself, struck Tecumseh. With his death, the savages lost all hope, and fled in confusion. Effect. This victory, with Perry's, relieved Michigan, gave control of Lake Erie, and virtually decided the war. General Harrison returned amid the plaudits of the nation. Naval Battles. The American navy achieved some brilliant successes, but was not uniformly victorious. Chesapeake and Shannon. Captain Lawrence, of the 166 EPOCH IV. [1813. Hornet, having captured the British brig Peacock, on his return was placed in command of the Chesapeake, the ill- starred frigate which struck her flag to the Leopard off the coast of Virginia. While refitting his vessel at Boston, a challenge was sent him to fight the Shannon, then lying off the harbor. Lawrence, although part of his crew were dis- charged, and the unpaid remainder were almost mutinous, consulted only his own heroic spirit, and put to sea. The action was brief. A hand-grenade bursting in the Chesa- peake's arm-chest, the enemy took advantage of the confu- sion, and boarded the vessel. A scene of carnage ensued. Lawrence, mortally wounded, was carried below. As he left the deck he exclaimed, " DON'T GIVE UP THE SHIP ". But the feeble crew were soon overpowered, and the colors hauled down. War with the Creeks. Tecumseh had been (1811) among the Alabama Indians, and had aroused them to take up arms against the Americans. They accordingly formed a league (1813), and fell upon FORT MIMMS, massacring the gar- rison and the defenseless women and children. (Map opp. p. 160.) Volunteers flocked in from all sides to avenge this horrid deed. Under General Jackson, they drove the Indians from one place to another, until they took refuge on the HORSESHOE BEND, where they fortified themselves for the last battle* (March 27,1814). The soldiers, with fixed bayonets, scaled their breastwork. The Creeks fought with the energy of despair, but six hundred of their number were killed, and those who escaped were glad to make peace on any terms. * An event occurred on Jackson's march, which illustrates his iron will. For a long time his soldiers suffered extremely from famine, and at last they mutinied. Gteneral Jackson rode before the ranks. His left arm, shattered by a ball, was dis- abled, but in his right he held a musket. Sternly ordering the men back to their places, he declared he would shoot the first who advanced. No one stirred, and soon all returned to their duty. 1814.J WAR OF 1 8 1 2 - ' 1 4 . 167 Ravages on the Atlantic Coast. Early in the spring the British commenced devastating the Southern coast.* Ad- miral Cockburn, especially, disgraced the British navy by conduct worse than that of Cornwallis in the Revolution. Along the Virginia and Carolina coast, he burned bridges, farm-houses, and villages ; robbed the inhabitants of their crops, stock, and slaves ; plundered churches of their com- munion serviceSj and murdered the sick in their beds. DON'T GIVE UP THE SH11-. 1814. Battle of Lundy's Lane (July 25). The American army, under General Brown, crossed the Niagara River once more, and for the last time invaded Canada. Fort Erie having * New England was spared because of a belief that the Northern States were un- friendly to the war, and would yet return to their allegiance to Great Britain. 168 EPOCH IV. [1814. been taken, General Winfield Scott, leading the advance, at- tacked the British at CHIP'PE WA (July 5), and gained a brill- iant victory. A second engagement was fought at LUNDY'S LANE, opposite Niagara Falls. (Map opp. p. 160.) Here, within sound of that mighty cataract, occurred one of the bloodiest battles of the war. General Scott had only one thousand men, but he maintained the unequal contest until dark. A battery, located on a height, was the key to the British position. Calling Colonel Miller to his side, General Brown, who had now arrived, asked him if he could take it. " I'll try, sir ", was the fearless reply. Heading his regiment, he steadily marched up the height and secured the coveted position. Three times the British rallied for its re-capture, but as many times were hurled back. At midnight they retired from the field. This victory, though glorious to the American army, was barren of direct results. Battle of Lake Champlain (September 11). All but fif- teen hundred of the troops at Plattsburg had gone to rein- force General Brown. Prevost (pr vo'), the commander of the British army in Canada, learning this fact, took twelve thousand veteran soldiers, who had served under Welling- ton, and marched against that place. As he advanced to the attack, the British fleet on Lake Champlain assailed the American squadron under Commodore MacDonough (d6n'o).* The attacking squadron was nearly annihilated. The little army in Plattsburg, by their vigorous defense, pre- vented Prevost from crossing the Saranac River. When he found that his ships were lost, he fled precipitately, leaving his sick and wounded, and large quantities of military stores. Ravages on the Atlantic Coast. The British blockade extended this year to the north. Commerce was so com- * One of his vessels he had built in twenty days, from trees growing on the bank of the lake. 1814.] WAR OF 1812-'14. 169 pletely destroyed that the lamps in the light-houses were extinguished as being of use only to the English. Several towns in Maine were captured. Stonington, Conn., was bombarded. Cockburn continued his depredations along the Chesapeake. General Ross marched to Washington (Aug. 24) and burned the capitol, the Congressional library, and other public buildings and records, with private dwellings and store-houses. He then sailed around by sea, to attack Balti- more. The army having disembarked below the city (Sept. 12), moved against it by land,* while the fleet bombarded Fort McHenry from the river. The troops, however, met with a determined resistance; and, as the fleet had made no impression on the fort,f soon retired to their ships. Great excitement was produced by these events. Every sea-port was fortified ; the militia were organized, and citi- zens of all ranks labored with their own hands to throw up defenses. Bitter reproaches were cast upon the adminis- tration because of its mode of conducting the war. Delegates from New England States met at Hartford (December 1 5) to discuss this subject. The meeting was branded with odium by friends of the administration, and to be called a " Hartford Convention Federalist " was long a term of reproach. Peace, as afterward appeared, was made even before the convention adjourned. The treaty was signed at Ghent, December 24. Before, however, the news reached this country, a terrible and, as it proved, unnecessary battle had been fought in the South. Battle of New Orleans (January 8, 1815). A powerful fleet and a force of twelve thousand men, under General Pak- * While the British troops were marching toward Baltimore, Gteneral Ross rode forward to reconnoiter. Two mechanics, who were in a tree watching the advance, flred, and Ross fell mortally wounded. The two patriots were instantly shot. t During the bombardment of Fort McHenry, Francis S. Key, an American de- tained on board an English vessel, wrote the song, " The Star Spangled Banner ". 170 EPOCH IV. [1815. enham, undertook the capture of New Orleans. General Jackson, anticipating this attempt, had thrown up intrench- ments* several miles below the city. The British advanced steadily, in solid columns, heedless of the artillery fire BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. which swept their ranks, until they came within range of the Kentucky and Tennessee riflemen, when they wavered. Their officers rallied them again and again. General Pak- enham fell in the arms of the same officer who had caught General Ross as he fell at Baltimore. Neither discipline nor * Jackson at first made his intrenchments, in part, of cotton-bales, but a red-hot cannon-ball having fired the cotton and scattered the burning fragments among the barrels of gunpowder, it was found necessary to remove the cotton entirely. The only defense of the Americans during the battle was a bank of earth, five feet high, and a ditch in front. The British were tried and disciplined troops, while very few of the Americans had ever seen fighting. Besides, the British were nearly double their number. But our men were accustomed to the use of the rifle, and were the Usat marksmen in the world. 1815.J MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION.. 171 bravery could prevail. General Lambert, who succeeded to the command, drew off his men in the night, hopelessly defeated, after a loss of over two thousand; while the American loss was but seven killed and six wounded. Results of the War. The treaty left the question of im- pressment unsettled, yet it was tacitly understood, and was never revived. The national debt was $127,000,000, but within twenty years it was paid from the ordinary revenue. The United States had secured the respect of European nations,* since our navy had dared to meet, and often suc- cessfully, the greatest maritime power in the world. The impossibility of any foreign ruler gaining a permanent foot- hold on our territory was shown. The fruitless invasion of Canada by the militia, compared with the brave defense of their own territory by the same men, proved that the strength of the United States lay in defensive warfare. Ex- tensive manufactories were established to supply the place of the English goods cut off by the blockade. This branch of industry continued to thrive after peace, though for a time depressed by the quantity of English goods thrown on the market. The immediate evils of the war were apparent : trade ruined, commerce gone, no specie to be seen, and a general depression. Yet the wonderful resources of the country were shown by the rapidity with which it entered upon a new career of prosperity. During the next six years, a new State was added each year (p. 202). Political Parties. When Madison's term of office ex- pired, the federalist party had been broken up by its opposi- tion to the war. James Monroe, the Presidential candidate of * The Algerin.es had taken advantage of the war with England to renew their depredations on American commerce. Decatur (1815) was sent with a squadron to Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. He obtained the liberation of the American prisoners, and full indemnity for all losses, with pledges for the future. The United States was the first nation effectually to resist the demands of the Barbary pirates for tribute. 172 EPOCH IV. [1816. the republican party, was almost unanimously elected. He was generally beloved, and all parties united in his support. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION.* PRESIDENT TWO TKRMS: 1817-1825.) Monroe's administration was one of general prosperity. It is known as " The era of good feeling ". After the ravages of war, the attention of all was turned to the development of the internal resources of the country and to the build- ing up of its industries. Domestic Affairs. The Missouri Compromise. When the admission of Missouri as a State was proposed, a violent discussion arose as to whether it should be free or slave. \ * James Monroe was born 1758 ; died 1831. As a soldier under Gteneral Washing- ton, he distinguished himself in the battles of Brandywine, G/ermantown, and Mon- mouth. Afterward, he studied law, and entered political life. Having been sent by Washington as Minister to France, he showed such marked sympathy with that country as to displease the President and his cabinet, who were just concluding a treaty with England, and wished to preserve a strictly neutral policy ; he was there- fore recalled. Under Jeff erson, who was his warm friend, he was again sent to France (1803), when he secured the purchase of Louisiana. He is said to have always taken particular pride in this transaction, regarding his part in it as among the most im- portant of his public services. Soon after his inauguration as President, he visited all the military posts in the north and east, with a view to a thorough acquaintance with the capabilities of the country in the event of future hostilities. He wore a blue military coat of homespun, light-colored breeches, and a cocked hat, being the un- dress uniform of a Revolutionary officer. The nation was thus reminded of his for- mer military services. This, with his plain and unassuming manners, completely won the hearts of the people, and brought an overwhelming majority to the support of the administration. Monroe was a man more prudent than brilliant, who acted with a sin- gle eye to the welfare of his country. Jefferson said of him : " If his soul were turned inside out, not a spot would be found on it." Ijke that loved friend, he died " poor in money, but rich in honor " ; and like him also, he passed away on the anniversary of the independence of the country he had served so faithfully. t The question of slavery was already one of vast importance. At first, slaves were owned in the Northern as well as the Southern States. But at the North, slave labor was unprofitable, and it had gradually died out ; while at the South, it was a success, and hence had steadily increased. In 1793, Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts, invented the cotton-gin, a machine for cleaning cotton from the seed, an operation 1821.] DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES. 175 Through the efforts of Henry Clay, it was admitted as a slave State (1821), under the compromise that slavery should be prohibited in all other territories west of the Mississippi and north of parallel 3 6 30', the southern boundary of Missouri. La Fayette's Visit to this country (1824) as "the nation's guest " was a joyous event. He traveled through each of the twenty-four States, and was every-where welcomed with de- light. His visit to the tomb of Washington was full of affec- tionate remembrance. He was carried home in a national vessel, the Brandy wine, named in honor of the battle in which La Fayette first drew his sword in behalf of the colonies. Foreign Affairs. Florida. By a treaty (1819), Spain no weeded Florida to the United States. (See p. 302.) Monroe Doctrine. In one of President Monroe's messages he advocated a principle since famous as the MONROE DOC- TRINE. He declared that any attempt by a European nation to gain dominion in America would be considered by the United States as an unfriendly act. Political Parties. Divisions now became apparent in the great party which had twice so triumphantly elected Monroe as President. The whig party, as it came to be called in Jack- son's time, was forming in opposition to the republican thenceforth known as the democratic party.* The whigs were in favor of a protective tariff, and a general system of internal improvements ; f the democrats opposed these meas- before performed by band, and very expensive. (Bead Barnes' Pop. Hist, of the U. S., p. 348.) Tbis gave a new impulse to cotton-raising. Sugar and tobacco, also great staples of the South, were cultivated exclusively by slave labor. * John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay were the champions of the whigs ; Andrew Jackson and John C. Calhoun, of the democrats. In 1835, the democrats began to be dalled " Xiocof ocos ", because, at a meeting In Tammany Hall (Oct. 29), the llgnts Hav- ing been put out, were relighted with locofoco matches, which several persons, expecting such an event, had carried in their pockets. t A protective tariff is a duty on imported goods for the purpose of encouraging home manufactures. By the term internal improvements is meant the improving of the navigation of rivers, the building of railroads, the dredging of harbors, etc. 174 EPOCH IV. [1825 ures. No one of the four candidates obtaining a majority the election went to the House of Representatives, where John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, was chosen. J. Q. ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION.* (SIXTH PRESIDENT: 1825-1820.) This was a period of great national prosperity. During this term, the Erie Canal was opened (1825), and the first railroad in the United States was completed (1826). The debt was diminishing at the rate of over $6,000,000 a year. A protective tariff, known as the "American Sys- tem ", reached its height. It was popular at the East, but distasteful to the South.t Adams was a candidate for re- election, but Andrew Jackson the hero of New Orleans, and the democratic nominee was chosen. The principle of a protective tariff was thus rejected by the people. * John Quincy Adams was born in Massachusetts, 1767; died 1848. Hewasaman of learning, blameless reputation, and unquestioned patriotism, yet as President he was hardly more successful than his father. This was, doubtless, owing greatly to the fierce opposition which assailed him from the friends of disappointed candidates, who at once combined to weaken his measures and prevent his re-election. Their candidate was Andrew Jackson, a man whose dashing boldness, energy, and decision attracted the common people, and hid the more quiet virtues of Adams. To add to his perplexities, a majority of the House, and nearly one half of the Senate, favored the new party, his own Vice-President, John C. Calhoun, being most active in the opposition. To stem such a tide was a hopeless effort. In two years, Adams was re- turned to Congress, where he remained until his death, over sixteen years afterward. Ten years of public service were thus rendered after he had passed his " three-score years and ten ", and so great was his ability in debate at this extreme age, that he was called " the old man eloquent ". Like his father, he was a wonderful worker, and his mind was a store-house of facts. He lived economically, and left a large estate. He was the congressional advocate of anti-slavery, and a bitter opponent of secret societies. His fame increased with his age, and he died a trusted and revered cham- pion of popular rights. He was seized with paralysis while occupying his seat in Congress, after which he lingered two days in partial unconsciousness. His last words were" This is the last of earth ; I am content." t The Southern States, devoted to agricultural pursuits, desired to have foreign goods brought to them as cheaply as possible ; while the eastern States, engaged in manufactures, wished to have foreign competition shut off by heavy duties. 1829.] DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES. 175 JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION.* (SEVENTH PBESIDENT TWO TEEMS: 1829-1837.) President Jackson commenced his administration with an inflexible honesty that delighted all, but with a sturdi- ness of purpose that amazed both friends and foes. He sur- rounded himself at once by his political friends, thus estab- lishing the principle of "rotation in office ".f Domestic Affairs. Nullification (1832). South Caro- lina passed a Nullification ordinance declaring the tariff law "null and void", and that the State would secede from the Union if force should be employed to collect any revenue at Charleston. President Jackson acted with his accustomed * Andrew Jackson was born 1767 ; died 1845. He was of Scotch-Irish descent. His father died before he was born, leaving his mother very poor. As a boy, Andrew was brave and impetuous, passionately fond of athletic sports, but not at all addicted to books. His life was crowded with excitement and adventure. At fourteen, being captured by the British, he was ordered to clean the commander's boots. Showing the true American spirit in his refusal, he was sent to prison with a wound on head and arm. Here he contracted the small-pox, which kept him ill for several months. Soon after his mother had effected his exchange, she died of ship-fever while caring for the imprisoned Americans at Charleston. Left destitute, young Jackson tried various employments, but finally settled down to the law, and in 1796 was elected to Congress. His imperious temper and inflexible will supplied him with frequent quarrels. He first distinguished himself as a military officer in the war against the Creek Indians. His dashing successes in the war of 1812 completed his reputation, and ultimately won him the Presidency. His nomination was at first received in many States with ridicule, as, whatever might be his military prowess, neither hia temper nor his ability recommended him as a statesman. TTia re-election, however, proved his popular success as President. His chief intellectual gifts were energy and intuitive judgment. He was thoroughly honest, intensely warm-hearted, and had an instinctive horror of debt. His moral courage was as great as his physical, and his patriotism was undoubted. He died at the " Hermitage ", his home near Nashville, Tennessee. Jackson and Adams were born the same year, yet how different was their childhood 1 One born to luxury and travel, a student from his earliest years, and brilliantly educated ; the other born in poverty, of limited education, and forced to provide for himself. Yet they were destined twice to compete for the highest place in the nation. Adams, the first time barely successful, was unfortunate in his admin- istration ; Jackson, triumphing the second, was brilliant in his Presidential career. t " During the first year of his administration, there were nearly seven hundred removals from office, not including subordinate clerks. During the forty years pre- ceding, there had been but seventy-four." 176 EPOCH IV. [1832. promptness. He issued a proclamation announcing his de- termination to execute the laws, and ordered troops, under General Scott, to Charleston.* In the meantime, Henry Clay's celebrated "Compromise Bill" was adopted by the Senate. This measure, offering a gradual reduction of the tariff, was accepted by both sides and quiet restored, f Bank of the United States. During his first term, Jackson ve- toed a bill renewing the charter of the United States Bank. After his re-election by an overwhelming ma- jority, considering his policy sus- tained by the people, he ordered (1833) the public money to be re- moved from its vaults. The bank thereupon contracted its loans, money became scarce, and, people being unable to pay their debts, commercial distress ensued. Jackson's meas- ure excited violent clamor, but he was sustained by the democratic majority in the House of Representatives. Speculations. "When the public money, which had been * John C. Calhoun and Robert Y. Hayne were the prominent advocates of the doctrine of " State rights ", which declared that a State could set aside an act of Con- gress. During this struggle, occurred the memorable debate between Webster and Hayne, in which the former, opposing secession, pronounced those words familiar to every school-boy, " Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable." Calhoun's public life extended over forty years. He was one of the most celebrated statesmen of his time. As a speaker, he was noted for forcible logic, clear demon- stration, and earnest manner. He rejected ornament, and rarely used illustration. Webster, his political antagonist, said of him, " He had the indisputable basis of all high character unspotted integrity and honor unimpeached. Nothing groveling, low, or meanly selfish came near his head or his heart." t Alexander H. Stephens says : " To do this, Clay had to break from his old polit- ical friends, while he was offering up the darling system of his heart on the altar of his country. No one can deny that he was a patriot every inch of him. When he was importuned not to take the course he did, and assured that it would lessen his chances for the Presidency, he nobly replied, ' I would rather be right than Presi- dent 'a sentiment worthy to be the motto of every young patriot in our land," 183:1] JACKSON8 A D M I N I S T i: A T I O N . 177 withdrawn from the Bank of the United States, was deposited in the local banks, it became easy to borrow money. Specu- lation extended to every branch of trade, but especially to western lands. New cities were laid out in the wilderness. Fabu- lous prices were charged for building lots, which existed only on paper. Scarcely a man could be found who had not his pet project for realizing a fortune. The bitter fruits of these hot- house schemes were gathered in Van Buren's time. Indian Troubles. 1. THE BLACK HAWK WAR broke out in the North-west Territory (1832). The Sacs and Foxes had some time before sold lands to the United States, but when the settlers came to take possession, the Indians refused to leave. After some skirmishes, they were driven off, and their leader, the famous Black Hawk, was captured. 2. THE FLORIDA WAR (1835) with the Sem'inoles grew out of an attempt to remove them, in accordance with a treaty, to lands west of the Mississippi. Os ce o' la, the chief of the Seminoles, was so defiant, that General Thompson, the government agent, put him in irons. Dissembling his wrath, Osceola consented to the treaty. But no sooner was he released than, burning with indignation, he plotted a general massacre of the whites. General Thompson was shot and scalped while sitting at dinner, under the very guns of Fort King. The same day, Major Dade, with over one hundred men, was waylaid near the Wa'hoo Swamp. All but four were killed, and these subsequently died of their 178 EPOCH IV. [1837. their wounds.* After several battles, the Indians retreated to the everglades of southern Florida, in whose tangled swamps they hoped to find a safe retreat. They were, however, pursued into their hiding-places by Colonel Taylor, and beaten in a hard-fought battle (O ke cho' bee, Dec. 25, 1837), but were not fully subdued until 1842. Foreign Affairs. France. The French government had promised to pay $5,000,000 for damages to our commerce during Napoleon's wars. This agreement not being kept, Jackson urged Congress to make reprisals on French ships. The mediation of England secured the payment of the debt by France, and thus averted the threatened war. Political Parties. The democratic candidate, Martin Van Bu'ren, was chosen President, f The people thus supported the policy of Jackson, no United States Bank and no Protective Tariff. General Harrison was the whig candidate. VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION. J (EIGHTH PRESIDENT: 1837-1841.) Domestic Affairs. Crisis of 1837. The financial storm, which had been gathering through the preceding administra- * Osceola, in October, 1837, visited the camp of General Jessup, under a flag of truce. He was there seized and sent to iFort Moultrie, where he died the following year. t No Vice-President being chosen by the people, Colonel R. M. Johnson (p. 165) was selected by the Senate. $ Martin "Van Buren was born 1782 ; died 1862. He early took an interest in politics, and in 1818 started a new organization of the democratic party of New York, his native State, which had the power for over twenty years. In 1831, he was appointed minister to England, whither he went in September, but when the nomi- nation came before the Senate in December, it was rejected, on. the ground that he had sided with England against the United States, on certain matters, and had carried party contests and their results into foreign negotiations. His party regarded this as extreme political persecution, and the next year elected him to the Vice-Presidency. He thus became the head of the Senate which a few months before condemned him, and where he now performed his duties with " dignity, courtesy, and impartiality ". 1837.] DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES. 179 tion, now burst with terrible fury. The banks contracted their circulation.* Business men could not pay their debts. Failures were every-day occurrences, and the losses in New York city alone, during March and April, exceeded $100,000,000. Property of all kinds declined in value. Eight of the States failed, wholly or in part. Even the United States government could not pay its debts. f Consternation seized upon all classes. Confidence was destroyed, and trade stood still. Foreign Affairs. TJie " Patriot War "(183 7-' 3 8). The Canadian rebellion against England, at this time, stirred the sympathies of the American people. Meetings were held, volunteers offered, and arms contributed. The President issued a proclamation refusing the protection of the United States government to any who should aid the Canadians, and sent General Scott to the frontier to preserve the peace.J As a President, Van Buren was the subject of much partisan censure. The country was passing through a peculiar crisis, and his was a difficult position to nil with satis- faction to all. That he pleased his own party, is proved from the fact of his re-nomi- nation in 1840 against Harrison. In 1848, he became the candidate of the " free de- mocracy ", a new party advocating anti-slavery principles. After this, he retired to his estate in Kinderhook, N. Y., where he died. * The direct causes of this were (1) the specie circular, which was issued by Jack- son in 1836, just at the close of his last term, directing that payments for public lands should be made in gold and silver. The gold and silver was soon gathered into the United States treasury. (2) The surplus public money, amounting to about $28,- 000,000, which was ordered by Congress to be withdrawn from the local banks and distributed among the States. The banks could not meet the demand. (3) During the season of high prices and speculation, when fortunes were easily made, there had been heavy Importations of European goods, which had to be paid for in gold and silver. Thus the country was drained of its specie. (4) A terrible fire in the city of New York on the night of Dec. 16, 1835, which had burned 600 valuable stores, and property to the amount of $20,000,000. t At the present time, the public money is kept in the United States treasury at Washington, and in sub-treasuries. This was Van Buren's favorite idea, and adopted by Congress only at the close of his term. It was called the Sub-Treasury Bill, and was used as a great argument against Van Buren's re-election. It was repealed during Tyler's administration, but re-enacted under Polk. % A body of American sympathizers having taken possession of Navy Island, in 180 EPOCH IV. [1838. The North-east Boundary between Maine and New Bruns- wick had never been settled. The people of that region threatened to take up arms to support their respective claims. For some time, there was great peril of a war with England. During Tyler's administration, the difficulty was adjusted by what is known as the Ash'burton treaty (1842), which was negotiated between the United States and Great Britain; Daniel Webster and Lord Ashburton acting as commissioners. Political Parties. The financial difficulties caused a change in political feeling, and for the time weakened the confidence of the people in the wisdom of the democratic policy. Van Buren failed of a re-election, and General Har- rison, the hero of Tippecanoe, the whig nominee, was chosen President by an immense majority. HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION.* (NINTH AND TENTH PRESIDENTS: 1841-1845.) General Harrison had scarcely entered upon the duties of his office and selected his cabinet, when he died. John Tyler, the Vice-President, in accordance with the Consti- tution of the United States, became President. He was elected as a whig, but did not carry out the favorite meas- ures of his party. Niagara River, had hired a steamer, called the Caroline, to convey their provisions and war materials. On the night of December 29, 1837, a party of British troops attempted to seize this vessel at Schlosser. A desperate fight ensued ; but the ship was, at last, set on fire and left to drift over the Falls. This event caused great excitement at the time. * William Henry Harrison was born in 1773 ; died 1841. He distinguished himself during the war of 1812, especially in the battle of the Thames. His military reputa- tion made him available as a Presidential candidate. His character was unimpeach- able, and the chief slur cast upon him by his opponents was that he had lived in a " log cabin " with nothing to drink but " hard cider ". TfiH friends turned this to good 1841.] TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION. 181 Domestic Affairs. United States Bank. The whigs, im- mediately upon coming into power, passed a bill to establish a United States Bank, but it was vetoed by Tyler, to the great disgust of the men who had elected him. The Suffrage Difficulties, commonly known as "Dorr's Rebellion ", grew out of efforts to secure a more liberal con- stitution in the State of Rhode Island. The charter granted by Charles II. was still in force. It limited the right of suf- frage to those holding a certain amount of property, and fixed very unequally the number of deputies in the Assem- bly from the different towns. In 1841, a new constitution was adopted, the vote being taken in mass conventions, and not by the legal voters, according to the charter. Under this constitution, T. W. Dorr was elected governor. The account. The campaign was noted for immense mass-meetings, long processions, song-singing, and great enthusiasm. " Hard cider " became a party watch-word, and " log cabins " a regular feature in the popular parades. Harrison was elected by a large majority, and great hopes were entertained of his administration. Though ad- vanced in years, he gave promise of endurance. But " he was beset by office-seekers ; he was anxious to gratify the numerous friends and supporters who flocked about him ; he gave himself incessantly to public business ; and at the close of the month he was on a sick-bed." The illness soon proved to be fatal. His last words were, " The principles of the government ; I wish them carried out. I ask nothing more." John Tyler was born in 1790 ; died 1862. He was in early life a great admirer of Henry Clay, and is said, to have wept with sorrow when the whigs in convention rejected his favorite candidate for the Presidency, and selected Harrison. He was nominated Vice-President by a unanimous vote, and was a favorite with his party. In the popular refrain, " Tippecanoe and Tyler too ", the people sung praises to him as heartily as to Harrison himself. The death of Harrison and the succession of Tyler, was the first instance of the kind in our history. Tyler's administration was not successful. He opposed the measures of his party, and made free use of the veto power. His former political friends denounced him as a renegade, to which he replied that he had never professed to indorse the measures which he opposed. The feeling increased in bitterness, and all his cabinet finally resigned. He was, however, nominated for the next Presidency by a convention composed chiefly of office-holders ; he accepted, but finding no popular support, soon withdrew. In 1861, he became the presiding officer of the peace convention in Wash- ington. All efforts at reconciliation proving futile, he renounced his allegiance to the United States, and followed the Confederate fortunes. He died in Richmond, where he was in attendance as a member of the Confederate Congress. X* 182 EPOCH IV. [1842. old government still went on, treating his election as illegal. He attempted to seize the State arsenal, but, finding it held by the militia, gave up the attempt. Dorr was afterward arrested, convicted of treason, and sentenced to imprison- ment for life ; but was finally pardoned. Meanwhile, a liberal constitution, which had been legally adopted, went into operation (1843). -^"Anti- Rent Difficulties (1 844). The tenants on some of the old "patroon estates" in New York refused to pay the rent. VIEW OF SALT LAKE CITY. It was very ligfct,* but was considered illegal. The anti- renters, as they were called, assumed the disguise of Indians, tarred and feathered those tenants who paid their rents, and even killed officers who served warrants upon them. The disturbances were suppressed only by a military force (1846). The Mormons. A religious sect called Mor'mons had settled at Nauvoo', 111. (1840). Here they built a city of several thousand inhabitants, and laid the foundation of a * The rent consisted of only " a few bushels of wheat, three or four fat fowls, and a day's work with horses and wagon, per year ". J* 1844.] TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION,//" 183 Vtf' costly temple. Having incurred the enmity of the people about them, their leader, Joseph Smith, was taken from the custody of the authorities, to whom he had intrusted him- self, and killed (1844).* The city was bombarded for three days, and finally the inhabitants fled to Iowa (1846). The Magnetic Telegraph was invented by Samuel P. B. Morsel The first line was built between Baltimore and Washington (1844), with $30,000 appropriated by Con- gress ; and the first public news sent was that concerning Folk's nomination (p. 184).f Foreign Affairs. .Annexation of Texas. The Texans, under General Sam Houston (ha'ston), having won their independence from Mexico, applied (April, 1844) for admission into the Union. Their petition was at first rejected by Congress, J but, being indorsed by the people in the fall elections, was accepted before the close of Tyler's administration. North-west Boundary. The north-east boundary ques- * Joseph Smith, while living at Palmyra, N. Y., claimed to have had a supernatural revelation, by which he was directed to a spot where he found buried a series of golden plates covered with inscriptions, which he translated by means of two trans- parent stones (Urim and Thummim) found with them. The result was the Book of Mormon, said to be the history of a race favored by God, who occupied this continent at a remote period of antiquity. The Mormons accept the Holy Bible as received by all Christian people, but believe the Book of Mormon to be an additional revelation, and also that their chief or prophet receives direct inspiration from God. They prac- tice plural marriage, or polygamy, claiming that the Scriptures justify, while one of their revelations directly commands it. After the death of Smith and their expulsion from Nauvod, a company under the leadership of Brigham Young crossed the Rocky Mountains, and settled near Great Salt Lake, in Utah. They were followed by others of their sect, and, after great sufferings, succeeded in subduing the barren soil, and establishing a prosperous colony. They founded Salt Lake City, where they erected a large temple for worship. Their prophet, Brigham Young, who died August 19, 1877, is still remembered by his followers with the greatest reverence. t This was the grandest event of this administration, and it has largely influenced the civilization and prosperity of the country. Thus the steamboat and the mag- netic telegraph were the early fruits of American liberty and industry. (Read Barnes 1 Popular History of the United States, pp. 365 and 442.) t There were two reasons why this measure was warmly discussed. 1 Mexico 184 EPOCH IV. [1846. tion had scarcely been settled, when the north-west bound- ary came into dispute. It was settled, during Folk's admin- istration, by a compromise fixing the boundary line at 49 instead of 54 40' as claimed by the United States. Political Parties. The question of the annexation of Texas went before the people for their decision. The whigs, who opposed its admission, nominated Henry Clay* for President. The democrats, who favored its admission, nom- inated James K. Polk, who, after a close contest, was elected. claimed Texas, although that country had. maintained its independence for nine years, and had been recognized by several European nations as well as by the United States. Besides, Texas claimed the Rio Grande (re'o gran da), while Mexico insisted upon the Nueces (nwa'ses) River as the boundary line between Texas and Mexico. The section of country between these rivers was therefore disputed territory. Thus the annexation of Texas would bring on a war with Mexico. 2. Texas held slaves. Consequently, while the South urged its admis- sion, the North as strongly opposed it. * Henry Clay was a man whom the nation loved, but signally failed to honor. Yet his fame and reputation remain far above any distinction which mere office can give, and unite with them an affection which stands the test of time. Respected by his opponents, he was almost idolized by his friends. In this he somewhat resembled Jefferson, but, unlike him, he had not in his early years the advantages of a liberal education. His father, a Baptist minister of very limited means, died when Henry was five years old, and at fifteen he was left to support himself. Meantime, he had received what little tuition he had, in a log-cabin school-house, from very indifferent teachers. With a rare tact for making friends, ready talent waiting to be instructed, and a strong determination seeking opportunities, he soon began to show the dawnings of the power which afterward distinguished him. He said : "I owe my success in life to a single fact, namely, that at an early age I com- menced, and continued for some years, the practice of daily reading and speaking the contents of some historical or scientific book. These off-hand efforts were some- times made in a corn-field ; at others, in the forest ; and not unfrequently in some distant barn, with the horse and ox for my only auditors. It is to this that I am indebted for the impulses that have shaped and molded my entire destiny." Rising rapidly by the force of his genius, he soon made himself felt in his State and in the nation. He was peculiarly winning in his manners. An eminent and stern political antagonist once refused an introduction to him expressly on the ground of a determi- nation not to be magnetized by personal contact, as he "had known other good haters " of Clay to be. United with this suavity was a wonderful will and an inflex- ible honor. His political adversary, but personal admirer, John C. Breckinridge, in an oration pronounced at his death, uttered these words " If I were to write his epitaph, I would inscribe as the highest eulogy on the stone which shall mark his resting-place : ' Here lies a man who was in the public service for fifty years, and never attempted to deceive his countrymen'." Homes of Eminent Americans. 1. BIRTHPLACE OF WASHINGTON, AND MT. VERNON, HIS LAST RESIDENCE. 2. MONTICELLO, THE HOME OF JEFFERSON. 3. BIRTHPLACE OF WEBSTER. 4. BIRTHPLACE OF OARFIELD. 5. THE "HERMITAGE", RESIDENCE Ot JACKSON. 6. BIRTHPLACE OF LINCOLN, AND HIS LAST RESIDENCE. 1845.] THE MEXICAN WAR. 185 JAMES K. FOLK'S ADMINISTRATION.* (ELEVENTH PRESIDENT: 1845-1849.) WAR WITH MEXICO (1846-47). 1. GENERAL TAYLOR'S ARMY. Campaign on the Rio Grande. General Taylor having been ordered with his troops into the disputed territory, ad- vanced to the Rio Grande and built Fort Brown. Returning from Point Isabel, whither he had gone for supplies, on the plains of PALO ALTO(pah'i6 ahi'to) he met six thousand Mexi- cans, under General Arista (ah rees'tah), drawn up across the road. (Map opp. p. 161.) Though they outnumbered his little army three to one, he routed them with a loss of but nine men killed. The next afternoon, he met them again at RESACA BE LA PALMA (ra sah'kah da lah pahl'mah), posted in a deep ravine through which the road ran, flanked by thickets. Their artillery held Taylor's men in check for a time, when Captain May, charging with his cavalry in the face of a murderous fire, captured the guns, and with them their commander, General La Vega (lah va'gah), just in the act of firing a gun. The infantry now rushed forward and drove the enemy, who fled across the Rio Grande in utter rout. * James K. Polk was born 1795 ; died 1849. He was a conspicuous opposer of the administration of John Quincy Adams, and a warm supporter of Jackson. In 1839, having served fourteen years in Congress, he declined a re-election and was c-hosen governor of Tennessee. His Presidential nomination, in connection with that of George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, as Vice-President, had the effect of uniting the democratic party, which had been disturbed by dissensions between the friends and opponents of Martin Van Buren. The Mexican war, which was strongly opposed in many States, the enactment of a tariff based on a revenue principle instead of a protective one, and the agitation caused by the " Wilmot proviso " (p. 190), conspired to affect his popularity before the end of his term. He had, however, previously pledged himself not to be a candidate for re-election. He died about three months after his retirement from office. 186 EPOCH IV. [1846. Invasion of Mexico. Capture of Monterey (Sept. 24). General Taylor, with about six thousand men, advanced upon Monterey (m6n ta ra'). This city, surrounded by mountains and almost impassable ravines, was strongly fortified, and its streets were barricaded ami defended by a garrison of ten thousand men.- A grand assault was made on the city. To GENERAL TAYLOR AT BUENA VISTA. avoid the deadly fire from the windows, roofs, and barricades, the troops entered the buildings and dug their way through the stone walls from house to house, or passed from roof to roof. They came at last within one square of the Grand Plaza, when the city was surrendered. The garrison was allowed to march out with the honors of war. Battle of Ttuena Vista (bwa'nah vees'tah) (February 23, 1 847). Santa Anna, the Mexican general, learning that the flower of Taylor's command had been withdrawn to aid 1847.] THE MEXICAN WAK. 187 General Scott, determined to crush the remainder. The little American army took post at Buena Vista, a narrow mount- ain pass with hills on one side and a ravine on the other.* Here it was attacked by Santa Anna with twenty thousand of the best troops of Mexico. The battle lasted from early morning till dark. In the final desperate encounter, our infantry being overwhelmed by numbers, Bragg's artillery was ordered to the rescue. Without any infantry support, they dashed up to within a few yards of the crowded masses of the enemy. A single discharge made them waver. " A little more grape, Captain Bragg ! " shouted Taylor. A sec- ond and a third discharge followed, and the Mexicans broke and fled in disorder. During the night, Santa Anna drew off his defeated army. General Taylor's work was now done. His army was intended only to hold the country already gained, while General Scott penetrated to the capital from Vera Cruz (va rah. krobs). 2. GENERAL KEARNEY'S ARMY. Conquest of New Mexico and California. General Kear- ney (kar' ae) was directed to take the Mexican provinces of New Mexico and California. Starting from Fort Leaven- * Several anecdotes are told of General Taylor in connection -with this battle. The day before the principal attack, the Mexicans fired heavily on our line. A Mexican officer, coming with a message from Santa Anna, found Taylor sitting on his white horse, with one leg over the pommel of his saddle. The officer asked him " what he was waiting for " f He answered, " For Santa Anna to surrender." After the officer's return, a battery opened on Taylor's position, but he remained coolly surveying the enemy with his spy-glass. Some one suggesting that " Whitey " was too conspicu- ous a horse for the battle, he replied that the "old fellow had missed the fun at Monterey, and he should have his share this time ". Mr. Crittenden having gone to Santa Anna's head -quarters, was told if General Taylor would surrender, he should be protected. Mr. Crittenden replied, " Q-eneral Taylor never surrenders." This became a favorite motto during the election of 1848. The anecdote told concerning Capt. Bragg is disputed, but has become historical (Barnes' Pop. Hist. TJ. S., p. 456). 188 EPOCH iv. worth (Juno, 1846), a journey of about a thousand miles brought him to Santa Fe.* Unfurling there the United States flag, he continued his march toward California (map opp. p. 161). On his way, however, he learned from Kit Carson, the noted hunter, that he was too late. The winter before, Captain John C. Fremont, with a company of sixty men, had been engaged in surveying a new route to Oregon. Hearing that the Mexican commandant intended to expel the American settlers, he went to their rescue, although ho was not aware that war had broken out between the United States and Mexico. With greatly inferior numbers, he was victor over the Mexicans in every conflict. By the help of Commodores Sloat and Stockton, and also General Kear- ney, who came in time to aid in the last battle, the entire country was conquered. 3. GENERAL SCOTT'S ARMY. Capture of Vera Cruz (March 29, 1847). General Win- field Scott landed an army twelve thousand strong, without. opposition, and forthwith drew his siege-lines among the shifting sand-hills and chaparral thickets about Vera Cruz (map opp. p. 161). After a fierce bombardment of four days, the city and the strong castle of San Juan de Ulloa (sahn hoo ahn'da ool yO'ah) were surrendered. March to Mexico. Battle of Cerro Gordo (April 18). In about a week, the army took up its march for the capital. At the mountain pass of Cer'ro Gor'do, the enemy were strongly fortified. Our men cut a road around the base of * Colonel Doniphan, with one thousand men, the main body of General Kearney's command, marched over a thousand miles through a hostile country, from Santa Fe to Saltillo, having on the way fought two battles and conquered the province and city of Chihuahua (che wan' wah). At the end of their term of service, he marched his men back to New Orleans and discharged them. They had been enlisted, taken five thousand miles, and disbanded, all in a year. 1847.] THE MEXICAN WAR. 189 the mountain through the forest, and dragged cannon up the precipice by ropes, to the rear of the position. Thence a plunging fire was opened simultaneously with an assault in front. The Mexicans fled in such haste that Santa Anna with difficulty escaped on his wheel-mule, leaving behind him his wooden leg. The city of Puebla (pw5b' lah), next to Mexico in impor- tance, surrendered without resistance. Here Scott waited nearly three months for re-inforcements. Battles before Mexico. With eleven thousand men, the march was resumed (August 7), and in three days the army reached the crest of the Cor dil'le ras, where the magnificent valley of Mexico lay stretched before them. In the midst, was the city, surrounded by fertile plains and cloud-capped mountains. But the way thither was guarded by thirty thousand men and strong fortifications. Turning to the south to avoid the strongest points, by a route considered impassable, the army came before the intrenched camp of CONTRERAS (kon tra'ras), within fourteen miles of Mexico (Aug. 19). The next morning, this was taken, the troops having moved to their positions in darkness so intense that, to avoid being separated, they had to touch each other as they marched. The same day, the height of CHURUBUSCO (choo roo boo'sko) was stormed, numerous batteries were captured, and the defenses laid bare to the causeways leading to the very gates of the city. An armistice and fruitless nego- tiations for peace delayed the advance until General Scott found that the Mexicans were only improving the time in strengthening their works. Once more (September 8), our army moved to the assault. The attack was irresistible. The formidable outworks were taken one by one. At last, the castle of CHAPULTEPEC (chapooitepek'), situated on a high rock commanding the city, was stormed. The next day (Sep- 190 EPOCH IV. [1848. tember 14), the army entered the city, and the stars and stripes waved in triumph over the palace of the Mon te zu'mas. Peace. The fall of the capital virtually closed the war. A treaty was concluded, February 2, 1848. The United States gained the vast territory reaching south to the Gila (hs'lah) and west to the Pacific (see maps of IVth and Vlth Epochs)^ ^ Domestic Affairs. The Wilmot Proviso. Texas, the prize of the war, became at once the bone of contention. David Wilmot offered in Congress (August, 1846) a bill forbidding slavery in any territory which should be acquired. This measure, though lost, excited violent debate in and out of Congress, and became the great feature of the fall election. Discover]/ of Gold in California. A workman in digging a mill-race in the Sacramento valley (February > 1848) dis- covered shining particles of gold. A further search proved that the soil for miles around contained the precious metal. The news flew in every direction. Emigration began from all parts of America, and even from Europe and Asia. In eighteen months, one hundred thousand persons went from the United States to this El Do ra'do, where a fortune was to be picked up in a few days. Thousands made their way across the desert, amid privations which strewed the route with skeletons. The bay of San Francisco was quickly sur- rounded by an extemporized city of shanties and booths. All ordinary employments were laid aside. Ships were de- serted by their crews, who ran to the mines, sometimes, it is said, headed by their officers. Soon, streets were laid out, houses erected, and from this Babel, as if by magic, grew up a beautiful city. For a time, lawlessness reigned supreme. But, driven by the necessity of events, the most respectable citizens took the law into their own hands, organized vigi- 1848.] DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES. 191 lance committees, and administered a rude but prompt justice which presently restored order. Political Parties. Three parties now di- vided the suffrages of the people. The whigs nomi- nated General Taylor for President ; the demo- crats, Lewis Cass ; and the f ree-soilers, who were opposed to the extension of slavery, Martin Van Buren. The personal popularity of General Taylor, on account of his many sterling qualities || and his brilliant victo- ries in the Mexican war, made him the favorite candidate, and he was elected. WASHING OUT GOLD. TAYLOR AND FILLMOBE'S ADMINISTRATION.* (TWEHFTH AND THIRTEENTH PRESIDENTS: 1849-1853.) General Taylor, like General Harrison, died soon after his elevation to the Presidency. Millard Fillmore, Vice-Presi- dent, succeeded him. * Zachary Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784. Soon after his birth, his parents removed to Kentucky. His means of education were extremely scanty, and until he was twenty-four years of age he worked on his father's plantation. Madison, who was a relative and at that time Secretary of State, then secured for him an appoint- ment in the army as lieutenant. From this, he rose by regular and rapid degrees to a major-generalship. Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, Monterey, and Buena Vista won him great applause. He was the hero of a successful war, and the soldiers ad- miringly called him " Old Rough aud Ready ". Many whig leaders violently opposed 192 EPOCH IV. [1850. Domestic Affairs. Slavery questions were the great po- litical topic of this administration. When California applied for admission to the Union as a free State, all these sub- jects were brought to a focus. A hot debate ensued, and for JOHN O. OALHOITN. \NIEL WEBSTER. awhile it seemed as if the Union would be rent asunder. At this terrible crisis, Henry Clay, the " Great Pacificator ", came forward, and, with his wonderful eloquence, urged the his nomination. Daniel Web'ster called him " an ignorant frontier colonel ". The fact that he was a slave-holder was warmly urged against him. He knew nothing of civil affairs, and had taken so little interest in politics that he had not voted in forty years. His nomination caused a secession from the whigs, resulting in the forma- tion of the free-soil party ; yet he maintained his popularity as President, and was one of the most esteemed who have filled that office. He died July 0, 1850, at the Presidential mansion, after an illness of five days. Millard Fillmorewas born in Cayuga county, N. Y., 1800; died at Buffalo, 1874. He learned the trade of fuller, taught school, practiced law, served as Assemblyman for three terms and as Congressman for four terms, ran unsuccessfully for governor, and was comptroller of the State of New York when he was nominated for the Presi- dency. By his integrity, industry, and practical ability, he won a place among the first statesmen of hisoay. Signing the Fugitive Slave Law, however, cost him much of his popularity at the North. 1850.] FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION. 193 necessity of mutual compromise and forbearance. Daniel Webster * warmly seconded this effort at conciliation. The Compromise of !#. The Omnibus Bill, Clay's measure, proposed (1) that California should come in as a free State ; (2) that the Territories of Utah and New Mexico should be formed without any provision concerning slavery ; (3) that Texas should be paid $10,000,000 to give up its claim on the Territory of New Mexico ; (4) that the slave trade should be prohibited in the District of Columbia ; and (5) that a FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW should be enacted providing for the return to their owners of slaves escaping to a free State. The various provisions of this bill were finally, though separately, adopted as the best solution of the problem. Foreign Affairs. Invasion of Cuba. About five hun- dred adventurers, "filibusters", undertook the annexation of Cuba to the United States. The attempt ended in defeat, and in the execution, at Havana, of Lopez, the leader (1851). Political Parties. The democratic and whig parties both declared that they stood by the provisions of the Omnibus Bill. The free-soil party was outspoken against it. Frank- * When Daniel Webster, the great American statesman and jurist, was fourteen years old, he first enjoyed the privilege of a few months schooling at an academy. The man whose eloquence was afterward to stir the nation, was then so shy that he could not muster courage to speak before the school. He says, " Many a piece did T commit and rehearse in my own room, over and over again ; yet when the day came, when my name was called, and I saw all eyes turned toward me, I could not raise myself from my seat." In other respects, however, he gave decided promise of his future eminence. One year after, his father resolved to send him to college a dream he had never dared to cherish. " I remember the very hill we were ascending through deep snow, in a New England sleigh, when my father made known this purpose to me. I could not speak. How could he, I thought, with so large a family, and in such narrow circumstances, think of incurring so great an expense for me ? A warm glow ran all over me, and I laid my head on my father's shoulder and wept." Having finished his collegiate education and entered his profession, he at once rose to emi- nence. By rapid strides, ho placed himaelf at the head of American orators. It was a disappointment to Webster's friends, as it was, perhaps, to himself, that he was never placed in the Presidential chair. But, like Clay, although he might have honored that position he needed it not to enhance his renown. His death, in 1852, culle-d out more orations and sermons, than had any other except that of Washington. 194 EPOCH IV. [1853. lin Pierce, the Presidential nominee of the democratic party, was elected by a large majority over General Scott, the whig candidate. PIEBCE'S ADMINISTRATION.* (FOURTEENTH PRESIDENT: 1853-1857.) Domestic Affairs. Kansas-Nebraska Bill. The Compro- mise Bill of 1850 produced only a lull in the slavery excite- ment. It burst out anew when Stephen A. Douglas brought into Congress his famous bill organizing the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, and advocating the doctrine of " squatter sovereignty " ; i. e. } the right of the inhabitants of each Territory to decide for themselves whether the State should come into the Union free or slave, f This bill * Franklin Pierce was born 1804 ; died 1869. He had barely attained the requisite legal age when he was elected to the Senate. He there found such men as Clay, Webster, Calboun, Seward, Benton, and Silas Wright. Nathaniel Hawthorne says in his biography of Mr. Pierce : " With his usual tact and exquisite sense of pro- priety, he saw that it was not the time for him to step forward prominently on this highest theater in the land. He beheld these great combatants doing battle before the eyes of the nation, and engrossing its whole regards. There was hardly an avenue to reputation save what was occupied by one or another of those gigantic figures." Dur.'ng Mr. Tyler's administration he resigned. When the Mexican war broke out, he enlisted as a volunteer, but soon rose to the office of brigadier-general. He distin- guished himself under General Scott, against whom he afterward successfully ran for the Presidency, and upon whom, during his administration, he conferred the title of lieutenant-general. Pierce opposed anti-slavery measures in every shape. He, however, espoused the national cause at the opening of the Civil War. ( The public lands have often threatened the peace of the nation. 1. The ques- tion of their ownership was one of the greatest obstacles to the union of the States. In 1781, New York was the first to present her western territory to the general gov- ernment. Virginia followed her example in 1784, donating the great North-western Territory a princely domain, which, if retained, would have made her the richest of the States ; she reserved only 3,709,848 acres in Ohio, which she subsequently sold in small tracts to settlers. Massachusetts, in 1785, relinquished her claim, retaining a proprietary right over large tracts in New York. Connecticut, in 1786, did the same, and from the sale of her lands in Ohio (the " Western Reserve ") laid the foundation of her school fund. Georgia and the Carolinas gave up their right to territory from which have been carved the States of Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama. 2. After these lands became the property of the general government, a perplexing question Was, Shall they be free? Upon it, for years, hinged largely the politics of the 1854.] PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 195 being a virtual repudiation of the Missouri Compromise, excited intense feeling.* It, however, became a law (1854). "Border Warfare." The struggle was now taken from Congress to Kansas. A bitter contest arose between the pro- slavery and the anti-slavery men the former anxious to secure the State for slavery ; the latter, for freedom. Each party sent armed emigrants to the Territory and civil war en- sued. Bands of armed men crossed over from Missouri, took possession of the polls, and controlled the elections. Houses were attacked and pillaged, and men murdered in cold blood. For several years, Kansas was a scene of lawless violence. Foreign Affairs. Mexico. Owing to the inaccuracy of the map used in the treaty between the United States and Mexico, a dispute arose with regard to the boundary line. General Gadsden negotiated a settlement whereby Mexico was paid $10,000,000, and the United States secured the re- gion (map, Epoch VI.) known as the " Gadsden purchase ". Japan. Commodore Perry's expedition to Japan (1854) excited great attention. He negotiated a treaty which gave to the merchants of the United States two ports of entry in that exclusive country. Political Parties. The compromises of 1820 and 1850 being now abolished, the slave question became the turning point of the election. New party lines were drawn to meet country. The admission of Missouri, Texas, California, and Kansas, was each the signal for the re-opening of this vexed question. Though the public lands have been the cause of intestine strife, they have been a great source of national wealth. Their sale has brought large sums into the treasury. They have been given to settlers as a stimulus to immigration. They have been granted to endow colleges and schools, to build railroads, to reward the soldiers and support their widows and orphans (see page 309). * The bitter discussion on the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, and the contest in Kansas, lasted for years. Senator Suinner, of Massachusetts, during a speech that occupied two days (May 19-20, 1856), having made some severe reflections upon Sen- ator Butler, of South Carolina, was assaulted by Preston S. Brooks, a nephew of Butler and a South Carolina representative. Mr. Brooks, having resigned his seat, was im- mediately returned. It was over three years before Mr. Sumner recovered his health. i96 EPOCH IV. [1856. this issue.* The whig party ceased to exist. The republican party, absorbing all who opposed the extension of slavery, nominated John C. Fremont, who received the vote of eleven States. The democratic party, retaining its organization, nominated James Buchanan, who was elected President. BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION.! (FIFTEENTH PRESIDENT: 1857-1861.) Domestic Affairs. Dred Scott I Decision. The Supreme Court of the United States (1857), through Chief-Justice Taney, declared that slave-owners might take their slaves into any State in the Union without forfeiting their rights. At the North , this was considered as removing the last barrier * A third party, called the Know-Nothing or American party, was organized to resist the influence of foreigners. It carried the vote of only one State, Maryland. Its motto was " America for Americans ". The party aroused bitter feelings, but ILK I a transient existence. (Read list of Political Parties, Barnes' Pop. Hist., p. 654.) t James Buchanan was born 1791; died 1868. The first "bachelor-President" was sixty-six years old when called to the executive chair. He had just returned to his native country, after an absence of some years as minister to England. Pre- viously to that he had been well known in public life, having been Representative, Senator, and Secretary of State. As Senator in Jackson's time, he heartily supported his administration. With Van Buren, he warmly advocated the idea of an independ- ent treasury (p. 179), against the opposition of Clay, Webster, and others. Under Tyler, he was urgently in favor of the annexation of Texas, thus again coming into coiitlii-t with Clay and Webster. He cordially agreed with them, however, in the compromise of 1850 (p. 193), and urged the people to adopt it. Much was hoped from his election, as he avowed the object of his administration to be " to destroy any sectional party, whether North or South, and to restore, if possible, that national fraternal feeling be- tween the different States that had existed during the early days* of the Republic ". But popular passion and sectional jealousy were too strong to yield to pleasant per- suasion. We shall see in the text how the heated nation was drawn into the horrors of civil war. When Mr. Buchanan's administration closed, the fearful conflict was close at hand. He retired to his estate in Pennsylvania, where he died. J Scott and his wife were slaves belonging to a surgeon in the United States army. They were taken into and resided in Illinois and at Fort Snelling, in territory from which, by the ordinance of 1787, slavery was forever excluded. Afterward, they were carried Into Missouri, where they and their children were held as slaves. They claimed freedom on the ground that, by the act of their master, they had been earned into free territory. The decision of the court against their claims created an intense excitement throughout the country, 1857.] BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 197 to the extension of slavery, and as changing it from a local to a national institution ; at the South, only as a right guar- anteed them by the Constitution, whereby they should be protected in the possession of their property in every State. The Fugitive Slave Law had intensifiecT'the already heated controversy, and the subject of slavery now absorbed all others. The provision which commanded every good citizen to aid in the arrest of fugitives was especially obnoxious to the North. Disturbances arose whenever attempts were made to restore runaways to their masters. Several of the Northern States passed "Personal Liberty" bills, securing to fugitive slaves, when arrested, the right of trial by jury. John Brown, a man who had brooded over the exciting scenes through which he had passed in Kansas until he thought himself called upon to take the law into his own hands, seized upon the United States Arsenal at Harper's Ferry (1859), and proclaimed freedom to the slaves in the vicinity. His feeble band was soon overpowered by United States troops, and Brown himself hanged as a traitor. Though it was soon known that in his wild design he had asked counsel of no one, yet at the time the Southern feel- ing was aroused to frenzy, his act being looked upon as sig- nificant of the sentiments of the North. Political Parties. The election again turned on the question of slavery. The democratic party divided, and made two nominations for President : Stephen A. Douglas, who favored squatter sovereignty, and John C. Breckinridge, who claimed that slavery could be carried into any territory. The republican party nominated Abraham Lincoln, who held that while slavery must be protected where it was, it ought not to be carried into free territory.* Lincoln was elected. * The Union party put up John Bell, of Tennessee. Its uiotto was, " The Union, the Constitution, and the Enforcement of the L*iws." 198 EPOCH IV. [1860. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. The South Secedes. Throughout the fall campaign the Southern leaders had threatened to secede if Mr. Lincoln were elected.* They now declared it was time to leave a government which had fallen into the hands of their avowed enemies. Since the days of Calhoun they had been firm believ- ers in the doctrine of State rights, which taught that a State could leave the Union whenever it pleased. In December (1860), South Carolina led off, and, soon after, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas passed ordinances * This was not a sudden movement on their part. The sectional difference between the North and the South had its source in the difference of climate, which greatly modified the character and habits of the people ; also, while the agricultural pursuits and staple products of the South made slave labor profitable, the mechanical pursuits and the more varied products of the North made it unprofitable. These antagonisms, settled first by the Missouri Compromise of 1820, re-opened by the tariff of 1828, bursting forth in the nullification of 1832, pacified by Clay's compromise tariff, in- creased through the annexation of Texas and the consequent war with Mexico, irri- tated by the Wilmot Proviso, lulled for a time by the compromise of 1850, awakened by the " squatter sovereignty " policy of Douglas, roused to fury by the agitation in Kansas, spread broadcast by the Dred Scott decision, the attempted execution of the Fugitive Slave Law, and the John Brown raid, had now reached a point where war was the only remedy. The election of Lincoln was the pivot on which the result turned. The cause ran back through thirty years of controversy to the difference in climate, in occupation, and in the habit of life and thought. Strange to say, each section misunderstood the other. The Southern people believed the North to be so engrossed in money-making and so enfeebled by luxury that it could send to the field only mercenary soldiers, who would easily be beaten by the patriotic Southerners. They said, " Cotton is King "; and believed that England and France were so depend- ent upon them for that staple, that their republic would be recognized and defended by those European powers. On the other hand, the Northern people did not believe that the South would dare to fight for slavery when it had 4,000,000 slaves exposed to the chances of war. They thought it to be all bluster, and hence paid little heed 1861.] BUCHANAN'S ADMTNfST RATION. 199 of secession. In February (1861), delegates from these States met at Montgomery, Ala., and formed a govern- ment called the " Confederate States of America ". Jeffer- son Davis, of Missis- sippi, was chosen Pres- ident, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Geor- gia, Vice-President. United States forts, ar- senals, custom-houses, and ships were seized by the States in which they were situated. Buchanan did nothing to prevent the catas- trophe. General Scott was infirm, while the regular army was small, and the troops were widely scattered. The navy had been sent to distant ports. The Cabinet largely sympathized with the secessionists. Numerous unsuccessful efforts were made to effect a compromise. It was the general expectation that there would be no war, and the cry, "No coercion", was general.* Yet affairs steadily drifted on toward war. Fort Sumter. All eyes were now turned on Fort Sumter. Here Major Anderson kept the United States flag flying in Charleston harbor. He had been stationed in Fort Moul- trie, but, fearing an attack, had crossed over to Fort Sum- ter, a stronger position. The South Carolinians, looking to the threat of secession or of war. Both sides sadly learned their mistake, only too late. * Even the New York Tribune declared " Whenever any considerable section of our Union shall deliberately resolve to go out, we shall resist all coercive measures to keep them in." JEFFERSON DAVIS. 200 EPOCH IV. [1861. upon this as a hostile act, took possession of the remaining forts, commenced erecting batteries, and prepared to reduce Fort Sumter. Major Anderson was compelled by his in- structions to remain a quiet spectator. The Star of the West, an unarmed steamer, bearing supplies to the fort, was fired upon and driven back. The Southern leaders declared that any attempt to relieve Fort Sumter would be a declaration of war. The government seemed paralyzed with fear. All now waited for the new President. In the next Epoch, we shall learn about the terrible Civil War caused by this effort to secede. During its progress, slavery perished, and the issue of the conflict decided that the nation should be henceforth "one and inseparable". The States admitted during the Fourth Epoch increased the number in the Union, from thirteen to thirty-four. Vermont, the fourteenth State, and the first under the Constitution, was admitted to the Union, March 4,1791. It was so called from its principal range of mountains (verd, green, and mont, mountain). Champlain discovered and ex- plored much of it in 1609. The first settlement was made in 1 724, in the present town of Brattleborough, where Fort Dummer was erected. The region was claimed by both New Hampshire and New York (p. 111). In 1777, the inhabit- ants declared the " New Hampshire Grants " an independent State, under the title " New Connecticut, alias Vermont" ; and, in 1790, New York consented to relinquish her claim on the payment of $30,000. Kentucky* the fifteenth State, was admitted to the Union, June 1,1792. The name, " dark and bloody ground ", * It is a curious fact that the act for the admission of Kentucky was approved February 4, 1791, but not to take effect until June 1, 1792 ; while that admitting Vermont was aporoved February 18, 1791, and to take effect March 4, 1791. 1792.] DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES. 201 had its origin in the fierce conflicts which took place between the whites and the Indians. Daniel Boone, a famous hunter, for two years rambled through the forests of this region, de- lighted with its scenery and the abundance of game. After many thrilling adventures and narrow escapes from the In- dians, he established a fort at Boonesborough, and removed his family thither in June, 1775. This was the first perma- nent settlement in the State, then a part of Virginia, from which it was not separated till 1790. Tennessee, the sixteenth State, was admitted to the Union, June 1, 1796. It was named from the river Ten- nessee, the "river with the great bend ". It is thought that De Soto, in his wanderings, visited the spot where Memphis now stands. The first permanent settlement in the State * was at Fort London (low' don), thirty miles from the pres- ent site of Knoxville, in 1756. In 1780, James Robertson crossed the mountains with a party, and located where Nashville now stands, but which was then a wilderness. In 1789, North Carolina gave up her claim on the region, and the next year it was joined with Kentucky to form an independent territory. It received a distinct territorial government two years before it became a State. Ohio, the seventeenth State, was admitted to the Union, November 29,1802. It was so called from the river of that name, signifying the " beautiful river". The first explorations were made by the French, under La Salle, about 1680. The first permanent settlement was at Marietta, in 1 7 8 8. It was the first State carved out of the North-western Territory, f Louisiana, the eighteenth State, was admitted to the Union, April 8, 1812. The territory was named in honor of * This was the first permanent English settlement south of Pennsylvania and west of the AUeghanies. t This territory was created in 1787, and included all the public land north of the Ohio. It embraced the present States of Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wiscon- 202 EPOCH IV. [1682. Louis XIV., King of France. The French explored the river Mississippi to the sea in 1682 (p. 34), but their first settle- ment was made by Iberville at Bilox'i, near its mouth, in 1699. New Orleans was founded in 1718.* The territory was ceded to Spain in 1763, but in 1800 was receded to France. When the United States purchased it (p. 155), Louisiana included all the region north and west between the Mississippi and the Pacific (except those portions then occupied by Spain : see California) and north to the British possessions. In 1804, this region was divided into two parts the territory of Orleans, which included the present State of Louisiana, and the district of Louisiana, which comprised the remainder. The former was admitted to the Union as Louisiana, and the name of the latter changed to Missouri. Indiana, the nineteenth State, was admitted to the Union, December 11, 1816. The name is derived from the word Indian. When Ohio was taken from the North-western Ter- ritory, the remainder was called Indiana. It was reduced to its present limits in 1809, and was the second State ad- mitted from the North-western Territory. After the Indian difficulties which hindered its early development had sub- sided, its growth was very rapid. Between 1810 and 1820, its population increased five hundred per cent. Mississippi, the twentieth State, was admitted to the Union, December 10,1817. It is named from the Mississippi River, " the Great Father of Waters ". De Soto was the first European who traversed this region. In 1700, Chevalier de Tonty, with a party of Canadian French, ascended the river sin, and part of Minnesota. It was a part of New France before the French author- ity ceased in 1763. The British, held possession for twenty years, when the coun- try was ceded to the United States (see Map of Vlth Epoch, and p. 302). * The colony was granted to the great Mississippi Company, organized by John Law, at Paris, for the purpose of settling and deriving profit from the French posses- sions in North America. When this bubble burst, the French crown resumed the country. (See Brief History of France, p. 176.) 1700.] DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES. 203 to the Natchez country, where they selected a site for a fort and named it Rosalie. A settlement called St. Peter's was made in 1703, on the Yazoo. In 1728, the Indians swept every vestige of civilization from the present limits of the State. Under the French Governors who followed, fierce and bloody wars were waged with the Natch 'ez, Chick'a saw, and Choc 'taw Indians. In 1 7 6 3, Louisiana east of the Mississippi, including a part of what is now Mississippi and Alabama, was ceded to the British, and became a part of Georgia. The Mississippi Territory was created in 1798, and lands were afterward added until it embraced the present States of Mississippi and Alabama. The latter became a separate Territory in March, 1817. Illinois, the twenty-first State, was admitted to the Union, December 3, 1818. Its name is derived from its principal river, signifying " Eiver of men ". Its first settlements were made by La Salle.* After the States of Ohio and Indiana, and the Territory of Michigan had been taken from the North-western Territory, the remainder was styled the Illi- nois Territory, and comprised the present States of Illinois, Wisconsin, and a part of Minnesota. The settlement of this Territory was greatly impeded by Indian hostilities. The massacre at Fort Dearborn (Chicago), 1812, and the Black Hawk war are instances of the dangers and trials which beset the pioneer. The great prosperity of the State dates from the year 1850, when munificent grants of land were made to the Central Railroad. The prairie wilderness was rapidly settled, and towns and cities sprung up as by magic. Alabama, the twenty-second State, was admitted to the Union, December 14, 1 8 1 9. Its name is of Indian origin, and * That enterprising traveler, after exploring the Illinois Eiver, built a small fort which he called Creve Cceur (krave kur\ and left it in command of the Chevalier de Tonty. Three years afterward, he returned with some Canadians and founded Kas kas'ki a, Ca ho'ki a, and other towns, which early became flourishing. 204 EPOCH IV. [1819. signifies " Here we rest ". It was originally a part of Georgia. (See Mississippi. ) The fierce contests with the Creek Indians, ended by Jackson, gave to the State a vast and fertile region. The first settlement was made by Bienville (be ang veel') on Mo bile' Bay, in 1 7 2. Nine years afterward, the present site of Mobile was occupied. Mobile was the original seat of the French colonization in Louisiana, and for many years the cap- ital. Having been ceded to Great Britain and then to Spain , in 1 8 1 3 it was surrendered to General Wilkinson, and has since remained in the possession of the United States (p. 303). Maine, the twenty-third State, was admitted to the Union, March 15,1820. (See p. 6 0.) Missouri, the twenty-fourth State, was admitted to the Union, August 10,1821. Its name is derived from its prin- cipal river, and means " Muddy water ". Its oldest town, St. Gene vie ve, was founded in 1 7 5 5. St. Louis was settled nine years after, but was not incorporated as a town until 1809; its first newspaper was published in 1 8 8, and the first steam- boat arrived at its wharf in 1 8 1 7. The District of Louisiana was organized as Louisiana Territory in 1 8 5, with St. Louis as its capital. When Louisiana became a State, the name of the Territory was changed to Missouri. Arkansas, the twenty-fifth State, was admitted to the Union, June 15,1836. It took its name from a now extinct tribe of Indians. . It was discovered and settled by the French under Chevalier de Tonty, as early as 1 6 8 5 It followed the fate of the other portions of Louisiana. On the admission of the State of Missouri, Arkansas was organized as a Territory, including the present State and a part of Indian Territory. Michigan, the twenty-sixth State, was admitted to the Union, January 26,1837. Its name is of Indian origin, sig- nifying " Great Lake ". It was early visited by missionaries (p. 33) and fur traders. Detroit was founded in 1701 by 1805.] DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES. 205 Cadillac. This region, first a part of the North-western Ter- ritory, then of Indiana Territory, was organized as a separate Territory in 1805. The country north of the present States of Indiana and Illinois was afterward annexed to Michigan. The act of admission gave the State its present boundaries. Florida, the twenty-seventh State, was admitted to the Union, March 3, 1845. The Spanish word " florida," means "blooming" (p. 27). Its early visitors Ponce de Leon, De Narvaez, and Do Soto its first settlement at St. Augus- tine, its history under the Spaniards, and the Seminole war have been incidentally described. The Territories of East and West Florida were organized March 30, 1822. Texas, the twenty-eighth State, was admitted to the Union, December 29, 1845. It was explored by De Leon, iii id La Salle. The latter, intending to found a French set- tlement at the mouth of the Mississippi, sailed by it un- awares, and, landing at Mat a gor'da Bay, built Fort St. Louis on the Lavaca. The Spaniards afterward explored and par- tially settled the country, establishing missions at various points. These did not prosper, however, and the region was populated mainly by roving bands of Indians. Civil war had impoverished the few settlers who were unable to flee from the country, and Galveston was nearly deserted, when, in 1820, Moses Austin, a native of Connecticut, obtained from the Spanish authorities in Mexico a grant of land. Emigra- tion from the United States was encouraged, and, in 1830, there were twenty thousand Americans in Texas. The jeal- ousy of Mexico being excited, acts of oppression followed, and, in 1835, the Texans were driven to declare their inde- pendence. After a year of severe fighting * and alternating * Santa Anna, with four thousand men, having attacked the Ala/mo, a fort garri- soned by only one hundred and seventy-two men, every one of that gallant few died at his post except seven, who were killed while asking for quarter. Here David Crockett, the famous hunter, who had volunteered to fight with the Texans for their 206 EPOCH IV. [1837. victories, Santa Anna was conquered. The next year, (1837), Texas sought admission into the Union. In 1844, the question was revived. The close of Tyler's adminis- tration was marked by the signing of an act for its admis- sion. This bill was ratified by a convention of the State in July of the same year. Iowa, the twenty-ninth State, was admitted to the Union, December 28,1846. Its name is of Indian origin, signifying " Drowsy ones ". Julien Dubuque', a Canadian Frenchman, obtained, in 1 7 8 8, a large tract of land, including the present site of Dubuque. He there built a fort and traded with the Indians till 1810. The first permanent settlement was made at Burlington in 1833, by emigrants from Illinois. The same year, Dubuque was founded. This Territory belonged to the Louisiana tract and partook of its fortunes. It was successively a part of Missouri, Michigan, and Wisconsin Territories, but was organized separately in 1838. It then included all of Minnesota west of the Mississippi River, but when admitted as a State was reduced to its present limits. Wisconsin, the thirtieth State, was admitted to the Union, May 29, 1848. Its name is derived from its prin- cipal river, and signifies "The gathering of the waters". It was explored by French missionaries and traders as early as 1639. Green Bay was founded in 1745. This region was also a part of the North-western Territory. It was comprised in the Territory of Illinois, then of Mich- igan, and in 1836 became a separate Territory. California, the thirty-first State, was admitted to the Union, September 9, 1850 (p. 190). Sir Francis Drake, in 1579, sailed along its coast, naming it New Albion (p. 35). liberty, fell, pierced with wounds, but surrounded by the corpses of those whom he had cut down ere he was overpowered. In the battle of San Jacinto, Santa Anna, with fifteen hundred men, was defeated by eight hundred, under General Sam Hous- ton. (See Barnes' Popular History of the United States, p. 445.) 1776.] DEVELOPMENT Of THE STATES. 207 In 1 7 6 9, the Spaniards established the mission of San Diego (dea'go), and in 1776, one at San Francisco.* In 1803, they had eighteen missions with over 15,000 converts, and the government of the country was in the hands of SAN FRANCISCO BAY AND CITT. (See note.) Franciscan monks. The Mexican revolution, in 1822, over- threw the Spanish power in California, and, soon after, the * In 1835, a shanty owned by one Richardson was the only human habitation, and the vast bay was a solitude. The first survey of streets and town lots was in 1839. The principal trade was in exporting hides, and that was small. In 1846, an American man-of-war entered the harbor, and took possession in the name of the United States. The town was known as Yerba Buena (good herb) until 1847, when it was changed to its present name. About that time, it had a population of 459. The discovery of gold in 1848 gave the city its first start. Within eighteen months following December, 1849, the city lost by fire $16,000,000 of property, though its population did not exceed 30,000. Such, however, was the enterprise of its citizens, that these tremendous losses scarcely interrupted its growth or pros- perity. Its magnificent harbor and its railroad communications give it an extensive commerce on the Pacific coast. 208 EPOCH IV. [1831. Franciscans were stripped of their wealth and influence. In 1831, the white population did not exceed five thousand. From 1843 to 1846, many emigrants from the United States settled in California, and, under the leadership of Fremont and others, wrested the country from Mexico (p. 188). By the treaty at the close of the Mexican war, Upper Cali- fornia was ceded to the United States. It embraced what is now known as California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and parts of Kansas, "Wyo'ming, Colorado, and New Mexico. (Maps of lYth and Vlth Epochs.) Minnesota, the thirty-second State, was admitted to the Union, May 11,1858. It is so called from the river of that name, and signifies " Cloudy water ". In 1 6 8 0, La Salle and Hennepin penetrated this region. Other travelers followed, but only within this century has the whole country been thoroughly explored. Fort Snelling was established in 1 8 1 9 . The first building in St. Paul was erected about 1838. The Territory of Minnesota was organized in 1849, with the Missouri and White rivers for its western boundary, thus embracing nearly twice the area of the present State. At this time, its population was less than five thousand, consist- ing of whites and half-breeds settled about the various mis- sions and trading-posts. In 1851, the Sioux (soo) ceded a large tract of land to the United States. After this, the population increased so rapidly that in six years Minne- sota applied for admission into the Union. Oregon, the thirty-third State, was admitted to the Union, February 14, 1859. It is said to derive its name from the Spanish OREGANO, wild marjoram, abundant on its coast. It was claimed as part of the Louisiana Purchase (Vlth Epoch map), though little was known of this vast region (p. 302). In 1792, Captain Gray, of Boston, entered the river to which he gave the name of his ship Columbia. On his return, he 1804.] DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES. 209 made such a flattering report that there was a general desire to know more of the country. In 1804, the year after the Louisiana purchase, Jefferson sent an exploring party, under the command of Lewis and Clarke (see page 302), which followed the Missouri to its source and descended the Colum- bia to the Pacific. The history of their adventures is one of the most romantic of the century. An extensive fur-trade so( ) n began. Fort Astoria was built in 1 8 1 1 by the American Fur Company, of which John Jacob Astor was a prominent member. Hunters and trappers in the employ of American and British companies roamed over the whole region. Fort Yancouver was occupied by the Hudson Bay Company, a British organization, till 1860. In 1836-' 39, American em- igration set overland to this region. The danger of war which had seriously threatened its dawning prosperity was averted when the north-west boundary was settled by the treaty of 1846. In 184 8, it was organized as a Territory, and included all the possessions of the United States west of the Rocky Mountains. In 1850, Congress granted three hundred and twenty acres to every man, and the same to his wife, on condi- tion of residence on the land for four years. Eight thousand claims were made for farms. In 1 8 5 3, Washington Territory was organized north of Columbia River. When Oregon was admitted as a State, it was reduced to its present limits. Kansas, the thirty-fourth State, was admitted to the \Union, January 29, 1861. The name is of Indian origin, and is said to mean " Smoky water ". This region was also a part of the Louisiana purchase. After the States of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota had been carved from it, there was left a vast, unoccupied tract at the west, which was organized by the Kansas and Nebraska Act of 1854. The history of the strife which decided whether it should be slave or free has been narrated (p. 195). 210 EPOCH IV. CIVILIZATION Tha free air of the new world, the independent thought upon every question, and the political equality of all men conduced to break down the distinctions of rank and dress that were at first established (p. 93). This tendency early became a source of anxiety to the colonial legislator. In 1640, it was ordered that as " divers Persons of severall Banks are obsearved still to exceede " in their apparel, " the Con stables of every towne within their Libertyes shall observe and take notice of any particular Person or Persons within their severall Lymits, and all such as they judge to exceede their condition and Rank therein, they shall present and warn to appear at the particular Court ". These "sumptuary laws" were not a dead letter, for we read of one "Alice I T lynt " who was cited before the court and required to show that she was worth the two hundred pounds required to entitle her to wear a silk hood. After Independ- ence, social changes went on rapidly. The title "Master" came to be confined to holders of slaves, while "Mr.", once a sure sign of rank, was applied to every male in the land, and to omit it, when speaking of great men, became a mark of distinction. So rapidly did the new ideas spread, that when Xia Fayette visited America the second time, he asked with astonishment, "Where are the common people 1 " He saw only crowds of well-dressed citizens, but no yeomen, mechanics, merchants, and servants the four ranks below that of gentleman that were to be distinctly observed at the time of his first visit. The Laborer, though he had secured social and political privileges a hun- dred years ago, could obtain far fewer comforts than he can to-day. His house had neither paint nor glass windows. Within, it was low and dingy. The floor knew no carpets. The kitchen had no stove, or lamp, or coal, or matches. There was no glass or crockery ware on his table, but he ate his homely fare from a wooden platter. Fresh meat was a rarity. All the staples of life were expensive to one who received only two shillings per day. Leather breeches and apron, a coarse flannel jacket, and heavy cow-hide shoes were the best his ward- robe could afford. Imprisonment for debt was common. The poor man, just recovering from a long sickness, was liable to be arrested for the payment of the little bills incurred during his illness, and thrust into prison among the vilest offenders. The Schools, even within the memory of many persons now living, were far inferior in equipment and methods to those of our day. The text-books were few and coarsely executed. In early times, the only reading-books were the Bible, the Psalter, and the New England Speller. After the Revolution, the Columbian Orator filled with patriotic selections attained a great celebrity. When Webster's American Spelling Book was issued about 1784, it gradually came into general use. Murray's Grammar and Daboll's Arithmetic were the standards for half a century. The ordinary geography was in two volumes one containing the maps and the other the text. Morse invented (1839) a process of engraving whereby the maps could be struck off with the text, on a common printing press. In a single year, 100,000 copies of his New Q-eography went into use. Writing-books were usually home-made from foolscap, and ruled by the pupil with lead plum- mets of his own manufacture. Slate pencils were, also, whittled out by the boys from soft clay-stones. Quill-pens were used, and their making constituted no DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES. 211 small part of a teacher's task. "Wall-maps, charts, blackboards, globes, etc., came in only slowly as education advanced. The development of the country was especially marked about the middle of this century. The immigration from Ireland, probably induced chiefly by the famine of 1847 in that island, then began, and crowds of foreign workmen aided in building railroads and digging canals, while they flocked into the mills and manufactories. The native operatives thrown out of employment, turned to the "West. The discovery of gold in California, also, led thither a vast number from the Eastern States. The multiplication of railroads, affording a better market and higher prices, rendered farming profitable in the great Mississippi valley, and new States were settled with unexampled rapidity. Commerce flourished, and American clippers were famous for their speed. "With increasing prosperity, knowledge spread apace. Books and papers multiplied. Schools and colleges were founded. The lyceums, through which coursos of lectures by distinguished men were given in almost every town and village, became an important factor in imparting to the people valuable instruction upon political, scientific, and literary topics. CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY. PAGE 1789. Washington inaugurated, April 30 149 1791. Vermont admitted to the "Union, March 4 . 200 1792. Kentucky admitted to the Union, June 1 200 Discovery of Columbia Biver by Captain Gray, May 11 . . . . 208 1793. Difficulties with Genet 153 1794. The Indians defeated by Wayne, August 20 152 Whiskey insurrection 152 1795. Jay's treaty ratified, June 24 153 1796. Tennessee admitted to the Union, June 1 201 1797. John Adams inaugurated, March 4 154 1799. Washington died at Mount "Vernon, December 14 150 1800. Capitol removed to Washington 150 Treaty with France, September 30 155 1801. Thomas Jefferson inaugurated, March 4 155 War declared by the United States against Tripoli, June 10 ... 157 1802. Ohio admitted to the Union, November 29 201 1803. Louisiana purchased from France, April 30 156 Meet sent against Tripoli 157 1804. Lieutenant Decatur destroyed frigate Philadelphia, February 15 . . 157 Hamilton killed by Burr, July 11 156 1805. Treaty of peace with Tripoli, June 3 i.57 1807. The Chesapeake fired into by the Leopard, June 22 158 Embargo on American ships, December 22 158 Fulton first ascended the Hudson 157 1809. James Madison inaugurated, March 4 159 1811. Action between the President and the Little Belt, May 16 . . . . 160 Battle of Tippecanoe, November 7 159 1812. Louisiana admitted to the Union, April 8 201 War declared against England, June 19 . 160 Hull invaded Canada, July 18 160 212 EPOCH IV. [1813. 1812. Mackinaw surrendered, July 17 160 Detroit surrendered, August 16 160 The Constitution captured the G-uerriere, August 19 .... 161 Battle of Queenstown, October 13 161 The "Wasp captured the Frolic, October 13 162 1813. Battle of Frenchtown, January 22 163 Capture of York, April 27 163 Siege of Port Meigs, May 1 164 Sackett's Harbor attacked, May 29 163 The Chesapeake captured by the Shannon, June 1 166 Battle of Port Stephenson, Ohio, August 2 1 64 Massacre of Port Minims, August 30 166 Perry's victory on Lake Erie, September 10 164 Battle of the Thames, October 5 165 Battle of Chrysler's Meld, November 11 163 1814. Battle of Horseshoe Bend (Tohopeka), March 27 166 Battle of Chippewa, July 5 - 168 Battle of Lundy's Lane, July 25 168 "Washington captured by the British, Auguct 24 169 Battle of Plattsburg and Lake Champlain, September 11 ... 168 Bombardment of Port McHenry, September 13 169 Hartford Convention, December 15 169 Treaty of Peace, December 24 169 1815. Battle of New Orleans, January 8 169 War with Algiers 171 1816. Indiana admitted to the Union, December 11 202 1817. James Monroe inaugurated, March 4 172 Mississippi admitted to the Union, December 10 202 1818. Illinois admitted to the Union, December 3 203 1819. Alabama admitted to the Union, December 14 203 Florida purchased of Spain, February 22 173 1820. Missouri Compromise passed, March 3 172 Maine admitted to the Union, March 15 60, 204 1821. Missouri admitted to the Union, August 10 204 1824. Visit of La Fayette 173 1825. John Quincy Adams inaugurated, March 4 174 1826. Adams and Jefferson died, July 4 ....'.... 154 1829. Jackson inaugurated, March 4 175 1832. Black Hawk "War 177 Nullification in South Carolina 175 1835. Dade's massacre by the Seminoles, December 28 177 1836. Arkansas admitted to the Union, June 15 204 1837. Michigan admitted to the Union, January 26 204 Martin Van Buren inaugurated, March 4 178 Battle of Okechobee, Seminoles routed by Taylor, December 25 . . 178 1837-'38. The "Patriot War "Canada 179 1841. William H. Harrison inaugurated, March 4 180 President Harrison died, April 4 . 180 John Tyler inaugurated, April 6 180 1842.] DEVELOPMENT OP THE STATES. 213 PAGE 1842. Dorr's Rebellion 181 1845. Florida admitted to the Union, March 3 . . 205 James K. Polk inaugurated, March 4 185 Texas admitted to the Union, December 29 205 1846. Battle of Palo Alto, May 8 185 Battle of Resaca de la Palma, May 9 185 Congress declared war against Mexico, May 11 Monterey captured, September 24 186 Iowa admitted to the Union, December 28 206 1847. Battle of Buena Vista, February 23 186 Vera Cruz captured, March 29 188 Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18 188 Battle of Contreras, August 20 189 Capture of Chapultepec, September 13 189 Mexico surrendered, September 14 190 1848. Treaty of Peace with Mexico, February 2 190 Gold discovered in California, February 190 "Wisconsin admitted to the Union, May 29 206 1849. General Taylor inaugurated, March 5 191 1850. General Taylor died, July 9 192 Millard Fillmore inaugurated, July 10 191 California admitted to the Union, September 9 206 1853. Franklin Pierce inaugurated, March 4 194 1854. Commodore Perry's treaty with Japan, March 195 Kansas-Nebraska Bill passed, May 31 ... 195 1857. James Buchanan inaugurated, March 4 196 1858. Minnesota admitted to the Union, May 11 208 1859. Oregon admitted to the Union, February 14 208 1860. Houth Carolina seceded from the Union, December 20 198 1861. Steamer Star of the West fired upon, January 9 200 Kansas admitted into the Union as a State, January 29 .... 209 Southern Confederacy formed at Montgomery, February 4. ... 199 REFERENCES FOR READING. Lotting' 1 * Field Book of the War of 1812. Lewis and Clarke's Journal. Mackenzie's Life of Paul Jones. Parton's Life of Jackson ; also of Aaron Burr. Cooper's History of the Amer- ican Navy. Irving' 1 s Astoria. Powell's Life of Taylor. Fremont's Explorations. Benton's 30 Years View of PiMic Affairs. Street and Reed's Osceola (Poem).Ripley's War with Mexico. HulTs Military and Civil Life. Parker's Historic Americans. Lossing's Eminent Americans. McPherson's Political History of the United States. Tome's Battles of America by Sea and Land.Lowett's Bigelow Papers. Giddings' Exiles of Florida. Jay's Mexican War. Daw- son's American Battle-fields. " The Mississippi Scheme " in Mackay's Popular Delusions. Mrs. John Adams' Correspondence Headley's Second War with England. Whittier's Angels ofBuena Vista (Poetry). RandaWs and Tucker's Lives of Jefferson. OriswoloTs Court of Washington. Clarke's Campaign of 18l2.IngersoU's Second War with (treat Britain. WilsorSs Sketches of Illustrious Soldiers. -The " American Statesmen " Series (a Political Library of great valtui). 214 BLACKBOARD ANALYSIS. 1. Washington's Admin- istration. (1789-'97.) 2. John Adams' Adminis- tration. (1797-1801.) 3. Jefferson's Administra- tion. (1801-'9.) 4. Madison's Administra- tion. (18O9-'17.) 5. Monroe's Administra- tion. (1817-'25.) John Quincy Adams' Administration. (1825-'29.) Jackson's Administra- tion. (1829-'37.) Van Buren's Adminis- tration. (1837-'41.) 9. Harrison and Tyler's Administration . (1841-'4B.) 1O. Folk's Administra- . tion. (1845-'49.) Taylor and Fillmore's Administration . (1849-53.) 1. Inauguration. 2. Difficulties of the New Government. f 1. Finances. 3. Domestic Affaire. < 2. Whiskey Rebellion. I 3. Indian Wars. ( 1. England. 4 Foreign Affairs. { 2. Spain and Algiers. L 3. France. 5. Political Parties. 1. Domestic Affairs. 2. Foreign Affairs. 3. Political Parties. 1. Character of Jefferson. f I. Purchase of L 2. Domestic Affairs. < 2. Aaron Burr. L 3. Fulton'i Steamboat. War with Tripoli. England and France. Embargo Act. >3. Foreign Affairs. 4. Political Parties. 1. Domestic Affairs. 2. Foreign Affairs I War with Great { ; Britain. 3. Political Parties. 1. "Era of Good Feeling." ' 1. Mis: 2. La Fayette'i 1. Events of 1812. 6. Results of War. 2. Domestic Affairs. C 1. Florida. 5 2. Muu mroe Doctrine. 3. Foreign Affairs. 4. Political Parties. 1. Character of Adams. 2. Prosperity of Country. 3. Protective Tariff "American System." 1. Character of Jackson. 1. Nullification. 2. Domestic Affairs. 3. Foreign Affaire. 4. Political Parties. 1. Domestic Affairs. 2. Foreign Affairs. 3. Political Parties. 1. Harrison's Death. 2. Domestic Affairs. 2. Bank of United StaU-s. 3. Speculations. 4. Indian Troubles, 8. Foreign Affairs. 4. Political Parties. f 1. United States Bank. 2. Suffrage Difficulties. ' 3. Anti-Rent Difficulties. 4. The Mormons. L 5. Magnetic Telegraph. 5 1. Annexation of Texas. I 2. North-west Boundary .(!.& I 2. G 1 3. & I 4. p, al Taylor's Army. General Kearney's Army . General Scott's Army, "eace. 12. Pierce's Administra- tion. (1853-'57.) 1. Foreign Affairs- War with Mexico. (l&16-'47.) 2. Domestic Affairs. [ 2 .' Discovery "oY Ctold in California 3. Political Parties. 1. Taylor's Death. 2. Domestic Affairs. \ \\ Comp r j ml8e of 1860 . 8. Foreign Affairs. 4. Political Parties. 1 TV . Art 5 ' Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 1. Domestic Affairs. J 2 . Border Warfare. C 1. Mexico. {2. Japan. 2. Foreign Affairs. 8. Political Parties. f 1. Dred-Scott Decision. 1. Domestic Affairs. 4 2. Fugitive Slave Law. L 3. John Brown. 2. Political Parties. 8. South Secedes. 4. Attack on Fort Sumter. Names of States admitted during the Fourth Epoch. 13. Buchanan's Adminis- tration. (1857-'61.) PR,N QF ,ELD- MAP TO ILLUSTRATE THE CIVIL WAR POCJH LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRA- TION.* (SIXTEENTH PRESIDENT: 1861-1865.) INAUGURATION. Rumors of L a plan to assassinate Lincoln impelled him to come to Washing- ton in disguise. He was inaugurated, March 4, 1861, surrounded by troops, under General Scott. Condition of the Country. All was now uncertainty. Southern officers in the army and navy of the United States were daily resigning, and linking their fortunes with the Confederate cause. There was still, however, a Quetttionf! on the Gi-of/ni/thi/ of tin- Fifth Epoch. Locate the following places noted as battle-fields. (Maps of the Richmond campaigns are on pages 236 and 261.) Philippi. Big Bethel. Boonville (Booneville). Carthage. Rich Mountain. Bull Run. Wilson's Creek. Hatteras Inlet. Lexington, Mo. Ball's Bluff. Belmont. Port Royal. Mill Spring. Fort Henry. Roanoke Island. Port Donelson. Pea Ridge. New Bern (Newberne). Winchester. Pittsburg Landing.* Island No. 10. Fort Pulaski. Fort Jackson. Fort Macon. Beaufort. Yorktown. Williamsburg. Corinth. Mechanicsville. Cedar Mountain. South Mountain. Antietam. Freder- icksburg. Holly Springs. Murfreesboro. Galveston. Fort Sumter. Chancellors- ville. Vicksburg. Gettysburg. Port Hudson. Chickamauga. Chattanooga. Knox- ville. Fort de Russy. Sabine Cross Roads. Fort Pillow. Wilderness. Spottsylvania Court House. Resaca. Dallas. Lost Mountain. Petersburg. Atlanta. Mobile. Fort Gaines. Fort Morgan. Cedar Creek. Fort McAlister. Nashville. Fort Fisher. Columbia. Goldsboro. Fort Steadman. Five Forks. Appomattox Court House. * Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky, February 12, 1809; died in Washington, 216 EPOCH V. [1861. strong Union sentiment at the South. Many prominent men in both sections hoped that war might be averted. The Federal authorities feared to act, lest they should precipitate civil strife. In striking contrast to this inde- cision, was the marked energy of the new Confederate government. It was gathering troops, voting money and supplies, and rapidly preparing for the issue. Capture of Fort Sumter (April 14). Finding that sup- plies were to be sent to Fort Sumter, General Peter G. T. Beauregard (bo' re gard), who had command of the Confed- erate troops at Charleston, called upon Major Anderson to surrender. Upon his refusal, lire was opened from all the Confederate forts and batteries.* This " strange contest be- tween seventy men and seven thousand ", lasted for thirty- April 15, 1865. His father was unable to read or write, and his own education con- sisted of one-year's schooling. Hoping to better his fortune, his father moved to Indiana, the family floating down the Ohio on a raft. When nineteen years of age, the future President hired out at $10 per month as a hand on a flat-boat, and made a trip to New Orleans. On his return, he accompanied the family to Illinois, driving the cattle on the journey. Having reached their destination, he helped them to build a cabin, and to split rails to inclose the farm. He was now, in succession, a flat-boat hand, clerk, captain of a company of volunteers in the Black Hawk War, country store-keeper, postmaster, and surveyor, yet he managed to get a knowledge of law by borrowing books at an office before it closed at night, returning them at its opening in the morning. On being admitted to the bar, he rapidly rose to distinction. At twenty-five, he was sent to the Legislature, and was thrice re-elected. Turning his attention to politics, he soon became a leader. In 1858, he was candidate for Senator, a second time, against Stephen A. Douglas. The two rivals stumped the State to- gether, discussing great national questions. The debate, unrivaled for its statesman- ship, logic, and wit, won for Lincoln a national reputation, but he lost the election in the Legislature, his party being in the minority. After his accession to the Presidency, his history, like Washington's, is identified with that of his country. He was a tall, ungainly man, little versed in the refinements of society, but gifted by nature with great common sense, and every-where known as "Honest Abe". Kind, earnest, sympathetic, faithful, democratic, he was anxious only to serve his country. His wan, fatigued face, and his bent form, told of the cares he bore, and the grief he felt. His only relief was when, tossing aside for a moment the heavy load of responsi- bility, his face would light up with a humorsome smile, while he narrated some incident whose irresistible wit and aptness to the subject at hand, convulsed his hearers, and rendered " Lincoln's stories " household words throughout the nation. * The first gun of the war was fired at half -past four o'clock Friday morning, April 12, 1861. 1861.] THE CIVIL WAR. 217 four hours, no one being hurt on either side. The barracks having been set on fire by the shells, the garrison, worn out, suffocated, and half-blinded, were forced to capitulate. They were allowed to retire with the honors of war, saluting their flag before hauling it down. ^ Tlie Effect of this event was electrical. It unified the North and also the South. The war spirit swept over the country like wild-fire. Party lines vanished. The Union men at the South were borne into secession, while the republicans and the democrats at the North combined to support the government. Lincoln issued a requisition for 75,000 troops. It was responded to by 300,000 volunteers, the American flag, the symbol of Revolutionary glory and of national unity,, being unfurled throughout the North. The military enthusiasm at the South was equally ardent. 'Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee, which had before hesitated, joined the Confederacy. Virginia troops seized the United States armory at Harper's Ferry, and the Navy-yard near Norfolk. Richmond, Va., was made the Confederate capital. Troops from the extreme South were rapidly pushed into Virginia, and threatened "Washington. The Sixth Massachusetts Regiment, hurrying to the defense of the national capital, was attacked in the streets of Baltimore, and several men were killed.* Thus the first bloodshed in the civil war was on April 1 9, the anniversary of Lexington and Concord. THE "WAR IN VIRGINIA. Arlington Heights and Alexandria! were seized (May 24) by the national troops. This protected Washington from * A Union soldier who was shot in this affray, turned about, saluted the flag, and exclaiming, " All hail the stars and stripes I " fell lifeless. t Alexandria was occupied by Colonel Elmer E. Ellsworth and his Zouaves. After 218 EPOCH V. [1861, immediate danger of attack.* Fort Monroef was now gar- risoned by a heavy force under General B. F. Butler. J An expedition made, soon after, against BIG BETHEL was singu- larly mismanaged. On the route, the troops fired into each other by mistake, and, when they came to attack the Confed- erate defenses, wore repulsed with loss. Western Virginia adhered to the Union, and was ulti- mately formed into a separate State. The Confederates, however, occupied it in force. The Federals, under General George B. McClellan, afterward commander of the Potomac army, defeated them at PHILIPPI, RICH MOUNTAIN, and CAR- RICK'S FORD, thus wresting the entire State from their control. J Shortly afterward, Governor Wise and General Floyd (Presi- / -dent Buchanan's Secretary of War) led a Confederate force i nto that region ; but Floyd was suddenly attacked by General / Rosecrans at CARNIFEX FERRY, and, Wise failing to support him, was compelled to retreat. General Robert E. Lee, Mc- Clellan's future antagonist on the Potomac, having been re- pulsed at CHEAT MOUNTAIN, came to the rescue. But nothing decisive being effected, the Confederate government recalled its troops. The only Union victories of this year were achieved in this region (map opp. p. 223). Battle of Bull Run (July 21). The Northern people, see- ing so many regiments pushed forward to Washington, were impatient for an advance. The cry, " On to Richmond ! " be- the capture, seeing the Confederate flag still flying from, the roof of a hotel, he went up and took it down. As he descended, he was shot at the foot of the stairs, by the landlord, Jackson, who in turn fell at the hands of private Brownell. * Alexandria is on the southern side of the Potomac, seven miles below Washing- ton. Arlington Heights are directly opposite the capital. t This is located at the entrance of the Chesapeake, and is the most formidable fortification in the United States. It covers nearly seventy acres of ground. The walls are built of granite. t At Hampton, which had been occupied by the Confederates, some negroes were captured who had been employed in building fortifications. Butler declared them " contraband of war ", and this gave rise to the popular term " Contraband ". 1861.] THE CIVIL WAR. 219 came too strong to be resisted. General Irvin McDowell, in command of the Army of the Potomac, moved to attack the main body of the Confederates, who were strongly posted, under Beauregard, at Bull Run.* After a sharp conflict, the Confederates were driven from the field. They were rallied, " STONEWALL " JACKSON AT BULL RUN. however, by General T. J. Jackson f and others, on a plateau in the rear. While the Federal troops were struggling to drive them from this new position, at the crisis of the battle, two brigades, under Kirby Smith and Early, rushing across the fields from Ma nas'sas Station, J each, successively, struck the Union flank and poured in a cross-fire. The effect * This is near Manassas Junction, about twenty-seven miles from Alexandria. 1 General Bee, as he rallied his men, shouted, "There's Jackson standing like a stone wall." " From that time," says Draper, " the name he had received in a bap- tism of fire displaced that he had received in a baptism of water, and he was known as ' Stonewall Jackson '. " I These troops composed u part o"f General Johnston's command at Winchester ; 220 EPOCH V. [1861. was irresistible. McDowell's men fled. As the fugitives con- verged toward the bridge in the rear, a shell burst among the teamsters' wagons, a caisson was overturned, and the passage choked. The retreat became a panic-stricken rout. Traces were cut, cannon abandoned, horsemen plunged through the struggling mass, and soldiers threw away their guns and ran streaming over the country, many never stop- ping till they were safe across the Long Bridge at Wash- ington. The Effect of this defeat was momentous. At first, the Northern people were chagrined and disheartened'. Then came a renewed determination. They saw the real character of the war, and no longer dreamed that the South could be subdued by a mere display of military force. They were to fight a brave people Americans, who were to be conquered only by a desperate struggle. Congress voted $500,000,000 and five hundred thousand men. General McClellan,* upon whom all eyes were turned, on account of his brilliant cam- paign in Western Virginia, was appointed to the command of the Army of the Potomac. Ball's Bluff (October 21). About 2,000 Federals, who had crossed the Potomac at Ball's Bluff on a reconnoiterino' expedition, were attacked by the Confederates, and forced down the slippery, clayey bluff to the river, fifty to one hun- dred and fifty feet below. The few old boats in which they came were soon sunk, and, in trying to escape, many were drowned, some were shot, and only about half their num- General Patterson, with 20,000 men, had been left to watch him, and prevent his joining Beauregard. Johnston was too shrewd for his antagonist, and, slipping out of his hands, reached Bull Run just in time to take part in and, as we have already seen, to decide the battle. Johnston's troops being included, the Union and Confederate armies at Bull Bun were almost exactly equal, each about 18,000 strong. * Soon after, General Scott, weighed down by age, retired from active service, and General McClellau became Ctentsral-m-Ohief of all the armies of the United States. 1861.] THE CIVIL WAR. 221 her reached the other bank. Colonel Baker, United States Senator from Oregon, was among the killed.* THE WAR IN MISSOURI. This State was largely Union. The Convention had de- clined to pass an ordinance of secession ; yet there was a strong effort made by Governor Jackson to preserve, at least, an armed neutrality. Captain Lyon foiled this attempt. He broke up Camp Jackson, saved the United States arsenal at St. Louis, and defeated Colonel Marmaduke at BOONVILLE. General Sigel (se'gei), however, having been defeated by the Confederates in an engagement at CARTHAGE (July 5), Lyon, now General, found that he must either fight the superior forces of Generals McCulloch and Price, or else abandon that part of the State. He chose the former course. At the ht^itd of about five thousand, he attacked more than twice that number at WILSON'S CREEK (August 10). He fell, gal- I; 1 1 illy leading a bayonet charge. His men were defeated. Colonel Mulligan was forced to surrender LEXINGTON! after a brave defense. General John C. Fremont then assumed charge, and drove Price as far south as Springfield. Just as he was preparing for battle, he was replaced by General Hunter, who took the Union army back to St. Louis. Hun- ter was soon superseded by General Halleck, who crowded Price south to Arkansas. Later in the fall, General Grant made an attack upon a Confederate force which had crossed over from Kentucky J and taken post at BELMONT, * December 20, General E. O. C. Ord, having gone out on a foraging excursion to DRANESVILLE, in a severe skirmish routed the Confederates. This little victory greatly encouraged the people at the North, who had been disheartened by the disastrous affair of Ball's Bluff. t The Confederates, in their final assault, fought behind a movable breastwork, composed of hemp-bales, which they rolled toward the fort as they advanced. t Kentucky, like Missouri, tried to remain neutral, but was unsuccessful. Soon, both Confederate and Union troops were encamped ou her soil, and the State was 222 EPOCH V. [1861 THE WAR ON THE SEA AND THE COAST. Early in the war, Davis issued a proclamation offering to commission privateers.* In reply, Lincoln declared a block- ade of the Southern ports. At that time, there was but one efficient vessel on the Northern coast, while the entire navy comprised only forty-two ships ; but at the close of the year, the navy numbered two hundred and sixty-four. Two joint naval and military expeditions were made dur- ing the year. The first captured the forts at HATTERAS INLET, N. C. The second, under Commodore Dupont and General Thomas "W. Sherman, took the forts at PORT ROYAL ENTRANCE, S. C.,f and Tybee Island, at the mouth of the Savannah. Port Royal became the great depot for the Union fleet. The Trent Affair. England and France had acknowl- edged the Confederate States as BELLIGERENTS, thus placing them on the same footing with the United States. The Southern people having, therefore, great hopes of foreign aid, appointed Messrs. Mason and Slidell' commissioners to those countries. Escaping through the blockading squad- ron, they took passage at Havana on the British steamer Trent. Captain Wilkes, of the United States steamer ravaged by hostile armies. In all the border States, affairs were in a most lament- able condition. The people were divided in opinion, and enlisted in both armies. As the tide of war surged to and fro, armed bands swept through the country, plundering and murdering those who favored the opposite party. * The Savannah was the first privateer which got to sea, but this vessel was capt- \ired after having taken only a single prize. The Petrel, also from Charleston, bore down upon the United States frigate St. Lawrence, which the captain mistook for a merchant ship ; his vessel was sunk by the first broadside of his formidable antag- onist. The Sumter, under Captain Semmes, captured and burned a large number of Federal ships, but, at last, it was blockaded in the Bay of Gibraltar by a Union gun-boat, and, being unable to escape, was sold. t During this engagement, the ships described an ellipse between the forts, each vessel delivering its fire as it slowly sailed by, then passing on, and another taking its place. The line of this ellipse was constantly changed to prevent the Confed- erates from getting the range of the vessels. 4~. i v-i-"'''' FredericTtton* ^,8% iCarthaee tlf Sprmg '* a^T ^Sl? 1861.] THE CIVIL WAR. 223 San Jacinto, followed the Trent, took off the Confederate envoys, and brought them back to the United States. This produced intense excitement in England. The United States government, however, promptly disavpwed the act and returned the prisoners. General Review of the First Year of the War. The Confederates had captured the large arsenals at Harper's Ferry and near Norfolk. They had been successful in the two great battles of the year Bull Run and Wilson's Creek ; also in the minor engagements at Big Bethel, Car- thage, Lexington, Belmont, and Ball's Bluff. The Federals had saved Fort Pickens* and Fort Monroe, and captured the forts at Hatteras Inlet and Port Royal. They had gained the victories of Philippi, Rich Mountain, Boon- ville, Carrick's Ford, Cheat Mountain, Carnifex Ferry, and Dranesville. They had saved to the Union, Missouri, Mary- land, and "West Virginia. Principally, however, they had thrown the whole South into a state of siege, the armies on the north and the west by land, and the navy in the east by sea maintaining a vigilant blockade. 1862. The Situation. The National army now numbered 500,000 ; the Confederate, about 350,000. During the first year, there had been random fighting ; the war henceforth assumed a general plan. The year's campaign on the part of the North had three main objects : (1) the opening of the Mississippi ; (2) the blockade of the Southern ports ; and (3) the capture of Richmond. * This fort was situated near Pensacola. Lieutenant Slemmer, seeing that an attack was about to be made upon him, transferred his men from Fort McEae, an untenable position, to Fort Pickens, an almost impregnable fortification, which he held until re-inf orcements arrived. 224 EPOCH V. THE WAR IN THE WEST. [1862. The Confederates here held a line of defense with strongly fortified posts at Columbus, Fort Henry, Fort Don'elson. Bowling Green, Mill Spring, and Cumberland Gap. It was determined to pierce this line near the center, along the THE ATTACK ON FORT DONELf Tennessee River. This would compel the evacuation of Columbus, which was deemed impregnable, and open the way to Nashville (map opp. p. 222). Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. Accordingly, General Grant with his army, and Commodore Foote with his gun-boats, moved from Cairo (ka'ro) upon Fort Henry.* A bombardment (Feb. 6) from the gun-boats reduced the place in about an hour. The land troops were to cut off * As a part of the general movement, In January. General Thomas had advanced against MILL SPRING, a;id, on the 19th, driven out the Confederate force at that place, with the loss of General Zollicoffer, a favorite Southern leader. 1862.] THE CIVIL WAR. 225 the retreat ; but as they did not arrive in time, the garri- son escaped to Fort Donelson. The fleet now went back to the Ohio, and ascended the Cumberland, while Grant crossed to co-operate in an attack on Fort Donelson. The fight lasted three days.* The fleet was repulsed by the fire from the fort, and Commodore Foote seriously wounded. Grant, having been re-inforced till he had nearly thirty thousand men, defeated the Confederates in a desperate attempt to cut their way out, and captured a part of their intrenchments. As he was about to make the final as- sault, the fort was surrendered f (Feb. 16), with about fifteen thousand men. Effect of these Victories. As was expected, Columbus and Bowling Green were evacuated, while General Buell at once occupied Nashville. The Confederates fell back to Corinth, the great railroad center for Mississippi MI id Tennessee, where their forces were gradually collected under the command of Generals Albert Sidney Johnston, and Beauregard. The Union army ascended the Tennes- see to Pittsburg Landing. Grant was placed in command, and General Buell ordered to re-inforce him. The next movement was to capture the Memphis and Charleston railroad, thus cutting off Memphis, and secur- ing another section of the Mississippi River, -y" Battle of Shiloh (April 6, 7). The Confederates deter- mined to rout Grant's army before the arrival of Buell. * For four nights of inclement winter weather, amid snow and sleet, with no tents, shelter, fire, and many with no blankets, these hardy western troops main- tained their position. The wounded suffered intensely, and numbers of them froze to death as they lay on the icy ground. t When General Buckner, commander of the fort, wrote to Q-eneral Grant, offer- ing capitulation, Grant replied that no terms would be received except an "uncon- ditional surrender ", and that he " proposed to move immediately upon their works ". These expressions have been much quoted, and U. S. Grant has often been said to signify " Unconditional Surrender Grant ". 226 EPOCH V. [1863. On Sunday morning, at daylight, moving out of the woods in line of battle, they suddenly fell 011 the Union camps.* On the one side were the Southern dash, daring, and vigor ; on the other, the Northern firmness and determination. The Federals slowly yielded, but for twelve hours obsti- nately disputed every inch of the way. At last, pushed to the very brink of the river, Grant massed his artillery, and gathered about it the fragments of regiments for the final stand. The Confederates, to meet them, had to cross a deep ravine, where, struggling through the mud and water, they melted away under the fire of cannon and musketry from above, and the shells from the gun-boats below. Few reached the slippery bank beyond. At the same time, Buell's advance came shouting on the field. The tide of battle was already stayed. The Confederates fell back. They possessed, however, the substantial fruits of victory. They had taken the Union camps, three thousand prisoners, thirty flags, and immense stores; but they had lost their commander, General Albert Sidney Johnston, who fell in the heat of the action (map opp. p. 222). The next morning, the tide turned. Buell's army had come, and fresh troops were poured on the wearied Confed- erates. Beauregard, obstinately resisting, was driven from the field. He retreated, however, in good order, and, un- molested, returned to Corinth. * Whether or not this attack was a surprise, has been one of the mooted questions jf the war. Le Comte de Paris says, " The surprise was complete and unquestion- able ; the Union commanders sought in ~ r ain to excuse themselves " ; and it was currently stated at the time that so unexpected was the attack that many of the " men were bayoneted in their beds ". On the other hand, General Sherman asserts that his " troops were in line of battle and ready " before the engagement began, and he personally assures the writer that after the battle he offered in vain a reward for the body of any person killed by a bayonet-wound. General Grant, also, denies that the attack was a surprise to him, and declares that so well satisfied was he with the result of the first day's struggle, that at night he gave orders for a for- ward movement early in the morning. ( * Q t ...itofcR JJi\jr J* Qt \jk2M," W0 f~* i Federal Leaders of the Civil War. 1862.] THE CIVIL WAR. 227 General Halleck now assumed command, and by slow stages followed the Confederates. Beauregard, finding himself outnumbered, evacuated Corinth, and Halleck took possession (May 30)^- Island No. 10. The Confederates, on retreating from Columbus, fell back to Island No. 10.* There they were bombarded by Commodore Foote for three weeks with little effect. General Pope, crossing the Mississippi f in the midst of a fearful rain-storm, took the batteries on the opposite bank, and prepared to attack the fortifications in the rear. Tho garrison, seven thousand strong, surren- dered (April 7) the very day of the conflict at Shiloh. The Effects of the desperate battle at Shiloh were now\ fully apparent. t The Union gun-boats moved down the river and (May 10) defeated the Confederate iron-clad fleet. On the evacuation of Corinth, Fort Pillow was abandoned. The gun-boats, proceeding, destroyed the Confederate flo- tilla in front of Memphis, took possession of that city, and secured the Memphis and Charleston railroad. Kentucky and Western Tennessee had been wrenched from the Con- federacy. The Union army now held a line running from * The ialands In the Mississippi are numbered in order from the mouth of the Ohio to New Orleans. t Pope, with his army, was on the Missouri side of the river. He could not cross, as the Confederate batteries were planted on the opposite shore. A canal was therefore dug through Donaldson's Point. It was twelve miles long and fifty feet wide. Part of the distance was among heavy timber, where the trees had to be cut off four feet below the surface of the water. Yet the work was accomplished in nineteen days. Through this canal, steam-boats and barges were safely transferred below the newly-made island, while the DONALDSON'S POINT, two largest gun-boats ran the batteries. Under their protection, AND ISLAND NO. 10. Pope crossed the river. J Besides the results here named, the concentration of troops at Corinth had absorbed the troops from the South. Thus New Orleans, as we shall see hereafter, fell an easy prey to Parragut (p. 231). Gen. Halleck having been called to Washington as General-in-Chief of the armies of the United States, General Grant was appointed to the command of this army. 228 EPOCH V. [1862. Memphis through Corinth, nearly to Ohattanoo'ga, toward which point General Buell was steadily pushing his troops. We shall next consider the efforts made by the Confed- erates to break through this line of investment. At this time, they were concentrated under Bragg at Chattanooga, Price at lu'ka, and Yan Dorn at Holly Springs. Bragg's Expedition. The first movement was made by G-eneral Bragg, who, by rapid marches, hastened toward Louisville. General Buell fell back to Nashville, where he found out his enemy's plan. Now commenced a race be- tween them to reach the Ohio River. Buell came out one day ahead. He was heavily re-inforced to the number of one hundred thousand men. Bragg* then fell back, Buell slowly following. At PERRYVILLE (October 8), Bragg fiercely turned upon Buell, and a desperate battle was fought. In the darkness, however, Bragg retreated, and finally escaped, though his wagon train extended a dis- tance of forty miles. At this juncture (October 30), Gen- eral Buell was superseded by General Rosecrans. Battles of luka and Corinth (September 1 9, October 4). Every one of Grant's veterans who could possibly be spared had been sent north to help Buell. Price and Van Dorn, taking advantage of the opportunity, were maneuvering to get possession of Corinth. Grant, thinking that he could capture Price and then get back to Corinth before Van Dorn could reach it from Holly Springs, ordered Rosecrans to move upon luka. Through some mistake, Rosecrans failed to occupy Price's line of retreat, and, after a severe conflict (September 19), the latter escaped. Thereupon, * At Frankfort, Bragg was joined by the part of his army under Kirby Smith, who had marched from Knoxville, routed a "Union force under General Manson at Richmond, Ky., inflicting a heavy loss, and had then moved north as far as Cyn- thiana. There he threatened to attack Cincinnati, but was repelled by the exten- sive preparation made by General Lew Wallace. 1863.] THE CIVIL WAR. 229 \ ! the two Confederate generals joined their forces, and at- 1 tacked Rosecrans in his intrenchments at Corinth. The Confederates exhibited brilliant courage,* but were de- feated and pursued forty miles with heavy loss. Battle of Murfreesboro (December 31, January 2). Rosecrans, on assuming command of Buell's army, concen- trated his forces at Nashville. Thence he marched to meet Bragg, who, with a heavy column moving north on a second grand expedition, had already reached Murfreesboro (map opp. p. 222). Both generals had formed the same plan \ for the approaching contest. As the Union left was crossing Stone River to attack the Confederate right, the strong Con- federate left fell heavily on the weak Union right. At first, the onset was irresistible. But General Sheridan was there, and by his consummate valor held the ground until Rose- crans could recall his left, replant hi$ batteries, and establish a new line. Upon this fresh front, the Confederates charged four times, but were driven back. Two days after, Bragg renewed the attack, but, being unsuccessful, retreated. This was one of the bloodiest contests of the war, the loss being about one fourth of the number engaged. The Effect of this Battle. The attempt of the Confederates t>> recover Kentucky was now abandoned. The way was * The Texas and Missouri troops made a heroic charge upon Fort Robinette. They advanced to within fifty yards of the Intrenchments, received a shower of grape and canister without flinching, and "were driven back only when the Ohio brigade poured a volley of musketry into their ranks. They were then rallied by Colonel Rogers, of the Second Texas, who led them up through the abattis, when, with the colors in his hand, he sprung upon the embankment and cheered on his men. An instant more ar.d ho fell, with five brave fellows who had dared to leap to his side. The Union troops admiringly buried his remains, and neatly rounded off the little mound where they laid the hero to rest. t This coincidence reminds one of the battle of Camden (p. 133). The plan was to mass the strength on the left, and with that to fall upon and crush the enemy's right. The advantage clearly lay with the army which struck first. Bragg secured the initiative, and Rosecrans 1 only course was to give up all thought of an attack and endeavor to save his right and center from a rout. 230 > EPOCH V. [1863. open for another Union advance on Chattanooga. Bragg's force was reduced from an offensive to a defensive attitude. First Vicksburg Expedition. While Rosecrans was re- pelling this advance of Bragg, an expedition against Vicks- burg had been planned by Grant. He was to move along the Mississippi Central Railroad, while Sherman was to descend the river from Memphis with the gun-boats under Porter. In the meantime, however, by a brilliant cavalry dash, Van Dora destroyed Grant's depot of supplies at Holly Springs. This spoiled the whole plan. Sherman, ignorant of what had happened, pushed on, landed up the Ya zoo' River, and made an attack at Chickasaw Bayou (bi'oo), north of Vicks- burg. After suffering a bloody repulse, and learning of Grant's misfortune, he fell back. The capture of Arkansas Post (Jan. 11, 1863), by a combined army and naval force, closed the campaign of 1862 on the Mississippi River. The War in Missouri. In February, General Curtis pushed General Price out of Missouri into Arkansas. The Confederates, by great exertion, increased their army to twenty thousand, General Van Dorn now taking com- mand. General Curtis, in a desperate battle, totally de- feated him at PEA RIDGE* (March 7, 8). During the rest of the war, no important battles were fought in this State, f THE WAR ON THE SEA AND THE COAST. Capture of New Orleans (April 25). The effort to open the Mississippi was not confined to the north. Early* in * Some four or five thousand Indians had joined the Confederate army, and took part in this battle. " They were difficult to manage ", says PoL ird, " in the deafening roar of the artillery, which drowned their loudest war-whocps. They were amazed at the sight of guns which ran around on wheels ; annoyed by the falling of the trees behind which they took shelter ; and, in a word, their main service was in consuming rations. ' t The next year, Quantrell, a noted guerrilla, with three hundred men, entered Lawrence, Kansas, plundered the bank, burned houses, and murdered one hundred uiul forty persona. Before a sufficient force could be gathered, he escaped. 1862.] THE CIVIL WAR. 231 the spring, Captain Far' ra gut, with a fleet of over forty vessels, carrying a land force under General Butler, at- tempted the capture of New Orleans, which commands the mouth of the river. The mortar-boats,* anchored along the bank under the shelter of the woods, threw thirteen-inch shells into Forts Jackson and St. Philip for six days and nights ; in all, 16,800 shells. Farragut then boldly resolved to. carry the fleet past the defenses of New Orleans. A chain supported on hulks and stretched across the river closed the channel. An opening to admit the passage of the gun- boats f having been cut through this obstruction, at about three o'clock in the morning (April 24) they advanced, and poured grape and canister into the forts at short range, re- ceiving in return heavy volleys from the forts and batteries on shore. After running a fearful gauntlet of shot, shell, and the flames of fire-rafts, they next encountered the Confed- erate fleet of twelve armed steamers, including the steam- I >n\ tery Louisiana and the iron-plated ram Manassas. Tn the desperate struggle, nearly all the Confederate flotilla were destroye'd. Tlie fleet then steamed up to New Orleans,! * To conceal the vessels, they were dressed out with leafy branches, which, except Ly close observation, rendered them undistinguishable from the green woods. The direction had been accurately calculated, so that the g inners did not need to see the points toward which they were to aim. So severe was the bombardment, that " windows at the Balize (baleezO, thirty miles distant, were broken. Fish, stunned Ly the explosion, lay floating on the surface of the water." t The vessels were made partly iron-clad by looping two layers of chain cables over their sides, and their engines were protected by bags of sand, coal, etc. $ Steamers, ships, vast quantities of cotton, etc., were now burned to prevent their falling into the Federal hands. Pollard says : " No sooner had the Fed- eral Mleet turned the point and come within sight of the city, than the work of destruction commenced. Vast columns of smoke darkened the face of heaven and obscured the noon-day sun ; for five miles along the levee (leVee) fierce flames darted through the lurid atmosphere. Great ships and steamers wrapped in fire floated down the river, threatening the Federal vessels with destruction. Fifteen thou- sand bales of cotton, worth one million and a half of dollars, were consumed. About a dozen large river steam-boats, twelve or fifteen ships, a great floating bat- tery, several unfinished gun-boats, the immense ram Mississippi, and the docks on the other side of the river were all embraced in the fiery sacrifice." 232 EPOCH V. [1862. which lay helpless under the Union guns. The forts, being now threatened in the rear by the army, soon surrendered. Captain Farragut afterward ascended the river, took pos- session of Bat'on Rouge (rdbzh) and Natchez, and, running the batteries at Vicksburg, joined the Union fleet above. ITLE BETWEEN THE MONITOR AND Burnside's Expedition against Roanoke Island* was an important step toward the enforcement of the block- ade. The Confederate forts were captured, and the ships destroyed. New Bern an excellent sea-port, Elizabeth City, and, finally, Fort Macon, at the entrance to Beau-, fort (bo' furt) harbor, were taken. Thus the coast of upper North Carolina, with its intricate network of water com- munication, fell into the Union hands. * Roanoke Island, the scene of Raleigh's colonization scheme, was the key to the rear defenses of Norfolk. "It unlocked two sounds, eight rivers, four canals, and two railroads." It controlled largely the transmission of supplies to that region, afforded an excellent harbor and a eonvenifnt rendezvous for ships, and exposed a large country to attack. 1862.] THE CIVIL WAR. 233 Florida and Georgia Expeditions. After its capture in the autumn of, 1861, Port Royal became the base of opera- tions against Florida and Georgia. Fernandina, Fort Clinch, Jacksonville, Darien, and St. Augustine were taken. Fort Pulaski, also, was reduced after a severe bombardment, and thus the port of Savannah was closed. At the end of the year, every city of the Atlantic sea-coast, except Savannah, Charleston, and Wilmington, was held by the Federal armies. The Merrimac and the Monitor. About noon, March 8, the long-looked-f or iron-clad Merrimac,* convoyed by a fleet of small vessels, steamed into Hampton Roads. Steering directly for the sloop-of-war Cumberland, whose terrific broadsides glanced harmlessly "like so many peas" from the Merrimac's iron roof, she struck her squarely with her iron beak, making a hole large enough for a man to enter. The Cumberland, with all on board, went down.f Warned by the fate of the Cumberland, the captain of the frigate Congress ran his vessel ashore, but the Merrimac, taking a position astern, fired shells into the frigate till the helpless crew were forced to surrender. At sunset, the Merrimac returned to Norfolk, awaiting, the next day, an easy victory over the rest of the Union fleet. All was delight and anticipation among the Confederates ; all was dismay and dismal foreboding among the Federals. * When the United States navy-yard at Portsmouth, near Norfolk, Va., was given up, the steam-frigate Merrimac, the finest in the service, was scuttled. The Confederates afterward raised this vessel, razeed the deck, and added an iron prow and a sloping iron-plated roof. To deftest hostile balls, and also to prevent boarding, the iron roof was thickly coated with tallow and plumbago. The ship was commanded hy Commodore Franklin Buchanan, a superior naval officer. (See " Confederate Leaders," opposite p. 238.) The Federals knew that the Merrimac was fitting for battle, and her coming was eagerly expected. t As the Cumberland sunk, the crew continued to work their guns until the vessel plunged beneath the sea. Her flag was never struck, but floated above the water from the mast-head after she had gone down. A curious fact is told con- 234 EPOCH V. [1862. That night, the Monitor* arrived in harbor, and immedi- ately prepared to meet her giant adversary. Early in the morning, the Merrimac appeared, moving toward the steam-frigate Minnesota. Suddenly, from under her lee, the little Monitor darted out, and hurled at the monster two one hundred and sixty-six pound balls. Startled by the appearance of this unexpected and queer-looking an- tagonist, the Merrimac poured in a broadside, such as the night before had destroyed the Congress, but the balls rattled harmlessly off the Monitor's turret, or broke and fell in pieces on the deck. Then began the battle of the iron ships. It was the first of the kind in the world. Close against each other, iron rasping on iron, they exchanged their heaviest volleys. Five times the Merrimac tried to run down the Monitor, but her huge beak only grated over the iron deck, while the Monitor glided out unharmed. Despairing of doing any thing with her doughty little antagonist, the Merrimac now steamed back to Norfolk.! The Effect of this contest can hardly be overestimated. Had the Merrimac triumphed, aided by other iron vessels oerning this engagement. A large number of Confederates collected on the shore opposite Newport News, in order to witness the battle ; but, to their amazement, they could not hear a sound of it. They could see the flash and smoke of each dis- charge, but the strong wind bore off entirely the noise of the cannonade. It was as if the spectators were gazing at the picture of a battle instead of the reality. Bead articles on the " First Fight of the Iron-clads ", in the Century, March, 1885. * This "Yankee cheese-box", as it was nicknamed at the time, was the inven- tion of Captain Ericsson. It was a hull, with the deck a few inches above the water, and in the center a curious round tower made to revolve slowly by steam-power, thus turning in any direction the two guns it contained. The upper part of the hull, which was exposed to the enemy's flre, projected several feet beyond the lower part, and was made of thick white oak, covered with iron plating five inches thick on the sides and one inch on deck. t As the Merrimac drew off, she hurled a last shot, which, striking the Monitor's pilot-house, broke a bar of iron nine by twelve inches, seriously injuring the eyes of the gallant commander, Lieutenant Worden, who was at that moment looking out through a narrow slit and directing the movements of his ship. 1863.] THE CIVIL WAR. 235 then preparing by the Confederacy, she might have de- stroyed the rest of the Union fleet in Hampton Roads, reduced Fort Monroe, prevented the Peninsular Cam- paign (see below), sailed along the coast and broken up the blockade, swept through the shipping at New York, opened the way for foreign supplies, made an egress for cotton, and perhaps secured the acknowledgment of the Confederacy by European nations. On this battle hinged the fate of the war. , THE WAR IN THE EAST. The Peninsular Campaign. Richmond was here the objective point. It having been decided to make the advance by way of the Peninsula, the Army of the Po- tomac was carried in transports down* the river from Washington. Landing at Fort Monroe about one hun- dred thousand strong (April 4), they slowly marched toward Yorktown. Siege of Yorlctoivn. At this place, General Magruder, with only five thousand m'en (exclusive of the garrison of eight thousand at Yorktown), by his masterly skill, main- tained so bold a front along a line thirteen miles in length, that McClellan was brought to a stop. Heavy guns were ordered from Washington, and a siege was begun. The gar- rison had been re-inforced, but, having delayed McClellan a month, it withdrew just as he was ready to open fire.t * Previous to this (March 10), McClellan made an advance toward Manassas, where the Confederates had remained intrenched since McDowell's defeat. The fortifica- tions, which were evacuated on his approach, were found to be quite insignificant, and to be mounted partly with "Quaker guns", i.e., logs shaped and painted to imitate artillery. t On the evacuation of Yorktown thq, Confederate forces being concentrated for the defense of Richmond Norfolk was abandoned, the Navy-yard burned, and the Merrimac, the pride of the South, blown up. United States troops from Port 286 EPOCH V. [1862. MAP OF THE PENINSULA. When the Confederate movement was discovered, a vig- orous pursuit was commenced. Battle of Williamsburg (May 5). General Johnston, who commanded the Confederate army, having left a strong rear-guard in the forts at Williamsburg, to gain time for the baggage train, a fierce battle ensued. General Hooker, "Fighting Joe ", with his divi- s i o n , maintained the contest for nine hours. Other troops at last ar- rived on the bloody field, and, Will- iamsburg, having been evacuated in the night, the pursuit was continued to within seven miles of Richmond. Richmond Tlireatened. There was a great panic in that city, and the Confederate Congress hastily adjourned. Every thing looked like an immediate attack, when Mc- Clellan discovered that a Confederate force was at HAN- OVER COURT HOUSE. This threatened his communications by rail with White House Landing, and also with Gen- eral McDowell, who, with thirty thousand men, was march- ing from Fredericksburg to join him. General Fitz John Porter, after a sharp skirmish, captured Hanover Court House. The army looked now hourly for McDowell's aid Monroe took possession of the city, and gun-boats sailed up James River as far as Fort Darling. Here a.plunging fire from the bluff forbade further advance. * This was General Joseph E. Johnston, who so unexpectedly brought his men to take part in the battle of Bull Run (p. 5220). He was wounded in the battle of Seven Pines, but appeared again in two campaigns against Sherman (pp. 256, 272). Gen- eral Albert Sidney Johnston was killed in the battle of SMLoh (p. 226). 1862.] THE CIVIL WAR. 237 in the approaching great contest. " McClellan's last orders at night were that McDowell's signals were to be watched for and without delay reported to him." But General Johnston was too shrewd to permit this junction. He accordingly ordered General Jackson to move along the Shen an do' ah Valley and threaten Washington. Jackson in the Shenandoah. Stonewall Jackson having been re-inf orced by General Ewell's division of ten thousand men, hurried down the valley after Banks at Strasburg. The Union troops fell back, and by tremendous exertion " marching thirty-five miles in a single day " succeeded in escaping across the Potomac. Great was the consternation in Washington. The President took military possession of the railroads. The governors of the Northern States were called upon to send militia for the defense of the capital. Fremont at Franklin, Banks at Harper's Ferry, and Mc- Dowell at Fredericksburg were ordered to capture Jackson. It was high time for this dashing leader to be alarmed. He rapidly retreated, burning the bridges as he passed. Fre- mont brought him to bay at CROSS KEYS (June 8), but was hurled off. Shields struck at him at POET REPUBLIC, the next day, but was driven back five miles, while Jackson made good his escape from the Shenandoah Valley, hav- ing burned the bridges behind him.* TJie Effect of this adroit movement was evident. With fifteen thousand men, Jackson had occupied the attention of three major-generals and sixty thousand men, prevented * When the Federal forces took possession of the bridge over the Shenandoah, Jackson and his staff were on the south side, his army being on the north side. It is said that " he rode toward the bridge, and rising in his stirrups, called sternly to the Federal officer commanding the artillery placed to sweep it : ' Who ordered you to post that gun there, sir ? Bring it over here 1 ' The bewildered officer bowed, limbered up his piece, and prepared to move. Jackson and his staff seized the lucky moment and dashed across the bridge before the gun could bo brought to bear upon them." 238 EPOCH V. [1862. McDowell's junction with McClellan, alarmed Washington, and saved Richmond. Battle of Fair Oaks (May 31, June 1). While these stirring events were going on in the Shenandoah Valley, McClellan had pushed his left wing across the Chicka- hominy. But a terrible storm flooded the swamps, turned the roads to mud, and converted the Chickahominy Creek into a broad river. Johnston seized the opportunity to fall with tremendous force upon the exposed wing. At first, the Confederates swept all before them ; but General Sum- ner, throwing his men across the tottering bridges over the Chickahominy, checked the column which was trying to seize the bridges and thus separate the two portions of the army. General Johnston was severely wounded. Night put an end to the contest. In the morning, the Confed- erates renewed the attack ; but the loss of their general was fatal, and they were repulsed in great disorder. Tlie Union Army Checked. General Lee,* who now took command of the Confederate army, was anxious to assume the offensive. General Stuart led off (June 12) with a bold cavalry raid, in which he seized and burned supplies along the railroad leading to White House, made the entire circuit * Robert Edward Lee was born in Stratford, Virginia, 1807 ; died in Lexington, 1870. His father, Henry Lee, was the celebrated " Light-horse Harry " of Revolu- tionary fame. Robert early evinced a love for a military life, and during his West Point course was devoted to his studies. In the Mexican war, he was Scott's chief engineer and was thrice brevetted for his services. When Virginia seceded, he threw in his fortunes with his native State, although Scott had intimated his inten- tion of nominating him as his successor. Lee was immediately appointed major- general of the Virginia forces, and was soon after designated to fortify Richmond. His wonderful success in the Seven-Days fight made " Uncle Robert ", as he was familiarly called, the most trusted of the Confederate leaders. !Por three years, he baffled every attempt to take Richmond, which fell only with the government of which it was the capital, and the army and general that were its defense. General Lee was handsome in face and figure, a gracef ul rider, grave and silent in deportment just the bearing to captivate a soldier; while his deep piety, truth, sincerity, and honesty won the hearts of all. Confederate Leaders of the Civil War. 1862.J THE CIVIL WAR. 239 of the Union army, and returned to Richmond in safety. McClellan, also, meditated an advance, and Hooker pushed his pickets within sight of the Richmond steeples. At this moment, there came news of the "same apparition which had frightened Banks " in the Shenandoah. Stone- wall Jackson had appeared near Hanover Court House, and threatened the Union communications with White House. There was no longer any thought of moving on Richmond. Hooker was recalled. McClellan resolved to " change his base" of supply from the York River to the James. The Seven-Days Battles. The very morning McClellan came to this decision, and ere the flank movement com- menced, Lee, massing his strength on his left, fell upon the Union right at MECHANICSVTLLE (June 26). Having repulsed this attack, at dawn the troops retired to GAESTES' MILL, where, by the most desperate exertions, Porter held the bridges across the Chickahominy until night, and then, burning them, withdrew to the south bank. That night (June 28), Lee detected McClellan's movement, and in- stantly started columns along the roads that intersected the line of retreat. Magruder struck the Federal rear (June 29) at SAVAGE'S STATION. The Union troops main- tained their position till night and then continued the movement. Longstreet and Hill encountered the line of march as it was passing FRAYSER'S FARM (June 30), but could not break it. During the darkness, the Union troops, worn out by the constant marching or fighting and the terrible heat and dust, collected at MALVERN HILL. On an elevated plateau rising in the form of an amphitheatre, on whose sloping sides were arranged tier upon tier of bat- teries, with gun-boats protecting the left, the broken frag- ments of the splendid Army of the Potomac made their last stand (July 1). Here Lee received so bloody a check 240 EPOCH Y. [1862. that he pressed the pursuit no farther. The Union troops retired undisturbed to Harrison's Landing. The Effect of this campaign was a triumph for the Con- federates. The Union retreat had been conducted with skill, the troops had shown great bravery and steadiness, the repulse at Malvern Hill was decided, and Lee had lost fully 20,000 men ; yet the siege of Richmond had been raised, 16,000 men killed, wounded, or captured, im- mense stores taken or destroyed, and the Union army was now cooped up on James River, under the protection of the gun-boats. The discouragement at the North was as great as after the battle of Bull Run. Lincoln called for a levy of three hundred thousand troops. Campaign against Pope. Richmond being relieved from present peril, Lee threatened to march his victorious army against Washington. General Pope, who commanded the troops for the defense of that city, was stationed at the Rapidan. General McClellan was directed to transfer his army to Ac qul'a Creek (map, p. 261), and put it under the command of General Pope. Lee, now relieved from all fear for Richmond, immediately massed his troops againstr Pope to crush him before the Army of the Potomac could arrive.* Pope being held in check by the main army in front, Gen- eral Jackson was sent around Pope's right wing, to flank him. Passing through Thoroughfare Gap, he reached the railroad at Bristoe's Station, in the rear of Pope's army (August 26). General Pope, seeing an opportunity while Lee's army was thus divided to cut it up in detail, turned upon Jackson. But the Army of the Potomac not promptly re-inforcing him, his plans failed, and instead of "bagging " Jackson's division, he * In the meantime, Jackson attacked Banks at Cedar Mountain (August 9) and defeated him after a bloody battle ; but, unable to maintain his position, fell back on Lee's advancing army. Pope, seeing the fearful odds against which he was to contend, took post behind the liuppaluumoek. 1862.] THE CIVIL WAR. 241 was compelled, with his slowly-gathering troops, to fight the entire Confederate army on the old battle-field of Bull Run. Exhausted, cut off from supplies, and overwhelmed by num- bers, the shattered remains of the Union forces were glad to take refuge within the fortifications of Washington.* Tlie, Effect. In this brief campaign, the Union army lost heavily in men, munitions, and supplies, while the way to Washington was opened to the Confederates. The Capital had not been in such peril since the war began. Without, was a victorious army ; within, were broken battalions and no general. Invasion of Maryland. Flushed with success, Lee now crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland,! hoping to secure volunteers and excite an insurrection. McClellan, who had been restored to the command of the Army of the Potomac, reorganized the shapeless mass and set out in pursuit. On the way, he found a copy of Lee's order of march. Learning from this that Lee had divided his forces,! and that but a portion remained in his front, he hastened in pursuit. Over- taking the Confederate rear at SOUTH MOUNTAIN, and forcing the passes, the Union army poured into the valley beyond (map opp. p. 223). Battle of JLntietam (September 1 7). Lee, perceiving his mistake, fell back across Antietam (ante'tam) Creek and hurried off couriers to hasten the return of his scattered corps. Fortunately for him, McClellan delayed his attack a day, and, * During the pursuit by Lee's forces, an engagement took place at Chantilly (Sep- tember 1). It cost the Union army two able officers Generals Stevens and Kearney. The latter, especially, was devotedly loved by his soldiers. On the battle-field, bran- dishing his sword in his only hand, and taking the reins in his teeth, he had often led them in the most desperate and irresistible charges. t This was Sept. 5, the very day that Bragg entered Kentucky on his great raid. $ Lee had sent Jackson with twenty-five thousand men against Harper's Ferry. That redoubtable leader quickly carried the heights which overlook the village, forced Colonel Miles, with eleven thousand men, to surrender, and then hastened back to take part in the approaching contest. 242 EPOCH v. [im. in the meantime, Jackson returned. At early dawn, Hooker fell upon the Confederate left, while Burnside, as soon as affairs looked favorable there, was to carry the bridge and at- tack their right. The Union army was over eighty thousand strong, and the Confederate but half that number. The Union advance was impetuous, but the Confederate defense was no less obstinate. Hooker was wounded, and his corps swept from the field. Both sides were re-inf orced. Burnside advanced, but too late to relieve the pressure on the Union right. Night ended this bloody fight. The morning found neither commander ready to assail his opponent. That night, Lee retired unmolested across the Potomac.* Six weeks after, the Union army crossed into Virginia. The Effect of this indecisive battle was that of a Union victory. The North was saved from invasion, and Washing- ton from any danger of attack. Lincoln now determined to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring freedom to all the slaves in the seceded States, f Battle of Fredericksburg-. General dissatisfaction being expressed at the slowness with which McClellan pursued the retreating army, General Burnside was appointed his suc- cessor. Crossing the Rap pa han 'nock on pontoon bridges at Fredericksburg, he attempted (December 13) to storm * During this invasion, the Confederate soldiers endured every privation ; one half were in rags, and thousands barefooted marked their path with crimson. Yet, shoe- less, hatless, and ragged, they marched and fought with a heroism like that of the Revolutionary times. But they met their equals at Antietam. Jackson's and Hook- er's men fought until both sides were nearly exterminated, and when the broken fragments fell back, the windrows of dead showed where their ranks had stood. t Lincoln prepared the original draft in the July preceding, when the Union forces were in the midst of reverses. Carpenter repeats President Lincoln's words thus : " I put the draft of the proclamation aside, waiting for a victory. Well, the next news we had was of Pope's disaster at Bull Run. Things looked darker than ever. Finally came the week of the battle of Antietam. I determined to wait no longer. The news came, I think, on Wednesday, that the advantage was on our side. I was then stay- ing at the Soldiers' Home. Here I finished writing the second draft of the proclama- tion ; came up on Saturday ; called the Cabinet together to hear it, and it was pub- 1862.] THE CIVIL WAR. 243 the works in the rear of the town. The Confederates, in- trenched behind a long stone wall, and on heights crowned with artillery, easily repulsed the repeated assaults of the Union troops. Night mercifully put an end to the fruitless massacre. The Federal loss was over twelve thousand, nearly half of whom fell before the fatal stone wall.* The survivors drew back into the city, and the next night passed quietly across the bridges to their old camping-ground. General Review of the Second Year of the War. The Confederates had gained the victories of Jackson in the Shenandoah ; of Lee in the Peninsular campaign and those against Pope ; Bragg's great raid in Kentucky ; and the battles of Cedar Mountain, Chickasaw Bluff, and Freder- icksburg. The Federals had taken Forts Henry, Donelson, Pu- laski, Macon, Jackson, St. Philip, and Island No. 10 ; had opened the Mississippi to Vicksburg ; occupied New Orleans, Roanoke Island, New Bern, Yorktown, Norfolk, and Mem- phis ; gained the battles of Pea Ridge, Williamsburg, Fair Oaks, South Mountain, Antietam, luka, Corinth, and Mur- freesboro, and had checked the career of the Merrimac. The marked successes were mainly at the jP^est and along the coast; while in Virginia, as yet, defeats had followed victories so soon as to hide their memory. lished the following Monday. / made a solemn vow before God, that if General Lee was driven back from Maryland I would crown {he result by the declaration of freedom to the * This solid stone wall, four feet high, completely sheltered the troops, while they poured a murderous fire upon the attacking party. In the assault, Meagher's Irish troops especially distinguished themselves, leaving two thirds of their number on the field of their heroic action. The London Times' correspondent, who watched the battle from the heights, speaking of their desperate valor, says : " Never at Fon- tenoy, ATbuera, nor at Waterloo, was more undoubted courage displayed by the eons of Erin than during those six frantic dashes which they directed against the almost impregnable position of their foe. That any mortal man could have carried the position, defended as it was, it seems idle for a moment to believe. But the bodies which lie in dense masses within forty-eight yards of the muzzles of Colonel 244 EPOCH V. [1862. The Sioux War. In the midst of this civil strife, the Sioux (soo) Indians became dissatisfied with the Indian traders, and the non-payment of the money due them. Bands of warriors under Little Crow and other chiefs per- petrated horrible massacres in Minnesota, Iowa, and Dakota. Over seven hundred whites were slain, and many thousands driven from their homes. Colonel Sibley routed the sav- ages, and took five hundred prisoners. Thirty-nine were hanged on one scaffold at Mankato, Minn. 1863. The Situation. The plan of the war was the same as in the preceding year, but included also the occupation of Tennessee. The Federal army was about seven hundred thousand strong ; the Confederate, not more than half that number. The Emancipation Proclamation was issued at the opening of the year. THE WAR IN THE "WEST. The Second Expedition against Vicksburg 1 . Grant continued his great task of opening the Mississippi. After several weeks of fruitless effort against Vicksburg upon the north, he marched down the west side of the river, while the gun-boats, running the batteries,* passed below the city and Walton's guns are the best evidence what manner of men they were who pressed on to death with the dauntlessness of a race which has gained glory on a thousand battle-fields, and never more richly deserved it than at the foot of Marye's Heights, on the 13th day of December, 1862." * The running of the batteries with transports was considered so hazardous that the officers would not order their crews to take tho risk, but called for volunteers. So many privates offered that they were compelled to draw lots. One boy, drawing a lucky number, was offered $100 for his chance, but refused it, and lived to tell the story. The gauntlet of batteries extended eight miles. The first gun-boat crept silently down in the shadow of the trees which lined the bank. The Confederates at Vicksburg discovering the movement, kindled a bonfire which lighted up the whole scene, and made the other vessels a fair target for their gunners. 1863.] THE CIVIL WAR. 245 VICINITY OF VICKSBUKG. ferried the army across. Hastening forward, he defeated the Confederate advance under Pemberton, at PORT GIBSON (May 1). Learning that Gen. Jos. E. Johnston was coming to Pemberton's assistance, he rapidly pushed between them to Jackson, that, while hold- ing back Johnston with his right hand, with his left he might drive Pemberton into Vicksburg, and thus capture his whole army. Pursuing this design, he defeated John- ston at JACKSON (May 14), and then, turning to the west, drove Pemberton from his position at CHAMPION HILLS (May 16) ; next, at BIG- BLACK RIVER (May 17) ; and in seventeen days after crossing the Mississippi, shut up Pemberton's army within the works at Vicksburg. Two desperate assaults upon these having failed, the Union troops began to throw up intrenchments. Mines and countermines were now dug. Not one of the garrison could show his head above the works without being picked off by the watchful riflemen. A hat, held above a port- , hole, in two minutes was pierced with fifteen balls. Shells reached all parts of the city, and the inhabitants burrowed in caves to escape the iron storm. The garrison, worn out by forty-seven days of toil in the trenches, surrendered on the 4th of July.* The Effect. This campaign cost the Confederates five battles, the cities of Vicksburg and Jackson, thirty-seven thousand prisoners, ten thousand killed and wounded, and inrmense stores. On the fall of Vicksburg, PORT HUDSON, which had been besieged by General Banks for many * This was the day after the fight at Gettysburg (p. 254, note). 246 EPOCH V. [1863. weeks, surrendered.* The Mississippi was now open to the Gulf, and the Confederacy cut in twain. One great object of the North was accomplished. THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA. Rosecrans, after the battle of Murfreesboro, made no forward movement until June.f With sixty thousand men, he then marched against Bragg, and, by threatening his communications, compelled him to evacuate Chattanooga J (Sept. 8). Rosecrans pushed on in pursuit of Bragg, whom he supposed to be in full retreat. Bragg, however, having received powerful re-inforcements, turned upon his pursuers so suddenly that they narrowly escaped being cut up in detail, while scattered along a line forty miles in length. The Union forces rapidly concentrated, and the two armies met on the Chickamauga. Battle of Chickamauga (Sept. 19, 20). The first-day's fight was indecisive. About noon of the second day, the Federal line became broken from the movement of troops to * To escape the fiery tempest which constantly swept over Port Hudson, and to provide for the safety of their magazines, the garrison dug deep recesses in tho bluffs, approached by steps cut out of the earth. An eye-witness says : " As we rode along the earth-works inside, after the siege, it was curious to mark the ingenious ways in which they had burrowed holes to shelter themselves from shell and from the intolerable rays of the sun ; while at work, they must have looked like so many rabbits popping in and out of their warrens." + One objection which Rosecrans opposed to a forward movement was his inferi- ority in cavalry. This was removed in July, when General John H. Morgan, with about four thousand Confederate cavalry, crossed the Ohio at Brandenburg, swept around Cincinnati, and struck the river again near Parkersburg. During his entire route, he was harassed by militia. At this point, he was overtaken by his pursuers, while gun-boats in the river prevented his crossing. Nearly the entire force was capt- ured. Morgan escaped, but was finally taken and confined in the penitentiary at Columbus. Four months afterward, he broke jail and reached Richmond in safety. $ General Bragg had here an opportunity to be shut up in Chattanooga, as Pem- berton had been in Vicksburg ; but, a more acute strategist, he knew the value of an army in the field to be greater than that of any fortified city. S In the Indian lang uage, the " River of Death " an ominous name I 1863.] THE CIVIL WAR. 247 help the left wing, then hard pressed. Longstreet seized the opportunity, pushed a brigade into the gap, and swept the Federal right and center from the field. The rushing crowd of fugitives bore Rosecrans himself .away. In this crisis of the battle, all depended on the left, under Thomas. If that yielded, the army would be utterly routed. All through the long afternoon, the entire Confederate army surged against it. But Thomas held fast.* At night, he deliberately with- drew to Chattanooga, picking up five hundred prisoners on the way. The Union army, however, defeated in the field, was now shut up in its intrenchments. Bragg occupied the hills commanding the city, and cut off its communications. The garrison was threatened with starvation.! Battle of Chattanooga t (Nov. 24, 25). Grant, having been appointed to command the Mississippi Division, hurried to Chattanooga. Affairs soon wore a different look. Hooker came with two corps from the Army of the Potomac ; || and Sherman hastened by forced inarches from * Thomas was thenceforth styled the " Hock of Chickamaujfa ". He was in com- mand of men as brave as himself. Col. George, of the Second Minnesota, being asked, " How long can you hold this pass ? " replied, " Until the regimenfc is mustered out of service." t " Starvation had destroyed so many of the animals that there were not artillery horses enough to take a battery into action. The number of mules that perished was graphically indicated by one of the soldiers of the Army of the Tennessee : ' The mud was so deep that we could not travel by the road, but we got along pretty well by stepping from mule to mule as they lay dead by the way.' " Draper. J In the Cherokee language, " The Hawk's Nest ". Rosecrans was now relieved, and Thomas put in his place. Grant, afraid that Thomas might surrender before he could arrive, telegraphed him to hold fast. The characteristic reply was, " We will hold the town till we starve ". I Twenty-three thousand strong, they were carried by rail from the Rapidan, in Virginia, to Stevenson, in Alabama, eleven hundred and ninety-two miles, in seven days. The Confederates did not know of the change of base until Hooker appeared in front. VICINITY OF CHATTANOOGA. 248 EPOCH v. luka, two hundred miles away. Communications were re- established. Thomas made a dash* and seized Orchard Knob (Nov. 23). The following day, Hooker charged the fortifications on Lookout Mountain. f His troops had been ordered to stop on the high ground ; but, carried away by the ardor of the attack, they swept over the crest, driving the enemy before them. Through the mist that filled the valley, the anxious watchers below caught only glimpses of this far-f amed " battle above the clouds". The next morning, Hooker advanced on the south of Missionary Ridge. Sher- man, during the whole time, had been heavily pounding away on the northern flank. Grant, from his position on Orchard Knob, perceiving that the Confederate line in front of him was being weakened to repel these attacks on the flanks, saw that the critical moment had come,t and launched Thomas' corps on its center. The orders were to take the rifle-pits at the foot of Missionary Ridge, then halt and reform ; ^ut the men forgot them all, carried the works at * It was a beautiful day. The men had on their best uniforms, and the bands dis- coursed the liveliest music. The hills were crowded with spectators. The Confeder- ates on Lookout Mountain and Missionary Bidge could see every movement. Bragg's pickets stood leaning on their muskets watching Thomas' columns drawn up as if on parade. Suddenly, the Union line broke into a double-quick, and the review was turned into a battle. t The first day, the Confederate left rested on Lookout Mountain, there two thou- sand four hundred feet high ; the right, along Missionary Ridge so called because, many years ago, Catholic missionaries had Indian schools upon it ; and the center, in the valley between. The second day their army simply occupied Missionary Ridge, in the center of their former line, in front of Grant at Orchard Knob. On Lookout Mountain, Hooker met with so feeble a resistance, that Q-rant is reported to have declared the so-called "battle above the clouds" to be "all poetry, there having been no action there worthy the name of battle ". t The signals for the attack had been arranged : six cannon-shots, fired at intervals of two seconds. The moment arrived. "Strong and steady the order rang out: ' Number one, fire 1 Number two, fire 1 Number three, fire ! ' It seemed to me like the tolling of the clock of destiny. And when at ' Number six, fire ! ' the roar throbbed out with the flash, you should have seen the dead line, that had been lying behind the works all day, come to resurrection in the twinkling of an eye, and leap like a blade from its scabbard." B. F. Taylor. 1863.] THE CIVIL WAR. 249 the base, and then swept on up the ascent. Grant caught the inspiration, and ordered a grand charge along the whole front. Up they went, over rocks and chasms, all lines broken, the flags far ahead, each surrounded by a group of the bravest. Without firing a shot, and heedless of the BATTLE OF MISSIONARY RIDGE. tempest hurled upon them, they surmounted the crest, captured the guns, and turned them on the retreating foe. That night, the Union camp-fires, glistening along the heights about Chattanooga, proclaimed the success of this the most brilliant of Grant's achievements, and the most picturesque of the battles of the war. The Effects of this campaign were the rout of Bragg's army, the resignation of that general, and the possession of Chattanooga by the Union forces. This post gave con- trol of East Tennessee, and opened the way to the heart of the Confederacy. It became the door-way by which 250 EPOCH V. [1863. the Union army gained easy access to Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. THE "WAR IN EAST TENNESSEE. While Rosecrans was moving on Chattanooga, Burnside, being relieved of the command of the Army of the Potomac, was sent into East Tennessee, where he met with great suc- cess. In the meantime, the Confederate President, Davis, visited Bragg, and, thinking Chattanooga was sure to be captured, sent Longstreet with his corps to the defense of Tennessee. His men were in a deplorable state hungry, ragged, and tentless ; but, under this indefatigable leader, they shut up Burnside's force in the works at Knoxville. Meanwhile, Grant, in the moment of his splendid triumph ;it Chattanooga, ordered Sherman's torn, bleeding, barefoot troops over terrible roads one hundred miles to Burnside's relief. Longstreet, in order to anticipate the arrival of these re-inforcements made a desperate assault upon Burn- side (November 2 9), but it was as heroically repulsed. As Sherman's advance-guard reached Knoxville (December 4), Longstreet's troops filed out of their works in retreat. THE WAR IN THE EAST. Battle of Chancellorsville (May 2, 3). Burnside, after the defeat at Fredericksburg, was succeeded by General Hooker (January 26). The departure of Longstreet from his force, leaving Lee only sixty thousand to oppose to the Potomac army of over one hundred thousand, offered a favorable opportunity for an attack. Accordingly, Sedg- wick was left to carry the intrenchmeiits at Fredericksburg, while the main body crossed the Rappahannock some miles above, and took position in the Wilderness, near Chancel- 1863.] THE CIVIL WAR. 251 lorsville (map 4, opp. p. 223). Lee, relying on the dense woods to conceal his movements, risked the perilous chance of dividing his army in the presence of a superior enemy. While he kept up a show of fight in front, Jackson, by a detour of fifteen miles, got to the rear with twenty thousand men, and, suddenly bursting out of the dense woods, routed the Union right. That night, Hooker took a new position ; but, by constant attacks through the next day, Lee gradually forced the Union line from the field of battle, and captured Chancellor House.* As he was preparing for a final grand charge, word was received that Sedgwick had crossed the Rap- pahannock, taken Fredericksburg, and had fallen on his rear. Drawing back, he turned against this new antagonist, and, by severe fighting that night and the following day, compelled him to recross the river. Lee then went to seek Hooker, but he was already gone. The Army of the Potomac was soon back on its old camping-ground opposite Fredericksburg. f Lee's Second Invasion of the North. Lee, encour- aged by his success, now determined to carry the war into the Northern States, and dictate terms of peace in Philadel- phia or New York.J With the finest army the South had * A pillar on the veranda of this house, against which. Hooker was leaning, being struck by a cannon-ball, that general was stunned, and for an hour, in the heat of the fight, the Union army was deprived of its commander. t In this battle, the South was called to mourn the death of Stonewall Jackson, whose magical name was worth to its cause more than an army. In the evening after his successful onslaught upon the flank of the Union line, while riding back to camp from a reconnaissance (re con'nais sance) at the front, he was fired upon by his own men, who mistook his escort for Federal cavalry. t The Union disasters which had happened since the beginning of the year en- couraged this hope. Galveston, Texas, had been retaken by General Magruder, whereby not only valuable stores had been acquired, but a sea-port had been opened, and the Union cause in that State depressed. Burnside had been checked in his vic- torious career in Tennessee (p. 250). The naval attack on Charleston had proved a failure (p. 254). An attempt to capture Port McAlister had met with no success. Rosecrans had made no progress against Bragg. Banks had not then taken Port Hudson. Vicksburg still kept Grant at bay. The Army of the Potomac had been checked at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, and at one time two hundred sol- 252 EPOCH V. [1863. ever sent forth, the flower of her troops, carefully equipped and confident of success, he rapidly moved down the Shenan- doah, crosse"d the Potomac, and advanced to Chambersburg. The Union army followed along the east side of the Blue Ridge and South Mountains. Lee, fearing that Meade, who now commanded the Federals, would strike through some of the passes and cut off his communications with Richmond, turned east to threaten Baltimore, and thus draw off Meade for its defense. Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-8). FIRST DAY. The Confederate ad- vance unexpectedly met the Union cavalry just westward from Gettys- burg, on the Chambersburg road.* Re-inforcements came up on both sides ; but the Federal troops were finally forced back, and, becoming entangled in the streets of the vil- lage, lost many prisoners. All that night, the troops kept arriving and taking their positions by moonlight, to be ready for the contest which they saw was now close at hand.f diers per day were deserting its ranks. The term of service of over forty regiments had expired, and the total Union strength was now only eighty thousand. The cost of the war was enormous, and a strong peace party had arisen at the North. The draft was very unpopular. Indeed, during Lee's invasion, a riot broke out in New York to resist it ; hoiises were burned, negroes were pursued in the streets, and, when captured, were beaten, and even hanged ; for three days the city was a scene of outrage and violence. * " Neither general had planned to have the fight at this place ; Lee had intended not to fight at all, except a defensive battle, and Meade proposed to make the contest at Pipe Creek, about fifteen miles south-east from Gettysburg. The movement of cavalry which brought on this great battle, was only a screen to conceal the Union army marching toward Meade's desired battle-field." Draper. t The Union line was upon a fish-hook-shaped ridge about six miles long, with Gulp's Hill at the barb, Cemetery Ridge along the side, and Little Round Top and Round Top, two eminences, at the eye. The Confederate line was on F>eminary Ridge, at a distance of about a mile and a half. The Union troops lay be? and rock VICINITY OF GETTYSBURG. 1863.] THE CIVIL WAR. 253 Second Day. In the afternoon, Longstreet led the first grand charge against the Union left, in order to secure Little Round Top. General Sickles, by mistake, had here taken a position in front of Meade's intended line of battle. The Con- federates, far out-flanking, swung around him ; but, as they reached the top of the hill, they met a brigade which Warren had sent just in time to defeat this attempt. Sickles was, however, driven back to Cemetery Ridge, where he stood fi rm. Ewell, in an attack on the Federal right, succeeded in getting a position on Gulp's Hill.* ''Third Day. At one o'clock p. M., Lee suddenly opened on Cemetery Ridge with one hundred and fifty guns. For two hours, the air was alive with shells, f Then the cannonade lulled, and out of the woods swept the Confederate double battle-line, over a mile long, and preceded by a cloud of skirmishers. A thrill of admiration ran along the Union ranks, as, silently and with disciplined steadiness, that mag- nincent column of eighteen thousand men moved up the slope of Cemetery Ridge. A hundred guns tore great gaps in their front. Infantry volleys smote their ranks. The line was broken, yet they pushed forward. They planted their battle-flags on the breastworks. They bayoneted the cannoneers at their guns. They fought, hand to hand, so close that the exploding powder scorched their clothes. Upon this struggling mass, the Federals converged from every side. No human endurance could stand the storm. Out ledges and stone walls, "while the Confederates were largely hidden in the woods. In the valley between, were fields of grain and pastures where cattle were feeding all unconscious of the gathering storm. * Lee, encouraged by these successes, resolved to continue the fight. The Confed- erate victories, however, were only apparent. Sickles had been forced into a better position than at first, and the one which Meade had intended he should occupy ; while Ewell was driven out of the Union works early the next morning. t It is customary in battle to demoralize the enemy before a grand infantry charge, by concentrating upon the desired point a tremendous artillery fire. 254 EPOCH V. [1868. of that terrible fire, whole companies rushed as prisoners into the Union lines, while the rest fled panic-stricken from the field.* The Federal loss in the three-days fight was twenty-three thousand ; the Confederate was not officially reported, but probably much exceeded that number. Meade slowly fol- lowed Lee, who recrossed the Potomac, and took position back of the Rapidan. The Effect of this battle was to put an end to the idea of a Northern invasion. Lee's veterans who went down in the awful charges of Gettysburg could never be replaced. THE WAR ON THE SEA AND THE COAST. Attack on Charleston (April 7). Such was the confidence felt in the ability of the iron-clads to resist cannon-balls, that Admiral Dupont determined to run the fortifications at the entrance to Charleston, and force his way up to the city. The attempt was a disastrous failure, f Q-eneral Gill- more then took charge of the Union troops, and, landing on Morris Island, \ by regular siege approaches and a terrible bombardment, captured Fort "Wagner and reduced Fort * At the very moment when the last charge was being repulsed, Pemberton was negotiating for the surrender of Vicksburg to Grant. This was the turning point of the war. From that time, the Confederacy began to wane. t The Keokuk was sunk, and nearly all the vessels were seriously injured. The officers declared that the strokes of the shots against the iron sides of their ships were as rapid as the ticks of a watch. $ In a marsh west of Morris Island, piles were driven in the mud twenty feet deep, and a platform made on which was placed an eight-inch rifled Parrot gun, nicknamed the " Swamp Angel ". It threw shells five miles into Charleston, but burst on the thirty-sixth round. The bombardment of the city was afterward continued from the other batteries. Two unsuccessful charges were made on this fort. In one, the 54th regiment, Colonel Shaw, boro a prominent part. It was the first colored regiment organized in the free States. In order to be in season for the assault, it had marched two days through heavy sands and drenching storms. After only five minutes rest, it took its place at the front of the attacking column. The men fought with unflinching gal- lantry, and planted their flag on the works ; but their Colonel, and so many of the offl- 1863.] THE CIVIL WAR. 255 Sumter to a shapeless mass of rubbish. A short time after, a party of sailors from the Union fleet essayed to capture it by night, but its garrison, upstarting from the ruins, drove them back with heavy loss. General Review of the Third Year of the War. The Confederates had gained the great battles of Chickamauga and Chancellorsville, seized G-alveston, and successfully resisted every attack on Charleston. The Federals had gained the important battles before Vicksburg, and those at Chattanooga and at Gettysburg. They had captured the garrisons of Vicksburg and Port Hudson. The Mississippi was patrolled by gun-boats, and the Confederate army was entirely cut off from its western sup- plies. Arkansas, East Tennessee, and large portions of Lou- isiana, Mississippi, and Texas had been won for the Union. 1864. The Situation. In March, General Grant was made Lieutenant-General in command of all the forces of the United States. Heretofore, the different armies had acted independently. They were now to move in concert, and thus prevent the Confederate forces from aiding each other. The strength of the South lay in the armies of Lee in Virginia, and Joseph E. Johnston in Georgia. Grant was to attack the former, Sherman the latter, and both were to keep at work, regardless of season or weather. While the Army cers were shot, that what was left of the regiment was led off by a, boy !Lt. Higgin- son. No measure of the war was more bitterly opposed than thp project of arming the slaves. It was denounced at the North, and the Confederate Congress passed a law which threatened with death any white officer capijured while in command of negro troops, leaving the men to be dealt with according to the laws of the State in which they were taken. Yet, so willing were the negroes to enlist, and so faithful did they prove themselves in service, that, in December, 1863, over fifty thousand bad been enrolled, and before the close of the war that number was quadrupled. 256 EPOCH V. [1864. of the Potomac was crossing the Rapidan (May 4), Grant, seated on a log by the road-side, penciled a telegram to Sherman to* start. GRANT WRITING THE TELEGRAM TO SHERMAN. THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA. Advance upon Atlanta. Sherman, with one hundred thousand men, now moved upon Johnston, who, with nearly fifty thousand, was stationed at Dalton, Ga. (map opp. p. 222). The Confederate commander, foreseeing this advance, had selected a series of almost impregnable positions, one behind the other, all the way to Atlanta. For one hundred miles, there was continued skirmishing among mountains and woods, which presented every opportunity for such a war- fare. Both armies were led by profound strategists. Sher- man would drive Johnston into a stronghold, and then with consummate skill outflank him, when Johnston with equal 1864.J THE CIVIL \VAK. 257 skill would retreat to a new post and prepare to meet his opponent again.* At DALTON, RESACA, DALLAS, and LOST and KENESAW MOUNTAINS, bloody battles were fought. Finally, Johnston retired to the intrenchinents of Atlanta (July 1 0). Capture of Atlanta. Davis, dissatisfied with this Fabian policy, now put Hood in command. He attacked the Union army three times with tremendous energy, but was repulsed with great slaughter. Sherman, thereupon re-enacting his favorite flank movement, filled his wagons with fifteen-days rations, dexterously shifted his whole army on Hood's line of supplies, and compelled the evacuation of the city.f The Effect. This campaign, during four months of fight- ing and marching, day and night, in its ten pitched battles and scores of lesser engagements, cost the Union army thirty thousand men, and the Confederate, thirty-five thousand. Georgia was the workshop, store-house, granary, and arsenal of the Confederacy. At Atlanta, Rome, and the neighbor- ing towns, were manufactories, foundries, and mills, where, * When either party stopped for a day or two, it fortified its front with an abattis of felled trees and a ditch with a head- log placed on the emhankment. The head-log was a tree twelve or fifteen inches in diameter resting on small cross-sticks, thus leaving a space of four or five inches between the log and the dirt, through which the guns could be pointed. t During this campaign, Sherman's supplies were brought up by a single line of railroad from Nashville, a dis- tance of three hundred miles, and ex- posed throughout to the attacks of the enemy. Yet so carefully was it gar- risoned and so rapidly were bridges built and breaks repaired, that the damages were often mended before the news of the accident reached camp. Sherman said that the whistle of the locomotive was quite frequently heard on the camp-ground before the echoes of the skirmish -fire had died away. OUABUING A TRAIN. 26S EPOCH V. [1864. clothing, wagons, harnesses, powder, balls, and cannon were furnished to all its armies. The South was hence- forth cut off from these supplies. r~Hood's Invasion of Tennessee. Sherman now longed to sweep through the Atlantic States. But this was impossi- ble so long as Hood, with an army of forty thousand, was in front, while the cavalry under Forrest was raiding along his railroad communications toward Chattanooga and Nashville. With unconcealed joy, therefore, Sherman learned that Hood was to invade Tennessee.* Believed of this anxiety, he pre- pared his army for its celebrated " March to the Sea ". Battle of Nashville (December 15, 16). Hood crossed the Tennessee, and, after a desperate struggle with Scho- fleld's army, at FBAJSTKLIJST, shut up General Thomas within the fortifications at Nashville. For two weeks little was done.f When Thomas was fully ready, he suddenly sallied out on Hood, and in a terrible two-days battle drove the Confeder- ate forces out of their intrenchments into headlong flight. The Union cavalry thundered upon their heels with remorse- less energy. The infantry followed closely behind. The entire Confederate army, except the rear-guard, which fought bravely to the last, was dissolved into a rabble of de- moralized fugitives, who escaped across the Tennessee. The Effect. For the first time in the war, an army was de- stroyed. The object which Sherman hoped to attain when he moved on Atlanta, was accomplished by Thomas, three hundred miles away. Sherman could now go where he pleased * Hood's expectation was that Sherman would follow Mm into Tennessee, and thus Georgia be saved from invasion. Sherman had no such idea. " If Hood will go there ", said he, " I will give him rations to go with." Now was presented the singu- lar spectacle of these two armies, which had so lately been engaged in deadly com- bat, inarching from each other as fast as they could go. t Great disappointment was felt at the North over the retreat to Nashville, and still more at Thomas' delay in that city. Grant ordered him to move, and had actu- ally started to take charge of his troops in person, when he learned of the splendid 1864. j THE CIVIL WAK. 269 with little danger of meeting a foe. The war at the West, so far as any great movements were concerned, was finished. Sherman's March to the Sea. Breaking loose from his communications with Nashville, and burning the city of At- lanta, Sherman started (Nov. 16), with sixty thousand men, for the Atlantic coast (map opp. p. 222). The army moved in four columns, with a cloud of cavalry under Kilpatrick,* and skirmishers in front to disguise its route, f The wings destroyed the Georgia Central and Augusta railroads, and the troops foraged on the country as they passed. In five weeks, they had marched three hundred miles, reached the sea,J stormed Fort McAlister, and captured Savannah. , The Effect of this march can hardly be over-estimated. A fertile region, sixty miles wide and three hundred long, was desolated ; three hundred miles of railroad were destroyed ; the eastern portion of the already-sundered Confederacy was cut in twain ; immense supplies of provisions were captured, and the hardships of war brought home to those who had hitherto been exempt from its actual contact. victory his slow but sure general had achieved. The rock of Chickamauga had be- come the sledge of Nashville. * The ubiquity of the cavalry movements of the war is remarkable. In February preceding, Kilpatrick, who now opened up the way for Sherman's march through Georgia, made a dash with the cavalry of the Army of the Potomac to rescue the Union prisoners at Richmond. He got within the defenses of the city, but not fully appreciating his success, withdrew, while Colonel Ulric Dahlgren, who headed a co-operating force, through the ignorance or treachery of his guide, lost his route, was surrounded by the enemy, and fell in an attempt to cut his way out. Great damage was done to railroads and canals near Richmond. t A feint which Sherman made toward Augusta led to a concentration at that city of the cavalry and militia called out to dispute his progress. The real direc- tion of his march was not discovered until he had entered the peninsula between the Savannah and Ogeechee rivers. t The first news received at the North from Sherman was brought by three .scouts, who left the Union army just as it was closing in on Savannah. They hid in the rice swamps by day, and paddled down the river by night. Creeping past Fort McAlister undiscovered, they were picked up by the Federal gun-boats. Sherman sent the news of its capture, with 25,000 bales of cotton and 160 cannon, to President Lincoln, as a Christmas present to the nation. 260 EPOCH V. J.1864. THE WAR IN VIRGINIA. . Battle of the Wilderness (May 5, 6). After crossing the Rapidan, the Union army plunged into the Wilderness. While the columns were toiling along the narrow roads, they were suddenly attacked by the Confederate army.* The dense forest forbade all strategy. There was none of the pomp or glory of war, only its horrible butchery. The ranks simply dashed into the woods. Soon came the patter of shots, the heavy rattle of musketry, and then there streamed back the wreck of the battle bleeding, mangled forms, borne on stretchers. In those gloomy shades, dense with smoke, this strangest of battles, which no eye could follow, marked only by the shouts and volleys, now advancing, now receding, as either side gained or lost, surged to and fro. The third day, both armies, worn out by this desperate struggle, re- mained in their intrenchments. Neither side had con- quered. It was generally supposed that the Federals would retire back of the Rapidan. Grant thought differently. He quietly gathered up his army and pushed it by the Con- federate right flank toward Spottsylvania Court House. Battle of Spottsylvania (May 8-12). Lee detected the movement, and hurried a division to head off the Union ad- vance. When Grant reached the spot, he found the Confed- erate army planted directly across the road, barring his prog- ress. Five days of continuous maneuvering f and fighting J * This was near the old battle-ground of Chancellorsville, and just a year and two days after that fierce fight. t During this time, the sharp-shooters on both sides, hidden in the trees, were busy picking off officers. On the 9th, General Sedgwick was superintending the placing of a battery in the front. Seeing a man dodging a ball, he rebuked him, saying, "Pooh I they can't hit an elephant at this distance." At that moment, he* was himself struck, and fell dead. t On the morning of the 12th, Hancock's corps, hidden by a dense fog, charged upon the Confederate line, broke the ubattis, surrounded a division, and took nearly 1864.] THE CIVIL WAR. 261 having given no advantage, Grant concluded to try the favor- ite movement of the year, and turn Lee's right flank again.* Battle of Cold Harbor (June 3). Lee, however, moving on the inner and shorter line, reached the NORTH ANNA first. Here some severe fighting oc- curred, when, Grant moving to flank again, Lee slipped into the intrenchments of Cold Har- bor. At daybreak an assault was made. The Union troops, here sinking in the swamp, there entangled in the brush- wood, and torn by a pitiless fire, struggled on only to be beaten back with terrible slaughter.! Lee's army, sheltered behind its works, suffered little. J GRANT'S CAMPAIGN ABOUND RICHMOND. four thousand prisoners, including two gen- erals. So complete was the surprise, that the officers were captured at breakfast. !Lee, however, rallied, and the fighting was so fierce to regain this lost position, that a " tree eighteen inches in diameter was cut in two by the bullets which struck it. Ten thousand men fell on each side. Men in. hundreds, killed and wounded together, were piled in hideous heaps, some bodies, which had lain for hours under the con- centric fire of the battle, being perforated with wounds. The writhing of the wounded beneath the dead moved these masses at times ; while often a Lifted arm or quivering limb told of an agony not quenched by the Lethe of death around." * It was during this fearful battle that Grant sent his famous dispatch, " I pro- pose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer ". t Lossing asserts that " in twenty minutes, 10,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded ", but Badeau admits only 7,000 in all, and claims that Cold Harbor was but a part " of the unceasing play of the terrible hammer by which Grant was crusiiing the Confederate army". $ Grant had arranged for three co-operative movements to divide the strength of the Confederate army : 1. General Sigel, with ten thousand men, was to advance up the Shenandoah Valley and threaten the railroad communication with Richmond. He was, however, totally routed at New Market (May 15). General Hunter, who super EPOCH V. [1864. Attack on Petersburg. Grant now rapidly pushed his army over the James, and fell upon Petersburg ; but here again Lee was ahead, and the works could not be forced. Grant was therefore compelled to throw up intrenchments and sit down in front of the Confederate lines. The cam- paign now resolved itself into a siege of Richmond, with Petersburg as its advanced post. The Effect. The campaign had cost the Union army forty thousand men, and the Confederates thirty thou- sand.* The weakened capabilities of the South were now fairly pitted against the almost exhaustless resources of the North. Grant's plan was to keep constantly hammering Lee's army, conscious that it was the last hope of the Con- federacy. The idea of thus annihilating an army was terri- ble; yet it seemed the only way of closing the awful struggle. The Siege of Richmond continued until the spring cam- paign of 1865. It was marked by two important events : 1. Mine Explosion (July 30). From a hidden ravine in front of Petersburg, a mine had been dug underneath a strong Confederate fort. Just at dawn, the blast of eight thousand pounds of powder was fired. Several cannon, the seded him, defeated the Confederates at Piedmont (June 5), but pushing on to Lynch- burg with about twenty thousand men, he found it too strong, and prudently retired into West Virginia. 2. On the night that the Army of the Potomac crossed the Rapi- dan, General Butler, with thirty thousand men, ascended the James River, under the protection of gun-boats, and landed at Bermuda Hundred. After some trifling suc- cesses, he was surprised in a dense fog by Beauregard, and driven back into his defenses with considerable loss. Beauregard then threw intrenchments across the narrow strip which connects Bermuda Hundred with the main land, and, as Grant tersely said, " hermetically sealed tip " the Union force from any further advance. 3. General Sheridan, while the army was at Spottsylvania, passed in the rear of the Confederate position, destroyed miles of railroad, recaptured four hundred prisoners en route, and defeated a cavalry force with the loss of their leader, General J. E. B. Stuart, the best cavalry officer in the South. * The above statement of the enormous losses of this campaign is based upon the most recent data. Careful authorities, however, have placed the Union loss as high as over seventy thousand, while certain Southern writers put the Confederate as low as nineteen thousand. It is impossible to reconcile the different accounts. 1864.] THE 'CIVIL WAR. 263 garrison of three hundred men, and huge masses of earth were thrown high in air. The Federal guns opened fire at once along the entire line. An assaulting column rushed forward, but stopped in the crater produced by the explosion. The Confederates, rallying from their confusion, concen- trated from every side, and poured shot and shell upon the struggling mass of men huddled within the demolished fort. To retreat was only less dangerous than to stay, yet many of the soldiers jumped out of this slaughter-pen and ran head- long back to the Union lines. The Federals lost about four thousand men in this ill-starred affair. 2. Attack upon the Weldon Railroad (August 18). By threatening Richmond upon the north, Grant induced Lee to move troops to that city from Petersburg. The oppor- tunity was at once seized, and the Weldon Railroad capt- ured. Lee, aware of the great importance of this means of communication with the South, for several days made desperate attempts for its recovery. They were, however, unsuccessful, and the Union lines were permanently ad- vanced to this point. Early's Raid. Hunter's retreat (p. 262) having laid open the Shenandoah Valley, Lee took advantage of it to threaten Washington, hoping thus to draw off Grant from the siege of Richmond. General Early, with twenty thousand men, accordingly hurried along this oft-traveled route. Defeating General Wallace at MONOCACY RIVER, he appeared before FORT STEVENS, one of the defenses of Washington (July 11). Had he rushed by forced marches, he might have captured the city ; but he stopped a day. Re-inf orcements having now arrived, he was compelled to retreat. Laden with booty, he rapidly recrossed the Potomac ; but, not being pursued, he returned, and sent a party of cavalry into Pennsylvania. They entered Chambersburg, and, on failing to obtain a ran- 264 EPOCH V. [1864. worn of $500,000, set fire to the village, and escaped safely back into the Shenandoah. Sheridan's Campaign. Sheridan was now put in com- mand of all the troops in this region. He defeated Early at TURN, BOYS, TURN; WE'RE GOING BACK." WINCHESTER and FISHER'S HILL, and in a week destroyed half his army, and sent the rest " whirling up the valley of the Shenandoah ".* Early was quickly reinforced, and, return- ing during Sheridan's absence, surprised his army at CEDAR CREEK (October 19), and drove it in confusion. Sheridan arrived at this critical moment,! reformed his ranks, ordered an advance, and, attacking the Confederates, now busy * In order to prevent any further raids upon Washington from this direction, Sheridan devastated the valley so thoroughly that it was said that " if a crow wants to fly down the Shenandoah, he must carry his provisions with him ". t Early 's attack was made under cover of a dense fog and the darkness of the early morning. General Wright, the Union commander, though wounded, remained on the field and managed to get his troops into a new position, about seven miles in the rear. Sheridan heard the cannonading, while riding from Winchester, nearly twenty miles from Cedar Creek. Knowing the importance of his presence, he put spurs to his coal-black sfceed, and never drew rein for almost twelve miles, when, his horse covered with foam, he dashed to the new front. As he passed the fugitives 1864.] THE CIVIL WAR. 265 plundering the captured camp, routed them with great slaughter. The Effect. This campaign of only a month was one of the most brilliant of the war. Sheridan lost seventeen thousand men, but he virtually destroyed Early's army. This was the last attempt to threaten Washington. >>( Red River Expedition.* A joint naval and land expe- dition, under the command of General Banks, was sent up the Red River in the hope of destroying the Confederate authority in that region and in Texas (map opp. p. 222). Fort de Russy was taken (March 14), whence Banks moved,- on toward Shreveport. The line of march became extended a distance of nearly thirty miles along a single road. At SABINE CROSS ROADS (April 8), the Confederate forces, under General Dick Taylor, attacked the advance, and a minia- ture Bull Run retreat ensued. The Union troops, however, rallied at PLEASANT HILL, and the next day, re-inf orcements coming up from the rear, they were able to repulse the Confederates. The army thereupon returned to New Or- leans,! an( i Banks was relieved of the command. along the road, he shouted, " Turn, boys, turn ; we're going back." Under the mag netism of his presence, the men followed him back to the fight and victory. * Troops having been sent from Vicksburg to join the Red River expedition, West Tennessee and Kentucky were left exposed to attack from the Confederates. For- rest, with five thousand men, captured Union City, Tenn., with its garrison of about five hundred troops, occupied Hickman, and advanced rapidly upon Paducah, Ky. This, protected by the gun-boats, maintained so stout a defense, that Forrest retired. Moving south, he next fell upon Fort Pillow (April 12). His men crept along under shelter of a ravine until very near, and then charged upon the intrenchments. Rushing into the fort, they raised the cry "No quarter!" "The Confederate offi- cers ", says Pollard, " lost control of their men, who were maddened by the sight of negro troops opposing them ", and an indiscriminate slaughter followed. t Porter, who commanded the gun-boats in the Red River, hearing of Banks' retreat, attempted to return with his fleet ; but the river fell so rapidly that this be- came impossible. It was feared that it would be necessary to blow up the vessels to prevent their falling into the enemy's hands, when, by the happy suggestion of Colo- nel Bailey, formerly a Wisconsin lumber-man, they were saved. He constructed a series of wing-dams below the rapids, and, when the water rose, the boats were safely floated over. This skillful expedient was almost the only relieving feature of the 266 EPOCH V. [1864. The Effect. This campaign was a great Confederate tri- umph.* Banks lost five thousand men, eighteen guns, and large supplies. THE WAR ON THE SEA AND THE COAST. The Expedition against Mobile (August 5) was under the command of Admiral Farragut. That he might over- see the battle more distinctly, he took his position in the rigging of his flag-ship the Hartford. The vessels, lashed together in pairs for mutual assistance, in an hour fought their way past the Confederate forts, and engaged the iron-clad fleet beyond. After a desperate resistance, the great iron-ram Tennessee was taken, and the other ves- sels were captured or put to flight. The forts were soon after reduced, and the harbor was thenceforth closed to blockade runners, f The Expedition against Fort Fisher, which defended the harbor of Wilmington, N. C., was commanded by Commo- dore Porter. It consisted of seventy vessels and a land force under General Butler. After a fierce bombardment (Decem- ber 24, 25), Butler decided that the fort could not be taken by assault, and the army returned to Fort Monroe. Commo- campaign, which was believed by some to have been undertaken simply as a gigan- tic cotton speculation in behalf of certain parties, who seemed to be more intent on gathering that staple than on conserving the interests of the Union cause. The fail- ure was, therefore, at the North a source of great mortification and reproach. * General Steele, who commanded in Arkansas, had moved from Little Rock to co-operate in this advance ; but, on nearing Shreveport, learned of Banks' retreat. He immediately turned around, and, with great difficulty and severe fighting, man- aged to escape back to little Rock. This disaster enabled the Confederates to re- cover half of the State. t The city of Mobile was not captured -until the next year, when Generals Gran- ger's, Steele's, and A. J. Smith's commands were collected for this purpose by Gen. Canby. The forts were gallantly defended by General Maury, but were taken within less than two weeks. The city itself was evacuated April 11. The next day, the Union troops entered, ignorant that Lee had surrendered three days before, and that the Confederacy was dead. 1864.] THE CIVIL WAR. 267 dore Porter, dissatisfied with the result, lay off the place, and asked for a second trial. The same troops, with fifteen hun- dred additional men, were sent back under General Terry. Protected by a terrible fire from the fleet, a column of sailors and one of soldiers worked their way, by a series of trenches, within two hundred yards of the fort. At the word, the former leaped forward on one side and the latter on another. The sailors were repulsed, but the soldiers burst into the fort. The hand-to-hand fight within lasted for hours. Late at night, the garrison, hemmed in on all sides, surrendered (January 15, 1865). One knows not which to admire the more, the gallantry of the attack or the heroism of the defense. In such a victory is glory, and in such a defeat, no disgrace. The Blockade was now so effectual that the prices of all imported goods in the Confederate States were fabulous.* Led by the enormous profits of a successful voj^age, foreign mer- chants were constantly seeking to run the gauntlet. Their swift steamers, long, narrow, low, of a mud color, and making no smoke, occasionally escaped the vigilance of the Federal squadron. During the war, it is said, over fifteen hundred blockade runners were taken or destroyed. With the capture of Fort Fisher, the last Confederate port of entry was sealed. * Flour brought, in Confederate currency, $40 per barrel ; calico, $30 per yard ; coffee, 850 per pound ; French gloves, $150 per pair ; and black pepper, $300 per pound. Dried sago, raspberry, and other leaves were substituted for the costly tea. Woolen clothing was scarce, and the army depended largely on captures of the ample Federal stores. Pins were so rare that they were picked up with avidity in the streets. Paper was so expensive that matches could no longer be put in boxes. Sugar, butter, and white bread became luxuries even for the wealthy. Salt being a necessity, was econ- omized to the last degree, old pork and fish barrels being soaked and tho water evapo- rated so that not a grain of salt might be wasted. Women wore garments that were made of cloth carded, woven, spun, and dyed by their own hands. Large thorns were fitted with wax heads and made to serve as hair-pins. Shoes were manufactured with wooden soles, to which the uppers were attached by means of small tacks. As a substitute for the expensive gas, the " Confederate candle " was used. This con- sisted of a long wick coated with wax and resin, and wound on a little wooden frame, at the top of which was nailed a bit of tin. The end of the wick being passed through ft hole in the tin, was lighted and uncoiled as needed. 268 EPOCH V. [1864. Confederate Cruisers had now practically driven the American commerce from the ocean. They were not priva- teers, like those named on p. 222, for they were built in En- gland and manned by British sailors, and were only officered and commissioned by the Confederate govern- ment. They sailed to and fro upon the track of American ships, recklessly plundering and burning, or else bonding them for SINKIXQ TI1E ALABAMA. heavy sums. The Alabama was the most noted of these British steam- ers. Against the urgent remonstrances of the United States Minister at the Court of England, she was allowed to sail, although her mission was well known. An English captain took her to the Azores, where other English ves- sels brought her arms, ammunition, and the Confederate Captain Semmes with additional men. Putting out to sea, he read his commission and announced his purpose. After capturing over sixty vessels, he sailed to Cherbourg, France. While there, he sent out a challenge to the national ship-of-war KEABSARGE (keer' sarj). This was accepted, and a battle took place off that harbor. Captain Winslow, of the Kearsarge, so maneuvered that the Alabama was com- pelled to move round in a circular track, while he trained his guns upon her with fearful effect. On the seventh rota- tion, the Confederate vessel ran up the white flag and soon after sunk. Captain Winslow rescued a part of the sinking crew, and others were picked up, at his request, by the Deer-hound, an English yacht ; but this vessel steamed off to the British coast with those she had saved, among whom was Captain Semmes. 1864.] THE CIVIL WAR. 269 The Sanitary and Christian Commissions were " splen- did examples of organized mercy ", furnished by the people of the North. They devised and provided every possible comfort for the sick and wounded, besides distributing religious reading to every soldier in the field. Ambulances, stretchers, hot coffee, postage-stamps, paper and envelopes, prayer-meetings, medicines, Christian burial, no want of body or soul was overlooked. " Homes " and " Lodges " for men on sick-leave, and for those not yet under or just out of the care of the government, or who had been left by their regiments ; " Feeding Stations " for the tired and hungry ; and even " Homes for the Wives, Mothers, and Children of Soldiers " who had come to visit their sick or wounded were established. On every flag-of-truce boat, were placed cloth- ing, medicines, and cordials for the prisoners who had been exchanged. "With boundless mercy, they cared for all while living, and gave Christian burial and marked graves to the dead. Over seventeen millions of dollars in money and supplies were expended by these two Commissions. Political Affairs. At the North, there was much dissat- isfaction with the conduct of the war. The debt had become about $2,000,000,000. In July of this year, paper money reached its greatest depreciation, and it required two dollars and ninety cents in greenbacks to buy one dollar in gold. It was at the time of Grant's repulse from Cold Harbor and of Early's raid. Yet, in the midst of these discour- agements, Abraham Lincoln was renominated by the republican party. George B. McClellan was the demo- cratic candidate; he stood firmly for the prosecution of the war, and the maintenance of the Union, but was not in full sympathy with the policy of the administration. He carried only three States. Lincoln had a popular ma- jority of over four hundred thousand. 270 EPOCH V. [1864 General Review of the Fourth Year of the War. The Confederates had gained the battles of Olustee,* Sabine Cross Roads, Bermuda Hundred, Spottsylvania, New Market, Cold Harbor, and Monocacy River ; they had defeated the expeditions into Florida and the Red River country, the two attacks upon Petersburg, and one against Fort Fisher, and yet held Grant at bay before Richmond. They had, however, lost ground on every side. Of the States east of the Mississippi, only North and South Carolina were fully retained. Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, Virginia, Geor- gia, and Florida were overrun by the Union armies. The Federals had gained the battles of Pleasant Hill, Resaca, Dallas, Kenesaw, Atlanta, Winchester, Fisher's Hill, Cedar Creek, and Nashville. They had captured Fort de Russy, the forts in Mobile harbor, and Fort McAlister, and had taken Atlanta and Savannah. Sherman had swept across Georgia ; Sheridan had devastated the Shenandoah, driving its defenders before him ; Thomas had annihilated Hood's army ; Grant held Lee firmly grasped at Richmond, and the navy swept the entire coast. 1865. The Situation. The plan of the campaign was very sim- ple. The end of the war was clearly at hand. Sherman was to move north from Savannah against Johnston, and then join Grant in the final attack upon Lee. Sheridan, with ten thousand troopers, had swept down from the Shenandoah, cut the railroads north of Richmond, and taken his place * This battle ended an expedition fitted out by General Gillmore, at Hilton Head, S. C., to recover Florida. After some success, his troops, under General Seymour, advanced to Olustee, where (February 20) they met a disastrous defeat and were forced to relinquish much they had gained. The men were afterward taken to Vir- ginia to engage in more important work. 1865.] THE CIVIL WAR. 271 in the Union lines before Petersburg. Wilson, with thirteen thousand horsemen, rode at large through Alabama and Georgia, and at Macon held a line of retreat from Virginia westward. Stoneman, with five thousand cavalry from Tennessee, poured through the passes of the Alleghanies and waited in North Carolina for the issue in Virginia. SHERMAN'S ARMY OTT ITS MARCH TO THE SEA. Sherman's March through the Carolinas. In the mean- time, Sherman had given his troops only a month's rest in Savannah. Early in February, they were put in motion northward. There was no waiting for roads to dry nor for bridges to be built, but the troops swept on like a tornado. Rivers were waded, and " one battle was fought while the water was up to the shoulders of the men ". The army, sixty thousand strong, moved in four columns, with a front of 272 EPOCH V. [1865. fifty miles. Cavalry and foragers swarmed on the flanks. Before them was terror ; behind them were ashes. Columbia was captured (Feb. 17). That night, nearly the entire city was burned to the ground. Charleston, threat- ened in the rear, was evacuated the next day. In this emer- gency, Johnston was recalled to the command of the Confed- erates. He gathered the scattered troops and vigorously opposed Sherman's advance. After fierce engagements at AVERYSBORO and BENTONTILLE, he was driven back. While Johnston was now guarding the route to Raleigh, Sherman pressed forward to Goldsboro, in order to join Schofield, who had made his way thither from Wilmington, and Terry, who had come up from New Bern. Soon, the three armies united, and 100,000 men upheld the flag of the Union along the banks of the JSTeuse.* Sherman then went to City Point, to arrange with Grant the plan of the final struggle. Siege of Richmond. Lee's position was fast becoming desperate. His only hope lay in getting out of Richmond and joining with Johnston. Their united armies might prolong the struggle. Grant was determined to prevent this, and compel Lee to surrender, as he had forced Pemberton to do. Attack on Fort Steadman (March 25). Lee decided to attack Grant's line, in order to hide his plan of retreat, and especially in the hope that Grant would send troops from the "V"^*" c left to succor the threatened point. In that case, he would slip out, with the main body of his army, by the nearest road southward, which ran close by the Union left. The assault was made on Fort Steadman, but it was a signal failure. Three thousand out of five thousand engaged in the attempt * The distance traversed by the army in going from Savannah to Goldsboro was about 425 miles. The country was generally wild and swampy. To make the mud roads passable, each columa " corduroyed " with rails and logs over a hundred miles, besides building bridges across the many streams and rivers. Yet in fifty days after breaking camp upon the Savannah, the troops bivouacked upon the Neuse. 1865.] THE CIVIL WAR. 273 were lost. To make matters worse, a Union assault followed directly afterward, and a portion of the Confederate outer defenses was captured. Thus Grant's grip was only tight- ened. He had made no change in the position of his troops, and this sortie neither hastened nor delayed the grand final attack. Battle of Five Forks (April 1). This movement began ednesday morning, March 29. Sheridan with his cavalry j nine thousand sabers, and heavy columns of infantry, pushed out from Grant's left wing, to get around in Lee's j"rear. Cloaking his plan by a thick screen of cavalry to con- > ceal the movements of his infantry, he threw a heavy force \^) behind the Confederate position at FIVE FORKS.* Assailed in front and rear, the garris'on was overwhelmed, and five thousand men were taken prisoners. The Effect of this brilliant affair was at once to render Lee's position untenable. His right was turned and his rear threatened. Capture of Petersburg and Richmond (April 2, 3). The next morning, at four o'clock, the Union army advanced in an overwhelming assault along the whole front. By noon, the Confederate line of intrenchments, before which the Army of the Potomac had lain so long, was broken, and thousands of prisoners were captured. That night, Petersburg and Richmond were evacuated. The next mcrning, the Union troops took possession of the Confederate capital,! the * Five Forks is situated twelve miles south-west from Petersburg. (See map oppo- site p. 223, and of VTth Epoch.) t Sunday, the day before, the Confederate President, Davis, was at church, when a note was handed him by a messenger. It was from Lee, informing him that the Con- federate army was about to leave Richmond. His pallid face and unsteady footsteps, as he passed out, betrayed the news. Pollard says : " Men, women, and children rushed from the churches, passing from lip to lip news of the impending fall of Rich- mond. . ... It was late in the afternoon when the signs of evacuation became apparent to the incredulous. Suddenly, as if by magic, the streets became filled with men, walking as though for a wager, and behind them excited negroes with trunks, EPOCH V. [1868. coveted goal of the Army of the Potomac for four long bloody years. Lee's Surrender. Meanwhile, Lee, having only the wreck of that proud array with which he had dealt the Union army so many crushing blows, hurried west, seeking some avenue of escape. Grant urged the pursuit with untiring energy. Sheridan, " with a terrible daring which knew no pause, no rest ", hung on his flanks. Food now failed the Confederates, and they could get only the young shoots of trees to eat. If they sought a moment's repose, they were awakened by the clatter of pursuing cavalry. Lee, like a hunted fox, turned hither and thither ; but, at last, Sheridan planted himself squarely across the front. Lee ordered a charge. His half-starved troops, with a rallying of their old courage, obeyed. But the cavalry moving aside, as a curtain is drawn, revealed dense bodies of infantry in battle line, The Civil War was about to end in one of its bloodiest trage- dies, when the Confederate advance was stopped. General Grant had already sent in a note demanding the surrender of the army. Lee accepted the terms ; * and, in the after- noon of April 9, the remains of the Army of Virginia laid bundles, and luggage of every description. All over the city, it was the same wagons, trunks, bandboxes, and their owners, a mass of hurrying fugitives filling the streets. Night came, and with it confusion worse confounded. There was no sleep for human eyes in Richmond that night. About the hour of midnight, hundreds of barrels of liquor were rolled intc the street, and the heads knocked in, by order of the City Council, to prevent a worse disorder. As the work progressed, some straggling sol- diers managed to get hold of a quantity of the liquor. Prom that moment, law and order ceased to exist." By order of General Ewell, the four principal tobacco ware- houses, in different parts of the city, were fired, and soon the flames became unman- ageable. " Morning broke upon a scene such as those who witnessed it can never forget. The roar of an immense conflagration sounded in their ears ; tongues of flame leaped from street to street ; and in this baleful glare were to be seen, as of demons, the figures of busy plunderers, moving, pushing, rioting through the black smoke, bearing away every conceivable sort of plunder." * The officers and men were allowed to go home on their paroles not to take up arms against the "United States until exchanged, and the former to retain their pri- vate baggage and horses. After the surrender had been concluded. General Lee said 1865.J THE CIVIL WAR. 275 down their arms near Appomattox Court House, and then turned homeward, no longer Confederate soldiers, but American citizens. The Effect. This closed the war. The other Confederate armies promptly surrendered.* Jefferson Davis fled south- ward, hoping to escape, but was overtaken near Irwinsville, Georgia (May 10), and sent a prisoner to Fort Monroe Cost of the War. In the Union armies, probably three hundred thousand men were killed in battle or died of wounds or disease, while doubtless two hundred thousand more were crippled for life. If the Confederate armies suffered as heavily, the country thus lost one million able- bodied men. The Union debt, when largest (Aug. 31, 1865), was $2,844,000,000. The Confederate war debts were never paid, as that government was overthrown. Assassination of Lincoln. In the midst of the uni- versal rejoicings over the advent of peace, on the evening of April 1 4 the intelligence was flashed over the country that Lincoln had been assassinated, f While seated with his wife and friends in his box at Ford's Theater, he was shot by John Wilkes Booth, J who insanely imagined he that he had forgotten to mention that many of his soldiers rode their own horses. Grant at once replied that such should keep their horses to aid them in their future work at home. The two armies so fiercely opposed for four years parted with no words but those of sympathy and respect an assured presage of a day when all the wounds of the cruel war should be fully healed. The Confederate accounts place the number who surrendered at 8,000. The Federal authorities, however, state that 28,350 officers and men were paroled at Appomattox C. H., and 22,633 small arms were given up. The total number paroled from all the Confederate armies was 174,223. * The last flght of the war happened near Brazos Santiago, Texas, May 13. A small expedition sent out to surprise a Confederate camp was overtaken, on its return, by a larger force and defeated with a loss of eighty men. t A nearly fatal attempt was also made at the same time upon William H. Seward, Secretary of State, who was lying sick in his bed at home. $ Booth stealthily entered the box, fastened the door, that he might not be followed, shot the President, then, waving his pistol, shouted, " Sic semper tyrannis " (so be it always to tyrants), and leaped to the stage in front. As he jumped, the American 276 EPOCH V. [1865. was ridding his country of a tyrant. The stricken President was carried to a private house near by, where, about his unconscious body, gathered the most prominent men of the nation, who mourned and watched, waiting in vain for some sign of recognition, until the next morning, when he DEATH OF UtNKKAL J. E. died. The funeral was held on the 19th. It was a day of mourning throughout the land. In most of the cities and towns, funeral orations were pronounced. The body was borne to Springfield over the same route along which Lin- coln had come as President elect to Washington. The flag draped before the box mute avenger of the nation's chief, caught his spur, and, throwing him heavily, broke his leg. The assassin, however, escaped in the confu- sion, mounted a horse waiting for him, and fled into Maryland. He was at length overtaken in a barn near Bowling Green, Va., where he stood at bay. The building was flred to drive him out, but, being determined to defend himself against arrest, he was shot by one of the soldiers. The accomplices of Booth were arrested, tried, and convicted. Harold, Payne, Atzerott, and Mrs. Surratt were hanged ; Arnold, Mudd, and O'Laughlin wore imprisoned for life ; and Spangler was sentenced for six years. 1865.] THE CIVIL WAR. 277 procession may be said to have extended the entire dis- tance. The churches, principal buildings, and even the engines and cars were draped in black. Almost every citi- zen wore the badge of mourning,/ - - States Added during this Epoch. West Virginia, the thirty-fifth State, was admitted to the Union, June 19, 1863. During the Civil War, this portion of Virginia re- maining loyal, it was organized as a separate State. Nevada, the thirty-sixth State, was admitted to the Union, October 31, 1864. Its name was derived from the range of mountains on the west, the Sierra Nevada, a Span- ish title, signifying " Snow-covered mountains ". It was the third State carved out of the territory acquired by the Mexican war, Texas being the first, and California the sec- ond. Its first settlement was at Carson City. It is one of the richest mineral States in the Union. CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY. PAGE 1861. Abraham Lincoln inaugurated, March 4 ........ 215 Port Sumter fired upon, April 12 .......... 216 Massachusetts troops fired upon in Baltimore, April 19 .... 217 Battle of Philippi, Va., June 3 .......... 218 Big Bethel, Va., June 10 .......... 218 Boonville, Mo., June 17 .......... 221 Carthage, Mo., July 5 ..... ...... 221 Rich Mountain, Va., July 11 ......... 218 Carrick's Ford, Va., July 14 ......... 218 Battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21 .......... 219 " Wilson's Creek, Mo., August 10 ........ 221 Forts at Hatteras Inlet, N. C., captured, August 29 ..... 222 Battle of Carnifex Ferry, Va., September 10 ....... 218 " Lexington, Mo., September 20 ........ 221 " Ball's Bluff, Va., October 21 ...... ... 220 Port Royal, S. C., taken, November 7 ......... 222 Battle of Belmont, Mo., November 7 ......... 221 Seizure of Mason and Slidell, November 8 ....... 223 Skirmish of Dranesville, Va., December 30 ....... 221 1862. Battle of Mill Spring, Ky., January 19 ........ 224 Fort Henry, Tenn., taken, February 6 ....,,,,, 224 278 EPOCH V. [1862. PAGE 1862. Roanoke Island, N. C., taken, February 8 232 Port Donelson, Tenn., taken, February 16 225 Battle of Pea Ridge, Ark., March 7, 8 230 " of the Monitor and the Merrimac, March 9 233 New Bern, N. C., taken, March 14 232 Battle of Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), Tenn., April 6, 7 225 Island No. 10 captured, April 7 227 Fort Pulaski, Ga., captured, April 11 233 New Orleans captured, April 25 230 Beaufort, N. C., captured, April 25 . 232 Yorktown, "Va., taken, May 4 235 Battle of "Williamsburg, Va., May 5 236 Norfolk, Va., surrendered, May 10 235 Corinth, Miss., taken, May 30 227 Battle of Fair Oaks or Seven Pines, Va., May 31, June 1 .... 238 Memphis, Tenn., surrendered, June 6 227 Seven-Days battles, June 2 5- July 1 239 Battle of Cedar Mountain, Va., August 9 240 Second Battle of Bull Run, Va., August 29, 30 241 Battle of Richmond, Ky., August 30 228 " Chantilly, Va., September 1 241 " South Mountain, Md., September 14 241 Harper's Ferry surrendered, September 15 241 Battle of Antietam, Md., September 17 241 " luka, Miss., September 19 228 " Corinth, Miss., October 4 228 " Perryville, Ky., October 8 228 " Fredericksburg, Va., December 13 242 First attack on Vicksburg, Miss., December 29 230 Battle of Murfreesboro, Tenn., December 31, and January 2, 1863 . . 229 1863. Emancipation Proclamation, January 1 242, 244 Arkansas Post taken, January 11 230 Fort Sumter, S. C., bombarded by fleet, April 7 . . '. . . 254,255 Grant's campaign before Vicksburg, May 1-17 244 Battle of Chancellorsville, Va., May 2, 3 250 "West Virginia admitted to the Union, June 19 218, 277 Battle of Gettysburg, Penn., July 1-3 252 Vicksburg, Miss., surrendered, July 4 245 Port Hudson surrendered, July 8 245 Draft Riot in New York City, July 13-16 252 Fort "Wagner, S. C., taken, September 7 254 Battle of Chickamauga, Ga., September 19, 20 246 " Chattanooga, Tenn., November 24, 25 247 Siege of Knoxville, Tenn., raised, December 4 250 1864. Battle of Olustee, Fla., February 20 270 I ort de Russy captured, March 14 265 Fort Pillow, Tenn., captured, April 12 265 Butler landed at Bermuda Hundred, May 5 262 Battle pf Wilderness, Va., May 5, 6 260 1864] CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY. 279 PAGE 1864. Battle of Spottsylvania, Va., May 8-12 260 Resaca, Ga., May 14, 15 257 " New Market, Va., May 15 261 " Dallas, May 25-28 357 " Cold Harbor, Va., June 3 261 " Lost Mountain, Ga., June 15-17 257 Battle between the Kearsarge and the Alabama, June 19 .... 268 Battle of Kenesaw Mt., Ga., June 27 \ 257 " Monocacy, Md., July 9 263 Battles before Atlanta, Ga., July 20, 22, 28 257 Chambersburg, Pa., burned, July 30 264 Mine explosion, Petersburg, Va., July 30 262 Farragut entered Mobile Bay, Ala., August 5 266 "Weldon Railroad seized, August 18 263 Atlanta, Ga., taken, September 2 257 Battle of Winchester, Va., September 19 264 " Fisher 's Hill, Va., September 22 264 " Cedar Creek, Va., October 19 264 Nevada admitted to the "Union, October 31 277 Fort McAlister, Ga., taken, December 13 259 Battle of Nashville, Tenn., December 15, 10 258 1865. Fort Fisher, N. C., taken, January 15 267 Columbia, S. C., taken, February 17 272 Charleston, S. C., taken, February 18 272 Battles of Averysboro and Bentonville, N. C., March 15, 18 ... 272 Attack on Fort Steadman, Va., March 25 272 Battle of Five Forks, Va., April 1 . . . 273 Petersburg and Richmond taken, April 2, 3 273 Lee's army surrendered, April 9 274, 275 President Lincoln assassinated, April 14 275 Johnston's army surrendered, April 26 Jefferson Davis captured, May 10 ., 275 REFERtNCES FOR READING. Draper, Greeley, Stephens, Abbott, Pollard, Lossing, and Headley on the Civil War. Nich- ols' 1 Story of the Great March. Swintori's Army of the Potomac, and Twelve Decisive Battles. DaJbney's Life of Stonewall Jackson. Badeau's Military History of General Grant. Headley's Farragut, and Our Naval Commanders. Coffin's Days and Nights on the Battle Field. Boyn- toris American Navy. Stilled IRstory of the Sanitary Commission. Johnston's Narrative of Military Operations. Harper's Pwtorial History of the War.DuyckincK's History, and Lives of Eminent Americans. Harrington 's Inside. GUlmore's Among the Guerrillas, and Down in Tennessee. W. G.Simms' War Poetry of the South. Richardson's Field, Dungeon, and Escape. Hotchkiss and Allan's Battle Fields of Virginia. Early' s Army of Northern Virginia. Whittier's In War Time (Poem). Cooke's Life of General Robert E. Lee. Memoirs of Gen. W. T. Sherman. Davis'' Rise and Fall of the Southern Confederacy. A Series of Articles on the Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, Century Magazine, Vol. 29. Campaigns of the Civil War. Coffin's " The Boys of '61." Personal Memoirs of General IT. S. Grant. 280 BLACKBOARD ANALYSIS. ' 1. Inauguration of Lincoln. 2. Condition of the Country. 3. Capture of Fort Sumter. " 1. Capture of Arlington Heights. - . 2. Battle of Big Bethel. , a _ Genera[ McClellan _ c ' Gencral Lee - r-l 5. Ball's Bluff. 5. War in Missouri. 6. War on the Sea and ( } ^Expeditions. the Coast. \ 3. Trent Affair. .7. General Review of the First Year of the War. '1. The Situation. ' 1. The Federal Strategy. 2. Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. 3. Battle of Shiloh. 4. Capture of Island No. 10. 2. War in the West. 5. Bragg's Expedition. 6. Battles of luka and Corinth. 7. Battle of Murfreesboro. 8. First Vicksburg Expedition. 9 War in Missouri f 1. Capture of New Orleans. 8. War on the Sea aild 1 2. Burnside's Expedition. the Coast. | 3 - Florida and Georgia Expeditions. I 4. Merrimac and Monitor. a ^ Yorktmen . CD < b. Battle of miliamsburg. 00 1 c. Richmond Threatened. rH . ' 1. The Peninsular Campaign. 4 d. Jackson in the Shenandoah \ e. Battle of Fair Oaks. PH t. The Union Army Checked. '"" I g. Seven-Days Battles. r*" f a. The Situation. * 4. War in the East. 2. Campaign against Pope. < b. Lee's Plan. L c. Second Battle of Bull Kun. . "i f a. The Situation. r 3 Invasion of MarTlanil J b - Battle of South Mountain. Maryland. < c Capture of Harper's Ferry. H . 4. Battle of Fredericksbure. d ' Battle f Anti <*" m - O ^5. General Review of the Second Year of the War. H r 1. The Situation. w. 2. Second Expedition f J- grant's Plan. no-am at Vir>VH>inrcr 1 2. Movement against Pemberton. against VICKSDurg. 1, 3. Siege of Vicksburg. . OS to < 00 3. War in Tennessee and / ' S n f f , sitl i a ,ii, . n : Oonro-in I 2 - Battle f Chickamauga. ueorgia. |_ s _ Battle of Chattanooga. rH 4. War in East Tennessee. H K War. in +l, Q T?oef 5 * Battle of Chancellorsville. , , , . , 5. War in the East. } 2 . Lee's Second Invasion of the North. { ' ^t'lHf Gettysburg o 6. War on the Sea and the Coast. PH >. 7. General Review of the Third Year of the War. H ' 1. The Situation. 2. War in Tennessee and Georgia. ' 1. Advance upon Atlanta. 2. Capture of Atlanta. 3. Hood's Invasion of Tenn. . 4. Sherman's March to the Sea. ' 1. Battle of the Wilderness. 2. Battle of Spottsylvania. *' 3. War in Virginia. 1" lSkl C petrsbu b rg: \ ; SS^SST" l i a e r!y'sR R a i id hm0nd - * * ^Xn^heWMon Railroad rH . 7. Sheridan's Camoaien in the Shenandoah Valley. 4. Red River Expedition. K wr,,, t\. a A f 1 - Expedition against Mobile. 5. War on the Sea and 1 2 . Expedition against Fort Fisher. the Coast. 1 S. The Blockade. I 4. Confederate Cruisers. 6. The Sanitary and Christian Commissions. 7. Political Affairs at the North. ^8. General Review of the Fourth Year of the War. '1. Situation. 2. Sherman's March through the Carolinas. f 1. Lee's Hope aud Grant's Plan. id 3. Siege of Richmond. J ^SStaSn^/^""- 00 " v rH I 4. Capture of Petersburg aud Richmond, 4. Lee's Surrender. 5. Cost of the War. 6. Assassination of Lincoln. ^7. States added during this Epoch. TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNITED STATES SALE OF MILES H 1 * RECONSTRUCTION AND PASSING EVENTS. JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION.* (SEVENTEENTH PRESIDENT: 1865-1869.) THE death of Lincoln produced no disorder, and within three hours thereafter the Vice-President, Andrew Johnson, quietly assumed the duties of the Presidency. Disbanding- of the Army. At the close of the war, the Union army numbered 1,000,000 soldiers. Within six months, they had nearly all returned home. Thus the mightiest host ever called to the field by a republic went back without disturbance to the tranquil pursuits of civil life. In a short time, there was nothing to distinguish the soldier from the citizen, except the recollection of his bravery. Other nations prophesied that such a vast army Questions on the Geography of the Sixth Epoch. Locate Raleigh. Heart's Con- tent, and St. John's, Newfoundland (see map, Epoch II.). Alaska. St. Albans, Vt. Buffalo. Mt. Pleasant, O. (map, Epoch V.). West Point. Chicago. Boston. Duluth. Puget's Sound. San Francisco. Klamath Lava Beds, Oregon. * Andrew Johnson was born in Raleigh, N. C., 1808 ; died, 1875. When ten years old, he was apprenticed to a tailor. Never having been at school, he yet determined to secure an education. From a fellow- workman, he learned the alphabet, and from a friend, something of spelling. Thenceforth, after working ten to twelve hours per day at his trade, he spent two or three hours every night in study. In 1826, he went west to seek his fortune, with true filial affection carrying with him his mother, who was dependent on his labor for support. After his marriage at Greenville, Tenn. , 282 EPOCH VI. [1865. could not be disbanded peaceably. The republic, by this final triumph of law and order, proved itself the most stable government in the world.* Domestic Affairs. Reconstruction Policy of the Presi- dent. Johnson recognized the State governments that, during the war, had been formed in Virginia, Tennessee ; Arkansas, and Louisiana, under the protection of the Union army. In the other States, he appointed provisional governors, and authorized the calling of conventions to form loyal governments. These conventions accordingly met, repealed the ordinances of secession, repudiated the Confederate war debt, and ratified the amendment which Congress had offered abolishing slavery. On these condi- tions, Johnson claimed that the States, having never been legally out of the Union, should be restored to their rights in the Union. He also issued a proclamation of pardon to those who had engaged in secession, except certain classes, f on the condition of taking the oath of allegiance to the United States, In 1868, on Christmas day most fitting time for deeds of good-will a UNIVERSAL AMNESTY was declared. The Thirteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery, having been ratified by the States, was declared (December 18, 1865) duly adopted as a part of the Constitution of the United States. he continued his studies under the instruction of his wife, pursuing his trade as before by day. His political life commenced with his election as alderman. He was successively chosen mayor, member of legislature, presidential elector, State senator, congressman, governor, and United States senator. * A grand review of the armies of Grant and Sherman, two hundred thousand strong, took place in the presence of the President and his Cabinet. For twelve hours, this triumphal procession, thirty miles long, massed in solid column twenty men deep, rolled through the broad avenues of the Capital. t Many of the persons thus excluded obtained pardons from the President by per- sonal application. One complaint against him was the readiness with which he granted such pardons. 1865.] JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 283 Public Debt. The annual interest on the debt was now (August 31, 1865) over $150,000,000. The revenue from duties on imported goods, taxes on manufactures, incomes, etc., and from the sale of revenue stamps, was $322,000,000. This provided not only for the current expenses of the government, and the payment of interest, but also for the gradual extinction of the debt. It is a striking evidence of the abundant resources of the country that, in 1866, be- fore all the extra troops called out by the war had been discharged, the debt had been diminished $71,000,000. Reconstruction Policy of Congress. On the assembling of Congress, decided ground was taken against the policy of the President. It was claimed that Congress alone had power to prescribe the conditions for the admission of the seceded States. His proclamation and orders were treated as of no value. The Freedmen's Bureau, Civil Rights, and Tenure-of-OfB.ce bills * were all passed over the President's veto. The Seceded States Admitted. Tennessee promptly rati- fied the Fourteenth Amendment, and was restored to her former position in the Union. The other provisional gov- ernments having refused to do so, a bill was passed placing those States under military rule. The generals in com- mand caused a registry of voters to be made, and elections to be held for conventions to remodel the State constitu- tions. After a bitter and protracted struggle, governments were finally established in Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, and North and South Carolina, f and their repre- * The first bill provided for the establishment of a department of the national government for the care and protection of the freedmen, i.e., the emancipated slaves, and also of the destitute whites at the South. The second bill guaranteed to the negroes the rights of citizenship. The third bill made the consent of the Senate necessary to the removal by the President of any person from a civil office. t As a requisite demanded by Congress for holding office, every candidate was obliged to swear that he had not participated in the secession movement. Since 284 EPOCH VI. [1868. sentatives admitted to Congress (1868), over the Presi- dent's veto, after an unrepresented period of seven years: Impeachment of the President. The constantly-increas- ing hostility between the President arid Congress came to an issue when the former attempted to remove Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War. This being considered a viola- \ lation of the Tenure-of-Office bill, the impeachment of the President was at last ordered (1868). After a tedious trial, he was acquitted, the two thirds majority necessary for conviction lacking one vote. Tti& FourteentJi Amendment proposed by Congress, guar- \^ anteeing equal civil rights to all, regardless of race or color, and basing representation in each State on the number of voters, was adopted (July 28, 1868). Fenian Excitement (1866). The Fenians, a secret so- ciety organized for the purpose of delivering Ireland from British rule, crossed the Canadian frontier at Buffalo, N. Y., and St. Albans, Vt., in large numbers. President Johnson issued a proclamati9n declaring the movement a violation of our neutrality, and sent thither General Meade to exe- cute the laws. After some skirmishing with British troops, the expedition returned. Foreign Affairs. Purchase of Alaska (October, 1867). Through the diplomacy of "William H. Seward, Secretary of State, Alaska was purchased of Russia for $7,200,000 in gold. It contains about 500,000 square miles, but is principally valuable for its harbors, furs, and fisheries. The French in Mexico. While the United States was ab- sorbed in the Civil War, Napoleon III., Emperor of France, took advantage of the opportunity to secure a foothold in few Southerners could take this "iron-clad oath", as it was termed, most of the representatives were Northern men who had gone south after the war, and were, therefore, called " carpet-baggers ". 1867.] JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 285 America. By the assistance of the French army, the im- perialists of Mexico defeated the liberals, and Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, was chosen emperor. The United States government protested against the measure, but was unable to enforce the "Monroe doctrine". When the American people were relieved from the pressure of civil strife, they turned their attention to the Mexicans hope- LANDING THE ATLANTIC CABLE AT HEARTS CONTENT. lessly struggling for liberty, and the United States gov- ernment demanded of Napoleon the recall of the French troops. Maximilian, deprived of foreign aid, was defeated, and, falling into the hands of the Mexican liberals, was shot (June 19, 1867). This ended the dream of French dominion on this continent. Laying of the Atlantic Cable. While these great polit- ical events were happening, science achieved a peaceful triumph whose importance far transcended the victories of 286 EPOCH VI. [1866. diplomatic or military skill. A telegraphic cable 1,864 miles in length, was laid from Valentia Bay, in Ireland, to Heart's Content, Newfoundland.* The two continents were thus brought into almost instant communication. Treaty with China (1868). An embassy from the Chinese Empire, under the charge of Ansou Burlingame, American ambassador to China, visited the United States. It was the first event of its kind in the history of that exclusive nation. A treaty was perfected, granting to us valuable commercial privileges. Political Parties. The republican party nominated General Ulysses S. Grant, of Illinois, for President, and Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana, for Yice-President. The democratic party nominated Horatio Seymour, of New York, and General Frank P. Blair, of Missouri. Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas were not allowed to vote. As the other Southern States had been "reconstructed", had granted negro suffrage, and enforced a strict registry law, they were permitted to participate in the election. Grant and Colfax were elected. * The success of this enterprise was due to the energy of Cyrus W. Field. In 1850, the line was finished from New York to St. John's, Newfoundland, a distance of over 1,000 miles. A company was then formed with a capital of about $1,750,000. A cable was made, but in an attempt to lay it (August, 1857), the cable parted. A second attempt, in June, 1858, failed after repeated trials. A third effort, in July, was successful. A message was sent from the Queen of England to the President, and a reply transmitted. A celebration was held in New York in honor of the event, but on that very day (September 1) the cable ceased to work. The time and money spent seemed a total loss. Mr. Field alone was undismayed. The company was revived, $3,000,000 were subscribed, and a new cable was manufactured. In July, 1865, the Great Eastern commenced laying this cable, but in mid-ocean it parted and sunk to the bottom. Again Mr. Field wen to work, raised a new com- pany with a capital of $3,000,000, and made a third cable. The Great Eastern sailed with this in June, 1866, and successfully accomplished the feat. To make the triumph more complete, the vessel sailed back to the very spot where the cable of 1865 had parted, and, dropping grappling-irons, caught the lost cable, brought it to the surface, and, splicing it, laid the remaining portion. The two cables were found to work admirably. A dispatch has been sent across the ocean by a battery made in a gun-cap. 1869.] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 287 G-RANT'S ADMINISTRATION.* (EIGHTEENTH PRESIDENT TWO TERMS: 1869-1877.) Domestic Affairs. Pacific Railroad. The year 1869 was made memorable by the opening of this road, which completed the union between the Atlantic and the Pacific. The traveler can now pass from New York to San Fran- cisco, a distance of about 3,300 miles, in less than a week. This great highway has linked the West to the East by iron bands, has carried thousands of pioneers into the hitherto wild country along its route, developed fresh sources of industry and mines of wealth, and opened the United States to the silks, teas, and spices of Asia. American ingenuity has solved the problem which foiled * Hiram Ulysses Grant was born at Point Pleasant, Ohio, April 27, 1822. He was unwilling to follow his father's trade, that of a tanner, and, at seventeen, he secured an appointment to West Point. His name having been wrongly regis- tered, Grant vainly attempted to set the matter right, but finally accepted his "manifest destiny", assumed the change thus forced upon him, and thenceforth signed himself "Ulysses Simpson", the latter being his mother's family name. Two years after completing his four-years course as cadet, the Mexican War broke out, in which Grant conducted himself with great gallantry, receiving especial mention and promotion. He then retired to private life, where ho remained until the opening of the Civil War. Having been appointed to command a company of volunteers, he took it to Springfield, where he became aid to Governor Tates, and was finally commissioned as colonel of the 21st Illinois regiment. His military and political career was henceforth a part of the country's history. A plain, quiet, gentle, unostentatious, reticent man, he attracted little attention to himself per- sonally. But his inflexible resolution, that held steadily to its purpose through every delay and disaster ; his fertility of resource to meet each movement of his wary opponents ; his power of handling great masses of men, and of maneuvering in concert the widely-separated Federal armies; his unruffled calmness, alike in moments of defeat and of triumph ; his quick decision and prompt action in a great emergency, as if he had foreseen and prepared for it ; above all, his sublime faith in his ultimate and perfect success, inspired his companions-in-arms with an intense devotion, and made him seem to them the very " incarnation of the cause for which they were fighting ". After the close of his presidential terms, he made the tour of the world. During this extended journey, he was every-where received with marked enthusiasm and honor, and his dignified and consistent conduct shed luster upon the country ho represented. He died at Mount McGregor, N. Y., July 23, 1885. People from all parts of the once-severed country united in sympathy for his loss. 288 EPOCH VI. [1869. Columbus and the olden navigators. It has made for itself a route to India. The Fifteenth Amendment, which guarantees to all the right of suffrage, irrespective of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude ", having been ratified by the requi- site number of States, was formally announced as a part of the Constitution (March 30, 1870). Prosperity of the Country. The nation rapidly recovered from the effects of war. The price of gold fell to 110, and the national debt was reduced $200,000,000 during the first two years of this administration. The bitter feelings engendered by fraternal strife fast melted away.* The cen- sus of 1 8 70 showed that the population of the United States was over 38,000,000, an increase of about 7,000,000, while the manufacturing establishments of the country had nearly, if not quite, doubled in number and value during the pre- ceding decade. Fires. 1. A great fire broke out in Chicago, Sunday night, October 8, 1871. For two days, it raged with tre- mendous violence, devastating 3,000 acres. Twenty-five thousand buildings were burned, $200,000,000 worth of property was destroyed, and 100,000 persons were ren- * Though the nation was still agitated by political strife the ground-swell, as it were, of the recent terrible storm the country was rapidly taking on the appearance and ways of peace. The South was slowly adjusting herself to the novel conditions of free labor. The soldiers retained somewhat their martial air ; but " blue-coats " and " gray-coats " were every- where to be seen engaged in quiet avocations. The ravages of war were fast disappearing. Nature had already sown grass and quick- growing plants upon the battle-fields where contending armies had struggled. " There were domes of white blossoms where swelled the white tent ; There were plows in the track where the war-wagons went ; There were songs where they lifted up Rachel's lament." B. F. Taylor. Strangely symbolical of the new era of growth which had dawned on the nation, a wanderer over the cannon-plowed slope of Cemetery Ridge found a broken drum, in which a swarm of bees were building their comb and storing honey gathered from the flowers growing on that soil so rich with Union and Confederate blood. 1871.] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 289 dered homeless. Contributions for the sufferers were taken in nearly all parts of the world, and over $7,500,000 were raised. 2. During the same autumn, wide-spread con- flagrations raged in the forests of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan. Entire villages were consumed. One thousand five hundred people perished in Wisconsin alone. 3. An extensive fire occurred in Boston, November 9, 1872. It swept over sixty acres in the center of the wholesale trade of that city, and destroyed $70,000,000 worth of property. Foreign Affairs. Treaty of Washington. The refusal of the English government to pay for the damages to American commerce caused by the Alabama and other Confederate cruisers (p. 268), produced bitter feeling, and even threat- ened war. A high commission, composed of distinguished statesmen and jurists from both countries, met in Washing- ton, and arranged the basis of a treaty between the United States and Great Britain, settling this and other causes of dispute (1871). According to its provisions, the claim for losses was submitted to a board of arbitrators, who, hav- ing convened at Geneva, Switzerland, awarded the United States $15,500,000. The difficulty with regard to the North-western boundary between the United States and British America was submitted to the Emperor of Germany, and was decided in favor of the United States. Thus, hap- pily, all danger of war was averted, and the great principle of the settlement of disputes by peaceful arbitration rather than by the sword was finally established. Proposed Annexation of San Domingo.* This republic, * The island of San Domingo is the new world's classic land. Here Columbus founded the first white colony on this side of the Atlantic, and, transporting hither animals, trees, shrubs, vines, and grains, grafted the old world upon the new. Hither, also, flocked the adventurous, ambitious Spanish multitude (p. 26). Great cities sprung up, rivaling the majestic proportions of Moorish capitals. Mag- 290 EPOCH -VI. [1871. comprising a large part of the island of Hayti, applied for admission to the United States. A commission of eminent men, appointed by the President to visit the island and examine its condition, reported favorably. The measure, however, was rejected by Congress. Political Parties. The liberal republican party, consist- ing of republicans opposed to the administration, nomi- nated Horace Greeley,* of New York, for the presidential term commencing 1873. The democratic party indorsed niflcent enterprises were set on foot and prospered. Here Ponce de Leon renewed his ambition, and set forth afresh on an expedition to Porto Kico, and thence to Florida, in search of the Fountain of Youth (p. 26). A century before Henry Hud- son sailed up the noble river that perpetuates his name more than a century before the Puritans landed at Plymouth Rock the city of San Domingo was a rich and populous center of industry and trade. * Horace Q-reeley was born at Amherst, N. H., 1811 ; died, 1872. At two years of age, he began to study the newspapers given him for anrasement ; and at four, could read any thing placed before him. At six, he was able to spell any word in the En- glish language, was some- what versed in geography and arithmetic, and had read the entire Bible. His passion for books increased with his years, and, at an early age, he determined to be a printer. At fifteen, he entered the office of the Northern Spec- tator, in East Poultney, Vt. His wages were forty dollars a year, the greater part of which was saved and sent to his father, then struggling in poverty upon a farm in Penn- sylvania. The Spectator hav- ing failed, in 1831 Greeley went to New York. He landed with ten dollars and a scanty outfit tied in a handkerchief. Franklin-like, he traversed the streets in search of work, a long, stooping, stockingless figure, in linen round- about, short trousers, and drooping hat, with his out-grown cotton wristbands made to meet with twine. Diligence, integrity, and ability won him a ready rise when HORACE GREELEY, FOUNDER OF THE TRIBUNE. 1872.] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 291 this nomination. The republicans renominated President Grant, who was elected. Grant's Second Term Domestic Affairs. THE MODOC INDIANS having refused to stay upon their reservation in Oregon, troops were sent against them. The savages there- upon retreated to their fastnesses in the Lava Beds. The peace commissioners, hoping to arrange the difficulty, held a conference with the chiefs. In the midst of the council, the Indians treacherously slew General Canby and Rev. Dr. Thomas, and wounded Mr. Meachem. The Modocs were then bombarded in their stronghold, and finally forced to surrender. Railroad Panic. In the autumn of 1873, Jay Cooke & Co., bankers of Philadelphia, having engaged too exten- sively in railroad schemes, failed. A financial crisis ensued, and hundreds of prominent firms all over the Union were involved in ruin. A settled stringency of the money market and a stagnation of business followed. Centennial Anniversaries. The year 1875, being the hundredth anniversary of the first year of the Revolu- tionary War, was marked by various centennial observ- ances. April 19, the battles of Lexington and Concord were celebrated with patriotic pride. May 20, the citi- employment was at last secured. Ten years later, lie founded the New York Trib- une. He served in Congress in 1848-'49, where he was known for his opposition to the abuses of the mileage system. When civil war seemed imminent, he advocated a peaceable division of the country ; but after it opened, he urged a vigorous prose- cution of hostilities. At the close of the war, he pleaded for immediate conciliation, and was a signer of the bail-bond which restored Jefferson Davis to liberty after two-years imprisonment in Port Monroe. Horace Greeley was pure, simple, and conscientious in character. He had a peculiar disregard for dress, and neglected many of the courtesies of society ; but he was a true gentleman at heart, and pos- sessed rare gifts in conversation. He was fond of agriculture, and spent his leisure days on his farm at Chappaqua. Just before the close of the presidential canvass, his wife died, and this, together with the desertion of friends and the excitement of the contest, unsettled his mind. He was carried to a private asylum, where he died (1872). 292 EPOCH VI. [1875. zens of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, honored the memory of those who, at Charlotte, signed a Declaration of Independence only ten days after the capture of Ticonderoga. June 1 7 witnessed, at Bunker Hill, an unprecedented gath- ering from all parts of the country, Northern and Southern soldiers vying in devotion to the flag of the Union. Ttie Centennial Exhibition. To commemorate the signing of the Declaration of Independence, an exhibition of the arts and industries of all nations was held at Phila- delphia, during the summer of 1876. The beautiful grounds of Fairmouiit Park were the scene of this impos- ing display. The lower floor of the Main Exhibition Build- ing, exclusive of the annexes, covered 20.02 acres. There were more than two hundred smaller structures scattered over the extensive grounds.* The exhibition lasted six months. The total number of visitors was 9,910,966. War ivith the Sioux (1876).f The Sioux Indians hav- ing refused to go upon the reservation assigned them by treaty, a force of regular troops was sent against them. General Custer led the advance with the Seventh Cavalry, while General Terry moved up the Big Horn to attack them in the rear. On the 25th of June, General Custer suddenly came upon the enemy. "Without waiting for support, he detached Colonel Reno with three companies to fall upon the back of the Indian village, while he charged the savages in front. A desperate conflict ensued. Gen- eral Custer, his two brothers, his nephew, and every one * See Barnes 1 Hundred Tears of American Independence, a chapter of which is devoted to the Centennial Exhibition. t A conference at Fort Laramie, June, 1866, could not prevail upon the Indian chiefs present to cede a wagon route to Montana, but troops, under Colonel Carrington, of the 18th Infantry, established military posts on the line. Red Cloud and others at once began war. The massacre of Fetterman's party of 81 officers and men, De- cember 21, 1866, which was as tragic as that of General Ouster's command, closed the first of a series of hostilities which lasted for twelve years thereafter. Battle of the Big Horn. Death of Custer. 1876.] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 293 of his men were killed. Colonel Reno was surrounded, but held his ground on the bluffs until reinforcements arrived. The Indians were soon beaten on every hand. Political Parties. The republican party nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President, and Wm. A. Wheeler, of New York, for Yice-President. The demo- cratic party chose Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. The independent greenback party selected Peter Cooper, of New York, and Samuel F. Gary, of Ohio. This presidential campaign was so hotly contested between the republicans and the democrats, and such irregularities were charged against the elections in Oregon, South Carolina, Florida, and Loui- siana, that both these parties claimed the victory. In order to settle the dispute, Congress agreed to refer the contested election returns to a JOINT ELECTORAL COMMIS- SION, composed of five senators, five representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court. This body decided that 185 electoral votes had been cast for Hayes and Wheeler, and 184 for Tilden and Hendricks. The repub- lican candidates were therefore declared to be elected.* * The principal political questions which, agitated the country during this cam- paign were the Southern policy of the government, and the civil service reform. (1.) It was held on one side that negroes and republicans at the South were intimi- dated by force and prevented from voting, and that the presence of the United States troops was necessary to the preservation of the rights of the citizens, free discussion, a free ballot, and an enforcement of the laws. It was asserted, on the other side, that the use of the troops for such purposes was unconstitutional ; that the intimidation was only imaginary, or could be readily controlled by the local authorities ; and that the presence of the military provoked violence, and was a constant insult and menace to the States. (2.) President Jackson, as we have seen (p. 175), introduced into our politics the principle of "rotation in office". This policy steadily gained favor until Marcy's maxim, "To the victors belong the spoils ", became the commonly-accepted view ; and, after every important election, the successful party was accustomed to fill even the menial offices of government with its favorites. Under such a system, the qualification of the applicant was of much less importance than the service he had done the party. Hayes promised to make " no dismissal except for cause, and no promotion except for merit ". 294 EPOCH VI. [1877. HAYES' ADMINISTRATION.* (NINETEENTH PRESIDENT : 1877-1881.) Domestic Affairs. U. 3. Troops at the South Wiih- drawn. President Hayes' Southern policy was one of conciliation. The troops which had hitherto sustained RIOT AT PITTSBURGH, PA. the republican State governments in South Carolina and Louisiana were withdrawn, and democratic officials at once took control of the local affairs. * Rutherford B. Hayes was born in Delaware, Ohio, 1822. At sixteen, he entered Kenyon College, where he was graduated as valedictorian of his class. After pass- ing through the Harvard Law School, he was admitted to the bar in 1845. At the breaking out of the Civil War, he received a commission as major of the Twenty- third Ohio Volunteers. In camp, he proved attentive to the wants of his men ; in battle, he inspired them with his own dashing bravery. While yet in the field, he was elected to Congress, where he served two terms. Soon after, he was chosen governor of Ohio, being twice re-elected the last time after a brilliant, hard-money campaign which attracted national attention. 1877.] HAYES' ADMINISTRATION. 295 Changes in Currency. In 1873, Congress demonetized silver, and made gold the sole standard of our currency. Opposition arose, and, in 1878, a bill was passed making silver a legal tender in payment of all debts. Gold and silver soon came into general circulation, and in December, 1879, gold, for the first time since January, 1862, sold in New York at par. Foreign Affairs. Fishery Award (1878). Difficulties having arisen between the United States and Great Britain concerning the fisheries of the North-eastern coast, the matter was referred, by the Treaty of Washington (p. 289), to a commission for adjudication. This body awarded Great Britain the sum of $5,500,000. Treaties with China (1880). Two treaties between China and the United States were signed at Pekin, one in relation to commerce, and the other granting to our government the regulation of the Chinese immigration. Political Parties. The nominees for President and Vice- President were : republican, James A. Garfield of Ohio, and Chester A. Arthur of New York ; democratic, Winfield S. Hancock of Pennsylvania, and William H. English of Indiana ; greenback-labor, James B. Weaver of Iowa, and Benjamin J. Chambers of Texas. The republican candi- dates were elected. GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION.* (TWENTIETH AND TWENTY-FIBST PRESIDENTS: 1881-1885.) The Inauguration of the twentieth President marked the hundredth year after the close of the Revolutionary * James Abram Garfield was born in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, 1831. His father cleared a small farm in what was then a wilderness, and dying soon after the birth of his illustrious son, left his family in great poverty. Brought up amidst stern 296 EPOCH VI. [1881. War, and the twentieth year from, the beginning of the Civil War. Domestic Affairs. The Star Route Frauds. A gigantic scheme of fraud in con- ,-" nection with the let- ''' ;.( { v 11. Give the coincidences in the lives of the three great statesmen Webster, Clay, and Calhoun. 12. After whom ought this continent to have been named? 13. What celebrated philosopher, when a boy, went without meat to buy books? 14. How did a half-witted boy once save a fort from capture? 15. Name the retreats famous in our history. 16. When did a fog save our army? A rain? 17. When did a stone house largely decide a battle? A stone wall? 18. What general was captured through his carelessness, and exchanged for another taken in a similar way? ^19. What battles have been decided by an attack in the rear? 20. Who said, "I would rather be right than President"? 21. When has an unnecessary delay cost a general a victory? 22. Name the events in our history which seem to you providential. 23. What general died at the moment of victory ? 24. Name some defeats which had all the effect of victories. V-JZ5^ Of what general was this said to be always.true? 26. When was the Mississippi River the western boundary of the United States ? 27. What territory has the United States acquired by purchase? By conquest? By annexation? 28. What Vice-Presidents were afterward elected Presidents? 29. What navigator shortened the voyage across the Atlantic? 30. What tea party is celebrated in our history ? 31. Who was President from 1787 (the adoption of the Constitution) to 1789 ? 32. How many attacks have been made on Quebec? 33. Who said, " I am not worth purchasing, but such as I am the king of England is not rich enough to buy me " ? 34. Which is the longer, the Atlantic Cable or the Pacific Railroad? 35. Why were the River St. Lawrence, Florida, St. Augustine, etc., so named? 36. What naval commander captured his antagonist as his own vessel was sinking ? 37. How many expeditions have been made into Canada? 38. What battle was preceded by prayer? HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. 329 39. What do the French names in the Mississippi valley indicate ? 40. What do the names New York, New England, New Hampshire, Georgia, Carolina, etc., indicate? 41. When has the question of the Public Lands threatened the Union ? 42. Who, in a frail canoe, on a stormy night, visited an Indian wigwam to save the lives of his enemies? 43. In what battle did the Continentals gain the victory by falling back and then suddenly facing about upon the enemy ? 44. How many times has Port Ticonderoga been captured ? 45. Why were Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, Hudson River, etc., so named ? 46. What do the names San Salvador, Santa Cruz, La Trinidad, etc., indicate? 47. In what battles had the opposing generals formed the same plan ? 48. What Presidents died in office? 49. What father and son were Presidents? 50. What administrations have been most popular? 51. Who fired the first gun in the French and Indian War? 52. What battle was fought and gained without a commanding officer? 53. How many rebellions have occurred in our history? 54. Who was called the " Great Pacificator " ? Why ? 55. What was the " Nullification Act " ? 56. How many of our Presidents have been military men? 57. Why did not Webster and Clay become Presidents? 58. Who was " Old Rough and Ready " ? 59. Who was the " Sage of Monticello " ? 60. What noted events occurred on April 19th? 61. In whose administration was the largest number of States admitted ? 62. In which administrations was none admitted? 63. By whom and under what circumstances was the expression used, " Give me liberty or give me death " ? 64. What general arose from a sick-bed to lead his troops into a battle in which he was killed? 65. What four ex-Presidents died in the decade between 1860 and 1870? 66. Where is the " Cradle of Liberty " ? 67. Give some familiar names that have been applied to American statesmen. 66. How long did each of our five great wars last (1) the French and Indian war ; (2) the Revolutionary war ; (3) the war of 1812 ; (4) the Mexican war ; and (5) the Civil war? 69. State the cause of each of these wars. 70. Name the prominent generals who acquired celebrity in each. 71. Name the principal battles of each. 72. Name the results of each. 73. What fort was carried by a midnight assault ? 74. What general escaped by riding down a steep precipice ? 75. Who drafted the Declaration of Independence ? 76. Who secured its adoption in the Convention? 77. Name the Presidents in chronological order. 78. How many of our Presidents were Virginians? 79. Who were the " bachelor Presidents " ? 80. State to what party each President belonged. 81. How many of our Presidents were poor boys ? 330 HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. 82. What were the principles of the whigs? The democrats? 83. What party adopted -the views of the old federalists on the United States Bank, etc.? 84. How many Presidents have served two terms? 85. What battle was fought after peace had been declared? 86. On what issue was Polk elected President? 87. Contrast John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. 88. On what mountains have battles been fought? 89. Who used the expression, " We have met the enemy, and they are ours " ? 90. Whose dying words were, " Don't give up the ship " ? 91. When was a general blown up by a magazine, at the moment of victory ? 92. What Indian chiefs formed leagues against the whites ? 93. What celebrated statesman was killed in a duel ? 94. What States were named from mountain ranges ? 95. What important contemporaneous events can you name? 96. Was Washington ever wounded in battle ? 97. What was meant by saying that " Clay was in the succession " ? 98. In what battle did Washington show the most brilliant generalship? 99. What officer lost his life because he neglected to open a note ? 100. What army retreated at the moment of victory because the fog was so dense that it did not see how successful it was ? 101. How many States were named from, their principal rivers? 102. Name some celebrated foreigners who have fought for us. 103. What rendered Valley Eorge memorable? 104. How did Harrison gain his popularity? Taylor? 105. Give some account of the United States Bank. 106. In what war was Lincoln a captain and Davis a lieutenant? 107. What colonel, when asked if he could take a battery, replied, " I'll try, sir " ? 108. Of what President was it said that " if his soul were turned inside out, not a spot could be found upon it " ? 109. What town and army were surrendered without firing a shot? 110. For how many years was the Revolutionary War carried on mainly at the North? At the South? 111. Who was "Poor Richard"? 112. Who were the "Green fountain Boys"? 113. What colony was founded as a home for the poor? 114. What persecuted people settled the different colonies? 115. What colonies are named after a king or a queen ? 116. What religious toleration was granted in the different colonies? 117. Which colonies early enjoyed the greatest liberty? 118. What colony took the Bible as its guide ? 119. In what battle was the left wing, when separated from the main body by a river, attacked by an overwhelming force of the enemy ? The right wing ? 120. In what battle did both generals mass their strength on the left wing, expecting to crush the enemy's right? 121. How many invasions of the North did Lee make ? 122. What victories induced him to attempt each of these invasions? 123. By what battle was each invasion checked ? 124. How many invasions of Kentucky did Bragg make? 125. How was each stopped? HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. 331 126. For how many years has the United States been involved in war? 127. What object did Penn, Lord Baltimore, and Oglethorpe each have in found- ing a colony in the new world? 128. What President was impeached? 129. What ex- Vice-President was tried for treason? 130. Name the four prominent battles fought by -General Taylor. 131. What noted expressions of General Taylor became favorite mottoes? Of General Grant? 132. What President vetoed the measures of the party that elected him? 133. Of what statesman was it said that " he was in the public service fifty years, and never attempted to deceive his countrymen " ? 134. Who is said to have used the words, " A little more grape, Captain Bragg " ? 135. From what States have Presidents been elected? 136. Give the number and names from each State. 137. What battle did General Gates win ? What battle did he lose ? 138. What battles did Washington win? What battles did he lose? 139. What President elect came to Washington in disguise? 140. Give a brief history of the slavery question. 141. When were slaves introduced into this country? 142. Name the generals who commanded the Army of the Potomac. 143. Name the principal battles fought by McClellan Rosecrans Bragg Lee- Hooker Sheridan Grant Sherman Beauregard Meade Pope Buell Taylor Scott Thomas Johnston. 144. Describe the " March to the Sea ". 145. What two battles were fought in the " Wilderness " ? 146. What was the " Missouri Compromise " ? The " Compromise of 1850 " ? 147. What is "squatter sovereignty"? Who was its author? 148. Of whom was it said that "he touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprung upon its feet " ? 149. What were the "alien and sedition laws"? 150. Who was the " old man eloquent " ? 151. When was the first railroad constructed ? The first steamboat ? The first magnetic telegraph? The first sewing-machine? 152. When was the Erie Canal opened? The Pacific Railroad? 153. What President introduced " rotation in office " ? 154. Why, in the Missouri Compromise, was 36 30' taken as the boundary be- tween the slave and the free States? 155. What is the " Monroe Doctrine " ? 156. Who was the inventor of the cotton-gin? 157. What is a " protective tariff " ? 158. What is meant by " Reconstruction " ? 159. What Presidents were not elected to that office by the people ? 160. To what party did Henry Clay belong? J. Q. Adams? Thomas Jefferson? John C. Calhoun ? Andrew Jackson ? Daniel Webster ? Stephen A. Doug- las? Alexander Hamilton ? George Washington? 161. What President had not voted for forty years? 162. What two distinguished generals of the same name served in the Confed erate army? Name the battles fought by each. 163. What was the " Dred Scott decision " ? 164. What was the " Kansas-Nebraska Bill " * 332 HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. 165. Give an account of the principal parties which have arisen since the Con- stitutional Convention of 1787. 166. Who were the "Silver Greys"? The "Hunkers"? The "Barn-Burners"? The "Woolly-Heads"? The " Free-Soilers " ? The "Know-Nothings"? The "Anti-Renters"? The "Unionists"? The "Stalwarts"? 167. Give an account of the different attempts to lay the Atlantic cable. 168. Give a history of the difficulty between President Johnson and Congress. 169. What nations settled the different States ? 170. How many amendments have been made to the Constitution? 171. What was the " Hartford Convention " ? 172. What are " State rights " ? 173. What was the Secretary of State formerly called? 174. Tell some stories illustrating the patriotism of the women of the Revolution. 175. Give an account of the Public Lgress over the state regulations? How often, aad when, must Congress meet? (Note. Congress has pr- 340 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. CLAUSE 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. SECTION "V. CLAUSE 1. Each house shall bo the judge of the elections, re- turns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall con- stitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. CLAUSE 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its mem- bers for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. CLAUSE 3. Each house shall keep a journal .of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. CLAUSE 4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. SECTION VI. CLAUSE 1. The senators and representatives shall receive a com- pensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their re- spective houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. CLAUSE 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been in- creased, during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. SECTION "VTI. CLAUSE 1. .All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Eepresentatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amend- ments, as on other bills. CLAUSE 2. Every bill which shall have passed the Houso of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objec- tions, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections scribed that senators shall be chosen in the following manner : The Legislature elected last before the end of the senatorial term, on the second Tuesday after ita first session, shall choose the next senator. The two brancJ'es of the Legislature shall meet separately and vote viva voce. They shall then assemble together, and if they agree on any person, he shall be considered duly elected ; if they disagree, the joint meeting shall vote vivajioce from day to day, at 12 M. until a choice is made.) Section 5. Who decides upon the " elections, returns and qualifications " of the representatives and of the senators ? What number of the members is necessary for a quorum (needed to do business) ? What business can a minority transact? What power is given each house of Congress of making and enforcing rules? What is the law with regard to keeping and publishing a journal of the proceedings ? When must the yeas and nay s be enters '. on the journal? What restriction is there upon the time and place of adjournment? Section 6. Who fixes and pays the salaries of members of Congress? What special privileges are granted t< members of Congress ? To what offices are members of Congress ineligible ? Can a Congressman hold another office at the same time? Section 7. What bills must originate in the House of Representatives ? What authority is given the Senate with regard to such bills ? Describe the three ways in which a bill may become a law (1) With the Presidenty concurrence; (2) over his veto (I forbid) ; and (3) by non-return within ten days. What "orders, resolutions, aiy CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 341 at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If af tr such reconsideration, two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if ap- proved by two thirds of that house, it shall become a law . But in all such cases tho votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the per- sons voting for and against the bill shall bo entered on the journal of each house re- spectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sunday cxcepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if ha had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in. which case it shall not be a law. CLAUSE 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which tho concurrence of the Senate and House of Eepresentatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjourn- ment) shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Eepresentatives, according to tho rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. V /J( i SECTION "VTEI. CLAUSE 1. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be -uniform throughout the United States ; CLAUSE 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; CLAUSE 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes ; CLAUSE 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; CLAUSE 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; CLAUSE 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the secuiities and current coin of the United States ; .USE 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads; CLAUSE 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; votes " must bo submitted to the President 7 What is the object of this provision 1 (tfotes. In case a vacancy occurs in the senatorial representation of any state, the governor of the state can appoint a senator to fill the place, who can hold office only until the next session of the Legislature. The method of representation in the Senate gives in that body perfect equality to all the States, Rhode Island baring the same power as Virginia. A senator ia chosen by the Legislature, a representative by the people ; a senator serves for six years, a representative for two. The Senate tries an officer for misconduct, but he must be impeached by the House of Representatives. The salary of a Congressman is now $5,000 per year, and mileage (20 cents per mile for every mile of travel by the usual route in coming and going). The speaker of the House, and the president pro tempore of the Senate have each a alary of $8,000 per year. One third of the Senate retire from oflicc every two years. By the term " Con- gross" is meant the body of senators and representatives holding office during anyone representative term of two years ; the Congress which began its term March 4, 1885, is tho 49th. Each Congress " ends at noon of the 4th of March next succeeding the beginning of its second regular session." The committees in the House arc appointed by the Speaker ; those in the Senate by itself. The classification of the Senate makes it a more efficient and con- " servative body than the House, since in the former there are always two thirds of the number old members, while the House is all new every two years. If the president of the Senate were a senator, It would give extra power to one state, which wnuld be contrary to the plan of that body. Section 8. Eighteen clauses now follow which enumerate the powers granted to Congret*. What power has Congress with regard to taxes ? Duties (taxes on imported or exported articles) ? Imposts (taxes on imported articles)? Excises (taxes on articles produced in the country) ? Borrowing money ? Regulating commerce ? Natu- ralization? Bankruptcies? Coining money? Counterfeiting? Post-offices and post-roads 7 Authors and inventors 7 pferior courts? Piracies? Declaring V ? Raising and supporting armies? A nary? Qoverrjnjent of the Ian* 342 CONSTITUTION OF TI^E UNITED STATES. CLAUSE 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; CLAUSE 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; CLAUSE 11. To declare \var, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; CLAUSE 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; < <"CLAUSE 13. To provide and maintain a navy ; CLAUSE 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; CLAUSE 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; CLAUSE 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; CLAUSE 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and. other needful buildings; And CLAUSE 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitu- tion in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 7 s * SECTION IX. CLAUSE 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any / of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. CLAUSE 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. CLAUSE 3. No bill of attainder or ex-post-facto law shall be passed. CLAUSE 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. CLAUSE 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from, any State. and naval forces? Calling forth the militia? Organizing the militia? Over what places has Congress exclusive legislation ? What power is finally given to Congress to enable it to enforce its authority ? What four restrictions upon the Congressional powers are made in this section? (See clauses 1, 2, 1C and 17.) (.Votes. Taxes may be rither direct or indirect ; the former are laid directly upon the person ; the latter upon articles exported, imported, or consumed. Naturalization Is tha process by which a foreign born person becomes a citizen. The process of naturalization is as follows : (1.) The person declares, on oath before the proper authority, his intention of becoming a citizen of the United States. (2.) Two years, at least, having elapsed, the person takes the oath of allegiance f when he must prove by witness that he has resided -in the United States five years and in the state where he seeks to be naturalized one year ; that he has borne a good moral character, and has been well-disposed toward the government. The copyright, or exclusive right of publishing a book, is given to an author for 28 years, with the privilege of extension 14 years longer. It Is Issued only to a citizen or resident of the United States. A patent is now granted to an Inventor for 17 years, without the privilege of extension. Any crime punishable with death is a felony. " Letters of marque and reprisal " are commissions given to persons authorizing them to seize the property of another nation. By the term " high seas " is meant the open sea, the highway of nations.) Section 9. Eight clauses now follow, enumerating the powers denied to Congress. What prohibition was made concerning the slave-trade? Writ o habeas corpus ? Bill of attainder ? Ex-post-facto law? Direct tax? Exports from any state? Trade between the United States? Payments from the Treasury? Titles of nobility? United States office-bolder receiving presents from a foreign power ? (Nutea. The object of the first clause was to destroy . CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 343 CLAUSE 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. CLAUSE 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law : and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. CLAUSE 8. No title of nobility shall bo granted by the United States : And no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. N X. CLAUSE 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- federation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex-post-facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. CLAUSE 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any impost or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and impost, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall bo for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall bo subject to the revision and control of the Congress. CLAUSE 3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships-of-war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II. Executive Department. SECTION I. CLAUSE 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : CLAUSE 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no sena- tor or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall ba appointed an elector. the foreign sla^e-trade or the importation of negroes from Africa for the purpose of enslaving them. In 1808, a law was passed prohibiting the trade, and in 1820 it was declared to bo piracy. A writ of habeas corpus is a written order from a magistrate directing that a certain person shall bo brought before him ; its object is to guard against false imprisonment or trial in a prejudiced court. A bill of attainder is an English term, meaning an act which without trial inflicts death for treason; attainder of treason can not in the United States work "corruption of blood" so as to prevent a person from transmitting lands to his descendants. An ex-post-facto law makes an act criminal or penal which was not so at the time it was committed. A United States office-holder, wishing to accept a present or distinction offered him by any foreign power, must ask permission of Congress before he caa r Section 10. Thro clauses now follow enumerating the powers denied to the several States. What prohibition was made with regard to treaties ? Letters of marqne and reprisal ? Coinage of money ? Issuing bills of cred (bills to circulate as money )? Baking any other legal tender than gold or silver 7 A bill of attainder t An ex-post- facto law? The impairing of contracts? Titles of nobility ? Imposts? Keeping troops T Making peace or wa AETICLE II. Section 1. In whom is the executive power vested? (Note. The executive power is that of e: cnting the laws.) How long is the President's term of office? The Vice-President's? Who are the presidential electors? How many are there from each state? Who are ineligible to the office? Describe the method of electing a President, as originally directed by the Constitution. (.Vcte.-This has been superseded by the xntfc Amend- 344: CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. CLAUSE 3. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. CLAUSE 4. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years resident within the United States. CLAUSE 5. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the "Vice-President, and the Congress may by law pro- vide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the Presi- dent and "Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. CLAUSE 6. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- pensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. CLAUSE 7. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the fol- lowing oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." SECTION n. CLAUSE 1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any sub j ect relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. CLAUSE 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law ; but the - Congress may- by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think ( proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departmental ' meut.) What power has Congress over the electors? What are the necessary qualifications for the office of President? In casu of a vacancy, who would become President? (Xote. lu case of a vacancy iu the office of both President and Vice-President, the office of President will devolve, in regular succession, upon the members of the cabinet (page 301). The electors are now chosen on " the Tuesday next after the first Monday in the last November " of each presidential term of office. The electors meet to cast their ballots, generally at the capital of each state, on "the first Wednesday in the last December" of each presidential term of office. When the plan of choosing electors was originally adopted, it was intended to choose good men who should themselves select the President ; but it soon came about that the electors were pledged to their respective candidates before their own election. The President's salary is $50,000 per year, together with the use of the White House.) Can the salary of a President be changed during his term of office? Can he receive any other emolument from the national or any state government ? Repeat the President's oath of office. Section 2. Three clauses now follow enumerating the powers granted to the, President. What authority has the President over the United States army and navy? State militia? The chief officers of the different executive departments? (See note, p. 151.) Reprieves and pardons? The making of treaties? Appointment of ambassa- dors? Judges of the Supreme Court, etc. ? Filling vacancies? CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 345 CLAUSE 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. SECTION m. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. SECTION IV. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III. Judicial Department. SECTION I. The judicial power of the United States shaU be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordai 11 and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. SECTION [. CLAUSE 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambas- sadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to con- troversies between two or more States ; between a State and citizens of another State ; between citizens of different States ; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. CLAUSE 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con- suls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and Tinder such regulations as the Congress shall make. Section 3. Defines the duties of the President. Name these duties with regard (1) to Congress, (2) to ambas- sadors, and (3) to United States officers. (.We. Washington and Adams In person read their messages to Congress ; the present plan of sending the message by a private secretary was commenced by Jefferson.) Section 4. For what crimes and in what way may any United States officer be removed from office T ARTICLE m. Section 1. In what is the judicial power of the United States vested? (Note. The judicial power is that of interpreting and applying the laws.) How long do the judges hold office 7 Can their salary be changed during their term of office ? Section 2 defines the jurisdiction of the United States Courts. Name the cases to which the judicial power of the United States extends. In what cases does the Supreme Court have original jurisdiction T Appellate juris- diction? What is the law with regard to trial by jury? Where must such a trial be held? Where may a crime be committed "not within a state?" (Notes. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices. The salary of the chief justice is $10,500 and that of an associate $10,000 per annum. This court meet* at Washington annually on the first Wednesday in December. A citizen of the District of Columbia, within the meaning of the Constitution as above, is not a citizen of a State. By original jurisdiction Is meant the court in which the case begins; by appellate, is indicated a trial after an appeal from a lower court.) 346 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. CLAUSE 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury, and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such, place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. SECTION m. CLAUSE 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only , in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. CLAUSE 2. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. CLAUSE 3. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. General Provisions. SECTION I. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State ; and the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and pro- ceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. SECTION n. CLAUSE 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. CLAUSE 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. /' CLAUSE 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 1 SECTION HI. CLAUSE 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. CLAUSE 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. SECTION IV. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against inrva- Sectton 8. In what does treason consist ? What proof is required t Who fixes the punishment ? What limit Is assigned? ARTICLE IV. Section I. What Is the law with regard to state records, judicial proceedings, etc. ? Section 1. What privileges has the citizen of one state in all the others? Can a criminal or an apprentice escape by fleeing into another state? (Note. Clause 3 originally included fugitive slaves, but that application was annulled by the XITIth Amendment.) Section 3. State the law with regard to the formation and admission of new states. What power has Congress over the territory and property of the United States ? CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 347 sion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the Legis- lature can not be convened) against domestic violence. ARTICLE V. Power of Amendment. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Con- stitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amendment which maybe made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI. Miscellaneous Provisions. CLAUSE 1. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adop- tion of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the confederation. CLAUSE 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. CLAUSE 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. Ratification of the Constitution. The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. GEORGE WASHINGTON, President, and Deputy from Virginia. ^ Section 4. What must Congress guarantee to every state? When must Congress protect the states? ' ARTICLE V. State the two ways in which amendments to the Constitution may be proposed. The two ways in which they may be ratified. What restriction in this article has now lost all force? What provision for the benefit of the smaller states is attached to this article ? ARTICLE VI. What debts did the United States assume when the Constitution was adopted? What is the supreme law of the land ? Who are required to take an oath or animation to support the Constitution of the United States? Can a religious test be exacted? 348 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. NEW HAMPSHIRE. JOHN LANGDON, NICHOLAS GILMAN. MASSACHUSETTS. NATHANIEL QOKHAM, RUFUS KING. CONNECTICUT. WILLIAM SAMUEL JOHNSON, ROGER SHERMAN. NEW YORK. .ALEXANDER HAMILTON. NEW JERSEY. WILLIAM LIVINGSTON, DAVID BBEABLEY, WILLIAM PATEBSON, JONATHAN DAYTON. PENNSYLVANIA. BENJAMIN ERANKLLN, THOMAS MIFFLIN, ROBEBT MOBEIS, GEORGE CLYMEB, THOMAS FITZSIMONS, JABED INGEBSOLL, JAMES WILSON, GOUVERNEUR MoBBIS. Attest: DELAWARE. Q-EOBGE REED, Q-DNNING BEDFORD, JB., JOHN DICKINSON, RICHABD BASSETT, JACOB BROOM. MARYLAND. JAMES MCHENRY, DANIEL OF ST. THOMAS JENIFER, DANIEL CARROLL. VIRGINIA. JOHN BLAIR, JAMES MADISON, JR. NORTH CAROLINA. WILLIAM BLOUNT, RICHARD DOBBS SPAIGHT, HUGH WILLIAMSON. SOUTH CAROLINA. JOHN RUTLEDGE, CHARLES C. PINCKNEY, CHARLES PINCKNEY, PIERCE BUTLER. GEORGIA. WILLIAM FEW, ABRAHAM BALDWIN. WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. AMENDMENTS To the Constitution of the United States, Ratified according to the Provisions of the Fifth Article of the Foregoing Constitution. ARTICLE I. Congress shall *xnake no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and. to petition the government for redress of grievances. ARTICLE TI. A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE VII. What was necessary for the adoption of this Constitution ? (Note, p. 143.) In what year was it adopted? . AMENDMENTS. (Notes. The first ten amendments were proposed in 1789 at the first session of the First Con- gress, and in 1791 were declared adopted. They are of the nature of a Bill of Eights, and were passed in order to satisfy those who complained that the Constitution did not suCBciently guard the rights of the people.) ARTICLE I. What guarantees are provided concerning religious freedom? Freedom of speech and the press? Peaceable assembly and petition? ARTICLE II. What guarantee is given with regard to the right of bearing arms ? CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 349 ARTICLE HE. No soldiers shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be pre- scribed by law. ARTICLE IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- lated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. ARTICLE V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war and public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor to be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. ARTICLE ~VT. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusa- tion ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory pro- cess for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. ARTICLE "VTL In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall bo otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of common law. ARTICLE VTTT. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im- posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. ARTICLE IX. The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu- tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. AETICLE III. What is provided with regard to quartering soldiers upon citizens? ARTICLE IV. What is provided with regard to unreasonable searches and warrants T ABTICLB V. What provisions are made with regard to a trial for capital offenses T Can a person be tried twice for the same crime? Can a criminal be forced to witness against himself? When can private property be taken for the public use? AKTICLK VI. What important rights are secured to the accused in case of a criminal prosecution ? * AHTICLK VII. When is the right of jury trial guaranteed? How must a fact tried by a jury be re-examined? AKTICLB VIII. What guarantee is given with regard to excessive bail or fine and unusual punishment? AKTICLK IX. Does the enumeration of certain rights in the Constitution have any effect upon those not enu- merated ? ABTICLK X. What declaration la made concerning the powers neither delegated to Congress nor forbidden the states? 350 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. AJRTICXiE XL The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. ARTICLiE XU. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as Presi- dent, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate ; the president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the Presi- dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice- President, if such number be a majority of the whole rnamber of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, - the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole num- ber shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. ARTICXiE Xm. SECTION 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the person shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. SECTION 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XI. (Note. This amendment was proposed at the first session of the Third Congress, 1794, and declared adopted in 1798.) What restriction is placed on the judicial power of the United States? Can the citizen!) of one state bring a suit against another state? ABTICLE XII. (Note. This amendment was proposed at the first session of the Eighth Congress, 1803, and declared adopted In 1804. It grew up out of the contest in the House of Representatives at the time of Jeflerson's election ; he was not chosen until the 36th ballot.) Describe in full the mode of choosing the President by the electors. The Vice-President. State the essential qualifications of the Vice-President. (See Art. II., Sec. 1, Clause 4.) In case there is no choice by the electors, how is the President elected ? Describe the mode of election in the House. If a President should not be chosen by March 4, who would act as President ? . ARTICLE XIII. (Note, This amendment was proposed at the second session of the Thirty-eighth Congress, 1886, nd declared adopted in 1865. It grew out of the Ciril War. See p. 282.) Eepeat the amendment abolishing Blavtry and involuntary servitude in the United States, CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 851 ARTICLE XIV. SECTION 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. SECTION 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several States accord- ing to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. SECTION 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to sup- port the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove such disability. SECTION 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pension and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not bo questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. SECTION 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XV. SECTION 1. The rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. SECTION 2. Congress shall havo power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XIV. (Note. This amendment was adopted In 1868. See p. 284.) Section 1. Who are citizens of the United States? What restrictions are laid upon the states with regard to abridging the rights of citizens 7 Sestton 1. How are representatives apportioned among the several states ? How does this amend Art. I., Seo. 2, Clause 3? Section 3. What persons are prohibited from holding any office under the United States T How may this dis- ability be removed? Section 4. Repeat the provision with regard to the validity of the public debt. With regard to any debt incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion. AKTICLK XV. (Note. This amendment was adopted la 1870. See page 288.) Repeat tbe amendment granting universal suffrage. 352 TABLE OF STATES. ll I 6= jz S ,k *- .a 8;s ;s M *? 2 5 21 i Bag :i * ^ o-g I I -g 3 55 I 1 BMg iS^ O ^5 02 fc -^ > M '0881 j> S So S S T-C 10 TH '68 'YSHY at oo * oi co I PI S *S 05 O 00 l ft 00 S PU a s I 2 i ^ 5 i o s s .. - ^ g fl fl w fl A a III B 11 ^ 5 -s o K H s , I i I i I f c 6 s s S I g ^ M H O eo i- oo OS TABLE OF STATES. 353 fe .8 S fe o 5J *t ui c< T-I 3s to S 5? fe c i-<_ o T- r- o i-T rt 1C -g* T* IQ i-i SO_ 5 o 5 M tfl 5 fl a n 8 2 g- o c %? e -^ S fl" a*? -a 'aw'Oi*<'oa -o< a 5 ,5 g 5 8 ts ffi 354 TABLE OF THE PRESIDENTS. m X x -HI "B-S-S- iS.z.sS 'WPndi IlltS .! 111, ceg 3 " C i> ^^ HO . k *i SI,. rftilll^S %* tM lyiipp -^ . " a s^ b^~^ ga5iS'^i2iliS1i 1*1* sj Hd^ p |||||i g|ljj p /sSw^. . 03 . J5Sl>^J'i> fe-c;>Sfe- 9 a it S '3 M( S S3 fe -3 . OJ O^J | O lei I | ^SiB,? OOO O i-l tOt-COOS INDEX Tliis Index refers to the notes at the bottom of the paye as well as the text of the book. AOADIA, named, 32 ; depopulated, 85. Adams and Jackson contrasted, 175. Adams, John, the patriot, 102-104 ; Dec- laration of Independence, 114 ; Pres- ident, 154. Adams, John Quincy, 174. Adams, Samuel, 103. Agricultural Colleges, founding of, 309. Alabama, admission of, 203 : secession of, 198. Alabama and Kearsarge, 268. Alamo, attack on, 205. Alaska, purchase of, 284 ; territory, 298. Albany, 65. Alexandria, seizure of, 217. Algiers, treaty with, 153; Decatur at, 171. Alien and Sedition Laws, 154. Allen, Ethan, 110. Amendment, Fifteenth, 288; Four- teenth, 284; Thirteenth, 282, 350. Ames, Fisher, 310. Amnesty Proclamation, 282. Anderson, Maj. R., 199. Andre, execution of, 136. Andros, Governor Edmund, of New England, 59 ; demands charter of Connecticut, 63 ; governor of New York, 67. Antietam, battle of, 241. Antiquities, American, 9. Anti-rent difficulties, 182. Appomattox Court House, surrender at, 275. Arkansas, admission of, 204 ; secession of, 217. Arkansas Post taken, 230. Arlington Heights, seizure of, 217. Arnold, Benedict, at Ticonderoga, 110 ; at Quebec, 112 ; relieves Fort Schuy- ler, 122 ; at Saratoga, 124 ; treason of, 135; in Virginia, 139; at New London, 140. Arthur, Chester A., 296, 297, 301. Atlanta, advance upon, 256; capture of, 257. Atlantic Cable, 285. Attainder, bill of, 343. Averysboro, battle of, 272. Ayllon, De, 27. BACON'S REBELLION, 52. Bailey, Col. Joseph, 265. Baker, Colonel E. D., 221. Balboa, 27. Ball's Bluff, battle of, 220. Baltimore, Lord, 72. Baltimore, Massachusetts troops at, 217 Bank of United States, 152, 176, 181. Banks, General N. P., in Shenandoah, 237; at Port Hudson, 245; in Red River Expedition, 265. Barton, Colonel William, 121. Beaufort, capture of, 232. Beauregard, General P. G. T., at Fort Sumter, 216; at Bull Run, 219; at Shiloh, 226; at Bermuda Hundred, 262. Belmont, battle of, 221. Bennington, battle of, 123. Bentonville, battle of, 272. Bermuda Hundred, battle at, 262. Big Bethel, skirmish at, 218. Big Black River, battle of, 245. Bill, how one becomes a law, 340. Black Hawk War, 177. Bland Silver Bill, 295. Blennerhassett, Harman, 157. Blockade, the, 267. Boone, Daniel, 201. Boonville, battle of, 221. Boston, massacre in, 104; Port Bill, 105; Tea Party at, 105; evacuation of, 112 ; fire at, 289. Boundary, north-east, 180 ; north-west. 183. 356 INDEX. Braddock, General Edward, 84. Bragg, General Braxton, at Buena Vista, 187; invades Kentucky, 228; at Chickamauga, 246 ; at Chatta- nooga, 247. Brandywine, battle of, 119. Brooklyn Bridge, 298. Brooks, Preston S., assails Sumner, 195. Brown, John, 197. Bryant, "William Cullen, 310. Buchanan, James, 196. Buckner, Gen. S. B., 225. Buell, General D. C., 225, 226, 228. Buena Vista, battle of, 186. Bull Run, first battle, 219 ; second, 241. Bunker TTin, battle of, 108. Burgoyne, invasion of, 121-125. Burnside, General Ambrose E., expedi- tion to Roanoke Island, 232 ; at An- tietam, 242; at Predericksburg, 242. Burr, Aaron, 155-157. Butler, General B. P., 218, 231, 262, 266. CABINET, the formation of, 151. Cabot, John, 25. Cabot, Sebastian, 25. Cabrillo, 29. Calhoun, John C., 173, 176. California, admission of, 206; ceded to United States, 208 ; gold discovered in, 190. Camden, battle of, 133. Carnifex Perry, battle of, 218. Carolina, secession of South, 198 ; seces- sion of North, 217. Carolinas, settlement of, 74. Caroline, burning of the, 180. Carrick's Pord, battle of, 218. Carpet-baggers, 284. Carthage, battle of, 221. Cartier, 30. Cedar Creek, battle of, 264. Cedar Mountain, battle of, 240. Centennial Anniversaries, 291 ; Exhibi- tion, 292. Center of population, 304. Cerro Gordo, battle of, 188. Chambersburg, burning of, 264. Champion Hills, battle of, 245. Champlain, 32. Chancellorsville, battle of, 250. Chantilly, battle of, 241. Chapultepec, capture of, 189. Charleston, settlement of, 74 ; in Revo- lution, 129, 132, 133 ; in Civil War, 254, 272 ; earthquakes at, 301. Charter, definition of, 315. Chattanooga, battle of, 247. Cheat Mountain, battle of, 218. Chesapeake and Leopard, 158. Chesapeake and Shannon, 166. Chicago, massacre at (Fort Dearborn), 203 ; fire at, 288. Cnickamauga, battle of, 246. China, treaties with, 286, 295. Chinese Immigration forbidden, 298. Chippewa, battle of, 168. Chrysler's Pield, battle of, 163. Churubusco, battle of, 189. Citizens of "United States, definition of, 351. Civil Rights Bill, 283. Civil Service Reform, 298. Clay, Henry, Missouri Compromise, 172 ; Compromise Bill, 176 ; nominated President, 184 ; Omnibus Bill, 193. Clayborne's Rebellion, 70. Cleveland, Grover, 299. Clinton, Sir Henry, 114, 127, 128, 136, 139. Clinton, Gov. George, 308. Cold Harbor, battle of, 261. Coligny, 31. Colleges, 92, 96, 309. Colonial life, 91. Colorado, admission of, 301. Columbia, S. C., capture of, 272. Columbia River, discovery of, 208. Columbus, Christopher, 20-24. Commissions, Sanitary and Christian, 269., Compromise, Missouri, 172 ; of 1850, 193. Confederacy, Southern, formed, 199. Confederate Cruisers, 268. Confederate currency, 267. Congress, composition of, 341. Congress, Pirst Continental, 106. Connecticut, 61. Constitution, adoption of Pederal, 143 ; authors of, 310. Constitution and Guerriere, 161. Constitution of United States, 338 ; fif- teen amendments to, 348. Continental money, 134. Contreras, battle of, 189. Convention, Hartford, 169. Conway cabal, the, 126. Cooper, James Penimore, 310. Cooper, Peter, 293, 306. Copyright, length of, 342. Corinth, battle of, 228. Cornwallis, Earl, pursues Washington, 116; at Brandywine, 119; at Cam- den, 133 ; pursues Greene, 137 : sur- render of, 140. Cotton, 172, 198, 306. Cowpens, battle of the, 137. Crisis of '37, the, 178. Crockett, David, 205. INDEX. 357 Cross Keys, battle of, 237. Crown Point, attack on, 86; capture of, 111. Cuba, invasion of, 193. Cumberland, loss of the, 233. Custer, Q-en. George A., 292. DADE'S MASSACRE, 177. Dahlgren, Col. Ulric, 259. Dallas, battle of, 257. Dalton, battle of, 257. Danbury, burning of, 120. Darling, Port, 236. Davis, Jefferson, 199, 275. De Ayllon, 27. Decatur, Lieut. Stephen, 157. Deerfield, burning of, 79. Delaware, 69. De Leon, Ponce, 26. Democratic party, 173 ; elects Jackson, 174 ; elects Van Buren, 178 ; elects Polk, 184 ; elects Pierce, 194 ; elects Buchanan, 196 ; elects Cleveland, 300. De Monts, 32. De Narvaez, 27. De Soto, Hernando (Ferdinand), 27. D'Estaing, Count Charles Hector, 129. Detroit, surrender of, 160. District of Columbia, 150. Donaldson's Point, 227. Donelson, Fort, surrender of, 225. Doniphan, Colonel, 188. Dorr's Rebellion, 181. Douglas, Stephen A., "The Little Gi- ant", 197. Draft riot in New York city, 252. Drake, Sir Francis, 35, 42. Dranesville, skirmish at, 221. Dred Scott decision, the, 196. Dress, 93, 111, 210. Duquesne, Fort, 84, 85. Dustin, Mrs., capture of, 77. Dutch Manners and Customs, 95. Duties, definition of, 341. EARLY, GEN. JUBAL A., 219, 263, 264. Edward, Fort, massacre at, 86. Education, 96, 210, 308. Ellsworth, Col. Elmer E., 217. Elmira, battle near, 131. Emancipation Proclamation, 242, 244. Embargo (" O Grab me ") Act, the, 158. Emerson, Ralph "W., 311. Ericsson, John, 234. Erie Canal, by Gov. Dewitt Clintor>, 174. Espejo, 29. Eutaw Springs, battle of, 138. Ewell, Gen. R. S., 237, 253, 274. Excises, definition of, 341. Ex-post-facto law, 343. FAIR OAKS, battle of, 238. -t Farragut, Capt. D. G., at New Orleans, 231 ; above Vicksburg, 232 ; at Mo- bile, 266. Federalist, the, 310. Federalists, the, 143, 153, 159, 171. Fenians, 284. Field, Cyrus W., 286. Filibusters, 193. Fillmore, Millard, 191, 192. Fisher, Fort, capture of, 267. Fisher's Hill, battle of, 264. Fishery Award, 295. Five Forks, battle of, 273. Florida, discovery of, 27 ; purchase of, 173 ; secession of, 198 ; admission of, 205. Foote, A. H., 224. Forrest, Gen. N. B., 265. France, aid from, 126 ; Genet recalled to, 153 ; Hostilities with, 155 ; pay- ment by, 178. Franklin, Benjamin, 105, 127. Franklin, battle of, 258. Frayser's Farm, encounter at, 239. Fredericksburg, battle of, 242. Freedmen's Bureau, 283. Free Soil party, 192, 193. Fremont, J. C., 188, 196, 221, 237. Frenchtown, Indian atrocities at, 164. Frolic and Wasp, 162. Fugitive Slave Law, 193, 197. Fulton, Robert, 157. GADSDEN PURCHASE, 195. Gage, Gen. Thomas, 105, 106, 113. Games' Mill, battle of, 239. Galveston, capture of, 251. Garfield, James A., 296. Gates, Gen. Horatio, 122, 133. Genet, difficulties with, 153. Georgia, settlement of, 76 ; secession of, 198. Germantown, battle of, 120. Gettysburg, battle of, 252. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 36. Gillmore, Gen. Q. A., 254, 270. Goffe, the regicide, 58. Gosnold, 38. Grand Model, the, 75. Grant, Ulysses S., at Belmont, 221 ; at Forts Henry and Donelson, 224 ; capt- ures Vicksburg, 245 ; at Chattanooga, 247 ; made Lieutenant-General, 255 ; overland campaign, 260 ; before Rich- mond, 262 ; elected President, 286 ; death of, 287 ; funeral of, 300. 358 INDEX. Greeley, Horace, 200. Greenback Party, 293, 296. Greene, Gen. Nathaniel, 137, 138. k Griswold, Fort, 140. Guilford Court House, battle of, 138. HALE, CAPTAIN NATHAN, 115. Halleck, Gen. H. W., 221, 227. Hamilton, Alexander, plans of, 152 ; death, of, 156 ; contributes to Feder- alist, 310. Hancock, Gen. Winfield S., 260, 296. Hanging Rock, battle of, 134. Hanover Court House, battle of, 236. Harper's Ferry, 217, 241. Harrison, William Henry, at battle of Tippecanoe, 159 ; at Thames, 165 ; elected President, 180. Harrison's Landing, 240. Hatteras Inlet, Expedition to, 222. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 311. Hayes, Gen. R. B., nominated for President, 293 ; administration of, 294. Hayne, Col. Isaac, 134. Hayne, Robert Y., 176. Hendricks, Thomas A., 293, 290, 301. Henry, Fort, 224. Henry, Patrick, 102, 310. Hermitage, the, 175. Hessians, origin of name, 115 ; at Tren- ton, 117. Holly Springs, destruction of depot at, 230. Hood, Gen. John B., 257, 258. Hooker, Gen. Joseph, at Williamsburg, 236; at Chattanooga, 247; at Chan- cellorsville, 250. Hornet and Peacock, 166. Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 166. House, Speaker of, 341. Houston, Gen. Sam., 183, 206. Howe, Gen. "William, evacuates Boston, 113 ; on Long Island, 115. Huguenots, the, 75. Hull, Capt. Isaac, 161; Gen. "William, 160. Hunter, Gen. D., 221, 261. Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, 57. ILLINOIS, admission of, 203. Imposts, definition of, 341. Independence, Declaration of, 114, 334. Indiana, admission of, 202. Indians, 10. Internal Improvements, definition of, 173. Iowa, admission of, 206. Iron-clad Oath, 284. Irving, Washington, 310. Island No. 10, capture of, 227. luka, battle of, 228. JACKSON, ANDREW, Creek war, 166 ; at New Orleans, 170 ; nominated Presi- dent, 174 ; administration of, 175. Jackson, Gen. T. J., at Bull Run, 219 ; in Shenandoah, 237 ; near Hanover Court House, 239 ; death of, 251. Jamestown, 38, 52. Japan, treaty with, 195. Jasper, Sergeant, 113, 129. Jay, Chief -Justice John, 153, 310. Jefferson, Thomas, writes Declaration of Independence, 114 ; elected "Vice- President, 154 ; nominated President, 155 ; administration of, 155. Jesuits, the, 33. Johnson, Andrew, 281. Johnson, Col. R. M., 165, 178. Johnson, Sir William, 86. Johnston, Gen. Albert Sidney, 225, 226. Johnston, Gen. Joseph E., at Bull Run, 220 ; at Williamsburg, 236 ; in Shen- andoah, 237 ; at Fair Oaks, 238 ; at Jackson, 245 ; before Atlanta, 257 ; at Averysboro and Bentonville, 272 ; surrender of, 279. Joint Electoral Commission, 293. Jones, Paul, victory of, 132. KALB, DE, BARON JOHN, 133. Kansas, admission of, 209 ; difficulties in, 195. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 194. Kearney, Gen. Philip, 241. Kearney, Stephen W., 187. Kearsarge sinks the Alabama, 268. Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 257. Kentucky, admission of, 200. Key, Francis S., 169. Kidd, William, 68. Kilpatrick, Gen. J. C., 259. King's Mountain, battle of, 134. Know-Nothing party, 196. Knoxville, siege of, 250. Kosciusko, 122. LABORER, the, 93, 210. La Fayette, Marquis de, at Brandy- wine, 119 ; character of, 119 ; sent against Arnold, 139 ; second visit, 173, 210. Lake Champlain, battle of, 168. Lake Erie, battle of, 164. Lake George, battle of, 86. Lancaster, 304. La Salle, Robert Cavelier de, 34. Laudonniere, 31. INDEX. 359 Lawrence sacked, 230. Lawrence, Captain James, 166. Lee, Q-en. Charles, capture of, 116 ; at Monmouth, 128; dismissed, 128. Lee, Henry, "Light-horse Harry", 134, 238. Lee, Q-en. Robert E., at Cheat Mountain, 218 ; takes command of Confederate forces, 238 ; invades Maryland, 241, 251 ; battle of "Wilderness, 260 ; sur- render of, 274. Leisler, execution of, 68. Letters of Marque, 342. Lewis and Clarke Expedition, the, 209, 302, 303. Lexington, Mass., battle of, 106. Lexington, Mo., battle of, 221. Lincoln, Abraham, nominated Presi- dent, 197 ; inauguration of, 215 ; frees the slaves, 242; assassination of, 275. Lincoln, Gen. Benjamin, 129, 132, 140. Literature, American, 309. Locofoco, origin of name, 173. Longfellow, Henry W., 311. Long Island, battle of, 114. Longstreet, Gen. Jas. S., 250. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 248. Lost Mountain, battle of, 257. Louisburg, capture of (1745), 80 ; capt- ure of (1757), 85. Louisiana, admission of, 201 ; secession of, 198. Louisiana purchase, 156, 302, 303. Lundy's Lane, battle of, 167. Lyceum Lectures, 211. Lyon, Gen. Nathaniel, 221. , COM. THOMAS, 168. Mackinaw., surrender of, 160. Madison, James, 159, 310. Magellan, 26, 43. Magruder, Gen. J. B., 235. Maine, settlement of, 60 ; admission of, 204. Malvern Hill, battle of, 239. Manassas, battles of, 235, 241. Manufactures, 142, 171, 305. Marcy's Maxim, 293. Marion, Gen. Francis, 138. Marquette, Father, 33. Maryland, settlement of, 72; invasion of, 241. Mason and Dixon's line, 72. Mason and Slidell, 222. Massachusetts, 53. Maximilian in Mexico, 285. Mayflower, 53. McAlister, Port, capture of, 259. McClellan, Gen. George B., at Philippi, Rich Mountain, and Carrick's Ford, 218 ; made General-in-Chief, 220 ; in Peninsular Campaign, 235; at Antietam, 241; democratic candi- date, 269. McCrea, murder of Miss, 121. McDowell, Gen. Irvin, 219, 236, 237. McHenry, Fort, bombardment of, 169. Meade, Gen. George G., 252. Mechanic Arts, 305. Mechanicsville, battle of, 239. Meigs, Fort, siege of, 164. Memphis, surrender of, 227. Menendez, 29. Merrimac and Monitor, 233. Merrtmac (Virginia), destruction of, 235. Mexico, war with, 185 ; treaty with, 190 ; boundary of, 195 ; French in, 284; treaty with, 299. Mexico, battles before, 189. Michigan, admission of, 204. Miller, Col. James, 168. Mill Spring, battle of, 224. Minims, Fort, massacre at, 166. Mine Explosion, the, 262. Minnesota, admission of, 208. Mississippi, admission of, 202 ; seces- sion of, 198. Mississippi Company and John Law, 202. Mississippi River, discovery of, 28. Missouri Compromise, the, 172. Missouri, admission of, 204. Mister, the title of, 94, 210. Mobile, 204, 304. Modoc Indians, 291. Monitor, the, 233. Monmouth, battle of, 127. Monocacy, battle of, 263. Monroe Doctrine, the, 173. Monroe, James, 172. Montcalm, Marquis de, 87, 89. Monterey, capture of, 186. Montgomery, Gen. Richard, 112. Monticello, home of Jefferson, 156. Montreal, surrender of, 89. Morgan, Gen. Daniel, 121, 124, 137. Morgan, Gen. John H., 246. Mormons, the, 182. Morris, Robert, 135, 139. Morse, Sam. F. B., 183. Motte, Mrs., anecdote of, 138. Moultrie, Col. William, 113. Moultrie, Fort, attack on, 113; Ander- son at, 199. Mound Builders, the, 10. Mount Vernon, home of "Washington, 150. Murfreesboro, battle of, 229. Mutiny Act, 103. 360 INDEX. NASHVILLE, battle of, 258. Naturalization, process of, 342. Navigation Act, 51. Nebraska, admission of, 301. Negro soldiers, 254. Nelson, Q-ov. Thomas, 140. Nevada, admission of, 277. New Amsterdam, 65. New Bern, capture of, 232. New England manners and customs, 03, 144. New Hampshire, 60. New Hampshire Grants, 111. New Haven Colony, 63. New Jersey, 68. New Market, battle of, 261. New Netherland, 65. New Orleans, battle of, 169; capture of, 230; cotton exposition at, 298. Newport, attack on, 128. Newspapers and journalism, 93, 97, 311. New York, 65. New York City, fire in, 179; riot in, 252. Niagara, Port, capture of, 87. Norfolk (Portsmouth) Navy-yard, 217, 235. North-east Boundary, 180. Northmen, the, 15. North-west Boundary, 183. North-western Territory, 201, 302. Nullification, 175. OGLETHORPE, Gk>v. JAS. EDWARD, 76, 80. Ohio, admission of, 201. Okechobee, battle of, 178. Old Ironsides, 161. Omnibus Bill, 193. Ord, Gen. E. O. C., 221. Oregon, admission of, 208. Osceola, 177. Oswego, Fort, 87, 303. Otis, James, 103, 310. PACIFIC, discovery of the, 27 ; railroad, 287. Palo Alto, battle of, 185. Patent, definition of, 315. Patent, extent of, 342. Patriot "War, the, 179. Patroons, the, 65, 95. Pea Ridge, battle of, 230. Perm, "William, founds Pennsylvania, 69 ; founds Philadelphia, 70 ; treaty with Indians, 71 ; gives up Dela- ware, 72 ; life of, 69. Pennsylvania, 69. Pequod War, the, 62. Perry, Oliver H., 164. Perryville, battle of, 228. Petersburg, attack on, 262 ; capture of, 273. Philadelphia, 70, 95, 150. Philadelphia, Frigate, destroyed, 157. Philip, Indian chief, 57. Philippi, battle of, 218. Pickens, Fort, 223. Piedmont, battle of, 262. Pierce, Franklin, 194. Pike, Gen. Z. M., 163, 303. Pilgrims, landing of the, 53. Pilgrims versus Puritans, 53. Pillow, Fort, capture of, 265. Pinckney, Charles C., 155. Pitcher, Major Molly, 128. Pitt, "William, 85, 99. Pittsburg Landing, battle at, 225. Pittsburgh, named, 85. Plains of Abraham, 87. Plattsburg and Lake Champlain, battle of, 168. Pleasant Hill, battle of, 265. Pocahontas, 48, 49. Poe, Edgar Allan, 311. Polk, James K., 185. Pope, Gen. John, 240. Porter, D. D., 265, 266. Porter, Gen. Fitz John, 236, 239. Port Gibson, battle of, 245. Port Hudson, surrender of, 246. Port Republic, encounter at, 237. Port Royal Entrance, S. C., capture of, 222. Port Royal, N. S., founded, 32. Postage, 298, 305. Post Offices and mails, 93, 304. Powhatan, 48. Prescott, Gen., capture of, 121. President and Little Belt, 160. Presidential Electors, 344. Presidential Succession, in case of va- cancy, 301, 344. President, method of electing, 343, 350. President, salary of, 344. President's Message, 345. Presidential Succession, 300. Princeton, battle of, 118. Printing Press, 93, 307. Privateers, Confederate, 222. Providence, 64, 303. Public lands, 194, 308. Pulaski, Count, 129. Pulaski, Fort, reduction of, 233. Puritans, the, 53. Putnam, Gen. Israel, 108, 130. QUAKERS, the, 57, 69. Quebec, attack on, 87; surrender of, 89 ; battle of, 112. Queenstown, battle of, 161. INDEX. 361 RAILROAD, the first, 174, 306. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 36. Rail, death of, 117. Randolph, John, 153. Reconstruction, 282. Red River Expedition, 265. Representatives, U. S., how chosen, 338 ; number of in House, 338. Republican (Democratic - Republican) party, rise of, 153 ; elects Jefferson, 155 ; Madison, 159 ; Monroe, 172 ; called democratic, 173. Republican (National) nominates J. Q. Adams for second term, 174. Republican Party, rise of, 190; elects Lincoln, 197, 269 ; elects Grant, 286, 291 ; elects Hayes, 293 ; elects Gar- field, 296. Resaca, Ga., battle of, 257. Resaca de la Palma, battle of, 185. Resumption of specie payments, 295. Revere, Paul, 105, 106. Rhode Island, 64. Ribaut, John, 31. Richmond, siege of, 262 ; capture of, 273. Rich Mountain, battle of, 218. Roanoke Island, 36, 232. Rolfe, John, 49. Rome, 122, 304. Rosecrans, Gen. W. S., 228, 229, 246. Rotation in office, 175, 293. liussy, Fort de, capture of, 2G5. SABINE CROSS-ROADS, battle of, 265. Sackett's Harbor, attack on, 163. Saint Augustine, founded, 29. Salt Lake City, 183. San Domingo, 289. San Francisco, 207. San Jacinto, battle of, 206. Santa Anna, 187, 189, 205. Santa Fe, founded, 29. Saratoga, battles of, 123. Saratoga Springs, 304. Savage's Station, battle at, 239. Savannah, capture of, 129 ; port closed, 233 ; Sherman at, 259. Savannah, first steamer to cross At- lantic, 306. Schenectady, attack on, 77. Schofield, Gen. John M., 258, 272. Schuyler, Fort, 122. Schuyler, Gen. Philip, 121. Scott, Gen. Winfield, at Chippewa and Lundy's Lane, 168 ; in Mexico, 188 ; retires from active service, 220. Sedgwick, Gen. John, 260. Seminoles, war with, 177. Semmes, Capt. R., 222. Senators, U. S., how chosen, 339. Seven-Days Battles, 239. Seward, attack on William H., 275. Shaw, Colonel, of colored troops, 254. Shays' Rebellion, 143. Sheridan, Gen. Phil. H., at Murfrees- boro, 229 ; in Shenandoah, 264 ; at Five Forks, 273. Sherman, Gen. W. T., at Chickasaw Bayou, 230 ; at Knoxville, 250 ; be- fore Atlanta, 256 ; march to the sea, 259 ; march through the Carolinas, 271. Shiloh, battle of, 225. Sigel, Gen. Franz, 221, 201. Silver Bill, the r 295. Sioux, war with the, 244. Slavery, introduction of, 50 ; question of, 172, 193, 196-198, 242. Slave-trade prohibited, 343. Slemmer, Lieut. A. J., 223. Smith, Capt. John, 46. Smith, Gen. Kirby, 219, 228. Smith, Joseph, 183. South Mountain, battle of, 241. Spain, treaty with, 153 ; cedes Florida to the United States, 173. Specie Payments, 295. Spottsylvania, battle of, 260. Squatter sovereignty, 194. Stamp Act, the, 102, 103. Stanton, Edwin M., 284. Stark, Col. John, 123. Stark, Mrs. Elizabeth ("Betty"), 123. Star Route Frauds, 297. Star Spangled Banner, the sonc of, 100. State Rights, doctrine of, 170. Steadman, Fort, attack on, 272. Steam-boat, 157, 306. Steele, Mrs., anecdote of, 138. Steele, John, 62. Stephens, Alex. H., 176, 199. Stephenson, Fort, battle of, 1G4. St. Louis, 204, 304. Stony Point, capture of, 130. Stuart, Gen. J. E. B., 238, 202. Stuyvesant, Peter, 66. Sub-Treasury Bill, 179. Sullivan, Gen. John, 119, 128, 131. Sumner, Charles, 195. Sumter, Gen. Thomas, 134, 138. Sumter, Fort, Anderson at, 200 ; capt- ure of, 216 ; Gillmore besieges, 254. Supreme Court, 345. Swamp Angel, 254. Swansea, 57. TARIFF, 173, 174, 176. Tarleton, Lieut.-Col. Bannastre, 133. Taylor, Zachary, in Mexican War, 185- 187 ; elected President, 191. 362 INDEX. [Total No. pp., 408. Tea, tax on, 105. Tecumseh, Shawnee chief , 163, 163, 166. Telegram, the first, 307. Telegraph, 183 ; Submarine, 285. Tennessee, admission of, 201 ; secession of, 217. Tenure-of-office Bill, 283, 284. Terry, Gen. Alfred H., 292. Texas, annexation of, 183 ; admission of, 205 ; secession of, 198. Thames, battle of the, 165. Thomas, Gen. George H., at Chicka- mauga, 247 ; at Nashville, 258. Ticonderoga, attack on, 80 ; capture of, 110. Tilden, Samuel J., 293. Tippecanoe, battle of, 159. Tobacco, 37, 50. fTown Meetings in New England, 96. Travel, slowness of early, 93, 145, 304. Treaty of Paris, 142 ; with Spain, 153 ; of Ghent, 169 ; the Ashburton, 180 ; the Oregon, 184 ; with Mexico, 190 ; of Washington, 289. Trent affair, the, 222. Trenton, battle of, 116. Tripoli, 157. Tyler, John, 180, 181. -.N UNITED COLONIES of New England, 57. United States, capital of, at New York, 150 ; at Philadelphia, 150 ; at Wash- ington, 150. Utica, 303. VALLEY FORGE, winter in, 125. Van Buren, Martin, 178. Van Dorn, Gen. Earl, 228. Vera Cruz, capture of, 188. Vermont, admission of, 200. Verrazani, 30. Vesputius, Americus, 24. Vice-President, method of electing, 143, 350. Vicksburg, first expedition against, 230 ; second expedition, 244. Virginia, settlement of, 46 ; secession of, 217. Virginia, West, admission of, 218, 277. WAONEE, Fort, capture of, 254. Wagons, 145. Wallace, Gen. Lew, 228, 263. Walloons, the, 65. War, Black Hawk, 177. " Creek, 166. " French and Indian, 81. " King George's, 80. " King Philip's, 57. War, King William's, 77. " Mexican, 185. " Pequod, 62. " Pontiac's, 90. " Queen Anne's, 79. " Seminole, 177. " Spanish, 80. Wan-en, Gen. Joseph, 110. Washington, George, journey of, 81 ; captures Fort Duquesne, 85 ; ap- pointed commander -in -chief, 111; captures Boston, 112 ; retreat through New Jersey, 110 ; at Princeton, 118 ; in Valley Forge, 125, 126 ; at Mon- mouth, 127 ; at Yorktown, 139 ; ad- dresses officers at Newburg, 142 : inaugurated President, 149 ; life of, 150. Washington, Col. William A., 137. Washington, made capital of the United States, 150 ; capture of, by British, 169. Washington, Fort, taken, 116. Waxhaw Creek, battle of, 133. Wayne, Gen. Anthony, 130, 152. Webster, Daniel, 193. Webster, Noah, author of spelling-book and dictionary, 210. Weldon Railroad, seized, 263. Western Reserve, the, 194. Wethersfield, 63. Wheeler, William A., 293. Whig party, 173 ; elects Harrison, 180 ; nominates Clay, 184 ; elects Taylor, 191 ; nominates Scott, 194 ; dies, 196. Whiskey Rebellion, 152. Whitefield, George, 76. White Plains, battle of, 116. Whitney, Eli, 172, 306. Whittier, John G., 311. Wilderness, battle of the, 260. Williams, Roger, founds Providence, 57; Pequod War, 62. Williamsburg, battle of, 236. Wilmot Proviso, the, 190. Wilson's Creek, battle of, 221. Winchester, battle of, 264. Windsor, founded, 62. Winslow, Capt. J. A., 268. Winthrop, John, 62. Wisconsin, admission of, 206. Witchcraft, Salem, 60. Wolfe, Gen. James, attack on Quebec., 87 ; death of, 89. Wyoming, massacre of, 128. YORK, capture of, 163. Yorktown, sieges of, 139, 235. Young, Brigham, 183. * ' A 000 051 628 6 $. .-'.-.-/'- KJU