GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 FINAL REPORT ORDERED BY LEGISLATURE, 189L 
 
 A 
 SUMMARY DESCRIPTION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 GEOLOGY OF PENNSYLVANIA, 
 
 IN THREE VOLUMES, 
 
 A NEW GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE STATE, 
 A MAP AND LIST OF BITUMINOUS MINES, 
 
 And many Page Plate Illustrations. 
 
 By J. P. LESLEY, State Geologist. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 DESCRIBING THE 
 
 LAURENTIAN, HURONIAN, CAMBRIAN AND LOWER SILURIAN 
 FORMATIONS. 
 
 HARRIS BURG: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS 
 FOR THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.
 
 BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 His Excellency ROBERT E. PATTISON, Governor, 
 
 and cf-officio President of the Board, Harrisburg. 
 
 ARIO PARDEE, Hazleton. 
 
 WILLIAM A. INGHAM, Philadelphia. 
 
 HENRY S. ECKERT, Reading. 
 
 HENRY McCoRMiCK, Harrisburg. 
 
 CHARLES A. MINER, Wilkes-Barre. 
 
 JOSEPH WILLCOX, Philadelphia. 
 
 Louis W. HALL, Harrisburg. 
 
 SAMUEL Q. BROWN, Pleasantville. 
 
 CHARLES H. NOYES, Warren. 
 
 W. W. H. DAVIS, Doylestown. 
 
 SECRETARY OF THE BOARD. 
 WILLIAM A. INGHAM, . . Philadelphia. 
 
 STATE GEOLOGIST. 
 PETER LESLEY, Philadelphia. 
 
 Entered for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, in the year 1892, according to acts of 
 
 Congress, 
 
 By WILLIAM H. INGHAM. 
 
 Secretary of the Board of Commissioners of the Geological Sun-rii. 
 
 In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at 
 
 WASHINGTON. D. C.
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 > f SANTA BARBARA 
 
 Ptl 
 
 in I 
 
 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 
 
 To His Excellency Governor ROBERT E. PATTISON, Ex- 
 officio Chairman of the Board of Commissioners of the 
 Geological Survey of Pennsylvania : 
 
 SIR : I have the honor to submit to your approval this 
 First Volume of the Final Report ordered by act of Legis- 
 lature, approved in June, 1891 ; being a Summary of the 
 results of the Survey from its beginning in June 1874 to 
 the close of its field work, June 1, 1890 ; since which date 
 office work has been continued for the completion of its 
 publications ; chiefly the last sheets of the Anthracite sur- 
 vey, the maps and sections of the survey of the New Red 
 belt of Bucks and Montgomery counties, the completion of 
 the Bituminous colliery map of Western Pennsylvania, 
 and a new Geological State Map. These will be published 
 in the coming summer, together with the Second and Third 
 volumes of this Final Report. 
 
 In writing this Summary I have quoted from more than 
 a hundred volumes of reports published by the Board 
 since 1875, a complete list of which, with an Index to their 
 subjects, will be found at the close of the third volume. 
 
 In every case I have given credit to and thrown respon- 
 sibility upon the assistant geologist who made the obser- 
 vation, or reported the fact quoted, by a reference in text 
 or foot note to date and page of his report. 
 
 Most of the illustrations are photo-electrotype reduc- 
 tions, and therefore fac-similes of the drawings made by 
 the assistant geologists, or in the office of the Survey 
 from their sketches, or from data in the text of their re- 
 ports, published in their reports during the course of the 
 Survey. 
 
 The smaller illustrations are grouped on page plates to
 
 iv GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 diminish the cost of the publication and to hasten its com- 
 pletion. They form in fact an illustrated index to the 
 maps and sections to be found (on a larger scale) in the 
 series of reports. 
 
 The names and districts of all the assistants on the sur- 
 vey will be found in a list at the end of the third volume. 
 
 I have endeavored to confine the text of the book to 
 general and systematic statements; and have therefore 
 placed all the detailed local and ancillary matter in foot 
 notes. I trust that this will accommodate the reader as 
 much as it has lessened the size of the book. 
 
 I have written it also in Saxon English, as far as a 
 work of physical science can be so written, as it is in- 
 tended for the use of the people of Pennsylvania, in whose 
 vocabulary Norman English has never been domesticated, 
 who greatly prefer before and after, or before and behind, 
 to anterior and posterior, and overlaid and underlaid to 
 superimposed and subjacent, as I do myself, and who are 
 mostly or wholly ignorant of Latin and Greek. 
 
 Although the personal element can never be entirely 
 suppressed from any work of man, I have endeavored to 
 avoid dogmatic statements not made by a consensus of 
 the geological opinion of to-day, and to place the many 
 differences of that opinion still remaining unsolved in 
 such a light as to show that our science is not an oligarchy 
 but a democratic republic, in which every voice has a right 
 to be heard, and that even after the vote has been taken 
 there remains the right of calling for a re-consideration 
 of it. 
 
 The book is almost wholly a practical description of facts 
 discovered or verified by the observation of the members 
 of the corps of the Geological Survey in their several dis- 
 tricts, not at all influenced by geological theories, but sim- 
 ply seen and measured, and placed in their true relations 
 to one another. 
 
 The arrangement of the book will be seen by consulting 
 the Table of Contents. The order of description is chrono- 
 logical from oldest to newest, but the representation of 
 of each formation is made as in a columnar section from
 
 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. V 
 
 the top to the bottom, by which the mental conception of 
 the pile of strata is enforced by the eye. A descriptive 
 section with the bottom bed on top is an old-fashioned 
 abomination repudiated now by all good geologists. 
 
 The page plates of fossils, placed in all cases at the end 
 of the chapters of the several formations, are half -sized re- 
 productions of the figures of fossils given in Report P4, 
 Dictionary of the Fossils of Pennsylvania and the sur- 
 rounding States, published in 3 volumes in 1889-1890.* 
 
 The Dictionary has been so successful that the demand 
 for it has long since outrun the edition ; and the office of 
 the survey is in receipt of requests for it which cannot be 
 answered because the edition is exhausted. It has been a 
 completely successful experiment. But there has been a 
 call for the classification of the figures under the head of the 
 formations to which the fossils properly belong, and I have 
 endeavored to meet this call by grouping the figures of each 
 formation in a series of page plates, which will sufficiently 
 index the Dictionary for geological purposes. 
 
 In the case of each series the grouping begins with plants, 
 and proceeding upward in the order of life through species 
 of bryozoa and corals, brachiopod, gasteropod, cephalopod, 
 phyllopod and lamillibranch shells, annelids, crustaceans, 
 insects, and vertebrate fish and reptiles, so far as the for- 
 mation in question contains these. Where references to 
 authority and locality are wanting the reader must consult 
 the Dictionary. These page plates are for popular instruc- 
 tion and not for the use of experts. 
 
 J. P. LESLEY, 
 
 1008 CLINTON STRBET, PHILADELPHIA, 
 February IS, 1892. 
 
 * P4, Vol. 4, Appendix, was forbidden by the Board to be published until 
 after the final report and other publications of the survey had been printed, 
 for fear of delaying these. In consequence of this action, I have been pre- 
 cluded from inserting in these page plates many of the fossil forms found in 
 Pennsylvania and elsewhere recently, many of them of the most inter- 
 esting character.
 
 VOL. I. 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 I. Our Geological Knowledge, 1 
 
 II. Geological Time, how measured, ... . 5 
 
 III. Geological Dimension; area, outcrop, dip, 
 
 thickness, 22 
 
 IV. General sections; typical sections; local 
 
 sections; columnar sections, .... 30 
 
 V. The Appalachian sea, 35 
 
 VI. The Names of the Formations, 39 
 
 VII. Archaean, Azoic, Highland, Laurentian, Fun- 
 damental gneiss, Crystalline schists, . 53 
 VIII. Archaean Highland Belt in Pa. and N. J , 63 
 Archaean Types in New Jersey, .... 71 
 IX. Archaean rocks of Pa., Reading and Dur- 
 ham hills, 74 
 
 In northern Chester county, 75 
 
 In Bucks, Montgomery and Delaware 
 
 counties, 79 
 
 On the Schuylkill river, 91 
 
 X. Are the Archaean rocks sedimentary ? . . 95 
 
 The argument from Olivine, 98 
 
 The argument from Serpentine, .... 101 
 
 Delaware Co. serpentines, 102 
 
 Chester Co. serpentines, 103 
 
 Lancaster Co. serpentines, 104 
 
 Northampton Co. serpentines, .... 105 
 
 The argument from Labradorite, . . . 107 
 
 The argument from Marble, 109 
 
 The argument from Apatite, 113 
 
 The argument from Iron ore, 115
 
 viii GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Chapter. Page> 
 
 XL The Newer Gneiss of the Philadelphia belt, 118 
 
 Its three sub-divisions, 120 
 
 1. The Philadelphia(lower) sub-division, 121 
 
 2. The Manayunk (middle) sub-division, 122 
 
 3. The Chestnut Hill(upper)sub-division, 123 
 The Chestnut Hill fault, 125 
 
 XII. The Philadelphia rocks in Chester, Lancas- 
 ter and York counties, 127 
 
 The Newer Gneiss in York county, . . 128 
 
 The Newer gneisses in Maryland, . . . 130 
 
 XIII. Hydro-mica slate formation; phyllite belts 
 
 of York and Lancaster counties ; South 
 
 Valley Hill slate of Chester Co., . . 133 
 
 Main York Co. phyllite belt 134 
 
 Southern or Peach Bottom belt, ... 136 
 
 Peach Bottom roofing slates, 137 
 
 XIV. Geology of the South Mountains, .... 142 
 XV. The Huronian System, so called, 152 
 
 XVI. For. No. I, Chiques sandstone, Hellam 
 quartzite, North Valley Hill sandstone 
 of Chester Co., Potsdam sandstone, 
 Upper Cambrian quartzite, Sugar Loaf 
 
 sandstone of Md., 165 
 
 No. I on the Susquehanna, 168 
 
 The Chiques Ridge fault, 171 
 
 No. I, east of the Lancaster plain, . . . 173 
 
 Rogers' Primal in the Chester Valley, . 175 
 
 No. I in the Highland range, 179 
 
 No. I in Southern Chester Co., . . . 181 
 
 No. I in Southern York Co., 182 
 
 No. I in the Pigeon Hill, 182 
 
 No. I along the South Mountains, ... 183 
 
 No. I in Middle Pennsylvania, .... 186 
 
 XVII. On Scolithus linearis, 187 
 
 XVIII. On Cambrian fossil life, . . 192 
 
 XIX. South Valley Hill slate belt, 199 
 
 XX. Iron mines in the Primal Upper Slate, . . 205 
 
 York county limonite banks, 211
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX 
 
 Chapter. Page. 
 
 Banks north of York, 214 
 
 Banks west of York, 215 
 
 Banks of the Pigeon Hills, 216 
 
 Banks near Hanover, 217 
 
 Banks south of the York Valley lime- 
 stone, 219 
 
 Banks in the York Co. phyllite belt. . 220 
 
 Banks in the hydromica belt S. of York, 222 
 
 Adams county limonite banks, . . 225 
 
 Lancaster county limonite banks, . . . 226 
 
 Welsh Mountain banks, 228 
 
 Northampton county limonite mines, . 229 
 
 Ranges of Northampton banks, . . . . 231 
 
 Lehigh county limonite mines, .... 233 
 
 Berks county limonite mines 235 
 
 In Oley valley, 236 
 
 Cumberland county limonite mines, . . 238 
 
 Mountain Creek limonite banks, . . . 241 
 
 Banks along Yellow Breeches creek, . 246 
 
 Franklin county limonite banks, . . . 248 
 
 Mont Alto bank, 249 
 
 Path Valley mines, 252 
 
 The two Virginia ranges, 253 
 
 Grubb'sCodorus ore in quartzite, . . . 253 
 Lehigh Mtn. Min. Co.'s mine, .... 254 
 XXI. Magnetic limonite mines doubtfully re- 
 ferred to the Primal slates, or to the 
 Gneiss, or to the Trias, in York, Ches- 
 ter and Berks counties, 256 
 
 In York county, 256 
 
 In Chester county, 262 
 
 The Warwick group 265 
 
 In Berks county, 267 
 
 XXII. On the Great Valley, 270 
 
 Levels above tide of water ways, . . . 271 
 
 The two belts, limestone and slate, . . 274 
 
 Synclinal mountains of IV in III, . 278 
 
 Anticlinal belts of II in III, 279
 
 viii GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Chapter. Page> 
 
 XI. The Newer Gneiss of the Philadelphia belt, 118 
 
 Its three sub-divisions, 120 
 
 1. The Philadeiphia(lower) sub-division, 121 
 
 2. The Manayunk (middle) sub-division, 122 
 
 3. The Chestnut Hill(upper)sub-division, 123 
 The Chestnut Hill fault, 125 
 
 XII. The Philadelphia rocks in Chester, Lancas- 
 ter and York counties, 127 
 
 The Newer Gneiss in York county, . . 128 
 
 The Newer gneisses in Maryland, . . . 130 
 
 XIII. Hydro-mica slate formation; phyllite belts 
 
 of York and Lancaster counties ; South 
 
 Valley Hill slate of Chester Co., . . 133 
 
 Main York Co. phyllite belt, 134 
 
 Southern or Peach Bottom belt, ... 136 
 
 Peach Bottom roofing slates, 137 
 
 XIV. Geology of the South Mountains, .... 142 
 XV. The Huronian System, so called, 152 
 
 XVI. For. No. I, Chiques sandstone, Hellam 
 quartzite, North Valley Hill sandstone 
 of Chester Co., Potsdam sandstone, 
 Upper Cambrian quartzite, Sugar Loaf 
 
 sandstone of Md., 165 
 
 No. I on the Susquehanna, 168 
 
 The Chiques Ridge fault, 171 
 
 No. I, east of the Lancaster plain, . . . 173 
 
 Rogers' Primal in the Chester Valley, . 175 
 
 No. I in the Highland range, 179 
 
 No. I in Southern Chester Co., . . . 181 
 
 No. I in Southern York Co., 182 
 
 No. I in the Pigeon Hill, 182 
 
 No. I along the South Mountains, ... 183 
 
 No. I in Middle Pennsylvania, .... 186 
 
 XVII. On Scolithus linearis, 187 
 
 XVIII. On Cambrian fossil life, . . 192 
 
 XIX. South Valley Hill slate belt, ..... 199 
 
 XX. Iron mines in the Primal Upper Slate, . . 205 
 
 York county limonite banks, .... 211
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX 
 
 Chapter. Page. 
 
 Banks north of York, 214 
 
 Banks west of York, 215 
 
 Banks of the Pigeon Hills, 216 
 
 Banks near Hanover, 217 
 
 Banks south of the York Valley lime- 
 stone, 219 
 
 Banks in the York Co. phyllite belt. . 220 
 
 Banks in the hydromica belt S. of York, 222 
 
 Adams county limonite banks, . . 225 
 
 Lancaster county limonite banks, . . . 226 
 
 Welsh Mountain banks, 228 
 
 Northampton county limonite mines, . 229 
 
 Ranges of Northampton banks, .... 231 
 
 Lehigh county limonite mines, .... 233 
 
 Berks county limonite mines, .... 235 
 
 In Oley valley, 236 
 
 Cumberland county limonite mines, . . 238 
 
 Mountain Creek limonite banks, . . . 241 
 
 Banks along Yellow Breeches creek, . 246 
 
 Franklin county limonite banks, . . . 248 
 
 Mont Alto bank, 249 
 
 Path Valley mines, 252 
 
 The two Virginia ranges, 253 
 
 Grubb'sCodorus ore in quartzite, . . . 253 
 Lehigh Mtn. Min. Co.'s mine, .... 254 
 XXI. Magnetic limonite mines doubtfully re- 
 ferred to the Primal slates, or to the 
 Gneiss, or to the Trias, in York, Ches- 
 ter and Berks counties, 256 
 
 In York county, 256 
 
 In Chester county, 262 
 
 The Warwick group 265 
 
 In Berks county, 267 
 
 XXII. On the Great Valley, 270 
 
 Levels above tide of water ways, . . . 271 
 
 The two belts, limestone and slate, . . 274 
 
 Synclinal mountains of IV in III, . 278 
 
 Anticlinal belts of II in III, 279
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Limestone coves in the slate belt edge, 283 
 
 Synclinal belts of III in II, 286 
 
 Southern edge of No. II, 289 
 
 Relation of South Mts. uplift toll, . . 291 
 
 XXIII. Why is there no coal in the Great Valley ? 294 
 
 XXIV. No. II. The Great Valley limestone, ... 298 
 
 Sub-division of No. II, 299 
 
 XXV. No. II in the Lehigh region, 301 
 
 The folded stratification, 306 
 
 XXVI. Limestone quarries of the Great Valley be- 
 tween the Schuylkill and Snsque- 
 
 hanua rivers, 309 
 
 Berks county quarries, 311 
 
 Lebanon county quarries, 314 
 
 Lebanon city group, 315 
 
 Annville group, 317 
 
 Dauphin county quarries, 319 
 
 Swatara quarries, 319 
 
 Hummelstown group, 320 
 
 Beaver station group, 321 
 
 Paxtang group, 322 
 
 XXVII. Limestone quarries of the Great Valley in 
 
 Cumberland and Franklin, 324 
 
 XXVIII. MagnesianbedsinNo.il, 327 
 
 Section of beds opposite -Harrisburg, . 331 
 
 Negative deductions from facts, . . . 334 
 
 Amount of magnesia present, .... 334 
 
 XXIX. Hydraulic cement quarries on the Lehigh, 337 
 
 In Mifflin and Centre counties 340 
 
 XXX. Limonite mines near the top of II, . . . . 341 
 Ironton and other mines in Lehigh Co., 345 
 
 Moselem mine in Berks Co., 350 
 
 Cornwall mine in Lebanon Co., .... 351 
 
 Path Valley mines in Franklin Co.. . . 357 
 
 Henrietta mines in Blair Co., 361 
 
 XXXI. No. II. Nittany Valley limestones, ... 365 
 
 Centre county anticlinals, ...... 365 
 
 Centre county cross sections, 369
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI 
 
 Chapter. Page. 
 
 XXXII. Centre Co. limonite mines, 372 
 
 Two varieties of ore, 372 
 
 Pennsylvania Furnace mine, 378 
 
 XXXIII. Nittany Valley, Huntingdon county, mines, 387 
 
 Pennington range, 390 
 
 Warrior Mark and Lovetown range, . . 391 
 
 Dry Hollow range in Huntingdon Co., . 391 
 
 Cale Hollow range in Huntingdon Co., 394 
 
 Huntingdon furnace banks, 398 
 
 Sinking Valley mines, 399 
 
 XXXIV. Canoe Valley and Morrison's Cove, ... 401 
 
 The Springfield mines 404 
 
 Leathercracker Cove ores, 409 
 
 Morrison Cove ores ; Bloomfield mine, . 414 
 
 XXXV. Friends Cove 419 
 
 Milliken'sCove, 420 
 
 Kishicoquillis Valley, 421 
 
 Black Log Valley, 422 
 
 McConnellsburg Cove, 423 
 
 Horse valley, 424 
 
 XXXVI. Caverns and Sinkholes in II, 425 
 
 Rate of erosion of II, 430 
 
 Precipitation of limonite in caves, . . . 433 
 
 Depths of limonite deposits in caves, . 434 
 
 Precipitation from pyrites, 435 
 
 XXXVII. Zinc, Lead and Barium in No. II 436 
 
 Saucon zinc mines in Lehigh Co., . . . 436 
 
 Bamford zinc mines in Lancaster, ... 44 
 
 Sinking Valley zinc mines in Blair, . . 444 
 
 Barytes in No. II, 447 
 
 Gypsum absent from No. II, 450 
 
 XXXVIII. Trap Dykes in No. II, 451 
 
 Grand Horseshoe Dyke in Perry, . . . 458 
 
 Little Horseshoe Dyke, 460 
 
 Mid Cove Dyke, 460 
 
 Duncannon Dyke. 461 
 
 Effects of trap, 464 
 
 Serpentine in No. II 464
 
 Xii GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Page. 
 
 XXXIX. White limestone and marble of II, ... 467 
 
 In New Jersey, 469 
 
 In York county, 473 
 
 In Chester county valley, 477 
 
 In Centre county, . 479 
 
 XL. Black marble in No. He., 482 
 
 XLI. Thickness of formation No. II, 485 
 
 In Lancaster county, 485 
 
 In Middle Pennsylvania, 488 
 
 In New York'State, 489 
 
 XLII. Oil and Gas in No. II, 492 
 
 Why no Trenton oil or gas in Pennsyl- 
 vania, 494 
 
 XLIII. Mechanical deposits of No. II, 497 
 
 A peculiar sandstone, 497 
 
 Parkesburg artesian well, 498 
 
 XLIV. The Fossils of No. II, 501 
 
 Fossils of the Calciferous, Ha, . . . 511 
 
 Fossils of the Quebec group, 511 
 
 Fossils of the Chazy, lib, 513 
 
 Fossils of the Black River, He., . . . 513 
 
 Fossils of the Birdseye, He. 515 
 
 Fossils of the Trenton, He, 517 
 
 XLV. No. Ill, Utica and Hudson River forma- 
 tions, 525 
 
 The Sea in which the Deposits were made, 529 
 
 Nonconformability, 531 
 
 Origin of the pyrites, ........ 537 
 
 Fossil abundance 538 
 
 Fish discovered under Trenton, .... 541 
 
 Black slates 542 
 
 Limestone intercalations, 543 
 
 The roofing slate belt, 543 
 
 Stratification and foliation of slate, . . 547 
 
 Rolls in the slate, 550 
 
 Thickness of the formation, 551 
 
 Peach Bottom roofing slate, 555 
 
 XLVI. Thickness of No. Ill, .... .557
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. xitt 
 
 Chapter. Page. 
 
 XLVII. Character of No. Ill, 562 
 
 Fossils in the formation, 565 
 
 Quartz veins ; their origin, 566 
 
 Flagstone layers, 569 
 
 Mineralogical poverty of III, . ". . . . 570 
 
 Neither oil nor gas in III, 571 
 
 Iron ore in III in New York, 572 
 
 XLVIII. The Roofing Slate Beds of No. Ill, ... 574 
 
 Westward extension of the belt, . . . 589 
 
 Notes on the Bangor belt by R. M, Jones, 582 
 
 XLIX. The slate quarries in 1882, 588 
 
 In Northampton Co., Washington town- 
 ship, 590 
 
 Lower Mt. Bethel township, 592 
 
 Plainfield township, 593 
 
 Bushkill township, 595 
 
 Upper Nazareth and Moore, 596 
 
 East Allen township, 599 
 
 Allen and Lehigh townships, 600 
 
 In Lehigh Co., Washington township, . . 604 
 
 N. Whitehall and Heidelburg, .... 608 
 
 S. Whitehall and Lynn, 607 
 
 In Berks Co., Albany township, 609 
 
 Weisenburg and Albany, 611 
 
 In Perry township, 615 
 
 L. Fossils of No. Ill, 617 
 
 Peach Bottom fossils for comparison, . 618 
 
 LI. No. IV. Oneida and Medina formations, 625 
 
 Thickness of No. IV., 627 
 
 At the gap above Harrisburg, 637 
 
 Comparative tables in the gaps, .... 641 
 
 Thins southward and northward, . . . 649 
 
 No. IV described in Logan gap, . . . 651 
 
 No. IV at Orbisonia, 653 
 
 No. IV in Spruce Creek gap, 655 
 
 No. IV in Tyrone gap : section, .... 657 
 
 No. IV in Mill Hall gap, 659 
 
 No. IV, in Williamsbnrg gap, .... 661
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Page. 
 
 No. IV in the Bedford gaps, 661 
 
 Oneida, IVa, not deposited there, ... 663 
 No. IV in Clinton, Centre, Lycoming, . 667 
 No. IV along the Great Valley, .... 669 
 No. IV at the Susquehanna Water Gap, 669 
 No. IV at the Schuylkill Water Gap, . 673 
 No. IV at the Lehigh Water Gap, . - 674 
 No. IV at the Delaware Water Gap, . 675 
 
 No. IV in New Jersey, 676 
 
 No. IV in New York, 677 
 
 Lead ore veins in No. IV, 678 
 
 LII. Topographical features of No. IV, .... 681 
 
 Three groups of mountains of IV, . . 682 
 Parallelism of mountains of IV, ... 686 
 Convergence of mountains of IV, . . . 688 
 Mountain spurs of FF, ....... 689 
 
 Anticlinal and synclinal knobs, .... 692 
 
 Crests, single and double, 695 
 
 Difference in heights, 696 
 
 Keel mountains of IV, 697 
 
 Oneida Terrace, ravine system, .... 698 
 
 Anticlinal vaults restored, ...... 699 
 
 Model of the plications of Middle Penn- 
 sylvania, representing the upper sur- 
 face of Medina, IVc., 703 
 
 Methods of constructing a model, . . . 704 
 Conformity of IV upon III, ..... 707 
 LIU. The mineral worthlessness of the mountains 
 
 of IV, 711 
 
 Foot notes on gold, silver, etc., .... 712 
 
 LIV. The fossils of No. IV, 714 
 
 May Hill sandstone in England, . . . 716 
 The earliest echinus, cockroach, 'fern, . 716 
 Lesquereux's L. Silurian land-plants, . 717 
 Drifted plants show changes of the rela- 
 tions of land to sea, and changes of 
 vegetation on land, 718
 
 VOLUME I. 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 276 (PI. I). Map of the bends of the Conedoguinit creek 
 
 in Cumberland Co., to show their relation to the out- 
 crop contact line of II and III. 
 
 277 (II). Cross section of the Great Valley on the meridian 
 
 of Harrisburg, to illustrate Chapter 22. 
 
 280 (III). Map of the Great Valley west of Carlisle, to show 
 
 the coves of II in the outcrop edge of III. 
 
 281 (IV). Cross section of the Great Valley, to show the 
 
 hypothetical character of the Path Valley faults. 
 
 284 (V). Pig. 1, Exposure of waves in beds of II; Fig. 
 
 2, Local map of a limestone cove of II in III near 
 Orrstown, Cumb. Co. 
 
 285 (VI). Fig. 1, Cross section of the Hole, at Swataragap; 
 
 Fig. 2, A similar cross section of Path Valley and 
 Bear Valley at Loudon, Franklin Co. ; Fig. 3, Map 
 of southern Franklin, showing the parallel zigzag 
 outcrops of No. IV, the parellel alterations of III 
 and II at Mercersburg, and the crenulated edge of 
 the limestone belt. 
 
 331 (VII). Vertical detailed section of 115 limestone beds 
 in the McCormick quarries opposite Harrisburg. with 
 thickness, and the percentage of carbonate of mag- 
 nesia designated by tint. 
 
 348 (VIII). Figs. 1, 2, Maps of Moselem limonite mine and 
 
 vicinity, Berks Co. Fig. 3, map of the Lebanon city 
 and Cornwall part of the Great Valley. 
 
 349 (IX). Figs. 1, 2, 3, Cornwall mine cross sections. 
 
 352 (X). E. V. d'Invilliers' map of Cornwall mine. 
 
 353 (XI). Nine illustrations of the Cornwall mine.
 
 XViii GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 616 (LXX). Fossil seaweeds of Peach Bottom slate. P. 
 Frazer. 
 
 618 (LXXI). Others drawn by J. P. Lesley. 
 
 622 (LXXII). Photograph of Jack's mountain anticlinal 
 arch. 
 
 624 (LXXIII). (1) Seven Mtns., 6 cross sections. 
 
 Sketch map of mountains of IV from Bald Eagle 
 across to Tuscarora mountains.. (3) Views, map and 
 cross section of an eddy hill in Big Fishing Creek 
 Gap in Centre county. 
 
 626 (LXXIV). (1) Bald Eagle (Bellefonte) gap, contour 
 map. (1) Canoe Valley narrows of the Juniata, Hunt- 
 ingdon Co. (3) Map of zigzags of IV in Perry Co. 
 
 628 (LXXV). Greenwood Furnace fault ; two sections, and 
 a map. 
 
 630 (LXXVI). Bald Eagle faults. Map by E. B. Harden. 
 
 632 (LXX VII). Port Clinton gap section. H. M. Chance. 
 
 634 (LXXVIII). Delaware gap section. H. M. Chance. 
 
 636 (LXXIX). Lehigh gap contour map, by H. M. Chance. 
 
 638 (LXXX). Delaware gap section. H. M. Chance. 
 
 640 (LXXXI). Logan gap section, Mifflin Co. 
 
 642 (LXXXII). Lewistown section, Mifflin Co. 
 
 644 (LXXXIII). McVeytown section, Mifflin Co. 
 
 646 (LXXXIV). Long Hollow section, Mifflin Co. 
 
 648 (LXXXV). (1) Kishicoquillis valley section. (2) Mc- 
 Kee mine section. (3) Mount Union section. 
 
 650 (LXXX VI). Orbisonia section No. 1, Huntingdon Co. 
 
 652 (LXXXVII). Orbisonia section, No. 2. 
 
 654 (LXXX VIII). Delaware Water Gap contour map. 
 
 656 (LXXXIX). (1) Jack' smtn. anticlinal crest section, to 
 show its sudden decline in Huntingdon Co. (2) Map 
 of the same. (3) Port Clinton map, showing fault 
 at the Schuylkill. (4) Warp of dips, E. and W. 
 side of Delaware Water Gaps. 
 
 658 (XC). (1) Seven mountains, Huntingdon and Union 
 counties ; 7 cross sections by d'Invilliers. (2) Perry 
 Co. synclinals ; four illustrations. (3) Map of the 
 same two grand synclinals.
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xix 
 
 Page. 
 
 660 (XCI). Perry county faults and folds ; 2 cross sections 
 nnd a map of Centre township. 
 
 662 (XCII). Perry Co. fault, four illustrations. (2) Little 
 Germany fault map. (3) Spring * township zigzag 
 belts. 
 
 664 (XCIII). Blue mountain map, by G. Lehman. 
 
 666 (XCIV). The same continued east to include Port Clin- 
 ton and the Little Schuylkill river. 
 
 668 (XCV). Seven Mountain sections, Nos. 8 and 9. 
 
 670 (XCVI). Seven mountain sections, Nos. 10 and 11. 
 
 672 (XCVII). Seven Mountain sections, Nos. 12 and 13. 
 
 680 (LIII). The Arch Spring in Sinking Valley, Blair Co., 
 picture by Lehmann, from Geol. Pa. 1858. (2) 
 Catioe mountain terrace (Oneida, IVa.), as seen from 
 head of Sinking Valley. 
 
 700 (LVII). Model of the surface of the Medina No. IV in 
 middle, northern and northeastern Pennsylvania, as it 
 existed after elevation and plication, and before ero- 
 sion ; constructed by J. P. Lesley. Photograph in 
 slant light from the S. E. 
 
 702 (LVIII). The same photographed in light from N. W. 
 
 714 (CXI). Fossils of IV, Oneida and Medina.
 
 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Our Geological Knowledge. 
 
 A summary description of the geology of Pennsylvania 
 implies a condensed account of all the work done by the ge- 
 ologists of the state survey for fifty years, together with the 
 knowledge produced by some thousands of private explora- 
 tions. It is a task made difficult, not so much by the ex- 
 tent and diversity of the territory to be described, as by 
 reason of the great number of rock formations which ap- 
 pear at the surface, and the erratic courses which their out- 
 crops pursue ; by the local variations of character exhibited 
 by them ; by the complicated structure of the underground ; 
 by the multitude of mineral beds having an economical 
 value ; by the eruptions of volcanic rocks in different places, 
 and the extensive rnetamorphism of the older formations in 
 the southeastern counties; and by the concealment of a con- 
 siderable portion of the rock surface of the northern and 
 western counties beneath a covering of glacial drift. 
 
 So great is the variety of objects of geological interest 
 which present themselves to the eye of a skilled observer at 
 every point, that we may justly consider the number infi- 
 nite which offer themselves for investigation in an area of 
 50,000 square miles ; that is, within the limits of our state. 
 A small spot upon the surface of the whole globe Pennsyl- 
 vania is nevertheless a world in itself, to the just contem- 
 plation of which the liveliest imagination can rise only by 
 a great effort ; one of those objects of contemplation pre- 
 sented to the mind of man before which it bows with all 
 its faculties of logic and rhetoric in reverence, imperfectly 
 comprehending what it sees, and hopeless of framing an 
 adequate salutation to it. For, the longest and most in- 
 timate conference with these phenomena of Divine operation
 
 2 GEOLOGICAL SUKVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 will not enable the greatest genius to do justice to their 
 description. 
 
 The geology of such a territory is a history of the works 
 of nature through a lapse of time, which, if compared to the 
 life of a man, or even to the existence of the human race, is 
 little less than an eternity. Events of the greatest magni- 
 tude and complexity have followed each other in uninter- 
 rupted sequence, without known beginning, and without 
 yet reaching an end. Geologists spend their lives in de- 
 ciphering the hieroglyphic records of this history, only a 
 part of which are legible, and the largest part is concealed 
 entirely from view. One fact at a time may easily be noted ; 
 a group of facts may be compared and discussed with 
 pleasure and safety ; but the geological drama has been 
 played out upon an imperial stage, by combined and con- 
 flicting natural forces in company, according to a plot not 
 yet revealed, beginning in ages previous to the creation of 
 any living being. The drama was played without an audi 
 ence. Therefore, the geologist who makes himself its re- 
 porter is soon lost in amazed bewilderment ; and when he 
 takes his pen in hand will pray for the pardon of innumer- 
 able mistakes before he yields to the necessity of commit- 
 ting them. 
 
 The great English historian of the last century, Gibbon, 
 'has left for our instruction a luminous description of the 
 difficulties to be overcome and of the successes to be 
 achieved by a narrator of human events when twenty years 
 of zealous preparation is followed by twenty years of patient 
 execution. He tells how many languages had to be ac- 
 quired, how many previous works of genius mastered, how 
 many original documents deciphered, what toil, what 
 doubts, what discouragements had to be endured. He 
 paints a touching picture of the mingled pain and pleasure 
 with which he ended his task, and closing his book bade a 
 lingering adieu to the occupation of his life. 
 
 The geologist is a historian in every sense of the word ; 
 subject to the same disabilities and exposed to the same de- 
 ceptions ; handling a mass of fragmentary records ; cross- 
 examining unintelligent and unsympathetic witnesses ;
 
 OUR GEOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE. 3 
 
 judging conflicting testimonies ; following trains of events 
 which pursue parallel lines separated along shifting boun- 
 daries but mutually affecting each other's characters. 
 
 But while the historian of human affairs writes under the 
 safe guidance of well-known and well-understood prin- 
 ciples of human nature, the motives of which he has him- 
 self experienced, and by which he may interpret with a near 
 approach to truth the actions of his historical characters, so 
 as to rill out the rude and slender sketches of tradition, or 
 detect and amend the mistakes of ancient documents, it is 
 the ill fortune of the geologist to be compelled to write the 
 physical history of the globe, or a part of it, in almost com- 
 plete ignorance of those fundamental principles of his 
 science on which he should rely for all his explanations. It 
 is true that the collection of geological facts has become in- 
 credibly great, but it is also true that from this very wealth 
 of facts springs the impossibility of any description of them 
 which shall satisfy the common mind, while the geologist 
 himself, if not completely lost in the wilderness of details, 
 either becomes a slave to his own favorite theories, or stands 
 uncertain between the views of jarring schools. 
 
 None of the greater questions in geology have yet been 
 answered. We know nothing of the interior of the earth 
 beyond a depth of about five miles and that only at a few 
 points. We are ignorant as yet of the exact cause of 
 earthquakes, and of the origin of volcanoes. The history 
 of the crystalline formations remains mysterious. We 
 cannot yet explain the elevation of a continent, with its 
 systems of faults and folds; nor the submersion of the- 
 ocean bed. The relative distribution of land and water has. 
 been changed in every age, but how, how much, or why r 
 we do not know. Consequently no geologist has succeeded 
 yet in even plausibly mapping the surface of the earth 'as 
 it was at any past time, with river drainage on land, and 
 its deposits in the sea. The courses of those ancient ocean 
 currents are unproved which distributed the river sedi- 
 ments. Ancient lakes, with or without outlets, are known 
 to have existed, but their limits have been destroyed and 
 their extent is a matter of guess work. The connection of
 
 4 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 even great formations in distant countries has been broken 
 and cannot be' restored. The migration of living creatures 
 from one region of the globe to another, under the stress of 
 a change of temperature, or the prevalence of enemies, 
 introduces an element of deception into the arrangement 
 of any lime-table for the globe, or even for a subordinate 
 division of one continent. We know not if the sun has 
 always shone upon the earth with the same energy of light 
 and heat. We know not if the tides in past ages have or 
 have not been more efficient at their work. The composi- 
 tion of the atmosphere may have greatly changed, nor have 
 we any means for settling that question. 
 
 The geologist then must examine and describe his special 
 region in a deceptive twilight of science. Detailed reports 
 of business properties are not affected by such fundamental 
 difficulties, but a description of a region like Pennsylva- 
 nia pretending to display a summary of our knowledge of 
 it, must cautiously handle all the generalities and be con- 
 tent to leave great questions unanswered and a thousand 
 facts unexplained.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 (Geological Time. 
 
 Time and space are the two eyes with which man looks 
 upon the world, the two lenses which he uses for examin- 
 ing-, defining and measuring whatever has attracted his 
 attention or excited his thirst for knowledge. In every 
 branch of science, in every business, in every handicraft, 
 in the tine arts, well-defined and common standard measures 
 of time and space have been invented, and in the present 
 century refined to the utmost precision by delicate instru- 
 ments. 
 
 The science of geology has its own apparatus, and no 
 description of the geology of a place or of a region can be 
 either written or comprehended unless both the writer and 
 the reader are inspired by the sincerest respect for an 
 accurate application of the standards of time and space to 
 all and each of the whole series of observed facts. 
 
 The idea of time is the most fundamental of all geolog- 
 ical ideas, and at the same time is to most minds the 
 vaguest. To count the minutes in an hour, the years in a 
 century, or the centuries in the Christian era has become 
 a familiar and easy mental operation for all educated per- 
 sons, and the few] who have pursued historical studies 
 possess clear notions of dynasties for two or three thousand 
 years before the time of Christ. But to the majority of 
 mankind any statement respecting previous ages in the geo- 
 logical history of our planet is unreadable because written 
 in a time-language which they cannot appreciate. The 
 great operations of nature have been so exceedingly slow 
 and have been carried on through so many ages, each of 
 vast duration, that untrained minds become confused and 
 weary with them. 
 
 Nevertheless the geologist is compelled to describe rock 
 formations in an order of their successive deposits; and he 
 can make their nature clear in no other way than
 
 6 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 explaining the comparative quietness, or the comparative 
 commotion of the age of each. Going backward in time 
 and downward through the rocks, he is compelled to give 
 time-names as well as mineral-names to the formations or 
 groups of beds which he describes. Bat his time-names 
 can only be comparative, such as new and old, newer and 
 older, recent, ancient and archaic. And his mineral-names 
 also can only be comparative : upper, middle and lower. 
 These terms, however, can present no well-defined idea to 
 any mind but that of a geologist, for they are the terms in 
 daily use among men for events which run their course in 
 a few days, or years, or centuries of human time, or for 
 things which are measurable by inches, yards or miles in the 
 country where those who use them live. A single one of 
 the principal rock formations of Pennsylvania required 
 more time for its deposit than the duration of the human 
 race from its first appearance on the planet until now. The 
 age of our primeval forest can hardly compare with the age 
 which one large coal bed reached before its life was destroy- 
 ed by the invasion of the overlying sands. If the limestone 
 deposits of the Cumberland valley could be measured not 
 by feet and yards but by years and centuries, and com- 
 pared with events of human history, we should merely get 
 a vague notion of enormous time, expressed by the old 
 phrase "a thousand years is as a single day." 
 
 Nevertheless, however ineffectual will prove the effort to 
 frame a clear idea of the whole course of geological time, or 
 even to define with any distinctness its major sub-divisions, 
 it is absolutely indispensable for the understanding of the 
 geology of any region to suspend our habitual estimates of 
 human events, and substitute for them the largest possible 
 conceptions of geological time, upon the grandest scale 
 which we are capable of imagining. 
 
 To the human individual who seldom lives beyond three- 
 score years and ten, and whose short life is crowded with 
 business affairs, time is considered a precious commodity to 
 be spent with economy, its loss and its waste lamented, and 
 its use converted into a religious duty. 
 
 But these ideas are products of the latest age of human
 
 GEOLOGICAL TIME. 7 
 
 history, and are essentially ideas of the modern factory and 
 counting-room. Disembodied immortal spirits would value 
 time by a different standard. Science, especially the science 
 of geology, 'dispenses time as the commonest drug in the 
 market of the universe. 
 
 The idea of precise time is the product of the routine of 
 civilized human existence. It is unknown in the vegetable 
 and animal worlds ; it is disregarded by nomadic races. 
 The idea took root when the home was organized by woman, 
 and meals were cooked at fixed hours of the day. It be- 
 came" "confirmed when superstition organized priestcraft, 
 and religious ceremonies demanded a calendar. The moon 
 was the first clock. The invention of the water-clock by the 
 ancients was made for the benefit of the wealthy and cere- 
 monious. The first mechanical clock in Europe was one 
 sent as a royal present by the Caliph Haroun-Al-Rashid of 
 Bagdad to Charlemagne. Even now, with all the chro- 
 nometers of Christendom, it is still a fact that nineteen- 
 twentieths of the human race have never seen a clock, and 
 have no.practical need of one. 
 
 The idea of absolutely precise time came with the inven- 
 tion of the steam engine, the locomotive, and the telegraph, 
 and with the erection of modern observatories. It bears the 
 same relation to the crude instinct of time in the mental 
 constitution of the race that the few and costly ingots of 
 aluminium bear to the sum total of common clay with 
 which the world is full. But, with the spread of civiliza- 
 tion, and the multiplication of machinery, popular educa- 
 tion will in the end fix it in the minds of all. 
 
 Whatever moves with regularity, continuously, by steps 
 or stages equal to each other, and therefore countable with- 
 out being accountable, or disturbed by perturbations, is a 
 clock is a measurer of time a scale by which the rate of 
 the course of events can be recorded. A locomotive, a 
 power loom, a printing press, any engine adjusted by a gov- 
 ernor to invariable motion, a sewing machine driven by a 
 well-directed foot, is a clock. All reciprocal motion, all 
 rotary motion can be set to keep time. The melting snow 
 water dropping from a roof will furnish a geologist with a
 
 8 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 measure for calculating the annual rate of growth of stalag- 
 mites in a limestone cave. 
 
 The essential nature of a clock is its regularity ; and that 
 depends on the energy which moves it ; while the rate of 
 its own particular motion depends on its construction, a 
 short pendulum ticking seconds, a long pendulum ticking 
 minutes. 
 
 But while the geological world is full of natural time- 
 markers, they are of every variety of construction, and 
 therefore furnish no common standard of time. The geol- 
 ogist who seeks to investigate the age of the globe stands 
 like a purchaser in a clock-makers shop, surrounded by a 
 thousand time-keepers all ticking at once but not together, 
 independent of and indifferent to each other's rate of going, 
 and waiting for their turn to be adjusted to a common rate ; 
 the little ones, like children out of school, rollicking in an 
 ecstasy of quarter seconds ; larger ones soberly stating 
 their movement in seconds ; here and there a great pendu- 
 lum disdaining to record its relations to universal time 
 oftener than once a minute. 
 
 In the world of physical science entomologists, concho- 
 logists, ornithologists apply to use only the little patent 
 levers and repeaters ; while the mineralogists, the geologists 
 the astronomers, in their several calculations work only 
 with cathedral clocks. But in all branches of physical 
 science without exception the differentiation of time is 
 accomplished naturally and is illustrated scientifically by 
 natural phenomena in one way or in another, on a smaller 
 or on a grander scale, and at rates so immensely different 
 that, while whole series of thousands of one kind complete 
 their cycles of existence within the lifetime of a man, 
 others require a thousand centuries to substantiate one 
 item ; and this is what happens in geology. 
 
 Now, for such phenomena geology has as yet failed to 
 find any precise measuring time-machine, any clock, and 
 must still content itself with rudely divided scales of rela- 
 tive proportion without knowing the actual sizes of their 
 aliquot parts. But geologists, being now emancipated 
 from the superstitious belief that God created the world in
 
 GEOLOGICAL TIME. 9 
 
 six days, or in six ages, are free to gaze back along an 
 interminable vista of events, having modern human history 
 with its accurate chronology of days and years in the fore- 
 ground, through the middle distance of classical and monu- 
 mental history measured by [olympiads, centuries and 
 dynasties, into a background of pre-historic and glacial times 
 unchecked by any measurable records ; beyond which is 
 dimly seen an infinite extent of geological times, ages and 
 formations, vanishing in the extreme distance toward some 
 absolutely unimaginable beginning. 
 
 In contemplating this grand picture from day to day, as 
 the geologist is obliged to do, two sentiments take posses- 
 sion of him : an admiration for the variety and multi- 
 plicity of the things which have happened ; and a profound 
 conviction of the slowness of time, the infinite patience 
 with which the world has been made. And these senti- 
 ments are the product of observation ; are neither a fancy 
 nor a faith. 
 
 It is evident to observation that the clock of nature has 
 ticked regularly; that the same physical forces have oper- 
 ated through all time in the same way as they are seen 
 operating at the present moment; that in every age rivers 
 have been delivering leisurely their burdens to the sea in 
 obedience to the varying rainfall of the seasons; that the 
 forests have spread and disappeared again, successively 
 occupying for centuries the soil; that living creatures of a 
 million kinds have made their appearance on the planet 
 in an orderly series, the rule of which we do not understand, 
 but the order of which is plainly although not completely 
 revealed by fossil remains imbedded in the rocks. For it 
 is impossible for any sane man to doubt that the rate of 
 life with which we are familiar now was in every geolog- 
 ical age the rate at which animated creatures were gener- 
 erated, grew, propagated their kind and perished. No 
 reason can be given for supposing that the cockroach 
 whose form is imprinted on a shalyroof of a coal-bed lived 
 either a shorter or longer life than the cockroach of the 
 modern dwelling ; or that the Eurypterids in the Darlington 
 shales of Beaver county had a different life experience
 
 10 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 from that of any modern lobster on the New England 
 coast. The great pachyderms whose skeletons have been 
 transferred from the clays of the Rocky Mountains to the 
 museums of New Haven, Philadelphia and Washington, 
 by Leidy, Cope and Marsh, no doubt lived each one as 
 long a life as a modern elephant, rhinoceras, tapir, horse 
 or elk. The ancient coral reefs of which the limestone beds 
 behind the Blue Mountain at Stroudsburg, Danville, 
 Lewistown, Tyrone City and other places in middle Penn- 
 sylvania, must have grown as slowly as grow now the Mad- 
 repore reefs off the Florida coast. 
 
 But beyond this general conviction that the ordinary 
 events of nature in the mineral, vegetable and animal 
 worlds have been pursuing the even tenor of their way 
 through all geological ages, we cannot go. We cannot 
 divide geological time into centuries, much less into years; 
 but we can and must apply the conviction thus obtained 
 that geological events have slowly come about to explain 
 how they came about and in what order they occurred. 
 
 When this fundamental idea of immense stretch and suc- 
 cession in geological time has become familiar to the public 
 mind the greatest difficulty will have been removed from 
 the path of the geologist in his efforts to describe the' 
 geology of any district or region like Pennsylvania ; and 
 only for this reason is it insisted upon here. To make it 
 still more plain the following illustrations of its truth 
 will be adduced and specimens will be given of the calcula- 
 tions of geological time attempted by recent writers. 
 
 The annual growth of trees, interrupted by the winter, is 
 marked by their rings of bark, so that the age of a tree can 
 be discovered by the number of these rings. In like man- 
 ner the deposits of a river are more abundant and of a 
 coarser quality after long-continued rains ; so that a section 
 of a sand bank or mud flat at the mouth of a river should 
 mark the course of time by thin layers of fine clay and 
 coarser sand alternately. This fact has been taken ad- 
 vantage of by those who have investigated the history of 
 Egypt. The regular inundation of the Nile, commencing at 
 midsummer and lasting a hundred days, covers the valley
 
 GEOLOGICAL TIME. 11 
 
 and the delta with a sheet of fertile mud. The turbid waters 
 then fall, the land emerges, the winter passes. In March 
 the hot dry khamzin blows, and clouds of sand sweep 
 across the surface, depositing a layer of yellow desert dust 
 upon the previous layer of Nile mud. This takes place 
 year by year with the regularity of clock-work. Shafts 
 have been sunk through these alternate layers to the floor 
 on which some monument of antiquity was erected four 
 thousand years ago, and the counting of the alternate 
 layers has verified its recorded date. In some of these shafts 
 sunk to a greater depth fragments of human pottery have 
 been discovered, and by the number of layers of mud and 
 sand it has appeared that human beings pursued their 
 handicraft at least fifteen thousand years ago. It is evident 
 that, were a proper site on the shore of the Mediterranean 
 between Rosetta and Damietta selected by the Egyptian 
 government, 'and a shaft sunk deep enough to reach the 
 original bed on which the delta of the Nile began to be de~ 
 posited, it would be possible, either by counting the alter- 
 nate layers of sand and mud, or by simply estimating their 
 average number in each foot or yard of the descent, to cal- 
 culate with considerable accuracy the geological time at 
 which the drainage of old ^Ethiopia adopted the present 
 valley of the Nile for its most convenient route to the sea. 
 
 The Nile indeed in this respect stands alone among all 
 the rivers of the world ; the only river which receives no 
 side streams for fifteen hundred miles of its course, re- 
 sembling thus the unbranched date palms which spread 
 their annual plumes at the top along its bank ; the only 
 river which deposits all its burden during half a year, and 
 waits to give the atmosphere an equal chance for depositing 
 its special burden of a different kind. But all the rivers of 
 the world have seasons of copious outflow and increased 
 deposit ; therefore all the river sediments of the world are 
 composed of alternate layers of coarse and fine material ; 
 and as we go back in geological time, making sections of 
 older and older river sediments, more and more packed and 
 consolidated, hardened, dried and converted into shale and 
 sandstone rocks, the geologist observes in all of them this
 
 12 GEOLOC4ICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 fundamental character of alternation ; the incontestable 
 proof of their origin as river sediments ; affording an irre- 
 sistible conviction that they grew, layer upon layer, annu- 
 ally, through ages of immense duration rudely measurable 
 by their several thicknesses. 
 
 The same lesson is taught in other ways ; as, for example, 
 by the annual layers of autumn leaves which have been 
 blown upon the surface and sunk to the bottom of still 
 water ponds and little lakes in the forests, with the eggs of 
 insects attached to them, and the wings or bodies of dead 
 insects imbedded with them. A deposit of this kind i-n 
 Switzerland is described by Heer as thirty feet thick, and 
 shows thousands of such alternate layers of black vegetable 
 matter and fine white clay, each no thicker than a sheet of 
 paper, marking the quiet alternation of annual seasons for 
 many thousand years. 
 
 The influence of wet and dry seasons in tropical countries 
 marks the annual stalactite growth in limestone caves. For 
 in the rainy season an abundance of water falling on the 
 surface finds its way to the roof of the cave charged with 
 carbonate of lime, and the dropping in the cave goes on 
 with great rapidity. But in the following dry season the 
 growth of the stalactite stops, just as the life of a tree sleeps 
 during the winter; and thus the stalactite has its annual 
 rings of growth like a tree, from which its age can be esti- 
 mated. The stalagmite floor of such a cave consists of suc- 
 cessive sheets ; and in the case of one Brazilian cavern, thirty 
 thousand of these annual sheets have been counted. 
 
 There is a little brook in Switzerland called the Tiniere, 
 which has its springs in the mountains of Berne, and de- 
 scends through a narrow ravine which it has cut for itself 
 down to the bank of the Lake of Geneva near Vevey. Fed 
 by rains, cloud- fogs and melting snows it wears away the 
 rocks through which it passes and spreads sheet after sheet 
 of sand and clay over a little fan-shaped mound which it 
 has accumulated at its mouth. A railroad has been cut 
 through this mound, showing its dome-shaped structure, 
 and the slow and gradual way in which it has been made. 
 In the sides of the railroad-cut three long black streaks are
 
 GEOLOGICAL TIME. 13 
 
 visible one above the other. They make three long arched 
 lines. They consist of vegetable matter mixed with frag- 
 ments of charcoal, pottery, and the implements of man. 
 They represent three times at which some tribe of Swiss 
 aborigines selected the mound as habitable ground, resid- 
 ing upon it awhile until destroyed or driven away by some 
 unusual violence of the little river descending from the 
 mountains, or by some pestilence or invasion of hostile foes. 
 Although the three arched streaks are separated from one 
 another by only a few feet, the intervals must needs represent 
 great lengths of time ; for, the three settlements were made 
 by different races ; for, in the lowest arch no tools were 
 found except stone axes, and chisels, and needles of bone. 
 In the middle streak were found beside these instruments 
 made of brass ; and in the Upper streak, manufactured tools 
 of iron were discovered. Therefore centuries probably 
 elapsed, the mound always growing higher and higher very 
 slowly, new tribes coming into the region with advancing 
 civilization seeking places to live on. As no alternate layers 
 in the mineral constitution of the mound could be made use 
 of for calculating this rate of growth, the Swiss geologists 
 resorted to another method, which is one of universal ap- 
 plication in the geology of sedimentary rocks of the globe. 
 They measured the amount of water annually flowing down 
 the Tiniere ; they measured the quantity of solid matter 
 held in suspension by the little river at various seasons of 
 the year. From these two data they calculated the thick- 
 ness of stuff spread over the whole extent of the mound in 
 a single year, taking this thickness as a unit of measure- 
 ment for the depth of the lowest streak beneath the present 
 surface of the mound. It resulted from the calculation, 
 that the people who left their stone axes in the lowest 
 streak lived about seven thousand years ago; and the ap- 
 proximate accuracy of the calculation was confirmed by a 
 similar process of thought applied to the case of human 
 habitations buried in a little delta at the mouth of one of 
 the rivers of the Jura, by the gradual enlargement of which 
 the lakes of Neufchatel and Bienne, originally one lake, 
 has been separated into two. In this case also the age of
 
 14 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 the human remains was found to be about seven thousand 
 years. But in both these cases, which are exceptionally 
 favorable for estimating the time of the occupation of the 
 mounds by man, no knowledge is obtained respecting the 
 far greater lapse of time previous to their first occupation 
 during which the two rivers mentioned had been doing the 
 same work in the same way, work the beginning of which 
 goes back into the last geological age. 
 
 A bridge was built by the Romans from one vertical wall 
 to the other of a deep and narrow ravine in the center of 
 France. For unknown ages a river of Auvergne had been 
 working its channel down through a lava bed, undermining 
 and throwing down one after another of its basaltic 
 columns, grinding them up into black mud and delivering 
 the- mud to the Loire to be deposited in the Bay of Biscay. 
 The Roman bridge is broken, but its arches still cling to 
 the walls of the chasm, showing that this has not been sen- 
 sibly widened in two thousand years. A flagrant proof of 
 the extreme slowness with which the erosion of the surface 
 of the earth has ever been going on ; and we may turn from 
 the basaltic columns in Auvergne to the great canon of 
 Colorado or any of the gaps in the mountains of middle 
 Pennsylvania with a sentiment of profoundest conviction 
 for their vast antiquity. The process of destruction is 
 evident ; it goes on before our eyes daily and annually; "but 
 unless we have a sound conviction of its infinite slow- 
 ness we shall fall into the popular superstition which prat ties 
 about convulsions of nature which never occurred, and fails 
 to realize the true character of the events which the geolog- 
 ist has to describe. 
 
 The lesson of geological antiquity is taught with equal 
 clearness by the series of volcanic eruptions which mark 
 the whole history of the earth from the beginning to the 
 present day; and although evidence of the exercises of the 
 eruptive forces on an exceptionally grand scale at certain 
 times is not to be mistaken, corresponding to the greater 
 and the more widespread earthquakes which have some- 
 times varied the importance of calamities in human history, 
 they cannot be considered in any other light than as excep-
 
 GEOLOGICAL TIME. 15 
 
 tions to the regularity of the whole series of volcanic phen- 
 omena, which in the gross has undoubtedly been as regu- 
 lar, and has proceeded as leisurely as -any other function of 
 nature. Vesuvius at the Christian era had been asleep from 
 beyond the earliest traditions of the inhabitants of Italy; 
 its old crater was a cattle ground of Umbrian cow-herds, 
 and accounted so safe from all commotion that Spartacus 
 encamped his army in it as an impregnable fortress. When 
 the rirst eruption awoke the mountain to renewed activity, 
 pouring a sheet of lava over Herculaneu m and covering Pom - 
 peii and the surrounding country with ashes, men were as 
 much astonished as we should be were the old vents in York 
 and Adams county to be again re-opened and fresh streams 
 of lava pour from them over our cultivated fields. Since 
 Pliny's day the activity of Vesuvius has been continuous, 
 its eruptions recurring every few years, yet without sensi- 
 bly increasing the size of the cone. Therefore, the con- 
 struction of the cone must date back in ages previous to the 
 appearance of man. Every volcanic mountain in the world 
 has grown like a vegetable bulb, skin over skin, through 
 wastes and wildernesses of time of whfch the human imag- 
 ination can form but a vague idea, and which the science of 
 geology can only indicate by reference to the geological age 
 of that particular formation in which the lirst appearance of 
 such cones can be recognized. Every geological age had its 
 own volcanoes, its own outflows of lava and its own tufa 
 beds. The backward vista is interminable ; the cause is 
 unknown ; their phenomena have pervaded the ages from 
 the beginning. 
 
 It is a seductive temptation to the speculative geologist 
 to translate the vague ideas of geological time into figures. 
 But whether the results of any calculation thus mathe- 
 matically stated increases our knowledge or clarifies our 
 ideas may well be doubted ; for after all, when the product 
 of multiplying large numbers reaches into the millions it 
 merely generates the idea of vastness. To write the sum of 
 a hundred million years helps us. no better than to write 
 the words infinity or eternity. Yet the effort at such a cal- 
 culation is a useful exercise of the mind and furnishes an
 
 16 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 opportunity for examining the facts which must be used 
 in making the calculation. With this end in view one or 
 two such calculations will now be given. 
 
 The western coast of South America has been lifted from 
 the ocean to a great height in the air by successive earth- 
 quakes, one of which suddenly lifted it three feet since the 
 settlement of Chili by the whites. Marine shells can be 
 broken out of the rocks at a height of 16,000 feet above the 
 sea. The average rate of this upheaval is of course 
 unknown; but should we base a calculation upon the 
 observed rise of the land of northern Scandinavia, namely, 
 live feet in a century, the rocks containing these fossil 
 shells would be 320,000 years old. From the character of 
 the shells we k-now that the rocks which hold them were 
 deposited in what is called the Jurassic age. But if all 
 known geological time were represented by the twelve hour 
 divisions on the dial of a clock, the Jurassic age would be 
 at about nine or ten o'clock, and therefore the highest 
 antiquity we could give to the mountains of South America 
 would represent but a portion of geological time. 
 
 While parts of the crust of the earth are slowly elevated 
 other regions are slowly sinking into the sea. In middle 
 Pennsylvania we have a series of great formations lying one 
 upon another, all of them originally deposited in succession 
 in a great water basin which in early times occupied the 
 area of the United States. Some of these formations were 
 spread upon the bottom in deep water; some of them in 
 water so shallow that they exhibit mud cracks, ripple 
 marks and foot-prints such as travelers notice everywhere 
 on sea beaches. They hold both shore-living shells and coral 
 reefs. These facts compel us to believe that the bottom of 
 the Pennsylvanian sea kept on sinking through all the ages 
 during which these deposits of limestone, sand and clay 
 were made in it ; and probably at a rate proportionate to the 
 inflow of the solid materials from the rivers around it. The 
 rate of sinking is of course unknown, but must have been 
 as slow as the wearing away of the surrounding lands. 
 The total thickness of these deposits, measured from the top 
 of the coal measures down to the bottom of the great lime-
 
 GEOLOGICAL TIME. 17 
 
 
 
 stone of the Nittany valley at Birmingham in Blair county, 
 is not less than 40,000 feet. If the geologist prefers to take 
 the Scandinavian rate of elevation as a measure for his cal- 
 culation, five feet in a century, he gets 800,000 years. This 
 result is indeed a most uncertain approximation to the 
 truth, and is of no scientific value whatever, but it will serve 
 admirably well to impress upon the mind the reality of the 
 vast antiquity of that part of the surface of the globe which 
 we are competent to examine. Considering the fineness of 
 nineteen- twentieths, say ninety-nine-hundredths of the 13 
 formations which appear at the surface in middle Pennsyl- 
 vania, the'rate of their deposit must have been lower than five 
 feet in a century, and consequently the length of time 
 required much greater than the result of the calculation. 
 The tidal layers of red mud in which were found at Potts- 
 ville by Dr. Lee and Professor Rogers the "foot-prints of 
 shore-feeding animals, measure 2,000 feet in thickness. 
 The fine dark mud and sand formation through which the belt 
 of roofing slate in Lehigh and Northampton counties runs 
 is at least 6, 000 feet thick. The Carboniferous formation at 
 the top of the series, with its slow-growing coal-beds, and its 
 slowly deposited limestone, fireclay and shale beds is 3,000 
 feet thick. Taking these three formations together, apart 
 from the other ten, we have 12,000 feet of sediments which 
 might have had a rate of deposit no greater than a few feet 
 in a century, requiring a million years. 
 
 In another part of this book will be described the folding 
 of the Paleozoic formations of middle Pennsylvania, with 
 basins five miles deep, and arches five miles high; Al- 
 pine ranges which once traversed our State ; now reduced by 
 the frosts and waters of ages to within a thousand or two 
 thousand feet of the level of the sea. A whole world of 
 rock has been dislodged, ground up and carried by the 
 Juniata, the Susquehanna, the Schuylkill and the Delaware 
 into the Atlantic. All southern New Jersey, Delaware, 
 Maryland and the general Tide Plain of the southern states 
 have been constructed by the rivers which have been 
 engaged since the age of the coal measures in eroding the 
 great rock folds of the Appalachian belt. Can we find in 
 2
 
 18 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA . 
 
 I 
 
 what goes on before our eyes to-day a measure for this 
 erosion. Certainly not one of any accuracy. Yet one is at 
 hand which will give some good idea of it. 
 
 The Juniata river is said to pass at Millerstown in Perry 
 county about 24, 000, 000 cubic feet of water per hour ; hold- 
 ing enough sediment in suspension to represent in the course 
 of a year about 1,000,000 cubic yards of the rock waste 
 which its innumberable branches are robbing from the 
 mountains. Considering the whole water basin of the upper 
 Juniata, the erosion going on must lower its general surface 
 about one foot in 1,500 years. The original surface of the 
 region was on an average say 9,000 feet above the present 
 surface of the country. This gives us 13,560,000 years as 
 the length of time during which the Juniata has been carry- 
 ing the rock waste of its own special upper country into the 
 sea; and all the other rivers of the Atlantic coast have been 
 doing the same work at the same rate during the same 
 length of time. No wonder we have the great lowlands of 
 the Atlantic coast, now cultivated by man ; and the vast 
 sloping sea-bottom which has its continuation under water 
 from the line of coast far out to the submerged precipice 
 which the soundings of the Coast Survey have shown to 
 be the border of the gulf stream. 
 
 The work done by the Mississippi river has been ascer- 
 tained with considerable accuracy by the United States 
 Army Survey under Humphreys and Abbott. At its 
 present rate of work (which alone can be studied) it removes 
 from the face of the immense region between the Allegheny 
 and Rocky mountains one foot of surface depth in 6,000 
 years. It is impossible to state the original height of the 
 general surface of the Mississippi water-basin in the coal 
 era when the great river began its operations. From some 
 districts like middle Kentucky and Ohio it has removed all 
 the formations from the top of the coal measures nearly to 
 the bottom of the series, a thickness of say 10,000 feet. 
 In other parts, as at Pittsburgh, the erosion amounts to only 
 2,000 feet. If an average of only a thousand feet be as- 
 sumed the age of the Mississippi would be 6,000,000 years. 
 
 The science of geology in its present stage is like a river
 
 GEOLOGICAL TIME. 19 
 
 
 
 bearing variable 'quantities of solid matter which can be 
 seen and felt, and quantities of invisible chemical solutions. 
 It consists of an abundance of indisputable facts, mixed 
 with innumerable fugitive suggestions, hypotheses and" 
 theories, changeable in their nature and subject to present 
 and future criticism. The accumulation of facts which re- 
 main the permanent body of the science increases continu- 
 ally and at an accelerated rate from year to year. The 
 study of one mineral bed after another and one geological 
 locality after another is gradually procuring a sound and 
 useful knowledge of the structure and mineral wealth of 
 regions. Thus the beneficial work of good geologists is in 
 favor of the business community, which troubles itself little 
 about questions of cause and effect, and is well content with 
 definite statements of quality and quantity, seeking only to 
 learn where the useful can be found and how it can be 
 cheaply got. Yet the discussion which forever goes on in 
 the geological profession respecting the origin and age of 
 minerals appeals strongly to the intelligent curiosity of ed- 
 ucated men of all classes, and, in so far as they can be 
 understood by laymen, make an important part of the gen- 
 eral education of the community. 
 
 The race of man differs from the races of animals in pos- 
 sessing not only a more powerful reason, but the faculty of 
 imagination, by which man sees the invisible, and can ap- 
 preciate the past. In science the business of the imagina- 
 tion under the guidance of mathematics is as important as 
 the business of the judgment under the guidance of the 
 senses. Without imagination men would be like savage 
 tribes before the horse was tamed. The prosaic mind goes 
 afoot and travels in a narrow circle around its dwelling 
 place, knowing so little of the world beyond that it cannot 
 comprehend its own vicinity. The geologist finds such 
 minds everywhere. They are incapable of seeing what he 
 sees both in the distance and in the depth, because the im- 
 agination which they possess has not been cultivated like 
 his own. He rides his imagination like a winged horse in 
 all directions, far and near, collecting knowledge from every 
 quarter. In telling his science he speaks from horseback to
 
 20 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 men on foot. His steed may be better or worse. He has 
 his own adventures with it. It sometimes stumbles, some- 
 times he is thrown, and sometimes he is run away with. 
 When the imagination is of the finest quality it must be 
 ridden with a curbed bit and a strong rein. The tendency 
 to exaggeration in geology is especially great. It gathers 
 force and velocity by indulgence, like a rock descending a 
 mountain slope. So, exaggeration in the estimate of geo- 
 logical time has been carried by the vivid imagination of 
 some geologists to a wholly unreasonable excess, yet always 
 under the form of mathematical calculation, dealing with 
 absolute facts which the most sober reasoner cannot deny, 
 and which are the products of the most careful observation 
 and the most skilful investigation by geographers and 
 chemists. A single illustration of such exaggeration will 
 suffice. 
 
 An English geologist of eminence has recently discussed 
 with great ability the quantity of soluble and insoluble sub- 
 stance carried into the sea by rivers. Combining Herschel's 
 estimate of 2,494,500,000,000,000,000 of tons of water in the 
 world ocean, with Frankland's analysis of 100,000 tons of 
 sea water holding 1,017 tons of the sulphates of lime and 
 magnesia, and 49 tons of the carbonates of lime and mag- 
 nesia, he gets 1,222,000,000,000,000 of tons of carbonate of 
 lime and magnesia in the world ocean, a quantity sufficient 
 to cover 50,000,000 square miles of land with a layer 13 feet 
 deep, and 25,000,000,000,000,000 of tons of sulphate of lime 
 and magnesia, a quantity sufficient to cover the same num- 
 ber of square miles with an additional layer 265 feet thick. 
 
 He estimates that the rivers of the world remove annually, 
 on an average, from each square mile of continental surface 
 100 tons of rock matter ; and that the proportionate amount 
 of its various substances would be as follows : Of car- 
 bonate of lime, 50 tons ; sulphate of lime, 20 tons ; silica, 
 
 7 tons ; carbonate of magnesia, 4 tons ; sulphate of mag- 
 nesia, 4 tons ; per-oxide of iron, 1 ton ; chloride of sodium, 
 
 8 tons ; and 'alkaline carbonates and sulphates, 6 tons. 
 Taking first the carbonates of lime and magnesia, re- 
 moved from the land surface and deposited in the sea at the
 
 GEOLOGICAL TIME. 21 
 
 rate of 54 tons per square mile per year, it must have re- 
 quired 480,000 years to charge the ocean water with the 
 amount of these salts which Frankland says it holds. 
 
 Taking next the sulphates of lime and magnesia he gets 
 25,000,000 years. 
 
 Treating the chlorides in the same way he gets 200,000,000 
 years. 
 
 Estimating the amount of mechanical sediments or solid 
 matter carried by a river to the sea at six times greater than 
 the chemical solution, that is, 40,800,000,000 tons per 
 annum ; and considering the total surface of the globe 
 197,000,000 square miles (one cubic mile weighing 10,903,- 
 552,000 tons) he concludes that it would require for cover- 
 ing the whole globe with a rock formation of every kind 
 one mile thick, 52,647,052 years ; and, therefore, if the 
 geologists estimate all known formations taken together as 
 measuring 10 miles in depth, we must suppose that the first 
 rocks were deposited 526,000,000 years ago. 
 
 All that can be said respecting any such calculation is 
 that it has no scientific value whatever, although based upon 
 acknowledged facts ; but, as has been already said, it will 
 help to make far lower estimates of the age of the world in- 
 telligible and credible.
 
 22 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OE PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Geological Dimension. 
 
 The second fundamental element of geological thought is 
 the idea of space in its three dimensions of length, breadth 
 and thickness. Any transcendentally imagined fourth 
 dimension must appear to be absurd. Astronomy deals 
 with unimaginable and infinite distances, as its sister 
 science, geology, deals with unimaginable if not infinite 
 operations of time. In both cases the common mind is 
 subject to a thousand deceptions. Who can believe that 
 the moon when it rides in a clear night through the atmos- 
 phere to all appearance no higher than balloons could 
 mount or an eagle soar, is in reality 240,000 miles distant 
 from the spectator, sixty times the radius of our globe. And 
 yet this distance is the smallest of the heavenly spaces. 
 The sun's mean distance from us is 92,000,000 of miles; 
 while the light of the nearest fixed star traveling at the 
 rate of 200,000 miles a minute does not reach us until after 
 a journey of eight days. Such ideas would seem to be useless 
 to the practical geologist. But no truth is useless; all 
 knowledge is practical either in its direct application to 
 facts or in its education of the finer qualities of the mind. 
 No man can rightly understand the descent of a coal bed or 
 ore vein from the surface into the depths of the underground 
 unless his imagination is disciplined to estimate properly 
 the dimensions of space, and by habituating himself to the 
 measurement of distances of all grades, long and short, he 
 acquires the power of calculating those lengths and breadths 
 and depths which are within the scope of mining opera- 
 tions. 
 
 To the practical astronomer our globe seems as small to 
 the surrounding solar system as a grain of sand compared 
 with the mass of a mountain. To the practical geologist
 
 GEOLOGICAL DIMENSION. 23 
 
 who compares the whole globe with the spot on its surface 
 which he is studying for practical purposes, it seems infi- 
 nitely great. It is hard to conceive the depth at which the 
 center of the earth lies beneath our feet; it equals the dis- 
 tance from San Francisco to Newfoundland or from Phila- 
 delphia to Berlin.. Only those who travel extensively can 
 estimate the size of the continents and oceans of the world; 
 those who circumnavigate the globe; he who travels round 
 it in 80 days. Were a continuous first-class railway laid 
 like a hoop of iron on a great circle, an express train 
 running at a schedule rate of 40 miles an hour would 
 require 24 days to come around to its starting point. 
 
 Of this great globe nothing is known by the geologist 
 except its thinnest skin. The deepest boring has pene- 
 trated it only to the depth of little more than one mile. If 
 all known sedimentary and crystalline formations at their 
 greatest thickness were added together, the sum total 
 would not amount to 20 miles. These 20 miles in depth of 
 rock carry us back through all the known ages of geolog- 
 ical time. The rest of the globe, unknowable and unimag- 
 inable, must represent an infinite lapse of previous time. 
 
 In describing an area of the earth' s surface like the State of 
 Pennsylvania, the first thing to be done is to get a right idea 
 of its actual size, not so much in relation to the whole surface 
 of the earth as in relation to the whole area of the North 
 American continent, over which its rock formations spread 
 and in which they may be studied far beyond the limits of the 
 state. Pennsylvania is about 300 miles long and 150 miles 
 wide, a mere spot on the surface of the globe. Its geological 
 formations extend into surrounding states with areas as large 
 or larger than its own; arranged in the same order of super- 
 position one upon the other; exhibiting similar characters 
 and structure, and carrying the same mineral wealth. As 
 geological truth depends upon the comparison of all like 
 facts affecting a given case, the geologist of Pennsylvania 
 must make himself familiar with the geology of the whole 
 Atlantic seaboard and the whole Mississippi valley; and he 
 will often find the solution of his own local problems five 
 hundred or a thousand miles beyond the border of his own
 
 24 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 state. On the other hand the geology of New York, of 
 Ohio, of Maryland, of Virginia, of West Virginia, of Ken- 
 tucky, gets a still stronger reflected light from investigations 
 pursued for fifty years in Pennsylvania, where all the great 
 formations between the fundamental rocks and the coal 
 measures are in a more complete series, and at their greatest 
 known thickness. In this respect our state, small as it is in 
 relative area to the whole Appalachian region, is in fact a 
 standard of comparison, and occupies in geology as in 
 politics the position of the keystone in an arch. The 
 reason for this will be explained hereafter; at present it is 
 only needful to eni'orce the fact, and to stim ulate the imag- 
 ination to its proper comprehension, namely, that our geo- 
 ology is not local but general; that the rock formations of 
 one county of our state are not confined to that county, but 
 extend in immense sheets, with practically the same char- 
 acter, and lying upon one other in the same order, beneath 
 the surface of many of the other counties of the state, and 
 also of extensive regions of neighboring states; forming in 
 fact successive floors beneath nearly the whole United 
 States; sometimes rising to the surface, so that their edges 
 can be examined along lines and belts of greater or less 
 length; and sinking again to depths of several miles, where 
 it is to be presumed that their nature is unchanged; and 
 this presumption is the sole basis, but a practically sound 
 and reliable basis, for the little knowledge which we 
 possess of the earth's interior. 
 
 The three dimensions of length, breadth and thickness 
 then applies in practical geology to every rock formation. 
 (1) To the length of its outcrop, which (in Pennsylvania) 
 runs in a northeast and southwest direction; (2) to the dis- 
 tance which it extends underground from southeast to 
 northwest before it rises again to the surface in New York 
 or in Ohio; and (3) to the number of feet, or yards, or 
 hundred yards of its thickness as measured from its bottom 
 bed to its top bed, wherever it appears at the surface. 
 These are its three elements of size and quantity; and with 
 these three elements all the measurements and calculations 
 of practical geology are accomplished. If the slope (or
 
 GEOLOGICAL DIMENSION. 25 
 
 angle with the horizon) at which a formation sinks into the 
 underground and rises again to the surface be carefully 
 observed, it becomes possible, and is usually an easy matter, 
 to estimate with truth its bulk or solid contents, the num- 
 ber of square yards or tons which it contains, and its dis- 
 tance beneath the surface at any given point where it may 
 be desirable to bore a well or sink a shaft to work it. 
 
 This is the first business of the geologist, and it is more 
 successfully pursued than people imagine, for it proceeds 
 upon the well-established application of geometrical rules 
 for the treatment of the length, breadth and thickness of all 
 solid bodies, rules that are invariable. 
 
 If rock formations were absolutely regular in their 
 shape, of equal thickness everywhere, this practice of geol- 
 ogy could be conducted without the least chance of mis- 
 take, and business men might depend with absolute re- 
 liance on the assertion of a competent geologist that a cer- 
 tain rock formation would be struck at such and such a 
 depth. But the case of a perfectly regular rock formation 
 is one of the rarest in nature. Not only every bed of 
 limestone, sandstone, shale, clay, coal or iron ore varies 
 in thickness within its own particular limits of variation, 
 but every group of beds, and every formation composed 
 of groups of beds, thickens in one direction and thins in 
 another, or thickens and thins alternately and irregularly 
 throughout its whole extent. So that, were it not for the 
 many times and places at which rock beds rise to the sur- 
 face to be measured again and again, these irregularities 
 would present an insuperable obstacle to the accurate prac- 
 tice of geology. In this respect the folded structure of all 
 middle Pennsylvania gives to our study of its geology an 
 immense advantage, and makes our knowledge of it ex- 
 tremely accurate. But where the whole series of forma- 
 tions lie entirely flat, and only the highest members of the 
 series can be seen at the surface, as throughout western 
 Pennsylvania and the greater part of the Mississippi basin, 
 tjiey completely conceal their underground irregularities of 
 thickness and quality. The only knowledge we can then 
 obtain of such irregularities must come from a comparison 
 of the records of well borings.
 
 26 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The exact number of wells bored in western Pennsyl- 
 vania is not known, but it must exceed 50,000. Many of 
 them have gone down only a few hundred feet, many more 
 are 1,000 feet deep, few reach 3,000, and the deepest, the 
 experimental borehole of Mr. Westinghouse, at Pittsburgh, 
 and the wells at Erie, Franklin, and Wheatland are respec- 
 tively 4,685, 4,460, 3,880, and 3,484 feet deep. Had the re- 
 cords of all the wells bored since 1859 been carefully kept and 
 the character and thickness of every rock stratum been ac- 
 curately observed, our knowledge of the underground geo- 
 logy of western Pennsylvania might be considered perfect. 
 As it is, nine-tenths of this knowledge has been lost. But the 
 one-tenth which has been rescued, taken in connection 
 with the innumerable outcrop exposures along river cliffs 
 and in ravines, is quite sufficient to make the geology of 
 that half of our state more accurate and reliable than the 
 geology of any part of the known world ; that is to say, to 
 the depth of about a mile. All the underlying formations 
 which only outcrop in middle Pennsylvania, and the great 
 crystalline floor-rocks which outcrop in southeastern Penn- 
 sylvania, are absolutely unknown in western Pennsylvania. 
 
 The expression absolutely unknown is true indeed only 
 in its precise sense. Probabilities are of every grade 
 of force, and sometimes rise nearly to the level of cer- 
 tainties. When eye-witnesses cannot be obtained, circum- 
 stantial evidence will in many cases prove sufficient for 
 conviction. If the head of a nail is seen on one side of a 
 board and its point projects from the opposite side, no 
 reasonable person would think it necessary to split the 
 board to see if the nail went through from the head to the 
 point. If the Gorniferous limestone formation, No. Villa, 
 which runs along the foot of the Bald Eagle mountain 
 for a hundred miles, from Muncy, past Williamsport, Lock 
 Haven, Milesburg, Tyrone City, AltoonaandHollidaysburg, 
 to Cumberland, in Maryland, and so on south, as a contin- 
 uous formation, descending vertically, or dipping steeply 
 north west ward, as if to go under the Allegheny mountain 
 if this limestone makes its appearance in a similar outcrop 
 along ihe Mohawk valley, in the State of New York, and
 
 GEOLOGICAL DIMENSION. 27 
 
 keeps on in a nearly straight line westward to Niagara 
 Falls, reappears on the southern shore of Lake Erie near 
 Cleveland, and runs south through the State of Ohio to the 
 Ohio river above Cincinnati, and so on across Kentucky into 
 Tennessee, no reasonable man can refuse to believe that it 
 underlies, in a practically unbroken sheet, the whole region 
 enclosed between these two lines, and must surely be struck 
 by every oil well if the drilling goes deep enough.* It is for 
 the geologist to calculate what that depth would be at any 
 given point in the region ; and this he could do with math- 
 ematical certainty were the overlying formations perfectly 
 regular in thickness. Since they are not thus regular, 
 some law of irregularity must be discovered, and this can 
 only be done by measuring the interval between the Cor- 
 niferous limestone and some coal bed or limestone at the 
 surface, on the two edges of the region, the one in middle 
 Pennsylvania, the other in central New York and central 
 Ohio. 
 
 Such measurements have been made and repeated 
 until a pretty accurate average interval has been obtained 
 on each of these lines of outcrop. The difference between 
 them is so great that no better example of the irregularity 
 of our formations could be selected. 
 
 The Devonian and sub-Carboniferous formations in Ohio 
 measure, all told, only 1,175 feet; in Erie and Crawford 
 counties, 3,000' ; in Clinton county, 9,274' ; in Blair county, 
 10,909' ; in South Huntingdon, 11,546' ; at Cumberland, in 
 Maryland, 11,510' ; at Catawissa, in Columbia county, 
 12,212' ; on the Susquehanna river, above Harrisburg, 
 16,285' ; on the Schuylkill river, between Pottsville and 
 Schuylkiir Haven (they stand vertically) 20,000' (?) ; on the 
 Lehigh river, in Carbon county, 15,970' ; at Broadheadville, 
 13,550' ; at Stroudsburg, in Monroe county, 13,000', and at 
 Port Jarvis, along the Delaware river, in Pike county, 
 12.750'. 
 
 *It has actually been struck by three wells, the Presque Isle well at Erie, 
 at a depth of 1,400 ; the Wheatlaud well in Mercer county, at 3,384, and the 
 Con way well, nine miles below Franklin, at 3,880? But its southward dip 
 carries it down below the bottom of the Westinghaus well at Pittsburgh. 
 (See I 5, Carll's last Report, 1890, pages 72, 185, 188, 230.)
 
 28 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 It is thus easy to see that formations VII, VIII, IX, X, 
 
 XI and XII, which occupy the interval, are thicker in 
 Pennsylvania than in Ohio, and as they are all deposits of 
 sand and clay in sea water, and are not only thicker, but of 
 a coarser character at the east than at the west, four con- 
 clusions may confidently be drawn, namely, (1) that the de- 
 posits came from the east and were floated out toward the 
 west ; (2), that the finer material was carried farthest out 
 to sea westward ; (3) that the difference of thickness had 
 little or nothing to do with the depth of water; and (4) that 
 the westward thinning must be gradual, if not regularly 
 graduated. 
 
 If now we could be sure that the westward thinning was 
 not only gradual, but regularly gradual, its rate would be 
 easily obtainable, and then the thickness of the interval 
 could be calculated with great precision, say for every ten 
 miles on a line drawn from Altoona to Pittsburgh, and from 
 Pittsburgh to Columbus in Ohio. 
 
 On such a supposition the depth of the limestone under- 
 neath Pittsburgh would be almost exactly 7,600 feet. 
 
 But here a disturbing element enters into the calcula- 
 tion. The outcropping edges of formations IX, X, XI and 
 
 XII can be followed up the West Branch Susquehanna for 
 many miles and all the way around into Ohio. They are 
 also brought up to view and can be measured in the mount- 
 ain gaps at Johnstown, at Confluence, at Blairsville, 
 Latrobe and Connellsville in southwestern Pennsylvania. 
 We can see how they all diminish in thickness from the 
 Allegheny mountain westward. We see also that the red 
 formations IX and XI diminish in thickness more rapidly 
 than the others, and become so thin before reaching the 
 Ohio line that they can hardly be recognized. This com- 
 plicates the calculation, so that we are forced to conclude 
 that the Corniferous limestone must lie at a depth beneath 
 Pittsburgh considerably less than the 7600' above stated. 
 
 The law of irregularity of ocean deposits illustrated by 
 this example on a grand scale holds good for all the sedi- 
 mentary formations of the world and makes itself felt in 
 the case of every individual bed in every formation, pro-
 
 GEOLOGICAL DIMENSION. 29 
 
 ducing local thickenings and thinnings of every conglome- 
 rate, sandstone, shale or limestone bed; obliging the careful 
 geologist to repeat his measurements everywhere, and 
 restraining him from making too confident predictions of 
 what the boring tools are to find, or the precise depth at 
 which any desired bed will be struck. This will be ex- 
 plained more fully in describing the oil regions. 
 
 Returning to the subject of the westward thinning of our 
 formations, and reversing the direction, they are seen to 
 increase in thickness from the Allegheny mountain east- 
 ward to their final outcrop along the Blue mountain which 
 borders the Cumberland valley. In this middle belt of the 
 State we have uncommon opportunities for studying irreg-' 
 ularities of rock thickness. The strata rise to the surface 
 and sink again several times in a breadth of 50 miles; and 
 every time they rise for examination going southeast they 
 show themselves coarser and harder and thicker. If we 
 took in our examination only the direction from Altoona to 
 Chambersburg we might suppose these sediments to have 
 been produced by the destruction of the South mountains 
 of Fayette and Adams county; but the formations thin 
 away southward through Virginia into Tennessee, as they 
 do westward into Ohio; but in the other direction, north- 
 eastward, they increase in thickness toward the Catskill 
 mountains. 
 
 Comparative measurements made at Altoona, at Hunting- 
 don, in Perry county, along the North Branch of the Susque- 
 hanna in Montour county, along the Lehigh river in Carbon 
 county, and along the Delaware in Monroe and Pike 
 counties, must remove from every intelligent mind the popu- 
 lar and mischievous opinion that what is called a general 
 section of a series of rocks can be used for the practical 
 purposes of exploration by anybody who has it in hand, 
 whether he be a geologist or not.
 
 30 GEOLOGICAL SUEVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 On General Sections. 
 
 It is necessary to explain clearly what this term "general 
 section " means, and it will then be seen that the common 
 practice of writers of geological reports and text-books in 
 placing a general section of the series of rocks which they 
 'are about to describe on the first page of their description 
 to enable their readers to keep in mind the order, character 
 and thickness of the rocks, while in one way it facilitates 
 the understanding of the description, leads in another way 
 to the most serious practical errors, whenever that de- 
 scription is taken as a guide to the special study of a re- 
 gion or locality. 
 
 A vertical section of a formation or series of formations 
 means a representation or drawing of a deep cut in the 
 earth from the surface downward, like the cut made by a 
 knife through a pile of buckwheat cakes at the breakfast 
 table. The character and thickness of each cake is thus 
 revealed and the order in which the cakes lie one upon the 
 other. If the various layers lie smooth and flat the section 
 shows it. If the layers be crumpled the section shows it. 
 If they differ in thickness anywhere the section shows it. 
 And if they have a general slope or inclination in one 
 direction, the lower layers rise toward one end of the sec- 
 tion, and the upper layers sink at the other end. It is 
 called a vertical section because it is made from the surface 
 directly towards the center of the earth. 
 
 A columnar section is merely a small portion of a verti- 
 cal section, showing the same facts of order, character and 
 thickness, by a narrow column placed at one side of the 
 printed page, drawn without any regard to the slope or 
 wrinkles of the rocks, and representing them as if they 
 were lying Jlat. The measurements are made at right
 
 ON GENERAL SECTIONS. 31 
 
 angles to the beds, and are intended to express the exact 
 thicknesss of the several beds. It is evident that a hundred 
 such columnar sections may be made along the line of any 
 one vertical section; but that where the beds of a general 
 section are very regular one columnar section will be 
 enough to show their character, order and thickness along 
 the whole line. If, however, the rocks of a vertical section 
 be variable in character and thickness then a dozen or more 
 columnar sections will be required to exhibit these varia- 
 tions. Yet many geologists are satisfied with one, and the 
 readers of their reports and consulters of their text-books 
 are left to gather the nature of such irregularities from 
 descriptions of them in the text. 
 
 Now, what is true of one vertical section is true of all. 
 The line along which any vertical section is made is selected 
 by the geologist where it can be best studied in his district; 
 where a river has exposed the rocks for a mile or miles; 
 where railroad cuttings, lines of quarries, ore banks, mine 
 shafts or oil borings furnish him data for his measurements. 
 Such sections are of the greatest value, and are in fact the 
 foundation of all accurate geology. But these natural lines 
 of section do not often run in the most convenient direction; 
 run sometimes diagonally across the strike and dip of the 
 formations. The} 7 must be swung around to cross them at 
 right angles, if the true structure of the district is to be 
 exhibited. Consequently the geologist must make as 
 many such sections as possible in all parts of the district. 
 Some will be short and some long according to circum- 
 tances. To represent the whole geology of the district 
 he must put them together. He constructs thus what he 
 calls a general vertical section, and gives that as expressing 
 a summary view of the geology of the whole district. This 
 summary view will certainly give some general idea of it. 
 But a general idea of the geology of a district, however 
 good it may be, will be mischievously bad in one respect, 
 in that it will lead people who are not judicious field geol- 
 ogists to believe that that general section represents accu- 
 rately the geology of each and every portion of the district. 
 They will act on that assumption. They will apply that
 
 32 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 general section to the discovery of minerals in parts of the 
 district where local facts do not correspond at all to the 
 general section. In fact nothing has tended more to bring 
 into popular disfavor the work of field geologists than 
 the serious embarrassments to which laymen have been sub- 
 jected in trying to apply the general section of a district 
 to some special locality in which they are personally in- 
 terested. 
 
 What has just been said has greater force in respect to 
 general columnar sections, which are intended to furnish a 
 quick and easy key to the order, character and thicknesses 
 of the rock-beds of a district. Even in the hands of an ex- 
 perienced geologist such general columnar sections are 
 dangerous tools to work with. They impose upon the im- 
 agination, and through the imagination upon the reasoning 
 faculty. They seem to reveal clearly what in fact they 
 conceal ; they mystify it, distort it, and change the truth 
 into positive error. They give the impression of regularity 
 in geology; whereas irregularity is the only law of geology 
 which can be called absolutely universal. 
 
 Even the experienced geologist is strongly tempted 
 to recognize a general columnar section as true at every lo- 
 cality. Only with an effort can he keep in mind that it is a 
 fiction, a construction, not a reality; a generalization; a 
 sort of dressed up official representative of thousands of 
 facts for which it speaks, but the various natures of which 
 it cannot correctly express. If one of the beds of any such 
 columnar section happens to be 20 feet thick at one end of 
 his district and 100 feet thick at the other end ; or, if it be 
 found to measure 20 feet at one point and 100 feet at an- 
 other even if these two figures be known to represent the 
 thinnest and thickest sizes of that bed within a given dis- 
 trict the columnar section will either say that the bed 
 varies from 20 to 100 feet, or it will say that its average 
 thickness is 60 feet. These are the two plans ordinarily 
 adopted in constructing a columnar section ; but they do 
 not relieve it of its mischievous character. For in the first 
 place there may be places underground to which no one has 
 had access where the bed may not exist at all. or where it
 
 ON GENERAL SECTIONS. 33 
 
 thickens to 200 feet. Should a shaft be sunk or a borehole 
 drilled at such a point the general section is at once dis- 
 credited, and even whatever value it has will be denied. 
 
 But even if the geologist has been able to discover the 
 greatest thickness which the bed has anywhere, and its 
 thickness at that place amounts to 100 feet, it may be an 
 exceptional and purely local fact. Perhaps the bed 
 throughout the district varies little from 20 feet. To say 
 then in the columnar section that the bed varies from 20 
 feet to 100 feet gives a wholly false and unpractical de- 
 scription of it. If the second plan be adopted and the 
 average of 60 feet be marked on the edge of the column, it 
 becomes a false guide everywhere in the district, for there 
 may not be a single locality where this average of 60 feet is 
 realized. 
 
 What, then, is to be done? Shall there be no attempt 
 made to exhibit in the form of a column the order, char- 
 acter and /thickness of the rock formations of a district \ 
 Shall the reader be left to manufacture his own ideas of it 
 from a confused mass of detailed descriptions in the text of 
 the report ? If he be thus left to his own devices he will 
 undoubtedly construct some general columnar section for 
 himself, and it will probably be a worse one than that which 
 the wise geologist has discarded. 
 
 There is a plain road out of the difficulty. A typical 
 columnar section should be substituted for the so-called 
 general columnar section. 
 
 Among the many local columnar sections which the geol- 
 ogist constructs (along his numerous lines of vertical sec- 
 tion), each one giving the precise facts at the place where 
 they present themselves to the eye for examination and to 
 the hand for measurement, there will always be one or an- 
 other more precise and more complete than the rest, show- 
 ing more distinctly the order, character and thickness of the 
 beds of the district, arid as accurate in its statement of the 
 facts as any of the rest. 'Such a columnar section, vouched 
 for in all of its details, and marked with the name of the 
 locality where it was studied by the geologist and can be 
 studied by any number of observers who choose to verify 
 3
 
 34 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 the accurateness of his observations such a columnar sec- 
 tion, rightly called typical, is at the same time good 
 authority and of practical value. It leaves nothing to the 
 vague imagination. It is a reality to be depended upon. 
 It will serve as a useful guide. It stands only for what it is 
 worth. It makes no pretensions to general truth. It says 
 nothing respecting the stratification or structure at other 
 localities in the district, being only one of many, all differ- 
 ent from each other; and it can be referred to in explanation 
 of similar appearances not so well exposed to examination. 
 Above all, it will enforce upon -the mind of everyone who 
 uses it for comparison with other local columnar sections 
 that law of irregularity or variability on which the genius 
 of geology must forever insist, as the first to be recognized 
 and profoundest to be felt of all the laws of our science a 
 law that cannot be too often or too earnestly inculcated a 
 law both of the highest theoretical and the most real prac- 
 tical character, governing both our calculations respecting 
 the outspread of continental formations and the minutest 
 details of our mining operations.
 
 THE APPALACHIAN SEA. 35 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Appalachian Sea. 
 
 The arrangement of land and sea upon the surface of the 
 globe, with which geography makes us familiar, appears to 
 the human mind to be fixed and unchangeable. The relig- 
 ious traditions of mankind have taken this for granted and 
 explained the creation accordingly. But this is not a fact. 
 By the fossil forms of many extinct animals and vegetable 
 creations embedded in the rocks of all ages, it appears that 
 all continents have been formed beneath the sea, and have 
 emerged from it into the air. By the way the continental 
 fossiliferous formations lie one upon another it appears 
 with equal plainness that the lands have emerged and 
 been submerged alternately many times in the course of 
 the history of the world. But when the bottom of the sea 
 is lifted into the air the water which covers it flows away 
 from it, lifting the general sea level of the world in propor- 
 tion to the amount of land which has become uncovered. 
 The lifting of the general surface of the sea resubmerges 
 lands which were previously out of water. The crust of 
 the earth has been subjected in all geological ages to such 
 movements, and such movements are going on still; move- 
 ments both upward and downward. They are not upward 
 movements of the land and downward movements of the 
 sea bottom, but alternate upward and downward move 
 ments of both the dry lands 'and of the ocean bottoms. 
 The upward movement of a continent draining its edge, 
 lifts the sea level and submerges the edges and low-lying 
 plains of other continents. The downward movement of 
 one continent drawing the ocean over its low-lying lands, 
 lowers the sea level and causes an apparent elevation of 
 other continents; but the elevation is only apparent; the 
 ocean coast is extended outward by the fall of the sea level;.
 
 36 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 submarine banks like those of Newfoundland and off the 
 Alaskan coast, are left like great islands exposed to the air 
 and ready to receive the seeds of a new vegetation, and the 
 immigration of new races of animals to feed upon them. 
 
 For the same reason, whenever the bottom of the sea has 
 been lifted there has been a rise of the sea level and an 
 overflow of the lowlands of all continents. On the other 
 hand every downward movement of the earth crust beneath 
 the ocean has lowered the sea level and drained the coasts 
 of the continents. It is a geological speculation unsup- 
 ported by sufficient evidence that the oceans have always 
 been oceans, and that the ocean bottoms have always been 
 descending. There is sufficient evidence to the contrary; 
 and such evidence is afforded in the clearest manner by the 
 geology of Pennsylvania. For many ages the crystalline 
 floor kept going downward, draining the sea water from the 
 rest of the surface of the world and exposing to the air more 
 and more of the - coasts of then existing continents. At 
 first the downward movement, if not sudden, was relatively 
 swift, and a deep ocean was early established along that 
 part of 'the earth's surface now occupied by our Atlantic 
 states ; but this is not certain. 
 
 This ocean first received the Cambrian sediments, and 
 afterwards the Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous. Its 
 original depth may be imagined from the fact that on top 
 of 15,000 feet of Cambrian beds lie in middle Pennsylvania 
 6,000 feet of lower Silurian limestone (regarded by most 
 geologists as a deep sea deposit)* and 6,000 feet of fine sand 
 and mud-slate, on top of which lie 30,000 feet of Upper 
 Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous strata. 
 
 Now if this Appalachian ocean had been established at 
 once, by a sudden drop of the crust of the earth to a depth 
 sufficient to receive all these Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian 
 and Carboniferous strata, that is to a depth of 7 or 8 miles, 
 the general sea level of the world would have been lowered 
 many hundreds of feet. But we are forbidden to suppose 
 a sudden movement on so grand a scale. But whether 
 
 *Bnt of this assumption I ain very doubtful, as will appear in the Chapter 
 on Formation No. II.
 
 THE APPALACHIAN SEA. 37 
 
 quick or slow, such a downward movement of one part of 
 the earth's crust should in all probability have entailed as 
 a consequence a corresponding elevation of other parts of 
 the surface of the globe, parts of the then existing ocean 
 bottoms, as well as parts which were already dry land. 
 
 There is nothing but a theory to oppose the supposition 
 that what is the Atlantic ocean now (or a portion of it) was 
 in all Palaeozoic time a continent exposed to the erosion of 
 the rainfall, supplied with rivers, and bestowing the waste 
 of its rocks in the Appalachian sea. Its smaller rivers, de- 
 scending rapidly from its highlands, would supply conglo- 
 merates; its larger rivers meandering from its back 
 countries, with longer and more gentle currents, would 
 supply the slates and clastic limerocks. 
 
 It is, of course, impossible to decide between the oppos- 
 ing probabilities of a faster or a slower rate of the down- 
 ward movement which established the Appalachian sea 
 basin. All we can say is that the great limestone deposits 
 are very early ; and supposing them deep sea deposits, we 
 must conclude that the establishment of a deep Appala- 
 chian sea basin was of early accomplishment; that the 
 downward movement was at first comparatively rapid; and 
 that it continued (perhaps more and more slowly) to the 
 end of the coal age. 
 
 The two thoughts which are here fundamental to the 
 knowledge of our Pennsylvanian geology are these: (1) 
 that what was the continental area of crystalline rocks 
 became by the downward movements of the earth's crust 
 an Appalachian sea basin of unknown depth, and was in 
 the course of the Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian and Car- 
 boniferous ages so completely filled up as to become at last 
 a great marsh or archipelago of marshes, bearing the vege- 
 tation of the coal; and (2) that this whole area was then 
 lifted high into the air; that a corresponding contempo- 
 raneous down ward movement established the Atlantic ocean 
 or parts of it, as the thrust which elevated the Appala- 
 chians came from that direction; and that submergence of 
 other lands of the world must have been occasioned by the 
 general rise of the sea level.
 
 38 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 All this took place in the Palaeozoic times, that is in the 
 first great geological age of the world of animal and vege- 
 table life. The coal measures, which were the last deposits 
 in the Appalachian sea, taken as a whole, is inconceivably 
 ancient and remote from the present day. 
 
 A second division of geological history then succeeded : 
 the Mesozoic or Middle age of animal and vegetable life. 
 
 Then came the Kainozoic (Cenozoic) or New world of 
 animal and vegetable life, ending with the appearance of 
 man. 
 
 Each of these three ages of the world's geological history 
 has had its own series of continental elevations and depres- 
 sions; its invasions of the continent by the ocean and the 
 reappearance of land surfaces on the retreat of the water 
 into the sea basins; its own peculiar sequence of sediments 
 brought by rivers {and deposited in the sea, all of them 
 preserving in their mud and sand layers the waste of suc- 
 cessive forests, and the dead remains of genera and species 
 of animals. 
 
 All the greater mountain ranges of the world are com- 
 posed of such sedimentary rocks, which have been lifted out 
 of the ocean into the air in successive ages since the de- 
 posit of our coal beds, and mostly in Mesozoic and Kainozoic 
 times. 
 
 Movements on so grand a scale must have altered mate- 
 i;ially the relation of lands to seas, modifying more or less 
 the geography of the whole earth's surface. Therefore, I 
 find it hard to believe that oceans have always been oceans, 
 and continents, continents, even if other facts than those 
 alluded to above were not known to prove the opposite.
 
 THE NAMES OF THE FORMATIONS. 39 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 The Names of the Formations. 
 
 Everything has to have a name. It makes very little dif- 
 ference what name is bestowed upon it, provided that name 
 be generally accepted and is different from the name of 
 anything else, so that the name shall always stand for that 
 one thing and for nothing else. In science great pains have 
 been taken to invent names which signify the character, or 
 some characteristic feature, of the nature of the thing 
 named. But in a science like geology, which includes sev- 
 eral sciences, structural geology, chemical geology, fossil 
 geology (paleontology) and economical geology (mining 
 engineering, etc.) different geologists will each one look 
 upon a rock formation with that particular interest which 
 it has for his special studies or work, and will wish to name 
 it accordingly. Geologists in different regions will give dif- 
 ferent names to the same formation, each affixing to it the 
 title of some locality where he finds it best exposed to view, 
 most easily studied, of greatest size, or most valuable for 
 the community. Geologists of different countries, speak 
 ing different languages, have given many different names to 
 the same stratum or series of strata. All this is inevitable. 
 No international congress of geologists can either hinder or 
 help it. The confusion arises out of the multiplicities and 
 irregularities of nature itself. Those who wish to profit by 
 geological investigations and discoveries must submit to the 
 burden of geological nomenclature and learn all the names, 
 even if they choose to use qnly some. It is impossible, to 
 macadamize or asphalt the highways and byways of 
 knowledge. 
 
 All our state geological surveys have invented names for 
 some of their formations, and for others have borrowed 
 names already given to them in neighboring states. Geo-
 
 40 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 logical formations care nothing for geographical lines 
 established by king's charter or acts of congress. They 
 pass underground from one state into another. The geology 
 of southern New York is exactly the same as that of north- 
 ern Pennsylvania. The geology of northern New Jersey 
 passes on across middle Pennsylvania into Maryland and 
 Virginia. Eastern Ohio and western Pennsylvania share 
 with West Virginia the same beds of coal, limestone and 
 iron ore, the same oil and gas sands. The formations ex- 
 posed on the Juniata are exposed on the Potomac, and their 
 outcrops extend to Alabama. The Brown sandstone and 
 red shale belt of Bucks, Montgomery, Chester, Lancaster, 
 York and Adams counties is continued to the Dan and 
 Deep rivers of North Carolina in one direction, and up the 
 Connecticut valley into Vermont in the other direction. 
 The Philadelphia gneisses and mica schists pass on without 
 break through Delaware, Maryland and east Virginia as 
 far as Georgia. The South mountains of eastern Pennsyl- 
 vania are the same as the Highlands of New Jersey and 
 New York ; the South mountains of southern Pennsylvania 
 are the same as the Blue Ridge of Virginia. 
 
 These facts are positively known to all geologists now ; 
 but they were only suspected to be possibly or probably 
 true by geologists sixty years ago, when the principal state 
 surveys were set on foot. Hastily to give the same name to 
 a series of rocks in two different states which might turn 
 out on examination to be two distinct series would have 
 made a great embarrassment ; and an example of this is af- 
 forded by the employment in our Pennsylvania reports of 
 the name "Potsdam sandstone" borrowed from Dr. 
 Emmons' survey of the Champlain district in northern New 
 York, to designate the "White Spot" rock overlooking 
 Reading, Chicques rock at Columbia, the quartzite beds at 
 Mt. Holly Springs and Mont Alto in Cumberland and 
 Franklin counties, and the North Valley hill rock at 
 Downingtown and Norristown; for it is now doubtful if all 
 or any of these have right to that name. 
 
 A still more flagrant instance is afforded by the old and 
 standing controversy over the name Taconic System, a
 
 THE NAMES OF THE FORMATIONS. 41 
 
 name which may justly be called the Nightmare of Ameri- 
 can Geology, from which, however, we are happily almost 
 awakened. 
 
 For fear of thus hampering their surveys with names that 
 might become popular and yet' be absolutely false and 
 worse than useless the state geologists of Pennsylvania and 
 Virginia, the distinguished brothers Henry D. and William 
 B. Rogers, refused to accept the names of the formations 
 adopted for New York by the four principal geologists of 
 that state, Mather, Emmons, Vanuxem and James Hall, 
 and adopted a plan of numbering the great formations ac- 
 cording to their order of superposition from below up- 
 wards; a series of numbers which of course would never 
 change, and for which distinctive names might be after- 
 wards substituted. These numbers, from I to XIII (after 
 wards increased to XVII) only applied to the rock forma- 
 tions of three-fourths of the state, Silurian, Devonian and 
 Carboniferous. The earlier rocks of the Crystalline region, 
 and the later rocks of the New Red or Brownstone region, 
 all of them in southeastern Pennsylvania, were left unnum- 
 bered. This numbering was accomplished in 1836 and 
 1837. 
 
 Between that time and 1858, when the " Geology of Penn- 
 sylvania" was published, the brothers Rogers, who were 
 poets as well as geologists, devised a series of names which 
 they proposed to substitute for the series of numbers, and 
 for all other names applied by foreign and domestic geolo- 
 gists to the Palaeozoic formations, considered as successive 
 deposits made in one long, great geological day of time ; a 
 day divisible into four portions, before and after sunrise, 
 before and after sunset; the day in which the Lower and 
 Upper Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous systems of the 
 English geologists were deposited. But the Coal Measures 
 belonged to the night and received no name ; or, rather, 
 were allowed to retain that popular appellation, being sim- 
 ply Coal Measures. 
 
 No. 1, at the base, also, was simply named the Primal 
 sandstone; Nos. 2, 3, Auroral and Matinal ; Nos. 4, 5, 6, 
 Levant (sunrise), Scaletut and Premeridian; No. 7, M&ri-
 
 42 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 dian or noon; Nos. 8, 9, Cadent an&Ponenl (sunset) ; Nos. 
 10, 11, 12 Vespertine, Umbral and Serai. 
 
 All these names, except three, are long since forgotten. 
 No geologist has accepted them as useful. But, curiously 
 enough, the people of western Pennsylvania, led by the 
 coal prospectors of the Allegheny mountains, adopted the 
 three exceptions, and still speak of the Vespertine sand- 
 stone No. X, the Umbral red shale No. XI, and the Serai 
 conglomerate No. XII. Some geologists have, therefore, em- 
 ployed them in local reports; and they will continue to be 
 used occasionally instead of the newer 'names: Pocono 
 sandstone, Mauch Chunk red shale, and Pottsmlle conglo- 
 merate. 
 
 When the geological survey of the state was reorganized 
 in 1874, and county reports began to be published, it was 
 needful to adopt names for the rock deposits. The old 
 numbers were not precise enough; the fanciful names of 
 1858 had been universally ignored; the New York names 
 had come into universal use. These last therefore were 
 applied to the formations in Pennsylvania, and others of 
 the same geographical character were added at the end of 
 the list where Pennsylvania had higher strata than any in 
 New York. 
 
 No. 1 was called Potsdam sandstone. 
 
 No. 2 included the Calciferous sandstone, Chazy and 
 Trenton limestone. 
 
 No. 3 included the Utica and Hudson river slates. 
 
 No. 4 included the Oneida conglomerate and Medina 
 sandstone. 
 
 No. 5 included the Clinton, Niagara and Salina shales. 
 
 No. 6 was the Lower Helderberg limestone. 
 
 No. 7 was the Oriskany sandstone and Caudagalli grit. 
 
 No. 8 extended from the Corniferous and Marcellus up 
 through the Hamilton, Genessee, Portage and Chemung. 
 
 No. 9 was the Catskill or Old Red sandstone. 
 
 No. 10, not being named in New York, although it forms 
 the peaks of the Catskill plateau, received the name Po- 
 cono gray sandstone. 
 
 No. 11, Mauch Chunk red shale.
 
 THE NAMES OF THE FOKMATIONS. 43 
 
 No. 12, Potts ville conglomerate. 
 
 No. 13, Allegheny river coal measures. 
 
 No. 14, Pittsburgh (Lower Barren) measures. 
 
 No. 15, Monongahela river coal measures. 
 
 No. 16, Washington county group. 
 
 No. 17, Greene county (Upper Barren) measures, the 
 highest Palaeozoic strata to be found in Pennsylvania, and 
 possibly belonging to the last or Permian age of that era 
 in geological time. 
 
 Names given by the assistant geologists of the state 
 survey to sub-divisions or important local beds in these 
 formations will appear in the chapters devoted to their 
 description. 
 
 The terms Azoic, Eozoic, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, Kainozoic, 
 have been already alluded to as designating the successive 
 grand geological ages of vegetable and animal life on the 
 planet. It is not intended in this book to use the first two 
 with any dogmatic sentiment, in view of the current con- 
 troversies on what I consider a very unimportant subject, 
 namely, the precise unification of geological nomenclature. 
 One name is quite as good as another provided it be known 
 to what it applies, and provided that it implies no false 
 description of character. 
 
 Azoic or No-Life rocks was a good term, first applied 
 by Foster and Whitney to the crystalline and semi-crystal- 
 line rocks of the Lake Superior region, to express the fact 
 that no relic of either vegetable or animal life had yet been 
 discovered in them. It was not intended to assert that 
 these rocks never had had fossil seaweeds or shells in 
 them, but merely that nonesuch had ever yet been discov- 
 ered in them. It is not only probable but proved that fossil 
 bearing sediments crystallize, and in doing so obliterate the 
 fossil forms which before crystallization must have been 
 visible enough. The term Azoic simply tells the fact that 
 no fossils have been found in them. The objection made 
 to it, that rocks of later ages may suffer this change and 
 lose their fossils is not practically a good one, and for this 
 reason, viz : that ninety-nine-hundredths of the Azoic 
 rocks belong to the oldest geological age we know anything
 
 44 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 about; therefore Azoic is a very convenient name for the 
 oldest formations, whether they appear at the surface in 
 our southeastern counties, or lie at great depths beneath 
 the rest of the state. 
 
 Archcean is however a much better terra, invented by 
 Professor Jas. D. Dana, and adopted very generally, 
 almost universally, by the geological craft, because it 
 simply means the oldest rocks known, and passes by the 
 question whether they ever contained fossils or not. 
 
 Fundamental gneiss was the term preferred at first 
 by English geologists because it expressed the general 
 character of the crystalline consolidated floor on which all 
 other formations have been built up. But Dana's name 
 Archcsan has been gradually replacing the English name 
 even in England. 
 
 Laurentian, Sir W. E. Logan's name for the Azoic, 
 Archaean, Fundamental gneiss floor of the known geological 
 under- world, has been very generally adopted by American 
 geologists, and has been used in many of the reports of the 
 survey of Pennsylvania, especially in Prof. Prime's reports 
 on Northampton and Berks counties, Mr. C. E. Hall's 
 reports on southern Bucks, Montgomery and Delaware 
 counties, and Dr. Persifor Frazer's reports on Chester, Lan- 
 caster, York and Adams counties. The mountains of the 
 Lower St. Lawrence, Labrador, Canada, and the Adiron- 
 dack region of northern New York, show the floor rocks of 
 the world on the grandest scale. 
 
 Pre-Cambrian is another term for the same azoic, archsean, 
 fundamental, Laurentian rocks, adopted by conservative 
 geologists who recognize how little we know of them, and 
 how uncertain are the identifications of them in the isolated 
 and far-separated regions where they appear at the present 
 surface of the globe. For this term merely states that they 
 were in existence when the first Cambrian or Eozoic sedi- 
 ments were deposited upon them in the earliest seas. In 
 this sense Pre-Cambrian means all rocks older than or be- 
 neath the lowest Cambrian beds which contain fossils. But 
 by other geologists it is used in another sense, namely, to 
 signify formations which show themselves rising to the sur-
 
 THE NAMES OF THE FORMATIONS. 45 
 
 face from beneath the Cambrian, and which yet may not be 
 as old as the Laurentian, but intermediate between the 
 Laurentian and the Cambrian. If they contain fossils 
 they should be included in the Cambrian. If they do not, 
 they are Azoic rocks, but yet may not be Laurentian. 
 
 The Huronian system, lirst studied by Murray on the 
 north shore of Lake Huron, and so called by Logan and 
 Hunt, of the Canada survey, was supposed to hold such in- 
 termediate place. But Irving and A. Winchell have appar- 
 ently proved that only the lower portion of it is Pre-Cam- 
 brian, and the upper portion may be Cambrian, although 
 no fossils have yet been found in it by which alone its Cam- 
 brian age can be established. In Report E of the Pennsyl- 
 vania survey Dr. T. S terry Hunt has used this name 
 Huronian in describing rocks in Adams county; and Dr. 
 Frazer's sections of the South mountains of Cumberland 
 and Fayette counties give them a Huronian aspect. On the 
 other hand, Walcott's Cambrian quartzites seem to be well 
 represented in the Mt. Holly (Papertown) gap, and else- 
 where between that and the Maryland line. But no fossils 
 (except ScolitTius) have as yet been found in the South 
 mountains ; probably, or perhaps, for want of observers suf- 
 ficiently disciplined by the study of Cambrian areas else- 
 where to detect them. The Green Mountain rocks of Ver- 
 mont are called by T. S. Hunt Huronian. Of the White 
 Mountain hornblendic gneisses and mica schists he makes 
 his Montalban system, and identifies it with the Philadel- 
 phia belt ; Montalban being after and above Huronian. 
 See Report E, page 241. 
 
 Eozoic rocks are those which show by fossils the dawn 
 of life on the planet. It is a convenient phrase which 
 means nothing definite and it is synonymous with the 
 term Cambrian, although the Eozoon canadense is called a 
 Laurentian fossil. But C. E. Hall asserts that he can prove 
 that the strata which contains this oldest of all supposed 
 animal remains in the rocks of the'earth really belong to 
 post-Laurentian times. At all events, with the possible ex- 
 ception of the Canadian Eozoon canadense, the earliest ani- 
 mal remains are the trilobites and shells of the Lower Cam- 
 brian (once called Taconic] rocks.
 
 46 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Cambrian is Sedgwick's English name for a great series 
 of deposits in Wales, Scandinavia, Bohemia, Spain and 
 elsewhere, which have been admirably studied by Walcott 
 and others in eastern New York, eastern Massachusetts, 
 New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Georgia and the Rocky 
 mountains. Its three divisions of Lower, Middle and 
 Upper are characterized by what are called the Olenus, 
 Paradoxides, and Olenellus faunas, or groups of trilobites 
 mixed in with sea shells of many kinds, sponges, worms, 
 sea weeds, etc. With the old controversy between Sedg- 
 wick and Murchison respecting the limits of the Cambrian 
 and Silurian systems, practically settled by the publica- 
 tions of the geological survey of Great Britain, we have 
 nothing to do. And as little now with the equally pro- 
 tracted and ill-natured controversies over Dr. Emmons' 
 Taconic system, now happily ended by discoveries which 
 turn that unfortunate system upside down and distribute 
 its members among the Silurian and Cambrian formations. 
 The same fate has befallen Logan's Quebec group. Neither 
 of these too famous names appear in the reports of the 
 Pennsylvania survey, as far as I can now recollect, except 
 that certain fossils in P. 4 are quoted as occurring in the 
 latter. 
 
 Palceozoic ropks are those which contain the remains of 
 the ancient living beings of the world, vegetable and ani- 
 mal, from the Cambrian sea weeds, sponges, worms and 
 trilobites up to the land plants, shells and reptiles of the 
 Coal age. If anyone pleases he may merge the Eozoic in 
 the Palceozoic, and begin the system at the bottom of the 
 Cambrian sediments, calling the whole Palceozoic. Cam- 
 brian is a more definite term than Eozoic, and quite as con- 
 venient. The fewer names the better. Until their discov- 
 ery by Walcott three years ago in the Trenton limestone 
 of the Colorado, fishes were supposed to have come into ex- 
 istence in the Upper Silurian times. New discoveries are 
 constantly carrying back the first appearance of one or an- 
 other family of living things to remoter and remoter times. 
 No one has a right to say how early in geological history 
 vegetables and animals appeared. "The dawn" of life re-
 
 THE NAMES OF THE FORMATIONS. 47 
 
 cedes, farther and farther into the past. The word Eozoic 
 is becoming useless ; the term Palaeozoic will always be 
 sufficient to embrace it. 
 
 Silurian rocks, originally studied by Murchison in 
 Wales, whence their name, and since then in most of the 
 countries of the world, were early recognized in New York, 
 and there classified (in ascending series) as Potsdam, Cal- 
 ciferous, Chazy, Trenton, Utica, Hudson river, Oneida, 
 Medina, Clinton, Niagara, Salina (at first Onondaga] and 
 Lower Helderberg, corresponding to the Pennsylvania num- 
 bers I to VI. 
 
 Devonian rocks, first studied by De la Beche and Mur- 
 chison in southwest England, and afterwards in Scotland 
 and other parts of the world, received in New York the 
 sub-division names (upwards) Oriskany, Upper Helder- 
 berg, Marcellus, Hamilton* Genesee, Portage, Chemung 
 and Catskill, corresponding to the Pennsylvania Nos. 
 VIII and IX. 
 
 The Carboniferous formations in Pennsylvania are (in 
 ascending order) Pocono ( Waverlyin Ohio), Mauchchunk, 
 Pottsville, Allegheny, Pittsburgh, Mono7igahela, Wash- 
 ton county and Greene county groups, the last two being 
 awkward names for the highest palseozoic rocks in the state. 
 An unknown additional quantity of beds having been re- 
 moved by erosion, the original topmost or last deposits of the 
 Carboniferous series are unknown. This is the same as 
 saying that the exact date at which the Appalachian sea 
 was dried by the elevation of the Palaeozoic continent into 
 the air is not indicated by any now remaining layer or 
 layers of rock in the region of southwest Pennsylvania, or 
 elsewhere in the state. If the upward movement took 
 place within the limits of the Permian age of Europe, then 
 the highest strata of Greene county may be called rem- 
 nants of the Permian formation. But geologists on both 
 sides of the Atlantic are disposed to classify the Permian 
 strata as the last of Paleozoic age, and to begin the great 
 Mesozoic age with the Trias. 
 
 The Mesozoic or middle life time of the world's geological 
 history, as we know it on the surface, began with that vast
 
 48 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 catastrophe which produced the United States as a contin- 
 ental area. He that is best acquainted with the phenomenon 
 will be the best convinced that it was a sudden or rapid 
 movement, a genuine cataclysm. The overthrust faults are 
 of themselves alone sufficient to prove it. A belt of par- 
 allel mountains, as high as any that now exist in South 
 America or Asia, rose into the air along a line extending 
 from the St. Lawrence to the Q-nlf of Mexico, passing 
 through Pennsylvania. The whole Appalachian sea was 
 drained off and became dry land, a continental area of coal 
 measures, much of which has since then been carried away, 
 but much still remains, constituting the extensive coal 
 fields of the present time. The whole rain water drainage 
 was reversed. The Palaeozoic river system which came 
 from the east disappeared, and a new Mesozoic river system 
 began to dissolve the raw continent and carry its undried 
 strata piecemeal eastward into the newly-created basin of 
 the present Atlantic ocean. 
 
 The Mesozoic age has three divisions, during which were 
 successively deposited the Triassic, Jurassic and Creta- 
 ceous rocks. These again are subdivided in Europe into 
 Bunttr, Middle Trias, Keuper, RhcBtic and Lias; Oolite, 
 &c.; Wealden, Oreensand and Chalk. With most of these 
 names Pennsylvanian geology has nothing to do. Some are 
 local English or German names. And many more names have 
 been invented for use in other countries of Europe, Asia 
 and Africa, where peculiar fossil plants and animals of 
 Mesozoic times have been collected and described; ferns of 
 a new style; trees quite different from those that made the 
 coal forests; crocodilian land reptiles; winged lizards, the 
 prototypes of birds; reptilian sea serpents; superb whorled 
 shellfish (Ammonites)^ small land mammals like kangaroo- 
 rats and ant-eaters; fish with pointed teeth of twisted fibre; 
 the earliest oysters, &c. 
 
 The Mesozoic age was probably as long as the Palaeozoic, 
 judging by the thickness and variety of its sediments, and 
 the succession of its living creatures. In Bucks and Mont- 
 gomery counties Mr. B. S. Lyman's survey makes out more 
 than 22.000 feet of regularly super-imposed strata, all de-
 
 THE NAMES OF THE FORMATIONS. 49 
 
 posited in its earlier and middle divisions. To this must 
 be added the Cretaceous or greensand marl deposits of 
 southern New Jersey, which only appear in Pennsylvania 
 at the bend of the Delaware below Trenton. 
 
 New Red was the name (borrowed from the English) at 
 first given to the Mesozoic belt crossing the Delaware, 
 Schuylkill and Susquehanna rivers, and the Maryland state 
 line. 
 
 Trias is the name usually given to it in the survey re- 
 ports; and by this name the system, as studied by the 
 Hitchcocks in Massachusetts, by Cook in New Jersey, 
 and by Fontaine in Virginia, is now commonly known. 
 
 RlKKtic is the term adopted by Fontaine (in his U. S. 
 Geological Survey monograph report on the. fossil Mesozoic 
 plants of Virginia) by the use of which he wishes to make 
 more precise the sub-division of Mesozoic time in which that 
 vegetation flourished. 
 
 Newark formation is the name used by the New Jersey 
 Geological Survey, and adopted by the assistants of the U. 
 S. Geological Survey, for the Trias sandstone formation of 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 The Lias and Oolite of Europe are not recognized in the 
 Atlantic seaboard region of North America. 
 
 The Cretaceous, on the contrary, is well represented, 
 but no chalk beds are known this side of the Mississippi river. 
 It contains the lower two of the three greensand marl beds 
 of New Jersey and Delaware, the third or uppermost being 
 placed in the Tertiary. Its lowest member (the English 
 Wealden] is called the Potomac formation, and its upper or 
 greensand member the Severn formation, by the U. S. geol- 
 ogists working in Maryland and Virginia. 
 
 The KAINOZOIO (Cenozoic) TERTIARY, Third, New Life age 
 of geological history, produced an equally vast and varied 
 series of deposits, named by Lyell Ei.cene, Miocene and 
 Pleiocene (to which was afterwards added Pleistocene] to 
 express the fact that the species of plants and animals now 
 living, all of them new, made their debut upon the scene in 
 tliedawn of this new third great day (Eo-cene tertiary}; be- 
 came more numerous in Mio-cene tertiary times ; most 
 4
 
 50 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 numerous in Pleio-cene; and most of all numerous in the 
 Pleisto-cene. These names, except the last, are still in 
 common use, but only for purposes of vague and general 
 description, or in references where knowledge is not locally 
 precise enough. They do not much concern Pennsylvania, 
 a region out of water since Mesozoic times, and therefore 
 destitute of those Tertiary sediments which (with the Creta- 
 ceous) make the tide water plain of southern New Jersey, 
 Delaware, Maryland and other Atlantic and Gulf states. 
 
 Pamurikey (Eocene), Chesapeake (Miocene), Appomatox 
 (Pliocene ?), and Columbia (early Pleistocene), are names 
 given to Tertiary sub-divisions in Maryland and Virginia 
 by the U. S. Geologists. The PamunJcey represents the 
 uppermost (or third greensand marl) beds of New Jersey. 
 The Chesapeake diatom beds at Fort Monroe are 1,000 feet 
 thick. The Appomattox gravel loam formation is the same 
 as the Bryn Mawr (400' level) high gravel of the Delaware 
 county Report C 4. The Columbian terraces pass up the 
 river valleys of Pennsylvania and are connected with our 
 glacial deposits, which are usually designated, not Tertiary, 
 but Quarternary. 
 
 In the Tertiary age appeared shrubs and trees that 
 flower and fruit, and animals of sea and land that suckle 
 their young, herbivorous and carnivorous, man among the 
 number. When first mankind appeared is not known; nor 
 when the dog, the ox, the sheep, the horse, the elephant. 
 It has just become known that Leidy's fossil horse of Caro- 
 lina was not a modern horse. Mammoths and Mastodons 
 were not the modern elephant. No fossil ape agrees en- 
 tirely with man. Yet discoveries year by year have been 
 pushing back the proven existence of man into Tertiary 
 times. There is therefore less and less propriety in sep- 
 arating the age of man from the Tertiary (or Kainozoic)age 
 and calling it, as is so often done, the QUAKTERNARY or 
 Fourth age of the world. Yet this will still be used as a con- 
 venient term for expressing the state of things which now 
 exists, and be especially applied to alluvions, or river 
 sands and gravels and clays such as Philadelphia is built 
 upon.
 
 THE NAMES OF THE FORMATIONS. 51 
 
 The Glacial Age, or Age of Ice, is a term which fre- 
 quently occurs in this and other geological literature of a 
 recent date. Its use began when, half a century ago, the 
 great Swiss explorer of the Alps, Louis Agassiz of Neuf- 
 ohatel, announced his theory that Europe had been covered 
 with a sheet of ice just previous to the creation of mankind. 
 When he settled as a teacher in Harvard College, Cam- 
 bridge, Mass., he showed that all New England had been 
 under ice. Since 1847 the phenomena of the glacial epoch 
 have been studied by Upham, Carll, Wright, Lewis, Cham- 
 berlin, Dawson, Whitney and a host of other glacialists, 
 over all North America ; and the southern edge of the ice 
 sheet, the terminal moraine of the continental glacier, has 
 been traced for over 2,000 miles from Cape Cod to Mani- 
 toba. Its course through Pennsylvania is mapped and 
 described with many illustrations in H. C. Lewis' Report 
 of Progress Z. The age seems to have been double, the 
 first ice sheet receding and the second ice sheet advancing, 
 with an interval of vegetation between the two. In Cali- 
 fornia man seems to have been living before the first 
 advance of the ice. In other parts of America man and 
 the mastodon lived together as in Europe and Asia man 
 and the mammoth lived together in glacial times. 
 
 The cause of the prevalence of ice in the glacial age is 
 still a matter of contention; but the facts have been verified 
 beyond controversy and are accepted by all. Many of the 
 details are still to be worked out; but the general theory is 
 well established. 
 
 Now granting that such physical operations as the 
 evaporation of the sea water and the condensation of snow 
 upon highlands, to form ice in favorable situations, have 
 been regular from the beginning of geological time, it is 
 reasonable to search for evidences of previous and far more 
 ancient glacial epochs ; and such evidences, in the shape of 
 moraine blocks and scratched rock surfaces, have been 
 found in England, in India and in South Africa. Prof. Kerr 
 thought he found such in his survey of North Carolina. 
 All these evidences are localized in the last Permian or first 
 Triassic rocks. None have been found in Pennsylvania;
 
 52 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 and foe good reason. There must have been a glacial age im- 
 mediately following the rise of the great anticlinal mountains 
 of our state out ol the Appalachian sea into the upper 
 regions of the atmosphere to a height of more than five 
 miles above present sea level, and to a height of perhaps 
 eight miles above the bottom of the alternate synclinal 
 valleys. Even if the climate of the 40th parallel of north 
 latitude in the coal age was tropical, the tops of the uplifted 
 anticlinal ridges must have been immediately covered with 
 perpetual snow, like Killimanjaro under the equator in 
 eastern Africa, the volcanoes of Peru, and Mount Whit- 
 ney overlooking the valley of death in Arizona, where the 
 thermometer stands at 110 F. in the shade. The heads of 
 the synclinal valleys doubtless made good circuses for the 
 manufacture of neve ; and of course glaciers flowed down 
 the synclinal valleys, and produced mountain-meal and 
 moraines. The meal was not white like that made now 
 from Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary slopes of the Alps, 
 but dark grey and red from the Carboniferous and Devon- 
 ian ; and therefore the deposits of Triassic age in Pennsyl- 
 vania, brought down by the Susquehanna and Delaware 
 from that ancient highland, are mostly red or reddish. But 
 the long continuance of erosion has reduced the highland 
 to its present level of only 1,500 to 2,500 feet above tide 
 level, and swept away every trace of that local glacial state 
 of things. 
 
 Alluvial deposits are those river gravels, sands and clays 
 which have been deposited in the now existing valleys, 
 mostly since the retreat of the ice, and up to the present 
 date.
 
 HIGHLAND GNEISS. 53 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Earliest Archcean, Azoic, Highland, Laurentian, 
 Fundamental gneiss or crystalline schists. 
 
 In the beginning of time as known by the science of 
 geology, the heavens were as they are to-day; the planets 
 encircling the sun, comets coming' and going, the moon 
 a trifle nearer to the earth, the sun a little farther off but 
 shining with somewhat more fervor and brilliancy. 
 
 The earth was already in extreme old age, having long 
 before then shrunk almost to its present size and globular 
 shape, by slow condensation, from a gaseous to a liquid 
 state, and got itself encrusted with a rind of solid rock, 
 which no longer shone with a dull red light of its own, but 
 reflected into space the white radiance of the sun. 
 
 The surface of the earth was no longer hot enough to 
 keep all the water of the planet in a state of vapor in the 
 surrounding atmosphere; descending in local deluges of 
 sour rain to boil upon the rocks and dissolve apart their 
 mineral elements, sweep them into hollows, and there leave 
 them, while it sprang aloft as steam to rejoin the universal 
 canopy of cloud. All this had taken place before the 
 flrst age of which we have any geological monuments, and 
 is only known to God and Dr. Sterry Hunt, who has de- 
 scribed it magnificently in his Chemical Researches. 
 
 When the monumental history of geology commences, 
 the crust of the earth had become as fixed and rigid as 
 the attraction of the sun and moon and Jupiter would 
 permit. It still bent and groaned and quaked indeed, as 
 the globe turned on its axis beneath thier irresistible 
 influence; but now only enough to strain open great vol- 
 canic vents, from which flames and smoke and ashes were 
 ejected, to fall in beds of tufa over large areas ; and from
 
 54 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 other apertures great streams of lava poured themselves 
 upon the surface of the lands, or spread themselves upon 
 the bottom of the sea. Earthquakes were then in the 
 common order of events, and changes of sea level rapidly 
 accomplished. The air was moist and murky, the ocean 
 warm, the continent a bare and rocky desert, ridged and 
 rugged, with no sign of future life. No sound disturbed 
 the silence of the air, except the noise of water-falls, of 
 rain, or breaking waves, the roar of a volcano, the crash of 
 a crumbling cliff, or the explosion of a descending meteor. 
 But snow had begun to cover the peaks of Alpine mount- 
 ain ranges, and old thousand- branched rivers raged 
 through chasms between them, fretting their sides into 
 valleys, and sweeping the rabble-rout of that perpetual 
 destruction into all low places where the waters lay eager 
 "to receive and spread it out in beds. There was no more 
 hurry nor appearance of confusion then than now ; only a 
 anore earnest, rapid and efficient operation of tearing down 
 t)n land and building up at sea ; for Nature was leveling 
 her grounds and getting ready to plant and house her 
 future progeny. Nor can we find out with all our search- 
 ing and calculation how many centuries or milleniums of 
 human and solar years that first great No-life age of purely 
 physical preparation lasted. 
 
 Of that Archaean, oldest, Azoic, or No-life age we know 
 nothing except the kinds of rock which bear its date. 
 These appear at the present surface of the earth only here 
 and there, in limited districts, far apart from one other, in 
 Canada and New England, in the Blue Kidge, in the Rocky 
 mountains, in Brazil, in Scotland and Scandinavia and 
 Bohemia, in the Ural mountains, in Upper Egypt, the pen- 
 insula of Mt. Sinai and elsewhere ; but so surrounded and 
 overlaid by the deposits of aftercoming ages that no con- 
 nected account can be given of their origin and general dis- 
 tribution; nor can the geography of that time be mapped 
 out ; not even where was land and where sea ; nor where 
 the mountains rose, nor where the rivers ran, nor the di- 
 rection of the great sea currents, nor the location of vol- 
 canic vents. So that nearly all that has been printed in
 
 HIGHLAND GNEISS. 55 
 
 geological books respecting these things may be safely 
 regarded as pure speculation, and uncommonly daligerous 
 for any one to believe who wishes to gather only the 
 knowledge that is real, and prefers expectant ignorance to 
 any satisfaction to be drawn from unsubstantial opinions. 
 
 What is certainly known about the oldest rocks may be 
 set down in a few sentences. 
 
 First, that they underlie all the formations in which 
 appear traces of vegetable and animal life, and therefore, 
 that they constitute the underground bottom floor of all 
 countries wherever life-rocks occupy the surface 
 
 Secondly, that they differ from the life-deposits of suc- 
 ceeding ages by being crystalline instead of granular; as 
 loaf-sugar differs from ground sugar, or wheat from grist 
 or flour, or wood fibre from paper pulp, or a stone-slide at 
 the head of a river from the sand banks at its mouth. For 
 the life-rocks of subsequent times have been made out of 
 the frost-fractured and water-worn no-life rocks of the 
 ground floor of the world; and show this derivation in the 
 fact that the original crystals may still be detected, with 
 their points and edges worn off, and their prisms changed 
 into globules or rounded grains. 
 
 Thirdly, that they differ among themselves by the cir- 
 cumstance that some are coarsely crystalline (like the 
 porphyries and graphic granite), while others are so finely 
 crystalline (like many of the quartzites, felsites, diorites, 
 dolomites and micaceous gneisses) that their crystalline 
 constitution must be looked for with a magnifying glass. 
 
 Fourthly, that they differ among themselves in another 
 particular, namely, that some are plainly stratified or 
 bedded, others foliated or split into millions of thin leaves, 
 and others subdivided only into masses by occasional 
 cracks; and these three principal varieties seem to repre- 
 sent, 1st, those which were deposited in water and after- 
 wards crystallized; 2d, those which were ejected from vol- 
 canoes as dust or ashes and afterwards crystallized; and 3d, 
 those which flowed up from the interior of the earth as 
 lava and crystallized on cooling. But there'is such variety 
 in each kind, and so much discussion among microscopical
 
 56 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 geologists over these different varieties, as to leave the 
 whole subject still in doubt and confusion. 
 
 Fifthly, that they may all be broadly grouped under two 
 heads in respect of their chemical constitution. For the 
 crust of the earth is almost entirely made out of three ele- 
 ments, two metals and one gas ; the two metals being sil- 
 icon and aluminium, and the gas being oxygen. The 
 other elements known to chemists play subordinate parts. 
 First, the union of oxygen with silicon makes silica 
 (quartz, rock crystal, opal, <&<?.); and the union of oxygen 
 with aluminium makes alumina (corundum.} Then, the 
 union of silica and alumina makes glass (fe spar, porcelain 
 clay, &c.). Therefore, the ball of the earth may be said 
 to have a glass coat or crust, which may be likened to the 
 slag of an iron furnace; not pure transparent glass, but 
 glass mixed with earths and metals of various kinds in 
 smaller proportions, lime, magnesia, soda, potash, iron, 
 manganese. Now in the chemical union of silica with al- 
 umina the silica plays the part of an acid, and the alumina 
 plays the part of a base, being the fundamental element 
 or basis of the union. Hence all rocks which have more 
 alumina than the silica can unite with are called basic 
 rocks; and thes.e which have too much silica for the amount 
 of alumina present are called acid rocks. But as silica 
 unites in the same way with lime, magnesia, soda, potash 
 and iron, which general accompany alumina, a great 
 surplus of silica was required in the creation, and was 
 amply supplied; so that a considerable portion of it 
 remains by itself in the form of quartz (rock crystal). 
 This is seen scattered through rock in brilliant transparent 
 crystals ; especially in granite. The rest of the silica is 
 united with the alumina in shining waxy crystals (felspar) 
 of various colors. When these quartz crystals and these 
 felspar crystals make up the whole of a rock it is called a 
 syenite. But when iron is present, then the rock shows 
 millions of glittering spangles, exceedingly thin films of 
 mica (white or black), and the rock is called a granite. 
 With other combinations the iron forms black prisms of 
 hornblende, and the rock is called hor tiblendic granite.
 
 HIGHLAND GNEISS. 57 
 
 If the silicate of alumina has separated from the quartz 
 by slow cooling into great crystals of felspar, the rock is 
 called a porphyry ; and when a small mixture of iron, &c. 
 gives the felspar a rose tint, red poryJiyry. From these 
 few specimens of variation it may be easily seen what 
 infinite variety of grain and color the Azoic rocks present, 
 although they are all mere glass. 
 
 Sixthly, that the Azoic formations are enormously thick. 
 But their true thickness has not been accurately measured 
 in any country; nor can it be measured; because, being the 
 oldest known rocks, they have suffered more than all from 
 waving, compressing and overturning movements in the flex- 
 ible earth crust, both in their own time and in all succeed- 
 ing ages ; so that at no place in any country can they be 
 seen lying flat; but always uptilted, at all angles, and so 
 folded and twisted, so cracked, veined and faulted, as to 
 defy measurement, and make it often impossible to 
 decide which is top and which is bottom to them; so that 
 their order of arrangement is in dispute ; and some experi- 
 enced geologists declare that we must be satisfied to con- 
 sider them as a whole, without attempting to subdivide 
 them into series of formations, with separate dates and 
 names. This opinion, however, is not shared by most geol- 
 ogists, and various methods of arranging them are in vogue, 
 under such names as Laurentian, Norian, Arvonian, 
 ffuronian, Montalban, DimUian, Pebidian, &c., which 
 may be found in text-books and other writings of geology, 
 but which have no real meaning except in the districts 
 where they were first invented, and not in all cases a cer- 
 tain meaning even there. For when the supposed or imag- 
 ined order of the Azoic rocks in one region or country is 
 applied to another region no one is satisfied with the result, 
 and some other order must be invented to suit each local 
 exhibition. If all the Azoic rocks were truly and certainly 
 stratified, or deposited as successive layers of sand and 
 mud in water, and afterwards crystallized and folded up, 
 there would be some chance of learning their disposition, 
 and getting somewhat near to the real thickness of the 
 whole. But so many lava and volcanic ash beds lie among
 
 58 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 them, and such huge and numerous outbreakings of fluid 
 rock from the earth's interior through and between them 
 have happened, and whatever bedding they may once had 
 is so obscured by foliation arid cleavage planes produced by 
 pressure, that taking all these things together into consid- 
 eration the wise geologist will be cautious of forming an 
 opinion where Nature seems resolved to leave us in the 
 dark. This much alone is evident, that the Azoic rocks are 
 thick enough to make whole mountain ranges. In New 
 Hampshire and Vermont they are imagined to be 77,000 
 feet thick.* In the Lake Superior region where six sub- 
 divisions of them have been devised, the upper five are 
 thought to measure more than 18, 000 feet, f In Pennsylva- 
 nia, where the Schuylkill cuts through a part of them for 
 twenty miles from Conshohocken to Philadelphia, they seem 
 to measure at least 15,000 feet, with an unknown additional 
 quantity beneath the valley of the Delaware river. 
 
 Lastly, that all the great magnetic, specular and titani- 
 ferous iron ore beds, beds of plumbago, beds of crystalline 
 phosphate of lime, and beds of red jasper are of azoic age, 
 but not in the oldest series of its rocks. To the same age 
 belong the tin ores of Cornwall, New Hampshire and Da- 
 kota, the corundum and beryl beds of North Carolina, the 
 mother rocks of the Brazilian diamonds, and the turquoise 
 rocks of Mt. Sinai. The serpentine beds of the great lakes 
 are of that age; probably those of the Alps and Appenines; 
 perhaps those of southeastern Pennsylvania and Mary- 
 land; but those of Northampton county in our state, and 
 others elsewhere may be of later age4 The so-called Eozoon 
 serpentine-limestone beds of Canada, Massachusetts and 
 Bohemia are in azoic districts; and many groups of crsytal- 
 line limestone strata of great thickness were deposited 
 
 *Desc. of Geol. Sect, crossing N. H. and V., by Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, 
 Concord, N. H., 1884, p. 33. 
 
 fN. H. Winchell, in Amer. Naturalist, Oct., 1884. R. D. Irving in 
 Presidential address to Wise. Acad. Sci., Dec. 30, 1884; and Art. 33, Amer- 
 J. of S., March, 1885. 
 
 JGeol. Hist., Serpentiees, T. S. Hunt. Trans. R. S. Canada, Vol. I, Sec. 
 IV, Montreal, 1883. But see T. D. Rand, Proc. Acad, N. S. Phila., March, 
 1890, page 95.
 
 HIGHLAND GNEISS. 59 
 
 before the appearance of life upon the planet, unless the- 
 theory of their organic origin be adopted, or the old 
 exploded theory of their igneous origin be so dressed up 
 as to be again presentable. 
 
 From what has been said above it will appear that our 
 knowledge of the earliest chapter of geological history rep- 
 resented by the Azoic or No-life rocks amounts onj.y to 
 a confused perception of great events taking place at the 
 consolidating surface of the globe through a great length 
 of time, without being able to tell with any certainty what 
 those events exactly were, or how they were brought about. 
 Fire and water were cooperating in the slow preparation 
 of continents and oceans capable of sustaining every form 
 of life which should afterwards appear. The atmosphere 
 was gradually clearing itself. The sun went on contracting 
 its dimensions. Of the moon we know nothing; it may 
 have grown cold and lifeless long before, or not until after- 
 wards. 
 
 But when this picture of apparent vast obscurity and 
 confusion is carefully studied, as it has been for many 
 years, and more closely now than ever, by a host of shrewd 
 geologists, provided with three kinds of apparatus for in- 
 vestigation, the pickaxe, the microscope and the retort, in- 
 numerable items of positive knowledge come to view, and 
 the geology of the Azoic rocks takes practical shape and 
 may be relied on as a useful guide in the affairs of human 
 business. 
 
 Some steps even have been taken towards the solution of 
 theoretical questions of age and order of arrangement. 
 Thus rocks supposed to be sedimentary have been shown 
 by a study of their microscopic crystals to be volcanic 
 ashes, * or by their banded structure to be lava flows, f 
 or by the shape and connection of their atoms to be crys- 
 talline masses crushed into the form of laminated schists. :{: 
 On the other hand, iron ore deposits once assuredly 
 
 *The felsites and their associated rocks north of Boston. J. S. Diller, 
 Bull. Mus. C. Z., Harvard College, Cambridge, 1881, Vol. VII, p. 168. 
 
 fThe Azoic system, J. D. Whitney and M. B. Wadsworth, Bull. Mus- 
 C. Z., Vol. VII, 1884. 
 
 f Prof. Bonney 's papers on the rocks of the Alps.
 
 60 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 taken to be volcanic, have been found by mining operations 
 to be true sedimentary beds, deposited in water, 'and prob- 
 ably in a manner similar to the beds of magnetic iron sand 
 now forming on the northern shore of the Gulf of St. Law- 
 rence and along the coast of California. 
 
 The study of the Azoic rocks in many countries has been 
 conducting geologists gradually to the conclusion that, 
 however difficult it may be to classify them in regular order 
 of time or superposition, yet that as a whole they separate 
 themselves naturally and broadly into a lower, older, more 
 massive, darker Tiornblendlc series, and an upper, younger, 
 more thinly-bedded, lighter-colored micacious series, con- 
 taining the most ancient iron ore, serpentine and marble 
 beds. The older series, if such it be^is known in Europe as 
 the Fundamental gneiss, and in America as the Laurentian 
 system. The upper series is often called the Newer gneiss 
 by those who feel unwilling or unable to subscribe to any 
 universal Huronian theory, or who suspect that the whole 
 or parts of it may possibly turn out to be more recent sed- 
 iments disguised by recrystallization, an idea once popular, 
 then falling into disfavor, and now struggling to regain its 
 reputation against vehement and powerful protestations. 
 
 But just here the Story of the Creation halts to ask itself 
 three questions : 1st, Whether there could have been any 
 serious interruption of events between the Older and the 
 Newer Gneiss ; 2d, Whether there could have been a gen- 
 erar deposit of the same kind of Newer Gneiss upon the 
 surface of the earth to such an extent as to make it now 
 recognizable in places so far apart as the opposite shores of 
 America, or the opposite sides of the Atlantic; and, 3d, 
 Whether, if life had then commenced upon the planet, all 
 traces of it could have been completely lost, the closest ex- 
 amination failing to detect them. Until these three prime 
 questions are answered a satisfactory history of the Azoic 
 age or ages can by no means be written ; nor can Azoic 
 geology be other than an unconnected description, an 
 unclassified catalogue of the rocks (with their included min- 
 erals) which occupy isolated areas of the earth's surface, 
 projecting through the sediments of later times.
 
 HIGHLAND GNEISS. , 61 
 
 The terms Laurent ian and Huronian are local and 
 peculiar to the Canada survey. The range of mountainous 
 country which extends from Labrador westward across the 
 Snganay and Ottawa rivers, north of the river St. Lawrence, 
 and Lake Superior, is made up chiefly of massive reddish 
 and grayish hornblendic granite and gneiss rocks, and with 
 great beds of crystalline limestone in the upper part of the 
 series, the whole being called the Laurentian System. 
 
 To the south of this mountain land, along the north 
 shore of Lake Huron and extending westward through the 
 Marquette iron region into Wisconsin, appear, finely ex- 
 posed to view, beds of vitreous quartzite, red and white, 
 beds of conglomerate, holding pebbles of jasper, chert and 
 limestone, beds of chloride slate, beds of reddish limestone, 
 beds of lava of various kinds and volcanic glass, beds of sul- 
 phuret of copper ore, and, in the western part, vast beds of 
 jasper and specular iron ore, the whole being called the 
 Huronian System. 
 
 The Laurentian system is directly connected by the 
 Thousand Island rocks with the great Adirondack mountains 
 of northern New York. The Adirondack rocks are the same 
 as those of the Laurentian mountain belt of Canada ; but 
 no Huronian rocks appear on or around them ; unless the 
 Green mountains of Vermont are Huronian. 
 
 No one doubts that the Adirondack rocks when they sink 
 at Lake George rise again a hundred miles further south 
 as the Highland rocks of the Hudson river above and below 
 West Point. The Hudson Highlands range northeast a 
 few miles and then sink out of sight beneath sedimentary 
 formations. But in the other direction, southwest, they 
 range away across New Jersey in an unbroken belt of 
 mountain ridges called the Highlands of New Jersey ; 
 cross the Delaware river into Pennsylvania between Durham 
 and Easton ; cross the Schuylkill river above and below 
 Reading and then sink underground. 
 
 In Pennsylvania the New Jersey Highlands are called 
 the Durham and Reading hills ; or the Lehigh hills ; or 
 the South mountains of Northampton and Lehigh counties; 
 or the Highlands of Pennsylvania. This last name is the
 
 62 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 most convenient. There seems no probable objection to be 
 urged against recognizing in the rocks of the Highlands of 
 New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, the rocks of the 
 Adirondack region and of the Laurentian mountains of 
 Canada. Therefore the term Laurentian gneiss has been 
 freely used in the Reports of Progress of the Survey to 
 signify the rocks of the Pennsylvania Highlands. 
 
 But it is quite otherwise with the Huronian rocks of 
 Canada. These are nowhere recognized along the High- 
 land belt from the Hudson to the Schuylkill. 
 
 We will see hereafter whether they appear in other parts 
 of Pennsylvania, in the South mountains of Cumberland 
 and York, Favette and Adams counties.
 
 THE ARCHAEAN HIGHLAND BELT. 63 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 The Archcean Highland belt of Pennsylvania and New 
 Jersey. 
 
 In New Jersey the highlands of older or archsean gneisses 
 have been surveyed with instruments, and mapped in con- 
 tour lines, to bring to view all the features of the surface. 
 Some important facts of geology have been thus revealed. 
 These are given in Prof. Cook's annual report of 1884, 
 pages 61 to 68, in a clear and careful manner; and they are 
 of equal value for understanding the geology of the same 
 Archsean Highland belt in eastern Pennsylvania. They 
 may be briefly stated thus : 
 
 1. The Highlands of New Jersey is a belt of country 
 made up of parallel mountains crossing the state in a N. E. 
 and S. W. direction, with heights varying between 1,000 
 and 2,000 feet above tide. 
 
 2. Each mountain is composed of a series of smaller 
 oblique crest-ridges; and the stratification does not follow 
 the general course of the mountain as a whole, but of these 
 oblique crest-ridges. Thus, the strike of the beds and of 
 the crest-ridges of the Ramapo mountain is not N. 38 E. 
 which is the course of the southeast foot of the mountain, 
 but N, 20 E. 
 
 3. The same strike is not maintained across the state; 
 for near the New York line it is more N. E. and S. W.; in 
 the middle district more nearly N. N. E. and S. S. W.; and 
 towards Pennsylvania more N. E. and S. W. again. 
 
 4. Therefore, while the mountains have been elevated as 
 a parallel series of large arches, they have been subse- 
 quently pressed into a much more numerous series of 
 smaller rock-folds by a side pressure which has acted 
 obliquely.
 
 64 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 5. The folds are manifested in some places by opposite 
 southeast and northwest dips; rarely less than 45, in most 
 cases exceeding 60, and often vertical. Dips towards the 
 northwest are not uncommon; but nevertheless, the prevail- 
 ing dip is toward the southeast; therefore, it is to be sup- 
 posed that a large number of the steeper southeast dips 
 are exhibited by strata which have been pushed northwest- 
 ward beyond the vertical so as to lie now with their under- 
 sides uppermost. 
 
 6. As this structure characterises the belt of the high- 
 lands of northern New Jersey as a whole, it seems impos- 
 sible to doubt that the azoic gneiss formations are made 
 up of regular beds of sediment, deposited one over the other 
 in some ancient sea, and afterwards crystallized. It is 
 hard to imagine them in any sense volcanic rocks. For 
 all we know of volcanic rocks leads us to believe that irreg- 
 ularity is their chief feature. Even when, like the lava 
 beds of the far west, they spread abroad over thousands of 
 square miles, they construct nothing resembling the geology 
 of these highlands. 
 
 7. But the regular crest-ridge structure of the highlands 
 is not shown in all parts of the map, nor is^the appearance 
 of stratification universal. Dykes and veins of unstratified 
 rock are common in all parts of the highlands. There are 
 also masses of syenite or hornblendic granite of great size, 
 which also may or may not be of the nature of the lava 
 coming up through fissures. One such belt is two miles 
 wide; another has a diameter of three miles, the only sign 
 of bedding noticeable being the parallelism of its minerals 
 in some specimens, and the rock being an almost exclusive 
 mixture of white feldspar and glassy quartz. Wherever 
 the map does not show the regular oblique crest-ridge 
 structure (that is, where the mountain tops are shaped by 
 erosion in various directions) there such unstratified masses 
 may be justly viewed as breaking the stratified system. 
 
 8. No contacts of the stratified and unstratified syenite 
 or granite have yet been noticed, and, therefore, their rela- 
 tions to each other are a matter of conjecture. The un- 
 stratified masses are of irregular shape and seem to have
 
 THE ARCHJ3AN HIGHLAND BELT. 65 
 
 nothing to do with the northeast and southwest belting of 
 the stratified gneisses. 
 
 9. The stratified rocks of the highlands cannot as yet be 
 grouped in any definite order of superposition; and the 
 same varieties of kind are to be found in all parallel ranges 
 or belts. A representative collection of rock specimens 
 from one belt might pass for that from the next, or any 
 other; and collections made along many lines across the 
 region resemble each other. The varieties of rock in any 
 given area are endless; but on looking over the entire collec- 
 tion from all parts of the highlands, two principal varieties 
 are recognized as predominating. 
 
 10. One of these, a light-colored or gray variety, is com- 
 posed chiefly of white or pinkish-white potash -feldspar 
 (orthoclase) and glassy quartz, but containing usually small 
 brown-black scales of mica. Thisfeldspathic gneiss often 
 contains magnetic iron, hornblende, phosphate of lirrie and 
 sulphide of iron, and perhaps lime-soda feldspar. 
 
 11. The other, a greenish-black variety, is made up chiefly 
 of hornblende, with dark mica; but when the mica becomes 
 more abundant than the hornblende the rock turns into a 
 dark mica-schist or micaceous gneiss. The feldspar is 
 white and sometimes triclinic. Some quartz is usually 
 present. 
 
 12. Chemical analyses show that the feldspathic gneiss 
 is largely siliceous, with a comparatively small percentage 
 of alumina, scarcely any iron oxide, still less lime and 
 magnesia, and no excess of potash and soda; and that the 
 Jiornblendic gneiss is deficient in silica, potash and soda, 
 but has the more iron, lime and magnesia. But recent de- 
 posits show the same elements in similarly varied mixtures. 
 The azoic rocks of the highlands therefore may have had 
 a sedimentary origin, although they are so highly crystal- 
 line; and if so, their original stratification ought to be more 
 or less recognizable in spite of changes wrought by heat 
 and pressure.
 
 66 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The Pennsylvania Highlands. 
 
 Such is the lesson taught by the survey of the New 
 Jersey highlands; and it is repeated by the survey of the 
 same belt in % its extension in Pennsylvania. All that has 
 been said by Prof. Cook of the New Jersey azoic rocks, is 
 confirmed by Mr. D'Invilliers in his report on the azoic 
 rocks of Berks county, described in his Report of Progress 
 D3, Vol. IT, 1883, pages 49 to 57. 
 
 These Pennsylvania highlands also have been instru- 
 mentally surveyed and mapped in contour curves on a large 
 scale (1,600 feet to one inch) and published (on 16 sheets), 
 in an atlas to accompany Reports D2, D3 ; with a geologi- 
 cally-colored index map (on one sheet), on a reduced scale 
 (2 miles to an inch) showing : the ridges of gneiss, both 
 parallel and irregular ; the patches of sedimentary sand- 
 stone which once spread in a continuous sheet over the 
 whole of them ; the limestone valleys north and south of 
 them ; and the isolated limestone vales between them, 
 proving that the limestone formation also once spread con- 
 tinuously over the whole region. Of these facts more will 
 be said hereafter in narrating the history of the sedimentary 
 formations. At present we are only concerned with the 
 Azoic mountain ridges themselves, and the nature of the 
 crystalline rocks of which they are composed, concerning 
 which the following statements may be confidently made : 
 
 1. The Pennsylvania highlands make an Azoic belt, of 
 irregular width, in a W. S. W. direction from the Dela- 
 ware to the Schuylkill, south of the Lehigh river. But iso- 
 lated, short, small ridges rise through the overlying sand- 
 stone and limestone strata north of the Lehigh river, show- 
 ing that the Azoic floor extends underground under middle 
 and northern Pennsylvania, as it does under New York. 
 
 2. The sheet maps plainly exhibit an oblique arrange- 
 ment of N. E. and S. W. bearing subordinate ridges ; and 
 the limestone vales of the belt conform rather to this direc- 
 tion than to that of the belt as a whole. This oblique ten- 
 dency, however, seems to belong to the more ancient fold- 
 ing of the Azoic rocks rather than to the later movements
 
 THE ARCH.EATST HIGHLAND BELT. 67 
 
 which folded the overlying sedimentary strata. This is just 
 contrary to what would be expected by a classical geologist. 
 Nor has it all the force that it would have were the appar- 
 ent stratification of the gneiss not brought into doubt by 
 the abundance of cleavage planes, and were the apparent 
 stratification of the gneiss traceable for long distances in 
 any one fixed direction. But the very reverse of this is 
 true. 
 
 3. The apparent stratification of the gneiss rocks varies in 
 dip and strike incessantly, as shown by the arrows on the 
 map sheets and by the detailed description of outcrops in 
 the report, pages 57 to 98. From this it will appear that 
 the rocks dip to all points of the compass, and commonly at 
 high angles, rolling over from south to north and from east 
 to west sometimes in well-defined arches, which often end 
 or die down suddenly. Some of these arches run length- 
 wise of the belt ; others are oblique to it and pass beneath 
 the overlying sandstone. Thus, near Maple Grove the arch 
 of the Gap Hill is marked by a N. 34 W. dip (of 87) and 
 a S. 60 E dip (of 60), but at its east end are dips of S. 51 
 E. (52), S. 48 E. (45) and N. 70 W. (47), and here the 
 arch lies under the sandstone. Some distance from this the 
 gneiss dips S. 70 E. (50), and further on, S. 75 E. (57), 
 and S. 80 E. (80). Along this ridge there is plainly a local 
 general strike very oblique to the general direction of the 
 whole Azoic belt.* On the other hand, groups of expos- 
 ures show a general strike east by north, or E. N. E., coin- 
 ciding with the belt. 
 
 4. On account of this excessive irregularity which per- 
 vades the whole Azoic belt it has been found impossible to 
 classify its rocks into a series of formations, or even to 
 show with any satisfaction the course of the outcrops on the 
 map. All that can be said about them is that they are a 
 badly crumpled-up mass of strata, of unknown thickness, 
 all more or less thoroughly crystallized, of every grade of 
 thick and thin-beddedness, of every tint of gray from nearly 
 white to nearly black, of nearly every possible mixture of 
 quartz, feldspar, hornblende, magnetite and mica, some of 
 
 *Report D3, Vol. 2, p. 63.
 
 68 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 them being a syenite, some a granite, some a granulite, 
 some a hornblende-schist, some a mica-schist, some a mag- 
 netic iron ore ; and all these kinds passing into one another, 
 and overlying one another, as if the original sediments (if 
 sediments they were) were of the most mixed and varied 
 character, yet all derived from essentially one source and 
 belonging to one age, an age moreover not overrich in 
 lime and magnesia, if we may judge of it by the absence of 
 crystalline limestone beds and beds of talc or serpentine. 
 
 5. The same broad distinction between a prevalence of 
 dark hornblendic gneiss (syenite} carrying beds of magnetic 
 iron ore and destitute of quartz, and a prevalence of light- 
 colored, thick-bedded granular quartz-feldspar gneiss 
 (granulite\ destitute of mica, is noticeable all through the 
 l>elt of highlands. 
 
 6. The Tiornblendic rock is full of grains of magnetic 
 oxide of iron; and a good deal of what appears on first 
 glance to be hornblende is in reality magnetic oxide of 
 iron. The quantity of iron held by these strata must be 
 immense; and, therefore, it excites no wonder to see many 
 of the beds rich enough in iron to be mined as beds of mag- 
 netic iron ore. Where all this disseminated iron came 
 from is a mystery; but is no greater mystery than where 
 the grains of quartz sand came from which make up so 
 large a part of the granulite variety. Both these constitu- 
 ent elements of azoic strata furnish very strong evidence in 
 favor of their sedimentary origin. But if this be granted it 
 still remains an unanswered question where were the more 
 ancient land areas from which these quartz and iron sands 
 were washed down into the azoic sea ; and what kind of 
 country could that have been to furnish such stupendous 
 quantities of iron ? 
 
 7. The granulite strata consist of grains of quartz, 
 mixed with pinkish- white feldspar, and also with some 
 grains of magnetic oxide of iron. The amount of quartz, 
 however, is seldom in excess of the feldspar; that is, the 
 quartz usually occurs in small glassy grains, and not in 
 chunks. The rock is therefore, usually, as fine-grained as 
 it is massive, and in this respect reminds one of the massive
 
 THE ARCHAEAN HIGHLAND BELT. 69 
 
 sandstone strata of later ages and undeniable sedimentary 
 origin. The feldspar varies in color between dull white 
 and flesh-pink, greenish and bluish tints being rarety seen. 
 The feldspar also varies in its relative percentages of 
 potash, lime and soda. The strata in which the potash 
 feldspar abounds are hard, resist the weather and show 
 their stratification plainly; but those in which the soda 
 feldspar, the soda-lime feldspar and the lime feldspar 
 abound are softer, weather into rounded bowlders, and get 
 so covered with the soil which they make in mouldering as 
 to conceal their stratification, and this give a soft and 
 rounded aspect to the hill slopes. 
 
 8. On the whole, the ridges which are made chiefly by 
 the hornblende gneiss are higher and rougher, and their 
 crests are rocky; but the ridges which are made chiefly by 
 fjranulite rocks have rounded summits. The ridges on the 
 northern side of the belt, where the iron mines are, show 
 the hornblende character of topography more plainly than 
 the southern side of the belt; and this geographical fact 
 may have an important geological significance. The soils 
 also indicate the difference; for the hornblende districts are 
 covered with earth stained by the decomposition of the iron 
 element to a deep brownish red; whereas, the granulite 
 districts are covered with light-colored, sparkling, sandy 
 earth. 
 
 9. That the iron ore beds are original parts of the strati- 
 fication and not ejections from below is- plainly shown in 
 these highlands ; for they lie in lens-shaped plates between 
 the gneiss rocks; fining off to an edge all round; or rather 
 fading away into gneiss rocks so gradually that one cannot 
 say where the bed ceases to be an ore and becomes an un- 
 profitable rock.* It seems conclusive logic that if the 
 magnetic ore beds lie thus between the gneiss rocks, the 
 whole azoic mass must be a sedimentary formation. 
 
 10. The absence of any noteworthy mica schist forma- 
 
 *Report D3, Vol. II, page 239. Along the southern edge of the azoic belt 
 some limestone has been deposited with the magnetic ore ; and there is a. 
 hand specimen in the Pennsylvania collection, which shows three parallel 
 layers of ore averaging an inch in thickness, separated by two layers ot" 
 Hmestone each three or four inches in thickness.
 
 70 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 mation,* of any remarkable crystalline limestone beds,f and 
 especially of any magnesian formation (chlorite, talc, ser- 
 pentine,:}: &c.), in the Pennsylvania highlands between the 
 Schuylkill and Delaware rivers, shut in as they are on 
 both the north and south sides by sedimentary fossiliferous 
 sandstone and limestone formation, patches of which lie 
 upon the very summits or are preserved between the ridges, 
 makes it useless for us to seek for a Huronian formation 
 here. To imagine that it once existed, but has been swept 
 away, or that it lies buried many thousands of feet deep to 
 the north and south of the highland belt, is a mere conjec- 
 ture, worthless because unsupported by any known facts. 
 
 The Archaean rocks of the highlands of New Jersey pass 
 across the Delaware river into Northampton county, Pa. 
 and extend in parallel ridges through southern Lehigh and 
 Berks as far as the Schuylkill river at Reading, where they 
 sink (westward) beneath the Great Valley limestone, not to 
 rise to the surface again (as a mountain range) short of 
 York and Adams counties. 
 
 The South mountains of York and Cumberland, Adams 
 and Fayette were formerly supposed to be a geological con- 
 tinuation (or revival, geographically, going southwest) of 
 the highlands of New Jersey and the Easton- Reading, or 
 Durham hills ; but it is nearly certain that the South 
 mountains are for the most part composed not of Archrean 
 (Laurentian) but Cambrian (Huronian?) strata. 
 
 *Both muscovite and biotite mica has been found in fine scales and in 
 large plates in several places. See D3, Vol. II, page 53. 
 
 fThe crystalline limestone bed in the report of the first survey, as running 
 through Colebrookdale, was sought for carefully but not found by the 
 second survey. D3, Vol. II, page 56. 
 
 JGreenish talcose slates appear along the southern edge of the belt at one 
 or two places and will be described in another place. 
 
 A narrow outcrop crosses the Schuylkill below Reading and runs a mile 
 or two west. A lew miles further west they appear again in Mulbaugh hill- 
 But with these exceptions there is a gap of about sixty miles in the direct 
 Highland-Blue Ridge range which may be said to extend from Massachu- 
 setts to Georgia. But in northern Chester, south of the direct line, they oc- 
 cupy the surface in the Welsh mountain region, and still further south 
 there is a Philadelphia-Baltimore belt of them to be described further on.
 
 THE ARCHAEAN HIGHLAND BELT. 71 
 
 Archxan types in New Jersey. 
 
 The Archaean (Laurentian) rocks of Pennsylvania have 
 been studied as closely, but in some respects under less 
 favorable circumstances than those of New Jersey, where 
 they have been subjected to repeated examinations and are 
 exposed in a bolder manner and in connection with mining 
 operations at many places. The New JerSey report of 1889 
 is of special value. 
 
 It distinguishes four types or characteristic masses of 
 highland strata, without positively affirming what their re- 
 spective ages are, how they underlie or overlie each other, 
 or what their mutual geological relationships may really be, 
 but very particularly describing their geographical ranges 
 and their mineral constituents.* 
 
 I. The Mount Hope type (FeldspatMc gneiss of Smock; 
 in part the Hornblendic gneiss of Britton) is a nuartz-feld- 
 spar-magnetite rock, varying from massive to coarse and to 
 fine-grained and beautifully foliated, often obscurely foli- 
 ated on a fresh unweathered surface ; the quartz generally 
 in shot-like grains pressed into the cleavage face of the 
 feldspar, which, under the pocket lens, gives a character- 
 istic unmistakable spotted (poicilitic) appearance to a 
 broken specimen ; the feldspar both orthoclase and plag- 
 ioclase ; the magnetite usually in rough, irregular little 
 grains, occasionally in octrohedral crystals, and sometimes 
 largely replaced by hornblende and scattering flakes of 
 black mica (biotite}. These massively-bedded and usually 
 well-foliated strata have numerous interstratified layers of 
 hornblende-feldspar rock without quartz, some of them only 
 a few inches thick, others many feet thick, and usually 
 quite destitute of magnetite. The typical Mount Hope 
 rocks usually occupy the highest ground or summits of the 
 ridges flanked by the Second or Oxford type of rocks; 
 which would make them older than or underlying the Ox- 
 ford ; but there are important exceptions to this general 
 
 *New Jersey An. Rt 1889, part 2, page 12, Geological Studies of the 
 Archaean Rocks, by Frank L. Nason. See Geol. Rts. of Pa., by Persifor 
 Frazer, Fred. Prime, C. E. Hall and.E. V. d'lnvilliers, C, C2, C3, C4, C5, 
 D, D2, D3, Vol. 1 and 2.
 
 72 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 statement which perhaps weaken somewhat the correctness 
 of that conclusion. 
 
 The Mount Hope type rocks may be separated into three 
 classes: 1, Light-colored quartz and feldspar rock. 2, The 
 same, darkened with magnetite. 3, The same, darkened 
 with hornblende, or biotite, or both. Texture and general 
 appearance the same in all. Dark (non-eruptive diorite- 
 looking) feldspar-hornblende layers are often interstratilied 
 with them, and beds of solid iron ore occur in all three. 
 
 II. The Oxford type (Syenite gneiss of Smock; in part 
 Honiblendic gneiss of Britton), always well foliated (even 
 in fresh broke specimens) and not so heavy-bedded as the 
 Mount Hope type, consists of feldspar (both kinds) and 
 hornblende, with grains of quartz frequently rounded and 
 imbedded in the feldspar; always only a small proportion 
 of magnetite (sometimes octohedral) ; the hornblende 
 usually distributed in strings so as to give the rock a 
 striped appearance; and the longer axes of feldspar often 
 oblique to foliation. The railroad tunnel at Oxford tunnel 
 shows all the various phases of this type; but no contact 
 with the other type can be seen; the change however 
 seems abrupt and radical. The Oxford rocks are, however, 
 almost everywhere seen on the flanks of those ridges the 
 central mass of which is of the Mount Hope type. The 
 Mount Scott range which reaches the Delaware is a suffi- 
 cient example and introduces the distinction of types into 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 III. The Franklin type (probably the Biotite gneiss of 
 Smock and Britton); foliation less distinct; texture more 
 uneven ; crystals of biotite, &c. at angles to each otlier ; 
 eyes of quartz and feldspar singly or mixed frequent 
 (augenstructuf); rocks rather thin bedded; frequent inter- 
 strata of biotite and hornblende schist; essentially a quartz- 
 orthoclase -biotite rock (plagioclase rare); quartz and feld- 
 spar grains usually sharply angular, in striking contrast 
 with other types. 
 
 IV. The Montmlle limestone type; not certainly known 
 to belong to the Archaean; possibly of later age. Southeast 
 belt (A); bluish gray, rarely white; crystalline ; holding
 
 THE ARCHAEAN HIGHLAND BELT. 73 
 
 great quantities of serpentine, more or less chrysolite; also 
 diopside, in some places small crystals of muscomte mica; 
 never tourmaline, no zinc, no iron. Northwest belt (B) 
 sparkling white; holding graphite, tremolite, tourmaline, 
 pyrite, great quantities of zinc, and also beds of iron.
 
 74 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 The ArcJicean rocks of Pennsylvania. 
 
 1. In the Reading and Durham Jiills. 
 
 Prof. Prime and Mr. C. E. Hall have described the high- 
 land rocks in Lehigh and Northampton counties in the 
 same general terms;* but there is mention made not only 
 of hornblendic and feldspathic gneisses, but occasionally of 
 mica-schists, rocks composed of white mica and decom- 
 posed white feldspar. f Mr. Hall says, that the crystalline 
 rocks are composed chiefly of quartz and feldspar; that mag- 
 netite is disseminated throughout the rock in all parts of 
 the region, and that the magnetic iron beds are distinctly 
 interstratified; that in some places the rock contains small 
 amounts of dark mica and pyroxene (hornblende) and that 
 occasionally particles of mica and magnetite are found to- 
 gether; but that many rocks are wholly of quartz and feld- 
 spar. One vein (?) of corundum has been found.J 
 
 The Delaware river cuts through five ridges of these 
 rocks, separated by valleys filled with sedimentary lime- 
 stone. Some of these ridges seem to be rock arches pressed 
 over northwards. In the third ridge at least 800 and 
 perhaps 1,200 feet of strata show themselves. 
 
 This anticlinal structure, however, cannot be made out 
 in the ridges of the belt as a whole. Some of the ridges 
 seem to be monoclinal and others synclinal. It is quite 
 impossible to be sure of the correctness of any kind of 
 structure anywhere. Nevertheless, there are places where 
 plenty of opposing dips can be observed, although it can 
 seldom be decided that they lie on two sides of an arch, or 
 
 *Reports D, D2, D3, Vol. I. 
 
 |D2, page 7. 
 
 $D3, Vol. I, pages 254-255. 
 
 The difference being due to the possible existence of a roll.
 
 OLD GNEISS IN CHESTER COUNTY. 75 
 
 on two sides of a basin. One example will be sufficient to 
 illustrate the difficulties. 
 
 The Hexerikopf ( Witch s head) is the highest point of 
 land southwest of Easton where two of the azoic ridges 
 converge. On its north slope gneiss rocks dip to the S. 
 E. 54; at its south brow 29; on the south slope they dip to 
 the N. W. 36, 60 and 50. There is certainly a basin on the 
 south slope, even if there be an overturned arch at the 
 crest; if there be no such arch then the whole mountain is 
 a basin with at least 1,200 and possibly 2,000 feet of azoic 
 strata visible on each of its sides.* 
 
 #. In northern Chester county. 
 
 The Welsh mountain azoic district of northern Chester 
 county is nowhere more than 500 feet above present sea 
 level; is surrounded by sedimentary sandstone and lime- 
 stone (although the northeastern rim is concealed by still 
 later deposits); and was once covered by them, as is shown 
 by the patches of sandstone left upon it. It does not lie 
 in the W. S. W. prolongation of the highland belt of Berks 
 county, but to the south of it; the present interval between 
 their edges being ten miles. This interval represents an 
 ancient valley, of great but unknown depth, now filled up 
 with Palaeozoic white sandstone and limestone, covered in 
 turn by a thick mass of Mesozoic brown sandstone and 
 shale. The azoic rocks of both districts undoubtedly meet 
 beneath this valley and form its floor, covered entirely by 
 the white sandstone and limestone which rise to the pres- 
 ent surface on both sides of it; the sandstone being about 
 100, and the limestone about 2,000 feet thick, and perhaps 
 covered in places by a third deposit of slate; but of this 
 we know nothing; only, it is certain that the limestone in 
 the valley suffered erosion before the Trias sand and shale 
 was deposited upon it in much later times. The thickness 
 of these later brown sands and shales is also unknown; 
 but, judging by the dips and distances, they must be nearly 
 
 *See the accompany page plate, showing both alternative constructions; 
 also the description of the locality and its rocks on pages 75 and 251, of 
 Report D3, Vol. 1, 1883.
 
 76 * GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 4,000 feet thick along their northern edge. The ancient 
 buried valley, then, must be about as deep beneath the 
 present mountain surfaces to the north and south of it as 
 the valley of the Rhone between the two enclosing ranges 
 of the Alps. Originally this could not have been the case; 
 for the brown sandstone strata all dip northward at the rate 
 of at least 500 feet to the mile; so that if they were de- 
 posited horizontally, either the Highlands were 5,000 feet 
 higher than they are now, or the Welsh mountain district 
 has been elevated 4,000 feet. 
 
 The Welsh mountain azoic rocks are, as we might 
 suppose from their underground connection with the High- 
 lands, the same dark hornblendic and light gray feldspathic 
 gneisses which have been described in the foregoing pages. 
 Being more easily destroyed by the weather than the 
 white sandstone which was afterwards deposited upon them, 
 their outcrops lie in shallow vales between ridges of white 
 sandstone;* but this is owing to the fact that the softer 
 white feldspathic gneisses, interbedded with the harder dark 
 hornblendic gneisses, make up the greater part of the form- 
 ation as it appears at the present surface. By far the most 
 prevalent variety, is a feldspar-quartz rock (granulite) of a 
 grayish-white color, holding only a subordinate amount of 
 mica, and deposited in comparatively massive beds. Some 
 of the finer-grained kinds can hardly be distinguished from 
 the white sandstone afterwards deposited upon the azoic 
 rocks. f Micaceous gneiss strata, however, are also some- 
 times seen; but nowhere in outcrops of considerable 
 breadth ; and true mica slate only in thin interstratified 
 layers. 
 
 It is very noteworthy, that in this Welsh mountain azoic 
 h'eld, as in the Highland belt, the hornblendic rocks prevail 
 along its northern portions, and the feldspathic rocks along 
 the middle and southern portions.:}: No reason for this 
 can, in our present knowledge of the azoic formations, be 
 given. Eor even if it be true that two grand rock waves and 
 
 *Dr. Frazer's Report C4, page 163. 
 fPages 164-165. 
 tCM, p. 165.
 
 OLD GNEISS IN CHESTER COUNTY. . 77 
 
 several smaller ones traverse the district from east to west, 
 it cannot be proved that the hornblendic gneisses are lower 
 in the series than the feldspathic gneisses ; or, that they 
 are brought up only by the northern arch. Such a suppo- 
 sition is merely a tempting conjecture. 
 
 Plumbago beds have been found in at least three places 
 in the district. One 3 feet thick lies between gneiss strata 
 dipping 45 to the S. E.* Another is a gneissoid stratum 
 12 to 15 feet thick containing about 4 per cent, of dissem- 
 minated graphite, which is shown to be merely an element in 
 the rock by the fact that the stratum includes horses of 
 whitish rock without graphite, f An outcrop, traceable for 
 a long distance, is that of a curious conglomerate (so- called) 
 containing graphite ; but, although the rock looks like a 
 conglomerate, it is more likely to be a decomposed por- 
 phyritic crystalline rock if judged by the fresh character 
 of its feldspar, the unworn- angles of its quartz crystals, 
 and the even distribution of the "graphite through it.J 
 
 Although exhibitions of plumbago in these azoic rocks 
 suggest a relationship to the Canadian azoic rocks, they can 
 have no time value for settling the order of the series, even 
 were the relative age of the Canadian plumbago beds estab- 
 lished ; for the origin of the graphite is wholly unknown. 
 For, while it is looked upon by some as a proof of fusion, 
 like the graphite in cast iron, others rely on it as a confir- 
 mation of the sedimentary character of the rocks which 
 hold it, as if it represented the consolidated and recrystal- 
 lized remains of living creatures, the first and lowest kinds 
 of plants or animals. And, in fact, graphite is found both 
 in lava and in limestone. 
 
 Porphyries occur with the hornblende syenite ; and these 
 consist of a mixture of large crystals of potash feldspar 
 and white (sometimes amethyst-colored) quartz, sometimes 
 enough mica being present to make the rock a coarse por- 
 phyritic granite. The syenite layers are a dark compound 
 of hornblende and white feldspar, and weather into round 
 boulders and clay, and show iron stains. 
 
 *C4, p. 222. fc4, p. 251. JC4, p. 254. 
 
 Dr. Frazer, C4, p. 215. Dr. Genth's analysis of such syenites exhibits 
 labradorite and andesite with pyroxene.
 
 78 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The absence of limestone and serpentine beds from the 
 azoic district of northern Chester is as noteworthy as their 
 absence from the Highlands of Berks, Lehigh and North- 
 ampton counties. 
 
 The Welsh mountain proper is the westward extension of 
 the northern part of the district into Lancaster county; a 
 prong of gneiss, covered partially with sedimentary white 
 sandstone, sinking beneath the great limestone plain of 
 Lancaster, and not rising again to the surface, although the 
 sandstone reappears on the Susquehanna river, above Col- 
 umbia, and again in the Pigeon hills, on the Adams county 
 line. (Chiques or Hellam quartzite.) 
 
 A southern prong of gneiss, covered with sandstone, and 
 known as the Gap hills and Mine ridge, extending much 
 further through Sadsbury and Bart townships, sinks beneath 
 the limestone, and does not rise again to the present sur- 
 face. At one point on the Susquehanna river, at the mouth 
 of Tocquan creek, in the center of a flat arch of great 
 breadth, the gneisses which have been described in the 
 Highlands and in the Welsh mountain region,* should make 
 their appearance ; but they do not neither the horn- 
 blendic nor feldspathic gneisses but the vast arch is made 
 up of micaceous gneisses and mica schists, apparently 
 many thousands of feet in thickness, as will appear here- 
 after in the course of this history. 
 
 West of the Susquehanna river, in Pennsylvania, the 
 highland rocks nowhere reach the present surface, for the 
 rocks of the South-Mountain-Blue-Ridge range belong to a 
 different system, as will be described further on. We will 
 therefore turn back here and describe them as they ap- 
 pear along the Philadelphia belt in southern Bucks, Mont- 
 gomery, in Delaware and in southern Chester counties, 
 where we will find them supporting the white sandstone 
 and limestone sedimentary formations, but also in contact 
 with another great azoic system of an entirely different char- 
 acter and of as yet unsettled age. 
 
 *Prof. Frazer's report on Lancaster county, C3, p. 71, 128. See, also, the 
 third line of the Susquehanna river section, sheet 3, in the Atlas to C3.
 
 OLD GNEISS OF BUCK RIDGE. 79 
 
 3. In Bucks, Montgomery and Delaware counties. 
 
 At the Delaware river, opposite to the city of Trenton, a 
 low range of old azoic gneiss is seen rising from beneath the 
 mesozoic brown sand and shale formation and running in a 
 straight course west southwestward thirty miles to the 
 Schuylkill river above Philadelphia. For the first few 
 miles it is more or less concealed by the earliest Delaware 
 river gravels. From the gorge of the Neshaminy to the 
 gorge of the Pennypack, it makes what is locally known as 
 the Buck ridge, with a constant width of 2^ miles.* At 
 Willow Grove, in Montgomery county, it splits the 
 northern fork soon disappearing beneath the edge of the 
 mesozoic country to make its underground connections 
 with the Welsh mountain region of northern Chester its 
 southern fork keeping on, as a narrow thread, into Dela- 
 ware county, where it spreads out into three separated 
 areas, the northern one passing on into southern Chester and 
 the southern one into the State of Delaware. 
 
 Between the two forks commences the range of white sand 
 stone and overlying limestone, of the Chester county valley, 
 which runs straight W. S. W. for sixty miles, past Con- 
 shohocken, Downingtown and Coatesville, into Lancaster 
 county. The valley is evidently a long and narrow basin, 
 at least towards its eastern end, where the limestone is seen 
 lying in a spoon of sandstone, and the sandstone lies in the 
 spoon-shaped depression which splits the ridge of gneiss. 
 
 There can be no mistaking the fact that here the Chiques 
 sandstone reposes directly upon the old azoic gneiss floor 
 of Pennsylvania, without the intervention of any other 
 azoic rocks, just at it rests upon the old azoic gneiss of the 
 Reading hills. So also,for miles along the North Valley 
 Hill in Chester county, this " North Valley Hill sandstone " 
 or quartzite is seen lying directly upon the older azoic gneiss 
 of the Welsh Monntain country 
 
 But it is equally evident that the age of the older gneiss 
 and the age of the sandstone were separated by some great 
 interval of time, for the sandstone lies comparatively flat 
 
 *See map on page 39 of Report 06, and large sheet mapln C6.
 
 80 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 upon the nearly vertically upturned edges of the gneiss. 
 The sandstone basin is real ; the basin of gneiss is false a 
 mere valley worn out of a much older surface of uplifted, 
 compressed and complicated rocks. How many ages were 
 required for working down the ancient range of gneiss into 
 hills and hollows before the sand of the sandstone was 
 drifted into the water around the gneiss spurs is the most 
 important question to be asked of our geology, and the 
 most difficult to be fitted with a proper and probable answer. 
 For during those intermediate ages the rain had been al- 
 ways falling, and the rivers running to the seas, and the 
 seas adjusting their deposits. But where were the lands 
 overhung with clouds and traversed by streams? And 
 where were the seashores along which the tides were rolling 
 gravel and spreading out the new formations of sand and 
 mud ? And where shall we seek for the rocks which rep- 
 resent those gravels, sands and muds ? And in what con- 
 dition should we expect to find them, crystalline or uncrys- 
 talline, fossiliferous or non-fossiliferous ? 
 
 The Buck, ridge gneiss (always called syenite in Mr. 
 Hall's reports C5 and C6) has the character of the prevail- 
 ing rocks of the Highlands and Welsh mountain district. 
 The rocks are composed chiefly of quartz, feldspar and 
 hornblende. The beds are often massive, but usually have 
 thin bands of black mica or of hornblende. They are 
 syenites, gneissic granites, or granite gneisses. A. peculiar 
 bluish quartz is a remarkable feature of the formation.* 
 Small particles of magnetite are in some places scattered 
 through the rock ; but nowhere in sufficient abundance to 
 make a magnetite iron ore bed. Graphite occurs ; and in 
 one place enough of it in the rock to warrant an attempt at 
 mining, which however was abandoned. f Crystalline 
 limestone occurs near Rockville, at Van Artsdalen quarry, 
 so well-known to mineralogists.:}: A gray and red granite 
 appears between Somerton and Feasterville. 
 
 *Report C6, page 4. 
 
 fThe old mine on A. Johnson's farm, near Feasterville, Bucks county. 
 See 06, page 57. 
 
 tC6, page 47. NOTE. After his long survey of the Philadelphia belt Mr. 
 Hall made a careful re-survey of the Highlands. See D2.
 
 OLD GNEISS OF BUCK RIDGE. 81 
 
 Now the rock which lies upon it is usually a fine-grained, 
 thinly-laminated, whitish sandstone, changed by infiltra- 
 tion of silica into a quartzite, and full of small scales of 
 light -colored mica ; but some of the beds are occasionally 
 coarse enough to be called a fine conglomerate; and east of 
 Willow grove there are massive beds of conglomerate made 
 up of rolled pieces of the Buck ridge syenite gneiss and the 
 blue quartz, overlaid by finer sandstone beds and beds of 
 sandy slate.* This shows that the old azoic (syenite) land 
 was not very far off, and was bare of any newer azoic form- 
 ations, mica-schists, micaceous gneiss, &c.; for not a frag- 
 ment of any such rocks can be found in the sandy conglo- 
 merate, f 
 
 Furthermore, in places where the sandstone was not de- 
 posited, and where the limestone strata therefore rest 
 directly upon the old azoic gneiss (as at the furnace 
 quarries at West Conshohocken on the Schuylkill) the 
 limestone beds contain similar fragments of syenite which 
 shows the neighborhood of an old azoic seashore.;}: But 
 how far the land extended back from the shore (towards 
 the present Atlantic ocean), or how high into the air it rose, 
 must be left to the imagination, unguided except by a 
 single fact, namely, that in a long subsequent time in the 
 history of the earth, at the end of the Palaeozoic ages and 
 the beginning of the Mesozoic ages, the azoic syenite land 
 was out of water just as it was out of water at the begin- 
 ning of the Palaeozoic ages when the white sand and lime- 
 stone were deposited. For, at the southern edge of the Mes- 
 ozoic brown sand and slate country in Bucks and Mont- 
 gomery counties the bottom beds not only lie directly 
 upon the azoic range of Buck ridge, but are conglomerates 
 largely made up of rolled syenite rock fragments. But 
 whether this particular belt of azoic land remained exposed 
 to the air through all those Palaeozoic ages, during which 
 40,000 feet of strata of all sorts were deposited to the north- 
 west of it, is a question to be discussed more in detail here- 
 
 *Exposed in the N. E. Penn. R. R. cut below Willow Grove. C6, page 45. 
 fC6, page 5. 
 JC6, page 36. 
 6
 
 82 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 after. But surely Buck ridge could not have remained 
 through all those ages exposed to aerial destruction unless 
 it had been at the outset of them a high mountain range. 
 On the other hand, it could not have been an Alpine 
 mountain range facing the Palaeozoic sea through all those 
 ages without doing more than dropping a little gravel into 
 the white sand-beds here and there, into the lowest beds of 
 Palaeozoic limestone, and into the lowest beds of the Meso- 
 zoic sand and shale. Were it the mountainous northwest 
 edge of an Atlantic continent it must have been somewhere 
 or other broken by mighty rivers draining such a con- 
 tinent. Where are the deposits which such rivers must have 
 made in all that lapse of ages? We will see in due time. 
 But surely no such rivers opened their mouths in Bucks or 
 Montgomery counties; for the sandstone (which is indeed a 
 vast delta deposit, extending far and wide in the United 
 States, as we shall see hereafter) is so thin in eastern Penn- 
 sylvania that it can stand for but a transitory operation at 
 an early period of the Palaeozoic age ; being immediately 
 followed by the great oceanic magnesian limestone forma- 
 tion (at least 2,000 feet thick in the azoic regions, but more 
 than 6000 feet thick in middle Pennsylvania) representing 
 a totally different relationship of continental and oceanic 
 circumstances. 
 
 In the face of all these difficulties we might assume that 
 the Buck ridge azoic district was a long narrow island 
 at the time when the sandstone was deposited around it. 
 But if so, this island must have been the crest of a moun- 
 tain ridge belonging to a much larger extent of azoic land 
 which had sunk and become submerged at least 50 miles 
 broad namely, from Trenton up the river Delaware to the 
 gap in Chestnut ridge above Easton; for over the whole of 
 this breadth, as we have seen, the sandstone and limestone 
 were deposited. And it looks as if the Buck ridge was 
 the only azoic island at that time. For the sandstone 
 patches on the Welsh mountain region and on the tops of 
 the Berks county highlands remain in evidence that these 
 were all submerged. Yet this seems a very strange fact on 
 noticing that the Highland summits now stand 1,000 feet
 
 OLD GNEISS OF BUCK RIDGE. 83 
 
 above tlie present sea level, and Buck ridge only about 400 
 feet. 
 
 We should be obliged then to suppose one of three 
 things, either that Buck ridge has sunk additionally since 
 then; or that the Highlands have been lifted additionally 
 since then; or that the whole azoic underground country on 
 which they both stand has been tilted or warped to produce 
 the difference of height. 
 
 How idle are all such conjectures to account for the im- 
 aginary fact that Buck ridge remained an island, while the 
 higher Highlands were beneath the sea level, when the only 
 reason for supposing it an island is furnished by syenite 
 pebbles in the sandstone and limestone beds, which- pebbles 
 may have come from some more distant azoic land no longer 
 to be seen ? 
 
 The impotence of the structural geologist to encounter 
 such a problem with success becomes more and more ap- 
 parent as new facts present themselves to be adjusted into 
 place. Since those remote days in the history of the 
 planet movements of many kinds, in shape, direction and 
 degree, have followed each other at shorter or longer inter- 
 vals, disguising and distorting or obliterating each others' 
 traces; while the perpetual shifting of the ocean level up 
 and down in all ages, often produced 'by foreign catas- 
 trophes, and originating even on the opposite side of the 
 globe, takes from us the only index and measure of move- 
 ment which might otherwise be at our command. 
 
 We know not when the excessive plication of the Buck 
 ridge gneisses took place, whether wholly before or partly 
 after the deposit of the sandstone. As we see them now, 
 the old azoic strata stand nearly vertical. But it looks as if 
 two principal folds, both tightly compressed, run along the 
 ridge, one producing the short north spur at Willow Grove, 
 the other following the narrow belt or thread, scarcely a 
 tnile wide, past Chestnut Hill to the Schuylkill just below 
 Conshohocken. Whether or not these -are true rock arches 
 is much more than doubtful. But if they be, it is plain to 
 see that two such arches in a breadth of two miles, if re- 
 stored by ideal projection upward, compels us to believe
 
 84 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 that Buck ridge was once a mountain 10,000 feet high ; 
 and that it has been torn and worn and washed away down 
 to its present lowness. There is no difficulty in believing 
 the fact of its great height, seeing that we have absolute 
 proof of the former existence of mountains 20,000 feet high 
 in middle Pennsylvania, where now in the place of them 
 spread smiling limestone valleys not 800 feet above the 
 level of the sea. The difficulty lies in finding reasons for 
 deciding whether the elevation of this mountain range took 
 place before or after the deposit of the sandstone and lime- 
 stone of the Chester county valley. For, in the first case, 
 they should lie more horizontally around it and be mixed 
 with itsdebris to a vastly greater extent than they are : and 
 in the second case, they must have covered the mountain, 
 been pushed up to an almost vertical posture, been eroded 
 away along with it, and their eroded outcrops be found 
 now on both sides of it . 
 
 To test the question let us look at their present attitude. 
 
 On the north side of the Buck ridge proper from Trenton 
 to Willow Grove, and on the north side of the short north- 
 ern prong west of Willow Grove, the sandstone and lime- 
 stone cannot be found; their edges lie concealed under- 
 ground beneath the Mesozoic brown sands and shales. 
 But that they are there we know by an accident. Among 
 the many probable faults in the mesozoic, one is so great in 
 its vertical displacement the one that runs from the Del- 
 aware river at Centre bridge (15 miles above Trenton) 
 south westward to Forestville near Doylestown as to bring 
 the ground-floor of sandstone and limestone up through the 
 mesozoic to the present surface. This happy accident, 
 taken in connection with their appearance again, 15 miles 
 further north, alone: the south flank of -the Highlands is 
 quite sufficient to justify us in asserting that they extend 
 beneath the mesozoic the whole distance (30 miles) between 
 Buck ridge and the Highlands ; ofcourse everywhere lying 
 upon the azoic ground floor ; but whether flat and undis- 
 turbed, or compressed into folds, or simply shifted by 
 faults, we cannot tell. 
 
 From Willow Grove westward to the Schuylkill, along
 
 OLD GNEISS OF BUCK KIDGE. 85 
 
 the northern side of the south prong of the Buck ridge, 
 there is a continuous outcrop of sandstone and limestone 
 (as has been already said) turned up at various steep angles 
 from 60 to 90.* These are the north dips on the southern 
 side of the Chester county valley basin east of the Schtiyl- 
 kill ; and if the curves of the basin be properly drawn they 
 show that the bottom sandstone beds must descend to 
 depths of many thousand feet beneath the present sur- 
 face. But if the argument from structure be good for 
 depth, it is equally good for height ; and we are compelled 
 to believe that these beds once ascended into the air with 
 these steep dips to an unknown elevation above the present 
 surface. What is the limit of this their uprise into the air ? 
 What is to prevent us from believing that they ascended 
 upon the northern flank of the azoic mountain to its top, 
 and descended its southern flank to an equal depth beneath 
 the present surface? In fact, if they can be found along 
 the southern edge of the azoic ridge, and in a nearly vertical 
 posture (descending southward beneath the present surface) 
 must not this be accepted as proof that they arched entirely 
 over the azoic mountain when it was at its highest ? No, 
 not quite ; for it will still remain a possibility that the azoic 
 arch in rising and pushing up a still higher arch of over- 
 lying sandstone and limestone, broke the upper arch and 
 left two edges separately projecting (at any supposable 
 height) between which its own arch (broken or unbroken) 
 rose still higher naked in the sky.f 
 
 But the main point is. are such outcrops of sandstone 
 and limestone to be found on the south side of the azoic 
 ridge ? And, if found, can we be sure that they are the 
 very sandstone and limestone of the north side ? Does the 
 sandstone lie upon or next to the azoic, and the limestone 
 upon or outside of the sandstone? In answering these 
 questions the following statements can be made : 
 
 *As shown in Mr. Hall's cross sections, Figs. 18, 19, 20, 21 and 22, on page 
 43 of Report C6. 
 
 fin discussing the Mesozoic belt of Bucks and Montgomery counties, the 
 elevation of the Asoic mountains of the Philadelphia belt will be offered as 
 explanation of the northward dip of the 22,000 feet of Mesozoic sediments. 
 It is evident that the Buck Ridge syenite was once 22,000 feet or more be- 
 neath its present position.
 
 86 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 1. There is no sandstone, no limestone to be found in the 
 Atlantic coast country southeast of the Buck ridge gneiss 
 except just at its southern edge. The country between it 
 and the Delaware river is occupied by a great series of azoic- 
 rocks, (which will come under discussion in due time) 
 among which not a single stratum of sandstone or lime- 
 stone can be found. And beyond the Delaware river the 
 whole breadth of New Jersey is made of quite recent for- 
 mations, lying upon a mesozoic floor. If Palaeozoic sand- 
 stones and limestones exist beneath the mesozoic floor we 
 must be content to remain ignorant of the fact for many 
 years at least until the legislature of New Jersey shall 
 order borings profound enough to reach them to be made, 
 and for such purety scientific knowledge only. 
 
 2. An outcrop of steep sandstone beds actually does 
 run along the south side of Buck ridge, in an unbroken line 
 from the Trenton city bridge, 16 miles, to Huntingdon valley 
 (the Pennypack creek) in Montgomery county. For the 
 next 6 miles, as far as Abington station on the N. Penn. R. 
 R. it makes no show. Then (at Waverly Heights) it re- 
 appears and runs for 3 miles to near Chestnut Hill, beyond 
 which it is no more seen.* It forms a low ridge, , and is 
 known as the Edge Hill sandstone (eurUe, quartzite, ita- 
 columite) ; many yards in thickness ;f standing vertical; 
 with the surface edges of the beds often pressed, crushed 
 or "creeped" over at an angle always towards the south, 
 (as seen in fig. 17, 06, page 41) ; so that the surface ex- 
 posure has given the false impression that the formation 
 dipped northward under the azoic ridge ; but it is the same 
 formation as the sandstone on the north side of the ridge. 
 
 3. An outcrop of vertical beds of limestone also runs for 
 some distance along the south side of the sandstone east of 
 the Pennypack, making the little valley or gentle vale of 
 Huntingdon creek. West of the Pennypack, where there 
 appears no sandstone, the limestone is seen running on 
 alongside of the gneiss. 
 
 *See the sheet maps of 06, and the small map, Fig. 14, on page 39, C6. 
 fit is impossible to find its southern edge anywhere, see C6, page 41, 
 therefore it cannot be accurately measured. 
 jSee fig. 25, C6, page 45.
 
 OLD GNEISS OF BUCK RIDGE. 87 
 
 4. The west end of the sandstone outcrop at the Penny- 
 pack seems (from the strike of the beds) to be sharpened 
 to a point. The same is noticeable at the east end of the 
 sandstone outcrop at Waverly Heights. Some would 
 account for the non-appearance of the sandstone in the 
 interval, by suggesting that the sandstone had not here 
 been deposited on the gneiss, which would account for the 
 limestone resting against the gneiss. But an irregular line 
 of crush faulting would afford an equally good explana- 
 tion; and such a. line of faulting seems called for by the 
 thinness of this belt of limestone, and by its shortness also; 
 for otherwise why should not the limestone run as far as 
 the sandstone does? And, as the limestone is, say, 2,000 
 feet thick in the Chester valley, why should it not make 
 a much greater show on the south side of Buck ridge? 
 Other considerations (hereafter to be presented) add testi- 
 mony to the existence of a great fault. 
 
 The Buck ridge range of syenite gneiss, then, has been 
 pushed up since the deposits of the sandstone and lime- 
 stone were made ; and through them as overlying deposits. 
 The syenite gneiss strata were, of course, under water when 
 the deposits upon them were made. It follows, then, that 
 any syenite fragments in those deposits could not have 
 come down from the Buck ridge strata, but must have been 
 brought from some syenite land at that time out of water. 
 Where, we know not ; certainly not the Welsh mountain 
 district, nor the "range of the Highlands, for they also were 
 under water. Perhaps from Delaware county, where the 
 syenite areas are large and we have no positive testimony 
 to the fact of their being then submerged, although it is 
 hard to imagine them otherwise. It is idle to look far afield 
 elsewhere. 
 
 The Buck ridge range of syenite gneiss, however, could 
 hardly have been pushed up thus in a quiet manner, by 
 simply sharing in the general elevation of a 50 or 100 mile 
 broad region of which it was ojae of the mountain ridges. 
 For, in that case, the sandstone and limestone deposits would 
 have been lifted also in a quiet manner upon it with their hor- 
 zontality or seabottom-slope-dips preserved. The steepness
 
 88 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 of their present dips and their frequently vertical posture 
 shows that the Buck ridge was not lifted but squeezed up; 
 squeezing also the sandstone and limestone beds in its own 
 folds. Therefore, we must suppose that to some extent its 
 own folds correspond to their folds; or, in geological terms, 
 that they lie to that extent conformably upon the gneiss 
 strata. 
 
 This, however, a long and elaborate study of the whole 
 ground (represented by the arrows, &c. on Mr. Hall's sheet 
 map) shows plainly enough that they do not. The sandstone 
 and limestone folds sometimes correspond to folds in the 
 gneiss, and sometimes they do riot; and many of the strike 
 and dip details in the gneiss are evidently inconsistent with 
 the folds in the sandstone and limestone. 
 
 We must conclude, therefore, that the azoic country had 
 been subjected to movements previous to the age of the 
 sandstone deposits, folded, elevated and depressed, 
 weather-beaten and eroded by streams, and sculptured into 
 a region of hills and valleys, which had to be resubmerged 
 in order to receive the sandstone and limestone deposits 
 upon its worn and irregular surface. 
 
 The eastern portion of the Buck ridge, i. e. in Bucks 
 county, shows no sign of an anticlinal arch structure. All 
 the dips are towards the south, at high angles (75, 78, 80) 
 all across from the sandstone on its southern edge to the 
 border of overlapping mesozoic at its northen edge. On 
 the Neshaminy, however, the belt (two miles wide) is a 
 regular arch, with steep south dips at its southern edge, a 
 25 south dip near its middle, and vertical north dips at its 
 northern edge. Three miles further west, a section through 
 Feasterville shows just the reverse, 63 and 65 N. dips on 
 its southern edge and 75 S. dips on its northern edge; so 
 that one would think that Buck ridge was here an azoic 
 basin. Four miles further west, along the Pennypack, 
 where the belt is 2 miles wide, the gneiss is vertical or 
 (overturned ?) 80 N. at its .south edge, and then has 56, 
 70 and 65 S. dips for 1 miles, with nothing visible along 
 its northern edge ; and this is within half a mile of the end 
 of the sandstone basin ; so that we have south dips in the
 
 OLD GNEISS OF RUCK RIDGE. 89 
 
 gneiss in direct prolongation of the north dips in the sand- 
 stone. 
 
 It is needless to illustrate further the fact that the sand- 
 stone does not He conformably upon the gneiss, in the sense 
 of the earliest history, but only in the sense of the later 
 history. And here it is necessary to point out a geograph- 
 ical fact which seems to remove the movements of this 
 later history far away from the azoic ages and bring them 
 down to the very end of Palreozoic time, to the close of the 
 Carboniferous age, the date as we know of that general 
 movement which produced all the folds of middle and 
 western Pennsylvania and the whole belt of Appalachian 
 country from New York State to Alabama. This geo- 
 graphical fact is the extraordinary straightness and 
 peculiar direction of the south edge of the Buck ridge belt 
 from the Delaware river at Trenton to the Delaware county 
 line, as shown on Mr. Hall's sheet map. 
 
 The south edge of the Buck ridge (marked by the vertical 
 or steep south-dipping sandstone and limestone, and 
 further west at the Schuylkill by serpentine beds) runs 
 first S. 80 W. 2J miles, then S. 62 W. 6 miles, then S. 
 79 W. 18 miles (to within one mile of the Schuylkill), then 
 S. 61, W. 5 miles (to the Delaware county line). 
 
 Nothing in Pennsylvania is more remarkable than this 
 long line of 33 miles, divided into four parts, two of which 
 have a common strike of 61, 62, and the other two a com- 
 mon strike of 79, 80, especially when we consider that it 
 represents a sudden plunge vertically downward and 
 southward (with or without fault) of one great system of 
 rocks beneath another ; for one of these strikes is almost 
 exactly parallel with that of the great plunge of the whole 
 Palaeozoic system of formations vertically downward and 
 northward into the Pottsville coal basin, sixty miles dis- 
 tant to the north, along a line (of even greater length) in a 
 direction S. 62 W. 
 
 The significance of this line is intensified by another, 
 which is undoubtedly in some way connected with it, viz : 
 The long straight line of the vertically-plunging limestone 
 (marble) beds at the south edge of the Chester county
 
 90 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 valley, the strike of which is S. 74 W. for 45 miles west of 
 the Schuylkill river. 
 
 Generalizations become more dangerous as they become 
 larger ; but it is impossible to shut the eyes to the fact of a 
 grand parallelism of the anticlinal and synclinal folds 
 throughout Eastern Pennsylvania, produced by a hori- 
 zontal movement from the southeast ; or to the fact that the 
 system of parallel folds as a whole is itself parallel to the 
 special uplift of the azoic belt of Buck ridge which we have 
 been describing in the detailed manner which its import- 
 ance justified. 
 
 The historical azoic question raised by all this parallel- 
 ism is this : Were the Palaeozoic sediments shoved north- 
 westward on the Azoic floor, adjusting their gigantic pli- 
 cations upon it without regard to its own previously pli- 
 cated condition ; or, did this azoic floor consist of a 
 system of parallel mountain ridges which decided the par- 
 allel direction of and located and increased the Palaeozoic 
 folds ; or. was the real folding accomplished in the azoic 
 floor itself, the Palaeozoic formations merely sharing in 
 the -movement ; or, was the whole movement a complica- 
 tion of additional azoic crumplings below, with new pal- 
 CBZOIC foldings above ? These alternative hypotheses must 
 be discussed more fully when we come to the history of the 
 palaeozoic ages ; but it was necessary to allude to them in 
 advance in drawing attention to the remarkable line of 
 the Edge Hill or south border of the Buck ridge azoic 
 belt, and especially the most remarkable part of it, viz: 
 the 16i-mile straight S. 80 W. line, against which abuts 
 diagonally the Philadelphia gneisses. 
 
 The Buck ridge old azoic (syenite) belt crosses the Wis- 
 sahickon at the complicated bend of the creek a mile west 
 of Chestnut Hill; not as a ridge, but mouldered away to 
 the level of the stream, and only 400 hundred yards wide. 
 Thus it runs on a mile and a half further west to Barren 
 Hill; then a mile and a half farther west to the Schuylkill 
 river at Spring Mill, where it is just one mile wide. The 
 river after crossing the limestone valley strikes the hill belt
 
 OLD GNEISS ON THE SCHUYLKILL. 91 
 
 of syenite, turns east and flows for a mile at its foot to 
 Spring Mill, and then turning at a right angle southward 
 cuts through it between bluffs of nearly vertical syenite 
 rocks for a mile. 
 
 Here the dark hornblendic rocks are pretty plainly 
 arched, although most of them are vertical, or dip very 
 steeply northward (as the sandstone and limestone strata do 
 which face the north side of the ridge); but obscure south 
 dips are seen on the southern side of the belt, where the 
 Philadelphia system abuts against it along a line of fault, 
 at the first brook above Lafayette station. All the ex- 
 posures from here down the river past Manuyunk and Phil- 
 adelphia belong to the Newer Azoic system of mica-schists 
 and micaceous gneisses to be described in the next chapter. 
 
 In Delaware and southern Chester counties the old 
 syenite azoic areas are so irregular in shape that they can 
 only be described by reference to the geological colored 
 county map.* As defined by Mr. Hall they appear as on 
 the accompanying sketch map, by which it will be seen 
 that their irregular outlines are produced by the partial 
 removal of the overlaying Philadelphia system of micaceous 
 gneiss. The whole district is a low rolling hill country no- 
 where more than about 500 feet above tide level ; and the 
 older gneisses being more easily decomposed, their areas 
 are somewhat sunk beneath the general surface, and sur- 
 rounded by the indefinite, gently sloping escarpments of 
 the borders of the micaceous gneiss areas. Only one 
 syenite area has a well determined east and west extension, 
 between Bryn Mawr and West Chester, with an outlying 
 area further on, crossing the Brandy wine. Chester creek 
 makes long exposures of the syenite, which appears also 
 on the Delaware state line and in the northernmost county 
 of that state 
 
 4. On the Schuylkill River. 
 
 Prof. Rogers' description of the syenite belt where it 
 crosses the Schuylkill river is given on page 76 of his geol- 
 ogy of Pennsylvania, 1858. 
 
 *See them represented, as defined by Mr. Hall, in a plate on page vii of 
 the preface to Report C4, on Chester Co., 1883.
 
 92 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The "harder feldspathic gneiss " is first seen (ascending 
 the Schuylkill) north of the soapstone quarries, dipping 
 southward 70 and even steeper; and then northioard 45 to 
 55, making a sharp anticlinal arch, up through the broken 
 center line of which has flowed a strong dyke of syenite 
 gneiss. Passing the blue prophyroidal gneiss quarries the 
 strata are lying nearly flat for say 1,500 feet, and then turn 
 up and stand nearly vertical, being closely compressed into 
 numerous narrow folds, all the way past the Wm. Penn 
 iron furnaces, nearly to Spring Mill, at the sharp bend of 
 the river, where the valley limestone appears. 
 
 He describes in detail (on page 75) the character of the 
 strata from the dyke northward; commencing at a small 
 dyke, 100 feet south of the end of the long tangent of the 
 Norristown railroad, which follows the east bank of the 
 river. His description may be divided into the following 
 parts : 
 
 (a) Dyke of syenite, small, composed of pinkish feldspar 
 and quartz; next north of which come 
 
 (b) Gneiss rocks, dipping 80 > N. 20 W., composed of 
 feldspar, quartz and hornblende (with some mica), coarsely 
 crystalline, evenly bedded with parallel lamination (not 
 minute or very continuous) dipping 80 > N. 20 W. 
 (Some beds have feldspar in excess and may be called por- 
 phyries.) Similar massive gneiss cut by the Reading rail- 
 road on opposite river bank. Distance along railroad 160 
 feet. 
 
 (c) Dyke of syenite (about 100' north of first dyke). 
 coarsely crystallized pinkish and white feldspar, with a 
 much less proportion of quartz, and a considerable amount 
 of large specks of finely granular (imperfectly crystallized) 
 hornblende. Dyke 10' thick. Contact with gneiss makes 
 a plane dipping 70. 
 
 (d) Gneiss, massively bedded, bluish gray (feldspar, 
 quartz, mica, occasionally some hornblende), many beds 
 prophyroidal, feldspar appearing in large insulated 
 blotches. Granite injections in gneiss near the syenite 
 dyke. 
 
 Extensive quarries. Bold nose of hill at bend of river.
 
 OLD GNEISS ON THE SCHUYLKILL. 93 
 
 Dip of gneiss for the first 250' regular, 45 to 50 > N. 
 20 W. Then rather suddenly flattens to a small angle. 
 
 Dip of gneiss at 900' from the quarry, gently south. 
 
 (e) Interval between " the small quarry" and the south 
 end of Wm. Penn furnace No. 2, 387'. Here 
 
 (/) Gneiss massive, dark-blue, streaked and spotted (with 
 lens-shaped white blotches) ; composed of feldspar and 
 dark blue mica, in alternate slightly wavy laminae, with 
 lens-shaped concretions of pinkish feldspar. In some of 
 the bands these lumps are so abundant as to make the 
 rock porphyroid. Other bands finely laminated, the laminae 
 being in delicate, parallel, slightly wavy, bluish black and 
 pinkish white streaks, according to the relative proportions 
 of the dark mica and pink feldspar. The rock contains 
 some quartz, and occasionally some hornblende. Dip 
 (under furnace) 90. 
 
 (g) Gneiss (at N. end of furnace No. 2) feldspar mica ; 
 some of it minutely banded ; no feldspar lumps. 
 
 (k) Trap dyke (266' north of north end of furnace No. 2), 
 very hornblendic; thickness, 8'. 
 
 (i) Gneiss (421' north of north end of furnace No. 2) same 
 as (/); some beds with feldspar lumps, but fewer and 
 smaller than in (/); all more minutely and evenly lamin- 
 ated than (f)\ a real gneiss, but more like altered clay- 
 sandstone. The feldspar weathers mealy, chalky. 
 
 (/) Dip at north end of Old furnace No. 1. 60 >. 
 
 (k) Gneiss (100' north of north end of Old furnace No. 
 1\ feldspar- mica; exposed for 170' ; dip at south end of 
 exposure, 80 >. 
 
 (I) Gneiss (?) (330' north of north end of Old furnace No. 
 1; with feldspar lumps and specks rounder than those 
 of (/); finely streaked; looks less gneissic and more sedi- 
 mentary; strike S. 70 W. (pointing across the river to the 
 ferry house opposite Spring Mill); dip, 90 >; visible thick- 
 ness (in exposure) 100' ; ranges along the base of the hill 
 slope from ferry house up the river bank to Merion furnace 
 opposite Conshohocken. 
 
 The rock mass (1) conforms to the vertical gneiss (&) in 
 strike and dip, but is more earthy and less crystalline, and,
 
 94 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 in fact, looks so different that Prof. Rogers feels author- 
 ized to place it at the base of the palaeozoic system, lying 
 immediately upon the gneisses (&) all in vertical posture. 
 
 The difficulties of structure are great, perhaps insupera- 
 ble. If the gneisses be closely folded and the folds pressed 
 together, sp^as to make one dip, and there be no clue to the 
 character of the last or northernmost fold, it becomes im- 
 possible to tell whether (I) lies upon or beneath (&) ; for, if 
 the last beds of (&) are rising northwards, then (Z) under- 
 lies ; if falling, then (I) overlies. Mr. Rogers regards the 
 horizontal middle part of the belt as a basin, but it may be 
 the flattened top of a grand arch ; in which case, all the 
 vertical gneisses of the northern side of the belt are going 
 down together, and this is the only view to be taken of 
 them in harmony with their extension eastward and their 
 encircling at Willow Grove the sandstone and the limestone 
 of the valley. 
 
 Another difficulty arises from the abundance of mica in 
 the masses (/) (g) (i) and (#) and especially (d) in which 
 hornblende is only an occasional element. In fact, only di- 
 vision (5) of the whole belt is distinctively a hornblende- 
 syenite. This difficulty will be felt when we come to de- 
 scribe the Philadelphia azoic belt lying alongside and 
 south of this Buck ridge belt and supposed to be a differ- 
 ent system, chiefly if not exclusively on the ground of its 
 exceptionally micaceous character. 
 
 As for the two "dykes" of syenite (a) and (c) containing 
 little or no hornblende, they may be integral members of 
 the series. But if they be true igneous dykes they are 
 merely additional examples of what we meet with in the 
 Highlands and Welsh mountain regions. 
 
 The trap dyke (7^), very hornblendic, belongs to a very late 
 time of disturbance during and at the close of the deposit of 
 the Mesozoic brown sand and shale, when all our largest 
 trap dykes were ejected from the interior as black lavas, 
 and the whole region of middle New Jersey and southeast- 
 ern and southern Pennsylvania, in fact the whole wide 
 belt of the Atlantic seaboard, was shattered and rifted by 
 continental earthquakes on the grandest scale.
 
 ARE THE ARCHAEAN ROCKS SEDIMENTARY ? 95 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 Are t?te Archcean rocks sedimentary? 
 
 The alternations of feldspar-gneiss beds with hornblende- 
 gneiss beds is as easily explained as the alternation of hard 
 sand-rock beds and shale beds among the sedimentary 
 rocks; or as the. alternation of limestone and magnesian- 
 limestone beds in great limestone formations. 
 
 The feldspars are combinations of the silicate of alumina r 
 with silicates of lime, soda and potash,- and a little magne- 
 sia and iron. 
 
 The hornblendes are combinations of the silicates of 
 magnesia, lime and iron, with more or less silicate of al- 
 umina, and little or no soda. 
 
 The chemical analyses of both the feldspars and horn- 
 blendes show an infinite variety of these combinations ; 
 which means an infinitely various mixture of the six sili- 
 cates of alumina, lime, soda, potash, magnesia and iron ; 
 as might be expected when rivers bring down sand and mud 
 from a country of all sorts of rock, mixing them on the 
 way in all possible proportions, and laying them down in 
 beds of all possible thicknesses, shapes and order of super- 
 position. 
 
 Where the pure quartz sand was in great excess, the rock 
 became a quartzite. Where the alumina was in excess, a 
 massive feldspar rock was afterwards produced. Where 
 the quartz was simply in excess of the alumina, a quartz- 
 feldspar syenite gneiss was the consequence. Where there 
 was a considerable charge of potash and a small charge of 
 iron, the deposit became a quartz-feldspar mica granitic 
 gneiss. Where magnesia and lime were abundant, horn- 
 blende crystals were formed, if the deposit did not origin- 
 ally consist of rolled hornblende crystals, obtained from 
 some weathered country composed largely of hornblendic 
 rocks.
 
 96 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 In a word, given sediments of sand and mud, composed 
 of coarse and fine particles of quartz and feldspar, some of 
 them from a country poor in magnesia, others from a 
 country rich in magnesia, there must result alternations of 
 felsitic, micaceous and hornblendic gneisses, in beds of 
 every thickness and thinness, and in every variety of 
 grouping. 
 
 If, in the upper part of a great formation feldspathic 
 gneiss beds predominate, while in its lower part hornblendic 
 gneiss beds predominate, such an arrangement ought to 
 indicate that the drainage of the country which supplied 
 the materials was at first more magnesian or dolomitic, and 
 became less so afterwards. And if a great formation with 
 few micaceous beds be succeeded by a great formation of 
 mica schists, such an arrangement Ought to indicate another 
 change in the drainage system, viz., an increase in the 
 quantity of potash with iron in the river waters. 
 
 Throughout the Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian and Car- 
 boniferous ages such changes in the drainage system of 
 the continent which furnish the numerous palaeozoic sedi- 
 ments of middle and western Pennsylvania certainly took 
 place, or else we should not now have that remarkable pile 
 of dissimiliar formations, arranged in no assignable logical 
 order, and composed of an infinite variety of combinations 
 of coarse and fine grains of quartz, of the different feld- 
 spars, and of limestones with more or less magnesia and 
 iron. We have a right, therefore, to suppose such changes 
 of drainage to have occurred in pre-Cambrian time. On 
 this supposition, and granting the possibility of the partial 
 or complete re-crystallization of sediments with a total 
 destruction of all traces of organic life (if such existed), it- 
 becomes an easy matter to explain the alternations of 
 syenitic, hornblendic, granitic, micaceous and garnetiferous 
 gneisses and schists, with clay slates, mica slates, talc 
 slates and even with such serpentine beds (hydrated sili 
 cates of magnesia and iron) as cannot be proved to have had 
 a volcanic origin.* 
 
 *Even Professor Bonney admits this distinction.
 
 THE ARGUMENT FROM THE MICROSCOPE. 97 
 
 The argument from the microscope. 
 There is a new school of geologists who trust to the 
 microscope for deciding whether an apparently bedded 
 mass of crystalline rocks were originally sedimentary 
 strata, or whether they were ancient outbursts or out- 
 flows or overflows of molten rock-glass taking on the ap- 
 pearance of stratification in the course of their lava-like 
 movement.* Such geologists take a totally different view of 
 the order of the old gneiss system rocks, and reject its chro- 
 nological subdivisions into Lower, Middle and Upper Laur- 
 en tlan. Their point of view is strengthened by the acknow- 
 ledged fact, that the whole Laurentian country from Lake 
 Superior to the shores of Labrador, northern New York 
 and much of New England is traversed by vast dykes of 
 massive (unstratitied) syenite and granite cutting the 
 bedded rocks and each other in all directions both vertical 
 and horizontal. Such masses or dykes of unstratified rock 
 in the highlands of New Jersey have already been re- 
 ferred to.f 
 
 At Kennedy's granite quarry, in Delaware county. 
 Radnor township, near Wayne station (a good photo- 
 graphic view of which is given on plate XXXVIII of Re- 
 port of Progress 05). no stratification can be made out by 
 the eye, and the syenite mass looks like an eruption from 
 below. 
 
 In strong contrast to this is the fact that at the Leiper 
 "granite" quarries, so called, in Ridley township (shown 
 in plates 16 to 22 of the same report.) the original sedi- 
 mentary stratification is unmistakable. But here we are in 
 another system of rocks which has no certain connection 
 with the Laurentian, as will be seen hereafter. 
 
 How much of the Laurentian system is sedimentary and 
 how much of it volcanic may never be exactly defined; but 
 the mere fact that one kind of rock can be seen cutting or 
 penetrating the other is the strongest argument for the gen- 
 niness of both, in spite of opposite theories of the general 
 
 *Rhyolitic, from the Greek verb rhein, to flow. 
 fThe granite of Richmond, Va., is of this kind. 
 
 7
 
 98 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 origin of the whole, and in spite of any revelations which 
 have been or may hereafter be made by the microscope ; 
 with regard to which last, it may be also said, that the 
 microscopic examination of a transparent slice of azoic 
 rock may lead two observers to opposite conclusions under 
 the influence of two opposite prejudices, the one believing 
 at the outset that his specimen comes from a volcanic rock, 
 the other that it is from an original sediment subsequently 
 metamorphosed. 
 
 The argument from olivine. 
 
 A case in point occurs in Mr. F. D. Adams' report to the 
 Canada survey (in 1885) on microscopic inspection of thin 
 sections of a labradorite rock from the Upper Saguenay 
 river, flowing through the typical Norian region. In the 
 sections he could see grains of olivine, each having two 
 skins, an inner of pyroxene (?) and an outer of actinolite 
 (or hornblende), the whole being encased in a matrix of 
 lime-soda feldspar. The rock at large, from which the 
 sections were made, was composed of lime-soda feldspar, 
 olivine and some scattered grains of titaniferous (?) iron 
 ore. Now since olimne* is one of the universally recog- 
 nized volcanic glasses, abundantly expelled from modern 
 volcanoesf ; and since it is of frequent occurrence also in 
 older lavas, basalts and trap dykes, both in the form of 
 grains and small masses, long crystals and balls; and since 
 its golden-colored transparent crystals (chrysolite) also is 
 found in modern and recent lavas, \ the conclusion has been 
 drawn that the Saguenay rock formations taken as a whole 
 have been originally in a molten condition, and that the 
 olivine grains were the lirst to solidify while the envelop- 
 ing feldspar mass was still in the condition of molten glass; 
 in other words, that the silicate of magnesia solidified in 
 
 *A pale olive green opaque silicate of magnesia and iron (^3 sil., ^ mag. 
 and ^ iron. 
 
 fSee especially accounts of the Hawaiian islands, and of the Challenger 
 dredgings in the Pacific. 
 
 jThose found in sand at Expailly in France (Dana) probably came from 
 the Auvergnese basaltic beds.
 
 THE ARGUMENT FROM OLIVINE. 99 
 
 grains first, and the silicates of lime and soda as the sur- 
 rounding rock afterwards. The enveloping zones or skins 
 of each olivine grain seen under the microscope would then 
 be the products of a slow subsequent process, by which the 
 surface of each grain (silicate of magnesia and lime) lost 
 some magnesia and became ^.pyroxene or augite ; while the 
 surface of the enveloping feldspar gained some magnesia 
 and became an actinolite or hornblende (silicate of mag- 
 nesia, lime and iron); both the inner zones of pyroxene and 
 the outer zone of actinolite being minutely crystallized in 
 tibers crosswise. Similar grains with double skins (the 
 outer hornblende) were described by Tornebohm,* as seen 
 in Swedish gabbro rock (an ancient crystalline, granite-like, 
 magnesia-lime-soda lava) the feldspar of which is usually 
 taken to be labradorite, and some varieties of which contain 
 an abundance of olivine. f 
 
 It is easy enough to see how a grain of strongly mag- 
 nesian silicate might act on and be affected by its en- 
 velope of lime-soda silicate to produce in time intermedi- 
 ate skins or shells of magnesia-lime-soda silicate by the 
 gradual mixing of the three elements along the contact 
 surfaces. But it is a risky thing to dogmatise an opinion, 
 1, as to how the grains were first formed, and 2, as to the 
 nature of the action and reaction between the grain and its 
 envelope. While it may be safely accounted probable that 
 the magnesia was concentrated by the fiery fusions of 
 the mass; and while it seems almost positively certain that 
 the fibrous zones could not have been cross crystallized 
 around the grains until after they had been fully formed; 
 we know too much of cold aqueous concretionary structure 
 in sedimentary rocks (e. g. oolites in the magnesian lime- 
 stones of No. ItJ:) not to make the aqueous formation of 
 the olivine grains a possibility. And then, the aqueous 
 alterations of minerals seen going on at a low tempera- 
 ture in the hardest crystalline rocks, at all depths of per- 
 meation, suggests the possibility of the cold aqueous for- 
 mation of the skins of the olivine grains. 
 
 *Neu. Lehr. fur Min., 1877, page 303, Adarns. 
 t A. Geikie's Text Book of Geol., page 150, 1882. 
 JCambro Silurian.
 
 100 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The granular condensation of the overcharge of magnesia 
 in a magnesian silicate mass is illustrated by Dr. F. A. 
 Genth's discovery in 1874 that grains of chrysolite are dis- 
 seminated throughout the whole mass of bronzite (iron- 
 bearing enstatite) forming Castle Rock in Delaware county.* 
 The bronzite mass is a silicate of magnesia and iron (57, 
 36, 6). But the grains of chrysolite have twice as much 
 magnesia and iron to the silica as the rock has which en- 
 velops them. In studying Castle Rock repeatedly I could 
 not quite convince myself that it is stratified, and there- 
 fore do not deny that it may be a volcanic dyke. Bur on 
 the other hand it is an integral part of the long belt of ser- 
 pentine strata which crosses the county; therefore it ought 
 to be sedimentary. But this belt of Delaware county ser- 
 pentine rocks does not belong to the older gneisses; it be- 
 longs to the mica schist series to be discussed hereafter; 
 therefore, the question of the volcanic origin of Castle 
 Rock does not directly affect any question respecting the 
 stratification of the older syentte belt which passes just 
 north of it. 
 
 The point to keep in view is this, that the genuineness of 
 the stratification of the older gneiss rocks is not impugned 
 by any amount of volcanic disturbance and intrusion to 
 which they may have been subjected; nor by any number 
 of massive granite dykes, bosses or layers of gabbro;t nor 
 by any amount of olivine discoverable in the area of coun- 
 try which they occupy. 
 
 The scarcity of olivine in the older gneisses can be appre- 
 ciated from the fact that in the long course of the history 
 of the geological survey of Canada its accomplished chem- 
 ist and mineralogist, Dr. Hunt, never saw (or at least never 
 reported finding) olivine in the Norian gneisses, although 
 he found it in some (Norian ?) boulders in New Hampshire 
 which were supposed to have come from Canada in the ice 
 age.:}: When Mr. Adams says that it "occurs abundantly 
 
 *Report of Progress B, page 163. 
 
 fSuch as the Gabbro formation of Lake Superior, which, however, is 
 placed above the gneiss by western geologists. 
 JAdams, Am. Nat, Nov., 18a5, page 1088.
 
 THE ARGUMENT FROM SERPENTINE. 101 
 
 in the anorthosite of many parts of the Sagnenay area," 
 and that he has found it also in a hand specimen from old 
 rocks near Dolin's lake in New Brunswick, such discoveries 
 leave the question of the aqueous or igneous origin of the 
 great gneiss formation as a whole still unanswered; for it 
 is supposable, and will be to many minds probable, that 
 the observed occurrences of olivine are referrable in all 
 cases to dykes or layers or bosses of igneous rock ejected 
 through and between the recrystallized sedimentary gneiss 
 beds, and not to the constitution of the gneiss itself. 
 
 The argument from serpentine. 
 
 It is needless to discuss the vexed question of the origin 
 of serpentinous rocks if we recognize the fact that they 
 may be of various kinds and have more than, one origin ; 
 some of them being sedimentary, others volcanic, and yet 
 imitating each other in the same way as the granite gneisses 
 and granites imitate each other. 
 
 In Pennsylvania we have no notable serpentine beds in 
 the Highland, Welsh mountain, Buck ridge, Delaware 
 county older gneisses. A discussion of the serpentine beds 
 of the mica schist series on the Schuylkill and west of it 
 would properly find its place in describing that series. 
 But as Mr. T. D. Rand has argued in the most forcible 
 manner for the assignment of these serpentines to a place 
 in the older gneiss series, not only in Delaware county, but 
 also in Northampton county, it is better to give the facts 
 here. In the proceedings of the Academy of Natural 
 Sciences of Philadelphia, November 24, 1886, pages 393, 
 407, and in the annual report of the geological survey of 
 Pennsylvania for 1887, Mr. Rand's views may be found with 
 illustrative maps and sections. 
 
 Of the two parallel serpentine belts that cross the 
 Schuylkill river (1) above and (2) below Lafayette station, 
 the (2) belt (with steatite} cannot be traced (west) beyond a 
 bend in the Black Rock road (one-half mile north of the 
 P. R. R.) The first belt is conspicuous at Rosemont 
 station (P. R. R.), but no farther. A (3) belt commences 
 
 LIBRARY 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 SANTA RARRARA
 
 102 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 on Meadow brook f mile east of Darby creek and runs on 
 westward. It was always doubtful to which belt (1) or (2) 
 this should be assigned. In 1885 Mr. T. D. Rand* "found a 
 distinct outcrop on the Roberts road, on the property of 
 Colonel Joseph F. Tobias, or of Dr. E. H. Williams, with 
 fragments in the soil of the former to the northeast. The 
 belt is very narrow, arid the valley of a small creek seems 
 to occupy nearly the same line." The outcrop is about 
 half-way between the Rosemont (1) exposure and the 
 Meadow brook (3) exposure and seems to settle the ques- 
 tion, f 
 
 The Edgehill (eurite) rock seems to outcrop 100' to 200' 
 from the serpentine on the Roberts road. The two occupy 
 here the same relations as they do near Radnor station, on 
 the other (N.) side of the Laurentian axis. 
 
 The Delaware county serpentines. 
 
 Castle rock, four miles north of Media, in Delaware 
 county, is a confused mass of plates of that species of 
 enstatite rock:}: which contains iron (bronzite) and which, 
 after imbibing water (chemically) turns into serpentine 
 rock (composed chiefly of silica and magnesia. ) On the 
 eastern side of a brook flowing south there are outcrops of 
 serpentine which indicate the continuance of the mineral 
 towards the Schuylkill ; but at the west end of the Castle 
 
 *Strike N. 30 E., dip 50 S. 60 E. ; mica schist, adjacent, strikes N. 40 
 E., dip 6508.50 E. 
 
 fThis outcrop is somewhat south of the Kosemont outcrop line and indi- 
 cates some change in strike, or a throw, or an echelon structure. 
 
 Jin Bucks county, near the Neshaminy, between Scottsville and Rock- 
 ville, at Vanarsdalen's quarry of crystalline limestone (interbedded with 
 hornblendic gneiss and charged with plumbago) among the numerous 
 species of crystals some contain percentages of magnesia, but none come 
 under the head of magnesian silicates proper. (Report B). Near the 
 mouth of the creek, at Flushing is an outcrop of enstatite rock, bedded and 
 dipping 10, the relations of which are not understood. (Report C6, p. 60.) 
 
 Mr. Salom, when Dr. Genth's pupil, found that between 5 and 10 per cent 
 of the Castle rock was soluble in dilute chlorhydric acid, and composed of 
 silica, 45 ; mag., 31.6 ; ferrous oxide, 19.4 ; lime, 3.9, representing dissemi- 
 nated grains of chrysolite; the insoluble 90 to 95 per cent was composed of 
 silica, 56; mag., 29; ferrous ox., 12; lime, 1.2, closely agreeing with the 
 composition of bronzite. Genth's Rep. B, 1875, p. 64.
 
 THE ARGUMENT FROM SERPENTINE. 103 
 
 rocks a cultivated outspread of gneiss land soil shrouds the 
 geology of this singular place in mystery.* 
 
 There is a range of abandoned quarries extending from 
 Media W. S. W. past Lenni for miles, f Other ranges tra- 
 verse the county. C. E. Hall's sketch map in C4, preface 
 page v, shows more than 50 spots marked serpentine. It 
 is noteworthy that no'ne of them are in the Older (syenitic, 
 liornblendic) gneiss regions. All of them are in the interval 
 regions of Newer (micaceous) gneiss, the equivalent of the 
 Philadelphia belt. Nor are any of them in the South Valley 
 Hill belt of mica slate. :{: 
 
 The Chester county serpentines. 
 
 Serpentine outcrops are very numerous in Chester county. 
 Thirteen are enumerated in Report 04, pages 62, 63. Brin- 
 ton* s quarry is a grand exhibition of serpentine, and from 
 this quarry 500,000 cubic yards of the rock had been taken 
 before 1880, the largest being 3 feet square and 16 feet long. 
 In 1880 6,000 cubic feet of rock were moved, valued at 
 $10,000. 
 
 Dr. Frazer makes the general remark that "the serpen- 
 tine under no consideration has any direct connection with 
 the series of hypozoic and palaeozoic strata, or strata of pri- 
 mary origin. 
 
 The serpentines near Baltimore are said to furnish under 
 the microscope ample evidence that originally they were 
 
 *Mr. E. B. Harden has made for me photographic pictures of the mass as 
 it appears on all sides and in various lights. I have myself made a careful 
 contour line map of it, with pencil sketches ; but I could come to no certain 
 conclusion whether its apparrent bed-plates were or were not cleavage 
 planes. It may be synclinal, or it may be a dyke. 
 
 fSee also notes on the minerals of the county by Col. Joseph Willcox, in 
 C4, p. 346. 
 
 {Mr. Hall and Mr. Rand are thus directly opposed in their structural 
 views respecting the Serpentine. Dr. Frazer agrees with Mr. Hall in iso- 
 lating the Serpentine from the Archaean, but he advocates its connection with 
 the hydromica and chlorite series. 
 
 Report 04, page 289. Prof. Rogers notes serpentinous geodes in the 
 Welsh mountain gneiss, at Warwick mines, Report C4, page 238. Fine 
 specimens of serpentine have been found in the mines on Fritz's island near 
 Reading, at Topton, and at the Wheatfield, Boyerstown, Ruth and Jones 
 mines in Berks county; but no serpentine beds. See Reports D2 and D3.
 
 104 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 trap dykes, holding a rhombic pyroxene, with or without 
 olivine. * 
 
 A similar conclusion was reached by Prof. F. D. Chester, 
 of Dover, Delaware, in studying the large belt of serpen- 
 tine on the state line in Chester county;f and he was led to 
 regard all the serpentines of Chester county as alterations 
 of rocks containing a rhombic pyroxene, either enstatite 
 or bronzite. The great mass of Castle rock, unchanged 
 enstatite rock in Delaware county can be seen passing on 
 eastward as a serpentine outcrop. 
 
 The Lancaster county serpentine. 
 
 The two remarkable belts of serpentine in southern Lan- 
 caster, passing over into Maryland, are described in detail 
 by Dr. Frazer in his Report C3, pages 26, 89, 177, 190. 
 Wood's celebrated chrome mine is in the southern belt 
 in an oxbow of Octoraro creek just within Little Britain 
 township. In Fulton township the serpentine ridges are 
 called "barrens." Up to 1877 about 90,000 tons of 
 chrome-iron ore had been taken. The mine was then 720 
 feet deep and yielded 500 or 600 tons of the ore annually. 
 The serpentine country through which the ore vein runs is 
 unstratified and about three quarters of a mile in breadth. 
 The ore strikes S. 78 W. The sandy chlorite slates to the 
 north of the mine dip S. 50. The rocks southeast of the 
 mine are hornblendic, and " a region of syenite commences 
 on that side "(Glenn). The same kind of difficulty here 
 encounters the geologist as in Northampton county, 
 whether he is disposed to connect the serpentine structur- 
 ally with the older hornblendic gneiss (syenite) system, or 
 with the newer gneiss (mica schist) system, or with the 
 still later chloritic (phyllite) system. 
 
 *Dr. G. H. Williams, of the Johns Hopkins University, on the Peritodites 
 and Serpentines of Baltimore. 
 
 t Letter, Oct 23, 1886. The mother rock of this belt appears to consist of a 
 rhombic pyroxene, probably bronzite, associated with a variable amount of 
 diallage, both minerals largely altered intolightamphibole aggregates, gen- 
 erally tremolite, partly actinolite ; and these are found in all stages of alter, 
 nation into a true chrome-serpentine, the direct product of alteration of 
 pyroxene, as described by Drasche in the Tyrol.
 
 THE ARGUMENT FROM SERPENTINE. 105 
 
 The Northampton county serpentine. 
 
 The serpentine of the old Wolf quarry of Chestnut Hill, 
 Northampton county, seems to be not an originally bedded 
 deposit, like limestone, but an alteration product in the 
 white tremolite* quarry-rock (belonging to the hornblendic 
 or amphibole gneiss series), composed chiefly of silicate of 
 magnesia and lime. The silicate of magnesia after im- 
 bibing water has separated from the mass into veins and 
 lumps and scattered pseudomorph crystals of pure serpen- 
 tine. The lime has also separated in the iorm of veins and 
 masses of snow-white crystalline carbonate of lime (calcite). 
 It is possible to trace on the face of the quarry, in the 
 space of a few inches, the gradual transformation of the 
 pure white tremolite rock into a mixed stone, composed 
 mainly of serpentine, tremolite and calcite. The steps of 
 the process is observable in the thin slices under the micro- 
 scope, the tremolite crystals being broken up into bundles 
 of fibres traversed by irregular canals of serpentine.^ 
 
 It was always an interesting question whether the ser- 
 pentine beds of Chestnut hill belonged to the Highland 
 gneiss or to the limestone of the valley ; \ but Mr. Rand 
 seems to have set the matter at rest by his observations in 
 the gap of the Delaware above Easton and in the gap of the 
 Bush kill west of the river. 
 
 Five soapstone (steatite} outcrops are exposed and four 
 of them have been quarried, all dipping steeply southward 
 enclosed between solid ribs of gneiss one or two hundred 
 feet thick. | 
 
 *See Genth's Report B, 1874, page 67. On page 64 he notes that the " Wal- 
 lastonite " of Easton is tremolite. 
 
 |G. P. Merrill, in Proc. U. S. National Musenm, Vol. VII, 1890, page 600, 
 where an analysis of the tremolite by Eakins is given : Sil. 58 ; Mag. 26 ; 
 Lime 12 ; Alum., Potash, Sod 4. 
 
 jSee Rogers' Geol. Penn., 1858, Vol. 1, p. 94, and Report D3, Vol. 1, 1883, p. 
 79. 
 
 T. D. Rand. Notes on the genesis and horizons of the Serpentines of S. 
 E. Pa. in Proc. Acad? Nat. Sci., Phila., March 25, 1890, page 95. 
 
 II South-dipping rnagnesian limestone outcrops border the river for a mile 
 above Easton to within 200 feet of the first exposed steatite or talc-slate bed, 
 which is not thick, has no visible hanging wall, but a foot- wall of gneiss. 
 The second one is immediately below the first and in the gneiss ; one mass
 
 106 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OE PENNSYLVANIA, 
 
 Chestnut hill is the western end of one of the Highland 
 ranges of New Jersey, severed by a steep and picturesque 
 gap cut through it by the river. Its beds of gneiss dip all 
 one way, southward, as the limestone beds do to the south 
 of it. There is no appearance of anticlinal structure in the 
 ridge.* Its crest, straight and sharp, is made by a massive 
 rib of gneiss, dipping at the river .31; at its highest point 
 (700' A. T.) 59, on the road 30, at the Bushkill gap 40, 
 43, 48, 60, further west 28, all southeast ; no northwest 
 dips anywhere, until its western point sinks beneath the 
 around-lapping limestone country, the nearest outcrop of 
 which dips 12 S. W. That the whole ridge is a mono- 
 clinal uplift is confirmed by the first limestone dip (28, N.) 
 seen at the Bushkill gap abutting against the lowest visible 
 gneiss dipping 48, S. E. f The talc-schist or soapstone beds, 
 and the serpentine (picrolite) beds are not of the age of 
 valley limestones (magnesian though many of these be) but 
 belong to the more ancient gneiss formation of the South 
 
 of it among many (5'-6' long) nearly pure talc schist at one end, at the 
 other apparently unaltered qartzose gneiss. Two hundred feet north of 
 the second appears the third, quarried for 100' up the slope ; both walls 
 gneiss, fallen blocks of the hanging wall showing change from granulite to 
 steatite. The fourth and much larger one is 300'-400' further north ; inter- 
 val, all (?) gneiss. The fifth 200'-300' further north ; interval all gneiss, 
 <one rib very massive, making overhanging cliffs, has been much quar- 
 ried). Beyond this, more gneiss ; dips obscure, but nearly vertical ; hill 
 crest more than 400 above the river. Incredible that these four outcrops 
 should be tightly-compressed synclinal folds of a talc schist formation over- 
 lying the gneiss. They must be conformably interbedded layers in the 
 ( Lauren tian) gneiss. (Rand.) 
 
 *A11 this is noted on Prime's admirable contour-line map of Northampton 
 county in Atlas to D3, Vol. 1, 1883, sheets 1 and 2. 
 
 fit is not absolutely necessary to suppose an upthrow fault along the 
 northern base of the ridge, for a 28 dip would shoot the limestone high over 
 the ridge. Nor is it a mere "brushed up" dip, for all the observed limestone 
 dips along the'Bushkill for a mile up (and along the Delaware as far) are in 
 the same N. W. direction, towards a synclinal axis of considerable length. 
 Although the ridge itself is a very ancient eroded monoclinal, it became the 
 core of a subsequent overarching limestone anticlinal, which included all 
 the Lower Silurian formations, probably the Upper Silurian series also, anil 
 possibly the whole Palaeozoic system to the top of the Coal Measures. There 
 has been tire* enough since the Coal Age to remove it all, and exhibit once 
 more the original pre-Silurian or pre-Cambrian topography.
 
 THE AEGUMENT FROM LABRADORITE. 107 
 
 mountain highlands whatever it may be.* And this agrees 
 with all Mr. Rand's observations of the serpentines of Del- 
 aware and Chester counties, which he shows pretty clearly 
 to be interbedded among the ancient gneisses of that 
 region. 
 
 On the other hand, the serpentine belts of Lancaster 
 county and Maryland are assigned both by Frazer and 
 Keyes to the phyllite system of rocks, which belong to the 
 Philadelphia belt of newer gneiss ; and the serpentine and 
 steatite of the Schuylkill are placed by Rogers and C. E. 
 Hall at the top of that newer gneiss system. 
 
 In Newfoundland, as in Pennsylvania, no extensive dis- 
 play of serpentine is known in the Laurentian system, nor 
 is crystalline limestone found. Lime, magnesian minerals, 
 and mica are remarkably absent from the great overlying 
 formation (Huronian) ; lime showing only in cross veins, 
 and magnesia only at one place, as steatite and asbestos, in 
 seams. Guided by the fossils Mr. Murray came to the 
 conclusion that the serpentine formation overlaid the 
 Levis (Quebec group) and were overlaid by the Hudson 
 river group, etc. unconformably, so that they were even 
 overlaid in places by Devonian. This possible identity of 
 the Newfoundland serpentine formation with our great 
 magnesian limestones (No. II. Chazy?) would bring it into 
 the neighborhood of the Northampton county serpentine 
 beds, north of Easton.f 
 
 Genthite has been found at the Lafayette soapstone 
 quarries, in small, bright, emerald green crusts, showing 
 its characteristic stalactitic structure. This proves the 
 presence of nickel in our serpentines.:}: 
 
 The argument from labradorite. 
 Labradorite rocks are unknown among our older gneisses 
 
 *Another good argument both for this and also for the monoclinal struc- 
 ture of Chestnut ridge, is the fact that no serpentine or talcschist or steatite 
 is to be seen anywhere along the northern side of theridge, or at its north- 
 ern base. 
 
 t Alex Murray, Canada survey, in Geol. Mag., March, 1879, p. 139. 
 
 }H. C. Lewis, May 12, 1885, in report of Acad. N. S. Philada. meeting in 
 Amer. Nat., Sept., page 929.
 
 108 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 in Pennsylvania; and about this it is necessary to say some- 
 thing. 
 
 The eastern range of the Canadian mountains, through 
 Labrador to the ocean shore, is a country of massive and 
 schistose gneisses, many of which are made up of quartz 
 and labradorite feldspar. * This feldspar is essentially a 
 silicate of alumina, lime and soda (53 : 30 : 12 : 5), and might 
 be formed in a metamorphosed sediment just as well as any 
 other feldspar, provided the drainage of that sediment was 
 from a limestone region. It is a'frequent constituent of 
 modern volcanic lavas, and is found also in some ancient 
 trap-dykes and porphyries; but so are several other feld- 
 spars. It is in itself no proof of the plutonic origin of the 
 East Canada gneisses. 
 
 It is still a question what relation in time the great Lab- 
 radorian (Norwegian or Norian) system of gneisses holds 
 to the West Canada Laurentian (Ottawa or Granville) sys- 
 tem of gneisses. 
 
 Now, although the Norian rocks are commonly called 
 Upper Laurentian, it is possible to consider them as two 
 geographical areas of one and the same system; in which 
 case the abundance of labradorite feldspar-^ in the eastern 
 area would be an accident of drainage. On any other 
 hypothesis it is difficult to explain the absence of labrado- 
 rite gneiss from the range of the New York, New Jersey and 
 Pennsylvania highlands ; for it looks as if we had in this 
 range the upper part of any Laurentian system which 
 could be established on anything like a sedimentary basis 
 of argument. 
 
 The argument from marble. 
 
 White crystalline limestone beds are interleaved with 
 the gneiss rocks of the New Jersey highlands all along 
 their northwest border, and some are pure marbles (96.50 : 
 1.13 : 1.30 : 0.30) ; others nearly pure dolomites (53.00 : 
 42.26. 3.50 alum, sfnttox. iron : 0.50 silica and insoluble). ^ 
 
 *With hornblende, hypersthene and magnetic iron. 
 
 fOr rather of the whole group of plagioclase (soda and lime) feldspars. 
 
 {Cook's An. Rt, 1864, page 15.
 
 THE ARGUMENT FROM MARBLE. 109 
 
 Prof. James Hall, however, published at the Albany 
 meeting of the A. A. A. S., in 1876, his opinion that the 
 crystalline limestones of northern New York are no part 
 of the Laurentian system, but are of later age.* 
 
 The azoic marble beds of New Jersey furnish precious in- 
 formation for studying those of Pennsylvania. 
 
 In Warren county, N. J.. at Lower Harmony are exten- 
 sive quarries. An acre of marble was exposed in 1871, 
 without penetrating more than 15' of strata; indistinctly 
 dipping steep S. E.; gray, in some places banded with al- 
 ternate dark and light lines; with scattered nodules and 
 masses of soapstone (steatite) and hornblende; some graph- 
 ite ; a very little pyrites in places. In the deepest parts of 
 the pit the stone is more solid and free from these min- 
 erals, f 
 
 In the Jenny Jump range of highlands the Rose Crystal 
 Marble quarry (50x50x25 yards deep) have exposed 30' 
 of rose-colored marble beds, dipping 80 N. 75 W. 
 Quarry beds, white, flesh-colored, rose-colored; with green- 
 black hornblende, black mica and occasional crystals of 
 black tourmaline ; calcite predominates largely ; stone can 
 be burned for lime; polishes well, showing the other min- 
 erals ; blocks 8'x3'x2' got free of seams or joint flaws. 
 The overlying beds (to the west) are pearl gray. The 
 underlying beds (to the east, 100' thick as exposed are 
 ordinary white limestone, none colored.* 
 
 Two belts of azoic white crystalline limestone or marble 
 traverse New. Jersey in its Highlands. The Pequest belt 
 has beds so thick and persistent that it can be located by 
 color on the geological map of New Jersey; and its rare 
 and beautiful minerals are fully described in the geology 
 of New Jersey. The Ramapo belt is smaller and remark- 
 able for containing serpentine everywhere, in such quan- 
 tities (in places) as to spoil the limestone for lime -burn - 
 
 *See Amer. Jour. Science. See also C. E. Hall's report on the Adirondack 
 rocks ("Laureutian magnetic iron ore deposits of N. N. Y.") with a geol. 
 mapof Essex Co. in Rt. of State Geologist for 1884 (No. 161, page 31). 
 
 fCook An. Rt., 1872, page 26. 
 
 jCook An. Rt., 1872, pages 27, 28. 
 
 1868, pages 309, 326.
 
 110 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 ing; both massive and also fibrous (cTtrysotile), especially 
 both at Mountville and also near Winokie. 
 
 This union of serpentine with marble shows two things: 
 1, that the azoic lime deposits were in part highly magne- 
 sian, and, 2, that they were in part highly siliceous. 
 Under favorable circumstances the hydrous silicate of mag- 
 nesia (serpentine) has been generated in small quantities 
 in our mixed magnesian and non-ma gnesian limestone beds 
 of No. II.* 
 
 The sedimentary origin of the azoic marble beds, as or- 
 dinary lime-magnesia muds, can hardly be doubted. 
 
 Included beds of syenite-gneiss in the body of the marble 
 mass and regularly inter stratified, with the marble beds 
 complete the proof, and carry the conclusion one step 
 further, that the gneiss was itself also an ordinary mixed 
 sand-mud deposit, like all the sandy shale and sand rocks 
 of after ages which have remained uncrystallized merely 
 because they have not been subjected to the proper 
 process. 
 
 In Pennsylvania the Highland gneiss areas do not show 
 their marble beds enough to be well studied. The beds are 
 not thick enough to encourage mining in competition with 
 the marble quarries of No. II along the Chester valley. But 
 where they are thus exposed in southern Chester county 
 they reveal the same facts as in the New Jersey High- 
 lands', f 
 
 In New Jersey the Pequest marble belt has been so ex- 
 tensively quarried that the story is plainly told. Take for 
 instance the section S. W. from Hardystonville,^ where 
 two gneiss formations 10' and 80' thick respectively, and 
 about 200' apart, are regularly interstratified with about 
 1,000' of marble beds. One such example would suffice, 
 but many others present themselves. There can be no 
 
 *As at Reading, see last loot note on page 103, above. 
 
 fSee Report C4 
 
 {Wood cut in Geol. N. J., 1868, p. 313. 
 
 These alternations of gneiss and marble beds are finely exposed at 
 Mine Hill ; on the Snufftown road, southeast of Hardystonville ; on the 
 Deckertown road over Pochunk mountain ; east of that road near Ryer- 
 son's ; and many other places. The interstratified gneiss beds appear in
 
 THE ARGUMENT FROM MARBLE. Ill 
 
 more doubt of the sediment of gneiss in this azoic marble 
 formation than of the sediment of St. Peter's sandstone in 
 the magnesian limestone of the west, or of the great sand- 
 bed groups in No. II throughout Nittany valley in central 
 Pennsylvania, and near Chambersburg in Franklin county. 
 It is evident that the agents which changed lime mud into 
 marble, changed sand mud into gneiss. Consequently the 
 great gneiss formation which contains in its own body the 
 mnrble beds, was itself as a whole originally an' ordinary 
 sand mud formation. 
 
 The marble beds vary greatly in crystallization, texture, 
 color, composition and imbedded minerals ; generally 
 coarsely (rhombic) crystalline ; sometimes finely granular, 
 or even amorphous to the eye ; color grayish, pinkish, but 
 generally pure white, with lustrous cleavage; sometimes 
 dull, hard, siliceous. Graphite scales nearly everywhere 
 disseminated through the mass. Mica quite common. 
 Many other rare minerals occur in it. 
 
 Why is azoic marble so abundant in New Jersey and not 
 in Pennsylvania ? A true answer to this question would 
 throw great light on our gneiss system. 
 
 It looks as if a far greater thickness of gneiss comes to 
 the surface in New Jersey, and as if the great azoic marble 
 formation must be deep in the Pennsylvania underground. 
 
 Part of the vast gneiss system holds these marble beds, 
 and another part does not. This is evident from the fact 
 that the first or front range of gneiss Highlands in New 
 Jersey only shows four small outcrops of marble.* The 
 second range contains no known outcrop of marble. The 
 third range (and the interval bet ween the second and third) 
 makes a magnificent display of marble beds of great length 
 
 all parts of the marble belt. Very frequently they are such local deposits 
 that after running a few yards, or a few rods, they more or less suddenly 
 turn into limestone. Some have a length of 100-200 yards and are from 120 
 to 300 feet in thickness. One at Ryerson's is 360' thick (or wide). Most of 
 the gneiss is a hornblende syenite, without mica ; some of it contains mica. 
 The trap dykes at Mine Hill cross the whole breadth of marble bed, gneiss 
 beds, sandstone beds and blue limestone beds of No. II ; but they are very 
 thin, only a few inches wide. 
 
 *Wynokie, two ; Montville, one; Mendham, one. Cook, Geol. N. J., p. 
 309.
 
 112 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 and thickness.* The average width of the marble belt is 
 one- third mile, rarely exceeds one- half mile, but across the 
 New York state line widens to two miles. But approach- 
 ing Pennsylvania "the range seems to thin out and at last 
 disappear towards the southwest."f 
 
 Certainly there is nothing to compare with this in the 
 Highlands west of the Delaware river. Now everything 
 combines to show that our highland gneisses never rose to 
 as high a level as those of New Jersey ; and, if we were 
 quite sure of the structure, we must justly infer that our 
 gneisses from Reading to Easton were those of an upper 
 division of the old Azoic ; a lower division coming up to 
 the present surface in New Jersey and New York, bringing 
 with it the great marble formation. That would explain 
 things. But the structure of the highlands is too obscure 
 to allow us to rely on any such generalization. Therefore, 
 we must accept as a possibility that the white limestone 
 formation may not have extended westward originally. 
 Any third hypothesis that the white marble beds are local 
 plutonic or volcanic extrusions like outflows of lava cannot 
 be seriously entertained now by any one. 
 
 But a fourth source of explanation for the small local 
 exhibitions of marble in gneiss \ may be found in the fact 
 of the close plication of the rocks; the limestone being pre- 
 served in short, sharp, collapsed synclinal troughs; or, as 
 in the case of the Brandywine marble quarry, projected 
 upwards as a sharp-tongued anticlinal fold. 
 
 But in some cases the white limestone is merely an ele- 
 
 *Twenty miles long, from Mts. Adam and Eve and Round Hill, in New 
 York, along west side of Vernon valley, by Franklin furnace to Sterling 
 hill. No palaeozoic rocks seen. At Franklin the blue limestones of No. II 
 lap over the marble beds. This state of things keeps on through New York 
 state. Geol. N. J., p. 310. 
 
 fProf. Cook, G. of N. J., p. 312. 
 
 jLike the " detached outcrops surrounded by gneiss at North Vernon, 
 described by Prof. Cook on pages 313, 314, and a number in Pennsylvania. 
 One of these detached patches at North Vernon, N. J., seems to be 900' long 
 by 600' wide; the other is 1,700' long and " quite narrow;" a third is 5,000' 
 long and 900' wide, with a good deal of gneiss included in it. It seems 
 hardly possible to avoid the inference of complication and repetition in such 
 a case. 
 
 See my sketch in Report of Progress C4, page 239.
 
 THE. ARGUMENT FROM APATITE. 113 
 
 ment in the gneiss, and what is of more importance " it 
 predominates largely in some of the beds and enters some- 
 what into the composition of the iron ores worked" at the 
 Roseville mine.* 
 
 The argument from apatite. 
 
 The Laurentian age of the highland gneiss is testified to 
 by the occurrence of regular apatite (phosphate of lime) 
 magnetic iron ore beds enclosed in the gneiss, as in the 
 Adirondack mountains of northern New York. 
 
 In New Jersey, in 1871, at Ferro-Mont (Dickerson M. 
 Co.), a bed 8' thick was opened, dipping 65 S. E., mixed 
 magnetite and gray-white apatite, between regular walls of 
 gneiss in which little if any apatite exists. Some parts of 
 the bed show alternate layers (or lenses) of magnetite and 
 apatite. Of the whole mass 50 per cent in bulk (35 per 
 cent in weight) is apatite, f There is too much phosphorus 
 for the lime ; some of it is therefore combined with the 
 iron. There is a little quartz, feldspar (orthoclase) and 
 occasional spangles of brown mica. 
 
 *Cook, Geol. of N. J., page 316. The marble at Lockwood is nearly pure 
 carbonate lime, very coarsely crystalline, with scales of graphite distributed 
 through it, and beds and horses of gneiss in it. Its whole length is only 
 360' and its greatest width 50'. The white crystalline limestone (91 per cent 
 carb. lime) along the Paulin's Kill contains graphite, galena, &c., and in- 
 cludes alternating beds of gneiss (page 317). The Andover white (some- 
 times pinkish) limestone, highly crystalline, is so pure that only traces of 
 magnesia are detected in it (page 318). The Decker's Pond marble beds 
 alternate with gneiss beds of the same strike and dip (page 318). But in the 
 fourth (Jenny Jump or Oxford) belt the marble seems to be more mixed 
 with magnesian minerals. It is a great formation, with an outcrop 4,000' 
 wide but with inter stratified gneiss beds. The alternation is finely exposed 
 at the east end of the 20 mil outcrop. The gneiss cairies magnetite beds, and 
 copper ore. The marble carries steatite, <fec. The whole formation is in 
 fact a dolomite, and one is tempted to think it a metamorphosis of No. II ; 
 especially seeing that some of its members are flaggy, flaky and finely crys- 
 tallized (pages 319, 320). This is the Marble Mountain outcrop at the Dela- 
 ware river. 
 
 fCook, An. Rt, 1871, p. 35. An average specimen gave 54 of mag. iron; 
 17.21 lime ; 14.91 phosphorus (=31.90 apatite). A picked piece gave 53.85apa- 
 tite. The two minerals can be separated by crushing and washing, or by 
 magnetic machines. Soluble phosphoric acid can be made, worth in 1871 
 14 cents a pound. 
 
 8
 
 114 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 In Berks county, Pa., apatite of a bluish color is found 
 in very small white hexagonal crystals with the magnetite 
 at the Jones' mine.* and at the Mt. Penn mines. f But no 
 minable beds of it have been found; only scattered crys- 
 tals in the gneiss of southeastern Pennsylvania. :{: 
 
 The original character of the magnetite beds is indicated 
 by the fact that hydrous phosphate of iron (cacoxenite) 
 are found in the brown hematite (limonite) iron ore mines 
 at Conshohocken, Montgomery county ; at Chiques, Lan- 
 caster county; and that minute quantities of phosphoric 
 acid (I in the form of cacoxenite) are found in almost all 
 the limonite beds of the state. Also the hydrous phos- 
 phate of alumina (wavellUe) occurs in Trimble's iron mine 
 in the Chester valley, East Whiteland; also in concretions in 
 the York county Peach Bottom slates ; and at Chiques in 
 limonite. 
 
 It may be objected that the phosphorus in limestones and 
 limonites is a derivative from that in the gneiss; or else 
 that it comes directly from animal life- forms (as in the case 
 of recent bog-ores); and, therefore, that it cannot indicate 
 the origin of the magnetic beds. But if other and stronger 
 arguments for the genesis of magnetite from brown hema- 
 tite beds be at hand, then the distribution of apatite crys- 
 tals and masses in iron-bearing gneisses can be adduced as 
 an argument for viewing the gneisses themselves as sand- 
 mud sediments, and their included magnetite beds as orig 
 inally bog-ores or more probably beach iron sanfts. 
 
 *D3, Pt. 2, page 394. 
 
 t Rogers' Geol. Pa., 1858, II, page 716. 
 
 jGenth, Report B, page 138. Blue green hex. prisms at McKinney's 
 quarry near Gennantown, in massive orthoclase; at Megargee's paper mill; 
 atFrankford; at Grey's ferry and West Philadelphia; at Leipersville and 
 at Beattie's mill, Delaware county; at Unionville, Chester county. Fine 
 yellow-green hex. prisms and conchoidal masses in Londongrove township, 
 Chester county; in the limestone of .Bernard's quarry, West Marlboro'; at 
 Nivin's limestone quarry in North Garden. Bluish hex. prisms and grains 
 and masses in Van Arsdale's limestone quarries, southern Bucks county. 
 Straw and honey colored hex. prisms, with pyramid and basal plates, with 
 crystallized dolomite, in Prince's soapstone quarries, Lafayette, Montgom- 
 ery county. 
 
 Genth, B, 144.
 
 THE ARGUMENT FROM IRON ORE. 115 
 
 The argument from iron ore. 
 
 The great beds of magnetic iron ore in the Highlands 
 show unmistakable evidences of sedimentary origin; there- 
 fore, the gneisses in which they lie, and into which they 
 graduate by insensible stages, must be of sedimentary 
 origin. That is the plain and simple argument. 
 
 In New Jersey, boring for magnetic iron ore is recom- 
 mended by Prof. Cook on the supposition that the beds 
 are practically continuous down the dip as along the strike, 
 which is undoubtedly judicious. He assigns a useful limit 
 of 2,000' in depth, in view of the expenses of hoisting. In 
 our ignorance of the depth underground he well says that 
 "a single boring might develop the existence of more ore 
 than is mined in the whole state in the course of a year."* 
 
 The replacement of ore by rock, and the alternation of 
 bands of magnetite and gneiss are well shown by Cook in 
 his report of 1873, pages 78 to 87. The ore is never in 
 veins cutting the gneiss, but always" in interstratified beds 
 following the strike; report of 1874, page 34. The alternate 
 banded structure is shown by Cook in the report of 1874, 
 page 23; and again at the Ten Eyck mine in the report of 
 1876, page 52. 
 
 The hanging wall ore is clean ; the foot wall ore is mixed 
 with feldspar, quartz and hornblende. As in the case of 
 the apatite mines of northern New York, so here, were the 
 ore a solidified fluid filling a fissure the pure ore would not 
 occupy one side and the impure ore the other, but the pure 
 ore would be in the deep filling the whole chasm, and the 
 impure ore would have occupied the whole chasm above it, 
 as the cinder floats on the metal in an iron furnace. In the 
 case of the Adirondack mines the apatite occupies the 
 hanging wall part of the vein ; but in the New Jersey High- 
 land mine the impurities occupy the foot-wall portion of the 
 vein. This signal distinction points still more strongly to 
 original sedimentation. 
 
 The connection of the New Jersey magnetite beds with 
 
 *An. Rt, 1872, pages 24, 26.
 
 116 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 white chrystalline limestone, or marble, tells the same story 
 in another form. 
 
 The Schuler ore pits, near Roxburg, in the Pequest belt 
 of N. J., show tine-grained magnetite (with much man- 
 ganese) in grey -white crystalline limestone, steep to S. E.* 
 
 The Roseberry ore, near Belvidere, is mixed with much 
 mica and blue shaley rock. 
 
 The Barton black granular ore has a little hornblende and 
 much dark micaceous gneiss. 
 
 The Shoemaker ore is a rock containing magnetite ar- 
 ranged in parallel lines with the usual gneissic minerals, f 
 
 The Redell ore is black manganiferous magnetite, non- 
 sulphurous, in contact with gray crystalline limestone. 
 
 The Raub ore, N. W. of Oxford furnace, lies close to the 
 crystalline limestone, if not in it.$ 
 
 The magnetite vein at the Kanouse mine has close to it a 
 crystalline limestone containing a large percentage of ser- 
 pentine, and in contact with this (conformably) a grey 
 gneiss. (Cook, An. Rt. N. J., 1873, p. 28 V.) 
 
 The Marble mountain part of the Pequest belt of iron 
 ores in IS". J. is the most northerly, next the Great Valley 
 limestone formation, and its ores differ from those of the 
 other Highland belts. The. belt is a continuation of that in 
 Pennsylvania, and is therefore instructive for our geology. 
 
 The Marble mountain mine is especially interesting for 
 the fact that the ore is red hematite in a talcose (mag- 
 nesian) formation, included in or resting on gneiss, uncon- 
 formably: This talcose slate occurs in this Pequest belt 
 only and in no other in N. J. 
 
 The Titman shaft ore, S. E. of Bridgeville, is red hema- 
 tite, in a grayish red slate formation, lying between mica- 
 ceous and hornblendic gneiss on the south and common 
 blue magnesian limestone on the north, and "probably non- 
 conformable to both.|| 
 
 *Cook, An. Rt. 1873, p. 73. 
 fCook, An. Rt 1873, p. 74. 
 jCook, An. Rt. 1873, p. 75, 76. 
 Cook, An. Rt. 1873, p. 72. 
 J|P. 76.
 
 THE ARGUMENT FROM IRON ORE. 117 
 
 The Welsh and Inschow's lean manganiferous magnetite 
 is imbedded in grey white crystalline limestone (steep to 
 N. W.) holding hornblende, a little mica, and much 
 graphite, and some manganese. In one hole the ore was in 
 thin strings through the limestone, which itself held brown 
 garnet and serpentine.* 
 
 The Howell farm ore (10'wide) includes impure limestone, 
 but lies in or against a hard gray close gneiss country. 
 Near by the ore holds much calcite and graphite, f 
 
 *Cook's An. Rt 1873, p. 84. 
 fCook's An. Rt 1873, p. 86.
 
 118 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 The Newer Gneiss of the Philadelphia Belt. 
 
 The Schuylkill river, after cutting through the Older 
 gneiss of the Buck ridge already described, makes a pic- 
 turesque narrow valley, bounded by low bluffs of newer 
 gneiss and mica schists as far down as the Gray's Ferry 
 bridge, in the south part of Philadelphia. 
 
 These rocks belong to one system and one age and have 
 a general moderate dip toward the north-northwest. So 
 that, if no reduction need be made for irregularities or repe- 
 titions, there must be visibly exposed along the river 
 banks more than 20,000 feet of strata. But they have been 
 subject to great pressure, as is shown by myriads of con- 
 tortions, by a perpetual variation of local strike and dip, 
 and by small faults, how many or how important it is dif- 
 ficult to determine with any accuracy. There may there- 
 fore be in reality no more than 15,000 feet, or even less. 
 
 Still, the mass is evidently so great, and in a large sense 
 so regularly and conformably stratified from the visible tog 
 of it at Lafayette station, to the lowest visible beds at Gray's 
 ferry, that the Lafayette station beds must have once risen 
 southward into the air to a height of 10,000 or 15,000 feet 
 above the present street grade of Philadelphia. In other 
 words, a mountain range of that height once extended from 
 Trenton, New Jersey, past Philadelphia, Baltimore and 
 Washington into the southern states. 
 
 This mountain range has been gradually washed- away. 
 The length of time requisite to accomplish such destruction, 
 slow as it must have been, is inconceivably great, a fact suf- 
 ficient of itself to prove that we are dealing with one of the 
 oldest geological rock systems of the world. 
 
 The mountain range, when at its full height, must have 
 presented cliffs of great height and steepness towards the
 
 THE NEWER GNEISS OF THE PHILADELPHIA BELL. 119 
 
 Atlantic; cliffs representing the basset edges of all the 
 strata which we now see in succession along the river 
 from Lafayette station down to Gray's ferry. There is no 
 arch visible, and no evidence that the strata, after rising to 
 the full height, turned over and descended with an opposite 
 dip. For, if that had happened, southern New Jersey 
 would have now a geological character similar to that of the 
 Philadelphia belt, and the Delaware river would not have 
 established its channel on a course directly in front of and 
 across the mouth of the valley of the Schuylkill. 
 
 All geologists would agree in the belief that the line of 
 the Delaware from Trenton to Chester must be the line of 
 one of the greatest downthrow* faults which the earth- 
 crust has suffered ; and that the whole series of strata seen 
 along the Schuylkill exists now at a great depth under- 
 ground beneath the Cretaceous and Tertiary plains of New 
 Jersey, southern Delaware and eastern Maryland. In east- 
 ern Virginia and the Carolinas they spread out at the sur- 
 face. In the opposite direction they underlie middle New 
 Jersey and appear again at the surface at New York. Our 
 Germantown hills are the hills of Staten and Manhattan 
 Islands ; and the whole formation continues broadening and 
 rising east of the Hudson, through western Massachusetts 
 and Vermont, where it constitutes part of the great Green 
 mountain range. 
 
 The bottom of this system of rocks is unknown, because 
 concealed beneath the Delaware valley muds and the New 
 Jersey green sand marl formation. The lowest beds visible 
 are those at Gray' s ferry. They are very f eldspathic schists, 
 in a state of complete decay, being turned into a coarse 
 sort of porcelain clay or kaolin. From these Gray's ferry 
 beds upward the series may be examined along both banks 
 of the Schuylkill river, in the cliffs of Fairmount, in the 
 cuttings of the Pennsylvania R. R. on the west bank, in 
 those of the Reading R. R. on the east bank, in the road 
 
 *It would be more historically true to speak of it as an upthrow. For it is 
 quite possible that the movement upward which evidently took place on the 
 north side was not accompanied or balanced by a downward movement of 
 equal value on the south side of the fault
 
 120 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 cuttings of the city park at Manayunk, at the quarries on 
 Wissahickon creek, and along the drive-ways to German- 
 town and Chestnut Hill. No better exposures of a great 
 rock sytem can be found anywhere. 
 
 Its three sub-divisions. 
 
 The lower, middle and upper rocks exposed along the 
 Schuylkill differ in general character sufficiently to justify 
 three sub-divisions of the system, named by Mr. C. E. Hall 
 in his report C6 : (1) The lower, or Philadelphia mica 
 schist and gneiss group; (2) The middle, or Manayunk 
 mica schist and gneiss group ; (3) The upper, or Chestnut 
 Hill garnetiferous schist group. 
 
 The course of the river Schuylkill in its traverse of the 
 whole belt is worthy of careful study. 
 
 From Spring Mill to the Falls of Schuylkill, 6| miles, its 
 course is almost a perfect straight line, square across the 
 strike, i. e., S. 45 E. In this distance it first cuts through 
 the Old (Laurentian Buck ridge) gneiss, one mile ; then the 
 Chestnut Hill group, 1 miles ; then the Manayunk group, 
 3 miles, and then half a mile through the upper beds of 
 the Philadelphia group.* 
 
 At the Reading railroad bridge (Falls of Schuylkill) the 
 Schuylkill makes a right-angle bend to the right and cuts 
 nearly along the strike, about S. 40 W. H miles to the 
 Columbia bridge, f 
 
 Then it makes a right-angle bend to the left and cuts 
 
 *The Wissahickon, the Schuylkill and the Brandywine all flow from the 
 low limestone Chester county valley into and through gneiss gorges on 
 their way to the Delaware. In the case of the Wissahiccon the act is start- 
 lingly bold, because accomplished by a small stream. But all the rivers of 
 he state do the same deed repeatedly. How do they do it ? The question 
 presents itself in view of every mountain gap in the state. It will be dis- 
 cussed further on in this report ; but it may be said here that when the 
 gorges of the Schuylkill, Wissahiccon and Brandywine were made the 
 Chester valley was at much higher level. Its lime rocks have been dis- 
 solved faster than the gneiss and its level lowered more rapidly. 
 
 fThis part of the valley corresponds to the low ground which runs for 
 miles at the foot of and in front of the Txermantown hills, past Nicetown 
 and the brickyards. At the Columbia bridge the river makes a bend around 
 the west foot of the hill on which the East Park reservoir is placed.
 
 THE PHILADELPHIA (LOWEB) SUB-DIVISION. 121 
 
 nearly straight across the strike, S. 80 E. 2 miles, along 
 the dam and past Fairmount to Vine street. 
 
 Here it swings round again to the right past the Market 
 street bridge, and follows the strike 1| miles S. W. to 
 Gray's Ferry after which its meanders to the Delaware are 
 in river muds and have no regard for the underlying rocks.* 
 
 Had the Schuylkill prolonged its upper straight course 
 across the strike four miles further to the last gneiss struck 
 in the cellars of Kensington, at the edge of the river mud, 
 and made its mouth at the bend of the Delaware below Port 
 Richmond, we should have had 9 miles of continuous ex- 
 posures across the whole Philadelphia belt, say 50,000 feet 
 in breadth, dipping practically all one way, at angles never 
 less than 20, often over 50, and in places vertical. In 
 spite of all disturbances of the dip it is not an unsafe esti- 
 mate then which assigns to the whole system a thickness of 
 20,000 feet.f 
 
 1. Tlie PJtiladelpJiia (lower] sub-division. 
 
 The Philadelphia rocks show themselves from Grey's 
 ferry up to the mouth of the Wissahickon. The slope of 
 the strata is always up river, but with many contortions to 
 the right and left, sometimes through a quadrant of the 
 compass. In the steep wall of Fairmount, under the old 
 reservoir, the dip varies between 20 and 40. On the rail- 
 road opposite it is generally about 20. Further on through 
 the park it often rises to 50 and 60. At the foot of Lemon 
 hill the most curious and beautiful wavings and foldings 
 may be seen in the much-weathered and mouldered mica 
 schists, marked by thin streaks of milky quartz, which has 
 been deposited as a gelatinous solution in seams where the 
 twisted beds moved on one another and were slightly parted 
 here and there. The whole soil glitters with shining little 
 flakes of brown and yellow mica, set free from the mould- 
 
 *It is possible that the course from Market street to Gray's Ferry was de- 
 termined by some past condition of the terrace gravel deposits. But that is 
 not likely in view of the fact that it here repeats its conduct between the 
 Falls of Schuylkill and the Columbia bridge. 
 
 fWe shall see in the next chapter that the same system (probably) on the 
 Susquehanna, in York county, shows a similar thickness.
 
 122 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 ering rock. Very few solid beds can be found, and the 
 surface stone is worthless. Even where quarries have been 
 opened the undecayed stone can only be used for the 
 roughest building purposes, although all cellar walls in the 
 older and much of the newer parts of Philadelphia have 
 been built of the grey micaceous gneiss. Railroad cuttings 
 through tough and apparently enduring rock become in a 
 few years mere ditches, with softened sides covered with the 
 micaceous clay into which the rock is converted by the 
 weather. This accounts for the lowness of the hills on both 
 sides of the river; and, in fact, for the disappearance of the 
 great mountain range which once occupied the Philadel- 
 phia belt country. 
 
 But among the grey micaceous gneiss beds and mica slate 
 beds occur numerous beds of hard hornblende-gneiss, which 
 is a good quarry stone and stands well. There are places 
 where the dark hornblende-gneiss beds and the light-grey 
 mica-gneiss beds are interleaved and alternate regularly, 
 showing that the hornblende-gneiss is a true sedimentary 
 rock and not in any sense volcanic. 
 
 Mr. Hall's description of the rocks of this group (H. D. 
 Rogers' "first belt") is as follows : "The common varieties 
 are grey schistose'gneiss, composed of quartz, feldspar, and 
 black or brown mica, and occasionally garnets, occasional 
 beds of black hornblende slate, and fine-grained sandy 
 gneiss." (C6, page 2). 
 
 #. The ManayunJc (middle) sub-division. 
 
 The exposures extend from the mouth of the Wissa- 
 hickon up to the mouth of Mill creek, three miles. But. 
 neither the one limit nor the other is well defined. The 
 separation of this group from that beneath it and that above 
 it is rather arbitrary. Its gneisses are, however, chiefly 
 micaceous ; fewer hornblende gneiss beds are seen. Yet 
 the weathered surfaces and the soils resulting from the de- 
 composition of the outcrops have a darker color than the 
 surfaces and soils of the Philadelphia rocks, a dark iron- 
 rust yellow, or brown, especially where the hornblende 
 slates run.
 
 THE MANAYUNK OK MIDDLE SUB-DIVISION. 123 
 
 The dip is still generally northwest up-river, but with 
 numerous waves and folds in the bluffs and the railroad 
 cuts. One arch of considerable size may be seen in the Mc- 
 Kinney quarry on the south side of the Wissahickon at the 
 ascent of G-ermantown.* Here also the excellent quality of 
 the better varieties of gneiss is practically displayed. On 
 the north side of the creek at its mouth the convolutions 
 and sharp foldings of the schists plainly reveal both the 
 'mashing and the stretching pressure-strains to which they 
 have been subjected. f 
 
 Mr. Hall's description of the Manayunk group, which he 
 interpolated between H. D. Rogers' "first" and "second 
 belts," is as follows: ''Alternations of the above-named 
 varieties of gneiss (named in the Philadelphia group) and a 
 predominance of sandy gneiss, composed of quartz and a 
 small amount of feldspar and mica in minute flakes. Mica 
 schists and hornblendic slates alternate with finer-grained 
 gneisses, the mica usually light-colored " (C6, page 2). 
 
 3. The Chestnut Hill (upper} sub-division. 
 
 The exposures extend from the mouth of Mill creek for 
 half a mile up to the Lafayette soapstone quarries with a 
 constant general northwest dip, and these continue for an- 
 other half mile to a serpentine outcrop along the south 
 edge of the Bear Ridge older gneiss belt, but with reversed 
 (S. E.) dips. Therefore, there is here a synclinal basin, and 
 then a great fault, in 'which must be buried (against the 
 older gneiss mass) the Manayunk and Philadelphia sub-di- 
 visions.^: 
 
 The dips, both north and south, are however very steep 
 
 *This quarry is extensively worked for city use and is famous for its 
 specimen crystals of hornblende, orthoclase feldspar, chrysocolla, mala- 
 chite, bornite, chalcopyrite, heulandite, apatite, etc. The presence of these 
 copper and phosphorus minerals is noteworthy. 
 
 f A fine exposure of a double or S fold along the north Pennsylvania R. R. 
 above Shoemakerstown, is represented in Mr. Hall's section in Report C6, 
 page 2& The minor complications under the fold show how the schists 
 slid upon each other with a certain difficulty and much friction. 
 
 JAt least this is the best explanation of the structure which has been ob- 
 tained.
 
 124 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 and often quite vertical ; and the strata are even more con- 
 torted than elsewhere along the Schnylkill. 
 
 The characteristic featiires of the group are its mica 
 schists crowded with garnets, its thin-bedded sandy 
 gneisses, its hornblendic slates, and its two ranges of ser 
 pentine beds. * 
 
 The Lafayette steatite or soapstone quarry has been 
 wrought for a century and is now regularly mined in gal- 
 leries. The rock dips steeply northwest. f It is part of a 
 line of serpentine outcrops which extends at least seven 
 miles in an almost straight (but not continuous) line from 
 Bryn Mawr N. E. to Chestnut Hill, crossing the Schuylkill 
 at the soapstone quarry, and the Wissahickon a quarter of 
 a mile below the gorge of older gneiss, where it is well-ex 
 posed on the road up to the village of Chestnut Hill 4 
 
 Another line of serpentine outcrops crosses the river half 
 a mile above the soapstone quarry ; is traceable only half a 
 mile east of the river; but west at intervals into Delaware 
 
 *Mr. Hall says in another place "this second belt" of Prof. Rogers' (that 
 part of it not included in my inserted Manayunk belt) is characterized by 
 the serpentines; soapstone; silvery micaceous, garnetiferous schists; light- 
 colored, thin bedded sandy gneiss, with disseminated light-colored mica in 
 minute flakes ;" and a very curious peculiarity of fracture, "the rock 
 breaking into long narrow chunks, comparatively smooth on their sides, 
 but excessively ragged on their ends; a style of fracture strongly resemb- 
 ling that of half-rotted fibrous wood." (Quoted from H. D. Rogers' Geol. 
 Pa., by Hall, in C6, page 2.) 
 
 As for Rogers' "third belt," it is the Bunk ridge Older gneiss. Hall 
 traced it in a straight line to the Delaware river and found it everywhere 
 overlaid on both sides by the quartzite ("Primal," "Potsdam," "Itacobu- 
 mite," "Eurite") beds, which, east of Willow Grove, Moreland township, 
 Montgomery county, are a coarse sandstone and conglomerate, holding 
 fragments of the older gneiss, principally the characteristic blue quartz and 
 syenite. ( C6, page 3. ) 
 
 fThe soapstone quarry is about 100 feet wide, with walls nearly as high, 
 and so dangerous that tunnel work has been substituted. Thousands of tons 
 loosened by the decomposition of the magnesian substance fell with a great 
 crash when the Pennsylvania railroad company cut their new valley branch 
 across one end of the quarry. The tunnel work is about filteen feet wide 
 and as many high. A few hundred yards above the quarry a road ascends 
 to Roxbury by a hollow in the woods called Rockdale, from the great num- 
 ber of loose rock masses scattered and grouped about, some as large as 
 houses. 
 
 JSee Hall's large colored map on the scale of 5,000'-1" in C6, and text page 
 92. Also T. D. Rand's sketch map in Ann. Rept. 1886.
 
 THE CHESTNUT HILL OR UPPER SUB-DIVISION. 125 
 
 county. This line of serpentine seems to outline the contact 
 of the newer and older gneiss. If the other serpentine belt 
 be in the axis of a synclinal, this one must be at least 2,000 
 feet lower in the series, i. e., supposing both to be bedded 
 and not volcanic rocks.* 
 
 The Chestnut, Hill fault. 
 
 The extension of the Lafayette serpentine belt eastward 
 far beyond the other to the north of it gives the key to the 
 whole structure of the Philadelphia belt between the 
 Schuylkill and the Delaware at Trenton. 
 
 All three sub-divisions are sliced off diagonally by a 
 fault. 
 
 The Chestnut Hill group, whether synclinal or monoclinal, 
 ends in a point at Jenkintown, 8 miles east of the Schuyl- 
 kill. The Manayunk group fines away to nothing between 
 the Pennypack and Pequessing creeks, seven or eight miles 
 east of Jenkintown. The Philadelphia group narrows more 
 and more, but reaches the Delaware at Easton. 
 
 In fact there is not a more remarkable feature of the 
 geology of Pennsylvania than the thirty mile Jong per- 
 fectly straight line of the Itacolumite (Eurite} vertical beds 
 which extends from the Wissahickon to the Delaware, and 
 against which the various members of the Philadelphia, 
 Manayunk and Chestnut Hill schists one after the other ef- 
 face themselves. If this be riot a great diagonal fault, 
 then all common proofs of such a fault may well be set 
 aside. t But it becomes of still greater importance when 
 taken in connection with the jifty-mile long straight line 
 of vertical uplift of the South Valley hill between the 
 Schuylkill and the middle of Lancaster county. Straight' 
 geological lines are a great rarity. Curves are the rule. A 
 straight line eighty miles long must mean something great. 
 It deals with huge thicknesses of formations, and with im- 
 
 *The steatite is probably an altered schist bed, for specimens can be found 
 showing stages of the alteration, and the hanging wall rock contains crys- 
 tals of staurolite altered into serpentine. 
 
 fM. Renevier's recent protest against such faults and advocacy of trans- 
 verse deposition in the rocks of Canton Valais, however well sustained at 
 La Tini6re, can have no force here.
 
 126 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 mense depths beneath the surface. In the azoic rocks they 
 mean dislocations, down or upthrow faults. In the palaeo- 
 zoic rocks they mean anticlinal and synclinal folds of a 
 massive amplitude that take away the breath of the spec- 
 tator.* 
 
 Look at the folds in a lady's thin silk dress, then at the 
 folds in a heavy cotton shirt, then at the folds in a woolen 
 winter cloak. See how the system of innumerable delicate, 
 short and irregular crimples of the first passes into a 
 system of long, straight solemn lines in the last. The sedi- 
 ments of time are the dresses of the planet, and their com- 
 plications imitate the draperies of statuary. Therefore, the 
 strikes of the rocks are sure indications of both quality 
 and quantity of formations. If we had no other proof of 
 the immense thickness of the Philadelphia gneiss and mica 
 scbist system, this vertically erect and perfectly straight 
 long itacolumite outcrop would be~alone sufficient ; just as 
 the forty-mile straight line of the Bald Eagle mountain in 
 Lycoming, Centre and Clinton counties is sufficient proof 
 that the great fold of Nittany valley deals with 40,000 feet of 
 sediments as an integral mass, one and entire. 
 
 *For example, the synclinal of Pottsville and the anticlinal of the Orwigs- 
 burg valley in Schuylkill county.
 
 THE PHILADELPHIA BELT WESTWARD. 127 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The Philadelphia rocks in Chester, Lancaster and York 
 counties. 
 
 The structural obscurity of the azoic rocks of the region 
 bordering the state line between the Schuylkill and the Sus- 
 quehanna cannot be exaggerated. If the colored state map 
 published by H. D. Rogers in 1858 be compared with C. E. 
 Hall's colored county map of Delaware (1884), andFrazer's 
 maps of Lancaster and Chester (1878, 1881), it will be seen 
 how unsatisfactory is our knowledge of a district on which 
 three independent geologists of great experience lavished 
 years of patient field work, only to arrive at contradictory 
 conclusions respecting the relationships of some of its 
 large formations to one another, while they agree singularly 
 well in their special observations of local facts, which, after 
 all, are the only things of value to the public. 
 
 It is a region of excessive-pressure disturbance. Thou- 
 sands of smaller rolls, and some great waves, traverse it 
 from east to west. Its outcrops of gneiss, mica schist, 
 hornblende schist, argillite, quartzite, serpentine and lime- 
 stone dip at all angles and in both directions. The crump- 
 ling is complete. The alternations are infinite. Crystalli- 
 zation and metamorphosis have not only destroyed every 
 trace of fossil life forms (if any there were originally), but 
 changed the characteristic qualities of the rock itself. Sec- 
 ondary minerals have been produced abundantly. Groups 
 of strata are inverted, the older upon the newer. Faults in- 
 terrupt the run of the outcrops. 
 
 All this has been brought about by the general earth 
 movement northwestward which produced the huge anti- 
 clinal and synclinal rock- waves of middle Pennsylvania. 
 Measured by 'straightening out these waves the thrust from 
 the southeast has shoved the country at least forty miles
 
 128 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 towards the Allegheny mountain, crumpling its stratifica- 
 tion into this labyrinth of confusion and altering its lithol- 
 ogy so as to deprive the observer of a clew through it. 
 
 If the distinction between the Older and the Newer Gneiss 
 be a valid one, the Older gneiss seems to disappear from 
 the surface going west from the Schuylkill into Chester 
 county, and the Newer gneiss seems to occupy the whole 
 field south of the belt of South Valley Hill hydro-mica 
 slate* in Chester, and south of the great limestone plain of 
 Lancaster county. Dr. Frazer assumes that it occupies his 
 broad Tocquan belt in York county. His sections along 
 the Susquehanna river are therefore of the greatest import- 
 ance for comparison with the Schuylkill river section. It 
 can hardly be doubted that the grey gneisses, mica schists, 
 etc. of southern York are the same as those of Philadel- 
 phia, Manayunk and Chestnut Hill, although no such sub- 
 division as Hall's has been made of them.f 
 
 I will therefore summarize Dr. Frazer' s descriptions of 
 the azoic formations in York county before attempting any 
 concordance of them with the Philadelphia rocks, or any 
 identification of them across the intervening counties. 
 
 The Newer Gneiss in York county. 
 
 The belt of azoic schists across which the Susquehanna 
 river flows, between Lancaster and York coilnties, is about 
 15 miles wide at the river, which enters the belt at Turkey 
 Hill and leaves it at Muddy creek. Low hillsides along the 
 river, with natural outcrops and railroad cuttings, show the 
 structure of the belt to be that of a broad fiat anticlinal arch, 
 its axis crossing the river at the mouth of Tocquan creek 
 (McCall's ferry).- There the lowest strata appear, the 
 highest being of course at the north and south edges of the 
 belt, 
 
 *Nothing has as yet been said in this summary report about the hydro- 
 mica slate belt, although it appears on the Schuylkill river opposite Con- 
 shohocken and ranges through Chester into Lancaster county, because it 
 can best be studied on the Susquehanna and in York county, and in Mary- 
 land. 
 
 fMr. Hall, in coloring his Delaware county map, abandoned the attempt 
 to represent the distinction between the Philadelphia and Manayunk 
 grc ups.
 
 THE NEWER GXEISS IN YORK COUNTY. 129 
 
 Dr. Frazer's sections along both banks of the river, show- 
 ing north dips up river and south dips down river, gave him 
 a closely-estimated total exposed thickness of more than 
 fourteen thousand (14,400) feet.* How much more should 
 be added for the oldest members of the formation concealed 
 beneath the surface cannot be known, f 
 
 In York county the arch is not symmetrical, Tocqnan 
 axis being 10 miles from the northern and only five miles 
 from the southern border of the belt. But in Lancaster 
 county the belt is only about 10 miles wide and the Tocquan 
 axis is nearly central. 
 
 The Tocquan arch seems to sink southwestward through 
 York county into Maryland, and rise eastward through 
 Lancaster into northern Chester, where the Laurentian 
 gneiss comes up to and occupies the present surface. 
 
 The lower strata along the Tocquan anticlinal are thor- 
 oughly and coarsely crystallized. Those above them, to- 
 wards the north and south borders of the belt, are less per- 
 fectly crystallized, or in much smaller masses. 
 
 The lower strata are distinguished moreover by larger 
 amounts and larger specimens of muscovite, and more pot- 
 ash micas generally. The rocks are of lighter color, and 
 there is often enough feldspar to make true gneiss ; and 
 this is the case more and more approaching the Tocquan 
 axis. Toward the edges of the belt, that is, ascending in 
 the series, the strata become more magnesian, softer and 
 darker, usually greenish or yellowish green ; containing 
 large quantities of chloritic minerals, and cut by an extra- 
 ordinary number of white quartz dykes.:}: 
 
 *The sections are given in the Atlas to his Report of Progress CCC. This 
 belt of ancient rocks has suffered from all the earth movements of all sub- 
 sequent ages, and its originally regular stratification has been so warped and 
 fractured, compressed and bent, that scarcely two exposed plates of rock 
 agree in presenting the same dip or strike. Accurate measurements of 
 thickness are therefore impossible. But on the whole, the estimate given 
 in the text may be accepted with considerable confidence. 
 
 fDr. Frazer could find no rock strata on the Susquehanna to which he 
 thought the term Laurentian (either Upper, or Lower) would properly 
 apply ; in other words, none of the Chester and Delaware county gneisses 
 which have been called Laurentian. 
 
 JP. Frazer, Gen. Notes Geol. York Co., Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., Phila., Dec. 
 4, 1885, p. 395. 
 9
 
 130 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The whole belt seems destitute of metallic ore veins of any 
 kind, even iron. And what is equally remarkable, only 
 two very small local trap dykes have been noticed in it in 
 York county; one, near its northwestern border, on the 
 Maryland line, two miles east of Black Rock P. O., and the 
 other, on the Susquehanna river, three miles north of York 
 Furnace. It is needless to say that no trace of fossil life, 
 animal or vegetable, has been as yet detected in these crys- 
 talline schists. The country is one of low hills, well 
 watered and fertile. 
 
 A better understanding of this important belt of azoic 
 rocks will be got by comparing a description of them 
 lately published by one of the geologists of the United 
 States Geological survey. 
 
 The Newer Gneiss in Maryland. 
 
 The Azoic crystalline (Tiolocrystailine, or completely crys- 
 tallized) belt of York county, passes into Maryland and is 
 joined by the great crystalline belt of Chester and Dela- 
 ware counties, the two belts encircling and holding in a syn- 
 clinal the southwest end of the Peach Bottom phyllite belt. 
 
 These Maryland crystallines have been studied by C. B. 
 Keyesof the U. S. G. Survey,* and described as thoroughly 
 metamorphosed highly feldspathic sediments, penetrated 
 by vast quantities of eruptive materials often of the same 
 composition as the strata through which they break ; in 
 other words, eruptive granites cutting sedimentary gneisses ; 
 all together foliated by pressure, so that in parts of the area 
 they can hardly be distinguished. 
 
 The gneisses which can be certainly regarded as crystal- 
 lized sedimentary beds are thus designated : 
 
 a. Typical Motite and biotite muscomte (mica) gneiss, 
 highly feldspathic, and in thin parallel layers, as in the 
 quarries on Jones' and Gwynn's falls at Baltimore, cut by 
 biotite pegmatite dykes, and full of eyes, lenses, or chunks 
 of quartz. At Washington they hold well-characterized 
 conglomerate beds. 
 
 b. Muscomte (mica) gneiss, with but little feldspar, but 
 
 *See paper in Bull. G. Soc. Amer., 1891, Vol. 2, p. 309.
 
 THE NEWER GNEISS IN MARYLAND. 131 
 
 full of garnet, staurolite, cyanite, fibrolite, rutile, etc., and 
 cut with innumerable white quartzite veins. 
 
 c. Mica schist, without feldspar, but with garnets, etc., 
 full of white quartz veins ; apparently a local variety of b. 
 
 These are evidently the gneisses, mica schists, garnet 
 schists, and contorted and veined schists of Philadelphia. 
 
 There are other rocks which show little or no signs of any 
 original sedimentary disposition, such as: 
 
 d. Setter's ridge quartz-schist, or quartzite, extensively 
 quarried north of Baltimore, and affording at many other 
 places a definite geological horizon ; always perfectly foli- 
 ated by parallel muscovite mica layers, at variable distances 
 from each other ; with plenty of stretched and broken tour- 
 maline crystals in the foliation planes. 
 
 e. Orbicular quartzite, compact, fine-grained, with radi- 
 ating quartz crystals ; as at the Poor House quarry (along 
 the western edge of the Texas augengneiss area) and in the 
 Brooklandville marble. 
 
 /. Deer creek white conglomerate quartzite, in the center 
 of Hartford county, four miles long and less than half a mile 
 wide, marking a sharp, narrow 300-feet high ridge. Under 
 the microscope it is seen to be completely re-crystallized, 
 but showing to some extent the original pebbles, with a 
 secondary growth of wavy membranes of muscovite, large 
 radiating tufts of blue cyanite, chlorite, magnetite, tourma- 
 line, garnet, rutile. When better studied this may turn 
 out to be a basal conglomerate of the Peach Bottom phyl- 
 lite series, for its outcrop is just along the line which sepa- 
 rates the phyllite and gneissic areas. 
 
 g. Marble (highly crystallized magnesia-limestone, dolo- 
 mite) beds occur among these rocks, in irregular, sharply- 
 folded patches at Cockeysville and Texas in Maryland, as 
 in Chester and Delaware counties on the Brandy wine. Its 
 poarse-grained variety is called "Alum stone." It con tains 
 crystals of phlogopite, tremolite, white pyroxene, tourma- 
 line, scapolite, rutile. 
 
 h. The eruptive rocks are : (1) With a surplus of silica : 
 granite, granitite, hornblende granite, granite porphyry, 
 augengranite gneiss, quartz porphyry (felsite), graphic
 
 132 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 granite (pegmatite) ; (2) With sufficient silica : gabbros (of 
 three varieties), norite, diorite, hornblendite and horn- 
 blende-biotite-quartz diorite; (3) With too little silica: 
 pyroxenite, cherzolite, cortlandite, and the resulting ser- 
 pentine. 
 
 The certain or probable eruptive rOcks cover half the 
 present surface area of this great belt, (Keyes, p. 310, 311.) 
 It is open to doubt, therefore, whether the large areas in 
 Delaware county colored on the map accompanying Report 
 C5 as Laurentian may not, when well studied, come to be 
 recognized as parts of the same eruptive system. For the 
 belt of gneisses, mica schists, garnet schists, with steatite 
 and serpentine and marble beds, which are so finely exposed 
 along the Schuylkill, Crum creek, Chester creek and the 
 Brandy wine, is evidently continuous through Bucks, Mont- 
 gomery, Philadelphia, Delaware, Chester and Lancaster 
 counties into Harford county, Maryland, and so south into 
 Virginia.
 
 THE AZOIC HYDRO-MICA SLATE FORMATION. 133 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 The azoic hydro-mica slate formation ; phyllite belts of 
 York and Lancaster counties; South Valley Hill slate 
 of Chester county. 
 
 The age of the South Valley Hill formation has been in 
 controversy. Studied at the Schuylkill and along the south 
 side of the Chester limestone valley, where its beds stand 
 nearly vertical, Dr. Frazer saw it descending beneath the 
 limestone to rise again in the North Valley Hill toward the 
 Lancaster county line. Mr. Hall, on the contrary, saw it 
 overlying the limestone, in two separate and distinct syncli- 
 nal basins, one of which he represents upon his atlas map 
 (sheet 3) crossing the Schuylkill and terminating at Marble 
 Hall and Barren Hill in Montgomery county.* 
 
 In Dr. Frazer' s cross sections from Quarry ville to the 
 Pequea, and from Marticsville to Neffsville, i. e., across 
 middle Lancaster county, a thin hydro-mica formation is 
 drawn rising and falling in many waves under the great 
 limestone formation (which includes clay slate or argillite 
 beds) ; and beneath it the great floor of gneiss. Sometimes 
 the gneiss is at the surface ; generally the limestone ; occa- 
 sional outcrops ofhydro-mica slate. 
 
 At Quarryville the Chester County Valley ends, not in a 
 point, but by swinging sharply round to the north and ef- 
 fecting a narrow neck connection with the most southern 
 point of the great limestone plain of Lancaster. The 
 structure is not quite comprehensible ; but the valley lime- 
 
 *The broad rounded end of this streak of slate between two streaks of 
 limestone is very suggestive of a spoon-shaped synclinal. At Gulf Mills, 
 west of the Schuylkill, dips of 80 N. and 85 and 65 S. show a synclinal- 
 Here also in the short nose are dips of 85 N. and 75 S. showing a syn- 
 clinal. But it is dangerous to construct curves out of such high dips; and 
 Dr. Frazer insists on reading the dips so as to convert the two synclinals 
 into two anticlinals. If Mr. Hall's reading is correct, then these slates must 
 be Hudson River No. Ill, as he makes them.
 
 134 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 stone seems to end as a synclinal, in a trough of South Val- 
 ley Hill hydro-mica slate. 
 
 But the phyllite belts of York county are a long way off, 
 the northern one stopping (on the map) in the triangle made 
 by the Susquehanna and Conestoga above Safe Harbor ; the 
 southern one ending (on the map) eight miles south of 
 Quarry ville. There seems to be a probability that the South 
 Valley Hill slates are geologically connected with the York 
 county phyllites as one and the same formation underlying 
 the great limestone. In fact, as the South Valley Hill 
 slates are apparently several thousand feet thick, and as the 
 York county phyllites seem to be of equal thickness, we 
 should look for a great show of them in so complicated a 
 country were they geographically connected across Lancas- 
 ter county between Quarryville and Safe Harbor, or be- 
 tween Quarryville and Peach Bottom ; certainly all around 
 the edges of the great limestone plain of Lancaster ; whereas 
 that plain is edged with quartzite and gneiss. But not to 
 puzzle over this and other collateral conundrnms here, the 
 following description of the phyllites will suffice : 
 
 The main York county phyllite belt. * 
 
 As describe^ by Dr. Frazer, this extends from the Susque- 
 hanna river below Wrightsville (Columbia) to the south- 
 west corner of York county, in a gently undulating way 
 upon the map, and with a breadth of three or four miles. 
 The land is lower than the crystalline country to the south- 
 east of it, and the rocks are so decomposed that very few 
 outcrops are seen, which makes the geology obscure. Dal- 
 lastown, Loganville, Hetricks and West Manheim villages 
 are in this belt, and Glen Rock on the Northern Central 
 railroad is at its southeast edge where the southern branch 
 of Codorus creek issues from the gneissic belt of .the Toc- 
 quaii anticlinal. 
 
 This southeastern edge (the northwestern edge of the 
 Tocquan belt) is drawn on Dr. Frazer' s map, he says, not 
 in a precise manner, but as an approximation to the truth ; 
 
 *Creedner's term in general use in Europe for finely-leaved argillaceous, 
 or clay slate strata, of which roofing slates are a variety.
 
 THE MAIN YORK COUNTY PHYLLITE BELT. 136 
 
 because the phyllite strata do not differ from the Tocquan 
 strata along the line as if there was an abrupt change from 
 a lower to a higher series, but as if both belonged to one 
 great series becoming more slaty or schistose upward. The 
 dividing line upon the ground is therefore less definite than 
 it had to be made on a colored map. It commences at the 
 river opposite Turkey Hill in Lancaster county, passes a 
 mile north of Windsor P. O. and a mile south of Dallas- 
 town to Glen Rock and Black Rock. 
 
 The strata are much folded and distorted as they descend 
 northward beneath the clay slate, quartzite, hydro-mica 
 slate, limestone and New Red strata, and rise to the surface 
 again, twenty-five miles to the northwest, at the foot of the 
 South mountain near Dillsburg in the northwest corner of 
 York county, where again they seem to lie on the older 
 schists, but are themselves covered by broken fragments of 
 quartzite and other rock- wash. 
 
 The Loganville trap dyke, four miles long, prolonged 
 north-northeastward (after the break of a mile) eight miles 
 further, crosses the phyllite belt and penetrates the over- 
 lying Silurian rocks beyond it. Patches of Hellam 
 (CMques] quartzite of Upper Cambrian age occur, suggest- 
 ing that it once covered unconformably and perhaps en- 
 tirely the phyllite belt; and the quartzite occupies a strip of 
 land along the northern edge of the belt, west of the river.* 
 
 Some limestone beds occur in this phyllite series inter- 
 stratified with the slates, as at Glen Rockf 
 
 *This fact by itself would make impossible the suggestion that the phyl- 
 lites, schists and gneisses are nothing but metamorphosed Silurian or De- 
 vonian sediments. 
 
 fSmall thin lenses of marble occur in the Sericite belt of Maryland, north 
 of the B. and O. R. R. The marble is extremely hard and of a fine, even 
 grain, the crystals almost requiring a lens to see ; at the Westminster quai- 
 ries, snow-white ; more often streaked with black, gray or red ; in contact 
 with the copper of Liberty and New London and the lead of Union Bridge. 
 These marbles of the phyllite (sericite) belt differ both from the uncrystal- 
 line blue limestone of Frederick valley and from the coarse (loaf-sugar) 
 crystalline magnesian limestones (dolomite marbles) of Baltimore county. 
 These last hold crystallized quartz-clay impurities, but the phyllite marbles 
 show narrow bands of sericite or chlorite schist. (Keyes, p. 307.) Fossil 
 shells, "well characterized," are reported to have been found by Prof. P. R. 
 Uhler in slaty bands traversing the Westminster quarries, which lie very
 
 136 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Iron ore deposits also occur in this phyllite belt, the 
 largest of which are the Brillhart and Feigley banks a 
 mile or two east of Loganville, which Dr. Frazer is disposed 
 to regard not as really belonging to the phyllite rocks, bm 
 as washings (segregations) from later formations which once 
 covered the phyllite belt but have been removed by the 
 general rain erosion of the country. 
 
 The southern or Peacli Bottom phyllite belt. 
 
 This borders on the southeastern side of the Tocquan 
 gneisses, and occupies a triangular area in the southeast 
 corner of York county between Muddy creek and the state 
 line ; and in it appear the Peach Bottom roofing slates. 
 If these are a part of the series, it is remarkable that they 
 do not appear in the belt of phyllites above described on 
 the northwest side of the Tocquan gneiss.* 
 
 It is quite evident that this phyllite area occupies a broad 
 synclinal, and that its strata are superimposed upon the 
 Tocquan gneiss series ; for the phyllite ends in a point in 
 Maryland surrounded by the gneiss, f and it seems to end 
 also in Lancaster county.:}: There can be no other ex- 
 planation of the geographical relationships of the phyllite 
 and gneiss areas. The gneiss area entirely surrounds this 
 phyllite area ; therefore, the phyllites must either rise on an 
 anticlinal or sink in a synclinal. The former supposition is 
 precluded by the anticlinal structure of the Tocquan belt, 
 
 near the eastern border of the phyllite belt, in 1880. Sent to the New Or- 
 leans exhibition, they were lost before any descriptions or identifications of 
 them had been made. (Keyes, p. 307.) 
 
 *There is a roofing-slate belt in the heart of the South mountains; the 
 quarries were long ago abandoned because their slate could not compete in 
 the market with the Peach Bottom slate. What relation in geology the two 
 bear to each other is not known. 
 
 fSee the frontispiece map of C. R. Keyes' paper in Bulletin Geol. Soc- 
 Amer., Vol. 2, p. 301. The point nearly reaches the Northern Central R. R, 
 25 miles from the Susquehanna river. 
 
 {See map of Lancaster county in P. Frazer's Report C3, Atlas, where the 
 phyllite area is seen extending to five miles from the river north of the 
 Little Britain, Lyles and Pleasant Grove serpentine belt. It does not come 
 to a point, as in Keyes' map, but has an indefinitely square transverse ter- 
 mination ; which merely indicates the fact that its geographical northeast 
 extension could not be properly mapped. See Chapter XIX.
 
 THE PEACH BOTTOM ROOFING SLATES. 137 
 
 and the descent of tjie phyllites to form another belt on its 
 north border, extending across the Susquehanna eastward, 
 and across the state line to the Potomac.* 
 
 The phyllite belt is said by Keyes to "include the semi- 
 crystalline slates and finely fissile schists which compose so 
 large a portion of the Piedmont area in Maryland. They 
 are capable of sub-division into a great number of varieties. 
 They are beyond doubt argillaceous sediments which have 
 undergone a greater or less amount of mechanical (cleav- 
 age) and chemical (crystallization) metamorphism, though 
 they do not lithologically differ from beds which- in many 
 other localities are known to be of Devonian, Silurian, or 
 Cambrian age. Their most important mineralogical compo- 
 nent is a silky white mica (sericite or Kaolin), whose indi- 
 vidual scales vary greatly in size in different specimens. 
 This is sometimes wholly or in part replaced by green 
 chlorite, with inter-beds of chlorite slate. Quartz grains 
 are common \feldspar very rare (perhaps because changed to 
 white mica); iron, in red hexagonal plates (or rounded grains) 
 common, often so abundant as to make the rock an ore ; 
 minute tourmaline crystals very common ; microscopic 
 rut He needles everywhere abundant; ottrelite finely-de- 
 veloped in some beds. The phyllite cleavage is always per- 
 fect, and of a satiny lustre increasing in proportion to the 
 mica present, and of various shades of pale grey, green, 
 blue, purple and black (roofing slates). The original sedi- 
 mentation is attested by round grains and small pebbles of 
 various composition. Where least disturbed the slates are 
 jointed and cut by cross seams of chlorite or quartz ; where 
 more disturbed they are puckered and filled with veins and 
 eyes of quartz. 
 
 The Peach Bottom roofing slates. 
 
 As described by Dr. Frazer,+ this narrow belt extends 
 southwestward from Peters creek in Lancaster county, 
 
 *This settles one of the great Azoic questions, and Dr. Frazer should have 
 the credit ot predicting its settlement and furnishing the evidences, which 
 Mr. Keyes confirms. 
 
 fSecond Geol. Survey Pa., Report of Progress C3, 1877, pages 179 to 190- 
 Proc. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Troy meeting, 1883. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. , 
 Phila., Dec. 4, 1885, page 398.
 
 138 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 across the Susquehanna river and the southeast corner of 
 York county into Maryland. They are exposed to view in a 
 line of quarries in both the adjoining states about nine miles 
 long. * On Peters creek the black slates, 150' wide, dip 64 (S. 
 40 E.) under the adjoining crystalline schists. f Here the 
 old slate quarry of the Browns, after being operated for a 
 century, was bought by Bonsall & Yard and was in full play 
 in 1876, one-half the width of the belt being rejected as 
 bony, and new quarries being commenced in view of the 
 unprofitable depth" of the old one. Masses weighing 500 to 
 1,000 pounds are blasted, lifted and sawn into lengths. 
 The slates are not as smooth and black as the best from 
 Slatington & Chapman in Lehigh county. They have a 
 fine grain, but are liable to show incipient traces of flebby 
 or bubbly texture even in the finest parts of the best 
 varieties. In sunlight they have a purplish lusier. They 
 are so smooth and soft to the touch and so tough that nails 
 may be driven through them, and they weather well. They 
 are split into roof slates with BonsalFs patent knife. 
 Mantles, tables, tombstones, etc. are sawn and finished on 
 a large horizontal wheel. Much of the quarry rock is re- 
 jected, but part of the great refuse piles is ground into flour 
 for paint, cement and roof slating4 
 
 In York county the slate ridge is well-marked and well- 
 wooded, but neither high nor steep, with a rather uniform 
 outline, its summit striking southwest,! the village of Delta 
 
 *See C3, p. 182, plate 7, view of Humphrey's quarry, near Delta, York 
 county, and p. 184, plate 8, view of Jones <fe Co.'s quarry, in Harford county, 
 Md., both from photographs. 
 
 fC3, p. 179. 
 
 JThe only other quarries on this (east) side of the river, owned by Oole- 
 man <fe Co., were not operated in 1880. In York county the first quarry is 
 2i miles from the river, near Slate Hill P. O. 
 
 In J. Humphrey <fe Co.'s northern quarry the long excavation (of best 
 slate) points S. 55 W. The neighboring Old Revolutionary bank, full of 
 water, points S. 40 W. In Williams & Co.'s quarry, which is large and 
 deep, but nearly full of water, the hanging wall strikes S. 55 to 60 W. In 
 the next quarry the nearly vertical slates strike S. 40 W. (The ridge itself 
 at W. Bangor strikes S. 45 W.) In E. Davis' quarry a remarkable cross 
 dip of 87 (to S. 40 W.) demands special notice. At the west end of W- 
 E. Williams' quarry the slates dip 88 (X. 10 W.) with a strike of S. 80 
 W. ; but in the main they are vertical and strike S. 40 W. In W. C. Rob-
 
 THE PEACH BOTTOM ROOFING-SLATES. 139 
 
 being built on its northwest slope, and most of the quarries 
 opened on its southeast slope ; with dips very steep, nearly 
 vertical, and preponderatingly to the N. W. on the quarry 
 side. 
 
 The whole ridge is by no means good quarry ground, as 
 is shown by the great number of abandoned trial shafts. 
 Even the long-wrought merchantable strata are capricious 
 and change quality both lengthwise and downward, requir- 
 ing very judicious mining. While the whole ridge, half a 
 mile wide, is of slate the paying belt (as at John Hum- 
 phrey & Co.'s quarry) averages only 60 or 70 feet, of which 
 total only 40 or 50 feet of the best slates are got from a 
 number of narrow benches. This excavation is about 500' 
 long, 50' to 70' wide, and 175' deep at its deepest place. A 
 gradual change of quality took place in sinking the first 
 40', but after that the quality remained constant to the 
 bottom, and no doubt would be found the same to an indefi- 
 nitely greater depth. 
 
 The roofing slate belt seems to belong to and be an inte- 
 gral part of the great "chlorite slate" formation. Such was 
 the impression produced upon Dr. Frazer by his official 
 study of it in 1877.* The marketable slate beds are inter- 
 leaved with others which may be properly named chlorite 
 schists. On the railroad at the river bank the width of the 
 
 erts' quarry the jointage planes which govern the excavation dip 45 (S. 40 
 to 50 W.,) but in one of the best exposures the slates dip only 20 (N. 30 
 W.,) making the strike S. 60 W. In J. Humphrey & Co.'s quarry the ver- 
 tical slates strike S. 60 W., and a jointage plane dips 30 (S. 70 W.) T. W. 
 Jones <fc Co.'s quarry adjoins the last In J. W. Jones <fe Co.'s quarry the 
 vertical slates strike regularly S. 40 W. One jointage plane system dips 30 
 (S. 40 W.) ; the other 80 (S. 60 W.) In Hugh E. Hughes' quarry, close 
 to the last, the nearly vertical slates (slightly north dip at one end and 
 slightly south dip at the other) strike about S. 40 U W. with several jointage 
 systems, one of them dipping 50 (S. 40 W.,) producing an extra amount 
 of waste. No valuable slates have been found further on in Maryland. 
 
 *Report C3, 1880, page 23, where he proposes the theory that the local pro- 
 duction of roofing slate has been eftected by the heat of a trap dyke, eighteen 
 miles long, which traverses the schist country of south Lancaster, passes 
 near the northeast end of the roofing slate belt and follows it to the river. 
 This theory could be more easily accepted if trap appeared along the whole 
 range of the slate hill in York county and Maryland ; if other belts of slate 
 were seen along the course of the dyke further north ; and if trap was not un- 
 known in the Lehigh roofing slate region and in Vermont.
 
 140 GEOLOGICAL SUKVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 slate belt is about 400 feet ; but the really valuable roofing 
 slates recur through this distance in special belts, or layers, 
 each only a few yards thick. The country on each side (up 
 and down river) is sharply plicated ; and the slate rocks ex- 
 posed about 100 yards north of the slate factory (some 
 dipping 58, S. 55 E., others 62, S. 25 E.) "resemble the 
 genuine marketable slates in many features, but are 
 greener, more chloritic, and very much convoluted." A 
 close examination of the ( texture of the rocks suggests a 
 growing belief in "an insensible alteration of the more 
 chloritic hydro-mica schists into the dark purple-black 
 Peach Bottom slates."* 
 
 A chemical analysis of a piece of Peach Bottom roofing 
 slate from the Humphrey quarry, made by Mr. A. S. Mc- 
 Creath,f shows that it is an almost non-magnesian clay- 
 slate, holding 9 per cent, of ferrous oxide and blackened by 
 2 per cent, of carbon 4 If this be a fair representation of 
 the composition of the mercantile slate layers of the belt, 
 no theory of igne'ous alteration from an original chlorite 
 (magnesian) sediment can be accepted ; for the action of a 
 trap-dyke would add, not abstract, magnesia. We must 
 therefore regard the good slate-plies as separate and con- 
 secutive layers or beds of iron-clay, foliated by pressure ; 
 like the roofing slate beds of Lehigh county, but of a much 
 earlier age ; therefore they may possibly be identical with 
 the Lowest Cambrian slates of Georgia county, Vermont, 
 which hold the Olenellu* fauna of Walcott. 
 
 No animal fossils, no trilobites, have been noticed in these 
 slates ; but on the surfaces of many slabs are seen shining 
 ribbons, crossing each other, which seem to be fossil plants, 
 
 *C3, page 133. A specimen from J. Humphrey & Co.'s quarry shows a 
 fragment or unaltered mica-schist in the mass of fine slate (03, p. 190). In 
 W. E. Williams' quarry a seam of chlorite slate and quartz, mixed with 
 manganiferous iron oxide, occurs in streaks (C3, p. 188). 
 
 fReport MM, p. 370 (Copied into C3, p. 270). 
 
 jSilica, 50; alumina, 22; ferrous oxide, 9; carbon, 2; water, 3.4; potash, 
 3.6; magnesia, 1.5; titanic acid, 1.3; manganous oxide, 0.6; soda, 0.5; lime, 
 0.2; iron disulphide and sulphuric acid, each less than 0.1; and a trace of 
 cobalt. 
 
 See Diet, of Fossils Report P. 4. See also chapter on Cambrian fossils 
 further on.
 
 THE PEACH BOTTOM ROOFING-SLATES. 141 
 
 probably sea weeds allied to Buthotrephis, but of uncer- 
 tain species and even genus, and lending no aid to the de- 
 termination of the age of the formation.* It would be 
 unsafe to assign it to the Lower Silurian age of the roofing 
 slate formation of Lehigh county on the strength of these 
 fossil plants. There is no good evidence in favor of the 
 Peach Bottom slate ridge being an isolated distant outlying 
 basin of Hudson river slate preserved in one of the many 
 folds of the Chlorite slate country ; nor is there any easy 
 mode of explaining the presence on the Maryland line of 
 such an outlier of the Lehigh valley slate belt either by 
 conformable deposition or by downthrow faulting. For the 
 present we must be content to be guided by the -lately im- 
 proved classification of the Cambrian slates of Canada, 
 Vermont, and the eastern counties of New York ; and to 
 consider the Peach Bottom slates as part of that early sys- 
 tem ; at all events, integral members of the chlorite schist 
 formation in which they lie.f 
 
 *Peacb Bottom slates, etc., Proc. Amer. Inst. Mining Engineers, Troy 
 meeting, 1883. These Peach Bottom tossils, found by Rev. I. N. Rendall, 
 D. D., President of Lincoln University in Chester county, at the quarries 
 near Delta in York county, were submitted to Prof James Hall, of Albany, 
 who thought them more like the Buthotrephis of the Hudson river slate 
 (formation No. Ill) than anything else. 
 
 Prof. J. S. Starr, of Franklin and Marshall College, exhibited some spec, 
 imens to the Linnean Society in Lancaster, some of which, in his opinion, 
 had an ill-defined resemblance to "ferns." See a report of the paper in the 
 "New Era," of Lancaster, May 15, 1886. 
 
 These fossil ribbons do not stand alone ; for in certain black silicious slates 
 near St. John occur "black, linear, flat objects that appear to be of the nature 
 of sea-weeds or graptolites, but not sufficiently complete to give a satisfac. 
 tory indication of their relationship." (G. F. Matthew on "Eozoon and 
 other low organisms in Laurentian rocks at St. John," in Bull. No. IX, 
 Nat. Hist. Soc. New Brunswick, read Oct. 7, 18900 Jt was in specimens 
 from a neighboring limestone of the same age that Sir William Dawson 
 many years ago detected fragments of Eozoon Canadense. 
 
 fThere is nothing to astonish us in the belt terminating eastward near the 
 river and not running on through Lancaster, Chester and Delaware counties 
 to the Schuylkill, more than in the Northampton and Lehigh roofing slate 
 belt terminating westward near the Berks county line, instead of running 
 continuously across the Susquehanna and Potomac rivers far into Virginia. 
 In both cases the mechanical agency for foliating the formation into roofing 
 slate operated generally, but the particular kind of clay formation capable 
 of being foliated was of limited extent.
 
 142 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Geology of the South Mountains. 
 
 The South mountains, separating the Cumberland valley 
 from the lower country of York and Adams county, are the 
 northernmost end of the Blue ridge range of Virginia, The 
 highest summit rises only to 2,100' A. T. There are no 
 rocky peaks, and very few cliffs. The slopes are all mod- 
 erate and the surface everywhere rounded on a grand scale. 
 The long, straight, sharp, rocky crests and boldly- terraced 
 steep slopes of middle Pennsylvania are almost unknown 
 to this mass of irregularly-arranged groups of rounded 
 knobs and shallow valleys, for the most part bare, uncul- 
 tivated, or covered with a low second growth of forest re- 
 served for abandoned iron works of the old style.* 
 
 The whole measures upon the map ten miles in breadth 
 by fifty in length, upon a curve extending from the Mary- 
 land line to its northeastern end fifteen miles west of Har- 
 risburg. It ends like the human hand in four blunt fingers 
 and a very short, small thumb on the Cumberland valley 
 side. These five terminals slope with considerable beauty 
 down to the plain country of northern York county com- 
 posed of Trias rocks, and of eastern Cumberland composed 
 of Lower Silurian limestone, the two parts of the plain being 
 separated by the lower reach of Yellow Breeches creek, 
 which in the greater part of its course flows close at the 
 northern foot of the mountain mass. 
 
 Many brooks descend from the mountain through short 
 and rather steep ravines to Yellow Breeches creek at its 
 foot. At one place only in Cumberland county is the 
 mountain mass breached to let out the rainfall of its in- 
 terior surfaces. This is at Papertown, called Mt. Holly 
 
 *See description of conglomerate ridges on p. 148.
 
 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH MOUNTAINS. 143 
 
 Springs, opposite Carlisle, where Mountain creek, after 
 flowing east in a valley twenty miles long, turns north and 
 issues through a fine gorge to join the Yellow Breeches. 
 
 Mountain creek heads in the corner of Adams county at 
 a summit-divide from which Conococheague creek flows 
 southwestward on the same line with Mountain creek but 
 in the opposite direction (that is, along a valley common 
 to both) to the Gettysburg-Chambersburg turnpike at 
 Greenwood Furnace in Franklin county, where it turns 
 northwest and breaks out of the mountain opposite Cham- 
 bersburg, exposing another rock section analogous to that 
 at Mt. Holly Springs. 
 
 Here, at the pike, the Mt. Holly mountain range, which 
 is the highest and most regular part of the South mountain 
 mass, virtually ends, sinking southwestward into the Cum- 
 berland valley.- The lower interior ridges however run on 
 past Greenwood and Mont Alto to sink beneath the lime- 
 stone cove of the Little Antietam East Branch creek, oppo- 
 site Waynesburg, near the Maryland line. 
 
 Thus the northwest face of the South mountain mass is 
 set back from the Cumberland valley, once opposite Cham- 
 bersburg for four miles, and again opposite Greensburg for 
 nearly five miles. It is this that produces the curve of the 
 mass upon the map. But these backsets would narrow the 
 mass to a point on the Maryland line were it not for corres- 
 ponding outsets of its eastern face in Adams county, one 
 at the pike near Coxtown, and another further south. 
 
 It is evident that the curve of the mass is not produced 
 by a curving of the ridges which compose it, but by an 
 eschelon arrangement of its ridges running past each other, 
 like the synclinal spurs of the Broad mountain in Schuyl- 
 kill county, or the anticlinal spurs of the Buffalo mountains 
 in Union and Snyder counties. 
 
 This geographical eschelon arrangement of the South 
 mountains is a good indication of their geological structure. 
 It renders it probable that the strata, whatever may be their 
 age, have been thrown into a series of anticlinal and syn- 
 clinal waves entirely analogous to those with which the 
 Palaeozoic country of middle Pennsylvania have made us so
 
 144 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 well acquainted. It explains also the finger arrangement of 
 the eastern end of the mass in the Susquehanna river 
 country ; and leads us to suppose that the South mountain 
 series descends beneath Lancaster, Dauphin and Lebanon 
 counties, and is in some unexplained way connected with 
 the Highlands of Berks, Lehigh and Northampton counties, 
 New Jersey and New York. But it does not in the least 
 help us in solving the problem why the South mountain 
 rocks seem to be absent from that Highland country. 
 
 The South mountain rocks are mostly quartzites and 
 quartz slates ; those Highland rocks are mostly hornblendic 
 and quartz gneisses, merely veneered with quart zite patches. 
 If the Htironian (or Cambrian) quartzites are in such force 
 in the South mountains, why do they make so accidental 
 and superficial an element in the Highlands \ On the other 
 hand, why are none of the Highland gneisses, especially the 
 hornblendic schists, seen in the South mountains? The 
 underground interval is but sixty miles. 
 
 Two groups of rock compose the South mountain mass, 
 as shown in Dr. Frazer's cross-sections.* The northwestern 
 (Mt. Holly) ridge is made by several thousand feet of the 
 the lower quartzite and quartz conglomerate beds. The 
 southeastern (Adams county) ridges are made by several 
 thousand feet of an overlying feldspathic, micaceous and 
 chloride series, intersected by veins of milky quartz ; the 
 felsites varying in character "from a sandy and earthy slate 
 in which the crystals of orthoclase feldspar are very much 
 decomposed, indeed are almost clay,f through a jasper- 
 like variety to a massive and coarsely porphyritic struc- 
 ture in which it is suited to be used as an ornamental build- 
 ing stone." 
 
 These two series, or great sub- divisions, seem at some 
 places to graduate into each other, as if they were the 
 earlier and later deposits of one age. In other places (as in 
 the Greenwood section No. 10.) they seem distinct; the 
 passage from the lower quartzite series to the higher por- 
 
 *Especially well shown by his Section No. 8, Report CC, page 285. 
 fCompare Fontaine's "Kaolin slate" beds in the Virginia Blue Ridge 
 section at Balcony Falls, on James river.
 
 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH MOUNTAIN. 145 
 
 phyritic (orthofelsite) series being abrupt ; with even an 
 apparent difference of strike in some of the outcrops along 
 the line of section. 
 
 The lower, or quartzlte and conglomerate slate series, is 
 certainly immensely thick. Its beds very generally dip 
 southeastward at angles varying from 20 to 60. Occasion- 
 ally they dip steeply the other way (northwest) implying 
 anticlinal and synclinal rolls ; but on the whole they are 
 elevated towards the Cumberland valley, as if they once 
 passed in the air over the Silurians of that valley, which is 
 a clear impossibility. 
 
 A master fault must therefore run along the northwest 
 foot of the mountains, along the low drift-filled valley of 
 Yellow Breeches creek, in which nowhere can any rock be 
 seen in place, but only a series of brown hematite (limonite) 
 iron ore deposits, some of them of great size and once ex- 
 tensively mined in open quarry work. The northwest face 
 of the mountain mass is therefore in fact the eroded basset 
 edge of the quartzite series dipping away from the fault.* 
 
 The thickness of the quartzite and conglomerate series 
 may be imagined from cross-section No. 10, laid 2^ miles 
 north of Greenwood, along which for five miles quartzite 
 beds on a prevailing southeast dip are either seen or indi- 
 cated, suggesting a total thickness of fourteen thousand 
 feet (14,000'). Other sections across the mountains towards 
 Mount Holly Springs (even on a rolling construction to sat- 
 isfy every observed abnormal dip) exhibit a certain mini- 
 mum thickness of 5,000', and possible maximum thickness 
 of 10,000' and 12,000' of the quartzite series f And if a 
 
 *Mr. Lehman's topographical map shows southeast dips all along the 
 summits on the northwest edge of the mountain mass ; and they are dips so 
 low that they cannot bespeak an overturn. They continue to the Cono- 
 cocheague backset; here, however, they swing round and become southwest 
 dips ; the quartzites sinking beneath the limestones instead of being thrust 
 up over them, as along the fault. 
 
 |A rather wild theory has been recently advanced by geologists studying 
 this range on .the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, that the quartzites of the 
 west side of the South mountain mass are the same as the Medina sandstone 
 beds of the North mountain on the west side of the Cumberland (Shen- 
 andoah) valley. They claim that the structure along the river makes this 
 evident. But if so. then the same should be the case in Pennsylvania. But 
 10
 
 146 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 master fault really exists, as it must, along the foot of the 
 mountain slope, there is no knowing how much more at the 
 bottom is buried against the fault One single, perfectly 
 regular and continuous outcrop of these southeast dipping 
 strata was measured by Mr. Lehman, at my request, near 
 Mt. Holly hotel, giving a thickness of 1,200'. In Section 
 No. 11. near the Gettysburg-Chambersburg turnpike, there 
 appear to be 3,200' of quartzite and 6,400' of "schistose con- 
 glomerate," Dr. Frazer' s Mountain Creek Rock sub -series.* 
 The thickness of the overlying felspathic felsite series, 
 
 it is only necessary to compare the thickness of the Medina with the figures 
 in the text above to show that the theory is a mere conjecture. The Medina, 
 opposite Mt. Holly Springs, is only a few hundred feet thick, and increases 
 in thickness to 2,000' in the direction of the Allegheny mountain. See the 
 Perry Co. Report, F2, and the Blair, Bedford, Huntingdon (T, T2, T3) and 
 other reports of middle Pennsylvahia. It also increases greatly in thick- 
 ness towards the Delaware river; but to and beyond the Potomac it de- 
 creases in thickness until it is only forty (40) feet thick in E. Tennessee 
 west of Knoxville. Those who wish to see the grounds on which Messrs. 
 Geiger and Keith rest their identification of the Massannuttan (Medina 
 No. TV) sandstone with the quartzite of the Blue Ridge at Harper's Ferry ( 
 will consult their sketch map and sections published in the Bulletin of the 
 Geol. Soc. America, Vol. 2, p. 158, where the crests are represented as 
 synclinals of IV, supported by shale of III, overlying the limestones of II, 
 unconformably resting on epidote schists and granite. The parallel syncli- 
 nals are represented as compressed and overthrown westward. 
 
 It has been long known that the Silurians rode over the Blue ridge and 
 South mountain rocks. This is evident in the case of the Highlands ot 
 Northampton county ; evident in Lancaster and York counties ; evident in 
 the James river country ; therefore there is no objection whatever to lime- 
 stone synclinals capped by shale and sandstone (III, IV) on the Blue 
 Ridge. Mr. Keyes' section (Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 2, page 320) shows 
 the Chazy and Trenton with tneir characteristic fossils on theeastsideofthe 
 range (between Cotocton mountain and Sugar Loaf, in Maryland). Cotocton 
 mountain sandstone may possibly be Hellarn (Chiques) quartzite No. I, and 
 Sugar Loaf certainly is ; but nothing can suffice to identify the Medina with 
 the vast quartzite masses of our Mt. Holly range. 
 
 But the greatest obstacle to finding the Medina in or on the range is the 
 vast thickness of the limestones of II and slates of III on which the Medina 
 lies. Any outlying crest of Medina would be supported by at least 5,000 feet 
 of these limestones and slates, and if preserved by erosion in the body of the 
 Blue Ridge range of Maryland and Pennsylvania, could only be so pre- 
 served at an elevation of 5, 000 feet above tide. This topographical necessity 
 js fatal to the hypothesis, even if profound downthrow faults be substituted 
 conjecturally for synclinals. It is remarkable that Messrs. Geiger and Keyes 
 do not explain the absence of the limestone from their map. 
 
 *CC, p. 295, and Section No. II.
 
 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH MOUNTAIN. 147 
 
 along the Mt. Holly cross-section, No. 8, exceeds 6,000', as 
 shown in the broad synclinal with opposite dips of from 
 30 to 50 at the southern end of the section. The highest 
 b^ds left in the center of this basin are green crystalline 
 schists and orthofelsites. How many still higher beds have 
 been removed by erosion cannot be known. In Section No. 
 11, near the G. and C. turnpike, a small synclinal holds 
 700' or 800' of hydro-mica slates, and over these a continu- 
 ous monoclinal exhibition of orthofelsite a mile and a half 
 long, ''representing (if there be no unknown reverse dips) 
 nearly 5,000 feet of strata" (CC, p. 295). 
 
 The Mountain Creek Rock sub-division of the Lower 
 series is characterized by scattered pebbles and by occa- 
 sional solid beds of conglomerate. Dr. Frazer gives it various 
 names descriptive of its varieties: "Schist conglome- 
 rate," "chlorite schist conglomerate," "quartz conglomerate 
 schist." "green schist with quartz pebbles," "hydro-mica 
 schist with pebbles" (some of them of transparent quartz, 
 others of amethyst-colored quartz), these last two varieties 
 of conglomerate marking a transition to the Upper series. 
 It is evident that the great Lower series, if indeed it be sep- 
 arable from the Upper, has a lowest set of beds which are 
 almost wholly of metamorphosed sand, quartzite. Then 
 higher sets of clay, sand and pebble beds, metamorphosed 
 into quartzoze slates, shales, schists and pebble rock. 
 
 The still higher and more or less magnesian slates, 
 hard shales, crystalline schists with scattered pebbles, 
 conglomerate beds, and porpyhritic beds, make an indefi- 
 nite but recognizable Upper system, in which also occur true 
 quartzite beds, like-those at the bottom of the Lower series. 
 Occasional fragments of diorite trap appear on the surface, 
 which may indicate interbedded volcanic rocks, or possibly 
 very small dikes. The whole may have been capped by 
 the Hellam (Chiques rock) quartzite, fragments of which 
 are so abundant on the lower southeast slope of the South 
 mountain mass. 
 
 It is hard to avoid the inference that our South mountain 
 rocks represent the Huronian section of Murray and Logan. 
 
 It is impossible not to compare them also with the great
 
 148 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 quartzite masses, the roofing slates, etc., of Wolcott's 
 upper, middle and lower Cambrian system.* 
 
 The conglomerate beds sometimes make bold features in 
 the scene. North of the pike at Greenwood a narrow valley, 
 one or two hundred feet in depth, is shut in by a straight 
 sharp-crested little ridge produced by a few beds of coarse 
 conglomerate, in all not more than fifty feet thick, whose 
 fragments are piled along the narrow top, strew the steep 
 northwestern basset slope and choke up two wild little 
 ravine gaps through which the drainage of the back-valley 
 relieves itself. One is appropriately called Dark Hollow. 
 The dip of the conglomerate beds, and of all the strata on 
 both sides of the ridge, is uniformly about 45 S. E. On 
 the S. E. slope of the ridge, and therefore about a hundred 
 feet geologically above the conglomerates, is the outcrop of 
 a five or six-foot bed of iron ore, tunneled to and mined by 
 Thad. Stevens for the use of his Caledonia furnace at the 
 pike. I was not able to trace the conglomerate to the pike; 
 but the ridge is represented topographically that far ; and 
 what seems to be the same iron ore bed, or one at about the 
 same horizon, was opened and mined a little at the foot of 
 the steep S. E. dipping rocky cliffs on the north bank of 
 the creek, the turnpike following the south bank.f 
 
 Another conglomerate several thousand feet higher in 
 the series than the last, and composed of a few rather 
 massive layers, only 20 or 80 feet thick in all, makes a very 
 curious triangular plate leaning against the face of the hill 
 
 *But where have we the Huronian and Cambrian limestone intercala- 
 tions? Possibly in the Pine Grove Furnace limestone on Mountain creek; 
 which, however, Pennsylvania geologists have always referred to the great 
 limestone formation of the Cumberland valley; considering it a synclinal 
 outlier, like the Saucon, Oley and Downingtown limestone outliers in 
 Northampton, Berks and Chester counties. If the Pine Grove limestone be- 
 longs to the South mountain mass, it is certainly a very extraordinar\- fact 
 that it does not crop out anywhere else in the South mountains except just 
 there along Mountain creek ; and that it is there accompanied with the same 
 decomposed damourite limeslates and brown hematite iron ores which 
 range with the Cumberland valley limestones from the Delaware to the 
 Potomac and far into the Southern States. 
 
 f These were some of the local facts which persuaded me that the mount- 
 ain backset at the pike and creek had been made by a great cross-fault, with 
 a throw of four miles.
 
 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH MOUNTAIN. 149 
 
 on the northwest side of the Conococheague, four miles 
 north of the turnpike. The base of the triangle is in the 
 bed of the creek ; its apex makes a little platform project- 
 ing from the side of the wagon road, here more than a 
 hundred feet above the creek. The outcrop slopes slanting 
 both ways down to the creek, and reappears again in low 
 bluffs at the mouth of a branch further on, whence it can 
 be traced a mile or two further northeast, ascending to the 
 higher land.* 
 
 These two instances prove the general fact that these con- 
 glomerate beds are not mere local bunchings of gravel, but 
 are widely extended gravel deposits at fixed horizons in the 
 series, and may therefore be used as key-rocks for working 
 out the geology and perhaps for breaking up the series 
 into sub-divisions which may at some future time receive 
 distinctive names. But they lend no help to the notion 
 that they are of Medina age, because they areinterstratified 
 with a great thickness of other beds. 
 
 A conglomerate of coarse character and some thickness 
 makes a ridge with a bold south-facing cliff end in the 
 ravine issuing at Mont Alto. The dips here are vertical, 
 and the place of the beds in the series is undetermined. 
 The locality is ten miles south of the pike at Greenwood ; 
 a north and south road connects the two, and along this 
 road the ridge is faced with jaspery grey and purple slates, 
 quarried for road metal, f 
 
 *Standing on the apex of the triangle and looking eastward across the 
 valley of the Conococheague, one sees opposite, about half a mile away and 
 at the same height, the apex of a similar triangular outcrop of the same con- 
 glomerate* beds dipping northwest about 20. The creek here flows in a 
 shallow synclinal fold, as represented on Dr. Frazer's Section No. 11. The 
 exhibition ol erosion is unusual and very interesting. The conglomerate 
 soon turns over to a southeast dip, sinks into the broad highland of S. E. 
 dipping conglomerate schists at least 5,000' thick, past another small syn- 
 clinal roll, to the 70 S. E. dipping green hydro-mica schists and micaceous 
 slates which introduce the orthofelsite country from Newman's (on the 
 pike) to Cashtown at the northwest edge of the Triasic plain. 
 
 These features of topography the straight sharp conglomerate ridges 
 and gaps, the triangular outcrops and iron mines, are exhibited on my map 
 of the Caledonia Furnace lands (surveyed by me in 1873) in the Atlas ac- 
 companying this Report 
 
 fSuch purplish red slates are an uncommon element in the South mount- 
 ain mass, but they have been occasionally observed. There is no general ex-
 
 150 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The number of these conglomerate beds may be exagge- 
 rated on account of the rolling (anticlinal and synclinal) 
 structure of the mountain mass as a whole. It is evident 
 that the rolls must be more numerous than the outcrops 
 show, the surface being smoothly eroded and covered with 
 sand. The whole mass descends from northwest to south- 
 east, but it descends in a series of rolls, some of which are 
 very distinct, but most of them are mere crimples. It has 
 just been said that the Conococheague north of the pike 
 flows in a synclinal (see foot-note on last page). 
 
 Section 8 shows that Mountain creek, at Pinegrove Fur- 
 nace, flows in this same synclinal, of the same shape and 
 size ; and that the rocks turn over in the same way south- 
 eastward. Several other small synclinals occur on that sec- 
 tion (if the surface dips be properly correlated), one of 
 them tightly compressed and thrown over to the west. 
 There is a rather grand synclinal at the eastern end of that 
 section. 
 
 Section 9 was made along the Gettysburg-Shippensburg 
 road over the highest part of the mountain. It starts at the 
 summit of the Mt. Holly quartzite range, 2,100' above tide, 
 and runs S. E. nearly five miles to the Conewago creek 4 
 miles from Arendtsville. A mile from the summit, ap- 
 proaching Beamer's mill on Mountain creek, the following 
 opposite-dipping outcrops of quartzite are encountered in 
 rapid succession : S. 45 E., 60 (two) ; N. W. ? ; S. 45 E.. 
 50; N. 40 W. 40; S. 35 E. 70; N. 35 W. 55, 70 
 (two). How many more such crimples are concealed under 
 the sand which covers the mountain is not known* Then 
 follows a gap of 6,575', the surface being strewn with frag- 
 ments of conglomerate schist and quartzite, but nothing ex- 
 posed. In the last half mile the schist becomes more and 
 more composed of small quartz fragments until the rock 
 turns into a nearly perfect quartzite. Then appear quartzose 
 conglomerate schist dipping S. 35 E., 45, 50 (two out- 
 crops) ; N. 60 W. 20. A mile further orthofelsite and 
 
 hibition of them as in the Cambrian country of Vermont and eastern New 
 York. Pink quartzites occupy the west end of Section No. 11, on the higli 
 ridge 1| miles west of the Conococheague and 2| miles N. 20 E. of Cale- 
 donia furnace. (Report CC, p. 293. )
 
 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH MOUNTAIN. 151 
 
 schist are exposed, dipping S. 15 E. 85 ; S. 40 E. 55. 
 These two dips are evidently on the crest of a sharp anti- 
 clinal roll of unknown quantity. 
 
 The relationship ol the South mountain rocks to the rest 
 of the Azoic rocks of the state, to the Highlands, to the Phil- 
 adelphia belt, to the York and Lancaster county gneisses 
 and hydromica slates, or phyllites, is certainly obscure. 
 But their relationship to the great Huronian formations of 
 Canada and the northwestern states is also an interestingly 
 doubtful problem, for the discussion of which a description 
 of the Huronian in its typical locality is necessary and will 
 be given in the next chapter for the use of Pennsylvania 
 geologists. How the Huronian and Cambrian are related 
 I do not pretend to discuss.
 
 152 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 The Huronian system. 
 
 The Huronian system is a vast series of beds of gravel 
 sand and mud (altered to quartzites, greywackes* and 
 slates), with some beds of limestone and chert, and some 
 beds of volcanic ashes (or lava ? greenstone trap), the whole 
 being traversed by trap dykes, exhibited on the northern 
 shore of Lake Huron in upper Canada. 
 
 Logan's section of 1863 f gives the relative proportions of 
 the kinds of rock, thus : Quartzites. 10,820' ; Graywackes 
 (slate conglomerates) 4,280'; Chlorite slates, epidote slates, 
 and trap-like beds, 2,000'; Limestone and schist beds, 900'. 
 Total of undulating strata visible along the north shore of 
 Lake Huron, 18,000'. 
 
 But the proportion of Quartzites is even greater than this 
 and amounts to at least two-thirds of the whole ; one-sixth 
 consists of Graywackes (slate conglomerates) ; one-ninth of 
 Chlorite, epidote and trap beds ; one-eighteenth of Lime- 
 stone and schist beds. In other words, 12 : 3 : 2 : 14 
 
 *This term, r/raywacke, greywacke, grauwacke, has almost disappeared 
 from geological literature, but is common in the older books. Lyell ex- 
 plains it in his Manual of Elementary Geology ( N. Y. reprint 1853, p. 350) as 
 a German miner's name for brecciated sand rocks of the Silurian system, 
 composed of small fragments of quartz, flintslate (Lydian stone) and clay- 
 slate in a clay cement. Similar grits are found in Devonian, Carboniferous, 
 Cretaceous and Eocene ages ; and they are common among Huronian rocks, 
 where the cement is more siliceous and the feldspar fragments are in an al- 
 tered condition (Irving). They are the Huronian "conglomerates" of the 
 later literature. 
 
 fGeol. Canada, 1863, p. 55, Atlas Plate 3. This section has recently been 
 verified by Irving ; U. S. Geol. Sur. 5, Report 4, 1885, p. 188. 
 
 JMurray described the series in his report to Logan (G. S. Can., 1847-8, p. 
 189) as "a set of regularly stratified .... quartz rocks (or altered sand- 
 stones), conglomerates, slates and limestones, interstratified with beds of 
 greenstone." Under the term slates he included "thinly-laminated, dark- 
 green, blackish and reddish rocks, some ... very chloritic (magnesian) 
 and some containing epidote." Hunt makes the smaller items of the list
 
 THE HURONIAN SYSTEM. 153 
 
 Thin sections under the microscope show the quartzites, 
 graywackes and slates to he sediments hardened into rock 
 chiefly by the infiltration of siliceous waters, the silica 
 being deposited so slowly between the grains as to crystal- 
 lize around them, so that the shape of the grain remains 
 visible in the interior of the enveloping crystal of quartz.* 
 
 The chloritic and epidotic slates which make up so small 
 a part of the column have been made by Dr. Hunt the 
 basis of an immense generalization extending over Europe 
 and America. From the typical locality of these slates, 
 just east of Thessalon Point, Irving' s specimens under 
 the microscope showed themselves to be "merely eruptive 
 diabasic greenstones in various degrees of alteration." The 
 false idea that the Huronian series on Lake Huron is char- 
 acteristically chloritic has been partly generated by the oc- 
 currence of greenish chloritic graywackes in the slate con- 
 glomerates, f 
 
 The alteration of the rocks on Lake Huron is not dif- 
 ferent from, but only more universal than, that of ac- 
 knowledged sedimentary and fossiliferous sandrocks etc. 
 
 The basic traps are augitic in various stages of alteration, 
 
 too important when he quotes Murray's rocks as "a great series of chloritic 
 slates and conglomerates, with interstratified greenstones, quartzites and 
 limestones." (Azoic Rocks, Report N, Geol Sur. of Perm., p. 70.) This puts 
 a false face upon the whole formation, and raises great difficulties in the way 
 of identifying it in other regions. Irving adds that a large proportion ol the 
 so-called slate conglomerates is quartzite, the balance being gray wacke slates 
 and graywacke conglomerates, which he describes in extenso in subsequent 
 pages of his report to the U. S. Geol. Survey, 5th Rept., 1885. Logan in- 
 cludes various greenstone trap beds in his measured groups. 
 
 *Irving, 1885, p. 188. Also his chapter on enlargements of mineral frag- 
 ments in certain detrital rocks, in same report, pp. 218, to 242 with figures, 
 plates 30, 31, and wood-cuts on pp. 238, 239, showing how the planes of crys- 
 tallization in the embedded fragment are continued outwardly through the 
 encrusting quartz crystal envelope. He has pursued bis investigation with 
 tine results through quartzites of Potsdam and Medina age, and furnished a 
 sufficient explanation of the process by which the loose sand and mud de- 
 posits have been more or less completely converted into hard, brittle sand- 
 rocks and slates. 
 
 (Irving's foot-note to page 188. Irving, Van Hise and Merriam made 
 their study of the coast line from Sault St Marie eastward to Serpent river 
 bay, with Logan's map, in 1884, and far enough inland to get the whole of 
 Logan's series, occupying the area between St. Mary's and Blind rivers.
 
 154 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 hornblende being a secondary product. The bedded trap 
 does not differ from the dyke trap. 
 
 The strata are so little inclined, so gently folded, so im- 
 perfectly metamorphosed, and so different in looks from 
 crystalline schists, that the total absence of fossils argues 
 an age without life; seeing that fossils are constantly 
 found in rocks no more altered than these.* 
 
 The absence of red hematite ore beds from the section of 
 typical Huronian strata is remarkable. In spite of this 
 fact, however, it is generally agreed that the great series of 
 highly-folded fragmental slates and quartzites, chert schists, 
 magnetite schists, iron ore beds, limestones, dolomites, 
 clayslates, micaslates and greenstone of the Marquette and 
 Menomonee region south of Lake Superior is merely the 
 geographical extension of those on the north shore of Lake 
 Huron. f The greenish schists at the base of the Marquette 
 series may perhaps belong to the underlying system of 
 Laurentian gneiss. :(: Beds of strange-looking rocks may be 
 explained by secondary alteration of basic eruptives, e. g., 
 hornblende schists and actinolite schists, the graduation of 
 which into greenstone has been both affirmed and denied 
 and given rise to the two opposite views, that either both 
 nre sedimentary, or both eruptive. But setting aside these 
 doubtful elements of the whole section, its main features 
 are those of the typical quartzite Huronian. 
 
 *Irving, p. 189. A curious and very different explanation of the absence 
 of fossils from Huronian rocks has been offered by Dr. Morris in the pro- 
 ceedings of the Acad. Nat. ScL, Phila., April 7, 1885. Alter drawing atten- 
 tion to the fact that the oldest known animals have defensive armour, but 
 no offensive weapons, and suggesting that they were descendants of un- 
 armoured ancestors, in whom the appearance of predatory foes had devel- 
 oped modes of self-defense, i. e., the secretion of shell structure, which 
 compelled them to exchange a free swimming life for rest at the sea bottom, 
 j ust as afterwards the secretion of the internal skeleton was acquired, he 
 assumes that the unarmoured ancestry could leave no traces of their exist- 
 ence, i. e., no fossils in the Huronian. But no one will dispute that life 
 commenced at some date or other. Why not then in post Huronian times? 
 . fSee the Reports of Brooks, Rominger and others, who differ widely in 
 their arrangement of the series. 
 
 Jlrving, p. 190. 
 
 Irving, pp. 190, 191. Some of the greenstones are evidently contempo- 
 raneous lava beds now regularly interstratified ; others are as evidently 
 later lava dykes. As for the Marquette jaspery iron ores, the earlier geol-
 
 THE HURONIAN SYSTEM, 155 
 
 Sir W. E. Logan's description of the Huronian section 
 from the survey of Mr. Murray in 1847, '48 and '49, is as 
 follows :* 
 
 The group consists of siliceous slates and slate con- 
 glomerates, holding pebbles of syenite ; sandstones some- 
 times showing ripple-marks, some of the sandstones pale- 
 red green ; and quartzose conglomerates, in which blood- 
 red jasper pebbles become largely mingled with those of 
 white quartzite, and in great mountain masses predominate 
 over them ; the series intersected and interstratified with 
 greenstone trap, and computed to be about 10,000 feet 
 thick ; a copper-bearing formation, etc. To this must be 
 added from other descriptions of it its distinctive features : 
 Chloritic schists, crystalline limestones andsulpher-copper 
 ores ; its sandstones all in the condition of quartzize, and a 
 total absence of fossil forms. 
 
 ogists saw in them eruptive outbursts with a flow-lamination ; a view lately 
 revived by Whitney and Wadsworth. Most subsequent geologists have 
 looked upon them as iron-silica sediments. They differ from all known 
 lavas in being so nearly a pure silica ; and it seems impossible to imagine a 
 molten flow of free silica in presence of free oxide of iron. If they be sedi- 
 iments, the question arises whether they were chemical or mechanical sed- 
 iments. The latter view finds its support in the loose magnetic sand deposits 
 on the shore of the lower St. Lawrence, of the Pacific coast and elsewhere, 
 and in the constitution of the magnetite ore beds of New Jersey. (See also 
 J alien's "Genesis, etc., in Eng. and Min. Jour. N. Y., Feb. 2, 1884.) Irving 
 c-annot accept the eruptive origin of the Marquette jaspery ores because they 
 graduate from pure sediments into highly contorted and confused masses ; 
 but chiefly because magnetite sediments have been discovered in the 
 Huronian quartzite series in Wisconsin and along the northwest coast of 
 Lake Superior. Here the Animikie series (Huronian) are quite undis- 
 turbed and undoubtedly sedimentary. He agrees with N. H. Winchell 
 that some of the Animikie magnetic ores occur in eruptive gabbro lavas, 
 in isolated masses, and also disseminated ; but they bear no resemblance to 
 the Huronian jaspery ores. (See 10th An. Rt G. Sur. Minnesota, pp. 88, 83.) 
 The silica of much of the jasper ore is purely crystalline quartz; but much 
 of it is amorphous (chalcedony). Many of the great belts of ore-bearing 
 rocks of the Menomonee seem mainly composed of chalcedony, which 
 Irving thinks is an original formation, but Wadsworth eruptive. But the oc- 
 currence of huge angular jaspery and chalcedonic fragments in the con- 
 glomerate beds overlying the Vermillion Lake iron belt shows that the 
 jasper and chalcedony beds existed in that form before the deposits of the 
 quartzites overlying them. They may represent the "chert beds" in Logan's 
 original section. Irving, p. 193. ) 
 
 *Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Science, Aug., 1857.
 
 150 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Another description of it* is more precise and elab- 
 orate. By this it would appear that the beds first depos- 
 ited were white sand, 500 feet in thickness ; then, mag- 
 nesian mud, 2,000 feet; then, white sand, 1,000'; gravel, 
 sand and mud, 1,280'; limestone, 300'; gravel, sand and 
 mud, 3,000'; red sand and gravel, 2.300'; red jasper gravel, 
 2,150'; white sand, 2,970'; limestone, sand and sinter, 400'; 
 white sand, 1,500; limestone, 200', and over all, white 
 sand again, 400', the whole amounting to 18,000 ; but this 
 includes a great thickness of interst ratified greenstone trap. 
 
 What first attracts attention is the vast quantity of stuff 
 deposited in this ancient Huronian lake or sea or arm of the 
 ocean, whatever it was ; 18,000 feet in all. a thickness of 
 strata equal to three miles of vertical depth. Secondly, the 
 great preponderance in quantity of sand and gravel, 15,000 
 feet in all, over the quantity of finer muds, 2,000 feet, of 
 limestone, 900 feet ; indicating the force of the rivers which 
 brought the materials to the shore. Thirdly, the alterna- 
 tion of coarse and fine deposits, representing, as is sup- 
 posed, alternate risings and fallings of the sea level, and 
 consequent retreatings and advancings of the shore line ; 
 for gravel is reckoned a shore deposit, sand and mud an off- 
 shore deposit, and limestone a deep-sea deposit. But we 
 have still much to learn on this subject. In any case, such 
 alternations bear witness to repeated and considerable 
 changes in geography during the deposit of these 18, 000 feet 
 of strata ; and it behooves us to get some probable explan- 
 ation of the cause of such changes, and some conception, 
 however imperfect, of their geographical extent, 
 
 It is notable that at least one-fourth of the whole 18,- 
 000 feet of strata is reputed to be made up of volcanic 
 materials. If so, it is plain to see that the land and sea and 
 air were greatly disturbed -by fiery phenomena on a grand 
 scale, producing frequent changes in the sea bottom, coast 
 line and drainage system of that district. 
 
 Probably then other districts were subjected to similar 
 vicissitudes of land and sea, each district attending to its 
 
 *Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest, N. H. Winchell, Address before 
 Section E, Amer. Ass. Ad. Sci., Sept. 4, 1884.
 
 THE HURONIAN SYSTEM. 157 
 
 own local and peculiar geological business, of a kind per- 
 haps very different from that of the Huronian rock section 
 cited above, and yet contemporaneous. 
 
 It would also follow that there must have been a uni- 
 versal, irregular, changing floor upon which, in many parts 
 of the earth's surface at the same time, sediments local in 
 their origin, local in their destination, and special in their 
 nature were dumped into standing water, in variable quan- 
 tities, at variable rates, under varying conditions and in a 
 variable order. We know of no such floor if it be not rep- 
 resented at the present surface here and there by the areas 
 of hornblendic granite and gneiss rocks ; whether these be 
 considered as the cooled and crystallized original crust- 
 matter of the globe, or whether they be looked upon as most 
 ancient sediments metamorphosed or recrystallized. Now, 
 any sediments deposited upon the floor anywhere would 
 necessarily lie unconformably upon the older gneisses; and 
 therefore the first of the three questions proposed above 
 was there a historic break between the end of the Laurentian 
 age and the beginning of the Huronian age ? would seem 
 to be answered in the affirmative. But the answer is 
 purely theoretical and does not help us a whit, unless we 
 can convict the lowest bed which shows itself in the Lake 
 Huron country of being really and truly the first and 
 bottom bed deposited upon that part of the granite floor. 
 Of this fact there is up to the present time no proof ; nor is 
 it known with an approach to certainty how the Huronian 
 strata lie upon the Laurentian rocks ; nor whether the so- 
 called upper Laurentian series, with its limestones, be not 
 a continuation downwards, or even sideways, of the Huron- 
 ian strata. 
 
 In the midst of such uncertainties the term Huronian 
 must be used simply as a proper and private name for a 
 series of rocks exposed along that part of the northern 
 boundary of the United States. Should a similar series ap- 
 pear in some other region and be called Huronian on ac- 
 count of the resemblance, the name would have no time- 
 nalue whatever ; unless we should imagine that in a so- 
 called Huronian age the whole surface of the planet was
 
 158 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 stuccoed with a certain formation ; and received successive 
 coats of other kinds of rock in after ages. And in fact this 
 is a popular view, but absolutely false. For, ocean sedi- 
 ments depend for their character upon the kind of country 
 rocks through which the rivers flow which bring the sedi- 
 ments down to the sea coasts. It is impossible for the sed- 
 iments of two water basins to be of the same character 
 unless the geology of them both should be the same ; and 
 if two such similarly-situated water basins are filled suc- 
 cessively, one after the other, then the similarity of their 
 deposits cannot make them of the same age. 
 
 In like manner the most dissimilar series of formations 
 are known to be of the same age ; because brought by dif- 
 ferent rivers or groups of rivers from back countries of 
 quite different characters. What is happening to-day has 
 happened in all ages. Nothing could be more unlike than 
 the deposits now forming along the various ocean shores, 
 and in different lakes and inland seas ; yet they are all of 
 one age. Even the deposits making in one and the same 
 basin radically differ ; as, for example, along the northern 
 and the southern sides of Lake Ontario ; and along the 
 eastern and western sides of Lake Champlain. It would 
 therefore seem a useless task to seek for the Huronian 
 rocks far from their native range. And in point of fact the 
 task whenever attempted has been unsuccessful. If Huron- 
 ian strata existed elsewhere, it would be around the Lau- 
 rentian mass of the Adirondack mountains in northern 
 New York. But they are not to be found there. To say 
 that they once covered the granite and the gneiss of that 
 country, but have been removed, would be to beg the 
 question. It is not to be imagined that 18,000 or even 
 10,000 feet of such rocks could be removed without leaving 
 a trace behind. The small exhibition of specular iron ore 
 and slate in St. Lawrence county cannot be accepted as an 
 equivalent of the Huronian system merely because it 
 underlies the Potsdam sandstone and suggests the Mar- 
 quette ores; especially in the 'face of the fact that Mar- 
 quette iron ores are not represented in the section along 
 Lake Huron ; nor do they immediately underlie the Pots- 
 dam sandstone on Lake Superior.
 
 THE HURONIAN SYSTEM. lf)9 
 
 Another region where we should expect the Huronian 
 series to appear is the region of the Highlands in southern 
 New York, northern New Jersey and eastern Pennsyl- 
 vania ; but they are nowhere to be seen in their supposed 
 intermediate position between the Old gneiss rocks arid the 
 overlying fossiliferous sediments. 
 
 On the eastern side of the extension of this Highland 
 range through Massachusetts and Vermont into Canada 
 there is a narrow belt of so-called Huronian rocks, running 
 along through Halifax, Marlboro', Townsend, Andover, 
 Plymouth and Stockbridge counties in Vermont, gradually 
 widening towards the Canada line and appearing on both 
 sides of the central belt of gneiss.* Another belt further 
 east commences in Norwich county on the west bank of the 
 Connecticut river, widening and crossing to the eastern side 
 of the river before reaching Canada. But there is nothing 
 to show that these formations have anything to do in ori- 
 gin, time or character with those of Lake Huron. "The 
 name Huronian is used," says Prof. Hitchcock, "-as a mat- 
 ter of convenience to designate all the various schists of 
 chlorite and argillite aspect overlying the gneisses, and in- 
 ferior to the Cambrian, so far as known." ''In southern 
 New Hampshire the argillite, quartzose and micaceous di- 
 visions predominate nearly to the exclusion of thechloritic 
 schists, which, with the characteristic dolomite, is seen in 
 Raymond and Derry. Steatite occurs in it at Francestown 
 in the ferruginous slates, and in the mica schists of Derry." 
 
 The Green mountain Highland crystalline rock range of 
 Vermont is extended into Canada under the name of the 
 Mountains of Notre Dame for 150 miles, being 30 miles 
 wide at the Vermont line, 12 where the St. Frances river 
 breaks through it, and 12 on the river Chaudiere ; rising to 
 heights of 3,000 feet above tide, and sinking south of the 
 Isle d' Orleans beneath the sedimentary strata, to rise again 
 250 miles further on as the Shickshonk mountain range, 60 
 miles long and 3,000 feet high, ending eastward at the river 
 
 *See description of XIII sections crossing N. H. and Vermont, by Prof. C. 
 H. Hitchcock, Concord, N. H., 1884, and on page 14.
 
 1'60 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 St. Anne in the river Gaspe peninsula.* The range is de- 
 scribed asf made up of clayslates, micaceous, talcose and 
 chloritic schists (often with much epidote); interstratified 
 iron-bearing magnesiau limestones, soapstones and serpen- 
 tines ; quartzites ; and massive diallagic, hornblendic, py- 
 roxenic and feldspathic rocks; with beds of magnetic, specu- 
 lar, titanic and chromic iron ore, beds of sulphuret of cop- 
 per and native gold. 
 
 Now, are these exceedingly various kinds of azoic rocks 
 arranged in any constant order of superposition to one an- 
 other, and does the order as seen in Canada correspond to 
 their order in Vermont, in New York, in New Jersey, in 
 Pennsylvania? Such a fact, so essential to the proper 
 writing of a history of events in the Azoic age, has never 
 been made out by any geologist. The catalogue of rocks 
 mentioned above includes all the principal kinds of pure 
 and mixed sands, pure and mixed clays, pure and mixed 
 lime-mads, argillaceous, siliceous, calcareous, magnesian, 
 sulphurous, ferruginous, cupriferous, which might be ex- 
 pected from the drainage of any primeval region of the 
 fundamental earth-crust, anywhere, at any time, in any 
 water basin, large or small ; subsequently more or less al- 
 tered by the influence of heat and pressure through an in- 
 definitely protracted length of time. For, it must be kept 
 in mind, that these sediments lay originally miles beneath 
 their present level as respects the present sea level, and 
 were covered with*a world of later sedimentary strata, 
 fragments of which remain to tell the tale ; for example, a 
 piece of the Mohawk formation on the top of Mt. Eolus in 
 Vermont, and some Niagara and Helderburg strata in Bar- 
 nardston on the Connecticut river. No structural geologist 
 can persuade himself that the Catskill formation stopped at 
 the Hudson river, or that the Coal measures of the Schuylkill 
 and Lehigh were not originally continuous with those of 
 Rhode Island. All the formations of middle Pennsylvania 
 were therefore at one time piled upon New England, which 
 involves the statement just made that the Green mountain 
 
 *See Report E, page 83. 
 fldem, p. 85.
 
 THE HUEONIAN SYSTEM. 161 
 
 rocks were miles below their present surface, and subject to 
 a constant temperature twice as great as that of boiling 
 water, and a constant pressure of 40,000 pounds to the 
 square inch, a pressure growing lighter of course as the 
 superincumbent mass was gradually removed in course of 
 time ; leaving them in their present crystalline condition ; 
 a condition therefore not to be explained wholly by refer- 
 ence to their creation in any particular age, Huronian or 
 otherwise.* 
 
 The opportunity for the removal of the superimposed 
 strata, and for the erosion of a part of the crystalline rocks 
 themselves, was afforded by an upthrust along the whole 
 range from Reading in Pennsylvania to the shore of the 
 St. Lawrence, irregular in its details, of unknown cause 
 and of unknown date ; producing a long and narrow arch, 
 the sides of which were so compressed as to complicate the 
 crown of the arch with minor folds, as seen in the Durham 
 hills upon the Delaware, in the Highlands of New Jersey 
 and New York upon the Hudson, and the sections made 
 across Vermont. The body of the arch is underground ; its 
 crown, appearing at the present surface, consists of the so- 
 called Older Gneiss. On its two flanks should appear the 
 upper members of the crystalline series. But in point of 
 fact, along its northwestern side much later strata lean 
 against the arch ; and the various crystalline schists and 
 slates, micaceous and magnesian, the serpentines and 
 soapstones, the talcs and chlorites, the chrome and gold and 
 copper-bearing rocks, which are called the upper members 
 of the series, seem to be confined to its southeastern flank 
 and are spread abroad through the regions which lie in that 
 direction. With all our efforts we cannot comprehend it ; 
 for the true nature of that first great movement has been 
 almost entirely concealed from our inspection, and masked 
 by the consequences of other more or less similar subse- 
 quent derangements of the ancient state of things along 
 the Atlantic seaboard. The confusion and obscurity which 
 
 *lt remains to be explained however why the lowest Palaeozoic strata are 
 not more and more generally crystalline, although subjected to part of the 
 same load. 
 11
 
 162 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 characterize the literature of the geology of all New Eng- 
 land, the several states of which have been studied by emi- 
 nent geologists for half a century, the conflict kept up 
 between the advocates of the sedimentary stratification and 
 the advocates of the volcanic or plutonic outflow of the 
 granitic and gneissic rocks, and the irreconcilable differ- 
 ences of arrangement of its rock masses and rock belts as 
 well- characterized formations in sequence of time, prove 
 how little is yet known of the geological history of the 
 Azoic age or ages in America. 
 
 It cannot be wondered at then that the difficulties en- 
 countered in New England should be felt with equal force 
 in studying the azoic areas of New Jersey and Pennsyl- 
 vania, and that the geologists of these states should refuse 
 to use the names applied to New England and Canadian 
 rocks until their validity be better shown. The application 
 of local names to distant regions under such circum- 
 stances can only be a delusion and a snare. In the case of 
 unaltered well-stratified and fossil-bearing deposits a name 
 can safely be allowed to follow a geographical outcrop to 
 any distance ; but even then, as will be shown further on, 
 the difference of character and thickness which one and the 
 same continuous formation exhibits when traced for hun- 
 dreds of miles makes the use of the name first given to it 
 in one locality of delicate and doubtful propriety else- 
 where, especially when the name is intended to indicate the 
 special geological age in which the sediment was deposited. 
 
 The supposed English equivalents. 
 
 In 1879, Hicks read his paper on a new group of Pre- 
 Cambrian Rocks (the Arvonian) in Pembrokeshire, before 
 the Feb. 5 meeting of the Geological Society of London.* 
 This paper gave rise to a controversy which has thus far 
 shown no abatement ; but on the contrary has drawn into 
 its vortex most of the geologists on both sides of the At- 
 lantic ; so that the peninsular of St. Davids has been the 
 typical battle-ground between those who multiply pre-Cam- 
 
 * Q. J. G. S. XXXV, ii, p. 285-294, with a little map.
 
 THE SUPPOSED ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS. 163 
 
 brian formations and those who refuse to classify them on 
 account of their obscurity. 
 
 The Arvon/an of Hicks are supposed to underlie the 
 Pebidian, which underlie the Cambrian. They are sup- 
 posed to rest upon the Dimetian (Laurentian) gneiss ; 
 and therefore to be the equivalents of the Huronian in 
 America, and of the HaUeflinta series in Scandinavia ; sed- 
 imentary beds ; the rock being a "micro- crystalline mass of 
 quartz grains with some intersticial light-gray substance 
 having but little action on polarized light ; but the chief 
 peculiarity consists in the manner in which the quartz is 
 separated away into nests, so as to give that curious por- 
 phyritic appearance ; the grains so compressed to- 
 gether (and yet distinctly fragmentary) that all other 
 material is removed and nests of pure quartz grains only 
 
 are seen having a very crystalline appearance ; 
 
 the darker material is brought together and made to fold 
 round the nests, so that a banded or imperfect flow- 
 structure is given to the rock .... as if an incipient 
 gneiss was being formed," etc. Fragments of these halle- 
 flinta beds are said to be found in the Pebidian measures, 
 which are therefore accounted of later age and seem to rest 
 against the Arvonian everywhere unconformably.* The 
 different characters of the three formations are thus stated : 
 
 Pebidian ; (a) micaceous, talcose and chloritic schists, 
 with slaty and massive green bands containing epidote, 
 serpentine, etc.;f (b) tuffs, indurated ashy shales, breccias, 
 silvery schists, porcellanites, conglomerates and agglom- 
 erates. 
 
 Arvonian; breccias, halleflintas and quartz-felsites4 
 
 Dimetian; quartzose rocks, granitoid gneiss, and com- 
 pact granitoid rocks with bands of crystalline limestone 
 (LaurentianT). 
 
 Dr. Hicks read at the same meeting another paper on the 
 pre Cambrian (Dimetian, Arvonian and Pebidian) rocks 
 
 *See Hicks' previous paper in the Q. J. G. S. XXXIV, p. 153. 
 
 f These correspond somewhat to our South Valley Hill rocks. 
 
 t These are supposed by Hunt (T. S.) to correspond to our South mount- 
 ain rocks, in Adams county, soutn of the Chambersburg-Gettysburg turn- 
 pike. See his Report of Progress E.
 
 164 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 in Caernarvonshire and Anglesea as a sequel to his paper 
 of December, 1877, Q. J. G. S., XXXIV, p. 147) in which he 
 describes his re-examination of the district in company of 
 Prof. Torrell of Stockholm, Mr. Tawney and Prof. Hughes 
 of Cambridge, and Dr. T. Sterry Hunt of Montreal, and the 
 evidences they obtained of the reality of the distinction and 
 order of time ascribed to the three great formations. The 
 paper contains a map of the country from Holyhead to Port- 
 madoc, and Prof. T. G. Bonney's description of micro- 
 scopic rock sections.* 
 
 Prof. Bonney, however, read at the same meeting a paper 
 on the Quartz-felsites of Caernarvonshire, in which he de- 
 cidedly rejected on microscopic grounds the views of Dr. 
 Hicks and Prof. Hughes about their sedimentary and met- 
 amorphic origin, and affirmed that they have the character- 
 istic features of fluid igneous rocks (rhyolites], lavas of 
 Cambrian age ; of which he gives six remarkable pictures 
 (pi. 13, p. 320) showing the internal flow-structure, mag- 
 nified 50 diameters ; also a cross-section (with one great 
 anticlinal and one great synclinal) of (5) Pebidian rocks ; 
 purple slates resting on (4) green slaty grits; on (3) grits 
 and conglomerate beds ; on (2) lower conglomerates inter- 
 banded with green slates ; on (1) green slates not less than 
 3,000' thick, cut off from the (supposed older) quartz-felsite 
 group by a greenstone dyke. 
 
 * Q. J. G. S., XXXV, p. 295-308.
 
 NO. I. CHIQUES SANDSTONE. 165 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Formation No. 1 ; Chiques sandstone ; Hellam quartzite 
 of York county ; North Valley Hill sandstone of Ches- 
 ter county ; White Spot sandstone at Reading ; " P< ts- 
 dam sandstone" of the Reports of Progress; Upper 
 Cambrian quartzite of Walcott ; Sugarloaf sandstone of 
 Maryland. 
 
 It is best to get rid of the old name "Potsdam sand 
 stone" at the outset of a description of this the long con- 
 sidered oldest of our fossiliferous formations ; for there 
 seems to be no satisfactory evidence that the proper Pots- 
 dam sandstone of the Canada Line and Lake Champlain 
 extended as far south as southern Pennsylvania ; although 
 it seems to be traceable into the northwestern states.* It 
 is possible however that the friable sandstone beds of 
 Sand -Ridge in Nittany Valley, east of Bellfonte, Centre 
 county, may represent the New York Potsdam. They un- 
 derlie the Chazy and Trenton, as the fossils show ; but they 
 have limestones beneath them, as the South Ore Mine bo- 
 rings show.f 
 
 Chiques sandstone is not only the oldest name for our 
 formation No. I, but expresses the locality of its finest ex- 
 posure, the great rock mass which towers above the east 
 bank of the Susquehanna, for a mile above Columbia, and 
 ends abruptly at the Haldeman mansion and iron furnaces, 
 
 *The identification was based upon two facts, first that it lay almost im- 
 mediately underneath the great lime&tone formations (Calciferous, Chazy, 
 Trenton); second, that it contained worm burrows (Scolit/ius). But curi- 
 ously enough diligent search for Scolithus at the Potsdam village outcrops 
 have failed to find it; whereas Scolithus is very abundant in the Cambrian 
 quartzites, at different horizons, in eastern New York, and in various places 
 in Pennsylvania. 
 
 t E. V. d'Invillier's Report of Centre Co., T4, p. 31. See also Report T3, 
 p. 152, where M. Sanders' measurements on the Little Juniata make 5,400' of 
 upper limestone beds, about 40' of sandstone, and 1,160' of lower limestones, 
 bottom not reached.
 
 166 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 where Chiquesalunga (Chikiswalunga, as Haldem an spelled 
 it) creek enters the river.* 
 
 Hellam quartzite is a name adopted by Frazer in his" York 
 county report, C2, because of the extensive spread of the 
 formation over Hellam township, where several large quar- 
 ries work it out, and its characteristic Scolithus fossils are 
 exceedingly abundant and admirably exhibited in place. f 
 
 North Valley Hill rock is the popular name for the for- 
 mation in its long outcrop through Chester and Montgom- 
 ery counties, where it edges the Welsh Mountain region 
 and looks down upon the narrow limestone valley of Coates- 
 ville, Downingtown, Conshohocken and Willow Grove. 
 
 At the White Spot on the mountain behind Reading it 
 has been famous since the early settlement of the Great 
 Valley. But so far from being an unique occurrence, we 
 now known from the long and minute geological surveys of 
 Prime and d'Invilliers that the formation spreads over the 
 whole range of the Highlands of Berks, Lehigh and North - 
 hampton in discontinuous outcrops and isolated irregular 
 patches, between which the older gneisses show. It very 
 generally forms the north slopes of the range, facing the 
 Great Valley : and rises also in more than one place through 
 the limestones of the valley itself 4 
 
 Primal sandstone is the name of it always used by 
 Prof. Rogers in his Geology of Pennsylvania, 1858. And it 
 would be a good name but for the fact that it is not an ordi- 
 nary sandstone but a quartzite ; and for another fact, that 
 it seems to take its place as the last not the first of the 
 great quartzites, being probably in what Walcott calls his 
 Upper or Potsdam subdivision of the Cambrian system. 
 There is reason for believing that it overlies in York and 
 Adams the upper strata of the South Mountain and has 
 
 *See description and section by H. D. Rogers, in Geol. Pa. 1858, page 193. 
 Also Dr. Frazer's Report 03, plate 4, page 108, and plate 5, page 112, from 
 photographs of the cliffs. 
 
 fSee the figures in Prof. Wanner's contribution to the Annual Report for 
 1876, part . 
 
 | See the Index sheet of the great topographical map of the region by 
 Prime and d'Invilliers, and the county maps accompanying Reports D, D2 
 D3.
 
 NO. I. CHIQUES SANDSTONE. 167 
 
 nothing to do with the great quartzites of the Mount Holly 
 range on the Cumberland and Fayette side, except as be- 
 longing to the same Cambrian (or Huronian?) system.* 
 
 Prof. Rogers' lower primal slates are evidently Dr. 
 Frazer's phyllites.f 
 
 *In England the "Stiper Stones" of eastern Wales represents our Chiques 
 sandstone; a rocky formation 1,000' thick, vitrified by trap eruptions; 
 standing in picturesque pillars and castle-like masses of white crystalline 
 quartzite intersected by quartz veins ; passing geographically into coarse 
 grits and siliceous sandstone ; good road metal ; flagstones from a few inches 
 to 3' thick, separated by "way-boards" of sandy shale, or greenish white 
 unctuous clay ; ripple marked; showing casts of sea weeds (?) i. e. Cruzi- 
 ema, or Bilobites; also vertical worm-burrows (Scolithusa linearis) some- 
 times syphon-shaped at the bottom, and with trumpet-shaped mouths, (see 
 good picture of a slab on p. 41 of Murchison's Siluria, London, 1859); also 
 the characteristic shell lingula, in, over and beneath the Stiper Stone mass. 
 The Stiper Stone graduates downward into and in fact forms the upper part 
 of the Lingula flag formation. (See columnar section on p. 156 of Siluria.) 
 It graduates upward into the Llandeilo grey flags, slightly micaceous, 
 weathering brown (alternating with schistose darker beds) at least 3,000' 
 thick, and quite conformably overlying the Stiper Stones (Siluria, p. 48, 49). 
 The underlying Lingula flag formation {Upper Cambrian of Lyell) is 
 roughly divisible into upper, middle and lower ; the upper and lower full 
 of fossils, the middle almost destitute. (See Phillips' Manual, London, 
 1885, p. 45.) The upper and middle together are Sedgwick's Ffestiniog 
 group ; the lower is Salter and Hicks' Menevian group. 
 
 f Dr. Frazer says (General Notes, etc., Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., Dec. 
 4, 1885, page 398) : "There are no good exposures of the Hellam quartzite 
 with the slate below it at any place in York county which I recall. On the 
 flank of the South mountain the quartzite is very much rent and crushed 
 into fragments, while of the small patch on the map about two miles west of 
 Case's ore bank (No. 8 on the map) no accurate dip was recorded. The 
 quartzite, of which a part composes the "Chikis mountain," exhibits in- 
 deed in its numerous foldings the rock called by Rogers "talcose slate" be- 
 tween its two principal beds of quartzite, but not appreciably lower than 
 the latter." 
 
 The quartzite mass seemed to Prof. Rogers to be double where it makes 
 the river cliffs a mile below the mouth of the Codorus. Here an upper 
 quartzite mass of beds "are underlaid by a tolerably thick belt of striped 
 slates; this again by a succession of thick sandstone (quartzite) and slate, 
 the latter predominating until we reach the limestone at New Holland. 
 Sometimes the slates clip slightly north from the axis and sometimes they 
 are inverted or dip towards it. Haifa mile above the furnace on Codorus 
 creek the compact white sandstone dips N, 60." (Geol. Pa., Vol. 1, p. 193.) 
 But from the above description it is evident that the "sandstones and slates, 
 are not beneath, but above, the quartzites, as Dr. Frazer's map shows.
 
 168 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 No. I on the Susquehanna. 
 
 The Chiques quartzite is a very hard rock; of white or 
 grey color, often pinkish, brownish or blueish ; almost al- 
 ways crystalline ; and so brittle that the disturbed strata 
 have a smashed and confused appearance, sometimes leav- 
 ing the spectator in doubt which way the beds really strike 
 or dip at the special point of observation, although the run 
 of the outcrop as a whole is marked by a ridge of ground 
 more or less bold. 
 
 Prof. Rogers' description of the Chikis rock section from 
 Columbia up to Chikiswalung creek,- although not quite 
 comprehensible at one or two points, will serve to explain 
 the relationship of the exposed formations. SeeGeol. Pa., 
 Vol. 2, page 193. 
 
 From the old railroad engine house in Columbia to the 
 furnace (1,100') appear (1) for 250', magnesian limestone 
 crystalline, mottled, dipping 50, S. S. E., beds obscured by 
 cleavages ; (2) for 250', ferruginous olive slate baked hard, 
 cleft with oblique steep joints ; (3) for 400', magnesian lime- 
 stone, more sandy, crystalline, cleft, white and mottled. 
 These are the lowest beds of the great Lower Silurian (Or- 
 dovician) limestone formation No. II, forming the valley of 
 York and the plain of Lancaster. 
 
 From the furnace to a little north of the second ravine, 
 2,500', is a fine natural section of "Upper Primal Slates." 
 apparently dipping all southward at say an average of 4o, 
 but there is a small compressed double fold at the tunnel ; 
 total thickness possibly 1,800 feet, but probably much less, 
 judging by their thickness "in the North Valley Hill of 
 Lancaster and Chester." 
 
 Chiques Rock is the square west end of Chestnut Ridge, 
 which runs due east 4| miles to Hempfield P. O. A fine 
 section of the formation has been made by the river, and a 
 beautiful anticlinal arch is plainly seen at the foot of din's 
 by the side of the road.* But it is not so easy to make out 
 
 *Here a cave of erosion, of no great depth, was inhabited by men, aban- 
 doned, filled up, and re-excavated by Prof. S. S. Haldeman, who was re- 
 warded by finding a multitue of human implements, etc. See his paper in 
 the Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., Phila., with many plates and figures.
 
 NO. I ON THE SUSQUEHANNA. 169 
 
 the true structure at the north end where another and col- 
 lapsed and overthrown anticlinal was seen by Prof. Rog- 
 ers, *and only the south half of one by Dr. Frazer, the north 
 leg being lost in a fault, f 
 
 These primal slates are greatly altered, hard, olive green 
 inside, weathering dingy brown, excessively cleft, dips de- 
 creasing from 80 to 65 at the contact with the underlying 
 quartzite at the second ravine.:}: 
 
 Here a low, oblique, irregular arch of quartzite (500' 
 across) lifts the slates ; with two gentle waves on its south- 
 ern side ; and its northern side completely inverted, so that 
 the beds all dip southward, the arch being tightly com- 
 pressed. In and under the arch of quartzite appears an 
 arch of slates. The quartzite beds only measure in all 
 about 25', the underlying slates say 300'. 
 
 From the arch to Chikis creek is 3,000', with three quartz- 
 ite exposures ; in the first one the quartzite, 27' thick, 
 rises at 60 (S.) ; then the slates, 300' thick, rise at 50 (S.); 
 then the lower or main body of quartzite rises at 50 (S.), 
 turns over sharply and descends again vertical, only 20 feet 
 of the top beds of this lower quartzite appearing in the 
 arch, white, without joint or fracture or trace of cleavage, 
 
 *See Geol. Pa., 1858, Vol. 1, page 193. 
 
 fSee Report C3, 1880, page 108. 
 
 fThe metamorphistn of the slates and quartzites which Prof. Rogers de- 
 scribes falls far short of that of the newer and older gneisses; and this is of 
 itself a guarantee of inferior age. It is however an additional proof, if any 
 were required, that 50,000 feet of the Palaeozoic formations, Ordovician, Silu- 
 rian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian, have been removed by erosion 
 from the York and Lancaster county region. The center line of the Dau- 
 phin county coal basin is only thirty miles distant (N.) from Cbickis Rock. 
 The forward thrust of the whole country shifted all the geological localities 
 out of Maryland into Pennsylvania. The movement took place upon the 
 floor of the gneiss, after the gneiss floor had lost more or less of its own 
 mass by previous erosion. Consequently it must have already suffered some 
 metainorphism by heat and pressure before the quartzite and primal slate 
 were deposited. The added palaeozoic time, heat and pressure increased 
 the gneiss metainorphism. 
 
 The pressure and heat to which Chikis rock was subjected at the close of 
 the Permian age amounted to say 50,000 tons to the square yard (90,000 Ibs. 
 to the square inch), at a temperature of more than 1,000 Fahrentheit; 600 
 being the melting point of lead, and 4,000 of iron. The metamorphic pro- 
 cess was consequently one of slow baking, under enormous pressure, in- 
 creasing through all the palaeozoic ages, reaching its maximum at the end.
 
 170 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 the bedding barely discernable, but showing how plastic 
 it must have been to submit to such a lap while retaining 
 its solidity. The arch of overlying slates up the hill sides 
 is pressed into a sharp crest, and is full of cleavage. 
 
 A third "grand waving" arcli at the north end of the 
 rocks brings up the lower main body of quartzite, making 
 the fine cliffs back of the Haldeman mansion. The arch 
 at the road is 1,000' across. Its top shows two synclinal 
 waves. Its south beds dip 30 and then 45 (S.). Its north 
 beds plunge vertical, and probably bend back underground, 
 and rest their broken ends on the sides of the south dip- 
 ping limestones of the valley, as seen just across the creek. 
 Here the cleavage plains dip steeply N". Everywhere else 
 steeply S. about 80 
 
 The lower quartzite (with intercalated slate bands) can- 
 not be closely measured, but seems to be about 300'. 
 
 Some of the middle and lower quartzite beds are crowded 
 with Scolilhus Unearis, which are all nearly straight, and 
 sometimes furnished with a little knob at one end. This 
 knob is the cast of the funnel-shaped mouth of the worm's 
 burrow ; the best illustration of which is given by Walcott 
 on plate LXIII of his Monograph on the Olenellus Fauna 
 of the Lower Cambrian, published by the U. S. Geological 
 Survey, in 1891. 
 
 Dr. Frazer's general description of it as it exhibits itself 
 two miles north of Wrightsville ; in fragments on the sum- 
 mits of the range of hills from York to the Susquehanna ; 
 on Shunk's hill just south of York ; on the Pigeon hills 
 (line of York and Adams); in the outcrop three miles north 
 of Hanover Junction ; and on the south flank of the South 
 mountains, especially in Adams county ; is as follows : "a 
 very fine grained and compact rock, exhibiting generally 
 heavy bedding and joints of cleavage, the latter frequently 
 rendering its structure difficult to represent, awing to the 
 confusion arising from the surface planes. Its prevailing 
 color is flesh red or wine yellow, but it is sometimes beau- 
 tifully white." (02, page 108.) 
 
 An analysis of Chikis rock, by Mr. McCreath, shows :
 
 THE CHIQUES RIDGE FAULT. 171 
 
 silicic oxide, 97.100; ferric oxide, 1.250; alumina, 1,390; 
 lime, 0.179 ; magnesia, 0.129; total, 100.148.* 
 
 The Chiques Ridge fault. 
 
 Along the north side of the Chiques Ridge runs the 
 south edge of the great limestone formation (Calciferols 
 Ila] of the Lebanon Valley. Along its south slope runs 
 a belt of hydromica slate 3 miles long; south of which 
 again runs a belt of the limestone under Columbia and 
 Mountville ; then a belt of the slate from Washington 
 Manor, east northeast, 3 miles ; then a belt of limestone ; 
 then the phyllite area ; then the gneiss. The two lime- 
 stone belts widen out into the great Lancaster limestone 
 plain. It is logical to consider them synclinal belts, sup- 
 ported on the hydromicas ; these supported by the Chiques 
 quartzite ; this by the phyllite formation ; this by the 
 gneiss of the Tocquan anticlinal. 
 
 If then the hydromica belt first mentioned ends in a 
 point (east) against the south side of the quartzite, and 
 does not encircle the east end, nor appear on the north side 
 of the quartzite belt (see Frazer 1 s Lancaster Co. map), the 
 natural explanation (although a very unsatisfactory one) 
 must be got by supposing faults. 
 
 A fault, however, undoubtedly ranges along the north- 
 ern foot of the Chiques ridge, between the limestone and 
 the quartzite, whether the quartzite beds simply are thrown 
 steeply upward (north) against the fault, or are doubled 
 over and crowded back downward into the fault. In the 
 former case we have an ancient basset edge wall of quartz- 
 
 *I well remember my astonishment, many years ago, when my dear old 
 friend John F. Frazer, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Penn- 
 sylvania, told me that he had just analyzed a specimen of Chikis rock sent 
 to him by our common friend, S. S. Haldeman, and found that it was not at 
 all a quartzite, but a silicate of lime. I never got an explanation of this cu- 
 rious adventure. Probably the specimen had been changed, and was not 
 from Chikis rock. Possibly there may be beds in the mass of the compo- 
 sition of which we are ignorant. Dr. Frazer adds that a quartzite from Geo. 
 Keller's farm, through which magnetite crystals are disseminated, is so 
 compact that its grains cannot be distinctly separated under a high power 
 lens; but that small irregular patches of limonite intersect the mass; while 
 in polarized light separate systems of concentric colored rings mark each 
 original quartz fragment. (02, page 108.)
 
 172 . GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 ite (facing north) now represented by the long line of fine 
 cliffs against which the river impinges at the mouth of the 
 Codorus, is deflected east along its base, five miles, to the 
 mouth of the Chiquesalunga, and then breaks through it to 
 Columbia. The line of the river proves the fault ; the rock 
 cliffs over the Haldeman mansion exhibit it. 
 
 Now, the slates along the south flank of the quartzite 
 ridge cross the river just above Wrightsville, edge the 
 south side of the triangular quartzite area in Hellam town- 
 ship, turn the west point of the triangle, and make its 
 northwest border back to the river, down the Codorus to 
 its mouth. 
 
 The geographical proof that the slates overlie the quartz- 
 ite is complete ; and establishes the correctness of Prof. 
 Rogers' upper primal slate formation. 
 
 The geological evidence is equally conclusive ; for the 
 general dip in the Chiques rocks is southward, under the 
 slates ; and of the slates southward under the limestone. 
 
 It is possible that the slates do actually crop out along 
 the north foot of Chiques rock ; for there is a concealed in- 
 terval of half a mile between the limestone and the quartzite 
 along the railroad, although in the bed of the river, at very 
 low water, Dr. Frazer says the two can bejseen only say 100 
 yards apart. But as the dips are nearly vertical, this in- 
 terval may mean nearly 300 feet of slate, even supposing 
 none of the slates are swallowed by the fault.* 
 
 There can be no doubt about the anticlinal structure of 
 Chiques ridge ; for, after running a straight east course for 
 eight miles, and losing itself beneath the Lancaster lime- 
 
 *C3, page 108. The first quartzite beds are seen dipping a little E. of S., 
 nearly vertical, for a distance of about 1,400 feet down from the creek. 
 About 300 feet further south dips of 44 (southward) begin and continue200 
 feet. The next 500 feet is a synclinal trough holding chloritic and hydro- 
 mica schists ( Upper Primal slate) ; the basin being collapsed and over- 
 thrown, showing south dips of 48, 34, and then south dips of 70, 65. 
 The next 1.600 feet is occupied by a broad anticlinal (broken in on the crown) 
 with one plain S. 35 E. dip of 50 (at 700'), another N. 65 W. dip of 78 
 (at 1,000'), another S. 35 E, dip of 74 (1,250'), and another S. 30 E. dip of 
 76 (at 1,450.) Then descend the same hydro-mica schists with dips of S. 
 70 E. (!) 21, S. 23 E. 60, and S. 35 E. 50 (for 200' to Henry Clay fur- 
 nace=U5' of slates). Here an intercalated quartzite of peculiar aspect, S. 
 24 E. 24. Then come more hydro-mica for 800', and so on down the river.
 
 NO. I EAST OF THE LANCASTER PLAIN. 173 
 
 stone plain, it reappears seventeen miles further on, upon 
 the same due-east course, at Laurel Hill, and begins to 
 spread around the Welsh mountain gneiss region into 
 Chester and Berks counties. 
 
 That it underlies the Lancaster limestone plain goes with- 
 out saying ; but we have visible testimony to the fact in the 
 shape of two outcrops near Manheim, 4 miles north of Lan- 
 caster, of oval form, each a ring of quartzite and slate 
 around a core of gneiss, and probably marking an elevated 
 point or hump high enough to reach the present surface 
 on the crest of one of those sharp collapsed or overturned 
 anticlinal rolls which pervade the whole underground of the 
 Lancaster plain. 
 
 No. I east of the Lancaster plain. 
 
 From Laurel Hill one belt of it extends along the north 
 flank of the Welsh mountains E. N. E. 12 miles to the ex- 
 treme east point of the county, and thence along the Berks- 
 Chester county line, partly in Berks, partly in Chester, 10 
 miles further, and is then, before it reaches the Schuylkill, 
 covered by the Trias. 
 
 The other belt passes south of the Welsh mountain, and 
 occupies in Chester county much of the surface of West 
 Cain and Sadsbury townships ; with three outlying smaller 
 areas in West and East Brandywine and Wallace. From 
 Sadsbury a continuous belt of it runs east northeast for 25 
 miles, through Valley, Cain, East Cain, Uwychlan, West 
 and East Whiteland, Charlestown and Tredyffrin town- 
 ships to the Schuylkill river at Valley Forge, where it is 
 covered by the Trias. 
 
 This is the well-known North Valley Hill, bordering the 
 Chester or (Downingtown) limestone valley on the north. 
 
 In all these outcrops of Lancaster and Chester counties 
 (except the three outlines above mentioned) the belt of 
 quartzite and slate runs between the gneiss and the lime- 
 stone, overlying the gneiss and underlying the limestone. 
 The reason of tlie exceptional cases is evident ; erosion has 
 removed the limestone from the quartzite patches, which
 
 174 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 are themselves only remnants of a once universal outspread 
 of cjuartzite over the gneiss.* 
 
 In Montgomery county, the North Valley Hill belt of 
 quartzite undoubtedly continues beneath the Schuylkill 
 valley, on the same nearly east course, nearly to the Bucks 
 county line ; for we see it issuing from beneath the south 
 edge of the Trias in a series of four anticlinal spurs, or very 
 low hills, which sink diagonally (E. S. E.) beneath the 
 limestone of the valley, f Beyond the last spur the belt 
 itself issues from beneath the Trias at Fort Washington, 
 on the North Penn RR., and runs on six miles into More- 
 land township. Here it ends, spooning to a point and then 
 sweeping round the east spoon-point of the limestone (2 m. 
 E. of Pinetown) it returns westward as the south border of 
 the limestone to the Schuylkill at Conshohocken4 
 
 * Even in the case of the two uplifts of quartzite at Manheim, above-men- 
 tioned, they have the shape of rings around a nucleus of gneiss. And in 
 one place, near Green Bank P. O., 4 miles east of Laurel Hill, Lancaster 
 county, the area of quartzite is broken through by a surface patch of gneiss. 
 
 f This system of diagonal quartzite anticlinals separated by limestone syn- 
 clinals is a most curious phenomenon. Dr. Frazer has shown that it con- 
 tinues in force along the quartzite belt of Chester county. It proves a 
 widespread pressure movement in a N. N. E. direction ; and the movement 
 must be of a late date if we are to explain by it the astonishing anticlinal 
 and synclinal structure of the Trias country of Bucks "and Montgomery dis- 
 covered by Mr. B. S. Lyman and exhibited on his forthcoming geological 
 map of those countiea (Aug., 1871.) 
 
 J Here the South Valley Hill begins and runs west into Lancaster county. 
 We should of course suppose that this southern barrier of the synclinal 
 limestone valley would be made by the quartzite. But it is made of hydro- 
 mica slate.. Repeated reports have been made during the last fifty years of 
 the discovery of the quartzite ("Potsdam sandstone") at various points 
 along the South Valley Hill ; and no doubt specimens of quartzite have been 
 picked up, and even thin outcrops of thin quartzite beds among the slates 
 have been seen. But these amount to nothing. They cannot be accepted as 
 expressing with any certainty the reappearance of the North Valley Hill 
 belt on the South Valley Hill side of the limestone. It looks as if the North 
 Valley Hill rocks descend against a great fault, running along the foot of 
 the South Valley Hill and are there entirely cut off by it, probably thrown by 
 it (in company with the lower limestone beds) high into the air on the Del- 
 aware side of the fault 
 
 Now it is just at Conshohocken that the Schuylkill river breaks out of the 
 Chester county limestone valley to find its way to the sea, viz., in the short 
 interval between the east end of the hydro-mica belt of the South Valley 
 Hill coming from the west, and the west end of the southern quartzite out- 
 crop coming from the east. What does this mean ? Surely it is an added
 
 NO. I. IN THE CHESTER VALLEY. 175 
 
 In a previous chapter has been given Mr. C. E. Hall's de- 
 scription of a belt of vertical quartzites running along the 
 south edge of Bear Ridge (older gneiss) from near Jenkin- 
 town, in Montgomery, to near Morrisville, in Bucks, in a 
 straight E. N. E. line about 16 miles long, with adjoining 
 outcrops of vertical limestone beds (in Huntingdon valley). 
 Here the quartzite (called 60 years ago eurite) is a sort of 
 itacolumite, although it scarcely at all exhibits the peculiar 
 flexibility of the well-known Brazilian stone. Perhaps the 
 true relationship of these beds 'to the Chiques qnartzite of 
 the North Valley Hill will never be quite satisfactorily 
 made out. 
 
 Rogers'" Primal in the Chester Valley. 
 
 Prof. H. D. Rogers studied his "Primal Series" very 
 carefully, and devoted many pages of his Final Report of 
 1858 to its description. He divided it into three formations : 
 a middle sandstone, with slates below and slates above ; 
 but warns his readers at the outset that all three divisions 
 are not always present, and that "in the more southeast- 
 ern zones especially, the Primal Upper Slate, and in some 
 localities the Primal White Sandstone would seem not to 
 have been originally developed, or to have been deposited 
 interruptedly. Even where present the recognition of the 
 slates is rendered in many cases very difficult from their 
 close approximation in aspect and composition to the more 
 ancient metamorphic schists." * 
 
 In the Willow Grove-Barren Hill outcrop, east of the 
 Schuylkill, it is most metamorphosed, resembling a regu- 
 larly bedded quartzose felspathic gneiss, decidedly crystal- 
 line, but the felspar crystals not so completely separated 
 from the quartz crystals as they are in gneiss or granite, 
 the silica being diifused through the felspathic mass with- 
 out much influencing its crystallization, "very much as the 
 sand occurs in the Fontainbleu carbonate of lime." So 
 
 proof of a great fault ; and of the total difference of the two formations ; and 
 of the futility of all endeavors to discover a southerly synclinal rise of the 
 quartzite along the South Valley Hill. 
 
 *Geol. Pa., Vol. I, page 149.
 
 176 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 gneissoid is the rock, however, that it has been regarded as 
 a variety of eurite. It is traversed by innumerable joints, 
 dividing it into small rhombs. Along this whole Barren 
 hill outcrop this thin-bedded altered sandstone has in its 
 upper part much altered slate of a felspathic and talcose 
 character.* But there are no purely siliceous massive* beds 
 to be seen, as on the Susquehanna, and therefore no real 
 quartzite. The disappearance of the sandstone west of the 
 Schuylkill, along the South Valley Hill, he ascribes to an 
 actual thinning out.f 
 
 On the northern Montgomery Co. outcrop, between the 
 Pennypack and Wissahickon creeks, the principal mass is 
 an alternation of thin bluish-grey sandstone beds and still 
 thinner brownish sandy slate layers (much like the "older 
 primal slates" on the Susquehanna above Columbia) some- 
 times showing an incipient talcose crystallization (Gfeol. Pa., 
 p. 154). 
 
 In the North Valley Hill west of the Schuylkill the 
 sandstone beds and upper slates run its whole length ; the 
 
 * Wherever talc is noted by Rogers, it is well to read either pholerite or 
 damourite; for analyses have cast doubt upon the magnesian character of 
 the mineral. This induced Dr. Frazer to adopt Dana's name "hydromiea 
 slate" for these apparently talcose beds. 
 
 f On this southern Montgomery Co. outcrop, between the Schuylkill and 
 Wissahickon, Prof. Rogers divides the formation into three, but places the 
 ' sandstone on top, thus : The lowest or semiporphyroidal group, of altered 
 sandy slate, regularly laminated (bedded) alternately dark and light, so 
 thin as to have many in an inch, white earthy imperfectly developed felspar, 
 and dark earthy perfectly developed hornblende, with scattered concretions 
 of felspar from the size of a pin to a bullet. Maximum thickness at the 
 Schuylkill 300' (visible at Spring Mill 100'). Next, imperfect talcose and 
 micaceous slate, wavy, garnetiferous, as at the mouth of Aramink creek op- 
 posite Conshohocken. When less altered, an impure sandstone, holding im - 
 perfect mica and talc. Weathers to a greasy clay mottled deep red and bue, 
 evidently the source of the brown hematiteore deposits of the Valley. Large 
 segregated chunks of cherty quartz strew the ground. Thickness about 200'. 
 Upper member, the white sandstone of the Barren Hill anticlinal, thin-bed- 
 ded, yellowish white, very compact, with imperfect felspar crystals tend- 
 ing to rhombs ; the more solid layers seldom over two inches thick ; schis- 
 tose bands of felspar-quartz, with minute partings of mica and talc, holding 
 innumerable specks of pure black schorl (tourmaline). Thickness 35' to 40' ; 
 toward Willow Grove, 100' ; further east at least 300' (Geol. Pa., p. 155). 
 
 It is hard to believe that this represents the series on the north side of the 
 valley, which lies just as close to the northern area of gneiss as this does to 
 the southern.
 
 NO. I IN THE CHESTER VALLEY. 177 
 
 sandstone lying directly on the gneiss ; the lower slates 
 wholly absent ; the sandstone holding a certain quantity 
 of purely siliceous beds, altered to quartzite ; some of the 
 beds showing needles of hornblende and a little crystal- 
 lized talc ; general dip about 70 to the south conforming 
 to the dip of the overlying limestone. 
 
 The white sandstone exhibits a remarkable constancy of 
 character from the Schuylkill to the Susquehanna ; some- 
 times more vitrified with imperfect felspar specks, partings 
 coated with talc, surfaces embedding minute crystals of 
 schorl ; sometimes less vitrified or cemented, more porous, 
 soft, crumbling, less flaggy, but still showing some talc and 
 schorl (tourmaline), (Geol. Pa., p. 156). 
 
 In the North Valley Hill the gaps of the East and West 
 Brandy wine, and at Gap station, show the beds to be about 
 100' thick, and the overlying slates a little more than 100'. 
 But in the South Valley Hill no continuous outcrop of it 
 appears, although it rises vertically next the limestone at 
 the foot of the hill near and west of Coatsville, projecting 
 conspicuously a rugged outcrop of beds in all about 30' or 
 40' thick, and of the usual character.* 
 
 The most easterly appearance of the Chiques sandstone 
 in the North Valley Hill of Chester county is a mile east 
 of Valley Forge at the east point of Mount Sorrow, where 
 it emerges ffom under the Trias, and where its lower altered 
 slates are half a mile wide. The sandstone increases going 
 west, along Mount Joy, to the west point of Tredyffrin 
 township (Ayre's store). At the Diamond Rock, where its 
 crevices hold fine rock crystals, the lower slates are seen on 
 its north flank Several anticlinal rolls, closely folded, 
 make the summit and south slope a broad outcrop of quartz- 
 ite beds. Here it is set back northward, and a new set of 
 waves begin. Most of it, however, has been eroded from 
 
 * About \\ miles east of Downingtown it was exposed in the road gutter 
 and in a well, and much decomposed and talcose. Opposite Spread Eagle 
 and Paoli, it was struck in T. Biddle's well, and its fragments lie in the soil 
 at the foot of the hill. (Geol. Pa., p. 166.) Mr. Rand reports other such 
 exhibitions. But it is still a question how far any of them warrant their 
 identification with the North Valley Hill rock, as they may be sandstone 
 intercalations in the South Valley Hill slates. 
 12
 
 178 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 the gneiss, leaving only a south dipping outcrop going 
 down under the limestone. Between this and Lancaster 
 county its outcrop fluctuates in breadth, owing to local 
 waves, which, as Dr. Frazer shows, run obliquely and pro- 
 duce a toothed line of junction with the gneiss. Two or 
 three such anticlinal waves may be seen in the Brandywine 
 gaps, although their close compression makes all the dips 
 steep southeast, as shown in Prof. Rogers' cross sections.* 
 
 In the gap north of Downingtown the lower slate can 
 hardly be found ; and the quartzite is so complicated as to 
 seem a formation a thousand feet or more thick ; whereas 
 there are only about 100 feet of beds.f Here the first out- 
 crop against the limestone shows perfectly regular c[uartz- 
 ose layers with thin partings of white talc ; and in the rock 
 many needles of schorl, always broken by the plastic 
 movement of the matrix.:}: On the outcrops nearer the 
 gneiss the rock becomes more altered, a granular quartzite 
 holding specks of felspar and mica, a good deal like a fine- 
 grained white granite ; but the schorl identifies it. 
 
 *Geol. Pa., 1858, page 175. Fig. 21, section from Diamond rock across the 
 Valley south of Paoli. Fig. 22, section north of Coatesville, showing two 
 fine arches, one double crested. Fig. 23, section north of Parkesburg, show- 
 ing one sharp roll, and north of it a deep synclinal with its south side beds ver- 
 tical. Thus the belt varies in width from 400 to 1,200 yards. Sharp saddles 
 of the underlying gneiss also present themselves at the surface, splitting the 
 belt lengthwise ; and with the gneiss these saddles bring up the slates which 
 lie upon it (and beneath the quartzite beds) and so altered, crystalline and 
 gneissoid as hardly to be distinguished from the gneiss itself. East of the 
 East Branch Brandywine the upper and lower slates seem very thin; but 
 they thicken rapidly and steadily approaching the West Branch (Coates- 
 ville); which may help us to understand how the quartzite of the North 
 Hill (50' thick at Diamond Rock) is almost wanting in the South Hill, 
 while the lower slates, so thin on the North Hill side of the Valley, are so 
 very thick on the South Hill side. Prof. Rogers ascribes this to irregular 
 deposition ; but I think it must be due to some sort of pressure faulting ; if 
 in fact the formations be identical. 
 
 It is almost unnecessary to add that the limestone of the Valley is crum- 
 pled in the same manner as the quartzite and slate ; nor to urge the import- 
 ance of keeping in view all this movement as a wholesome check to any 
 theory of irregular, local, exceptional deposits. 
 
 f As described by Keyes in his paper on the Piedmont country of Mary- 
 land, quoted already. 
 
 Geology Pa., page 177. Prof. Rogers always uses this old-fashioned 
 name for black tourmaline.
 
 NO. I IN BUCKS COUNTY. 179 
 
 No. I in Bucks county. 
 
 That the quartzite of the North Valley Hill, and of its 
 diagonal comb-teeth spurs in the valley east of Norristown, 
 passes broadly beneath the great Trias formation of Bucks 
 and Montgomery, making its descending floor, is proved by 
 its sudden re-appearance at the surface in Buckingham town- 
 ship, a few miles east of Doylestown. Here its outcrop 
 makes a bold low ridge nearly 4 miles long, running about 
 N. 40 E. with a belt of limestone on its northwest edge. 
 The limestone belt extends 10 miles to the Delaware river 
 at Centre bridge. Both formations are brought to the sur- 
 face together by a great fault, which will be described here- 
 after. As there are at least 15,000 feet of Trias south of the 
 fault, we are justified in saying that the quartzite floor, 
 which disappears beneath the Trias at Fort Washington, 
 must slope down northward at the rate of at least 1,000 feet 
 per mile, i. e., on a gradient at least 10. But as the average 
 dip of the Trias beds hardly exceeds 5 (although very varia- 
 ble, and hard to calculate by average) it would follow that 
 a very considerable amount of limestone overlies the quartz- 
 ite floor underneath the Trias region. Mr. Lyman's con- 
 structive sections however will make this interesting sub- 
 ject clearer. 
 
 No. I in the Highland range. 
 
 The quartzite floor emerges from beneath the north border 
 of the Trias in Springfield township, Berks county, where 
 the North Penn R. R. crosses the Lehigh county line. It 
 rises upon the south flank of the Highland gneiss, and runs 
 thus, eastward, for 13 miles to the Delaware river at the 
 county corner, between the gneiss and the synclinal lime- 
 stone belt across which the river cuts at Durham furnace. 
 The limestone belt spoons out, westward, at Pleasant Valley 
 P. O., and the quartzite (forking) surrounds its west end, and 
 puts another belt south of the limestone, and between it and 
 the gneiss of the Durham hill. 
 
 In Northampton county the quartzite formation must be 
 very thin, for although it undoubtedly forms floor of the
 
 180 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 the numerous limestone valleys between and among the 
 Highland gneiss hills, it makes little show around their 
 edges, where it lifts its outcrops against the gneiss.* 
 
 In Lehigh county the quartzite crops out from beneath 
 the limestone and against the gneiss all along the foot slope 
 from Saucon creek westward past and around S. Bethlehem, 
 and along the south bank of the Lehigh to the west point 
 of the mountain two miles south of Allentown. f 
 
 In fact the Lehigh river, after passing Allentown, turns 
 at a right angle into a narrow synclinal trough of limestone, 
 floored with quartzite lying on gneiss. It is a curious 
 gateway between the Lehigh mountain (gneiss) on the south 
 bank, and the low gneiss hill on the north bank. 
 
 Five miles southwest of this right angle bend of the Le- 
 high, and in a line with the Lehigh mountain, there rises a 
 low hill of gneiss flanked with quartzite. a fine section 
 through which is made by the Little Lehigh creek. 
 
 Another outcrop of quartzite runs along the foot of the 
 mountain past Emaus (opposite the low hill aforesaid, 
 and two miles from it, with limestone between) for about 
 five miles. . , 
 
 Another very short one is noticeable at the foot of the 
 mountain, three miles E. S. E. of Alburtis, and another a 
 mile west of Alburtis near the county line. With these 
 exceptions little or no quartzite has been reported in Le- 
 high county. 
 
 But in Berks county the quartzite makes a great show.;}: 
 
 A continuous outcrop of it faces the range of mountains 
 overlooking the East Penn RR. all the way from Alburtis 
 to Reading, 25 miles, ascending the vales between the 
 
 *For instance, at the river bank 3 miles below Eastern; on the slopes 4 
 miles east of S. Bethlehem ; on the slopes 2 miles south of Hellertown ; at 
 the west end of Chestnut ridge 3 miles west of Easton ; at the west end of 
 the strip of gneiss 3 miles northwest of Bethlehem ; and around the gneiss 
 hills in the bend of the river between Allentown and Bethlehem. 
 
 t At one place along this line there is a fine exposure of it, but only 25 feet 
 thick, dipping about 30' N. and laying directly and conformably upon the 
 gneiss. It is an exhibition well worthy of serious attention. 
 
 fThe mapping of Northampton and Lehigh was done by Prof. Prime, and 
 a subsequent revision of the mineralogy by Mr. C. E. Hall. The mapping 
 of Berks was done by Mr. E. V. d'Invilliers. This may account for the ap- 
 parent greater show of quartzite in Berks.
 
 NO. I IN SOUTHERN CHESTER COUNTY. 181 
 
 ridges and spreading over the highest summits. A south- 
 ern belt crosses the Schuylkill a mile below Reading, and 
 encircles the whole of the Oley limestone valley. Another 
 surrounds the isolated little Dale Forge limestone valley. 
 Another borders the limestone of Seisholtzville, on the Le- 
 high county line. Three others border the limestone ex- 
 posures at Treichlersville, Churchville, Bechtelsville and 
 New Berlin, where it emerges from the north border of the 
 Trias. It is made perfectly certain by all this that the 
 Chikis quartzite formation once covered the whole High- 
 lands, and that it underlies now the whole Trias region 
 east of the Schuylkill. That it underlies the Trias west of 
 the Schuylkill, in Berks and Lancaster county, is demon- 
 monstrated in the same way by a long outcrop of it, be- 
 ginning 3 miles southwest of Beading, and running west 6 
 miles to the Reading and Columbia RR. at Fritztown, 
 curving northwest and west around the north flank of Mul- 
 baugh hill (gneiss), six miles further to the Lebanon line, 
 and so round south to pass out of sight under the Trias 
 south of Mulbaugh hill. But it is equally evident that the 
 quartzite is otherwise entirely covered by the limestone 
 under the whole Lancaster, Lebanon and Dauphin Trias 
 belt. 
 
 Before going west from Hellam township, York county, let 
 us see what evidence we have that the Chikis quartzite 
 once extended from the line of the Chester county valley 
 southward toward the Atlantic. 
 
 No. I in southern Chester county. 
 
 In Delaware county no rocks assignable to the Chikis 
 quartzite have been noticed by Mr. Hall; nor any in south- 
 ern Lancaster by Dr. Frazer. But in southern Chester Dr. 
 Frazer (certainly the best authority on the subject) has 
 mapped a considerable area of the quartzite between two 
 belts of limestone, and between two areas of gneiss, extend- 
 ing from the Pennsylvania and Delaware RR. south of Doe 
 Run P. O. eastward, for 8 miles, to a little beyond Red 
 Lion an area four miles wide between the limestone belts, 
 and running out east in a long straight line along the long
 
 182 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 straight line of the southern limestone belt. Upland and 
 London Grove are in the middle of this area. 
 
 Another short narrow belt of quartzite runs from Kennet 
 Square along the Baltimore Central RR. west, along the 
 north side of another limestone belt. A similar outcrop 
 borders the limestone from West Grove station, westward, 
 for 3 miles. Another small triangular patch in Kennet 
 township has its south point within a mile of the Delaware 
 State line. Another more important outcrop surrounds the 
 limestone on Broad Creek in London and Britain townships, 
 and passes over into the State of Delaware. 
 
 It is evident, then, that if the rock of these outliers be 
 rightly identified, the Chickis quartzite had an unknown 
 extension southward, as it plainly had eastward. 
 
 No. I in southern York county. 
 
 In York county its former southward extension is guar- 
 anteed, but for a comparatively small distance, by one long 
 outcrop south of the Wrightsville and York limestone belt, 
 and by a great many isolated patches in the country north 
 of the phyllite belt.* Even inside the phyllite belt there is 
 noted on the map one spot of quartzite 3 miles S. W. of 
 Prospect, in Lower Windsor, 4 miles west of the Susque- 
 hanna ; and a small group at the Maryland line in the S. 
 W. corner of Manheim, and close to the north edge of 'the 
 gneiss. The absence of quartzite exposures on the surface 
 of the great Tocquan gneiss belt in York and Lancaster 
 counties, and in Delaware, Philadelphia and southern- 
 most Montgomery and Bucks counties, may be due to com- 
 plete erosion ; or it may be indicative of a supposible fact 
 that it was only through Chester county that the quartzite 
 and limestone formations at the beginning of the Palaeo- 
 zoic age were thickly deposited far southeast of the great 
 Palaeozoic region. 
 
 Rogers' Primal sandstone in its North Valley Hill char- 
 
 * It is possible that some of these isolated patches are short outcrops of other 
 quartzite beds intercalated among the hydromica slates. But they may be 
 sharp anticlinals penetrating the slates from below upward high enough to 
 reach the present surface.
 
 NO. 1 IN SOUTHERN YORK COUNTY. 183 
 
 acter, was recognized by Rogers in the Peach Bottom lo- 
 cality, and for four miles down the Susquehanna river into 
 Maryland. He assigns its principal outcrop a thickness of 
 90 feet, and sees in the accompanying slates the upper and 
 lower members of his Primal Series, especially the lower or 
 South Valley Hill slates ; but as his principal exposure of 
 sandstone is in his opinion an overthrown compressed 
 anticlinal, some at least of the slates must fall into his 
 upper division.* 
 
 * I give three very interesting paragraphs on p. 189 of hisGeol. Pa., 1858, 
 verbatim for the readers' consideration : 
 
 "The next belt of strata cut by the river, and indicated on our section, ex- 
 tends from below Slate Point to the second canal-lock below the State line, 
 a distance of about four miles. The rocks here exposed are various forms 
 of mica-slate and talcose-slate, alternating with talcose white sandstone, cer- 
 tain outcrops of which bear the unmistakable characters of the Primal white 
 sandstone. One or two outcrops of chlorite-slate occur, and occasionally the 
 mica-slate graduates towards a micaceous quartzose gneiss. Much of the 
 finer-grained talcose slate is undistinguishable from rock, so-called, which 
 near the Schuylkill, and along the South Valley Hill, both east and west of 
 it, and also in the antichnals of the Montgomery and Chester Limestone 
 Valley, is seen in intimate alternation with the Primal white sandstone. 
 Either from the more frequent presence in this district of the middle part 
 of the Primal series, the White Sandstone group, or from a less excessive 
 degree of metamorphism, the strata here exhibit a far lower condition of 
 crystalline change than in some of the tracts further N., having fewer of the 
 features of true micaceous schists, and more of the characters of genuine 
 sedimentary sandstone. Indeed, at several places between Slate Point and 
 the State line, we meet with a rock which, in its composition, lamination, 
 colour, fracture and whole lithological aspect, is absolutely undistinguisha- 
 ble from the main bed of the Primal white sandstone, as it is seen in Edge 
 Hill and other notorious localities of this readily recognized rock. One of 
 the localities is just below Slate Point, the sandstone forming, in fact, the 
 south flank of the Slate Hill, and reposing, regularly bedded, immediately 
 upon the slate itself, which near the contact is highly nacreous, and in that 
 minutely wavy or crinkled lamination which usually denotes a metamor- 
 phism approaching the rock usually called Talc-slate. 
 
 " About 1700 feet further down the river, there is another outcrop of Primal 
 white sandstone immediately north of Hough's Run at the canal lock. Here 
 the rock is between 90 and 100 feet thick. It dips at the canal level 45 to 8., 
 30 E. ; but rising into the hill it grows flatter until it becomes nearly level, 
 as if bending to form an anticlinal arch ; indeed, it is difficult to resist the 
 conclusion that these two south-dipping belts of sandstone are simply the 
 two abutments of a wide fold or flexure, the northern flank of which is in- 
 verted into a somewat steeper south dip than the southern. This view is 
 confirmed by the crushed and contorted condition of the dark slates which 
 fill the space between the outcrops of the sandstone. It is further confirmed 
 by the presence in this neighborhood, both within the supposed arch and at
 
 184 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The southwestern extension of the Chickis quartzite 
 formation in York and Adams counties, and into Maryland, 
 is in two lines : (1) by the Pigeon hills ; and (2) by the south 
 edge of the South Mountains. 
 
 No. I in the Pigeon hills. 
 
 The Pigeon hills are a range of high ground ranging N. E. 
 and S. W. through Jackson and Paradise townships of 
 York, and Berwick township of Adams county, at some 
 distance from and parallel to the limestone belt along which 
 the York Short Line RR., and its continuation, the Littles- 
 town Branch RR., run. Between the Pigeon hills and the 
 limestone runs a continuous belt of hydromica schist from 
 half a mile to a mile wide. At the foot of the hills, mark- 
 ing their southern limit, is a range of iron ore banks : S. 
 Emig's, W. S. Johnson's, And. Mengis, Mich. Meyers', 
 S. Roth's, J. Roth's, J. L. Miller's, Geo. Bechtal's, O. 
 Ferry's, Ashland Co.'s.* The Sprenkle ore is on the slope of 
 the hills, where they encroach so upon the limestone belt 
 as to reduce its breadth to a quarter of a mile.f 
 
 The Pigeon hills, beginning near Farmers P. O. 8 miles 
 W. S. W. of York, run on about 8 miles further into Adams 
 county, along the S. E. edge of the Trias. They are a belt 
 
 Slate Point above it, of a steep south-dipping cleavage, a feature quite usual 
 in the slaty rocks throughout the district. 
 
 "At other points further down the river, especially between Rock Run 
 and the State line, a material having all the aspect of the Primal white sand- 
 stone under a more extreme condition of metamorphism reappears. We 
 meet it again, though materially more altered and crystalline, about two-thirds 
 of a mile below the State line, and here, as we should expect, it is in con- 
 tact with a dark crystalline slate, precisely such as we find the talcoid slates 
 of the South Valley Hill, Chester county, where, in alternation with the 
 sandstone, they are more than usually metamorphosed. In truth, we en- 
 counter repetitions more or less frequent and distinct of this altered white 
 sandstone and its contiguous slates all the way along the river to the mouth 
 of the first stream in Maryland, more than a mile and half below the State 
 line. In other words, we may recognize these outcrops of the Primal white 
 sandstone throughout a belt nearly three miles and a half broad, from the 
 south flank of the Slate Point Hill to near the crossing of the great belt ot 
 serpentine." 
 
 *Frazer's Report C2, pages 55, 58, 63. 
 
 t C2, page 100. This slate ovqr the limestone, not between it and the quartz- 
 ite of the hill, dips S. 60 E. 78 ; the limestone under it dip S. 30 E. 69.
 
 NO. I ALONG THE SOUTH MOUNTAINS. 185 
 
 of quartzite and slate ; the slate on the southern flank be- 
 tween the hills-and the York valley limestone, as at Colum- 
 bia j the slate belt being in fact traceable (with two or three 
 slight breaks where bridges of limestone cover the slates) 
 all the way to Columbia. Evidently a sort of anticlinal 
 axis connects the Chickis arches with the Pigeon hills : but 
 the country is too much crumpled to permit any geograph- 
 ical regularity to the outcrops. The slates are dark ; the 
 sandstone (quartzite) beds light colored and of various de- 
 grees of fineness and compactness.* 
 
 No. I along the South mountains. 
 
 No Chickis quartzite is seen in place along the southeast 
 foot of the South mountains in York and Adams counties; 
 but great quantities of quartzite fragments lie on the sur- 
 face of the hydro-mica schists as if the formation had been 
 wholly broken up and disintegrated. The belt of frag- 
 ments runs along between the Dillsburg limestone, marl, 
 trap and trias and the schists of the mountain in York 
 county ; and past Latti more, Idaville, Bendersville,Arendts- 
 ville, Cashtown, and so down south past Fairfield, down 
 Tom's creek to the Maryland line, between the trap and 
 trias and the mountain. 
 
 In Maryland the same exhibition is continued ; but after 
 a while hills of quartzite appear, and at last a bold high 
 ridge of quartzite called the Sugarloaf mountain, advanced 
 several miles in front of the Cotoctin mountain which is 
 the eastern ridge of the South mountain (Blue Ridge) mass 
 of the Potomac country. 
 
 The Sugarloaf sandstone (quartzite) is described as an 
 unmistakable sedimentary rock. Under the microscope it 
 shows no crystallization, not even an enlargement of the 
 quartz grains, although its cement is sometimes silica 
 (chalcedony), sometimes decomposed felspar (kaolin). No 
 new minerals have been generated in it. It has in fact 
 not suffered any appreciable metamorphism. The series 
 of sandstone beds (dipping east) pass upward through al- 
 ternations of clay sand and sandy slate, into the overlying 
 
 *H. D. Rogers, Geol. Pa., 1858, p. 195, 197, condensed.
 
 186 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 slates and schists. They seem to be the same as the sand- 
 stone beds of the Cotoctin mountain on the west side of the 
 Frederick limestone belt, brought up by a great fault. To 
 the east of Sugarloaf however is the great phyllite country 
 of alternate belts of hydro-mica and chlorite slate ; and 
 these seem to be of later age than the Sugarloaf sandstone.* 
 In this opinion Mr. Keyes agrees with Dr. Frazer's views 
 as expressed in his third or Lancaster county report, al- 
 though in his earlier York and Adams reports, and in the 
 coloration of the York county map, a broad distinction is 
 made between the "hydro-mica schist" belt and the "chlo- 
 rite schist" belt to which in later years he applied the term 
 "phyllite." It is necessary to state the uncertainties more 
 in extenso in a following chapter. 
 
 No. I in middle Pennsylvania. 
 
 On the Little Juniata above the Tyrone Forges, in Hunt- 
 ingdon county, the great Nittany Valley faulted anticlinal 
 brings to the surface the bottom beds of the great limestone 
 formation No. II. It is the only spot in Pennsylvania north 
 of the South mountain range where we can look for the ap- 
 pearance at the present surface of the Chicques quartzite or 
 the hydro-mica slates above it ; and in fact, about three- 
 quarters of a mile above Birmingham, crushed and massive 
 grey sandstone strata are exposed (dipping 35 S. E.) for 
 150 yards. Under them red shales appear ; over them alter- 
 nations of sandy lime shales and limestones. These must 
 belong to Rogers' Primal series, although they are not met- 
 amorphosed, but only crushed a little by the fold of the 
 anticlinal and the slip of the great fault. f 
 
 * Keyes, in Bull. G. 8. A., II, 306, 320, and figured microscopic sections on 
 321. 
 
 t Geol. Pa. I, page 503. Dr. R. M. S. Jackson in 1837 thought these Pots- 
 dam. C. E. Hall supposed in 1877 that he found Potsdam fossils in them. 
 (Report T4, p. 152). Specimen 2,662 of the survey collections above the 
 Birmingham covered bridge is a white, compact fine-grained sandstone ; 
 Specs. 2,653 to 2,656, are sandstone ; Specs. 2,657 to 2,669, are a ferriferous 
 sandstone ; Spec. 2,661, marked "Potsdam" by C. E. Hall, is a hard grey 
 sandstone got below the bridge opposite the railroad station (T4, p. 365). 
 Prof. Rogers likened the solid sandstone beds to Medina.
 
 ON SCOLITHUS LINEARIS. 187 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 On Scolithus linearis. 
 
 Scolithus was for many years accepted as the fossil trade 
 mark of the Potsdam sandstone, and was supposed to stamp 
 with genuineness any outcrop, any specimen, in which its 
 notable form could be plainly seen. It is so prominent an 
 object on the surface of the cracked stone, it is so unmistaka- 
 bly unlike other fossils, it seemed at first to be so entirely 
 absent from the overlying Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Kaino- 
 zoic formations, that the study of it by Haldeman in the 
 fallen fragments of Chicques rock near his home at Colum- 
 bia, on the Susquehanna river, and his description of it, in 
 1840, as the oldest fossil in the world, was hailed by geolo- 
 gists with enthusiasm.* 
 
 Of late years the gravest doubts have been thrown upon 
 the plant character of most of the most ancient "algae," 
 
 * See his supplement .to Monograph of Limniades. Although he con- 
 structed the name from skolex, a worm, and lithos, a stone, he described it as 
 the stem of a seaplant, and made it at first a subgenus, and then a genus, 
 under Fucoides. H. D. Rogers mentioned Haldeman's fossil in his second 
 annual report, 1837, as a. marine plant, and suggested the name Tubulites, 
 which was not adopted. Hall's description of it is that of a plant . . . "nu- 
 merous linear stems, often extending to two or three feet in length. Ordi- 
 narily . . . like a series of small pins or pegs driven into the rock in a some- 
 what regular manner and at uniform distances. It preserves its distinctness 
 even when the surrounding rock is much altered . . . stained with oxide of 
 iron, and the rock cleaves more easily in that direction. (See Hall's Pal. N. 
 Y., V. 1, 1843, page 2 ; figures on Plate 1.) Even the famous fucoid of the 
 Bird's eye limestone (in No. II) Hall's Pkytopsis cellulosum, and Phytopsis 
 tubulosum, 1846, is now regarded by many as a worm burrow, in spite of the 
 cross connection of its stems and way in which they sometimes radiate from 
 a sort of center in all directions outward, curving and returning into each 
 other. But the internal fibrous structure, and the interlacing of the fibers 
 in mathematical forms, represented in the fine plates of Hall's first volume, 
 seems to place the organic (plant) structure of the Bird's eye fossil beyond 
 all reasonable doubt. ( See Pal. N. Y. , Vol. 1, Plate 8, Plate 9. ) The extrava- 
 gant conclusions of Nathorst, which would, if accepted, expunge seaplants 
 from palseo-botany, have produced a beneficial reaction towards a closer 
 study of these mysterious forms.
 
 188 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 "fucoid" or "seaweed" markings, and as Etheridge says 
 in his edition of Phillips' Manual, p. 34, the " term Fucoids 
 must be modified or almost expunged from our nomencla- 
 ture, because nine out of ten of them are not casts of sea- 
 plants but of worm burrows. ' ' * The analogy of the present 
 lob-worms on all seacoasts seems to be a satisfactory explana- 
 tion of Haldeman's Scolithus, which has been found abun- 
 dantly in the sandrocks and quartzites at the base of the 
 Palaeozoic system from Canada to Georgia, and from Ten- 
 nessee to Wisconsin, and similar or allied forms in Scotland, 
 Ireland, Wales, France, Spain, Bohemia, Silesia, Finland 
 and Scandinavia. 
 
 In 1856 Salter named similar worm burrows of about the 
 same or still greater age in Shropshire, Arenicolites^ di- 
 dymus, because they were usually seen in pairs, joined by 
 a loop at the bottom, suggesting the idea that the worm 
 descended by one hole and returned to the surface by the 
 other4 
 
 In 1858 Kinahan found in the Lower Cambrian (Solva 
 group) of Brayhead, Ireland, curved trumpet-mouthed 
 burrow-casts, made by worms with tentacles. He named 
 them Histioderma hibernicum. 
 
 *Scolithus linearis (Hall) 1847, found in Formations Nos. I, II, III. Sco- 
 lithus verticalis (Hall) 1852, in Medina SS. No. IV (Pal. N. Y. II.) Sco- 
 lithus canadensis (Billings) 1862, in Potsdam No. I (Pal. Foss. I.) Sco- 
 lithus danieloi ( Tigillites danieloi of Renault) in the Potsdam of France 
 (Aguidam, <fec.); Scolithus (Tigillites) defontaines (Renault) in the Pots- 
 dam of France (Guichen, &c.); Scolithus (Tigillites) dufresnoyi (Renault) 
 in same. (Thesaurus Siluricus of Bigsby, p. 31);, Scolithus bohemicus (Bar- 
 rande); Scolithus cylindricus (Barrande) in Potsdam, D. d. 2 of Bohemia. 
 (Thes. Sil. p. 197.) See Hall's Pal. N. Y. I. 2. 
 
 fThe name Arenicola carbonaria was given by Lamarck to a worm bur- 
 row in the Wigan Coal measures of England as early as 1818, and this in- 
 duced Salter to substitute Arenicolites for Scolithus, for Cambrian forms- 
 American geologists, however, continue to use Haldeman's name, while 
 English geologists prefer Salter's. 
 
 J Arenicolites sparsus (Salter) was found in the Longmynd of Shrop- 
 shire (Thes. Sil., p. 29.) Arenicolites uricomiensis, found in the quartz- 
 ites of the Wrekin in Shropshire, is the oldest fossil as yet found in Great 
 Britain (or except the Eozoon canadense, in the world) provided the right 
 age has been assigned to these quartzites. (Etheridge. Phillman, p. 34.) 
 
 Thes. Sil. 30. Nicholson's Manual, 142. Etheridge's Phillips Manual, 
 34 in which it is wrongly given hibernica.
 
 ON 8COLITHUS LINEARIS. 189 
 
 Salter's Scolecoderma tuberculata, 1866, in the Trema- 
 doc slates of Wales, is regarded by him as the membra- 
 nous tube of a mud worm.* 
 
 In the very old Cambrian rocks occur other forms, named 
 by Sternberg in 1833 Chondrites, the oldest forms of which 
 are now regarded as the casts of worm burrows, f 
 
 D'Orbigny in 1842 named a kind of worm burrow with 
 traces of a tube lining Cruziana. In the oldest Cambrian 
 (Lingula flags) Salter found Cruziana s&mtiplicata / and in 
 the nearly as old " Stiper stones " formation another species; 
 but the numerous forms of Cruziana named by geologists 
 occur chiefly in the Caradoc sandstone (Trenton period.):}; 
 
 The confidence with which ScoiitTius linearis was at first 
 assigned to Potsdam sandstone is illustrated by W. B. 
 Rogers' paper on the Gravel and Cobble stone deposits of 
 Virginia, in which he describes finding, in 1842, a large peb- 
 ble of compact vitreous sandstone in a pile of paving stones in 
 Richmond, arid opines without doubt that the pebble had 
 come from the nearest outcrop of Potsdam on the west flank 
 of the Blue Ridge. Subsequently the cobble stone deposit of 
 Richmond was discovered at Washington, and multitudes 
 of Scolithus and other Palaeozoic fossils were seen in it. 
 Here it consisted of two gravels of very different ages, one 
 subcretaceous, the other post- tertiary, both giving Scoli- 
 thus, &c. 
 
 * He found a similar form, which he did not name, in the Caradoc. Hal de- 
 man's Scolithus chordaria, 1847, from Silesia, is put into the category of 
 worm fossils by Bigsby. 
 
 t<7. acutiangulus, McCoy, in Lingula flags; C. antiquus and informis, 
 Sternb. in Livonia ; C. regularis, Harkness, in Llandeilo rock ; C. tener and 
 tribulus, Eichw. in Finland and Esthonia ; C. ?, Salter, in N. Wales. But 
 Brogniart's C. antiquus was found in the uppermost Silurian (Ludlow) 
 beds. (Thes. Sil. p. 29.) The Devonian forms of Chondrites (andrea, 
 antiqua, major, minor, lineata,foliosa, nessigii, tceniola) are all placed among 
 plants by Bigsby in Thes. Der. Carb. 1878, p. 2. 
 
 tC. bronni, C. cordieri, C. furcifera, C. goldfussi. C. lyelli, C. prevosti, 
 C. st. hilaire (all of Rouault) ; C. carpetana, C. murchisoni, C. torrubice, C. 
 Ximenezii (all of DePrado) ; C. rugoso (D'Orb) ; C. harlani (Hall); &c. 
 (Thes. Sil. p. 30). 
 
 Proc. Boat. S. N. H. 1875 ; reprinted in Geology of the Virginias, 1884, pp. 
 709-913. See more of this under Wealden and Glacial ages. Prof. Heilprin 
 exhibited a pebble containing Scolithus linearis found in the Yellow Sand 
 formation of New Jersey, near Glassboro'. (Proc. Acad. Sc. Phila., May 5, 
 1885 ; and Amer. Nat., Sep., 1885, page 928.)
 
 190 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 It would be strange indeed if worm burrows should be 
 confined to one geological age, and still more strange to 
 one petty formation. Nor are they ; for they have been 
 found in sandstone strata of all ages ; and their essential 
 identity with the ScolUJius linear is of the Chiques (Hal- 
 lam) quartzite is now generally recognized. Worms of 
 different species have different habits, and their burrows 
 differ; but the generic resemblance remains. Thus Sco- 
 lithus is common in the Portage formation '( VIII f} in 
 Bradford and Tioga counties, and in western New York.* 
 It has been seen also in some of the Coal Measure sand- 
 stones, in America and in England. But it is everywhere 
 abundant in the Cambrian quartzites of all the American 
 Cambrian regions. Whether Dr. Walcott is right or not 
 in carrying the Cambrian system so high as not only to in- 
 clude the Potsdam sandstone of New York, but also the 
 lower part of the Calciferous sandstone, some of the Cal- 
 ciferous beds are full of 8colit7ius.\ 
 
 I have devoted an entire chapter to this fossil form, be- 
 cause the identification of Chiques rock with the Potsdam 
 sandstone of the St. Lawrence and Champlain country has 
 been hinged upon it, to the confusion of our earlier Palae- 
 ozoic geology in Pennsylvania. It has of course raised the 
 question why all the well-known fossil forms of the Pots- 
 dam were not discoverable on the Susquehanna. No other 
 fossil but scolitJius has been seen in the Chiques rock. Ob- 
 scure shell-like forms have indeed been seen by Prof. Warn 
 
 *H. D. Rogers, Geol. ot Penna,, 1858, Vol. I, page 296. "In the higher 
 part of the formation some of the layers contain a vertical fucoid, if it can 
 be so termed, a simple stem-like form, crossing the plane of the bedding. 
 This is evidently a species of Scolithus, and except that it is a little less regu- 
 larly cylindrical, resembles greatly the species so characteristic of the Primal 
 andstone." 
 
 f Brainard and Seeley who sub-divide the 1,800 feet of Vermont Calcifer- 
 ous into five stages, say that Scolithus does not characterize any single one 
 of the five, but appears abundantly in various horizons of D ; the most 
 abundant display of it seen by them being, however, at the bottom of C, 
 600' or 800' above the top of the Potsdam ; and yet pure limestone beds are 
 plentiful in B. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. I, 1890, p. 510. See p. 4, Diet 
 Foss., 1889, Vol. a, page 943.) This should teach us to look for sandstone 
 beds in the body of our great Valley limestone formation ; and such are 
 found.
 
 ON SCOLITHUS LINEARIS. 191 
 
 ner in the Hellam quarries, but none plainly enough to re- 
 cognize. Probably they are Cambrian fossils ; for the Cam- 
 brian rocks have furnished a plentiful supply.* It was 
 indeed the age of worms, as in an insect sense the age of 
 coal was also the age of Cockroaches ; but a solitary cock- 
 roach wing has recently been found in France in a sand- 
 stone of Silurian age. So, the Devonian age was one of 
 great armoured fishes; but fishes of that order have re- 
 cently been fonnd in Trenton rocks. The age of worms 
 now appears to have swarmed with living creatures of both 
 lower and higher grades. It is impossible to believe that 
 where the Hellam worm-burrows are in millions, no other 
 fossil forms can be discovered. It only requires sharp self - 
 trained eyesight to discover them. The South mountains 
 of Pennsylvania will probably prove to be a good collect- 
 ing ground for students of palaeontology; and perhaps even 
 the semi- crystalline region of the Philadelphia belt. 
 
 *Even in 1886, Walcott had defined 393 species (92 genera) of Algae (9), 
 Spongue (13), Hydrozoa (5), Crinoidea (3), Annelida (5), Brachiopoda (67), 
 Lamellibranchiata (1), Gasteropoda (29), Pteropoda (20), Crustacea (15), 
 and Poecilopoda (226). Of these, 76 (32 genera) were found in the Lower ; 
 107 (43) in the middle ; 213 (52) in the Upper Cambrians ; 14 genera were 
 common to the Lower and Middle, 15 common to the Middle and Upper, 11 
 common to the Lower, Middle and Upper, and 12 common to Lower and 
 Upper (Am. Jour. Sci., Aug. 1886, page 149.) But this arrangement has 
 been exchanged by him for another quite different (based upon his later 
 discovery of the subordination of the Middle to the Lower, or of the Ole- 
 nellus fauna to the Paradoxides) in his Monograph on the Cambrian re- 
 cently published by the U. S. Geol. Survey, 1891.
 
 192 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 On Cambrian fossil life 'as known. 
 
 The great thickness of the Cambrian system may be 
 judged from the fact that Walcott assigns to the Lower 
 division of it (the Olenellus zone) in the two eastern coun- 
 ties of New York, Washington and Rensselaer (the nearest 
 Cambrian region to Pennsylvania as yet studied) a pos- 
 sible thickness of 14,000 feet ;* and to the Middle and 
 Upper divisions of it (Paradoxides and Orihis zones] an ad- 
 ditional 2,000 feet.f But in eastern Massachusetts, New- 
 foundland, Georgia and the Rocky mountains, the Cam- 
 brian would have a different thickness as a whole, and dif- 
 ferent thicknesses of its three palseontological sub-di- 
 visions.^: The fossil zones are no guides for us in the South 
 mountains (if the rocks there be Cambrian) because none of 
 the Cambrian fossils has as yet been found there, or indeed 
 anywhere in the state. 
 
 The abundance of marine vegetation and animal life in 
 the Cambrian age was long ago inferred from the copious 
 life of the immediately following Lower Silurian (Ordo- 
 vician) age. It began to be proved by discoveries in Bo- 
 hemia, Sweden, Wales, New Brunswick and Massachusetts. 
 
 *Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. 35, 1888, page 242. 
 
 tThe sub-division is not made on the basis of stone character, but on the 
 stages of groups of fossils. He says: "About 2,000 feet below the summit of 
 the strata assigned to the Cambrian the fauna contains Olenellus asa- 
 p/ioides," <fec. The Fauna of the Lower Cambrian, in Tenth An. Rt. U. S. 
 Geol. Sur., Washington, 1891, page 583. 
 
 Jin both the "Eureka" and "Highland" sections the Olenellus zone is 
 comparatively narrow. In British Columbia it lies at the base of the Castle 
 mountain limestone, and beneath it are 10,000 feet (estimated) of dark clay-" 
 slates and sandstones (Pre-Cambrian or Algonkian) as in the Wasatch 
 mountain section. Walcott, in U. S. G. S., Annual Rt. X, 1891, p. 585. 
 
 Except Scolithus, and Prof. Wanner's undetermined shell forms in the 
 York county quarries, and perhaps the ribbon plants of the Peach Bottom 
 roofing slates.
 
 CAMBRIAN FOSSIL LIFE. 193 
 
 It is now magnificently illustrated by Walcott' sand Ford's 
 collections in Vermont and New York, and by Walcott' s 
 and Dawson's collections in the Rocky mountains. Other 
 geologists have contributed their several discoveries ; so 
 that Walcott' s latest list (1891) includes 51 genera, 141 
 species, and 11 varieties. See Monograph, page 576. 
 
 Cambrian fossils are wholly of marine forms. No traces 
 of land plants or land animals have been seen in Cambrian 
 rocks. 
 
 True Seaweeds (algce) have not been certainly seen, al- 
 though it is impossible not to believe in their existence. 
 The so-called seaweeds (even the Cruziana) appear to be 
 trails of worms or of shellfish (mollusks).* Sponges were 
 very abundant. f Jellyfishes (Medusce) seem to have lived 
 even in Lower Cambrian times, and traces of their soft 
 forms are recognized on the clayslates and fine sandstones 
 of Sweden and on the Upper Cambrian rocks of Alabama.:}: 
 Even the modern Sea-sludge or Whale-food order of 
 creatures were represen ted. Graptolites also, those curious 
 and prolific leaf-shaped animals of Silurian times floated 
 on the surface of the Cambrian waters.! Corals (Actin- 
 
 *Matthew however has described what he believes to be true seaweeds, 
 from the St. John, N. B., rocks, under the names Buthotrephis antiqua, 
 PhycoideMa stichidifera, Palceochorda setacea, Hydrocytium (?) silicula, 
 and Microphycus catenatus. On Cambrian Organisms in Acadia, Trans. 
 Roy. Soc. Canada, VII, 1890, p. 144. Compare the fossil plant-like forms of 
 the Peach Bottom slate quarries in York Co., Pa., said by James Hall to re- 
 semble a Butrotrephis of the Hudson river formation (No. IV) more than 
 anything else. 
 
 f Protospongia is found in the upper beds of the Olenellus zone and also 
 in the Middle Cambrian of our east and west, and in Wales and Sweden. 
 Leptomitus is wholly Lower Cambrian. There are two other genera. Wal- 
 cott, page 587. 
 
 {The Swedish geologist, Nathorst, thinks that the once supposed seaweed 
 Eophyton is the cast of the trail of a jellyfish moving over the sea-bed. Pos- 
 sibly Dactyloides aster aides, an American species, may be so explained. It 
 is very remarkable that nothing like a Medusa has been found in the Palae- 
 ozoic and Mesozoic rocks, nor until we ascend to the Upper Jurassic litho- 
 , graphic slate. Walcott, p. 587. 
 
 Matthew describes Monadites globulosis, M. pyriformis, M. urceifor- 
 mis and Radiolites ovalis. Camb. Org. Acadia, 1890. 
 
 || At least two kinds, Phyllograptus and Climacograptus. Matthew has 
 assigned two Middle Cambrian forms to the genera Dendograptus and Pro- 
 tograptus. 
 
 13
 
 194 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 ozoa) had hardly begun to appear.* Sea urchins existed 
 early and became numerous in the Middle Cambrian, f 
 Worms were infinitely numerous, swarming, trailing and 
 burrowing over and in the sea bed and shore sands, from 
 the beginning to the end of Cambrian times, and under- 
 going no change so far as the casts of their tracks and bur- 
 rows can teach us anything of their character. They have 
 been grouped in four genera : Planolites, Hilminthoi- 
 dichnites (lobworm tracks), ScolitTius and Oruziana. 
 
 The BracJiiopod shell life of Cambrian times was abund- 
 ant ; ten genera (and 29 species) are known in the Lower 
 Cambrian (Olenellus), zone, viz., Lingulella, Acroleta, 
 Acrothele, Iphidea, Kutorgina, Linnarssonia^ Obolella, 
 Ortkis, Orthisina, and Camarella.% These have no special 
 embryonic traits of character in the Darwinian sense, lead- 
 ing to higher development in the Middle and Upper zones ; 
 but after that, in Lower and Upper Silurian times, the 
 superior articulated families (Orthidse and Rhynchonel- 
 lidse) predominate over the inferior inarticulate fam- 
 ilies (Obolellidse, Siphonotretidse and Lingulidse) which 
 
 * "The first true corals .... occur near the base of the Silurian fauna." 
 It was disputed whether Archceocyathus was a sponge or coral. ButHinde 
 and Walcott agree in placing it among the Zoantharian families, allied to 
 the perforated corals. In the later Cambrians no Archosocyathus is known 
 except Matthew's doubtful A. pavonoides from the Paradoxides zone at St 
 John. Walcott, p. 588. 
 
 f In the Lower Cambrian a few scattered plates of a Cystid, perhaps an 
 ISocystites, are all we know about the beginnings of the Echinodermata. 
 Walcott, p. 588. 
 
 | Lingulella : of four genera three occur in the Paradoxides zone. A cro- 
 teta gemma ranges from the base of the Lower into the Upper Cambrian. 
 Acrothele subsidua ranges through Lower and Middle, and A. matthewi in 
 the Middle. Iphidea is Lower Cambrian in Labrador and Middle in Arizona 
 and Sweden. Kutorgina labradorica, stissingensis, pannula, occur in 
 Lower and Middle, the first with a wide geographical range in the Lower 
 zone. Linnarssonia sagitalis (var. taconica) came late in the Olenellus 
 zone and lived on with the Paradoxides. Obolella has 6 species in the Lower, 
 none in the Middle, but some in the Upper zone. Orthis salemensis and 
 highlandensis (the broad and the narrow hinge types) of the Lower zone is, 
 not known In the Middle, but recur in Silurian strata. Orthisina orientahs 
 of the Lower zone is very like the O. pepina of the Upper ; and O. festinata 
 of the Lower very like O. exporecta and O. billingsi of the Middle zones. 
 Camarella antiquata and minor -of the Lower zone have no known exist- 
 ence or representatives in the Middle and Upper zones. Walcott, p. 588, 58&
 
 CAMBRIAN FOSSIL LIFE. 195 
 
 abounded in the more ancient Cambrian times, indicating 
 a general law of progressive evolution for the whole class.* 
 
 Lamellibranchiate shells were scarce in Lower Cambrian 
 time. The class seems to have sent three forerunners to 
 announce its coming at a far distant subsequent date.f 
 
 Gasteropod shells of 6 genera (13 species and 5 varieties) 
 have been collected from the Lower zone in America alone, 
 viz : Scenetta, Stenotheca, Platyceras, Pleurotomaria, and 
 Straparollina. These belly-creepers with their conical or 
 horn-shaped, sharp-edged and sharp-pointed shells, must 
 have scratched and furrowed the Cambrian muddy sand, 
 leaving those marks on its layers which in too many in- 
 stances have been taken for fossil seaweeds and even land 
 plants.:}: 
 
 Of Pteropods, winged shells, the Oldest Cambrian sea 
 was full. Four genera : Hyolithes, HyolitTiellus, Coleo- 
 loides, Satterella, embraced at least 15 species. 
 
 * Walcott, p. 587. Superior and Inferior are terms which beg the ques- 
 tion. It is more likely that hinge or no hinge was a point in dispute settled 
 by the habitat of each species and the adaptability of the shell to the food 
 which that kind of habitat supplied, or to the comfort of housekeeping there. 
 
 f Fordilla troyensis and Modiolopsis prisca and an undescribed species. 
 These came and disappeared. None have been seen in the Middle or Upper 
 zones. Suddenly a group of species is seen in the Welsh Arenig rocks 
 (Lower Silurian). In Devonian times the class flourished in all seas. 
 
 JThe Scenellas of the Lower zone are represented by at least one species 
 in the Middle zone, and by simple Patelloid shells in the L T pper zone. 
 Stenotlieca rugosa of the Lower zone is closely allied to 8. acadica of the 
 Middle zone. A small Platyceras in the Lower zone is represented by P. 
 romingeri in the Middle ; and one single species found in the Upper zone 
 passes the genus on upward into the Ordovician (L. Sil.) age. Pleuroto- 
 maria attleboroughensis of the Lower zone "does not appear to have a rep- 
 resentative before reaching the Lower Ordovician fauna." Straparollina 
 remota of the Lower zone has no known connection with the Ordovician. 
 
 Hyolithes princeps, a large and abundant shell, had a range from Ne- 
 vada to Newfoundland, and seems to have lived into the Newfoundland 
 Paradoxides (Middle) zone ; and it differs only in details from the Bohemia 
 H. maximus of that zone. H. americanus of the Lower zone is closely 
 allied to H. acadica and H. primordialis of the Middle zone. H. billingsi 
 is found in Lower and Middle, in Labrador, New York and Nevada. H. 
 similis is like H. primus of the Bohemian Middle zone. H. communis, 
 impar, quadricostatus, terranovicus have not yet been found in the Middle 
 zone. Hyolithellus and Coleoides are not certainly known in the Middle 
 zone. "Salterella oi the Lower Cambrian is not again met until the Ordo- 
 vician fauna is reached, and there very doubtfully." Walcott, p. 590.
 
 196 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Of Crustaceans five genera (8 species have been found in 
 the Lower Cambrian zone, viz., Isoxys, Leperditia, Aris- 
 tozoe, Nothozoe and Protocaris. It is as wonderful as any- 
 thing else in geology, finding thus a world of schrimps in 
 the first hour of the long day of the planet's life.* 
 
 Trilobites^ of 16 genera (53 species), constitute nearly 
 one- third of the entire Lower Cambrian fauna ; trilobites 
 with eyes, and trilobites blind ; trilobites with facial sutures, 
 and trilobites with unjointed faces or head shields : Ag- 
 nostus (3), Microdiscus (8), Olenellus (7), Olenoides (3), 
 Zacanthoides (2), Bathynotns (1), Avalonia (1), Cono- 
 coryphe (2), Ptychoparia (10), Agraulos (3), Crepicepha- 
 lus (2), Oryctoceplialus (1), Anomocare (1), Protypus (4), 
 Solenopleura (5 species), f 
 
 *Of the true crustaceans Leperditia dermatoides has two representatives in 
 the Middle zone. Isoxys is a new genus. Aristozoe has not been found in 
 the Middle zone, but in Europe it has many Silurian species. Of the Phyl- 
 lopod crustaceans Protocaris marshi is the earliest known, the next being 
 Hymenocaris vermicauda of the Upper zone. Walcott, p. 590. 
 
 t Agnostus, which has been theoretically considered the lowest and oldest 
 and ancestral form of all the trilobites, seems not to have lived early in the 
 Obolellus zone; undoubted specimens having been found only in the 
 upper part of the zone and with Middle Cambrian forms ; for Ford's Ag- 
 nostus nobilis is probably Microdiscus. In Sweden it seems also to belong 
 more to the Middle zone. 
 
 Microdiscus, with its 3 or 4 segments and no eyes, is found at the base of 
 the Lower zone, a,nd with so many species (8) must have had a long previ- 
 ous existence, coming to a maximum development in the Lower and fading 
 away in the Middle zone (as the Agnostus increased in importanc), and 
 being represented in the Upper zone by the solitary Pernphigaspis bullata 
 of Hall (while Agnostus lived on into Ordivician, L. Silurian, times). 
 
 Olenellus is known from all Lower Cambrian areas except New Bruns- 
 wick. It varies so that Walcott has grouped some of its species in a sub- 
 genus (Mesonacis) and Matthew has proposed Holmia to include O. kjer- 
 ulfi. It differs from Paradoxides in having no true facial sutures, in the 
 lorm of the central portion of the head, and in the form of its eyes. 0. 
 thompsoni differs most strongly from Paradoxides, which latter has nothing 
 at all like the long-tail spine (telson). But O. (Mesonacis) vermontana 
 with its typical Paradoxidean tail-piece (pygidium) links the two groups of 
 species of Olenellus together. Walcott invites attention to the fact that there 
 is a depressed line on the under side of the head-shell of Olenellus corres- 
 ponding to real suture in Paradoxides. Also, that Olenellus resembles our 
 King Crab (Limulus) in haAang well-developed eyes without having facial 
 sutures, not to speak of its tail-spike. He thinks the Newfoundland O. 
 broggeri as highly or more highly organized than any Paradoxides. Amer- 
 ican paleontologists, he adds, have considered Olenellus the descendant of
 
 CAMBRIAN FOSSIL LIFE. 197 
 
 The study of the Olenellus fauna proves that an immense 
 time had already elapsed since the beginning of life on the 
 planet, Daring Cambrian times the evolution of life pro- 
 duced almost no new classes of living creatures, but only 
 new generic and specific variations of those which were al- 
 ready in existence. The most notable apparent exception 
 to this statement is found in the subsequent appearance of 
 the class of Cephalopod shells (Orthoceras, Lituites, etc.), 
 none of which have as yet been found in rocks below the 
 Silurian.* It is hardly necessary to add that nothing is 
 known of fossil lishes in the Cambrian, much less of any 
 
 Paradoxides, but it has turned out that Olenellus lived first. The student 
 of Evolution may profitably ponder on the paragraphs of his 592d page. 
 
 Olenoidcs marcoui is the only species found in the lower portion of the 
 Olenellus zone (the other two border on the Paradoxides zone) and seems 
 closely related to O. nevadensis of the Paradoxides zone. Zacanlhoides 
 eatoni and levis serve to unite the two zones. Bathynotus, Avalonict, 
 Oryctocephalus and Protypus are genera confined to the Olenellus zone. 
 
 The blind Conocoryphe trilineata, and reticulata are two of the best- 
 marked types 01 the Lower zone, but are closely related to the blind elegans 
 and coronata of the Middle zone. 
 
 Ptycoparia has nine species, all more or less closely related to Middle and 
 Upper Cambrian forms. The Lower Cambrian Agraulos slrenuus is rep- 
 resented by the Upper Cambrian A. socialis. Ellipsocephalus has a species 
 in the Lower and in the Middle zones. Crepicephalus augusta and liliana 
 are also Upper Cambrian, but have not been found in the Middle zone. 
 Solenopleura is also well developed in the Middle zone. 
 
 Walcott concludes (page 593) that we have a poor knowledge, as yet, of 
 the Middle (Paradoxides) fauna and may expect great discoveries to bo 
 made somewhere "on the western slope of the Apalachian shore, and on the 
 west coast of what then existed as the North American continent." The 
 Paradoxides fauna is merely a contribution. Surely the Lower Cambrian 
 creatures continued in existence longer than the rocks as yet have shown. 
 For instance, what became of the Archseocyathine corals of the Lower 
 Cambrian? Obolella had a fine development in Upper Cambrian time, 
 why is it almost completely absent from the Middle Cambrian rocks? 
 What happened to the Brachiopod shells as a class to render the number of 
 both their species and individuals smaller in Middle Cambrian time than 
 before? We have Lamelli-branch shells from the Lower; none Irom the 
 Middle. So also of the Gasteropods Pleurotomaria and Straparollina, and the 
 Phyllopod crustacean Protocaris marshi, "The cause of the abrupt change 
 from the Olenellus to the Paradoxides faunas is not yet fully recognized. 
 While a considerable number of the genera pass up, very few of the species 
 are known to do so, and in none of the sections has there been found a com- 
 mingling of the characteristic species of the Lower and Middle faunas." 
 (Walcott, page 594.) 
 
 * Walcott, page 595.
 
 198 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 fossil vertebrates of a higher order, reptilian or mammalian. 
 But whereas only three or four years ago it was disputed 
 whether our Perry county Upper Silurian* fish spines and 
 plates (the oldest known to science) were not the spines and 
 plates of crustaceans, and whereas now true fish remains 
 have been found in the Lower Silurian (Ordovician) Tren- 
 ton limestone in the Rocky mountains,! it is easy to fancy 
 that cephalopod shells 'and ganoid fish may have lived 
 even in Cambrian times. As yet no air-breathing land ani- 
 mal remains have been discovered in any rocks older than 
 the Carboniferous ; but, considering the extreme difficul- 
 ties attending their preservation, as compared with the easy 
 and safe burial of water animals, it is not at all a wild con- 
 jecture that some sharp eye will light upon the traces of 
 their existence in earlier ages4 Only a few years ago the 
 Cambrian rocks were supposed to be non-fossiliferous. I 
 have inserted this chapter on Cambrian fossil life to guide 
 and stimulate students of geology in Pennsylvania, especi- 
 cially the more youthful, curious and keen-sighted, to a 
 closer examination of our so-called "Azoic" or "No-life" 
 formations. 
 
 *See Claypole's discoveries in the Clinton formation No. V a. in Report F2. 
 
 f See C. D. Walcott's descriptions read at Washington, August, 1891. 
 
 JIf the discovery of a Silurian cockroach wing in Calvados, France, be 
 genuine, there was a Silurian world of land insects, and of course of land 
 animals to devour them. If Lesquereux was not mistaken about his fossil 
 Silurian land plants, there must have been land animals living upon their 
 fruit or foliage. In all ages foods have been followed (or accompanied) by 
 feeders. On the other hand, feeders presuppose foods. What did the Lower 
 Cambrian worms, polyps, shells and crustaceans live upon ? Certainly not 
 upon mineral matter. Worms pass vast quantities of mineral matter 
 through their intestinal canal and leave it packed behind them in their bur- 
 rows, and this packing constitutes mostof the "fossil cast. " But they do this 
 in order to suck from the surface of the grains of sand and mud organic 
 matter which must have belonged to other creatures either alive or dead. 
 If alive, then microscopic animalcules. If dead, then the decomposed 
 tissues of other worms, shell-fish, etc., absorbed by the sand and mud. 
 But the first worms must have found living food. If the worms came first 
 and the polyps and mollusks afterwards, then the beginnings of life must 
 be conceived of as microscopic, cellular and vegetable ; in other words, an 
 Algoid or seaweed world, feeding on the chemical elements of the rocks 
 held in solution by the ocean water ; therefore casts of sea weeds in the oldest 
 rocks must be realities and not mechanical imitations. 

 
 SOUTH VALLEY HILL SLATE BELT. 199 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 South Valley Hill slate belt. 
 
 Before leaving the dark geology of southern Pennsyl- 
 vania to enter upon the brilliantly illuminated geology of 
 the middle region, something more must be said of those 
 enigmatical belts of hydro-mica slates which Prof. Rogers 
 placed as his Upper and Lower Primal slates, above and 
 below the Cinques quartzite (N. Valley Hill sandstone) 
 which Dr. Frazer places wholly above it and which Mr. 
 Hall placed still higher, above the great limestones, as 
 Hudson river slates in an altered condition. 
 
 In York county the last theory receives no support. A 
 belt of hydro-mica slate surrounds the Hellam quartzite 
 area between Chiques rock and York, and is surrounded by 
 the limestone of York valley and the Codorus. The hydro- 
 mica beds are evidently above the quartzite and beneath the 
 limestone ; and they run on between two belts of limestone 
 to the Pigeon Hills, and along the south side of the hills 
 into Adams county, where they enclose the southwest end 
 of the limestone area, and, uniting with the broad belt of 
 hydro-mica country south of the limestone, pass into Mary- 
 land, where Mr. Keyes finds them overlying the Sugarloaf 
 and Cotoctin quartzite. 
 
 South of the York limestone belt at Wrightsville, on the 
 river opposite. Columbia, a hydro-mica belt a third of a mile 
 wide between the limestone and a long outcrop of quartzite 
 runs west to the South Branch Codorus, where its width is 
 five miles, widens to six miles at Xenia, and contracts to 
 three miles at the Adams county line. Many isolated out- 
 crops of quartzite are located on the map inside this belt, 
 and they should represent sharp anticlinal rolls of quartzite 
 exposed by erosion. 
 
 The phyllite ("Chlorite schist") belt, already described
 
 200 x GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 in a previous chapter, borders this great hydro-mica schist 
 belt on the south, and two long prongs of phyllite country 
 penetrate the hydro-mica belt, one pointing west towards 
 the S. Br. Codorus, the other pointing east to the river a 
 mile below Wrightsville, both on one line, and the two rep- 
 resenting (theoretically) an eleven-mile long anticlinal ex- 
 posure of the phyllites from under the hydro-micas. 
 
 Around the east point of the east phyllite prong at the 
 river below Wrightsville, and along its southern side from 
 the river west for six miles, there runs another belt of 
 hydro mica slates, bordered on the south by the limestones. 
 As an outcrop of quartzite borders the north side of the 
 phyllite prong and laps around its pointed end onto its 
 southern side, it seems evident that the hydro-mica over-lie 
 the quartzite and under-lie the limestone. 
 
 But why is there not such an outcrop of the quartzite 
 between the phyllites and hydro-micas along the whole 
 contact line across the county? There is but one answer : 
 The quartzite is an insignificant formation, an irregular de- 
 posit, thin here, thick there, absent altogether elsewhere, 
 and in fact generally towards the south. This seems to be 
 the case in Chester county, and especially in southern Lan- 
 caster. But if so, then the contact plane of hydro-mica on 
 phyllite must be insignificant, unreliable and deceptive ; 
 and the contact line between the two great belts in York 
 county can hardly be relied upon as accurate. In fact the 
 distinction between the Chlorite schists and Hydro-mica 
 slates is not recognized by the Maryland geologists ; and 
 Dr. Frazer says that chlorite slates occur in the hydro-mica 
 belt. He establishes the distinction on a general larger 
 proportion of magnesia in the lower and less in the upper ; 
 and on the local separation of the two by the quartzite 
 beds. That is precisely what Prof. Rogers did in con- 
 structing his series of Primal lower slate, Primal (middle) 
 sandstone, and Primal upper slate. But then, the chloritic 
 phyllites of York become the Primal lower slate of the 
 South Valley Hill in Chester. Whereas I understand Dr. 
 Frazer' s Chester county report .to make the South Valley 
 Hill a belt of the hydro-mica slates.
 
 SOUTH VALLEY HILL SLATE BELT. 201 
 
 I see but one solution of the problem, which if correct 
 will conciliate the apparently contradictory identifications 
 of these two able geologists, viz., that both the lower more 
 magnesian and upper less mftgnesian series are present to- 
 gether in the South Valley Hill.* 
 
 The South Valley Hill slate belt is two miles wide at the 
 east end of Chester county, and the slates stand vertical. 
 That means 10,000 feet of slates ! To diminish this enor- 
 mous thickness to agree with his observations on the oppo- 
 site side of the valley (in the North Valley Hill) Mr. Rogers 
 supposed many tightly-compressed rolls. Certainly two 
 such rolls show in the double-spurred east end of the hill 
 at the Schuylkill.f But two rolls, whether anticlinal or 
 synclinal (and there is not room for more) will not reduce 
 the thickness to one-fourth. There would still be more 
 than 2,000 feet of slates. $ 
 
 Opposite West Chester the belt is three miles wide ; op- 
 posite Coatesville, five miles wide ; before reaching the 
 Lancaster line, still wider ; and so continues, covering much 
 of the southern townships of Lancaster ; a region where 
 Dr. Prazer does not feel justified in mapping a contact line 
 between his chloritic series and hydro-mica series. In 
 
 *In this case however we must neglect Prof. Rogers' obscure outcrop of 
 the Primal sandstone at the north foot of the hill, along the border of the 
 limestone. 
 
 fThe two "synclinals" on which C. E. Hall relies for placing the slates 
 over the limestone ; the two "anticlinals" on which Dr. Frazer relies (in this 
 vicinity) for placing the slates beneath the limestone. 
 
 J Rogers conjectures that his Primal Lower slates between the Brandy- 
 wine and Adams county may be 2,000 feet thick ; in Virginia 1,200, with 150 
 additional as a conglomerate base which does not appear in Pennsylvania. 
 
 His Primal Sandstone, around the outlying limestone patches of southern 
 Chester, in the Street road and in Dochranaman hill, thin; then at Peach Bot- 
 tom on the Susquehanna, 90' ; in Chiques rock, U. SS. 27', slate parting 300 
 L. SS. with bands of slate, 300', total 627 ; at Parkesburg, Chester Co., U. SS. 
 20 , slate 300', L. SS. 50, total 370 ; at Coatesville, Chester Co., U. SS. 40', slate 
 70', L. SS. 15', total 125 ; at Edgehill, 300' ; at Willow Grove, 100' ; on Schuyl- 
 kill and Wissahickon, 40' ; Durham on the Delaware, 100 ; Chesnut Hill 
 north of Easton, 100' ; below Reading thicker, but too much crumpled to 
 measure. 
 
 His Primal Upper slates, wanting east of Willow Grove; Barren Hill, 
 thin ; Diamond rock and Paoli section, 300 ' ? ; Coatesville, 700' ; Parkes- 
 burg, partly visible, 300'+; Columbia and Chiques about 1,000'. (Geol. 
 Pa., 1858, page 122.)
 
 202 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSFLVANIA. 
 
 fact hydro-mica slates with chloritic interpolations and 
 chloritic slates with hydro-mica interpolations can be called 
 "phyllites" with equal propriety (are so called in the 
 Maryland survey) and alike belong really to one system of 
 sediments, more or less magnesian. 
 
 Now, it would be wonderful indeed, if there were not 
 sand beds in two or three thousand feet of mud deposits. 
 When the magnesian muds were altered into chlorites and 
 the potash-soda muds into hydro-micas, then necessarily 
 the sand beds became quartzites. So we ought to expect 
 sporadic quartzite beds in the slate belts. The occasional 
 quartzite spots on the York county map in the phyllite 
 belt, and much more numerously in the hydro-mica belt, 
 may therefore have nothing to do with the Hellam-Chiques 
 quartzite, which, itself, as we have seen, actually plays the 
 same role of irregular distribution over its original floor as 
 all lenticular sand deposits do of every age.* 
 
 The South Valley Hill hydro-mica schist belt from the 
 Delaware- Chester county line west to the Brandywine has 
 a south border fairly denned by a straight range of ser- 
 pentine outcrops and limestone quarries. " The line crosses 
 the railroad south of Patton station, cutting across the north 
 end of West Chester, to the Brandywine at the mouth of 
 Valley creek, and the west branch at Embreeville ; passing 
 along the north side of the Doe run limestone and the little 
 gneiss area of Buck run. But 'hence westward through 
 Londonderry, Upper Oxford and Lower Oxford "there is 
 an indefinable transition from the belt of mica slate to the 
 felspathic micaceous gneiss country which borders it on the 
 south f 
 
 *The Oriskany sandstone, Formation No. VII, is a notable example of 
 this general law, as we shall see in a future chapter. If it had been pre- 
 served from erosion in a metamorphic region it would be almost a facsimile 
 of the Chiques quartzite. The Chiques quartzite ought not to be regarded 
 a s a unique, nor reasoned on as a universal formation of recognizable class- 
 ical age and place in the great series. That would be to repeat the old error 
 of the "Potsdam sandstone." It is but one of many, and our sketch of the 
 South mountains in a previous chapter shows its insignificance in compari- 
 son with the huge quartzite formations underlying the hydro-mica and 
 chlorite slates of that range of mountains. 
 
 fCriticising the map of Chester county which he was unable to revise be- 
 fore its publication, Dr. Frazer writes: "The chloritic and hydro-mica
 
 SOUTH VALLEY HILL SLATE BELT. 203 
 
 The general tint of the slates is greenish, and the beds 
 are frequently separated by lenticular beds of light-colored 
 or pure white quartz. The slates along the southern edge 
 of the belt are somewhat garnetiferous ; and at two places, 
 at Williston and East Goshen, turn into a true garnetiferous 
 schist. All the roads indicate its presence, but the best 
 exposures are along the creeks and railway cuts descending 
 to the valley.* 
 
 The South Valley Hill hydro-mica slates are therefore 
 not the York county hydro-mica slates of Dr. Frazer above 
 the Chiques quartzite, but the chloritic phyllites lying di- 
 rectly upon the Tocquan (Philadelphia) gneisses and mica 
 schists, and may in fact be the upward, continuation of C. 
 E. Hall's garnetiferous (Chestnut Hill) upper sub-division 
 of the Philadelphia series, f 
 
 The South Valley Hill belt holds so straight a course for 
 fifty miles from the Schuylkill into Lancaster county that 
 there can be no doubt of its extension to the Susquehanna 
 
 schist areas in York and Lancaster were easily distinguishable, both from 
 the less thoroughly metamorphic appearance of the latter, and from the fact 
 that the quartzite (Potsdam) generally came in between them. This was 
 generally true of the chlorite and underlying gneisses, though an isolated 
 patch of the former in the latter on the Lancaster county map (with no defi- 
 nite upper boundary) is frankly acknowledged in the text to be an attempt 
 at a lithological distinction run into a cul de sac, though abundantly justi- 
 fied and confirmed by a close study of the rocks in its strike in Chester 
 county. When Chester county was reached all sharply-defined boundaries 
 ceased to be possible. The quartzite faMed altogether on the southern side 
 of the valley, the mica schists became more gneissoid, the gneisses showed 
 chlorites, and the chlorites modified their distinctive character. Add to this 
 that a thin unknown series, representing the rotten representatives of all 
 these, has since appeared to increase the confusion. Nevertheless an at- 
 tempt was made to define on the Chester county map the chloritic masses 
 wherever the eye detected them, leaving an explanation of them for a future 
 task. The result however was to completely demonstrate the futility of 
 separating the chlorites from the mica schists in this area (Chester county.) 
 The area became dotted over with small and large masses of chlorites which 
 preserved no regularity in dip, strike, zone," etc. (Report C4, page 35. 
 Italicised by J. P. L.) 
 
 * Notes by C. E. Hall, published in Report on Chester Co., C4, page 60. 
 
 | Then the serpentine at the top of this sub-division (at Lafayette station 
 on the Schuylkill) would coincide with the serpentine at the bottom (or 
 south edge) of the North Valley Hill slates (south of Greentree, and west to 
 West Chester) and also with the serpentine of Lancaster along the south 
 edge of the Peach Bottom phyllite belt.
 
 204 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 river twenty miles farther on ; and the county maps, in 
 spite of their inconsistent coloration,* when laid together 
 show that the straight forward continuation of the belt 
 brings it to the Susquehanna where the Peach Bottom phyl- 
 lites exhibit themselves for five miles in cross- section, 
 mostly vertical or on very steep dips, bnt complicated. 
 
 Prof. Rogers was therefore correct in calling the S. 
 Valley Hill schists Primal Lower slates ; and no doubt if 
 exposures allowed we could see them graduating down ward 
 into the upper schists and gneisses of western Chester and 
 southern Lancaster just as they seem to do across York 
 county, f 
 
 In spite of their general vertical or steep dips they are 
 undoubtedly closely and tightly crumpled into innumer- 
 able more or less parallel small anticlinals and synclinals, 
 upon a general floor of Philadelphia (Tocquan) newer 
 gneiss ; and that this floor participates in the crumpling is 
 proven by its frequent and sometimes abundant appearance 
 at the present surface along lines and over larger or smaller 
 areas of erosion from which the chlorite hydro-mica slates 
 have been removed. 
 
 Prof. Rogers was also correct in extending the South 
 Valley Hill belt of slates to the Susquehanna, although in 
 his final report he confined their identification chiefly to 
 the phyllite and hydro-mica slate region of middle York 
 county north of the Tocquan gneiss. That he identified 
 them also with Peach Bottom belt slates is evident from his 
 seeking there and, as he supposed, finding an outcrop of 
 Chiques quartzite, 90 feet thick, which he calls "its most 
 southern appearance in the state. "^ 
 
 *For which I hold myself solely responsible. 
 
 f This view certainly simplifies the geology of our southeastern counties 
 but it is not wholly satisfactory, for it fails to explain the hornblendic gneiss 
 areas of Delaware county, leaving it an open question whether they are vol- 
 canic outflows, or anticlinal (or fault) uplifts of older sedimentary fully 
 crystallized rocks. 
 
 JGeol. Pa., 1858, I, p. 122, and special detailed description, page 189, which 
 I have inserted verbatim in chapter 16, page 183, above. It is a fine example 
 of the lucid and forcible style of the great geologist of Pennsylvania, the 
 closeness of his field observation, and the wealth of material facts to be 
 found in his immortal book. Would that he had been himself immortal, 
 and on earth to conduct the second geological survey of the state, and to 
 write this summary of it instead of myself.
 
 IRON MINES IN THE PRIMAL UPPER SLATE. 205 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 Iron mines in the Primal upper slate. 
 
 Many of the first-class limonite (brown hematite) mines 
 of Pennsylvania are in Rogers' Primal Upper slates, over 
 the Chiques quartzite and under the Great Valley limestone. 
 Such are the Chestnut Hill mine back of Columbia in Lan- 
 caster, the Warwick (Jones) mine in the south corner of 
 Berks, the Trexler mine in Lehigh, the Old bank in Cum- 
 berland, and the Mont Alto banks in Franklin, and a 
 large number of other more or less important open mines 
 elsewhere ; some dating far back in the last century, and 
 others but a few years ; some abandoned if not exhausted, 
 others actively exploited at present whenever the iron in- 
 dustry is prosperous.* 
 
 It is not always easy to account for the vast quantities of 
 iron ore collected by nature at these mines. In some in- 
 stances the whole mass of slate seems to have been changed 
 into ore by a sort of chemical cookery ; the original slaty 
 stratification remaining visible, but in so wavy a state as to 
 suggest both a swelling and a settling of the mass against 
 the walls of a gigantic chaldron. f 
 
 In other cases the ore seems to be a sediment, with clay, 
 brought into a depression by inflowing waters which had 
 passed through the slate rocks and obtained by a leaching 
 process the iron which they contained ; the clay being a de- 
 composition of the felspathic body of the rock. The pot- 
 like mines of Cumberland and Franklin ranging along the 
 
 * Other similar and even more important mines not mentioned in this 
 chapter will be described in a future chapter, because they belong geograph- 
 ically to the belts of limestone outcrops, although geologically they originate 
 in the same way from the decomposition of slates of much the same kind, 
 but placed higher in the series of formations. 
 
 t See the pen and ink sketch of the Chestnut Hill mine face as it looked 
 forty years ago in Rogers' Geol. Pa. 1858, I, page 183, fig. 24.
 
 206 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 foot of the South Mountain, ending with the Mont Alto 
 banks, are certainly of this character.* 
 
 The hydromica slates of York and Lancaster are not 
 uniform in aspect. The beds immediately beneath the 
 limestone are massive enough to make hills, like those 
 which line the Susquehanna from Wrightsville to Cabin 
 Branch run. Others of the series are disintegrated to a 
 dust of little glinting particles of mica. The more solid 
 beds contain innumerable beautifully perfect cubical crystals 
 of pyrites (sulphide of iron, and occasionally copper) or 
 the hollow casts from which such crystals have been dis- 
 solved out. Here we have one most evident and copious 
 source of brown hematite (limonite) iron ore.f 
 
 There are Cambrian argillites in Vermont which are simi- 
 larly studded with perfect cubes of pyrites. I have seen 
 50 on the side of a slab a foot square, most of them casts, 
 but some of the crystals projecting from the face of one 
 slab and leaving a cast in the face of the slab from which it 
 was split off. Their number was incalculably great. Sup- 
 posing the whole formation filled with them on an even 
 distribution there would be 67,500 in a cubic yard, and a 
 hundred thousand million of them in an outcrop a mile 
 long by 90' wide and 90' deep. As most of them were only 
 a tenth of an inch on a side, 27,000 would go to make a 
 cubic yard of solid pyrites, weighing say 2 tons of iron 
 and 2| of sulphur, and such a prism of country would hold 
 about a million and a half tons of iron. Usually, however. 
 
 *See my description of them in Proc. Amer. Pbilos. Soc. Jan. 3, 1873. But 
 these deposits, although on the outcrop of the slate, and deriving their birth 
 from it, are of a very late age. The same may be said of the great Hunting- 
 don county banks, formed in the same way and time from similar slates, 
 higher up in the series, interpolated among the great limestones. See my 
 Report to Lyon, Shorb <fe Co. ^1874), incorporated into the Reports of Pro- 
 gress in Huntingdon and Centre counties, T3, T4. 
 
 t Frazer, Amer. Philos. Soc. Dec. 4, 1885, page 40L When a boy, at Lafay- 
 ette's visit to Lancaster, I had given me a lot of these crystals which had 
 been picked from the bed of a stream. They were about the size of dice, 
 but varied on an edge up to an inch and down to the sixteenth of an inch ; 
 blackish-brown on the surface; when broken, a glittering gold within; 
 most of them absolutely perfect cubes, but some with imperfect corners, 
 not from recent fracture, for the defective corners had the same brown skin 
 as the sides.
 
 IKON MINES IN THE PRIMAL UPPER SLATE. 207 
 
 the slates contain the iron in the form of ferrous oxide, 
 uncrystallized, and of percentages varying from 7 down to 
 less than 1. Even so the amount of iron held in the rock 
 is quite sufficient to account for great deposits of limonite 
 produced by erosion and oxidation in clays.* 
 
 The Chestnut Hill ore l>ank is 3 miles northeast of Co- 
 lumbia in Lancaster county, in a shallow synclinal (?) vale 
 on the south flank of Chiques ridge. f The ore is at the 
 bottom measures of the slate, next over the quartzite which 
 
 * Dr. Frazer discusses the origin of the limonite deposits in Report C, 
 1874, page 137, and thinks it most probable that it is to be lound in "the 
 pyrite crystals_of the brown slates. Even the slates which are not so situated 
 as to permit the percolation of water through them exhibit a porous 
 structure, the pores being filled with brown ochreous limonite ; and this 
 occurs to an unknown depth, and the slates seem to merge by imperceptible 
 degrees, in a direction normal to the plane bedding, first into completely 
 metasomatized pseudomorphs of limonite after pyrite (but still retaining 
 the form of the latter); then the same with a kernal of pyrite; then the 
 pyrite itself, first with a shell and then with a mere stain of ferric hydrate ; 
 and finally the same slates are revealed porphyritic from the pyrite, and not 
 at all decomposed." This suggests that the limonite was manufactured by 
 percolating waters in the body of the slate mass and merely set free by 
 erosion and gathered together into low grounds or cavities of the surface, 
 or caverns in the neighboring limestone, by running waters carrying the 
 mud of the triturated slates together with the limonite of the cavities as fast 
 as exposed, and both dumped together (slowly) into the reservoir to settle. 
 
 On page 139 Dr. Frazer makes his own calculation of quantity. A speci- 
 men of slate from under the York limestone taken on the railroad five miles 
 southeast of York, 3|"x2", showed to the naked eye 350 pits left by decayed 
 crystals of pyrites, varying from ^ to ^\ of an inch, or 40 to the square inch. 
 Nine layers of such pits were visible in the thickness of \ inch. This would 
 amount to 12.27 cubic inches of pyrites in a column one square inch five feet 
 long, or 32 pounds in five cubic feet of slate. Every running mile of outcrop 
 five feet thick and 1,000 feet high (eroded from the present surface) must 
 have yielded 75,000 tons of pyrites, or 48,700 tons of iron, or 80,000 tons of 
 limonite. He carries the calculation further on page 140, but the above is 
 enough to justify him in saying that allowing for all contingencies we have 
 more than enough to account for the largest ore banks. 
 
 f Dr. Frazer does not accept the simple synclinal structure. Ore beds at 
 mouth of a drift 250 long sink N. W. beneath the floor of the drift. In the 
 middle parts of the mine the ore's lie flat. One or more anticlinal waves are 
 therefore probable. On page 213 he makes a curious, novel, but by no means 
 useless, suggestion that possibly the weight of the high walls of the open 
 mine has helped to convert a shallow synclinal into a very low anticlinal. 
 His numerous close observations to settle the question of anticlinal wave 
 structure of the mass in this and the neighboring mine occupy several in- 
 structive pages of his book.
 
 208 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 has been exposed in the mine floor. The dips are gentle; 
 bottom flat; an open quarry, 100 feet deep, ore from top to 
 bottom of the slope walls; area in 1856, about 11 acres, in 
 1877, 1400' wide by 3350' long. The old Grubb mine half a 
 mile east is in the same slate and merely a continuation of 
 the formation towards Lancaster.* 
 
 The decomposition of the slate mass into limonite is evi- 
 dent to the eye. The upper half or more of the walls are 
 of a bluish, yellowish and white greasy clay, laminated as 
 it was before the change. Underneath is a mass of solid 
 ore, 10 to 30 feet deep, lying on the quartzite floor; brown, 
 cellular fibrous hematite (limonite) precipitated from above 
 as the heavier element of the wet clay which filled the hollow. 
 The present drainage passed beneath the slate over the face 
 of the quartzite ; and this has always been the agent of de- 
 composition. Layers of such ore however occur in the slates 
 above, resting on tight clay strata which formed subordinate 
 drainage planes. In only one place was the ore changed to 
 magnetite; a band from one to three inches thick is full of 
 beautiful small octahedral crystals of magnetic iron ore. 
 
 Dr. Frazer says that the general appearance of the Chest- 
 nut Hill mine is that of all the banks of York county along 
 the slate belt, but on a much larger scale; the ores being 
 in all of them of two kinds : (1) Wash ore, distributed 
 through the upper part in planes but without the regular- 
 ity of a bed of sediment, i. e. concretionary shot, balls and 
 chuncks embedded along rude planes of clay ; (2) Solid 
 concretionary ore, usually low in the mine, hard, massive, 
 usually darker and more botryoidal or bunched like grapes. 
 Quartz fragments are seen sticking out of the slope walls. 
 
 *"A11 the ores which lie above the Chikis quartzite from the mouth of the 
 Chikiswalunga through Silver Spring and to the German settlement and the 
 works of the New York Company should be included are parts of the same 
 system." Frazer, Report C3, p. 203. The. /Shirk bank is north of Chikis 
 ridge 3 miles N. of Columbia and E. of Marietta. It produced 8000 tons a 
 year for ten years, afterwards less ; at first 4 tons of ore to one of wash, later 
 1 ton of ore to four of wash. It was an exceptionally rich pot, very wet, 
 slate clay mass, required heavy timbering. No quartzite seen. Limestone 
 exposed in the wall. Grade of ore 40% to 48%. Stopped 1874. Coppen- 
 hoffer's and Garber'sare small banks along the same north foot of Chiques 
 ridge, following the fault.
 
 IRON MINES IN THE PRIMAL UPPER SLATE. 209 
 
 Hollow bombs of ore, sometimes tilled with very soft fine 
 clay or simply with water and lined inside with black oxide 
 of iron,* are common. 
 
 Until the introduction of the Lake Superior Marquette 
 and other red hematite ores Pennsylvania easily held its 
 preeminence as the great iron smelting state of America 
 by reason of the great number and remarkable size of its 
 brown 1 hematite (limonite) iron deposits ; and by importing 
 the richer magnetic and specular ores for mixing with its 
 own stock of limonite and fossil iron ore it still re-mains 
 the principal iron state, furnishing always about one-half 
 of all the iron produced in the United States. She was the 
 first to adopt Bessemer' s process of making low steel in 2, 
 and afterward 5 and 10 ton flasks, f 
 
 Most of the great limonite beds are, as has been said 
 above, in the Upper Primal slates. Others are in the lime 
 slates above the Trenton limestone No. lie. Others are in 
 the slates interbedded in the great limestones. Others are in 
 the slates over the Oriskany sandstone No. VII. These 
 will be described in their proper places. 
 
 The Upper Primal Slate limoidtes range along the 
 north side of the Chester county valley ; along the hydro- 
 mica belt in York and Lancaster; along the north foot of 
 the Highlands from Easton to Reading, and along the north- 
 west foot of the South Mountains from Boiling Springs to 
 Mont Alto. It is probable that this is also the geological 
 horizon of Pine Grove mines on Mountain creek in the 
 heart of the South Mountains ; and possibly of the Rich- 
 mond ore bank in Path Valley north of Mercersburg in 
 Franklin county, although this last range is along the 
 
 *This lining is often oxide of manganese, a metal constantly accompanying 
 iron in limonite deposits ; often beautifully crystallized in fibers or needles. 
 The bombs and balls show plainly enough that the peroxide of iron was dis- 
 tributed as fine particles throughout the plastic clay, and that these particles 
 slowly concentrated around points of mutual attraction, probably in most 
 cases towards minute quantities of organic matter which have disappeared 
 by oxidation. 
 
 f A process virtually invented and practiced by Wm. Kelly at his furnace 
 in Kentucky, when he boldly blew air into the molten metal in his furnace 
 hearth. See my Iron Manufacturers' Guide, 1858. 
 14
 
 210 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA . 
 
 Path Valley fault, on the contact of the limestone with the 
 Hudson River slates ; as described in a future chapter. 
 
 Chester valley Umonite mines. 
 
 The mines of the Chester county valley have never been 
 of first-class importance. Prof. Rogers' description of them 
 in 1858 was condensed and re-published in C4, 1883, pages 
 141, etc. It has hardly more than a historical value, since the 
 change in the iron industry has concentrated the iron works 
 and destroyed local small mining by the importation of dis- 
 tant richer ores. But it has a geological value for those 
 who study our formations. 
 
 Some of the old banks are on the edge of the valley, and 
 evidently in the Upper Primal slates, above the sandstone 
 and beneath the limestone. Others are as evidently wash- 
 ings from these iron-bearing slates into ancient caverns in 
 the limestone, the roofs of which have been removed by 
 erosion, leaving great pots of clay filled with wash and ball 
 ore. Of this kind are the deserted 
 
 Hitner banks near Marble Hall, Montgomery county r 
 from one of which were taken 10,000 tons in 1852, and 
 12,000 in 1853. From all the pits dug east of the Schuylkill 
 up to 1858 probably 60,000 tons were taken, in a belt seven 
 miles long and a mile wide. The ore deposits ranged in 
 long narrow strips, as deep troughs of iron soil sunk in the 
 limestone outcrop ; the two most productive being one just 
 north of the Barren Hill range ; the other just north of the 
 belt of marble. But outliers were found ; as, Wood's pit, 
 one mile north of Marble Hall, where shallow ore soil rested 
 on limestone so thin that the North Valley Hill sandstone 
 was struck beneath it.f 
 
 West of the SchuylTcill several pits were made south of 
 Bethel Hill (Whitehall's pit, Fisher's pit) for Merion fur- 
 nace use. 
 
 The Baptist Church old shaft, 75' deep, got superior ore, 
 resting on white marble. Another pit was sunk 200' feet 
 further east. 
 
 t See C. E. Hall's Report, C. 6.
 
 CHESTER VALLEY LIMONITE BANKS. 211 
 
 Fisher (Geo.) bank, 300' N. E. of Henderson's marble 
 quarry in U. Merion, is large, and until 1854 yielded good 
 ore ; afterwards more of an earthy wash ore. Another pit, 
 1250' N. E. of the last, and a later pit for the Phoanixville 
 works gave $ ore. 
 
 Widdart's bank, 800' S. of last, was reopened before 
 1854. Millerton's bank near the school house sent ore to 
 Jones' furnace above Conshohockin. Otto's bank, newly 
 opened in 1854, had ore. Supple' s & Hampton's pits 
 were small. Hughes & Jones' 1 pits were also small, but 
 made a large group. 
 
 Howellville, Tref. town, had its group of pits from which 
 good ore was got. Wilson's, N. W. of village. Wood- 
 man'' s had ore f, dirt ; sent to Phcenixville. Jones', 
 Beavers' , & Bucks and King's, near the Baptist Church 
 m. from Centreville, were all three large banks. 8. Bea- 
 ver's bank, mile S. E. of head of Valley Forge dam, lay 
 along the north side of the valley, and got its ore-wash 
 (Rogers thought) from the lower magnesian part of the 
 great limestone formation. Holland' s bank, 1 m. N. W. 
 of Howellville, 43' deep in 1854, sent excellent ore to Pho3- 
 nixville. 
 
 West of Paoli was another group of diggings : Buchan- 
 an's, 1200' N. of Oakland hotel, f ore, sent to Jones' fur- 
 nace. Jacobs' , 2 m. E. of Oakland, and two others m. S. 
 of Ship tavern. McGuire' s, 1 m. N. of tavern ; much good 
 ore. E cans' , f m. E. of tavern; much good ore. Neat's 
 three pits. 
 
 An untried pit was opened 1 m. N. W. of Downingtown. 
 
 West of Coatesville several small pits on the south side 
 of the valley.* 
 
 York county Umonite banks. 
 
 The mines of York and Adams county in the hydromica 
 (Upper Primal) belt are described by Prof. Frazer in his 
 
 * Rogers' Geol. Pa. 1858, pp. 217 to 219, gives some very interesting details 
 of Lancaster Co. limonite banks in evidence of his belief that the South 
 Valley Hill mica slates (bearing iron) underlie the Chester Valley limestone 
 formation.
 
 212 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Report of Progress C, 1876. On pp. 5 to 9 is given a list of 
 158 mines in all the formations of the two counties, in alpha- 
 betical order, many of them small openings, others old, large 
 and deep mines.* 
 
 Golin bank (67) 2 miles W. of Wrightsville, at the N. 
 edge of limestone belt, S. edge of slate belt ; opened 1854 ; 
 in 1874, 400' long, 25' deep at west end, in sandy clays; 
 
 B. StricJcler bank. 1 mile west of the Gohn, on the same 
 line ; 1854 ; worked by Mnsselman ; then by Haldeman till 
 1864 ; 1874 abandoned ; half an acre ; 30' deep to water. 
 
 Stoner bank, half a mile further west on same line ; 1850 
 to 1873, 40,750 tons to Musselman and Watts ; partly by 
 shafts ; open f acre, 25' deep. 
 
 D. Rudy 's banks, half a mile further west on same line ; 
 1862 to 1870, 9,872 tons ; H acres, 25' deep ; abandoned. 
 
 Ruby 1 s bank, half a mile (4 m. from Wrightsville) on 
 same line ; 1862 ; worked 4 years ; 400' long E. and W. or 
 % acre ; abandoned ; much loose qnartzite. 
 
 Keller's bank, half a mile further west; acre ; 10' to 
 water ; ore exhausted. 
 
 Heistand's bank, a mile further west on same (midway 
 between Wrightsville and York ;) 1864 ; Musselman & 
 Haldeman ; 2 acres, 600' long, 20' deep to water ; abandoned 
 1871 ; walls, clay and gravel. 
 
 Blessingef s bank, one mile further west ; and 1000' N. 
 of limestone limit; acre; trench 750' E. and W. ; exhausted; 
 sandstone fragments and sandy slate. 
 
 Norses bank, half mile further west, and J m. N. of 
 limestone ; f acre, 300' long, 25' deep ; abandoned. 
 
 Miller's bank, one-third mile further west, and 2000' N. 
 of limestone ; i acre, 15' deep ; has only yielded 300 tons ; 
 ground strewn with sandstone and slate blocks. 
 
 * Of these are described 126, arranged in nine lines running N. E. and S. 
 W. and numbered from N. E. to S. W. Nos. 1 to 6, from Shrewsberry to the 
 Maryland line ; 7 to 14, S. of Margaretta furnace, from Red Lion to 8. of 
 Jefferson and Loganville to Red Lion ; 15 to 66, from S. of Wrightsville by 
 Hanover Junction to Littlestown in Adams ; 67 to 109, from Wrightsville 
 through York to N. of Hanover in Adams ; 111 to 118, a group north of York ; 
 110, near the river N. of Wrightsville ; 119, 120, S. of Wellsville ; 121, W. of 
 Wellsville : 122 to 126, near Dillsburg. In this chapter only those in the 
 hydromica slate belts will be noticed.
 
 YORK COUNTY LIMONITE BANKS. 213 
 
 S. and 1. Deitz's two banks, m. apart, further on, 1500' 
 N. of limestone ; about 1864 ; abandoned 1870 ; yielded 2000 
 tons ; 8' stripping over ore lying in pockets in white and 
 yellow clay ; in all \ acre, 20 ' deep ; water scarce. 
 
 Susanna Fritz' s bank, a mile west of Norse bank (.or 3 
 m. east of York) and \ m. N. of limestone border ; 1865, to 
 June, 1874 ; principally wash ore, in pockets and nests in 
 blue clay which prevailed in the walls beneath the strip- 
 pings ; abandoned, but large quantity of ore at north end 
 reaching nearly to the surface ; 40' deep, partially filled 
 with water (1874.)* 
 
 HeidelsbacTi 's bank, f mile further west and 500' north 
 of the limestone ; small ; 600 tons ; exhausted by 1868 ; 
 acre, 10' deep.f 
 
 Ifibert banks, If miles north of York (the most northern 
 is sometimes called the Corr bank). Operated by Benson 
 & Cottrell, owners from 1866 to October, 1873 ; |+1| acres, 
 30' deep ; principally wash ore ; 10 tons daily ; part filled 
 with water (1874)4 
 
 D. Louck's banks, li miles northeast of York and ^ 
 mile north of limestone ; two, 100' apart, with a smaller 
 bank between ; 1867 ; wash ore, some lump ; water not 
 quite sufficient to wash ; acre, 20' deep, and acre, 25' 
 deep.g 
 
 Thus far the limonite deposits have been either on or just 
 N. of the northern edge of York Valley limestone belt, 
 which edge crosses the Codorus a mile north of York, 
 swings west and north and east to recross the creek two 
 miles lower down, and recrosses a third time 5 miles north 
 
 * Many samples taken for analysis yielded in McCreath's laboratory : 
 Insol. res. 19.750; iron sesquiox., 63.285 ; alum. 0.765 ; manganese sesquoix., 
 2.210; phos. acid, 2.986; sulph. acid, 0.068; lime, 0.196; mag., 0.216; water, 
 10.880=metaljic iron, 44.300; inang., 1.540; sulp., 0.024; phos., 1.303. 
 
 f Here a compact bed of quartzite crosses the road, dipping 60 northwest, 
 but there is room for concealed southeast dips between it and the limestone 
 belt. 
 
 J An interesting bed of compact quartzite, dipping 30, north 15 west cuts 
 out the ore in the Corr bank. Slates carrying ore much contorted, with 
 cleavage planes dipping 70 southeast If these be original bed planes then 
 the slates dip beneath the limestone. 
 
 Rock beds cut are crystalline schists much intersected by veins of quartz.
 
 214 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 of York. From this third crossing the limestone edge runs 
 west 2f miles to Ewingsville, and so keeps on to the north 
 side of the Pigeon hills. It then returns east, south, south- 
 west around the south foot of the hills and runs on into 
 Adams county. 
 
 Returning now to the Codorus creek there are several 
 banks in the slate country north of York: Lightner's, 
 Louck's, Benson & Cottrell's, Hake's, west of the Codorus ; 
 and Benson & Cottrell's and Smyser's east of the Codorus ; 
 all of them either on the limestone border or not more than 
 1500' from it. Taking them in the order named will be to 
 follow the edge of the limestone around Pleasureville. (See 
 Report C, 1875, p. 69.) 
 
 Banks north of York. 
 
 Lightness bank, 1 m. W. N. W. of York, on the lime- 
 stone border; leased by an English company, Sept., 1874. 
 
 LoucTc 1 s bank, If m. N. of York, \ m. from the limestone; 
 open cut 60' long, 15' wide, 18' deep in bluish clay; stripping 
 5'; yellow clay with ocreous iron, 7'; white clay and chlorite, 
 thin; clay and ball ore V; dip of slate 46 N. 23 W.; dip 
 of ore the same. 
 
 Benson and CottreWs bank, near last; 1870; 1000 tons a 
 year; ten per cent, lump; water scarce; ore contains a little 
 sulphur and a little phosphorus; magnetic sand and much 
 specular iron intermixed with the ore. 
 
 Hake's bank, % m. N. of last; clay; not at work in 1874. 
 
 Smyser'sbank (SmaW s bank), 3 miles N. of York, on 
 the south edge of the limestone a mile N. of PleasureviJle; 
 leased for 20 years (1864-1884) by Ashland Iron Co. 2 
 acres, 40' walls; 15 tons per day of both wash and lump 
 ore of two kinds, one a sandy manganese limonite; the other 
 a smooth greyish blue compact ore full of small cavities 
 stained on the edges with limonite; also a white ore looking 
 like a cherty limestone, in fact a spathic or carbonate iron 
 ore, suggesting interesting reflections upon the genesis of 
 the limonites. There is on the east side of the bank a lime- 
 stone bed which dips 18 to the west, i. e under the ore de-
 
 BANKS NORTH OF YORK. 215 
 
 posit, and Dr. Frazer suspects it of a greater antiquity than 
 the York valley limestone. (See C, p. 68.)* 
 
 Cottrell & Benson 1 s bank, across the road from Smyser's 
 bank ; 1871 ; 10 tons per day, all wash ore, hauled to 
 Emigsville, railroad to Marietta. In 1874 acre, 40' deep. 
 (C, p. 66.) 
 
 Banks west of York. 
 
 Eisenhart(Jac.}, on the Gettysburg turnpike, 2 m.W. of 
 York, has surface wash ore on slate ground ; and not far 
 from here near the Carlisle road fork to Emig's Mill in the 
 debris of an old pit was seen a large specimen of magnetic 
 limonite. The Beelor trap dyke runs across the neighbor- 
 hood towards the old 
 
 Kauffman bank, 3 m. S. W. of York on the narrow belt 
 of slate which from here west to Pigeon hills splits the 
 limestone belt into two ; 300 tons were taken out ; ore so 
 magnetic as to disturb the surveyor's compass ; ore, mostly 
 anhydrous, lay in scales along with mottled red and blue 
 limestone ; a mass of ore in place dips 25 S. 10 E. ; but 
 the associated slates dip 70 S. 10 E. Beelor' s trap dyke 
 runs close by on the east. 
 
 Ey ester s (M.}~bank(Smysers's, Brillinger 's 3 m. further 
 S. W. along the N. W. edge of the slate belt, along aban- 
 done<J trench 350' long, 20' deep ; in fine-grained mica 
 slates dipping 64 S. 20 E.f Ore in nests and lumps of 
 brown and red hematite, but no magnetic visible under the 
 lens ; slates almost all weathered into white clay, with 
 
 * Careful sampling, and analyzing by A. S. McCreath, gives the following 
 constitution of the first kind of ore : Insoluble silicious residue, 14.78 ; iron 
 sesq., 46.28; alumina, 2.67 ; manganese sesq., 22.89; phos. acid, 1.49; baryta, 
 1.32; lime, 0.24; magnesia, 0. 15 ; water, 11.20 ;=Iron, 32.40; manganese, 
 15.93; sulphur, 0.03 ; phosphorus, 0.65. Cold short; and unlike any other 
 ore as yet found in York county. The Spathic ore, analyzed by A. Pearce, 
 under Dr. Genth yielded; ferrous carbonate, 77.99; mang. carb., 0.45; 
 magnes. carb., 3.53; calc. carb., 1.43; alum., 2.81 ; sil., 11.56; water, organic 
 matter and loss 2.23 ;=iron, 37.65. 
 
 f All the dips, slate and limestone in this neighborhood are steep S. E. 
 (See ore map of survey on a large scale, with all the dips marked, in Re- 
 port C. ) If the slate belt be an anticlinal, then the dips next to the northern 
 limestone belt must be overturned, and the slates at this mine although 
 seemingly over the limestone are really under it, where they ought to be.
 
 216 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 streaks of irony clay ; what is not shows rotten lamination; 
 at northern end of pit compact fine-grained mica slate, over 
 which at the south end are 100' of the soft clay strata 
 carrying the ore. 
 
 Emig 's (Sam.) bank, 3 m. W. of New Salem, near Nash- 
 ville, near S. edge of slate ; opened 1872. 
 
 Johnson's (W. S.) pit, I m. W. of last ; 1873; ore. 
 
 Mengis' (And.) bank, 1 m. S. of last, near N. edge of 
 southern belt of limestone ; 1872 to 1874, 3,772 tons.* 
 
 Banks of the Pigeon Hills. 
 
 Myers' (Mich.) a mile west of last, 1873. Roth's (S.) a 
 mile north of last ; 1873 ; 10' deep ; ore. Roth's (&) I m. 
 S. by W. of last ; 20' deep ; 7' stripping. These are a 
 group in the slate belt. Miller's (J. L.) f m. S. W. of 
 last; abandoned. Bechtel' s (Geo.) If m. S. W. of Myers' ; 
 opened about 1868 by Musselman & Watts ; abandoned in 
 1873.^Forry (G.) reports ore in mass in his orchard near 
 the limestone, 5 m. N. E. of Hanover. Boyer' s (Sam.) 
 bank, % m. west of last ; 1854 ; leased 1872 ; acre, another 
 1 acre, both 15' deep ; ores In segregated shelly, friable 
 masses in clays ; no unaltered slates seen. It is the first 
 of a series of closely neighboring pits marking the northern 
 edge of the slate belt leaning against the Pigeon Hills and 
 running on to the Adams Iine4 
 
 Moulk's (S.) bank, 5 m. N. E. of Hanover ; 1859 ; in 1870- 
 1874 the Leesport Iron Co. took out 14 tons a day; incline 
 plane 200' long. 
 
 * Watts & Sons, the owners, give these figures and an analysis : Iron, 
 39.640; insoluble, 37.800; sulphur, a trace; phosphorus, 0.080; undeter- 
 mined, 22.380. 
 
 t These last eight banks are disposed around one of the southern spurs of 
 the Pigeon Hills and mark th*e shape of the spur. (Frazer in C, 55.) 
 
 Jit must be kept in view that this slate belt keeps the limestone belt (to 
 the south of it) away from the Chiques quartzite mass of the Pigeon Hills ; 
 therefore beneath the limestone. 
 
 One hundred and eighty to one hundred and eighty-five car loads per 
 day (14 tons) worth $2.50 per ton at Kauffman's siding on Hanover Branch 
 RR., 3 miles distant. One hundred-paddle lump washer and sand washer ; 
 35 horse power engine consuming 1100 pounds coal ; 19 men in three gangs ; 
 f 1.00 per day wages ; or f 1.50 if paid 7 to ~l\ cents per car load ; engineer, |33
 
 PIGEON HILLS BANKS. 217 
 
 MouVs (Sol.} bank, % m. west of last ; 1854 ; 2 acres, 15' 
 deep ; tenaceous clay under stripping ; engine house at N. 
 E. end ; idle in 1874. 
 
 MouC s (P.) banks, (two,) small. 
 
 BechteVs banks ; (I) 4 acres ; (2) J acre. 
 
 Haldeman & Co.'s bank; near the last ; 1870 ; acre ; 8' 
 stripping ; -f wash ore in yellow and blue clays ; ore bands 
 V to 3' thick irregularly running out ; used at Chiques to 
 mix with Cornwall ore ; 25 tons per day ; pit 45' deep ; water 
 supply deficient. Analysis: Iron 43.00 ; manganese 3.88; 
 sulphur 0.09 ; phosporus 0.67.* 
 
 Miller' s (Ashland Co's) bank, 400' W. of Kaufman's (3 
 m. N. N. E. of Hanover) and at the base of the Pigeon Hills; 
 1863; 3i acres; 15 men; 18 tons per day without incline plane; 
 all the blue and yellow clay mass contains paying mass ore; 
 mixed with tremonium ores in the Ashland furnace. Ban- 
 man's bank, not far west of last; \ acre; stopped 1873. 
 Miller ( Widow) bank, near last, small. Porter (Gov.) bank; 
 1840 to 1862; shut; 1 acre. GUI's bank-, several pits in 
 quartzite and sandy slates, 3 m. N. of Hanover; much ore; 
 abandoned. f 
 
 Banks near Hanover. 
 
 ' The above-described banks are ranged along the foot of 
 the Pigeon hills north of the York limestone belt. South 
 of the limestone there is no such range of banks in the 
 hydromica slate country ; but there are four at Hanover, 
 and two four miles northeast of Hanover of considerable 
 
 per month ; foreman $40 ; 11 working hours ; 400 tons a month extracted ; 
 two 35 horse-power boilers ; 5 cars in use ; water for washer pumped from 
 mine ; 12 tons of ore per day washed ; transport to siding 60 cents per ton, 
 contract wagons belonging to contractor ; 9 men always mining ; stripping 
 9' ; under this white clay and gravel ; then j^ellow ore clay, no bottom yet. 
 (Report 3, 1874, p. 59, here quoted as specimen of its statistics.) 
 
 * See full analysis in C, p. 61. A. plate of " red oxide " runs S. W. towards 
 Kauffman's; analysis: Iron sesq., 72.14; alumina, 1.72; manganese sesq., 
 0.39 ; phos. acid, 0.43 ; sulp. acid, 0.12 ; lime, 0.17 ; magnesia, 0.33 ; water, 5.76 ; 
 insol. sil. residue, 19.09 ;=Iron, 50.50. This tough, hard siliceous kind of ore 
 is found elsewhere in the county. Kaufman's bank, next the last, started 
 1874. 
 
 fMcConaughy's exploitation pits in quartzite, 3^ m. N. W. of Hanover, 
 1874, has begun to show fairly. ThiS'nds the series westward.
 
 218 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 importance. The four just south of the village of Hanover, 
 a mile from the Adams line, are 
 
 Baumann (/".) pit, first opened a century ago ; reopened 
 1860 ; then leased by the Wrights ville I. Co., who took out 
 1000 tons. Flickinger' s, 300' west of last; 500 tons got. 
 Delone (Louis] bank, i mile W. of Baltimore pike ; 1867 ; 
 2000 tons got in six months, large and small lump ore in 
 slate mouldered to clay; slight stripping; large body of 
 ore seen (1873) in northeast heading.* Forney (A. M.) 
 bank, 400 yards west of last ; 1863 ; 3500 tons got and more 
 in sight, in hole 200' long by 20' deep ; ore lumps in clay ; 
 abandoned. 
 
 The two important limonite mines on the south edge of 
 the limestone 4 miles N. E. of Hanover, are the well-known 
 Dollinger and Sprenkel banks : 
 
 Dollinger (J. and D. ) bank, leased by the Leesport I. Co. 
 and opened in 1873 ; 180 car-loads a day ; 90 per cent wash 
 ore; lumps and nests in the clay of the decomposed slate 
 formation.t 
 
 Spr entile* s shafts ; m. N. E. of last ; sunk 1874, north 
 of H. & Y. S. L. RR. Ore in first shaft peculiar, dull brick 
 red, containing masses of specular and some micaceous ore, 
 much mixed with sand and the slate gangue (a fine-grained 
 chlorite hydromica slate with thin intercalations of lime- 
 stone}. Two veins struck by the shaft, upper one V thick, 
 with a thin roof of slaty limestone. The N. W. shaft takes 
 out ordinary limonite. Prevailing dip, 50 N. W. as if 
 going under the valley limestone. Further west, Mussel- 
 man shaft struck solid ore. 
 
 In quarry 500' N. of first shaft limestone and slate con- 
 tact seen, dip of both 48 N. 35 W., slate under limestone. 
 This is an all-important geological fact, establishing 
 
 * Analysis: Iron, 33.5; *sulp., 0; phos., 1.47; silica, 23; alum., 27.3; ox. 
 org., loss, 14.7. Another: Sil., 8.2; ferric ox., 70.1; alum., .96; mang. ox., 
 1.75; phos. acid, 2.54; sulp., .03; water, lB.15;=iron. 49; mang., 1.21; phos. 
 1.11. Another by F. A. Genth : Sil., 7.55; ferr. ox., 65.6; alum., 2. 05; mang., 
 ox., 7.29; ph. acid, H.05; water, 13.88; mag., .35; cobaltic oxide, 0.22 ;=iron, 
 45.9; manganese, 5.07; phosphorus, 1.33. (Report C, 1874, p. 41.) 
 
 fSee statistics in C, p. 55 ; and analysis : Iron 45. 1 ; manganese, 1.5 ; sulp., 
 0.09 ; phos., 0.60.
 
 SOUTH OF THE YORK VALLEY LIMESTONE. 219 
 
 the location of the ore in the Primal Upper Slate 'be- 
 neath the Silurian (Ordomcian} limestone, although the 
 nearest quartette is a mile southeast from the ore.^ 
 
 Banks south of the York Valley limestone. 
 
 Before continuing this list of mines into Adams county, 
 we will return to the Susquehanna, and note the ore banks 
 of the hydromica slate belt south of the York valley lime- 
 stone, beginning with the one nearest the river, No. 15 on 
 the York county map, C, page 16. 
 
 Wilton's ~baiik, l^m. S. of Wrightsville; 1850; 1855; 1858; 
 12,000 tons; abandoned before 1874, but much ore remaining 
 65' beneath the surface, in a ravine between high slate hills; 
 limestone seen up the ravine; quartzite marked on map. 
 
 Leber (Dan.} bank, 2 m. S. of last, m. back from the 
 river, on the edge of the limestone; 1872; mostly lump ore, 
 concentric bombs, the shells separated by shells of clay: 
 limestone 1000' S. 15 W. of the pit dips 40 S. 22 E., 
 therefore the north lip of Cabin Branch Run synclinal lime- 
 stone basin has the ore slates underlying the limestone. 
 
 Emig (J.) bank No. 1, 600' W. 30 W. of last, on the edge 
 of the limestone; stopped 1867. 
 
 Emig (J.) bank No. 2, m. W. of last, very old, aband- 
 oned 1869; shaft 110' deep; bottom ore so compact as to re- 
 quire blasting; very little wash ore, mostly lump. 
 
 'Keller (Geo.) shafts, 1 m. W. of last, (4 m. S. of Wrights- 
 ville); about 1864; 70' and 30' deep; almost all lump, re- 
 quiring blasting, very near surface; in hydromica slate 
 partly in a very sandy slate; many pieces of quartzite; 
 much of the ore magnetic; very crystalline limestone close 
 by, dipping 54 S. 22 E. 
 
 Burg (Reuben) bank, at Prospect (Furnace P. O.) li m. 
 from Margaretta Furnace; shaft 30' deep struck limonite 
 charged with magnetic particles. 
 
 Small (J.) bank, ^ m. W. of last; same black ore; lump 
 and wash ore equal; makes foundry iron. 
 
 Margaretta Furnace banks, on Cabin Branch Run, 3 m. 
 
 t See the York Co. map published in Atlas to Report C3 on Lancaster 
 county.
 
 220 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 from river; Slay maker sold (1850) to Halm and Himes, who 
 worked them 1867 to 1874 (date of Report) at 200 tons per 
 week; various limonites (lurgite, &c.,) brittle, sandy, shelly 
 grading off into slate rock; the purest (" black ore ") ana- 
 lyzing 60 iron seems to have been subsequently deposited 
 in cavities between the mica sla^e strata, too much decom- 
 posed to show true dip; mines on the contact of slate and 
 limestone.* 
 
 A mile S. of Margaretta furnace are two banks: Jas. Cur- 
 rarfs, opened about 1844 and W. G. Case's, about 1851, from 
 which ore has been mined, but they have long lain idle. 
 
 Keller (/.) bank, If W. of Margaretta Furnace; 1866; 
 JOOO tons the fir,st six months ; then abandoned ; ferrugi- 
 nous slates dip 70, S. 20 E. . This bank is within a short 
 distance of the edge of the phyllite belt, therefore near the 
 bottom of the hydromicas. 
 
 Barcoft s (Butcher's] bank, 500' west of last and higher 
 in the same hydromica belt ; opened 1840 ; work suspended 
 in 1868 ; ore cold short, plate-like, hard, flinty, tough, with 
 unusual amount of black glassy coating, and mamillary 
 stalactites, knobs and ridges, which when broken show 
 cross-fiber crystallization (gothite). Large masses of lump 
 ore in the clay, regularly arranged ; one massive lens dipping 
 30, N. 80 E. through the slates, which are more or less 
 completely changed to clay ; upper part of mine limonite 
 and turgite. Musselman & Watts took out 10,000 tons at 
 one time.f 
 
 Banks in the York county pJiyllite belt. 
 
 Barley bank, 1 m. W. of last ; 1868 ; 400 tons in two 
 years ; dark brown hematite in clay, in phyllite slate belt ; 
 i m. from quart zite belt. 
 
 Hengst bank, 900' S. of W. of last ; in same phyllite belt 
 
 *See mining statistics, p. 20. Result of analysis of shell ore: iron, 48.8 ; 
 manganese, 0.79 ; sulphur, 0.038 ; phosphorus, 0.343. 
 
 fSee mining statistics in C, p. 22 ; and Watts' analysis : Silica, 26.75 ; perox. 
 iron, 47.15 ; alum., 1.70, water, 11.40; undetermined, 13.00 ;=Iron, 33.00. A 
 low grade ore if this analysis represents the mine ; but its siliceous character 
 is due to its place in the phyllite formation instead of in the upper hydro- 
 mica formation.
 
 BANKS IN THE YORK CO. PHYLLITE BELT. 221 
 
 and as near the quartzite ; 3,000 tons in three years, 1868 to 
 1871 ; then idle ; 15' deep ; ore a conglomerate of ball ore 
 and ferruginous slate. 
 
 Moser's new bank, 3 m. S. W., of last, 2 m S. E. of Longs- 
 town, 2 m. N. of Dallastown, 1 m. from edge of hydromica 
 belt ; 1865 ; abandoned ; poor ore. 
 
 Ensminger* s banks, 10W and 1700' S. W. of last ; 1866 ; 
 1873. 
 
 Moseys old bank, 1 m. W. of last, \ m. W. of Peach 
 Bottom RR. near edge of hydromica belt ; 1820-f- worked by 
 York Furnace Co. ; then J. A. Wright & Co.; then (1850) 
 Shoenberger, Musselman & Co.; then Musselman & Watts ; 
 then Musselman & Sons ; 42,090 tons from 1850 to 1873 ; ex- 
 cavation 250 yards long, now abandoned ; ore masses are 
 still visible in yellow, white' and blue clays ; bottom strewn 
 with lean compact ore ; lump and wash ore equal.* 
 
 Williams' oldbanks (GladfeUer" 1 s), 2m. E.N.E. of Logans- 
 ville, was not worked after about 1830, but an immense 
 amount of ore must have been taken from the numerous 
 extensive deep excavations in the phyllite belt within about 
 a mile of the hypothetical limit of the Tocquan schist belt. 
 
 BrillliarV s bank, 1 m. E. N. E. of Logansville, has been 
 worked by Kaufman for Columbia furnace, and yielded 
 the same ores as the next. 
 
 Feigley bank, the S. W. continuation of the last, opened 
 by Musselman in 1867 ; up to 1874 (date of report) yielded 
 50,000 tons of limonite, finely disseminated through clay 
 at least 40' deep ; 10 per cent lump, 90 per cent wash ; 
 also a dark-blue compact heavy clay ore ; also a peculiar 
 "honey-comb ore," composed of minute plates of limonite 
 knit together like paper walls of a wasp's nest.f 
 
 Moser's oldest bank, 200' W. of last. 
 
 *See statistics in C, p. 24. One specimen was of parallel flat plates, united 
 by one or other edge, space filled with lepidocrocite, stalactitic limonite and 
 turgite. Another was botryoidal coated with black glossy turgite (?). A 
 third was compact brown limonite. A fourth (50 pounds) showed all these, 
 and also a peculiar separated structure, the ridges being an inch high uni- 
 formally covered with glossy ore. Partial analysis is (Watts) : Iron, 40: 
 silica, 32; phos., 1.17; water, 8. 
 
 t For statistics of mining see C, page 14, J. B. Britton's analysis of an 
 average sample : Iron, 46.08 ; ox. 19.74; insol. sil. res., 18.66 ; water and org.
 
 222 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Banks in the Jiydromica belt south of York. 
 
 Leader's Hill old opening, f m. W. of New Paradise; 
 slates dip 84, S. 70 E. No ore showing. 
 
 Hess bank, 5 m. S. of York, 2 m. W. of Logansville ; 
 150' long, 15' deep ; 1868 ; ore too sandy; slates asbestiform, 
 vertical, strike N. 20 E. 
 
 Falkenstine shaft, abandoned. 
 
 Meyer's (B.) bank, 1200' N. W. of Gladfelter's railroad 
 station ; lean ore in vertical slate striking N. 30 E. 
 
 Stambach's shaft, m. W. of station ; in dark slates 
 holding crystals of micaceous and magnetic ore. 
 
 Gladfelter's bank, f m. W. of station, 10' deep in verti- 
 cal slates, striking N. 34 E. 
 
 Geisselman' s bank, J m. W. of railroad between Glad- 
 felter's and Seven Valley (Smyser's) stations; four small 
 shafts sunk 1870, in hydromica slates impregnated with 
 iron oxide. 
 
 Thomas Iron Co.'s banks, $ m. S. W. of Smyser's rail- 
 road station ; two banks and three shafts, acre and f acre, 
 engine house, drifts, etc.* 
 
 Walters- bank, f m. N. of W. of Hanover Junction rail- 
 road station ; 1872 ; much hard limonite still visible in 
 bunches in clay of decomposed coarse-grained slate ; f acre, 
 40' deep. 
 
 Crout' s bank, ^ m. N. E. of Strickhauser's station, Han. 
 Br. RB,., 800' along the road, 18' deep ; hard, compact 
 sandy limonite ; sometimes operated. 
 
 Knotwell's shaft on the York I. Co.'s hill ; Aug. 1874, 
 had reached hard ore (at 27') same as York Co.'s ore. 
 
 mat., 10.94; sulphur, none; phosphorus, 0.69; alum., 1.92; lime, 0.17; mag- 
 nesia, 0.56; manganese, 0.33 ; undetermined, 0.91. 
 
 A finely laminated bluish limestone containing white crystalline lime- 
 stone scattered through it in spots resembling in certain portions a calcareous 
 conglomerate, in others simply mottled, appears in both banks, and in the 
 run, dips 85, N. 20 W. In a quarry' near by it is so mixed with crystalline 
 hydromica flakes as to mimic hydromica schist, although containing 78 per 
 cent of carb. lime and magnesia; thickness perhaps 400'. This is an im- 
 portant observation. (C, p. 15.) 
 
 * Statistics in C, p. 27. Analysis : Iron, 51.7 ; no sulphur ; phos., 0.052 ; sil. , 
 6.0; alum., 16.4, etc.
 
 BANKS IN THE HYDROMICA BELT S. OF YORK. 228 
 
 Strickhouser's shaft, 1,200' W. of last; 1860; pit 200' 
 long (N. 39 E.) 30' wide and 10' deep, has shaft in middle 
 10' deeper. 
 
 KnotweWs bank, 1600' N. of York Co.'s works; 200' 
 long ; dip 66, S. 82 E ; another slate exposure strikes N. 
 20 E. 
 
 York Iron Co.'s mine, the most widely known bank in 
 York county, yielding the so called "Codorus ore," 2 m. 
 N. E. of Jefferson (Codorus P. O.), mile N. W. of the 
 RR. ; opened by Musselman in 1854 ; worked almost con- 
 tinuously from 1861 to 1874 (date of report) by York I. 
 Co. ; a hard, compact slate highly charged with micaceous 
 and some magnetic ore ; 10 to 20 tons a day. The slates in 
 Strickhouser's ravine through a ridge 100' high stand 
 vertical. The back bone of the ridge is Chiques quartzite.* 
 
 Sheaffer' s pit, % m. S. of last ; 1867 ; 350 tons; exhausted. 
 
 Thomas Iron Co.'s old pit, 1700' S. W. of last; 1869; 
 worked one year and abandoned. 
 
 Thomas, Iron Co.'' s No. 2, two banks and a shaft, 2700' S. 
 E. of last ; 1869 ; 30' deep, abandoned ; layers of mica slate 
 between ore deposits ; dips 45 to 90, N. 45 W. 
 
 Thomas Iron Co.'s, No. 3, pits along a 100' line S. 30 W ; 
 outcrops of mica slate further west dip 75, N. 25 W. 
 
 Smyser (E. O.} bank,' 1869 ; acre, 15' deep ; idle. 
 
 Hanover Branch RR. open cut yielded considerable ore. 
 
 Flicking er' s pits along road just west of Jefferson ; 1873. 
 
 Schumann" 1 s pits, 3' to 18' deep, through blue clay (de- 
 composed slate), strike limestone at 17'. 
 
 Meyers' (Matt.) bank, at bend of RR., ^ acre, 1871, 
 abandoned ; 800' N. of it sandy slates dip 90, strike N. 
 60 T&.Nes Hill pits, insignificant. 
 
 * Statistics of mining, C, p. 30. Analyses: (1) Soft ore, iron, 39.280; sul- 
 phur, 0.007 (2) hard ore, iron 26.650; sulphur, 0.005. Another analysis: 
 Iron, 26.0; silica, 47.5; alumina, 8.65. Another: Iron, 46.13; silica, 34.10; 
 phosphorus, 0.22. Another (white ore): Iron, 46.100; no sulphur; phos., 
 1.258 ; silica, 15.000 ; alumina, 16.000; undetermined, 21.642. Average of three 
 analyses by McCreath: Iron, 34.375; silica, 32.400; phos., 0.378. Average 
 lot of samples sent to McCrealh yielded: Ferrous oxide, 0.900 ; ferric oxide, 
 50.857 ; mang. sesq., 0.103 ; al., 1.630 ; lime, 0.862 ; mag., 0.303 ; sulp. acid, 0.011; 
 phos. acid, 0.513; water, 1.690; residue, 43.425; = iron, 36.3 ; mang., 0.07 It phos. 
 0.224 ; sul., 0.004. The long debate over the so called " Codorus silicon steel " 
 deserves no attention.
 
 224 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 Forrey 's bank, 200' long, 30' broad, 15' deep'; partly 
 washed shut (1874); 800 tons in 1869. Shaft (reported) went 
 through 8' stripping, 60' solid ore, bottom still in ore. 
 
 StambacKs bank, 1200' S. W. of last ; 200' long, 50' wide, 
 20' deep ; 1869 ; 800 tons in one summer ; ore coldshort. 
 
 Ti'ones trial shafts, 1000' N. W. of Smith's station ; ore 
 found ; filled. 
 
 RudesilVs bank, f m. N. E. of Smith's station; 300' 
 E. 12 N., 100' wide, 20' deep ; much washed in. 
 
 Mickley's bank, \ m. E. of last ; 200' long, 150' wide, 30' 
 to 40' deep ; f acre , abandoned. 
 
 Eckert and Kauffmart s ; f m. N. W. of Smith's station ; 
 1869 ; 29,000 tons up to 1874 ; ore lean, but works easy in 
 furnace, cold short, plenty still in sight (1874); stripping 0' 
 to 12' ; at W. end rock ore 30' thick exposed, in plates a 
 few feet thick with clay partings, dipping (average) 50, S. 
 32 E. ; but the general strike of hills and ore banks is more 
 nearly N. 75 to 80 E.* -Hartmart s bank is a continua- 
 tion of it eastward, separated only by a road. 
 
 Stover's bank is close to the Hanover Branch RR., 600' 
 N. W. of trial shaft at W. end of last. 
 
 SprenkeVs bank, 800' S. W. of last at York Road RR. 
 station ; acre ; 1874. 
 
 Kraber & Nes 1 bank, 500' S. W. of last ; 1868 ; f acre ; 
 1000 tons first year ; then Thomas Iron Co. (1870) 10 to 30 
 tons a day. 
 
 All these last banks are on a range through the heart of 
 the hydromica belt, near the railroad ; but only N"o. 54 is 
 located on the geological map of York county. 
 
 Along the southern edge of the hydromica belt near Xenia 
 and the Maryland are Nos. 13, 14. at the limit of the 
 phyllites : 
 
 Hof acker* s bank, a century old, 7 m. S. E. of Hanover, 3 
 m. from the state line ; a quarry of hardened chlorite slates 
 (cut by quartz veins, studded with pyrite and chalcopyrite) 
 nearly vertical, striking N. 20 E. 900' N. by E. from the 
 old bank is the new Wrightsville Iron Co. bank (April, 
 1874); ore limonite with some magnetite in a regular bed 
 
 *See statistics in G, p. 38.
 
 ADAMS COUNTY LIMONITE BANKS. 225 
 
 hardly needing washing ; dip of schists in cut 50, S. 70 E., 
 but in the quarry, 90, S. 70 E. Benade 1 s shaft is f m. 
 S. W. of the bank. 
 
 Adams county limonite banks. 
 
 McConaughy trial pits, on the H. and C. pike, 3 m. N. 
 W. of Hanover, for the Lochiel works (1874), is the last ore 
 spot on the Pigeon Hill slate ore range, but in quartzite 
 land. West of this nothing is noted in Report C, 1874, 
 p. 64. 
 
 On the York valley belt of slates, the range of banks is 
 continued across into Adams county by the following banks 
 (C, p. 42) : 
 
 Schwartz (Sam.) bank, 2 m. S. W. of Hanover ; 1874 ; 
 1000 tons exhausted it ; machinery standing ; ore in crystal- 
 line slates dipping 45, about south, conformably inter- 
 leaved, and also cutting the slates. 
 
 'Schwartz (Sol.) bank, f m. S. W. of last ; 1855 ; 1 acre, 
 30', 40' deep ; 2000 tons taken out in 1872 to 1874 ; much 
 ore left in floor ; walls full of wash ore. 
 
 Boyer bank, on Hanover and Littlestown RR., 3 m. N. 
 E. of Littlestown ; 1856 ; f acre, 15' deep. 
 
 Lefeme pits, H m. S. E. of last. Shaft 20' deep, caved 
 in, filled up (1874). A sandy yellow ochre ("mineral 
 paint") occurs. 
 
 Krumr em's pits, on S. slope of hill, f m. S. W. of last; 
 1870 ; 40 tons of 35 per cent, iron ore ; nothing visible (1874) 
 but some Codorus ore slate. 
 
 Early and Killing er" s mine, 2 m. E. by N. of Littles- 
 town ; 1874 ; 20, 30 tons per day, one-third lump ore for 
 Keystone furnace, Reading ; 2000 tons to Marietta; foundry 
 iron ; matrix, mouldered clay slate in place, with three 
 cleavage planes, with one of which the ore dips 14, S. 15 
 W. Limestone cut 200' west of bank,* dips 25 S. 36 E., 
 and strikes N. 54 E., both uncertain. 
 
 Lefeme" s (Enoch) bank, 2 m. E. of Littlestown ; 1869 ; 
 
 *Said to carry lead ore {galena). For mining statistics see C, p. 45. 
 Analysis: Iron, 46.9; manganese, 0.815; sulphur, 0.11; phos., 1.224, from 
 average specimen. McCreath. 
 
 15
 
 226 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 1200' long, 2| acres ; a 50 per cent cold-short wash-ore ; 
 idle from 1871 to 1874, machinery standing. 
 
 Clark (Widow] bank, 1 m. E. of Littlestown ; pits 
 stripping yellow and white clay ; two large pits 1000' 
 apart, the north one (1868) poorer ore, the south one (S 
 shaped, over i acre) partially filled, idle (1874), machinery 
 standing ; ore shelly like that of the range. Limestone in 
 quarry 1200' north dips 50 S. 35 E.* 
 
 Lancaster county Umonite banks. 
 
 The Chestnut Hill group of banks on Chiques ridge has 
 been described in the beginning of this chapter. A full 
 description of them will be found in Dr. Frazer's report on 
 Lancaster (C3, 1880, page 208 to 220), as the Sherk (No. 
 6) on the map ; the Copperihoffer (No. 7); the Hertzler 
 (No. 8); the Chestnut Hill (No. 9); the Silver Spring 
 (No. 10) ; and the Gamber ; all of them in the Upper Primal 
 Slates above the Chiques quartzite. Those which follow 
 are in the chloritic-mica slate or phyllite country of 
 Conestoga, Providence, Eden and Bart townships. 
 
 Grubb (C. B.) banks, a mile N. W. of Colemanville and \ 
 m. from the river ; 1834 ? The decomposed schists near the 
 river dip 72, N. 15 W.f Open cut 130' into the hill ; 
 face 50' high ; stripping 6' to 10'; mostly wash ore, with 
 some lump, very like the York county hydromica belt ores, 
 ball, shell, partly manganiferous limonite with occasional 
 gothite. The ore is in layers between the schists, in the 
 bank next the river ; but solid in the heading of the north 
 bank. The three banks range N. 20 W. 650' long in all. 
 Many bombs filled with steel gray ore4 
 
 Good? s bank, f m. E. of Safe Harbor ; abandoned ; black 
 magnetic sand strewn along the road ; as also near the 
 foot of the hill by Colemanville. 
 
 *In Report C2, page C 201, 202, a little further information is given re- 
 specting the ore-producing chlorite-hydromica belt south of Littlestown to 
 the Maryland State line. 
 
 f Finely laminated gneiss near by dips the same. 
 
 JJ. B. Britton's analysis found: Iron, 53.59; ox., 20.42; water, 11.76; sil. 
 matter, 10.08; soluble, 0.66; sulphur, none; phosphorus, 0.44; ox. with 
 phos., 0.57 ; alum., 0.64; lime, 0.22; magnesia, 0.04.
 
 LANCASTER COUNTY LIMONITE BANKS. 227 
 
 Reeves & Co. banks, 330' N. E. of the first Grubb bank ; 
 abandoned, 1866. 
 
 Shenk (M. R.) banks ; opened before 1840 ; 4 or 5 acres ; 
 abandoned ; are lean and shelly; dip in mouldered mica 
 schist and hydromica slate, 50, N. 15 W. 
 
 Peacocks mine, in New Providence, back of Groflfs 
 hotel; 1874; 65' by 50', and 35' deep, fallen shut (1877); 
 ore in laminated gneiss full of iron, flat balls, not magnetic.* 
 
 Mowzer s mine, m. S. W. of last ; 1867 ; cut N. E. S. 
 W. 500' long, 70' wide, 35' deep ; walls of white and red 
 clay ; ore, limonite balls in very quartzose gneiss ; large 
 lumps of good ore and milk white quartz strewed along 
 the road. 
 
 Eckman & Patterson's pit No 2, nearly 1 m. S. E. of 
 last ; 1867 ; new mine worked in 1877 for Port Kennedy 
 Furnace ; limestone (struck at 50') highly crystalline and 
 micaceous. Pit No. 2, | m. E. of last ; 1 acre; mass of ore 
 in north end (50' high); dip, 35, N. 15 west ; ore, as crusts 
 of limonite on prisms of laminated gneiss, filled with grey 
 micaceous sand. 
 
 Geiger's bank, not far S. E. from last ; 1857 ; once yielded 
 20 tons daily, for furnace in Lancaster ; ore excellent, thick 
 and compact, in some places loose ; was to start again July 
 1877 (Report C3, p. 228). 
 
 Cook, WrigJit & Co.'s mine, worked before 1776 for the 
 old Mill Valley furnace ; bought by Cook & Wright 1867, 
 who took out 20 tons per day, all wash ore but lump. 
 Geo. Bear's and SJientf s banks adjoin on the west. 
 Brooks'*, Montgomery and Reading RR. banks lie still 
 further west. Geiger & Baer took out 40,000 tons ; ore in 
 bottom too solid to pick and not solid enough to blast. 
 
 Myers (B. B.) bank in Eden township. 
 
 Smith (Stewart) bank, | m. E. 20 N. from last. 
 
 Lefecre (Dan.) bank, % m. N. of Quarry ville ; 20 tons a 
 day ; 10 per cent. lump. 
 
 Cabeen & Co. bank, just N. of Camargo ; worked by Jas. 
 Hopkins for 30 years ; 25 tons per day for last two years 
 (1877); ore once hauled 5 m. to Conewingo furnace ; iron 
 
 * Reported, magnetic ore found in pit \ m. N. E. ; gneiss.
 
 228 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 greatly praised by Admiral Dalgren for naval ordnance ; 
 pit 1000' long, 100' broad ; full of water (1877).* 
 
 Meyers (B. J.) bank, on Keens run, Eden township ; 1835 ; 
 worked 1873, 1874, at 15 tons a day ; ore same as Cabeen's ; 
 25 per c. lump. Peacock and Thomas bank. Brooks 
 bank, old, same range and i m. W. of B. B. Myers ; 1835 ; 
 worked for twenty, years. Eckert & Go. mine, 1 m. E. of 
 Quarryville. Eckert & Hensel bank, H ni. N. N. E. of 
 Quarryville ; old ; 1830 for Mt. Eden Furnace. 
 
 Herr's bank, 1 m. N. W. of New Providence, on the edge 
 of the limestone, just north of the Lancaster and Quarry- 
 ville RR. ; 1852 ; 1000 tons per year for the Phoenixville 
 Furnaces. 
 
 Mylin bank, 2 m. N. W. of last in the limestone region. 
 (See*C3, p. 236.) 
 
 Welsh mountain banks. 
 
 In Caernarvon township of Lancaster county just north of 
 the Chester county line, and on the north slope of the Welsh 
 mountain facing the hydromica slate ridge at the south edge 
 of the Conestoga valley, are a row of limonite iron mines, 
 excavations in debris mainly composed of fragments of 
 quartzite, the disintegrated grains of which compose the 
 subsoil, in which the iron set free has collected into brown 
 and red hematite ore in deposits of white and pink clays 
 lying upon the solid quartzite strata, as at the Chestnut 
 Hill mines near Columbia described at the beginning of 
 this chapter. The ores are in the Upper Primal slate forma- 
 tion. 
 
 Shirk's bank, 1 m. S. S. E. from Church town ; leased 
 1872 ; worked to 1876, at 25 to 30 tons per day ;f ore in nests 
 and pockets ; in limestone slates, no other rock visible.:}: 
 
 *See valuable mining statistics for this and the banks preceding and sue-' 
 -ceeding in C, p. 231 <fec. 
 
 f See full account of force, machinery &c. in C3, p. 239. 
 
 t A drift 100' long driven S. into the mountain filled with water during Sun- 
 day ; on Monday a hole opened in the floor of the drift 50' from entrance into 
 which all the timbering fell, apparently into a cavern in limestone. Dr. 
 Frazer supposes the ridge in front of the mountain to be anticlinal making 
 a south dip at the mines. C, p. 240, 241.
 
 WELSH MOUNTAIN LIMONITE MINES. 229 
 
 McKay's mine, \ m. S. by W. of last; 1876 ; small. 
 
 Slolzfuss opening, a little S. W. of last ; a few tons ex- 
 tracted. No exposures for 2 miles further. 
 
 Shirley's bank, near Shirk's bank ; 2 acres ; depth 60' in 
 south heading ; stripping 30' of white and pink clay ; in 
 bottom a great square shaft reaches dark brown and black 
 ore like that which at Chestnut Hill immediately overlies 
 the quartzite. Structure obscure, but apparently two syn- 
 clinals and one anticlinal and half of another in the length 
 of the bank. A pit 20' deep rapidly filled with water ; 30' 
 of drilling then went through dry black powdery ore. 
 
 German's bank, 150' E. and W. and 50' broad ; clay dip- 
 ping 20, N. 16 W. ; full of water ; much black lump, man- 
 ganiferous, left lying about ; soil, clay and quartz gravel. 
 
 Smith & Sons 'bank ; \\ acres ; 40' deep to water ; plane 
 steep ; machinery standing (1876) ; dip apparently 45 N. 
 but very uncertain. Beartown old mine ; 1861. 
 
 Beartown new mine ; 1873 ; 2 acres ; 250' long (N. and S.) 
 and 170' broad ; S. E. dip in the S. heading soon rolls over 
 to a gentle N. W. dip continuing to N. end of mine.* 
 
 Sens inning bank, ad joins last on W. ; 1875 ; 20 tons a day. 
 
 Russel bank, close to last ; 1870 to 1877 continuously at 
 25 tons per day for Seyfert & McManus (like the last) ; i 
 lump, f wash ore. 
 
 Garmarts bank ; 1875 ; Levi B. Smith ; 30 to 40 tons of 
 limonite per day; lump ore.f 
 
 Northampton county limonite mines. 
 
 The limonite mines of Northampton, Lehigh and Berks 
 have been described by Prof. Prime in his Reports of Pro- 
 gress D, D2, and D3, Vol. I. 
 
 In these reports the Chiques quartzite is always called 
 Potsdam sandstone. \ 
 
 * Copious mining statistics given in C3, p. 244. 
 
 fFor the Warwick and other mines in N. Chester Co., and the Jones and 
 other mines in S. Berks Co., the reader is referred to a subsequent chapter ; 
 as their geological place is not fixed, thay shall be grouped with the Dills- 
 burg mines of York, etc. 
 
 JThe following description of the rockoughtto have been quoted in Chap- 
 ter XVI, page 179. The quartzite outcrop extends from E. Penn RR. June-
 
 230 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The Upper Primal or hydromica slates overlying it are 
 always called by Prof. Prime damourite slates. These 
 form the lowest division of the Magnesian limestone series 
 (the Calciferous sandstone formation as it is known in New 
 York), containing extremely variable percentages of the 
 carbonates of potash, soda, lime, magnesia and iron ; and 
 they moulder away at the surface of the ground (and as far 
 beneath the surface as the rainwater penetrates the earth) 
 into white and tinted clays holding the concentrated, oxi- 
 dized and hydrated iron in the shape of ball ore, which at 
 the bottom is often a solid mass, and occasionally crystal- 
 lized into pipe ore.* 
 
 tion (with one interruption) all the way to S. Bethlehem. It is a hard com- 
 pact rock of greyish tint, weathering yellowish from the iron it contains. 
 Small dots and specks of weathered out felspar make it pockmarked. Its 
 total thickness measured at one place is only 21'. At C. Raw's opening 
 (close to RR. track) it lies conformably on the gneiss, for a short distance, 
 thus : sandstone ; under this, damourite slate with a little magnetite, only 
 2 inches ; then distinctly bedded gneissic rock, only 18 inches; then, gneissoid 
 rock with mica and partly altered hornblende ; then hornblende rock de- 
 composed to a sort of serpentine ; then normal syenite.. A little further 
 east, the upper beds are typical quartzite ; the lower beds a conglomerate of 
 rounded quartz pebbles from the size of a man's head to a hen's egg, or 
 smaller, often with fragments of perfectly fresh dark red orthoclase felspar : 
 also well preserved scolithus linearis (worm-burrow casts). Eastward, it is 
 typical quartzite, until at S.*Bethlehem red shale (much like Trias shale) 
 takes the place of the quartzite. Behind the University it is quartzite. In 
 the RR. cut it dips N. W. unconformably over syenite. East of Lower 
 Saucon church bowlders mark its outcrop, close to syenite. Further E., on 
 the J. Bergstresser's farm, trial ore-pits struck decomposed sandstone. 
 Close to the Delaware, it is a conglomerate of nut-sized rounded quartz 
 pebbles and small pieces of felspar, graduating upward into sandstone, and 
 still higher beds of the Calciferous sandstone. For its other outcrops in 
 Northampton county see Prime's Report D3, p. 208. See also his resum6 of 
 Fontaine's sections in Virginia, and Saftord's in Tennessee, on pp. 211, 212. 
 
 * As a pure mineral damourite is essentially a hydrous silicate of alumina 
 and potash ; and in form it is a hydrous muscovite mica, the white (or silver 
 grey) scales of which make up sometimes as much as one-half the body of 
 the slaty rock. One of Dr. Genth's analysis of this slate reads : Sil. acid., 
 45.57 ; alumina, 34.83 ; potash, 10.16 ; water, 5.30 ; perox. iron, 2.94 ; soda, 0.87 ; 
 magnesia, 0.83; lime, 0.40. (Report B, p. 123.) In four analyses the dam- 
 ourite mica made up 28.39, 49.70, 53.02 and 55.40 per cent of the slate. A 
 fifth analysis showed phosphoric acid, 0.102, and sulphuric acid, 0.110, which 
 probably were connected with the iron in the specimen of slate (ferric oxide, 
 3.79). Damourite slate has a soapy, unctuous feel, is usually of pale straw 
 yellow to yellowish white, sometimes pinkish, and has a pearly lustre. It
 
 NORTHAMPTON COUNTY LIMONITE MINES. 231 
 
 Professor Prime's general description of the limonites of 
 Lehigh county will apply to those of Northampton and 
 Berks as well, and to those of Lebanon, Dauphin, Cumber- 
 land, Franklin, which are but local repetitions along the 
 same grand belt of valley limestones, in damourite lower, 
 middle and upper slates. I give it here in a condensed 
 shape, for convenience. He says : 
 
 The ore occurs massive, earthy, botryoidal, mammillary, 
 concretionary and occasionally stalactitic. It has a silky, 
 often submetallic lustre ; sometimes dull and earthy, color 
 of fracture various shades of brown, commonly dark, never 
 bright ; when earthy, brownish yellow, ochre yellow. Stal- 
 actites at the bottom of mines are pipe ore. Hollow concre- 
 tions are pot or bombshell ore ; full of water, or of sticky 
 clay ; inner walls glazed with oxide of manganese. Solid 
 balls have cracked and honeycombed cores. With the com- 
 mon limonite sometimes occurs scaly-fibrous or feathery- 
 columnar mica-like lepidocrocite of yellow, reddish or black- 
 ish brown color, holding about 63 per cent, of iron, but of 
 no money value because in such small quantity. Most of 
 the ore is in pieces so small as to require washing to carry 
 off the clays in which they are embedded. 
 
 Ranges of Northampton banks. 
 
 The principal range is along the north slope and foot 
 of the Lehigh mountains facing Easton and Bethlehem. 
 Others are in the small limestone valleys between the mount- 
 ains. Others are in the limestone country (Formation No. 
 
 can rarely be got in a perfectly fresh condition, except in mines actively 
 worked. On exposure to the weather the slate soon begins to decompose 
 and turns to unctuous clay. This clay is generally brown or yellow at first, 
 but in time bleaches white. The decomposition of the slate is probably due 
 to the presence of the potash and soda, and hastened by carbonic and humic 
 acids in the rain water. The two following analyses of (1) a white and (2) 
 a yellow clay from the 'same pit are instructive : (1) Sil., 72.2; fer. ox., 1.0; 
 al., 21.8 ; mag., 0.7 ; lime, 0.2 ; soda, 2.1 ; pot., 3.0 ; water, 4.7. (2) Sil., 64.6 ; fer. 
 ox., 5.6; al., 22.8; mag., 1.3; lime, 0.4; soda, 2.8; pot., 3.25; water, 4.7. The 
 most notable difference between the slate and the clay is (1) the excess of 
 silica in the clay, on account of the great quantity of tree quartz left behind 
 in the mass; (2) the excess of iron ; (3) the great loss of potash, proving that 
 the formation of soluble salts of potash is the cause of the destruction of the 
 slate. (D, p. 13, 14.)
 
 232 GEOLOGICAL SUKVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 II) north of the Lehigh. Others are along the north border 
 of the limestone in a range of damourite slate at the south 
 edge of the great roofing slate country of the Hudson River 
 slate formation (No. III.) There is no essential difference 
 between exhibitions of ore in Northampton and Lehigh 
 counties except in the matter of quantity; Northampton 
 being far behind Lehigh in this respect. 
 
 The eight mines at the foot of the mountain from the 
 Delaware river at Easton to the Mary Brotzman mine (No 
 47 on the 6- sheet map of the county, in Prof. Prime's Re- 
 port D3, Vol. 1, 1883) are underground workings, on ac 
 count of the very heavy stripping ground which would haye 
 to be removed to work the ore in open cuts or quarries. 
 These underground mines are: Seibert's (two); Hess; 
 Lewer ; Glendon I. Co. ; Woodring (J.) ; Miller ; Sampson. 
 Then follow on this range : Sampson & Sitgreaves ; 
 Heckman; Hahn (Adam); Glendon I. Co.; Woodring 
 (Enoch); Hahn (W.); Boyer; Crawford; Wolf (R.); Nolf 
 (T.); Brotzman (J. L.); Brotzman (Mary, Nos. 44, 46, 47); 
 Jacob; Richard; Brotzman (Mary, No. 48); Richard (T.); 
 Lerch.* 
 
 In the mountains are : Walters (worked for the Dur- 
 ham I. Co.); Joy (Nos. 53, 55); Raub & Lerch; Stout & 
 Riegel.f 
 
 * Of Prof. Prime's notes on the Northampton mines along the foot of the 
 mountain I select the following, from D 3, Vol. 1, p. 194, etc. : 
 
 Jacob Crawford, (No. 43) 2 rn. S. W. of Easton; shaft 18' down to 6'; 
 lump ore; interval ? 60' ; second bed of ore. Mary Brotzman (No. 44)> 
 shaft 64' to upper ore, 4'. M. Brotzman (No. 46), open cut, no regular bed; 
 alternate beds of dark brown and light yellow decayed damourite slate ; 
 flint with the clays ; dip, 17, N. 72 E., perhaps conformable to surface over 
 which the clays have washed. M. Brotzman (No. 48), small open cut ; 
 little ore in partially decomposed slate ; W. end ore in bottom ; thin streaks 
 of manganese oxide in the face prettily crystallized. (N. B. The miners 
 were carefully picking this out to throw away, and were much astonished 
 to learn that it was valuable.) T. Richard, 3 m. S. W. of Easton ; open cut : 
 ore interstratified between white clays ; shaft 107' down through slate and 
 clay to ore " 27' to 40' thick " on a floor of " black dirt" (D3, Vol. 1, p. 194. ) 
 
 f Raub & Lerch (No. 54), 5 m. S. of Easton ; shaft sunk 15' to ore, and 
 100' to ore; 3 beds of ore reported, middle one only minable; partings 
 damourite clays. Joy (No. 55), 2 shafts, 50' and 75' deep, to ore in damou- 
 rite slate and clay. &t Stout & RiegeVs abandoned mine, 5^ S. W. of Easton, 
 magnetic ore occurs near the limonite pit. 
 
 a 
 
 :
 
 LEHIGH COUNTY LIMONITE MINES. 233 
 
 All the mines thus far mentioned are on outcrops of the 
 ower damourite slate formation at the bottom of the great 
 imestone series. 
 
 Mines north of the Lehigh river and in damourite slates 
 )f various horizons in the middle and at the top of the 
 imestone series are thus named and described in D3: 
 Biery(Jas.); George (Ab.); Chapman; Lerch; Shinier (No. 
 | )) ; Ritter (Simon) ; Goetz ; Gernert ; Merwin & Shortz ; 
 \ohler; Ritter (W.); Schortz (Nos. 12 and 14); Hummel; 
 3eck (W. G.); Beck (J.); Lawall ; Woodring; Gernert & 
 leller ; Messinger & Woodring ; Moser ; Fogel ; Young ; 
 5chimer (No. 24); Walter; Richard (T., Jr.); Messinger. 
 
 Lehigh county limonite mines. 
 
 There appear to be four lines of ore deposits across Lehigh 
 Bounty. (7) A southern range along the foot of Lock 
 Ridge, on a general N. W. dip like the rocks on which the 
 )re (and damourite slate) rests. In this range are the mines 
 :>f Wagenhorst ; Wescoe ; A. Hertzog ; H. Kaiser ; Meitzler ; 
 Ludwig, Hertzog and Liess ; Kreishman (2) ; Gaumer ; 
 erschner (2) ; Schwankweiler ; Crane I. Co. ; Allentown I. 
 Jo. ; Wiand ; Laros ; Marck ; and those at Hunsingerville, 
 tfhich are so grouped together as to constitute one great 
 rregular excavation, viz : Maple Grove pits ; P. Kline's 
 nines ; J. Barber & Co.'s ; Hensinger mines leased by the 
 A.llentown I. Co.; Thomas I. Co.'s; Hensinger & Saul's; 
 Mickley's ; Hensinger Heirs'; Keifer's ; Desh's.* 
 
 This southern range is continued eastward across North- 
 ampton county along the north foot of the Lehigh mount- 
 ain as far as the Delaware river opposite Easton, as already 
 described. 
 
 The second range lies in the limestone country to the 
 north of the first range, and embraces the mines of Ludwig 
 (2) ; Butz ; Yager ; H. Kaiser ; Blank ; Smoyer (4) ; B. 
 
 *Many of these mines were stopped in 1874 on account of the depression 
 in the iron trade. Some had been abandoned ; some had their machinery 
 standing, ready to be exploited again. They are all located by numbers on 
 the sheets of the Lehigh survey map, executed by Mr. Clark under Pro- 
 fessor Prime's direction, and published with Report D, 1875. Their descrip- 
 tions appear on pages 17 to 24 of that report.
 
 234 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Smoyer ; J. Smoyer ; B. P. Smoyer ; Judith Smoyer ; T. 
 Smoyer ; A. Smoyer ; Reub. Romig (2) ; P. Romig ; Werner 
 & Reinhart ; and Lauer. 
 
 The third range, further north, comprises the mines of 
 Weiler ; Crane & Thomas I. Co. ; Lichtenwallner ; Smoyer ; 
 Geruart ; Sholl ; J. Bastian ; E. Bastian ; and F. Guth. 
 
 The fourth range, further north, comprises the mines of 
 F. Breinig ; Moser ; T. Breinig ; Whitely ; Fogel ; Schwartz ; 
 Bortz ; Koch ; Grammis ; Gackenbach ; Fischer ; J. & D. 
 Smith ; Haines ; Miller ; Scholl & Co.; Steininger ; Moyer ; 
 Stein ; J. Laros ; Levi Lichtenwallner ; Krcemlich and Lich- 
 tenwallner ; and the trial pits at Chapman's station ; and 
 the mines in the Fogelsville Cove, although these lie really 
 further north next the slate region. 
 
 Ninety-eight (98) mines, mostly open quarries, large and 
 small, shallow and deep, are named, enumerated and located 
 on the first map of Lehigh county, published with Prof. 
 Prime's first report of topographical work done in 1874 (D, 
 1875). 
 
 One hundred and three (103) others were in 1875, 1876, 
 named, enumerated and located on the four-sheet colored 
 map of the county published with Report D2 in 1878. 
 These are classified geographically thus : 
 
 In the first range, along the foot of the South mountain: 
 Reder ; Desh ; Shelly ; Daney ; Schwartz (Dan.); Emaus 
 I. Co.; Bader; Trexler & Kline; Kline (H.) three; Kline 
 (Jessie); Kemmerer ; Keck & Ritter ; Kline (G.); Stein; 
 Hottenstein ; Apple; Kipping & Holsbach; Seam; Whit- 
 man ; Spinner. 
 
 North of the Little Lehigh : Reinhart ; Jobst ; Wenner; 
 Kemry & Carbon I. Co. ; Smoyer ; Steiner & Kehm ; 
 Woodring ; Roth ; Glick (L. and C.) two; Acker ; Reinhart. 
 
 In the middle of the limestone country: Schadt; Rush ; 
 Ritter ; Sheirer ; Mclntire ; Miller ; Biery ;.Wennor ; Roth ; 
 Butz & Belden ; Singmaster ; Butz ; Walbert ; Descher. 
 
 Northern edge of limestone : Barber & Aimy ; Marck ; 
 Scherer ; Jobst ; Kratzer ; Crane I. Co. ; Wenner ; Guth 
 (D. A.); Thomas I. Co.; Weaver; Klein; Sieger; Crane 
 I. Co.; Gackenbach ; Blank ; Guth(C.); Guth (H.); Henry ; 
 Boyer ; Balliet ; Levan ; Henninger ; Schadt ; Baer.
 
 BERKS COUNTY LIMONITE MINES. 235 
 
 Mines at Ironton: Kennel (Ironton RR. Co.); Mickley; 
 Ironton Co.; Balliet Bros.; Balliet heirs; Brown; Bitter; 
 Steckle (P.); Steckle (D.); the last two east of Ironton.* 
 
 Berks county limonite mines. 
 
 The Lehigh ore belts are continued westward towards the 
 Schuylkill ; but most of mines named, enumerated and lo- 
 cated on the map of Mr. d'Invilliers' Report D3, Vol. 2, 
 1883, chapter 10, are next to or not far from the Lehigh 
 county line. The limestone valley (between the South 
 mountains and Hudson River slate edge hill) is narrowed 
 down in Berks county to about 2 miles, then widens to about 
 4 miles and so continues to the Schuylkill. The narrow- 
 ness of it just at the Berks-Lehigh line is brought about 
 by a jog in the South Mountains and two extensions of the 
 slate hills southward toward the jog ; the slates, of course, 
 overlying the limestone. It is remarkable that just here 
 have been made nearly 40 excavations, and that scarcely 
 any ore has been found, or at least mined, in the limestones 
 for the 15 miles west to the Schuylkill ; the two Moselem 
 banks being the solitary noted exceptions, and these lie at 
 the edge of the slate. These facts make it likely and in fact 
 almost certain that the ore deposits on the limestone surface 
 near the county line owe their origin to the damourite slates 
 at the top of the limestone series, which once bridged the 
 
 * The great Ironton, or old Balliet mine, is one of the geological wonders 
 of the State, an excavation 2000' long, 800' broad and 90' deep, worked for 
 more than half a century. But as the damourite slates of this mine are of an 
 entirely different, higher horizon and later age, namely at the top of the 
 limestone series, it does not properly come into this chapter on the lower 
 damourite slate belt {primal) of limonite ores at the bottom of the series. 
 I have found it impossible to avoid reference in this chapter to all the limo- 
 nite mines of the valley, because of the difficulty of selecting out those 
 which are exclusively confined to the lower outcrop of slate. Some of those 
 in the very center of the valley may be in the lower, or in the upper slates, 
 or in slates of some intermediate horizon. The valley limestones are ex- 
 cessively compressed and crimpled ; so that on lines of anticlinal the lower 
 slates may appear at the present surface (although that is not at all probable 
 except in rare cases); while on lines of synclinal the upper slates may be 
 and probably sometimes are preserved at the present surface. I was also 
 anxious to give in this chapter a general view of the iron ore wealth of the 
 region. The description of the Ironton mines is therefore postponed to a 
 following chapter.
 
 236 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 valley, and still bridges it half way. And, if this be so, 
 then it is possible that all the 200 and more mines in the 
 limestone belt of the three counties must be referred to the 
 top damourite slates, and not to the Primal^ the bottom. 
 It is an additional testimony to this, that the two greatest 
 limonite mines of the region, the Ironton in Lehigh and 
 the Moselem in Berks, are in the upper damourite between 
 the limestone belt and the slatebelt.* 
 
 The lower damourite (Primal Upper hydro-potash-mica 
 slate) lying upon the Chiques quartzite, follows the north- 
 ern foot slope of the South Mountains around to Reading. 
 
 A group of ten limonite banks are located in the cove 
 at the head of the Little Lehigh. south and west of Sham- 
 rock (S. E. of Topton). A mine is just south of Topton ; 
 another, 1 mile S. E. of Bower's station ; two more a mile 
 S. W. of Lyons station ; five more S. of Fleetwood station ; 
 another (Shaefer's) i m. S. E. of Blandon station. 
 
 In Oley Valley. 
 
 In the Oley Valley, Hunter's & Weaver's mines are 2 m. 
 S. W. of Friedensburg ; and these are the only limonite banks 
 in the body of the highlands in Berks county except the 
 Bittenbender and Gehman banks 5 m. S. of Alburtis. 
 
 But. there are indications of a siliceous hematite connected 
 with the Chiques quartzite beds in many other places. The 
 ores of this formation where exploited have been found not 
 only silicious, but so phosphatic and with so little alumina, 
 magnesia and lime as to make cold short iron invariably. 
 These ores however seem in all cases to be the product of 
 the overylying damourite slates, the iron of which set free 
 has found a home in the quartzite, especially where this is 
 in a sandstone condition. f 
 
 The Udreeore ~ba,rik in Ruscom Manor on the N. flank of 
 Furnace Hill, 1 m. S. W. of Pricetown, was the largest 
 producing bank in the mountains in 1882 ; belonging to 
 
 *In a following chapter this famous Ironton mine will be described in de- 
 tail (from D2, p. 39, &c., as examined and mapped by the survey in 1875;, 
 because it is the best and most typical deposit of limonite in this region of 
 the state, and the most instructive for the elucidation of the structural rela- 
 tionship between the limestone and slate formations of the Great Valley. 
 
 t See D3, p. 361.
 
 OLEY VALLEY LIMONITES. 237 
 
 the Clymer I. Co., and located in the sandstone close to 
 the gneiss ; worked since 1871 by the Clymer I. Co. for Mt. 
 Laurel Furnace ; mostly wash ore ; some bombs ; hand- 
 some specimens of concretions and stalactites ; varieties of 
 gothite, lepidocrocite. turgite, red and yellow ochre ; too 
 cold short for the neighboring Oley furnace ; cheaply mined 
 as an open cut, 70' deep ; ore dipping 70, N. 20 E., 20' 
 thick ; 300' along outcrop ; horses of clay ; 18 to 20 tons 
 per day ; analysis by McCreath : Iron 40.05 ; manganese 
 3.314; sulp. .003; phos. .522; sil. matter, 22.44. 
 
 The Warner mine, \\ m. S. E. of Friedensburg. at the 
 junction of Oley slates and limestone, the line of contact 
 crossing the open cut ; Clymer I. Co. for Oley furnace ; 
 damourite slate (turned to white and buff clay), largely used 
 for excellent building brick ; wrought for 18 years ; 10 to 
 15 tons per day ; ore dips 30 to 50 N. W. (away from 
 slate hill), as a bed 2' to 8' thick underlaid with clay ; shaft 
 sunk (1878) 49' to 2' hard ore bed ; at 56' another 8 foot ore 
 bed (50 per cent, lump); clay between the two beds, but 
 second bed nearly flat, etc. See interesting description of 
 efforts to get water at this dry mine on page 365.* 
 
 The Hunter mine, 300 yards N. W. of the last (Weaver), 
 was abandoned when visited in 1882, and is accounted 
 almost if not quite exhausted, being wholly in the lime- 
 stone One shaft was sunk 90' through yellow clay, to a 
 1' bed of white kaolin, under which lay V or 2' of limo- 
 nite ore ; under this a. little black clay holding concretions 
 of carbonate of iron (siderite); under this a thin bed of 
 mixed black, clay and limonite.t 
 
 * Carbonate of iron (siderite) has been seen here, but apparently in no 
 great quantity. It is important for the genesis of limonite. 
 
 f This shaft section is extremely interesting, as there can be no doubt that 
 the black clay must have held pyrites and siderite, and by the decompo- 
 sition of these the limonite was produced, precisely as in the case of the 
 Devonian Marcellus ore mines of Mifflin county on the Juniata river, which 
 will be described in a future chapter. 
 
 The kaolin in this mine has been a good deal mined. The best quality, 
 No. 1 white, used to be sold at from $7 to $15 a ton to Connard's paper mill 
 at Pleasantville,and Burgess's paper mill at Spring City. Opposite Royer's 
 Ford, No. 1 was a deposit 30' by 20' under 6' of cover, pinching out all 
 round. Of the three grades there were about 800 tons. (See four compara- 
 tive analyses by McCreath, D3, p. 368.)
 
 238 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The Manwiller mine, 1 m. W. N. W. of Griesermers- 
 ville, Oley township, entirely in the limestone, was started 
 in 1873 and abandoned in 1878 ; there was a fair showing of 
 lump, but the whole was merely a pocket like so many of 
 the smaller limonite banks of the region. About 2000 tons 
 were got. Ore can be seen cropping out in the little Dale 
 Forge limestone valley in Washington township. 5000 tons 
 were taken from the J. Rush bank in Hereford township, 
 now filled with water. 5000 tons were got from one of the 
 Bittenbender banks (in the same township) during 5 years 
 work ; greatest depth of open cut 50'. in limestone and clay ; 
 great quantity of flint mixed with the bottom ore. 1000 
 tons were mined from the adjacent Gerham bank, but con- 
 demned for its excess of silica.* 
 
 Schweitzer & Kurtz bank, \\ m. N. E. of Pricetown, and 
 Schaeffer' s at Fleetwood, were new mines in (1882), in 
 limonite which belonged to the quartzite beds. (D3, p. 371.) 
 
 The Muhlenberg (Beidler] bank, W. of Reading, in lime- 
 stone, an open cut 30' deep, shows much siliceous limonite, 
 with slate and clay holding the ore. Seitzinger bank, a 
 mile nearer Reading, has limestone outcrops east and west 
 of it. The Eureka bank, 3 m. W. of Reading, a 40' cut, 
 yielded cleaner cellular ore, with little or no pyrites, but 
 some oxide of manganese. 
 
 Cumberland County limonite mines. 
 
 The limonite mines of Cumberland and Franklin, along 
 the foot of the South mountains, as far as Mont Alto, are 
 described in a special report of the Iron Ores and Limestone 
 Quarries of the Cumberland Valley by Mr. E. V. d'lnvil- 
 liers. f 
 
 Beginning at the east end of the South mountains, 12 
 
 *These banks run parallel to and 800' S. of the magnetic, ore workings higher 
 up the hill in the gneiss, and have nothing to do with that ore. The mag- 
 netite mines of Berks will be described elsewhere. 
 
 f Annual Report of the Geological Survey for 1886, part IV with two maps. 
 They were also described by me in a private report, with illustrations, 
 published in the proceedings of the American. Philosophical Society of 
 Philadelphia, Jan. 3, 1873. Mr. McCreath's analyses will be found in Report 
 M3, 1881.
 
 CUMBERLAND COUNTY LIMONITE MINES. 239 
 
 miles west of Harrisburg, we have (going west) the follow- 
 ing limonite mines :* 
 
 Leidig & Hoffer (30); Beltzhoover (29); Ege (28); Pepper 
 (27); Strickler (26); King (8); Pepper (7); Grove, or Peach 
 Orchard (6); Big Pond (4); G. H. Clever (5); Clever Mam- 
 moth (3); Muslin (39); Chestnut (38); J. H. Cressler (37); 
 J. Bridges (36); all in Cumberland county and south of the 
 Yellowbreeches creek and Harrisburg and Potomac rail- 
 road. Then in Franklin county Ahl (27); McHose (28) 
 on the railroad ; Cressler (29); Koser (30); Southampton 
 (23); Ruby (24); Gochenauer & Rohrer (25); Means (26), 
 all in the ravine of Furnace Run. Then along the Mont 
 Alto railroad Stephen's Pond (8); McNeal (7); Roth (5); 
 Pond No. 1 (9); Pond No. 2 (10); and the group back (E.) 
 of the Pond banks, viz: English (11); Promise (13); Hope 
 (12); Wiesling (15); Limekiln (16) ; White Rock (18); 
 Calliman (17); Guilford (14); then again on the railroad. 
 J. Rock (6); No. 32 ; George (20); No. 8 ; No. 5 ; l$o. 4 ; 
 No. 3 ; No. 2 ; No. 1, of the Mont Alto (1); Mill Bank 
 (3?); Smith and Avery (2); Wythe Douglass (22); Pass 
 Orchard (21); G. Rock (20); and lastly R. McCreary (19); 
 on the Baltimore and Cumberland Valley road. 
 
 Leidig & Hojfer's bank is a. small abandoned digging in 
 the cove between two of the end spurs of the South Mount- 
 ain, 3 m. S. E. of Boiling Springs. 
 
 Beltzhoover 'bank, 1350' long, 180' wide and 80' deep, on 
 the north west side of the spur ; open cut to south separated 
 from main ore by 200' of yellow clay ; ore body not more 
 than 40' thick ; 60,000 tons won.f 
 
 * On the small maps in Ann., 1886, part IV, p. 1437, the mines are num- 
 bered, and the names are given in the columns at the bottom of the maps ; 
 but on the larger maps in the Atlas to the volume (part IV) the names 
 alone are given. It is a pity that no geographical arrangement of mines 
 according to numbers was possible ; but I here endeavor to diminish some- 
 what the embarrassment thus produced for the reader by taking the mines 
 along the foot of mountain in order first, especially as these are certainly in 
 the Primal hydromica or lower damourite slates beneath the limestone. 
 
 t Here the ore dips distinctly 40 to 50 N. and N. E. away from the mount- 
 ain. Variegated clays overlie the ore on the north, and are manganiferous 
 Ore rests on reddish sandy slate, beneath which no ore is found. The old 
 Crockett bank is further west up the hollow. The Siplinger bank is also 
 long abandoned. Trial pits sunk westward found no ore. at least for 30
 
 240 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Ege bank (Big bank) of Phila. & Reading I. Co. 2 m. S. 
 of Boiling Springs, an immense excavation, practically 
 abandoned (in 1886) and the shafts and faces fallen in ; 1500' 
 long, 250' wide, 70' deep at south end. At the west end the 
 ore was drifted on and found always dipping steeply S. E. 
 into the mountain, thickening and thinning but " with an 
 average thickness of 25 to 40 feet." 
 
 Pockets of manganese-iron ore edge the main body, and 
 weathered into sooty clay masses or large spots in the white 
 clay mass. The wash ore is mostly removed ; the remain- 
 ing solid bottom ore is of poorer quality, and expensive to 
 mine. The greatness of this mine may be judged from the 
 fact that the lease called for 50,000 tons per annum ; but it 
 never actually yielded more than 35,000 tons in any one 
 year. 
 
 Pepper, or Old bank, near the head of a little limestone 
 valley extending around a ringer of the mountain 2 m. S. 
 W. of Boiling Springs ; trench 375' long, 150' wide, 45' deep ; 
 east end wall, buff clay and sand, wash ore ; west of plane, 
 white clay streak 12' wide ; balance, good and poor ore 
 ground mixed ; many black manganese blocks ; abandoned 
 (1883). In 1873 I saw a stope 70' high, showing 25' wash ore 
 above, 45' solid ore below, arranged in fine anticlinal arch;* 
 shafts from the floor down went through 35' more of solid 
 ore, making 100' of ore ground in all. At least 100,000 tons 
 
 beneath the surface. A low tunnel was driven in white clay along the N. 
 edge of the ore body to keep it in sight, and the tunnel doubled on itself N. 
 W. showing an anticlinal structure, such as I saw in the heading. See foot 
 note to d'Invillier's, p. 1468. Toward the east end the ore body swelled to 
 400' broad. No. 3 tunnel 775' long, from the RR. to the ore, was cut to avoid 
 a plane. It was driven 650' before the ore was reached, proving again the 
 strange S. E. dip of the damourite slate formation here. See many other 
 interesting details in d'Invillier's report; among them that the manganese 
 deposits limit the ore in this as in other banks in this vicinity. Eastward 
 the ore shelves up and covers a wedge of limestone 160' thick. Trial shafts 
 eastward have not been very satisfactory ; but it is supposed that the ore is 
 practically continuous to the Beltzhoover bank, 3700' distant. There is a 
 considerable amount of shot ore largely mixed with quartz. The trial pits 
 were usually in a greenish talcose slate (soapstone) of the miners. 
 
 *See my pen and ink sketch of it in Amer. Phil. Soc. Proc., Jan. 3, 1873, 
 page 9. I estimated a possible 9,000,000 tons along the little valley leading 
 up to the Strickler mine ; but it must have been an overestimate.
 
 MOUNTAIN CKEEK LIMON1TE BANKS. 241 
 
 of ore were taken out prior to its abandonment ; ore excellent 
 for gun metal ; used at Boiling Springs furnace 75 to 85 
 per cent, to 15 'to 25 per cent, limestone ore, hematite or 
 magnetic.* 
 
 Strickler bank, on the high divide back of the finger 
 mountain and at the head of the vale of the Old mine (f m. 
 W. S. W. of it). It is a mile E. of Mt. Holly Springs 
 (paper mills). The bank in 1883 was 200' long by 120' wide 
 and W deep to level of water ; the mine having been long 
 abandoned after yielding possibly 40,000 tons.f 
 
 The ravine descending from the high divide at the 
 S trickier bank west down to the Mt. Holly banks corres- 
 ponds to the ravine descending from the Streckler bank 
 east to the Old bank ; and the line continued west past 
 Mt. Holly banks is straight up Mountain Creek valley to 
 the Pinegrove Furnace banks, in the heart of the moun- 
 tains. Why Mountain creek did not keep on and issue at 
 the Old bank is an interesting structural (and erosion) 
 question. No ore has been found in the test pits along the 
 ravine. 
 
 Mountain Greek limonite banks. 
 
 The first two banks ascending the valley are the Mt. 
 Holly mines, 1 m. S. of Mt. Holly Springs, on the south 
 side of the creek, 150 yds. up the slope at the foot of the 
 mountain. They were both abandoned when visited by 
 
 * Carlisle Iron Works property on which all these banks stand is 10,000 
 acres. Furnace recently (1883) improved, with hot blast, <fec. Analysis of ? 
 large sample by McCreath : Iron, 45.1; rnang., 0.23; sul., 0.20; sil. matter 
 21.02; phos., 0.176. 
 
 t The road over the divide runs along the N. side of the bank above it, 
 and under a remarkable cliff of quartzite, or sandstone beds, descending 
 (south) from the top of the mountain at an angle of 20 or 30, as if to go 
 under the ore, but broken off at the bank, as if it once overlaid the ore. A 
 curiously interesting exhibition of erosion, with or without faulting, I know 
 not which. I saw in 1873, 20' of lump and wash ore then worked, and a 
 sump of 26 deep sunk in solid ore in the floor of the bank. About 20,000 
 tons had been already removed, and the rate of shipment then was 18 tons a 
 day. McCreath's analysis of his own samples was : Iron, 43 ; mang., .01 
 sulp.,0.3; sil. mat., 19.0; phos., 1.4. All the ores of this range contain much 
 manganese and phosphorus. 
 16
 
 242 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Mr. d'Invilliers in 1886. Dr. Frazer describes them in his 
 Report C2, 1877, thus : 
 
 Thomas Iron CoSs banTc\ 225' long; 225' wide ; begun 
 about 1872 ; average production 30 tons per day ; nearly 
 exhausted and half full of water in 1876. In the southeast 
 heading the edges of the slates, converted into ore bearing 
 clay layers, dip visibly 55, N". 60 W. Bands of limonite 
 concretions are interbedded with pink, white and yellow 
 clays much crumpled with N. W. and S. E. dips. Red 
 oxide stains some of the clays a bright red.* 
 
 Medlar and Baylor's lank* 200 feet S. W. of the last, 
 is an open quarry (about 2 acres), 600' long by 200' to 300' 
 wide, and 20' to 30' deep ; begun by Geist & Krauf t in 1840; 
 first really worked by Medlar & Saylor in 1870, on a 4000 
 ton per annum lease at 75 cents royalty ; daily average 70 
 to 80 tons in 1876. f 
 
 Grove bank, Hunter's Run station, 2 m. above Mt. Holly, 
 south side of the creek, just above the mouth of Hunter's 
 run. Opposite to it, north of the creek, and up the foot 
 slope of the north mountain, are the four following banks 
 in a row : 
 
 Lehman bank, opposite the Grove bank, idle in Oct., 
 1886 for want of water ; a bore hole went down through ore 
 for 31)0' ; then through blue clay, 40' ; then white clay, 30' ; 
 then "mountain clay," 25' to "Potsdam sandstone" (Mt. 
 Holly c[uartzite)=435'4 In 1887 mining recommenced ; 
 pit then 250' long, 50' wide ; ore excellent; ore in places ; 
 but average of mine ore to clay only 1:8 or 1:10 ; no solid 
 ore ; dip very irregular. 
 
 *No. 159 on the map of York and Adams Co. in C2. Medlar bank, on map 
 to An. Rt 1886, iiii, p. 1463. 
 
 fit Is said 1000 tons a month was mined out ; and that much good ore re- 
 mains ; but the ore of both these pits is rankly cold short, and mining costly. 
 At least 100,000 tons have been taken from the two pits to mix with Cornwall 
 ore in the Harrisburg furnaces. Analysis of McCreath's sample of mixed 
 lump and ball : Iron, 38.25 ; mang., 2.73 ; sulp., 0.005 ; sil. mat., 23.55 ; ptios., 
 1.37. Of dark brown cellular lump : 48.50; 0.73; 0.006; 11.27; 1.62. (d'Invil- 
 liers, 1886.) See statistics of wages and machinery in 1874, in C2, p. 240. 
 
 JThese figures must be very misleading considering the steep dip of the 
 quartzites at Mt. Holly, and consequently of the slates, which have decom- 
 posed into ore bearing and other clays.
 
 MOUNTAIN CREEK LIMONITE BANKS. 243 
 
 Crane Iron Co. banks, in. W. of last ; open cut 250' 
 long, 50' wide ; tunnel driven in at lower level from washer; 
 bottom of cut being sloped down to tunnel ; stripping 20' at 
 the least, and up the mountain (over the best ore) ' 'enor- 
 mous," mostly of sandy blue and white clay ; output, 1886, 
 30 tons a day for Columbia, Pine Grove, Dunbar and New- 
 port furnaces ; afterwards increased. East of pit a shaft 
 went through 50' ore ; cross cut through 50' ore and clay.* 
 
 Dunbar (R. Boyer] mine, i m. W. of the Crane ; new in 
 1887 ; shaft 60' deep ; main gangway (northward) through 
 140' ore clays, then 80' through barren clays ; drift west- 
 ward 150' in ore clay, lean, 1:10 ; two drifts (eastward) meet- 
 ing irregular and thin deposits of ore.f 
 
 Chestnut Hill bank, adjoining the last at the west end of 
 the row, \ m. N. of the railroad and 1 m. W. of Hunter's 
 Run station ; ore crops abundant ; tunnel to take the ore 
 beneath heavy stripping commenced in the autumn of 1886 ; 
 ore body tested to depths of 30' to 40', E. and W. of tunnel; 
 large pump on the creek for water supply ; tunnel mouth 
 110' above RR. grade ; strikes ore clay at 130' in and keeps 
 230' further in ; ore ground rich and lean alternately; most 
 of the lump ore next the mountain ; wash ore on varigated 
 clays in front of it towards the valley ; average ore to clay, 
 1:10 ; ore rich (47 to 49 per cent.) low in phosphorus (.08 
 to 1.0); 3000' of outcrop tested by trial pits and shafts ; 
 ore for Chestnut Hill furnaces. 
 
 Koontz & Meyers bank, opposite last on south side of 
 creek; small ; abandoned for years. 
 
 Diverts bank, just west of last ; small ; abandoned. 
 
 Henry Clay bank, west of last ; 150'x60'; full of water 
 in 18864 
 
 *The stratification of ore and clay in bands and irregular masses is very 
 marked in this bank ; but so wavy as to prevent any theory of general dip 
 structure. There has been a vast deal of settling and sliding and com- 
 pression during the process of slate mouldering and ore concentration. 
 
 fThe main tunnel seems to have gone through three distinct ore beds, 2' 
 to 3' thick each, separated by barren clays, in the first 140', as described in 
 the text; all the ores and clays standing vertical, i. e. varying between 70, 
 N. and 70 S. In strong contrast to this the ore overhead at the end of the 
 west entry dipped very gently south. 
 
 t In all these banks the best ore is now (1886) entirely covered up, the 
 openings having been abandoned when the lump ore was met with. They
 
 244 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Seyfert & McManus 'bank ; 150' W. of last ; abandoned, 
 but not exhausted. 
 
 Lanigan lank, 300' W. of last ; 120'x90', 30' deep to 
 water ; sides covered with wash of sand and stone and 
 yellow clay ; 15,000 tons mined out, and good show of 
 lump ore in floor when abandoned. 
 
 Laurel No, <2 bank, nearly 3 m. W. of last ; 200'xlOO'; 
 vigorously worked from 1878 to 1881 ; neutral liver colored 
 limonite in yellow clays.* 
 
 Laurel No. 1 bank, m. W. of last, close by Pine Grove 
 Furnace RR. station (2 rn. N. E. down stream from Pine 
 Grove); on N. slope of terrace; small cellular lump, easily 
 picked, and hard lump bottom ore, blasted ; chief depen- 
 dance of the furnace, mixed with Lehman bank ore ; out- 
 put running nearly up to 150 tons per day ; heavy ore to 
 clay 1:1; wash ore much less; dip S. E., wavy, sometimes 
 N. W.; tunnel from W. end N. W. towards RR. through 
 50' " top clay" into higher ball ore clay. Another tunnel 
 S. E. 230', mostly in ore ground, with blue clay intervals, 
 rising S. E. but wavy, most of the ore to the west of it ; 
 ore very dense with much flint, f 
 
 Pine Grove No. 1 bank ; 1 m. W. of last, and i m. E. 
 of the furnace (opposite the limestone quarry on v the north 
 
 all occur on the flat plateau gently rising southwards up the flank of the 
 main mountain, and are largely accompanied by quartzite and sandstone ; 
 no limestone showing anywhere." D'lnvilliers. Analysis : Iron, 35.85 (lump 
 ore, 50.25); Mang., 2.25 (0.07); Sulp., 0.03 (0.007) ;Sil. mat., 31.89(10.65); Phos., 
 0.18 (0.51); McCreath. 
 
 * The mountain spur, coming from the west, south of Pine Grove furnace, 
 on which this opening was made, ends here, and the mine is well round its 
 N. E. end, on nearly flat dips, probably a dying anticlinal. Top wash ore 
 12' to 20'; clay 4'; lump ore masses in bottom of bank very compact. (Re- 
 port 1887, p. 1453.) 
 
 t May 16, 1887, of 76 car loads got 46 of clean ore, but this was from the 
 bottom of cut. Output in May, 50 to 60 tons per day. Water tunnel 300' 
 entirely through wash ore N. under RR. to creek. But this indicates syn- 
 clinal with flat S. dips on the northern (creek) side and very steep over- 
 turned dips on the southern (mountain) side. Analysis of lump ore: Iron, 
 42; Mang., 3.5; Phos., 0.15. Pine Grove furnace depends largely on this 
 mixed \ and | with softer non-man ganesian limonites from Hunter's run to 
 make its neutral pig. An average mix of Laurel -f i Crane (or Lehman) 
 gave carwheel pig (\ in. chill) analysing: Silica, 1.426; Phos., 0.305; Sul., 
 0.009; mang., 2.722. McCreath.
 
 MOUNTAIN CREEK LIMONITE BANKS. 245 
 
 side of the creek); not in work in 1886 ; lOOO'xSOO', and 60' 
 deep ; output from 1879 to 1885, 75,000 tons ; prior to 1879 
 (in company with other pits) perhaps 150,000 tons (5f wash 
 ore ; originally 10' clay and sand stripping, then 25' wash 
 ore clays, then 25' solid soft lump ; at W. end 60' stope ; 
 drift S. W. from here 200' and cross cut 150' to left, all in 
 ore ground (largely neutral ore from surface to bottom solid 
 lump) probably continuous ' ore ground to Old bank '; 
 southern face fine show of lump ore ; another drift from E. 
 end 200', largely brown cellular ore, with a large dome 
 horse of white clay.* Northern face poorer ore, and much 
 black clay.\ 
 
 Old bank, just W. of last ; large excavation, long 
 abandoned. All dips of ore and limestone seen in these 
 banks are S. E. No N. W. dips observed ; perhaps S. E. 
 dips are overturns. 
 
 Red bank of the Thomas Iron Co. (abandoned) lies nearly 
 a mile south of the furnace ; opened in 1874 ; general dip 
 S. E. ; area a fifth of an acre ; 25' to 30' deep ; ball ore in 
 clay, and a good deal of red hematite ; yellow and white 
 clay beddings in natural position in the walls apparently 
 dip N. W. but may have crept over from a S. E. dtp4 
 
 Two large quarries of limestone lie 1000' S. E. of the 
 village of Pine Grove, area of both 8 acres, dips 30, 40 
 and 45, S 30 E. Limonite ore has been taken from one 
 of these limestone quarries, a single block of ore weighing 
 30 tons. The limestone is whitish, bluish, yellowish, very 
 pure and good flux. 
 
 Wild cat pits of the S. M. M. and RR. Co., 2 m. S. W. 
 of the furnace, shows that the limonite deposits continue 
 up the valley towards Adams county ; for, a large number 
 
 * Another dolomitic limestone crops out S. of this clay mass ; dips obscure. 
 
 fThe lump ore mining has been suspended because it averaged 2.25 
 mang. and 0.225 phos. and yet gave 40 to 42 iron. Analysis of McCreath's 
 samples: Iron, 42.15; sulp., 0.028; sil. mat., 20.9; phos., 0.275. 
 
 % Dr. Frazer remarks on the not unfrequent occurrence of this tendency 
 of the inward dipping clay walls of limonite mines to settle and reverse the 
 dip. To an observer facing the stope the bedding appears leaning towards 
 him ; but the removal of a few feet of wall will suffice to show them dipping 
 away, (CO bottom of p. 246). 
 
 Limestone also reported seen half a mile up the mountain side.
 
 246 GEOLOGICAL SUEVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 of these trial shafts 30' to 40' deep passed through ore 
 ground; but the 50 per cent ore held an excessive (1.3) 
 percentage of phosphorus, which deterred the company 
 from mining. 
 
 Of course the valley must be a synclinal of Chiques sand- 
 stone (the debris from which largely covers" the surface), 
 supporting the Primal Upper (hydromica) slate formation 
 (furnishing the ore ground) and that supporting the lower 
 beds of the Great Magnesian limestone (formation No. Ila), 
 remnants of which have been left by erosion, as shown by 
 the quarries opened for flux for the Pine Grove furnace. 
 
 We return now to the north foot of the mountains, to 
 the banks along Yellow Breeches creek. 
 
 Limonites along Yellow Breeches creek. 
 
 Mullen (King) ~bank ; 2 pits in front of Mount Holly 
 gap, 1 m. W. of Papertown, 600' S. of road up the flank of 
 the mountain ; full of mountain wash ; ore largely mixed 
 with chert and cobbles of sandstone ; white clay 20' wide 
 crosses the mine ; long abandoned ; ore reported good, but 
 hard to wash ; borehole record : Surface clay, 8'; ore clays, 
 128'; on limestone.* Shipments of uniformly good ore to 
 Steelton, Newport, etc. A good deal of lump ore. Ore 
 largely confined to the ravine and not extending far east 
 and west. 
 
 Peffer old bank, 2 m. W. of Papertown, m. S. of 
 Barnitz RR. station, 1000' S. of RR. towards the mountain, 
 close to the junction of limestone and sandstone ; good ore; 
 abandoned for many years ; say 5000 tons won ; surface 
 all around pit strewn with ore over 5 or 6 acres. 
 
 From this southwest for seven miles there are no mines. 
 
 Then the isolated Grove, or Peach Orchard bank, 2% m. 
 E. of Jacksonville, close to the mountain, 1 m. S. of the 
 creek on small run ; long ago abandoned ; but Augusta and 
 Cumberland furnaces ran many years mainly on this ore, 
 using, say, 50,000 tons. 
 
 * This is very interesting. The limestone so high up the mountain face 
 with ore slate clays over it can only be explained by either (1) a universal 
 overthrust and overturn ; or (2) a fault, of which there is no evidence ex- 
 o.ept in the valley of the creek ; or (3) a descent of the limestone southwards 
 under the quartzite mountain, which is inadmissible.
 
 BANKS ALONG YELLOW BREECHES CREEK. 247 
 
 Big Pond banks, 3 m. S. W. of the last, 2| m. S. S. E. 
 of Jacksonville, on the last head brook of Yellow Breeches 
 creek issuing from the South mountain; in the slates be- 
 neath the limestone; abandoned long since, although fur : 
 nishing small shot and some bomb-shell neutral ore.* 
 
 Clever bank, 2 m. S. W. of Big Pond; 100'xlOO'x40' 
 deep; stripping 10'; white, yellow and red ore clays in 
 lower part of limestone formation. 
 
 Cleoer Mammotli No. 1 bank, 1 m. S. of last, on first 
 head brook of Conococheague creek issuing from the mount- 
 ain ; once important ; abandoned long before 1886 ; 200'x 
 60'x 30' deep to standing water ; solid mass of ore reputed 
 to be in the floor still ; ore costly and of uncertain quality. f 
 
 The Chestnut bank and the Muslin bank lie between the 
 G. H. Clever bank and the railroad. 
 
 The Coffee bank and the Peacock bank hold the same re- 
 lative position to the Clever Mammoth ; about m. E. of 
 Cleversburg ; in the Primal Upper slates (damourite). The 
 Coffee was abandoned Oct., 1886 ; stope 40', exposed to 
 mountain side wash ; ore in tough yellow clay, wavy, not 
 rich. The Peacock was full of water. Stripping heavy, ore 
 phosphorus (.535). 
 
 The Greasier mine, 1 m. S. W., and the Bridges mine, 1 
 m. W. of Cleversburg, are in the limestone country south- 
 east of the railroad. 
 
 * This stream sinks in the limestone. In 1872 I sketched this range of 
 pits (see Fig. 13, Amer. Phil. Soc. Proc., Jan. 3, 1873). Ore at creek level 
 down stream, and 75 feet above stream to the south ; only one bank then 
 active ; surface clay, 22'; wash and lump ore 20'; clay in bottom. Elsewhere 
 stripping 6' on solid ore. In uppermost (south) bank limestone crops out 
 at surface dipping 8, S. 20 E., i. e., into the mountain; S. of which a shaft 
 went down through 52' of ore and clays and struck limestone at bottom. 
 This limestone is very ferruginous and makes excellent flux. Ore admira- 
 ble, neutral, always worked alone in the Big Pond furnace, m. S. E. of 
 bank. Output between 75,000 and 90,000 tons between 1836and 1868, making 
 800 tons of pig per annum (but d'Invilliers estimates it between 100,000 and 
 150,000 tons). Analysis: Iron, 44; sulphur., .03 ; sil. mat., 20.5; phos., 0.318. 
 
 t As I sketched it in 1872 it showed 8' surface stuff; 12' wash ore ; 6! ore 
 with someday ; 9* solid lump ore and still in floor; but clay bottom at W 
 end ; 40 tons output per day, very cold-short; output 20,000 tons.
 
 248 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Franklin county limonile banks. 
 
 Shirley's run is the county line between Cumberland and 
 Franklin. Furnace run, a mile further S. W., flows 
 parallel to it, out of the South mountain down to Shippens- 
 burg. Means' bank; RoTiref 's bank, Gogerihauer' 1 s bank, 
 are three small abandoned ore pits 4 m. up the run from 
 the railroad. 
 
 The Ruby (or Plaster} bank, Southampton bank close to 
 Southampton furnace, Koser bank, and Cressler bank, are 
 ranged along the run westward, down stream. The Ruby 
 bank is about 1200' W. of the foot of the mountain, in the 
 slates. 
 
 The old Southampton bank is in the slate range ; aban- 
 doned since 1865; 150'x50'x20' deep to standing water ; cold- 
 short ore.* 
 
 From the last (Furnace run) group of mines southward 
 (six miles) to the Gettysburg-Chambersburg turnpike there 
 are no mines. Here the face of the mountains is set back 
 (first) four miles, and then runs on to Mont Alto furnace, 
 4^ miles. The first (northernmost) mine of the Mont 
 Alto group is H ni. S. of the pike ; the rest of them occupy 
 the remaining 3 miles. 
 
 The west face of the South mountains south of the pike 
 is called the White Rock mountain. In front of it, south 
 of the pike, standing out in the limestone valley, is a low 
 ridge, a mile long, called Little mountain, and between the 
 two is a narrow, shallow vale (opening southward) called 
 English valley ; six mines are behind Little mountain, two 
 on its slopes and five in front of it, at its west foot. 
 
 Little mountain is an anticlinal of Primal Upper slates, 
 on sandstone, sinking west beneath the limestones of the 
 valley towards Chambersburg, and east beneath the lime- 
 stone in the English vale (which is synclinal) to rise again 
 at the foot of White Rock mountain. This accounts for 
 the arrangement of this Pond Bank group. 
 
 *Iron, 45.55; mang., 0.73 ; sulp., 0.013; sil. mat, 16.46; phos., 0.69. The 
 Ruby analysis reads : 37.2 ; 1.64 ; 0.03 ; 24.25 ; 0.61.
 
 FRANKLIN CO. LIMONITE BANKS. 249 
 
 Mont Alto limonite banks. 
 
 Pond bank, a large abandoned open mine 80' deep, ore 
 superior, under 10' to 30' stripping. A shaft north of it 
 went through the following : Earth and white clay, 10'; 
 sand, sharp, light colored, 5'; clay, sand and pigment, 25'; 
 black clay, fine-grained, V; lignite, 4'; clay, sandy, grey, 
 1'; lignite, 18'; sand, I/; clay, variegated, 6'. (Wiestling's 
 report to d' Invilliers % 1886.)* 
 
 Little Pond bank, 600' N. of Mont Alto railroad, close to 
 base of Little mountain, formerly an open cut, afterwards 
 won by under-ground gangways driven S. from the shaft 
 to the railroad, and curving round the Little mountain 
 anticlinal on a very flat dip ; also northward under the old 
 open cut (which was 35' deep.)f 
 
 English mine, a little higher up the W. flank of Little 
 mountain ; open cut, 200'xl50'x30' deep to standing water 
 (1886). More lump ore was got from this than from any 
 other of the Mont Alto mines, but it carries more phos- 
 phorus than any other, and so work was abandoned when 
 Bessemer pig came into demand, as so many others of these 
 limonite banks have been for the same reason.:}: 
 
 Hope trial pits ; 1200' N. E. from last and rather on the 
 E. slope of Little mountain. Ore found to be phosphorous 
 (0.464). 
 
 Promise bank, in the vale on the White Rock mountain 
 foot slope ; actively worked in 1886 for Mont Alto furnace ; 
 first by open cut, 125 / xl25 / x40 / deep ; then central shaft 
 
 * I saw lignite in this bank in 1872, and reported it to the Amer. Phil. Soc. 
 Proceedings Jan. 3, 1873. comparing it with the well known lignite mass 
 in the Brandon iron mine in Vermont, and arguing from it the tertiary age 
 of all the limonite deposits of the Atlantic, so far as they were cavern deposits 
 in /Silurian limestone valleys. This assigned age, however, does not in any 
 way conflict with the theory of the genesis of the limonite from the dam- 
 ourite or hydromica slates of the Primal series. 
 
 t Two analyses: Iron, 50.55 (48.60) ; mang., 0.300 (2. 154) ; sulp., 0.054 (0.048) ; 
 sil. mat., 11.52 (11.68); phos., 0.157 (0.059). McCreath. 
 
 J Dip of ore gentle but decidedly S. E. into Little mountain, which, as in 
 other such instances, requires explanation. Ore covered with black clay, 
 over which is 6' to 10' of stripping. Plenty of ore left in this mine. Analysis: 
 Sulp., 0.015; phos., e.849.
 
 250 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 70' deeper through wash ore, and 5' into bottom lime 
 stone. * 
 
 Guilford mine, active in May, 1887, 1 m. S. of last; 
 same relative position. Between them are the abandoned 
 Westling (1). Limekiln (2), and Calliman (3) banks. The 
 White Rock banks (4) is high up the mountain slope, and 
 does not belong to the slate range, but to the underlying 
 sandstone, and consequently shows the highest percentage 
 of phosphorus ; whereas the Limekiln ore was almost free 
 from phosphorus, f 
 
 The Guilford bank was (in 1887) 150'xlOO'x20' to 30' deep; 
 ore found on top of flat ridge a little W. of the base of the 
 mountain, and consequently has little stripping, say 4' to 
 10.':{: Ore stopes largely cut up with lean clays. More 
 bombshell ore has been got here than anywhere else. 
 
 The line of ore ground described above extends S. to the 
 RR. 1200' and crosses it into the B. George land.|| 
 
 The Jacob Rock bank here is worked solely underground 
 for Mont Alto furnace. T No. 3% bank, on road. If m. N. 
 of Mont Alto ; worked in 1887 ; i acre ; small lump and 
 wash ore plenty ; much free silica to be picked out from 
 ore near surface ; none in the deeper ore, where clay takes 
 the place of sand ; 15 to 20 tons (washed) ore per day. 
 
 Ruth shaft. A ridge m. N. W. this last bank (32) and a 
 
 *Two tunnels diverge into the_mountain, from which gangways branch in 
 various directions. (See description by d'Invilliers in An. Rt 1887, p. 1432.) 
 In one, two beds of ore 27' and 40' thick are separated by 13' of barren clay 
 Total proved thicknes^s of good wash ore ground in cut and under-ground 
 works about 100'. The wash ore turns out a percentage of sandstone frag- 
 ments about as large as the largest ore lumps. These are hand picked and 
 thrown aside. Analysis: Iron, 54.6; mang., 0.336; sul., 0.037; sil. mat, 
 5.775; phos., 0.104. 
 
 f Analysis show phosphorus in (1) .087; (2) .040; (3) .070; (4) .109. 
 
 JThe heavy stripping ground has had as much to do with the abandonment 
 of our limonite mines as any variety in the quality of the ore ; most of them 
 still retaining large quantities of ore which the iron market will not pay to 
 uncover. It is this that has driven the miners into the new style of under- 
 ground driving. 
 
 These bombs are very rich in iron, but hold so much clay that they have 
 to be smashed to pieces and washed. 
 
 || To the northward the abandoned McNeal bank and T. Stevens' Pond 
 bank carry the ore to the turnpike. 
 
 1 Analysis: Iron, 47.35; mang., 0.75; sul., 0.066; s. m., 16.02; phos., 0.197.
 
 MONT ALTO LIMONITE BANKS. 251 
 
 mile from the mountain, and in prolongation of Little 
 mountain (southward), is largely slate carrying a good 
 deal of surface ore. A dry shaft on the crest of this ridge 
 went down in ore (with a few pieces of limestone and clay) 
 120'. The ore crop traced north is 150' wide, almost all 
 wash ore. Want of water has prevented the establishment 
 .of a mine on this ridge. Limestone, vertical (slightly S. 
 E., i. e., overthrown), crops out a short way from the crest 
 down on the N. W. flank of the ridge ; which fixes the 
 geological place of the slates. 
 
 The Mont Alto banks, 1, 2, 8, 4, 5, are almost a contin- 
 uous open cut, 9 m. S. E. of Chambersburg on the west 
 foot slope of the White Rock mountain ; served by a RR. 
 siding from the Mont Alto RR. which runs from near 
 Scotland, south, past Mont Alto furnace, to join the Balti- 
 more and Cumberland Valley RR. near Waynesborough.* 
 
 No. 1, near the furnace, long abandoned ; now used as a 
 sand guarry, the outcropping sandstone (to which the ore 
 belonged) disintegrates and falls to sand. No. 3, a little 
 further on (N.) close to W. side of terrace; 400'x300'x60' to 
 100' deep ; "worked to 120' deep ;" now abandoned. f No. 
 4, next it, along the terrace ; 60' deep ; output (of 15 years) 
 100,000 tons, all neutral ore, the main reliance of the fur- 
 nace formerly ; not very rich, but very free from siliceous 
 stuff. No. 8, 1 m. N. of furnace, on the same terrace; 
 crescent shaped, 500'xl50'; everywhere 20' to 30' of strip- 
 ping; stopped in 1883 ; shaft passed through 30' stripping 
 and then 70' of ore. No limestone seen here ; but the dip 
 is S. E. into the mountain. 
 
 Smith and Awry bank, I m.W. of Mont Alto, W. of RR. 
 in limestone land; 1 acre, 15' to 30' deep, increasing north- 
 ward ; idle in 1887 ; too much phosphorus for the Mont 
 Alto charcoal iron (0.415). 
 
 Mill bank ; RR. cuts (25' deep) through it, 500' long, 
 
 * For description of furnace see An. Rt. 1887, p. 1422 ; and interesting de- 
 tails in Frazer's Rt., 02, 1875, p. 257, et seq. 
 
 t A dome-shaped outcrop of limestone shows in it apparently dipping S. E. 
 into the mountain, around which the ore was quarried. A shaft 50' deep 
 wholly in lump ore, dipping steep towards the mountain, pinching out E. 
 and W.
 
 252 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 with nests of ore in decomposed lime shales ; too much 
 phosphorus (0.439); abandoned. 
 
 O. Rock, Pass orchard^ and Douglass banks are small 
 deserted pits at the base of the mountain, 3 m. S. of Mont 
 Alto and m. E. of Quincy station. They belong to the 
 Primal Sandstone range. The R. MoCleary bank, 2 m. 
 W. of them is in the open limestone country ; 150 / x50'xl5 / 
 deep, with limestone in its center dipping 25, S. 70 E. 
 Four shafts in it (now all shut) showed that the ore was 
 chiefly pipe ore finely disseminated through yellow clay. 
 
 There are no mines further south to the State line, but 
 the same kind of ores follow the foot of the Blue Ridge 
 through Virginia and Tennessee ; as in the opposite direc- 
 tion similar large limonite mines range northeastward 
 through New Jersey and New York to the famous Salis- 
 bury mine at the N. W. corner of Connecticut, and the 
 Brandon mine in Vermont ; and it is not to be doubted 
 that if the damourite slates had been brought to the sur- 
 face anywhere in Middle Pennsylvania similar deposits of 
 limonite would have been created from them in recent 
 times ; but the general erosion has not gone .deep enough 
 for that, and the slate formation has been as yet protected 
 from decomposition, so that it seems useless to bore or 
 sink for the limonite beneath the surface.* 
 
 Path Valley limonite mines. 
 
 The Richmond, Carricksfurn and Fannettsburg ore banks 
 in Path Valley, northern Franklin county, are perhaps an 
 exception to this statement. They are situated along a 
 great fault, which is not perfectly well understood, and 
 which may possibly bring the Primal slate to the surface, 
 in which case the mines would belong to the lower damourite 
 range. But the fault more probably merely throws the 
 upper damourite slate against the Medina sandstone on 
 the slope of the Path mountain. The first theory is made 
 
 * In none of the middle counties of Pennsylvania do the Primal slates 
 rise to the surface except perhaps at the Tyrone forges on the Little J uniata 
 in Huntingdon county, where no limonite deposits appear. If present they 
 would greatly assistin identifying the Tyrone beds, over the precise horizon 
 of which hangs some obscurity.
 
 THE TWO VIRGINIA RANGES. 253 
 
 a little less improbable from the general absence of heavy 
 limonite deposits along the limestone-slate contacts of Cum- 
 berland and Franklin counties, and also in the back valleys 
 except at Leathercracker in Blair county.* 
 
 The two Virginia ranges. 
 
 In Virginia there are recognized two distinct ranges of 
 limonite deposits : (1) A tower, massive and dense, dark 
 and often pitchy black ore, in the body of the Primal sand- 
 stone ; (2) An upper, richer, more cellular, brown or liver- 
 colored ore, in the overlying slates. 
 
 The lower ores are usually more cold-short. Both the 
 Virginian ores seem to be richer in iron with less silica than 
 the general average Cumberland county ores in Pennsyl- 
 vania. The lower range is scarcely recognizable in Penn- 
 sylvania ; but Mr. d'Invilliers, who is well acquainted with 
 the Virginia ranges, refers to the lower range the ore in 
 Thad. Stevens' s bank, north of his furnace on the Cham- 
 bersburg pike, and the ore opened in the face of the mount- 
 ain opposite the pike W. of the furnace. These I have 
 already placed in the South Mountain quartzite formation, 
 over the conglomerate beds, and they can have no near 
 relationship to the hydromica (damourite) slates at the 
 bottom of the limestone, nor to the Chiques quartzite under 
 the slates. 
 
 But quartzite beds occur in the body of the chlorite slate 
 formation in York county south of Wrightsville, on the 
 Susquehanna ; and there may be other such horizons of 
 quartzite older than that of the Chiques Rock. (Prazer in 
 C, p. 202.) Codorus ore (No. 43 of the York Co. map) in 
 North Codorus township, may be of this case. 
 
 GruWs Cadorus ore in quartzite. 
 
 The Grubb ore (No. 110 of the map, also called the "6V 
 dorus ore bank"} on the Codorus furnace lands 5 m. N. 
 
 * The Path Valley fault discovered and studied by Dr. A. A. Henderson 
 of the First Survey in 1839, 1840, is described, from his notes, by Prof. 
 Rogers, in Geo. Pa., 1858, Vol. 1, p. 322, where Henderson's sections make 
 the first theory almost a certainty. I therefore postpone the description of 
 this ore range to its geological place in a future chapter.
 
 254 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 of W. of Wrightsville is remarkable for belonging to the 
 Chiques (Hellam) quartzite formation itself. Discovered 
 and opened in 1866, this iron-bearing sandstone, quarried 
 to the extent of 2000 to 3000 tons per annum for St. Charles 
 Furnace above Columbia, to mix with Cornwall ore, holds 
 its iron in the shape of ^ magnetite and f red arid brown 
 hematite; and having no sulphur and very little phos- 
 phorus helps to make excellent bessemer pig.* 
 
 The following description of what Dr. Chance considers 
 a Potsdam sandstone ore mine is very interesting and 
 geologically useful. 
 
 LehigTi Mountain Mining (70.' s limonite mines, 2 m. E. 
 of Emaus, Lshigh county, and next E. of the Kemmerer 
 mine ; shaft 85' deep ; cross cuts at 55' and 85' south to 
 ore body dipping steep (4o) N. W. away from the 
 mountain towards the edge of the limestone (200' to 500' 
 distant); ore bed varies in thickness from 40' to 5'; some- 
 times pinched out altogether; hanging wall clay having 
 layers of flint and sometimes large masses of quartzite ; 
 foot wall also clay ; mine down 130' (1885); ore 40 to 50 per 
 cent iron, rather high in phosphorus and silica ; probably 
 an altered pyrite ; alteration may not descend beyond 300' 
 where the drainage level of the Little Lehigh creek will be 
 reached. Outcrop line of 2 miles proved by 15 to 18 old 
 surface pits, abandoned because of continual sliding into 
 them of large quantities of quartz fragments and sand from 
 mountain slope above, making it impossible to get clean 
 ore for market. Now only the clean ore mass is taken out. 
 The ore bed seems to be faulted at intervals so as to present 
 a number of short S. S. W. crop lines arranged in echelon 
 
 * The Grubbs wrote that a mixture of } this Codorus ore with Chestnut 
 Hill and Cornwall ores made a soft, strong and very fluid iron. Cornwall 
 ore contains too little silica (6 per cent alumina to 15 per cent silica), 
 whereas J. B. Britton found in this Codorus ore: Iron protox., 4.13; 
 sesquiox., 36.08; (=iron, 28.46); ox., 17.16; sil., 33.80; al., 4.61; lime, 0.05; 
 phos. acid, 0.158. For description of mine and mining statistics, see Frazer, 
 Report*;, p. 64,^1874.
 
 LEHIGH MTN. M. CO. LIMONITft MINE. 255 
 
 along the S. W. normal line of the mountain slope rocks, 
 viz : quartzite lying on gneiss. The gangway levels also 
 are not straight but curved, the dip changing from steep to 
 flat. Exceptions to the N. W. dip have been reported. 
 (Letter of Dr. H. M. Chance, Nov. 3, 1885.) 
 
 Copious and precise descriptions of the various Primal 
 (Potsdam) quartzite, sandstone and slate outcrops, expos- 
 ures and cuts will be found on pages 99 to 135 of Chapter 
 IV, of D'Invilliers' Report on Berks county, D3, Vol. 1.
 
 256 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 Magnetic limonite mines doubtfully referred to the Primal 
 slates, or to the Gneiss, or to the Trias, in York, Chester 
 and Berks counties. 
 
 The wording of this title is not intended to express more 
 than the fact that the magnetic limonites of York,. Chester 
 and Berks are so curiously many-sided in their relations to 
 the rock formations in and upon which they lie, that it is 
 in the case of most of them impossible to prove satisfac- 
 torily that they have originated from the decomposition of 
 iron-bearing shales of a particular age. They have all been 
 changed from the condition of a hydrous peroxide to that 
 of an anhydrous sesquioxide by the heat of trap dykes. 
 How far the trap has introduced iron (with copper) from 
 below, or how far the action of the trap has been limited 
 to segregating the iron distributed in the sedimentary strata, 
 cannot be dogmatically stated. The prime fact is that the 
 region of these mines is a belt of country covered now, or 
 once covered, by the Trias formation, the special (but not 
 exclusive) region of trap outflows. 
 
 In JorJc county. 
 
 The Dillsburg magnetic mines, situated in the north- 
 western quarter of York county, two miles from the foot 
 of the South Mountains and a mile more or less E. of Dills- 
 burg, in the Trias belt, form a group over which has been 
 some geological contention as to what formation they 
 belong to, whether to the South mountain cambrian rocks, or 
 to the Trias new red sandstone and shale. All the mines yield 
 about the same kind and quality of ore, magnetic, sulphur 
 and copper bearing, like the Cornwall, Jones and Warwick 
 ores. It is a country of trap, and dykes of trap adjoin the 
 ore ; which accounts for the copper, sulphur and magnetite. 
 But the Valley limestone No. II is close at hand on Yellow 
 Breeches creek, overlaid by Trias ; and a belt of Hudson
 
 MAGNETIC LIMONITE MINES IN YORK CO. 257 
 
 River slate No. .Ill, in Cumberland county, points directly 
 towards Dillsburg, not 3 miles distant. The country north 
 of the Trias in Cumberland has parallel synclinal basins of 
 III separated by anticlinals of the underlying II. There 
 can be little reason to doubt that the Trias in York county 
 covers other and similar parallel rolls of II and III ; and 
 therefore it is entirely proper to suppose the existence of 
 the lime shales between II and III (the upper damourite 
 slates) beneath the Trias at and around the Dillsburg mines. 
 
 The situation then would be precisely that of the Corn- 
 wall mine, except that at Cornwall the great fault has let 
 the Trias down against the II-III slates. But there may 
 be faults at Dillsburg also ; and indeed both the great abun- 
 dance of trap and the general north dip of the Trias pre- 
 suppose them. 
 
 On the other hand, between the Dillsburg mines and the 
 mountain slope (covered with hydromica slates and frag- 
 ments of Chiques quartzite) the Primal upper slates should 
 exist beneath the Trias, and should furnish Chestnut Hill 
 ore, turned by trap into Jones Warwick ore. 
 
 The limestone dips being all steep, the cross section dis- 
 tance between the upper and lower slates need nowhere be 
 more than a mile (on a monoclinal); and, therefore, if the 
 Dillsburg ore be transformed damourite slate limonites they 
 may belong to either the upper or the lower slates ; and in 
 either case the trap would make them copper-bearing mag- 
 netic red-short ores. 
 
 But as most of the numerous mines are to all appearance 
 in Trias rocks they have been assigned to iron-bearing slates 
 of Trias age, altered by trap. If the McCormick boreholes 
 near Dillsburg furnish accurate data they make it certain 
 that some at least of the Dillsburg ore-masses are true ore- 
 beds lying between variously colored sandstone strata, and 
 not far above and below beds of limestone and sheets of so- 
 called white, grey and black trap.* If these rocks be of 
 Trias age it seems quite impossible to assign the ores of 
 
 * See borehole records (condensed) in foot note to page ; and in full in 
 C2, p. 216. 
 
 17
 
 258 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 the Dillsbnrg district to the Primal slates. The most im- 
 portant mine for this side of the argument is that of the 
 Altland shaft or Schoolhouse mine. The most important 
 for the other side are the Bender and McCormick banks. 
 
 The central figure of the Dillsburg group is the 
 
 Underwood slope (formerly Mumper mine), opened 1848; 
 slope 290' long, 28 (average) due N.; at 26' struck ore 18' 
 thick ; followed it dipping more steeply ; roof trap ; floor 
 "sandstone intermixed witli limestone"; distance from 
 wall to wall "averages" 5'; but ore 6' to 30' thick met 
 with ; 8 side drift levels averaging 70' in length ; 3 shafts, 
 deepest 140'; output (1875) 40 tons per day, total output to 
 date (1875) say 10,000 tons ; ore solid and hard, blasted.- 
 very little of it crystallized magnetite.* 
 
 Underwood's new mine; 2CO' S. of old slope; one pit 
 10,000 square feet, 15' deep ; a derrick shaft went through 
 25' (20'?) trdp and then 28'+ (30'?) ore ; E. and W. level ; 
 slope from bottom of shaft 50' long, gentle N. dip in ore ; 
 6 tons a day. ' 1 A layer of limestone was passed througli" 
 Ore needs no washing. South of derrick shaft, 70', another 
 shaft through 2' trap, then 10' ore. E. N. E. of derrick 
 shaft, 100', a third shaft, same record. New pit sunk 
 through soil and gravel 30' to ore. A large pit S. W. of 
 main pit exhausted a pot of 5000 tons of surface ore. E. 
 of S. 300', a third pit (3500 sq. ft.) abandoned. 
 
 Logan's mine, 500' E. by N. of Underwood's slope; 
 opened in 1874 ; shaft 50' deep ; slope from bottom of shaft 
 28, due N. 80' long (1815); output 25 tons per day for H. 
 McCormick furnaces at Harrisburg ; ore magnetic, not 
 washed; section, soil and gravel with some bowlders of 
 trap, 28'; sand, 6'; ore 20'; floor rock 2'.f 
 
 King's mine, 3300' E. of Underwood's slope ; shaft sunk 
 (1876) through soil and loose trap, 6' ; hard trap, 17' ; ore, 
 9'. A level driven 20' E. in ore wedged between trap below 
 and hardened sandstone above, dipping (elsewhere) 23, N. 
 
 * Lowest gangway 110' long E. and 120' W. See full description of work- 
 ing and statistics of cost, etc., in Frazer's C2, p. 208. 
 
 | Statistics, etc., in C2, p. 211. A trial shaft 2400' N. proved some ore; 
 ground strewn with large bowlders of trap.
 
 MAGNETIC LIMONITE MINES IN YORK CO. 259 
 
 40 W. As this mine was advanced (spring of 1876) the ore 
 steadily improved in quality downward, pyrites diminish- 
 ing, lime and magnesia increasing, and vein more solid. 
 The vein is 9' thick, viz : bottom ore, 1$' ; rock, V ; top 
 ore, 7'. Output 25 tons per day.* Other old pits are to be 
 seen in the neighborhood (exhausted ore-pots) one of which 
 is said to have given 2000 tons of surface wash ore, with 
 some N. slope ore. Massive trap is still visible in the pit. 
 
 McCormicJc & Co.' sold mine, 500' E. of the Underwood 
 slope ; 12,000 square feet area ; begun by Mumper in 1850 ; 
 shaft (in bottom of pit) 140' deep ; ore exhausted. A slope 
 100' N. of pit, 20, 60' long, abandoned. 
 
 McQormicK s long cut and slope ; the mine furthest north 
 in this group ; open cut along ore crop 500' ; roof trap, dip- 
 ping 27 to 34 (20, Altland) N. Westward. Abandoned 
 (1875).f 
 
 Smyser's open cut, 1000' S. E. of Underwood slope; ore 
 like that of the other mines ; total yield, 3000 tons ; pit 30' 
 deep in sand and gravel (no rock visible), abandoned.:}: 
 
 BeWs sJiaft, 33' deep, not far from bore hole No. 3. 
 
 * Mr. King's letter, May 22, 1876. He explains that the "fault rock " is "a 
 mixed up, broken up mixture of sandstone and trap rock," and that imme- 
 diately behind it (S.) is a ridge of dark green rock. See contents of letter 
 in C2, p. 213. 
 
 fBore hole No. 1, 160 N. W. of middle of this cut, went down through 
 clay, sandstone and clay, 14'; bastard limestone, 9|' ; sandstone, 9|'; trap, 
 9' ; unknown and brown sandstone, 32' ; ore, 6' ; sandstone, 4' ; lean-ore, 4' ; 
 total, 88'. Bore hole No. 3 ; white and red sandstone, 17' ; trap, 17|' ; black, 
 green, brown and white sandstones, 14^' ; total, 49 .Bore hole No. 4, 150' S. 
 of E. end of cut; various colored sandstones, 50'; trap (black), 16' and 
 (white) 63' ; ore, 1|' ; white, green and red sandstones, 42' ; total, 116'. Bore 
 hole No. 5, sunk in the old bank : soil, &c., 9' ; ore, ' ; sandstones, 22' ; trap 
 (black), 23' ; sandstone, 3' ; ore, 3| ; white sandstone, 5' ; ore, 1 \' ; white sand- 
 stone, 11' ; limestone and flint, 6' ; limestone and fireclay, 10' ; sandstones, 
 30' ; ore, 2' ; sandstone, 2' ; sandstone and ore, 3' ; limestone and flint, 6?' ; 
 ore and sandstone, Og' ; sandstones, 17' ; trap (grey), 2' ; white sandstone, 2' ; 
 limestone, 3' ; variously colored sandstone beds, 25' ; total, 191'. See these 
 records in more detail in C2, p. 216. 
 
 J One report says that the lessees sank 45' to ore 25' thick dipping S. E. 
 Another report makes the ore dip S. W. on a saddle of trap. Ore used un- 
 washed ; scattered through the bank ; costly mining. Two observers could 
 get no dip for the trap in this bank. C2, p. 217. 
 
 These works were new when visited in 1875. See details in C2, p. 218.
 
 260 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Grove's mine, f m. S. E. of Underwood slope ; worked for 
 2 years previous to 1875*. 
 
 Price's open cut, a mile S. E. of Underwood slope ; 350' 
 long by 125' broad, abandoned about 1860, after yielding a 
 large amount of magnetic ore ; said (in 1875) to have still a 
 6' ore bed within 14' of surface ; sandstone appears in the 
 N. side. 
 
 Fuller mine, 3 m. N. E. of Dillsburg ; begun 1863 ; 
 worked in 1875, 15 tons per day ; ore strongly magnetic ; 
 tunnel adit from railroad on bank of Yellow Breeches creek, 
 200' due S. and two drifts E. and W. under roof of trap, dip- 
 ping 24, N. W. ; foot wall greenish altered sandrock.f 
 
 Porter's bank, near the last ; worked by G-ov. Porter five 
 years (from 1850 -J- ?) and by A. Price for eight years ; ore 
 magnetic ; pit, 40' deep (14' below creek level) ; ore dipped 
 30 towards and under the creek ; limestone beds in RR. 
 cut close by dip 30, S. 10 E.% 
 
 Shelly' s mine, near the last, yielded 300 tons of magnetic 
 ore, 10' thick, under 20' of trap, and lying on Potomac 
 marble. Another shaft went through 30' of trap to ore. 
 
 A group of pits and shafts S. W. of Dillsburg, includes 
 Heiges' sJiaft, very little ore; Filler's trial pit ; Berg- 
 hart's pit, a layer of ore between red sandstone (Trias); 
 H. Heiges' trial pits-, A. Heiges pits, ore and trap ; 
 G. Heiges' shaft, 30' through trap and green sandstone ; 
 ore 4' thick. All these are scarcely more than unsuccess- 
 ful prospecting holes. Trap is abundant ; the surveying 
 needle is deflected ; Primal slates appear from beneath the 
 Trias. 
 
 Another group of pits of small size range irregularly past 
 Wellsville (6 m. S. E. of Dillsburg) in the heart of the Trias 
 
 *See details in 02, p. 219. 
 
 t Details and statistics in C2, p. 220. Analysis (in C, p. 74) : Iron oxides, 
 62.0 ; phos. oxide, 0.05 ; manganese sesqui oxide, 0.352. 
 
 JThe ore bed is reported to have been 6' thick, and opened for 25' along 
 the crop. Dr. Frazer thinks that by "magnetic" is not meant ore of the 
 Dillsburg type, but the "magnetic" ore of the York valley, and probably 
 belonging to the older (Primal) rocks ; Yellow Breeches creek being prac- 
 tically the dividing line between these and the Trias. (C2, p. 221.) 
 
 Such is the report of Mr. Snelly to Dr. Frazer in 1875. C2, p. 222.
 
 MAGNETIC LIMONITE MINES IN YORK CO. 261 
 
 country, with abundance of trap : Lichty's, Meyers', flick- 
 er's, KimmeT s, Cooper's, Morganthaler' s, Wiley's, Bren- 
 neman's, (Jr test's, Barman? s, Gerber's, Altman's, Com- 
 fort's, Cadioaladef s, Bent's, Marshall's, Schluthauer' s, 
 Cookson's, Smith's (W. 72.), Smith s (J. T.) ; but they all 
 belong to the Trias, and not to the Primal slates ; as is best 
 shown at the ScJwoUwuse mine or Altland shaft, where the 
 micaceous magnetic ore bed is seen regularly interbedded 
 with the Trias sandstones, dipping 35, N, W., and both 
 sandstones and ore cut off by a vertical trap dyke, only 
 4' thick. Over 5000 tons were won previous to 1875.* 
 
 There remain to be noticed here a group of three mines 
 undoubtedly of Primal age, at the foot of the South Mount- 
 ain in York county : 
 
 Bender' s magnetic ore mine y 1 m S. W. of Dillsburg, 
 on and near the edge of the Trias ; open cut ; 1849, 200 
 tons ; idle until 1873, 300 tons, a pocket of ore 5' thick ; 
 other such shallow pockets near by ; ore magnetic. 
 
 Bender's limonite bank, m. W. by N". of last, in the 
 decayed Primal slate clays which form the south flank of 
 the mountain range ; open cut, acre ; 1874 ; output 2000 
 tons in 1 years and abandoned ; stripping 12' to 20', over 
 a mass of small wash ore and streaks of shell ore, 23' (and 
 more) deep ; one of the ore layers dipped 56 S. f 
 
 McCormick' s bank close to the last; a century old; worked 
 by many successive parties ; wash ore ; very few large 
 masses ; dip of richer streaks same as in Bender's bank ; 
 pit 35' deep to water ; no rock seen ; ore left in floor ; aban- 
 doned. 
 
 *This is the best example of indubitable Trias magnetic ore I know, and 
 deserves careful study. The gangway in ore from the shaft east shows the 
 ore bed varying between 1' and 6', and sometimes penetrating one side of 
 the trap, for a few inches only. The trap has developed ore on its N. W 
 side, but not worth mining. (See picture section in C2, p. 235 ; mine plan, 
 p. 237.) 
 
 t But the decayed slate rock layers can be easily followed by the eye, in 
 both banks dipping 30, S. 30 E. Many of the leaves of clay are encrusted 
 with limonite ; many of them are twisted and bent in common with leaves 
 of hard brittle ore ; showing plainly that the segregation of the ore followed 
 the decomposition of the clayslate. (C2, p. 229.)
 
 262 GEOLOGICAL SUEVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 In Chester county. 
 
 Pickering creek heads at Windsor in Upper Uwchlan, and 
 flows eastward through West Pikeland (past Marisville), 
 East Pikeland, Charlestown and Schuylkill. to the river two 
 miles below Phoenix ville. The Pickering Valley RR., 10 
 miles long, brings down the ores to the Phoenixville fur- 
 naces. 
 
 The country is gneiss, undoubtedly once entirely covered, 
 as it now is partially, with Primal slates and sandstone ; 
 and these of course with the limestone, slate and sandstone 
 formations of the Palaeozoic series up to the coal measures. 
 If all these were removed by erosion, or nearly all of them, 
 before the New Red series was laid down upon the country, 
 the interval of time between the Carboniferous and Trias 
 required for such erosion would be incredibly great. And 
 yet we see the Trias resting on the gneiss along French 
 creek, with no appearance of a fault at the contact. The 
 eroded edge of the Trias across Chester, Montgomery and 
 Berks counties is sufficient proof of the former extension 
 of the Trias south westward over the gneiss region, no doubt 
 over the whole of it. 
 
 This is the foundation of Prof. Rogers' theory of the 
 Pickering Valley limonite deposits, and of others north and 
 south of them in the gneiss country. He supposed that 
 iron-bearing Trias sandstone beds caught in faults in the 
 gneiss deposited their iron in ores left after the general 
 erosion of the Trias had been accomplished.* 
 
 But it is admissible to suppose that portions of the iron- 
 bearing Primal sandstone and hydromica or damourite slate 
 formation have escaped erosion from the surface of the 
 gneiss and have produced limonite ore deposits here as else- 
 where. Although there are some serious objections to this 
 hypothesis (for the whole subject of the erosion of the gneiss 
 region of N. Chester is full of difficulties) it has some ad- 
 vantages over the other ; one of which Mr. Rogers himself 
 furnishes, when he says : " It is an interesting fact, having 
 
 *Geol. Penn. 1858, Vol. 1, pp. 83 to 90, with diagrams of faults and ores ; 
 copied into Report C4, 1883, p. 168.
 
 MAGNETIC MINES IN CHESTER CO. 263 
 
 some bearing perhaps upon the question of the origin of 
 the iron ores . . . that several of these deposits adjoin, if 
 they are not closely connected with outcrops . . . of lime- 
 stone" as at the Lewis bank and the W. Par Jeer bank. A 
 still more important support to the theory is lent by the 
 fact reported by Dr. Frazer (04, p. 231) that exposures of 
 azoic slate occur in the Harvey (or Latshaw) mine. The 
 large Worth mine of surface limonite in W. Cain, lm. N. 
 of Sadsburyville, lends some support to this view, as agreed 
 by Dr. Frazer in C3, p. 261. The slate partings in the 
 limonite magnetite ore mass at the Warwick mine are de- 
 cidedly friendly to this view. 
 
 A group of old mines around Yellow Springs were de- 
 scribed by Prof. Rogers as seen by him in 1853 : 
 
 Lewis bank, still worked in 1853, 1 m. N". E. of Yellow 
 Springs; in narrow trough (fault?) between steep gneiss, 
 and gently pitching altered red sandstone and shale (on N. 
 W. side) ; white granite near south wall ; ore a loose sandy 
 mass ; bank N. E. and S. W. 40' deep ; altered red rock 
 holds many spangles of graphite and magnetite crystals ; 
 the unaltered red rock quite like Trias. A narrow strip 
 of limestone is said to have been encountered in this mine. 
 
 Fegley 1 s bank, % m. N. E. of Yellow Springs, separated 
 from the Lewis by a gneiss range ; two excavations in line, 
 between contorted steep gneiss and altered red sandstone 
 (on N. W. side) dipping 40, S. E. ; granite veins in gneiss 
 wall ; ore mingled in a confused mass of rotted gneiss and 
 granite ; but main body of ore (40' thick) is in loose earth 
 resting on the red rocks. Fegley bank (1853) 200' X 100' X 
 50' deep ; ore in bottom. Another large pit, just N. E. of 
 the other, has a 12' ore bed on a floor of red sandstone.* 
 Annual yield of the two banks in 1853, 2400 and 2000 tons. 
 Leased to the Phoenix I. Co. in 1865. Abandoned. 
 
 Latshaw '(later Harvey) mine, m. S. W. of Yellow 
 Springs, on a fault between steep gneiss and S. E. dipping 
 red rocks, but decomposed granite in the south wall ; ore 
 
 *The strip of red rock makes a low ridge 600' wide and half a mile long, 
 and the ore seems to have come from it. Mr. Rogers had no doubt of its 
 Trias age.
 
 264 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 mass on and in crushed and crystalline red rocks, full of 
 graphite scales and mica, looking like gneiss. Output in 
 1874, 2000 or 3000" tons (Rogers). Output in 1881, 1000 
 tons. Exposures of azoic slates dipping S. E. occur in 
 this mine (Frazer). 
 
 Steitler ~bank, f ni. S. W. of the Latshaw, and on the 
 same fault, between a vertical granite dyke and S. E. dip- 
 pings crushed red sandstone.* First worked about 1800; 
 annual continuous output tor 8 years (1845 to 1853) 3000 to 
 5000 tons of rich good ore ; a little manganese oxide ; a 
 little pyrites ; beautiful masses of fibrous and pipe limonite 
 frequent ; unusual abundance of bombshell ore, often hold- 
 ing feathery-white mica (Rogers). In 1879 this excava- 
 tion was 900' long, 600' wide ; had sometimes yielded 8000 
 tons in a year; but was then abandoned. (Frazer, C4, p. 231.) 
 
 Raby mine, in E. Pikeland, 1 m. S. W. of Kimberly ; 
 still worked in 1882, 6 tons per day. Ornermine, % m. W. 
 of old Fegley in W. Pikeland ; worked by the Phoenix I. 
 Co. in 1883. Shows graphite. Fussel (Morris) mine, 1 
 m. W. of Yellow Springs, exhausted in 1880, after an out- 
 put of 250 tons. Tustin (Isaac] mine, \ m. S. of Chester 
 (Yellow) Springs ; opened 1851 ; leased to Monocacy Fur- 
 nace Co.; then in 1864 to the Phoenix I. Co.; shallow ore ; 
 abandoned. Prizer mine, 600' S. W. of the last ; worked 
 by Phoenix I. Co. from 1856 ; then by Monacacy F. Co. ; 
 large output ; heavy stripping ; abandoned. 
 
 Acker (E. Jones) mine, \ m. S. of Latshaw (Harvey) 
 mine, was worked from 1863 on by Phoenix I. Co. with a 
 large output ; afterwards for Monocacy furnace ; output in 
 1882, 20 to 30 tons a day. It was opened about 1853, on a 
 different fault line (600' S. of) the Latshaw fault line, be- 
 tween steep gneiss and S. E. dipping altered crystalline red 
 sandstone beds full of mica and specular iron crystals ; it 
 was at that time a mass of fragments of white granite, 
 gneiss, and red rock pervaded and cemented by limonite. 
 See diagram section in C4, p. 171, borrowed from Rogers' 
 Geol. Pa., 1858. 
 
 * See diagram cross section on plate, Report C4, p. 171, copied from Rogers' 
 Geol, Pa., 1858.
 
 MAGNETIC MINES IN CHESTER CO. 265 
 
 Mosteller mine in W. Vincent, 1 m. E. of Pughtown ; 
 Phoenix I. Co., 1880, 15 tons a day. Analysis of ore : Iron 
 41.64; silica, 23.07; phosphorus, 0.46 (J. C. Smith). 
 Stauffer mine, f m. S. W. of last; Phoenix I. Co., 1880; 
 after 4000 tons output, abandoned. Green's mine in W. 
 Nantmeal ; Eckert & Co. ; two large excavations, i and f 
 m. N. W. of Barnestown station, E. Brandywine and 
 Waynesburg RR. 
 
 The Warwick Oroop. 
 
 The famous Warwick township mines of northern Chester, 
 in the trap district on the edge of Trias, are among the 
 most interesting and obscure of all our ore deposits, both 
 in respect of their relation to the rocks, and in respect of 
 the chemical changes which have produced the ore. The 
 felspathic granite or conglomerate rock at the Hopewell 
 mines is very interesting. 
 
 The Hopewell Furnace old mine, 1$ m. N. W. of St. 
 Mary's, was abandoned (1878); but ike new mine, 150' deep, 
 was worked by drifts and slopes, at four levels ; shaft sunk 
 in 1877-8 to ore 40' thick and no bottom, but said to average 
 only 10'; ore between a hanging wall of conglomerate (with 
 blue or amethyst quartz) and a foot wall of syenite or 
 dolerite trap ("blue rock"); ore much like Cornwall ore; 
 ore lying in veins or bands, dipping 35, N. 70 W. ; open cut 
 200' long ; old shaft abandoned ; new shaft 150' to a 12' ore 
 dipping 35; exhausted, for in 1882 they were robbing the 
 pillars at the rate of 30 tons a day (Frazer). The mine is 
 near the contact of the Primal sandstone with the gneiss. 
 Shaft sunk through trap, struck two veins of magnetic ore 
 dipping 30, N. 25 W., the upper one 15' to 25' thick, the 
 lower one 7'. The trap runs N. W.-S. E., cutting and 
 shifting the ore (Rogers). 
 
 Warwick mine, at Marysville, a very large old work in 
 limonite and magnetic ore, no doubt orginally all limonite, 
 concentrated from ore- bearing rocks obscurely related to 
 the upturned gneiss, on the eroded edges of which lies the 
 ore in a sheet varying from 2' to 17' in thickness.*, 
 
 * As shown in the diagram section in C4, p. 239, borrowed from Rogers' 
 fig. 572 in Geol. Pa., as seen in 1854. The ore is a mixture of limonite and
 
 266 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 This large .Warwick mine is in a gravel mass made up of 
 loose fragments of syenite, quartz conglomerate, and mud 
 rock, mixed with sand and clay. A public road runs through 
 the mine. 
 
 , The new Smith" 1 s Warwick mine was opened in 1879. 
 In 1882 the Brooke I. Co., the principal operators, were 
 taking out 20 tons of magnetic ore per day. 
 
 Steele's mine, % m. N. of Marysville, abandoned long be- 
 fore 1850, seems to have been on a magnetite vein in gneiss 
 near a trap dyke. (04, 241. ) LeigMon" 1 s mine, S. of Marys- 
 ville, just outside the edge of a patch of Trias basal con- 
 glomerate, was largely opened on the outcrops of two mag- 
 netite veins dipping 33, N. W. ; the upper, 15' thick, pinch- 
 ing in 25' of depth to only 15 inches ; the lower (two or 
 three feet beneath the upper) 10' thick at the surface, 
 dwindling to 4'.* Length of crop 1500' ; length of pit 200' ; 
 depth of open cut 40' ; total output 20, 000 tons ; abandoned 
 before 1853. Knauertown mine, on S. edge of tongue of 
 
 magnetite, the agent of change being a wide trap dyke which passes across 
 the ore mass and throws it up on one side. The ore lies in several nearly 
 flat waves. The edge of the Trias new red sandstone formation laps here 
 over the gneiss and the iron ore. At one place the Trias conglomerate is 
 baked and altered, holding round bunches of various crystalline minerals, 
 hollow spaces (geodes) and vein strings. The geodes are lined with beauti- 
 ful crystals of epidote, etc., and bunches of large fine garnet (melenite). 
 Injections of serpentine occur in the mine. The greatest depth of the ore 
 below the surface was 60 feet ; over much of the ground the ore was but 
 little beneath the surface. Average richness 45, rising sometimes to 50 per 
 cent; somewhat sulphurous. The mine has been wrought for 160 years, 
 with an annual output for 15 years of 4,000 tons ; for the next 20 years 6,000 ; 
 in 1853, 12,000. The changed ore is grey, crystalline, magnetic ; the un- 
 changed ore is a compact closely cemented brown hematite (limonite) as in 
 other mines described in this chapter. 
 
 Inter stratified minutely with the ore are plates of earthy hardened slate 
 or shale, which sometimes swell to considerable thickness and separate the 
 ore mass into distinct ore beds. An intimate mixture of fine-grained ore 
 with the clay stuff makes the lower grades of ore. What are these slate 
 layers ? The resemblance of Warwick to Cornwall ores suggest that we 
 have at Warwick as at Cornwall a mass of hydromica slate, or rather of 
 lime-shales, decomposed into limonite and then partially converted by trap 
 into magnetite. But at Cornwall the lime shales are those at the top of III, as 
 at Irontoii and Moselem. It is impossible to imagine any slate at Warwick 
 except the Primal ; and this if present will explain the "injections of ser- 
 pentine" mentioned above. 
 
 *See diagram section, Rogers' fig. 571, in C4, p. 239.
 
 MAGNETIC MINES IN BERKS CO. 267 
 
 Trias ; small ; ore and situation precisely like Warwick. 
 Crossley 's pits, 1m. N. of Knauertown ; abandoned before 
 1854 ; between walls of gneiss in a low ridge, at the W. end 
 of which a large vein of magnetite rapidly pinched out 
 downward.* French Creek magnetite mines, \ mile S. of 
 Harmony ville at the end of the St. Peters branch of W. & 
 N. RR. ; two shafts 250' deep (with hoisting and pumping 
 engines at both) ; capacity for output, 15,000 tons per an- 
 num. Ore holds sulphides of iron and copper. f 
 
 In Berks county. 
 
 The Jones ( Warwick] mine in Caernarvon township, Berks 
 county, 3 m. N. E. of Morgantown, and 12 m. S. of Read- 
 ing, worked by the Phoenix Iron Co., was opened by David 
 Jones in 1735 on a 1000 acre tract sold as mineral land by 
 Wm. Penn to Welsh iron masters as early as 16864 It 
 was known as a Warwick mine, because worked for War- 
 wick Furnace at Pottstown. It is however 5 miles W. N. W. 
 of the Warwick mine in Chester county. It is situated at 
 the head of theConestoga valley, where the Lancaster lime- 
 stone narrows to a point between the Trias belt and the 
 Chiques quartzite lying on the Welsh mountain gneiss. An 
 open quarry of 5 acres (in 1857) has a N. wall of (20, N. 
 30 W. dipping) magnesian limestone beds under which are 
 the ore-bearing Primal slates turned into a limonite and 
 magnetic ore mass by a trap dyke on the southern side of 
 the mine (next the quartzite). The purest and richest ore 
 is next the trap. Copper sulphide, carbonate and silicate 
 occur in the ore (as at Cornwall). The total output has 
 
 * Close by is the Knauertown (or P'rench Creek, or Elizabeth) Copper 
 mine, in gneiss, but with a granite S. wall, dip steep to N. ; width of lode 
 45' ; shaft 140' deep vertical, and 45' more on the dip, to a star of short gang- 
 ways in three directions ; abandoned May, 1854. Massive dyke of trap just 
 south of the mine, at the north edge of the tongue of the Trias. Gangue 
 largely calc spar, through which are scattered crystals of magnetite, pyrite 
 and chalcopyrite. the last most abundant at the N. wall. (Rogers, in C3, 
 p. 243. 
 
 t E. B. Harden, 1882, in C4, p. 244. 
 
 }See Mrs. James' Mem. of T. Potts, Jr. ; Swank's Statistics for 10th cen- 
 sus ; Lesley's Iron Man. Guide 1859, p. 561 ; d'Invillier's Report, D3, p. 226. 
 Rogers' Geol. Pa. 1858, Vol. 1, p. 182. An. Rt. Geol. Survey Pa. 1810.
 
 268 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 been very great, as the mine has been wrought ever since 
 the Revolutionary War ; in 1853 it was 7,000 tons ; average 
 for the year 1850 to 1854 (during which a futile attempt to 
 mine it for copper also) 10,000 tons.* 
 
 The Dotterer red hematite mine in Earl township is a 
 remarkable instance of the uncertain relationships of some 
 of our ores. It is the only mine in Berks county showing 
 plainly, i. e., in workable mass, the two varieties of specu- 
 lar iron ore, viz : (1) massive, crystalline, steel gray, weath- 
 ering reddish ; and (2) earthy, uncrystalline, blood-red to 
 brown ; evidently grades in the change from hydrous limo- 
 nite to unhydrous specular, with or without the produc- 
 tion of magnetite. 
 
 The bed, 44' thick, stands nearly vertical (80) between 
 a foot wall of conglomerate and a hanging wall of chlorite 
 slate ; and is itself merely a deep red ore-charged portion 
 of this chlorite slate formation. The conglomerate made 
 up of pebbles of gneiss and quartzite, runs along the east 
 flank of Saw Mill Hill (near the summit of which the mine 
 shaft is sunk) while the crest and west flank are made by 
 the primal quartzite. The ore, therefore, seems to belong 
 to the lower primal slate formation, overturned slightly 
 beyond the vertical. f Some excellent red hematite has 
 
 * The geological position of this body of ore is unmistakably the same with 
 the whole range of Primal limonite deposits of the south edge of' the Great 
 Valley ; and yet the ore is classed (and very properly ) withthe magnetic iron 
 ores. There is less reason, therefore, to doubt that the Warwick and Pick- 
 ering valley ores of Chester county belong to the same Primal hydromica 
 (damourite) slates. The magnetite, the copper and the trap seem to go 
 always together, in the case of those limonite deposits which have been 
 wholly or partially changed into magnetic ores ; whether as, in this instance 
 of the Jones mine, the slates are at the bottom of the No. II limestones, or in 
 the case of the Cornwall mine where the slates seem certainly to be at the 
 top of them. Where there is no trap there is no magnetic ore, and no copper. 
 
 f See description, vertical section and mine plane by Mr. D'Invilliers in 
 Report D3, Vol. 1, 354, etc. In the extreme north of New York State red 
 hematite is mined beneath Potsdam and over slates. In Berks, Pa., the 
 Lock Ridge magnetic range (p. 253) seems to occupy this position. In 
 Virginia the red hematites occur in the lower, and the limonites in the upper 
 primal slates; ores however being also mined in the intervening sand- 
 stones and conglomerates. ( A. S. McCreath's Mineral Wealth of Va., p. 9.) 
 In New Jersey the red hematite comes in between marbles and gneisses ;
 
 MAGNETIC MINES IN BERKS CO. 269 
 
 been won from Kaufman & Spangler"* s old mine in Furnace 
 Hill, Earl township, long abandoned, apparently in quartz- 
 ite.* Red hematite was got close to limonite in Brum- 
 bach's ore holes in quartzite on the hill 1 m. W. of Green 
 Hill tavern near the old Rockland forges. f 
 
 For the magnetic iron ore mines of Berks county I must 
 refer the reader to Mr. D'Invillier's Report D3, Chapter 
 VIII, pp. 237 to 351, where he will find described in detail 
 the interstratified magnetites of the Mesozoic conglomerate ; 
 the Rittenhouse Gap district, Thomas I. Co. mines, Tunnel 
 mine; Gap Mine range, Moll & Geary. Conrad slope, 
 Ginkinger, Weller, Wetzel, Miller, Dunkle, Gardner sta- 
 tion, Marstellar, new and old Mickley, Finlay, Fegley (S. 
 Boyer &Co.), Frederick, Fritch, Tutham mines ; the Rock- 
 land township mines. Beitler ; Ruscombmanor mines, 
 Clymer, Tunnel, Schittler ; Oley township, Tulley ; Alsace 
 township, Reading old banks ; Hartford township, Sies- 
 holtzville, Bittenbender, Gehman, Shimersville ; Washing- 
 ton township, Landis, Barto, Stouffer, Gilbert, Gilberg ; 
 Pike township ; Earl township, Phoanixville and Warwick 
 mines ; the Gabel mine ; the Fritz Island mine ; the Rau- 
 denbush ; the Wheattield ; and the Ruth. 
 
 but in Berks county no such alliance is known. The only instance of 
 micaceous red hematite known in Berks is an unworkable vein on Fritz 
 Island below Reading. The Dotterer mine is 2 m. due W. from Hill church ; 
 had 3 shafts 66', 61', and 50' deep, with cross cuts, etc., described in D3, p. 
 356. The foot wall for at least 75' along strike is everywhere a clay slate, 
 rich in alumina, poor in iron, carrying 5 per cent titanic acid ; used at 
 Phcenixville, at Pottstown, and (1882) at Norway (old Lawrence) furnace 
 to mix with more refractory magnetites, but no limonite. (See statistics of 
 charge, analyses, etc., on pp. 356 to 359.) 
 
 * The ore was hard, compact, lustrous, what there was of it Here occurred 
 also magnesite (carbonate of magnesia). See Genth's Report B, p. 157. 
 
 fThe hill is riddled with trial shafts which yield very little of this rich 
 and desirable ore.
 
 270 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 On the Great Valley. 
 
 The earliest settlers of Pennsylvania soon learned to rec- 
 ognize the superior fertility of limestone land. 
 
 While one stream of immigration from Philadelphia fol- 
 lowed the line of the Chester county valley, occupied the 
 plain of Lancaster, and spread itself along the Lebanon, 
 Harrisburg, Carlisle and Chambersburg belt, two other 
 streams ascended the Schuylkill, Delaware and Lehigh 
 rivers to take possession of the Easton, Bethlehem, Allen- 
 town and Rending portions of the same belt. 
 
 The distinction was then made in the markets of Phila- 
 delphia between the wagons which came from the Little 
 valley, and those which came from the Great valley. The 
 Little (Chester, Downingtown) valley was near at hand; 
 the Great (Lehigh, Berks county, Lebanon, Cumberland) 
 valley was far away in the interior of the State, among the 
 Indians and the mountains. 
 
 The Lancaster plain was popularly called the Conestoga 
 valley, of which the Pequea valley was a subdivision, and 
 was known to extend beyond the Susquehanna river as the 
 Codorus valley of York county. 
 
 These were the gardens of the new State, which made the 
 market of Philadelphia the finest in the world. 
 
 The Great valley of Pennsylvania derives its name not 
 only for its unusual width but for its extraordinary length. 
 Whereas the Little valley \$ confined to two counties, Ches- 
 ter and Montgomery, is no where more than three miles wide, 
 and is baunded by ranges of land scarcely 300 feet higher 
 than its floor the Great valley has an uninterrupted course 
 of 1000 miles, from Canada to Alabama. In Pennsylvania 
 it has a course of 150 miles, is in some places 20 miles wide, 
 and is bounded by mountain ranges 1000 feet high.
 
 THE GREAT VALLEY. 
 
 271 
 
 Levels above tide of the water ways. 
 
 It is transversely crossed by all the principal rivers of the 
 middle Atlantic seaboard by the Hudson at Newburgh, 
 by the Delaware at Easton, by the Schnylkill at Reading, 
 by the Susquehanna at Harrisburg, by the Potomac at 
 Harper's Ferry, by the James in middle Virginia, and in 
 southern Virginia by the New river, which flows the other 
 way, westward, under the name of the Great Kenawha, into 
 the Ohio. 
 
 These rivers enter the valley by gaps in the North mount- 
 ain, and leave it by gaps through the South mountain ; and 
 while crossing it are bordered by hills two or three hun- 
 dred feet high; or in other words, the water channels of the 
 rivers are sunk that much beneath the average level of the 
 general floor of the valley, showing a remarkable uniformity 
 in the structure of the valley for several hundred miles. 
 It is only towards its far northern end that it is cut through 
 down to tide level, by the Hudson river. 
 
 The Delaware enters the valley at the Water Gap at 300' 
 A. T. and leaves it at Easton at 150' A. T. 
 
 The LeJiigh enters it at about 370' A. T. and then flows 
 sidewise eastward into the Delaware at Easton. 
 
 The ScJmylkill enters it at Port Clinton at 400' A. T. and 
 leaves it at Reading at 180' A. T. 
 
 The Swatara enters it at about 450' A. T. and then flows 
 sidewise westward into the Susquehanna. 
 
 The SusqueJianna .enters it four miles above Harrisburg 
 at about 300' A. T. and leaves it at Columbia about 250' A. T. 
 
 The Potomac enters it at about 300' A. T. and leaves it at 
 Harper's Ferry at about 250' A, T. 
 
 To put this in tabular form : * 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 | 
 
 f( 
 
 9 
 
 oj 
 
 X 
 
 ja' 
 
 C8 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 & 
 
 >> 
 
 &0 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 GO 
 
 02 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 North Mountain, 
 
 300' 
 
 300' 
 
 450' 
 
 400' 
 
 370' 
 
 300' A. T. 
 
 South Mountain, 
 
 250' 
 
 250' 
 
 
 180' 
 
 
 150' A. T. 
 
 * For all these levels see Report on Levels, N, 18?a
 
 272 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 It is plain to see that the three great rivers which drain 
 a large portion of four states, Virginia, Maryland, Penn- 
 sylvania and New York, have cut the deepest channels ; 
 and that all three enter the Great Valley at exactly the 
 same level, 300' A.T. ; while the smaller intermediate rivers, 
 Lehigh, Schuylkill and Swatara, have cut down only to 
 370', 400' and 450'. 
 
 From the Delaware to the Susquehanna water gaps in the 
 North mountain the distance (in a straight line) is just 100 
 miles. 
 
 From the Susquehanna to the Potomac water gaps (in a 
 straight line) is 75 (but by the curve of the North mountain 
 85) miles. 
 
 From the Potomac to the James river water gaps, the 
 valley of Virginia is straight for 160 miles, and instead of 
 being crossed by intermediate rivers, is drained lengthwise, 
 northward, into the Potomac, by the Shenandoah river 120 
 miles long. 
 
 The various sections of the Great Valley are drained by 
 large streams flowing from divides both ways to the trans- 
 verse river channels ; thus : (1) The Little Lehigh eastward 
 into the Lehigh and so into the Delaware ; (2) Antilauna 
 (Maiden) creek westward into the Schuylkill ; (3) Tulpe- 
 hocken creek eastward into the Schuylkill ; (4) Swatara 
 creek westward into the Susquehanna ; (5) Connedogwinit 
 and Yellow Breeches creek eastward into the Susquehanna ; 
 Conecocheague creek westward into the Potomac. 
 
 
 ylk 
 ek 
 
 Divi 
 Li 
 
 
 250' 
 
 783' 
 
 310' 
 
 501' 
 
 200' 
 
 270' 
 
 485' 
 
 230' 
 
 150'
 
 THE GREAT VALLEY. 273 
 
 The divides at the heads of these lateral or in-valley 
 streams represent the general level of the whole floor of the 
 valley across the state ; and the levels of these divides are 
 indicated by the summit stations of the various railroads 
 which, together, make a continuous line of traffic from end 
 to end. See table at the foot of last page. 
 
 By this showing the floor of the Great Valley is lower 
 between the Delaware and Susquehanna, than between the 
 Susquehanna and Potomac. But it must be remembered 
 that railroads follow depressions, and seek the lowest place 
 on a divide ; and that from Harrisburg to Newville (30 
 miles) the Cumberland Valley railroad grade reads : 322', 
 357', 436', 427', 458', 477' (at Carlisle) and 533', mostly on a 
 pretty level limestone plain. In the next eleven miles it 
 rises to 654', and suddenly then to the "summit" 783'; 
 falling again at Chambersburg to 618' and at Greencsstle to 
 585'. So that in reality we may feel safe in assuming a gen- 
 eral level of the floor of the valley across the whole state, 
 as traversed by the lines of railroad, at about 500' A. T.* 
 
 * A line of levels carried along railway lines from Sandy Hook via Hagers- 
 town, Md., Gratton, Va., Athens, O., Mitchell, lad., to St. Louis (published 
 in Coast Survey Report for 1882, page 521-f, with a map of the route, page 
 557), fortunately for our present purpose, follows the Great Valley from 
 Easton, through Allentown, Reading, Lebanon, Harrisburg, Carlisle and 
 Chambersburg to Hagerstown, and then ascends the valley of the Potomac 
 on its way west 
 
 Easton. (No. XIX) Cut on one of the central piers of the RR. bridge 
 across the Lehigh river, 214' above mean sea level. 
 
 Easton. (XX) Cut W. corner of jail, on foundation stone, 357.5'. 
 
 Easton. (U) Sill of blind window, E. side of court house, 363.5'. 
 
 AHentown. (I) Cut on sill of basement window S. side of front entrance 
 of jail, 321'. 
 
 One and a half miles W. of Allentown. (XXI) Cut on N. W. corner RR. 
 bridge over wagon road, 295 5'. 
 
 One-half m. W. of Macungie station. (XXII) Cut on top stone, N. side 
 RR. bridge over small run, 383.5'. 
 
 Reading. (J) Cut on coping stone, E. abutment of N. E. RR. bridge at 
 RR. depot, 264'. 
 
 One-quarter m. E. of Shamrock station. (XXIII) Cut on N. E. corner 
 RR. bridge, 424.5'. 
 
 One-eighth m. E. of Robesonia station. (XXIV) Cut on pier of small 
 bridge, 432.5'. 
 
 18
 
 274 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 But the lines of railroad connect the principal towns of 
 the valley ; and these have all been built on the most fertile 
 and smoothest'part of the valley floor, viz : its southern belt 
 composed of limestone soil ; and it is to this belt alone that 
 the above average of 500' A. T. applies ; its northern belt is 
 rougher and higher. 
 
 The two belts. 
 
 The Great Valley is divided geologically lengthwise, from 
 end to end, into two belts of country ; one, next the North 
 mountain, a slate belt; the other, next the South mountain, 
 a limestone belt. The line of separation in some places runs 
 for miles remarkably straight ; in other places it is remarka- 
 bly crooked ; but along the whole course it may be called the 
 middle line of the valley ; the slate region being to the north 
 and west of it ; although occasional streaks of limestone ap- 
 pear in the slate belt, and occasional patches of slate in the 
 limestone belt ; but the relative proportions in width vary, 
 the slate belt being nearly every where the wider of the two, 
 and in parts of the valley twice or even three times as wide 
 as the limestone belt. In Cumberland county, however, 
 the limestone belt is a little wider than the slate belt. 
 
 One and a halfm. W. of Womelsdorf station. (XXV) Cut at E. end of 
 base of N. wall of overhead bridge RR., 483.5'. 
 
 Lebanon. St. Mary's Catholic church. (XXVI) Cut on S. side of south- 
 ernmost front entrance ; centre of cross, on white marble block, 474.5'. 
 
 Lebanon. (K) Bottom of square hole in top of marble post in ground oi 
 Mr. P. L. Weiner, S. E. corner Eighth and Chestnut streets, 465.5'. 
 
 One and a quarter m. W. of Annville. (XXVII) S. W. corner RR. bridge 
 over Joe Crider's dam, 405'. 
 
 Swatara bridge (RR.) (XXVIII) Cut on stone parapet between Beaver 
 and Hummelstown station, 367.5'. 
 
 Harrisburg. (XXIX) Centre of top surface of monument in capitol 
 grounds, marking astron. stat. coast survey, 356.5'. 
 
 (L) Cut at base of pillar at S. E. corner capital building, 367.5'. 
 
 Carlisle. (M) Cut on base of column at W. side of jail entrance, 472.5'. 
 
 Shippensburg. (XXX) Cut on water table of house and store of W. C. 
 J. Reddig, N. W. Corner Main and Railroad streets, 654'. 
 
 Chambersburg. (N) Cut on pedestal at base ofN. pillar of court house 
 front, 620.5'. 
 
 Greencastle. (XXXI) Center of cross cut in stone in front wall of RR. 
 depot, 7" above sidewalk, S. of entrance, 588 5 . 
 
 Hagerstown. (A) Cut on water table of court house, corner Washington 
 and Jonathan streets, on Jonathan street side, 552.5' = 168.3402 meters,
 
 THE GREAT VALLEY BELTS. 275 
 
 The Slate belt has an average general level about two hun- 
 dred feet higher than the limestone, say 700' A. T. This is 
 strongly marked all the way from the Delaware river at 
 Belvedere, to the Schnylkill river at Leesport, by a steep 
 hill-slope down from the higher slate floor of the valley to 
 its lower limestone floor; and this step in the surface is 
 made more remarkable by narrow openings or ravines from 
 which issue numerous small water courses heading in the 
 recesses of the slate land, and at the foot of the North 
 mountain. 
 
 This elevated terrace-like edge of the slate belt contin- 
 ues, although in less regular style, through Berks into 
 Lebanon county ; can be recognized in Dauphin and Cum- 
 berland counties ; but gradually becomes less conspicuous 
 in Franklin county. There is no mistaking, however, the 
 greater relative height of the slate belt everywhere along 
 the Great valley. 
 
 The distinction is emphasized moreover in all cases where 
 limestone coves invade the slate belt, and where slate ridges 
 traverse the limestone belt. It is evident to the most in- 
 different spectator that the surface of the limestone land 
 lies naturally lower than that of the slate land,* but a 
 clear exhibition is made of it by the contour-line maps of 
 Lehigh and Northampton counties published with Reports 
 of Progress D, D s and D s . These maps show the relative 
 levels of the whole limestone belt of the valley, of the edge 
 of the slate belt, and of the slopes of the South Mountains, 
 all the way from the Delaware to the Schuylkill rivers, f 
 
 No contour -line surveys of the Slate belt have been made 
 anywhere along the valley ; and until such surveys have 
 been made and a continuous contour- line map of it has been 
 
 * The reason for it will be given further on, in connection with the under- 
 ground cavernous condition of the limestone belt. 
 
 t It is evidently desirable that the Legislature should provide means for 
 continuing this topographial survey westward across the Susquehanna river 
 to the Maryland line. 
 
 In Franklin and Cumberland counties the South Mountains have been 
 elaborately surveyed in the same manner, and down their western slopes to 
 the south border of the limestone belt ; but the means of the survey were 
 to olimited to bear the expense of carrying the work across the limestone 
 land to the edge of the slate land.
 
 276 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 C/i.XXII,p/ate/T 
 
 Conedoguincl Creek in Cumberland Co. fa.
 
 THE GKEAT VALLEY BELTS. 
 
 277 
 
 I.&S'S
 
 278 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 executed, no entirely accurate knowledge of its geological 
 structure can be obtained. We know, however, that it is 
 everywhere very much crumpled into narrow folds ; and 
 that some of these folds are so sharp that the limestone for- 
 mation everywhere underlying it comes occasionally to the 
 surface. 
 
 The north edge of the Slate belt is high up on the slope 
 of the North mountain ; in fact the outcrops of the top 
 layers of the formation run only one or two hundred feet 
 beneath the crest of the mountain. 
 
 Synclinal mountains of IV in III. 
 
 The upper part of the Slate formation is coarser or more 
 massive than the lower part, and in some places contain 
 pebbles in such abundance as to become conglomerate rock. 
 Therefore, as in some places along the south edge of the 
 slate belt the underlying limestone comes to the surface 
 along the middle line of an uncommonly sharp and strong 
 up/old so in some places along the north edge of the slate 
 belt the upper and coarser slates have been preserved along 
 the middle line of an uncommonly -sharp and deep down- 
 fold. 
 
 In two notable cases even the Medina sandstone No. IV 
 has been thus preserved ; and this is the explanation of 
 Hole mountain in Lebanon county, and ParneWs Knob 
 mountain in Franklin county both of them standing out 
 in front of the North mountain. (Plate, page 285.) 
 
 Hole mountain in Lebanon county is a ridge five miles 
 long ending at the Swatara river. Its top is a V-shaped 
 pinched stripe of the sandstone No. IV, held in a vice of 
 upper slates. Along the banks of the Swatara the slates 
 can be seen going down in front of it and coming up behind 
 it, and then going down again under the North mountain. 
 
 ParneW s mountain, in Franklin county, is of precisely 
 the same character, but longer, and produced by a deeper 
 down-fold (synclinal) of the slate belt. It is 10 miles long 
 and entirely cut off from the North mountain behind it by 
 the narrow straight upfold (anticlinal) of Bear valley. The 
 down-fold is so deep that a regular canoe of the sandstone
 
 THE GREAT VALLEY BELTS. 279 
 
 No. IV has been preserved, its two crests being separated 
 by a middlegroove in which lie some of the lowest soft layers 
 of the Clinton red shale formation No. V. 
 
 In studying Hole mountain we make a first step towards 
 understanding the geology of all Middle Pennsylvania ; in 
 studying ParneTC s mountain we make a second step ; and 
 if we consider Jordan's Knob behind it, we take the third 
 step. For the North mountain here (at London) doubles 
 back upon itself (see page plate) and after zigzaging around 
 Horse valley, Amberson's valley and Path valley, comes 
 back to Loudon and runs on, as if nothing had happened 
 to divert it from its course, into Maryland. But all these 
 zigzags represent high upfolds and deep downfolds in the 
 slate formation No. Ill which underlies the mountain every- 
 where ; and not only in the slate formation No. Ill, but 
 in the limestone formation No. II which lies still deeper 
 everywhere under the slate ; for along the middle of Am- 
 ber son' s valley and Path valley the underlying limestone 
 has been brought up and bared at the surface ; while the 
 steep, dipping slates are confined to the side hills and to 
 the steep mountain slopes.* 
 
 Anticlinal bells of limestone in the slate. 
 
 The great upfold (anticlinal) of Path valley runs on from 
 Loudon southward bringing to the surface in front of Cove 
 mountain a narrow belt of limestone. 
 
 The upfold of Bear valley runs on also, by Bridgeport, 
 Mercersburg and Simpstown, and brings to the surface 
 another long narrow belt of limestone. Between these 
 two parallel limestone strips runs a strip of slate, preserved 
 in the downfold (synclinal) of Jordan's Knob. The 
 Loudon and the Mercersburg strips of limestone termi- 
 nate in two coves at the Maryland line, the Punchbowl 
 (or Corner), and Blair's valley; and these two coves lie 
 between Cove mountain and two mountain spurs in Mary- 
 land (Two Top mountain and Casey's knob) which ex- 
 actly correspond to Jordan's knob and Parnell's knob 
 
 * Along the north side of Path valley runs a great fault, so that the under- 
 lying limestone has slipped, up against the upper slates on the mountainside.
 
 280 OEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Ch.XXH, plate 3.
 
 THE GREAT VALLEY BELTS. 
 
 281 
 
 Cross section of the Great Valley from near 
 Cowan's Gap south through Scotland to the 
 South Mountain in Franklin County, ?a.
 
 282 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 towards which they look, the distance being about 14 miles. 
 Blair's valley is the easternmost of the two coves, and corres- 
 ponds in all respects to Bear valley between the Jordan 
 and Parnell's knobs. 
 
 The geology of this part of Fayette county is beautifully 
 simple, symmetrical and instructive. It is rendered still 
 more instructive by the following particular : 
 
 A third upfold (anticlinal) runs in front of Parnell's 
 mountain, and brings to the surface in the slate belt the 
 underlying limestone in a third long narrow slip, which 
 starts at a point at Strasburg, and is crossed by the Cham- 
 bersburg pike just west of St. Thomas, where it is 1% mile 
 wide. After passing St. Thomas southward this strip of 
 limestone becomes nearly 5 miles wide at the Greencastle- 
 Mercersburg pike, and so passes on into Maryland. The 
 slate belt, which is seven miles wide at Newville in Cumber- 
 land county, 6 miles wide at Chambersburg in Fayette 
 county, is thus narrowed to 3 miles at Welsh run and the 
 Maryland line ; the main limestone belt 13 miles wide bor- 
 dering it on the east, and the Welsh run limestone belt 4 
 to 5 miles wide bordering it on the west. 
 
 This widening of the Welsh Run limestone belt south- 
 ward from St. Thomas might have been produced in two 
 ways ; it was actually produced in a third way exactly con- 
 sistent with all that has just been said. (1) It might have 
 been produced by a swelling upward of the Strasburg anti- 
 clinal after passing south by St. Thomas ; or (2) it might 
 have been produced by a flattening out of its dips on both 
 sides ; but it actually was produced (3) by two other addi- 
 tional anticlinals running alongside of (in front or east of) 
 the Strasburg upfold; one, which may be called the St. 
 Thomas anticlinal, brings up a strip of limestone south of 
 St. Thomas ; the other, the Rock Spring anticlinal, which 
 brings up a little prong of limestone 3 miles S. of St. Thomas, 
 and after crossing the slate belt obliquely produces the 
 Rock Spring limestone cove 3 miles N. of Chambersburg. 
 
 These three up-folds in the slate belt of middle and 
 northern Franklin combine to keep the limestone up to the 
 surface along the Wetsh run belt near the Maryland line.
 
 THE GREAT VALLEY LIMESTONE COVES. 283 
 
 Limestone coves in the slate belt edge. 
 
 The limestone indentation in the edge of the slate belt 
 at Rock Springs is about 3 miles deep. (Plate, page 285.) 
 
 Another similar indentation of limestone in the south- 
 east edge of the slate belt occurs at Fairview and Middle 
 Spring on the Cumberland county line (page plate). Both 
 these indentations point southwest, showing that the anti- 
 clinals which upheave the underlying limestone through 
 the slate sink in that direction. 
 
 Another indentation is shown upon the map at Newville 
 in Cumberland county, but it points northeast. Newville 
 is built in this little limestone cove and has slate hills all 
 round it except to the west. The outlines of slate show a 
 downfold (synclinal) running just south of the village. 
 
 Another very little indentation in the south edge of the 
 slate belt is made at Plainfield, 4 miles west of Carlisle, and 
 the arrows on the map along the creek here show that the 
 prong of slate is a true synclinal. 
 
 Another very pretty indentation of limestone in the slate 
 belt, two miles long and pointing (like the last two) east- 
 ward, lies back (north) of Kingston, six miles east of Car- 
 lisle. Here the arrows on the map instead of explaining 
 the facts are very confusing, all of them pointing south at 
 various angles. The cause of this will be explained here- 
 after, but it may as well be mentioned here that most of 
 these upfolds (anticlinals) and downfalls (synclinals) are 
 not only squeezed tightly together, but so bent over north- 
 ward (as if by a pressure from the South mountains) that 
 the strata which ought to dip north dip south, and cannot 
 therefore be easily separated from those which ought to dip 
 south. In other words, one-half of the south dipping strata 
 are in reality overturned and lie with their upper faces 
 downwards. 
 
 Another limestone cove in Cumberland county runs up 
 into the south edge of the slate belt in the opposite direc- 
 tion (northeast) behind the long prong of slate which points 
 out half a mile west of Kingston along a deep downfold 
 (synclinal) in the limestone belt. (Plate, page 276.) 
 
 No such interruptions of the south edge of the slate belt
 
 284 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSTLVANIA. 
 
 Ch.XXU, plate 5~. 
 
 Specimen section ofwaveA in 
 7o tiluttrcdc 
 
 anticlinal Coves of JT, and. synclinal Prangs 
 cdong-tke center line cfthc ^eaJ;Yaflcy, Cumber/and 
 
 MOURSVILLE 
 
 ,tt 
 
 TOx 
 
 FAIRVIEW 
 
 ; t^ ( 
 
 -25' 
 
 90 
 
 I 
 
 ,40 
 
 so; 
 
 \20 
 
 diagonal and 'transverse- limes-Tone tL'jj,). ,.
 
 THE GREAT VALLEY LIMESTONE COVES. 285 
 
 limestone and Slate belts- (M^HT) of the, 9reat Yallcy. 
 7o illustrate Chap, XXII of Ttnal Report IWf, 
 
 T / 4'" ' NV ' / ^N 
 
 * '' ji Chamber s'&ury *$ ^ ( 
 
 * r& ** ' X . .jV
 
 286 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 occur in Dauphin and Lebanon counties. In Berks county, 
 approaching the Schuylkill, they become very numerous, 
 but produce a state of things geographically so curious 
 and important as to require a special description. East of 
 the Schuylkill the edge of the slate alternately advances 
 upon the limestone and retreats from it in a series of small 
 irregular curves which scarcely disturb the straight line of 
 the contact; but there is a decided cove at Moselem, and 
 another at Kutztown, both pointing west; and together they 
 broaden the limestone belt and contract the slate belt a 
 trifle. At Monterey near the Lehigh county line, a cove 
 points northeast. 
 
 In Lehigh Co. limestone coves back of slate prongs play 
 a great role in the geography. One is produced by an an- 
 ticlinal passing Trexlerville ; another deeper one lies north 
 of it ; a third and very large one is that of Jordan creek ; 
 a fourth is the Ironton cove. All these point west, and 
 have the effect of reducing the breadth of the slate belt on 
 the Lehigh river to one-half of the breadth it has on the 
 Berks-Lehigh county line. 
 
 In Northampton county the many irregularities in the 
 face line of the slate belt are all of the nature of coves ; but 
 in no case are they shut in behind synclinal prongs of slate. 
 But on the other hand we have here smajl circuses of lime- 
 stone completely enclosed in the slate belt, back of* its edge, 
 anticlinal in their structure, and teaching the same lesson 
 as the coves, viz : that the limestone formation No. II passes 
 down (northward) underneath the slate formation No. Ill, 
 and is here and there brought up through it to the present 
 surface by upfolds or anticlinal waves. 
 
 Synclinal belts of III in II. 
 
 Prolong two limestone coves (one pointing east the other 
 pointing west into the edge of the slate belt) until their 
 opposite points meet, and you will have a strait of limestone 
 between the mainland of slate and a long narrow island of 
 slate in front of it ; the strait of limestone being an anti- 
 clinal or upfold, and the island a synclinal or downfold, or 
 basin.
 
 SYNCLINAL BELTS OF III IN II. 287 
 
 Such basins of slate in the limestone belt are numerous 
 enough to prove that the slate formation No. Ill originally 
 entirely covered the limestone formation No. II. 
 
 In Franklin county one commences 3 miles South of 
 Chambersburg and runs 4 miles, crossing the South Penn 
 RR. mile from the Marion junction. The arrows near 
 Marion point the limestone going down very steeply under 
 the east edge of the slate strip. This slate strip is un- 
 doubtedly a closely folded downfold (synclinal). 
 
 The other is a similar little strip of slate half a mile west 
 of Greencastle, a few hundred yards wide, a mile or so long, 
 and separated from the edge of the slate belt by a strip of 
 limestone only a few hundred yards wide. An arrow at 
 its north end pointing east and three others along the rail- 
 road pointing west show that this little strip of slate also 
 lies in a closely folded trough in the limestone. 
 
 Returning now to the eastern end of Cumberland county, 
 the map shows the slate belt suddenly widening from 3 
 miles at Kingston and Hogestown to 5 miles at the Susque- 
 hanna river. Its edge makes a beautiful curve to the river 
 at Bridgeport and Harrisburg. Part of this curve is a great 
 fault, of which more will be said hereafter, the limestone 
 country has been etevated and the slate country depressed ; 
 so that the Connedogwinet creek, however often it tried to 
 break through the wall, was never able to do more than 
 scoop little semi-circles from it at various points along the 
 line ; and this explains the remarkable loops of the creek. 
 
 In Dauphin county the edge of the slate belt runs on 
 east nearly straight for seven miles to Beaver station on 
 the Lebanon Valley railroad, the railroad between Harris- 
 burg and Beaver keeping on the limestone. From Beaver 
 across to the North mountain is all slate, and the belt is 8 
 miles wide and continues of that width into Lebanon county, 
 its south edge being a very even line and nearly straight. 
 
 But between Beaver and the Swatara river towards Hum- 
 melstown there is a space of about a mile where the slate 
 belt throws a projection southward over the limestone ; and
 
 288 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 this projection turns west and forms a belt of slate land in 
 the heart of the limestone belt, a mile or two wide, extend- 
 ing back 6 miles past Church ville to the Susquehanna at 
 New Cumberland. The river flows across this slate belt 3 
 miles below Harrisburg. 
 
 At New Cumberland (on the west bank of the river) this 
 slate belt is scarcely half a mile wide ; but it keeps on west, 
 in a trough of the limestone, 8 miles, and ends in two blunt 
 prongs one to the north and the other to the south of 
 Shepherdstown. Before coming to an end it broadens out 
 to a width of two miles, with such varieties of dip as to 
 baffle all explanation. Only it is evident that this belt of 
 slate overlies the limestone, and runs east and west about 
 12 miles, splitting the limestone belt into two ; just as the 
 three slate belts of Southern Franklin county split up the 
 limestone belt into four. 
 
 In Lebanon county the slate belt is unbroken by the ap- 
 pearance at the surface of any large appearances of the un- 
 derlying limestone. Its width from Lebanon to the Swatara 
 gap in the North mountain is 9 miles. Its south edge is 
 quite straight as far as Lebanon ; there bending a little it 
 runs almost straight into Berks county. The Union canal 
 on the north side of Lebanon marks the contact of the lime- 
 stone sinking beneath the slate. The Ime passes one mile 
 north of Myerstown. 
 
 The limestone belt is 1 miles wide on the Dauphin-Leba- 
 non county line ; 5 miles wide at Lebanon ; G miles wide at 
 Shafferstown; and 6 miles wide at the Lebanon-Berks county 
 line. 
 
 No strips of slate have been preserved on the limestone 
 belt, except at its southern edge, where large tracts of slate 
 may be supposed to overlie the limestone where everything 
 is covered up by the comparatively recent Mesozoic Trias 
 red shale formation, to be described further on. 
 
 The edge of one of these slate tracts extends for 4 miles at 
 Cornwall, and is visible for a mile in width along the rail- 
 road to the mines.* 
 
 *There may be some doubt about these slates being No. III. They may 
 be tbe slates beneath the limestone.
 
 SYNCLINAL BELTS OF III IN II. 289 
 
 Another semi-circular slate tract 2 miles long (E. and 
 W.) and 1 broad (N. and S.) appears, at Shaefferstown. 
 The limestone dips beneath it all around its eastern, north- 
 ern and western sides, there can be no doubt about its being 
 a preserved portion of the slate belt, now separated from it 
 by an eroded interval of just 5 miles. The south border of 
 this patch is overlapped by the edge of the great Mesozoic 
 (Trias) red shale formation of Lancaster county. How far 
 south the slates extend under the red shale is not known ; 
 but no slates appear on the limestone in the Manheim, 
 Ephrata and Conestoga valleys in Lancaster county south of 
 the red shale. 
 
 In Berks county the slate and limestone belts of the Great 
 Valley are so intermingled that no general description 
 would be understood.* While the northern or main part 
 of the slate belt runs to and across the Schuylkill, long 
 prongs and strips of slate cross the limestone belt in the 
 triangular enlargement of the Great Valley between- 
 Womelsdorf, Leestown and Reading ; and long strips of 
 limestone traverse the slate belt north of Womelsdorf and 
 Bernville on the Union canal. 
 
 Southern edge of No. II. 
 
 Having thus traced the contact of the limestone and slate 
 belts along the middle line of the great Valley from the 
 Maryland state line to the Schuylkill river in Berks county, 
 and pointed out the streaks of limestone coming up through 
 the slate, and the prongs and ridges of slate still left un- 
 eroded on the limestone, in all four counties, it will be 
 proper to describe the southern edge of the limestone belt, 
 and show how essentially different it is in Franklin and 
 Cumberland, from what it is in Dauphin and Lebanon. 
 
 The southern edge of the limestone belt in Franklin and 
 Cumberland counties runs along the foot of the South 
 mountains to their eastern termination 11 miles west of the 
 Susquehanna river. Here it turns round the end of the 
 
 * It can only be understood by an examination of the colored geological 
 map of Berks county, made to accompany Report D3, Vol. Ill, which re- 
 mains unpublished, except as one of the maps in the Hand Atlas Report X. 
 19
 
 290 GEOLOGICAL SUKVET OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 mountain southward and is immediately lost beneath the 
 Mesozoic Trias red shale. 
 
 It is evident that the limestone of eastern Cumberland 
 county and the limestone of middle Lancaster county are 
 connected underneath the Trias red shale belt which sepa- 
 rates them at the present surface by a breadth of more than 
 10 miles measured along the river. 
 
 Whether the Cumberland county limestone and the York 
 county limestone are also connected underneath the Trias 
 red shale directly across a distance of 17 miles, is less cer- 
 tain. The doubt arises from the possible underground con- 
 nection of the South mountain rocks beneath Dillsburg, 
 Rosstown and Liverpool with Chiques rock at Columbia. 
 
 If such be the case, we must draw the edge of the under- 
 ground limestone belt from Yellow Breeches creek (2 miles 
 north of Dillsburg) to New Holland at the bend of the river, 
 and so on towards Lancaster city. 
 
 But, on the other hand, as we do not know what has 
 caused the depression in which the Trias red shale was de- 
 posited, we cannot tell how deep it may be ; consequently, 
 we cannot tell whether or not the limestone in York county 
 covers the South mountain rocks under the Trias red shale. 
 
 The main point is that, when the South mountains come 
 to an end, the limestone belt becomes covered with Trias 
 red shale, the north edge of which is of course the south 
 edge of the surface limestone belt in eastern Cumberland, 
 across Dauphin and nearly across Lebanon county. Not 
 until we reach the eastern corner of Lebanon does the south- 
 ern edge of the surface limestone belt rest again against 
 South mountain rocks. 
 
 Here a small isolated mountain mass called South mount- 
 ain in Lebanon county and Mulbaugh s Jiill in Berks 
 county, separates the limestone belt to the north of it, from 
 the red shale belt to the south of it in Lancaster and Ches- 
 ter counties. 
 
 East of Mulbaugh's hill the red shale laps around and 
 again covers the south edge of the limestone as far as to 
 the Schuylkill river below Reading. 
 
 East of the Schuylkill river the South mountain gneisses
 
 THE GREAT VALLEY. 291 
 
 rise in the range of highlands, with the great valley of lime- 
 stone at its north foot, and so continues through New 
 Jersey and New York into New England. 
 
 Mulbaugh 's hill at the corner of Lebanon, Berks and 
 Lancaster counties is therefore an isolated piece of the 
 highlands about 2 miles broad and 10 miles long, surrounded 
 on the north by limestone and on the south by red shale ; 
 but underground no doubt entirely surrounded by lime- 
 stone ; for the limestone is seen going down under the red 
 shale at both ends of it ; and there is every reason to believe 
 that the Trias belt south of it, which is not more than 6 
 miles broad at the west and 10 at the east, occupies a buried 
 limestone valley of unknown depth. 
 
 We have then in Cumberland, Dauphin, Lebanon and 
 Berks counties an extraordinary phenomenon, which has a 
 most important bearing upon the river drainage of the whole 
 Atlantic coast. The great range of the South mountains 
 which otherwise extends continuously for many hundred 
 miles, from its southern end in Georgia to its northern end 
 in New England, is here broken by a gap 60 miles wide, 
 I. e. from Dillsburg in York county to Reading in Berks 
 county. A great gateway through which the greatest river 
 of the coast (the Susquehanna) drains the back country into 
 the greatest bay of the coast (the Chesapeake) ; and the 
 breadth and depth of the bay correspond to the area and 
 volume of the river, which has been filling it during all the 
 ages since the Coal. And in this gateway stands a pillar 
 (Mulbaugh s hill) to mark the continuance of the range un- 
 derground. 
 
 Relation of the South Mountain, uplift to No. II. 
 
 Had it not been for this remarkable break in the South 
 mountain-Blue Ridge-Highlands range of the Atlantic sea- 
 board region of the United States, it might have been sup- 
 posed that the limestone formation No. II was deposited in 
 a sea, the southeastern shore of which lay at the north- 
 western foot of the South mountain range, then in existence. 
 But the South mountain range was not then in existence.
 
 292 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA . 
 
 The sea extended to that part of the surface of the globe 
 now covered by the Atlantic ocean. 
 
 This fact is made known in several ways : (1) By the 
 great thickness of the formation at the foot of the mount- 
 ain range ; (2) by the existence of faults along the foot of 
 the mountain range ; and of course faults presuppose the 
 spread of the formation southeast of the faults ; (3) by the 
 appearance of the limestone formation in valleys between 
 the parallel ridges of the mountain range ; for such lime- 
 stone valleys can only represent fragments of the general 
 limestone outspread preserved in deep troughs ; (4) by the 
 appearance of the limestone along the southeastern foot of 
 the mountain range ; as, for example, in southern Berks 
 and Northampton counties, in New Jersey and New York; 
 (5) by large areas of the limestone formation between the 
 South mountain and the present Atlantic coast ; as, for 
 example, in York, Lancaster, Chester and Montgomery 
 counties ; but chief (6) by the great expanse of the forma- 
 tion (both covered and not covered by Trias red shale), 
 through the 60 mile opening in the range above described, 
 far away towards Maryland. 
 
 The numerous relics of the limestone formation No. II, 
 preserved as small isolated areas, in southeastern Pennsyl- 
 vania, taken in connection with the isolated areas remain- 
 ing in the heart of the mountain range, suffice to prove that 
 it originally extended in an unbroken sheet, and probably 
 in a nearly horizontal attitude, over all the United States 
 and Canada ; and that it probably now underlies the Creta- 
 ceous and Tertiary belt of the Atlantic and Gulf States, and 
 perhaps the whole of the Atlantic ocean, the Gulf of Mexico 
 and the Caribean Sea, covered of course by less ancient 
 Palseozic, as well as by Mesozoicand Kainozoic formations. 
 
 It follows that the uplift of the South mountain must 
 be later than the limestone and slate formations of the 
 Great Valley. The date of the birth of the range can even 
 be fixed with a near approach to truth. Its upheaval seems 
 to have been in some sense the cause of the folding of all 
 the formations of middle Pennsylvania of the more gentle 
 waves in western and northern Pennsylvania, and southern 
 NewYork, and of the great faults of Virginia and Tennessee.
 
 THE GREAT VALLEY. 293 
 
 Now, as these foldings and faults affect the Coal measures 
 No. XIII at the top of the series, just as seriously and in 
 precisely the same manner as they affect the lowest forma- 
 tions of the series, the sandstone No. I, the limestone No. 
 II, the slate No. Ill, the sandstone No. IV, &c.,' the fold- 
 ing action must have taken place after the Coal measures 
 had been deposited. On the other hand, the Mesozoic 
 (Trias) red shale formation next following in age the Coal 
 measures lies quietly, as we have seen, over the upturned 
 edges of the older series, and therefore the folding action 
 must have begun and ended in the interval of time between 
 the deposite of the last Coal measures (Permian of Green 
 county) and the first or bottom beds of the Mesozoic strata 
 which we see lying sometimes upon the gneiss, sometimes 
 on No. I, sometimes on No. II, along a line east and west 
 of Norristown in Montgomery county and elsewhere. 
 
 If the folding action was produced by a push of the whole 
 Atlantic coast region northwestward as it evidently was 
 for there is a general overturning of the tops of the folds in 
 that direction the push must have been connected with 
 the rise of the whole range of the South mountains from its 
 northern to its southern end ; for the folded country is a 
 thousand miles long by five hundred broad ; and the im- 
 mense height of the upfolds (anticlinals) and. depth of the 
 downfolds (synclinals), amounting variously to 5 miles 
 vertical, shows that nothing less happened than a shifting 
 back of the whole Atlantic belt of the earth's crust north- 
 westward a distance of at least 4.0 miles. 
 
 The mountains thus created were evidently as grand as 
 any more recently produced in any part of the world, the 
 Andes and the Himalayas for example. But these consist 
 of the last deposits of the ocean, and have so lately ascended 
 into the air that, although their destruction is going o n 
 with great rapidity, many of their summits are still more 
 than five miles high. Whereas, a like process of destruc- 
 tion has been diminishing our old Pennsylvania mountains 
 for many geological ages, so that not a trace is left of their 
 original magnificence ; the edges of a few of the harder 
 formations make continuous ridges and these not more than 
 1000 or 2000 feet above the general surface of the low lands.
 
 294 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 Why is- there no coal in the Great Valley f 
 
 The answer to this often asked question is easy, short and 
 practical : No coal beds can be found in the Or eat Valley 
 because the Coal Measures which once covered the region 
 have all been swept away into the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 The geological structure of the Great Valley, taken as a 
 whole, is simple and easy to understand. It has large 
 features not to be misunderstood ; in fact visible at a glance 
 upon the colored geological map of the State, where a band 
 of blue (limestone) and a band of gray (slate) run side by 
 side its whole length across the State. 
 
 I will recapitulate in a few short sentences the principal 
 points of the last chapter so that they may be kept in mind. 
 
 1. The South Mountain sandstone (No. 2) is older than 
 the limestone formation in the valle} 7 , and passes down 
 under it to make a foundation for the whole valley and for 
 all Pennsylvania, New York and Ohio to the northwest of it. 
 
 2. The limestone strata (No. II.) are older than the slates 
 of No. Ill, and of course underlie the slate belt ; except 
 where the slate belt is thin and worn away, letting the 
 underlying limestone appear in the coves. The whole lime- 
 stone belt was once covered by the slate formation. As the 
 cleaning away of the slate from off the limestone belt has 
 been always going on, and is still going on, only isolated 
 patches of the lowest part of the slate formation remain 
 here and there on the limestone belt. 
 
 3. The slate formation (No. III.) is older than the North 
 mountain sandstone and passes under it northward. 
 
 4. The North Mountain sandstone (No. IV.) descends in 
 its turn, northward, beneath the formations of Pike, Monroe, 
 Carbon, Schuylkill, Perry and Fulton counties. 
 
 We shall see in succeeding chapters how formations II, 
 III, IV rise several times to the surface in middle Penn- 
 sylvania ; every time making a limestone valley surrounded
 
 THE GREAT VALLEY. 295 
 
 by a slate belt and by a mountain like the North mountain. 
 Then we shall see them plunging vertically to a great depth 
 beneath the Allegheny mountain, along the top of which 
 runs the first bituminous coal basin. Here we see all the 
 formations from IV to XIII piled upon them. In Huntingdon 
 county all the formations from IV to the Broad Top Coal 
 measures (XV) are piled upon them. Even close by the Great 
 Valley, in Dauphin, Schuylkill and Carbon counties, all the 
 formations from IV up to the top of the Anthracite Coal 
 measures (XVII) remain piled upon them ; the limestone 
 No. II lying at- the enormous depth of 30,000 feet beneath 
 the city of Pottsville. 
 
 Just as we see along the Little Juniata all the formations 
 from XIII in the Allegheny mountain to IV in Bald Eagle 
 mountain rising (southeastward) one after the other to make 
 an arch h've miles high in the air over the Nittany limestone 
 and slate valley, and then descending (southeastward) one 
 after the other in Tussey and Terrace mountains beneath 
 the Broad Top coal field just so we see the whole pile of 
 formations from XII to IV coming straight up from the 
 underworld in the Sharp mountain, Second mountain and 
 North mountain to make a similar great arch in the air over 
 the slate and limestone belt of the Great Valley . 
 
 But as the great arch over Nittany Valley has all been 
 swept away, and it is useless to seek for coal at the present 
 surface anywhere between the Cambria and Clearfield coal 
 mines and the Broad Top coal mines, so the arch over the 
 Great Valley has been swept away and it is useless to seek 
 for coal south of Sharp mountain in Schuylkill and Dauphin 
 counties. 
 
 The coal measures have been swept away from the Great 
 Valley many geological ages ago ; and we know by long 
 experience that there are no workable beds of coal in any 
 of the pile of formations beneath the coal measures, except 
 one bed in No. X at Duncannon, and that is worthless, 
 and has been swept away (with the rest of the rocks) from 
 the Great Valley. 
 
 To illustrate what has been stated above in a few words 
 I insert two cross sections which will speak to the eye better 
 than any words :
 
 296 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Section through Harrisburg (page 277, plate 2) from Dun- 
 cannon at the mouth of the Juniata, down the Susquehanna 
 to Columbia ; and 
 
 Section across Franklin county (page 281. plate 4) from 
 Path Valley mountain, through Scotland to the South 
 mountains.* 
 
 The practical importance to the farmers of the Great 
 Valley of knowing these facts and understanding the above 
 statement is evidently considerable. Why should they 
 waste time and money in digging for coal where it cannot 
 possibly exist ? 
 
 There is not a trace of a coal bed left at any point in 
 any county along the whole course of the Great Valley 
 between the Hudson and the Potomac; nor in Amberson's 
 valley and Path valley which lie behind the North mountain 
 in Franklin county ; nor in the Fishing creek Trout run 
 Pine Grove valley in northern Dauphin and Lebanon 
 counties. 
 
 All reported discoveries of coal beds are mistakes which 
 a few words will suffice to explain. 
 
 Along the center line of the Great Valley, between the 
 limestone belt and the slate belt, the black Utica slate 
 formation, Ilia, crops out, always thin, and often absent. 
 In other words, the bottom rocks at the southern edge of 
 the slate belt are often as black as the black slate of a coal 
 bed, and have deceived many persons into digging for coal. 
 When weathered down they make the jblack clay which is 
 so conspicuous in the great Ironton iron mines of Lehigh 
 county, and the Moselem mine of Berks county. They 
 make a black soil at other places along the lines of junction 
 of the slate and limestone lands. But no impressions of 
 coal plants are ever seen in these Utica black slates. But 
 occasionally impressions of graptolites may be observed on 
 them, looking like lead pencil marks on paper; some of 
 them are merely forked lines ; some of them look like the 
 
 * These sections have been carefully constructed on a scale of 4 miles to 1 
 inch from observed outcrop dips in the Great Valley and to the north of it 
 so numerous that no material error can be imagined in the general shape of 
 the arch in the air over the Great Valley.
 
 THE GREAT VALLEY. 297 
 
 edge of an open umbrella ; others like holly leaves. They 
 are the remains of curious little animals which swarmed at 
 the surface of the ancient sea ; and they were. so numerous 
 that their dead bodies darkened and even blackened the 
 mud which afterwards was hardened into slate rock. These 
 graptolite slates are exposed to view in the horse shoe bends 
 of Connedogwinnet creek in Cumberland county. 
 
 Discoveries of coal are reported from time to time by 
 people living in front of tJie North mountain, on its foot 
 slopes. Pieces of so called coal are frequently found lying 
 on the surface or are knocked out of the exposures of dark 
 slate ; for example, near Mercersburg and London in Frank- 
 lin county. But these pieces are not indications of the 
 existence of a workable coal bed. They are merely black 
 shale layers in the upper part of the slate belt (Hudson 
 river slate formation Illb,} charged with the animal 
 carbon of dead graptolites and trilobites (water bugs) which 
 lived in immense numbers in the waters of that age.* 
 
 Discoveries of coal have also been reported from behind 
 the North mountain in Lebanon county, along a narrow 
 belt of the Marcellus formation (VIIK) which runs entirely 
 across the state into the southern states, and zigzags through 
 many of the valleys of our middle counties. It is a narrow 
 belt of outcropping black-slates very much resembling the 
 black-slates which cover coal beds in the coal regions. But 
 it is slate and not coal. People who see it in a hillside in 
 the form of a regular bed, and very black, looking a good 
 deal like the outcrop of a coal bed, think that it is merely 
 the bad edge of a good coal bed. They who try to burn a 
 piece of it in a blacksmith's fire find that it will blaze a 
 little at first and then remain red hot and throw out a good 
 deal of heal;; but when they take the piece out of the fire, 
 it is nothing but a stone. This however does not discourage 
 them ; there are plenty of wandering miners seeking a job 
 who assure them that if they will "go down on the bed" it 
 will turn to good coal. In almost every county in the. state 
 
 * The chemical analysis of a specimen of this deceptive kind of coal, found 
 back of Mercersburg in Franklin county, will be given in a subsequent 
 chapter, where the rocks of the slate belt are described.
 
 298 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 lying between the North mountain and the Allegheny 
 mountain considerable sums of money have been wasted in 
 sinking shafts and drifting tunnels into this belt of Mar- 
 cellus black slate during the last fifty years, but no valuable 
 coal bed has ever been obtained.* 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 The Great Valley Limestone No. II. 
 
 Having described in the last chapters the general topo- 
 graphical and geological features of the Great Valley, I 
 shall give in this and following chapters descriptions of its 
 two principal formations in sufficient detail to make them 
 understood : (1) the limestone beds in the Lehigh region ; 
 the quarries between the Schuylkill and Susquehanna ; the 
 quarries west of the Susquehanna ; (2) the slate belt with 
 its roofing slate quarried in the Lehigh region ; and its 
 clay-limestone beds on the Susquehanna. 
 
 The reader will thus be prepared for a description of these 
 formations where they have been preserved in synclinal 
 basins in Chester, Lancaster and York ; and where they are 
 brought up to the present surface by anticlinal waves in 
 Fulton, Perry, Juniata, Mifflin, Bedford, Blair, Hunting- 
 don, Centre, Clinton and Lycoming counties. 
 
 The exhibition is so great, the wealth of observations so 
 over-abundant, that the most condensed summary of the 
 facts published in the reports of the survey will seem to 
 need ,ome apology for its length. But it is an embarass- 
 
 * In Perry and Juniata counties thin streaks of very slaty Marcellus 
 coal cross the bed of the Juniata river, and much money was formerly 
 wasted in following them into the hillside ; all money thrown away. 
 Peoples' experience of Marcellus black slate mining in other states has 
 always been the same. I have added this instance of deceptive coal pros- 
 pecting, because it is of importance to the citizens of Lebanon and Dauphin 
 Bounties in the Great Valley. It will find its place again in a future chapter 
 on the Marcellus formation.
 
 THE GREAT VALLEY. 299 
 
 ment of riches. I can only strive to classify the subjects 
 .properly, and avoid repetitions.* 
 
 Subdivision of No. II. 
 
 In New York state No. II is subdivided into (1) Trenton, 
 Black river and Bird? s-eye limestone at the top ; (2) Chazy 
 limestone in the middle ; and (3) Calciferous sandstone at 
 the bottom, resting on the Potsdam sandstone, f 
 
 In Pennsylvania along the Great Valley belt the only 
 distinct division of it that can be made is into upper purer 
 limestone beds, ancj lower magnesian cherty and sandy beds ; 
 that is, if the New York names are to be used, into Trenton 
 limestone on top, and Calciferous sandstone for all the rest 
 of it down to the bottom 4 
 
 *The detailed descriptions of quarries may seem needless ; but they are 
 only specimens on a large scale of the economical geology of the state, and 
 teach the structural geology in a better manner than it could be taught by 
 verbal general statements. It is a kind of object teaching. It shows the 
 difficulties and the successes of field work. It points out localities for study. 
 Above all, it has a business value. The quarries of the Great Valley are 
 selected because they are a numerous, connected and tj'pical series, and 
 have played a master role in the history of the growing wealth of Pennsyl- 
 vania. 
 
 fThe discussion on the "Quebec group" of the Reports of the Canada 
 Survey do not concern us in Pennsylvania ; but any geologist who desires 
 to know the last word on it will find, it in two short communications in 
 Science, Dec. 26, 1890, page 359 ; one by R. W. Ells, repeating his opinion 
 (published in the Canada Survey Report of 1887-8, pp. 83, 84, K) viz.: "That 
 these [Quebec] rocks represent a peculiar development of strata of Trenton 
 age, and probably even down in that formation," sustaining Logan's old 
 view ; the other, by Alfred R. C. Selwyn, the Director of the Canada Sur- 
 vey, opposing W. Ami's views, and repeating his own opinion (as against 
 Logan) published in 187(>-7, that the Quebec city rocks are certainly of Hud- 
 son river (Lorraine, Cincinnati) age, overlying the Trenton. I may be per- 
 mitted to add here that neither my conversations with Logan while he lived, 
 nor the study of his written statements of the case, removed my objections 
 to what I regarded his extraordinary and improbable theory of an expan- 
 sion of a part of formation ^o. II eastward into a great local formation 
 named by him "the Quebec group." 
 
 f Writing of the magnesian part of the formation in the Lehigh region, Prof. 
 Prime says : " Lithologically it seems to be impossible to make any distinc- 
 tion between the limestones which must belong to different geological hor- 
 izons ; for limestones from the top of the series, close to the Trenton lime- 
 stone, look quite as much like those from just above the Potsdam [C'hiques]
 
 300 GEOLOGICAL SUEVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Even in the back valleys of Middle Pennsylvania no 
 better sub-division of the whole formation can be made ; . 
 although the unbroken, uncrumpled condition gives a 
 chance to put its beds in vertical order which is not possible 
 in the Great Valley. For we there see only a gradation 
 from the purer beds at the top downward into middle cherty 
 beds and lower sandy and cherty beds, without any strongly 
 marked general horizons of change. 
 
 Prof. Stevenson's railroad section of 4519 feet of it in 
 Bedford county, Snake Spring township (Report T2, p. 93) 
 will illustrate the fact. 
 
 420' of Trenton blue flaggy limestones, He; succeeded 
 downwards by thicker beds of light blue or bluish grey ; 
 mostly not silicious ; many yielding superior lime.* 
 
 1351' of Chazy beds, in part 116 ; highest beds hardly 
 silicious ; white chert balls begin to appear (descending) 
 600' below the top ; next 400' cherty limestones ; further 
 down more and more silicious ; black chert appears at 1200' 
 from top ; streaks of chert so numerous that the weathered 
 surface is fretted with ridges. f 
 
 420' of concealed measures. 
 
 419' of limestone, mostly silicious. 
 
 400' (estimated) concealed measures. 
 
 175' (exposures imperfect) limestone, silicious. 
 
 150' concealed measures. 
 
 300' (Calciferous in part, Ha) beds of cherty calcareous 
 grit ; fretted weather surfaces show the abundance of thin 
 'chert layers. 
 
 90' concealed measures. 
 
 sandstone (No. 1) as do specimens taken from two beds in the same quarry 
 not ten feet vertically apart. No traces either lithological or palseontological 
 have been found by which the Calciferous sand rock (said by Rogers to occur 
 near Easton) can be recognized or differentiated from the other formations." 
 (Report D2, page 11.) 
 
 *The line of separation of the Ulica slate No. Ill from the underlying 
 Trenton limestone No. II, is almost abrupt where well seen in Milligan's 
 Cove (T2, p. 93). Fossils rare; Calymene senaria and Strophomena alter- 
 nata, obtained from one of the highest beds. Columnaria alveolata was 
 seen in Morrison's cove (p. 94). 
 
 f Cyathophylloid fossils got near the base of this subdivision along the 
 Juniata.
 
 THE GREAT VALLEY. 301 
 
 620' of limestone beds sandy but with very little chert ; 
 most of them might be called a calcareous sandstone. 
 
 175' concealed measures Total, 4519 feet.* 
 
 No one can doubt that the uppermost beds of the lime- 
 stone belt represent the Trenton outcrop on the Mohawk 
 river. We can therefore safely use that term in Pennsyl- 
 vania; and typical Trenton fossils occur in sufficient numbers 
 to justify its use. 
 
 Chazy fossils occur sparingly in the middle magnesian 
 beds, and I see no objection to retaining that name. 
 
 But Calci/erous sandstone was from first to last an un- 
 fortunate New York term and ought to abandoned. The_ 
 beds are limestone, riot sandstone beds, although they are 
 often sandy, and have an abundance of silica in the form 
 of chert ; but many of the lowest beds are nearly pure 
 magnesian limestone, layers. f 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 No. II in the LeMgh region. $ 
 
 The beds of limestone along the Lehigh river, where they 
 have been exposed to special view in very extensive quarries 
 worked for the Allentown, Crane and Thomas furnaces, are 
 seen to vary much in texture, color, hardness, structure and 
 chemical composition. 
 
 Some beds are compact, others crystalline. 
 
 Blue and dove colors prevail ; but some beds are almost 
 white, others nearly black ; and the blue limestones are of 
 all shades from lightest to darkest blue. 
 
 * It is quite probable that towards the northern edge of Bedford county a 
 greater thickness of this formation is brought to the surface ; but no details 
 were obtained there. (T2, p. 94. ) 
 
 1 1 am unwilling to add another name to our already copious nomenclature 
 by calling them the Allentown, or the Easton, or the Reading, or best of all 
 the Bethlehem formation, which last would be unexceptionable, if distinct 
 limits could be assigned to it, which cannot be done. I prefer therefore to 
 distinguish vaguely the lower, middle and upper portions by the old num- 
 bers, Ha, life, He. 
 
 JI take the substance of this chapter from Prof. Prime's report, D, D2, D3.
 
 302 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The hardest beds are commonly those of dark blue color ; 
 others are soft, disintegrating to | or % of an inch on a 
 weathered surface so that they can be rubbed to loose sand 
 between the fingers. Groups of the harder beds make little 
 ridges which determine to some extent the direction of 
 brooks and streams on the surface.* 
 
 The softer beds give lines of sink-holes leading down to 
 caverns through which subterranean streams flow, some- 
 times reappearing at the surface in large springs, at other 
 times emptying into the larger river valleys. Many of the 
 longitudinal vales are ancient caverns which have lost their 
 roofs. 
 
 Two different kinds of structure are well known to the 
 farmers : rock limestone and slaty limestone. The massive 
 beds of rock limestone are accounted to make a better farm 
 lime, or stronger manure ; and this is probably a correct 
 opinion, for the slaty limestone owes its structure to its greater 
 percentage of silicate of alumina, which does not act as a 
 manure. Some very pure lime or lime-magnesia (dolomite) 
 beds with a very slight percentage of silica are extremely 
 thin-bedded, slaty looking, and ringing when struck. Some 
 shaly beds have so large a percentage of alumina that they 
 decompose to clay. 
 
 A very strange, peculiar and entirely mysterious feature 
 of some beds is a structure resembling a mass of clam shells 
 closely packed together with their round sides uppermost. 
 
 The chemical composition varies between a pretty pure 
 carbonate of lime, and a nearl}'- correct dolomite (half lime, 
 half magnesia), but always with some amount of silica, 
 alumina, iron, phosphorus, carbon and water of crystalliza- 
 tion. And it seems that the lower (more southern) beds of 
 the formation are more magnesian (on the whole) than the 
 upper (more northern) beds.f 
 
 *Well exemplified in the steep bluff of hard limestone, bounding the 
 Jordan, | m. N. W. of the Thomas I. Co.'s mine, No. 149 of the map. Ex- 
 tensive quarries of good curbing and crossing stones are worked on the N. 
 bank of the Jordan, f m. E. of Orefield. 
 
 f Such is the opinion of Prof. Roepper of Bethlehem, and Mr. W. Firm- 
 stone of the Glendon I. Works, whose analyses have been numerous and 
 intentionally directed to the discrimination of the beds as fluxes. It is cer-
 
 THE GREAT VALLEY. 303 
 
 The dolomite beds, however, are distributed among the 
 limestone beds in a curiously capricious manner, showing 
 no kind of order or system anywhere throughout the form- 
 ation.* This is the case high up in the series ; as appears 
 from analyses of 10 of the beds of Grove quarry in Black 
 Log Valley, made for Orbisonia furnace in Huntingdon 
 county ; where the Trenton formation is exposed, about 
 500' thick, dipping about 60, and composed of dark blue- 
 and gray soft argillaceous limestones alternating with blue 
 lime shales (more abundant toward the top); the quarry be- 
 ing opened in lower beds, measuring 22, 20, 10, 24, 18, 21, 
 20, 32, 30, and 72 inches thick respectively ; and the re- 
 spective percentages of carbonate of lime being (in whole 
 numbers) 90, 85, 90, 74, 81, 83, 81, 82, 85, 47, the last and 
 lowest a dolomite. (F, p. 260.) 
 
 Damourite (hydromica) layers only half an inch or more 
 in thickness part the limestone beds from one another all 
 through the formation, and in such numbers that a hun- 
 dred of them have been counted in a single outcrop. They 
 are regularly interstratified with the limestone beds, and 
 are decomposed by the weather into clay.f 
 
 But the damourite is sometimes seen as leaves thinner 
 than paper, completely intermingled with the limestone and 
 so thoroughly incorporated as to make a separation of the 
 two impossible. The flakes of the mica in this latter case 
 cross the body of the limestone in all directions.^ 
 
 tain that the cement beds, so rich in alumina, are at the top of the magnesian 
 series, or in the Trenton formation II c. 
 
 *Of this more will be said in describing the McCormick quarries at Har- 
 risburg. Here I will merely give Mr. J. B. Britton's analyses of viine beds 
 in Troxell's quarry, Jordan Bridge of the C. <fe P. R. R. ; A. the lowest bed ; 
 I. the highest ; A. to E. worked for flux for Crane I. C. furnaces, F. to I. re- 
 jected. 
 
 Garb, lime, 85.2,76.8,78.2,61.5,70.1,63.9,71.9,58.3,89.5; 
 
 Garb, mag., 5.9,17.0,14.5,26.8,20.1, 3.1, 8.3, 2.3, 0.6; 
 
 Silica, 7.1, 4.1, 4.7, 7.3, 6.1,27.7,14.6,33.2, 8.2. 
 
 For the percentages of phosphorus, alumina, iron, etc., and for many 
 other similar limestone analyses, see Prime's Report, D2, 1878, page 16 to 20. 
 
 f Hydromica is a hydrous silicate of potash and alumina. 
 
 J Prof. Prime adds that this may excite a suspicion that the damourite has 
 been a subsequent production, although the limestone rock is fresh and hard 
 and shows no sign of water percolation, or mineralogical change of any
 
 394 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The great mass of damourite slate (primal slate) at the 
 bottom of the formation, with its line of limonite iron ore 
 banks, has been described in a previous chapter. A large 
 quantity of damourite slate appears at the top of the forma- 
 tion also in some places along the line of contact with the 
 slate belt ; and in this upper outcrop occur the great limo- 
 nite mines of Ironton in Lehigh county, and Moselem in 
 Berks county ; also as I believe, the Corn wall magnetic iron 
 ore mine in Lebanon county ; and the Path Valley limonite 
 mines in Franklin county.* 
 
 Cliert is abundant in the lower portion of the great lime- 
 stone formation No. II, both in scattered balls, and in lens- 
 shaped masses. The chert is sometimes honeycombed, or 
 contains cavities from which rhombohedral crystals of dolo- 
 mite have been dissolved out. 
 
 Sandstone beds are sometimes met with between the lime- 
 stones ; and they help much to prove the mechanical deposit 
 of the whole formation. A few only have been noted; the 
 largest not 2' thick ; all in the magnesian beds ; and all in 
 company of damourite ore bearing slates. f 
 
 kind. To my mind it is only another proof that the limestone was not a 
 chemical precipitate, but a regular mechanical sediment ; and that the rivers 
 which brought the sediment to the sea carried large quantities of floating 
 flakes of mica from some mica schist region ; sometimes spread the mica 
 flakes when most abundant in thin layers ; at other times when less abund- 
 ant the mica flakes would slowly settle singly to the bottom and stand or lie 
 as they happened to touch bottom. A typical locality for this exhibition is 
 the limestone exposure in the bottom of the Ironton R. R. Co.'s iron mine. 
 
 *It has been already said that some, if not many, of the smaller limonite 
 banks of Northampton and Lehigh. county, located in the middle region of 
 the limestone belt, may have been produced by damourite slate partings in 
 the middle of the formation. But many more of them are connected with 
 synclinal folds in which the slates of III have once lain, but are now swept 
 away ; these mines must be referred then to the damourite slates at the top 
 of II. But see a subsequent chapter for reasons to modify this statement so 
 as to make it refer to the top of the magnesian limestones and not to the top 
 of the Trenton. 
 
 f Instances are : A sandstone bed 19 inches thick, cut by the L. & S- 
 RR. just west of the round house at Bethlehem ; quite conformable ; lower 
 9" a pure quartzite ; upper 10" more of a conglomerate of quartzite with some 
 limestone ; evidently a breccia of two adjoining beds produced by pressure. 
 (D3, p. 172.) A thin bed of saccharoidal sandstone at the Breinig mine 
 between Trexlertown and Breinigsville ; analysis showed quartz, with small 
 quantities of damourite ; evidently a sandy layer in the ore bearing potash
 
 THE GREAT VALLEY. 305 
 
 Oolitic lime stone beds are frequently encountered, but not 
 confined to any fixed horizon in the series ; no use can be 
 made of them by the field geologist in establishing the order 
 of the beds ; for they are very local and irregular, the 
 oolitic character often disappearing from a bed only a few 
 feet from where it is strongly pronounced. The round grains 
 are generally a little larger than sturgeon's roe ; sometimes 
 loosely scattered through a crystalline limestone ; at other 
 times so abundant that there is hardly room between them 
 for the cementing paste.* 
 
 Breccia beds. It frequently happens that one limestone 
 bed lying between two others is a sort of conglomerate, but 
 differing from pudding stone conglomerates in two features: 
 (1) The fragments are all and always angular, sharply 
 angular, and not rounded or rolled in water ; (2) These 
 angular fragments are not composed of various kinds of 
 rocks, but are all limestone, and all of the same sort of lime- 
 stone, whether more or less magnesian ; (3) These beds 
 moreover are to be met with in all parts of the limestone 
 belt, from the bottom magnesian beds, to the top non- 
 magnesian beds. It is evident then that such beds are not 
 of the nature of gravel conglomerates formed on ancient 
 shores by the action of waves ; but that they are breccias, 
 that is, broken-up or smashed layers of limestone, crushed 
 by the pressure force of an earth movement from the south, 
 the fragments of the bed remaining in their places, and 
 being afterward cemented together by percolating lime 
 waters depositing calcite.f 
 
 slates. (D, p. 34.) A. similar layer, only one inch thick, occurs in the ore 
 slate of the Schwartz and Fogel mine. (D, p. 36.) A bed of sandstone 5" 
 thick is interstratified in the quarry next but one to the Brewery on the 
 Delaware; and another 5" to 8" thick in the quarry next the Brewery, in 
 company with thin beds of damourite and an oolite limestone. (D3, 171.) 
 
 * The fish-roe grains of oolitic limestone have been usually explained as 
 grains of sand around which the carbonate of lime has concreted itself. 
 Recently it has been proven by the microscope that some limestones, if not 
 all of them, are made oolitic by rounded fragments of fossil bryozoa. They 
 are apparently the lime mud of destroyed coral reefs in which lie enclosed 
 small bits of coral rounded by the waves but not reduced to mud. 
 
 t Prof. Prime notes, as typical localities, Mary Kohler's quarry m. W. 
 of Whitehall station (L. V. RB.), and an exposure on the Jordan just N. of 
 Helfrich's spring. (D2, p. 13.) He gives an analysis of the M. Kohler 
 breccia on page 15. 
 20
 
 306 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Cement beds occur somewhere in the Trenton limestone 
 (// c), along the edge of the slate belt, which crosses 
 the Lehigh river at Coplay. Here are the quarries of the 
 Coplay Cement Works, and of the Lehigh Cement Works 
 on the west bank ; and the quarries of the Old Lehigh Ce- 
 ment works and of the Allen Cement Company on the east 
 bank. They are traceable westward to the Ironton * mine in 
 Lehigh county ; and eastward all along the road from Sieg- 
 fried's Bridge to Nazareth in Northampton county ; and 
 again in the neighborhood of Martin's Creek village at the 
 Delaware, f A subsequent chapter will be given to these 
 cement beds, their quality and use. 
 
 The folded stratification of No. II. 
 
 The limestone quarries along the Lehigh show the folded 
 and compressed condition of No. II ; and yet much of it is 
 seen to be less complicated than was formerly supposed ; 
 merely lifted and thrown into waves ; as for example in 
 the Lehigh Valley Iron Co.'s long quarry at Coplay, the 
 north end of which shows two short sharp little upfolds 
 disturbing an otherwise almost horizontal outspread.:}: 
 
 The prevalence of cleavage planes, generally sloping 
 southeast, obscures the stratification, and sometimes almost 
 obliterates it. Sometimes it is impossible to read the dip, 
 the beds being broken up into a mass of blocks of irregular 
 shape. 
 
 While the majority of the dips are towards the south, 
 
 *D2, p. 57, 58. Dr. Genth's analysis of a sample from here reads : Garb, 
 lime, 82.05 ; insoluble silicates of alumina, etc., 15.07 ; ferrous and mang. car- 
 bonates, 0.09; carb. magnesia, 0.17; water, 2.42; carbon and undetermined 
 matter, 0.20. 
 
 f D3, p. 164. 
 
 \ See the beautiful photo-lithograph picture in D2, plate 2, p. 54. The south 
 end of this quarry, on the contrary, shows the limestone beds thrust up 
 suddenly into a vertical attitude, and then turned sharply over in a larger 
 anticlinal with a squeezed top. (See plate 1 in the same report D2.) What 
 is exceedingly interesting, one of the upfolds in plate 2 is crossed on top by 
 horizontal beds, proving the great amount of slip and slide of bed on bed 
 which took place during the movement. 
 
 As in H. Stein's quarry 2 m. S. W. of Fogelsville, a picture of which is 
 given in report D, p. 9 ; also the Hokendauqua quarry close to the L. V. R. R.; 
 the Coplay quarry ; and those just outside of Catasauqua (D2, p. 54).
 
 THE FOLDED STRATIFICATION OF NO. II. 307 
 
 there are many exposures of north dips, but not enough to 
 account for all the south dips ; consequently many of the 
 south dips must be overturns ; and this is proven by over- 
 turned compressed anticlinal folds exposed in the quarries 
 along the Lehigh river.* 
 
 The magnesian limestone lowest beds are said by Prof. 
 Prime (D2, p. 55) to be always conformably superimposed 
 upon the Chiques ("Potsdam") quartzite, even when the 
 latter show steeper dips than those of the neighboring lime- 
 stone beds. 
 
 The Trenton limestone uppermost beds also, as a rule, 
 conformably underlie the slate beds of No III ; although in 
 some places both are seen inverted so as to place the slates 
 underneath the limestones. f 
 
 Fossils in Lehigh county are very rare in the limestones; 
 too few to serve the palaeontologist who wishes to use them 
 for subdividing the whole into formations of separate ages. 
 A Maclurea, and some cross sections of EuompTialus 
 (species unknown) were first found in a quarry 2 m. E. of 
 Ballietsville, indicating the Chazy age of the beds. Then 
 three casts of Monocraterion (worm burrows) were found in 
 the bed of the Jordan, just W. of Helfrich's spring.:}: A 
 dozen specimens of Lingula (species unknown) were found 
 in Schadt's quarry, m. N. W. of Helfrich's spring. A 
 
 *One such at Catasauqua passes through a hill and is quarried on the east 
 and west sides of the hill. The two sections of the arch thus made were 
 photographed and lithographed for plate 3 (Rau's quarry) and plate 4 
 (Weaver's quarry) in Prof. Prime',s report D2. The slip and slide of the 
 beds on one another in the pinch of the arch is finely shown in Rau's quarry. 
 
 fThe anticlinals and synclinals of Lehigh county are located and de- 
 scribed by Prof. Prime in D2, pp. 55 to 57. 
 
 \ Here is a cave and a water sink. Prof. Torell indentified these casts as 
 belonging to his Swedish Cambrian genus; the name M. lesleyi, will prob- 
 ably be abandoned for Scolithus, as the funnel-shaped end of the cast is 
 often seen in the Cambrian Scolithus. (For figures and description see 
 Appendix to Report D2, p. 80.) But the presence of this fossil cast is no 
 evidence of the Cambrian age of the magnesian limestone beds. As Prof. 
 Prime says in his summary of evidence of their Chazy and Calciferous age 
 there is no sign of a stiatigraphical break in the series from the top of the 
 acknowledged Trenton beds to the bottom of the Magnesian series. " There 
 is not a particle of evidence that any of these limestones belong to Huronian 
 (as suggested by Dr. T. S. Hunt) or older epochs ; all the facts point the 
 other way." (D3. p. 163.)
 
 308 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 poor fragment of an Orthoceras was found in a loose rock 
 1000' N. of the tavern at Scherersville. 
 
 Fossils in Northampton county have been got from the 
 middle and upper limestones ; thus Maclurea (or Euom- 
 phalus] in Dech's quarry, \\ m. S. W. of Bath ; probably 
 of Chazy age. Encrinal stems, not far N. E. of last; 
 Trenton age-, also abundant in the upper beds of Krock's 
 quarry at Christian spring ; also, from there eastward to i 
 m. E. of Nazareth, wherever the limestones are weathered; 
 also, in Russ' quarry, just S. W. of Nazareth (here in com- 
 pany with a few Orthis testudinaria); also, on Knecht's 
 farm close to Bushkill creek, m. S. W. of Stockertown 
 (here in company with Ohcetetes lycoperdon and 0. testudi- 
 naria}; also, at quarry opposite Churchville church, in 
 upper weathered rocks (the lower beds affording Leptcena 
 sericea, 0. testudinaria, and 0. pectinella); also m. E. of 
 Kellers tavern (two or three encrinal outcrops). All these 
 exhibitions prove that encrinal stems mark theTrenton out- 
 crop. In the quarries on the Delaware just S. of Ho well's 
 cotton mill are found Leptcena sericea, Orthis pectinella, 
 O. testudinaria, Strophomena alter nata, Chcetetes lycoper- 
 don. and one or two other undetermined forms, lying in 
 colonies of from 20 to 200 individuals, and not scattered 
 through the rocks, which are evidently of Trenton age.
 
 GREAT VALLEY LIMESTONE QUARRIES. 309 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 Limestone quarries of tlie Great Valley between the Schuyl- 
 kill and the Susquehanna rivers. 
 
 Looking from the car window of a train moving westward 
 from Reading towards Harrisburg a geologist is struck with 
 the remarkable fact that the limestone beds cut by the line, 
 or exposed in quarries within his view, seem to be all 
 dipping southward, and usually at low angles.* 
 
 But after passing Myerstown station, a broad flat plain 
 of limestone or shale begins to spread out south of the rail- 
 road, showing few exposures of any kind. At Lebanon, 
 across this plain runs the branch railroad to the Cornwall 
 iron mines, and along this railroad quarries and natural ex- 
 posures show the limestone formation, lying comparatively 
 flat ; that is, rolling with gentle north and south dips ; the 
 last south dips sinking beneath the Cornwall trap dyke. 
 South of the dyke the lime shales at the top of the forma- 
 tion dip S. and are cut off by the great Cornwall fault, their 
 edges abutting against the downthrown edges of the trias. 
 
 * Thus approaching Wernersville station the dip is 10 S. Great quarries 
 opposite the station show the same. Passing the station the same dip ap- 
 pears at the creek. Approaching Robesonia station the dip is 20 S. Beyond 
 that station is a fine quarry with dips of 20 S. Here a branch RR. runs 
 south up a little valley between highlands to Robesonia furnace. The hill 
 W. of the furnace is perhaps 500' high ; a long gentle slope of limestone 
 descending to the railroad ; the slope from the foot of the hill to the railroad 
 at Womelsdorf station is half a mile wide; dip at "the station 5 N. (?); 
 beyond the station, 30 S. Most of the line between here and Richland 
 station is through slaty, thin-bedded limestone beds all dipping gently S. 
 but at one exposure 30. 
 
 Slack slates make a great show in the cut east of Richland station. 
 Curiously enough the fields to the south expose ribs of limestone striking 
 N. and 8.; and in a second black slate cut, west of Richland station, there is 
 an anticlinal roll striking also N. and &. but much crushed and contorted. 
 Further west dark limestone and slate dip 10, W. of S. Still further on, 
 approaching Myerstown station, are more fine cuts in dark slate dipping 
 10 south.
 
 310 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 In spite of the general flatness of the limestone of the 
 Lebanon plain, there are plenty of contortions, rolls, steep 
 dips and probable overturns in the quarries around the city 
 of Lebanon, and up to the south edge of the slate belt, 
 which is itself greatly compressed and crumpled with over- 
 thrown south dips. 
 
 From Lebanon to Harrisburg S. dips prevail both in the 
 limestones and in the slates ; and of course more than half 
 of them must be overturns ; for the two great formations 
 as a whole are descending northward to profound depihs 
 beneath the Anthracite coal basins of Schuylkill county. 
 And the same state of things obtains west of the Susque- 
 hanna river all the way to Maryland and Virginia. 
 
 In the following description of the quarries it will be 
 noticed that the southward dips vary between S. E. and S. 
 West. This shows that the pressure has operated in all 
 directions, subjecting the stratification to all kinds of 
 irregularities ; often so excessive as to swing the dips round 
 to east and west, that is directly across the strike lines of 
 the valley. For instance, on the east side of the Schuylkill 
 at Reading, the dips are due east, or towards the mountain 
 back of the city. On the west side of the river they are S. 
 E.; further west they are S.; still further west S., S. W. 
 and sometimes even west.* 
 
 That the south dips are sometimes normal and sometimes 
 overturned is not a matter of theory. In Brinkley and 
 Zinn's quarry at Wernersville can be plainly seen a fold 
 thrown over to the north, the beds on both sides of it dip- 
 ping 45 S. 20 W. the fold being tightly compressed. An- 
 other fold, not quite tightly compressed, but overthrown to 
 the N. 40 E. is visible in Goul's quarry, 2 m. W. of Wer- 
 nersville. Another is seen in Donges' quarry at Myers- 
 town, Lebanon county, in the laminated lime slate beds 
 dipping to the eastward, the fold being pushed over to 
 the west. 
 
 Other evidences of the generally folded, compressed and 
 overthrown condition of the whole formation would appear 
 
 * Supposing a N. and S. fault at Reading, which is not probable, the fault 
 line 4 projected southward would strike the trap mountain W. of Birdsboro'.
 
 BERKS COUNTY QUARRIES. 311 
 
 in the quarry faces were it not that the excavations usually 
 follow the outcrop lines of such beds as are of superior 
 quality, and seldom cut across a series of folded strata. 
 
 In the following condensed description of the limestone 
 quarries of the Great Valley in Berks, Lebanon, Dauphin, 
 Cumberland and Franklin counties, between Reading on 
 the Schuylkill river and Mont Alto near the Maryland state 
 line, I make use of the elaborate notes of Mr. E. V. d'lnvil- 
 liers, published in the Annual Report of the Progress of 
 the Survey in 1886, part IV, pages 1517 to 1562. 
 
 Berks county quarries. 
 
 FrilV s quarry, at the west end of the Lebanon Valley RR. 
 bridge over the Schuylkill river at Reading ; large, excel- 
 lent for building, curbing, or paving ; quarry beds good and 
 regular for 60'; dip regular 40, S. 30 ^.Another, 1000' 
 S. of bridge, rich, dark blue, good building stone ; 2200 
 perches per year, at 40 to 60 cents a perch ; dip 40, S. 25 E. 
 
 DrexeT s quarry, near the last; occasionally wrought ; 
 beds, V to 4' thick ; easily quarried and handled ; dip, 40, 
 S. 20 E. 
 
 Gudlirts quarry, 1$ m. W. of Schuylkill, small ; aban- 
 doned ; dip steep, S. E. 
 
 Private quarry of thin lean beds, 3 m. W. of river ; 
 abandoned. 
 
 DeckerV s quarry, Sinking Springs, poor, abandoned ; dip 
 irregular 35 to 50, say S. 25 E. 
 
 Pfeifer's quarry, near last, abandoned like the others 
 because the lean stone is neither fit for furnace fluxing nor 
 lime burning. Dip obscure, probably S. 
 
 HuyetCs quarry, on the turnpike, 1 m. W. of Sinking 
 Springs ; large, abandoned ; lean, hard, dark blue-gray, 
 beds alternately thick and thin (slaty), all dipping 30, 
 southward, and much cut up with cleavage planes. 
 
 Evans' quarry, on RR. i m. west of Columbia Branch 
 junction (1 m. W. of Sinking Springs); large, old, aban- 
 doned, beds not pure, dip 40, S. 
 
 Ruth's quarries (two), on Columbia branch RR. No. 2 
 furnished flux for Birdsboro' furnaces ; dip 35, S. No. 1
 
 312 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 sent flux to Reading furnace ; light blue, lean, quite thin- 
 bedded, dip 40-45, S. 15 E. 
 
 Ludwig's quarry, S. W. of last; 3 kilns; 500 bushels 
 per week ; home market at 7 cents a bushel ; opposite the 
 Hat Factory, first station on Columbia branch RR. If m. 
 S. W. of Sinking Springs. Slaty, curly, crushed beds next 
 the road, expensive and irregular to quarry. Elsewhere in 
 the vicinity beds dip regularly S. 
 
 Seltzer's quarry, m. W. of last, old ; beds fairly good, 
 weathered, broken, irregularly dipping 35, S. 
 
 Old quarry, long abandoned, 8 m. W. of Reading (near 
 Wernersville), beds very hard, with occasional slate part- 
 ing, irregular, dip ? 55, S. 20 E. 
 
 Miller's quarry, E. end of Wernersville, 300 yds. W. of 
 last, small exposure of thin beds, dipping 25, S. 20 W. 
 (not E.). 
 
 BrinMey and Zinris quarry, opposite Wernersville 
 station, once used by Reading and Pottstown furnaces, now 
 for farm lime ; 125'xlOO', face 25' high ; beds in west wall a 
 compressed anticlinal roll leaning over to the north, both 
 legs dipping 45, S. 20 W. (not E.) and only 10' of beds, 
 as thus doubled, visible.* 
 
 Whitmoyer BroS s quarry (KnoTr' s), near Wernersville 
 station ; large, 20' high ; 2 car loads a day to Reading and 
 Pottstown furnaces ; dip 20 to 40, S. 35 W. 
 
 Deppen's, J. W. (No. 1); an immense quarry N. W. of 
 Wernersville ; very old ; 3 kilns ; much flux also sent to 
 furnaces ; stone not quite good enough for flux ; 550 / x300 / ; 
 25' face of beds dipping 20, S. 20 W. ; bedding not es- 
 pecially prominent, and much of the stone quite silicious, 
 pale blue to grey. (No. 2) on a line with the last further 
 east and in the same beds, 9 kilns sometimes in use. 
 
 Hull' s quarries (two) west of last, small ; beds quite con- 
 glomeritic (not plainly stratified, dip (?) 20, S.) containing 
 a number of different silicious limestone and sandstone 
 
 * This is a notable instance of the complicated structure of the whole lime- 
 stone belt, and of great value to the geologist ; but it must be used with due 
 precaution ; for it may mislead the student into the error of doubting the 
 normal south dips when they present themselves, as in the exposures south 
 of Lebanon.
 
 BERKS COUNTY QUARRIES. 313 
 
 pebbles, only sligJitly rounded, and all firmly cemented 
 together * A quarry, m. E. of last, in bluff 400' N. of 
 pike ; lean, cavernous, pale blue, abandoned. 
 
 GouTs quarries (three) in a N. W. S. E. line crossing 
 the RR. 3 m. W. of Wernersville (H m. E. of Robisonia); 
 (1) just S. of pike ; 2 kilns ; good, heavy bedded, dipping 
 55, S. 40 W. in N. wall, arched over to a less sleep S. 40 
 W. dip.-f(2) S. of RR. (11 m. W. of Reading); disused ; 
 moulh of cave; dip 30, S. 40 W.J (3) S. E. of last, small, 
 1 kiln. 
 
 Two small farm quarries, m. N. W. and in line with the 
 three Goul quarries show dips of 40, nearly due S. and 
 40, S. 15 W. 
 
 Wenrich's (W.) quarry on the hill slope S. of RR. 1 m. 
 S. E. of Robisonia station ; small ; dip 40, S. 15 W. 
 WenricKs (A.\ % m. N. of the station ; 35, S. 20 W. 
 
 Deppen's (Sam.} S. of RR. m. W. of Robisonia sta- 
 tion ; 2 kilns, 35,000 bushels per annum ; some building 
 stone sold, but beds thin and broken ; dip 20, S. 20 W. 
 
 A quarry, on the RR. H ni- west of Robisonia station ; 
 small ; important as showing a dip of 85, S. W. Another 
 \ m. W. of it, just N. E. of AVomelsdorf station, worked 
 for RR. ballast, dips 60, S.|| 
 
 Moore 1 s quarry, on RR. 1 m. W. of last, and S. W. of 
 Womelsdorf ; small ; much earth to strip ; beds ' to !' 
 
 * These conglomerates are among the strangest phenomena of the forma- 
 tion No. II, and very hard to explain. Were it not for the sandstone peb- 
 bles, they might all be taken for breccias, or crushed limestone beds 
 cemented. 
 
 fHere then is another evident compressed, overthrown anticlinal, not 
 quite transverse to the strike of the belt, but very oblique to it. 
 
 I The stone here is reported quite manganesian. This shows that we are 
 in the lower division of the formation (Ha); and the sum total of dips 
 southward must be interpreted and calculated with this fact in view. 
 
 This only emphasizes the general rule of the whole limestone belt, that 
 the strike lines are all local, and cannot be followed for even half a mile. 
 In other words the irregularity of limestone strikes is as great and universal 
 as that of dips. The compression of the formation was equal in all direc- 
 tions vertical and horizontal. The structure could not exhibit these features 
 had the movement not been effected under the enormous weight of the 
 higher Palaeozoic formations. 
 
 || These are instances of very high dips which help to give credence to the 
 overturned anticlinal exposures.
 
 314 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 thick ; very dark blue, medium quality for flux ; good for 
 ordinary building ; dip, 35*, S. 10 W. 
 
 Lebanon county quarries. 
 
 Gehref s quarry, on RR. near county line, W. side of 
 steep hill, E. of Sheridan furnace, small, fair building stone. 
 EckerV s, small quarry N. . of RR. W. of Sheridan sta- 
 tion. Kauffman & CoS's, m S. of Sheridan station, once 
 worked for flux, lean and slaty and abandoned for the Ann- 
 ville stone now in use. 
 
 Kauffman & Co.'s large abandoned quarry, just S. W. 
 of Richland, slaty beds, dipping 25, S. 15 W. round to 
 due W.* Shaffer & YingsC s small pits, in hard, silicious, 
 irregularly disturbed beds. Landls 1 quarry, on RR. at 
 Richland ; old ; all stone (when quarried) sent to Tamaqua, 
 Schuylkill conuty, lime kilns ; quality fair ; beds of variable 
 thickness, broken, dipping 15 to 20, S. 25 W. Loose's 
 two small quarries, m. W. of last, 75' long, 20' high ; dip 
 15, S. W. 
 
 HartlieV s quarry, on RR. 2 m. W. of Richland, 1 m. 
 E. of Myerstown ; stone admirable for curbing, paving 
 and light building ; light covering; dip 10 to 15, S. 10 
 to 20 W.Jtoyer's, near last ; 300' long along RR., 20' 
 high, beds ' to 3' thick, uniformly good for building and 
 curbing ; dip 10, S. 
 
 Myerstown, three quarries on the canal, by which their 
 stone is shipped to Reading for plastering walls : Miller, 
 /!, in thinly laminated slaty beds dipping S. E. (not S. W.) 
 Miller, /., dip, 20, S. 10 E.Donaes\ 250' long, 22' high 
 in N. face, which shows a small anticlinal arch, dipping 
 20 to 35, east (not south, or S. E.)beds thinly laminated, 
 with some slaty impure layers ; 2 kilns of 300 bushels 
 capacity each.f 
 
 Sassier quarry, 1 m. W. of Myerstown, m. N. of RR. ; 
 35 years old ; 2 kilns of 350 and 400 bushels capacity ; 
 
 *Here is a specimen of the universal warped structure of the whole belt, 
 full as it is of innumerable small short dying anticlinals around the ends of 
 which the strike lines swing sharply, and throw the dips off fanwise. 
 
 f Here we have both anticlinal and transverse dips.
 
 LEBANON QUARRIES. 315 
 
 45,000 bush, have been burned here in one year all for farm 
 use at 8 cents per bushel ; in 1886 only 4,500 ; 250' long N. 
 and S. by 150' E. and W. by 20' high ; dip in W. wall 32, 
 S. 22 E. in N. wall 45; in E. wall still steeper. 
 
 UricKs ( Vol.} quarry, m. W. of last, m. N. of RR., 
 semicular, 70' long, 18' face ; 2 kilns ; 3,000 bush, per sea- 
 son for farm use ; beds good, hard ; J' to 2f thick, easily 
 quarried ; produces some of the best building stone in the 
 whole Lebanon Valley; much of it used for building; 2 
 horse load sold for 75 cents, (1 perch measured in the wall) 
 if the purchaser loads and hauls his own stone. Dip, 55, 
 S. 15 E. 
 
 Urictts (S.) \ m. W. of last, on canal, very long rambling 
 quarry. 200' wide near E. end ; one pit at the lock, 100'x- 
 50'xlo' deep ; dip here 60, S. 20 E.; in N". face 57, S. 25 
 E. ; in next pit 55, S. 15 E. ; stripping uniform and rather 
 heavy ; stone good flux shipped east. 
 
 Beckley 's, 1 m. S. W. of last, | m. S. E. of Prescott sta- 
 tion, small, 1 kiln of 250 bush, drawing 80 bush, per day ; 
 quarrying costs 5 c. per 100 bushels ; lime sold to farms at 
 8 c. per bush.; ballast delivered on RR. track for $1 per 
 one-horse load. N. B. this is the last quarry until the 
 Lebanon quarries are reached, four miles further west. 
 
 Lebanon city group. 
 
 At Lebanon, on the east side of the city is a line of 
 quarries extending N. and S. viz.: Horst's & Fritz's N. of 
 
 the RR., Shenk & Herr's, Wagner's, Houck's, , 
 
 March's and Coleman heirs', S. of the RR. On the west 
 side of the city are: Brock Bro.'s, N. of the RR. and 
 Meily & Brother's, Groninger's, Coleman heirs' and Horst's. 
 
 Horst quarry, very old, 150'x250'x40' deep ; 2 kilns, 
 drawing each 125 bushels daily; yearly output 35,000 
 bushels, worth 12 to 15 c. picked lime delivered, 4 c. slaked, 
 used chiefly for mortar and plaster ; beds 1' to 2'; dip 35, 
 westward, in some parts swinging round to the south. In 
 a brick yard quarry, 1000' E. of last, the limestone beds 
 dip 35, S. 25 W. Fritz's quarry, abandoned; 2 kilns 
 (supplied from Wagner's quarry); bluegrey beds, withou
 
 316 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 regular dip : cleavage planes 70, towards W. ; 275' long, 
 20' deep, stripping heavy. 
 
 STierik and Herr' s ; old ; 2 kilns ; 120'x75'x20' deep, dip 
 on W. side 15, westward ; on E. side 55, southward.* 
 
 Wagner' s; % m. S. of last ; 160'xlOO'x20'; beds massive, 
 used largely for Lebanon city buildings ; dip 35, S. 30 E. 
 
 HoucJc's, S. end of city ; 100'x20'; good bluegray beds, 
 dipping 35, S. 30 E. Another, near it, exclusively for 
 building stone, 250', E. and W. 20' high ; dip 20-30, S. E. 
 (This stone is finely laminated.} March's, near the last, 
 and on the Cornwall and Lebanon RR. 175' N. and S. 35' 
 deep ; flux and building stone ; dip 20, S. 50 E.f 
 
 Coleman heirs', two, immense quarries, old, abandoned, 
 together 1000' long, along the RR., formerly fluxing 
 Cornwall andDonaghmore furnaces, but too hard and lean ; 
 N. quarry beds all dip 35, S. ; S. quarry 32' wide, 35' deep, 
 dip 35 to 50, S. 
 
 Brock Brothers' quarry exclusively worked for the N. 
 Lebanon furnaces, on the old canal ; 400'x500'x40' deep ; 
 steam drills, etc., in use ; 35' of beds (!' to 4' thick) dip 
 20, S. 20 W.; in places wavy; but in S. and E. sides 
 strata even beds and regular dip ; the stone is light gray to 
 pronounced blue and of superior quality, but not quite so 
 non-siliceous as the Annville stone. 
 
 Meily & Brother, just S. of their Lebanon furnaces, S. of 
 RR. ; started 1868 ; in 1886 400'xlOO'x30' deep ; very 
 handsome face, especially along the north side of main cut. 
 and dipping gently 15, toward S. W.; stripping heavy; 
 massive stone can be quarried through the larger part of 
 the uncovered area ; stone blue-gray, somewhat lighter than 
 Annville stone ; beds thin and massive (!' to 3') quite free 
 from silicious matter / quarry contracts, 30 c. a ton ; 1200 
 tons of flux per month. 
 
 Gloninger estate, small, 1 m. W. of Lebanon center, on 
 Quittapahilla creek, 2 kilns, each draws 200 b. per day ; 
 12 c. picked, 6 c. per bushel run of the kiln ; local mar- 
 ket ; dip, 25 to 45, S. 
 
 * Another case of rapidly changing dip ; or warp. 
 
 f Here we have one of the very highly diagonal strike lines.
 
 ANNVILLK QUARRIES. 317 
 
 Coleman heirs*, near Donaghmore furnace ; hillside 
 quarry ; dips S. 
 
 Coleman' s quarry, on RR. just W. of Colebrooke fur- 
 naces, 2m. W. of Lebanon city; enormous excavations; 
 output of flux for the Colebrooke furnaces very great ; 
 steam drills, etc.; all the strata good, lie very flat, but gen- 
 erally dip gently southward.* 
 
 The Annville group. 
 
 Annville is 4f miles W. of Lebanon city. Kr eider's 
 quarry is 3 miles W. of Lebanon, on the RR. If m. E. of 
 Annville ; started 1885 ; 100'x90'x20'; exclusively for flux, 
 15 small car loads per day ; strata vary ; 30' of good blue 
 stone; stripping heavy; dip of S. face 12, S. 10 W., of 
 W. face 15-20, S. 60 W. Yoke's, \\ m. E. of Annville, 
 small, 2 kilns. Kreider 's, m. E. of Annville ; good stone, 
 dips steep S. 
 
 Light and ffouser's quarry' just W. of Annville ; stone 
 deep blue, excellent ; stripping heavy ; long cut in hill- 
 side to reach best stone in S. end, where 75' wall, 20' high ; 
 cleavage prominent (with slips 75, N. 80 E.) dip 25, W. 
 and 25, S. 10 W. 
 
 Beaver's quarry, just W. of last, on same S. side of 
 creek ; old, large, 600'x800', back from creek to pike ; dip 
 everywhere gently S. E. and S. W.; small roll, one-half 
 of saddle exposed, with 35 dip, diminishing rapidly to 10 
 at the pike. Farm lime and chemical lime, and much fur- 
 nace flux (80 tons a day to Sheridan and Topton). In 1886, 
 1,000 bush, lime a month went to C. Warner & Co.'s paper 
 works at Wilmington, Del. Five draw kilns, 6'x26', 150 
 bu. per kiln, four always in action. Cost of quarrying, 
 breaking and delivering at kiln, 85 c. per 100 bushels, pow- 
 der and tools furnished to contractor. Fhix stone sold on 
 cars at quarry for 41 c. 'per ton. Analysis 96 to 98 per 
 
 *Here is a typical case of undistured localities in the great belt, which 
 have escaped the otherwise ubiquitous pressure-crumpling. The belt is here 
 nearly at its widest, and the quarry is not far from the edge of the slate belt 
 to the north of it Consequently the purer beds of the upper or Trenton 
 division (77c) of the great formation are here quarried.
 
 318 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 cent. carb. lime. Light and Housed s, small, new in 1886. 
 Messner's, old, abandoned. 
 
 Kauffman & Co? s two quarries ; one on RR. 250' from 
 creek ; beds V to !', very regular and uniform, 25 to 30, 
 S. 10 W. The other S. of it, 150' wide, 20' deep ; stone 
 finely laminated, dips 20, S. 40 E. (sometimes swinging 
 to S. W.); beds not massive, nor thick, and more gray than 
 the other Annville stone ; output of both quarries 3000 to 
 4000 tons per month to Sheridan and Reading furnaces. 
 
 Brightbill & Sorts two very large quarries on RR. If m. 
 W. of Annville ; one 500' long ; 50' of rock exposed ; ex- 
 cellent, fine-grained, soft, brittle, blue-gray, thin beds, 
 wavy on W. side, regular (on E. side) dip 60-70, S. 40 
 E. Crush in S. face. 
 
 Kr eider's quarry just west of last ; 5 kilns, output 5500 
 bush, per month shipped to Powers & Weightman's 
 chemical works in Philadelphia, and to Pa. Salt Co. Always 
 in high repute for chemical and other special uses, and 
 flux ; 100 bush, lime from 6 tons stone and 17CO Ibs. coal 
 (best record); output of flux stone 1000 tons per month, at 
 31 c. per ton on car. Quarry 250'xl75'; 10' to 30' deep ; dip, 
 12 to 45, S. E. 
 
 Batdorff & Beaver's, next west in the line; 300' long, 
 irregular shape, 40' to 50' face in places ; inexhaustible 
 quantity of first-class limestone; output 2300 tons per 
 month ; best stone from center of quarry ; blue, soft, %50' 
 thickness of beds suitable for the market ; dipping uni- 
 formly, 40 to 70, both to S. E. and S. W.* 
 
 ShenJc BroSs old quarries, | m. W. of last, small, aban- 
 doned, 10' face, dip 65 (?) S. 
 
 Oruber & Bowman pits and kilns at Palmyra, near the 
 Dauphin county line, furnish good building stone, and farm 
 lime. Their beds have no geological connection with the 
 Annville beds (3 miles E. of them) and are out of line with 
 
 *There are slaty layers in this quarry which do not appear in Kreider's 
 quarry probably because they run past the Kreider quarry to the south of 
 it. It is a task for a future survey to clear up the geology of this important 
 line of beds ; to determine whether these dips are overthrown or not ; to fix 
 their place in the column of II a, 6, c ; and to reveal their connection with 
 the slate belt III a, &, to the north of them.
 
 DAUPHIN COUNTY QUARRIES. 319 
 
 them far to the south, but in line with the first quarries in 
 Dauphin county next to be described. 
 
 Dauphin county quarries. 
 
 Shenk (Ab.) quarry, 1000' S. of RR. 1 m. W. of Palmyra 
 station, in horizontal strata* peculiarly adapted for build- 
 ings, in layers from 9" to 2', sold at the quarry for 60-65 c. 
 on cars at RR. station for 90-95 c. per perch. Barber's 
 (JR. RR.)%m. W. of last, on S. side of RR.; old ; dip 10, S. 
 
 Landis quarry, m. N. of RR., m. W. of Lebanon 
 county line and m. N. W. of Shenk quarry ; superior 
 quality of bedsf (Trenton?); 6 kilns, for farm use from 
 1856 to 1881, since then for building and plastering also ; 
 SCO' long N. and S. 50' wide, 30' face, dip 35 to 40 S. 20 
 E. Gingrich's quarry near and south of last ; face 25'; dip 
 25 to 35, S. 30 ~E. HoJce's, near last, abandoned, dip 60, 
 S. 25 E. 
 
 Mayer's abandoned quarry just S. of Derry station, on 
 steep bluff facing Spring creek ; beds ' to 3' thick, dip 
 50, S. 60 ^.Hershey quarry, near and E. of last ; build- 
 ing stone for new Derry church ; 50 / x25 / , 18' face, dip 12 
 to 20, S. E. 
 
 Swatara quarries. 
 
 Kavffman & Co., abandoned, 300' long, face 20', dip S. 
 E. Landis quarry, facing last on W. and Zimmerman 
 quarry its continuation north.:}: Landis kilns (3) put out 
 2800 bush, lime per week. Dip of S. end of Landis quarry 
 45, S. E. Zimmerman quarry makes a fine display of 
 
 * Perhaps with the slightest possible slope S. E. 
 
 t Rock grey- blue ; output 6000, 7000 bush, per month, all sold in Philadel- 
 phia and New York for paper, glassware, sugar refining, medicine, as well 
 as building, large wagons holding 85 to 90 bush. (80 Ib. to bush.) take it to 
 Palmyra station ; hauling $1.75 per 100 bushels; kilns, 6x18x20, consume \\ 
 tons pea coal to 100 bush, lime ; drawn twice a day. 
 
 J There are only 26' of interval strata between the top Zimmerman bed 
 and the bottom Landis bed ; but the strata are crushed and folded, hard to 
 read, and expensive to work. The deep blue massive Landis N. beds can 
 be faintly identified with the S. Zimmerman beds. 
 
 See statistics of hands, powder, etc., etc., in An. Rt 1886, part IV, p. 1535, 
 by d'Invilliers.
 
 320 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 good stone for lime ; 60' of beds exposed dipping 20 to 25, 
 S. E.* Output 13,000 bush, of farm lime per year. 
 
 Union Deposit Furnace Co.s" 1 large quarry just N. W. 
 of Swatara station, E. side of branch RR. to furnace ; 200' 
 (N. & S.) long, 35' working face, displaying WO' of suc- 
 cessive beds all dipping 60, S. 35 E.; lower beds.(N. end) 
 somewhat slaty ; center beds handsome blue stone (like the 
 Annville stone only rather more massy V to 3' thick); best 
 center beds measure 25'; upper (S.) beds broken by cleavage, 
 not so pure, harder to quarry. 
 
 Erb's quarry, \ m. N. of Swatara station, N. side of 
 Spring creek ; 125' (N. & S.) 22' high ; tightly folded beds, 
 dipping E. (?), 3 kilns for local market. 
 
 Ginrlch 's three quarries f m. N. W. of Swatara station, 
 S. of Swatara creek, close to the edge of the slate belt (Hudson 
 River Slate, No. 111.) (a) 180' long, 20' face, dip at E. end 
 45, S. 25 E.; at W. end the same -but more massive ; (b) 
 125' long, 28' face, beds wavy, dip irregular ; (c) 175' long, 
 20' face. Average stripping (on all) 5' ; beds 1' to 4' thick, 
 each layer very uniform, f 
 
 Hummelstown group. 
 
 Garman's, 1 m. E. of Hummelstown; long disused 100' 
 long, 20' face : beds hard and slaty, dipping 30, S. 60 E. 
 (i m. E. on RR. there is a dip of 45, E. S. E.) 
 
 Hershey 1 s three small quarries, m. E. of Hummelstown, 
 on branch RR. to Walton's Brownstone (Trias) quarries;- 
 (a) 75' long, 15' high against steep W. hillside, in beds slaty 
 and finely laminated, dipping 25, S. 40 E; (b) on level, 
 older, 40' diameter ; (c) at limekilns, small. Analysis 
 (claimed) 97 to 98 p. c. carb. lime. Building stone sent to 
 
 * Thickest beds 3 ; much good building stone could be obtained here, the 
 stratification is so regular ; breaking in rectangular blocks. 
 
 t The fifteen quarries just described (Palmyra, Berry, Swatara groups) 
 work a belt of upper (Trenton ?) limestones next to the slate belt, under 
 which they should descend. And yet all the dips are S. S. E. away from 
 the slate belt. This parallelism with the slate belt edge precludes the 
 notion of nonconformability ; therefore there must either be an upthrow 
 fault ; or all the limestone beds must be overthrown and therefore reversed, 
 the lower beds lying upon the upper.
 
 DAUPHIN CO. QUARRIES. 321 
 
 Harrisburg builders, and Reading bridge work.* Dip in 
 all three S. & S. E. 
 
 Holler's^ at Hummelstown. between RR and Swatara 
 river ; 250'xl25'x25' face ; beds 4" to 3', dipping uniformly 
 23, S. 10 E.; stripping averages 3'; sold for building; 4 
 kilns, output 40,000 bush, per year. Rutherford's, \ m. 
 W. of last, on N. bank of river ; 200', narrow, 20' face, 
 building stone like last ; dip 20 to 30, S. 40 *&. Eagle's, 
 on turnpike at bridge, f m. W. of Hummelstown ; small, 
 for local farm lime ; dip obscure, gently S. 
 
 Beaver station group. 
 
 Allweiris quarry, 300 yds. E. of Beaver station (175 yds. 
 N. of RR.) on the edge of the slate belt; 200' long (on N. 
 side of steep bluff), 25' face ; dips observed 30, S. and 60, 
 S. 23 W. showing much warping, f 
 
 Webner's quarry, abandoned near RR. E. of Beaver 
 station; beds thin, S. dip. Rutherford's quarry just W. of 
 station ; 150'xlSO'; 30' N. wall ; dip in N. wall 30 S. becom- 
 ing quite flat southward along E. and TF. walls. 4 Some 
 beds large and massive building stone ; 2 kilns, 20,000 bush, 
 farm lime per year. CasseV s quarry, long abandoned, mid- 
 way between Beaver and Rutherford stations. 
 
 * None of the layers exceed 4', but there is little cleavage. 
 
 f A. very Interesting locality, being near the east point of a long narrow 
 belt of limestone enclosed between the great slate belt on the north and an 
 isolated branch of it running from it S. W. and W. to the Susquehanna below 
 Harrisburg. The limestone belt must be anticlinal ; and the slate branch 
 belt synclinal. On the RR. near Beaver, limestone dips 20, S. E. towards 
 the southern slate ; so also 20, S. dips are to be found along the south edge 
 of the limestone belt one and two miles from the river. On the RR. ap- 
 proaching the Susquehanna limestone N. dips are seen, as if going under the 
 great slate belt edge to the N. But generally almost universally the lime- 
 stones dip S. at various angles, as will be shown in the description of the 
 quarries between Beaver and Harrisburg. Of course the 30 and 60 S. dips 
 in the text above must be overturned N. dips. What makes this more 
 striking are slate dips of 35 and 32 S. within a mile E. N. E. of Beaver. 
 These and also, 58, 40, 60, 70 S. dips in the slate belt a mile and more 
 north of Beaver, must be all or most of them overturns. 
 
 t This would make an overturn of the 30 dip an impossibility ; and an 
 anticlinal between the quarry and the slate edge on the north a necessity, 
 unless an upthrow fault be made to run the 7 miles from Beaver to Harris- 
 burg. 
 
 21
 
 322 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Paxtang group. 
 
 Metes quarries E. of Paxtang station. (a) 150 yds. N. of 
 RR. 250' E. & W. 20' to 25' face ; hard, thick, building 
 stone beds, dip in S. face 55, S. 20 W.; in E. face 35, due 
 S.; 4 kilns. (b) 50 yds. N. of last, 100'xlOO'x25'; dip wavy, 
 25 to 35 S. W. (c) N. of RR. m. E. of station ; regular 
 beds, 1' to 2|' thick, dipping 25, S. 5 W. (d) S. of RR. 
 near last ; beds of pale blue, or bluish grey inclined to be 
 cavernous, 6" to 2' thick ; output 60,000 bush, in a single 
 year (3 kilns).* WilJielm? s quarry a little north of (c), beds 
 V to 3', dip 20, S. 15 E. 
 
 Rutherford? s (J. A.) \ m. S. E. of station, (3 m. E. of 
 Harrisburg) worked in 1884 for fluxing McCormick & Go's 
 Paxton furnaces ; large N. E. S. W. opening each side of 
 Spring creek ; beds very fine grained ; so much cleft as to 
 obscure the dip, which is S. S. E. in 40' of beds, S. end. 
 
 Rutherford estate quarry J m. S. of station S. side of 
 Spring creek ; 2 kilns, best lime hauled to Harrisburg where 
 it brings 16c. per bushel ; local farm lime, 7c. ; 2240 Ibs. 
 coal to 100 bush, lime ; 30' face of good grey-blue strata, 
 dipping 40, S. 15 E. (cleavage 55, N. 15 W.). 
 
 Rutherford No. 0, N. of RR. close to station ; 200', E. 
 and W. ; long abandoned ; beds hard, siliceous, like or per- 
 haps the same as the beds in the RR. cuts towards Harris- 
 burg. f 
 
 McCormick' s quarry, on RR. f m. W. of Paxtang station 
 and 2 m. E. of Harrisburg; 400' long (S. W.); best stone 
 now got at S. end ; good, pure, smooth-grained, gray lime- 
 stone, very low in silica, and easily quarried ; beds 2' to 4' 
 thick ; 40' face ; dip generally S. E. but a small synclinal 
 and anticlinal roll near center of quarry close to a clay 
 seam (fault f}^. Output of flux for Paxton furnaces at 
 Harrisburg 165 cars of 16 tons each per month ; quarry 
 
 * See statistics of work, cost, etc., in An. Rt. 1886, IV, p. 1527. 
 
 f No dip is given by D'Invilliers; but on Sander's dip map of Dauphin a 
 N. dip is here marked ; which, if true, is important. 
 
 f It seems as if the change from the northern 4 to 12 p. c. siliceous beds to 
 the southern non-siliceous beds took place at the clay seam ; the color cer- 
 tainly changes there, the siliceous beds being a medium blue.
 
 DAUPHIN CO. QUARRIES. 323 
 
 started April, 1886; steam-drill (2" diam.) drills 80' per 
 day. An old quarry, 300' E. of last, shows a synclinal 
 with gentle dips on S. side and 70, S. 30 E. on N. side.* 
 Wister BroSs quarry, on RE. If m. E. of Harrisburg ; 
 stripping 8' over 30' beds (6" to 3"), of good quality, mostly 
 massive, full of cleavage planes ; dips at both ends 42-52, 
 S. 10 E. 
 
 Great quarries are seen in the hills facing the Susque- 
 hanna south of Harrisburg, furnishing flux to the iron 
 works. 
 
 * Precisely the reverse of what we should expect ; even an upthrow fault 
 north of it would not furnish a probable explanation, for such a fault would 
 have a N. dipping brush on its southern side. We must take this, like so 
 many other structural features of the limestone belt, as an exhibition of the 
 infinitely irregular effects of the general movement-pressure. The common 
 diagonalism of these dips to the straight course of these anticlinal limestone 
 belts is very remarkable and hard to explain.
 
 324 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 Limestone quarries of the Or eat Valley west of the Sus- 
 quehanna, and in Mountain Creek valley. 
 
 Cumberland county quarries. 
 
 Opposite Harrisburg there is a continuous exposure of 
 upturned limestone beds in the Susquehanna right bank, 
 and in the railroad cuts, from Bridgeport down (south) to 
 New Cumberland, a distance of two miles ; this being the 
 width of the Beaver-Rutherford-Paxtang limestone belt (of 
 the quarries last described) where it crosses the river at and 
 below Harrisburg. The belt is enclosed between the great 
 slate belt on the north, and an outlying synclinal slate belt 
 on the south ; as shown on the colored geological map of 
 Cumberland county.* 
 
 All the exposures of limestone for the whole width of the 
 belt show south dips ; and yet the belt ought to be anticli- 
 nal, with south dips at New Cumberland and north dips at 
 Bridgeport. Consequently the south dips at Bridgeport 
 must be overturned north dips ; but the overturn is so ex- 
 treme that the beds dip only 30, with great regularity and 
 perfect conformability along the whole face of the great 
 quarries of McCormick & Co., beginning at the limekiln 
 south of the west end of the Harrisburg bridge. The low- 
 est beds at the limekiln must therefore be geologically the 
 top beds of so much of the series as is exposed in the quar- 
 ries ; and the slates at the bridge instead of overlying them 
 must descend southward beneath them.f 
 
 * Published in Atlas to D5, with Franklin and Adams county maps, etc. 
 
 t It is impossible to construct the curve of such a gigantic collapsed over- 
 turned anticlinal without imagining a slip fault on the north side of it, 
 either in the limestone or in the slate, or between the two. There is no 
 sharp distinction between the limestone and slate formations; the limestone 
 grows shaly upward and gradually merges into the shales; and this is well 
 shown by Mr. B. S. Lyman's field sections of the passage rocks between II
 
 CUMBERLAND COUNTY QUARRIES. , 325 
 
 McCormick & Go's (old Walton) quarry, about m. S. of 
 the RR; bridge, exposes along the N. C. RR. about 400' of 
 strata dipping 25 to 30, S. ; varying in thickness from 2 
 inches to 12 feet solid ; and in quality from a nearly pure 
 limestone, with but 1 or 2 per cent of magnesia, to a nearly 
 typical dolemite with 35 or 40 per cent of magnesia.* 
 
 Williams' quarry, on Yellow Breeches creek, 10 m. S. 
 W. of Harrisburg, at the junction of the Dillsburg Branch 
 and H. & P. RRs. ; purer blue limestone 20', overlaid by 
 less pure greyish white 20', dipping 12 to 15, S. E. good 
 strong lime for local market. 
 
 Boiling Springs quarry, 5 m. higher up the creek, west; 
 60' face of blue limestone with smooth grain, in plates 6" 
 to 18" thick, dipping 20 to 30, due E. Furnishes flux to 
 Katharine furnace. 
 
 Woods', and other smaller quarries between Carlisle and 
 Mt. Holly, on the Gettysburg & Harrisburg RR. furnish 
 farm lime for local market. 
 
 Pine Grove quarry on Mountain creek, 7 m. above Mt. 
 Holly Springs, in the heart of the South Mountains, near 
 
 and 111 in the horse-shoe bends of the Conedogwinet creek north of Hoges- 
 town, Kingston and Middlesex a few miles further west. Therefore there 
 is no mode of exactly locating such a fault ; nor of determining its exact 
 shape, or vertical extent. 
 
 That the faulting was accompanied by much crumpling is plainly enough 
 visible to one standing on the bridge and looking down upon the river bed 
 (at low water) marked with beautiful zigzags of the slate edges ; proving 
 that the crumpling was not merely in vertical, but equally in horizontal and 
 in fact all directions. 
 
 The overturn is proved also by a 70 S. dip in the slates at the bridge ; by 
 the almost universal S. dip exposures throughout the slate belt; by the 
 great width of the slate belt (4 miles from Harrisburg bridge up to Marys- 
 ville RR. bridge in the gap) which can only be accounted for by many col- 
 lapsed and overturned folds in the slate belt itself; also, by the S. dips in 
 the outlying slate belt (\ mile wide) at New Cumberland ; and by the S. 
 dips of the limestone further south, where it emerges from the S. edge of the 
 same ; all concurring in one generalization, viz. , that the Great Valley rocks, 
 of all kinds, along the Susquehanna river, have been thrown into a series of 
 folds large and small, by a northward thrust of the region, whicfi, making 
 the folds, also tightly compressed them, and tilted them over to the north 
 of course giving a S. dip to them all. 
 
 * An elaborate if not exhaustive study of this admirable exposure was 
 published in report MM, 1879, pp. 311 to 362. The main facts and my deduc- 
 tions from them will be given in a subsequent chapter xxviii.
 
 326 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 the Adams county line; opened more or less for a mile along 
 the outcrop ; but main output from one large quarry of flux 
 for Pine Grove furnace, say 2500 tons a year ; thickness of 
 beds, 100'; dip 25 to 30 S. E.; stone blue, massive, low in 
 silica'; pit 250'x75'x50' deep.* 
 
 Franklin county quarries. 
 
 Williamson' 1 s quarry (Hawbecker' s) on S. Penn. Br. 
 Cumb. Val. RR. 2 m. W. from main line above Marion ; 
 near the top of formation He (Trenton), the slates of III 
 outcropping to the W. and N. E. of the quarry ; large and 
 fine faces ; 75' to 100' of beds dipping 45, S. E. away from 
 the slate belt, and therefore overturned. 
 
 Mt. Alto quarry, f m. from furnace ; 60' face of beds 
 dipping S. E. ; good but rather magnesian flux stone; mixed 
 with Harshman quarry flux at Quincy, which shows carb. 
 lime, 95.482; carb. mag., 2.262; ox. iron and al., 0.440; 
 silica, 2.340.f 
 
 * Mr. King reports that these beds contain only 4 per cent carb. mag. and 
 5 of silica ; while the dolomitic limestone in the neighboring ore bank con- 
 tains 40 of carb. mag. and only 1 of silica. He says the "fat" valley stone 
 shows 12 of silica; and only 0.005 of sulphur, as against 0.125 sulp. in Pine 
 Grove stone. The car wheel iron of Pine Grove requires a minimum of 
 sulphur, and the chemical composition of the flux is therefore carefully 
 studied. 
 
 t All the limestone quarries described in the preceding pages, from 
 Reading to Mt. Alto, are more fully detailed in d'Invilliers' Report in An. 
 Rt 1886, part iv, pp. 1517 to 1562, in an order from S. W. to N. E. But little 
 or no account is taken of scores of farm quarries of very small size, mere 
 pits for obtaining a few loads of stone to build houses, or other farm use.
 
 MAGNESIAN BEDS IN NO. II. 327 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 Magnesian beds in No. II. 
 
 The most striking phenomenon of this great formation is 
 the subdivision of its vertical column into hundreds of beds 
 of limestone and of dolomite or magnesian limestone, 
 arranged alternately, regardless of their thicknesses, which 
 vary from less than an inch to several feet or even yards. 
 
 This phenomenon seems universal to the formation, 
 making its appearance in every natural rock exposure and 
 in all quarries ; compelling a systematic selection of certain 
 beds only for the service of iron smelters and lime burners, 
 and the rejection of the others in mining. 
 
 It was long ago well known that some of the beds of the 
 formation were highly magnesian, and that other beds were 
 comparatively pure limestones ; but no clear idea had been 
 obtained of (1) the relative number of the two kinds in any 
 given thousand feet of the series ; nor (2) of the relative 
 proportion of the total thickness of one kind to that of the 
 other ; nor (3) of the range of variation of magnesia in any 
 one bed, from top to bottom, or along the strike, or down 
 the dip ; nor (4) whether such variations in the charge of 
 magnesia bore any fixed relation to the variable sum of 
 other impurities in the limestone. 
 
 The geological and chemical literature of dolomites and 
 magnesian limestone rocks was very extensive ; but these 
 special features of their sedimentation had not been suffi- 
 ciently studied either in Europe or in America. The atten- 
 tion of geologists was fixed chiefly on a search for some 
 probable theory of the origin of dolomite beds as such ; and 
 the discussion of that special subject by European geolo- 
 gists was intensified by the Austrian survey of the Tyrolean 
 Dolomite Alps, about twenty years ago.* 
 
 * Richthofen in 1874 discussed the Coral reef origin of the Schlern Dolo-
 
 328 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The iron masters of Pennsylvania have always been par- 
 mites in the Tyrol. (Zeitschrift Deutscb. Geol. Gesell. Berlin, XXVI, ii. 
 225-256.) 
 
 Mojsisovics defended Richthofen's separated coral-reef theory ; referred 
 the conglomerated portions and oblique lamination to surf action, and the 
 thin beds to lagoon distribution. (Sitz. K. Ak. W. Wien, Math. N. H. Classe, 
 Abt. 1, Vol. 71, p. 719.) 
 
 Hoernes in 1875 published a preliminary notice of his views on the genesis 
 of the Tyrolean dolomite beds, in the Verhand. K. K. G. R. p. 290, and at p. 
 266, notices their change eastward. In 1876 he published another paper on 
 the formation of dolomite beds in the same, pp. 76 to 80. Afterwards a full 
 description of this chemical theory of Hoernes and Dcelter appeared in the 
 Jahrbuch K. K. G. R. XXV, iii, 293 to 332, giving the literature of the sub- 
 ject up to date ; a description of the Tyrolese beds and other Alpine expos- 
 ures ; analyses ; and their conclusion that the poor beds were of organic 
 origin, and that the rich beds were possibly organic limestones enriched 
 soon after deposit by the reaction of magnesium chloride ; the proportion of 
 lime being afterwards lowered by the sol vent action of carbonated waters. 
 
 Hoppe-Seyler, in 1875, showed experimentally that dolomite cannot be 
 artificially produced at ordinary temperatures ; maintaining that the mag- 
 nesia of dolomite beds could not have come from eruptive rocks, but must 
 have come from sea water heated by submarine volcanos sufficiently to ad- 
 mit of magnesian precipitations. (Zeitschrift D. G. S. Berlin, p. 495-930.) 
 
 Green (W. L.) in 1875 suggested the formation of extensive magnesian 
 limestone oceanic deposits out of the fine detritus of olivine volcanic sand 
 and dust, mixed with the extensively distributed fine detritus from coral- 
 reels. Such a mixture must cover an immense area of sea bottom around 
 the Hawaian islands and in other parts of the Pacific. (Jour. R. Geol. S. 
 Ireland [2] IV, iii, 140- 1*3.) 
 
 Murray (John) describes the universal distribution of volcanic debris 
 over the ocean floor, in the shape of deep sea mud, containing also peroxide 
 of manganese, native iron and cosmic dust, with local mixtures of wind 
 dust from desert regions ; and supposes the mixture of such deposits with 
 limestone precipitations to account for the red earth of Bermuda, Bahamas, 
 Jamaica, etc., but thinks that no analogous sediments can be found in the 
 strata of past geological ages. (Proc. R. S. Edinburgh, IX, pp. 247-261.) 
 
 E. T. Hardman discussed in 1877 his views of the history of Carboniferous 
 Irish dolomites, favoring their chemical precipitation. (Proc. R. Irish Acad. 
 [2] II, 7, pp. 705-730.) 
 
 Analyses of rock dolomite beds in the Carboniferous Limestone and Cal- 
 caire Grossier beds of Flanders, and in the magnesian limestone beds of 
 Durham (4 in number) by Corenwinder, will be found in the Ann. Soc. 
 Geol. du Nord (Lille) 1870-4, p. 17, 18, 19. Analyses of Silurian dolomitic 
 sandstones, by Stolba, are noticed in Jour. Chem. S. London, [2] XII, 967, 
 1874. Analysis by Roth, using dilute acetic acid on dolomite limestone, may 
 be found in Min. Mittheil. heft i, p. 69, 1876. Analyses of dolomitic con- 
 glomerate, with description of beds (Trias) are given by W. W. Stoddart, 
 in Proc. Bristol Nat. S. II, i, 39-47, 1876. Analyses of insoluble residues of 
 dolomitic limestones (Cretaceous, Jurassic, Triassic, Carboniferous and 
 Devonian), are given by Pfaff, in the Zeitschrift Ges. Nat. [3] III, p. 273- 
 294, 1878.
 
 MAGNESIAN BEDS IN NO. II. 329 
 
 ticular in the choice of the beds they quarried for flux 
 stone, being guided for a long time by experience alone, 
 but in later years by the analyses of their own chemists. A 
 vast number of such analyses are on record in the office 
 books of iron works ; but while they show the range of 
 dolomite variability in the formation as a whole, they do 
 not show the variability of its beds in series of regular 
 superposition ; at least, not in a series of beds sufficiently 
 large to furnish a broad generalization. Serial researches 
 into the chemical character of the quarry beds on the Le- 
 high were not carried far enough, as may be seen by refer- 
 ence to Prof. Prime's Report D3, 1883, p. 187, where an- 
 alyses are published of 18 sub-divisions of 5 beds in Trox- 
 all's quarry, and of 14beds inEberhard's quarry, the latter 
 series being lower in the formation than the former, and 
 nothing coming of the investigation except the two facts : 
 
 (1) that there is very little variation within each series ; and 
 
 (2) that the upper series is almost exclusively limestone, 
 and the lower almost wholly magnesian.* 
 
 In like manner a series of analyses by Dr. Genth of 12 
 samples of the magnesian limestones (No. II) taken from 
 the banks of the Schuylkill between Conshohocken and 
 Potts Lauding, and from beds low in the formation, but not 
 consecutive, merely showed great variations in percentage 
 of magnesia, and especially of silica ; three of them, in 
 fact justify ing the term k ' Calciferous sandstone"; and three 
 others being extraordinarily pure limestones, f 
 
 *Thus : Sub-divisions of Troxall's quarry bed A, carb. lime, 77, 80, 82, 82, 
 80; B. 76, 86, 84, 72, 77, 74; C. 66, 54; D. 76, 61, 84, 50; E. 87. Carb. Mag. A. 
 
 1, 1, 2, 7, 4 ; B. 1, 0.4, 4, 3, 2, 3 ; C. 15, 14 ; D. 4, 2, 2, 1 ; E. 0.5. (There are 
 probably errors of transcription in the second and fourth layers of bed D.) 
 The Eberhard beds read : Carb. lime, 55, 54, 68, 61, 64 ; 60, 55, 61, 60, 57 ; 60, 
 59, 50, 57. Carb. mag. 35, 36, 21, 27, 23 ; 21, 27, 23, 33, 26 ; 31, 25, 22, 9. Silica, 
 
 2, 3, 3, 4, 4 ; 4, 12, 6, 7 ; 3, 6, 4, 16; Ferric Ox. and alumina, 7, 7, 7, 8, 9 ; 14, 6, 
 7, 2, 9 ; 6, 9, 14, 17. Phosphorus, .007, .019, .026, .017, .015 ; .007, .013, .005, .011, 
 .003 ; .002, .012, trace, .017. A residue of carbonaceous matter varying from 
 0.12 to 0.84 was left when any of the limestones were dissolved in acids, and 
 represented the organic life of that age. All the Harrisburg analyses showed 
 such carbon in percentages from 0.166 up to 0.560. Life must have been very 
 abundant. 
 
 t See report C6, 1881, page 126. Carb. lime, 60, 55, 42, 40, 48; 63, 92, 53, 58, 
 61 ; 93, 85. Insoluble residue, ?, 3, 26, 46, 38 ; 3, 8, 10, 6, 7 ; 6, 5. A complete
 
 330 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSTLVANIA. 
 
 A large number of analyses of limestone specimens from 
 various other areas of No. II in the State, made by the 
 Chemist of the Survey, Mr. McCreath, and published in his 
 reports M, M2, M3, and in the reports of the various 
 counties where they were collected, do nothing more than 
 repeat and enlarge the testimony to the infinitely various 
 proportions of lime, magnesia, silica, alumina, etc. in the 
 beds of the formation, leaving the true mode of the varia- 
 tion from limestone to dolomite, to say nothing of its origin 
 and cause, quite unexplained. Up to 1877, no idea of how 
 the magnesian and non-magnesian layers are arranged had 
 been got ; no law of regular or irregular interstratification 
 had made itself apparent ; it was not possible to say 
 whether the several magnesian beds resembled each other, 
 whether the several purer limestone beds were alike or not, 
 nor in what degree, if at all, the two series represented two 
 kinds of physical action intermittent in the ancient seas. 
 Yet until this was learned we could not make the first step 
 towards a stable rational theory of our larger limestone for- 
 mations. 
 
 I therefore directed to be made in 1877 a careful sampling 
 of 115 beds (with a total thickness of 370 feet) exposed at 
 the old Walton (McCormick) quarry opposite Harrisburg by 
 the Northern Central railway cutting for a length of 800 
 feet : a consecutive series of beds, all conformable, and 
 dipping regularly southward at an angle of 30* 
 
 This afforded a good opportunity for collecting two sets 
 of samples, two samples from each bed, one at the soil above, 
 the other at the level of the railroad, therefore from 15 to 
 80 feet apart according to the varying depth of the cut; and 
 
 analysis of the fifth bed gave : carb. lime, 40.27 ; carb. mag. 31.24; insoluble 
 residue 28.49 (of which 24.23 was silicic acid or quartz). The specimens 
 analysed, No. 7106, etc. are labeled and preserved in the Museum of the 
 survey. 
 
 *The cut was surveyed and the beds marked by Mr. Sanders, who 
 numbered them from 1 to 98 (see Table X, M2, p. 353). Mr. Hartshorne saw 
 reasons for subdividing some of the beds and renumbered them from 1 to 
 115 (see Table XI, on p. 354). Mr. Sanders' sum total footed up 372' 9". 
 Mr. Hartshorne's remeasurement footed up 370' 10".
 
 MAGNESIAN BEDS IN NO. II. 
 
 331 
 
 reduced from paqe-plcties in Rcpf-. MM,1S73, pp.355-35tf. 
 

 
 332 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 sometimes a third or intermediate sample. Many of the 
 analyses of individual samples were duplicated.* 
 
 A cross section of the exposure was published in M2, p. 
 344, and repeated (cut up into eight lengths) in four page 
 plates, pp. 355 to 235 ; all the beds numbered from 1 to 115 
 along the bottom line ; thickness in feet and inches of each 
 bed given on its face edge ; percentage of carb. magnesia 
 given below and above; the lime beds left white; the magne- 
 sian beds shaded, the darker or lighter shading showing the 
 proportionately more or less magnesian character of the bed. 
 
 This cross section reduced one half linear as exhibited on 
 plate 7, page 331, will give the reader a general idea of the 
 scope of the investigation and the facts it brought to light. 
 For a better study of it the chemist or geologist is expected 
 to resort to my original memoir in Mr. McCreath's Report 
 M2, the results of which I shall here state as succinctly as 
 may be.f 
 
 Table I (M2, pp. 345, 346, 347) shows in vertical columns 
 the carb. lime, carb. mag. and insol. matter percentages of 
 each bed, at grade and at top of cut4 
 
 * The investigation was put under the direction of the Chemist of the 
 Survey, Mr. A. S. McCreath. The analyses were made in the Laboratory 
 of the Survey at Harrisburg by Mr. Joseph Hartshorne in 1877-8; and con- 
 cluded by Mr. S. S. Hartranft'in the summer of 1878. The analyses were 
 published in full in Mr. McCreath's Report M2, 1879, pp. 312 to 341 ; with 
 three very interesting analyses of calcite contained in beds 9 and 23 (showing 
 about 88 p. c. of carb. lime; 10 of insoluble matter; 1 to 2 of carb. mag.; 
 about 0.2 of carb. iron ; about .03 of sulphur, and about .3 of phosphorus. ) ; 
 also two analyses of the flint in bed 5 (showing 90 p. c. silica ; 6 to 9, carb. 
 lime; 0.5 carb. mag.; 0.6 carb. iron ; .02 to. 06 alumina; 0.05 sulphur; and 
 traces of phosphorus. See M2, p. 342). 
 
 | A preliminary account of them will be found in a paper read before the 
 Amer. Philos. Soc., Phila., Dec. 20, 1877, and published in the society's pro- 
 ceedings of that date. 
 
 f Abnormal analyses are brought out by bracketing unexpected and per- 
 haps erroneous percentages, thus: 
 
 Bed 17, . . 
 
 26, . . 
 43, . . 
 62, . . 
 
 68, . . 
 77, . . 
 80, . . 
 81, 
 
 IAn 
 Grade. 
 . . 96.60 
 . . 90.00 
 . . 97.80 
 . . [49.80 
 . . 85.10 
 . . 85.50 
 . . 79.80 
 54.90 
 
 ie Carb. 
 Top. 
 [60.20] 
 [70.!<5] 
 [91.00] 
 61.90 
 96.00 
 97.90 ' 
 95.90 
 56.70 , 
 
 Magn 
 Grade. 
 1.10 
 6.80 
 1.30 
 31.90 
 "10.40 
 ' 9.80 : 
 = 9.90 : 
 35.70 
 
 es. Carb. 
 Top, 
 [33.40] 
 6.30 
 [ 1.30] 
 28.40 
 2.30 
 1.80 
 2.00 
 24.00 
 
 Insol. Matter. 
 Grade. Top. 
 1.10 [ 5.90 
 3.40 [22.95 
 1.30 [ 7.90 
 [16.90] 8.20 
 3.20 1.90 
 4.50 1.00 
 9.40 2.60 
 7.70 18.40 
 
 84, . 
 
 66.80 
 
 [75.601 
 
 "27.20' 
 
 16.30 
 
 4.40 5.60 
 
 N. B. All percentages given in these tables are only to one or at most two 
 figures of decimal.
 
 
 MAGNESIAN BEDS IN NO. II. 333 
 
 The first thing noticeable is that not a single one of the 
 115 beds is entirely destitute of the magnesia carbonate ; 
 and that in no bed does the magnesia carbonate rise high 
 enough to make the rock a perfect dolomite.* 
 
 The second remarkable fact is that the alternation of 
 magnesian and non-magnesian (i. e. of high and low mag- 
 nesian limestone) beds is constant, rapid and sharp ; for in 
 only one case, that of the group of beds 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, is 
 there any appearance of a gradual increase and decrease of 
 magnesia in a sedimentary sense, f Seldom a bed occurs 
 with any intermediate percentage between the very high 
 and very Iow4 
 
 The third fact is equally striking and important, viz., that 
 so far as analyses at the two ends of the exposure of a bed 
 can warrant the assertion, each bed is wonderfully homo- 
 geneous in its magnesian character, whether .high or low. 
 In only a few cases is there any practical difference in the 
 percentage of magnesia at grade and at top. In those that 
 do occur, however, the difference is as great as that which 
 marks the alternate beds. 
 
 A fourth important fact is, that the greater percentages 
 of insoluble matter (silicates) are almost invariable found 
 in the high magnesian beds, the beds which are free of 
 magnesia being free of silica and alumina likewise. 
 
 *Bed 85 has only 0.9 at grade (4.1 at top); and bed 2 has 3&50 at grade 
 (39.75 at top). 
 
 f In these the mag. carb. p. c. runs thus: 1.40, 3.60, 14.50, 24.80, 8.05, 1.80 at 
 grade (and 1.30, 3.70, 7.50, 27.00, 8.15, 1.30 at top). This is also a fair example 
 of the remarkable uniformity of the two percentages at grade and at top in 
 each bed; proving (1) the general chemical accuracy of the laboratory 
 work, and (2) the general homogeniety of each bed from end to end of its 
 exposure. 
 
 t Such however are beds 14, 33, 36, 38, 55, 64, 84, 97, 104. Of the 32 beds 
 from 84 to 115, half of them are low (12 under 2.00, 3 under 3.00, the remain- 
 ing one 4.6); and of the other half all but two are high (9 range between 
 36.00 and 30.00, five between 30.00 and 25.00 ; one is 17.00, the other 14.00). 
 On page 348, M2, these are so arranged in a table that the rapid alternate up 
 and down oscillations are patent to the eye. It is specially remarkable how 
 few beds occupy an intermediate chemical position between the extremes. 
 
 In how many of these instances the difference may be due to some 
 accident in misplacing the samples, I cannot tell ; but they are so few that 
 they offer no great obstacle to a conviction that each bed is really a homo- 
 geneous deposit
 
 334 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Other facts are, that the planes of separation between 
 bed and bed are ordinary bed planes as in sandstone and 
 shale strata ; that no current, cross, or false-bedding is 
 visible ; that some of the beds (of both species, magnesian 
 and non-magnesian) are only a few inches thick, while 
 others are 6', 8', 10', 12', even 14' (bed 68) thick ; that there 
 is no rule by which to connect the thin beds with one species, 
 nor the thick beds with the other ; that a limestone layer 
 only 5 or 6 inches thick crosses the whole exposure between 
 two equally thin layers of dolomite, with no show of grading 
 into each other (the same analysis being got at both ends; 
 that two thick limestone strata will enclose a thin magnesian 
 layer ; and vice versa two massive dolomite beds will enclose 
 a thin limestone layer ; and finally, that beds of the highest 
 and lowest magnesian character lie directly and repeatedly 
 in contact with each other. 
 
 Negative deductions from the facts. 
 
 The only generalization I can make from the above data 
 is a negative one. namely : that no theory of percolation 
 can account for the facts ; that no theory of more rapid dis- 
 solution of carbonate of lime, leaving a growing charge of 
 carbonate of magnesia behind, will apply to rocks which 
 are neither honeycomb, nor visibly porous, nor unusually 
 cleft, nor otherwise disturbed; and that any theory to account 
 for the presence of the magnesia must treat the layers of 
 both species as equally mechanical sediments ; especially, 
 seeing that the larger part of the insoluble matter resides 
 in those which contain most magnesia ; while magnesia is 
 present in all of both kinds. 
 
 Amount of Magnesia present. 
 
 There only remains to be considered the question: whether 
 there be any feasable mode of calculating the actual quantity 
 of carbonate of magnesia in the formation, or in this 
 exposed subdivision of it, in proportion to the actual 
 quantity of carbonate of lime and insoluble matter which 
 together make up the bulk of the deposits. In other words : 
 what are the average proportions of the three principle
 
 MAGNESIAN BEDS IN NO. II. 335 
 
 elements of strata 370 feet thick, by which we can judge of 
 their distribution through the whole formation several 
 thousand feet thick. 
 
 In attempting this problem the beds were at first grouped 
 in fives and averages taken (Table II, p. 349, M2); then in 
 tens (Table III, p. 350); lastly in three groups of 50, 50 and 
 15 (Table IV), which yields a final average for the whole 115 
 beds as follows : C. L. 80.662 ; C. M. 14.215 ; I. M. 4.715.* 
 
 Excluding the third element (insoluble matter) and calling 
 the carbonates of lime and magnesia 100, their average pro- 
 portion to each other in the whole 115 beds, taken together 
 as a solid series, stands 85.02 : 14.98. 
 
 The next step in the calculation was to separate the beds 
 into two series : the limestones (L.) and the magnesian lime- 
 stones (M.), and treat each series separately to get a grand 
 average for the whole. For this purpose I selected the 29 
 beds at the north end of the section (next the limekiln), 15 
 of them high in magnesia and 14 low, alternating with re- 
 markable regularity, f 
 
 Combining the top and bottom analyses of these 29 beds, 
 we get the following general average analysis of the high 
 magnesian beds (M) and the low magnesian beds (L): . 
 
 Table VII J M' ' C ' L - 63 ' 41 5 C - M - 28 ' 22 J Insol. 7.24 
 
 ' t (L), . C. L. 95.77 ; C. M. 2.06 ; Insol. 1.42 J 
 which is probably as good a formula for the chemical dis- 
 tribution of the lime and magnesia constituents of our 
 Cambro-Silurian (or Ordovician) limestones as we are likely 
 to get by any such method. 
 
 * The reasons for the failure of worthy results from the smaller groupings 
 are given in M2, p. 350. 
 
 f Of the 164 percentages five were abnormal. These were included in 
 Tables V, VI b - , excluded from Table VII, p. 351, the general result being 
 however but slightly affected. 
 
 JThe direct proportion of C. L. to C. M. however is in (M) 69.2 : 30.8, and 
 in (L) 97.9: 2.1 (Table VIII). 
 
 To try the method in another form I selected 57 high and 58 low mag- 
 nesian beds (using only the figures of the fourth column of Table I) to be 
 treated in two separate series, sub-divided into four groups of beds (1) beds 
 1 to 30 ; (2) 31 to 60 ; (3) 61 to 90 ; (4) 91 to 115. The result was as follows : 
 
 Table TX $ < M ) C. M. (1) 27.96 (2)23.56 (3)26.05 (4)27.04 
 
 ' \ (L) C. M. (1) 3.01 (2) 2.62 (3) 2.25 (4) 2.00 
 
 giving a general average of carbonate of magnesia in the 57 high magnesian
 
 336 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The different thicknesses of the beds must now be taken 
 into consideration ; for no possible combination of two 
 analyses from each bed of a series could possibly give the 
 true proportion of Jime and magnesia in the whole series 
 unless the beds of the series were all of equal thickness * 
 
 Treating the beds according to their thicknesses by the 
 formula given in the foot note, but using only the percentages 
 of C. L. arid C. M. in columns 1 and 3 of Table I (that is 
 the samples at grade line) I got the results of Table XII, 
 (M2, p. 359): 
 
 132.6' (beds 1 to 50) C. L. 92.00 C. M. 12.20 
 
 179.9' ( " 51 to 100) " 79.25 " 14.00 
 
 59.5' ( " 101 to 115) " 83.75 " 11.86 
 
 371.0' ( " 1 to 115) " 84.47 " 13.02 
 
 Considering the probable animal origin of the flints from 
 sponges, and the proven animal origin of the oolite beds 
 from broken up bryozoa, together with the known abund- 
 ance of molluscs, articulates, etc. in the waters of that age, 
 it is reasonable to ascribe part of the surplus of lime over 
 magnesia to that cause ; the small amounts of sulphur to 
 plant life ; and the small amounts of phosphorus to animals 
 like Lingula which preferred phosphate of lime to carbon- 
 ate v of lime for making their shells ; or perhaps to large 
 armored fish which a recent discovery informs us lived in 
 great numbers at the beginning (or before the beginning) of 
 the Trenton age ; though why no traces of such fish have 
 been reported from any Lower Silurian outcrop in the 
 world except only at one spot on the Colorado river is 
 wonderful enough. 
 
 beds, 25.89 ; and in the 58 low magnesian beds, 2.53. It will be noticed that 
 this result differs somewhat from that in Table VII in the text above, where 
 the figures read 28.22 and 2.06 ; but not more than we might expect from 
 using 115 beds in one case and only 29 beds in the other. 
 
 * Suppose for the sake of illustration we have a series of 100 beds, half of 
 them averaging C. M. 2.00, the other half averaging C. M. 30.00 ; if they were 
 all of equal thickness the general average would be, of course, C. M. 16.00. 
 But suppose the first fifty had an average thickness of only 1', and the 
 other fifty an average of 6g' (making a total of 375'), the calculation must 
 run thus: 50Xl'X2.00 -f 50 X 6. 5' X 30. 00=9850 percent.; which divided by 375' 
 gives & general average of C. M. 26.70. If the 1' beds were 30.00 p. c. and 
 the 65' beds were 2.00 p. c. the general average would be only C. M. 5.73. 
 Of course all this is only true on the presumption that each bed is in itself 
 homogeneous and would give the same percentage wherever sampled ; which 
 is evidently not quite the case.
 
 HYDRAULIC CEMENT QUARRIES OF NO. II. 337 
 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Hydraulic Cement Quarries of No. lie (Trenton] on the 
 LehigJi Gypsum. 
 
 These were referred to shortly in Chapter XXV, but 
 their importance demands a more detailed description. 
 Four companies have quarried and burned the stone, two 
 on the west and two on the east bank of the Lehigh at 
 Coplay, where the Trenton limestone with its cement beds, 
 crosses the river. These works are described in Prof. 
 Prime's Report, D2, 1878, pages 59 to 67. 
 
 The LeJiigh Hydraulic Cement Company commenced 
 operations in 1872, on the west bank, 1 m. above Coplay 
 station, Lehigh Valley RR. In 1874 the mill was burned 
 down. It had 3 run of stone, and could grind 300 bbls. a 
 day ; four kilns of No. 12 pattern as decribed in Gen. Gil- 
 more' s book on cement ; quarry near mill ; color of cement 
 light yellow ; very like in color and quality the old Lehigh 
 and the Allen cements. 
 
 The Coplay Cement Company, organized in 1867, have 11 
 kilns a short distance above Coplay station, 6 miles above 
 Allentown ; the quarry adjacent ; a steam engine hoisting 
 the quarry stone to the kilns for burning Anchor cement, 
 and at the same time running the crushers for Portland 
 cement; 7 set-kilns burn Saylor's Portland cement (Hu- 
 bett's London pattern) built of cement, concrete, firebrick 
 and iron ; total capacity 2,500 bbls. of Portland cement 
 clinker per month. The other 4 are draw-kilns, of Rosen- 
 dale, N. Y. pattern (Gilmore's No. 12), burning Anchor 
 cement, 300 bbls. per day. Store room capacity 15,000 bbls. 
 
 Some beds of the quarry are fit for Portland, others for 
 Anchor cement ; but good technical knowledge is needful 
 to decide what stone to use and what to reject, that the pro- 
 duct may successfully stand the engineer's tests. Of the 
 22"
 
 338 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 samples of Portland cement made from 8 beds (of which 
 analyses are given below) some were very good, while others 
 fell far below the required strength.* 
 
 The requirements of the Department of Docks, New 
 York, in purchasing are as follows : Weight, per barrel, 
 400 Ibs. ; weight, per bushel, 110 IDS.; fineness, 80 per cent.; 
 tensile strength, at seven days, 250 Ibs. per square inch.f 
 
 Tests of Saylor's Portland cement as packed and offered 
 for sale in market, 4 in number, are tabled D2, p. 61 : 
 Weight per cubic foot, 112 Ibs. ; fineness through a 2500 
 mesh sieve, 85 to 100 p. c. ; date of grinding Jan. 12 ; dates 
 when blocks were made, April 26 to 30 ; weight of block, 24 
 and 25 oz. ; weigh t^ of water in each block, 5J to 6 oz. ; 
 temperature of cement and water. 60 Fahr. ; time to set in 
 mould, 16 to 20 minutes ; time left in mould, 90 minutes ; 
 immersed immediately ; left in water 6 to 7 days ; broken 
 immediately on being taken out of water ; age when broken 
 . 6 to 10 days ; average tensile strain on square inch, 411, 392, 
 426, 566 Ibs. ; 3 blocks made of each ; tensile strain per 
 
 * Analyses of quarry rock for Portland cement by Mr. John Eckert, under 
 Prof. W. B. Chandler. 
 
 Silica 
 
 12 88 
 
 12 81 
 
 13 72 
 
 14 68 
 
 15 03 
 
 15 40 
 
 1 79 
 
 14 32 
 
 Alumina 
 Ferric oxide, 
 Carbonate of lime 
 Sulphate of lime, 
 Carbonate of magnesia 
 Phosphoric acid 
 Organic matter, .... ... 
 
 4.25 
 1.09 
 72.87 
 1.60 
 4.69 
 .10 
 1.57 
 
 4.86 
 .97 
 72.64 
 1.68 
 4.62 
 .11 
 1.72 
 
 4.09 
 1.04 
 71.54 
 1.79 
 4.37 
 .10 
 1.78 
 
 5.32 
 1.12 
 
 69.26 
 2.29 
 3. 67 
 .09 
 1.68 
 
 3.97 
 1.93 
 74.12 
 
 2.41 
 .13 
 1.47 
 
 4.26 
 
 74! 66 
 .86 
 2.66 
 .09 
 
 .50 
 .34 
 7 .95 
 .75 
 .84 
 .06 
 1.46 
 
 4.20 
 1.65 
 73.12 
 2.02 
 4.09 
 .17 
 1.31 
 
 Total 
 
 99.05 
 
 99.41 
 
 98.43 
 
 98.11 
 
 100.25 
 
 101.19 
 
 100.69 
 
 100.88 
 
 Analyses of Portland cement made from the above beds. 
 
 Silica 
 
 Alumina 
 
 Sesquioxtde of iron, 
 
 Sulphate of lime 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Total, . 
 
 10.11 
 1.61 
 
 1.78 
 
 23.40 
 8.06 
 2.38 
 2.44 
 
 59. 94 
 3.21 
 
 "ggls" 
 
 23.21 
 8.35 
 2.74 
 2.36 
 
 23.07 
 7.32 
 2.49 
 2.17 
 
 97.36 
 
 f A copy of official report on 1,000 bbls of Saylor's Portland cement, tested 
 Nov. 13 to Dec. 20, 1877, is printed in D2, p. 62. Average gross weight per 
 barrel, 400 Ibs.; average weight of U. S. bushel, 131 Ibs.; number of barrels 
 sampled, 105; average fineness, 82 p. c.; average tensile strain per sq. in., 
 347 Ibs.; number of minutes in mould, 53 minutes.
 
 HYDRAULIC CEMENT QUARRIES OF NO. II. 339 
 
 section of each block, (1) 875, 976, 925 ; (2) 825, 825, 1000 ; 
 (3) 950, 1025, 925 ; (4) 1325, 1350, 1150 Ibs.* 
 
 Saylor's Cement is fully equal to the English and French 
 Portland cement and is manufactured by the same patent 
 Aspdin process (L825), except that the quarry rocks at Cop- 
 lay yield all the needful elements, and therefore, does not 
 require the addition of clay, etc.f 
 
 Anchor Cement is a patented light burnt cement of a 
 peculiar chemical composition : sets rapidly ; has great co- 
 hesion ; becomes uncommonly hard both under water and 
 in air ; has a beautiful greenish gray color ; makes smooth 
 and uniform drain pipes, turned out rapidly from the mould; 
 is desirable for beton or concrete for bridge piers and abut- 
 ments. :{: 
 
 The Old LehigJi Cement Works near Siegfried's bridge, 
 E. bank of Lehigh river, erected by the Lehigh Naviga- 
 
 *Prof. Prime writes (D2, p. 62) Portland cement in England is made by 
 burning mixture of chalk and Thames river clay to a partial vilification. 
 A.11 attempts to find (or to properly mix) the proper rocks failed to produce 
 a cement equal to the best English and French brands, which is a triple 
 silicate of alumina and lime and iron, without any free lime, 'as a sharp 
 crystalline powder, varying from dark to light gray, with a bluish or 
 greenish tint. The Coplay Cement Company after long and costly experi- 
 ments in selecting and mixing several beds in their quarry got an analj'sis 
 thus : (1) Soluble in hydrochloric acid : Garb, lime, 70.34; carb. mag., 4.47; 
 carb. iron, 2.98 ; (2) Insoluble silica J4.73 ; alumina, 4.54 ; ferric oxide, 0.93; 
 magnesia, 0.89; water, 0.98=total 99.86. This mixture, when its carbonic 
 acid was driven off in the kiln, analyzed : Silica, 22.77 ; alumina, 7.03 ; lime, 
 60.91 ; magnesia, 4.67 ; ferric oxide, 4.63=100. Prof. W. T. Roepper of Beth- 
 lehem. But as the same quarry bed varies in quality, samples of stone are 
 frequently analyzed and burned in a testing kiln. The stone is crushed 
 and ground, thoroughly mixed dry and tempered with water in a pug mill, 
 spread out on drying floors, cut into bricks, placed in a kiln with alternate 
 layers of coke and burnt ; the clinker is then selected, the pulverulent 
 scarified, and the underburnt taken out ; the burnt bricks then ground and 
 stored in bins for a few weeks to sweat and cool before shipment to Com- 
 munipaw to be barreled and stored. 
 
 fThe N. Y. Dock Department used 5000 bbls. of it in 1877. The U. S 
 fortifications have made much use of it ; Gen. Gilmore fully endorsing it. 
 The East River Bridge Co. used it, Engineer Martin endorsing it ; and it 
 received a medal at the Centennial Exhibition. 
 
 fit was selected before all other American cements for the Giraid bridge 
 at Philadelphia. See reports of tests in Journal Frank. Inst. Phila. March 
 1874, p. 181 (copied verbatim into Report D2, p. 65, 66). The mixture finally 
 fixed on was: Anchor cement 1 part, sharp river sand 1 part ; furnaceslag, 
 4 parts.
 
 340 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 tion Co. In 1872 leased by Gen. J. Selfridge and enlarged 
 to 200 bbls. a day ; new quarry opened on Hokendaqua 
 creek, 1 m. E. of old quarry a-nd on the same rock beds of 
 argillaceous limestone. Idle after 1875. 
 
 The Allen Cement Company, organized (1872), works at 
 their quarry on Hokendaqua creek, 1 m. E. of Siegfried's 
 bridge, Northampton county; 2 small draw-kilns and 2 run of 
 stone ; steam power ; 75 bbls. per day of " Allen " or " Key- 
 stone" light yellow cement. Idle after 1875.* 
 
 In Miffljin county. 
 
 A new dydraulic cement plant is about being established 
 at Milroy in Kishecoquillis Valley, on an outcrop of Tren- 
 ton limestone (1891). 
 
 In Centre county. 
 
 Hick 1 s Cement Quarry is on Logan's branch, south of 
 Bellefonte, in Spring township, close to the Benner town- 
 ship line. It is a small quarry of magnesian limestone (dip- 
 ping 15, S. 38 E.) near the junction of lib (Chazy) and lie 
 (Trenton) and therefore at the same geological horizon as the 
 cement quarries on the Lehigh near Coplay. Excellent lime- 
 stone beds, 150' thick in all, show below the cement works, 
 dipping 40-50, S. E. The plant consists of two double 
 kilns, each holding about 200 bushels, capacity 1600 bush, 
 per annum. It is near the site of the old Valentine furnace. 
 (Report T4, 1884, pp. 314, 341.) 
 
 *Prof. Prime in his report D3, 1883, p. 164, reported that both these works 
 had been idle up to that date, and added : " It must not be supposed that 
 because these operations have been apparently unsuccessful, that there is 
 no future in the business of manufacturing hydraulic cement in this part 
 of the State, on the contrary the success of the Coplay Cement Co. shows 
 what perseverance under difficulties can and does accomplish. Of course, 
 the composition of some of these cement-stone beds is far more favorable 
 to the manufacture of cement than that of others, but all may be more or 
 less profitably utilized by careful intermixture. There is no reason why 
 the manufacture of hydraulic and Portland cement should not be slowly 
 and surely extended, not only by rendering this portion of the State free 
 from foreign competitors, but actually rivalling these in many of the West- 
 ern markets on account of the excellence of the product and the cheapness 
 of freights."
 
 LIMONTTE MINES NEAR THE TOP OF II. 341 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 Limonite mines near the top of II. Ir onion in LeUigli ; 
 Moselem in Berks ; Cornwall in Lebanon ; Mt. Pleasant 
 in Franklin / Henrietta in Blair. 
 
 Along the northern edge of the limestone belt of the Great 
 Valley in Lehigh county, that is, not far from the foot of 
 the low hills which mark the southern limit of the slate 
 belt, and therefore along the outcrops of the top beds of 
 the magnesian limestone formation, lie a range of limonite 
 mines of considerable age and size, one of which is the 
 famous old Balliet mine, now known as the fronton mine. 
 
 It is difficult to make a clear statement of the geological 
 situation of the damourite slates which have furnished the 
 material for these pots of white and black clays, brown 
 hematite iron ore, and oxide of manganese ; but they seem 
 to be transition beds between the magnesian limestones of 
 II and the purely argillaceous slates of III ; and it may be 
 said without much fear of error that they are the repre- 
 sentatives of the Trenton formation, or of the lower part 
 of it, because Trenton fossils mark the range of argillaceous 
 non magnesian limestone beds which is traceable from the 
 cement quarries at Coplay on the Lehigh to and behind the 
 Ironton mine, that is between the ore pit and the slate hills. 
 
 How the Utica black slate formation (Z77a)is connected 
 geologically with the black clays of the mines it is not easy 
 to say ; for this formation has no. conspicuous outcrops 
 along the Great Valley, but only manifests its presence here 
 and there at long intervals between the Delaware and Po- 
 tomac, and seems to be merely a part of those passage beds 
 from the magnesian limestones of II up to the clay slates 
 and roofing slates of III which are so admirably and re- 
 peatedly exposed, standing vertical, in the bluffs of the ox- 
 bow bends of the Conodogwinnet in Cumberland county.
 
 342 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Some of these mines are close up to the edge of the slate 
 (III) ; others are at a distance from it of several thousand 
 feet, and ought to be at considerable depths below the slate 
 in the geological column. 
 
 Beginning with the first mines west of the Lehigh, on the 
 line of the Ironton railroad, we have, near Egypt, and 2 m. 
 W. of Coplay : 
 
 P. Steeple's three abandoned excavations , 1600' long. The 
 west end of the west one is m. from the edge of the slate 
 belt ; and yet on its south side is a large bank of the Hud- 
 son river slate (III6.) with a small quantity of Utica 
 black slate (Ilia.) on the dump. In the middle pit a little 
 black and red clay on N". side, and slate in several places. 
 It looks as if it were a deposit of surface ore in gravel over- 
 lying slates of Ilia and possibly III5. Blue and black 
 clay (Ilia decomposed? ) was struck half way down shafts 
 sunk in middle pit, and little or no ore found (D2, 46.)* 
 
 D. StecMe 1 s two abandoned pits in a parallel line with 
 the last, 1000' distant to south ; gravel ore. 
 
 J. Ritter's mine, west of the last, and only 800' from the 
 edge of the slate belt (as drawn on the large map of Report 
 D2), is 800' long by 500' wide ; abundance of black clay at 
 its south end in both E. and W. walls, and just below the sod ; 
 just under the black (and also east of it) an abundance of 
 white and pinkish c\ay ; line of color sharply defined ; com- 
 position the same,f dip different (black N. W. white S. W.) 
 but this may be due to folding and settling when the sup- 
 
 *It must be kept always in mind that the slate belt once extended over 
 the limestone belt These gravel banks are on two sides of a shallow vale 
 descending eastward, and they are the remnants of a much more extensive 
 drift deposit, the main body of which has been swept away in the erosion 
 of the vale. 
 
 f Analysis of "white clay" (1), and "yellow clay "' (2) by I. R. Shimer of 
 Lafayette College, and of "yellow clay" (3) by A. S. McCreath are given in 
 Report D, 1874, pp. 13 to 33. The yellow clay is used as ochre for paint. In 
 the range of limonite mines along the base of the South Mountain between 
 Easton and Bethlehem the miners call the White clay "hill clay " and 
 ceased to look for ore when they struck it, and are careful not to go through 
 it for fear of being drowned out. It is a working hypothesis that as the 
 damourite slates were turned into clay they were able to play the part 
 of an impervious water-bearing stratum, upon which iron solutions re- 
 mained tanked and threw down their limonite. (Prime, in D. p. 14.)
 
 IRONTON LIMONITE MINES. 343 
 
 porting floor of limestone was dissolved away. IS". B. 
 Here there is a layer of limonite 8" to 13" thick which cut 
 through both black and white clay.* 
 
 The Ir onion mine, 2000' long by 800' broad and 90' deep 
 (in 1878) is owned, at the east end by the Balliet heirs, in 
 the middle by the Balliet brothers, and at the west end by 
 the Ironton company / worked since 1837, when the ore 
 showed itself above the surface of the soil ; limestone beds 
 at various points deepening from east end to west end ; 
 walls mostly plastic (damourite) clays, mostly iron-yel- 
 lowed, much white, some manganese, pink or red, also 
 masses of (Utica) black at N. W. end, in center, and at 
 east end. 
 
 The black clay masses, once continuous and now sepa- 
 rated by mining the ore, contains itself a curious ball ore 
 (siderite, carbonate of iron) like that so common in the 
 coal measures, but too little of it and too scattered to be 
 worth mining. Native copper also occurs in the black 
 clay, in small filiform pieces, having been reduced to na- 
 ture by carbon in the clay. The black clay deposit varies 
 from V to 10', and sometimes swells to 20'. It contains 
 graphite, which makes its genesis from the Utica slate still 
 more probable. f 
 
 Ore occurs in various parts of the mine, mostly under the 
 black clay, especially at the west end, in the central deep 
 pit, and along the northern side.J 
 
 *This remarkable fact is of great importance, but only increases the ob- 
 scurity under which the origin of our limonite deposits lie. If the original 
 undeconi posed black and white slates were of the same age and conforma- 
 ble, the ore must be of that age ; if the clays are of different ages the segrega- 
 tion of the ore layer must have occurred later. The ore of this curious layer 
 yielded to McCreath : Iron, 39.3; mang., 0.006 ; sulp., 0.008 ; phos., 1.27; insol., 
 28.20. The ore from the pit floor : Iron, 47.7 ; mang., 2.97 ; sulp., 0.05 ; phos., 
 0.33 ; insol., 12.60. Crane Iron Co.'s analyses are given on p. 46, D5- 
 
 f Analysis of black clay (called "blue ochre") by Dr. Genth : Loss by 
 ignition in closed crucible (water), 4.84 ; ditto in open crucible (graphite), 
 4.26; quartz, 44.50; combined silica, 26.25; alumina, with traces of ferric 
 oxide, 17.95 ; magnesia, 0.94 ; alkalies etc. (not determined), 1.26 = 100. 
 (D, p. 32.) 
 
 $ The quantity of manganese in the ore is surprising. An average sample 
 of ore taken from the Ironton RR. Co.'s .wharf, analyzed by McCreath, gave : 
 Iron, 26.40; manganese, 17.65; sulphur, 0.01; phos., 0.09; insol., 21.86. (D243.)
 
 344 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Local beds of black oxide of manganese has occurred 
 twice ; one in 1872 over a part of the limonite yielded a 
 good many tons ; another in 1875, in the deepest part of 
 the mine, just over the limestone floor, yielded several hun- 
 dred tons ; just over it a red clay separated it from the 
 overlying limonite.* 
 
 P. Brown's mines, 70' deep, is only 100' from the east 
 end of the great Ironton mine, and lies exactly in the center 
 of the trough ; ore-breast 30' to 40' high at W. end, con- 
 sisting almost entirely of pure ore, with intermingled 
 damourite slate and clay and more or less allophane.f 
 
 White damourite clay, in the east wall, under the in- 
 cline-plane contains lignite (carbonized wood) and fossil 
 leaves ; a beecTi nut has been found in it ; of course of post- 
 tertiary age. The clay -lies on the ore and is a deposit of 
 human age ; whatever the age of the ore may be ; but proba- 
 bly both are of the latest geological age, and in fact de- 
 posits in a cavern, which has lost its roof. Black clay 
 (Uticaf] overlies the ore thickly in the N. wall, but has 
 been swept away from the south wall.:}: 
 
 The limestone floor beds dip S. E. and N. W., in such a 
 way as to make a synclinal basin or trough, which runs 
 east, south of Hitter's mine ; and this trough holding the 
 ore mass and sinking westward towards the head of the 
 cove, makes the ore mass greater and deaper westward. 
 There are signs of exhaustion, unless ore be found W. of 
 the road to Balliettsville ; and eventually in any case in 
 that direction the edge of the slate belt will cut the ore 
 
 * Mostly shipped to Johnstown for spiegeleisen. Analysis of average 
 specimen by McCreath, Mang. binox., 77.96; mang. ox., 4. 32; ferric oxide, 
 3.66 ; silica, 4.84 ; alumina, 0.71 ; baryta, 0.15; lime 0.77 ; magnesia, 0.24; soda, 
 0.37 ; potassa, 3.04 ; cobalt ox., 0.39 ; nickel ox., trace; copper ox., trace ; phos. 
 acid, 0.15; water, 3.98. A picked specimen gave mang. binox., 84.88-fox. 
 3.77; cobalt ox., 1.68; lime, 1.90; mang. 0.79; soda, 0.19; pot., 3.50; water, 4.38 
 (D2, p. 42.) Manganese appeared at the surface near the Big Spring, W. 
 of Trexlertown. (H. D. Rogers, 1858.) 
 
 f A very fine white and sky blue stalactitic hydrous silicate of alumina, 
 vitreous or resinous, waxy or pearly, found in masses at the Cornwall 
 mine ; at Jones' mine near Morgan town, Berks county.; at the Friedensburg 
 zinc mines ; and here. 
 
 \ For mining prospects and analysis see D2, p. 44.
 
 IRONTON LIMONITE MINES. 345 
 
 mass off, for "at no point hitherto has the ore been fol- 
 lowed in under the slate." 
 
 Ironton is at the W. end of the mine, and the cove of 
 limestone is made by the projection E. of a sharply pointed 
 I>rong of slate (III) more than a mile long ; the real syn- 
 clinal of the district ; the trough in the cove being a mere 
 local roll, although a large one,* 
 
 The Ironton RR. CoSs Kennel mine, and the H. Mickley 
 abandoned and exhausted, lie to the south of the slate 
 prong and 1000' from it. Damourite white clay and Utica 
 black clay in the latter. The former mostly yellow plaster 
 clay, but some white, and a little black clay overlying the 
 white; a little ore visible in contact with and under the 
 black clay.^ 
 
 The great Siegersville limestone cove, further south, con- 
 tains many mines, none of them less than half a mile from 
 the edge of the slate belt, and most of them a mile or two 
 from it. They are all described in D2, pp. 34 to 39 ; many 
 abandoned; some mere wash ore; most of them showing 
 white clay. 
 
 8. Sieged s mine at Siegersville, worked at E. end. has a 6 
 inch ore layer under the sod ; then 12' barren ; under which 
 ore bed 2' to 4' ; ore in shaft in floor reported 40' thick ; 
 
 *But, as an illustration of the difficult geology of the limestone belt, ob- 
 serve on the map the long (N. E. and S. W.) line of observed limestone 
 dips obliquely crossing the point of the slate prong, and reading only 32, 23, 
 28, 320, 120 ( a t the point), 11, 22, 25, 32, 24, 8. JE. Even the violent 
 theory of a collapsed overthrown and flattened down synclinal will not ex- 
 plain so puzzling an exhibition. It almost justilies the theory of the non- 
 eonformability of III upon II. To increase the embarassment there are dips 
 of N. E. 17 and 28 in the slate pronrj along the high road. (See the fine 
 colored map of the Ironton mines in D2, pocket.) 
 
 t A remarkably beautiful colored geological sheet map of the Ironton 
 group of mines and slate prong which separates them may be found in a 
 pocket to Report D2, 1878. The limestone in the mine floors, the ore masses, 
 the red, white, yellow, and red clays, and the undecomposed slates are all 
 distinguished by separate colors. The depths are shown by contour lines, 
 which are also extended over the whole sheet. It is a rarely perfect exhi- 
 bition, on a scale of 300' : 1" of an unusually complete piece of difficult field 
 work. It is dated 1875, and is the work of Mr. Ellis Clark, Jr., aid to Prof. 
 Fred. Prime, Assistant Geologist in charge of the Survey of the Lehigh 
 region.
 
 346 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 much lump ore and blood red clay ; in one place limestone 
 over the clay, the limestone "thorough!} 7 permeated by 
 damourite.* 
 
 Jas. Kline's mine, at Orefield, m. S. of Siegersville, is 
 within m. of the N". edge of the long syrcelinal slate prong 
 which runs out eastward four miles, eastward N. of Wen- 
 nersville. Most of the ore is extracted. AtN. E. corner soil 
 20' deep ; then red ore bearing clay 10', then yellow and 
 white clays streaked with ore ; very little lump ore found. 
 Damourite slate sticks so closely to much of the ore that it 
 cannot he separated by washing. White clay both above 
 and beneath the ore. At W. end, soil M^feet ; then all 
 white clay down to standing water, with a good deal of 
 only partially decomposed damourite slate in the clay. 
 Yield of mine has been great. 
 
 B. Weaver's mine, I m. E. of Orefield and Guthsville, 
 and. just on the north edge of the slate prong ; 40' deep ; 
 near top damourite slate with white ore clay underneath ; 
 atN. end damourite slate holding thin strings of ore, but 
 the ore mass is beneath it ; slate resembles No. III. 
 
 The Thomas I. Go. and Crane I. Go. and D. A. Guth 1 s 
 and the two Wanner mines range eastward along the north 
 side of the slate prong. They have furnished large quanti- 
 ties of ore, but are exhausted. At Guth's mine limestone 
 is seen dipping S. E. towards and under the slate prong ; 
 but the Utica slate (?) seems to dip N. W. 
 
 Toward the end of the slate prong are six mines : Kratzef s, 
 Jobsfs (2), and Scherer' s, on the north edge of the slate 
 prong ; Marck's at the extreme point ; and Barber and Al- 
 ney' son the south edge near the point. In these are seen 
 pinkish damourite slate, and sometimes a black slaty rock 
 which may stand for the Utica. The whole range are 
 abandoned. 
 
 In the next limestone cove 3 m. IS". W. of Trexlerville, there 
 are about 15 mines, mostly abandoned^ all but one within 
 
 *This either shows a cavern deposit of clay, or proves the decomposition 
 of damourite layers far down the stratification beneath an insoluble roof 
 of limestone beds.
 
 LIMONITE MINES NEAR THE TOP OF II. 347 
 
 i m. of the edge of the slate : LichtenwallnerX Loros' 
 (two), Stein's (two), Moyer s, Steininger's (two), Scholl 
 &Co.'s, Miller's (two), and Haines' and Smith's (Schlong's), 
 the last two in front of the east point of the slate prong 
 which shuts in the cove.* 
 
 In the centre of the Cove a mile from the slate edge 
 Krsemlich & Lichtenwallner'smine (D. p. 42), 50' deep, not 
 worked since 1873, has its ore mass lying on horizontal 
 blue Limestone, probably the flat crown of the anticlinal of 
 the cove. There is evidently a large amount of damourite 
 slate and white clay underlying the ore and in some places 
 inside of it. If we could tell the shape of the arch, this 
 would settle the question whether or not some of the Le- 
 high limonites were made from damourite sub-formations 
 in the body of No. II. But if the arch is flat, or subdi- 
 vided by a synclinal, the damourite clays in this mine 
 may also belong to the slates at the top of II. 
 
 At the head of the next shallow limestone cove and close 
 against the edge of the slate belt, l^m. N. W. of Breinigs- 
 ville, is Fr. Breinig* s large exhausted mine, 50' deep ; but 
 a small pit on the east of it was still worked in 1874 ; ore 
 streaks in damourite slate and white and yellow clays ; 
 ore and clays pitching 18 to 25, S. 80 E. away from the 
 slate belt! And yet a glance on the large sheet map of D2 
 is sufficient to show a bridge of slate (III) thrown across 
 
 *In Lichtenwallner's pits (one 40' deep) the ore lies both on and under 
 white clay over damourite slate ; blue limestone reported at the bottom of 
 a well 130' deep. At Loros's mine a gravel of clay, quartz and slate (all in 
 small pieces) 15' deep covered the west end. Stein's oldest mine must have 
 had a great output. The other leased to the Thomas I. Co. shows no slate ; 
 the ore lies in and over white and pink damourite clays 47' deep ; limestone 
 at 40' in one place dips 42, S. 41 E. (top layers drab slaty 4', laying on 
 common blue limestone water worn); ore clays over the limestone dip 42, 
 S. 40 E. A hole 10" square in the floor drains the mine into some un- 
 known cavern. Moyer'' s, a new stripping (1875). Steininger's old mine ; 
 very productive ; 600' x20' deep ; exhausted. The other leased by Lani- 
 gan, 25' deep ; ore in damourite slate overlying white clay, dipping 22, S. 
 40 E. In one place under 12' of solid white clay is ore 6', then clay 12'. 
 Scholl & Co. 's ore in rolling clay ; general average dip 10, S. 5 E.; local 
 dips, to S. W. (one of them 55, S. 25. W); output 25 tons per day (1883) 
 Miller' 1 s, abandoned, described by Rogers (1858) as ore interstratified irre- 
 gularly with clay. Haine's, abandoned Smith's, 40' deep, described by 
 Rogers as Schlong's, in damourite slate.
 
 348 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 LIMONITE MINES NEAR THE TOP OF II. 349 
 
 Section along Cornwall Railroad 
 from Isebanon to Miners' Village. 
 
 Section acraalSig Hill combined wdk Seclwn cdang Furnace creek. 
 
 them Iraf dUUrla itt relaiiantkip io Creek section. 
 
 CnvyXU 
 
 OR i-MA5S 
 
 Seal*. rtHical and Jinriifntal alUa . &OO fe*t, lo 4 inch. 
 
 """ J.U&
 
 350 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 the limestone of the cove (II) and isolating the head of the 
 cove as an enclosed limestone circus in the body of the 
 slate belt. This abnormal dip must therefore be a sag of 
 the decomposed ore-mass into some cavern in the limestone. 
 
 The Trexlertown Copperas mine deserves mention here 
 for the bore hole records preserved in Rogers' Geol. Pa., 
 1858, p. 265 ; 1 m. W. of Trexlerville ( m. N. E. of Brein- 
 igsville) ; worked in 1836-1840 ? by N. Whitely. 
 
 Boring No. 1 recorded : Clay and gravel, 30'; iron ore, 
 4|'; clay. 7'; black clay, 2'; sulphur et of iron (pyrites], 12'; 
 iron ore, 5'. 
 
 Boring No. 2: clay and gravel, 15'; iron ore, 1'; clay, 
 15': slate, 5'; clay, 6'; pipe ore in clay, 9' / clay, 4'. 
 
 Boring No. 3 : clay, 14'; iron ore in clay, 8'; iron ore, 9'; 
 clay, 3'; copperas earth, 2'; copperas in black clay, 2'; cop- 
 peras in white clay, 2'; brown clay and iron ore, 8'; solid 
 iron ore (pipe?), 2'; clay, 8'. 
 
 Manganese oxide appeared in the west wall. The slate 
 mentioned in No. 2, was made somewhat gypseous by the 
 reaction of the sulphate of iron on its lime element. "The 
 origin of this large deposit of sulphuret of iron," says Mr. 
 Rogers, "is to be traced probably to a small shallow bed 
 of Matinal [Utica] black slate which appears to have rested 
 on the limestone and to have undergone disintegration." 
 But if this opinion is correct we may extend the expla- 
 nation to most of the other limonite mines in the central 
 area of the limestone belt. 
 
 The Moselem mine in Berks Co. 
 
 This famous old mine, 5 m. W. of Kutztown, is within 
 1000' of the edge of the slate belt, and corresponds exactly 
 to the great Ironton mine. The ore was reached at first by 
 shafts through surface stuff 20' to 40' deep. Immense 
 quantities of good ore were mined from nests and irregu- 
 lar layers varying from V to 8' thick ; some of it bluish and 
 slightly manganesian. Limestone beds in the ridge south 
 of the mine dip northward, as they should, under the ore, 
 and (if continued] under the slate belt. Large quantities 
 of dark chept, some of them hundreds of pounds inweight r
 
 THE MOSELEM MlNE. 351 
 
 lay scattered over the soil. (Rogers' Geol. Pa., 1858, p. 226.) 
 In 1878 the mine was surveyed by A. P. Berlin, in common 
 with the whole valley between the Schuylkill and the Lehigh 
 county line. It was then 2000' long and 100' deep, with 
 five inclined planes. (See Fig. 1, on plate VIII.)* 
 
 It is certainly a surprising circumstance that this great 
 Moselem deposit should stand alone ; that nothing like it 
 appears for so many miles along the edge of the slate belt in 
 Berks and the counties to the west of it. One is tempted 
 to suspect great local variations in the thickness or rich- 
 ness of the upper damourite slate formation. Or perhaps 
 a mechanically produced non-conf or mobility has shoved 
 the damourite slates beneath the slate belt edge. But 
 more probably the only and sufficient explanation is, that 
 only here and at Ironton and a few other places caverns 
 have been eroded to receive the iron drainage. Vague as 
 this suggestion may seem it is borne out by such exhibi- 
 tions as the Pond banks of Franklin county ; and by the 
 cavern deposit of Penns valley in Centre county, to be de- 
 scribed in another chapter. 
 
 The Cornwall mine. 
 
 This summary description of the Lower Silurian Forma- 
 tion No. II would be incomplete without a special mention 
 of one of the most important mines in Pennsylvania, the 
 great magnetic iron ore mine of Cornwall, in Lebanon county, 
 unique in its character, standing alone in the geology of 
 
 *Fig 2 on the same plate is a reduction from Sheet XIV, of the great topo- 
 graphical map of the South Mountains (Reading and Durham highlands) 
 published in the Atlas to Report DH, Vol. 2, 1883. The survey of the lime- 
 stone belt was made by Mr. A. P. Berlin in 1878. The small portion of it 
 given in Fig. 2 illustrates the flatness of the limestone belt; the steep hill- 
 side edge of the slate belt, through small gorges in which its back drainage 
 issues upon the limestone belt; and the close proximity of the great limo- 
 nite deposit to this outcrop wall. At the the east edge of the figure the 
 reader will notice the normal 36 northwest dip of the limestone descend- 
 ing beneath the slate belt in the ravine; also northwest and southeast (anti- 
 clinal roll) dips in the quarry east of the ravine ; also an 18 northwest dip 
 in the little quarry west of the ravine; and other northwest dips around 
 Leibensperger's ; so that the geological place of the ore slates is unmistakably 
 at the top of II under the slates of III, with no evidence of non-conform- 
 ability between the two formations.
 
 352 GEOLOGICAL StJRVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 THE CORNWALL MINE.
 
 354 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 the State, arid pouring year after year its flood of wealth 
 into the business world. Worked for more than fifty years, 
 it shows no sigh of exhaustion ; on the contrary, its annual 
 output continually swells in volume. 
 
 Three hills of ore three hundred feet high, are ranged in a 
 line a mile long and a third of a mile wide. Walls of solid 
 ore 80 feet in vertical height are stoped down by dyna- 
 mite ; and the fragments, broken up to portable sizes, are 
 loaded in cars and distributed to the iron furnaces of the 
 region. A floor of the solid iron ore at water level conceals 
 an underlying ore-mass, into which test holes have been 
 bored varying in depth from 50 to 300 feet. A great vol- 
 canic trap-dyke, like the half of a cup, supports the ore- 
 mass at its northern edge, and has been proved by some of 
 the bore-holes to be its floor. Along the southern edge runs 
 one of the few great faults of the State, limiting the ore- 
 mass on that side. Against this fault descends (northward) 
 at a gentle slope the Mesozoic beds of northern Lancaster, 
 their sheared-off edges making the southern side of the cup 
 which holds the ore-mass. 
 
 It is this unusual occurrence of Mesozoic red sandstone 
 faulted against the limestone formation of the Great Valley, 
 with an outburst of ancient lava rising through the crack thus 
 produced and making its way sidewise between the limestone 
 strata, lifting them and holding them isolated, as in a vat 
 in a chemical laboratory it is this unusual combination of 
 circumstances which has given its unique character to the 
 Cornwall iron mine. The mine has been a puzzle to geolo- 
 gists ; and a satisfactory explanation of it has been only 
 recently obtained by a laborious research upon the ground. 
 
 It is now made evident that the whole ore-mass was orig- 
 inally a set of lime-shale strata belonging to the very top 
 of Formation No. II, which we may call the passage beds 
 between No. II and No. III. These beds, held between 
 the two walls of Trap and Trias, have been attacked by hot 
 acid waters flowing into them, dissolving away the carbon- 
 ates of lime and magnesia, and leaving behind in a concen- 
 trated mass the insoluble silicates and hydrated peroxide 
 of iron, converted much of it into the magnetic oxide.
 
 THE CORNWALL MINE. 355 
 
 The whole mass of ore is distinctly stratified, and shows 
 the process of concentration. The original insoluble matters 
 in the lime-shale still remain in the ore. The stratification 
 of the ore-mass is perfectly regular ; but almost unchanged 
 white crystalline limestone beds lie interstratified in the 
 midst of it, showing that some of the original strata had a 
 mineral composition not susceptable to a change into ore. 
 These limestones lie in their original places among the other 
 strata which have been changed into ore. But they have 
 been subjected to merely enough change to convert them into 
 an inferior kind of crystalline marbie. The rest of the ore 
 strata were no doubt first charged with hydrated peroxide 
 of iron (brown hematite) ; but the change went on one step 
 further; the water was driven off, and the oxide of iron was 
 crystallized into magnetic iron ore ; still retaining all the 
 impurities of the original lime-shale beds. 
 
 The remarkable features of this ore mass are : First, the 
 quantity of sulphur which it contains ; and, Secondly, the 
 universal distribution of a small percentage of copper 
 through the whole mass of ore ; and its concentration into 
 strings and plates of native copper only in the upper part 
 of the mass where attempts were made at one time to ob- 
 tain it in sufficient quantities to make it marketable ; but the 
 richest pockets of it at the top of the hill were soon ex- 
 hausted, and none others have been met with lower down.* 
 
 *The origin of the copper, and of the sulphur also, has been connected 
 with the outburst of trap, and also with the neighborhood of the Triassic 
 sandstones, but the subject is still entirely obscure. Nor is it of practical 
 importance, for all attempts to mine copper in Pennsylvania have signally 
 failed. But to geologists the question of the origin of the copper in the Corn- 
 wall ore is one of high interest. At present the only facts which we can bring 
 to bear upon it are those connected with the old copper operations at the edge 
 ol the Mesozoic sandstone in Chestercounty westof Norristown; and these are 
 not sulllciently understood to throw much light upon the subject It is 
 remarkable that the mines near Dillsburgin York county furnish the same 
 kind of copper-bearing magnetic iron ore as that at Cornwall ; that they are 
 surrounded by Mesozoic red sandstone near its present northern edge; and 
 that outbursts of trap similar to the trap enclosure at Cornwall are also in 
 contact with the Dillsburg ore. Similar ores are also mined on Fritz's is- 
 land in the Schuylkill near Reading, and at Boyertown and at Seitzholtz- 
 ville further east in Berks county, where copper and trap again accompany 
 the ores. All this suggests, although it does not prove, that the copper has 
 come in some form, perhaps as vapour, with the fluid lava from the interior
 
 350 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 I do not propose to repeat in this summary of the geol- 
 ogy of the State the very full description of the Cornwall 
 mine published as a separate memoir in the Annual Report 
 of the Survey for 1885, pages 491 to 565, with maps and 
 sections and page, plate diagrams, showing stope-faces, 
 the structure and the construction of the ore-mass. In 
 lieu of verbal descriptions I give the more important of 
 these illustrations, greatly reduced, but legible enough to 
 make the whole thing comprehensible.* 
 
 The geological situation of the Cornwall mine and its 
 railway connections with Lebanon are shown by Fig. 3 on 
 Plate IX. 
 
 The reason for placing it geologically at the top of II in- 
 stead of at the bottom, although it is on the southern in- 
 stead of the northern edge of the limestone belt, is made 
 clear by Fig. 1 on Plate IX, which represents a cross-section 
 of the belt (looking east) from the edge of the slate belt to 
 the edge of the Trias country. The vertical rise of the top 
 beds of II at Lebanon, their flattened rolls across the belt, 
 and their descent at Cornwall, require no commentary, f 
 
 of the earth ; and it is possible that the sulphur accompanied it On the 
 other hand we have copper shales in the Devonian formation of the northern 
 counties of the State a hundred miles from any trap, and several miles above 
 the plutonic floor. But one of the most conclusive proofs that the Cornwall 
 and Dillsburg copper has no necessary connection with either the Trap or 
 the Trias is found in the facts mentioned on a previous page, namely, that 
 similar leaves and strings of native copper are found in stripping the black 
 clay from the limonite ore mass at Ironton, which is not at all magnetic, has 
 no trap near it, and is in fact a simple leaching from the upper damourite 
 slates at the edge of the slate belt It looks as if the sea-water of that age 
 was heavily charged with soluble salts of copper, as the water of the Medi- 
 teranean Sea is now. As for the abundance of sulphur, it is only necessary 
 to allude to the many red-short ores of our back valleys, far from any 
 source of heat ; but especially to the account given on a previous page of the 
 Copperas mine between Breinigsville and Trexlersville in Lehigh county. 
 
 *The reader may find a condensed statement of all the facts, and a num- 
 T>er of their illustrations, in Mr. E. V. d'Invilliers' paper read before the In- 
 stitute of Mining Engineers at its Pittsburgh meeting, Feb., 1886, and pub- 
 lished in its Transactions. I assisted Mr. d'Invilliers by a personal examina- 
 tion of the mine, and am responsible for the theoretical conclusions to which 
 he did not yield an unqalified assent, and at which other competent geolo- 
 gists may demur. Cornwall must continue to be for many years a theme 
 for discussion. 
 
 f I have in a previous chapter described similar descents of the slates of 
 III along the south edge of the limestone belt in Cumberland and Dauphin
 
 PATH. VALLEY MINES IN FRANKLIN COUNTY. 357 
 
 Cross-sections of the ore mass and trap are given in Fig. 
 2, Plate IX, and Fig. 1, Plate XI ; and a section lengthwise 
 through the three ore hills is given in Fig. 3, Plate IX. 
 
 A reduction of D'Invilliers' topographical map of the 
 whole mine (in part) is given in Plate X. The most strik- 
 ing feature of this map is the trap liook at its eastern end. 
 I can imagine no other explanation for this most interesting 
 structure than that suggested in the memoir in the Annual 
 Report, viz : that the ore-mass really represents a body of 
 limeshales thrown into a sharp and deep synclinal, and 
 that the out* and up-flowing trap followed the synclinal 
 bedding. This south side of the synclinal trough was 
 sheared off by the fault, and, therefore, the trap hook stops 
 at the fault. But this leaves unexplained why the trap 
 did not follow up the fault to the present surface, and pre- 
 ferred rather to rise sidewise (N.) between the beds. 
 
 The curious tongued structure of the trap on the north 
 edge of the Big Hill shown in Fig. 3, Plate XI suggests 
 that we are thece not far from the extreme limit of the trap 
 ejection upwards. 
 
 The outcropping unchanged limestone beds in the body 
 of the ore mass are shown in Fig. 2, Plate XI. 
 
 Patli Valley mines in Franklin County. 
 
 Path valley is an anticlinal limestone cove in the north- 
 western side of Franklin county, extending for about ten 
 miles in a 1ST. E. and S. W. direction along the eastern base 
 of that portion of the North mountain locally known here 
 under the name of the Tuscarora mountain. It ends on 
 the S. W. in a cove between this mountain and an outlying 
 spur known as Bear Knob, while to the N. E. the anticlinal 
 
 counties. Another occurs in Lebanon county east of Cornwall. But the 
 most extraordinary instance is to be seen at Reading, where a north and 
 south belt of III is colored on d'Invilliers' map as intervening between the 
 Schuylkill and the mountains back of Reading. How the structure here is 
 to be explained I can only conjecture by supposing a westward slip of the 
 valley rocks from over the mountain gneiss. At the beginning of Chapter 
 XXVI, I have described the east dips of the limestone in the quarries at 
 Reading, but I omitted to notice this belt of overlying slate, which Mr. 
 d'Invilliers has no doubt of being No. Ill, and not primal slates.
 
 358 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 lies about midway between the Round Top and Dividing 
 Mountain spurs. The limestone of No. II is exposed in 
 this valley between Doylesburg on the IS". E. and the Rich- 
 mond furnace on the S. W. and is nowhere over two miles 
 wide, tapering toward each end. The north dips toward 
 the mountain flank are usually somewhat steeper than those 
 on the south side of the axis, especially for a distance of 
 six or eight miles in Metal township, owing largely to the 
 presence of a fault along the base of the mountain, which 
 swallows up a large portion of the No. Ill slate formation, 
 and opposite Fannettville brings the limestones of the val- 
 ley within close proximity to the mountain sand rock No. 
 IV. Along this line the dips are often vertical, if not 
 overturned to the S. E. and it is mainly in this portion of 
 the limestone area, near the junction of Nos. II and III, 
 that the iron ores of this region are exposed and developed 
 for a distance of about eight miles between Richmond fur- 
 nace and Fannettville. The South Pennsylvania branch 
 of the Cumberland Valley railroad was originally con- 
 structed to reach these deposits, which were then thought 
 to be of great extent and purity, but which after a consid- 
 erable development, have proved a source of expensive dis- 
 appointment to the projectors of the road and those inter- 
 ested in the resources of that region.* 
 
 Richmond bog ore bank at the S. W. end of the range, 
 3000' N. of Bear Knob ; long abandoned, 20'x20'xlo' deep 5 
 uniformly good rich non-phosphatic ore, but not much of it. 
 
 Mount Pleasant bank, the oldest and largest of this 
 range ; two open cuts separated by barren clay partition at 
 S. W. end and uniting in one large open cut at N. E. end 
 towards Cowan's Gap. Southern cut still 250' x 100' x 60' 
 deep, although a good deal filled up since its working was 
 abandoned. A 60' high steep barren red-sand-wash wall 
 on the S. E. in which a few decomposed layers of sandstone, 
 with steep (overturned ?) S. E. dip, appear above the con- 
 formably dipping limonite. On the N. W. side, the divid- 
 ing partition is largely of white, bine and yellow clays. 
 
 *DTnvilliers in Annual Report 1886, part IV, page 1490. The following 
 description of the banks is greatly condensed from pages 1401 to 1501.
 
 PATH VALLEY MINES IN FRANKLIN COUNTY. 359 
 
 Behind the partition dense close-grained limonite under 
 sooty-black clay ; left in wall a N. W, dipping lens-shaped 
 bed 10' to 20' thick, interrupted by barren clays. Total length 
 450'. On the mountain side 8' to 20' of stripping stopped 
 work in that direction. Total output said to be 100.000 
 tons. Analyses: Iron, 47.5; manganese, 2.3; sulp., 0.05; 
 phos., 0.34 ; silicions matter, 11.7. 
 
 Beaver bank, 2500' N. E. of last; 200' x 150' x 20' to 40' 
 deep ; bed of limonite 20' thick said to be left along E. wall. 
 A rib of barren iron stained sandstone extends through 
 the middle of the oval open cut ; and another shows in the 
 N. W. (mountain) wall, through which a drift reached 
 some good ore. No black clay ; all the barren stuff is red. 
 Whole output 10,000 tons ; ore very irregularly scattered ; 
 well 80' deep in floor, said to have gone through good wash 
 ore. 
 
 McGowan pit, 1000' N. E. of last ; small, irregular ; all 
 wash ore ; no black clay ; less red than white and yellow 
 clay. Worked long ago. Other small pits, abandoned ; 
 one 20' deep said to have been all good lump ore.* 
 
 Well up the mountain side, N. W. of the banks at the 
 foot of the slope just described, is another range of banks : 
 
 Old Johnson bank ; furnished say 500 tons of ore mixed 
 through a sand and clay wash. 
 
 Lessig pits ; the one furthest (N. E.) yielded say 200 tons 
 of slaty cold-short ore. From the other pits, 10' to 18' 
 deep, clean good limonite, say 50 tons in all. The outcrop 
 runs straight across both tracts and would yield some ore 
 here and there if opened. 
 
 Car rick 1 furnace has a run of 1^ miles on the outcrop 
 further N. E. First pit 50'x'30'xlO / , yielding considera- 
 ble good ore ; shaft 10' deep in floor stopped in ore. Porous 
 wash ore making tough iron shows in the bank wall under 
 7' stripping. Two other pits (600' N. E. of last), 50'x25'x 
 15'. gave say 500 tons of ore condemned at the furnace. f 
 
 *The banks described above are on S. Pa. M. & R. R. Co.'s tract of 6000 
 acres. The company holds leases on several thousand acres more ; but 
 the field is practically abandoned. 
 
 f This is a curiously interesting illustration of the variation in quality in 
 limonite along one and the same outcrop line.
 
 360 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 After many smaller pits comes a large one, lOO'xSO'xSO': a 
 25' shaft in the floor produced excellent lump ore. No 
 water here ; water scarce in all the pits ; pits therefore often 
 abandoned even when good ore could be got. Another cut 
 (a little lower down the slope) 300' N. E. of last ; 150'x50'x 
 20' ; slope (very old) put down 20' on N. W. side in good 
 lump ore. 
 
 Old Carrick bank, % m. further on N. E. and just in front 
 of the Wind Gap by which the road passes over into Hunt- 
 ingdon county. Here only the top of No. Ill crops out, 
 all the rest of the slate formation being swallowed, up in 
 the fault * and the ore mine 300'x40'x25' runs along the 
 fault and close to the limestone. A shaft 125' deep sunk in 
 the mine floor is said to have passed through a steeply dip- 
 ping 30' to 35' ore bed. Another shaft (at W. end) is said to 
 have gone 75 feet through this ore and stopped in solid 
 lump-ore. Yet the whole place is abandoned and dilapi- 
 dated. Most of the output came from gallery workings N. 
 E. and S. W. of the ravine. All the wall towards the 
 mountain shows soft sooty black clay, like that which caps 
 so manv of the mines along the foot of the South mount- 
 ain. Four sets of lessees have worked the mine ; output 
 estimates vary so as to be worthless. Analyses of samples 
 of ore used by Carrick furnace in 1880: (1) lump ore: 
 Iron, 45.3; mang., 1.1 ; sulp., 0.05; sil. mat., 16.3 ; phos., 
 0.36 (2) wash ore : 36.4 ; 1.7 ; 0.06 ; 26.0 ; 0.27. 
 
 Railroad bank (Carrick Fur. Co.) 1200' further N. E. 
 than last ; 400 / x40 / xl6 / ; not much ore visible in 1886; strip- 
 ping very heavy; shaf t 'under S. E. wall 40' (reported) en- 
 tirely in ore, and in drifts to N. and W. Bank must have 
 had a very large output. Analysis of a sample picked 
 up: Iron, 43.6; mang., 0.24; sulp., 0.005; sil. m., 18.5; 
 phos., 1.482 (unusally large). 
 
 A few more pits are seen further on N. E. beyond the 
 Fannettville road ; outcrop distinct for more than a mile ; 
 G. Umbril's abandoned pit being the last. 
 
 A short distance E. of Mercersburg are three small banks, 
 
 *Henderson's fault, as we used to call it, because discovered and described 
 by A. A. Henderson of the First Geol. Survey of the State 1839-40.
 
 THE IIENRIETA MINES OF BLAIR COUNTY. 361 
 
 Leib's, Stauffef '?, McFarland 1 s, now abandoned, which 
 yielded some good bog ore. 
 
 Stinger's old pits at the mouth of Bear valley, 1 m. E. of 
 London, and on or near the II-III line ; long abandoned ; 
 analysis: Iron, 39.5; mang.,4.8; sulp., 0.04; sil. m., 18.8 ; 
 phos., 0.61. 
 
 Garlic BankE. of last (2 m. S. W. of St Thomas) ; 
 200'xlOO'x20'; walls of red clay carrying fine ore and a little 
 lump; not worked for 15 years (1886) ; too far from RR. ; 
 good ore; analysis: Iron, 52.9; mang., 0.08; sulp., 0.15; 
 sil. m., 6.89 ; phos., 0.06. 
 
 In the other direction 2 m. W. from Mercersburg, the 
 Webster bank is on a II-III contact line ; abandoned. 
 
 The Henrleitamines of Blair Co. 
 
 These limonite deposits are the only others to be described 
 in this chapter as appearing to have a geological horizon at 
 the top of II, in contact with the slates of III, and along 
 lines of fault like the Path Valley mines in Franklin 
 county last described.* 
 
 Leather cracker Cove is made by an anticlinal of No. II 
 limestone, faulted on both sides, so that the arch is thrown 
 up 2000' and rests against the slates (III) and the sand- 
 stones (IV) of Tussey mountain to the east, and of a small 
 slate ridge (III) to the west. The big fault (the eastern one 
 at the foot of Tussey) is about a mile long, and approxi- 
 mately parallel with the strike of the country. The anti- 
 clinal runs on N. 20 E. to and through Canoe Valley in 
 Huntingdon county. See Fig. A in Report T, p. 91. 
 
 * I am loth to mix these up with the great mines of the Great Valley, and 
 to separate them from the regional mines of Nittany Valley and Morrison's 
 cove ; but they are the only notable mines in middle Pennsylvania behind 
 the Great Valley referable to the top of II, when I made my last 
 survey of that iron region ; all the other limonite deposits of II being re- 
 ferable to various horizons in the body of the formation. But it will ap- 
 pear in a subsequent chapter (XXXIV) that I now place a different inter- 
 pretation on that fact, and believe that the Henrietta ore horizon is only ac- 
 cidentally connected with the slates of III by reason of a great upthrow 
 fault
 
 362 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 lALap cft/te SaticonZinc TTtlnes cuici vicinity. ~Pl. XII . 

 
 THE HENRIETTA MINES OF BLAIR COUNTY. 363 
 
 The line of contact limonite ore deposits runs from the 
 Henrietta bank due south. At the south end of the line 
 of ore the Oneida terrace (IVa) and the Hudson river 
 slates (UK) are swallowed by the fault.* It seems a logi- 
 cal conclusion that this line of limonite ore has been pro- 
 duced in some way by the fault. The contact of II and III 
 is sharply defined along Tussey mountain its whole length 
 across four counties, and along Dunnings, Lock, Loop, 
 Canoe, Bald Eagle and Nittany mountains, for about a hun- 
 dred miles of outcrop. Almost every ravine cutting 
 through the terrace of slate into the limestone valley affords 
 as good an opportunity as could be desired for finding any 
 ore deposits existing at the contact of the two formations, 
 or produced by the decomposition of lime-shale beds of pas- 
 sage from limestone to slate. In most cases the cultivated 
 fields at the base of the mountain would betray the pres- 
 ence of such ore deposits. In spite of all this however not 
 a single such discovery of any importance has been reported, 
 except in Leathercracker cove. The conclusion is obviously 
 good that the Henrietta ore mines occupy this geological 
 horizon exceptionally, by accident, and solely in virtue of 
 the Leathercracker faults. 
 
 But this conclusion has a wider range and applies forc- 
 ably to the Great Valley, where we see the Path Valley 
 deposits of Franklin county lying along just such another 
 fault ; and then we must go 140 miles along the middle con- 
 tact line II and III before we reach the Moselem mine in 
 Berks county, where we have seen there is some reason for 
 suspecting a faulted structure. In the Ironton region of 
 Lehigh county there is scarcely a single mine which can be 
 assigned with certainty to the contact of II and III ; and 
 from Ironton eastward no deposits of limonite can be 
 proved to overlie the Trenton. Even at Cornwall there is 
 solid limestone (Trenton ? ) at the very top of the ore shale 
 mass. Remembering that no limonite appears with the 
 passage beds in the bends of the Conedogwinit in Cumber- 
 land county, and keeping always in mind that we have as 
 
 *A11 the arguments for the fault are given successively in detail in T, 
 p. 90, to which the reader is referred.
 
 364 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 yet no assistance from fossil forms in determining the true 
 position of any limestone or lime shale beds faulted against 
 the slates of III at Henrietta mine or elsewhere, it must be 
 regarded as quite possible that all our Great Valley limo- 
 nites are cavern deposits of very recent date derived from 
 the decomposition of a series of damourite lime shales be- 
 longing to various horizons in the Magnesian limestone for- 
 mation, that is, the Chazy and Calciferous. 
 In the next chapter such horizor^s will be exhibited.
 
 NITTANY VALLEY LIMESTONES NO. II. 365 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 Nittany Valley limestones, No. II. Centre County anti- 
 clinals. Nittany Valley cross -sections. 
 
 The ore horizons of the Great Valley have been seen to 
 be obscured by the folded and crumpled condition of lime 
 stone and slate belts. In Nittany, Brush, Penns, Canoe 
 and Kishicoquillis valleys, and in Morrison's, Friend's and 
 McConnellsburgh coves, a simple anticlinal structure, dis- 
 turbed by only a few faults and hardly at all crumpled, 
 makes the order of the limestone beds an easier study, 
 sufficient to establish the different horizons by approxi- 
 mately parallel ranges of ore banks.* 
 
 The great rock waves of Middle Pennsylvania are splen- 
 didly exhibited in the McConnellsburgh Cove in Fulton 
 county, with its 8000' fault on the western side ; in Kishi- 
 coquillis valley in Mifflin county, with its surrounding ter- 
 race and eastern keel-shaped mountain prongs ; and most 
 of all in Nittany valley and Morrison's Cove (united by 
 Canoe valley) where the grandest anticlinal of the State 
 brings to the surface the whole of the magnesian limestone 
 (capped by 400' of Trenton limestone) with immense de- 
 posits of iron ore. A description of the Nittany anticlinal, 
 and of the subordinate waves which broaden and spread out 
 its southern slope, is a necessary preliminary to the descrip- 
 tion of that oldest and richest iron ore region of middle 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Centre county anticlinals. 
 
 The great Nittany valley anticlinal, which brings to the 
 surface the top layers of No. II in Mosquito valley in 
 
 *Mr. D'Invilliers in Report T4, p. 137-8, says that the popular belief in 
 continuous belts of ore-producing territory along fixed outcrop belts or 
 horizons was not confirmed by his survey of Centre county ; but this does 
 not invalidate the statement that limestone horizons are demonstrable, and 
 ore horizons approximately so.
 
 366 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Ft. XIII. 
 
 &WM Section* tfJfoJl in Jfittaivy Valley, GemtivGo. 
 
 Chestnut ndge taledwy'rirfye-.. 
 
 zfetD 

 
 CENTRE COUNTY ANTICLINALS. 367 
 
 Lycoming, and Nippenose valley in Clinton, rises in Cen- 
 tre county so as to expose on the Centre-Huntingdon line, 
 west of Bellefonte, at least 6000' of the formation, without 
 however bringing the bottom beds to the surface.* 
 
 Continuing S. W. across Huntingdon into Blair at a still 
 higher elevation it exposes more than 6000' of No. II down 
 to (or nearly to) the bottom beds at Birmingham on the 
 Little Juniata. Then it sinks rapidly to the head of Sink- 
 ing Creek valley, where the slates of III close over it, and 
 the mountain rocks of IV, the Frankstown fossil ore red- 
 shales of V, and the Hollidaysburg limestones, etc. cover 
 it; and so it runs on south through the Devonians into the 
 coal measures of Somerset county. 
 
 The Gatesburg ridge anticlinal in Centre county runs 
 parallel and 1J miles to the S. E. of the Nittany (Chestnut 
 ridge) anticlinal ; and becomes the Hickory ridge anti- 
 clinal of Huntingdon county, crossing Half Moon creek 2 
 m. N. of its junction with Spruce creek. f 
 
 Dry Hollow synclinal lies between the Chestnut ridge 
 and Hickory ridge anticlinals. 
 
 Sand ridge (Tadpole ridge} anticlinal in Centre county, 
 runs parallel and 1 m. S. E. of the Gatesburg ridge anti- 
 clinal, and its S. E. dips pass beneath Spruce creek down 
 into the roots of Tussey mountain. It is the Spruce 
 creek anticlinal of Huntingdon county. On the county 
 line, opposite Pennsylvania furnace, it brings to the surface 
 
 * D'Invilliers in T3, p. 443 : East of Bellefoute the axis beds are the " Bar- 
 ren " sandrocks of Sand ridge ; west of Bellefonte the axis runs along Chest- 
 nut ridge. Its S. E. dips are rather gentle here, but its N. W. dips (in the 
 Stormstown valley, 1^ miles wide, between Chestnut ridge and Bald Eagle 
 mountain) are steep, vertical, or even overturned so as to dip S. E. 
 
 f This arch is quite subordinate to the great Nittany arch, and is in fact 
 a roll on the grand S. E. slope of the formation from the Nittany arch crest 
 towards Tussey mountain. One result is that the Hickory ridge barrens 
 are not the Sand ridge barrens of Centre county, but are much higher in 
 the series ; giving us two quite distinct horizons of Calciferous sandstone 
 strata in No. II. This roll appears to die down rapidly N. E. and S. W. 
 from Half Moon run, and probably flattens out before reaching Warrior 
 run ; at all events there is no trace of it in the long exposures of the Little 
 Juniata. It seems to bring up the particular horizon of shales from which 
 the Old Seat, Huntingdon furnace, and Dorsey ore deposits were generated. 
 (D'Invilliers letter of May 18, 1885, in T3, p. 445.)
 
 368 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 3500' of No. II ; and it is in this upper half of the for- 
 mation that most of the pipe ores of the region are mined.* 
 
 The Brush valley anticlinal runs along at the S. E. foot 
 of Nittany Mountain, between it and Brush mountain. f It 
 passes north of Rebersburg and Madison ville, with N. W. 
 dips of 65 to 70, and S. E. dips of 15 to 20. Just north 
 of the Penns Valley cave, pure soft gray Trenton limestone 
 beds dip 70 N. W. and 45 S. E. It reaches its greatest 
 height near Centre Hall, where it brings to the surface beds 
 2500' beneath No. TIL:}: Sinking and flattening S. W. it car- 
 ries the Watson, Ross, Stover and other ore deposits. On 
 Spring creek. 1 m. S. of Lemont, its dips are 48 N. W. 
 and 12 S. E., flattening to 8 at Boalsburg. Then it rap- 
 idly dies out before reaching the foot of Tussey mountain. 
 
 The Penns Valley anticlinal runs south of Brush mount- 
 ain, between it and Stone mountain, in the slates of III in 
 Pine Creek Hollow ; lifts the top Trenton beds at Hoster- 
 man's saw mill, and rims into a cove of Tussey mountain. 
 
 TJie Penns Narrows anticlinal barely lifts to the surface 
 in the Narrows and in George's valley the top Trenton 
 
 *This Sand ridge anticlinal axis runs from Pennsylvania furnace (N. E.) 
 to Johnston's ore bank in College township, lapping past the dying Brush 
 Valley anticlinal ; and between the two begins the Nittany mountain syn- 
 clinal which deepens (N. E.) and takes in the slates of III, the sandstone 
 of IV, and the red shale of V, which make the canoe-shaped Nittany mount- 
 ain. At Pennsylvania furnace the Sand Ridge dips vary from 25 to 60, 
 N. W. and 25 to 40 S. E. At Johnston's bank its S. E. dips vary from 
 15 to 30. (T4, 35.) 
 
 f Eastward this axis makes Sand mountain in Union county and crosses 
 the Susquehanna near New Columbia. Westward it curves from W. toS. W. 
 just as the Nittany valley anticlinal does, entering Centre county in Miles 
 township at the head of the narrow Hudson river slate cove with which 
 Brush valley commences. It brings up the top Trenton beds near Rudy's 
 mill. 
 
 JThis accounts for the ore-poverty of Brush valley; the uppermost ore 
 horizons on steep dips affording no good opportunity for concentration and 
 preservation ; and the rest being buried. 
 
 It crosses the Susquehanna north of Lewisburg. On e mile east of Aaron s- 
 burg its limesand beds dip 68 N. 25 W. and 40<-' S. 35 E. It bends 
 sharply southwards and crosses the pike i m. S. of Millheim, where dips of 
 70, 640, go N. W., and 12, 20, 30 S. E. are seen. Then it bends and runs 
 due west to the church, 1 m. N. E. of Penn Hall ; here|m. N. of edge of III 
 in Egg Hill. North of Spring Mills its dips are 60 N. W., 20 S. E, Gentle 
 arch at Penns creek ; greatest height 2m. further west on the Bellefonte- 
 Lewistown pike ; then turns S. W. and dies into the Tussey mountain cove.
 
 CROSS SECTIONS IN CENTRE COUNTY. 369 
 
 beds, with dips of 70 N. W. and 60 S. E. Its highest 
 point is 2 m. W. of the MiJlheim pike with dips of 70 N. 
 W. and 50 S. E. At Potter's mills are dips of 85 N. W. 
 and 70 to 80 S. E. It sinks west in the slate "Loop" 4 
 m. west of Potter's mills, and issues S. W. from Tussey 
 mountain at the Bear Meadows in Huntingdon county.* 
 
 It will be seen from the above sketch of the structure 
 and from the figured cross-sections why almost all the limo- 
 nite ore deposits are confined to the Nittany valley proper, 
 the great arch of which brings up nearly the whole of for- 
 mation No. II, exposing to erosion and concentration all 
 its iron-bearing limeshale and limesand horizons. 
 
 Cross-sections in Centre Co. 
 
 Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, on Plate XIII show the structure of 
 the region by a series of cross sections described in Mr. 
 D'lnvilliers' report on Centre county, T4, 1884, pp. 34 
 to 41. The rest appear as plates p. 668 &c. below. 
 
 The Madisonburg Gap cross-section, at the Clinton- 
 Centre county line, shows the Nittany axis barely a mile 
 distant from the Bald Eagle mountain in which the slates 
 of III are vertical or overturned (S. E. 80 to 86). Against 
 these rest the thin-bedded shaly Trenton limestones (He) ; 
 against these rest the white, hard crystalline, magnesian, 
 sandy Chazy limestones ; and under these on the arch the 
 limy sandstones of Sand ridge, making "The Barrens." 
 At the Washington Furnace and. Beck ore banks (2 m. N. 
 W. of the old Washington furnace) the measures are over- 
 turned, and the ore horizon is about 3000' beneath the Slates 
 of III. South of the arch the same ores lie at the Snavely, 
 Sallow and Day, and Huston banks, dipping 30, S. 85 
 E. (towards Nittany mountain) between beds of cherty lime- 
 stone (Chazy, or Calciferous) ; the slates of III at the base 
 of the mountain dipping 40, and the Medina sandstone 
 50, S. E. 
 
 * The Confer anticlinal only exposes III in Decker valley, and in the 
 small oval Lick valley (Lechenthal). 
 
 The Poe Valley anticlinal, passing from Union into Mifflin county, also 
 only exposes III along the north foot of Paddy's mountain and south foot 
 of Bald mountain. 
 
 24
 
 370 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The Howard and Jacksonville cross-section, 4 m. S. W. 
 of the last, shows the sand-lime strata (containing some 
 good pale blue beds) at Jacksonville overturned 68 to 80, 
 S. E. without any appearance of a break or fault in the 
 arch. Fossiliferous blue limestone quarries are N. W. of 
 the village ; and black shiny Utica slate, polished by slid- 
 ing pressure, within 300' of the Bald Eagle mountain, has 
 been prospected for coal ! Near the Butler ore bank inter- 
 stratified magnesian limestone and common sandstone 
 beds are overthrown to 50 or 60, S. E. Sand ridge has a 
 double, crest, the northern crest being made by very hard 
 blue flaggy sandstone beds; the southern covered with 
 loose sand. The sandstone beds are regularly inter strati- 
 fied with the magnesian limestone beds. The higher 
 southern ridge shows 20 to 25 dips to S. E. The ore hori- 
 zon in Madison Gap cross- section above here runs through 
 the Hecla, Voneda, and Schwartz mine limestones dipping 
 30 to 40, S. E. Then come the overlying dark blue Trenton 
 beds (He) making a reddish soil ; then the Utica black 
 slates, extensively prospected for coal, on the H. Brown 
 tract, dipping 40, S. E. 
 
 The Hecla Furnace cross- section, 3m. W. of last. In 
 Little Fishing Creek Gap IV dips 52, 40, 40, S. E. Be- 
 tween Nittany mountain and Sand ridge a shallow valley. 
 Blue very slightly calcareous sandstones, dipping 22, S. E. 
 were once quarried for paving flagstones (40, S. 30 E.) 
 near the McKinney ore bank. At the Darrah bank, N. W. 
 of the Sand ridge, the same blue silicious magnesian lime- 
 stones in bold ledges and cliffs dip 20 to 25, 8. E. into the 
 ridge.* Along the north road, magnesian limestones are 
 overturned to 85, 83, 70, 83, 80, 88 to S. E., but others 
 dip 85, 88, 60, 65, 76 normally N. W. The anticlinal 
 begins to get its normal shape after passing S. W. into 
 Spring township. 
 
 The Belief onte cross-section is the best that can be got 
 N. E. of the Little Juniata. The Barrens (sand ridge), 
 sinking 4m. E. of Belief onte, do not show the sandstones 
 
 *This is a mile from Bald Eagle mountain and must mean an excessive 
 overturn.
 
 CROSS SECTIONS IN CENTRE COUNTY. 371 
 
 on the section. The Medina sandstones, IV, in Bald Eagle 
 mountain dip 80 to 70, N. W. The slates of III on the 
 mountain side, 50, N. W. The Trenton blue fossiliferous 
 limestones, IIIc, 600' thick, both massive and thin bedded, 
 fine grained and laminated, dip 50, N. W., as in the Alex- 
 ander and Morris quarries on Spring creek north of Belle- 
 fonte. Then at the Presbyterian church appear the upper- 
 most magnesian (Chazy) beds, banded, broken by cleavage 
 holding masses of chert, and decidedly whiter than those 
 above them ; all of them more or less sandy and cross- 
 cracked ; dipping on an average 50 (with local variations 
 of 30 to 60) N. W. to the anticlinal axis, a mile S. of 
 Bellefonte, were they only dip 9 N. W. and S. E. Then 
 the same beds descend in the same order, with S. E. dips of 
 30, 20, 12 and 10, toward Nittany mountain. 
 
 The Fillmore-Boalsburg cross-section, 6 miles further S. 
 W. crosses the whole valley ( m. W. of the end of Nit- 
 tany mountain) from the Bald Eagle mountain to Tussey 
 mountain, 8 miles, across the Nittany valley anticlinal, the 
 Nittany mountain synclinal, and the Brush Valley anticli- 
 nal. Here the bottom slates of III dip. 70, N. W. The 
 blue Trenton beds, at first 70, lower their dips so rapidly 
 that at Fillmore they dip only 20 to 15, N. W. Half a mile 
 further, on Crust farm, the arch of lime-sandstones is flat- 
 tened to 6 dips both ways (10, 12, well exposed on Spring 
 Creek, 1 m. S. of Roopsburg). South of the axis in Big 
 Hollow, N. W. of Houserville, purer limestones descend at 
 10, 15, 18, 16, 30, S. E. into Paddington ore banks. On 
 Slab Cabin run, 15, 20*, S. 60 E. (showing the shoaling of 
 the Nittany mountain synclinal). Here the long syncli- 
 nal prong of III is crossed. Then the Trenton limestones 
 rise steeply (50, 60, N. 20 W.). Then the lime sandstones 
 rise (48, N. W.) on the Brush Valley anticlinal, and sink 
 again (8 to 12, S. E. )covered by the Trenton beds descend- 
 ing at 20 to 30 under the slates of III in Tussey mountain.
 
 372 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 Centre county limonite mines. Pennsylvania Furnace 
 ore banks. 
 
 Mr. E. V. d' Invilliers' elaborate report on Centre county, 
 T4, was published in 1884, when the iron industry of the 
 state was depressed, when only three of the four small char 
 coal furnaces were in blast and the supply of water for 
 washing the limonite ores of the county was very limited. 
 
 Since that date there has been an active movement in de- 
 veloping the iron ore resources of the district. Two large 
 coke furnaces, with the latest improvements, have been 
 erected at Belief on te by the Robert Valentine Company, and 
 the Philip Collins Company, and operated under various 
 changes of name. Brown hematite banks have been opened 
 up all along the ore belts, especially in the middle mem- 
 bers of the limestone series. Branch railroads have been 
 constructed to reach the mines near the State College and 
 along the foot of Bald Eagle mountain. The use of jigs to 
 separate the ore from the Hint and sandstone of the ore 
 masses is now common and will soon be universal. Water 
 for washing away the clay and sand is procured either from 
 the surface streams or, in the dry limestone districts, by 
 sinking artesian wells to the drainage level ; some of them 
 being several hundred feet deep, and at least one of them 
 west of the Huntingdon county line, a thousand feet. 
 The market for the ores is found at the numerous furnaces 
 along the main line of the Pennsylvania railroad and its 
 branches. The fuel used is coke from the Clear-field and 
 Connellsville coal districts. 
 
 Two varieties of ore. * 
 
 The two chief varieties of ore occurring in the county are : 
 1st. The wash and lump hematite ore of the " barrens." 2d. 
 The pipe ores. 
 
 *This paragraph and those that succeed it as far as to the end of the list of 
 mine groups are taken nearly verbatim from Mr. d'Invilliers' report on Cen- 
 tre county, T4, 1884, pp. 133 to 138. His detailed descriptions of the mines 
 of these groups occupy 117 pages of that volume (pp. 139 to 256) of which no 
 summary can be made with any success. I will confine myself to a de- 
 scription of the great Pennsylvania furnace mine and refer the reader for 
 the rest to his excellent work.
 
 CENTRE COUNTY LIMONITE MINES. 373 
 
 1. Of the first class it may be stated that the appearance 
 and character of the ore in all the banks, as well as the ac- 
 companying waste material, show evidence of their being 
 waste deposits, caught in vast caverns of irregular shape, 
 showing mixed sand, tough clay and rolled ore, and though 
 intimately associated with sandy measures in the limestone 
 formation of II have really a still lower limestone bottom. 
 
 In the chief mines of the district notably at Scotia and 
 Tow hill after a superficial covering of 15 to 30 feet of 
 mixed clay, sand and fine ore has been removed, the under 
 surface reveals solid rock-ore in large lumps, mixed with 
 clay in a confused arrangement, of great richness and va- 
 riety. An integral difference in the clays of these ores and 
 the limestone pipe ores (one to be expected probably from 
 their different horizons) is the much greater stiffness and 
 toughness of the former. The clay of these lower ores fre- 
 quently occurs in non-ferruginous bands or dykes, running 
 through the length of the banks, barren, and hard .to pass 
 through the washers, but by no means cutting off the ore. 
 This non-ferruginous clay has usually a white to pink 
 color ; while the yellow clay of the pipe ore deposits is inti- 
 mately mixed with the ores and offers no material resistence 
 to their thorough cleansing in the washing-machines. 
 
 Moreover, it may be noted that in every case the ore of 
 the barren needs jigging in addition to washing to free it 
 from the mixed sand and flint that accompany it. 
 
 All the analyses of these ores show an absence of bisul- 
 phide of iron, and the occurrence of all the iron as sesqui- 
 oxide at once suggested a different chain of effects in the 
 production of these as compared with the pipe ores, to be 
 presently described, where this salt of iron is frequently 
 present. 
 
 The sand rocks which originally held these ores occupy 
 a position low down in the sandlime series of II. By 
 having their lime leached out, these loosely aggregated 
 sandstones have fallen into sand, and it is probable that 
 this same leaching action has concentrated their iron salts, 
 which would be deposited as insoluble peroxide. What 
 changes may have followed this process of deposition to
 
 374 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 bring about the irregular and confused appearance of the 
 banks to-day and the grading of the ore body from fine to 
 coarse lumps is a matter of speculation still. The deposits 
 do not look like formations in situ, nor would such a theory 
 explain the rounded character of ore and flint balls and 
 occurrence of barren spots beside nests of great richness. 
 
 While no distinctively pipe ores have been reported from 
 the ore banks in the "barrens," some persons detect in the 
 compact needle ore (occasionally met with) a form of pipe, 
 and illustrate their opinions of the common origin of pipe 
 and hematite ores by this fact. Physically and chemically 
 they appear to be quite different ; but the general resem- 
 blance of all ores from different banks, divided only as to 
 two classes, is not as remarkable as the local variations 
 which give rise to the occurrence of bessemer, neutral and 
 cold-short ores lying quite close to each other, and appar- 
 ently along the same range. 
 
 2. The pipe ores have varying horizons in the limestone, 
 and though generally above the essential ''barrens" limo- 
 nites, it is by no means certain that some of them do not 
 occur also in the 1000 feet of limestone beneath these. 
 
 The frequent connection of damourite slate beds with the 
 chief ore bodies in the southeastern district of the State is 
 not observed in Centre county. It is true that most of the 
 pipe ores are accompanied with a white and buff-colored clay, 
 which may be the result of the decomposition of such slate 
 bands ; but it may also represent the disintegration of the 
 magnesian limestones themselves. 
 
 While the chemical explanation of these facts is still a 
 matter of speculation, repeated examinations of the ore 
 banks in various parts of Nittany and Penns valleys leads 
 me to believe that the pipe ores are deposits probably due 
 either, first: To the decomposition of iron pyrites, origi- 
 nally contained in the limestone or slate bands, and after 
 oxidation as sulphate, filled into interstices in the limestone, 
 and changed into peroxide by contact with vegetable mat- 
 ter or other organic substances ; or, second : To the prior pro- 
 duction of ferrous carbonate, by reaction between the fer- 
 rous sulphate and the calcium carbonate of the limestone,
 
 CENTRE COUNTY LIMONITE MINES. 375 
 
 afterwards converted into limonite by oxidation and hydra- 
 tion. The manner of occurrence between walls of regularly- 
 bedded limestone, sometimes as thin shells of ore and again 
 as large pipes in masses 8 to 10 feet thick, would confirm 
 one or the other of these views, while the presence of iron 
 pyrites in perfectly undecomposed pipes surrounded with 
 thoroughly oxidized ore in the Sinking Creek mine in Penns 
 valley, lends probability to the theory. The presence of 
 pyrites in hematite is not new, and the many analyses show- 
 ing bi-sulphide of iron in the succeeding pages will illus- 
 trate its frequency in this district. Crystallized brown 
 hematite, a pseudomorph after pyrite, has been gathered 
 in the Cumberland valley, as well as specimens of bombr 
 shell ore holding a clay inside filled with loose crystals 
 of pyrites. 
 
 In other banks showing a low percentage of sulphur 
 many of these ores may have occurred as carbonates in the 
 slates, which upon the dissolution of their lime matter 
 have deposited these iron salts as now found. In those 
 banks where a considerable surface deposit has escaped 
 from the general erosion, this oxidation has been so com*- 
 plete as to show but a low percentage of sulphur ; whereas, 
 in the case of the Sinking Creek mine before mentioned, 
 the ore occurs in places between limestone beds, and has not 
 yet had a chance to become thoroughly changed. 
 
 The outcropping of these pipe ores is spread out to a 
 much greater extent than they occupy lower down be- 
 tween limestone layers. The width of these outcrops is 
 affected by the topography of the country. This surface 
 ore is greatly disintegrated, and occasionally is indeed so 
 fine as to be hardly distinguished from so much reddish 
 brown loam or earth ; but a close inspection of it will re- 
 veal the presence of small stems or pipes, making usually 
 a cubic yard of ore for each 4 or 5 cubic yards of material, 
 and often better. 
 
 The work of the season did not confirm the popular be- 
 lief in continuous belts of ore-producing territory along 
 miles of surface outcrop. At best, while assigning approx- 
 imate horizons to these pipe ore deposits, they have their
 
 376 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Section ofPenn's Valley through BoaLsburg. 
 
 /. XIV. 
 
 Section through the Henderson farm S.W.ofBoalsburcj. 
 
 * , 
 
 Map ffftfie <Pe7JiiAylrania andaderlimoitifc /a/net;,, Centre Co:
 
 CENTRE COUNTY LIMONITE MINES. 
 
 377 
 
 JVate XV. 
 
 ci limonite mine in 6enf/re Go. &CL.
 
 378 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 rich and poor places feather out entirely in the line of 
 strike and widen again into masses several yards thick, 
 while keeping a general parallelism of bedding with the 
 parent rock and liable to show its change of dip. It is use- 
 less to speculate on the possibilities of these deposits, but 
 the ore has been found at great depths, and much original 
 outcrop soil is as yet untouched. For convenience sake it 
 has been thought best to describe them in groups geogra- 
 phical rather than geological, as follows : 
 
 Belief onle-Nitlany Valley group, embracing the follow- 
 ing banks : Curtm Bros., Fishing Creek bank, Jackson 
 mine, Red bank, Hoy bank, etc., Gatesburg, Taylor, Nigh, 
 and Logan banks. 
 
 Jacksonville Valley group, containing Zimmerman, 
 Darrah, McCalmont, Butler, Beck and Washington Fur- 
 nace bank, etc. 
 
 Hublersburg Valley group, with the Field, McKinney 
 Quinn, Hecla, Howard, Voneda, Schwartz, Huston 1 and 2, 
 Snavely and Barlow & Day mines. 
 
 Buffalo Run group, Hunter, Crust, Markle, Lambourn, 
 Pond, Newell, Desert and Celtic banks. 
 
 Barrens group, Lovetown, Tow Hill, Scotia, Ackley, 
 Lytle, Red bank, Bull bank, etc. 
 
 Pennsylvania Furnace and College group, holding Bry- 
 son bank, Johnson, Streuble, Stover, Puddington, and Big 
 Hollow banks. 
 
 Perm's Valley group, Watson, Ross, Sinking Creek, J. 
 P. Rankle, Emerick, etc. 
 
 The Pennsylvania Furnace mine. 
 
 This famous ore bank, on Spruce creek, in Centre county, 
 close to the Huntingdon county line, has been mined since 
 1815. Its situation in respect to the other ore mines of Nit- 
 tany Valley is shown on local map, Plate XIV, page 376, 
 Fig. 2.* A special map of the mine as it was in 1873 is on 
 
 *T4, 1884, Appendix A, p. 372. Extracts from J. P. Lesley's report to 
 Lyon, Shorb & Co., in 1873. All figures given in the text above are copied 
 (reduced to I linear) of. the figures in T4. They will serve well enough as 
 illustrations.
 
 PENNSYLVANIA FURNACE MINE. 379 
 
 the same plate, Fig. 3. On Plate XV, page 377, Fig 1 is 
 a view of the mine from the top of its S. W. wall ; Fig. 2 is 
 a near view of the ribs of undecomposed rock in the pro- 
 montory seen at the edge of Fig. 1 ; and Fig. 3 shows the 
 height of the wash ore in the walls. 
 
 The great excavation is aboat 1400' long by 600' wide and 
 60' deep, but shafts sunk 35' to a permanent water level 
 proved that other and even better ore masses lie at least that 
 much deeper, and these are covered by undecomposed 
 lime rocks dipping 40, S. E. as seen in the walls of the 
 promontory above. 
 
 The geologist can here study the theory of the formation 
 of the Lower Silurian brown hematite ores of Pennsylva- 
 nia to great advantage. I know no better place, and few 
 so good. 
 
 The ores are evidently not washings from a distance ; 
 neither from Tussey mountain, nor from the present sur- 
 face of the anticlinal ridge ; nor from any formerly existing 
 surface in past geological ages, when the surface stood at 
 a much higher elevation above sea level. They are evi- 
 dently and visibly interstratih'ed with the soft clay and 
 solid limestone layers, and obey the strike and dip of the 
 country ; the strike being along the valley, and the dip 
 about 40 towards the southeast. 
 
 Thousands of minor irregularities prevail ; the streaks of 
 ore and masses of clay are wrinkled and bunched, and thin 
 out and thicken again in various directions. But all this 
 irregularity is owing to the chemical changes of the strata, 
 and to the changes in bulk of the different layers during 
 the protracted process of solution and dissolution, during 
 which the looser calciferous and ferriferous sandstone lay- 
 ers have lost their lime constituent, packed their sand and 
 clay more solidly, and perhydrated their iron. In this long 
 process cleavage planes have been widened into crevices ; 
 caverns have been excavated; pools or vats have been cre- 
 ated ; precipitates of massive (rock and pipe) ore have been 
 thrown down; and a general creeping and wrinkling of the 
 country been effected. But the original general arrange- 
 ment or stratification has been preserved ; and those por-
 
 380 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 tions of the whole formation which had but little lime 
 have been left standing as sandstone strata ; while others 
 having but little sand remain as solid and massive lime- 
 stone strata; those which had an excess of alumina are now 
 in the condition of streaks, masses, or layers of white or 
 mottled clays ; and only such as were properly constituted 
 clay-sand-lime-iron deposits (originally) have been so com- 
 pletely dissolved as to permit the lime to flow off, and the 
 iron to consolidate into ore. 
 
 Every stage of this interesting operation, and every phase 
 which it presents in other parts of the Appalachian belt of 
 the United States from Canada to Alabama may be seen 
 and studied in these old and extensive ore banks of Penn- 
 sylvania furnace. 
 
 At first sight of the bank the ore deposit looks as if it 
 were a grand wash or swash of mingled clay and fine and 
 coarse ore grains and balls, occupying hollows, caverns and 
 crevices in the surface of the earth and between the solid 
 limestone rocks; and some of it undoubtedly has been thus 
 carried down into the enlarged cleavage partings of the 
 limestones ; and into sinkholes and caverns formed by 
 water-courses ; where it now lies (or lay when excavated) 
 banked up against walls or faces of the undecomposed lime 
 rock. But as a whole the ore streaks and "main vein" of 
 ore must occupy nearly the places originally occupied by 
 the more ferruginous strata after they had got their dip and 
 strike. 
 
 The ore is taken out with the clay, and hauled up an in- 
 cline by means of a stationary steam engine at its head, and 
 dumped into a large washing machine, with revolving 
 screens ; whence, after the flints and sandstones have been 
 picked out, it is carried on an ironed tramway to the bridge 
 house of the furnace. 
 
 The ore forms from 10 to 50 per cent, of the mass exca- 
 vated, and the small amount of handling makes the ore 
 cheap. 
 
 The upper ores will furnish stock for yet many years. 
 After that, or in case more furnaces are erected, or distant 
 markets calls for the shipment of ore by railway, deep shafts
 
 PENNSYLVANIA FURNACE MINE. 381 
 
 or bore holes must be sunk to drain the underground, and 
 the lower ones may then be lifted to an unknown extent. 
 The prism of ore in siglit in 1873, calculated roughly from 
 the old banks and new cuts and shafts, old and new, in 
 various places, contains several millions of tons of wash 
 ore, lump ore, and pipe (rock) ore.* But the unproven ore 
 ground ranges far into the surrounding lands. A large 
 new area was stripped in 1873. Large quantities of ore are 
 left between the limestone ribs in the walls of the pit, as 
 shown in Figs. 33, 34. The limestone ribs dip 35 to 40, S, 
 35 E. on the range of natural outcrops shown in the local 
 map, Fig. 37. Slight crumplings of the limestone vary the 
 dip from 18 to 65 ; but these are due either to movements 
 in the yielding ore mass or to a deception caused by mis- 
 taking cleavage planes for bed plates. No such variations 
 are apparent at a distance from the banks, the whole 
 limestone formation descending uniformly beneath the 
 foot of Tussey mountain with a dip of something under 40. 
 
 The height of the walls of the various excavations may 
 be seen by reference to the ten-foot contour lines in Fig, 37. 
 These also show that the ground now so deeply excavated 
 once formed a high divide between a vale descending south- 
 west to Spruce Creek, and a corresponding but shallower 
 vale descending northeast to the settling-dam hollow. It 
 looks as if the ore once lilled both these vales, but has been 
 swept away by the natural drainage into Spruce Creek, 
 from the one which descends in that direction, and, perhaps, 
 from the valley of Spruce Creek itself, down to and beyond 
 the- Furnace. 
 
 The entire walls of the cuts are of wash ore, and it is 
 all torn down and taken to the washing machine. But 
 the tops of pyramids of solid pipe ore are exposed in the 
 floor, and some reached to, or nearly to, the sod above. 
 At one of the deepest places in the floor, 60 feet below the 
 sod a shaft was sunk 40 feet further through solid pipe 
 
 * Proved area 550 x450 yards, which at 15 yards depth gives 3^ millions of 
 cubic yards, affording 600,000 tons of washed ore ready for use. Of this 100,- 
 000 have been smelted into 50,000 tons of neutral cold blast charcoal iron of 
 the best quality.
 
 382 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 ore, and then limestone, and was stopped by water. Water 
 does not stand in the present floors on account of the free 
 circulation at a still lower depth through crevices and cav- 
 erns communicating with Spruce Creek, which itself issues 
 from a cave. 
 
 The original name of the Pennsylvania ore bank was the 
 Bryson cut. It was examined again by Mr. d'Invilliers in 
 1883, who found it little changed since my study of it in 
 1873. At that time (1883) it was in common with most of 
 our mines idle, but a new lease promised afresh develop- 
 ment of it under better auspices. 
 
 The HosJcer bank is on the steep N. W. dips of the Gale 
 Hollow anticlinal ridge, so low down in II as to be 2500' 
 beneath III. The Pennsylvania ore rocks on the S. E. side 
 of the ridge and dipping 40 S. E. are also sandy dolomites ; 
 but above them lies a series of white and blue limestones ; 
 and above all lie soft, blue and dove colored Trenton lime- 
 stones dipping 18 or 15, S. E. under the slates of III. 
 
 The Bryson cut ores are essentially pipe, finely disinte- 
 grated, and occurring in every conceivable form, whether 
 in streaks of ore and clay, or in flattened scales, or bunched 
 with sandy limestone, or in solid pipe masses ; but every- 
 where showing a tendency to interstratitication and point- 
 ing to their probable formation in place by the dissolution 
 and leaching of the limestone rocks and the filling in of 
 cavities with mixed sand, clay and iron-ore. Comparatively 
 little lime has been left in this ore, showing how thorough 
 dissolution has been ; and the percentage of magnesia, 
 though low, is probably due to its less solubility as com- 
 pared with the corresponding lime salt. 
 
 Very little of the quartz and flint grains found with the 
 ore are water-worn or rounded, and so create at once a 
 marked difference between these ores and those of the bar- 
 rens in the Scotia- Juniata range. But it must be remem- 
 bered that these latter ores are much lower down in the 
 measures. When visited in July, 1883, no work had been 
 done here since the fall of 1882, when Carnegie Bros. & Co. 
 returned their lease of the property. 
 
 The Messrs. Carnegie, while doing some little mining in
 
 PENNSYLVANIA FURNACE MINE. 383 
 
 the old workings south of the washer, turned most of their 
 attention to the development of the New bank located east 
 of the former and shown on map. About 10 acres in all 
 have been disturbed here. 
 
 Various estimates have been made by different parties of 
 the original amount of ore contained in this deposit (which 
 roughly measured may be taken a t 500 yards N. W. and S. 
 E. and 350 yards N. E. and S. W.) which vary from 200,- 
 000 tons up to 600,000 tons, with a possible output of even 
 1,000,000 tons, allowing for increased depths over 50 feet, 
 etc. All such estimates are greatly affected by the frequent 
 occurrence of limestone ledges, clay banks and lean faces, 
 and are in every case when carried beyond the depth of the 
 wash deposit and into the solid pipes in the bottom, merely 
 speculative. 
 
 The average wash of the materials is about 1 to 8 or 9, 
 which will give 1 ton of ore to each 6 or 7 cubic yards of 
 material, a cubic yard of ore being estimated to weigh only 
 1J tons. The washers occasionally showed a record of one 
 to five, but this was when mining was being carried on in ex- 
 ceptional ground. The majority of the more recent pits 
 (some outside the limits above given) show a depth of only 
 abou 1 10' of wash ore, under which clay and limestone occur. 
 
 The old charcoal furnace was changed in 1881 to a coke 
 furnace of 11' at bosh, 43' high and 8' at tunnel head. It 
 was not successful. The incline plane was abandoned and a 
 narrow gauge railway running down around the edges of 
 the pit was substituted. The new washers had a capacity 
 of 140 tons daily for good rich ore. The difficulty was to 
 separate the light pipe ore from the heavy flint ; also to- 
 keep the flat or scaly ore from floating off the rig. Boys 
 had to pick out the flints. A steam excavator was tried for 
 stoping down the walls but failed on account of project- 
 ing noses or ribs of limestone. 
 
 The deepest part of the old bank has been nearly ex- 
 hausted of cheap ore, and show several outcrops of silicious 
 sandy dolomite, very much broken, but dipping southeast. 
 This rock is frequently ore-bearing, showing occasionally 
 streaks from one-sixteenth to several inches thick. While
 
 384 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 occurring in the center of the deposit, they do not seem to 
 have affected the ore which occurs above and below them 
 and frequently interstratified with them. Some 30 to 60 
 feet of stripping has been done here, but shafts sunk from 
 the bottom of the open cut 30 to 40 feet deeper have proved 
 the presence of good ore ground as yet untouched. In the 
 days of early mining here tine exposures of pipes 40' high 
 are reported, though none such are to be seen to-day. 
 The best ground, when last visited, seemed to be along the 
 south side of the new workings, where really excellent 
 wash ore still remained untouched in a face 30' high. Good 
 lump ore is reported all along the bottom of these workings, 
 now covered with tine silt and mud, and in any future work 
 this should be mined with the wash surface ore or that in 
 the east end, thus making a cheap and rich average ore. 
 All the work so far has been done above ground, the floor 
 being usually limestone. 
 
 Dr. Genth's analyses of (1) two samples of amorphous, 
 brown compact ore mixed with ochreous yellowish or red- 
 dish ore, some of its cavities lined with very fine coating of 
 fibrous ore, and (2) of pipe ore, with cavities filled with fea- 
 ruginous clay, were Fer. ox., 81.55 (83.74) ; mang. ox., 
 0.10 (0.31) ; cobaltic ox., a trace (a trace) ; alumina, 1.49 
 (0.33) ; magnesia, 0.47(0.34) ; lime, a trace (a trace) ; phos. 
 acid, 0.16 (0.14) ; sil. acid, 2.98 (2.57) ; quartz, 1.55 (0.44) ; 
 water, 11. 70 (12. 13) ; thatis7r<w, 57.10(58.62) ; Phosphorus, 
 0.07 (0.06) ; or phosphorus in 100 parts iron, 0.12 (0.10). 
 
 Dr. Genth's analysis of the sand rock ribs was: Ferr. 
 ox., 43.65 ; mang. and cob. ox., 1.55 ; al., 2.43 ; mag., 1.64 
 lime. 0.12 ; phos. acid. 0.27 ; sil. acid, 5.19 ; quartz, 36.52 ; 
 water, 8.63. It contained, therefore, 30 per cent, of iron.* 
 
 * " The above analyses show besides the mechanically admixed rounded 
 grains of sand, which I distinguish as 'quartz', a considerable quantity of 
 silicic acid, which is in chemical combination, probably as a hydrous ferric 
 oxide. But as it is impossible to say what the true character of this min- 
 eral may be, whether authosiderate, or degeroaite a silicate of the composi- 
 tion Fe 2 O 3 , 2SiO 2 -j-3H 2 O or a species not yet known in its pure state, suffice 
 it to say that all these ores are mechanical mixtures of limonite with hy- 
 drous ferric silicate and minute quantities of hydrous ferric phosphates, 
 perhaps dufrenite or cacoxenite ; some of the ores contain beside these,
 
 PENNSYLVANIA FURNACE MINE. 385 
 
 Dr. Genth recognizes three varieties of limestone in this 
 bank, and the results of his analyses are as follows : 
 
 No. 1. Upper limestone, dark gray, compact, slightly 
 crystalline. The atomic ratio between the magnesia and 
 lime is 1 : 15. 
 
 No. 2. Pale ash .gray, very finely crystalline, rough to 
 the touch like rotten stone, very friable and easily falling 
 to powder, a true dolomite. Atomic ratio between mag- 
 nesia and lime, 1 : 1. 
 
 No. 3. Yellowish gray, soft, rotten, feels rough to the 
 touch, sandy ; crystalline ; has a laminated structure ; 
 also a dolomite. Atomic ratio between magnesia and lime, 
 1:1.08.* 
 
 small quantities of manganese ores, mostly the so-called ' bog-manganese' 
 or wad, but also pyrolusite and Psilomelane. 
 
 "It is a very remarkable fact that, although these iron ores are, to a great 
 extent at least, the result of the decomposition of limestones and by them 
 precipitated, that almost the entire amount of lime has been washed out of 
 them and only traces are remaining ; of the second constituent of the lime- 
 stones, the magnesia, a somewhat larger quantity is left behind, owing un- 
 doubtedly to the lesser solubility of its carbonate in carbonic acid water." 
 (Dr. F. A. Gen., T3, p. 434.) 
 
 * Dr. Genth's analysis of a 4' bed of limestone capping 33' of pipe ore in the 
 Hostler bank (T3, p. 435) shows that it too is a true dolomite, but holding 
 4.33 of quartz and silicic acid. He adds (p. 436) : " It is remarkable that 
 the limestones and dolomites, of which I give the analyses, contain almost 
 the entire amount of silicic acid as quartz ; only a small quantity is present 
 as soluble silicic acid and in combination with alumina. If the limestones 
 and dolomites are dissolved in acid, the quartz remains often as a scoriaceous 
 mass or in irregular sandy but not rounded or water-worn grains ; some- 
 times it forms large coherent slaty masses in the limestone, frequently filled 
 with minute cavities, previously occupied by rhombohedral crystals of dol- 
 omite. Similar pieces found in the Pennsylvania bank are white like por- 
 celain and show the same cavities of rhombohedral crystals. Other varieties 
 of limestone in the Pennsylvania bank have a still greater admixture of 
 quartz and are a real calciferous sand rock." 
 
 (1) (2) (3) 
 
 Carbonate of iron, 1.31 0.45 .118 
 
 " " manganese, 0.18 0.06 trace. 
 
 " " magnesia, 3.98 42.39 35.51 
 
 lime, 72.67 51.25 45.73 
 
 Quartz and silicic acid, 18.05 5.03 15.83 
 
 Alumina, 3.81 0.82 1.75 
 
 Total, 100.00 100.00 1QQ.OQ 
 
 Metallic iron, 0.63 ~ 0.22 0.57 
 
 Magnesia, 1.90 20.19 16.91 
 
 Lime, 40.69 28.70 25.61 
 
 25
 
 386 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 Dr. Henderson before his death sent me a cross-section, 
 which he had made on his own farm 4m. N. E. of the 
 Pennsylvania bank, see Fig. 1, plate XIV. By his calcula- 
 tion the Pennsylvania ore horizon lies 2200' beneath No. 
 Ill, with another ore horizon 300' above it, and a third one 
 800' above it ; that is, only 1400' beneath No. III.
 
 NITTANY VALLEY, HUNTINGDON CO. ORE MINKS 887 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 Nittany valley, Huntingdon county ore mines. 
 
 Before describing the banks I must continue the struct- 
 ure of Nittany valley through Huntingdon county to the 
 little Juniata river. A few words and the accompanying 
 cross-sections on plate XI Y will suffice.* 
 
 If my cross-section along Warrior's Run (T3, Fig. 3) be 
 correctly drawn it exhibits four ore horizons rising to the 
 surface, one after the other, from S. E. to N. W., their out- 
 cropping rocks making parallel belts of ore banks, and their 
 respective depths geologically beneath the bottom of for- 
 mation III being as follows : 
 
 Trenton limestone, etc., etc. 
 Pennsylvania and Gale Hollow banks, 2500' 
 
 Barren interval, 700'. 
 Huntingdon furnace ore banks, 3WO' 
 
 Barren interval, 550'. 
 Tollgate pipe ore range, 3750' 
 
 Barren interval, 1500'. 
 Pennington, Town, Loveiown banks, 5250' 
 
 *The cross-sections in T3, Figs. 1, 2, 3, pp.376, 378, 380, embody my views 
 of the structure after my private survey of the legion for Lyon, Shorb &Co. 
 in 1872. I was assisted in a contour line survey of it by Mr. Franklin Platt, 
 from whose field notes the contoured map was plotted and drawn and the 
 ore banks located. In 1882, during the progress of the state survey, my 
 topographical assistants, Mr. E. B. Harden and Mr. O. B. Harden, surveyed 
 and mapped that most troubled and obscure part of the valley lying east of 
 Tyrone forges and Birmingham to get the faults in Bald Eagle mountain, 
 and the true location and character of the Nittany axis in Pennington ridge. 
 The following year Mr. d'Invilliers went over the ground in furtherance of 
 his own work in Centre county ; and his criticisms on my sections of 1872 
 will be found in the report on Huntingdon county, T3, pp. 443 to 445, his 
 chief objection being to my little Logan creek synclinal, as he would prefer 
 to consider the S. E. dips along Logan creek as overturned N. W. dips. Nor 
 am I at all positive that my original construction of the rise of the limestone 
 mass over the Bald Eagle mountain at the Tyrone gap is the correct one, 
 although my observations along Logan creek were long, close and carefully 
 studied, and my section was drawn in full view of the fact that a downward 
 brush of the edges of the limestones against the opposite (N. W.) side of the 
 fault was rather to be expected.
 
 388 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Cratt faction^ in 
 
 Ti. xvr 
 Co.
 
 NITTANY VALLEY ORE BANKS. 
 
 Jftttany "VaUey. 
 topographical sketch, ntcyy in&O'contours made in 1873 
 
 locating the Ore t&anks &f zHountingctcn aTitf Centre GPJ 
 Jieldurork 6y FWcttb. 

 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Pennington range in Huntingdon County. 
 
 The lowest range of ore banks is described in T3, p. 388 ; 
 and pi. XIV, f. 8, gives their arrangement.* It commences 
 2 m. from the Jtiniata and runs 2 miles to the RR. 1 m. W. 
 of Warrior Mark village ; the N. W. face of the ridge 
 covered with wash ore, underneath which lie sheets, belts, 
 and masses of rock ore between ribs of undissohed lime- 
 sand rock, with inter stratified beds of lime-shales turned 
 into white clay.-\ 
 
 That rich ore masses descend N. W. in a series of ir- 
 regular but continuous floors and layers between the clay 
 beds was proved by the gallery work driven in wavy ore. 
 Great quantities of salable ore and wash ore also existed.:}: 
 
 The main open cut 700'xlOO'xl5' to 25' deep has wash ore 
 walls, 15'. A shaft struck (at 15') manganese ore 5'. In this 
 pit stands a solid rib of half decomposed limy-sandstone 
 strata, carrying more or less ore, dipping gently N. W. ; 
 bunches of good ore in ferruginous sandstone. It is an 
 admirable place to study the genesis of our limonite ores. 
 
 The West Pennington bank (Fig. 10), m. from the last, 
 550'xl20' is wholly in wash ore ; yielded richly for 7 years 
 as an open cut to a depth of 40'; then worked by galleries 
 (Fig. 12). Another open cut 200' further west, 300'x45'x 25' 
 deep (once much deeper) in wash ore. Another, 400' fur- 
 
 * The Pennington ridge anticlinal loses itself in the hill N. of Warrior 
 Mark village and in the great fault further on. Obscure dips of 80, N. W. 
 in limy sandstone 500 yards N. W. of the village, might very well be mis- 
 taken for 30 to 60 S. E. dips on account of the innumerable cleavage 
 planes ; but 80, N. W. dips are seen in blue limestone 450 yards further 
 up Warrior Run. All the outcrops N. E. of Warrior Mark village belong 
 to the S. E. side of the Pennington ridge anticlinal, as any one can see who 
 travels along the road to Lovetown. Therefore the Pennington ore range 
 is a short one ; but the next ore range to the S. E. of it runs on through 
 Warrior Mark village and Lovetown into Centre county. 
 
 f Fig. 9 is a reduced copy of Booking's map of the underground tunnel 
 workings, shafts, etc., in the Old or East bank. Water stopped most of the 
 old mining. One old shaft 30' deep was deepened to 60' and struck the 
 sandstone floor. Another shaft in 1865 reached the ore bottom at 45. For 
 further details see T3, p. 392. 
 
 {Thus the first pit near the RR. 200'x50'xl5 deep yielded 5000 cubic yards 
 of wash ore without solid lump. Shaft No. 1 near it went through top wash 
 15', rich lump 5', barren clay 25', good lump 15'. Shaft No. 2, lean ore on 
 top, clay to 40', good lump 10'.
 
 NITTANY VALLEY ORE BANKS. 391 
 
 ther west (Old Phillips' bank), 300'x90'x20'; once deeper 
 and drained by a tunnel. 420' long.* The Beck bank, % m. N. 
 E. of old Pennington bank, is 120'x60'xl5' deep. The New 
 Town bank (also Beck' s], 1 m. further N. E., stopped by 
 water, ore in floor. 
 
 Warrior Mark and Lovetown range. 
 
 From Warrior run, N. E., we have almost a continuous 
 series of shafts and open cuts on thes ame lowest lime- 
 sand horizon as the Pennington, but on the S. E. dip ; 
 thus 
 
 Old Town (i m. E. of Warrior run) ; Romberger' s (1) ; 
 Hannah (If) ; Waiters (2i) ; Braunstetter' s (2f) with pipe 
 ore outcrops to the S. E. of it ; Disputed (4f ) ; Hannah 
 furnace (5) ; Hannah furnace and Beck ( m. N. of the 
 last two, and less than a mile W. of Lovetown) ; Pipe ore 
 pits (^m. S. of Lovetown) ; 8aw mill ore crops (2 m. N. E. 
 of Lovetown) ; Hannah furnace and Bryan (2f ) ; Curtin 
 
 (5).f 
 
 The ores, when rich, are black or very dark, much of it 
 pitchy lustrous, often inclining to cold shortness;:}: the 
 leaner ore of a lighter brown ; clay predominating over sand 
 in the deposits ; perhaps some of them somewhat higher in 
 II than the Pennington, but still very low in the formation. 
 
 Dry Hollow range in Huntingdon County. 
 
 Under this head in T3, pp. 404 are described, figured and 
 mapped: Pond bank No. 2; Wryebank; Old Sandy; 
 
 *This range, with its lean layers and sand masses so low in II (Cal. SS.), 
 "holds purplish, easy smelting ore, mixed with day and without discerni- 
 ble regular veins" (Booking) . Plenty of wash ore ; but dry screening im- 
 possible. It is evident that a vast quantity of ore is still to be won, but it 
 can only be won by scientific stoping and washing. The extensive dry 
 tailings covering the slope north of the cuts can be profitably washed and 
 got out of the way of deep mining (J. W. Harden). When powerful pump- 
 ing machinery is employed many hundred thousand tons will be won at a 
 market profit 
 
 t Their descriptions, with local map figures, can be found in my report 
 embodied in report T3, pp. 400 to 404. The description of the Lovetown 
 banks will be found in T4, pp. 354 to 360, with local map Figs. 20 to 25. 
 
 } See Dr. F. A. Genth's analyses in T3, pp. 427, 429.
 
 392 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Tl. XV//I 
 
 JVittany Yalley Unwnjh ore lanfa . 1873.
 
 NITTANY VALLEY ORE BANKS. 
 
 393 
 
 1 XJX. 
 
 y Tafley ore banks inffiuntinydon Co.
 
 394 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Simpson's; Dixort s ; Litlle Dry Hollow ; Dry Hollow; 
 Old Red bank; Bean bank ; Bressler's* 
 
 The great breadth of the Dry Hollow belt is sufficient 
 evidence that it covers more than one geological horizon ; 
 and to this is added another proof, the different character 
 of the ore in (for example) the Pond and Wrye banks. It 
 is quite certain that the banks of this group or belt are in 
 geological range with the Kerr and Bredin, Hosker, and 
 Pennsylvania Furnace banks. 
 
 Cale Hollow range in Huntingdon county. 
 
 This is separated from the Dry Hollow range by Hickory 
 ridge and its ores lie in a deeper and narrower trough, but 
 at the outcrops of the same rocks, therefore of the same 
 horizon, and of the same character, except that an abun- 
 dance of pipe ore has been mined from Cale Hollow and 
 very little from Dry Hollow. 
 
 The banks of this range described in T3, p. 413, are the 
 Kerr and Bredin bank, of high reputation for its "gun 
 
 * I can only extract a few sentences of most note, and refer the reader to 
 the reports. In the Wrye bank an old miner said they went through worth- 
 less wash ore 26' and then 18' good lump ore, and still in the floor, What 
 the charcoal furnace men called worthless is now valuable to hot blast coke 
 and anthracite furnace men. It is also reported that the top of the ore 
 mass at one place sank to 50', thinned away and rose again. Rich solid ore 
 still stands 45' beneath the surface. In Jos. Kreider's fields the surface 
 show indicates a heavy mass of rich solid ore underground. The Dry Hol- 
 low pits occupy a great space and have had formerly a great output ; mostly 
 of fine wash ore in clay ; shafts going down 60' through wash and lump 
 ore, and always drowned out for want of adequate pumping power; only 
 the lump ore marketed, the small wash ore despised. The connection of 
 Dry Hollow with Red Bank solid ore ground under the surface wash is cer- 
 tain. The RR. cut exposes wash ore for 300' or 400', in some places 10' 
 thick resting on clay, in other places 20' or 25' thick holding large lumps of 
 solid ore. The varying thickness of the red clay and ore layers in these ex- 
 posures teaches the meaning to be drawn from the miners' trial shafts. 
 Some of the solid lumps weigh 300 or 400 Ibs. Very few chert fragments are 
 seen ; in fact this exposure shows less silica than any other in the valley. 
 Little or no soil covering exists. At Bean bank the surface ore lumps were 
 lifted and sent to Huntingdon furnace ; and it is the practice elsewhere ; no 
 attention paid to the great body of wash ore ; no effort to mine to the deep; 
 consequently a vast amount of ore ground awaits future exploration and 
 excavation, even within a mile of the railroad. (T3, 412.)
 
 NITTANY VALLEY ORE BANKS. 395 
 
 metal ore," much resembling that of the Bloomtield banks 
 in Morrison's cove, Blair county.* 
 
 The wash ore ground continues along Hickory ridge. 
 Bronsteiter 's pits are 1 ni. W. To the east it continues 
 to Little bank in Half Moon run, with dips of 20, &c., S. 
 30 E. 
 
 The Hostler bank on the N. W. slope of the Spruce 
 Creek anticlinal, 2 m. S. W. of Pennsylvania furnace which 
 used the ore ; a large open cut in "pipe" wash ore (some- 
 times mixed with lump) 60' and 65' deep, in all the shafts ; 
 one of which struck (at 65') solid limerock 10" to 2' thick ; 
 below which pipe ore 45' deep. 
 
 It is a constant and important feature of the pipe ore 
 banks of the southeastern ore range, that they do not 
 exhibit the so-called lean ores of the lower geological 
 horizons in the ore ranges to the N. W. of it, in the 
 Barrens, &c. It has been the uniform experience at the 
 Hostler, Pennsylvania and other pipe ore banks that shafts 
 and borings have always passed through lump ore after 
 having been sunk or drilled below water level ; but never 
 reached its bottom because they could not be kept clear 
 of water owing to deficient pumping power. The under- 
 ground drainage all through the valley is immensely co- 
 pious, and the largest, deepest bodies of heavy ore are yet 
 to be won by better mining. f 
 
 Red bank, and several old pits, lead on N. E. to Little 
 bank, If m. W. of Penn furnace. Eyef 's bank is a mile 
 further on on the E. side of Half Moon run. Then (across 
 
 * Analysis by Dr. Ge'nth: Ferric oxide, 70.67 (as compared with Dr. 
 Wuth's analysis of Bloomfield ore, 78.63); man g. ox., 0.36 (mang. 0.29); 
 cobaltic ox. a trace ; alumina 3.91 (2.50); magnesia, 0.26 (0.38); lime, a trace 
 (0.34); phos. acid, 0.19 (0.134); sil. acid, 5.48 (7.02) ; quartz, 680; water, 12.33 
 (10.71). The extra quartz in Dr. Genth's analysis lowers the p. c. of iron to 
 49.47, as compared with Dr. Wuth's 55.04 (T3, 413). 
 
 |T3, 417, quoting J. P. L. in report of 1872. Mr. Booking writes that 35' 
 ore will pay well for stripping 65' to 75' of overclays. The Hostler pits 
 measure 360'xl50'x30'. The ore lies in clays separating ribs of undecomposed 
 limestone. The clays are mouldered lime shale partings between solid lime- 
 stones. Shafts more recently sunk went through alternate ore clays and 
 limestone ribs, dipping 38 N. 35 W. In the N. W. shaft 75' wash ore lay 
 on the first solid limestone. The wide flat part of Cale Hollow was 20 years 
 ago after many years of "ground-hog mining" still a virgin district.
 
 396 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 NITTANY VALLEY ORE BANKS. 
 
 397
 
 398 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 a divide) the ore follows Tadpole run in Sleepy Hollow at 
 the head of the Beaver dams ; then the dry hollow beyond 
 is a repetition of Gale Hollow ; and so the outcrops con- 
 tinue to McAllister's and School House cross roads, 8 miles 
 from the Hostler bank.* 
 
 The pipe ore horizons have a geological range of at least 
 1250'. This is conclusively proved by a careful section of 
 exposures along Warrior Mark run above and below the 
 Old Seat bank, ty m. S. E. of the RR. bridge over the run. f 
 
 Huntingdon furna ce banks. 
 
 Within a circle of two miles radius around the furnace, 
 among 10 S. E. dipping rocks, are the Wilson bank ;\ the 
 Keefer banks ; the Dorsey banks ; whole length of ore 
 ground, 6000' ; maximum breadth, 1500' ; in prolongation 
 of the Dry Hollow range before described, and in all re- 
 spects for mining purposes, resembling it. Much lean ore 
 is mingled with the rich, and much dead stripping is re- 
 quired ; but the liver colored, sandier ore lies on the N. 
 W. side of the belt, up the hill side, lower in geological 
 
 * Beyond this, towards Pine Grove mills, the old Weaver banks are not 
 regular pipe ores, but the liver colored red short ores of lower horizons 
 brought to the surface of the broad plateau by the Brush Valley anticlinal 
 (T3, 420). 
 
 f See full description T3, 422. Beginning at the mouth of Gale Hollow, 1 m. 
 E. of Huntingdon furnace, an old pipe ore bank shows 50 N. W. (another dip 
 is 38). At 2000' N. W. the dip is 12 S. E. At 3300' the Old Scat bank 
 worked the same pipe ore horizon ; abandoned for lack of pumping power ; 
 ore lean, liver colored, like Pennington, but no sandstone ; a good deal of 
 flint, however, as at Pennsylvania. 1800' furtherup run limestone 9, S. E. 
 900' further sandy limestone 10 S. E. 1500' further, pipe ore plowed up. 
 Pipe ore horizon, No. 2, 700' geologically lower' than Old Seat horizon. 1500' 
 further, sandy limestones,]13, S. E. 3000' to tollgate, no dips exposed, but, 
 no doubt, all gentle S. E. 1500' S. W. of tollgate, therefore on strike, old de- 
 serted pipe ore bank ; Pipe ore horizon. No. 3, 550' below No. 2, or 1250' below 
 No. 1. From tollgate 2400' up run to RR. bridge ; 1200' furtherup, .Bec&and 
 Town banks, dips in interval 20, 35, etc., S. E. ; therefore, their Penning- 
 ton range, non-pipe ore horizon, is geologically 2500' to 3000' beneath the 
 Cale Hollow pipe ore horizon, No. 1, above. 
 
 J Here surface ore clays lie on limestone beds which cover lime sandstones. 
 
 Three miles N. E. of Juniata river at Barree Forge. One, 200'x75'x20' ; 
 another, 225'x90'xl2' ; another, 600' x210'x45' ; in places much deeper, and 
 wholly in wash ore, merely uncovering the solid ore in the floor.
 
 SINKING VALLEY MINES. 399 
 
 horizon ; and the pipe ore lies down hill, S. E. geologically 
 higher, among the non-siliceous magnesian limestones. 
 
 Sinking Valley mines. 
 
 These are on the Blair county side of the Little Juniata. 
 
 Dark colored lime-slate, apparently graphitic, crops out 
 near Birmingham, and near the axis of the great Nittany 
 anticlinal ; therefore fully 5000' beneath III.* 
 
 The McCahan shafts, % m. S. W. of Birmingham, and 
 on the same geological horizon, won rich good pipe ore en- 
 closed in sand, although there is a little yellow clay with 
 the ore ; the black lime slate is at the bottom of the shaft. 
 
 The Robeson pit, 2 m. S. S. W. of Birmingham 100'x20'x- 
 20' is in Col. Gralbraith's fields, where 4 or 5 acres are cov- 
 ered with a great ore show. Ore on the Gunnison farm 
 also. 
 
 *The same black slate appears on the Cogan farm 1 m. N. E. of Birming- 
 ham. The wash ore lumps in clays are all water-worn. Analysis of ore in 
 T, 246.
 
 400 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Jfittany and Ganoe valleys. Their Jhitidinals and yMiJU 
 
 fault at Spruce creek gap of Ihsse^mtn. 
 a2 Section . 
 
 Fault at Port Clinton gap of/fi&aUsiny mtn
 
 CANOE VALLEY. 401 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIY. 
 Canoe Valley and Morrison's Cove limestone and ore. 
 
 Canoe valley is not so much a southward continuation of 
 Nittany valley as it is a long side gallery leading from the 
 grand hall of Nittany valley into the closed chamber of 
 Morrison's Cove. A very sharp and very high anticlinal 
 wave, ending northward in a fault, lifts about 5000' of No. 
 II, between terrace walls of III and crests of IV, broken by 
 the two Juniata river gaps ; Tussey mountain on the S. E. 
 and Canoe mountain on the N. W. 
 
 Along the foot of the Canoe mountain terrace runs Jack- 
 son's fault,* which at the Juniata water-gap above the town 
 of William sburg, throws the Trenton limestone 3000' 
 against the Medina sandstone, lapping them horizontally 
 past each other, and separating thus Short mountain from 
 Canoe mountain. The fault and the anticlinal axis converge 
 eastward at an angle of about 15 and die a little beyond the 
 Little Juniata. 
 
 Another fault runs along the south edge of Canoe valley, 
 and is an interesting study in a topographical sense, because 
 it has determined the course of the river and the place of 
 its water-gap at Waterstreet ; cutting off another "Short 
 Mountain," between the two rivers, f This is the fault 
 struck in Spruce Creek Tunnel on the line of the P. R. R. 
 It throws the middle beds of II up against the middle beds 
 of III in the gap at Spruce Creek Tunnel ; but being 
 
 * Studied and described by him in 1838, but wrongly located in direction 
 and length until our instrumental surveys of 1876 and following years, at 
 which time 1 extended it to the Little Juniata at Spruce creek station and 
 discovered its real relation to the central anticlinal. See my small reduced 
 sketch mapinTS, plate LXIV, page 346, reproduced on a still further re- 
 duction in this volume, plate XXII. fig. 1. 
 
 f Fig. 4 shows the curious and beautiful topography of the Narrows, and 
 the narrow throat of the Canoe valley at the Little Juniata. Here the anti- 
 clinal is destroyed by the fault ; as shown in Fig. 5, at the bottom of the 
 plate, along section on line of Little Juniata. 
 26
 
 402 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 oblique to the valley strike, it carries the top of II against 
 IV by an horizontal slide movement, so as to enclose a tri- 
 angular point of III between them ; as shown in the ver- 
 tical section and horizontal ground plan, fig. 2, on plate 
 XXII. * 
 
 In Canoe Valley proper are the old Clark mine, 1 m. S. 
 of Etna furnace ; the old Etna mine, 2 m. N. of Will- 
 iamsburg ; the Brower mine, 3 m. N. W. ; the Short Moun- 
 tain mine, 2% m. N. W. (and H m. N. of Franklin forge); 
 Dean's bank, If m. S. ; Patterson 's bank, 1 m. S. W.; and 
 the Williamsburg M. Co" s Red Ore mines. If m. S. W. of 
 William sburg.f 
 
 * I have added (as fig. 3) a vertical section of the fault in Schuylkill county 
 for comparison, and have reversed it (N. for S.) in order to make the com- 
 parison easier for the eye. 
 
 f Described and figured in T, pp. 231 to 244. The figures are reproduced, 
 reduced to half size, on plate XXIIL The Clarkmine, small and long aban- 
 doned ; ore rather red short. The Etna bank, on the central barren sandy 
 ridge, 1200' above tide, 400' above the river level, looks down Irom the N. 
 point of the ridge upon an amphitheatre of cultivated country 150' below it; 
 5000' geologically below III ; abandoned years ago, 1000'x200'x50' deep ; ex- 
 ceedingly rich wash ore (not water worn) ; much manganese ore in sporadic 
 irregular layers ; shafts 112' deep said to have worked rich lump ore ; water 
 totally wanting. The Broiver mine, 150'x50'x20', now abandoned ; on central 
 sandy barren ridge ; walls all sand, no clay visible ; many masses ot con- 
 glomerated angular flint fragments cemented with iron ore, and many 
 great masses of sandstone and flint coated with ore, as at Springfield mine : 
 no limestone fragments visible. Limestone strata between it and the Canoe 
 mountain dip west, and if it were not for Jackson's fault the ore horizon 
 would be only 2500' beneath III, as given in the text of T, p. 241 ; but this is 
 a great mistake, for the ore is evidently the Springfield and Etna ore, and 
 we must understand that 2500 of II are swallowed by the fault, placing the 
 ore at 5000' beneath III. The Short Mountain mine, described in the text 
 above, is still worked. Yellow, red and white clays in heavy masses, many 
 of them without any ore ; ore clays apparently in three stories, with barren 
 clay partings : (1) upper "sparry ore " in W. wall of E. large open pit; (2) 
 40' and (3) 60' deep in W. wall rising rapidly to the surface atvop of E. wall. 
 West pit 60' deep now abandoned. See analysis of ore T, 239 ; and of lime- 
 stone flux for Etna furnace, in which is C. Mag. 3.9; sulphur, 0.053; phos- 
 phorus, 0.011. (T. 240.) Dean's bank, 250'xlO' to 50'xlO' to 15' deep. Small 
 ore in wash ; at E. end cut abutted squarely against solid limestone strata? 
 mine abandoned ; ore very red short, as used in Williamsburg furnace. See 
 analysis T. 236. Patterson mine, on the Sandy Central ridge, covered with 
 quantities of sharp sand ; southern shaft 80' deep, ore struck at 15' and left 
 in bottom ; ore mass worked 9' thick descending vertically, then at 40' depth 
 bending to an E. dip ; north shaft 55' deep, ore vertical, taking below an E. 
 dip; tunnel ore work joins the two ; ore of two kinds, (1) liver ore, often
 
 CANOE VALLEY. 403 
 
 It is significant of the decline of the Canoe Valley anti- 
 clinal northwards that the valley narrows and the bounding 
 mountains approach each other closest at the Little Juni- 
 ata. It follows that deeper and deeper horizons in II 
 reach the surface successively going south along the crest 
 of the anticlinal, which makes in many places a prominent 
 central ridge on which are ranged the principal mines. 
 Now, as we encounter on the map going south no mines 
 until after passing Water street and Etna furnace, it fol- 
 lows that the upper horizons are wanting, and that all 
 the mines are on horizons from 2000' to 5000' beneath III. 
 Direct cross measurements based on dips verify this con- 
 clusion, and show that the Etna bank is something less 
 than 5000', and the Springfield bank about 5000' beneath 
 III ; while the other side banks are higher in the series. 
 
 The Short Mountain mine is a great curiosity for those 
 who interest themselves with geological structure ; for it 
 is situated in the narrow belt of the slates of III as they 
 swing round the point of Short Mountain to meet Jackson' s 
 fault. But neither black slate nor black clay is to be seen 
 in the extensive open cuts (which were still worked a lit- 
 tle in 1876), nor any limestone, but only flints and sand in 
 abundance in the ore-clays. No solid rock has been en- 
 countered in sinking an 80' shaft and driving a tunnel 
 under the old west bank ; nothing but white sand and 
 sandy clay ; the tunnel entirely in white sand ; yet the 
 shaft is just south of the south end of the large open mine. 
 The iron-coated sandstone rock in the open mine dips (ob- 
 scurely) 46, N. W. The bottom of the ore mass has never 
 been reached and great quantities remain to be won. The 
 only explanation of these curious facts which I can suggest 
 is, that the slate belt is not properly located, and that the 
 mine is probably on the line of Jackson's, or some other 
 (branch ?) fault, like the Leathercracker Cove (Henrietta) 
 mines ; but the ores here do not in the least resemble the 
 Henrietta ores. On the contrary all the circumstances 
 
 silicious, (2) richer deep red or blackish manganiferous ore ; output not 
 great. See analysis, T, 235. Red ore bank, on the sandy barrens ; northern 
 pit small ; southern open cut, 40' slope ; red clay holds good redshort ore ; 
 much flint rock through clay masses. For analyses see T, 233.
 
 404 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 here suggest the Etna-Springfield horizon, only that there 
 is here even more sand and less clay masses. 
 
 The red short qualities of some of the No. II ores is ex- 
 plained occasionally by the presence of pyrites. For ex- 
 ample, in Dean's ~barik, a shaft 15' deep in the floor of the 
 open cut went down through loose, partly decomposed lime- 
 stone and extremely sulphurous iron ore; "in fact, there 
 were great masses of decomposing iron pyrites, with a 
 liematite crust." " The solid rock of all kinds in the bank, 
 whether ore pebbles or limestone pieces, are all rounded 
 and worn smooth." The Cavern-deposit nature of some of 
 these ores is shown in the Red Ore bank where shaft No. 1, 
 just east of the open cut, went down 100' through sandy 
 limestone, although the ore mass was plunging directly 
 towards the shaft ; No. 2, just S. of the mine, went 60' 
 through limestone ; No. 3 and 4, the same. The deep red 
 clay which makes such a show at the surface at the mine 
 does not extend beyond it, and no workable surface ores 
 have been found on the barrens between this and the 
 Springfield mine, 3 miles further south. 
 
 The Springfield mines. 
 
 These rival the Pennsylvania and Bloomfield mines. 
 They are opened on the high, sandy, barren ridge along the 
 center of Canoe valley,* Similes south of the Juniata river 
 at Williamsburg, 1500' A. T. A section of the valley from 
 Lock (Canoe) mountain on the west, across to Tussey 
 mountain on the east, given in Fig. 13, plate XXIII, will il- 
 lustrate the low horizon of the ore in II, say 5000' beneath III, 
 the mine being H miles from the bottom edge of the slate 
 belt (III) with dips from 20 to 70 between. 
 
 There are three pits, two on- the central sand ridge, 1500' 
 apart, and one in the lower ground, 3000' west of the south- 
 ern main pit, and 4000' east of the edge of the slate belt 
 geologically. Ore pit, No. /, is about 4800' beneath III, 
 but being on W. dips, there are exposed on the crown of 
 
 *Here already called Morrison's Cove, although it opens out into the Cove 
 some miles further south.
 
 CANOE VALLEY ORE BANKS. 
 
 405 
 
 tna and ffprinqfield T>anJcA.
 
 406 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 the arch to the east of it strata more than 5600' beneath III. 
 How much more lie concealed in the arch can only be 
 guessed by the little Juniata section, which measures be- 
 tween 6000' and TOGO' feet and still does not expose the bot- 
 tom beds of the great formation. 
 
 Mine No. 1 (Dams mine), is an open cut, 600'x500'x30' 
 to 65' deep. It is surrounded by a well denned ore ground 
 limit, 2600' N. and S. by 300' to 1450' wide, outside of which 
 the surface is a sandy waste without ore, as both surface 
 show and trial pits combine to prove. The ores are of 
 every grade of color, character and value. Fig. 14 of pi. 
 XXII shows how little of the ore mass has been removed, 
 chiefly wash ore. Shafts 1, 2 and 3, respectively 65', 100 
 and 161' deep, show the depth of ore mass, as they strike 
 the sandstone floor on which the ore mass lies and crops 
 out to the surface on theE. side of the mine, disintegrating 
 to a sharp clean sand. The upper sandstone layer is 
 heavily incrusted with ore, and its small cavities and irreg- 
 ularities are filled with ore. 
 
 The first 60' of wash ore was mined in open cut ; then a 
 60' shaft went down in lump and wash ore, pitching west 
 against the sandstone. The wall of the pit must be ex- 
 cessively steep since this 120' shaft is only 35' from the solid 
 rock wall. The mine is therefore a cavern deposit, one of 
 the very few cases wherein a demonstration can be obtained.* 
 
 Shaft 3 has the following record : Loose wash ore very 
 lean in places, clay layers, 40' ; block and lump ore, 2' to 
 3'; worthless wash sand and clay masses, 112'; ore in white 
 and yellow clay, 6'; sandstone, massive to bottom (161'). 
 But this record disagrees with every other section in the 
 mine and may, perhaps, be accounted for by the fact that 
 the miners were in search of large lump and pipe ore only, 
 and considered all small- wash ore-ground worth nothing to 
 them. For on the W. side of the bank, wall and shaft 
 prove wash ore 120' deep. Elsewhere also the whole mass 
 is solid but variable wash ore. 
 
 It is interesting that loose pieces of sandstone, ferrugi- 
 
 *It is possible that it is a small synclinal on the crown of the arch. 
 (F. Platt, in T, 162).
 
 THE SPRINGFIELD MINES. 407 
 
 nous slate, and pieces of sand rock greatly resembling spe- 
 cimens of IV and V. and conglomerated sandstone frag- 
 ments held fast by an iron ore cement, are all found in the 
 ore mass. 
 
 Between the Davis and Lykens pits, say 2000', is barren 
 ground. 
 
 Mine No. 2 (Lykens'), is 600'x400'x80' deep (once 100') 
 encircled by a limit of ore ground. 2200'xlOOO', on the sur- 
 face. It is worked for the Cambria Iron Co. The Lykens' 
 shaft at its N. end has a great output. No bottom to the 
 ore has been reached in the cut ; but the shaft strikes the 
 sand rock floor at 215'. It works solid ore, that is, great 
 lumps packed close together in the clay ; usually in two 
 layers, the upper one reddish ore, then I/ to 4' sand or sand- 
 stone, then the lower one heavy black lump ore in clay, 
 resting on the true sandstone floor. Both the ore layers 
 and the sandstone parting vary much and rapidly in thick- 
 ness, but in the main rising and falling together conforma- 
 bly to the irregularities of the sandstone floor. This mine 
 is remarkable for the quantities of bombshell ore in it, and 
 for the scarcity of honey comb ore. The bombs are some- 
 times of great size, some filled with soft white lime clay, 
 others with more or less decomposed sandstone or sand, 
 many quite hollow/* 
 
 Mine No. 3, is of a totally different character, on a geo- 
 logical horizon only 2600' beneath III, separated by more 
 than a mile of barren limestone outcrops, and in limestone 
 hollows. Its wash ore body contains mostly only small 
 rounded water worn ore balls. f The open pit 6' to 20' deep 
 shows only wash ore in caves in the limestone separated by 
 promontories and ribs of limestone. Fine grained waving 
 purple or brown or white clays all carry varying amounts 
 of the ore balls. Dark limestone walls in the whole pit, 
 and an occasional layer of slate parts two limestone beds. 
 The floor also is limestone. 
 
 But at a place where nearly solid ore made the tempo- 
 
 *See other details and numerous ore analyses in T, 163, 167. 
 f Occasionally some rounded pieces of sandy limestone and limestone are 
 noticed in this mine also.
 
 408 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 rary floor of the pit a horizontal drift followed the ore (S. 
 E.) for WO' under solid limestone cover, and soon a solid 
 limestone floor was got also. A 45' shaft from the surface 
 struck the end of the drift. The ore layer, thus inclosed in 
 the limestone, when mined averaged 5', but varied between 
 V and 19'. This is very remarkable as it shows the possi- 
 ble production of limonite between almost horizontal strata 
 of unchanged rock. It also shows a sort of broad shallow 
 synclinal, (or shelf ?) on the western limb of the Canoe valley 
 anticlinal. 
 
 All this agrees very well with the description of the ore 
 production at the Pennsylvania banks in Centre county, 
 which are also on the same geological horizon, viz : 2600' 
 beneath IIT.f 
 
 The Prussia mine, small, abandoned, 1500' S. W. of 
 Springfield No. 2. Tar Hole bank 600' N. W. of the 
 Prussia. McPheese bank 3000' S. W. of Springfield No. 
 2, but separated from its ore-area by barren ground ; a 
 small pot of wash ore. 
 
 Canoe valley, at Williamsburg, and at Springfield, is 4 
 miles wide, [measuring between the two edges of the lime- 
 stone floor, and 5 between the crests of its bounding 
 mountains. At Rebecca furnace mines (10 m. S. of Wil- 
 liamsburg its width is but 3 miles. Here Canoe (or Lock) 
 mountain swings round to the west, and projects as a broad 
 round synclinal knob southwards into Morrison's Cove. 
 The slate on its flank runs on south, in the synclinal as 
 a narrow belt, past Martinsburg two or three miles. At 
 Martinsburg and Fredericksburg the limestone land is 3 m. 
 wide ; this is 12 m. S. of Williamsburg. Millerstown is 
 
 \ See further description and numerous analyses in T, pp. 171 to 177. No 
 limonite mines are more extensive, valuable, or better worked than these 
 and that is my excuse for so largely extracting from the Report. It seems 
 that traces of cobalt appear also in these ores, T, 172, 173. See accounts of 
 plant, machinery, etc., T, 177.
 
 LEATHERCRACKER COVE ORES. 409 
 
 14 ; Henrietta furnace mines, at the entrance to Leather- 
 cracker Cove, 15 ; and the head of the cove 17 m. S. of 
 Williamsburg. Between Fredericksburg and Millerstown 
 a belt of slate 2 m. long and m. wide splits the lime- 
 stone land into two belts ; the eastern one lying along 
 the foot of Tussey running S. to the head of Leather- 
 cracker cove ; the western one running on S. past Curry, 
 Woodbury, Waterside and Enterprise, to the south end 
 of Morrison's cove. The slate belt is a sharp and faulted 
 synclinal between the Henrietta (Leathercracker) anticlinal 
 and the Curry- Woodbury anticlinal.* 
 
 Leather cracker Cove ores. 
 
 The Henrietta mines in Leathercracker Cove have been 
 described in a previous chapter on the Limonite ores of 
 the top of II, but only in such general terms as might 
 state their possibly very exceptional horizon at the contact 
 of II-III. This was once considered by others as well as 
 by myself the true theory. But I am more and more 
 confirmed in the belief that this is a mistake, and that 
 they belong to middle horizons of. the formation brought 
 by the faults into contact with III, as in the case of the 
 Path Valley mines in Franklin county. 
 
 It only remains to notice here the character of the Hen- 
 rietta ores, referring the reader to Mr. Platt's full details 
 in T, 183 to 202. PL XXIV, f. 20 maps the main pit, 
 600'x200'x60' deep, all in ore clay. Projecting boulders 
 of limestone, much rounded by chemical decomposition, 
 stand up irregularly on the floor, from around which (as 
 also from around masses of barren clay) the wash ore has 
 been removed, f 
 
 *On the great map sheets of the Morrison's Cove Survey, in Atlas to T, 
 this is improperly named the Morrison's Cove anticlinal, and the other the 
 Canoe Valley anticlinal. In fact, however, both represent the great Canoe 
 Valley anticlinal in its southern course where its crest is split by a synclinal 
 roll. The Bloomfield anticlinal is a great wave of the western half of Mor- 
 rison's Cove. The Woodbury-Curry half of the Canoe Valley anticlinal 
 becomes the great wave of the eastern half of Morrison's Cove ; the two be- 
 ing separated only by the wide shallow synclinal of Lock Mountain. 
 
 f Some of the main features of the mine are similar to features found in 
 nearly all the brown hematite deposits of the lower Siluro-cambrian lime-
 
 410 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 and <&eatnerc>racfce<r Core 
 
 a Rebecca and XCenriettu. furnttcet .
 
 HENRIETTA FURNACE BANKS. 411 
 
 Always on the E. side of the pit is the black clay which 
 ovej'lies the ore mass /* always on the W. side the under- 
 lying limestone clay / solid limestone W. of the mine, 
 dipping nowhere more than 30, S. 70 E. But the slope 
 of the ore from crop to bottom is much steeper; but the 
 pot which holds the ore is evidently not shaped by the 
 limestone dip, but is excavated in the limestone, the un- 
 
 stones. At times the ore runs in great masses, packed together and like a 
 regular ore bed ; and this fades out more or less gradually, plainly in sight, 
 into a clay, carrying perhaps not so much as 10 per cent, of ore in it. The 
 streaks of clay follow no dip ; they are tolded and rolled in all shapes ; conie 
 in suddenly and as suddenly entirely disappear; are in places white and 
 perfectly free either from ferruginous coloring matter, or from wash ore ; 
 and are again deep red or brown, and sticky. 
 
 "But the mine differs from many, in fact from most, ore banks of Morri- 
 son's Cove, in that it shows no sand, no sandstone, no flint, and no rock of 
 any kind but blue limestone. But in place of rock and flint some of the 
 clay layers are unusually sticky, and form balls which pass through the 
 washer with the ore, and give quite as much trouble as flint in requiring to 
 be picked by hand. 
 
 "There is much iron ore in mine No. 1, which carries varying and some- 
 times very considerable percentages of manganese. These patches of man- 
 ganiferous iron ore are very local and very irregular in shape. There is no 
 guide to say when to expect them, or to indicate when they will run into 
 the ordinary brown hematite ore. The manganiferous ore chiefly showed 
 at a depth of about 50 feet below the surface ; and there are now large quan- 
 tities in the present bottom of the pit. The tendency to run to manganifer 
 ous iron ore is (at the present depth) much the strongest at the south end 
 of the mine. 
 
 " The ore is usually hard and darker colored in the upper part of the de- 
 posit, or that nearer to the black slates, while it is apt to be softer and more 
 open in the lower part, in the limestone. But while this distinction may 
 hold roughly, yet all kinds of ore, hard, soft, manganiferous, rich and lean, 
 may be found close together, and in fact mixed together in the same clay 
 bands." (Platt, T, 186.) 
 
 *"The overlying non-ore-bearing dark-colored slates are much weathered 
 down, almost to a mud, to which condition indeed they soon come on ex- 
 posure. When first exposed they show as very thin-bedded, fragile, black 
 slates, fossiliferous in places, though the fossils are kept with difficulty on 
 account of the fragility of the whole material. Fifteen feet of this black 
 slate rest on top of the iron ore and clay ; and on top of that there apparently 
 commences a gray colored, soft, iron-stained, thin-bedded clay-slate, non- 
 fossiliferous so far as seen. These slates and the surface stuff make a loose 
 and somewhat troublesome east wall for the mine; the clays holding back 
 the water and throwing it over the top, the effect being to make the washing 
 down so severe as to require almost foot for foot as a safe slope tor the east 
 wall." (F. Platt, T, 190.)
 
 412 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 equal dissolution of which waves the ore-mass backward 
 and forward with gentler and steeper slopes alternately.* 
 
 Total excavation 270,000 cubic yards ; total of ore realized 
 64,000 tons, or 16 per cent, of the stuff excavated. All 
 goes to the Cambria Iron Works at Johnstown. 
 
 The Faulkner shaft, 1200' S. of main pit ; mouth 40' 
 higher than surface at main pit ; depth of shaft 153', with 
 ore left in bottom ; ore struck first 40' down ; output 10,000 
 tons ; abandoned. Three monkey drifts found the descend- 
 ing ore mass to be 25', 25', and 40' from wall to wall. Drift 
 S. from bottom of shaft, 400' to 500', showed the curious 
 structure of Fig. 22. f 
 
 The McAUster shaft, 2700' S. of Faulkner shaft, still 
 following line of fault ; 100' deep ; black clay hanging wall ; 
 limestone clay foot wall ; ore clay 15' to 20' thick, vertical, 
 irregular. 
 
 The Hoover mine, 750' S. of McAllister shaft ; open cut 
 200'xl25'x30' deep ; shaft, 120', struck some ore near bot- 
 tom ; black clay in E. wall of open cut ; W. wall lime clay, 
 and back of it limestone ; % ore clay 15' to 20' thick, unusu- 
 ally sticky and troublesome. 
 
 This Henrietta ore range is a well denned, limited and 
 local deposit of ore clays in a fault-trench 7000' long, 15 
 to 35' wide and of unknown depths, between a wall of 
 black (Utica ? or Hudson river. Ill) slate, on the one side, 
 and a wall of dolomite strata belonging to some unknown, 
 probably middle horizon of Chazy or Calciferous formation 
 II ; both walls thoroughly decomposed into black and white 
 clays ; without the intervention of any igneous rock like 
 trap as at Cornwall, but, perhaps, by the hot waters from 
 a great depth, as at the Hot and Warm Springs along the 
 
 *The analysis of limestones given in T, p. 1888, show that they are almost 
 perfect dolomites (53 : 35 and 57 : 39. 
 
 fThe ore clay forked, one part going straight on, the other curving 
 round, carrying rich ore all the way until it rejoined the other ; black clay 
 horse (without ore) Jfl' wide. Black clay is the hanging wall and limestone 
 clay the foot wall in all the Faulkner shaft workings without exception. 
 Ore dark and hard, especially towards the hanging wall ; foot ore more cel- 
 lular. See analysis T, 192. fhosphorus too high, 0.940. 
 
 J Also here a dolomite (46:40) which of itself precludes the theory of this 
 ore being made out of damourite slates at the contact of II and III (T, 196).
 
 LEATHKRCRACKER COVE ORES. 413 
 
 great fault in Virginia. But it is not at all necessary to 
 suppose the water hot or even warm ; for the process was 
 evidently the same at the other limonite mines of this region 
 where no faults exist. The ordinary solvent powers of the 
 rainfall are quite capable of carrying on the operation, 
 which in fact it is doing all the time at the present day. 
 Nor is a cavern deposit here in question ; for the ore mass 
 here is not made up of rounded pebbles ; nor can any other 
 water worn detritus be seen in these mines.* 
 
 The Leathercracker (Henrietta) ores are too phosphatic 
 for the Bessemer process. Three analyses of samples from 
 the three Cambria Co.'s mines, show : Sesq. ox. iron, 60, 
 63.6, 69.4; Sesq. ox. mang., 3.5, 1, 0.3; phos. acid, 0.822, 
 2.153, 1.021, etc. (T, 197). But they are high in iron, 
 cheaply mined, and kind in the furnace ; were in great de- 
 mand for stock mixtures so long as iron rails ruled the 
 market ; but have declined in value in this new age of steel 
 rails. Thomas and Grilchrisfs basis process may, perhaps, 
 restore their old value. 
 
 The Schoolhouse mine on the W. side of Leathercracker 
 cove, on the other fault line, is described in T, 199. See 
 Fig. 22a. 
 
 The Bolster mine of "neutral ore," 3 m. N. of Wood- 
 bury ; two open pits, separated by the road, 100'x60'x20', 
 long abandoned and a smaller pit ; ore rich, very sulphur- 
 ous ; great masses of decomposing pyrites ; unusually red 
 clays ; no water ; no solid rock ; ore lumps not rounded ; 
 many rounded flints and limestones ; geological horizon 
 about 2500' beneath III, that of the Pennsylvania furnace 
 mine in Centre county. 
 
 *"The ore is in lumps of all sizes, ranging from large and heavy masses 
 closely packed together until they resemble a bed of ore, to fine grains thinly 
 disseminated through various colored clays. But all the ore pieces are ir- 
 regular in shape and with points and angles, sharp on the corners, and in 
 many cases coated with little needles of ore, which the smallest friction 
 would soon rub oft'. This is the unvarying character of the structure of the 
 ore lumps and grains in Leathercracker Cove." (Platt, T. 197.)
 
 414 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Morrison Cove ores. 
 
 The Bloomfield mine on Duncan's ridge, 3 m. S. of 
 Hearing spring (where its branch railroad joins the line 
 from Henrietta mines to Hollidaysburg) is famous for furn- 
 ishing stock to Bloomfield, Sarah, Martha and Rebecca 
 furnaces, making the best gun metal for theU. S. foundry 
 at. Pittsburgh. 
 
 Halter's creek flows between Duncan's ridge and Dun- 
 ning's mountain. The Lock mountain anticlinal of Mor- 
 rison's cove runs E. of the mines ; very gentle E. dips into 
 the Martinsburg shallow and broad synclinal ; overturned 
 steep E. dips (instead of normal W. dips) at the mines and 
 in Halter's valley and in Dunning mountain. A slip fault 
 is probable but not demonstrated. Depth of ore horizon 
 beneath III, (calculated) 3200'; therefore 700' lower down 
 than the horizon of Pennsylvania and 1800' higher up than 
 the Springfield ore horizon.* 
 
 The reader will find a fully detailed description of the mine 
 in Mr. F. Platt's Report on Blair county T, 1881, p. 203 to 
 221. All along the valley between Duncan's ridge and 
 Dunning mountain runs a belt of ore clays, from 1 m. N. of 
 Roaring spring southward past the Bloomfield school house, 
 Bakersville ore pit, Long's, to the Stukely farm, a distance 
 of 7 or 8 miles ; in some places slight, in others heavy, but 
 none but that at Bakersville promising a great yield. 
 
 The Bloomfield ore clays are continuous for 7200', from 
 the N". end of the German bank to the S. end of the 
 Clarke banks, with a width of 1000' to 1500, across 
 the top of Duncans ridge. f The larger clay masses are 
 more than 100' deep. The ore ground ends abruptly 
 
 * I have placed the cross-section showing mine, anticlinal, etc., on the 
 Bloomfleld mine map, plate XXV, page 415. The Loop mountain anti- 
 clinal is described in T, p. 63, etc. ; the mine in T, p. 203, etc. Dunning's 
 mountain has a strike of N. 22 E. but the anticlinal axis runs nearly due 
 N. into the Loop, and through to Frankstown. 
 
 f The map shows where the greatest output has been made, but many 
 trial shafts found nothing but very lean sand and clay. The water shaft and 
 boring, 225' deep, went all the way through sand and clay, with no solid 
 rock beds, and no water, and ended in sharp sand. Trial pits just north of 
 German bank went through solid rock without ore.
 
 MORRISON'S COVE ORES. 
 
 415 
 
 r\ \ \\ 
 
 ny.z4. 
 Section from DunnuigsAElJiroaghBloomfieldMfms.
 
 416 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 northward at the German bank. So also south of 
 the Clark bank solid limestone is at the surface. But in 
 the mines no limestone ribs are seen and none were struck 
 in intermediate trial shafts and borings. It looks as if the 
 ore mass were the filling of a vast cavern, which has lost 
 its roof. In spite of the long time working of the mine, 
 only a portion of its wealth has been extracted.* 
 
 The mine shows the usual great and sudden changes in 
 the character of the ore bearing mass ; a iion-ore-bearing 
 clay will suddenly change into a rich wash ore deposit, 
 
 * The Main bank, including the German, is 1800'x 100' to 400' x80' deep. In 
 1880 it was beingworked with renewed vigor (See T, p. 205). The Harrity 
 open cut is 350' long. Its clays are beautifully stratified, dipping 10, E. 
 "white clay caps the ore-bearing clays with the same dip, and requires 25' of 
 stripping. Over the -white clay ore-clays are worked for 200' along the 
 strike (N. and S. ). This same white clay is struck in shafts N. and S. of the 
 bank. No better evidence of change of rock in situ could be got ; and yet 
 the sudden N. and S. termination of the field does not look like it ; unless a 
 change in a character of the anticlinal is taken into consideration. Some of 
 the clays are blood-red ; occasionally they hold manganese, as, for example in 
 shaft 500' S. of main bank, from which manganese ore was shipped for 
 spiegeleisen. Usually these shafts brought up manganese ore that was too 
 sandy for use. The New Wash Machine bank. Here 2' of sand makes a layer 
 between ore-bearing clays, and as regular as a sandstone bed. The Sand 
 bank in a sandy barren surface soil, has 15' siliceous ore in sandy clay, 15'; 
 underneath which yellow and brown clays holding not much ore ; then 
 brown clay holding excellent mang aniferous limonite masses packed 
 in the clay so as to warrant the miners in calling it a 4' bed. TheRidgt 
 banks are numerous pits S. of the Sand bank ; the main one large ; ore out- 
 crop heavy; sand and flint on the surface but very little in the bank itself ; 
 good ore in yellow clay goes deep ; shafts 60'; lump masses closely packed 
 in clay still in bottom ; miners merely followed these lump streaks. In a 
 new pit white clay has many scattered quartz crystals in it. The Krofft 
 banks are further south. The Clarke banks come next; ore mass solid 4 
 to 9' at 40' beneath surface ; in S. Clarke bank another at 100' deep. (T, 211.) 
 If the surface lean silicious stuff 15' to 20' deep were stripped, systematic 
 mining here would yield an enormous quantity of good ore. The Old 
 Barley bank, \^ m. S. of Clarke bank, abandoned. Stuckey and Leidig 
 banks, 2^ m. further S. shallow and hopeful. The Bloomfield plant, ma- 
 chinery, washing and method of working the mine, are all described in T, 
 pp. 212 to 214. For numerous analyses of the ore (as received at the fur- 
 naces) by McCreath, Wuth, and Salom, seeT, pp. 214 to 219. The Rodman 
 Furnace "gun metal" pig, made in 1872, 1874, showed : Silicon 4.004, 3.184, 
 2.713; Sulphvr, 0.035, 0.082, 0.123 ; Phosphorus, 0.195, 0.195, 0.192 ; Mangan- 
 ese, 0.144, 0.864. It was used in the Bessemer flasks of the Pa. Steel Co. at 
 Baldwin. Captain Rodman, U. S. A., urged the U. S. Government to secure 
 by purchase the whole Bloomfield ore field. (T, 229.)
 
 MORRISON'S COVE MINES. 417 
 
 and vice versa ; while masses of sandstone, coated with 
 oxide of iron, or flint pieces large and small come into 
 the ore mass and leave it without any visible law. Some- 
 times there are huge walls of tough sticky clay in sight 
 bearing no iron ore ; and again almost everything is wash- 
 able. The mine therefore does not differ from the other 
 ore deposits of Morrison's cove in the character of its de- 
 posit, but only in the unusually enormous quantities of 
 iron ore in sight and in their freedom from phosphoric 
 acid" Consequently the Cambria Iron Works at Johns- 
 town was taking (March, 1879) all the jigged Bloomfield ore 
 although they called it only a 39 per cent. ore. Phosphorus 
 is not wholly absent from any of the analyses, and traces 
 of both cobalt and nickel appear in some of them. Sul- 
 phur is usually present in small quantities, but in some is 
 quite absent. 
 
 It is noteworthy that both sulphur and phosphorus ap- 
 pear in all three of the Rodman furnace limestone flux 
 analyses given in the Report (T, 218) thus : Garb, lime, 
 78.2, 91.9, 54.6; carb. magnesia, 10.7, 2.9, 44.2; ox. iron 
 and al., 1.8, 0.6,0.2; Sulphur, 0.149, 0.096, 0.002; phos- 
 phorus, 0.029, 0.022, 0.003 ; insol. residue, 8.6, 4.4, 1.3. 
 
 Other mines in Morrison's Cove. 
 
 The Baker smile mine, 2 m. S. W. of the Bloomfield mine, 
 is in the valley W. of Duncan's ridge, and therefore on 
 geologically higher outcrops, but in a heavy surface wash 
 ore deposit 1500' N. and S. by 400' E. and W. No solid 
 rock in place has been struck by any of the trial shafts 75' 
 deep. The deep, narrow valley has probably once been an 
 immense cavern, like Sinking Creek cavern in the northern 
 part of Blair county. The open cut is 300'x45'xl5', in sand 
 and sandy clay, yellowish, sometimes reddish, holding ore 
 balls from top to bottom ; not a single piece of loose lime- 
 stone ever found ; many large pieces of sandstone, coated 
 with an iron crust, not rounded and worn (as a rule), nor 
 are the rounded ore chunks ; nor do they follow any line, 
 nor make layers, but are scattered through the whole sand- 
 27
 
 418 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 clay mass ; ore, of all varieties, water- worn rich dark lumps, 
 porous honeycomb ore, dark red solid somewhat sandy 
 ore, light brown lean sandy ore, and light brown rich ore. 
 (T, 220.) 
 
 The Miller -stown Red Ore bank, 1 m. N. E. of the vil- 
 lage, large, shallow, long-abandoned ; wash ore, in which 
 knobs and masses of undissolved limestone make an irregu- 
 lar floor ; clay deep red ; ore, limestone and flint pieces gen- 
 erally if not always rounded and water-worn, usually small, 
 never in large masses ; shafts reported 100' deep in ore to 
 bottom. Belt of red clay surface extends several miles N. 
 & S. but no trial pits have ever found ore except at this 
 one spot, the size of the mine ; evidently a cavern deposit. 
 Analysis by McCreath : Iron, 54 ; manganese, 0.065 ; sul- 
 phur, 0.017; phosphorus, 0.085. Calculated ore horizon 
 only 1100' beneath III. 
 
 The Rebecca ore mines, 3 m. N. 70 E. of Martinsburg, 
 were worked for 60 years for Rebecca furnace.* An open 
 cut 80() / xl25' to 300 / x70 / and more (now only 50') parallel to 
 to Tussey mountain ; W. and N. walls solid non-ore-bear- 
 ing white clay dipping (apparently) 70, E. S. E. oner which 
 clays holding masses of bombshell ("copper shell") ore, 
 lean, brown, sandy, worthless (because only 15 per cent, 
 iron and stained with copper oxide). Worked 4 years by 
 shafts, as shown in section, plate XXIV, fig. 27. f 
 
 The Thompson mine, I m. S. of Martinsburg ; shallow 
 holes furnishing cellular, fibrous and sometimes pipe ore ; 
 many honeycombed ; somewhat red-short. Horizon (cal- 
 culated} about 2500' beneatJi III, i. e., about the horizon of 
 the Pennsylvania bank in Centre county. 
 
 * Described in T, 223 ; surveyed in 1877. See map and section of it in Fig. 
 27, 28, plate XXIV. Worked continuously lor Rebecca from 1817 onwards ; 
 consequently a very large output. 
 
 f Barren white clay 80' deep at top of main shaft (i. e., 50' or 60' thick) 
 ore clay, 50' ; ore mass, 15'. East shaft found only white sand and no ore. 
 The ore is not in water worn or rounded pieces, but in irregular masses and 
 chunks, sharp pointed, surrounded by clay. Ore has always made a first- 
 class metal ; much of the war gun metal was made from it.
 
 VALLEYS AND COVES OF NO. II. 419 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 Other anticlinal limestone valleys and coves hi the middle 
 counties: Friends cove; Mllligen" s cove ; Kishicoquillis 
 valley ; Blade Log valley ; McConnellsburg cove ; Horse 
 valley. 
 
 Friends cove. 
 
 Friends Cove in Bedford county is connected with the 
 southern end of Morrison's Cove by a narrow, anticlinal 
 strip of slate No. Ill between Dunning (Evitts) and Tussey 
 mountains*. Itslimestone floor is 15 miles long, by 3 miles 
 wide; ending northward in a point 4 m. N. E. of Willow 
 Grove; and southward in two points, at Rainsburg, a village 
 on the contact of Utica slate (Ilia) and Trenton limestone 
 (lie). The lower Medina sandstone (TVa) makes a terrace 
 all round the Cove, as in Morrison's Cove and Nittany Val- 
 ley. The limestone rocks at Rainsburg dip 20, *S. 55 E. 
 At Chaiiesville near the N. W. side of the Cove, a local 8, 
 S. 55 W. dip shows that the formation is disturbed. The 
 Cove is divided by a middle ridge of very sandy limestones, 
 which proves the general steep dips by bringing up the 
 lower portions of the formation ; and the sand eroded from 
 these outcrops covers the surface of the Cove to a great ex- 
 tent, concealing the outcrops, and any deposits of limonite 
 ore which they may hold. Occasionally a piece of ore may 
 be picked up. Cove creek flows along the S. E. edge of the 
 limestone; has a broad bottom reaching to the foot of Tussey 
 mountain; and shows no exposures, only here and there a 
 little water-worn limestone; but is covered with bowlders 
 of limestone and sandstone from the mountain. Some lim- 
 onite was seen by Prof. Stevenson on WeisePs farm 1 m. 
 S. of Koons' mill.f 
 
 * See Geol. Atlas of Counties, Report X, 1885, Map No. 5, preface descrip- 
 tion, p. 24. 
 
 f A specimen from Koons' quarry gave carb. lime, 90.6; carb. mag., 1.9. 
 ox. iron and alumina, 0.6; sulphur, 0.02; phosphorus; 0.005; insol., 6.41. Mc- 
 Creath in T2, 163. Of course the quarry is in Trenton lie.
 
 420 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Much chert occurs on the central ridge in irregular frag- 
 ments, with here and there abed of limonite ore, evidently 
 little of it. On L. Whetstone' s farm ore is said to be plenty ; 
 cindery chert is abundant ; and the sandy soil is full of 
 Medina sandstone fragments, and also pieces of Hudson 
 river slate. On the adjoining Diehl place and in A. Whet- 
 stone's fences there are plenty of pieces of ore. 
 
 Between this and the Juniata river many exposures of 
 limestone show dips of 27 to 35, S. 85 to 40 E. and lime 
 is burned for manure.* The road along the S. side of the 
 river has plenty of limestone exposures ; and shows a good 
 deal of ore where it crosses the middle barren sandy ridge. 
 From the railroad cuttings Prof. Stevenson obtained the 
 following section. 
 
 Limestone (45 E.) dark above, lighter below ; some beds 
 magnesian ; very little chert ; fossils few (S. alt., Lep. ser. 
 Gal. sen.} ; 430'; Limestone, (40 E.) light grey to blue 
 above, growing silicious and cherty downwards, until at the 
 bottom the chert makes the mass; 1350' : Concealed, 420'; 
 Limestone, (dip 45 E.) 420' ; Concealed, 400' ? ; Limestone, 
 silicious, 175'; Concealed, 150'; Limestone, very cherty, 
 300'; Concealed, 90'; Limestone, sandy, with very little 
 chert ; a true Calciferous sandstone, 175'; total, 4520' of 
 measures not reaching the bottom of No, II. f 
 
 Milligeri s cone.% 
 
 Milligerts Cove in Bedford county, is about 10 miles long 
 and a mile wide, very long and narrow, floored with Hudson 
 river slate (UK), except at one spot in its center, where 
 the sharp anticlinal brings up the upper beds of Tren- 
 ton limestone (He). The Utica slates (Ilia) are exposed at 
 Miller's dipping 35, S. 35 E. near the exposure of Trenton 
 limestone. Of course there are no limonite mines in this 
 cove4 
 
 * Trenton limestone, holding the fossils Strophomena alternata and Caly- 
 nene senana (T2, p. 163). 
 
 f Stevenson's Report T2, pp. 93, 164. 
 
 jStevenson's Report T2, p. 108. 
 
 Also spelled Millikin's and Milligan's
 
 VALLEYS AND COVES OF NO. II. 421 
 
 KisMcoquillis valley. 
 
 Kishicoquillis Valley, making the N. W. half of Mifflin 
 county, is a beautiful, fertile valley, secluded between Jack's 
 mountain and Standing Stone mountain. At its eastern end 
 it is split by two long promontories into three narrow par- 
 allel vales, each of which has an anticlinal floor of the 
 slates of III. The limestone floor of the valley itself is about 
 27 miles long by 2 wide opposite Reedsville and Milroy, 2 at 
 Belleville and Menno, and 1 at Allenville near the Hunting- 
 don county line.* 
 
 Two anticlinal waves lift the valley limestones ; a third 
 passes behind Milroy. The Greenwood fault cuts obliquely 
 through Stone mountain, N. of Belleville, and throws the 
 terrace of IVa against the mountain of IVc. f 
 
 The limestone beds along the center belt of the valley lie 
 remarkably flat, so that erosion has not yet gone deep into 
 the formation. In Logan Gap, through which Kishico- 
 quillis creek escapes from the valley to join the Juniata 
 near Lewistown, there is a well exposed section of S. E. 
 dipping Medina and Oneida strata (IV) measuring 2,722 
 feet. Under these lie Hudson river slate and sandstone in 
 four divisions, 425', 190', 140', 182'; and Utica shale in three 
 divisions, 210', 302' ; 855' ; making III in all 2304' thick. 
 Under these are exposed only 320' of Trenton limestone at 
 the surface. 
 
 The Greenwood ore banks were excavated on the anticlinal 
 axis south of Belleville. At Belleville are dips of 15 to 
 20, N. W. and 10 near the mine. Much pipe ore was got 
 here and carried across Stone mountain to the furnace to 
 mix with fossil ore there mined. But the bank was aban- 
 doned many years ago, partly on account of the cost, and 
 partly from lack of ore, w r hich was only found in pots and 
 pockets in the limestone. Many such pockets were ex- 
 ploited in early times in other parts of the valley; but all 
 
 *See Geol. Atlas of counties, Report X, 188?>, p. 77, and the map of Miftiin 
 county in the same Atlas, No. 41. 
 
 t DescribecTin detail and with special maps in Report T3. The valley is de- 
 scribed hy d'Invilliers in his report F3 and the fault on p. 239. It will be 
 hereafter described in the chapter on Oneida and Medina sandstone forma- 
 tion N. IV.
 
 422 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 mining was long ago abandoned. No doubt there is this 
 good geological reason for a scarcity of ore, viz: that the 
 valley erosion had not been carried down deep enough into 
 the magnesian (Chazy) part of the formation.* 
 
 The fact is, the Trenton is so thick and the dips are usu- 
 ally so low, that the Chazy has but little chance to reach 
 the present surface. On the other hand the limestone 
 quarries of the valley are all excellent, and the Trenton 
 beds furnish also hydraulic limestone, on which at Milroy 
 a large plant is now (1891) being established, f 
 
 Black Log valley. 
 
 Slack Log valley in Huntingdon county (its N. E. 
 end in Mifflin) is 20 miles long, by 1 mile wide, and on a 
 gentle curve4 It is a fine specimen of the class of valleys 
 and coves of limestone and slate produced by the erosion 
 of the high steep compressed rock waves of Pennsylvania. 
 In this case the anticlinal had a double crest, which it 
 shows at the present surface ; but it is probably a single 
 simple sharp anticlinal underground. The breadth of 
 limestone at Orbisonia gap is only 2600' feet ; and the thick- 
 ness of Trenton limestone about 500'; from under which rise 
 only the upper beds of the Chazy (lib) on the two crests of 
 the wave. | 
 
 The fact that no limonite ore has been found in Black 
 Log Valley goes far to support the view that there is really 
 
 * D'Invillier's Report F3, 1891, p. 237. 
 
 t There are, however, steep dips in some places. On the creek road from 
 Belleville to Union Mills the beds dip 65 and 68, S. 55 E. At the quarry 
 on Yoder's farm the stone looks more like slate than limestone; and this is 
 the characteristic feature of the Trenton beds in middle Pennsylvania. The 
 Trenton is in fact a transition formation from the magnesian II to the argil- 
 laceous III. The Utica slate here dips 60, N. W. (T3, 238). 
 
 JSee Geol. Atlas of Counties, Report X, 1885, Map of Huntingdon No. 
 31, and preface descriptions, p. 57. 
 
 A cross-section will be given in a future chapter. 
 
 j| The Grove quarry seems to show the limit of the Trenton beds down- 
 ward, and the top bed of the Chazy, by the following analyses in Ashburn- 
 er's Report F, 1876, p. 260. Carbonate of lime in top bed (22" thick) 90.16. 
 Then follow downwards 84.68, 89.68, 74.18, 81.18,82.60,80.68,82.18, 85.18, and 
 then the bottom bed, only 46.68, which may be assumed as the top of the 
 Chazy.
 
 VALLEYS AND COVES OF NO. II. 423 
 
 no limonite horizon at the junction of II and III ; that is, 
 at the top of the Trenton, and at the bottom of the Utica. 
 
 McConnellsburg cove. 
 
 TheMcConnellsburg cove in Fulton county, is a canoe- 
 shaped valley with pointed N. E. and S. W. ends, enclosed in 
 mountain walls of Medina sandstone(IV), with slopes of Hud- 
 son river slates (III), and a fertile floor of limestone (II), 13 
 miles long by 2 miles wide. It differs from all the other 
 coves in having along its N. W. side a profound fault, the 
 limestone (II) being upthrown 80CO' against Devonian strata 
 (VIII). This fault swallows up the slate (III) and sand- 
 stone (IV) and consequently destroys the mountain wall on 
 the N. W. side of the cove.* 
 
 The limestone beds at McConnellsburg and between that 
 village and the school house dip 55 towards the fault (W.) 
 and are mostly silicious, with much honey-comb chert, and 
 so red a soil in some places as to suggest a good deal of 
 limonite iron ore. At Sargent's Rocks, in the southern 
 end of the Cove, are the extensive old limonite banks of 
 the Hanover Iron Works, worked for about 25 years, and 
 abandoned in 1847. The annual yield of ore is said to have 
 varied between 1200 and 2000 tons, and much ore is sup- 
 posed to remain. Its horizon is high in the formation.! 
 The furnace got also some ore from the Patterson place, on 
 the eastern road towards the pike, and trial pits were sunk 
 on the Nelson farm, but all such work was abandoned forty 
 years ago; and the development of the ores of the Cove is 
 still to be made. 
 
 The underground erosion of the limestone strata is vari- 
 ously illustrated in the Cove. Its south end is drained by 
 Esther's run, heading in the high vale between Cove 
 and Dickey's mountains. In about 4 miles it sinks, and 
 rises again in the Big Spring ; then cuts through the Me- 
 
 *A description of the fault is given by Stevenson in his Report T2, p. 55, 
 56 ; and details of its exhibition in his subsequent chapter XIII on Ayr, Todd 
 and Dublin townships, T2, p. 291 et seq. 
 
 t Analysis by McCreath: Iron, 46.1; sulphur, 0.115; phosphorus, 0.083; sil. 
 mat, 21.5 (T2, p. 296).
 
 424 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 dina ridge, and joins Cove creek between the Lutheran 
 Church and Elysian Mills.* 
 
 Horse Valley. 
 
 Horse Valley at the S. W. end of Perry county, con- 
 tains a narrow belt of limestone land, with two points or 
 prongs at its north end, where the anticlinal has two crests, 
 and only one point at its south end, where the anticlinal is 
 simple. It is one of the branches of Path Valley in Frank- 
 lin county, and almost its whole floor is made by the slates 
 of III. Occasional pieces of limestone have been found 
 near the gap.f 
 
 * The drainage of the Cove is very curious as shown on the colored map of 
 Fulton county in Report T2. The natural course of Esther's creek would 
 have been around the N. end of Lowrie's Knob instead of through a gap in 
 the ridge (IV). So also at the northern end of the Cove, the drainage ought 
 all to flow south past McConnellsburg into Cove creek. Instead of that, it 
 gathers itself by streams that flow N. as well as S. and W. into Licking creek, 
 which breaks a gap through the Medina mountain (IV) at Knobsville. 
 
 f See Geol. Hand Atlas, Report X, 1885, Map No. 45, and Preface p. 85. 
 Dr. Henderson made the top beds of II reach the surface. But Prof. Clay- 
 pole could not satisfy himself of the fact, and drew his cross-section as if 
 the limestone did not See his Report F2, page 352, and his section on page 
 350, which I reproduce in a future chapter.
 
 CAVERNS IN NO. II. 425 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 Caverns and sinkholes in II. 
 
 The whole surface of the limestone belt of the Great Val- 
 ley is pitted with sinkholes in the farmers' fields. By these 
 holes the rainfall escapes into caverns, which ramify in all 
 directions both along and across the stratification, and re- 
 appears in springs in the beds of the deeper valleys. This 
 explains the scarcity of brooks and creeks on the maps of 
 the limestone belt in the Great Valley ; and on the maps of 
 Kishicoquillis and Nittany valleys and their branches, and 
 the limestone coves of Fulton and Bedford counties. 
 
 Many ancient caverns are now dry, the drainage having 
 opened for itself new ones. Others have been deserted be- 
 cause completely choked .and filled with lime-iron clays and 
 ore. Others have been exposed to the sunlight by the fall- 
 ing in of their roofs, and converted into vales by the solu- 
 tion of their walls. Those which were filled with deposits 
 arid then uncovered form the limonite iron mines of the 
 present day.* 
 
 *A most instructive case is described by Prof. Ewing in his special report 
 embodied in Report T4 on Centre county, at page 418. I give his descrip- 
 tion verbatim, as follows : 
 
 ''Cavern deposit of iron ore. On Sinking creek, as it rounds Egg hill, in 
 Potter township, on the Wagner place (A. Kerr, in county atlas), is an ex- 
 posure of ore quite unique in many respects. The ore occupies caverns 
 eroded out of the limestone. In this exposure most of the limestone is left 
 intact. The ore that has been removed has been taken from openings into 
 the solid mass where erosion has removed the material from one side. Even 
 there it is necessary to remove large quantities of limestone in order to get 
 the ore. Large masses of pipe ore are found, with lump ore, bomb shell ore, 
 and wash ore. Most of the ore taken out has been removed from one large 
 triangular space, having sides about 20 feet in extent, and a depth of 15 feet, 
 one side forming an opening from the bank of the creek-bed. Besides this, 
 several small test-holes, drift, and slant openings have been made. Those 
 within a range covering not more than 20 or 25 feet in thickness of rocks 
 strike ore of the same character ; those out of this range show but little ore. 
 The ore is found in the worn joints imbedded in a tenaceous red or yellow 
 clay. 
 
 "As pipe ores are undoubtedly formed by the evaporation of chalybeate
 
 426 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Shifting creek in Blair county offers a fine example of the 
 extensive underground chemical erosion of limestone beds 
 in the upper part of No. II. Its Arch spring became 
 famous among the white settlers at an early date.* The 
 
 waters, which percolate through the mass, one might expect to find in a 
 place like this evidence as to the time of the formation of these pipes. The 
 fact that all are broken off none being attached to the limestone implies 
 that they were formed at a sufficiently remote period for subsequent waters 
 to dissolve away the attachments. The fact that the pipes are straight and 
 generally parallel, implies that they were formed while the rocks were sta- 
 tionary, and not during a gradual upheaval. It is inconceivable that they 
 were formed while the rocks were in their original horizontal position ; 
 hence, it is altogether probable that they were formed after the Appalach- 
 ian upheaval, and while the rocks were in their present position, that is, 
 dipping 45 S. E. 
 
 "One very interesting specimen from this region has one of the pipes at an 
 angle of 40 with the rest. I think it probable that in this case the pipe had 
 broken in falling, and had been cemented by subsequent depositions of the 
 same material, as there is abundant evidence of later depositions in thread- 
 like pipes at right angles with the larger ones. 
 
 "As previously remarked, the probable condition of the ore while in so- 
 lution, and at the time of deposition, was that of a ferrous carbonate. It is 
 probable that oxidation began at the time of, or soon after, deposition. When 
 the deposition was rapid, masses of carbonate and semi-carbonate were 
 doubtless formed, which have subsequently been oxidized. Evidence of 
 this is seen in the larger masses found, especially here, of ore containing 
 cavities, giving it a porous appearance, often called bomb-shell ore ; for as 
 the carbonate of a low specific gravity changes to the oxide of a higher spe- 
 cific gravity thei-e is a loss in volume. The change naturally beginning from 
 without forms concentric layers of the oxide and leaves cavities within. 
 Even the pipe ore is more or less porous." 
 
 * Captain John S. McKiernan, who moved from Blair into Clearfield, sent 
 to the Tyrone Herald, March 11, 1886, the following slip from a very old 
 newspaper : "Among the other curiosities of this place, is the swallows 
 which absorb several of the largest streams of the valley, and after convey- 
 ing them several miles under ground, in a subterraneous course, return 
 them again to the surface. These subterraneous passages have given rise to 
 the name 'Sinking Spring Valley.' Of these the most remarkable is called 
 Arch Springs, and runs close upon the road from the town to the fort. It is 
 a deep hollow, formed in the limestone rock, about thirty feet wide, with a 
 rude natural stone arch hanging over it, forming a passage for the water, 
 which it throws out with some degree of violence, and in such plenty as to 
 form a fine stream, which at length buries itself in the bowels of the earth. 
 Some of these pits are near 300 feet deep ; the water at the bottom seems in 
 rapid motion, and is apparently as black as ink, though it is as pure as the 
 finest springs can produce. Many of these pits are placed along the course 
 of this subterraneous river, which soon after takes an opportunity of an 
 opening at a declivity of the ground and keeps along the surface among the 
 rocky hills for a few rods, then enters the mouth of a large cave, whose ex-
 
 CAVERNS IN NO. II. 427 
 
 creek rises on the high ground of the Kettle at the south 
 end of the valley, and flows along the exis of the anticlinal 
 for 3 miles ; then works over to the east side of the valley 
 and flows in the upper limestones at the foot of the mount- 
 ain for two miles ; disappears in a large sink hole and 
 flows underground a mile, its "hollow" or surface channel 
 being dry. Another creek, heading near the Bald Eagle 
 mountain, on the west side of the valley, and flowing square 
 across it to the hollow, meets a brook descending from the 
 east mountain terrace and flows one or two miles further 
 along the hollow, according to the wetness or dryness of 
 the season, and disappears gradually through a succession 
 of sinkholes. A third creek starts in the center of the val- 
 ley five miles north of the last mentioned, flows across east- 
 ward 1^ miles, enters a large cave, flows under its roof 4200 
 feet, issues from a picturesque arch at the N. E. end of the 
 cave, and thence flows through a flat to the river at Union 
 Furnace. 
 
 Elk run follows the opposite or N. W. outcrop of the 
 same limestone beds at the foot of Bald Eagle (Brush) 
 mountain, cutting a deep narrow trench to the river at 
 Tyrone forges ; and this trench merely represents a similar 
 series of sink-holes and caves which have lost their roofs. 
 All the brooks descending from the terrace further south 
 than the head of Elk run, fora distance of two miles, sink 
 as soon as they pass the edge of the slate belt and enter the 
 limestone land. Of course their waters rise somewhere to 
 
 terior aperture would be sufficient to admit a shallop with her sails spread. 
 In the inside it keeps from 18 to 20 feet wide. The roof declines as you ad- 
 vance, and a ledge of loose, rugged rocks keeps in tolerable order on one 
 side, affording means to scramble along. In the midst of this cave is much 
 timber, bodies of trees, branches, etc., which being lodged up to the roof of 
 this passage, shows that the water is swelled up to the very top during 
 freshets. This opening in the hill continues about 400 yards when the cave 
 widens, after you have got round a sudden turning point (which prevents 
 its being discovered till you are within it) into a spacious room, at the bot- 
 tom of which is a vortex. The water falls into it, whirling round with amaz- 
 ing force ; sticks, or even pieces of timber are immediately absorbed and 
 carried out of sight, the water boiling up with excessive violence, which 
 subsides by degrees until the experiment is renewed."
 
 428 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 augment Elk run ; just as all the waters of the Sinking creek 
 system issue at Arch Springs.* 
 
 A cave in Gregg township, Centre county, is described 
 by Prof. Ewing as typical of the many which ramify be- 
 neath Nittany and Brush valleys. It is about a mile west 
 of the end of Brash mountain ; on the 43 S. E. dip of that 
 synclinal ; in dark blue limestone, possibly near the middle 
 of formation II. f 
 
 The "Hollows" of our limestone country are not ordi- 
 nary valleys of erosion but unroofed ancient caverns. This 
 is apparent from their peculiar shape, and the fact that 
 many of them are dry, that is, have no flowing streams, 
 but are studded with sink-holes into which the rainfall dis- 
 appears to caverns beneath them which have been subse- 
 quently formed. Prof. Ewing describes one known as the 
 Big Hollow, in Centre county.:}: 
 
 *Fine pictures of these arches and caves were made by Prof. Rogers' ac- 
 complished Swiss artist, Mr. Lehman, and published in the Geology of Penn- 
 sylvania, 1858, Vol. I. They will be found (reduced) in a future plate. 
 
 f In Report T4, p. 442. " The entrance is from a deep sink. It extends 
 along the strike of the rocks and contains deep clear water. It is suffi- 
 ciently large to allow navigation in a large row-boat Its height in places 
 is 20 or 30 feet, and its breadth about the same. The roof of the cave is 
 formed for the most part by one thick stratum of limestone. In places, 
 however, this has fallen away, leaving exposed the strata above. The cave 
 extends 1200 feet beneath the surface. At the far end the rocks dip in a 
 more easterly direction, so that the roof comes down to the surface of the 
 water. About 300 feet in, the cave divides into two parts, one wet, the other 
 dry, the same stratum forming the roof ot both. The side toward which the 
 rocks dip contains the water, the more open side apparently having its 
 bottom filled by the d&bris fallen from above. The two arms are separated 
 by a natural partition of uneroded rocks. The dry cave may be reached by 
 another sink in line with the opening alluded to. Within the cave are stal- 
 agmites and stalactites of every variety of form. 
 
 "About 80 feet from the far end of the cave is a deep ravine, and the 
 Fathomless /Spring known as the source of Penn creek. As the water in 
 the spring stands at the same level as that in the cave, the two are probably 
 connected ; and the cave is no doubt only one section of a much larger sys- 
 tem of underground drainage ; for, a short distance nearly west of the cave 
 a stream sinks beneath the surface, and is probably identical with that which 
 appears as Penn creek." 
 
 JT4, p. 442. "Several beds of ancient streams are noticeable in this lo- 
 cality. One of the most extensive of these appears to originate near Johns- 
 ton's ore bank. Here several indistinct depressions converge into one ravine 
 which crosses the road passing northeast of Struble's bank. The Bellefonte 
 and Buffalo Run RR. grade follows this ravine to thecurve near Thompson's,
 
 CAVERNS IN NO. II. 429 
 
 Of the innumerable limestone caverns of Pennsylvania 
 very few have been explored, most of them are inaccessi- 
 ble, and the existence of a great number of them is only 
 indicated by sink holes in the farm fields. 
 
 One of the most interesting is the Hartman cave (now the 
 Crystal Hiil cave) in Monroe county, which was explored 
 in 1880, and found to be floored by 10' of clay, on which 
 was spread a thin layer of stalagmite, and on this again a 
 foot of black earth containing the teeth and bones of ani- 
 mals of both extinct and living species, mostly broken, 
 splintered and gnawed by large and small carnivorous beasts 
 which at one time made the cave their home, dragging into 
 it their prey to be devoured.* 
 
 where a branch ravine joins it ; which the grade follows upward, diagonally, 
 through the Barrens. This ravine is traceable to the vicinity of the Pond 
 bank. 
 
 "The main ravine, known as Big hollow, continues in a sinuous course 
 northeastward until it reaches Spring creek, one mile below Houserville. 
 Big hollow has a distinct course of about five miles ; its banks are in places 
 from 50 to 100 feet high, here sloping and gradual, there steep and precipi- 
 tous. As in the case of real river channels, the steep banks are on the inside 
 of the curves. 
 
 " The whole topography of Big hollow indicates that it is the bed of an an. 
 cient stream. An extensive area slopes toward this ravine. Several smaller 
 ones join it on its course, yet I know of no evidence that water has flowed 
 through it since the first settlement of Centre county ; but I have found 
 numerous sink-holes along the channel ; and gravel deposits and other de- 
 bris in the vicinity of some of them indicate that large quantities of water 
 have flowed into them in times of freshet ; and this makes it probable that 
 there exists beneath the Big hollow an underground channel joining Spring 
 creek." 
 
 *The report of the exploration, made by Mr. Paret, Prof. Porter and Dr. 
 Joseph Leidy, was published in the Annual Report of the Geo. Sur.Pa. for 
 1887, pp. 1 to 20, with two plates by Dr. Leidy, who identified the remains of 
 the living lynx, gray fox, wolf, skunk, weasel, raccoon, mole, dusky bat? 
 little brown bat, woodchuck, porcupine, beaver, musk rat, gray squirrel, 
 ground squirrel, meadow mouse, white footed mouse, wood rat, gray rab- 
 bit, deer, elk ; no domestic animal, except perhaps a pair of imperfectly de- 
 veloped teeth of a horse ; many bird bones, especially of the wild turkey 
 several kinds of turtles and snakes ; snail shells, a valve of the river mus- 
 sel, and two other shells ; some small fragments of charcoal ; many seeds 
 of dogwood, pignut, walnut ; works of man, a bone fish hook, harpoon 
 head, 5 bone awls, a bone needle, a bored cone shell, a chipped spear head 
 of argillite, a black flint knife and a piece of brown pottery. 
 
 But with all the above were found remains of the extinct peccary (Dicoty-
 
 430 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 A vertical cavern in the limestones of II was exposed by 
 quarry work in the Chester county valley near Port Ken- 
 neday, and explored by Mr. Wheatley, of Phoenixville ; 
 the animal remains being described by Prof. Cope. These 
 were all of a comparatively recent geological age. This 
 fact, taken in connection with the Tertiary lignite beds of 
 the Pond bank in Franklin county, and the Ironton mine 
 in Lehigli county, prove that all our caverns are of geologic- 
 ally modern construction, and belong not at all to the re- 
 mote dates of the limestone formations which they pene- 
 trate ; that they are in fact the last descendants of an infi- 
 nite series of caves excavated in successive ages, and un- 
 roofed and swept away as the unceasing erosion by atmos- 
 pheric waters lowered the original surface of the globe to 
 its present level. The rate at which this erosion has gone 
 on deserves consideration. 
 
 The rate of erosion. 
 
 The rate at which the surface of our limestone valleys has 
 been lowered is hard to calculate. It depends (1) on the 
 amount of rainfall from year to year and from age to age ; 
 (2) on the way the rain falls, whether in a perpetual drizzle, 
 or in violent downpours ; (3) on the slope of the beds of the 
 water channels, whether more or less steeply inclined ; (4) 
 on the solubility of the rocks, both in general and in par- 
 ticular, determining the shape and size of caverns, the sta- 
 bility of their roofs, and consequently the amount of me- 
 chanical erosion which is in addition to the amount of 
 chemical solution. 
 
 Undoubtedly a part of our limestone formation passes off 
 to the ocean as lime water ; but another part passes off as 
 broken matter, floated limestone pieces, limestone sand, 
 limestone mud. And when the new oceanic deposit is 
 made it must represent both these forms ; as we see that it 
 does ; for the microscope shows mechanical fragments 
 cemented by a chemical precipitate. 
 
 les pcnnsylvanicus) ; of another larger extinct peccary (Platygonus vctus}; 
 and of the extinct gigantic beaver (Castoroides ohioensis.*) 
 
 This cave, not being in No. II, but in the lower Helderberg limestone No. 
 VI, will be more properly described in a future chapter.
 
 CAVERNS IN NO. II. 431 
 
 The chemical solution of the limestone strata of Centre 
 county was studied by Prof. A. L. Ewing in 1883*, at the 
 upper end of the Old Bellefonte dam, below the entrance of 
 all visible tributaries of Spring creek. (1) The cross-sec- 
 tion and velocity of the stream were here measured ; (2) 
 the amount of solids in the water was determined by evapo- 
 ration ; (3) the area of the whole water basin was calcu- 
 lated geographically. 
 
 1. The average width, 75' ; average depth (six measure- 
 ments), 2.7' ; average velocity (got by bottles floated at va- 
 rious depths), 3263' per hour = about 24, ,500 cubic yards 
 of water passing a given point every hour. 
 
 2. By evaporation (two tests), 2400 grains of solid matter 
 were got from one cubic yard of water ; according to which 
 (24,500x24x365x2400-5-7000=) 73,584, 000 Ibs., or 328,500 
 long tons of solid matter carried away per annum. 
 
 3. The area drained by Spring creek is rudely estimated 
 at 100 square miles, three-fourths of which is mountain 
 slope ; the rest limestone valley. By evaporating mount- 
 ain water it was found that nine-tenths of the solid matter 
 in Spring creek came from the limestone valley. 
 
 Prof. Ewing calculated the annual waste of the region at 
 282 tons per square mile ; and the waste of the limestone 
 valley by solution at 275 tons per square mile. 
 
 Taking the specific gravity of limestone at 2.75 (Traut- 
 wine, p. 386), a layer one foot deep over a square mile would 
 weigh 2,140,540 gross tons. A layer of 275 tons would be 
 only one-eight thousandth (^oW) f an mc ^ thick. In 
 other words the surface of Nittany valley is lowered at the 
 rate of one foot in eight thousand years by the loss of what 
 is constantly running off past Bellefcnte, so far as that can 
 be calculated in the manner described above. 
 
 Other things, however, have to be taken into considera- 
 tion which should vitiate the correctness of that result 
 without substituting for it another more reliable. The 
 loose stones in the main channel and in all its branch water 
 ways show that annual floods play a role of great import- 
 
 *Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Science, 1884; copied into Report of Prog. G. Sur. 
 of P., T3, 451.
 
 432 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 ance in the operation ; frost loosening the limestone slabs, 
 and water breaking them into pieces, grinding them to- 
 gether, and sweeping them away into the Susquehanna 
 river and so onward into the sea. The rate of this mechan- 
 ical destruction of the surface is unknown, and probably 
 cannot be in any manner calculated. It' it be assumed equal 
 to the rate of chemical solution, the surface of the country 
 may be said to lower itself one foot in 4000 years. 
 
 But even this more rapid rate cannot be adopted for cal- 
 culations extended backward many ages ; for, while the 
 chemical solution is a constant quantity, provided the an- 
 nual rainfall be a constant quantity^ the rate of mechanical 
 erosion depends on the velocity of streams, i. e. on the slope 
 of the water-basin. But this was much greater in past 
 ages than it is now. When the top limestones on the Belle- 
 fonte and other anticlinals were first laid bare the general 
 surface of the region had a topography exactly resembling 
 that of the Shade and Black Log region at the present day ; 
 but it had an elevation above the sea at least 5000 feet 
 higher. Of course erosion went on at its usual high rate 
 in Alpine regions ; but as we have no data for calculation, 
 it is left to the imagination of the student of nature to 
 adopt a mean rate between the extremes of excessive me- 
 chanical erosion at the outset and of excessive chemical 
 solution now. 
 
 At present the water fall from the head of Spring creek 
 (1290' A. T.)* in Penn's valley to the dam at Bellefonte is 
 only about 57C', and from Bellefonte to tide water in Chesa- 
 peake Bay about 720' At the birth of Nittany valley the 
 fall of the Spring creek which then traversed it lengthwise 
 (as Black Log creek traverses its valley) was say 500', and 
 of the Susqnehanna river which then existed say 5000'. 
 The rate of surface erosion may well have been then 400 or 
 even 100 years per foot. 
 
 All such calculations are therefore fruitless, seeing that 
 the age of Nittany valley can be made at will either 40, 000,- 
 000, 20,000,000, 2,000,000 or only 500,000 years. If we go 
 back beyond the uncovering of the top limestones of No. 
 
 *T4, 419.
 
 CAVERN DEPOSITS IN NO. II. 433 
 
 II on the Bellfonte anticlinal to the coal age, we greatly 
 increase the time, but not in proportion to the thickness 
 of the overlying formations ; for, the erosion must have 
 been vastly more rapid when the surface stood 20,000' or 
 25,000' above the sea. 
 
 In fact this part of our science is nothing but a fairy 
 tale ; and the best geologist is merely the most lively ra- 
 conteur. 
 
 Precipitation of limonite in caves. 
 
 The rate of deposit of limonite (hydrous peroxide of 
 iron) in cavities is sometimes, under favorable circum- 
 stances, quite rapid. For example, at the Bennington 
 shaft near the Allegheny mountain summit tunnel of the 
 P. RR. in Blair county "the pump column" receives from 
 the mine water one inch of such deposit each year, supplied 
 by the decomposition and oxidation of carbonate iron ore 
 balls in the roof shales of the Miller coal bed. And again, 
 at Johnstown, in the Slope mine, an area of half an acre 
 (near New Furnace No. 5) is now being filled with limonite 
 mud from the same source (viz : decomposition of ore balls 
 in roof) so rapidly that a layer 18 inches in depth has been 
 made in the course of the last eight years ; so that it looks 
 as if the whole space once 'occupied by the coal bed would 
 in a few years more be occupied by a consolidated bed of 
 limonite iron ore.* 
 
 *The process is facilitated in this instance by the fact that some warm water 
 from the large furnace works passes through the roof of the mine. (Report 
 T, p. 171.) 
 
 The deposit of iron rust in the municipal purifying revolvers at the Ant_ 
 werp water works is accompanied by physical details of the greatest inter- 
 est for geologists studying the theory of the formation of limonite deposits, 
 including organic matter, clays of various colors from white to black, and 
 concretions. "In March, 1885, three of these revolvers were started at Ant- 
 werp, and the original iron and gravel beds were converted into ordinary 
 sand filters ; by this change the capacity of the works was at once doubled. 
 The total weight of iron in use at one time was reduced from 900 tons to 3J 
 tons, and all the expenses connected with digging over and washing the 
 purifying materials were done away with. 
 
 "When pure water is passed through a revolver, a certain amount of iron 
 is dissolved, and then the water flows out a light gray color. After two or 
 three hours, the color changes to a reddish brown, and a deposit of rust 
 
 28
 
 434 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Depth of limonite deposits in caves. 
 
 The depth of a limonife ore-clay mass therefore depends 
 on the depth of the cavern floor ; and this in turn depends 
 upon the deepest drainage level of its district. 
 
 Theoretically such a deposit of ore ought not to be deeper 
 than the place where its ancient water course came out on 
 the Lehigh or Schuylkill river, but, considering the chem- 
 ical action of the water on the floor of the cavern, and in 
 fissures descending beneath the floor, some slight additional 
 depth must be allowed. It is a practical geological rule, 
 however, that an owner of ah iron bank in fterks county 
 cannot expect to find ore below the plane of 200' above tide, 
 which is the level of the bed of the Schuylkill at Reading, 
 and the level of the bed of the Lehigh at Allen town. An 
 allowance must also be made for the grade of the descent 
 of the underground water from the mine to the outlet. An 
 iron bank near Reading maybe deeper, therefore, than one 
 at Kutztown or at Womelsdorf can be. Topton Junction, 
 for example, stands at 485' A. T. Subtract 200' from 485' 
 
 takes place at the bottom of the vessel. If filtered at once on escaping from 
 the revolver the liquid will generally be clear at first, but after a time it will 
 sometimes get cloudy and the deposit of rust will take place, showing 
 that the iron existed in the first instance in solution, and was 
 afterward precipitated by the action of atmospheric oxygen. If the 
 water be impure, colored and charged with dissolved organic matter, 
 it will issue from the revolver of a dark gray color, and this will increase 
 to an inky black in the case of very bad water. So that it is possible to judge 
 of the quality of the water by the color assumed during its treatment. If 
 the impurities are not more than the iron can deal with, the liquid, on stand- 
 ing for some three or four hours, becomes lighter and lighter in color, a 
 black precipitate forms, and sinks very slowly to the bottom, the color be- 
 comes a dirty gray, and then the water will filter quite clear and bright. If 
 the impurities overpower the iron, or are of a nature which the iron cannot 
 effectually attack, a purplish color remains, and the liquid will not filter col- 
 orless. As in the case of the Bischof filter, the time of repose and exposure 
 to the air before filtration is obtained by providing a sufficient depth of 
 water over the sand of the filter beds. 
 
 "In addition to its chemical action, iron possesses the property of causing 
 the very finely-divided particles of matter, which cause opalescence and 
 cloudiness, to coagulate to such an extent that they can be removed by fil- 
 tration. The waters of the Nile, for example, which will not subside clear' 
 in any reasonable time, and which cannot be filtered bright by sand filters, 
 yield a beautiful clear water if agitated with iron before filtration through 
 sand." Sci. Amer. Supp., No. 580, p. 9260, Feb. 12, 1887.
 
 CAVERN DEPOSITS IN NO. II. 435 
 
 and we have 285' as the possible depth of a cave or sink- 
 hole. But Topton Junction is 18-J miles from Reading. If 
 we only allow a fall of 5' per mile for the cavern waters we 
 must take off 92', leaving only 193' for the possible depth 
 of a cave, or of an iron ore deposit at Topton Junction. 
 Beyond some such properly calculated depth sinking for 
 iron ore of this kind is a hopeless affair. 
 
 The filling of the caverns, however large and numerous 
 they may be, is easily comprehensible when we remember 
 that an average of 93 per cent, of the magnesian limestone 
 formation rock is soluble, and when dissolved by the rainfall 
 passes off entirely into the sea. Of the remaining 7 per 
 cent, of insoluble clay-iron sand, a portion would be carried 
 away by rapid waters, but a portion would settle and remain 
 in quiet pools in the large cavern chambers, and would en- 
 tirely fill such galleries as were kept full of water by the 
 choking up of their lower exits. 
 
 Limonite precipitated from pyrites. 
 
 Enough is said on this subject on preceding pages lo 
 suggest inquiry, for no sufficient knowledge of it has yet 
 been obtained. Dr. T. S. Hunt has expressed his opinion 
 strongly that all our limonite deposits have had this origin. 
 But the frequent finding of crystals and pipes of pyrites in 
 the ore banks is not of itself a broad enough basis for so 
 large a generalization, and many of the facts narrated in 
 preceding chapters seem to have no direct connection with 
 such a process. The presence of magnetite, however, is a 
 detail which may be connected with that of pyrites.* 
 
 *Mr. W. B. Devereux, of Colorado, has published in Trans. A. Inst. Min 
 Engineers, Feb., 1884, an interesting paper on the Pitkin county iron ores- 
 which he concludes with the following paragraph : " While in doubt as to 
 the relation this ore-body bears to the limestone, I hazard the opinion that 
 the magnetite is a direct product of the decomposition of iron pyrites, and 
 that the ore-body at no great depth is massive pyrites instead of massive 
 magnetite. I base this opinion upon the following facts : Crystals of mag- 
 netite are common in this locality, which are pseudomorphs, showing the 
 common hemi-hexahedral form and characteristic striations of pyrites. Efflo- 
 rescence of ferrous sulphate is also common ; and in the bed of the ravine 
 the ore is a mixture of pyrite and magnetite, the latter appearing as a fine- 
 grained gray matrix, and, when pulverized or broken off, being strongly
 
 436 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 Zinc, Lead and Barium in No. II. 
 
 New Jersey has its great Franklin zinc mine, famous 
 throughout the mineralogical world as well as the world of 
 commerce and the arts. Pennsylvania has its one great 
 Saucon mine of zinc ore, also ; and two other zinc mines of 
 no commercial importance, but equally interesting from a 
 geological point of view ; all three being precipitations of 
 salts of zinc in the same old limestone formation of No. II. 
 
 The Saucon zinc mines of LeMgh county. 
 
 The location of these mines is shown on plate XII, page 
 364, above. They have riveted the curious attention of geol- 
 ogists for many years, as they have given occasion to some 
 of the most splendid exhibitions of mining engineering 
 genius, in its efforts to overcome extraordinary difficulties 
 in the way of drainage. The mine pumps are among the 
 greatest in the world. The most powerful apparatus that 
 could be constructed was required for keeping the great 
 excavation dry enough to work. The limestone formation 
 in the Saucon valley lies in a deep trough into which, and 
 to the bottom of which, flows the rainfall of the surround- 
 ing mountains. The beds are uptilted and broken, the 
 innumerable fissures which traverse them and the caverns 
 which have been excavated in them permit the accumulation 
 
 attracted by the magnet. This rapidly increasing percentage of pyrite, the 
 occurrence of the two minerals in intimate juxtaposition, and the fact that no 
 intermediate stage of hematite occurs, taken together with the testimony of 
 the pseudomorphs, all oppose the application to this case of the ordinarily 
 accepted theory that magnetite is a metamorphic derivative from hematite. 
 Having enjoyed a somewhat extensive observation of iron-ore deposits, and 
 accepting, as satisfactory in many cases the theory just mentioned, yet in this 
 case I can see nothing which will permit its use as an explanation of the 
 i'acts. This ore contains a trace of silver also, but no copper. It may be in- 
 teresting to note that pieces of the limestone referred to, when struck with 
 a hammer, emit the odor ofsulphureted hydrogen."
 
 ZINC MINES IN NO. II. 437 
 
 of great quantities 'of water; the dissolution of the lime 
 rocks has produced concentrated masses of zinc ore ; and 
 the phenomena of our great brown hematite iron ore de- 
 posits are here repeated, zinc being substituted in the place 
 of iron. The geological cause of this substitution of zinc 
 for iron may be said to be quite unknown, or at all events 
 has not yet been satisfactorily explained on any theory ; nor 
 can we suggest a reason why some of the beds of No. II in 
 Saucon valley are as heavily charged with zinc as are the 
 iron-bearing beds of No. II elsewhere in the State with 
 iron. If it be suggested that the zinc has come from a dis- 
 tance, whether from above or below, it is only necessary to 
 point to certain thin beds of limestone, carrying zinc which 
 have been mined to a small extent and without profit in 
 the neighborhood of Penningtonville in Lancaster county, 
 and of similar beds of limestone carrying both lead and zinc 
 which have been repeatedly mined without profit in Sink- 
 ing valley in Blair county. In the last mentioned district 
 of the State two sorts of unwise notions have been expressed 
 regarding these zinc- bearing beds. (1) They have been 
 looked upon as merely veins descending into the interior 
 of the globe. Similar veins of zinc ore do in fact exist in 
 Sinking valley, opposite Birmingham, but they are concen- 
 trations of the zinc and lead from the limestone beds of the 
 valley, and (2) there is no good reason for believing that 
 they are connected in any way with the underground 
 depths. They have nothing to do with the anticlinal struc- 
 ture of Sinking valley any more than the zinc ores have 
 with the monoclinal structure at Penningtonville, or than 
 the zinc ores have with the synclinal or basin structure of 
 the Saucon valley. The fact is, that zinc and lead seem to be 
 inherent constituents of all limestone formations the world 
 around. It is probable that they were deposited with the 
 limestone in far grater abundance in ancient ages, and were 
 originally brought into the Appalachian sea as soluble 
 salts, together with the lime and magnesia waters of prim- 
 eval rivers. It only remains to add, that the zinc and lead 
 ores of Pennsylvania correspond in all respects to the No. 
 II zinc ores of Wythe county, Virginia, and to the great
 
 438 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 lead and zinc deposits in the fissures and caverns of the 
 ancient limestone country of Wisconsin and Missouri. 
 They all belong to the same remote age, and have been con- 
 centrated into their present form in the same limestone 
 formations and by a similar process. 
 
 The Saucon zinc mine at Friedensburg is said by Rogers 
 to be in a close synclinal fold.* He describes it as merely 
 a surface quarry ; but it had only been started in 1853, and 
 worked three years by a slope when he saw it. Its calamine 
 ore or silicate of zinc, appeared then irregularly injected 
 into the limestone, which stood vertical in the N. wall, and 
 dipped 85 in the S. wall. The limestone was also injected 
 with thin veins of quartz."f 
 
 Prof. Prime in his Report D3, 1883, p. 239, says the ore, 
 zinc blende, associated with iron pyrite, is disseminated 
 through a limestone which seems broken up, and its crevices 
 filled in with the ore. 
 
 The mass has somewhat the appearance of a breccia. The 
 zinc blende is not confined to one bed or horizon, but ex- 
 tends through a vertical thickness of 30 or 40 feet in some 
 places, while at other points of the mine the infiltration 
 seems confined to a vertical thickness of 10 to 20 feet. 
 The mine has been worked (1877) to a depth of 250' on the 
 slope of the bed. The excavations are very large and ex- 
 tend along the strike more than 1000'; the dip of the lime- 
 stone being 30 to 35, S. 5 to 10 E. 
 
 It is evident that the source of the ore was above, and 
 not beneath ; that the term "infiltration" is as justly used 
 in this case as in that of our limonite or brown hematite 
 iron ore deposits. That the zinc was an original constitu- 
 ent of the limestone is extremely doubtful. And yet the 
 fact that the zinc of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, as well 
 as of the western states occurs in No. II. seems to link the 
 metal with limestone of Lower Silurian age. The notion 
 of a deep-seated source expressed by Mr. F. L. Clark in his 
 
 *Geol. Pa. 1858, p. 101. On page 236 he suggests that the synclinal may 
 be faulted. 
 
 f The ore was smelted at Bethlehem and converted into white paint. The 
 vein seemed to range along the axis of the synclinal or fault, 1856.
 
 ZINC MINES IN NO. II. ' 439 
 
 paper on the Mining and Metallurgy of Zinc in the U. S., 
 published in the "Engineer and Mining Journal" of Sep- 
 tember 8, 1883, I cannot concede to ; but his description 
 of the mines is perhaps the best we have, and I give it in a 
 foot-note.* 
 
 * The zinc deposits in the Saucon valley, Lehigh county, Pennsylvania, 
 which were once extensively worked, now produce but little ore. Their 
 history, however, has a special interest from their connection with the in- 
 troduction of spelter-making into this country, and from the fact that they 
 belong to a class of deposits which seems to warrant a belief in their con- 
 tinuance to a considerable depth, and because they are a good illustration 
 of the general effect of the characteristic feature of the ore market above re- 
 ferred to. 
 
 Tbree principal deposits have been discovered, known respectively as the 
 Ueberoth, Hartman and Saucon mines : they occur in magnesian limestone 
 of the Lower Silurian formation, and have many points in common, while 
 they also present some striking differences. They were all at one time 
 owned or controlled by the Lehigh Zinc Company, whose works were at 
 Bethlehem, four miles distant. 
 
 The Ueberoth mine, which is, so far as developments have shown, the 
 largest, was worked continuously from 1853 up to the fall of 1876. It was 
 for many years the main dependence of these works, and produced in the 
 neighborhood ot 300,000 tons of ore. The strata of limestone are here very 
 much disturbed and tilted up almost to the vertical, apparently by the ob- 
 trusion of the syenite ridge of the neighboring South mountain. The ore 
 came close to the surface, and a very rich pocket was found in the clay 
 above and around limestone boulders, which is estimated to have produced 
 100,000 tons of ore. When this body of ore was exhausted, the ore was fol- 
 lowed down in crevices between the boulders. These crevices lie in planes 
 parallel to the bedding of the limestone, or in planes perpendicular to it, and 
 preserve great regularity in their position, an i a parallel course for several 
 hundred yards in a northeast and southwest direction ; they are nearly ver- 
 tical, and at the depth of 225 feet, to which the mine was worked, showed no 
 signs of closing up. The ores at first were exclusively calamine and smith- 
 sonite ; but at greater depth blende made its appearance, coating the walls 
 of the crevices, and in some cases penetrating into them several feet ; in 
 other cases, segregated as rich seams, which nearly filled the cross-openings. 
 At first, it was confined to the northeastern end of the mine; but at the low- 
 est depth reached it could be traced almost continuously to the extreme 
 southwestern end. The dip of the ore body appeared to be regular, and to 
 the southwest. Six of these parallel crevices were worked, and about as 
 many crossings ; and where they intersected, rich bunches of ore were 
 found, some of which were as much as 60 feet across and 20 feet thick. All 
 the indications seemed to point with increasing certainty to the existence of 
 a backbone or underlying deposit of blende, out of the reach of the action of 
 meteoric waters, from the continuation of which the oxidized ores have been 
 derived. 
 
 Timbering the mine was always a serious difficulty, but the greatest ob- 
 stacle to be overcome was the water. Even at a depth of 40 feet, the flow
 
 440 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Bamford zinc 'mines in Lancaster County. 
 
 In the northern part of East Hempfield township, Lan- 
 caster county, limestone beds impregnated with almost in- 
 
 was already very strong ; at the depth of 150 feet, it was found necessary to 
 put in what was then the largest pumping engine in the world. This en- 
 gine, which is a single cylinder, double-acting, condensing, walking-beam 
 engine, with a pair of fly wheels, has a 110-inch cylinder and a 10-foot stroke, 
 and is calculated to work four 30-inch plunger pumps and four 30-inch lift 
 pumps, with 10-foot stroke, and to take water from a depth of 30 feet. At 
 the time it was stopped, it was running from six to seven strokes a minute, 
 and was working three pairs of 30-inch pumps and one pair of 22-inch pumps, 
 and was easily handling all the water that came to them. The pump-shaft 
 and foundation for the engine were no less remarkable in their way. The 
 latter was built up from the solid rock, 60 feet below the surface of the 
 ground, of hewn blocks of Potsdam sandstone ; the former, which measured 
 30 feet by 20 feet in the clear, was started on a small crevice, and timbered 
 with 12-inch square yellow pine sticks, and divided into three compart- 
 ments, and further strengthened by two open brattices of the same heavy 
 timber. When the pitch of the vein carried it out of the shaft, the rest of the 
 depth was sunk through solid rock. 
 
 The Hartman mine distant about half a mile, was worked at first ex- 
 clusively for calamine. Its exploitation gradually exposed a central horse 
 of blende, which the method of mining adopted made it necessary to leave 
 for the support of the timbers which carried the roof. The increasing im- 
 portance of this blende at the lowest level worked, 150 feet, caused a change 
 to be made in the method of mining. The mine was operated for a year 
 after the large engine was stopped, and the last work that was done was the 
 putting in of a slope to develop this deposit of blende. The water in the 
 Hartman was always less strong, the pitch of the crevices less steep, and 
 the surrounding rock less disturbed than in the Ueberoth mine ; the strike 
 of the crevices was more to the west, and the blende came nearer to the sur- 
 face. 
 
 The Saucon mine, however, affords the simplest and best illustration of 
 this form of deposit. It is distant about a quarter of a mile, and was origi- 
 nally leased by the Passaic Zinc Company, by whom it was sub-let to the 
 Lehigh Zinc Company on high royalties. When the rich deposit of calamine 
 first discovered was apparently exhausted, this sub-lease was surrendered 
 by the latter company, and in 1875 the original lease passed to the Bergen 
 Point Zinc Company, by whom the mine has been worked ever since. A 
 face of blende was uncovered at the western extremity of the open pit, and 
 the ore followed under a heavy cap of limestone for a distance of 250 feet 
 up to the property of the Lehigh Zinc Company on the west. On this pro- 
 perty, it was reached at a depth of 110 feet, under 100 feet of solid limestone, 
 and was followed 150 feet farther on the course of its strike. On both pro- 
 perties, it was followed to a depth of nearly 200 feet. In the fall of 1879, all 
 the property of the Lehigh Zinc Company passed into the hands of its bond- 
 holders under foreclosure of its mortgages, and in the spring of 1880 all the 
 mining property was sold to the proprietors of the Bergen Point Zinc 
 Works. 
 
 The workings of these two mines, taken together, show a remarkable
 
 ZINC MINES IN NO. II. 441 
 
 visible zinc blende, dipping about 70, N. 15 W. at the 
 surface and S. 15 E. in the deep, are described in Dr. 
 
 regularity of width, pitch and course, and the deposit is clearly shown to 
 be a large chimney or chute of ore of irregular cross-section, which, how- 
 ever, preserves a lenticular shape, the longer axis of which is about 60 feet, 
 and pitches to the south at an angle of about 30 degrees ; the transverse axis 
 measures about 30 feet. The axis of the ore-body dips to the west-south- 
 west with a slope of about one foot in four. The weathered outcrop has 
 evidently given rise to the pit of oxidized ores ana to certain irregular de- 
 tached deposits which lie in the same course, several hundred yards beyond it. 
 
 Here, then, are three similar deposits of zinc ore, with their nearly parallel 
 chimneys of blende and their corresponding beds of calamine, which have 
 evidently been brought up from below, by solution in thermal springs, 
 through crevices formed in the limestone by the gradual upheaval of the 
 neighboring South Mountain, and have undergone subsequent alteration 
 from the action of meteoric waters. Nearer the mountain, where tbe strata 
 are most tilted and the ground most disturbed, the water is strongest and 
 the largest deposit of calamine is found. In the Hartman mine, the strata 
 are more nearly flat, the blende is sooner met with, and the water is much 
 less strong ; and in the Saucon mine, the blende is met with at the edge of 
 the pit, and only moderate-sized pumps are required in working it at a depth 
 of 200 feet That the water in these mines comes from the same surface 
 springs which supply the Saucon Creek, is evident from the fact that, when 
 the big mine was abandoned, this creek shrank at once to a small fraction 
 of its former volume, and only gradually recovered it as the mine filled up. 
 Very careful surveys of the bed of this stream failed to discover any point 
 at which it showed any diminution of its volume or seemed to sink into the 
 ground. It is, therefore, very improbable that the water, having once come 
 to the surface, found its way back into the mine. It was probably tapped in 
 under-ground courses connected with the springs which give rise to thecreek. 
 This is the more probable, as the mine which has the most water is on the 
 highest ground and is farthest from the creek, and the mine having the least 
 water is nearest the creek. It is therefore reasonable to suppose that nearly 
 the maximum quantity of water likely to be encountered was already 
 handled, and that, if a solid body of underlying blende were developed, it 
 could be profitably worked with the machinery already in place. The 
 Saucon mine is still the main dependence of the Bergen Point Zinc Works, 
 but its continued working must be attended with increasing cost and uncer- 
 tain risks. 
 
 The ores of this region are remarkably free from lead, arsenic and antimony, 
 and it is this circumstance that gives them their principal value and interest, 
 and has been the basis of the very high reputation of the metal and oxide 
 obtained from them. Only the richest of the ores are, in the present state 
 of the ore market, available as spelter ores, but even the leanest of the 
 oxidized ores produce a very fine quality of oxide. The blende is very 
 peculiar. It is massive, and rarely shows even traces of crystallization ; 
 when pure, it has a bluish slate color, has a very characteristic conchoidal 
 fracture, is translucent on thin edges, and gives a clear ring when struck. 
 As generally sent to the works, it resembles broken limestone ; is somewhat 
 mixed with iron pyrites, and assays from 35 to 40 per cent of zinc. It is not
 
 442 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Frazer's Report C3, p. 55 At the west end of open cut 
 No. 1, a shaft was sunk cutting two or three belts rich in 
 
 easy to concentrate, both on account of its non-crystalline structure and of 
 the pyrite it contains. 
 
 The causes which led to the extinction of the Lehigh Zinc Company and 
 the abandonment of the first two-named mines were briefly these ; the im- 
 possibility of competing successfully in the oxide market with the owners 
 of the big mine in Sussex county, New Jersey, after the expiration of the 
 patents covering the oxide process left them free to take the trade, or in the 
 sheet-zinc and metal market with the Western smelters, using cheaper and 
 richer ores, at a time when a general depression. of all manufacturing enter- 
 prises made it unusually burdensome to carry the heavy bonded indebted- 
 ness incurred during a period of high prices and general inflation in acquir- 
 ing mines and putting up machinery to work them. Under more favorable 
 circumstances, it is probable that these mines could have been profitably 
 worked for years to come ; for although the pumping expenses were heavy> 
 they were not excessive, considered as a royalty on the ore, and these 
 charges per ton would diminish in proportion to the amount of ore mined. 
 Now, however, it will probably be left for another generation to discover 
 what value they still have. 
 
 Other deposits of zinc ore have been discovered in the same Silurian for- 
 mation in Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia, which have been worked 
 from time to time, but have produced very inconsiderable amounts of ore. 
 Small oxide works were built at an early day near Birmingham, Blair 
 county, and at Landis station, in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, but they 
 were soon abandoned. At the latter point, shallow beds of rich carbonate 
 of zinc were first discovered, but were worked out. About 1876, expensive 
 concentrating works and two blocks of spelter-furnaces were put up, to 
 treat the grains and kernels of c^stallized blende scattered through the 
 underlying limestone, before sufficient exploration was made to warrant 
 such an outlay of money ; they have for years been lying idle. 
 
 Mr. J. Eyerman, furnished the same journal December 15, 1883, the follow- 
 ing interesting particulars: As the ore (calamine,smithsonite and sphalerite) 
 in this mine is near the surface, it is not, at present, difficult to work. The 
 calarnine is found in large quantities disseminated through the limestone. 
 It is found mostly on the north side of the mine, where it is worked by a 
 small force of men. 
 
 This mine has furnished, and will continue to furnish, the finest speci- 
 mens of calamine (or silicate of zinc) known to the world. It is very often 
 found in botryoidal and stalactical forms. It is not seldom that sheets or 
 plates of calamine from two to three feet square and from one-eighth to one- 
 fourth of an inch thick, and containing thousands of little crystals on the 
 surface, are found between the crevices of the limestone. Again, it is found 
 as a thin coating to the inside of a quartz geode. This ore is quite scarce at 
 the Endy mine. It seems to have been replaced by the blende. The smith- 
 sonite or carbonate of zinc is found in white scales and in granular masses, 
 coating calamineand blende. It is also more commonly found as a brownish 
 earth, which hardens when dry. It is found near the center and along the 
 west side of the mine. It has often been mistaken for clay. This is also 
 mined at present by a small number of men. The sphalerite or zinc-blende
 
 ZINC MINES IN NO. II. 443 
 
 zinc. The east end of cut No. 2 showed the vein striking 
 N. 85 E. In a small open cut m. W. of RR. bridge over 
 Little Conestoga creek 80 tons of sandy limestone impreg- 
 nated with calamineand blende, and seamed with calcite, 
 were taken out ; dip apparently 50, N. 10 E. ; but on the 
 RR. the limestones dip 8, N. 5 W. 
 
 The Bamford mine was worked for a white oxide between 
 1850 and 1860. Streaks of silver lead are found in the lime- 
 stone, which is about 12' thick.* 
 
 Mr. E. G. Spilsbury's letter respecting the mine (C3, p. 
 198) describes two parallel beds of the limestone, near the 
 slate, but not at the contact of the two formations, as in 
 Blair county, " unmistakably bedded veins, and not fissure 
 or gash veins ; conformable both to the stratification and 
 dip of the inclosing rocks ; " striking N. 74 E. and dip- 
 ping 72, N. 15i W. 
 
 The hanging wall limestone is a breccia (or crushed) par- 
 tially decomposed, whitish gray, and highly silicious ; full 
 of seams, cavities, and small caves (15' to 20' long and as 
 many broad, by 4' to 6' high), all completely filled with a 
 dark red sandy loam, and not with mineral as in Missouri 
 and Illinois. In none of these loam-filled "cavities have I 
 ever found a trace of mineral." The broken condition of 
 the roof limestone extends from the surface to the bottom 
 of the pump shaft 110'. The foot wall is not uniformly 
 smooth but has offsets, like layers, shelving downward over 
 and past each other and into the ore body ; or, in other words, 
 the ore passes up between these shelving layers of dark 
 blue limestone sometimes to a distance of 8 or 10 feet. (See 
 figure in C3, p. 199.) The foot wall limestone is less silici- 
 ous, dark blue, in places almost black, and very close and 
 
 is not mined. It is found throughout the mine, with pyrite disseminated 
 through it. It is not met with in as large quantities here as at the Endy 
 mine. Greenockite (sulphide of cadmium), hydrozincite, and goslarite 
 (sulphate of zinc) are met with in smaller quantities. The sulphate of zinc 
 is scarcely ever found. A considerable quantity of greenockite has been 
 mined. It is found as a yellowish powder coating blende and limestone. 
 It was formerly separated at the LJethlehem works. 
 
 * Notes by P. Frazer, July, 1876, C3, p. 196, give details of crushing and 
 roasting.
 
 444 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 compact, with occasionally small holes lined with ealcspar 
 and frequently filled with specular iron ore. 
 
 The minerals in the vein matter consists of the two sul- 
 phides of zinc and lead ; changed for about 18' beneath the 
 surface to calamine and carbonate of lead ; unchanged sul- 
 phides below. The vein matter or gangue itself is a lime- 
 stone very like that of the foot wall, but crystalline in 
 spots. The galena (sulp. lead) is found in bunches or little 
 strings running along on or near the hanging wall ; but the 
 Jjlende (sulp. zinc) impregnates the whole vein matter, more 
 or less thoroughly. 
 
 The percentage of silver in the galena varies wonderfully 
 from $2 per ton in one bunch to $2,000 in the bunch next 
 to it ; a general average may be perhaps $22.* 
 
 Sinking Valley zinc and lead mines in Blair county. 
 
 These are described by Mr. F. Platt in chapter XV of his 
 Report on Blair county, T, 1881, pages 247 to 277, only a 
 short summary of which can be given here, the reader 
 being referred to the original report. 
 
 Sinking valley is the triangular south end of Nittany 
 valley, south of the Little Juniata river ; 10 miles long by 
 5 wide at the river ; anticlinal in structure, the axis sinking 
 southward, as shown by Figs. 33 and and 34.f The lime- 
 stones dip about 30, S. E. on the east side of the axis, and 
 
 *The bright golden "rosin blende" is very pure; only slight traces oi 
 iron and cadmium, and a small mechanical admixture of lead ; average of 
 14 samples: zinc, 65.9; sulphur, 32.3 ; iron, 0.8; lead, 0.3; cadmium, 0.07. 
 Average of a year's work showed about 18 per cent, of blende in the vein. 
 Run of vein one mile; another, covered with 15' soil, 1| m. further on. 
 reins proved to depths of 75' and 110'. North vein' worked out for 300', to 
 a depth of 50', with an average width of 12'. South vein worked out 400', to 
 a depth of 75' ; more regular ; width from 14' to 18' ; zinc in vein never ex- 
 ceeded 12 p. c.; richest ore from 50' down to 75' ; "at the 110' level, although 
 the vein is well defined, there is little or no ore in it, at any of the points 
 where it has been opened, and what little ore is in it appears in strings and 
 not disseminated as above." (For details of history, machinery, cost of 
 mining, manufacture of spelter, &c., see Mr. Spilsbury's letter in C3, pp. 
 202, 203.) 
 
 fThe axis sinks at the rate of 600' per mile from the vein at Birmingham 
 to the head of the Kettle; so that the zinc mines are very low down in the 
 magnesian limestones of II.
 
 ZINC MINES IN NO. II. 445 
 
 about 80 E. S. E. (overturned), on its west side. The 
 Keystone Zinc Co.'s mine near Mr. Kinch's house, and the 
 deep shaft on the Borie farm are both near the axis. 
 
 Fissure veins occur in various parts of the valley, and 
 were tried for as long ago as the War of Independence, as 
 the old pits on the Fleck farm bear witness.* But most of 
 the work has been done by the Keystone Zinc Co., which 
 was incorporated in 1864, and abandoned mining in 1870. In 
 1875 the Tathams tried to find good working ore with a deep 
 diamond drill hole east of the Fleck farm. In 1876 W. 
 Arms tried to develop a vein on the Isett farm. Still later 
 prospecting has been done, and the citizens of that district 
 are subject to periodical excitements by vague or incorrect 
 reports of mineral wealth hitherto concealed, or "never 
 properly developed," as the favorite phrase is worded. But 
 certainly enough has been done to disprove the probability 
 of extensive deposits underground, and to sustain the geo- 
 logical theory that the metals were originally distributed 
 through the limestone strata, set free by erosion, and con- 
 centrated in small quantities in fissures. 
 
 It is impossible to examine the closed up and decayed 
 workings ; but much can be learned from the reports of ex- 
 perts like Dr. Roepper of Bethlehem ; Mr. Williams of 
 Philadelphia ; Mr. IHckerson, Mr. Spilsbury and others.f 
 
 The Keystone Zinc Co.'s shafts, about \ m. S. W. of Bir- 
 mingham, were sunk from the top of a knoll 80' above the 
 road, and drained by an adit level, driven on 347' S. W. 
 One line of shafts followed the limestone strike on a vein 
 so variable as to open out into spacious chambers, and con- 
 tracting again to a mere crack. This fact alone suffices to 
 stamp the " vein " as no true vein, but a cavern deposit, like 
 any limonite bed. Were there a true vein it might be 
 traced to the river and be found in the bank ; but no trace 
 of ore has rewarded diligent search in that direction, and 
 
 *SeeGen. Roberdean's letter to President Reed, dated April 17, 1778, in 
 Pennsylvania Archives, Vol. 6, p. 422. Smelted lead was sent down the 
 river in flat boats. Another attempt was made by John Musser <fe Robert 
 Morris in 1795, the probable date of the old tunnel on the Keystone Zinc 
 o.'sland. 
 
 t Mr. Platt had access to these reports, most of them in manuscript.
 
 446 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 no success has rewarded equally diligent research in the 
 other direction, south west ward.* 
 
 The zinc blende and. galena are combined in compact, fine- 
 grained, dark (waxy when broken) lumps, some as large as 
 a man's head. The sulphide of lead is always present, but 
 always subordinate to the sulphide of zinc ; there is usually 
 a little calamine (hydrous silicate of zinc) ; and the gangue 
 is inconsiderable, consisting of magnesian limestone and a 
 little iron py rites, f 
 
 At the southwest end of the valley, therefore in the 
 upper limestones of II, the zinc-lead deposits differ from 
 those near Birmingham. Here the fissures run transverse 
 to the strike of the limestones, are nearly vertical, and few 
 of them more than 6 inches wide. Frequently, but not 
 always, a thin coating of heavy spar (sulpJiate of baryta) 
 separates the ore from the limestone walls ; and much heavy 
 spar is associated with the blende and galena in the gangue 
 stuff.:}: 
 
 *It must be said that no continuous trench along the outcrop of the sup- 
 posed vein was ever made ; and its alleged continuity was considered to be 
 proved by a gangway 166' long, connecting two shafts below. More than 
 2000 tons were won from the shafts ; one yielding very lean ore, the others 
 very rich ore. What remains unsmeltea at the abandoned works at Bir- 
 mingham is ore of even quality, analyzing up to a maximum of 30 per cent 
 metallic zinc. 
 
 f Analysis by McCreath : Sulp. lead, 18.37 ; sulp. zinc, 76.98 ; ox. iron and 
 alum., 1.90; carb. lime, 0.05; carb. mag., 0.17 ; water, 0.27; silica, 1.67 ; that 
 is lead 15.91 ; zinc 51.63. Another specimen yields lead, 5.86 ; zinc, 30.40. 
 For Mr. Williams' description of the seven shafts and workings, see T, p. 
 258, etc. He says that shafts 5, 6, 7 had been (Nov., 1865) carried down 
 through a heavy mass of ore and connected by a 165' long drift all in the 
 same mass, with an average thickness of 7'; quality excellent. He esti- 
 mated that there had been an output of 1300 tons of rock ore (30 p. c.) and 
 2000 tons of "wash or earthy" ore (8 p. c.). He remarks that the dolomite 
 wall rock was singularly tree from impregnate particles of blende or galena ; 
 one specimen analyzing carb. lime, 53.9 ; carb. mag., 41.3. But Platt re- 
 marks that there was abundant evidence that thin streaks and threads of 
 both ores do occur in the dolomite rocks. On the Kinch farm, directly oppo- 
 site the company's adit, runs a sandy limestone, through which much galena, 
 blende and calamine are scattered but too sparingly to make the rock an 
 ore (T, p. 262). This outcrop is continuous for a long distance without 
 changing its character. The presence of calamine shows that the sulphides 
 have been reached and converted by percolating waters. 
 
 {See description and analysis in T, pp. 263, 264. The pits on the McMullen 
 farm, are close to the edge of the slate belt, No. III. The Kryder pits are
 
 ZINC MINES IN NO. II. 447 
 
 All that lias been said above proves that these zinc-lead 
 veins are precipitation deposits, are not connected with any 
 deep metallic masses in the under world, and cannot de- 
 scend lower than the extreme limit of rain water percola- 
 tion in any district of the State to which they belong. I can- 
 not agree with Dr. Roepper* in looking upon them as true 
 veins, afterwards distorted by a fault-slide pressure into 
 chimneys and pockets like the magnetic iron ore veins (or 
 beds) of northern New Jersey with which he was so well 
 acquainted. I consider them as of the nature of compara- 
 tive recent cavern and fissure deposits, scarcely at all 
 changed in form by later earth movements. 
 
 Barytes in II. 
 
 Barytes (sulphate of baryta} occurs rather frequently 
 in small pockets in the limestones of II (as well as in the 
 Lower Helderberg limestones of VI) usually accompanied 
 by small percentages of sulphate of stronlia ; but strange 
 
 not far off. The Bridenbaugh's pits and cross cuts revealed one vein 8 in. 
 wide with N. W.-S. E. strike, vertical and unchanged to a depth of 25', with 
 abundance of heavy spar. On the Raemy farm much scattered surface ore. 
 The Crissman pits proved three fissure veins, ono said by Mr. Dickerson to 
 be fifteen inches, thickening downward ; another 3 feet wide, and forking 
 and reuniting around a wall horse. Of these shafts Mr. Williams afterwards 
 expressed an unfavorable opinion. The Borie farm "deep shaft" (80') was 
 sunk on a 4-inch vein, thickening downwards to 14 inches, yielding 300 tons 
 and then abandoned. The Fleck farm pits showed other fissure veins, in 
 which the gangue is between rock walls, both of them lined with calcspar. 
 The Isett farm shafts are said to have been sunk on two parallel veins, each 
 nearly 2' wide, and striking with the country rock. (T, p. 271.) 
 
 * "The fact that the ores are mainly sulphides, and placed in rock almost 
 entirely unaccompanied by clay, excludes the idea of their being merely 
 mechanically transported into already existing cavities of the rocks. The 
 whole mode of occurrence contradicts such a supposition, and leads, irre- 
 sistibly, to the conviction that the ores were formed in the place they are now 
 found, by geological-chemical agencies ; that the pocket shape of the lodes 
 is merely the result of mechanical derangement and contortion of the hill ; 
 and that these pockets have been formed out of original true veins following 
 theoriginal N. E. and S. W. strike of the strata. Itisonly necessary to notice 
 the shattered condition of the rock, and to observe the contortions exhib- 
 ited by the section of the hill along the Pennsylvania railroad, readily to ac- 
 count for the transformation of regular veins into a more or less irregular 
 system of pockets." (Roepper.)
 
 448 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 to say no trace of the latter could be found in the five analy- 
 ses made by McCreath (3 from II, and 2 from VI) published 
 in Report M2, p. 369. 
 
 In Franklin county, in the Great Valley, 2 m. S. of 
 Waynesboro, on Chr. Shockley's farm, it was found in 
 radiating columnar masses ; white to bluish white ; vitre- 
 ous lustre ; (Spec. 735) sul. baryta, 95.91 ; silicic acid, 2.80 ; 
 ox. iron and alum., 0.24 ; lime, 017 ; magnesia, 0.11 ; water, 
 0.09. Another, found in that vicinity, granular, also slightly 
 fibrous, generally very white, some stained with iron oxide, 
 powder white with brownish tinge ; sulp. bar., 98.05 ; sil. 
 acid, 1.11 ; ox. iron and al., 0. 14 ; traces of lime, mag. and 
 carb. acid ; water, 0.20. It has been found as white lamel- 
 lar barite on S. Plum's farm in Franklin county. (Genth's 
 Report B, p. 228. ) 
 
 In Blair county at Galbraith's 2 m. S. S. W. of Birming- 
 ham, the analysis being quite like the last.* 
 
 In Montgomery county, at Marble Hall, a granular gray- 
 ish-white barife resembling marble occurs with the marble- 
 beds of No. II. f 
 
 That bar He must be extensively and rather abundantly 
 distributed through some if not all the formations of the 
 State is proved by Dr. Genth's analysis of that remarkable 
 flow of salt water from an oil boring in Elk county, called 
 the " East Clarion Spring Water," one gallon of which con- 
 tained 419 grains of matter, of which 337 were chloride of 
 
 * T, p. 246. Two other quite identical analyses of the mineral from the 
 lower Helderberg limestone (VI) near Fort Littleton in Fulton county, will 
 be given in the chapter on that formation. Barite has also been found at the 
 bottom of VII (Oriskany <S&) in Sandy Ridge near Orbisonia, Huntingdon 
 county. (Genth's B, p. 228.) 
 
 f Barium is confined to no formation, but it affects mines of limonite, and 
 is probably held in solution by many of our waters. Dr. Genth reports it 
 in very perfect transparent, greenish, tabular crystals ( in. diameter) and 
 clusters of bluish tabular crystals; also crested, fascicular, and radiated 
 crystals and crystalline masses at Perkiomen mine near Shannon ville, Mont- 
 gomery county. Also, fibrous with copper ore at Jug Hollow mine, Mont- 
 gomery county. Also, white laminated crystalline masses at Phoanixville 
 mines ; and in similar manner and also crystallized with copper ores, 3 m. 
 W. of New Hope, in Bucks county. Also, a fetid barite in brownish radiat- 
 ing and columnar ferruginous masses at Heidelberg, Berks county. (Re- 
 port B, p. 146.)
 
 ZINC MINES IN NO. II. 449 
 
 sodium, 52 were chloride of calcium, 15 chloride of magne- 
 sium, 1.725 chloride of barium, and 0.128 bicarbonate of 
 barium* 
 
 It is very surprising that strontium should not appear 
 in company with barium in the limestones of II and VI. 
 In the East Clarion Spring water Dr. Genth only found 
 0.06 grains of the chloride and 0.005 grains of the bicar- 
 bonate of strontia. But, on the other hand, the sulphate 
 of strontia (celestite) makes the famous stratified bed in 
 Blair county, opposite Bell's Mills. f 
 
 The origin of the barite in our sedimentary rocks is an 
 interesting problem. The masses found are evidently seg- 
 regations, precipitations from water confined in cavities, 
 hut how localized is not understood.:}: 
 
 It is however brought into immediate relations to the 
 veins of zinc-lead, by the occurrence of two true veins of 
 sulphate of baryta (heavy spar) in the hill on the Kinch 
 farm in Blair county, one 6 inches and the other 3 inches 
 wide, separated by two feet of sandy limestone (Calcifer- 
 ous, Ila) dipping nearly vertical and striking N. E.-S. W. 
 These veins have no other material ; but some of the zinc- 
 lead veins have in their gangue a considerable admixture 
 of heavy spar. (T, p. 272.) 
 
 * He adds that this mineral water contains the largest quantity of chloride 
 of barium ever observed in any springs, and may become of great importance 
 after its medicinal properties have been more fully investigated. (Report B, 
 1874, p. 27.) 
 
 t It occurs here in a series of thin seams, pale green, crystallized in col- 
 umns of fibres, crosswise, containing strontia 42, sulp. acid 58. (Klaproth, 
 1797.) H. C. Lewis, however, found a white fibrous aragonite in seams 
 and crystalline crusts in the nearly pure limestone of the Water-lime divi- 
 sion of formation VI in Mifflin county, opposite Mt. Union, 2 in. E. of Ma- 
 tilda furnace, containing carb. strontia 0.58 ; and with this Dr. Genth found 
 groups of minute divergent needles of strontianite, consisting of carb. lime 
 15.36, carb. strontia 83.15, etc. (Report B, 1876, p. 229.) 
 
 f Dr. Genth's analysis of the green orthoclase felspar lennilite (or dela- 
 warite) of Delaware county, gave 0.57 baryta ; and his three analyses of 
 another orthoclase felspar (Lea's cassinite) from Blue Hill, Delaware 
 county, gave 3.79, 3.75, 3.60 baryta. The clays produced by the decomposi- 
 tion of such felspars must necessarily retain much barita converted into 
 barite. 
 
 29
 
 450 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Of PENNSYLVANIA.. 
 
 Gypsum absent from No. II. 
 
 Plaster rock (gypsum, sulphate of lime} does not occur 
 in formation II in Pennsylvania. In fact even as isolated 
 crystals it is extremely rare in the State, and is only seen 
 where the water from oxydized pyrites acts on the lime- 
 stone beds, as at Van Arsdale's quarry near Feisterville, 
 Bucks county, producing beautiful slender crystals, some- 
 times 2 in. long and in. wide, or much smaller as at Corn- 
 wall. Such needles frequently are seen on the magnetic 
 iron ore, or upon a decomposed clay-like mineral, often in- 
 termixed with arborescent copper. (Genth in B, p. 148.) 
 
 The so called "Plaster rock" of the Wilsham quarry in 
 Nippenose valley on the Clinton county line, ground at 
 Metzger's and other plaster mills near by, and sold as plaster 
 at prices little below Cayuga or Nova Scotia plaster, was 
 found by McCreath, at the Survey Laboratory in Harris- 
 burg, to be a nearly pure limestone, with less than 1 per 
 cent, of gypsum in it.* The place of the beds is about 
 500' beneath the bottom of the slate formation No. III. 
 
 * Montreal plaster has sulp. acid 46, lime 33, water 20. The Nippenose 
 plaster consists of carb. lime 95.1 ; carb. magnesia 1.0 ; silica 2.7 ; sulp. lime 
 (gpysum) 0.7 ; carb. iron 0.3 ; carbon and water 0.2. (Report G2, p. 81.)
 
 TRAP DYKES IN NO. II. 451 
 
 CHARTER XXXVIII. 
 Trap dykes in No. II. 
 
 In Berks county, a trap dyke, 4m. W. of Reading, issues 
 from the Trias country and cuts the limestone belt in a IS. 
 E. direction. Crossing the turnpike a little E. of Sinking 
 Springs and following down the west side of Cacoosing 
 creek, it makes a fine show on Tulpehocken creek near Van 
 Reed's mill. Its boulders appear on the slate soil further 
 on near Epler's ; but the dyke cannot be traced beyond 
 this to the Schuylkill.* It is evident that this dyke is in 
 some way connected with the great outbursts of trap in the 
 Trias south of Fritztown near the Lancaster county line ; 
 but the long way it runs, its straight course, and its nar- 
 rowness make it difficult to suppose that the crack was in- 
 vaded horizontally. The lava must have come from a great 
 depth, and therefore could have had no real connection with 
 the Trias. Its abundance in the Trias only goes to show 
 that the disturbance which produced the fractures, and the 
 filling of these cracks with lava, were events of a post- 
 triassic age. A similar occurrence on a much larger scale 
 in Cumberland county teaches the same lesson. 
 
 In Lebanon county a small dyke issues from the edge of 
 the Trias 2m. E. of Campbellstown, just west of Killingers 
 run and can be followed half a mile across the limestone. 
 
 But N. of Lebanon city is a much more remarkable case. 
 Three dykes appear between Mt. Ararat and Jonestown, 
 running in parallel E. and W. lines, about a mile apart ; 
 the middle one, about 4 miles long, reaching nearly to Mt. 
 Union P. O. They are in the slate belt. They do not 
 touch the limestone belt ; nor run ~N. and S. as if connected 
 with the reservoirs of trap under the Lancaster-Lebanon 
 
 * Rogers' Geol. Pa., 1858, p. 251. It has been omitted accidentally from the 
 Berks county map in Hand Atlas, X.
 
 452 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 county line. They must certainly come up from the azoic 
 floor beneath the limestone which is beneath the slate ; that 
 means from a depth of at least a mile beneath the present 
 surface.* 
 
 In Montgomery county a long staight trap dyke crosses 
 the Schuylkill river at Conshohocken 500' N. of the bridge, 
 where it outcrops on the west bank in a picturesque black 
 wall 40' thick and as many high. It runs east and west 
 from the river in an almost absolutely straight line (about 
 N. 23 E.) eight miles, from the Chester county line a mile 
 W. of Mechanicsville, toFlourtown, east of which it cannot 
 be traced continuously, if at all, into the Trias country 
 towards Doylestown.f 
 
 For 2^ miles west of the Schuylkill it runs through South 
 Valley Hill primal slates, which stand like the dyke nearly 
 vertical. A mile east of the river it takes the line of contact 
 of slate and limestone, and keeps it two miles further to 
 Marble Hall ; for the next mile it runs obscurely in the 
 limestone ; for the next two miles it is plainly seen in the 
 heart of the limestone belt crossing its center line very 
 obliquely to Flowertown. It nowhere indicates disturb- 
 ance or faulting of the formations up through which it 
 comes from some unknown depth, where an unexplained 
 reservoir has furnished all the dolerite traps of the region, 
 for they are all alike, whether they cut gneiss, primal slate, 
 limestone, or Trias.:}: 
 
 * These dykes are represented cm the small colored map of Dauphin and 
 Lebanon, No. 22 of the Hand Atlas, Report X, as located by Mr. Sanders in 
 his survey of the slate belt. The presence of trap is well known to the citi- 
 zens of Lebanon. Whether the crushed limestone breccias of Mt Ararat 
 were made during the movements connected with this eruption of lava, no 
 doubt in Pofct-triassic times, is a mere conjecture. 
 
 | Prof. H. C. Lewis thought he could make it continuous that far. Mr. C. E. 
 Hall however gives on a page plate map (Fig. 4, p, 22, Report C6, 1881) a line 
 AB in prolongation of the dyke eastward, and another line CD, 32 off to 
 the north, passing through four patches of trap boulders on cross roads, and 
 close to a fifth at Jarrettown. Mr. B. S. Lyman's survey of the Trias belt 
 has taught that a connection of the Conshohoken dyke with the sporadic trap 
 shows of the Trias is improbable. The same may be said of its continuity 
 westward with the sporadic traps of ^Delaware and Chester counties. 
 
 % See Dr. F. A. Genth's analyses given in C6, pp. 94 to 99, Specs. 5063, '4, 
 501J6, 7, '9, 5072, 5081, '2, '4, '6, and p. 134, Spec. 7789, which last reads: Loss
 
 TRAP DYKES IN NO. II. 453 
 
 It might be supposed that this trap dyke has had some- 
 thing to do with making the white marble beds at Marble 
 Hall, if that idea were not negatived by the fact that the 
 range of white marble quarries east and west of the Schuyl- 
 kill is quite independent of the dyke. 
 
 In Lancaster county Prof. Frazer has traced an extraor- 
 dinary trap dyke from the Susquehanna river 3 m. above 
 the Maryland State line, in a N. E. by N. nearly straight 
 course, past Goshen, Quarryville and May P. O., Kinter's 
 P. O., Boyerstown, and Springville (Salisbury P. O.), to 
 the Welsh Mountain 2 m. E. of Mt. Airy, a distance of 25 
 miles. It probably passes on five miles further concealed 
 beneath the primal sandstone surface rubbish of the mount- 
 ain land, and is seen again for 2 miles crossing the Cones- 
 toga valley limestone 2 m. W. of Churchtown, then losing 
 itself beneath the southern edge of the Trias, as if making 
 for the great trap outburst in Berks county on the north 
 edge of the Trias, S. and S. E. of Reading. 
 
 At Quarryville it cuts diagonally across the limestones 
 of the Chester valley ; at Kinzer's, Boyertown and Spring- 
 ville it cuts for 6 miles diagonally across the limestones of 
 Pequea valley ; at its south end it cuts diagonally across 
 the Peach Bottom primal slates ; and in other long 
 stretches of its course it cuts the Philadelphia schists. 
 
 At Springville it is either interrupted for a short dis- 
 tance, jogged to the east, or is duplicated, the surface being 
 covered with trap blocks. It branches, or is intersected 
 by a short dyke m. N. E. of Boyertown. Two miles S. 
 of Kinzer's it cuts the hornblende gangue rock of the 
 Gap Nickel mine ; and a small parallel dyke here runs half 
 a mile distant from it, a mile above Georgetown, both 
 changing their course locally to S. by W. Several such 
 local fluctuations from a perfectly straight course are 
 noticed before it reaches the Susquehanna at the mouth of 
 Peters creek. It may extend into Maryland but is not 
 
 by ignition, 6; silica, 39; alumina, 32; ferrous oxide, 9; ferric oxide, 2.2; 
 potassa, 5.3 ; magnesa, 3. 1 ; soda, 2 ; titanic acid, 1.2 ; phos. acid, 0.5 ; niccolous 
 oxide (with a trace of cobalotus oxide), 0.06.
 
 454 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 traceable on the surface for six miles S. W. of Peach Bot- 
 tom ; then a dyke is to be seen half a mile south of the 
 State line, and a mile south of the roofing slate quarry 
 ridge.* 
 
 That the roofing slates have been produced by plutonic 
 action I cannot think, for those in the Lehigh country are 
 far removed from any such influence. It is possible that 
 there may be a closer connection between the dyke and the 
 nickel ore. The fountain seat of such a dyke must evi- 
 dently be at a great depth. 
 
 In York county two trap dykes cut the limestone rocks, 
 one four miles east of York, the other two miles west of 
 York. The Loganmlle dyke, about 13 miles long, runs in 
 a N. N. E. direction, with a deflection and a short branch 
 at Logansville, and a true north course from Longstown to 
 the Wrightsville railroad, where it seems to terminate at 
 the synclinal axis of the York valley limestone belt. The 
 Staresmlle dyke, six miles long, runs N. by E. from the 
 south edge of the York valley limestone belt, across the 
 Shortline RR. 2 m. S. W. of York to the edge of the Trias 
 at Staresville. If continued under the Trias 6 miles further 
 northward it would join the great trap outburst on the 
 Susquehanna between New Holland and Groldsborough. It 
 cuts the Codorus limestone beds its whole visible length, 
 and throws a short branch S. W. also in limestone. f In 
 this case as in that of the Conshohocken dyke no production 
 of white marble appears as due to igneous action. 
 
 In Cumberland county we have the most remarkable ex- 
 hibition of trap outside the Trias region. It is like the 
 Sinking Spring dyke in Berks county, but vastly larger and 
 
 *See Prof. Frazer's detailed description of this dyke in his report on Lan- 
 caster county, C3. p. 28 to 31 ; also the colored county map in C3 ; also 
 Hand Atlas, map No. 35. On page 78 it is said that the dyke was traceable 
 only by its boulders across Eden township. See other similar references 
 elsewhere in C3. 
 
 f See the colored geological map of York county in Report C2. The rep- 
 resentation in the Hand Atlas X, map No, 61, is not quite correct There is 
 a short dyke represented cutting the limestone area at the N. W. line of York 
 Bounty coming in from Cumberland county.
 
 TRAP DYKES IN NO. II. 455 
 
 infinitely more instructive as to the source of the lava ; lo- 
 cating it in fact several miles beneath the present surface ; 
 for it is incredible that lava, however fluid, could flow 
 through a narrow crack horizontally a distance of 25 miles ; 
 and even if this could be done for the single dyke which 
 crosses the Great Valley and the Perry County Cove, it 
 would not generate the three other short parallel associated 
 dykes in Perry county which do not appear at all in the 
 Great Valley. Moreover the thickest part of the dyke is 
 in the Cove. Evidently the focus of activity must be located 
 under Perry county, and be in some way connected with 
 the faulted, overturned, profoundly deep Cove synclinal. 
 
 As the dyke cuts the slate and limestone belts of Cum- 
 berland county, and is probably continuous (underground) 
 through the South mountains into Adams county, (there 
 connected with the great outbursts of trap in the Trias,) we 
 must take it for granted that in Perry county it descends 
 through all the formations from XI to II, into the Cam- 
 brians, and through them into the floor of gneiss. There 
 are 19,000' of strata exhibited in Perry, and at least 6000' 
 more in Cumberland, making 25,000' to the bottom beds of 
 II ; to which must be added say 15,000' of South Mountain 
 Cambrian rocks. It is evident then that in Perry county 
 the lava has ascended from a depth of from 5 to 7 miles to 
 reach the present surface. How far it rose above the pres- 
 ent surface of the Great Valley would depend upon the pre- 
 cise Post-triassic age of the dyke ; for, if it reached and over- 
 flowed a surface already sculptured by erosion during the 
 whole Triassic age, all that upper part of the dyke has 
 been swept away, and nothing remains but its stem, from 
 the present surface to its roots in the deep. 
 
 The dyke is first distinctly seen at Boiling Springs on 
 Yellow Breeches creek. South of this its upper edge is 
 probably concealed beneath the deep alluvium at the foot 
 of the South mountains, across which it might probably be 
 traced, for Mr. Lehman in his topographical survey found 
 fragments of trap in the woods on the line of the dyke pro- 
 jected southward.* 
 
 *On the colored map of Cumberland county in Atlas D5, a branch dyke 
 is seen taking off' from near Boiling Springs and running some distances. W .
 
 456 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 From Boiling Springs it runs in a slightly waving nearly 
 straight line N. 10 E. 10 miles to the top of the North mount- 
 ain 2 m. E. of Sterritt's gap. Across the limestone belt of 
 cleared land (here 7 miles wide) it makes a continuous ridge 
 about 50' high, conspicuous to travelers because left wooded 
 by the farmers' of the valley ; and this leafy barrier has 
 been adopted as a township line between S. Middleton and 
 Monroe, and between Middlesex and Silver Spring town- 
 ships. It crosses the turnpike 4 miles E. of Carlisle, and 
 the railroad halfway between Middlesex and Kingston 
 stations. The slate belt is here 3 miles wide and the dyke 
 upon the township line is perfectly straight ; all its devia- 
 tions from a straight line take place in the limestone belt, 
 and these deviations are undoubtedly due to the crumpled 
 condition of the limestone formation, although the frac- 
 ture was almost transverse to the general strike. 
 
 Descending the north slope of the North mountain into 
 Perry county it crosses Fishing Creek valley and makes the 
 divide which casts the water off east down Fishing Creek, 
 and west into Sherman creek upper branches. Keeping on 
 across Cove mountain and the head of Cove creek it as- 
 cends the slope of Peter' s mountain and is lost near the sum- 
 mit.* * 
 
 As the Cumberland county dyke cannot be properly un- 
 derstood if only studied in its course across the limestone 
 and slate belts of the Great Valley, I will give here Prof. 
 Clay pole's description of it in Perry county, and of three 
 
 *Dr. Henderson's description of it published by Prof. Rogers in Geol. 
 Pa. 1858, p. 366, is very erroneous, for he carries it across the Juniata and 
 Susquehanna rivers into Dauphin county. It is but justice to Dr. Hender- 
 son, who was one of the best geologists of his day, and to whom we owe our 
 first accurate knowledge of the complicated structure of Perry, Juniata and 
 Mifflin counties, to say that he could only with great difficulty at that early 
 day trace the line of the dyke upon his map ; and the line which he laid 
 down on his map was transferred to the Geological Map of Pennsylvania, 
 made by me in 1842, and published by Professor Rogers in the Atlas to his 
 Final Report, 1858. I am sorry to add that 1 embodied these errors in the 
 small map of Perry county, Map No. 45 of the Hand Atlas, Report X, drawn 
 by me in 1878, previous to Professor Claypole's elaborate survey of the 
 dykes, published in Report F2, 1885. The reader is therefore referred to the 
 second (revised and amended) colored geological map of Perry county in 
 that Report.
 
 TRAP DYKES IN NO. II. 
 
 457 
 
 Tl. XXVI 
 
 Jfap dyke* m GiMnlerlanJ and Sherry cotmtieb
 
 458 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 other dykes in that county which probably have an under- 
 connection with it at some unknown great depth beneath 
 the present surface. 
 
 Plate xxvi, p. 457, shows the geographical relationship 
 of these four Perry county dykes, named by Prof. Clay- 
 pole : Great Horseshoe, Little Horseshoe, West Duncannon 
 and East Duncannon dykes.* 
 
 (-?.) The Great Horseshoe dyke, Ironstone ridge, or Cumber- 
 berland Valley dyke. 
 
 The line of this dyke maybe detected by loose fragments 
 on the south side of Peters' mountain about two and a half 
 miles west of the river and between the highest terrace and 
 the summit of the mountain. Its course is plainly indi- 
 cated down the slope by the same evidence from terrace to 
 terrace, with a bearing of S. 10 W. into the Cove at the 
 foot of the Horseshoe and almost to the creek. 
 
 Along this part of its course it appears to be the widest 
 of all the dykes in the Cove, but just before it reaches the 
 creek it suddenly and markedly increases and assumes 
 comparatively gigantic proportions, admirably displaying 
 both the trap and the accompanying rocks altered by con- 
 tact with it. The sandy beds of the Mauch Chunk Red 
 shales (XI) which are here cut through are changed to a 
 dark brown and chocolate colored material ; the red shales 
 themselves are in some places burnt into a mass resembling 
 half made brick, but not usually much hardened. Some 
 fine shale beds, however, have been so much changed that 
 they are almost as tough and hard as the trap itself. This 
 change in the appearance of the rocks at this point has led 
 
 * The descriptions are in his own words, copied from his report F2, pp. 
 296-301. On the map I have renamed his West Duncannon the Mid Cove 
 dyke, which extends northward into Wheatfield township ; and I have ven- 
 tured to give the name Duncannon dyke to the dyke in Watts township, as 
 it is in line with the (East) Duncannon dyke in Penn township; and this 
 doubtless deceived Henderson into believing that the Cumberland county 
 dyke was single and 30 miles long. His belief, however, may after all be a 
 correct one ; for the most striking fact exhibited on the map is the N. 10 E. 
 direction of the Cumberland dyke, the Mid-cove dyke, and the Watts town- 
 ship dyke, all three on the same line, while sending off branches to the 
 north, as if there was but one dyke in the deep.
 
 TRAP DYKES IN NO. II. 459 
 
 to considerable excavation in the belief that the dark, soft, 
 sandy shale beds contained copper a belief for which there 
 is of course not the slightest foundation. 
 
 The excavation serves to make very plain the striking 
 development of the dyke at this point. From being a dyke 
 very much resembling the other three perhaps rather 
 larger it suddenly enlarges and becomes nearly WO feet 
 from side to side. The bed of the Cove creek and the flat 
 marshy ground alongside of it, overgrown with a thicket of 
 laurel in some places impenetrable, is thickly bestrewn 
 with massive blocks of the dyke up to half a ton in weight. 
 How far this display continues through the wood I cannot 
 say nor to what height it rises on the north flank of Cove 
 mountain. The bearing of this dyke is S. 10 W. 
 
 The Great Horseshoe dyke passes through Rye town- 
 ship almost from north to south where it is well known as 
 the Ironstone ridge, and forms a watershed across the valley. 
 Coming down from nearly the top of the Cove mountain its 
 track may be followed by the characteristic belt of yellow 
 soil and heavy rounded rusty bowlders through the woods, 
 almost along the road (hence called the Ridge road), to the 
 middle of the valley. The land on both sides of it is so 
 encumbered with wreckage from the dyke that it is left 
 unfilled and uncleared. But it is at the crossing of the 
 main valley road that the most magnificent display of the 
 Great Horseshoe dyke occurs in Perry county. Here the 
 road for 500 feet on each side of the line is embanked with 
 bowlders that have been removed from the land and piled 
 up in grand disorder. The dyke itself does not probably 
 exceed 200 feet in breadth, but its fragments strewn along 
 both sides make it seem very much wider. North and 
 south of this point the exhibition is less striking but the 
 ridge may be traced without difficulty for nearly another 
 mile, when it is lost on the slope of the Blue mountains. 
 The nature of the trap and further details may be found in 
 the account of Penn township. 
 
 Traces of another (the Little Horseshoe dyke) may be 
 found about 500 yards to the eastward in a number of loose 
 blocks of trap scattered along the road, but no ridge in any 
 degree resembling the Great Ironstone ridge can be seen.
 
 460 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 (0.) The Little Horseshoe dyke. 
 
 About a quarter of a mile east of the Great Horseshoe 
 dyke, another parallel line of fragments can be found high 
 up the south slope of Peters' mountain, in fact upon the 
 highest terrace. Its first appearance, so far as I am aware, 
 is at an old shaft sunk some years ago under the impression 
 that the trap dyke carried an ore vein. The shaft was sunk 
 to a depth of about 25 feet, and at the depth of about 22 
 feet many blocks of the hard tough dolerite (trap rock) 
 were thrown out. This is the most northerly indication of 
 this dyke that I have seen in the cove. Hence, it may be 
 followed at intervals southward down the slope of Peters' 
 mountain, forming an almost continuous line through the 
 thickets to the cleared land in the cove below, where it 
 crosses first a field and then the road leading west into the 
 woods of the Horseshoe, and is lost to view at the creek, 
 where a large meadow is almost ruined by the number of 
 blocks which lie scattered about upon it. Beyond the creek 
 no one, so far as I can learn, has succeeded in tracing it, so 
 that it probably does not rise so high on the Cove mountain 
 as it does on Peters' mountain. 
 
 I have no means of estimating the breadth of the dyke 
 but judge it not to exceed 6 or 8 feet. Its bearing is, as 
 nearly as I could ascertain it, south 10 west. 
 
 Its southward prolongation into Rye township is only 
 attested by a number of loose blocks scattered along the 
 road about 500 yards east of the Great Horseshoe (Cumber- 
 land Valley) dyke ; but no ridge is made by it in the topog- 
 raphy of the surface. 
 
 The Mid Cove or W. Duncarinon dyke. 
 
 Half way between the head of the cove and the river, and 
 near the foot of Peters' mountain, a range of trap can be 
 readily traced It crosses Cove creek close by an old saw- 
 mill pond, now dry, and then shows in a byway on the 
 north side of the main turnpike road. Following it over a 
 field it is seen very plainly in the bank, and then runs along 
 keeping parallel with the same road as far as the foot of the
 
 TRAP DYKES IN NO. II. 461 
 
 Cove mountain. In front of the farm-house which stands 
 at this point is a well sunk exactly on the line of the dyke. 
 Mr. J. M. White who sank this well informed me that he 
 passed through the dyke, and that it is not vertica , but 
 pitches to the west at an angle of about 45. The greater 
 part of the well was sunk in the red shale, the dyke being 
 left at a depth of about 8 feet. It measures here only 
 about 6 or 8 feet, and consists of a number of loose blocks 
 embedded in the red clay the product of their own decom- 
 position. In the neighboring field a pit was dug to examine 
 the dyke, which gave the same results. Crossing the road 
 at this point the dyke can be traced about 100 yards further 
 through the orchard into the wood, where all traces of it 
 are lost, nor has any one, to my knowledge, ever seen it 
 higher on the hill. 
 
 It has not been seen in Fishing creek, in Rye township ; 
 nor in Cumberland county. 
 
 But it extends northwards from Peters' mountain into 
 Wheatfield township, crossing Sherman's creek and the 
 Little Juniata a quarter of a mile only from the river at 
 Duncannon. A mile N. of Duncannon it bends and takes 
 a nearly due N. course to the turnpike a mile S. of Losh's 
 Run station on the P. RR., beyond which it is not seen.* 
 
 (4) The (East) Duncannon dyke. 
 
 About three quarters of a mile further east a trap dyke 
 may be seen in the roadside about \ mile south of the mouth 
 
 *I give Prof. Claypole's detailed account of this part of it, beginning at 
 the north and going south : Its first appearance is on the turnpike road 
 about one mile S. of Losh's Run station, P. RR. Its next appearance, so 
 far as I am aware, is on the road leading west from the Aqueduct. There is 
 no trouble in following it from this point by an almost uninterrupted series 
 of exposures to Duncannon. Its course is marked by the red color of the 
 soil, for a mile due south, across fields, to the road running west from the 
 railway station at Juniata bridge. Here a pit was sunk some years ago in 
 quest of ore on the western edge, of the dyke, to a depth of about 25 feet. A 
 drift was then run for 6 feet into it in the attempt to penetrate it. This made, 
 its thickness upwards of twelve feet. The same discolored sandy shales 
 were thrown out here as in the Cove. 
 
 At this point the direction of the dyke suddenly changes ; but a thin vein 
 of trap appears to continue nearly on its former course, as indicated by an 
 occasional trap pebble in the low ground. Such pebbles have been found in
 
 462 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 of Sherman's creek. Thence it has been traced up the hill- 
 side, where its outcrop has been followed, in a vain search 
 for iron ore, to the top, but not to the crest of Peters' 
 mountain. The dyke cuts through it near the brow over- 
 looking the river. It continues on the same course, S. 20 W. 
 down the south slope of Peters' mountain into the Cove, and 
 may be followed by the color of the soil and the loose blocks 
 lying about across the fields to the main road up the Cove, 
 which road it crosses just east of a farm-house. Running 
 on thence with the same bearing, it may be seen alongside 
 of the road (which here turns to the south-southwest) for 
 about 200 yards, where it crosses a lane running off at the 
 next angle in the road. Here its presence is marked by the 
 usual red clay and bowlders. Beyond this point southward 
 I have not traced it. 
 
 In Watts township between the Juniata and Susquehanna 
 rivers may be found a dyke which is probably a continua- 
 tion of this Duncannon dyke as it is in almost exactly the 
 same line, but the interval (from Duncannon to the N. W. 
 point of Duncan's island) is 3% miles, no great distance for 
 an underground connection. 
 
 It appears about m. N. of Dr. Reutter's house at the 
 Junction, and is traceable by loose blocks 3 miles N. 10 
 B. nearly to the foot of Half Falls mountain.* It precisely 
 
 the run close by the place where the change occurs, near the grist mill west 
 of Duncannon, and again at a short distance behind the nail factory. These 
 are sufficient to indicate a faint continuation of the dyke in its former direc- 
 tion as far as to the north foot of Peters' mountain. An examination of the 
 map will show that it is on the line of dyke No. 3 in the Cove before de- 
 scribed. 
 
 But the main mass of the dyke suddenly bears away at S. 30 E. down a 
 slope, across a field, passing under a house (as shown when the cellar was 
 dug) and so reaching the river. It has not been seen in the bed of the river ; 
 but on the opposite or eastern river bank, opposite the mouth of Sherman's 
 creek, and exactly on the right course, what is probably the same dyke is 
 displayed in a cutting of the North Central railway. 
 
 This exposure gives an opportunity of measuring the thickness of the dyke, 
 which is about 50 feet. It does not appear to rise to the surface ; and the 
 rocks on both sides are altered as in the case of the Great Horseshoe dyke in 
 the cove. 
 
 *" Had time allowed might have been followed further. The last trace 
 of it seen was near the house of Mr. M. Peters." F2, p. 385.
 
 TRAP DYKES IN NO. II. 463 
 
 resembles the Cove traps, a hard, tough, dark green, almost 
 black dolerite, containing a small proportion of magnetic 
 oxide of iron, rusting yellow outside, f 
 
 The most remarkable thing about these dykes is this : 
 not one of them lias ever been detected at the top of either 
 of the two mountains ; the East Duncannon and Great 
 Horseshoe dykes alone rising above the highest terrace, so 
 far as known. The West Duncannon dyke does not ap- 
 pear to rise into the mountain at all, its exposure ceasing 
 sharply at the foot. It is not, however, impossible that 
 further examination may modify this assertion which is 
 based on negative evidence only. Not one of these dykes is 
 yet known to appear upon the very summit of either Peters' 
 or Cove mountain. The Great Horseshoe dyke ranges high- 
 est, running, as has been shown, up to the topmost terrace 
 of Peters' mountain on its southern flank. This failure of 
 the dykes to appear at the summit proves the moiintains to 
 be older than the dykes. Now since the Triassic red sand- 
 stone of York county is cut by numerous similar dykes 
 with which these Perry county dykes seem to be con- 
 nected, they must be not only later than the coal measures, 
 but of later age than the Trias ; but as no such dykes are 
 known in the Cretaceous beds of the Atlantic seaboard, 
 our dykes must be older than the Cretaceous age. 
 
 f The trap of Perry county is a hard, very tough, dark, heavy and fine- 
 grained dolerite containing grains of magnetic iron ore disseminated through 
 the mass, readily discoverable by crushing a small piece with the hammer 
 and applying a magnet, when the magnetite immediately clings to it The 
 presence of this material is partly the cause of the decay which takes place 
 at the surface of the trap. Under the action of moisture the magnetite be- 
 comes rusty and passes into brown hematite. The outer layer of stone is 
 softened and changes color to a rusty yellow. This outside layer scales off 
 and the process is repeated upon the new surface thus exposed. In this way 
 from year to year a red clay soil is produced by the disintegration of the 
 other materials of the rock, felspar and hornblende, colored by the iron 
 oxide. In consequence of the abundance of this red clay along the course 
 of the trap it is usually called by the residents of the neighborhood "iron 
 ore," or " magnetic ore rock. " But it is not likely that any merchantable iron 
 ore will be found along the lines of these dykes. It. is often a task of great 
 labor to dig out and carry away the fragments from the fields and pile them 
 up at the roadsides where their subangular form and rusty color make them 
 conspicuous objects to the passer-by. They all consist of the same tough 
 hard dolerite, showing some but very little variation in composition and 
 fineness at different places.
 
 464 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Effects of trap. 
 
 The alteration of the magnesian limestone rocks noar the 
 trap dykes of Berks county is ascribed by Dr. Genth to the 
 infiltration of siliceous waters.* 
 
 Deweylite and serpentine are formed out of the magne- 
 sium carbonate. 
 
 Another portion of the magnesia separates as brucite. 
 
 The calcium carbonate crystallizes in small acicular crys- 
 tals and radiating columnar masses of aragonite; and also 
 in crystals and coarse granular masses of calcite. 
 
 The alteration of dolomite at Fritz's island has produced, 
 directly or indirectly, not only serpentine and deweylite, 
 but also grossular, a beautiful yellow and orange vesum- 
 anite, apophyllite, chabasite, gismondite (?), thomsonile, 
 mesolite, stilbite, datolite, etc. 
 
 Serpentine in No. 11. 
 
 The limestone No. II near Reading is described by Dr. 
 Genth as "granular, largely altered (by silicious waters) 
 into serpentine" \ and coated with colorless, pearly 'brucite.\ 
 The brucite occurs also in brownish yellow thin seams. 
 
 Deweylite, white, yellowish, brownish, amorphous, also 
 occurs in round grains, stalactites, botryoidal, plates, slabs 
 (occasionally more than I") and irregular coatings. The 
 slabs are often arranged in layers, white and brown, often 
 intimately mixed with aragonite, which sometimes sepa- 
 rates in radiating columns or masses (50mm long) ; the 
 layers often separate easily, and the separation planes are 
 covered with small brilliant aragonite crystals. The ara- 
 gonite has often changed to deweylite. 
 
 The change from dolomite limestone to serpentine can be 
 observed in all its stages from pure dolomite to pure ser- 
 
 *At Fritz's island ; and at Wheatfleld & Ruth's mines, 2 miles E. of Fritz- 
 town, and 2 m. S. of Sinking spring. Proc. Ainer. Soc. Phila. Oct. 2, 1885. 
 See also descriptions by E. F. Smith, D. B. Brunner and I. Schoenfeld. 
 
 f Amer. Phil. Soc. Proc., Phila., Oct. 2, 1885. 
 
 fE. F. Smith's analysis of it (in Amer. Chem. Jour., V. 281) is silica 
 82.52; magnesium oxide, 66.78; ferric oxide, 0.44. 
 
 Analysis by H. F. Keller, silicic oxide, 39.32; magnesium oxide, 41.14; 
 lerrous oxide, 0.51 ; water, 18.41.
 
 TRAP DYKES IN NO. II. 465 
 
 pentine ; which is generally a greenish yellow, greenish 
 white, or yellow, but also sometimes brownish and grayish.* 
 
 Aragonite and calcite are frequently associated. Magne- 
 tite is occasionally disseminated in fine grains through the 
 mass. 
 
 Olivine. Dr. Genth alludes to Dr. Wadsworth's theory 
 that the Fritztown serpentine is an altered olivine, and to 
 his assertion that the specimens show unaltered olivine^ 
 and says : "I cannot imagine how olivine could be present 
 in this rock, and what it is which he (Dr. Wadsworth) has 
 taken for that mineral. As the trap is of triassic or post 
 triassic age, it is impossible for olivine or any other kind of 
 volcanic ash, to get admittance into the Siluro-Cambrian 
 dolomite strata around Reading." 
 
 * Analysis by H. F. Keller. Ruth's mine : Sil. ox., 42. 14 ; mag. ox., 41.61 ; 
 ferrous ox., 2.06; water, 14.20. Wheatfield mine: sil. ox., 41.46; mag. ox., 
 44.68; F. ox., 0.99; water, 14.07. 
 
 f Lithological studies, by M. E. Wadsworth, Cambridge, 1884, p. 152. 
 
 30
 
 466 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Jfo. II a, GatetfarouA; 1), Cha%y; c, Jrenton Uuw, 
 
 JYfr. Ilia, ^UJicti ; '!), "Xuclfarri river slafo. 
 3o Musk-ale Chapter WWII. 
 
 Section fromSalilEtitjIcM'". Uirough tfw 
 XrrttoitcZineMinc. 
 
 Section alony l/ie Anticlinal Axis. 
 
 measures to lite south. 
 
 Mit^of Ckufer Valley.
 
 WHITE LIMESTONES AND MARBLES OP NO. II. 467 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 Wli'de Limestones and Marbles of J\o. 77, in CJtester y 
 Montgomery, York and Centre counties. 
 
 The white marble door and window caps and sills and 
 the blue-streaked marble front door steps of Philadelphia 
 were obtained from numerous quarries wrought along the 
 southern edge of the Chester County valley, east and west 
 of the Schuylkill river, until about fifty years ago, when 
 the marble quarries of Vermont began their successful com- 
 petition for the market. Stephen Girard built the beauti- 
 ful Corinthian fagade of his banking house in Third street 
 of native white marble. The United States Bank in Chest- 
 nut street, * with its severely beautiful Doric porticos, was 
 built of the same material, now rendered doubly pleasing 
 to the artist's eye by reason of the warm mellow yellowish 
 tint which time has given to it, and which the Greeks de- 
 lighted in. One side of the superb Corinthian peristyle 
 and cella wall of the Girard College was also built of it, 
 the other side and the front and rear porticos being from 
 the Vermont quarries, f 
 
 One reason for the gradual substitution of Vermont for 
 Chester Valley white marble was the great expense of quar- 
 rying in the Chester valley, and the cheapness of freight 
 by water from Vermont, as well as the singular develop- 
 ment of better methods of getting out the stone there ; but 
 there was another pregnant reason. The Pennsylvania 
 white marble beds are locally half or wholly spoiled by 
 pyrites, which runs in streaks through them and subject 
 
 * Now the U. S. Custom House. 
 
 t Its 57' high columns, built up of drums 6' long, compare favorably with 
 those of the Madelaine in Paris, built up of drums only about 1' long, 
 although the College columns are spaced so much further apart as to make 
 them look too slender; and the close-set double row of the Madelaine gives 
 to that splendid monument something of the Doric majesty of the Parthenon, 
 which it resembles also in its great length of side colonnades.
 
 468 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 them to a slow decay. The front columns of the Custom 
 House, exposed to the northeast storms in cold weather, 
 became gradually dilapidated, and are now patched with 
 pieces of new marble let into the decayed places ; and such 
 periodical restorations will always be necessary.* 
 
 The marble quarries of the Chester valley, both east and 
 west of the Schuylkill, were opened along the vertical beds 
 next to the South Valley Hill, and the marble quality is 
 evidently due to the same cause to which the verticality of 
 the beds is due, namely, a great pressure from the south 
 crushing the rocks and permitting infiltration and recrys- 
 tallization. f 
 
 * What the streaks of pyrites do to this marble under the action of the 
 acids in the air, and of the frost, similar streaks of feldspar do to the syenite 
 obelisks of Egypt under the sand blast of the Khamzin or desert wind of 
 March and April. 
 
 f " It is worthy of remark, that all the marble of the limestone basin of 
 Montgomery county is confined to the synclinal trough adjoining the anti- 
 clinal axis now described, upon the N.; the.genuine marble not extending 
 more than half a mile from the uplifted belt of slate, nor eastward in its line 
 of strike beyond the neighborhood ot the point of sinking down of the Primal 
 slates, or past the meridian where the anticlinal rapidly loses its force. As 
 the marble is evidenly only a highly metamorphic variety of the ordinary 
 magnesian limestone, crystallized and changed in tint by igneous action 
 from within the earth, it is quite natural that it should run thus parallel 
 with and adjacent to this line of uplift, produced as this has been by the pro- 
 truding forces of the interior. The whole of this belt of marble is in fact but 
 the vertically upturned, and occasionally inverted, Northern side of this 
 anticlinal wave, the side along which the maximum amount of igneous in- 
 fluence is invariably manifested. In offering this explanation of the origin 
 of the marble by metamorphism, it is proper to observe that we must not 
 ascribe the whole of the change to its proximity to the line of anticlinal up- 
 lift of the Conshohocken axis. There is a tendency in the whole of the lime- 
 stone 01 the Southern half of the general valley to a much greater degree of 
 alteration than belongs to the same rocks in the Northern half. Through- 
 out this entire synclinal belt the metamorphism from heat, of course, has 
 been far greater along its Southern than upon its Northern margin, partly 
 because the strata of the former side'are nearer the principal injections of 
 igneous rocks of the whole region, and partly in consequence of the perpen- 
 dicular or even inverted position which has permitted the subterranean 
 -volcanic vapors to pervade them more freely and exert their maximum in- 
 fluence." H. D. Rogers in Geo. Pa., 1858, Vol. 1, p. 163. 
 
 West of the Schuylkill, Prof. Rogers remarks :" Throughout the north- 
 ern half of the basin, especially where the limestone observes its usually 
 very regular southward dip of seldom more than 45, the rock is in the con- 
 dition of a sub-crystalline, and even earthy or purely sedimentary mag- 
 jiesian limestone, and its bedding is for the most part very uniform and
 
 WHITE LIMESTONES AND MARBLES OF NO. II. 469 
 
 In New Jersey, Sussex county, two limestone formations 
 surround the Franklin zinc mine, one blue and the other 
 
 rather thick. Its color is a pale grayish blue, except in neighborhoods like 
 that on the Schuylkill below Norristown, where a partial metamorphism 
 has approached the northern border, and it is then, very frequently, a pale 
 straw-yellow and bluish-white. The interleaved thin layers of argillaceous 
 matter which so frequently separate the beds of the limestone are in the 
 condition of an indurated clay-slate, but seldom show even incipient crys- 
 tallization. In many instances wide bands of the limestone, along its 
 northern outcrop, exhibit numerous cross-joints intersecting the beds in 
 nearly all directions and causing the rock in certain quarries to break into 
 a mere rubble of small angular fragments, assisting much the labors of the 
 quarryman and Hmeburner ; but these joints, and the before-mentioned 
 semi-crystalline texture, are the limits to which the metamorphism of the 
 rock has reached, a true parallel slaty cleavage being seldom or never dis- 
 cernible. 
 
 " But the state in which the very same beds exist, where they rise per- 
 pendicularly or with inversion to their southern outcrop after passing the 
 synclinal turn in the center of the basin, is very different from all this, and 
 in striking contrast The faintly crystalline and earthy limestone is here a 
 distinctly crystallized, often a granular marble. Its color is changed to a 
 brilliant white, or to a mottling of purely white and dark blue, from the 
 presence of segregated or half-developed graphite; and the dispersed fer- 
 ruginous matter is here in a state of minute solitary crystals of sulphurate 
 of iron disseminated through the body of stone. The rock, instead of lying 
 in thick, often massive beds, is cleft into thin plates by innumerable natural 
 fissures or cleavage-planes, not parallel with the stratification, but dipping 
 steeply southward or acutely across it, and these fissures are filled and 
 lined with distinctly crystalline flaky talcose and micaceous matter, some- 
 times talc and mica fully developed. The partings of slate between the lime- 
 stone layers have been converted to laminae of talc-slate, in which there is 
 often a cleavage-structure distinctly discernible, much more intimate than 
 that in the altered limestone, but dipping in parallelism with it Viewed 
 edgewise, a fresh exposure of the most altered limestone, such as is visible 
 on the River Schuylkill near Conshohocken, has the aspect of a blue and 
 mottled marble, streaked with films of talc, and shivered by innumerable 
 cleavage-joints; but viewed face-wise, the layers and fragments have the as- 
 pect ot a talcose or micaceous slate, so copious is the covering of talc and 
 mica upon their surfaces." H. D. Rogers, Geol. Pa., p. 213. 
 
 "The portion of the formation which enters Abington township is more 
 slaty and fractured than that further to the W., and it also contains a larger 
 amount of silicious or sandy matter. Those portions of the rock which are 
 exposed, or are nearest to the surface, have in many places undergone partial 
 decomposition, and have the appearance of a white calcareous sand. This 
 sandy aspect of the limestones may be observed in all the quarries in the 
 neighborhood of Sandy Run, and also at many other localities. Unless the rock 
 has undergone partial decomposition, the limestone is crystalline and granu- 
 lar. It varies in color from blue to white, as a greater or less amount of carbon- 
 aceous matter chances to enter into its composition. Each of these colors is 
 not confined to a particular stratum, but changes repeatedly in the same
 
 470 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 white. They were supposed to belong to one formation, 
 one part of which had been subjected to some influence, 
 
 beds; and, indeed, the area occupied by one particular color is usually very 
 small. The dip throughout the whole formation is remarkably uniform. 
 Near Sandy Run it is towards the S. and S.S.E. Quarries and pits have 
 been opened on almost every farm along Sandy Run. One of the largest in 
 this vicinity is on the farm of Mr. Fitzwater, near Fitzwatertown. The lime- 
 stone is chiefly blue, the dip S.S.E., at an angle of about 60. 
 
 " On the turnpike opposite Sellerstown, a limestone quarry of some size is 
 wrought, the rock making an excellent lime. An extensive quarry of the 
 same nearly white variety of the limestone exists on Mather's farm. There 
 the beds are crossed by very regular joints, giving the appearance of a stra- 
 tification in another direction; the true dip is towards the S. Near the Ger- 
 mantown turnpike, about a fourth of a mile above the Plymouth Meeting- 
 house, are good limestone quarries. Much of the stone in this neighbor- 
 hood is beautifully white, though some layers occur having a more or less 
 bluish tint. The weathered surface of many bods is rough and sandy, show- 
 ing some silicious matter in the rock. 
 
 " Spring Mill. North of the Furnace 200 yards there is a large quarry in 
 the limestone near the southern edge of the formation, in which the dip is 
 85 to S. 10 E. The southern side of the quarry is massive and jointedi 
 and the dip planes are almost effaced; the northern side is more thin-bedded 
 and talcose, of a bluish white color, and its structure very crystalline. 
 
 "In that portion of the Limestone Valley which occupies the southern 
 part of Upper Merion township, especially in the immediate vicinity of the 
 Schuylkill, there are numerous and extensive quarries, furnishing a large 
 supply of the rock, a portion of which is transported to Philadelphia, and 
 other places, by the several railroads and the Schulkill navigation; but a 
 large amount is converted into lime on the spot, designed lor the same 
 markets. 
 
 " A large quarry of limestone is wrought on the west side of the Schuyl- 
 kill, two or three miles below Valley Forge, where the rock is tolerably 
 thick-bedded, and of a light color. The quarried stone is conveyed to the 
 river by a railroad, and thence taken by boats to the various limekilns. 
 Extensive quarries have also been opened near the Valley Church, where 
 the limestone is very similar to that of the last locality, dipping steeply 
 south, being of a light tint, and furnishing an excellent lime. On the road 
 from Glassley to Valley Forge, near the county line, there is a small bed of 
 slaty talcose calcareous rock extending E. and W. about three furlongs in 
 length towards Valley Creek. It constitutes a small hill, over the east end 
 of which the road passes. Near Valley Forge occurs a stratum of felspathic 
 rock like that seen at Barren Hill. It is exposed in the creek, and occasion- 
 ally appears overlying the Primal white sandstone at the foot of the North 
 Valley Hill, a little East of the North Valley Church. The limestone near 
 the White Horse Tavern in East Whiteland township is occasionally talcose 
 and slaty. Near the Steamboat Tavern the more usual granular structure 
 prevails: throughout all this range, however, the rock yields an excellent 
 lime. 
 
 "At Downingtown the limestone is chiefly of a light color, and compact. 
 Several quarries of compact and granular limestone have been opened in
 
 WHITE LIMESTONES AND MARBLES OF NO. II. 471 
 
 heat perhaps, or pressure, which had whitened it. But in 
 1863 Prof. Cook showed that the blue limestone beds, dip- 
 
 tbis vicinity. The width of the formation near the East Cain Church is re- 
 duced to about three-fourths of a mile. It is somewhat variable, being de- 
 pendent, probably, upon the angle of the dip, which, however, is pretty con- 
 stant. At Coatesville it does not exceed three furlongs. At Bell's Quarry, 
 Midway, the rock is of a light color. About one mile east of Trueman'g 
 Mill, we find a small bed of white clay, derived from the decomposition of 
 an altered felspathic slate, lying between the limestone and the talc slates. 
 In the vicinit}' of Buck's RunandParkesburg the limestone becomes darker 
 and more slaty. Passing Cloud's Mill into Lancaster county, it gradually 
 declines in thickness, beingat Cooper's Fulling Mill, in Strasburg township, 
 not more than two furlongs wide. At its termination in Bart township it 
 becomes more than usually sandy, especially near its margin. The main 
 belt seems to terminate on Eckman's Run but another small lenticular belt 
 shows itself a mile and a half further to the west, on the promises of Mrs. 
 Bare, where the rock is quarried." Geol. Pa., 1858, Vol I, p. 214. 
 
 In Montgomery county: "The quarrying of marble in this district was 
 commenced about 75 years ago, by Daniel Hitner. For the last 15 or 16 years 
 the average quantity sent from the quarries of Marble Hall, owned and 
 wrought by the present proprietor, Daniel O. Hitner, has been about 25,000 
 cubic feet 
 
 The belt of marble is nearly three-fourths of a mile. wide. Marble Hall, 
 on the Perkiomen Turnpike, is the easternmost point at which good build- 
 ing marble is wrought, though the belt is known to continue further. It 
 extends thence to the Schuylkill nearly to the Chester county line. 
 
 The largest quarry of all is that of Marble Hall ; here the strata dip to S. 20, 
 E. about 85, presenting in one or two places a flatter inclination. This 
 quarry is not less than some 400 feet in length, and at the top is 60 or 70 feet 
 wide. The greatest depth to which the quarry has been sunk is 265 feet. 
 At this depth were procured the blocks of beautiful white marble sent by 
 direction of the State of Pennsylvania, and by the city of Philadelphia, to the 
 great monumentat Washington. At this depth the stratum of white marble* 
 for which this quarry is chiefly wrought, has a thickness of 5 feet; but the 
 usual thickness of this bed of pure white stone is 8 feet, that of the pure and 
 clouded white together being generally about 20 feet. Mr. Hitner has quarried 
 blocks 6 feet in thickness, though the general thickness of the blocks readily 
 procurable does not exceed 2i feet. The only saccharoidal or statuary marble 
 in this or any of the quarries, is found here at a depth of 120 feet, in a layer 
 of only 6 inches in thickness. It is of a yellowish white color and remark- 
 able eveness of grain. The white marble is used for monuments, and for 
 the finer architectural purposes. It now sells for about one dollar per cubic 
 foot. 
 
 To the south of the large quarry of Marble Hall, which besides the white 
 marble, yields much beautiful clouded or shaded stone, there is a quarry of 
 blue and black marble, distant about 300 yards. This owned by Mr. Lentz, 
 but now wrought by Daniel O. Hitner. This blue and black marble now 
 sells for about 40 cents per cubic foot. It is used chiefly for 4 ronts of build- 
 ings, for monument bases, etc. The thickness of the good blue marble in 
 this quarry is 22 leet, and that of the black variety 8 feet.
 
 472 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 , <Stcld mf of lit 
 
 f/ntiii reyiani afCfiuta- Co. 
 
 fftotoyual ittof, of Penjurfmjua,, 
 
 (puaMedi'n ISM) 
 fa iJtiutraU tie jtruc&tral theory
 
 WHITE LIMESTONES AND MARBLES OF NO. II. 473 
 
 ping northwestward, lie upon the upturned nearly vertical 
 southeast-dipping white limestone beds.* 
 
 In York county, Pennsylvania, Prof. Frazer was tempted 
 to make the same distinction in age between the white and 
 blue limestones of the Codorus valley. f 
 
 Besides these quarries in the vicinity of Marble Hall, there are others about 
 three-fourths of a mile north from Spring Mill ; one set owned by Robert 
 T. Potts, another adjoining his by Mr. Peter Fritz. The marble of Potts' 
 quarry is chiefly of the clouded variety, besides alittle white and some plain 
 blue. The annual yield of this quarry is about 12,000cubic feet. The quarry 
 owned by Fritz is at present but little wrought. Next in position to the west- 
 ward, but still seated in the same belt, are two quarries westward of the 
 Schuylkill ; these are Henderson's and Brook's, in Upper Merion township. 
 Henderson's the nearest to the Schuylkill, affords a plain blue marble, be- 
 sides a little white. Both of these quarries are wrought at present to only 
 a moderate extent. 
 
 A little south of the Valley turnpike, about three and a half miles E. of 
 Downingtown, is the extensive quarry of superior white marble which has 
 for many years supplied Philadelphia with the beautiful article employed 
 in so many of its public and private edifices. It is on the farm of Mr. John 
 R. Thomas. The beds on this quarry are slightly contorted. The portion 
 worked for the marble separates into two bauds. The rock occurs in massive 
 beds, chiefly white, with sometimes a bluish tinge, and is quarried with 
 great facility. It has been much used in the construction of the Girard Col- 
 lege and other public buildings which adorn Philadelphia and the neighbor- 
 ing towns. This marble is converted into a good lime, but its crystalline or 
 granular structure causes it to crumble in the kiln, making it a little difficult 
 to manage. The lime from this variety is much esteemed by masons, being 
 sold in Philadelphia under the name of Fish-egg lime. 
 
 The blue-mottled limestone or marble of Whitemarsh, occurring at the 
 quarries not more than three-fourths of a mile north of the northern limit 
 of the Primal Strata, is evidently on the south side of the trough, or folded 
 synclinal axis of the 'district. This is further proved by its great steepness of 
 dip, about 80. Tt is, moreover, of the maximum degree of metamorphism 
 or crystallization ; contains talcose or micaceous laminae, and crystals of sul- 
 phuret of iron, etc. 
 
 Strontia. Near Mr. Hitner's House, Marble Hall, there occurs a thin bed 
 of very ponderous rock, resembling closely a white crystalline marble. It 
 contains however, but a moderate proportion of carbonate of lime, and con- 
 sists chiefly of the carbonate of strontia." Geol. Pa. 1858, vol. 1, p. 215. 
 
 * Annual Report of 1863, p. 7. In the course of my private survey of the 
 Franklin mines twenty years ago, I mapped the locality, observed this non- 
 conformability, and arrived at the same conclusion, viz : That the two 
 formations were of very different ages, the white much older than the blue ; 
 the zinc deposits being in the white. 
 
 t See Report CC, page 132-3. Dr. Frazer says: "In Detweiler's quarry, 
 which is a little more than half a mile north of the Columbia bridge [in York 
 county] there exists a conglomerate consisting of a blue limestone holding 
 rounded pebbles of white limestone within it The limestone exposed
 
 474 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 In the Chester county valley, no such time distinction 
 has ever been suggested between the blue limestone beds 
 of the north side and middle of the valley, and the white 
 marble beds of the south side of the valley; although the 
 dip of the former is moderately southward, while that of the 
 latter is nearly vertical. For, on both theories of structure, 
 the synclinal and the monoclinal, no such distinction was 
 necessary. In fact, on the synclinal theory the blue beds 
 turn up as white beds; while on the monoclinal theory the 
 blue beds, instead of overlying, underlie the white beds. 
 But if it could be proven the white beds at Franklin arid at 
 York be the oldest, then we must suppose a fault to run 
 through the Chester valley just north of the marble quarries. 
 This is possible, but not demonstrable ; nor is it a probable 
 supposition since it ignores the Chiques rock; and we have 
 no place in the Cambrian into which to put the marbles. 
 
 Since the death of mv lamented friend, the State Geologist 
 of New Jersey, an important report of recent surveys in 
 the white and blue limestone valleys of northern New 
 Jersey, made by Mr. Frank L. Nason, Assistant Geologist, 
 has been published in the N. J. Annual Report for 1890, 
 under the title: " The post archcean age of the white lime- 
 stones of Sussex county. N. /.," in which the reader will 
 find a large array of facts, evidently observed with great 
 care, skilfully correlated, and ably discussed, and the con- 
 clusion arrived at that there is no geological time distinc- 
 tion between the white and blue limestones; that they are 
 of the same age, belong to the same formation, and are in 
 fact merely the same beds in different conditions; that they 
 can be traced along their outcrops so as to be observed to 
 change into one another, the white into the blue, and the 
 blue into the white; that the white is merely the blue altered 
 by heat, pressure and chemical alteration and crystalliza- 
 tion; that the change is alwaj^s at the contact of some plu- 
 tonic rock, and in proportion to the quantity of the disturb. 
 
 between this quarry and the northern edge of the belt [of York county 
 limestone] is generally white and of a more earthy character than the aver- 
 age York limestone. The pebbles were of course fragments of an older 
 limestone than that which enclosed them." See also his report C, Chapter 
 XII, p. 303 ; and his analyses of six different limestones, on p. 307.
 
 WHITE LIMESTONES AND MARBLE3 OF NO. II. 475 
 
 ing agent; and that all the steps of the change of the blue 
 into white are easily observable. 
 
 The distinctive features are: (1) that the White is crystal- 
 line and sparry, a true marble; the Blue, granular, a true 
 limestone; (2) that the White contains an abundance of 
 graphite (plumbago) crystals; the Blue, little or no graph- 
 ite; (3) the White has no fossils; the Blue has fossils. 
 
 But on the other hand: (1) The White is not always 
 highly crystalline and sparry; nor is the Blue everywhere 
 non-crystalline and blue. (2) The Blue sometimes carries 
 graphite and fossils as well. (3) The White marbles grad- 
 uate into a fine-grained clouded blue marble (like the door- 
 step marbles once so commonly used in Philadelphia) ; 
 while the Blue ranges from an earthy granular to a white 
 or cream colored graphite marble. (4) The White, slightly- 
 changed limestone holds flinty nodules nearly or quite 
 changed to crystalline quartz; but the Blue limestone also 
 has characteristically large flint nodules, which often, al- 
 though not at all changed, have scales of graphite enclosed 
 in them. (5) The White beds have boulder-like masses of 
 fine-grained, banded limestone, surrounded by coarsely 
 crystalline marble. (6) The Blue limestones are often 
 crushed into breccia, the fragments being cemented by crys- 
 talline limestone, and both the fragments and their cement 
 carry graphite. (7) The quantity of graphite in the White 
 marble beds, in the Blue limestone beds and in fossiliferous 
 sandstone beds, increases as the distance diminishes from the 
 face of the igneous rocks which have produced these changes. 
 (8) A last fact of the utmost importance; sandstone beds 
 of exactly the same texture and mineral composition under- 
 lie both the White marble and the Blue limestone, and are 
 changed intoquartzite beds, holding graphite, when in con- 
 tact with the igneous rocks. These sandstones are some- 
 times conglomerates, holding large, irregularly shaped, 
 rounded pebbles of quartz. When changed the sandstone 
 shows crystals of fresh looking feldspar (orthoclase ?) and 
 white mica scales, and is then hard to distinguish from the 
 neighboring igneous granite. Hematite and limonite de-
 
 476 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 cunt 
 
 Thin-tedded loncitoM. ^ . White and jxle tlut man<ti*n hmetlone. \ JynclinaL 
 
 Yalley limcilene rritk vertical dip and clearage, 
 
 Comhchoct-en 
 
 Vdllny limettcne wit/tout cleavage 
 JoutA i,fJt f o 
 
 'fif-ZZ.Settim nort&tfCoafarifa, l^ciony northeast. 
 
 Jio:~23.36c&m tiroatft-tht "JiiU-nirA fffSfirfatajy.
 
 WHITE LIMESTONES AND MARBLES OF NO. II. 477 
 
 posits are associated with both the sandstones and lime- 
 stones. * 
 
 In the Chester county valley we have the same grouping 
 of white marble beds, blue-banded marble beds, blue fos- 
 siliferous limestones, sandstones converted into quartzite, 
 graphite crystals and limonite deposits. We have the same 
 limited range, and local distribution of the white marbles. 
 But we have no igneous rocks except the one narrow trap 
 dyke which crosses the Schuylkill at Conshohocken ; for 
 the nearest granite is several miles away to the south. But 
 the trap ranges with the marble beds ; and these are wholly 
 confined to the vertically upturned south side of the valley. 
 The conversion of blue limestone beds into blue-banded 
 marble and into crystalline marble may have been produced 
 by pressure. 
 
 In fact I had pieces of white marble ground thin enough 
 to become transparent, and then under a microscope of 
 high power it was evident that the rock had been crushed 
 to minute fragments and recemented with a deposit of cal- 
 cite, which gave the white color and sparry appearance ; 
 and it could be seen that all the fragments had been thrust 
 more or less round their centers, for they were minutely 
 banded, or crossed by fine lines, which obeyed no common 
 direction across the field of vision. I consider this a phys- 
 ical demonstration that the white marble was originally a 
 common limestone, and that its formation as marble had 
 nothing to do with either the presence or absence of any 
 trap or granite or other heat agency, but was effected by a 
 crushing pressure which permitted the complete infiltration 
 of lime water, and the recementation of its fragments with 
 precipitated calcite. 
 
 * Report of 1890, pp. 36, 37. Prof. Dana's objections to Mr. Nason's views 
 may be found in a notice of the N. J. report published in the July No. of the 
 Amer. Jour. Sci., 1891. To these objections Mr. Nason replies in the Sep- 
 tember No. of the American Geologist, 1891, pages 166 to 171, by a clear and 
 succinct restatement of his field observations, laying special stress on the 
 fact that the change of blue limestone beds into white marble beds may be 
 seen between two points only 50' apart. " The graphite exists in every stage 
 from the bright crystalline stage to cloud aggregations of carbonaceous 
 matter which give the blue color to the blue limestone."
 
 478 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 As for graphite, its occurrence is too general in different 
 kinds of rocks to base a very valid argument upon its pres- 
 ence in any one kind of rock. It is widely disseminated 
 in slate rocks ; and the dark grey color of the Peach 
 Bottom roofing slates is produced by so small a quantity as 
 only 0.5 per cent. The dark limestone beds of the Lehigh 
 valley are colored -by impalpably fine graphite. At Pugh- 
 town in Chester county, beds charged with graphite have 
 been ground to make paint. Sometimes its molecules are 
 aggregated to form small scattered crystals or scales ; as in 
 crystalline limestone on Monocacy creek 4 m. IN", of Bethle- 
 hem ; in the magnetic iron ore at Siessholtzville, Lehigh 
 county; in the limonite ore at Yellow Springs, Chester 
 county ; in bluish and other quartz in various parts of Ches- 
 ter county. Granular and foliated masses of it are embedded 
 in the talc and tremolite beds of Chestnut Hill, N. of Easton. 
 It occurs massive at Robinson's Hill, 5m. N. of Philadel- 
 phia ; and at Van Arsdal's quarry near Feisterville, Bucks 
 county. A mine of very pure plumbago was worked a cen- 
 tury ago near Bustleton, Bucks county.* 
 
 The disseminated microscopic graphite in slate rocks may 
 be ascribed to an original charge of organic matter (animal 
 or vegetable, or both) in the oceanic mud. The same ori- 
 gin may be suggested for disseminated microscopic graphite 
 in the limestone formations. But when it comes to ex- 
 plaining disseminate crystal plates of graphite in limestone 
 changed into marble, it would seem to be necessary not 
 merely to call in the aid of destructive chemistry to set free 
 the pure carbon from the organic hydrocarbons, by driving 
 off the hydrogen to other alliances, but furthermore to call 
 in the aid of those forces of crystallization which have 
 operated in and upon all the most ancient an so called 
 azoic formations, in fact upon all disturbed, complicated 
 and crushed formations, chiefly through the medium of 
 universally and perpetually permeating mineral waters, f 
 
 *Vanuxem's analysis gave: Carbon, 94.4; silica, 2.6; ox. iron and mang., 
 1.4 ; water, 0.6 ; loss, 1.0. On the other hand, samples from S. Coventry and 
 from Berks county gave to Genth : Carbon, only 7.20 and 10.85. (Report B, 
 1875, p. 8, for all the details in the text above, and in this foot note.) 
 
 t The geological reader of these remarks may be reminded of the flakes of
 
 WHITE MARBLE IN CENTRE CO. 479 
 
 The white magnesian limestone of New Jersey seems to 
 have been the only one quarried for lime burning before 
 1864.* One analysis gave it as much as 42.26 curb, mag- 
 nesia, only 1.40 alumina and oxide of iron and 2.90 of silica 
 and insoluble matter ; while a fossiliferous limestone had 
 only 1.98 carb. mag., 4.70 alum., etc., and 5.80 sil., etc. 
 Yet it is well known that piire limestone makes a white and 
 stronger lime, swells more in slacking, and is a better flux. 
 
 The white crystalline limestones in tlie gneiss of the N. J. 
 highlands, along their whole northwest border, are very like 
 the sedimentary limestones of No. II. One analysis gave 
 96.50: 1.13: 1.30: 0.30; another, 53.00: 42.26: 3.50: 0.50. 
 Consequently one was a pure marble, the other a dolomite. f 
 
 White marble in Centre Co. 
 
 It is certainly a surprising fact that white crystalline 
 limestone, or white marble, should have been quarried on 
 Jac. Bahrrer's farm near Buffalo run in Patton township, 
 Centre county, and the slabs sold in Hollidaysburg in Blair 
 county for gravestones ; the strata being at about the 
 middle horizon of the great formation No. 114 There seems 
 to be but one way to account for it, viz : by the infiltration 
 of limewater to such an extent as to completely charge the 
 rock with crystals of calcite. But such infiltration pre- 
 supposes a complete crushing up of the rock, as in the case 
 of the Chester Valley marbles, which we find in all stages 
 of change from pure white to blue and white ribbon marble. 
 But the Chester Valley marble strata have been pressed 
 into a perfectly vertical attitude between a vertical slate 
 formation 1000 feet thick, backed by gneiss and granite on 
 
 asphalt, or anthracite, in the quartz crystals of the Mohawk valley, and 
 other places. They seem to have been deposited in internal rifts in the 
 crystal ; but they are completely enclosed in the body of the silica, and per- 
 haps floated in it when it was in its gelatinous condition, the crystallization 
 going on around them. 
 
 * Cook, An. Rt. 1864, p. 8. 
 
 t Cook, An. Rt. 1864, p. 15. 
 
 t Prof. Ewing's special report in Report T4, page 417. 
 
 The dark blue Trenton limestone beds are in many places full of cracks 
 filled with a cement of white calcite ; and scattered crystals of pure or nearly 
 pure calcite are quite common all along the outcrops. (T4, 417.)
 
 480 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 M.l I &?nadone in, <M/rnfy(miery and (Sfwfor Gat. 
 
 .Gh,. XXXIX. 
 
 fy.19. 
 Sen/an Km HillarCrat toJha&Srmk .VorrtondiAkinylan TotmiAipt. 
 
 Ky.20. 
 the tost end of the tinimtonf raller . Ak union Toimtfup. 
 
 
 Tly.ll. 
 
 Kff.M. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Hg. 
 n-n I 
 
 ihnugk anthoHorln-n ISpriiy Mill atony , Irh&kll Krrr, 
 
 Srtion akny the SduylMI IB- itwyh If. CW/oWAv, . I'rprr
 
 WHITE MARBLE IN CENTRE CO. 481 
 
 one side and a badly crumpled limestone formation perhaps 
 3000 feet thick, on the other ; with every kind of evidence 
 of oblique strains just suited to the disintegration of the 
 mass, exposing it to easy and continuous infiltration. 
 
 In the Nittany valley the great anticlinal is indeed in 
 places overthrown, and therefore the slip and slide move- 
 ment must have been great ; but the wave form is normally 
 regular, and oblique crushing not a necessary consequence. 
 Yet it may have occurred at particular points, perhaps 
 many such ; and must have occurred at Bahrrer's quarry. 
 It is, however, astonishing that the infinitely varied and 
 minute complication, distortion and warping of the lime- 
 stone strata of the Great Valley should not have produced 
 the same effect upon them as in the Chester Valley ; should 
 not have created white marble quarry-ground at least equal 
 to that of New Jersey or Vermont. 
 
 Near Ephrata, in northern Lancaster county, a quarry 
 was opened many years ago from which were obtained some 
 good pieces of marble of a very light blue tint and some of 
 it decidedly shaded. Gteol. Pa. 1858, Vol. 1, p. 222. 
 
 81
 
 482 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 Black marble in No. lie. 
 
 The "black marble" of the Musquito or Oval valley in 
 Lycoming county, Armstrong township,* is a unique rock 
 in Pennsylvania, and very interesting because (1) it exactly 
 resembles a Belgian black marble (with a brownish reflex- 
 ion) used for the body of French mantel clock cases, f (2) 
 it marks the depth to which this oval hole in the Bald Eagle 
 mountain has been excavated; for the black beds are un- 
 doubtedly high in the Trenton limestone, the upper division 
 of formation 114 
 
 These beds are crowded with brachiopod shells, and con- 
 tain many specimens of Calymene senaria, Conrad, one of 
 the most characteristic and widely distributed trilobites of 
 of Trenton age. 
 
 A similar black marble is quarried at Glen's Falls in 
 
 * Four miles southwest of Williamsport. The quarry is owned by the 
 Penna. Marble Co. (Col. Potts and Mr. A. D. Hepburn). The valley is 5 
 miles long, and its floor about 500' above the river at Williamsport (or, about 
 1000' A. T.). Quarry abandoned about 1875, because no blocks thicker than 
 10" or 12" could be got out from the 36' of face exposed. Layers dipping 
 only 4 N. E. representing a fall of the crest of the anticlinal arch in that 
 direction (See Report G2, 76, 78). Curiously enough the rock has not been 
 found in Nippenose valley. 
 
 f Much of the rock is splintery. Soft rotten layers separate hard firm 
 layers. It burns to a fine white lime. It will not polish well by ordinary 
 processes, but can be polished highly by extra care. It breaks up when ex- 
 posed to the weather, but is useful for indoor furniture (Letter of J. G. 
 Hammer, March, 1886). 
 
 JSee however the so called black marble of Hitner's quarry in Mont- 
 gomery county mentioned in foot note to p. 471 above, last paragraph. 
 
 Vanuxem's Senior calymene (N. Y. Rt. 1842, p. 56), a name which has 
 no reference to the 6 tubercles on the buckler (Miller's Am. Pal. Foss., p. 
 213). Conrad named it in 1841. Green in 1832 gave figures of three casts 
 which he called C. blumenbachii, C. callicephala, C. selenecephala, which 
 J. Hall considered synonyms of C. senaria (Pal. N. Y., Vol. I, p. 238, Plate 
 64, fig. 3a-n).
 
 BLACK MARBLE IN NO. He. 483 
 
 northern New York.* Dr. Emmons describes it as there 
 exposed in a river cliff 65' high, the upper rocks being 
 Trenton limestone, the lower calciferous (Chazy) limestone. 
 Between them lies the black marble formation 10' thick, f 
 So, at Isle La Motte the black marble (solid 12' thick) lies 
 under Trenton limestone. Where it occurs at Watertown 
 on the Black river in Jefferson county it is lumpy, and lies 
 between the Trenton and Birdseye. It is nowhere seen in 
 the Mohawk valley, where the Trenton reposes directly on 
 the Birdseye limestone ; and this makes the fact of its ap- 
 pearance in the Oval valley in Pennsylvania, and nowhere 
 else in the state, as yet noticed, so remarkable and interest- 
 ing. It makes it doubtful also whether our black marble 
 is really the same deposit under the Trenton, instead of 
 being over it. In fact it seems almost impossible to believe 
 it the same : for the Trenton is nearly 1000' thick on the 
 Bald Eagle anticlinal ; and the Oval valley should be much 
 larger if eroded to the bottom of the Trenton.:}: 
 
 * The black marble at Glen's Falls is so checked, cracked and seamed 
 with flints and calc spar fossils, that very few beds can be worked with 
 profit. Its color is jet black, its grain close and fine and slightly crystalline. 
 Being rather brittle in one direction it requires careful handling for thin 
 tables. The natural division planes between two beds often are studded 
 with projections like those of fibrous sulphate of strontian, fitting into each 
 other, and sometimes kept apart by a thin film of slate, showing minute fu- 
 coidal markings, and now and then a small encrinite. 
 
 fNat Hist. N. Y. 1842, pp. 110 and 180. He says that the Trenton beds 
 here are 60 or 70 in number varying in thickness from an inch to several 
 feet, full of Trenton fossils. The bottom layers are gray and lying on the 
 black marble are quarried with it. 
 
 i Emmons says that the black marble fossils are not exactly those of the 
 Trenton. They are not very numerous in the New York quarry rock. 
 Columnia sulcata is quite abundant, sometimes in masses of half a bushel. 
 Large Orthocerata are common, some of them ten feet long and a foot in 
 diameter (as in Birdseye). He describes cone-in-cone as a fossil (p. 111). 
 The strontian-like crystals are half to one inch long. In the later Niagara 
 limestone the mineral itself has been preserved ; in this black marble only 
 its form (p. 111). Both these projections and the cone-in-cone show that 
 the black mud remained homogeneous and quiet for a long time ; no doubt 
 as alocal marsh, but either subsequently covered with deep water ; or along 
 an extensive shore to which storms might drive the gigantic cephalopod 
 shells and masses of coral to be embedded in the black mud when dead, 
 although they could not have existed even in its vicinity while alive. 
 
 Vanuxemin his Report (N. H. N. Y. Third Dist. 1842, p. 43-45) described 
 some light grey or dark grey limestone beds, on the Birdseye and under the
 
 484 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Black marble in No. VI. 
 
 There is a so-called black marble in New York in Forma- 
 tion No. VI. It is the lowest, or Tentaculite limestone sub- 
 division of the Lower Helderberg group, the layers of which 
 are massive and dark colored.* 
 
 Trenton, at the Mohawk valley quarries (in three layers 2', 4' and 7' thick, 
 at Stanton's quarry), holding accretions, or knobs, and (at Putnam's 
 quarry), the lower layer what seem to be 4' pebbles of yellowish calciferous 
 sandrock. The beds are as good limestone as the Birdseye beds under them 
 but otherwise resemble the Trenton beds over them. They hold a shell 
 (Strophomena), a polyp, a coral (Cyathophyllum}, etc. Vanuxem adds, 
 that these bottom beds of the Trenton form the surface of Nippenose (Mus- 
 quito) valley in Penna.; the 30' "marble" cliff at Frankford, Ky. (with F. 
 demissus specks); and the Nashville bluff in Tennessee, where the layers are 
 brown and thin. 
 
 Mather in his report of the First Geological district of N. Y. (1843, pp. 399 
 and plate 24) describes the black marble of Glen's Falls near Saratoga more 
 in detail. The Hudson cuts through 70' of beds : Utica black slate at the 
 top, on Trenton limestone, sawed for fire places ; fifty layers ol very fossil- 
 iferous limestone ; 2|' grey limestone taking a fine polish ; 6" darker lime- 
 stone used for door steps ; 10^' black marble polishing brilliantly, with lay- 
 ers of fossils at irregular intervals, 2" or 3" thick, and extending 10' or %0' 
 and abruptly stopping (i. e. shell banks). Mather (p. 403) places the Isle 
 la Motte black marble of Emmons in the Slack River Limestone group, 
 with the Birdseye and Chazy. 
 
 * Mather alludes to it in his Report of 1843, p. 327, where he says that most 
 of the Helderberg rocks south of the Catskill mountain are black, dark grey, 
 and veined with white, but massive, and susceptible of a polish. Vanuxem 
 in his Report of 1842, p. 118, calls the Pentamerus beds mottled brown and 
 blackish limestone full of columnarice.
 
 THICKNESS OF NO. II. 485 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 Thickness of No. II in Lancaster county and elsewhere. 
 
 The city of Lancaster is built over the center of a great 
 limestone plain of inexhaustible fertility, the garden of the 
 State. It reminds the traveler of Paris seated in the 
 center of the fertile and populous plain of Northern France, 
 through which meanders the river Seine, as the Conestoga 
 meanders through Lancaster county from northeast to south- 
 west to join the Susquehanna at Safe Harbor. But here 
 the likeness ends ; for the Cretaceous strata of the Paris 
 basin lie almost perfectly horizontal and are charged with 
 the rainfall which has collected in them from a circle of 
 many leagues, and which is easily brought to the surface 
 by artesian wells. 
 
 The Lower Silurian limestone strata of Lancaster county, 
 on the contrary, descend steeply to the bottom of a syn- 
 clinal trough at least a half mile beneath the present sur- 
 face, the center line of which runs east and west, crossing 
 the Conestoga about a mile below the city's southern limit; 
 almost all the observed dips at the surface south of this line 
 being N. dips ; and almost all of those north of the line be- 
 ing S. dips; the exceptions in both cases must be ascribed 
 to local crumpling.* 
 
 * Frazer's Report 03, 1880, page 58, 59. This description in the text does 
 not exactly consist with the hypothetical curves of the N. and 8. long sec- 
 tion from Neffsville through Lancaster to Martin ville published in Atlas to 
 C3. The section was drawn subsequently after a careful discussion of the 
 surface dips, and shows two deep basins, instead of one; the northern basin 
 being under the city and of great depth ; the southern basin being south of 
 the city, not so deep, and with a broad rolling bed line. But geologists who 
 had dealt much with a folded country will appreciate the difficulties in the 
 way of an even approximately correct underground construction of curves 
 based on surface dips most of which have angles between 60 and 90 and 
 many of them probably overturned. The section has the merit of corres- 
 ponding to the two synclinal limestone belts which cross the Susquehanna, 
 one at Columbia, the other some miles lower down. See the colored geolog- 
 cal map of Lancaster county in Atlas to C3.
 
 486 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The Lancaster section is described by Dr. Frazer in a 
 most interesting manner in detail on pp. 145 to 158 of Re- 
 port C3. The object of the section was to obtain the thick- 
 ness of the formation and its depth beneath the city of 
 Lancaster.* 
 
 Dr. Frazer remarks that the dips seem to require one 
 complete synclinal and one and a half anticlinals, between 
 the northern Lancaster township line and the Conestoga 
 where the section line crosses it. Two points in the city 
 are indicated where the limestone bottom is nearest the 
 present surface, one just south of the north city line, the 
 other between Conestoga and Hazel streets ; but the depth 
 cannot be measured on account of the high loops which the 
 strata make, and the slip of bed on bed. He then uses an 
 ingenious mathematical (geometrical) rule discussion (p. 150) 
 and concludes that it is only safe to say that the total 
 thickness of the limestone measures before erosion in the 
 vicinity of the P. RR. station was not less than 2700 feet. f 
 
 * The section was started as far north as Neffsville because the lowe 
 slates there come to the surface (with fragments of Chikis quartzite) and 
 continue at the surface for 1000'. A limestone quarry is crossed 250' further 
 south. At 1600' a L. crop dips about E. showing how crumpled the country 
 must be. At 1| m. pale limestone dips only 6, S. 20 E. Close by, a quarry 
 reads 20 S. Then one reads 20 N. Then 500' further 60 N. W. Another 
 24, N. 20 W. At Myers' quarry a quartz seam 18 N. ' All this indicating 
 the N. side of a gently sloping anticlinal ; the same is indicated for 3500 
 further. At Dillersville a RR. dip reads 38, S. 15 E. which seems to 
 begin the descent of the beds on the S. slope of the anticlinal ; soon, 50.; 
 35, S. 25 E. Then a synclinal; for, at the divergence of the P. RB. and 
 R. RR. is seen an (overturned) dip of 80, S. 15 E. (Another before cross- 
 ing the township line, 75, S. 15 E.) Then in Lancaster township 80, S. 
 150 E. Then the south side of the anticlinal, 500' from last, 30 S. Where 
 the two RRs. cross, 70, S. 15 E. In the cut just E. of Lancaster station, 
 67, S. 15 E. No exposures for 500'. Where Vine street crosses the Quar- 
 ryville RR., 70, S. 5 W., continued for 165' to the Soap Factory; the 
 rocks turning gradually into a curly hydromica schist, showing that the 
 bottom beds of the formation here rise again to the surface. And so the 
 record of the section runs on southward. 
 
 f From the Conestoga south to Mill creek the details of the section are 
 narrated and the conclusion reached that the whole series of minor anti- 
 clinal and synclinal rolls are crossed. Between Mill creek and D. Harnish's 
 house, 5 minor anticlinals, the whole body of measures rising southward. 
 Then a gap in the record of 4400' near the middle of Pequea township. The 
 southern portion of the section is extraordinarily difficult of construction, 
 as both mica slate and gneiss exposures occur in it. See C3, pp. 156 et seq.
 
 THICKNESS OF NO. II. 487 
 
 This deep basin extends from the Salisbury cove in the 
 mountain land of Chester county westward across Lancaster 
 county ; and beyond the river is continued as the York 
 county limestone valley to Adams county. 
 
 Another equally deep basin runs the Conestoga valley 
 north of it, parallel with it, from the Berks county corner, 
 westward, to the Susquehanna above Marietta, and so into 
 York county. 
 
 Many other smaller basins cross Lancaster 'county, ob- 
 scurely, in a parallel series, the exact shapes of which can- 
 not possibly be made out from surface dips, because there are 
 no well denned characteristic marks to distinguish the lime- 
 stone beds from one another; and all the basins are so con- 
 nected sideways with each other that the strata pass over 
 the upfolds from one basin to the next ; the whole being 
 eroded to a general plane surface.* 
 
 The most southern basin which has preserved its lime- 
 stone rocks is that of the Chester county valley; and this 
 deepens eastward, and then shallows to its end in Mont- 
 gomery county. The widest and probably, therefore, 
 deepest part of this Chester county valley is between Down- 
 ingtown and the Schuylkill; but the beds are so complicated 
 by longitudinal anticlinal and synclinal waves, as shown 
 in the sections on plates 45, 46, 47, that it is impossible to 
 calculate with any approach to accuracy the thickness of 
 the formation which remains at the present day, to say 
 nothing of its original thickness before the erosion of the 
 contents began to remove from over it the slate formation 
 of No. III. At least 2000' and perhaps 3000' of it still re- 
 main. It may have been as thick as it is in Centre county; 
 
 * There can be no reasonable doubt that the Azoic country of southern 
 Lancaster, southern Chester and Delaware, on the one hand, and southern 
 York and eastern Maryland on the other hand, were each and all once cov- 
 ered with the Lancaster limestone formation II. Nor can any reason be as- 
 signed why the formation as a whole should not have been formerly as 
 many thousand feet thick in its extension to the Atlantic, as it is now seen 
 to be at Lancaster and Harrisburg. Its great thickness at York, at Lan- 
 caster and at Downingtown is an absolutely satisfactory guarantee of its 
 ancient unbroken extension southeastward over the present Atlantic coast 
 region.
 
 488 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 but that is not probable; for there is no part of the Great 
 Valley in which such a thickness can be proven. 
 
 In the Great Valley we have also everywhere an exces- 
 sive complication of the limestone strata of No. II. There is 
 no section from the Delaware at Easton to the Potomac in 
 Maryland where a fair and unimpeachable measurement 
 of the formation can be made; and the faulting along the 
 southern edge of the Great Valley prevents us from even 
 estimating the amount which has been removed by erosion. 
 Two or three thousand feet of limestone strata are evidently 
 present at the surface; how much more we cannot tell. 
 
 In the coves and valleys of middle Pennsylvania most of 
 the formation is concealed underground. In Nittany valley 
 alone, along the Little Juniata river has a good opportunity 
 been granted to measure the formation, and even here not 
 quite to its base at Birmingham. But the locality is most 
 favorable to the inquiry. From the Canoe mountain syn- 
 clinal to the Nittany anticlinal the dips 'are all one way and 
 the sequence apparently unbroken. This noble section has 
 been repeatedly criticized and measured with the greatest 
 care; first by Mr. Rogers in the First Survey, and lastly by 
 Mr. Platt and Mr. Sanders in the topographical survey of 
 the Blair county region, published (text and sheet map) in 
 Report T, and Atlas. On the basis of this survey, which 
 took account of all the dips of all the exposed rocks along 
 the river on both sides of the Canoe mountain synclinal, 
 there were counted up 6600'; subdivided thus : Upper lime- 
 stone series, 5400'; Middle white sandstone beds, 40'; Lower 
 limestone series, including some sandy or sandstone layers 
 at bottom which may belong to the Chiques (Cambrian) 
 quartzite system, 1160' =6600' .* 
 
 *T, p. 52. Mr. Sanders has measured 3000' of consecutive layers at Har- 
 risburg. Mr. Prime measured only 2000' at Allentown. In Report O, Vol. 
 I, of the catalogue of the Geol. Museum, 1878, p. 1J3, is given a list of 240 
 specimens collected from the outcrops of II along the Little Juniata from 
 Tyrone Gap down to Spruce Creek. These are summarized in T, page 58. 
 These collections by Mr. C. E. Hall show an extraordinary dearth of fossils 
 in the formation; but Trenton and Calciferous New York forms were cer- 
 tainly identified. Mr. Hall remarks on the special steepness of the dips, and 
 on the fact that the dips do not correspond well on the two sides of the river 
 (T, p. 59).
 
 THICKNESS OF NO. II. 489 
 
 When the limestone formation No. II sinks at the foot of 
 Bald Eagle mountain it does not rise again to the surface 
 for 100 miles, to the Mohawk valley, in New York. The 
 depth to which its uppermost division, the Trenton, He, 
 sinks beneath the highlands of Lycoming county is 15,000 
 feet.* 
 
 After the developments of gas and oil in the Trenton 
 limestone in western Ohio and in Indiana a large number of 
 wells were bored in northern Ohio, in Upper Canada and 
 in western, middle and eastern New York to test the oil and 
 gas value of the formation along the belt of country where 
 it was known to lie undisturbed and not too deeply cov- 
 ered to be reached at reasonable rates of expense, say 3000' 
 or 4000' feet beneath the surface. f 
 
 At Ithaca, N. Y., a test well (in the valley) said to be 
 3185' deep, stopped in the middle of formation No. V, and 
 should have gone down to 4755' to reach the top of the 
 Trenton.:}: 
 
 From Ithaca northward the rise is very gradual to the 
 outcrop of the top of the formation at Trenton Falls where 
 the upper division of No. II got the name in 1835 which it 
 has retained to the present day. It is quarried along the 
 banks of the Mohawk, south of which it is covered by the 
 
 * As measured by Dr. Chance, in Clinton county, Lock Haven long sec- 
 tion, Report G4, p. 124. Its depth beneath Cresson, or Ebensburg, in Cam- 
 bria county, according to the section by Platt and Sanders (Appendix A to 
 Report F, p. 262) is about 17,000'. Its depth beneath the Mountain House on 
 Broad Top in Huntingdon county is nearly 18,000' (see F, p. 184). Between 
 the tost two mentioned depths it rose into the air over Birmingham 6000'. 
 The Nittany valley anticlinal was, therefore, a rock wave 25,000' or 26,000', 
 i. e, 5 miles, high. 
 
 t These borings have greatly enlarged and improved our knowledge of the 
 Palaeozoic formations, especially as to their varying thicknesses, and as to their 
 condition and quality beneath different sections of country. The bore-hole 
 records have been discussed very skilfully by the late C. A. Ashburner, and 
 by Prof. Prosser, of Ithaca, N. Y., now of the U. S. Geol. Survey at Wash- 
 ington.- The facts thus obtained will be frequently used in subsequent 
 chapters of this report. 
 
 J C. S. Prosser, " The thickness of the Devonian and Silurian rock of west- 
 ern central New York," in the Amer. Geologist, Oct, 1890, p. 202, 211. The 
 estimates from data furnished by the Syracuse well would make the depth 
 5172'; the estimate from maximum thicknesses in general section would 
 make it 5708'.
 
 490 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Hudson river and Utica slates of III, 3500' thick, through 
 part of which the Knowersville gas test well, 3000' deep, 
 went down and penetrated the upper 120' of the Trenton, 
 to which Ashburner's Catskill section assigns a total of 
 500.'* 
 
 The Wolcott well, in Wayne county, N. Y., on the south 
 border of Lake Ontario struck the top of the Trenton at a 
 depth of 1950', and stopped, still in Trenton limestone, at 
 2700'. When it is remembered that the greatest depth of 
 the lake near its southern shore is about 700', we can under- 
 stand the true formation of the great valley of erosion in 
 which its waters are held a valley excavated in very an- 
 cient times by the chemical solution of the great limestone 
 formation No. II, and the mechanical removal of the over- 
 lying slates of III and sandstone of IV (Oneida and Medina) 
 the outcrop of which makes its steep, half submerged south- 
 ern shore, f 
 
 Onr better knowledge of a greater thickness of II and 
 III in the Mohawk country than has hitherto been allowed 
 them is very satisfactory on the score of bringing their 
 distinct areas into closer harmony with their great exhibi- 
 
 * Petroleum and Natural Gas in New York state. C. A. Ashburner, Trans. 
 Amer. Int. Min. Eng. Duluth meeting, July, 1887, foot-note to page 49 of 
 paper. For geologists the record of this well is uncommonly valuable, 
 greatly increasing the traditional thickness of III. to which in W. New 
 York only 800' to 1000', and on Georgian bay in Canada only 770', was as- 
 signed. The Utica in Montgomery county, N. Y. west of Albany, has been 
 called 250'; but the Campbell well west of Utica went through 710' of it, 
 Walcott calls its outcrops on the Mohawk 600'. As to the Trenton, Vanuxem 
 only gave it 300' in Lewis county. Emmons made it 400'. In Canada 
 Logan measured 679' and 750'. Walcott makes it in the Campbell well near 
 Utica 430' and the surface outcrops 290' (Proc. A. A. A. S. Vol. 36, p. 212). 
 Prosser gives a general thickness of 820' to III, and 992' to II (Trenton 842'- 
 Calc., 150'). 
 
 t Lake Ontario, if drained of its water, would be a repetition of our Great 
 Valley, with the difference that the two formations II and III lie almost flat 
 and undisturbed instead of being crumpled and crushed ; the limestone 
 (II) rising northward out of the water, and constituting the great plain of 
 the St. Lawrence. It must be understood that Ontario has been considera- 
 bly refilled by glacial deposits, etc., since its submergence. Its old bed is 
 far deeper than its present bed, probably 2000', and was originally deeper 
 towards the northern shore than towards the southern. This also irrespec- 
 tive of the tilt which it has suffered in recent times.
 
 THICKNESS OF NO. II. 491 
 
 tions in Middle Pennsylvania ; and also in another respect, 
 namely, by adding one more line of evidence for their 
 identity with the so-called Taconic limestones and slates of 
 the western border land of New England. For it is incred- 
 ible that 4500' of II and III should exist 15 miles west of 
 Albany, and not be well represented in the Taconic region 
 east of Albanv.
 
 492 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 Oil and Gas in No. II. 
 
 Dr. Orton says that the Trenton limestone when followed 
 northward both in Ohio and Indiana suffers a transforma- 
 tion through a small thickness of its upper beds, by these 
 upper beds losing their pure limestone character and be- 
 coming dolomitic or magnesian ; and that this change 
 affects frorn 10' to 50' of strata at the top of the formation ; 
 perhaps in rare instances 100 feet. Generally the wells 
 passed through magnesian limestone from the very top of 
 the formation downward ; but in some cases pure limestone 
 is found at the top of the formation over the magnesian 
 strata ; and in every such instance the magnesian lying 
 directly upon the pure limestone.* 
 
 The line along which the change from limestone to dolo- 
 mite occurs, passes through Hancock, Allen and Mercer 
 counties southwesterly into Indiana, and so onward through 
 Jay, Randolph and Henry into Indiana ; and this is the 
 
 * Dr. Orton's language implies a theory that the formation was originally 
 pure limestone, and has been partially changed to dolomitic limestone by 
 the introduction of magnesia; for he adds, "In other words the change is 
 comparatively superficial," and he speaks of "normal or unaltered lime- 
 stone." This theory is much in vogue among European geologists, although 
 it is also strongly opposed. In Pennsylvania the theory has been com- 
 pletely broken down by the statement of facts narrated in Chapter XXVIII, 
 p. 327 above. 
 
 In Pennsylvania the Trenton limestone as a formation and judging from 
 a very insufficient series of analyses of specimens collected at hazard in 
 different parts of the State, has been called a pure or non-magnesian lime- 
 stone ; but our knowledge of its chemical composition is still extremely 
 limited, and the only safe assertion which can be made respecting it is, that 
 as a formation hundreds of feet thick it contrasts in a general way with the 
 great limestone formations under it (Calciferous) in being less magnesian. 
 I have no doubt, however, that if many thousands of analyses of Trenton 
 specimens from the extensive outcrops in Pennsylvania were made and 
 compared it would be discovered that the formation contained locally 
 magnesian beds, in other words, that the same phenomenon described by 
 Dr. Orton in the gas fields of Ohio and Indiana would recur in various 
 places in Pennsylvania.
 
 OIL AND GAS IN NO. II. 493 
 
 boundary of the new gas and oil fields. Bur in Ohio it/ex- 
 tends from the present gas and oil fields northward and 
 westward ; and patches are sometimes found to the north- 
 eastward. In Indiana it appears to extend to the northern 
 and northwestern boundaries of the State ; and is presumed 
 to underlie the entire peninsula of Michigan, on the strength 
 of a few analyses from borings in that State. 
 
 The porosity of the rock is supposed to be connected in 
 some way with its charge of magnesia.* 
 
 *Dr. Orton says, "To be a reservoir of oil or gas the upper surface of the 
 Trenton limestone must have suffered the dolomite replacement, whereby 
 due porosity has been conferred upon it, and it must also have received in 
 the accidents of its history the due relief by which its varied contents have 
 been separated and accumulated," but if the magnesian limestone was not 
 introduced afterwards but was a part of the original deposit, the porosity of 
 the rock must be explained by the superior solubility of the magnesian car- 
 bonate above the lime carbonate. It is strange that in the abundant litera- 
 ture on this subject so little notice is taken of the presence of salt water in 
 the porous rock at the lower limit of the oil and gas belt ; at what is called 
 the dead-line in the Findley field. This dead-line in the Findley field 
 follows the hypsometric line of 500' below sea level ; every well which 
 strikes the Trenton limestone at this level or at lower levels has found the 
 rock charged mainly with salt water. In the Lima field a similar dead-line 
 400' or more below sea level has salt water on the southwest of it, and oil 
 and gas on the northeast of it ; the productive wells striking the limestone 
 at from 390' to 350' below sea level. In Indiana the dead or salt water line 
 surrounds the productive territory on the north and west at only 100' below 
 sea level. The limestone gradually rising southward without any anticli- 
 nal or terrace structure, the gas production ceases abruptly and without 
 any apparent reason. Dr. Orton proposes as a probable explanation for this 
 fact the change of the formation from dolomitic porous limestone to pure 
 tight limestone ; but in doing this he virtually discards the reason given 
 for the upper limit of gas production in the Findlay and Lima regions, 
 namely, an anticlinal or rather a terrace structure. 
 
 I have just said that it is strange to notice in the literature of the subject 
 a prevailing indifference to the value of the fact of the universal presence of 
 salt water below the dead line. Surely some explanation of the existence 
 of that salt water must be taken into the theory. First, a question arises re- 
 specting the age of that saltwater. Is it the original sea water in which the 
 Trenton limestone was deposited ? if not, is it salt water which has pene- 
 trated from any ocean past or present? if not, is it analogous to the salt 
 water of closed basins, seas or lakes which have no outlet? in other \\ords, 
 has the rain water obtained salt from salt-bearing formations and collected 
 as salt water in this Trenton reservoir? if not, does the saltin this saltwater 
 represent an original element of the formation itself, namely, a certain 
 charge of chloride of sodium deposited originally with the carbonate of lime 
 and carbonate of magnesia ; and subsequently through the ages dissolved 
 out by the percolating rain water, which has ever since held it in solution ?
 
 494 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Why no Trenton oil or gas in Pennsylvania. 
 
 To the people of Pennsylvania the practical question is 
 simply this : Does the Trenton limestone formation in Penn- 
 sylvania hold, and will it, if bored down to, furnish a future 
 supply of oil or gas, or both, to supplement the rapidly ex- 
 hausting oil and gas pools in the Devonian oil sands of the 
 western counties ? The answer is : 
 
 Certainly not in southeastern Pennsylvania. 
 
 Certainly not in middle Pennsylvania. 
 
 Probably not in the rest of the State. 
 
 if so, such dissolvine out of original crystals of salt has of itself played a 
 certain part in the production of the porosity of the rock. The above are 
 important questions which, so far as I know, have never been properly 
 presented, much less answered. And their range of application in geology 
 far exceeds the limits of oil and gas regions ; in fact, take in all brine regions. 
 
 We know little enough of the methods of nature in past time as to the de- 
 posit of sandstone strata ; but we know far less respecting the mode of an- 
 cient limestone deposits, under conditions of topography and climate so 
 different from anything we now see that arguing from the present to the 
 past is almost impossible. The present river drainage of the world carries 
 chiefly clastic detritus : that is, most of the land being destroyed by rain- 
 water and transferred to sea bottom has already undergone that process 
 once or many times. But in the Lower Silurian Age it is reasonable to be- 
 lieve that the larger part of the land consisted of crystalline rock and fur- 
 nished by its own river drainage a very different kind of material to a sea 
 much warmer, perhaps hot, in which chemical re-actions took place on the 
 grandest scale. Dr. T. S. Hunt has endeavored, and with much success, in 
 suggesting a picture of the operations of that ancient time ; or rather of a 
 time far more ancient when chemical precipitation was probably almost the 
 only form of ocean deposit. The Lower Silurian Age indeed stands midway 
 between the first age of nearly pure chemical precipitation and a percentage 
 of almost pure mechanical deposit ; and it therefore ought to represent by 
 the nature of its rocks both kinds of operation, intermingled indeed in a 
 manner to confuse very completely geological judgment. 
 
 Dr. Hunt's crenitic hypothesis (cr6n6, a fountain) is an admirable attempt 
 to solve the first great difficulty in geology, namely, the source of those ele- 
 ments, alumina, lime, magnesia, soda, potassa and iron, which make up al- 
 most the whole crust of the earth. Oxygen and chlorine holding these ele- 
 ments in solution were of course in ancient times part of the earth's atmos- 
 phere. The basis must have resided in the globe either pure or alloyed in 
 mutual combination, but certainly not except under the condition of very 
 high heat. The union of the gases with them must have marked the grad- 
 ual cooling of the globe. But the first rivers must have been not only hot 
 water, but mineral water ; and the first deposits must have been chemical 
 precipitates. To state the case transcendentally, we may imagine (what of 
 course never happened in exactly that way) three rivers pouring three kinds 
 of mineral water into a closed basin resulting in a sea ; one discharging a 
 solution of lime chloride ; a second, a solution of soda carbonate ; the third, 
 a solution of magnesia sulphate. The common tank would become filled
 
 OIL AND GAS IN NO. II. 495 
 
 And for the following reasons: (1) An oil rock must be 
 porous, but not broken up; (2) it must lie Hat, and have a 
 good covering; (3) it must not be too deep beneath the sur- 
 
 with these three solutions interfused; not homogeneously throughout -the 
 tank, but with every variety of interfusion in different parts of it according 
 to the respective sizes of the rivers and the sea currents which brought their 
 infusions together ; so that an infinite variability of chemical precipitation 
 would result in all parts of the sea bottom. Laboratory experiments will 
 certainly not teach the whole story, but will indicate certain main facts, the 
 first one being that a reaction would take place betweeen the river of lime 
 chloride and the river of soda carbonate ; the chloride leaving the lime and 
 uniting with the soda to make salt ; the carbonate leaving the soda to unite 
 with the lime, making limestone; and the magnesia also becoming a car- 
 bonate with different solubility, but precipitated in like manner. 
 
 Of course such a case as this is purely hypothetical and certainly could not 
 have occurred in Lower Silurian times, because life had already long ex- 
 isted ; vast amounts of carbonic acid and oxygen had already been ab- 
 stracted trom the atmosphere ; the waters were cool enough to permit mollus- 
 can and articulate life, as well as vegetation ; and the rivers had long been 
 pouring clastic material, gravel sand and mud into the sea. Nevertheless, 
 even at that late day, compared with the still more ancient times, the rivers 
 must have been to a considerable extent of the nature of mineral water ; and 
 therefore necessarily the sea was continuing, although in a very moderate 
 degree, its chemical precipitations ; the lime and magnesia carbonates play- 
 ing the chief role ; but evaporation being still probably intense, the chemi- 
 cal precipitation of sea salt must have played a part in the drama of depo- 
 sition, and has, in fact, continued to do so through all ages from that to the 
 present time. Hence all geological strata contain an amount of salt ; and all 
 atmospheric drainage through geological strata find, dissolve and bring to 
 the surface amounts of this salt. But I have in another place drawn atten- 
 tion to the remarkable fact that soda is almost absent from our limestone 
 strata ; a fact which makes it almost necessary to find the region of the salt 
 water in the Trenton formation outside of it, that is, in some of the more 
 decided salt-bearing sandstones. 
 
 The facts are thus stated by Dr. T. S. Hunt in his standard work, Mineral 
 Physiology, 1886, page 168. " The recent precipitate produced by a solution 
 of carbonate of soda in chloride of calcium is readily soluble in an excess of 
 the latter salt, or in a solution of sulphate of magnesia. The transparent, 
 almost gelatinous magma which results when solutions of carbonate of soda 
 and chloride of calcium are first mingled, is immediately dissolved by a 
 solution of sulphate of magnesia ; and by operating with solutions of known 
 strength (titrated solutions) it is easy to obtain transparent liquids holding 
 in a litre, besides three or four hundredths of hydrated sulphate of mag- 
 nesia, 0.80 gramme, and even 1.20 grammes of carbonate of lime, together 
 with 1.00 gramme of carbonate of magnesia; the only other substance pres- 
 ent in the water being the chloride of sodium equivalent to these carbonates. 
 A solution of chloride of magnesium, holding some chloride of sodium and 
 sulphate of magnesia in like manner dissolved 1.00 gramme of carbonate of 
 lime to the litre. Such solutions have an alkaline reaction." [Quoted 
 from Hunt's Chem. and Geol. Essays, page 223.]
 
 496 GEOLOGICAL, SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 face of the earth; (4) it must either be itself very fossilifer- 
 ous, or be enclosed between other strata which are so. 
 
 All of these conditions are realized in the great Trenton 
 limestone oil and gas districts of Ohio, Indiana and Ken- 
 tucky; but not in Pennsylvania. 
 
 For (1) in the southeast region of our State the Trenton 
 has been broken and crushed arid recemented, so as to be 
 nowhere porous enough to hold oil or gas; (2) in the middle 
 region all the formations are upturned and solidified by pres- 
 sure; (3) in the western and northern regions, the Trenton 
 lies buried 10,000 to 20, 000 feet beneath the present surface, 
 and at temperatures between 200 and 400 Fahrenheit ; and 
 (4) where it shows itself at the surface in the middle, south- 
 ern and eastern counties it is remarkably poor in animal 
 and vegetable remains. 
 
 Consequently, all attempts to obtain oil or gas from the 
 Pennsylvania Trenton and such attempts have been made 
 Chester, in Montgomery, in Berks, in Danphin, in Hunt- 
 ingdon, in Pike, in Susquehannaandin Erie conn ties have 
 failed. 
 
 In the deep Erie well the Trenton was reached. In the 
 Canada well on the south shore of Lake Ontario near the 
 Welland canal, the Trenton was pierced. Several wells in 
 New York State penetrated it. In no case has there been 
 a profitable return of either oil or gas. And if this hap- 
 pened under the exceptionally good conditions in central 
 and western New York, where the formation is very fossil - 
 iferous, lies nearly flat, and can be easily reached, what 
 chance is there of success for those who bore in the uptilted 
 and dislocated and poorly fossiliferous strata of Pennsyl- 
 vania ? Where the Trenton is brought to the surface it 
 shows plainly that whatever petroleum or rock gas was once 
 distilled from its fossil corals and shells has ages ago escaped 
 from it; as, and for the same reasom that, the gas of the 
 once bituminous coal beds of Schuylkill county has escaped 
 from them, leaving them in the condition of anthracite. 
 
 On the other hand, who can hope for a time when oil and 
 gas wells can be sunk to a depth of ten or twenty thousand 
 feet, where the Trenton may possibly retain what oil and 
 gas it has at the boiling point of water or even at 400 F.
 
 MECHANICAL DEPOSITS OF NO. II. 497 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 Mechanical deposits of No. II. 
 
 Ripple marks " on a superb scale " were seen on the sur- 
 faces of the limestone beds at the quarry close to Uhlers- 
 ville, on the Delaware river, in Northampton county, by 
 Prof. Rogers.* If there was no mistake in interpreting the 
 undulations as ripple marks, if they were not the effects 
 of subsequent pressure, and if ripple marks are to be taken 
 as a sure indication of wave-action in shallow water, then 
 the deep sea chemical theory of the formation of the great 
 limestone must be abandoned. And this particular case is 
 all the more important, as the rocks exposed at Uhlersville 
 do not belong to the top (Trenton) but to the bottom (Cal- 
 ciferous) division of No. II, overlying the Cinques quartz- 
 ite so full of worm burrows (Scolithus linearis) which of 
 course imply a shallow sandy shore. In Vermont, Brain- 
 ard and Seely report the whole Calciferous formation full 
 of Scolithus, especially some of the fine-grained sandstone 
 layers of the middle division (C) which are "pin-holed with 
 small worm burrows" (Scolithus minutus}. This division 
 (350' thick) is made up of alternations of sandstone beds 
 and magnesian limestone beds.f 
 
 All this runs in favor of the mechanical as opposed to the 
 chemical deposit of the limestone beds of II, as argued in 
 Chapter 28, p. 334 above, on the Magnesian limestone 
 alternations in the quarries opposite Harrisburg. 
 
 A peculiar sandstone. 
 
 The peculiarly sandy nature of the lower part of the great 
 limestone formation has already been mentioned. Cases 
 
 *Geol. of Pa., 1858, p. 242. 
 
 f Bulletin Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 1, 1890, page 504; quoted in Report P4, 
 Diet. Foss., Pa., Vol. 3, 1890, p. 945. See also the large worm burrow Mono- 
 crater ion lesleyi, described from Lehigh county by Prof. Prime in Report 
 D2, 1878, p. 79, with figures. 
 
 32
 
 498 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 of isolated layers of sandstone are given in preceding chap- 
 ters. The Barrens of Centre county have been described. 
 
 In Sinking Valley, near Birmingham on the Little 
 Juniata, a peculiar ferruginous sandstone containing also 
 traces of manganese and cobalt occurs in great abundance 
 on the farm of Mr. Galbraith. The rock is a com pact, brittle, 
 and exceedingly fine-grained mass, streaked with different 
 shades of light-red and pink and purple, which variations 
 it derives from the different minerals it contains. In almost 
 every hand specimen are numerous larger and smaller cavi- 
 ties, the sides of which are lined with minute quartz crys- 
 tals. Some portions of the mass are not unlike calamine ; 
 but Mr. McCreath's analysis of a specimen of it shows that 
 there is not even a trace of zinc in its composition. Silica, 
 94.9 ; ox. iron and alumina, 3.3 ; ox. mang., a trace ; ox. 
 cobalt, 0.17; lime, 0.06; magnesia, 0.18; water, 1. Being 
 near the axis of the great anticlinal the beds must be very 
 low in the series.* 
 
 Parkesburg artesian well in II. 
 
 At Parkesburg, in the Chester county valley, an artesian 
 well was bored, 522' deep, through very steep-dipping lime- 
 stones near the bottom of the series. Not only sandstone 
 layers but quicksand layers were passed through, the latter 
 furnishing water (in one case pretty freely), and being 
 probably the disintegrated loose grains of beds of calcifer- 
 ous sandstone which had lost all their soluble lime and 
 magnesia carbonates by long continued percolation.f 
 
 * T, p. 291. Mr. Platt in his Report on Blair county remarks that the dis- 
 tinct sandstone horizons in No. II, in Nittany valley, make a show in 
 boulders and fragments on the surface of the country out of all proportion 
 to their size as beds in the limestone series. But this is a common geological 
 phenomenon of erosion, well illustrated by the abundance of quartz boulders 
 left lying on the eroded surface of the hydromica belt of York county, and 
 the abundance of titaniferous iron ore fragments left lying on the off dip 
 side of the veins on the demoralized mica gneiss country of Goldsboro' in 
 N. Carolina. As the surface of the soluble formation is lowered by erosion, 
 the insoluble massive layers accumulate on the successive surfaces. (Report 
 T, on Blair Co., p. 60.) 
 
 \ Soil, 18'; bastard or sandy limestone, 3'; quicksand, 2'; sandy limestone 
 growing denser downwards ; quicksand; limestone be"ds increasingly pure 
 downward, and quite destitute of water veins ; fine yellow sandstone layer
 
 PAKKESBURG ARTESIAN WELL IN NO II. 499 
 
 To explain the sand deposits in No. II in Pennsylvania 
 we must go to northern New York and to the Western 
 States. 
 
 Around the Adirondacks the lowest beds of the Calcifer- 
 ous sandstone (Ha) of Eaton and Vanuxem are a mixture of 
 fine grains of sand in a cement of limestone, with a few 
 fossils converted into chert, 30' ; over these, reddish lime- 
 stone beds with scattered plates of Cystids, 20'; over these, 
 clay beds without fossils, but at the top oolitic, 10' ; over 
 these, red limestones, 15'; over these, clay-lime and sand- 
 lime beds, with trilobites, 20'; over these, others with brach- 
 iopod shells; over these, red limestone, with Cystids, fine 
 enough to polish, 15'; over these, magnesian hydraulic- lime 
 beds, with few fossils except seaweeds (fucoids) and the 
 upper layers (20 to 30') blue, cherty, oolitic. 
 
 The Chazy (lib) is so similar to the Calciferous under it, 
 as to make it hard to distinguish them. Emmons calls it 
 130' thick at Chazy village. Owen recognized it in the St. 
 Peters sandstone along the banks of the Minnesota river, 
 where it is a remarkably white mass of transparent quartz 
 grains, filling depressions in the upper surface of the Calci- 
 ferous, which of course, had been out of water and eroded. 
 Some conglomerate beds at the bottom of the Chazy tell 
 the same story. The Chazy water must have been (in Iowa 
 at least) very shallow, for there is plenty of oblique bed- 
 ding. (In Pennsylvania, where these formations are so 
 vastly thicker no such false or current bedding is reported.) 
 Its fossils have been badly preserved; but there are often 
 plenty of seaweed impressions, worm burrows (Scolithus) 
 and ripple marks; all proofs of shallow or shore water. 
 
 In Missouri the sandy character of No. II is illustrated 
 by the breaking up of the Calciferous (Ha) into two mag- 
 nesian limestone formations separated by a sandstone forma- 
 tion. The Upper Limestone interstrated with shale beds and 
 
 with free flow of water; limestone beds (without water) all of different 
 quality, some quite sandy, some with much mica flakes, some almost pure 
 marble ; fissure and water ; limestone beds as variable in character as those 
 above, and no sign of essential change, or approach to quartzite at bottom 
 of well. In the samples submitted to the microscope were noticeable 
 quartz crystals, mica flakes, crystals of pyrites, of calcite, and of feldspar.
 
 500 GEOLOGICAL SUKVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 layers of white chert, with some thin beds of white sandstone, 
 (often lead bearing), is 200' to 300' thick. The Middle Sand- 
 stone regularly bedded, and ripple marked, with thin chert 
 layers full of fossil shells, showing shallow water, is 150' 
 thick. The Lower Magnesian limestone, thick bedded, 
 coarsely crystalline, with thick chert beds in some places, 
 and the chief lead bearing formation of S. Missouri (as in 
 Blair county, Pa.) carrying also zinc, copper, nickel and 
 cobalt, disseminated and also concentrated in fissures and 
 caves, ranges in thickness from 300' to 600'. This must be 
 a comparatively deep water deposit. 
 
 The geology of Blair, Huntingdon, Centre and Clinton 
 counties and of the Great Valley is greatly elucidated by 
 the facts above mentioned a thousand miles distant. Not 
 less so does the geology of the Great Valley in East Ten- 
 nessee explain our own, for the resemblance is even closer 
 because the conditions of deposition were more alike.
 
 THE FOSSILS OF NO. II. 501 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 The fossils of No. II. 
 
 In Pennsylvania the Calciferous Ila, is almost non-fossil- 
 iferous; the Chazy II b is slightly; the Trenton, lie, abund- 
 antly fossiliferous, its best explored and most remunerative 
 localities being Bellefonte in Centre and Reedsburg in Mif- 
 flin counties. 
 
 The Calciferous chert beds maybe taken as good evidence 
 of the abundance of Sponge life.* The oolitic or fish-roe 
 limestone beds have recently been shown under the micro- 
 scope to owe their origin to minute rolled fragments of 
 Bryozoa, which grew as parasites upon the outside of sedent- 
 ary shells, somewhat in the style of the lichen family of 
 plants on rocks. Early forms of Coral grew in bundles of 
 prismatic columns. f The Stonelilies (crinoidea, cystoidea) 
 all of them more or less stemmed, but not all rooted, have 
 left their distracted plates in the Calciferous of New York. 
 The first Star fish forms appear in the Chazy. Brachiopod 
 shells, especially Lingula, were abundant in all the shallow 
 waters, but are not found in Pennsylvania. Lamellibranch 
 shells seem to make their first appearance in the Calciferous 
 age. Gasteropod shells, both coiled and spired, and some 
 like Maclurea magna of considerable size, were extremely 
 abundant near the coasts. Their scarcity in Pennsylvania 
 argues for depth of watei'4 CepTialopod (cuttle-fish) free 
 
 * Sir Wm. Dawson has given us their forms ; see reduced figures of Proto- 
 spongia on Plate XXVI. 
 
 f See Columnaria, on Plate XXVI. Note. The figure of Monticulipora 
 ( Favosites) ly coper don should be removed from this plate to Plate XXXII, 
 as it is a well recognized Trenton fossil, growing in colonies on the Dela- 
 ware and Bushkill in Northampton county, and elsewhere. See' Fossil 
 Dictionary of Pa. p. 421. 
 
 J See Plate XXVIII. Note. The Murchisonia milleri on plate XXVII 
 ought to be removed to plate XXXVI, for it is of Trenton age. The Chazy 
 Euomphalus catilloides on plate XXX was a large shell, and its cross sec- 
 tion lines in calcite make spirals on the Great Valley limestones.
 
 502 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 XXV/ 
 
 jfossils tf formation II &. ?! 
 
 onocraterion. lesleyi. Prime.
 
 THE FOSSILS OF NO. II. 503 
 
 floating shells like Orthoceras primigenium (plate XXIX) 
 had already existed long enough to develop several species 
 in the Calciferous, more in the Chazy, and fairly took pos- 
 session of the Trenton open sea.* Pteropod (wing-footed) 
 shells of several species existed in the Calciferous sea in 
 colonies, f The Trilobites began in the Cambrian (or per- 
 haps Pre- Cambrian age) and must have been abundant in 
 the whole Lower Silurian age.:}: No higher forms of life 
 are known, neither crustaceans nor fishes; but it is probable 
 that they existed and their remains will some day be found, 
 seeing that large plates of armored fishes like the Devon- 
 ian Holoptychius (in No. VIII) were discovered three years 
 ago with Trenton species of shells in Colorado. 
 
 It has always been considered a surprising fact that the 
 keen-sighted and zealous naturalists of Philadelphia and 
 West Chester have never been able to collect fossils from 
 the Chester Valley limestones ; nor those of Lancaster and 
 York from the innumerable limestone outcrops east and 
 west of the Susquehanna river; although the Calciferous, 
 Chazy and Trenton age of the rocks was never seriously 
 called in question, and their connection with the rocks of 
 the Great Valley was evident. Nor in the Great Valley 
 itself has any notable collections been made by the college 
 students of Easton, Bethlehem, Allentown, Carlisle and 
 Chambersburg. Either the Calciferous and Chazy forma- 
 tions were laid down on a very deep sea bottom far from 
 the shores which we know abounded in a great variety of life, 
 or the remains of plants and animals were afterwards ob- 
 literated by pressure^ dissolution and partial crystalliza- 
 tion, which hardly seems probable in view of the fact that 
 the Trenton rocks in Northampton county are tolerably 
 
 * See their chambered structure on plate XXXVII, and a specimen of the 
 coiled Lituites on that plate ; also a curved Cyrtoceras of Cha/y on plate 
 XXXI. 
 
 t See Primitiagregaria on plate XXIX. But they have not been collected 
 at Pennsylvanian localities. They became enormously abundant in the 
 Clinton age ( Va) as may be seen by an inspection of any piece of fossil iron 
 ore from Danville, Bloomsburg, Orbisonia or Frankstown. 
 
 t See Asaphus canalis, on plate XXIX, and other genera on plates XXXI, 
 XXXVIII, XXXXIII.
 
 504 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 a^nes/an limestone) 
 
 Jfolla. 
 
 Leptasna sericea. (Strophomena sericea,} 
 
 Tryblidium ovale, Whitfield, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist 
 
 Orthis tritonia, Bill. Tryblidium P aoutum, Tryblidium pileolu 
 
 Rhynchonella plicifera., 
 
 Rhynchonella altilis. ' (Atrypa 
 
 Murchisonm linearis, B Murchisonia milleri 
 
 ^ I'ennsy 
 } ton & 
 ,:-Y. Vol. 
 ilUCaj .
 
 THE FOSSILS OF NO. II. 505 
 
 fossiliferous, and Trenton fossils have been collected at 
 Chambersburg, and also in the narrow up-faulted limestone 
 belt east of Doylestown in Bucks county.* 
 
 Recently, however, an enthusiastic mineralogist, a post 
 graduate of Haverford College in Delaware county, Mr. M. 
 B. Stubbs, while hunting for quartz crystals near Hender- 
 son's station on the Chester Valley railroad, found a con- 
 siderable number of silicified internal casts of three species 
 of gasteropod shells and one cephalopod (Orthoceras) in 
 loose fragments of sandstone lying on the upturned lowest 
 limestone beds of the valley and therefore presumably from 
 the slope of the North Valley hill of Chiques quartzite. 
 The casts (now in the museum of the Acad. Nat. Sciences, 
 of Philadelphia) are distorted and flattened by pressure, 
 and their Calciferous age cannot be certified by any specific 
 characteristics, but few who saw the specimens would 
 doubt it. 
 
 Scolithus linearis has been reported plentiful, with water- 
 worn pebbles, in a sand pit on the road from Barren Hill to 
 Chestnut Hill, by Dr. G. M. Stiles of Conshohocken, at 
 a meeting of the A. N. S. Philadelphia, May 20, 1891. These 
 are the first discovered in the neighborhood. It is natural 
 to suppose that they came from the North Valley Hill or 
 Chiques quartzite, and Prof. Heilprin suggested that the 
 sand pit is on the line of an abandoned channel of the 
 Schuylkill river. But it is also possible that the fossils be- 
 long to some sandstone layer in the Calciferous sandstone 
 or even Chazy division of II seeing that Scolithus is so 
 numerous at that horizon in Vermont. Search for Scolithus 
 in the sandy limestone series itself ought to be made. 
 
 It is hard to believe that we are never to know more of 
 the animal life of the Calciferous and Chazy waters than 
 from ihe specimen of Maclurea magna (?; and one or two 
 others mentioned in the reports of Lehigh and Northamp- 
 ton counties by Prof. Prime. It surely only needs a sys- 
 
 *Here Dr. Isaac Lea obtained a few shells from the building stones of a 
 limekiln many years ago. It is not known if the Trenton has been pre- 
 served along the Chester county valley, or whether its beds have been con- 
 verted into Avhite marble.
 
 506 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 XXA///I 
 
 CLlldstdne (Mayncsian limestone^ \
 
 THE FOSSILS OF NO. II. 507 
 
 tematic search for them with the trained eyes of an expert 
 palaeontologist, or even with the untrained eyes of any col- 
 lege student whose zeal for natural history equals the sharp- 
 ness of his youthful vision.* 
 
 There is one kind of fossil forms for which special search 
 should be made, the so called Conodonts , or minute teeth, 
 most probably of leeches. Worms were abundant in the 
 shallower parts of the sea, as is shown by tracks and bur- 
 rows, although the figures of PalceopJiycus on plates XXVI 
 and XXXI, and Phytopsis on plate XXXII are almost un- 
 doubted impressions of algge or seaweeds. 
 
 Conodonts were first found by Pander in the lowest Silu- 
 sian rocks of Russia, f Mr. Hinde found them in the dark 
 
 *The Calciferous Sandstone Valley of Copake, Millerton and Arnenia, in 
 Eastern New York, an extension beyond the Hudson of the Great Valley of 
 Pennsylvania, containing the largest bodies of limonite in the Taconic 
 region, have yielded numerous specimens of Ophileta, Orthoceras, Cyrto- 
 ceras, &c., to the keen search of Mr. W. B. Dwight, in 1889. (See Am. Jour- 
 Sci. Vol. 38, page 150 ; Vol. 39, p. 68. ) He found also in the limestone near 
 Clove Valley Station, Dutchess county, N. Y. Calciferous fossils, including 
 the common fucoids, with Ophileta, probably O. complanata ; proving that 
 the Fishkill belt east of the Hudson is merely a continuation of the Great 
 Valley limestone belt of Pennsylvania and New Jersey. (Aua. Jour. Sci. 
 Vol. 39, Jan. 1890, pp. 68, 71.) Also in the so called "Taconic" limestone 
 belt of Columbia county, N. Y. near Pulver's Station, 2 m. north of Phil- 
 mont, Mr. L. P. Bishop, in 1887, found gasteropods, crinoids, and a brachio- 
 pod shell ; and in 1888, six or seven Orthocerata, <&c., Cheteles compacta, 
 Billings ; Monticulipora lycoperdon, Say ; Orthis testudinaria (?) Dal. ; 
 and Murchisonia gracilis, in hard limestone, a mile long, 150 yards wide, 
 completely enclosed in highly metamorphosed schists and slates. (Am. 
 Jour. Sc. Vol. 39, page 70. The Chatham find of a like nature is recorded 
 in Vol. 32, pp.438, 1886.) 
 
 fMonog. Foss. Fische d. Sil. Syst. 1856. Pander called them fish teeth. 
 Harley found them in the Ludlow bone bed and referred them to crusta- 
 ceans. Q. J. G. S. London, 1861, p. 542. C. Moore found them at various 
 horizons from Silurian up to Permian. Report of Brit. Ass. 1869, p. 375; 
 and private note in Hinde's "On Conodonts," &c. Q. J. G. S. 1879, p. 351 to 
 359, with three plates full of figures. C. J. Smith in 1875 found them in 
 Scotch Low. Garb, rocks. Notes by Young, N. Hist. Soc., Glasgow. Dr. 
 Newberry found them in Low Carb. rocks of Bedford, Ohio ; and figured 
 them as the teeth of Mixinoid fishes in Pal. Ohio, Vol. II. In the Hudson 
 River formation (No. Ill) near Toronto a few compound cone-teeth, mixed 
 with a great variety of grapholites, corals, worms and brachiopod, gastero- 
 pod and cephalopod shells, and a few fragments ot a trilobite (Calymene), 
 are found in thin limestone lenses between micaceous flags and shales ; 
 there are also some simple spine-like cone-teeth, a form not yet seen except
 
 508 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 XX JX 
 
 an limestone) 
 
 Orthoceras becki, Billings. 
 
 C-ttl. Canada. 3Ji . 
 
 Orthoceras deparcum, Primitia gregaria, WhitfieM. 
 
 (ol 7 mit ; aBe eiyi \ '- n 
 
 ^ " l /r -i. 7?B51 "V 55 
 
 Orthoceras montrealense, Billings. Geol. Canada, 1863 
 
 Orthoceras primigenium, Van 
 
 M.IIT). fifiazy or MdclleSreat Yall.ey limestone. 
 
 SUccopora 
 
 fe 
 
 Husophycus bllobatus ( 
 
 Orthis acuminata, 
 I V 
 
 J? Orthis imperator, Billings. Can. Nat. A Geol. Vol
 
 THE FOSSILS OF NO. II. 509 
 
 Chazy limestone beds at Greenville on the Ottawa river in 
 Canada, beds which are largely made up of the small shells 
 of bivalve crustaceans (Leperditia) with a few small trilo- 
 bites and gasteropods, for all of which the cone-teeth would 
 be much too large, since they all belong to the largest 
 known compound cone-tooth species. 
 
 The cone-teeth are very minute shining bodies, single 
 curved conical teeth with expanded base, or more fre- 
 quently a row of small cones with a larger one at the end 
 or in the middle of the row, sometimes with a downward 
 extended base carrying itself denticles, f They retain their 
 perfect form and lustre, whether in flag, shale or limestone 
 beds, although very brittle and easily dissolved by nitric 
 acid. Most of them are of reddish horn color and translu- 
 lucent ; rarely of a milky white, and only where weathered. 
 Those at North Evans are robust and opaque, with a differ- 
 ent lustre from those in the bituminous shales. Those 
 from the CJiazy differ from all the rest in the bright glossy 
 black tint. Microscopic sections show a conical lamellar 
 structure. Usually found scattered through the rock. 
 Hinde has one Genesee specimen in which a compressed 
 group of various forms of teeth and plates have evidently 
 belonged to one animal, but too much crushed to make out 
 
 in the Lower (Cambro) Silurian. While most of the other fossils are in the 
 limestone beds the cone-teeth are generally found in the shales. 
 
 In Upper Hamilton lime-shales (YIIIc) finely exposed at North Evans, 
 on the Lake Erie shore in New York State, cone-teeth are numerous, and 
 one particular limestone bed is so filled with their fragments as to be called 
 by Hinde the Conodont bed; |" to 3" thick; traceable for some distance; 
 dark, sub-crystalline, with green particles, and pyrite crystals ; holding 
 also crinoid stem fragments, fish bones and plates, Ptycodus teeth of Pan- 
 der, but neither crustaceans nor gasteropods. The cone-teeth can only be 
 detected with a good lens, and on weathered' surfaces. A. few cone-teeth as- 
 sociated with fish plates and teeth have been found in a thin Hamilton lime 
 bed at Arkona, Lambton county, Ontario. 
 
 In black Genessee shale cone-teeth have been found by Hinde at Kettle 
 creek and Bear creek, Canada West ; in fragments on the north shore of 
 Lake Erie ; in the fine section at North Evans, N. Y. ; and at Louisville, 
 Ky. ; mixed with a small number of Lycopod plant spores, broken plants, 
 a few Lingulas, Discinas and Aviculas, and Palceoniscus fish scales ; but no 
 forms to which the cone-teeth could easily belong. 
 
 The Lower Carboniferous black shales in which Newberry's conodonts 
 occur show nothing else than plants and ganoid fish scales. 
 
 fFor other forms see Hinde's description on p. 354 and his plate figures.
 
 510 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Mill. CAazy orlMiddle 9reat Yalley limestone. 
 
 Orthepwnoides Orthis pervetus. Conrad 
 
 R.554. ^5^ Hall. 1.6.5. 
 
 Kaphistoma striatuu 
 
 .-"-^>r"- Rapliistom* 
 
 planrstria.
 
 FOSSILS OF THE CALCIFEROUS, lid. 511 
 
 their arrangement. Huxley saw a resemblance to the hag 
 fish (Myxine), but could indicate no living fish with a simi- 
 lar assemblage of teeth and plates. Owen at first suggested 
 that they might possibly be toothed crustaceous claws ; af- 
 terwards, that they might rather be spines, booklets, den- 
 ticles of naked shell-fish or worms. They seem to have 
 been the only preservable part of the animal whatever it 
 was ; and they may possibly be the only evidence we have 
 for the early existence of the soft circle-mouthed family of 
 fishes. Dr. Woodward suggested that they might be the 
 tongue-armor of the shell-less gasteropods (Nudibran- 
 chiata) which have therefore never been found in the rocks.* 
 
 Fossils of tJie Calciferous, Ila. 
 
 Some of the most characteristic and most widely dis- 
 tributed forms of this formation, are, according to S. A. 
 Miller's N. A. Geology and Palaeontology, f Ophileta com- 
 planata, Ophileta U7iiangularis, Holopea turgida^ Hol- 
 opea dilicula, and Pleurotomaria primigenium. 
 
 From the Potsdam ascend into this Calciferous division, 
 Pleurotomaria canadensis and Leptcena barabuensis. 
 
 The following have been assigned to this formation (or 
 to supposed equivalents of it in the Quebec group) Pluro- 
 tomaria calcifera, Pleurotomaria postumia, Helicotoma 
 perstriata, Maclurea matutina, Maclurea sordida, Eccy- 
 liomphalus canadensis, Camarella calcifera, Lingulella 
 mantelll, Lingulella iren.e, Amphion salteri, Bathyurus 
 cordai, Bathyurus conicus, and Asaphus canalis; but the 
 identifications of Quebec and Calciferous strata are always 
 to be distrusted. 
 
 Fossils of tlte Quebec group. 
 
 Of these the less said the better until the controversy over 
 the Quebec group has been settled. The species Lingulepis 
 maera, mlnuta, andmanticula, Acroteta gemma, Agnostus 
 communis, bidens, and neon, Crepiceplialus Tiaguei, and 
 
 *Q. J. G. S. XXXV, p. 389. 
 
 t Second Edition, Cincinnati, 1889, page 34.
 
 512 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 XXXf 
 
 Orthocerata figured by Em i Orthoceras multillneatum. Calymene
 
 FOSSILS OF THE CHAZY, II b. 513 
 
 unisulcatus are confidently assigned to equivalents of the 
 Quebec group in the Rocky Mountains. The family of 
 Graptolites is said to reach its highest development in the 
 Quebec group. Thirty genera and 170 species of Grapto- 
 lites have been named thus far in North American rocks. 
 Maclurea atlantica and Asaphus canalis are said to range 
 up through the Chazy and higher.* 
 
 Fossils of the Chazy, 11 b. 
 
 The characteristic form of this age is considered to be 
 the line whorl-shell Maclurea magna. With this are as- 
 sociated others which continued to live even into Hudson 
 River times : Stropliomena alternata, and incrassata, 
 Orthis perveta, Leperditia canadensis, loucTcana, and 
 amygdalina, Orthoceras multicameratum, and Mlineatum 
 and the lamellibranch shell Modiolopsis nasuta. Scolithus 
 is abundant in the formation as recognized in some regions; 
 and Lingulepis morsel is described from the St. Peter's 
 sandstone of the west.f 
 
 Fossils of the Blac'K River limestone, II c (in part). 
 
 These were defined by Vanuxem in 1842 in the bluffs of 
 Birdseye and Trenton beds at Boonville, N. Y., but there 
 has always been a doubt of the propriety of separating the 
 Black river and Birdseye beds and giving two names to what 
 seems like one formation, distinguished on the Black river 
 by its abundance of Cephalopod shells, and on the Mohawk 
 river by an abundance of the Birdseye fucoid Phylopsis 
 tubulosa. 
 
 The vast and varied population of the sea at the begin- 
 ning of the Trenton age, as shown in the Black river beds, 
 produced by its decay the dark color of the rocks, the 
 black marbles of Vermont and Pennsylvania. Many of 
 the species died out however before the normal Trenton 
 limestones were deposited. But the family of straight 
 
 * This paragraph is a condensation ot statements made by S. A. Miller on 
 his page 35. 
 t S. A. Miller, 1889, p. 38. 
 
 33
 
 514 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Phytopsia tubulosa P (Fucoidet demittu*.) V 
 
 3$ircLei/& and ^Blaclc^&ivw*: 
 </ 
 
 Tetradinmfibratum.Bafford. American Journal of Scil
 
 FOSSILS OF THE BLACK RIVER LIMESTONE, II C. 515 
 
 shell cephalopods (OrtJioceras] reached its climax now, not 
 only as to the number of its species, but as to the size of 
 its individuals, some of them having had tapering cham- 
 bered shells ten feet long and twelve inches in diameter at 
 the head. The allied Cyrtoceras and Endoceras were 
 highly developed ; and the genera Oomphoceras, Phrag- 
 moceras and Gyroceras brought their species into the field.* 
 Corals also were abundant in places, and petroleum 
 exudes from their fossil forms when broken, as at Mont- 
 morency in Canada, f 
 
 Fossils of the Birdseye limestone, lie (in part). 
 
 The charactersstic fossil of the Birdseye limestone is a 
 vertical, cylindrical, sub-cylindrical, angular or compressed 
 stem of a marine plant, branched, connected, forking, radiat- 
 ing, looped, etc. etc. with an internal fibrous structure, as 
 shown in Hall's figures of 1843, Vol. 1, Pal. N. Y. plates 
 8 and 9, which seem to exclude the possibility of these 
 markings being casts of worm burrows, as insisted on by 
 Salter and Etheridge, and so tabulated by Bigsby in his 
 Thesaurus Siluricus.:}: 
 
 * Where were the feeding grounds of these hugh floating walking-canes of 
 stone, ballasted below and buoyed by their air-filled chambers above, with 
 their great eyes looking for prey, and their long arms spread out at the sur- 
 face of the water to seize and bring it to their mouths? Requiring but 
 little depth of water they probably haunted the shores of the then conti- 
 nents and Avere supplied with abundant provender by the scum of trilobites 
 which floated like themselves as water bugs upon the waves. The brachio- 
 pod and lamellibranch shells were no doubt safe from their attacks ; yet the 
 shore waters must have been their most profitable haunts ; and if so we can 
 comprehend the vast abundance of their remains in Northern New York 
 and their comparative absence from the rocks of Pennsylvania. Or, were 
 they endowed with sails like the modern nautilus, and made voyages before 
 the wind ? It is a pity that the rocks have preserved for us no lithographs 
 of their curiously unknown soft heads and bodies. 
 
 fThe same thing happens when the corals of the Niagara rocks of New 
 York are broken out. Such facts establish the animal origin of the older 
 and more fetid petroleums ; the later and sweeter oils having come from the 
 chemical change of the cellular tissue of marine vegetation, as shown by 
 Lesquereux. 
 
 J See what is said in Chap. XVII on Scolithus, beginning page 287 above. 
 See also reduced figures of the Phylopsis tubulosa given at the top of plate 
 XXXII. Hall's figures will be reproduced in the Appendix to Fossil Dic- 
 tionary.
 
 516 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 xxxm 
 
 and attack jtive 
 
 MJTc. ^frmton, i 
 
 (IW., Pl. N. V Conularia gracilis Conularia papillata. Atrypa exi R ua 
 
 Orthis aequivalviB. Hall Orthis bellara?osa. Conrad, Orthis lynx, ( Deltfiytif lynx ; ft 
 
 JjB^MI fl ft ^^^ ^^^ ^f, 
 
 OrthiBpectinella, Conrad. Ann.Rt. N. Y.1840. Bl 
 
 Orthifl subquadrata, Hall. Pal. N. Y. Vol. 1. 1847. Tren- II c, <^f.C 
 
 * 5-r-. *
 
 FOSSILS OF THE TRENTON LIMESTONE, II C. 517 
 
 fossils of the Trenton limestone II c. 
 
 This famous formation was first described by Emmons in 
 1842. At Trenton Falls in New York it shows 100 feet of 
 very fossiliferous, dark, fine-grained, thin-bedded limestone 
 layers below, separated by black shales, passing up into 
 coarse grey, thick, less fossiliferous beds at the top. At 
 Cliazy it is 400' thick. In middle Pennsylvania it is 1000' 
 and 1200' thick. In middle Tennessee only 500', it is in 
 eastern Tennessee 1100' thick. In Canada it is 600' thick at 
 Montreal, 750' further west, but only 50' around lake Mich- 
 igan. In Iowa and Illinois its lower blue division, 120' thick, 
 is capped by the lead and zinc-bearing dolomitic layers of 
 Galena, 150' thick. In Missouri it is 400'. 
 
 Its wide distribution attests an open and moderately deep 
 sea deposit. Its wealth of life is exceptionally great. 
 Graptolites and Trilobites were on the decline; but Crinoids, 
 Cystideans, Brachiopods, Corals, Gasteropods and Lamelli- 
 branchs were on the increase.* 
 
 * C. A. Miller's Geol. and Pal. N. Amer. 1889, p. 41. I cannot do better 
 than extract the interesting paragraphs from this indespensable guide to the 
 student of fossils which follow on pages 41, 42 : 
 
 " Receptaculites oweni is peculiar to and characteristic of the Galena di- 
 vision of this Group, and it is usually accompanied with Lingula quadrata, 
 Murchisonia major, -Fusispira elongata, and other characteristic species. 
 The species most characteristic of the Trenton Group, and which may be 
 relied upon as determining its age wherever they occur, are Orthis tricen- 
 aria, found in New York, Canada, Kentucky, Missouri, and Nevada; Ort/ti 
 pectinella, found in New York, Canada and Kentucky; Cyrtolites comprca- 
 sus, iound in New York, Canada, Wisconsin and Minnesota; Hybocriinis 
 tumid us, H. conicus, Amygdalocystites florealis, A. radiatus, Blastoidos 
 crinus carcharidens, found at Ottawa, Canada, and High Bridge, Kentucky; 
 Leper ditiafabulites and Conularia quadrata, found in New York, Canada 
 and Kentucky; and Orthis borealis, found in Canada, Wisconsin, Minne- 
 sota and Kentucky. The genus Amygdalocystites has a wide geographical 
 distribution, though a rare fossil in every locality, and, so far as known, is 
 confined to this Group. Other characteristic species are Bythotrephis suc- 
 culens, Monticulipora lycoperdon, Schizocrinus nodosus, Stictopora ele- 
 gantula, Orthis bellarugosa, O. cequivalvis, Trochonema umbilicatum, 
 Subulites elongatus, and Helicotoma, planulata. 
 
 " There are numerous species which continued to live until the Hudson 
 River age, and are, therefore, common to three Groups, as Strophomena al 
 ternata, 8. rhomboidalis, Leptena sericea, Zygospira modesta, Rynchonella 
 capax, Calymene callicephala, Asaphus gigas, and Ceraurus pleurezanthe-
 
 518 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 ~ -* Vol.1, PI. Vlt. 
 
 Strophomena (Leptcena) alternistrlata, Hall, Pal. N. Y
 
 FOSSILS OF THE TRENTON LIMESTONE, II C. 519 
 
 The Trenton fossils have been in Pennsylvania best 
 studied at Bellefonte in Centre county. Strata occur 
 '''composed almost entirely of fossil remains," all of 
 them recognized Trenton forms. Prof. Ewing, late of the 
 State College in Centre county, adds in his report (embodied 
 
 mus. Sucli species are usually quite variable in form and size, and seem to 
 have changed to su^t the conditions of their habitat, and also, in accordance 
 with the theory of evolution, to have reached the climax of development, 
 and subsequently gradually declined. Strophomena rhomboidalis occurs 
 in Trenton, Utica Slate, Hudson River, Clinton, Niagara, Lower Helderberg, 
 Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Chemung, Waverly, Burlington and Keokuk 
 groups. Its vertical range exceeds that of any other species in any of the 
 rocks of the known world, and its geographical distribution is common to 
 every continent where strata of these ages have been studied and described. 
 The varietal forms have been called S. tenuistriata from the Lower Silurian, 
 S. depressa from the Upper Silurian, and S. rhomboidalis from the Devon- 
 ian and Subcarboniferous. The Lower Silurian specimens are usually 
 smaller, and have fewer concentric wrinkles over the visceral region than 
 those from the Upper Silurian and Devonian, while the length of the front 
 and lateral margins from the geniculation is usually greater in the Upper 
 Silurian than.it is in the Lower Silurian, Devonian or Subcarboniferous 
 specimens ; but these differences are not so constant as to form inflexible 
 characters, and hence it is that many of the learned and better palaeonto- 
 logists have classed them all together under the first and oldest specific 
 name. The various forms which Strophomena alternata assume in the same 
 group of rocks are wonderful; the radiating striae differ in size and number, 
 the hinge line is sometimes longer and at other times shorter than the great- 
 est width of the shell. The shells are sometimes much longer than wide, 
 and at other times as much shorter. The lateral sides are sometimes straight, 
 and at other times rounded. Some shells are nearly flat, others are deeply 
 concave on the dorsal side and highly convex on the ventral. Age in some 
 specimens appears to have materially thickened the shells, and preserved 
 strong imbricating lines of growth, while in other cases we have much larger 
 shells that are very thin and destitute of imbrications. Like differences may 
 be distinguished in other species having great vertical distribution, as in 
 Rhynchonella capax and Zygospira modesta. 
 
 " The rocks of this Group are composed almost entirely of remains of the 
 hard parts of animals that swarmed in the seas of that age. Some shells are 
 preserved in good condition, but generally the comminuted fragments are 
 held together by lime cement, forming the limestone strata, leaving well- 
 preserved specimens to be found only in the shaly partings. It is common 
 to flnd that one animal has grown upon another, as a Lichenocrinus upon a 
 brachiopod, and a bryozoan upon the former, under such circumstances as 
 to show the shell was at the bottom of the ocean during the growth of the 
 Lichenocrinus, and that the latter must have ceased to grow before the bry- 
 ozoan attached. From this we infer the clearness of the water, for otherwise 
 mud would have intervened; and we also infer a slow deposition of materials ; 
 for the lives of two animals transpired before the deposit was sufficient to 
 cover a thin shell. There is no evidence of any difference between the tem- 
 perature of the water then and now, nor between the climate then and now.
 
 520 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 X.XVV 
 
 M. lie. 
 
 Modiolop.1. trentonensi., Hall, Modiolopsis meyeri, Bill; Modiolopnis . maia, Modiolopais carinata,
 
 FOSSILS OF THE TRENTON LIMESTONE, II C. 521 
 
 in Report T4, p. 424) the following list: Schizocrinus 
 nodosus (stems of this stone lily); Streptelasma cornicu- 
 lum ; OrtMs testudinaria (very common above); OrtMs 
 tricenaria; OrtMs pectinalinea ? ; OrtMs lynx; Ortlus 
 subequalis ; Strophomena alternate, (very common above); 
 Leptcena sericea (common above); Lingula curia (one); 
 Pleurotomaria lenticular is, arid another species ; Mur- 
 
 cTiisonia gracilis ; Leperditia ?; Trinucleus concentri- 
 
 cus ; Calymene ?; Clienteles ly coper don. 
 
 Mr. C. E. Hall in his collection lists published in the 
 Catalogue of the Museum of the Survey, O3, 1889, page 
 177 et seq., adds to the above, numerous Bryozoa ; Sticlopora 
 acuta / fragments of Tentaculites ; Ceramopora f; frag- 
 ments of Trematopora ; Monticulipora pulchella ; Bey- 
 ricMa (numerous); Zygospir a modes ta ; CalymenebecTcii ; 
 an Orthoceras (encrusted with bryozoans); SpirorMs (num- 
 erous); a Better ophon. Again on p. 183, Edmondia sub- 
 truncata; Murchisonia gracilis; Cypricardites sub- 
 truncatus ; Camarella ambigua ; Camarella liemiplicata ; 
 Palceophycus simplex (in fair condition); Buthotrephis 
 succulens ; Asaphus obtusus ; a colony of Lept(Eiia sericea 
 on one slab; an lllcenus ; Cypricardites ventricosus ; 
 Plumulites jamesii ; Pholidops trentonensis ; Geraurus 
 pleurexantJiemus ; Atrypa altilis. 
 
 In Fellows' collections for C. E. Hall in Trenton layers 
 on the Little Juniata at Tyrone Forge (List in O3, p. 189), 
 appear, with many of the above, these also : Rliynchoii- 
 ella cap ax ; EscTiaropora (Philodictya) recta ; Retepora ; 
 Cornulites Jlexuosus ; and Stictopora elegantula. 
 
 Reedsville, in Mifflin county, is another excellent collect- 
 ing ground for Trenton fossils, where many specimens of 
 Homalonotus trentonensis were got. (See list in O3, p. 
 179.) Among other forms are noticed OrtJiis costatus ; En- 
 doceras proteiforme ; Lingula oblong a ; Bathyurus ex- 
 tans ; Modiolopsis faba ; and RapTiistoma lenticular is. 
 The two last were collected also near Martinsburg in Mor- 
 rison's Cove in Blair county. (O3, p. 181.) 
 
 Collections were also made at Belleville, in Mifflin county,
 
 522 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Holopea veutrioosa. (Hall, Pal. N. Y.V. Holopea paludlniformis. (Hal! Macrocheilus subcostatus P Ow
 
 FOSSILS OF THE TRENTON LIMESTONE, II C. 523 
 
 by Mr. Billin, at Campbell's quarry in Trenton limestone 
 top beds. (O3, 190.) 
 
 I have found colonies of Trenton brachiopod shells cov- 
 ering slabs of limestone in the Nippenose and Oval Mus- 
 quito valleys of Lycoming county. 
 
 The Trenton belt in Northampton county is rich in cri- 
 noidal stems, with OrtJiis pectinella, and Atrypa recticu- 
 laris at Martin's creek on the Delaware, and in the numer- 
 ous quarries along the line crossing the Bushkill. See 
 Prof. Prime's Report, D3, Vol. 1, already mentioned in a 
 preceding chapter. 
 
 I have no doubt that a shrewd and zealous collector would 
 reap a plentiful harvest by traversing the center line of 
 Black Log valley in Huntingdon county. Good collections 
 could be'made in Friend's and Milligan's coves in Bedford, 
 and perhaps around the edges of the McConnellsburg cove, 
 and along Path and Horse valleys in Fulton. Trenton fos- 
 sils have been found at Chambersburg in Franklin.
 
 624 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Lituites farnworthl, Billings. Pal. Fow. Vol. 1, 1861 Oncoceras coMtrlcttun. 
 
 Ormoceras tenuifllum. Hall, PaL N. Y. Vol. 1, 1849, 
 
 ~" -':
 
 TSTO. III. UTICA AND HUDSON RIVER. 525 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 Formation No, III. Utica and Hudson River slate. 
 
 The age of limestone which has been described in the 
 preceding chapters, was followed by an age of slate. 
 Primeval rivers which had been pouring for thousands of 
 years their lime and magnesian waters, nearly pure of mud, 
 into the Appalachian sea, thenceforward for other thou- 
 sands of years flowed turbid with clays, which settled to 
 the bottom, blackened with the decomposition of innumer- 
 able animal remains mostly of microscopic size. At first 
 the layers of clay were not continuous ; thin layers of lime- 
 stone, or rather lime shale were deposited between them ; 
 but these gradually became fewer and fewer, and in the 
 end an almost continuous deposit of very slightly calcareous 
 mud went on. At long intervals and apparently only in 
 certain parts of the sea bottom, layers of very muddy lime- 
 stone, 3 or 4 feet thick, were made. Toward the close of 
 the age another change took place in the character of the 
 stuff brought down by the rivers ; their mud became 
 coarser by an admixture of fine sand ; the sand increased 
 in size and quantity ; and finally became the prevailing 
 sediment. 
 
 Knowing so little of the conditions which then prevailed 
 on the globe, so little of the character of that primeval sea, 
 and of the continent whose rivers furnished it with stuff 
 by which it was at last filled up, it seems audacious to at- 
 tempt to sketch even in general terms the sequence of 
 events, a picture of these operations of Palaeozoic history ; 
 and every sentence of the sketch is liable to error. For no 
 explanation can be given of the changes by land and sea 
 which produced so radical a change of deposits as that 
 which stares the geologist in the face wherever he crosses 
 the Great Valley. He sees 6000 feet of the slate formation
 
 526 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 XXX vnt
 
 NO. III. UTICA AND HUDSON RIVER. 527 
 
 No. Ill, in Northampton and Lehigh counties, piled upon 
 3000' of the limestone formation No. II ; but it is left to 
 his imagination to conjecture what stopped the deposits of 
 limestone and started the deposits of slate. He knows 
 nothing of the depth of the sea at any stage of that his- 
 tory.* He knows nothing of the evenness or unevenness 
 of its floor. He cannot tell at what distance lay the con- 
 tinental shores from which issued the mighty rivers which 
 furnished the sea with its sediments ; nor how the general 
 level of the ocean rose or fell upon those shores, now re- 
 moving them to a greater distance, or now bringing them 
 nearer. He only sees that the bottom slates of Formation 
 No. Ill (Utica slate), were precipitated as black mud ; and 
 that the rest of the 6000 feet (Hudson River slate) is made 
 up of thin layers of fine shale, of various tints of gray, 
 with a few layers of impure limestone in Dauphin and 
 Cumberland counties, a remarkable set of gravel beds in 
 Lehigh county, and a whole series of roofing slates, with 
 coarser sandy beds, toward the top. 
 
 One extraordinary part of this obscure history rivets our 
 attention. 
 
 Taking the two formations together, that is, measuring 
 the whole thickness of their sediments from the bottom of 
 the limestone to the top of the slate, on the Lehigh and 
 Delaware rivers, we have between seven and eight thousand 
 feet of strata. Doing the same in Nittany valley on the 
 upper Juniata, we have the same amount. And yet meas- 
 uring the two formations separately we see that while No. 
 II is say 2000' on the Lehigh and over 6000' on the Ju- 
 niata, No. Ill is 6000' on the Lehigh and only 1000 on the 
 Juniata. Incautious geologists would pass lightly over so 
 wonderful a phenomenon by simply pronouncing that talis- 
 manic word non-conformability; or, perhaps, giving it a 
 little more consideration, would content themselves with 
 
 *The Cincinnati (Hudson river) shale and limestone beds are supposed 
 to have been deposited in shallow water. This is the opinion of Dr. New- 
 berry, Prof. Shaler and Prof. J. F. James. Mr. N. W. Perry's article in the 
 American Naturalist, Dec. 1889, illustrated with phototypes of rain marks, 
 ripple marks and mud cracks of the most characteristic kind, explains 
 them as made over the gradually sinking bottom of a shallow sea.
 
 528 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Constellaria(Stellipora)antheloidea. Monticulipora James: 
 
 Jtid. 1882. f/ 9 .5. PL XI 
 
 Monticulipora frondosa, D'Orbigny Colleti 
 
 i I IP
 
 NO. III. UTICA AND HUDSON RIVER. 529 
 
 suggesting some oscillation of the sea bottom, without being 
 able to explain how that oscillation could produce the ef- 
 fect. Both formations spread throughout the United States. 
 But their thickness in Pennsylvania is diminished to one- 
 third in the western States. There continental source would 
 therefore seem to have been in the far east. Seeing that 
 mud is the usual contribution of rivers to the sea, and that 
 therefore the slate Formation No. Ill would probably be 
 thicker at the east than at the west, one might be inclined 
 to regard the limestone formation, which is so much thicker 
 in Middle Pennsylvania than in the Great Valley, as a pro- 
 duct of the sea itself, and not of the rivers of a bordering 
 though perhaps distant continent. Such in fact is the con- 
 viction of many, some of whom regard all limestone beds as 
 chemical deposits from standing water ; while others re- 
 gard them as made up entirely of the solid parts of ani- 
 mals inhabiting the sea, dying in it and sinking to the bot- 
 tom. But reasons have been given in a preceding chapter 
 for rejecting both these views ; at all events without in- 
 cluding the action of inflowing river sediments. The fact 
 is that our science is as yet at fault in its discussion of 
 this and other kindred subjects. 
 
 The shape and size of the Appalachian sea at the close 
 of the limestone age were undoubtedly greatly modified by 
 physical movements in the crust of the earth supposed to 
 be then going on in eastern New York along the Hudson 
 and Mohawk valleys. Around the escarpment of the Cats- 
 kill mountains the slate formation No. Ill, and the suc- 
 ceeding formations No. IV and No. V are so thin as 
 scarcely to be visible ; and this can hardly be explained on 
 any other hypothesis than that of an upward movement of 
 the land, temporary or otherwise, and the contraction of 
 the eastern and northern borders of the sea. Such a move- 
 ment in that region could hardly have taken place without 
 a more or less general elevation of the sea bottom, and a 
 shallowing of its water-basin, bringing the top of its lime- 
 stone deposits nearer to the surface of the water. This 
 may perhaps set us on the track of a future satisfactory 
 explanation of the wonderful change from reputed deep- 
 34
 
 630 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 . Ill a, ^iitiaz awi IRb, 
 
 JU.&i'tX.ttJ&fl 
 
 ius. juveni. (Hall 
 
 1>. 
 
 __ 7al.Oh, B .Val.Z. 
 
 Olyptocrinus decadactylue. 
 omatopora densum. (Syringoitroma^ ^\j/ffifa ^ omntopora (Aleeto) frondosa. Nicholo. (Av 
 
 III a. 
 
 Graptolithus divaricatus. Hall. Pal. N. Y., Vol. HI, 
 
 Graptolith 
 
 >v< 
 
 I. in* Graptolithua gncilit. Hall. Pal. N. Y., Vol. Ill, p. 
 jli. Ilr.ll. Canada Rt., 1858, Pal., N. Y
 
 NO. III. UTICA AND HUDSON RIVER. 531 
 
 sea limestone deposits to reputed shallow-water shale and 
 slate deposits. But it still leaves to he considered the im- 
 portant fact that 6000 feet of the shale formation No. Ill 
 was laid down in reputed shallow water. If we adopt that 
 explanation we must conclude either that a shallow sea can 
 be nevertheless as much as 6000 feet deep, and still receive 
 near shore deposits ; or else that any rapid upward move- 
 ment at the end of the limestone age must have lasted but 
 a. comparatively short time, and was followed by a long 
 slow downward movement of the sea bottom to receive the 
 6000 feet of slate. It will be seen hereaftei*, in describing 
 the successive formations from No. IV to No. XVII, that 
 such a downward movement did in fact take place, contin- 
 uously, or by successive instalments, and at varying rates, 
 through the whole series of Palaeozoic ages to the end of 
 the Coal age. 
 
 The darkness which covers this whole subject is still further 
 increased by our insufficient knowledge of the effects pro- 
 duced long afterwards upon the condition of the Palaeozoic 
 formations by the great earth movements in the Mesozoic 
 ages ; for many of the phenomena usually considered as 
 falling under the head of originalnon-conforinability\&.\v 
 been produced by the crushing and faulting of formations 
 beneath, against and over each other. It has been rather 
 too rashly asserted that the limestone beds of No. II in 
 Pennsylvania along the Great Valley were plicated and 
 lifted out of water, and subjected to the erosion of atmos- 
 pheric agencies, and then resubmerged and covered over 
 non-con formally by the slate beds of No. III. The old and 
 recent surveys of the Great Valley show that there is no 
 sufficient ground for such an assertion. On the contrary, 
 wherever the contact of the upper beds of II with the lower 
 beds of III are exposed to observation they are seen to 
 overlie each other in uninterrupted sequence as if they 
 were beds of one formation. Along the middle line of the 
 Great Valley however, from the Delaware to the Susque- 
 hanna, the contact is obscured by the crushed, folded and 
 overturned condition of the rocks. But from the Susque- 
 hanna to the Potomac the contact line can be studied with
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 JfoJUI&tuxt 
 
 XXXXJ. 
 
 Diplograptus (Graptolithus) anpistifoiius, Diplograptus (Graptolithui) spinulosns. 
 
 """ 1 H *Dal!. D1 PloPaptus (Graptolithus) marcldus **^lfcr Diplograptus (Graptolithus) whltfleldi. 
 -" K A Till', Diplograptns prUUs. 
 
 Orptolithu multifaMiculat Thamnograptus capillaris. Graptolithua divergen 
 
 Ehynchonella capax ( Atrypa capo, ; Conrad. . Ehynchonella P modesta, Rhynchonella antlcosti 
 
 (? ^"""y"") neglect* 
 
 ahecuba, Bill strophomena (aJ(rna(a, Mr.) nauta 
 IB ::: ....... I 
 
 J * 
 
 3F ** 
 
 a IW3.. "^llBfc
 
 NO. III. UTICA AND HUDSON RIVER. 533 
 
 comparative ease ; and in the bends of Conodoguinet creek 
 the upper limestones of No. II are seen changing, by a sys- 
 tem of alternations nearly a thousand feet thick, into the 
 lower beds of No. III. These alternations of thin lime- 
 stones, lime shales and clay shales are called the passage 
 beds of No. II and III ; and they occupy in that region the 
 place in the series which the Utica shale division of No. 
 Ill occupies elsewhere. 
 
 In Franklin county the superposition of No. Ill on No. 
 II can be studied to great advantage by means of the 'four 
 anticlinal belts of II sustaining synclinal belts of III, as 
 more fully described in Chapter XXII, page 288, above. In 
 Berks county the same fact is made clear in another way, 
 as the limestone belt west of the Schuylkill is set with 
 parallel synclinal slate ridges lying in long narrow troughs 
 of the limestone. In Lehigh county we have the best of 
 these exhibitions in Huckleberry ridge. Here the front 
 edge of the slate belt at Foglesville runs forward 6 miles to 
 a sharp point within 2 miles of the Lehigh river at Allen- 
 town, while a great cove of limestone behind it encloses the 
 Ironton mines.* All these isolated streaks and spurs of 
 the slate No. Ill in the limestone valley of No. II are so 
 many separate proofs that the slate formation overlies 
 regularly, and conformably the limestone formation No. II. 
 
 This condition of things becomes still plainer when we 
 leave the Great Valley to study the two formations in the 
 interior valleys of Middle Pennsylvania. 
 
 Path valley in Franklin county serves as a link of con- 
 nection between the interior mountain country and the 
 Great Valley, into which Path valley opens at its southern 
 end. The McConnellsburg cove in Fulton county is the 
 first completely isolated uprise of the limestone back of the 
 North mountain and is surrounded by a border of overlying 
 slate. Horse valley in Perry county is almost entirely 
 floored with slate. A border of slate entirely surrounds the 
 central limestone floor of KisJiicoquiUis valley with its 
 three parallel slate prongs towards the east. A similar 
 border of No. Ill slate entirely surrounds the irregular 
 
 *See description in Chapter XXX, page 347, above.
 
 534 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 . Ilia, fyfjUCd, and III I, ^i 
 
 Lyrodesma poststriatum. ( Xueulana pothriata. ) E. 
 
 "Uo' T r r^>. ! " 'i o '" yNw- 1 -' 2 
 
 Ct ^>^<^. 
 
 110^^4
 
 NO. III. UTICA AND HUDSON RIVER. 535 
 
 limestone area of Penn, Brush, Nittany, Sinking Spring, 
 Canoe and Morrison valleys. Similar slate rings surround 
 the limestone of Nippenose and Mosquito valleys in Ly- 
 coming, and Friends and Milligari's coves in Bedford. 
 All these outcrops of No. Ill show the slate to be about 
 1000 feet thick, resting conformably upon the top beds of 
 Trenton limestone, and descending conformably beneath the 
 surrounding sandstone mountains of No. IV. It may be af- 
 firmed with confidence that in no part of the world is there 
 a more satisfactory exhibition of regular conformity in the 
 superposition of one great formation upon another over an 
 extensive region. 
 
 The attention of the reader is directed to the fact that all 
 the valleys floored with No. II and surrounded by a contin- 
 uous outcrop of No. Ill, as described above, are in counties 
 of middle Pennsylvania lying west of the Susquehanna 
 river; for neither the limestone nor the slate reaches the 
 present surface of the State anywhere east of the Susque- 
 hanna river, except in the Great Valley. When No. Ill 
 goes down for the last time along the south foot of the Bald 
 Eagle mountain in Centre county, and Dunnings mountain 
 in Blair county, it does not rise again until we reach Cin- 
 cinnati on the Ohio river, where the slare formation has re- 
 ceived from the Ohio geologists the name of the Cincinnati 
 group. Its northern outcrop, exposed in Canada, but con- 
 cealed beneath the waters of Lake Ontario, appears at the 
 western foot of the Adirondack mountains in northern New 
 York, and in the lower Mohawk valley, where it received 
 nearly fifty years ago the name Loraine s7ial.es and Utica 
 slate. From Albany south it was named the Hudson River 
 slate, a name by which it has been commonly known in 
 American geology, and by which it has been habitually 
 designated in all the reports of the Pennsylvania Geological 
 Survey since 1874. The name of Naslimlle group was given 
 to it by the Geological Survey of Tennessee, around the 
 central area of which its outcrop describes a great ring. 
 
 Along the southern extensions of its outcrop No. Ill 
 exhibits a remarkable change of color soon after passing 
 out of Pennsylvania into Virginia, becoming so red by ex-
 
 536 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 F777 
 
 S.Itta. Qttica, and .Ulb.^&usUon riveiiconJM. 
 
 Modiolopsis anodontoides 
 
 Cyrtolites ornatus. Rogers, page 821, fig. 61 
 
 Bucania rugos Cyclonema bilix 
 
 hisonia turricula. Murchisonia gracilts. Murchisonia gracilis 
 
 f.o -.-rz. -' ~~\ in t,. 
 
 EM. 
 
 Microdiscuo quadricostatus, 
 
 Proetus spurlocki Proetus parviuscu 
 
 Menocephalus globosus, "' ''^~ 
 
 Triarthrus glaber, Triarthrus spinosu
 
 NO. III. UTICA AND HUDSON RIVER. 537 
 
 posure to the atmosphere as to give the slopes of the mount- 
 ains into which it sinks a reddish soil; indicating a much 
 larger percentage of disseminated iron pyrites throughout 
 the mass than in Pennsylvania. From the Hudson 
 river northward through Vermont into Canada the slate 
 beds also exhibit an extra percentage of sulphide of iron; 
 but in that region the pyrites instead of being distributed 
 microscopically through the slate is concentrated into mil- 
 lions of separate beautifully perfect individual cubes, of all 
 sizes from a half inch down to the tenth of an inch. Long 
 exposed surfaces of these Vermont slates are pitted with 
 square holes from which the crystals of pyrites have been re- 
 moved by solution. In the roofing slate belt of eastern Penn- 
 sylvania such crystals are frequently seen; and some of the 
 beds are rendered worthless to the quarrymen by the quan- 
 tity of microscopic pyrites which they contain; others seem 
 to be almost perfectly free from this noxious adulteration. 
 One of the sources of the pyrites was no doubt an infu- 
 sion of sulphate of iron poured into the sea by primeval 
 rivers. But we must ascribe the special abundance of py- 
 rites in certain parts of the formation, in certain beds, and 
 at certain localities, to some more restricted cause ; and we 
 know of no other special cause than that of the secretion 
 of sulphur in the tissues of animals and plants, especially 
 of sea weed vegetation. The accumulation of sea weed on 
 a shore will always furnish a considerable amount of iron 
 pyrites to the shore sands ; and consequently to the deposits 
 of the sea bottom in the neighborhood. We have a right 
 to suppose that the general distribution of iron pyrites 
 through the slates of No. Ill testify to the existence of 
 marine plants in great abundance in that age, even were 
 no traces of the existence of such plants preserved as col- 
 ored impressions on the surface of the slates. We are, 
 however, not left to any vague speculation on this subject. 
 The remains of plants have been collected from the New 
 York outcrop of No. Ill and described and figured by Pro- 
 fessor Hall under the names Sphenothallus , Buthotrephis, 
 and Pal&opJiycus* It is true that other imprints on the 
 
 ^Palaeontology of New York, Vol. 1, 1847, pi. 68, 69 and 70.
 
 538 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 slates have been described and figured as plants which are 
 now believed with good reason to be merely markings left 
 by wriggling worms, crawling crustaceans, and locomotive 
 shellfish ; yet this does not invalidate the plant character 
 of the remainder ; and we cannot imagine a sea inhabited 
 by animals, even of the lowest grade, without the co-exist- 
 ence of a world of marine plant life on which these ani- 
 mals could feed. 
 
 One of the most curious facts connected with the expo- 
 sures of No. Ill is the occurrence in some places of streaks 
 and nuts of a sort of anthracite coal. Such nuts of coal, as 
 large as a hen's egg, have been picked out from between the 
 slates of No. Ill on the side of Cove mountain in Franklin 
 county. Their composition will be given in another place. 
 Their origin is quite unknown ; they have no connection 
 whatever with beds of coal ; they have not been transported, 
 but were made in the place where they were found ; they 
 are disconnected also from each other ; they appear to be 
 concretions or small accumulations of nearly pure carbon ; 
 and their genesis is probably connected in some manner 
 with that general distribution of carbon through the slate- 
 mud which has given so many of the beds of the formation 
 a black or blue-black color. 
 
 Besides the markings made by animals and the impres- 
 sions left by plants there is a third kind of fossil forms in 
 No. Ill of the greatest interest to the geologist. Some of 
 the slate beds are made up of innumerable paper-like layers 
 of slate connected together ; and on the surface of these 
 black films of mud appear millions of markings resembling 
 scattered straw, and bits of black thread. Most of them 
 are fragments of some living organisms which at first sight 
 would be taken for the thin stems of plants. Others are 
 arranged together in regular forms radiating from a center 
 or with a center line forked at both ends, the end-forks 
 forking again. Some of these kinds have all their forks 
 connected by a delicate almost invisible membrane, like an 
 old umbrella with its ribs sticking out beyond the edge of 
 the silk. Others are like oval leaves pointed at both ends 
 and with radiating nerves, the ends of which project all
 
 NO. III. UTICA AND HUDSON RIVER. 539 
 
 round beyond the edge of the leaf. Most of those which 
 are single fragmentary threads or narrow ribbons have one 
 edge delicately toothed from end to end ; some are toothed 
 on one edge toward one end and on the opposite edge toward 
 the other end. Some have both edges set with fine saw 
 teeth ; and it becomes evident that many which seem to be 
 toothed only on one edge have been folded along the mid- 
 dle so as to bring all or some of the teeth of both edges to 
 one side. Large collections of these Graptolites have been 
 made both in Europe and America, and subjected to the 
 closest examination and comparison. It is quite certain 
 that these little creatures were a peculiar kind of floating 
 animal, but nearly as low in the grades of life as plants ; 
 that they grew from living specks, as the leaves of a tree 
 grow from buds ; and that they produced at first a foot 
 stalk, which expanded and multiplied itself and became 
 gradually furnished with the necessary organs of nutrition 
 and reproduction. A great number of separate genera and 
 species of these graptolites existed in that very early age 
 of the world ; some of which continued to exist for two or 
 three ages following, and then this whole family of living 
 creatures disappeared from the waters of the world. In 
 the age of No. Ill the Appalachian ocean and its extension 
 through northern Europe was alive with them, incredible 
 multitudes floating and feeding on the surface and sinking 
 to the bottom to be fossilized in the slate-mud. It is pro- 
 bable therefore that the prevailing dark color of our roofing 
 slates and other beds of No. Ill should be ascribed to the 
 vast amount of carbon secreted by the graptolites, and at 
 their death transferred to the slate-mud which was all the 
 time accumulating at the sea bottom. It is barely possible 
 (perhaps if we knew more about it we would say it was 
 quite possible) that colonies and conglomerations of grap- 
 tolites in some places were dense enough to account satis- 
 factorily for the thin streaks and nuts of coal mentioned 
 above. We may imagine that the graptolites floated mainly 
 at the surface of the water and received the principal part 
 of their sustenance from the carbonic acid which in those 
 early ages loaded the atmosphere more heavily than now ;
 
 540 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 and that this manner of feeding brings the graptolite life 
 into close analogy with the plant life of all ages, the leaves 
 of trees receiving their sustenance in like manner from the 
 air ; but we must not forget that microscopic life has al- 
 ways pervaded the world, furnishing the chief food of all 
 lower orders of creatures. 
 
 The relations which existed between these curious ani- 
 mals, the graptolites, and other animated inhabitants of the 
 Appalachian sea the solid shells of which are also abund- 
 ant at some of the outcrops of Formation No. Ill is a sub- 
 ject of mere speculation. Whether the graptolites had any 
 intercourse, friendly or hostile, with the multitudes of free- 
 floating crinoids, or with the submarine meadows of stone 
 lilies waving their calcareous heads upon long-jointed stalks 
 rooted in the mud, and spreading their locks of calcareous 
 hair abroad in search of microscopic food, we cannot tell. 
 Nor do we know what intercourse there was between these 
 crinoidal animals and the innumerable shell-fish of various 
 classes, kinds and species which then lived. A great vari- 
 ety of species have been figured and described. Most of 
 them persisted through the whole slate age, then perished to 
 be seen no more in higher formations; so that a collection of 
 fossils of No. Ill is quite sufficient to distinguish this forma- 
 tion from all preceding it and from all that followed it in 
 geological history; and quite sufficient to identify the out- 
 crops of No. Ill wherever they may be encountered in 
 Europe or America. 
 
 The amount of coralline life in the Utica and Hudson 
 River age was very great and a variety of beautiful forms 
 are figured by Hall in plates 75 to 78 of his first New York 
 volume, and by Newberry in plates 1 to 4 of the first volume 
 of the Palaeontology of Ohio. 
 
 A considerable variety of shells have also been preserved 
 in these two formations. Among BR ACHIOPODS were species 
 of Lingula, Leptaena, Or this, Atrypa, OrMcula, Slropho- 
 mena, Zygospira. Wiynchonella, Retzia, Nuculites, Cypri- 
 cardites, Megambonia. Of LAMELLIBKANCHS were species 
 of Avicula, Ambonycliicb, Modiolopsis, Orlhonola, Lyro- 
 desma. Of GASTEROPODS there were species of Murcliisonia,
 
 NO. III. UTICA AND HUDSON RIVER. 541 
 
 Pleurotomaria, Bellerophon, Cyrtolites. Among CEPIIALO- 
 PODS were species of Endoceras, Orthoceras, Ormoceras. 
 Of TRILOBITES there were various species of Dalmaniles, 
 Acidaspis, Ceraurus, Proetus, Asaphus, Calymene. 
 
 Previous to Dr. Walcott's publication in 1890 of his dis- 
 covery of fisli remains on the Colorado river it has been the 
 opinion of all geologists that no vertebrate animal yet existed. 
 Not a trace of any kind of fish has elsewhere been detected 
 in the first four formations of the Palaeozoic series; the 
 earliest known fish-spine was found by Professor Claypole 
 in one of the beds of Formation V, in Perry county (to be 
 noticed hereafter); nor is there any certain evidence of the 
 existence of land plants. As the corals of the present day 
 pervade the trophical belt of the earth, and as a change oi' 
 temperature of a few degrees is known to produce wide- 
 spread destruction among the finny tribes of our present 
 sea, the abundance of coral life and the absence of fish in 
 the early ages conspire to testify to a high temperature of 
 the ancient ocean water; and this agrees with our supposi- 
 tion of the gradual cooling of the globe. 
 
 The black Utica slate, and many darker layers of the 
 Hudson River slate, especially in the western States, have 
 been so heavily charged with carbon from the decayed 
 bodies of the creatures which filled the sea, that hand speci- 
 mens will smoke andtiame in a blacksmith's fire. This has 
 given them the mineralogical name of fire slate (pyroschists). 
 
 Dr. Sterry Hunt in his Tenth Chemical Essay, 1875, page 
 178, gives analyses of Utica slate composed of 53 to 58 per 
 cent of carbonate of lime with a little magnesia and ox- 
 ide of iron; the insoluble part of the rock lost 12.6 per cent 
 of volatile and combustible matters, leaving a coal black 
 residue. AVhen this was heated in the open air it lost 8.4 
 per cent additional, making in all 21 per cent of volatile 
 and carbonaceous matter in the rock. Very little of this 
 however was bitumen; the most of it was of the nature of 
 a true coal. Attempts to distill oil on a large scale from 
 this rock resulted in the production of only from 3 to 5 per 
 cent of oily and tarry matter, besides combustible gases 
 and water.
 
 542 GEOLOGICAL SUKVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 It is not likely that the black slates of any part of this 
 great formation No. Ill will ever be used by the business 
 world for the distillation of oil, or the production of illumi- 
 nating gas. 
 
 Such pyroschists or black slates have been deposited in 
 all ages. It will be shown in a proper place that they are 
 not only sometimes very rich in carbon, but interleaved 
 with thin beds of coal, deceiving people into the belief that 
 they can be profitably mined. Such is the case especially 
 with the black slates near the botton of Formation No. VIII 
 on the Janiata and elsewhere in the State. It will also be 
 seen that such pyroschists usually form the roof of every 
 true coal bed and furnish the material from which the dis- 
 tillation of coal oil was carried on previous to the discovery 
 of petroleum. But in the upper or later formations the 
 carbon distributed through the black shales was certainly 
 derived in large part from water plants growing in pools 
 surrounded by a land vegetation. We may, therefore, take 
 it for granted that the carbon of the black slates of forma- 
 tion No. Ill was obtained also from the destruction of some- 
 kind of water plant vegetation, but mixed with the decayed 
 animal tissues of shell-fish, corals, water-bugs and worms. 
 It will be shown in describing the Oil Measures, that the 
 quality of petroleum obtained from formations of different 
 ages differs greatly, especially in odor; and this is part of 
 the evidence that the older petroleums are of animal origin 
 more than vegetable ; and that the newer petroleums (in 
 Pennsylvania) had a vegetable rather than animal origin. 
 
 In speaking of worm tracks as abundant in No. Ill no 
 mention was made of the forms of the worms themselves ; 
 for it can be readily understood that such soft creatures, 
 destitute of internal skeletons and external hard coverings 
 would die and vanish without leaving any trace except 
 casts of their barrows, and impressions of their movements. 
 This is true of the whole family of sea slugs. But there 
 were in the Hudson River Age, and also in ages subsequent, 
 vast numbers of leeches, with horny plates in their mouths 
 set with little tooth-like conical projections. Multitudes 
 of the shining little cones (Conodonts, see Chapter XLIV,
 
 JSTU. III. UTICA AND HUDSON RIVER. 543 
 
 page 507, above) have been found, not only scattered sep- 
 arately, but in small groups, and in some instances attached 
 to fragments of the horny plates on which they were set. 
 What these leeches lived on is an interesting question. 
 They are found scattered over surfaces of slate on which 
 appear worm tracks which were probably made by the 
 animal that owned the teeth. But the size of the animal 
 and the efficient character of its biting apparatus would 
 lead us to suppose that there existed then sea animals of a 
 considerable size clad in succulent flesh ; yet no remains of 
 that kind have been discovered. 
 
 The few limestone beds which are locally interstratified 
 with the slates, as in Dauphin county, are too thin and 
 muddy to make them deserving of serious mention in 
 economical geology ; especially seeing that they crop out 
 within two or three miles of the north edge of the limestone 
 belt of the Great Valley. In the outcrops of No. Ill 
 around the isolated limestone valleys and coves of Middle 
 Pennsylvania also such interstratified thin limestones have 
 been occasionally observed. As for example on the slopes 
 above Spring Mills in Southern Centre county (426, T4). 
 As there are no iron ore beds in No. Ill, nor any other 
 metalliferous beds, this formation is of no mineral value 
 throughout the greater part of the State. Its soil is dis- 
 posed to be cold and wet ; but otherwise sufficiently fer- 
 tile ; so that the No. Ill slopes of Bald Eagle, Tussey, 
 Shade, Black Log, Tuscarora, North and Blue mountains 
 are farmed by a large number of landholders, the fields ex- 
 tending half way up the mountain side (T4, 425). 
 
 The roofing slate belt. 
 
 In one part of the State, however, Formation No. Ill is 
 of great mineral value, furnishing the finest quality of 
 roofing, table, and school slates. 
 
 The roofing slate belt of No. Ill runs from the Delaware 
 to the Schuylkill, through the northern townships of 
 Northampton, Lehigh and Berks, where large settlements 
 of slate workers have opened extensive quarries, and built
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 NO. III.' I PICA AND HUDSON RIVER. 
 
 545 
 
 nal ^Report, Vol.1, 1831 
 
 Slalingtoii section. pL L , 
 
 (D 3 page 13o.) 
 
 Small bed* (containing some 
 Large beds.) 
 
 400 Inrlndrx l/ir uuarrij beds around 
 Hcinbftck.f, and around Slatedale; 
 exact position unknown. 
 
 08 3) 3D. 5ont6 ' roofing slate quarries 
 100' 
 
 (jo 7 WeUhtQOtn rooting slate quarries. 
 i$LJ J J / 
 
 100 
 
 uarries 
 
 1L / 114 franklin roofing slate quarri 
 
 gn ;i 
 
 100 
 
 ,,' Scimesffiess % Cos slate 
 
 (Blue vein. Washington cLuarri 
 
 210 
 
 
 rcmjinq slate 
 
 The 
 
 liio* /3l/M> mountain (junrnj. 
 
 
 35
 
 546 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 considerable towns connected by railroads. This district 
 is to Pennsylvania what North Wales is to Great Britain ; 
 and in the course of time the quarries of Slatington on the 
 Lehigh and Bangor on the Bushkill will become as worthy 
 of the pilgrimage of geologists and tourists as the Welsh 
 slate quarries of Tremadoc. Dr. Chance, in Report of Pro- 
 gress D3, Vol. I, 1883, describes more than a hundred slate 
 quarries, old and new, some abandoned, many vigorously 
 worked, illustrating his descriptions with photographic 
 views of the older and deeper quarries, and giving many sec- 
 tions of the beds in which the workings are carried on. The 
 section along the Lehigh at Slatington (D3, page 147) shows 
 the folded structure of the formation and the order in 
 which the principal valuable beds of slate occur. The 
 measured thickness of the roofing slate part of the forma- 
 tion amounts to 1529 feet, divided up into small and large 
 slate beds, separated by groups of beds which are not fit to 
 quarry (page 135). See plates L and LI. 
 
 The groups of beds that are worked may be thus de- 
 scribed. Group A (at the bottom), 12 feet ; Group B, 25 
 feet ; Group C, 12 feet ; Group D, 60 feet ; Group E, 50 
 feet ; Group F, 12 feet. Groups A and B are only 16 feet 
 apart ; C is 222 feet above B, and separated from D by only 
 15 feet ; D from E by 12 feet ; E from F by 73 feet. But 
 these only represent beds that have been successfully 
 worked on the Lehigh river. Many others have been 
 opened and tested but not worked. 
 
 In a general way it may be said that the upper beds of 
 slate run parallel with the foot of the Blue mountain, at a 
 distance of from half a mile to a mile from it. The out- 
 crop of the lowest beds runs rudely parallel with the other 
 at a distance of from half a mile to a mile further south. 
 These variable distances from the Blue mountain and from 
 each other are in consequence of the folded condition of the 
 formation, bringing up the same beds to the surface in 
 small and large waves again and again. The slate quarries 
 furnish fine opportunities for studying the character and 
 quantity of the earth movement which has thrust the whole 
 country northward. In no other part of the slate belt No.
 
 NO. Til. UTICA AND HUDSON RIVER. 547 
 
 III from the Delaware to the Potomac can the exact quan- 
 tities of its folding be obtained ; but the openings in Lehigh 
 and Northampton are so large and numerous, and so close 
 together, that transverse sections can be constructed with- 
 out much difficulty, and the shape of the plications can be 
 represented to the eye (as in plate L). 
 
 It must not be supposed that the slates sent to market 
 are the original laminae of the beds deposited one above 
 the other and split asunder. The beds of the formation 
 will not thus split. Although originally deposited in leaves 
 or thin sheets of mud these original layers have been com- 
 pacted into a solid mass and cannot now be separated by 
 human tools. Even if they could be so separated they 
 would be useless to man, because they are bent into curves. 
 Fortunately for our arts of life the pressure which folded 
 the beds produced another and very remarkable effect upon 
 them. Being a great and uniform pressure from the south 
 toward the north, it subdivided the whole formation into 
 millions of thin plates, perpendicular to the direction of 
 the pressure ; and these are the plates which are split 
 asunder by the quarrymen and sold for various purposes. 
 Thus we have curved planes of original stratification, and 
 straight smooth planes of pressure-foliation. The most 
 striking feature of the slate quarry to the eye of a spectator 
 is this double-banded structure of the rocks. He sees the 
 face of the quarry crossed by the foliation in straight 
 lines, seldom vertical, but usually dipping steeply toward 
 the south ; and the quarry operations follow these bands 
 and pay no attention whatever to the original stratified 
 beds of the formation. Across the bands of foliation 
 the curved ribbons of the folded strata are seen passing 
 from one side of the quarry to the other in a series of 
 waves, each stratum distinguished from the strata above 
 and below it by either strong or delicate differences of color. 
 Every one must have noticed in rooting slates, and some- 
 times in writing slates, bands of a lighter or darker tint 
 crossing them ; these reveal the original sedimentation. 
 Every one must have noticed on dark writing slates, whitish 
 spots, and that the slate pencil when it leaves the black
 
 548 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 ,'sm 
 
 i Xuadn Quarry. M.S Z. KJlaiinuS Quarry, X, . 
 
 3. SSayaf Quarry, X. Si. 4. Tallin ftm Quary, 76 fc
 
 NO. III. UTICA AND HUDSON RIVEIl. 549 
 
 , Matec/uam^ on
 
 550 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 surface and crosses such a white spot will not bite. These 
 white spots are small pellets of clay in the original sedi- 
 ment mashed flat and enlarged, and reduced to an exceed- 
 ing thinness by pressure. See plates XXXVIII, XXXIX. 
 
 Another interesting phenomenon connected with the 
 planes of foliation is their frequent fan-shaped structure, 
 especially where the original beds are sharply bent upon 
 themselves ; for, since the foliation was produced by pres- 
 sure, and in planes perpendicular to that pressure, when- 
 ever the mass was sharply bent the direction of the pres- 
 sure was modified on the two sides of the fold, causing the 
 planes of foliation to diverge. This will be sufficiently ex- 
 plained in a more detailed description of the slate region. 
 
 As the development of the cleavage planes or slate foli- 
 ation was produced by the pressure expended by an earth- 
 movement from the south, and as the amount of this move- 
 ment must have been measured by the number and sharp- 
 ness of the anticlinal and synclinal rock-folds which re- 
 sulted from it, we should expect the greatest amount of 
 foliation, that is, the greatest number of workable slate beds 
 to be in districts where folds are most numerous. At the 
 first glance this would seem to explain the fact that there 
 are only two workable slate beds on the Delaware river, for 
 there the whole mass of Formation No. Ill slopes north- 
 ward in a very regular way, with dips of 20 increasing to 
 35 at the top (in the Delaware Water Gap) where the upper- 
 most Hudson River beds are seen going down beneath For- 
 mation No. IV. 
 
 On the Delaware river there is an almost total absence of 
 the sharp small rolls and basins which are so prominent a 
 feature on the Lehigh river; and this has given an oppor 
 tunity for a fair measurement of the thickness of the forma- 
 tion north of the great anticlinal which crosses the river 
 about 2 miles south of the Gap. Its upper series of beds' 
 measured from the base of No. IV down to Williams' old 
 slate quarry count up say 1540 feet; the lower series meas- 
 ured from Shocks down to Belvidere counts up say 3700 
 feet; the total of 5240 feet ought probably to be increased 
 to 6000.
 
 NO. III. UTICA AND HUDSON RIVER. 551 
 
 The upper series consists of beds which are commonly 
 more than one foot thick; and the lower series, of beds 
 which are usually less than one foot thick (Sanders' report 
 in D3, page 85). An independent set of measurements 
 along the Delaware river gives an equally large estimate, 
 and places the two slate quarry beds at 1000 feet and 2350 
 feet respectively beneath the base of No. IV (Chance's re- 
 port).* These five or six thousand feet of rocks consist of 
 beds of slate varying in thickness from only one hundredth 
 of an inch up to a maximum of at least 30 feet; being nearly 
 all of them of a dark grey bluish black color; some of them 
 of very fine-grain ; others coarser ; and some coarse enough 
 to be considered sandstone, but not continuous. 
 
 It has already been said that No. Ill in its frequent ap- 
 pearances in Middle Pennsylvania west of the Susquehanna 
 river exhibits nothing like this thickness. At Orbisonia in 
 southern Huntingdon it measures only 1870 feet (Ashburner 
 F, 160). At Logan's gap in Mifflin county it measures 2304 
 feet.f In Blair county gaps the whole formation was esti- 
 mated at only 900 feet. In Penns valley, Centre county, it 
 is estimated at 800 feet or upwards (T4, p. 425) without any 
 distinction being made between Hudson and Utica. In 
 Friends cove and along the Jnniata in Bedford county it 
 seems to be about 700 feet.:}: 
 
 Seeing that the roofing slate beds are confined to the east- 
 ern end of the Great Valley in Pennsylvania, it looks as if 
 they constituted a separate formation and were not deposited 
 to the westward; the thinning of No. Ill toward middle 
 Pennsylvania being possibly explained by that fact. The 
 belt of roofing slate, however, runs on through northern 
 New Jersey and southern New York toward Newburgh on 
 the Hudson; and important quarries have been opened in 
 later years along this line. 
 
 * In Munroe township, Lebanon county, Mr. Sanders got by construction 
 6000 feet for the probable total thickness of No. III. But in the geological 
 reports rf the New Jersey Survey an estimated thickness of only 3000 feet is 
 assigned to the whole Formation No. Ill along the Delaware river. 
 
 f Hudson River 937, Utica, Upper Gray 210, Utica, Middle Black 302, 
 Utica Lower Gray 855 feet (F, p. 55). 
 
 t Utica being 200 feet.
 
 552 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The continuation of the belt beyond the Hudson along 
 the New York-Massachusetts line through Vermont into 
 Canada, has given rise to the most protracted, the most 
 vehement, and undoubtedly the most important discussion 
 which has ever agitated the American geological world. It 
 is called the discussion of the TAOONIC SYSTEM.* 
 
 *It commenced upon the publication in 1844 of the report of the New York 
 geologist, Dr. Emmons, upon the rocks of northern and eastern New York ' 
 and it has been participated in by almost every geological field worker in 
 the United States, and by several of the most distinguished geologists ot 
 Europe. It has not ceased yet ; and in fact the controversial literature on 
 the subject has been largely increased in the last few years. The hinge of 
 the controversy is the question whether the great slate formation of the 
 Taconic mountains in New York and of the plain between the Green mount- 
 ains of Vermont and Lake Champlain is really Formation No. Ill of Penn- 
 sylvania and the Southern States ; or whether it represents the older and 
 underlying Cambrian system of formations. 
 
 The place where the most perfect cross-section has been made is in Georgia 
 county, Vermont, where broad outcrops of four formations, two of slate and 
 two of limestone, alternate, and run side by side. Some look upon these 
 two slate belts as repetitions of each other and the two limestone belts as 
 repetitions of each other. If there be no repetition, we have at the bottom 
 1000 feet of fossiliferous limestones ; then 3750 feet of slate (the lowest 200 
 feet, Georgia shales crowded with fossils and the uppermost 50 feet a quart- 
 zite); then 1700 feet of limestone (many of the beds broken into breccia); 
 then from 3500 to 4500 feet of slate. (Bulletin U. S. G. Survey No. 30, C. D. 
 Walcott, 1886). If there be a repetition we have a state of things greatly 
 resembling the geology of Lehigh and Northampton counties in Pennsyl- 
 vania, namely, a limestone formation measuring 1000 or 2000 feet in thick- 
 ness like No. II, overlaid by a slate formation between 3000 and 5000 feet 
 thick, No. III. Resemblance is rendered the more striking by the presence 
 of beds of roofing slate quarried along the outcrop. Those who claim no 
 repetition, that is, who refuse to believe in the existence of a fault bringing 
 up again the lower limestone and slate to the surface to make the upper 
 limestone and slate, have constructed the extraordinary theory, that the 
 upper limestone is a lenticular or local deposit in the body of the slate for- 
 mation. A lenticular limestone formation at least 1700 feet thick seems to 
 me a physical impossibility ; and it is evident to those who have studied the 
 Appalachian faults that a great fault must run through Georgia county, Vt.' 
 which swallows up the upper limestone at its north end, and a large part of 
 the upper slate in the same direction. The discussion is, however, at pres- 
 ent in the hands of palaeontologists, who are not deterred by structural laws 
 when these present extraordinary obstacles to their classification of the 
 rocks by the fossil forms which they contain. 
 
 It is evident that, if the Cambrian age of the Vermont limestone and 
 slate be forced upon us as it seems to be ; and especially if the two great 
 limestone and two great slate formations of Georgia, Vermont, be insisted 
 upon, then it becomes impossible to explain their absence in New Jersey 
 and Pennsylvania. It throws doubt upon the identification of the Potsdam
 
 NO. II r. UTICA AND HUDSON RIVER. 553 
 
 As the slates of >No. Ill are seen going down beneath the 
 northern edge of the Mesozoic formations along the Leba- 
 
 sandstone along the foot of the South mountain under the Lehigh valley 
 limestones ; and it breaks all connection between the well-established 
 geology of the Great Valley from Alabama to New York with its evident 
 continuation through Massachusetts and Vermont into Canada. If the 
 roofing slates of Georgia county Vt. underlie the Potsdam then they can- 
 not be in the same formation with the roofing slates of No. Ill ; and it be- 
 comes necessary to repeat again and again the great fact that at the bottom 
 of our roofing slates of No. Ill lie the black Utica beds, and underneath 
 these lie the uppermost beds of No. II containing Trenton fossils. 
 
 Tt would be a most astonishing thing if 10,000 feet of slates and limestones 
 in Vermont and eastern New York should be wholly wanting in New 
 Jersey and Pennsylvania ; and at the same time at least 8000 feet of slates 
 and limestones on the Delaware river should be entirely absent east of the 
 Hudson. 
 
 It may be objected, that the 6000 feet of No. Ill on the Lehigh and Dela- 
 Avare fades away to 700 or 800 feet on the West Branch Susquehanna and 
 upper Juniata rivers. But we must remember that the direction of this 
 thinning is across the measures northwestward; and that the gi eat thick- 
 ness of No. Ill reasonably maintains itself along the line of strike from 
 northeast to southwest. Therefore it is to be expected that No. Ill will be 
 as thick in Massachusetts and Vermont as it is in the Great valley of New 
 Jersey and Pennsylvania. It is a conclusion of equal validity that if- No. 
 Ill diminishes in thickness from its Great Valley outcrop northwestward 
 toward the Allegheny mountain it must have been of equal or greater 
 thickness in its original area southeastward toward the Atlantic Ocean ; and 
 although the destruction of this great formation over all that part of its 
 original area has been almost if not quite complete, yet we ought to find 
 fragments of it in southeastern Pennsylvania which have escaped such des- 
 truction. We may not be able to recognize 'it with absolute certainty in 
 such preserved patches, because of the universal metamorphosis which all 
 the rocks of southern Pennsylvania have evidently undergone. In other 
 words, if the limestones of No. II preserved in Lancaster county, in tue 
 Chester county valley, and in similar basins still further and as far south as 
 the Delaware State line, gradually change iheir aspect and become beds of 
 white crystalline marble, we ought to expect that the slates of No. Ill if 
 preserved anywhere south of the Great Valley should also present a similar 
 difference of aspect, and show themselves as crystalline slates or schists, 
 perhaps even as chlorite slates, talc slates or mica slates. But it is well 
 known that limestones are always much more changed than mud rocks are; 
 except when the mud contains an unusual percentage of magnesia andiron. 
 Unfortunately too little attention has yet been paid to the chemical analysis 
 of the beds of No. Ill ; and therefore we are not in condition to speculate 
 safely upon the degrees and varieties of crystallization which the slate beds 
 of No. Ill might assume in the highly metamorphic region of southeastern 
 Pennsylvania. Without this chemical knowledge we cannot argue to 
 conclusion the moot question whether the South Valley Hill slate belt in 
 Chester and Lancaster counties is a preserved part of No. Ill, or whether it 
 is an older (Cambrian) formation brought to the surface by a great fault 
 running along the southern edge of the Chester county valley.
 
 554 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 , Onddci 
 
 LIIJ 
 
 water gap; coat dida. 
 
 yap.
 
 NO. III. UTICA AND HUDSON EIVER. 555 
 
 nori county southern line, and at the south foot of the 
 South mountains between the Schuylkill and the Dela- 
 ware ; and as slates, apparently No. Ill, are brought up to 
 the surface through the Mesozoic by the Doylestown fault, 
 we have a right to suppose that the slates of No. Ill form, 
 at least in some places, the floor of the Mesozoic belt along 
 parts of its range ; although there are good reasons for 
 believing that the principal part of that floor consists of the 
 eroded outcrops of the limestones of No. II, which are seen 
 rising from beneath it, without any slate, at Norristown. 
 
 It is not surprising, therefore, that Dr. Frazer, in his sur- 
 vey of Lancaster county, observed at several places, a slate 
 formation, very black and lustrous, which may be inferred 
 to be Titled slate^ because overlying the limestone forma- 
 tion No. II. This is rendered the more probable when, as 
 at Brickerville, in Elizabeth twp, the black slates appear 
 emerging from beneath the south edge of the Mesozoic, as 
 if they were connected underground with the No. Ill slates 
 of Lebanon county. They are so black that excavations 
 have been made in them in the hope of finding coal ; but 
 their principal interest to the geologist arises from their re- 
 semblance to the Peach Bottom roofing slates which have 
 already been mentioned as crossing the Susquehanna river 
 at the Maryland line. 
 
 The Peach Bottom roofing slate belt projects northeast- 
 ward into Lancaster county and southwestward through the 
 corner of York county into the State of Maryland. It ap- 
 pears to be a closely folded basin about 9 miles long, the 
 beds dipping nearly vertical. Eight principal quarries have 
 been worked, some of them for many years, to a maximum 
 depth of 200 feet. As in the Slatington region, so here, the 
 quarries are not continuous, the roofing slate quality varying 
 lengthwise of the basin. 
 
 It is described in more detail in Chapter XIII, page 141 
 above, but it requires mention here because it has been sup- 
 ])osed to be a far south outlier of III, and its quarries have 
 been compared with those on the Lehigh, on the strength 
 of numerous undescribed seaweed-like fossil markings on 
 the faces of some of the slates, which our great master in
 
 55(5 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Palaeontology, James Hall, pronounced to be possibly a 
 species of ButhotrepMs, a genus of Hudson River age.* 
 
 This is a slender support for so important a theory. The 
 fact of a roofing slate foliation of some of the beds goes for 
 nothing; or rather is in favor of a Cambrian age, when the 
 great slate quarries of Wales, and Vermont, and the 
 quarries now being opened in the South Mountains of York 
 and Adams counties are considered. It is hard to imagine 
 the Peach Bottom slates to be III, and the great limestone 
 formation II to be wholly absent from the district; and in its 
 place the Chiques quartzite (see page 183 above); while the 
 surrounding region consists of mica and chlorite schists. 
 It hardly seems worth while to conjecture that the Peach 
 Bottom slates represent the upper member of No. Ill, and 
 the mica schist country the lower division metamorphosed 
 regionally. It is still less worthy a conjecture that the 
 Lehigh slate belt is a separate formation deposited where 
 the rest of III and the whole of II were not deposited. In 
 Pennsylvania such non-conformability of deposition is 
 scarcely possible, however probable it may be elsewhere, in 
 Canada for instance, f 
 
 *Prof. JohnS. Stohr, of Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Pa., 
 read a paper before the Linmean Society, in 1886, to draw public attention to 
 the Peach Bottom fossils. Subsequently, in a letter to me dated May 20, 
 1886, he says that one of the specimens in his possession "seems to have a 
 woody stalk, with pinnae extending from both sides, but not distinct enough 
 to determine their character. What seems to be pinn<e are probably lobes 
 or branches of some fucoid like Buthotrephis ; and what seems to be the 
 stalk or axis is partly mineral incrustation. When I first showed a speci- 
 men to Prof. Porter, of Lafayette College, he exclaimed, "Oh, that is dendri- 
 tic ;" but when I showed him another lie said, " No, that is evidently the im- 
 pression of a plant, and it looks very much like a fern." " So far as ferns are 
 concerned I have never yet been able to convince myself that any of the 
 impressions I have seen are really those of ferns, although some of them 
 strongly resemble ferns." 
 
 f Mr. Alex. Murray reported in 1879 that in all places where fossils could 
 be obtained the Hudson river formation (No. Ill) overlaid unconformably 
 the serpentine beds which overlie the Levis beds of the Quebec group, and 
 that the nonconformity becomes so great in part ot the islands, that the 
 whole Hudson river formation and all the Silurian formations are wanting, 
 and Devonian rocks lie upon the serpentine beds, which he suggests may 
 represent the (Jhazy beds of No. II. Intrusive masses mark the break 
 (Geol. Mag. Notice, March, 1879, p. 139).
 
 THE THICKNESS OF NO. III. 557 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 The thickness of No. 111. 
 
 The original thickness of the combined Hudson River 
 and Utica slate formations in the region of the Great Val- 
 ley cannot now be measured by reason of the excessive 
 crumpling to which the whole deposit has been subjected, 
 by a side pressure from the direction of the South mount- 
 tains. 
 
 It is easy to see that oceanic deposits of gravel, sand and 
 mud, when pressed sideways (by the shrinking of the size 
 of the globe, or any other cause), and lifted thousands of 
 feet into the air, along certain lines, while in their wet state, 
 charged with ocean water, and therefore as plastic as putty 
 or wax it is easy to see that they would have their solid 
 shapes changed in various ways. 
 
 The thick deposits of gravel and coarse sand would be 
 folded, but not crimped ; and their original thickness would 
 be somewhat swollen everywhere ; in some parts much 
 more than in others ; and it is even possible that where 
 they were originally thickest they would be artificially 
 swollen most. 
 
 The thinner layers of liner sand would be also folded, but 
 the folds would be smaller and more numerous. And as 
 the finer sand deposits are always in company with mud 
 deposits, their smaller foldings would be made to some 
 extent at the expense of the mud layers ; and this would 
 save the sand layers from being thickened. 
 
 The deposits of fine mud, whether the common feldspar- 
 quartz mud of No. Ill, or the lime-mud of No. II would 
 be crushed out of all recognizable original shape ; would be 
 swollen in whole and in parts, and distorted by myriads of 
 folds, crimps or creases in every direction.
 
 558 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 We have any number of illustrations of the above men- 
 tioned three modes in which the various great deposits have 
 actually had their bulk enlarged and their shapes distorted 
 in all parts of Middle Pennsylvania, but especiall} 7 in south- 
 eastern Pennsylvania. It is only necessary to follow the 
 banks of the river channels cut across the outcropping for- 
 mations to see how the great sandrock and conglomerate 
 formations No. IV, No. X and No. XII are grandly curved 
 how the smaller and finer sands and shales of Nos. V, 
 VII, VIII, IX and XII are thrown into series of smaller 
 folds how the great soft mud formation of No. XI is 
 closely complicated and how the slates and limestones of 
 the Great Valley (Nos. Ill and II) are crumpled and mashed 
 together in thousands of pleats, which crowd each other 
 out of line, so that in many of the outcrops the strata seem 
 to run more across the vaUey than lengthwise of it.* 
 
 Illustrations of this condition of things in the limestone 
 belt have been already given in this report ; but here it is 
 only needful to state the fact, which has no doubt arrested 
 the attention of most of the inhabitants of the Valley with- 
 out their assigning any geological importance to it. Geolo- 
 gists however have observed it with special interest be- 
 cause it is calculated to raise a doubt concerning the age 
 of the formation, and its true relationship to the overlying 
 formations, because it creates the impression that the lime- 
 stone formation was crumpled and uplifted from the ocean 
 and worn away to a level surface, and submerged again, to 
 be covered by the slate formation. In other words, geolo- 
 gists have found it hard to harmonize the irregular detailed 
 stratification of the limestone with the conformity of the 
 whole underlying limestone formation to the whole over- 
 lying slate formation. 
 
 And the same apparent difficulty is reported in the case 
 of the irregular local dips and strikes of the slate belts, 
 especially along the northern or upper edge of the belt, 
 
 *See the illustrations of folded beds in the slate quarries in Report D3. 
 See especially Fig. II, page 119, D3, whtsre a bed of slate is thickened in the 
 fold. See also the numerous sections of thickened folds in the Anthracite 
 Reports A A.
 
 THE THICKNESS OF NO. III. 559 
 
 where the top slate strata are overlaid by the very regular 
 sandstone formation of the North mountain. This has 
 bred a suspicion that the two formations (III and IV) are 
 UJiconfoj mcible did not follow each other immediately in 
 time but that the slate formation was elevated and eroded 
 and resubmerged to receive the long subsequent sand de- 
 posits. 
 
 But let it be once understood that if a very thick fine 
 shaly, slaty or muddy formation lies. between two very 
 massive, coarse, sandy or gravelly formations, and all three 
 are subjected to a great side pressure, the sands will be 
 merely thrown into great waves, but the mud will be badly 
 crumpled together in thousands of closely compressed small 
 local folds the idea of non-con for inability at the contact 
 of the limestone and slate belts of the Valley, and at the 
 contact of the slate belt and the North mountain sandstone, 
 will no longer impose upon the imagination.* 
 
 The thickness of Formation No. III. 
 
 To return then to the starting point of this chapter, it is 
 quite impossible to measure the thickness of the slate for- 
 mation No. Ill along the Great Valley on account of irs 
 closely folded, swollen and distorted condition. All that 
 we can say is, that in Middle Pennsylvania, where it is not 
 in that condition, where it is merely upturned, it has been 
 measured pretty accurately ; and while it is in some places 
 only 1000, in other places it is 1600 feet ; being thinner 
 towards the Allegheny mountain and thicker towards the 
 South Mountan.* How much of this difference is due to the 
 original thinning of the deposit northward, and how much 
 of it is to be set down to the diminished intensity of the side 
 pressure as we recede from the South mountain range, can- 
 not be known. 
 
 That it increases in thickness eastward is indicated by 
 the fact that the measurable thickness increased from 700'? 
 
 *For further remarks upon this subject see foregoing chapters on the lime- 
 stone belt, and a following chapter on the non-conformity of IV upon III.
 
 560 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 at Bedford* (Stevenson), and 900' ? at Tyrone city (Platt and 
 Sanders), to 1000' at Belief onte (H. D. Rogers), f and 1600' 
 at Logan Gap (H. D. Rogers).:}: 
 
 As Prof. Stevenson says that it is decidedly thicker at 
 McConnellsburg than at Bedford, and as Messrs. Aslibnrner 
 and Billingot a measurement of 1870' at Orbisonia, we must 
 suppose it to increase also in a southerly direction. Taken 
 together these data lead us to expect a great thickness in the 
 Chambersburg valley ; and an increasing thickness from 
 Chambersburg towards Harrisburg, Reading and Easton. 
 
 It is not so astonishing then as it otherwise would be that 
 both Mr. Sanders and Dr. Chance gives it a thickness of 
 6000' at the Schuylkill, Lehigh and Delaware water gaps. 
 
 * In Bedford county Prof. Stevenson estimates the total thickness of both 
 Ilia and III6 at 700' ; for an outcrop 1040' wide with dips ot 30 to 60 follows 
 Tussey mountain across the Juniata below Bedford ; and the same estimate 
 is made along Evitt's mountain on the west side of Friend's cave. But in 
 Fulton county, around the edge of the McConnellsburg cove, he says, the 
 thickness is evidently greater. The Utica (Ilia) on the Bedford pike near 
 Williams Grove is about 200'. (T2, p. 93). 
 
 t Mr. D'Invilliers calls it at Bellefonte 1011', in Report T4, p. 304. 
 
 \ Billin and Ashburner's measurement make it here 1632'. 
 
 Prof. Cook says that in New Jersey it cannot be accurately measured, 
 bxit calculates from steep N. W. dips across a 2 mile belt from the Delaware 
 water gap south to Columbia it is probably 3000'. But 2 miles at only 15 
 would make 3000', and the dips are much steeper than that; see sections in 
 Reports G6, and D3. 
 
 The latest precise thickness of the formation was got (in 1886) by my 
 lamented assistant, Mr. C. E. Ashburner, from a study of the Knowersville 
 gas well in Albany county, N. Y., 25 miles west of Albany. It struck the 
 top of the Trenton limestone (II) at 2880', and went 112 into that formation ; 
 mouth of well about 500' above tide; top of Hudson river slate (III) 550' 
 above well mouth ; therefore total thickness of 111,3430'. The lower part 
 of the formation is calcareous. Specimens from 2500' downward were 
 analysed and yielded 25 per cent of carbonates, lower down 10 per cent ; 
 at the top of the Trenton the percentage suddenly rose to 60 per cent and 
 soon to 80 per cent; continuing at that to the bottom of the boring. The 
 dark Utica formation (Ilia) was plainly distinguishable, lying on the 
 Trenton, and calcareous, as stated above. The bottom of the Lower Helder- 
 berg limestone (VI) rests directly upon the top of the Hudson river states 
 (III6) Clinton and Medina (V, IV) being entirely absent in this part of 
 New York. The Cauda-Galli (VII&) makes a bold cap tQ the mountain, 
 and is probably the cause of the cliff which runs along the escarpment for 
 many miles westward towards Utica. 
 
 The Clyde well in Wayne county, central New York, is said by Prof. C. S. 
 Prosser of Cornell University to have gone through Oswego sandstone, 210' ; 
 shale and sandstone, 170' ; Hudson river and Utica 650' ; total 1030', to top 
 of Trenton limestone. (American Geologist, Oct. 1890, page 204.)
 
 THE THICKNESS OF NO. III. 561 
 
 Whether the formation be 3000' or 6000' thick along the 
 Susquehanna above Harrisburg cannot be discovered; but 
 that it is several thousand feet thick is certain, from the 
 fact that, although the belt is about 4 miles wide, occupy- 
 ing the river banks all the way from the upper part of the 
 city to the Penn. RR. bridge in the gap, yet the under- 
 lying limestone formation is never once brought to the sur- 
 face by any of the folds. 
 
 And this is the case eastward through Dauphin county, 
 and westward through Cumberland county. Not until we 
 go six miles into Franklin county, to within 2 miles of 
 Strasburg, does the underlying limestone begin to appear 
 on the sharp top of the Strasburg anticlinal, which keeps it 
 at the surface from here on into Maryland. 
 
 The point near Strasburg where the limestone appears is 
 about a mile from the crest of the North Mountain. Two 
 separate exposures of slate a mile southwest of Strasburg 
 show each a dip of 60; and this maybe taken as the dip of 
 the whole formation from Strasburg to the mountain; which 
 would give it a total thickness of something over 4000'. 
 
 Proceeding further west to the Bedford pike at Mercers- 
 burg, the slate belt is there only about a third of a mile 
 wide, which, on a dip of 70 (in the limestone), would re- 
 duce the thickness to 1500'; but there is some reason to 
 think that part of the slate formation is here overlapped by 
 a fault at the contact of the limestone. 
 
 36
 
 562 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 Character of Formation No. III. 
 
 The slate formation consists of dark mud-rocks (slate) 
 more or less sandy; many interpolated layers of fine sand- 
 stone; a few layers of poor limestone, or limy mudstone, 
 not to be compared in quality with the limestone beds of 
 the southern side of the valley; and here and there, at dis- 
 tant points in the length of the valley, beds of sandstone so 
 coarse as to deserve the name of conglomerate. 
 
 The slates are softer and darker in the lower part of the 
 formation; and are sometimes quite black at the very bot- 
 tom of the formation, just over the limestone No. II.* 
 
 They are harder and more sandy (and the beds thicker 
 and more massive) towards the upper part of the formation; 
 and here we find most of the sandstones, some of which can 
 furnish good flag-stones, and are in fact quarried in Berks 
 county. 
 
 These sandstone beds are mostly grey, sometimes olive, 
 sometimes greenish in hue. The intervening slates are 
 mostly dark grey, sometimes olive or greenish and some- 
 times a pronounced red. These colors are given to the 
 rocks by small percentages of carbonate and oxide of iron 
 distributed through the mass ; but nowhere concentrated 
 into iron ore beds. 
 
 It is remarkable that the red color is not noticeable along 
 the Great Valley in New York, New Jersey, f and eastern 
 Pennsylvania until one approaches the Schuylkill river. 
 As soon as Berks county is entered outcrops of red slate 
 
 * This is the Utica slate formation of the New York geologists. The main 
 bulk of No. Ill is understood to be the Hudson River formation. 
 
 t Prof. Cook speaks in one place of slates exposed in a railway cut being 
 reddish-yellow, fragile and earthy, contrasting strongly with the dark blue- 
 black solid roofing-slate variety. Geol. N. J., 1868, p. 138.
 
 CHARACTER OF FORMATION NO. III. 563 
 
 become numerous ; increase in number through Lebanon 
 county; and can be seen traversing Dauphin, Cumberland 
 and Franklin into Maryland. In Virginia and Tennessee 
 the whole formation gradually takes on a reddish color, and 
 is quite red in many places.* 
 
 The place of the red slate belt in the formation is a matter 
 of some moment and will be discussed after and in connec 
 tion with a description of the roofing slate belt further on. 
 
 It is possible that the red color is one of the consequences 
 of the decomposition of iron pyrites finely disseminated 
 through the original mud, because iron pyrites itself is one 
 of the commonest ingredients of the slate formation as a 
 whole, and is abundant enough at some of the slate quar- 
 ries to oblige their owners to reject the beds which are most 
 infested with it. Several instances are mentioned by Mr. 
 Sanders in report D3. Prof. Cook speaks of several local- 
 ities where pyrites is disseminated through the rock mass. 
 
 But it is much more likely that the red slate beds were 
 originally deposited as red clay, and that the presence of 
 pyrites is merely a coincidence ; for pyrites is perhaps more 
 abundant in the roofing-slate part of the valley east of 
 where the red rocks begin to make a show ; and moreover, 
 the sulphur of the pyrites unites with the alumina of the 
 slate rock to produce the white efflorescence which is so 
 often to be seen, while the iron set free is carried off by the 
 waters. At all events there is no apparent precipitation of 
 limonite.f 
 
 The amount of iron in the rooks of the slate belt must 
 
 * This is very surprising to a geologist fresh from Pennsylvania, accustomed 
 as he is to see the red formation always lying back of the mountain and not 
 in front of it ; and the change in III from gray to red going south is still 
 further accentuated by a corresponding change in V from red to gray. 
 
 |To show that the amount of iron in slates and shales is not necessarily 
 influential in reddening them it is only needful to compare the following 
 analysis by Mr. McCreath : 
 
 1. Yellowish white damourite slate of Lehigh county, from the bottom of 
 No. II, two specimens. (Report M,page 92.) 
 
 2. Red shale from the Catskill No. IX of Tioga county. (Report MM, 
 page 372.) 
 
 3. Catskill red shale from Wayne county. ( M3, page 108. )
 
 564 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 vary within a small and narrow range. Prof. Cook gives 
 the following analysis : 
 
 A. Ordinary bluish black Delaware Gap roofing slate. 
 
 B. Sandy massive Deckertown-pike slate. 
 
 Silica, 
 
 Alumina 
 
 Protoxide of iron, . 
 
 Lime, 
 
 Magnesia, ... 
 
 Potash, 
 
 Soda 
 
 Carbonic acid, . . 
 Carbon [graphite?], 
 
 Sulphur, 
 
 Water, 
 
 A. 
 
 56.60 
 21.00 
 5.65 
 3.42 
 2.30 
 1.10 
 0.50 
 2.20 
 2.69 
 0.57 
 '3.00 
 
 77.60 
 
 7.32 
 
 B. 
 
 68.00> 82 4Q 
 14.40> 
 
 5.40 
 
 2.68] 
 
 !:Sh 
 
 O.llj 
 2.30 
 
 2.70 
 99.10 
 
 The pyrites (sulphide of iron) so universally disseminated 
 through the slate formation must have been one of the 
 original constituents of the oceanic mud ; for there are no 
 traces anywhere to be found of either ancient or modern 
 volcanic action in the Great Valley, to supply sulphur.* 
 The amount of sulphur also, in any specimen of slate is so 
 small that we must suppose it derived from the sea water 
 
 Silica, .... 
 
 55.880 
 
 1. 
 60.530 
 
 2. 3. 
 59.630 59.260 
 
 Alumina, 
 Oxide of iron, 
 Lime, 
 Magnesia, 
 Water, 
 Alkalies, 
 
 19.400 
 10.570 
 .080 
 1.710 
 8.170 
 3.760 
 
 17.400 
 9.290 
 .080 
 1.920 
 5.510 
 5.270 
 
 18.560 19.877 
 .8.571(a) 10.071(6) 
 .672 .250 
 2.252 1.917 
 4.560 3.600 
 5.109 4.855 
 
 Sesquiox. manganese, . 
 Sulphuric acid, .... 
 Phosphoric acid, .... 
 
 
 
 .290 
 .123 .012 
 .279 .058 
 
 99.570 100.000 100.046 
 
 (a) and (6) are sesquioxide of iron. 
 
 Dr. Genth's analysis of the blackish Peach Bottom roofing slate, the red 
 dish white and the greyish white damourite slates of Lehigh county (Re- 
 port B, page 126) show that the green specimens had more iron than the 
 reddish. 
 
 * The two trap dykes which cross the valley, one in Cumberland county 
 and one in Berks county, are of so local a character that they need not be 
 considered.
 
 CHARACTER OF FORMATION NO. III. 565 
 
 above, rather than from the earth-crust beneath the oceanic 
 mud. But if it came from the sea waters it must be as- 
 cribed to sea vegetation ; about which however we know 
 very little, because the marks which that vegetation has 
 left on the slate rocks are few and indistinct, especially so 
 along the slate belt of the Great Valley. In New York 
 state however great numbers of what seem to be sea-weed 
 forms are found in the Hudson river slate formation No. 
 III. At all events, we know that the ocean waters in that 
 age swarmed with innumerable living things called grap- 
 tolites ; and if these were more animal than vegetable, still 
 it is not to be supposed that the waters were not quite as 
 prolific of other kinds of more strictly vegetable life, and 
 in sufficient quantity to furnish all the sulphur required to 
 explain the analyses. Much of this vegetation was prob- 
 ably of microscopic size and infinite fecundity. We can- 
 not otherwise account for the sustenance of the innumer- 
 able swarms of animals which then populated the sea; es- 
 pecially the free-swimming trilobites^ 6f all sizes from an 
 inch to a foot in length. But besides trilobites there was 
 the greatest abundance of other kinds of animals chain 
 corals, star fish, shell fish of many kinds as well as flesh- 
 eating cuttle fish * in other regions of the ocean, if not in 
 the part of it which is now Pennsylvania. And a few frag- 
 ments of land plants have been found, which compels us to 
 believe that rivers brought plenty of decayed vegetation into 
 ths sea, and therefore a percentage of sulphur. And of 
 course the same rivers must have brought down to the sea 
 the mud out of which our great slate formation was made. 
 The continent must have been large from which so much 
 mud was manufactured ; and the rivers must have been 
 huge which brought so much stuff to the sea. Its fineness 
 shows that the mouths of these rivers were at a great dis- 
 tance ; and probably there were vast deltas, mud-flats. If 
 so, it is impossible not to imagine them covered with some 
 sort of salt water vegetation, and that will help to account 
 for the abundance of such shell fish as liked the shallows. 
 
 * A rather dangerous term for popularizing the designation Cephalopod ; 
 but one can do no better.
 
 566 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 That the deltas and shallows must have been at a great dis- 
 tance from the present site of our Great Valley is evident ; 
 for it is impossible to suppose 5000 or 6000 feet of mud to 
 have been deposited in any but a deep sea basin ; for if the 
 shores had been near, some of the earlier and middle beds 
 would have been of coarse sand and gravel ; but none such 
 were deposited until the basin had become well filled and 
 the shores approached nearer by some change of the world's 
 ocean level ; then indeed, the upper flagstones of No. Ill 
 were deposited over the older fine muds ; and finally the 
 off-shore shingle of No. IV (Oneida conglomerate and 
 Medina sandstone) was spread overall. 
 
 These considerations are offered here not for the purpose 
 of settling scientific questions still under discussion among 
 geologists ; but to familiarize the minds of readers of this 
 report with the extent and complexity of our geological 
 phenomena ; and to illustrate the value of the practical rule 
 to keep all the facts in view for explaining each one. 
 
 Quartz veins are very numerous in many parts of the 
 slate belt. They are seldom more than an inch or so thick 
 and usually cut across the beds, but often insert themselves 
 between the slates. 
 
 The substance matter of these veins, which is now so 
 glassy and brittle, was originally fluid, and deposited itself 
 in any open crack or fissure in the rocks, however small. 
 This fact was practically discovered by Dr. Graham of Lon- 
 don about 20 years ago, when he succeeded in separating 
 silica in a jelly-like state from other elements with which 
 it is commonly combined as a hard rock. Graham's gel- 
 atinous silica (or fluid quartz) can now be made by any 
 chemist and kept in bottles for a long time before it will 
 harden into quartz. Nature has been manufacturing it in 
 all ages and in immense quantities, and has put it to sev- 
 eral particular uses, one of which is to make gems like the 
 precious opal, etc.;* but chiefly to heal the wounds of the 
 
 *A beautiful example of the use which Nature makes of gelatinous silica 
 is the production of a kind of opal above a bamboo joint These lens-shaped 
 stones, called tabasheer, are sold for "madstones" or "snakestones" in 
 India. See G. F. Kunz's paper on " Madstones and their Magic " in Science, 
 Vol. XVIII, No. 459, Nov. 20, 1891, page 286.
 
 CHARACTER OF FORMATION" NO. III. 567 
 
 rock formations after earthquakes, to fill up all the cracks 
 opened in the strata (when compressed and folded and 
 foliated like those of the slate belt) with vein quartz. 
 
 The material out of which nature manufactured the fluid 
 quartz is indicated by the analyses on page 564 above. 
 
 The specimen of Delaware gap roofing slate (A), when 
 analyzed, was found to be more than one-half silica. The 
 other specimen (B) was about two-thirds silica. In fact, 
 taking the whole slate belt of the great valley together, if 
 we could analyze it as a single specimen, we should proba- 
 bly get from it about 60 PER CENT of silica, 20 PER CENT 
 of alumina and the remaining 10 PER CENT would be lime, 
 magnesia, soda, potash, iron, carbon, sulphur, oxygen, hy- 
 drogen, with traces of other rarer elements. 
 
 Thus we see that the original mud deposit was mainly 
 silicate of alumina derived from the wear and tear of feld- 
 spar rocks on some distant continent. But a certain extra 
 amount of silica came from the wear and tear of silicate 
 rocks not feldspar ; and this extra amount was an availa- 
 ble reserve for the natural manufacture of vein quartz after 
 a long lapse of time.* For the veins had to be opened be- 
 fore they could be filled. The original mud had no fissures 
 in it. When the bed of the sea was lifted into the air, 
 dried, hardened, folded and fissured, the deposit of vein 
 quartz took place. The whole mass was still warm as well 
 as wet, not merely warm but hot,+ and must have remained 
 so for an indefinite number of ages since the cooling could 
 take place only at the surface of the whole mass, now 
 elevated 30,000 feet above its former level. The sea water 
 still resident throughout the mass shared the high temper- 
 ature of the mud deposits, dissolved a portion of their 
 silica, and filled the cracks with vein quartz. 
 
 * Of course the above statement is too short and simple to be in any sense 
 complete. Chemists and geologists will fill it out for themselves. But 
 some true and easily-seized notion of the genesis of quartz veins ought to 
 be given to the uninitiated. 
 
 f The law of increase of heat downwards from the surface, at the rate of 1 
 F. per 60' depth (added to the local invariable annual mean temperature 
 ten feet beneath the surface) would give the rocks of No. Ill before eleva- 
 tion a temperature of melting lead, 635 F.
 
 568 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 This operation, taking place throughout the whole 3000 
 feet of uplifted deposits, would have different results in the 
 different formations. In the sand and gravel deposits 
 (Potsdam, Medina, Oneida, Oriskany, Pocono, Pottsville) 
 the silica would be deposited between the grains and pebbles, 
 cementing them into a solid sheet or stratum of quartzite, 
 sandrock, or conglomerate.* The mud deposits would not 
 only be cemented, but cut with transverse and longitudinal 
 quartz veins. The lime muds would receive quartz veins in 
 abundance (as we see in the present surface sections), but 
 an infinitely greater number of calcite veins the supply 
 of silica being limited, and the supply of carbonate of lime 
 unlimited. 
 
 Meanwhile the tearing down of the elevated mass in the 
 regions of eternal frost went on, and formation after forma- 
 tion was washed away, continually producing a lower and 
 lower upper surface, until the present surface level has been 
 reached; and still the waste goes on, and still the surface 
 gets nearer and nearer to sea level. 
 
 The quartz veins of the swept away upper portions of the 
 mass, have been carried off with the rest, into the Atlantic. 
 But the tops of the quartz veins which are at the present sur- 
 face strew the ground with fragments underneath where they 
 once existed as solid veins. This accounts for the quanti- 
 ties of quartz fragments which are found lying on the pres- 
 ent surface in many places along the slate belt. For ex- 
 ample, on the Jordan in Low Hill township Lehigh county 
 the ground is covered with pieces of quartz (See D3, p. 124, 
 No. 187). A few miles south of this the veins of quartz 
 show in the slates (No. 190, p. 124). In most of the slate of 
 that region, quartz veins are abundantly numerous, and 
 some of them are quite large, like the one noted in D3, page 
 105, No. 96, at the Northampton Slate Quarry. The inser- 
 tion of the quartz between the laminae of a slate beds, that 
 is, following its lines of cleavage, is noted in D3, p. 122, 
 No. 175, at the North Peach Bottom Company's quarry. 
 
 * This is a fair way of accounting for the general quartzite aspect of the 
 lowest, hottest and most compressed formation No. I, as compared with the 
 higher, cooler and less compressed coarse strata of the Coal measures, No. 
 XIII.
 
 CHARACTER OF FORMATION NO. III. 569 
 
 Flag stone layers occur in the Slate formation No. Ill, 
 and many small quarries have been opened along the slate 
 belt both in New Jersey and Pennsylvania; some of them 
 in connection with the roofing slate quarries (to be described 
 farther on) some of them having apparently nothing to do 
 with the roofing slate strata. 
 
 The sand deposits which made these flagstone layers, were 
 in some few places so coarse as to deserve the name of gravel 
 beds, or conglomerate rocks, although the pebbles in them 
 are all small. For instance, there is a pretty high ridge 
 of land two miles long south of Slatington in Lehigh county, 
 made rocky by loose fragments of a conglomerate.* But 
 where the rocks are exposed on the Lehigh river, they con- 
 sist of fine-grained sandstone, in a series of beds, none of 
 them more than four feet thick, 40 feet of them being visi- 
 ble and the rest concealed (See D3, p. 114, No. 142). 
 
 As a rule the sandstone beds in the slate belt are fine- 
 grained and thin-bedded. That they are very numerous, 
 and are separated by slate beds can be seen wherever the 
 belt is not too much folded. A very good exhibition the 
 purpose is made in Berks county, Albany township, where 
 the rocks are vertical. Here 500 feet of fine sandstones and 
 dark gray slates can be measured (see D3, p. 126). f 
 
 Sometimes both the sandstone and the slate beds all have 
 a greenish hue. Such a belt crosses the Schuylkill river 
 at Hamburg (D3, p. 128 to 133)4 Sometimes the slates 
 are olive colored or red, as already mentioned. Red slates 
 at various places along the Hamburg belt strike so as to 
 come between the sandstone outcrops. || The flagstone 
 strata quarried in the northeast corner of Perry township, 
 Berks county, roll so as to connect them with the red slate 
 exposures (No. 244). On the other hand the quarries about 
 
 * Dr. T. Sterry Hunt was so much impressed by this exhibition of coarse 
 and massive strata in the midst of the slate belt, as to imagine it a proof of 
 the far greater age of the formation, oil grounds which it is not necessary 
 here to discuss. 
 
 t See also p. 113, No. 133, on the Lehigh ; also, the Emanuel Church hill 
 in Northampton county covered with thin sandstones, p. 105 D3. 
 
 JSee also north of Seeberlingville, page 126, No. 198. 
 
 || No. 236.
 
 570 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Shoemakersville do not seem to have a connection with the 
 red slate belt (No. 250, 251). 
 
 It looks as if the upper part of the slate formation No- 
 Ill furnishes most of the flaggy sandstone strata. There 
 are quarries in Berks county where the strata dip 65 to- 
 wards the south, in a line which would carry them west 
 into the spur of the North mountain. It is hardly possible 
 therefore to assign them a position more than 1000 feet or 
 so below the top of No. III. The flags taken out here (at 
 J. Gilt's, D3, No. 205) have rough faces, but dress up well. 
 
 It is not safe to conclude however that the flagstone 
 strata are confined to the upper part of the formation. They 
 may probably be found in all parts of it. The massive 
 flaggy sandstone outcrops south of Smiths ville in Berks 
 county are in the line of the red slate belt ; and yet there 
 are argillaceous limestone beds near them (No. 222, 223). 
 
 The mineralogical poverty of No. III. 
 
 The mineral wealth of the Great Valley is concentrated in 
 its southern or limestone belt. The northern or slate belt 
 is a farming district, of a fertility varying with the more 
 or less sandy quality of the different layers of slate which 
 come to the surface along narrow lines parallel to the sides 
 of the valley. 
 
 As the slate formation is several thousand feet thick 
 everywhere along the Great Valley ; it might be expected 
 that at least some of this huge series of layers would be 
 valuable to the mining interests of the country. Not so, 
 however. A few thin layers of poor limestone, or limy 
 slate alone appear to attract attention. Not a single min- 
 eral ore is to be found in the whole extent of slate belt of 
 the valley. Not even a bed of iron ore of any kind what- 
 ever worth shafting on has ever been seen or is likely to 
 be ever seen. The whole formation seems to have been de- 
 posited in deep oceanic waters, and what metallic salts were 
 deposited with the mud and fine sand remain disseminated 
 through the whole so as to be practically worthless in a 
 strictly mineral sense.
 
 CIIVKACTKK OF FORMATION NO. III. i)71 
 
 Neither Oil nor Gas in No. HI. 
 
 Of late it has become necessary to give warning that 
 neither oil nor gas is to be found by any amount of boring 
 anywhere in the Great Valley. 
 
 Since the wonderful development of gas and oil at Lima 
 and other towns of Western Ohio and Indiana from the 
 Trenton limestone a thousand projects have been formed 
 to exploit the Trenton in Middle Pennsylvania by boring 
 down to it through the overlying slates. Some of these 
 vain projects have disregarded the commonest rules of pros- 
 pecting. For example, a well was bored north of Harris- 
 burg where the slates stand vertical ! No attention was paid 
 to the fact that the bore hole if vertical itself must neces- 
 sarily keep down always in the same rocks in which it 
 started, at least until they turned to take a north dip. It 
 would probably require a depth of between 10,000 and 
 20,000 feet for that well to strike the Trenton limestone 
 which crops out at Harrisburg ; where moreover it raises 
 no suspicion of oil or gas. 
 
 A little science is a dangerous thing. It usually resides 
 in words and names. The Trenton limestone has yielded 
 vast quantities of gas and some oil in Ohio and Indiana; 
 why not in Pennsylvania? Simply because the Trenton in 
 Ohio and Indiana lies on almost a dead level, and far enough 
 under ground (1000-2000 feet) to preserve its gas from es- 
 caping until bore-holes are provided. In the Great Valley, 
 on the contrary, as every farmer must know who opens a 
 quarry on his farm, the limestone beds have been upturned, 
 even overthrown, crushed, crumpled and broken into frag- 
 ments, and in that condition they reach the surface. Why 
 is the limestone belt scarce of water? Because the up- 
 turned and broken beds easily permit the rainwater to de- 
 scend to caverns which ramify beneath the valley in all di- 
 rections. Of course the ascent of oil, and still more of gas, 
 must be equally easy. If the Trenton in our State ever 
 had any store of the precious mineral it has lost that whole 
 store long ago. There can be none left. We have no evi- 
 dence that it ever had any.
 
 572 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 No one but an expert geologist can compare two fields 
 so as to say that they are alike, or if they differ how they 
 differ ? Twin sons of one father may resemble each other 
 so closely that they pass for one another in common so- 
 ciety ; yet one may be ignorant and the other learned ; the 
 one a poor man and the other a millionaire. These are mat- 
 ters of original constitution, and still more of circumstance. 
 Just so with rocks of the same name, age and character, 
 but either deposited under different conditions, or subse- 
 quently subjected to different adventures. The flat lying 
 Trenton of the west is like the titled nobleman heir to 
 princely estate which has remained unspoiled and still 
 abounds for him. The Chambersburg Trenton is like a 
 younger son who has spent his patrimony, whatever that 
 was, in riotous living, and there is no more of it.* 
 
 Iron ore in the body of the Hudson river formation No. 
 JIJ, in its 500 miles extent of outcrop in Pennsylvania, is 
 almost unknown. The great limonite deposits of Ironton, 
 Moselem, and Leathercracker Cove are below the base of the 
 formation. And yet in Eastern New York beds of carbon- 
 ate of iron, partly crystallized into spathic iron ore, partly 
 weathered into limonite, are extensively mined, f 
 
 * "CHAMBERSBURG, PA., July 25, 1887. An effort is now being made in 
 this place to secure subscriptions for boring for natural gas. A number of 
 Chambersburg people who have visited the gas-producing districts of Ohio 
 believe that gas can be found underneath the surface here, because of the 
 marked similarity of some sections of this county to the gas fields in Ohio. 
 Subscription books are now being circulated over the town, and it is thought 
 the necessary amount needed for the experiment, about three thousand dol- 
 lars, can be obtained. Much interest is displayed in the project, for if gas 
 should be found manufactories would undoubtedly spring up in large num- 
 bers, and the future of Chambersburg would be almost beyond estimate." 
 
 fSee Siderite basins of the Hudson River Epoch, by James P. Kimball, in 
 Amer. Jour. Science, August, 1890, p. 155. They lie about a mile east of the 
 Hudson river, between Catskill and Germantown RR. stations, Avest of 
 Copake, in a range parallel with Taconic hills, and are plicated, some of the 
 anticlinals being overthrown and compressed westward (giving E. dips). 
 One section reads : Dense fissile slate, weathering white, 200'-f ; brecciated 
 sandstone (ferro-calcareons) 161' ; sandstone passing into conglomerate 
 (ferro-calcareous) 120' ; black slate and sandy shale (interbedded) 50' ; grits 
 (ferro-calcareous, seamed with calcite) 48'; carbonate of iron (clay iron-
 
 CHARACTER OF FORMATION NO. III. 573 
 
 stone, siderite, sometimes spathic) 44' ; grey slate (weathering into drab 
 shale in the river bluffs) 662, to the bottom of boring No. 1 ; 1300 in all. 
 These lower slates, which, as Hall and Mather maintained (against Em- 
 mons) are Hudson river slates, have afforded Hudson river fossils to Mr. 
 T. Nelson Dale near Poughkeepsie. (Am. Jour. Sci. XVII, 1979, page 377.) 
 The ore body is a group of clay iron stone layers separated by more or less 
 ferruginous and calcareous shaly layers, the whole group varying from 8 to 
 60 feet, and evidently deposited in separate sea side lagoons, into which riv- 
 ulets from the hornblende gneiss country brought magnesian deposits.
 
 574 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 The roofing slate beds of No. 111. 
 
 These are what give an economical value to the forma- 
 tion, and redeem the slate belt of the Great Valley (geo- 
 logically speaking) from almost utter barrenness. Were it 
 not for its roofing slate quarries, one-half of the Great Val- 
 ley would be merely farming land, without mineral wealth 
 of any kind beneath the soil. 
 
 At present, however, there are no roofing slate quarries 
 in the Great Valley except at its eastern end in Lehighand 
 Northampton counties, and in New Jersey. It is even 
 doubtful whether or not the beds of roofing slate continue 
 to range through the formation west of the Schuylkill 
 river. The signs of their existence in Lebanon, Dauphin, 
 Cumberland and Fayette counties are very scanty, al- 
 though, here and there, what look like well laminated slate 
 beds do crop out ; as for example on Conodoguinit creek ; 
 where, however, the slate is spoiled with pyrites.* 
 
 It is, therefore, of considerable importance to ascertain 
 all the geological facts which bear upon the place of the 
 roofing slate beds in the formation where we know them 
 to exist, in order that their outcrops may be traced along 
 the valley where their existence has not yet been certified. 
 
 0??, the Delaware rive?' Formation No. Ill appears divisi- 
 ble into two series: an upper, and a lower. 
 
 TJie upper series, mostly consisting of thicker beds (from 
 one foot to many feet thick each) may be considered as oc- 
 cupying say 1540 feet of the whole thickness of the forma- 
 tion, f 
 
 The lower series, mostly consisting of thin beds (less than 
 
 *At Alton's mill. See Rogers, Geol. Pa., 1868, Vol. 1. 
 
 f Measured by Dr. Chance, and Mr. Sanders, from the base of No. IV in 
 the Delaware water gap down to Williams' old slate quarry.
 
 THE ROOFING SLATE BEDS OF NO. III. 575 
 
 one foot in thickness) occupies the remaining say 3700 feet, 
 down to the limestone of No. II. * 
 
 But this subdivision of the formation is not founded upon 
 any other distinction than the one apparent fact that there 
 is a general tendency to heavy beds in the upper, and thin 
 beds in the lower parts of the formation. As for the mate- 
 rial itself there seems to be no good ground for the distinc- 
 tion. The whole mass, 5240 feet (and probably more) in 
 thickness, consists of beds infinitely various in thickness, 
 from 30 feet down to the hundredth of an inch beds of slate, 
 nearly all of the same uniform dark grey or bluish-black 
 color, both coarse-grained and fine-grained with occasional 
 beds of sandstone, which are not persistent but either run 
 out in a short distance or change into ordinary slate beds.f 
 
 In the section along the eastern bank of the Delaware 
 river (see page 554) two slate quarries are shown, one on 
 beds which come 1000 feet below the bottom sandstone of 
 No. IV; the other 2350 feet below it4 
 
 The interval of 1350' would represent the extreme thick- 
 ness of the roofing-slate zone in the formation if no other 
 quarry beds exists still lower, that is in the remaining 3000 
 feet of the formation down to the limestone. But of this 
 we cannot be sure, and in fact have reason to doubt, as will 
 presently appear. 
 
 On the Leliigfi river the section is not so simple, and 
 measurements are not so easy.|| Here a broken arch in the 
 slates has given rise to a fault, of unknown upthrow, half 
 a mile in front of the center of the gap, which cuts off all 
 
 * Measured from opposite Belvidere, up the west bank of the Delaware to 
 R. Shock's. See Report D3, Vol. I, p. 85. 
 
 f Dr. Chance remarks (D3, p. 150) that the foreman of the quarry on the 
 Xew Jersey side informed him that the diamond saiv used there for sawing 
 out slabs showed that the diamonds were more rapidly worn away by the 
 fine-grained than by the coarse-grained slate. These saws cut through the 
 slate at the rate of 1 inch in 5 minutes, 50 strokes forward per minute (D3, 
 p. 103). 
 
 % This section, constructed by Dr. Chance from data obtained by him in 
 making his contour map of the Water Gap, will be found on page 159 of 
 Report D3 ; the section along the west bank of the river on page 157; the 
 map in Report G6. 
 
 i| See Dr. Chance's section on page 554 above, and map in G6.
 
 576 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 measurements down from No. IV after the first 1000 to 
 1500 feet.* Other rolls of considerable magnitude traverse 
 the slate belt between the fault and theSlatington quarries, 
 which are between 2 and 2| miles from the center of the gap.f 
 Then we get the crumpled roofing slate belt 810 feet thick; 
 which, although crumpled, can be measured with much cer- 
 tainy4 But the country south of Slatington, between the 
 quarries and the limestone is so full of folds that no meas- 
 urement of strata is possible; therefore the real height of 
 the lowest Slatington quarry-bed above the limestone, can- 
 not be made out. 
 
 All that we can say then is (1) that the uppermost part 
 of the great slate formation at the Lehigh water gap con- 
 sists of hard sandy slate beds, alternating with steel colored 
 fine-grained sandstones, beneath which come soft, shaly, 
 bluish-black slates; (2) that more than 1000' down from the 
 top of the formation lies a zone of roofing slates at least 
 1500' thick; and (3) that underneath this comes a vast rib- 
 bon-slate series. 
 
 The Slatington roofing slate zone is itself made up of 
 groups of beds of very various qualities, each group con- 
 sisting of irregularly arranged thick and thin beds, some 
 of which (both- of the thick and thin beds) have the roofing- 
 slate character. 
 
 This section could never have been made out but for the 
 extensive exploitation of many of the beds, several of which 
 are brought to the surface again and again by the rolling 
 
 * Even the thickness of the slate between No. IV and the fault is uncertain 
 owing to small rolls at the base of the mountain; but it cannot be less than 
 1000', nor more than 1500'. 
 
 f Mr. Sanders has endeavored to adjust these rolls in his long section, 
 underneath the Slatington section. 
 
 J See the Slatington section on plates L and LI, p. 554 above. 
 
 Dr. Chance expresses the opinion that between the fault at Slatington 
 the crumpling is so great as to suggest a possibility that the rooting slate 
 belt may be near the bottom of the formation (No. Ill) and therefore not 
 far above the limestone (No. II). But the continuation of the Slatington 
 belt westward near the foot of the mountain to be described directly, and 
 the measurements at the Delaware water gap already given, seem to make 
 it quite necessary to place theSlatington beds in the upper half of the forma- 
 tion (D3, Vol. I, p. 151).
 
 THE ROOFIXG SLATE BEDS OF NO. III. 577 
 
 of the measures, as shown in plate L, on p. 544 above, the 
 most important consecutive section in the Great valley.* 
 
 Its great value consists in its proving conclusively, (1) 
 that the roofing-slate zone of the formation is (here at least) 
 1500 feet thick ; (2) that in this zone lie many different beds 
 of workable slate, some small, others of great size ; (3) that 
 although the zone is crumpled the roofing-slate beds hold 
 their special character over a space sufficient to allow them 
 to appear again and again at the present surface ; (4) that 
 the top of the zone is more than 1000' down from the top 
 of the slate formation No. Ill ; and therefore (5) that the 
 bottom of the zone must be a long way up from the top of 
 the limestone formation No. II. 
 
 The section has moreover a peculiar value for geologists 
 since (6) it shows what a small percentage of the whole 
 thickness of No. Ill its roofing-slate beds make, even where 
 those peculiar deposits make their best show. But to the 
 business world this is an unimportant consideration. Just 
 as a few five and ten foot coal beds in 3000 feet of coal meas- 
 ures, if accessible over an extensive region, can make the 
 fortune of a whole commonwealth, so a few ten and twenty 
 foot roofing-slate beds in 5000 feet of slate formation may 
 suffice to supply an extensive commerce; although all com- 
 parisons between the two cases in the matter of supply and 
 demand must necessarily be omitted. f 
 
 The roofing slate beds differ from the slate strata among 
 which they lie (1) by the special fineness of mud out of 
 which they were made ; and (2) by the special closeness 
 and evenness of the cross cleavage. All the slates of No. 
 Ill are more or less foliated ; but the roofing slates are 
 so delicately and evenly foliated (not parallel to the bed 
 planes, but across them at various angles) that they can 
 be split apart into school-slates, roof-slates, billiard-table 
 slabs, mantle pieces, and fine flags of various market values. ^ 
 
 *And yet it is imperfect, inasmuch as its continuity is broken by three 
 concealed intervals of 100', 60' and 100' ; besides the indefiniteness of its up- 
 permost 400' "which includes large known workable beds." 
 
 1 30, 000 tons of slates is a fair annual shipment from the Slatington district ; 
 50,000,000 tons of coal from the anthracite region. 
 
 JSee the commercial tables in D3, p. 144 to 146. 
 37
 
 578 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The belt of quarries extends 30 miles across Northampton 
 and Lehigh counties. Numerous towns and villages have 
 sprung up along the belt between East Bangor within 5 
 miles of the Delaware river, and Slatedale 3 miles west of 
 the Lehigh river. Branch railroads have been made for 
 their service ; and new localities are being all the time ex- 
 plored. The belt is wide and the outcrops numerous. Some 
 of the quarries are within a mile of the North mountain ; 
 others (Chapman's for instance) are five miles from the 
 mountain, and two miles from the edge of the limestone 
 of No. II. Isolated quarries have even been opened within 
 a mile from the edge of the limestone belt. But all the 
 successful quarries seem to belong to the Slatington zone, 
 the outcrops of which repeat themselves in parallel lines, 
 with alternate north and south dips, over a geographical 
 belt of surface varying in width from one to three miles 
 according to the number of the rolls and the flatness or 
 steepness of the dips. 
 
 But as yet there is no proof that any one of the quarry 
 beds extends for 30 miles or for 10 miles along the zone. 
 The continuance for any distance of the special roofing 
 slate quality of any layer or group of layers in the slate 
 formation is only determined for the individual quarries, 
 or immediately adjoining quarries. It is not certain there- 
 fore that a fine quarry bed may not exist along a line of 
 ordinary and worthless layers. Every exposure should 
 therefore be tested for itself. The place of a coal bed in 
 the coal measures is a good guide for the coal prospector ; 
 but there is as yet no satisfactory proof of the fact that the 
 place of a slate bed in the section (if discoverable) is a sure 
 guide for the slate prospector. 
 
 Even the continuance of the Slatington zone as a whole 
 along the Great Valley westward beyond the Schuylkill is 
 a matter of doubt. Roofing slate quarries have been opened 
 in the northeastern part of Berks county which undoubt- 
 edly belong to the Slatington zone ; but no roofing slate 
 quarries have been opened in western Berks, in Lebanon, 
 Dauphin, Cumberland or Franklin counties. The expla- 
 nation of the fact may be a geological one, viz : that the
 
 THE ROOFING SLATE BEDS OF NO. III. 579 
 
 Slatington zone thins away and vanishes in Berks county, 
 going west. Or the explanation may be a financial one, 
 viz : that exploration confines itself to the neighborhoods 
 in which capital has been planted along the lines of already 
 constructed railroads, etc., within near and easy reach of 
 the principal markets. Thus far, no inducement for ex- 
 ploring the slate belt of the valley has been sufficiently 
 strong to divert capital invested in the roofing slate manu- 
 facture into new channels and to distant districts. The cost 
 of testing the value of a new coal opening is inconsiderable. 
 The cost of testing the real value of a slate outcrop for roofing 
 slate quarry purposes is a serious consideration. It requires 
 the eye of an experienced slate miner to pass judgment 
 upon a slate outcrop as to whether there is a likelihood that 
 the bed will furnish roofing slate at a considerable depth 
 underground ; and the actual profitableness of a slate quarry 
 is never known until extensive quarrying has been done. 
 This the great number of abandoned quarries sufficiently 
 demonstrates. 
 
 Even where the qualities of fineness and foliation (split- 
 ability) is possessed by a roofing slate bed, it is sometimes 
 made worthless by a want of evenness. The excessive 
 crumpling of the slate belt applies sometimes to the mi- 
 nutest details of a quarry, and quarries have been aband- 
 oned because the slates are twisted or warped, and there- 
 fore worthless.* 
 
 The ribbon structure of the roofing slate beds is their 
 most striking peculiarity. The ribbon pattern seems to 
 cross the beds ; but in fact it shows the real bedding of the 
 original deposits, and has been itself subsequently crossed 
 by the cross-cleavage, or slaty foliation, produced by the 
 tremendous side pressure at the time of the folding of the 
 formation. f 
 
 The ribbon pattern is made by the different colors of 
 
 * The Flynn quarry is said to have been abandoned for this reason (see 
 D3, p. 104, 109). See also the bent slates in the Blue Vein quarry, p. 117, No. 
 1566. On the Jordan the cleavage is described as curly (p. 124, No. 184). 
 
 fSee D3, p. 85; and Rogers' Geol. Pa. 1858, Vol. I, p. 248.
 
 580 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 the original muddy deposits, some gray, some black.* The 
 ribbons at the Newville slate company's quarry are " tight 
 and some of them jet black" (D3, No. 119). Those at the 
 Blue Vein quarry when they get under 30' or 40' of cover 
 become tight (No. 1566). An expert slate miner judges of 
 the value of slates partly by its ring.-\ 
 
 Westward extension of the roofing slates. 
 
 West of the Lehigh river the Slatington roofing slate beds 
 run on towards the Schuylkill. The old Diamond slate 
 quarry 4 miles west of Slatington (3 miles from the North 
 mountain) was worked to a depth of 250 feet and abandoned. 
 A quarry near Pleasant Corner (7 miles) is abandoned. The 
 Laurel hill quarry and Lynnport quarry (11 miles) are each 
 60' deep4 
 
 Near the Berks county line (15 miles) are the New Slate- 
 ville quarries, on the two sides of a roll, both on a bed 4' 
 thick and both abandoned. On the other side of the 
 county line in Berks county the Centennial quarry is 80' 
 deep ; and near it an abandoned quarry on a 20' bed. West 
 of this no roofing slates have been found, but flagstone 
 quarries have been opened. || 
 
 There arises then a practical question : how is the 
 roofing slate sub-division of the slate belt to be recognized 
 along the valley ? 
 
 (1) First, by its distance from the top or bottom of ths for- 
 mation, as described above, /. e. 1000' to 2000' beneath the 
 sandstone No. IV of the mountain crest, 2000' or 3000' 
 above the limestone. As the latter measurement is almost 
 
 * The best at the West Washington quarry is called "the grey bed" (D3, 98). 
 
 f Thin-bedded slates, dark blue, with a good ring (p. 113, No. 135). The 
 slates have a good ring, dark color and even cleavage (p. 114, No. 146). The 
 slates lei't on the pile are thick and have a poor ring (p. 109, No. ] 14) etc. 
 
 J The one lies one mile from the mountain the other two miles ; at the 
 first the dip is vertical which if it lasted all the way to the mountain would 
 make the bed 5000' below the sandstone; in fact the distance is much less. 
 
 These are 6000' from the sandstone outcrop. 
 
 [| In Albany township west of Kempdou ; in Perry township (half-way 
 between Leonhartsville and Virginsville) where 3' flags 10 feet long are 
 obtained ; and near Shoemakersville.
 
 THE ROOFING SLATE BEDS OF NO. III. 581 
 
 an impossibility on account of the folds in the middle 
 slate limestone zone of the valley the former measurement 
 (i. e. from the sandstone No. IV down) is the only one avail - 
 ble. When the dips in the foot hills of the mountain are 
 10 to 20, the roofing slate belt must be looked for a mile 
 or so from the mountain ; when the dips are 50 to 60, it 
 must be looked for close to the foot of the mountain slope. 
 
 But it must be remembered that the whole breadth of the 
 slate belt is so folded, that the roofing slate zone (if it exists) 
 will come to the surface several (or even many) times be- 
 tween the mountains and the edge of the limestone. 
 
 To show how important this consideration is we must go 
 back for a moment to Lehigh county. There are three places 
 west of the Lehigh river where roofing slate quarries have 
 been worked nearer the edge of the limestone than the 
 Slatington quarries are to the mountains; thus, in N. 
 Whitehall township (2m. S. W. of Laury's, P. O.) the North 
 Peach Bottom quarry (250x200' long and 90' deep) is only 
 f mile from the edge of the slate. Here the beds are flat, 
 but in a downfold, and therefore cannot lie more, than 2000' 
 above the limestone. 
 
 Again in S. Whitehall township between Orefield and 
 Crackenport is an abandoned quarry on Huckleberry ridge, 
 a long downfold (synclinal) of slate between two areas of 
 limestone and only f mile wide. Although the slates 
 are here vertical, there is only room for 1320' on both dips 
 or 760' on each dip. It seems as if we must insert a roofing 
 slate zone near the lower limit of the foundation. 
 
 Again, east of Seipstown, and 4 miles west of the last, 
 there is an old quarry not far back of the limestone edge, 
 dip 70. But here there is room enough for perhaps 2000' 
 of distance from the limestone up to the slate, 
 
 The truth seems to be that the main belt of roofing slate 
 runs along more than half-way up in the formation ; but 
 that there exists beds of roofing slate in the lower half of 
 the formation, some of which, in some neighborhoods, may 
 possess commercial] value. And this explains a fact first 
 noticed by the First Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, 
 and published by Prof. Rogers in his final report, Vol. 1,
 
 582 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 page 260: After saying that "in no part of the slate for- 
 mation" from the Susquehanna to Maryland " have the 
 strata the structure and cleavage to produce roofing slate, 
 he adds : ' ' The nearest approximation to that useful variety 
 yet seen occurs in the bed of the Conedoguinit, above 
 Alter' s Mill, where the rock is traversed by cleavage- 
 planes of tolerable regularity, but its usefulness is destroyed 
 by its containing sulphur et of iron." As the Conedoguinit 
 runs along the southern edge of the slate belt, and some- 
 times cuts a little into the limestone belt, these cleaved slates 
 must belong to the lower part of the slate formation No. III. 
 
 So in Franklin county 1 miles southeast of Orrstown on 
 the road from Orrstown to the railroad, there is a fine road- 
 cutting 30 feet long by 15 feet high which showed the 
 folded slates with a roofing slate cleavage at right angles 
 to the folds and the accompanying local map shows how 
 close the locality is to the southern border of the slate belt, 
 and therefore in the lower part of the formation. 
 
 Red slate, which is not rooting slate, has not been ob- 
 served in Northampton county ; nor in Lehigh county ex- 
 cept within a few miles of the Berks county line 1 m. 
 N. E. of Seiberlingsville in Weisenburg township No. 197, 
 D3, p. 155); but in Berks county it is frequently noticed 
 by Mr. Sanders, e. g. in Albany township, west o f Kemp- 
 don (No. 206) red slate spotted with green ; half a mile S. 
 of Kempdon (No. 208). 
 
 Notes on the Bangor slate belt. 
 
 By R. M. JONES. 
 
 At my request Mr. Jones addressed me the following 
 letter, embodying in his own way valuable information, 
 which it is natural that he the pioneer of this important 
 industry alone knows, or knows better than any one else. 
 
 BANGOR, October 10, 1S8J. 
 
 "According to my promise, I write to you concerning the 
 slate interests of our country, and particularly of Northamp- 
 ton countv
 
 THE ROOFING SLATE BEDS OF NO. III. 583 
 
 "The slate belt of Fail-haven and Paultney, Vermont, runs 
 through Middle Granville and Granville Corners in Wash- 
 ington county, N. Y. to Pawlet Wagen. In all the above 
 named places there are large and extensive quarries in full 
 operation. In this part of the belt the slates are of various 
 colors, viz: purple, green and red. This belt thence runs 
 through North Hoosick and Hoosick Falls in Rensselaer 
 county into Columbia county, N. Y. In this county the 
 stratum makes a large dip which runs under the bluestone 
 of the Hudson river division below Kingston, N. Y. This 
 dip is over sixty miles in extent. The slates are nothing in 
 all this distance but a conglomerate slate of no value what- 
 ever as slates. The finest slate of any value we will meet in 
 this stratum is in Sussex county, N. J., which is of an in- 
 ferior quality, properly belonging to the Chapman division, 
 what is called the wavy or ribbon slate adapted only for 
 local trade. In the north part of the stratum what are called 
 the Bangor slates are considered in England and the Conti- 
 nent (where they know what to look for in slates) the trade 
 mark of America, so much so that all slates shipped from 
 this country are called Bangor slates to gain credit and 
 reputation. The slates of Sussex and Warren counties 
 N. J. do not amount to much. We have made a close ex- 
 amination of the strata between the Delaware Water Gap 
 on the Jersey side through Warren and Sussex counties, 
 N. J., into Orange county, N. Y., and we find the article of 
 poor quality, more of the earthenware nature than slates, 
 lacking the principal quality of the right kind of slates for 
 roofing or school slates, which is toughness. There is an old 
 quarry at the Delaware Water Gap, one on the Jersey side of 
 the river, opened over sixty years ago by a gentleman named 
 O. Evans, a native of Carnarvonshire, North Wales. He 
 worked the quarry successfully for a number of years until 
 his death, and accumulated considerable property and 
 money through the working of this quarry. On the west 
 side of the Delaware river near the gap, nearly opposite the 
 Evans property, is another slate quarry near the village of 
 Slateford, in Northampton county, Pa. This is supposed to 
 be the oldest slate quarry in America, the quality of the
 
 584 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 slate is the same as in the Jersey part of the stratum ; the 
 stratum makes a southwest dip here of over live miles in 
 length, appearing and outcropping at the Boyer farm and 
 other places in that locality in that neighborhood. The 
 quality of the article in those places for roofing or school 
 slate is only ordinary. This stratum runs southwest through 
 the Brushy Meadows Valley, East Bangor, Bangor, Pen- 
 argyle and the Wind Gap. And right here I would say 
 that the great slate center of our state is destined to be be- 
 tween East Bangor and about one mile southwest of the 
 Wind Gap ; a belt of slates near ten miles in length from 
 northeast to southwest, and about one mile in width or thick- 
 ness from north to south. We have a number of quarries 
 opened and in course of opening in this section. The prin- 
 cipal quarries are the following: First, in East Bangor the 
 celebrated Seek-no-further property, the old Delp property 
 the Meyers, Bray and Short property, the Star slate quarry, 
 the Standard slate property, the Bangor Central, the Howell 
 property, the New Bangor quarries, the Old Bangor quar- 
 ries, the Bangor Royal, the Bangor Unison, the North Bangor 
 and the Washington slate property. All of these quarries 
 except the little Washington are in full operation ; and 
 there is more slate made in this section of the country than 
 in any other one part of the United States. And then we 
 must take into consideration that all these improvements 
 are of a very recent date. R. M. Jones started nearly all 
 these quarries since July, A. I). 1865. When he started the 
 Old Bangor quarry on the first of August, 1866, Bangor 
 under the name of the New Village contained less than 
 twenty inhabitants. Now it is made into a borough of near 
 three thousand souls ; and if all who work in the borough of 
 Bangor would live in it we would have a population of over 
 nine thousand inhabitants. Bangor was named after old 
 Bangor in Wales, and is considered by all the finest mining 
 town in the State of Pennsylvania. 
 
 "Two miles and half northwest of Bangor on this slate belt 
 is the town of Penargyl ; there is a very geart body of large 
 beds of slate in this locality. The cleavage in this place is 
 mostly horizontal, the ribbons pitching from 35 to 45
 
 THE ROOFING SLATE BEDS OP NO. III. 585 
 
 degrees southeast. When we talk about a bed of slates we 
 mean that portion of the rock that lays between ribbons 
 or black streaks that run across the cleavage and grain of 
 the slates. These streaks only occur in this stratum in 
 the slates of New Jersey and Pennsylvania ; there are no 
 rubbons or black streaks in this stratum in the States of 
 New York, Vermont or New Hampshire, nor Virginia ; but 
 we find the ribbon in part of the State of Maryland near 
 the Point of Rocks. There is much difference in the quality 
 of these ribbon slates. In some parts of the belt, especially 
 in the north part of this stratum the ribbon slates will not 
 do for roofing slate ; but the south part of the belt is well 
 adapted for roofing as a second quality of slates ; and the 
 fact of the matter is that all ribbons or wavy slates are 
 nothing more than second grade of roofing materials. Still 
 there is a large quantity of this kind of slate recommended 
 by architects in your city and some parts of the adjoining 
 counties. Some do it from ignorance of the true quality of 
 slates ; but the most of our architects specify this article of 
 roofing because it pays them to do it ; and th only way a 
 second quality of slates of this kind has succeeded so well 
 is by having percentage paid to that class of men who specify 
 what material shall be used for the buildings. When such 
 stuff is sent to England where they want first quality of 
 slates they are not accepted. 
 
 "At Pen Argyl two and one-half miles from Bangor there 
 are some very fine slate quarries opened by Jung & Co., 
 John & Rich, Jackson & Co., Stean, Jackson & Co. and 
 the Albion Slate Company, and Henry Fulmer. All these 
 quarries contain large beds of slates ; and slates can be pro- 
 duced in this section of the slate belt at from thirty to forty 
 per centum cheaper than at other localities on this stratum ; 
 because from a large bed of slate we can make large sizes of 
 slates. For instance, it only takes 98 slates of 24 x 14 to make 
 a square of slates (that covers 100 feet of roofing); while it 
 will take 533 slates of 12 inch by 6 inch slates to make a 
 square (or 100 feet) ; and while the mechanics are making 
 one square of 12x6 they will make five and one-half squares 
 of 24 X 14 inch slates. Hence the importance of selecting slate
 
 586 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 properties containing large beds of slate. In this part of 
 the stratum the slates are not adapted for school slates ; but 
 in the south part of this the mountain strata is where the 
 school slates can be procured. About one-half a mile south 
 of Pen Argyl on the Bangor and Portland Railroad a large 
 deposit of a very fine quality of school and roofing slates 
 was discovered by R. M. Jones of Bangor, Pa. at a place 
 called the Grand Central quarry which are of a fine texture 
 and very dark color. Also Mr. Jones has discovered a large 
 plant in the north part of the slate stratum of the Pen 
 Argyl division, which is about three miles southwest from 
 Pen Argyl. This is a large field for enterprise. The slate 
 stratum pitches like the waves of the sea. The general dips 
 are about three miles. And right here I would like to draw 
 your special attention to the fact that the same bed of slate 
 loses its strength and toughness in its outcropping. On the 
 down dip the article will split from the side across the grain 
 or cleavage readily, but on the outcropping it will not split 
 across the grain or cleavage at all. About one mile from 
 the Wind Gap southwest, the position of the ribbon changes 
 to nearly a vertical position, and keeps on that way princi- 
 pally all through Northampton county to the Lehigh river 
 at Walnutport ; and the cleavage dipping about seventy- 
 five degrees southeast. The stratum is much conglomerated 
 from the first mentioned points to the Lehigh river. There 
 are a few places in and between the aforesaid points where 
 good quarries are and may be opened. At the Little Gap 
 Hower & Son have a good slate property. About one and a 
 half mile southwest of the Howard quarry a good quarry 
 may be opened on the same beds. At Berlinsville there are 
 several quarries opened and in course of being opened. At 
 a place called Himbach several good quarries within about 
 two miles from Walnut Port are well adapted for both 
 school and roofing slates, but there is considerable con- 
 glomeration in the slate belt from the Wind Gap to Walnut- 
 port, and investments should be made with great care and 
 close examination of the premises. 
 
 ''The whole width of the slate belt from about one mile 
 above Siegfried's bridge on the Lehigh river to the Lehigh
 
 THE ROOFING SLATE BEDS OF NO. III. 587 
 
 Gap is near ni;ie miles, but in all that distance there is 
 not over three quarters of a mile of what might be termed 
 a No. 1 article of slates adapted for school and roofing 
 slates. This commences about a quarter of a mile below 
 the Queens hotel at Walnutport and runs up the river 
 towards the Lehigh Gap less than half a mile north of 
 Walnutport as we proceed northeast from Walnutport. 
 Beyond Berlinsville the good stratum is about a quarter 
 of a mile wider. From the Little Gap to the Wind Gap the 
 belt is much conglomerated and full of posts and crystals, 
 which makes it a very dangerous field to operate in."* 
 
 *Mr. Jones' letter is brought to a close with a beautiful verse of poetry in 
 the Lower Silurian language of Wales, the age of which is not quite so remote 
 as that of the slate belt, but nevertheless has this in common with it, that the 
 vowel foliation crosses and obscures the original consonantal stratification. 
 I would gladly give it here had I any friend at hand learned enough to verify 
 the orthography.
 
 588 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 The slate quarries of Northampton and Lehiqh counties 
 
 in 1882. 
 
 In 1883, Mr. Sanders' notes on the quarries of the slate 
 belt were published in report D3, Vol. I, pages 86 to 133. 
 No subsequent resurvey of the belt could be made, as the 
 corps were fully occupied in other counties. New opera- 
 tions, especially upon the Lehigh river above Slatington, 
 deserve description for which I have no data. The follow- 
 ing list and short mention of the quarries as they were be- 
 fore 1883 will suffice to show the character of the belt.* 
 
 In Northampton Co., Upper Mount Bethel township. 
 
 1. Washington Brown's Quarries, on the slope of the 
 mountain overlooking the Delaware, recently opened ; 75 X 
 75x40 feet; 600' below the Oneida sandstone; dip 25 N. 
 40 W. cleavage flat. The slates have a good color and 
 are smooth. 
 
 2. John Morrison's Quarry, at the foot of the steep 
 slope of the mountain, 800 to 900 feet below the Oneida ; 
 opened in 1877 ; 150x100 feet ; five to fifteen of Drift on 
 top of the slates, which are decomposed under the drift ; 
 dip 20, N. 40 W., cleavage flat. The beds are four feet 
 and under in thickness. 
 
 ?. J. W. Williams' Quarry, half a mile northwest of Slate- 
 ford ; 150x150x100; 30 to 50 feet of Drift on top, with 
 boulders 2 feet in diameter ; thickest bed 4 feet ; dip 20, 
 N. 10 W. ; cleavage 2, S. 10 E. At the factory the 
 ribbon slate is seen in the bed at the creek fifty feet below 
 the quarry. f 
 
 *The numbers are those in D3, and are found on the county maps of the 
 D3 atlas. They begin at the Delaware river and run in a general westward 
 order across Lehigh county into Berks. 
 
 fThis was the first slate quarry opened in Pennsylvania viz: by Mr. 
 Williams auout the year 1812. It is described in Prof. H. D. Rogers' Geol- 
 ogy of Pennsylvania, Vol. I, p. 248 as follows ; but the/cm^ is not now vis- 
 ble, being buried under water and debris.
 
 SLATE IN NORTHAMPTON AND LEHIGH COUNTIES. 589 
 
 4. Emory Pipher quarry, a few hundred yards west and 
 slightly below Morrison's quarry; abandoned; 200x100 
 feet ; beds seen small ; dip in the south and central part 
 of the quarry flat ; at the north edge 20, N. 40 W. ; 
 cleavage 20 south. 
 
 J. Snowden quarry. (Fig. 1 p. 548) This quarry owned 
 by H. P. Jones is 500 yards northwest of Williams quarry ; 
 150x150x40 ; 15' of drift on top. Two of the largest beds 
 are 14 and 12 feet thick ; cleavage 26 south. At the north 
 side of the quarry there is a fault showing, probably the 
 same fault as described by Prof. Rogers in the Williams 
 quarry ; beds south of the fault dip 40 north. Product in 
 1882 about 150 squares a month. Started in 1870. 
 
 6. The quarry (Fig. 2) worked by William Manus of 
 Scran ton, on Peter Fry's farm ; 300x100 feet and full of 
 water ; no large beds to be seen. 
 
 7. L. Or one" s farm, \% miles north-east of East Bangor, 
 a small abandoned quarry, 50x50x15; dip 20 N. 40 W., 
 with flat cleavage; largest bed 2 feet thick; cleavage twisted. 
 
 8. J. Oyer's farm, li miles north of East Bangor; 
 100 x 100 feet, full of water ; beds 3 feet thick and less ; 10 feet 
 of Drift; dip 10. N. 40 W. ; cleavage 20. S. 20 W. 
 
 9. Opposite Belvedere. The contact of the slates and 
 limestones on the Delaware river shows by a high ridge. 
 
 The dip is 70, S. 20 E. and the cleavage 25, S. 20 E. The 
 same dip shows for three quarters a mile up the river. 
 The slates are thin bedded, compacted together, making 
 solid beds, in some cases 10 feet thick, between loose rib- 
 bons. From the river road up north until the road lead- 
 ing from Centreville to Porterville is reached, nothing but 
 ribbon slates show. 
 
 11. C. Wolfs farm on Martin's creek half a mile east of 
 the township line, a small excavation ; dip 15, N. 40 E. ; 
 cleavage 60, S. 40 E. ; ribbon slates. 
 
 12. East Bangor quarry No. 3, Bry & Short; north 
 side of the railroad, east of the wagon road leading north 
 from East Bangor ; 150x50x50 ; dip 5, S. 40 W. ; cleav- 
 age 20, S. 10 W. ; beds rather small. 
 
 13. Old East Bangor quarry. Fisler & McKean ; across
 
 590 GEOLOGICAL SUKVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 the road from East Bangor No. 1 ; 250x150x50, with water 
 in the bottom; dip flat; cleavage 20, S. 10 W. ; largest 
 bed 3 feet thick. 
 
 14. East Bangor No. 2. Bry & Short, 300 yards west of 
 the old East Bangor quarry; 200x450x60; dip 10, N. ; 
 cleavage 20, south ; largest bed four feet. 
 
 15. East Bangor No. 1. Bry & Short, between East 
 Bangor No. 2 and the railroad ; 250x200x100 ; dip 20, N. 
 20 W. ; cleavage 20, S. 20 E. ; beds 16, 10 and 11 feet in 
 length along the cleavage. 
 
 16. Star quarry. Major Aims, 500 feet west of the East 
 Bangor No. 2; 200x200x50; cleavage 20, south. There 
 is an old quarry (not being worked) just south of this, on 
 the same beds as the East Bangor No. 1. 
 
 Washington township. 
 
 Colon Aims' quarry, close to the township line, on the 
 north side of the creek ; 100x50x40 ; with 10 to 20 feet of 
 Drift on top ; dip 25, N. 40 W. ; cleavage 20, S. 4 E. ; 
 beds all small. Some of the slates are made from single 
 beds, while others have two or more beds in them. The 
 slates made from the ribbon slate are mostly bent ; others 
 are good except a few which are slightly bent. 
 
 17. Bangor Central quarry, % mile west of the township 
 line on north side of creek; 200x100x40 feet deep; dip 
 25, N. 40 W. ; cleavage 10, S. 40 E. ; make slate out of 
 single beds, and from two or more beds ; some of them 
 slightly bent ; beds all small, 
 
 18. Bangor Old quarry, 500 feet west of the Bangor Cen- 
 tral ; side hill cut, 50 feet deep at the face, with from 15 to 
 30 feet of gravel on top ; dip 25, N. 40 E. ; cleavage 15, 
 S. 40 W. ; slates made from single beds and from two or 
 more beds ; some much bent. 
 
 19. Powell's quarry, on south side of railroad, f mile east 
 of Bangor ; side hill cut, 300 feet long, by from 50 to 100 
 feet broad, and 80 feet deep ; dip 25, N. 40 W. ; cleavage 
 15, S. 40 E. ; 5 to 15 feet of *Drift on top ; largest bed 4 
 feet. The slates on the dumps are made from one or more
 
 SLATE IN NORTHAMPTON AND LEHIGH COUNTIES. 591 
 
 beds ; all of these with two beds in them were bent, some 
 few of the others were also bent. 
 
 20. Bangor Valley quarry, a few hundred feet west of 
 Powell's quarry; 200x150x50 feet; dip 20, N. 50 W. ; 
 cleavage 10, S. 50 E. ; 5 to 10 feet of Drift on top ; largest 
 bed 3 feet ; quarry on top of the Bangor axis ; slates above 
 the Bangor slates. 
 
 21. Bangor quarry (Fig. 3), mile east of Bangor ; 600 x 
 400x130. A synclinal axis passing through the center of 
 it, about 70 feet below the surface ; the plane of the axis 
 dips 5 to the north, the cleavage also dips 5 north. There 
 is 30 feet of Drift on top of the south side of the quarry ; 
 largest bed 9' 6" ; synclinal axis pitches to the west, being 
 the same synclinal that shows in the Washington quarry 
 and the Bangor Union. The slate in the north end of the 
 quarry would come to the surface at the railroad, on a line 
 between the Washington and Bangor Union quarries. The 
 slate on the south side of the quarry probably shows in 
 the Washington quarry. There are 60 men engaged in quar- 
 rying, besides the drivers, engineers and splitters. The 
 quarry is worked by horses and carts and also by three cable 
 derricks run by separate engines. There are 42 shanties in 
 operation. (1882.) 
 
 82. Washington, quarry (Fig. 4), Fulmer & Wagner, just 
 west of the Bangor quarry ; 150 X 100 ; reported 70 feet deep ; 
 20 feet of Drift on top ; cleavage 12, N. 30 W. 
 
 23. Bangor Union quarry is some 250 x 250 x 130 feet deep 
 at the deepest place, with from 11 to 20 feet of Drift on the 
 surface ; largest bed 4 feet thick. The synclinal axis 
 which shows in the Bangor quarry also shows in this one, 
 but the plane of the axis dips slightly to the south instead 
 of to the north as in the Bangor. The quarry is worked by 
 5 cable derricks, which supply material to 20 shanties. The 
 derricks are run by one engine, which, working a line of 
 shafting, connects with the cable derricks by conical friction 
 wheels. The quarry is running on roofing and school slates. 
 Those slates made just below the turn of the axis are bent ; 
 the others are good. The beds in the quarry are tight and 
 some of the slates are made across the beds. (1882.)
 
 592 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 24- North Bangor No. 1 ; south-east corner 200 feet west 
 of the north-west corner of the Bangor Union ; 200x200x 
 40 ; 20 feet of Drift, and they make slate one foot below 
 it ; cleavage 10, S. 30 E ; dip 45, S. 30 E. ; two largest 
 beds 4 feet ; there is a bed measuring 10 feet along the 
 cleavage ; at the south end of the quarry this 10 foot bed 
 has two feet of rock on the top of it, making only 8 feet of 
 it workable. The beds show all the way across the floor of 
 the quarry ; all of them are under 4 feet in thickness. 
 
 .25. North Bangor No. 2, a few hundred feet north of 
 No. 1 ; 150x100, 40 feet deep ; dip 35, S. 30 E.; cleavage 
 15, S. 30 E. ; beds under 4 feet ; I was told there were two 
 measuring 12 feet in the quarry, but could not see them as 
 it was full of water. 
 
 26. North Bangor No. 3 (Fig. 5 p. 548 above), 200' north 
 of No. 2; side hill cut 150x200x100; of irregular shape 
 and worked at the centre of the synclinal axis ; plane of 
 axis dips 15, S. 30 E. ; cleavage dips the same. 
 
 27. Jacob O. Pystef 1 s quarry, one and a half miles S. E. 
 of Bangor, 50x50x20 feet ; cleavage 30, S. 30 E. 
 
 88. Two miles S. E. of Bangor, on the east side of Mar- 
 tin's creek, on P. Pysher's farm, is a small cut 50x30x30 ; 
 dip 10 N, ; cleavage 30 S. ; slates all thin bedded ribbon 
 slates. 
 
 29. True Blue slate quarry (Fig. 6, p. 548), on Martin's 
 creek 1 m. E. of Factoryville; irreg'ular, averaging about 150 
 X 150x80 ; at the face the structure is shown as in the fig- 
 ure ; in the cut the cleavage is 25 S. parallel to the plane 
 of the two axes. At the bottom of the cut a quartz vein 
 shows one foot thick dipping 25 S., spoiling the cleavage 
 for a short distance on each side of it. On the south-east 
 corner of the quarry a few small quartz veins show. The 
 slates are all thin bedded ; have a good metallic ring, but 
 those that have been exposed on the dump show signs of 
 bleaching. The quarry not being worked in 1882. 
 
 Lower Mt. Bethel township. 
 
 30. On Little Martin's CreeJc^ half a mile above the 
 school-house, ribbon slates show dipping 70 N.. with a
 
 SLATE IN NORTHAMPTON AND LEHIGH COUNTIES. 593 
 
 cleavage of 25 south. A quarter of a mile below the school- 
 house ribbon slates show with a flat dip and cleavage of 25, 
 S. 10 E. 
 
 32. In the bottom of a small hollow half a mile north- 
 west of Martin's Creek Post Office, there is a small aban- 
 doned quarry of ribbon slate ; dip 45, N. 20 W. ; cleavage 
 S. 20 E.* 
 
 Plainfield township. 
 
 3f. Hull's quarry, A. & O. T. Hull, 1 m. N.E. of Pen Ar- 
 gyl; 250xl50x- q O; 15' loose slate on top; dip at surface 
 68, S. 10 E. but steeper in the lower part of the quarry ; 
 cleavage 15, S. 10 E. ; two largest beds 10 and 7 feet thick ; 
 blocks come out even and split and sculp well ; not as much 
 waste as in the average run of quarries. 
 
 38 Pennsylvania quarry, at north end of Pen Argyl ; 250 
 X200 feet ; dip at N. end 55, N.3<) W., gradually flattening 
 southward ; cleavage 25, S. 30 E. Seventy feet from the 
 north end is a 20 foot bed ; some distance below this a 6 foot 
 bed ; rest of the beds smaller ; most of the ribbons tight. 
 
 39. Jory quarry, N. A. Jory &Co., 400x200x80 ; worked 
 in the center of a synclinal; dip slight in center of axis ; 
 plane of axis vertical ; cleavage horizontal.^ 
 
 *Just above the mouth of Martin's creek the contact of the slates and 
 limestones shows. The slates foi half a mile up the creek are seen dipping 
 slightly towards the north, and are very much contorted. The cleavage ia 
 Hat, the beds are small but not ribbon slate. Just east of where the road. 
 from Martin's creek crosses Mud run, vertical black slates show with a 
 horizontal clearatje. The largest bed is two feet thick. On the road lead- 
 ing down Mud run between Hutchinson <fe Kahler's an anticlinal shows in 
 the slates. The slates are ribbon slates. In the samecut two reins of quartz 
 show dipping steeply to the south. Just west of Hutchinson's ribbon slates 
 show dipping N. 20 W. Cleavage 40, S. 20 E. 
 
 The contact of II and III enters Forks township a few hundred yards 
 south of its north-east corner, and passes through the township in a south- 
 westerly direction, crossing Bushkill creek into Palmer township west of 
 the Lutheran church at Churchville. In Palmer township the junction 
 line is not well shown. The area covered by slates is a strip across the nor th- 
 em portion of the township half a mile wide. 
 
 *This is the only quarry in which the cleavage can be seen at right angles, 
 or any considerable angle to the plane of the axis. The beds worked are 
 not large, but the cleavage making such a large angle with the bedding, 
 large blocks can be taken out They were making about 25 squares a day 
 with 4 shanties at the time of visiting the quarry. There are two spar der- 
 ricks worked by horse power. 
 38
 
 5&4 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 40. Jackson's quarry ; 300x200 by about 100 feet deep ; 
 ttoo cable derricks, run by two double-cylinder engines ; 4 
 shanties averaging about 4 squares a day to a shanty ; slates 
 come out in good sized blocks, some of them 20 feet long ; 
 split and sculp well and fracture rather well. 
 
 41. .Robinson quarry, Stephen & Jackson, 400x200x80 ; 
 dip 28 south ; cleavage flat ; beds 25, 16 and 12 feet long 
 along the cleavage ; one cable derrick and several spar 
 derricks, run by horse power; 16 shanties in operation 
 (1882). 
 
 4. West Washington quarry, Fulmer and Jackson, 
 150x75 feet and 50 feet deep ; 25 feet of loose material on 
 top ; same bed as at the Robinson and Jackson quarries ; 
 best bed is the gray bed, which is also worked in the Jack- 
 son ; dip 48 south ; cleavage flat. * 
 
 43. H. Young 's far in, \\ miles west of Blue Mountain 
 Post Office ; a small cut in the hill side showing slate beds, 
 the largest of which is 2 feet thick ; dip 15, N. 20 W. 
 cleavage 15, S. 20 E. 
 
 44- Delabole quarry, of Factory ville ; 150x100; dip 80, 
 S. 30 E. ; cleavage 25, S. 30 E. ; all thin bedded sfates ; 
 beds large between the loose ribbons. 
 
 46. Pine Grove quarry, Edleman & Co., 200x150x130; 
 dip 60 N. ; cleavage flat ; slates all thin bedded ; make 
 besides roofing slate, flagging and fence posts. 
 
 47. White Oak quarry, T. Reed & Co., 150x100x100 ; dip 
 20 N. ; cleavage 10, S. 45 W. ; joints vertical, and in one 
 part of the quarry 80 feet from joint to joint ; slates all 
 thin bedded ; average about 3,000 squares of slate a year. 
 
 48. Samuel Seams' quarry, 1 m. ^N". by E. of Belfast ; 
 200x200x80 feet ; dip 20 to the north; cleavage flat or 
 slightly to the west ; slates all thin bedded ; largest bed 30 
 feet between loose ribbons ; other beds worked are 16, 12 
 and 4 feet between loose ribbons ; make about 4, 800 squares 
 
 * At S. end the top bed is 10'-thick, then follow downward 6 beds in 2 feet, 
 there is a 2 , 3", and a 7" bed and 1' 8", 2', 3", 1' 6", 1' 3", 7", 1' 6", 10", 9", 1' 
 7", 2", 1' 10", 9", 15' 6", 6', 3', 3 beds in 6", 3', 7", 6", 2', 9", 1' 3", 4", 1' 2", 
 11'', 3", 1' 1", 1' 5", 6", 10' 2" the gray bed, 30 feet of beds 2 feet and under in 
 thickness, 4'. The 10 foot bed, at the top of the quarry has 2 feet of rook on 
 top, a dark fine-grained sandstone. The gray bed has also rock on top.
 
 SLATE IN NORTHAMPTON AND LEMIGH COUNTIES. 595 
 
 a year ; also flagging and fence posts ; worked 'by two cable 
 derricks run by one engine. 
 
 49. Young, Duck & Co.' s quarry, 1 mile W. of Kessler's 
 Post Office ; fall of water ; dip 20 north ; cleavage flat ; 
 slates all thin bedded.* 
 
 50. James Deck's quarry, 100x100 feet, full of water; 
 dip 15 north ; cleavage flat ; slates all thin bedded. 
 
 52 Davidson's quarry, I m. S. W. of Kessler's Post 
 Office, 150x100, full of water ; abandoned ; dip 60, N. 20 
 W. ; cleavage 20, S. 20 E. ; slates all thin bedded. 
 
 53. Belfast quarry, % m. S. of Davidson's quarry, 150 x 
 75 ; full of water ; 10' stripping ; slates thin bedded ; dip 20, 
 N. 20 W. ; cleavage 20, S. 20 E. 
 
 Bushkill township. 
 
 60. Hughes Bros, quarry, f m. S. E. of Jacobsburg ; 100 x 
 150x60 ; average dip 70 ; cleavage 20 S. ; slates all thin 
 bedded ; longest distance between loose ribbons 25 feet ; 
 makes about 1,500 squares a year, and have made as high 
 as 8 squares a day to a splitter, but 4 a day is a good aver- 
 age ; 25 feet from the top of the quarry & fault shows dip- 
 ping 20 to the south ; it has moved the slate on top 3 feet 
 to the south.f 
 
 62 Henry's quarry ; 150x200x70 ; dip 20, S. 50 E. ; 
 cleavage 13, S. 40 E. ; slates thin bedded ; joints vertical 
 and in different directions ; main joints parallel to strike ; 
 some few quartz veins / color of the different beds of slate 
 almost identical ; planes of loose cleavage from 5 to 7 to 12 
 feet apart ; two cable derricks, run by one engine ; make 
 about 1,800 squares a year. 
 
 65. St. Nicholas quarry, James Titas, township line 1 
 
 *Two miles northeast of Kessler's Post Office, thin bedded slates show 
 dipping 20 noith ; cleavage 40 south. 
 
 fOu M. Train's farm south of his house there is a shaft sunk for slates, 15 
 feet deep. The dip is doubtful but looks 50 S. Cleavage is 50. The shaft 
 just enters the solid slate. Just west of Jacobsburg a thin bedded slate 
 shows with a flat dip, and cleavage 30 south. One quarter of a mile south 
 of Jacobsburg the cleavage is 10 south. Where the Bushkill creek leaves 
 the township the thin bedded slates show with a vertical dip and flat 
 cleavage.
 
 596 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 miles west of Cleartield ; 100x100x30 feet ; dip 15, S. 40 
 E. ; cleavage 55, S. 40 E. ; full of water in 1882. 
 
 66. Douglass slate quarry, on north side of Bushkill 
 creek, west of Douglasville ; 300x150; full of water. 
 
 69. 1 miles west of Cherry Hill in front of J. Heyer's 
 house two small openings 50x75 and 20x20; slates thin 
 bedded and on the dump have bleached and rusted badly. 
 A few hundred yards further down the run there is an 
 abandoned quarry 150x100 feet full of water ; dip 35, S. 
 40 E. ; cleavage 15, S. 40 E. ; slates thin bedded. 
 
 71. Daniel's quarry, full of water, 250x150 feet ; slates 
 thin bedded ; dip flat ; cleavage 20 S. Some of the slates 
 on the pile Jiave about 10 beds in them.* 
 
 Upper Nazareth township. 
 
 At the end of the borough of Nazareth the slates are flat 
 and rolling. One mile west of Nazareth, on the Bath road, 
 black slates show with a horizontal dip. A high slate ridge 
 rises 1,000 feet north of the road, but the slates extend half a 
 mile south. This is a good place to study the Utica black 
 slate for mat ion III a, and its passage upward into the 
 Hudson Ricer formation III />. 
 
 Moore township. 
 
 16. Daniel Beef s quarry, on the east side of the town- 
 ship, half a mile south of the railroad : 150x100; full of 
 water ; on the same beds as the St. Nicholas ; dip 10 S. 
 40 E. ; cleavage 65, S. 40 E. 
 
 *There are about 50 squares on the pile, most of them have iron pyrites 
 in them at the junction of the ribbons; the slates on the end of the pile 
 have changed color. Some of them also have thin veins of quartz in them. 
 On the east side of the creek 100 feet north of the Daniel's quarry, the thin 
 bedded slates are seen turning to the north, the dip being 20 north. The 
 cleavage is 20 south. 500 feet further north the dip is 20 to the east ; 50 
 feet further north it is 10 north. 800 feet north of this there is a small aban- 
 doned cut 60X60 feet showing the slates flat. Half a mile north of Daniel's 
 quarry a small opening 10 feet deep in thin bedded slate shows, with a dip 
 of 10 to the south and a cleavage of 15 south. Half a mile north of the 
 above there is another abandoned quarry 50x75 feet, full of water. The 
 slates are all thin bedded, bleached and iron stained. The dip is flat and 
 cleavage 20 south.
 
 SLATE IN NORTHAMPTON AND LKHIGH COUNTIES. 597 
 
 79. Chapman quarry; 500x300x139; has 6 cable der- 
 ricks run by independent engines ; 30 shanties in opera- 
 tion ; splitters make from 2 to 6 squares a day, averaging 
 about 4 ; hoisting apparatus very complete ; can hoist a 
 stone of two tons 150' vertical and 300' horizontal'in about 
 2 minutes ; large factory for making and planing slabs and 
 other sawed material ; with 3 diamond saws, 4 planers, 1 
 jig saw and 1 smoothing table ; diamond saws cut by re- 
 ciprocating motion, at the rate of an inch in 5 minutes, 
 50 stroke a minute. The slates are all thin bedded, split 
 well and are tough ; the blocks come'out of the quarry in 
 large even pieces, some of them 20 feet long ; sculp and 
 fracture well.* 
 
 82. ^Empire quarry, on the Manocacy creek, 1 m. E. of 
 Chapman's; 100x100; full of water; cleavage 10 south; 
 slates thin bedded ; iron pyrites in some of them ; also a 
 few small quartz veins running through the slates. 
 
 83. Richard Moser* s quarry, 300 yards up the creek from 
 the Empire ; full of water ; cleavage 20 south ; slates thin 
 bedded ; weather to a slightly different color ; some show 
 iron pyrites. 
 
 84. MaucJi Chunk quarry, at Chapman's Station; 200 x 
 150, full of water ; dip vertical ; cleavage 22, S. 40 E. ; 
 
 slates tHin bedded. 
 j^ 
 
 So. Bethlehem quarry \ 200x150x80; dip on the surf ace 
 vertical, then south a short distance and again vertical ; 
 cleavage 10 south ; slates all thin bedded ; distances be- 
 tween the loose ribbons along the cleavage of the workable 
 beds are 7', 7', 3', 9', 3' and 3' ; one cable derrick run by 
 a 15 horse-power oscillating engine ; six shanties in opera- 
 tion (1882). On the south side of the quarry t'ley had to 
 go down 60 feet before getting to good slate. On the north 
 they went down only 20 feet. There is a quartz vein dip- 
 ping to the south through the quarry 20 feet from the stir- 
 
 * A few hundred yards east of Chapman's there is an abandoned quarry 
 250X250. East of Chapman's, across the creek, another 50X50 full of water ; 
 cleavage 20 E. ; slates thin bedded.
 
 598 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 face on the north side and 60 feet on the south. The slate 
 above the vein has not a good cleavage.* 
 
 88. Thomas Ryan's quarry, 100x50x40; slates thin 
 bedded ; joints vertical ; cleavage horizontal ; dip towards 
 the south averaging about 60. Some few slates have iron 
 pyrites in them. 
 
 89. Jacob Flin'rf s abandoned quarry, 1,000 feet north- 
 west of Ryan's quarry ; 100x40x30; dip 30, N. ; cleavage 
 flat. Quarry said to have been abandoned because the slates 
 were twisted. 
 
 90. Abandoned quarry, 1,000 feet north of Chapman's, 
 60x60, full of water; dip vertical; cleavage S. 10 E. ; 
 slates all thin bedded. 400 feet west of this another quarry 
 100x40 full of water, with vertical dip and cleavage of 10, 
 S. 20 E. 
 
 91. Abandoned quarry, 1 m. W. of Chapman's, 100x50, 
 full of water ; slates thin bedded. 
 
 92. Helmari's quarry, 1% miles S. W. of Chapman's ; 
 100x100 feet, full of water; dip 45 south ; cleavage flat ; 
 joints vertical ; slates thin bedded ; those on the dump 
 bleached and iron stained. 
 
 93. McKee's quarry, 600 feet north of Helman's ; 100 x 
 100, full of water ; dip 22, S. 25 E. ; cleavage 15, S. 25 
 E. ; joints vertical, running east and west and north and 
 south ; slates thin bedded, f 
 
 96. Northampton quarry, 1 m. S. W. of Chapman's ; 
 two, both full of water; the southern one 150x150, the 
 other about the same size ; separated by about 25 feet of 
 slate ; 15 feet from the top a heavy vein of quartz dipping 
 slightly to the south ; cleavage 20, S. 40 E. ; slates all 
 thin bedded ; those left on the dump appear very rough and 
 thick ; some of them have iron pyrites in them, and they 
 have changed color. (See page 548 above.) 
 
 * Abandoned quarry west of the last and 300 feet on the strike from it ; 
 200'X200' ; cleavage 10, S. 10 E. ; joint vertical. A quartz rein shows in 
 this quarry as in the Bethlehem. 200 feet north of this there is another 
 abandoned quarry 100X100 full of water. 
 
 fOn the ridge a mile east of the Emanuel church, loose thin bedded sand- 
 stone covers the surface of the ground. 300 yards north of Emanuel church 
 slate dips 90 to the north with a cleavage of 45 south.
 
 SLATE IN NORTHAMPTON AND LEHIGH COUNTIES. 599 
 
 97. Abandoned quarry (Fig. 7), \ in. S. of Chapman's, 
 150x150, full of water; slates thin bedded; vertical dip. 
 The horizontal section in the figure shows the contortions 
 in the strike of the rock at the northwest corner of the 
 quarry. 
 
 East Allen township. 
 
 98. Chester county quarry is 200x250x130 feet deep. 
 The slates dip 20, S. 40 W, Cleavage horizontal. At 10 
 to 40 feet from the top of the cut, veins of quartz show 
 parallel to the bed plates. The slates are all thin bedded 
 and the beds differ slightly in color. Some few of the 
 slates have a small amount of iron pyrites in them. The 
 blocks coming out of the quarry are large and even in size. 
 Some of them are 20 feet long, 4 feet wide and 2 feet thick, 
 but do not seem to split well. There is a little water in the 
 quarry. It is worked by two cable derricks, run by one forty- 
 horse power engine. At the corner of the road, just north 
 of the quarry, there is an abandoned quarry full of water.* 
 
 100. A. Koch 1 s quarry, on Catasauqua creek, 3 miles W. 
 of Bath ; 200x100 ; full of water ; dip 15 to N. ; cleavage 
 5 to S. ; slates thin bedded ; some iron pyrites. 
 
 * The contact of slate and limestone enters the township from Upper Naz- 
 areth east of Bath, takes a westerly direction, crossing the railroad half a 
 mile south of Bath, continues on to the south-west for a mile, turns to the 
 south for J of a mile, then turning to the west passes through Jacksonville 
 and then along to the west, keeping south of the road leading west from 
 Jacksonville. There are three outlying patches of limestone in the north- 
 western part of the township shown on the map. They are probablybrought 
 to the surface by the anticlinal which enters the slate south-west of Bath. 
 Their shape cannot be accurately defined owing to the surface being covered 
 with loose slate. A limestone quarry, 1,000 feet west of the Chester slate 
 quarry. The dip of the limestone is 20 to the west. On top of the quarry 
 there is a body of slate which is non-conformable to the limestone. The 
 slate is somewhat broken and has probably fallen down on the eroded lime- 
 stone. One quarter of a mile S. of Koch's quarry the limestone crops out, 
 dip flat, with loose slate on top of it. 1,000 feet south of this more limestone 
 outcrops, and about 50 feet lower the slates show. There is a small cut in 
 the bottom of the hollow at this place, hut it is full of water, and nothing 
 could be seen. At the saw mill dark blue, thin-bedded limestone crops out 
 with a dip of 30 to the S. 30 E. There is a small amount of graphite on 
 the bed plates. Just south of this outcrop of limestone, gray slates show, 
 dipping 30 to the north, and at the road leading west from Jacksonville is 
 gray cement stone dipping 35 to the south.
 
 600 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Allen township. 
 
 106. Abandoned gnarry, lies a few hundred yards east of 
 the railroad near S. B. Hoffman's house, having about 5, 000 
 cubic yards taken out of it ; dip 10, S. 10 E. ; cleavage 
 parallel to bedding ; a few quartz veins. 
 
 107. Abandoned quarry, If miles north of Siegfried's 
 bridge, on the Central Railroad of New Jersey, 75x50, full 
 of water ; dip flat ; thin bedded slates.* 
 
 Lehigli township. 
 
 108. S. Reple 's quarry, across the road from the hotel 
 at Rockville, 100x200, full of water. For 500 feet north 
 along the foot of the hill there are several small openings 
 showing the slates flat and dipping 20, S. 10 E. ; cleavage 
 65, S. 10 E. ; main opening, slates flat ; one bed 7 feet 
 thick, f 
 
 111. Old Harper's now Henry's quarry, % m. S. E. of 
 Danielsville ; dip steep N. 45 W. ; cleavage 45, S. 10 E. ; 
 beds small, with small tight ribbons4 
 
 11%. J. Henry's quarry (Fig. 8), m. S. of Harper's 
 quarry; 200x150x30; regular synclinal axis; cleavage 
 at center and north side vertical, but on south side about 
 60 south. 
 
 113. Eagle slate quarry, F. M. Hower, i m. S. of Har- 
 per's ; two openings in a line 100x200x60, separated by 
 50 feet of rock ; dip 80, S. 10 E. ; cleavage 60, S. 10 E. ; 
 
 * South of Kreidersville the slates dip 20 S. and the cleavage 20 S. On 
 R. R. at N. W. corner of the township the slates have a slight dip to the south, 
 averaging about 5 with rolls and twists and a few small vertical faults ; 
 cleavage indistinct, about 40 to the south ; at center and north end of cut 
 slates flat with rolls and twists ; everything contorted. 
 
 f Three quarters of a mile south of Rockville outcrop of large bed of 
 apparently good roofing slate ; cleavage 60 south. East of Harper's grist- 
 mill outcrop of small slate beds; dip 20, S. 50 W. ; cleavage 60 S. 
 
 J The cleavage in this quarry is not parallel to the strike, but the strike of 
 the rocks is not parallel to the mountain ; if it were continued it would strike 
 the mountain at from a mile to two miles and a half. The slates look good, 
 some of them are of a different color, separated by a wavy line but no rib- 
 bon. 200' S. of the quarry is an old opening now being filled up.
 
 NO. III. ROOFING SLATE BELT. 601 
 
 no large beds ; cleavage nearly parallel with bedding ; 
 blocks of 20 to 30 feet in length sometimes obtained. They 
 make about 80 squares a day and also a few school slates. 
 
 114. McChunk and National quarries, i m. E. of the 
 Eagle quarry and close together ; one 100 x 150, the other 
 250x250, both full of water. In the southern one the rocks 
 appear to dip 80 S., the cleavage 40 S. ; largest bed not 
 over 5 feet, but only 50 of the 250 feet in the quarry is ex- 
 posed ; slates left on the pile thick and have a poor ring. 
 
 115. Uplinqer & Griffith' 1 s quarry and Uplinger & 
 Henry's quarry (Fig. 9) ; two quarries 150 feet apart ; 500 
 feet south of the Eagle quarry is Uplinger & Harper's 
 quarry ; dip 80 N. ; quarry full of water. 150 feet south, 
 at the north end of Uplinger & Griffiths' quarry, slates lie 
 flat ; for 800 feet more an occasional outcrop shows a flat 
 dip ; at the south end of the quarry (where they were 
 working in 1882) a synclinal axis. None of the beds large ; 
 slates look good and are darker than at most of the other 
 quarries. 
 
 116. Continental quarry, \\ miles S. of Daniels ville ; 
 full of water ; 200' square ; dip 80 S. ; cleavage 45 S. ; 
 one bed 10 feet thick.* 
 
 118. Col. B. Mauref s slate factory is one mile north of 
 Poplar Grove, where they make about 2,000 school slates a 
 day. 
 
 119. Newcille Slate Co.' s quarry, 1 m. N. of Poplar 
 Grove on the south bank of Bertsch creek; 75x125x90 
 deep ; dip 42, S. 10 E. ; cleavage 75, S. 10 E. ; ribbons 
 tight ; some jet black; bottom bed 15 feet ; then 4 feet of 
 small beds ; one bed 15 feet thick ; 25 feet of small beds, 
 and on top one bed 10 feet thick. 
 
 120. New York and Pennsylvania quarry, li m. IS", of 
 Poplar Grove ; full of water ; reported cleavage imperfect 
 and slate rocky. 
 
 * An abandoned quarry, | of a mile east of Danielsville and 200 feet north 
 of the strike of the Continental quarry, shows a flat synclinal, with the 
 cleavage dipping 60 to the south.
 
 602 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 121. Kestef s Meadow quarry, leased by John Pauls and 
 Peters; 150x100x60; 10 to 15 feet loose slate on top; 
 largest bed 24 feet ; blocks come out in large, even pieces ; 
 split well and the slate looks good. In 1882, working on 
 the large bed, on the south side of the synclinal axis ; 
 cleavage about 45 S. 
 
 122. Doddridge quarry, leased by Joseph Roberts; 500 
 yards north of the Kester Meadow quarry ; just (1882) 
 started; cut down 30 feet, showing one bed 11 feet thick, 
 with a few small beds on top ; dip 70, S. 10 E. ; cleavage 
 65, S. 10 E. 
 
 123. J. Remley 's quarry, 1 m. E. of Walnut Port, small, 
 15 feet deep, full of water ; dip 60, S. 10 E. j cleavage 50, 
 S. 10 E ; two large beds reported in this quarry, the largest 
 one 10 feet thick (probably 10 feet along the cleavage) ; 
 slates on the dump look good. 
 
 12 4. HeiribacKs quarry (Fig. 10), H m. N. E. of Wal- 
 nut Port, leased by Caskie & Emack. The section of the 
 eastern face of the quarry shown in Fig. 10, gives the struc- 
 ture. The quarry is 100x200x60 ; main cut originally 150 feet 
 deep, now partially filled by waste. It is now (1882) worked 
 by two tunnels, one driven east and the other west. The 
 main opening shows the rock about vertical, but Mr. Caskie 
 says that in the bottom they bent towards the north. 
 Joints mostly horizontal and quite persistent, but some dis- 
 tance apart, allowing large blocks to be taken out. In each 
 of the tunnels there is a joint at thereof. The largest beds 
 are from 10 to 15 feet thick, making a total (along the cleav- 
 age) of about 25 feet. The whole 150 feet of the breadth 
 of the quarry is used for making roofing slate. There is a 
 factory at the quarry for making school slate with a capac- 
 ity of 10,000 cases a year. 
 
 126. Owen Williams & Co.' 1 s quarry, J m. W. of Hem- 
 backs ; 200X100X80 ; 60 feet of slate, used for roofing and 
 school slates ; largest bed 8 feet thick ; other beds 6', 3' and 
 4'. The note (1882) adds : 100 feet west of this quarry Mr. 
 David Williams has opened a quarry. He has only the
 
 NO. III. ROOFING SLATE BELT. 603 
 
 gravel stripped off, which is about 20 feet deep. The beds 
 he expects to strike are the same as in Owen Williams & 
 Co.'s quarry. 
 
 127. Williams & Jones' quarry, just west of Owen Wil- 
 liams' quarry; 200x100x90; dip in the bottom vertical; 
 at the south side near the surface a roll in the rocks ; clea- 
 vage 60, 15 S. E. In this quarry there is a bed of slate from 
 which they make slate pencils. 
 
 128. Abandoned quarry just N. of Walnut Port, 200 x 
 200 feet, full of water.* 
 
 135. Beach, Barge & Co.'s quarry, 1 m. below Treich- 
 ler's, in the hill side east of the railroad, is 50 feet deep at 
 its face ; dip 15, S. 10 E. ; cleavage the same ; slates thin 
 bedded, dark blue with a good ring.f 
 
 *On the railroad above the dam, the dip of the slates is 30, S. 10 E. ; 
 cleavage 60, S. 10 E. 100 feet further north the dip is 25, N. 20 W. ; 
 cleavage 60, S. 10 E. Just above this an anticlinal shows with aflat clea- 
 vage ; then 100 feet further north the slates dip vertically. A few hundred 
 yards south of the wagon bridge the slates dip 50 to the south. A short 
 distance from where the wagon road goes under the railroad a massive gray 
 conglomerate (dipping 30, N, 30 W.) is made up of white and black pebbles 
 averaging one inch in diameter ; also tine grained gray sandstones. The 
 junction of III and IV is not visible ; but the slates 50 feet below are seen 
 gradually turning into sandstone. A hundred feet N. of the road crossing 
 is the last place the slates are seen, 50 feet below the sandstone of IV. 
 Further south, 250 feet, an anticlinal in the slates appears in the side of the 
 road. The axis of the anticlinal is about vertical, and the cleavage is par- 
 allel to it Two-thirds of a mile south of Walnut Port the slates dip 75 
 south. There are some small beds of interbedded sandstone at the same 
 place. 
 
 fOn the railroad, at the township line there are three peculiar curves 
 showing in the slates. The cleavage is parallel to the axis of these curves. 
 In the first one the axis dips 5 to the south. 500 feet north and under the 
 above there is another flat turn with the axis horizontal, then 300 feet further 
 north there is a flat turn with the axis dipping 10 to the south.
 
 604 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Quarries in Lehigh county. 
 Washington township. 
 
 140. Abandoned quarry, 1 m. N. of Slatington 25x100, 
 a side hill cut 25 feet deep ; dip 25 to the north ; cleavage 
 60 to the south.* 
 
 146. Captain D. D. Jones' new quarry, on Welch run 
 k m. N. of Slatington ; (1882) ; dip 10 S. and pitch 12 W. 
 with cleavage vertical; big bed of slate .outcrops several 
 hundred feet to the east, 30' thick ; twenty feet above big 
 bed another 7' ; good ring, dark color, even cleavage. 
 
 14-7. Welchtown quarry, John T. Robinson & Co. ; opened 
 in 1844 ; two large beds, one 27 feet along the cleavage, and 
 another on top 18 feet, separated by 25 feet of smaller beds ; 
 in 1882 making 8 squares a day ; worked by a tunnel on the 
 27 foot bed. 
 
 llfi. Williams' railroad quarry, a few hundred yards 
 north of the Slatington depot, 100x100x100 feet deep. 
 
 149. Old Keystone quarry, 200' N. of the Williams RR. 
 quarry ; side hill cut 200 feet square, 60 to 80 feet deep 
 at the face ; one large bed 16 feet, then 10 feet of small 
 beds, then a bed underneath 25 feet ; dip 30 to the S. 10 
 E. cleavage vertical ; dip the same all the way to the Wil- 
 liams quarry ; 150 feet south of the Williams quarry slates 
 dip 70 south, cleavage 30 south. 
 
 150. Tunnel quarry, on Trout run, 300 yards from river ; 
 one large bed back of the tunnel ; two smaller cuts along 
 side the tunnel had fallen in. 
 
 152. Abandoned quarry, just above the borough bridge 
 on the south side of Trout run; side hill cut 100x50x40 
 feet at the face ; dip 32 S.; cleavage 64 S.; five to twenty 
 
 * At the southern end of Slatington the slates in the river are vertical. 
 200 yards S. of C. Zellman's on the railroad fine-grained sandstone out- 
 crops; dip 20 to S. ; largest layers 4 feet thick ; 40 feet of sandstone shows. 
 50 feet further south a synclinal shows with the sandstone on the south side 
 of it vertical. 300 yards N. of Rockdale slates dip 45 to the south ; cleavage 
 parallel. At the water station slates are flat. Just south of the run the dip 
 is 25 N. ; rocks slaty sandstone and slate. Then for over a quarter a mile 
 southward the slates are flat. They then change gradually to a dip of 25 
 to S. In the next 200 yards the dip changes gradually to 15, N. 45 W., 
 making a synclinal axis between these two points. 500 yards further down 
 the railroad Ihe dip is 20, S. 45 W.
 
 NO. III. ROOFING SLATE BELT. 605 
 
 feet of loose slate at the surface ; beds showing all under 
 four feet thick. 
 
 153. Penlynn quarry, 150x150x100 feet deep; dip 60, 
 S. 10 E; cleavage 40, 8. 10 E. There is a 20 foot bed in the 
 quarry. The other beds are smaller and most of them 
 workable. North of the quarry 100 feet dip 90; 200 feet 
 further north flat. 
 
 154. Old quarry No. 1, 500' N. 40 E. from the Penlynn 
 quarry, on the north bank of Trout run, E. of Washington 
 quarry ; slates vertical ; cleavage 60 south ; two 10 foot 
 beds with smaller beds between. 
 
 155. Old quarry No. *2 (Fig. 11), around the curve in the 
 hill from quarry No. 1. It shows a synclinal axis with the 
 plane of the axis dipping 70 to the south. The cleavage 
 also dips 70 to the south parallel to the plane of the axis. 
 It also shows tJie bed thickening as it curves around the 
 axis from 27 feet thick to 35 feet. Just after the curve the 
 distance from where it is 27 to where it is 35 feet is 50 
 feet* 
 
 156. Old quarry No. 3, a short distance down the creek 
 from No. 2 ; one bed 20 feet thick dipping 28 S. ; cleavage 
 75 S. The quarry not worked in 1882. All three quarries 
 belong to James Hess & Co. 
 
 156a. Washington quarry, James Hess & Co., 300 x 
 200x75 deep ; at the south side the slates, flat at the middle 
 of the quarry, turn sharply downwards, the dip becoming 
 vertical; cleavage 60 S. ; upper bed 15'; then twelve feet of 
 small beds ; lower bed 12'. 
 
 15Gb. Blue Vein quarry, 200 feet south of the Wash- 
 ington quarry; on the same beds; 200x 150x75 ; a synclinal, 
 its axis dipping 60 S. ; an anticlinal between this quarry 
 and the Washington. f Under the twelve foot bed there is 
 a school-slate bed. The lower four feet of the big bed has 
 rock in it. The ribbons when they get under thirty or 
 
 *This is a flagrant proof of the effect of the earth movement on the whole 
 formation No. Ill, in changing its thickness. 
 
 f This synclinal axis passes north of the t enlynu quarry through Slating- 
 ton, and shows in the Tunnel quarry. It does not show at the river, prob- 
 ably owing to a want of exposure,
 
 606 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 forty feet of cover become tight. In the south wall the 
 slates are bent. 
 
 157. Blue Mountain quarry (Fig. 12), 600' long east to 
 west, 250' at its widest part, 120' deep ; surface loose for 10 
 to 15 feet down ; two beds 16 and 27, separated by 12 feet 
 of smaller beds ; started 35 to 40 years ago ; originally 
 worked by Williams & Moser ; 4 spar derricks and 1 large 
 cable derrick. They are making 55 squares a day (1882). 
 
 158. Columbia, quarry, N. side of Trout run N. of the 
 Blue Mountain quarry ; 300 feet long ; dip vertical ; clea- 
 vage 20, S. 20 E. ; 10 to 30 feet of loose rock on top.* 
 
 159. American quarry, No. 1 and 2 (Fig. 13), W. of Co- 
 lumbia. Quarry No. 1, 250x100 feet; beds 30', separated 
 by 6 feet of small beds, one being 2 feet thick. No. 2 shows 
 the section Fig. 13. 
 
 160. Girard quarry, m. W. of Columbia on the N. side 
 of Trout run ; 250x100x50 ; full of water ; one bed 15 feet 
 thick, 
 
 161. Star Slate quarry, 300x100x60 ; dip 70, S. 10 E.; 
 cleavage 50, S. 10 E. ; two beds 27' and 18' ; 10' of clay 
 on top, and 4' of blue slate underneath the clay. 
 
 162. Williams, Owen & Jones' quarry, 40 feet deep, 100 
 feet square, in line with Star quarry ; shows the slate turn- 
 ing over towards the south ; one derrick, working on the 27- 
 foot bed. 
 
 163. Franklin quarry (Fig. 14). H m. W. of Slatington 
 depot and N. of Trout Run. (There are several old openings 
 south of it towards the Star quarry.) On aflat synclinal ; 
 4 spar derricks and one cable derrick ; greatest deph 150'. 
 
 165. Junction quarry, opposite the junction of the Slate- 
 dale branch railroad, full of water, 200x100' feet square; 
 one bed 15' ; the rest all small ; dip steep S. ; cleavage about 
 50 S. 200 feet north of it a small quarry 50x50, full of 
 water. On the Lehigh and Berks RR. S. E. of the junc- 
 tion quarry aflat synclinal shows vertical cleavage. 
 
 166. Industrial slate quarry, 300 N. of the Junction 
 
 *500 feet south of the Columbia is an old abandoned quarry ; the dip of 
 the slate is 70, N. 20. The cleavage 50, S. 20 E. 150' S. E. of thi% the 
 dip is 10 N.
 
 NO. III. ROOFING SLATE BELT. 607 
 
 qnarry ; working on the 20 foot bed ; (1882) making about 
 15 squares per day ; dip vertical at the surface, curving to- 
 wards the south at the bottom of the quarry ; cleavage 
 about 45, S. 10 E. 
 
 167. Abandoned quarry 1000' W. of the Industrial, full 
 of water, 200x290x40. There are three other openings be- 
 sides this, the largest 300x100, all full of water ; one large 
 bed 15 feet thick. 
 
 168. Abandoned quarry 1500' from the end of Slating- 
 ton. Its section is shown in the section of the Blue mount- 
 ain quarry. 
 
 169. Blue Mountain slate quarry (Fig. 15), 250' N. of 
 east; 200x40x60; largest bed 27' ; dip~60 N. ; cleavage 
 about 60 S. ; at bottom of large bed cleavage slightly 
 curved ; section of the two quarries shown in Fig. 15. 
 
 170. Monarch quarry, owned by Mr. Hersh, on the south 
 side the creek from the Blue Mountain quarry shows the 
 same beds with a dip of 15 N. ; not worked (1882). Across 
 the road another abandoned quarry ; dip 70 N. ; beds ap- 
 parently the same. Two other quarries in the same field, 
 the largest 150x150x50' deep. 
 
 171. Lock slate quarry (Fig. 16), m. W. of Slatedale. 
 At the southeast end of the quarry there is a small open- 
 ing 50x50x50 feet showing a bed 15 feet thick, dipping 
 85, N. 10 W., with a cleavage dipping 70, S. 10 E. The 
 main quarry is 400' long. In 1882 the work was under 
 ground by means of two slopes going down on the large 
 bed ; cable derricks worked by one engine ; inclines three 
 feet apart ; structure shown in Fig. 16. 
 
 17%. Standard quarry, i m. S. E. of Slatedale, 300x50x 
 114' deep ; beds 20', 8' and 16' ; 3 of gravel and 6' of loose 
 slate over the quarry ; the 16-foot bed worked ; a large bed 
 at west end did not work well ; rocks sculp and split nicely 
 and come out of the quarry in good sized blocks.* 
 
 *Grey slate shows in the southwest corner of the township, dipping 30, 
 S. 20 W. The sandstone strata seen on the railroad one mile below Slat- 
 ington makes a high hill which extends west more than two miles back 
 fronj the river. No solid outcrop shows, but the ground is covered with 
 loose pieces,
 
 608 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 JVorfk WJiitehall township. 
 
 175. North feach Bottom Slate Co.' s quarry, 2m. S. 
 W. of Laury's Post Office; 250x200x90 at the deepest 
 place ; slate beds horizontal, with slight rolls ; cleavage 
 about horizontal ; joints vertical, but make different angles 
 with each other ; blocks 20' square got ; largest bed be- 
 tween loose ribbons 8' thick. About 30 feet from the sur- 
 face there are segregated veins of quartz that split the 
 cleavage for some distance around the veins. At the top 
 of the quarry there is a bed of sandy slate which does not 
 split well, bat the slates made are black, with a good ring 
 and smooth surface ; the second quality slates have a very 
 uneven surface and look poor. A factory connected with 
 the quarry was engaged on an order for flooring for the 
 Patent Office in Washington, 1882.* 
 
 Heidelburg towns/tip. 
 
 182. Diamond Slate quarry (Fig. 17), leased by Hartley 
 & Bar ; opened 1854 ; 250x150 ; two large beds, one 24 and 
 and the other 30 feet thick, separated by 5 feet of small 
 beds ; on top of the 24-foot bed a few quartz veins / a few 
 also in the slates above it ; beds rise slightly E. along the 
 strike. At 500' N. of the main quarry is an old abandoned 
 quarry ; dip 45, S. 10 E.. and nothing to be seen.t 
 
 * There are very few exposures in the township at which the dip can be 
 obtained. On the small creek that empties into Jordan creek in the south- 
 west part of the township, there are two dips to be had just east of the school 
 house, the slate dips 10 to the south and a quarter of a mile above the 
 mouth of the creek the slates are flat, with a few small rolls in them for half 
 a mile on each side. 
 
 f At S. end of Germanville slates dip 55 S. On Jordan creek 1 in. E. 
 Pleasant Corner, a sharply folded anticlinical shows dipping 60 to the 
 south. On the south side dip 50 S. ; north side 70 S. This shows a tight 
 compression and overthrow. Half a mile south slates dip 50 south. 1| 
 miles up a small creek that runs into the Jordan at this point, there is an 
 abandoned slate quarry with nothing to be seen. \\ m. E. of Pleasant Cor- 
 ner slates dip 30 S. 20 E.
 
 NO. III. HOOFING SLATE BKLT. 609 
 
 South Whitehall township. 
 
 183. An abandoned slate quarry on the Huckleberrv ridge 
 synclinal % m. S. of Guthsville, 200x100, full of water; 
 slates vertical ; cleavage 45 S. ; slates all thin bedded.* 
 
 Lynn township. 
 
 192. Laurel Hill Slate Co.'s quarry, 1m. IS. E. of Lynn- 
 port ; 75x50x60 ; dip vertical ; cleavage steep toS. 40 E. ; 
 beds worked are 26', 10', 8', 6' and 2' in length along the 
 cleavage 
 
 193. Lynnport Slate quarry, at Lynnport, north of the 
 railroad, 150x100x60 feet.* 
 
 194. Two abandoned quarries at Slateville ; the one beside 
 the road shows the northern half of the anticlinal axis, 
 with one bed 4 feet thick ; the other quarry shows the slate 
 dipping about 45 S., with one bed 4 feet thick. 
 
 195. Star Slate quarry (Fig. 18), George W. Griesheimer 
 ct Bro., at New Slateville, one mile northwest of Stein- 
 ville ; started about 1868 ; worked by the present owners 
 silica 1876 ; make about 7500 squares a year. The cross 
 section Fig. 18 shows one large bed 30 feet thick.- 
 
 Quarries in Berks county. 
 Albany townshiy. 
 
 195. Centennial quarry, 1 m. W. of Steinsville, Faust, 
 Heinly & Bros., 150x50x80; 80, N. 20 E. The section 
 
 *Low Hill township has no quarries. At its X. E. corner slates dip 15, 
 S. 60 W. ; i in. further down a small run the dip is 45 N. with cleavage 
 45 S. curled. Just below Low Hill on the Jordan slates dip 30 S., cleav- 
 age curly. A few hundred yards further down the dip is 30 S. 1| m. down 
 the creek slates dip 50, N. 10 W., dark blue, thin bedded, with no regular 
 cleavage. \ mile further down the dip is 50, S. 20 E., slates massive, cleav- 
 age irregular. In the road across the Weidasville bend in the creek the 
 ground is covered with pieces of quartz. 1| miles down the creek from 
 Weidasville the slates are flat. Half a mile S. of Low Hollow P. O. slates dip 
 50, S. 10 W. ; cleavage parallel to dip. At the northwest corner of the town- 
 ship slates dip 80 S. One mile N. E. of Lyons Valley P. O, slates are flat. 
 One mile S of Claussville slates are flat ; and on the creek in the southwest 
 corner of the township veins of quartz show in the slate. 
 
 *1| m. E. of Lynnport slates dip 55 S.
 
 610 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 M.ffA tu&eAter {flak 
 
 Phyllo^ptu. typn.. A grap.clite .gured by H.II, Pa. 

 
 NO. III. ROOFING SLATE BELT. 611 
 
 cut shows the quarry and a small opening made on the 
 large bed to the south. 
 
 196. An abandoned quarry, east of the Centennial, nearly 
 on the county line; bed 20 feet thick, dipping 70 N.. 
 cleavage vertical. 
 
 Weisenburg town.sliip. 
 
 199. Old quarry, east of Siepstown, near the township 
 line ; dip 70, S. 20 E ; cleavage 20, S. 20 E., tolerably 
 perfect ; slates look like good roofing slates.* 
 
 Albany township. 
 
 S05. John GiW s flagstone quarry is two miles from 
 Kempdon station. The sandstone dips 65 south. The 
 strike of the rocks would carry it directly into the point of 
 the mountain. The sandstone conies out of the quarry 
 with rough faces, but after being dressed it looks good. 
 Just north of the quarry slates dip 35 south. f 
 
 *One mile south of this slates dip 10 N. ; and | m. further south, in upper 
 Macungie township, slates dip 20 to the south. H miles N. of Seiberlings. 
 ville an outcrop of red slate shows in the road, but it is not roofing slate- 
 One mile north of Seiberlingsville, along the curve of the hill, there is an 
 outcrop of thin bedded grey sandstone ; also some light green slate. This 
 outcrop shows for about a mile. 
 
 f At Trexler's station the slates dip 20, S. 20 W. | a mile west they dip 45 
 to the south. Just east of the Mountain Post Office the dip is 64O, s. 10 E. 
 | a mile west of the Post Office it is 80, S. 20 E. 1* miles west of the Post 
 Office the dip is 63, S. 10 E. Going on west into the cove at Digby Miller's 
 the dip is 80, S. 10 W. At S. Knesler's it is 52, S. 10 E. At William Bo- 
 lick's it is 90, S. 10 E., and, also, near the same place it is 75, S. 10 E. At 
 John Berg's it is 90. At this place there are thin bedded dark gray slates, 
 with inter-bedded sandstones. The sandstone is fine grained and in thin 
 layers. The outcrop shows 500 feet of slates and sandstones. At the new 
 Bethel church the slates are vertical. Just north of the church they dip 45 
 to the south; 
 
 One mile east of J. Gilt's quarry there is red slate with dip of 20, S. 10 
 E. The slate has patches of green in it. On the road just below the grist 
 mill slates and inter-bedded sandstones dip 45, S. 20 W. 200 yards south 
 red slates show 40 feet thick ; dip about 60, S. Opposite the school house, 
 light greenish sandstone makes the high ridge to the east called Round Top. 
 1000 feet further down red slate shows. J m. south of the grist mill thin 
 bedded olive slates dip 80 N. A shaft on Stone run 1| miles above its 
 mouth was sunk on red slate, 20 feet deep ; red slate 20 feet thick, some ol 
 it has spots of green in it ; also, some green slate ; no roofing slates ; cleav- 
 age not good, i m N. of this, a gray sandstone dips 90, S. 10 W. 5 m. N. of
 
 612 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 JfiMl. 
 
 Orthis (Platystrophia) biforata, Var. dentata. Orthis dicho 
 
 /// / 3. ! 
 
 g;>5-t^v.i 
 
 Orthis (PlatystropMa) biforata, Var. acutilirata. (Del 
 
 So /":m*~~Sl, XTW^ St. Orthis jamesl, Hit. If* A,* , Ui 
 
 JSNf U 
 
 LV.l 
 
 Orthi3 clytie, Hall, 14th Annual 
 
 Orthii (Platyitrophia) biforata. ( Terebra Orthis orthambonltes, 
 
 II. 
 
 cerata ' H - 13 "> * I860, p. 12, ; 
 
 00 \ 
 
 Orthis emacerata. v ar. multisecta, 
 
 OrthU occidentals, Hall. Pal. N. Y. Vol. 1, 1841 
 fill 
 
 Orthis Insculpta, Hall, Pal. N. Y. Vol. 1, 1847. 
 
 frl 
 
 MfVMf 
 
 Orthis retro sa f Salter, (ieol. Survey of
 
 NO. III. ROOFING SLATE BELT. 613 
 
 Wessnersville slates dip 45, S. 10 W. Half a mile south of Wessnersville 
 red slates dip 90 S. 2 m. S. E. of Wessnersville olive slates dip 50, S. 30 
 E. 1 m. W. of last is a red slate outcrop. 
 
 Greenwich township has no quarries. On the railroad \ m W. of town- 
 ship line, slates dip 58, S. 20 E. Opposite Lenhartsville, slates and thin 
 bedded sandstone dip 55, S. 20 E. At the road crossing red slates show. 
 On the small creek 2 in. N. E. of Lenhartsville red slates dip 55 S. 1| m. 
 E. of Smithsville, a fifty foot outcrop of red slate in the road. | m. N. of 
 Smithsville red slates crop out. 2 m. W. of Smithsville, 15 feet of red slate 
 dip 55, S. 20 E. At Klinesville, red slate outcrop. The hill 1 m. S. of 
 Klinesville is made of fine grained, thin-bedded sandstone. On the south 
 side of the hill red slates show in layers as far as the school house and along 
 the road to the east for a mile and a half, i m. S. of Smithsville slates dip 
 200, S. 400 W. 
 
 Half a mile further there is an outerop of massive flaggy sandstones. 
 
 There aie two small outcrops of limestone in the township ; the northern 
 is on S. D. Kohler's farm ; length of outcrop unknown owing to loose slate 
 covering it. Just north of this outcrop the slates dip 35, S. 2QO E. 
 
 The other limestone outcrop is half a mile south of W. Heffner's grist 
 mill ; dip 10 N. ; limestone blue and thin bedded. 
 
 Maxatawny' 'township has no quarries. 1| m. N. of Kutztown the slates are 
 flat : also \ a mile north of this, on top of the hill above the j unction of the 
 slate and limestone, the slates lie flat, but at the lower side of the same cut 
 dip 45 west 
 
 Richmond township has no quarries. E. of Virginsville one mile, lime- 
 stone outcrops ; the most northern dips 30 N. A quarter of a mile south 
 (with slate showing between) the limestone lies flat with rolls in it. Half a 
 mile south of this, with slate between, the limestone dips 30 north ; it is 
 dark blue, thin bedded, and shows 100 to 200 feet, and has the appearance of 
 the Trenton. Along the small creek half a mile east of this there is no lime- 
 stone to be seen ; therefore the outcrop is probably that of a sharp anticlinal. 
 
 Two and one-half miles E. of Virginsville thin bedded sandstone dip 30 S. 
 m. E. of Merkel's saw mill slates dip 90 W. ; also some fine grained sand- 
 stone. Just below Merkel's saw mill slates dip 35, S. 30 E. On the hill 
 north of Moselem furnace slates dip 15, S. 60 W. m. S. of Moselem 
 furnace slates dip 20 north. 1 m. W. of the furnace the dip is flat. 
 
 Windsor township has no quarries. At school house No. 4 slates dip 90, 
 S. 30 E. with some slaty sandstone. 300' S. red slate shows for half a mile 
 east | m. S. of St. Paul's church red slates show for GOO feet acrossthe out- 
 crop; no dip visible; m. E. the same dip S. 60, S. 30 E. 1^ m. E. of 
 Hamburg slates dip 50 south. 1 m. E. at the old railroad grading alter- 
 nate beds of slate and sandstone dip 52 S. 20 E. At the east end of Ham- 
 burg sandstone outcrops in the road. 1 m. N. of Hamburg alternate beds 
 of slate and sandstone dip 75, S. 10 E. waving. m. below the lock- 
 house sandstone dips 10 E. (massive sandstone of IV). 500' further up 
 the river dark gray slates dip 50, S. 20 E. 200 feet shows underneath gray 
 slate, slaty sandstone and thick bedded sandstones. 1 m. E. of Hamburg 
 slates dip 60 S. | m. further east fine grained olive sandstone, 15 feet thick, 
 thin bedded, dips 80, S. 10 E. South of the run red slate, 30 to 50 feet, dip 
 50, S. 10 E. 1 m. N. of Windsor Castle slates dip 60 south. ^ m. N. of 
 Windsor Castle slates dip 35 south. 1| m. E. of Windsor Castle slates dip 
 60 south.
 
 614 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 MMl. 
 
 LV/. 
 
 Crthia oinnata, HaM. Pal. N. Y. Vol. 1, 1847, Ifud. lit 
 
 un 
 
 *r*fe 
 
 rieurotomona '.Scalituf) tropldophora, "get. 
 
 Pholidop. Cincinnati 
 
 Orthodesma parallelum. ( Orikmota parallel*. 
 OrthodeBma corvatum, H & W 1'al. Ohio, , |tg ^^^^^^^I4 
 
 "' ! ' *fP^ 
 
 m 
 
 Orthoceras capitollnum. Sfford Geol. Tenn. 1869 
 
 Sal-ford. 
 
 Orthoceras dnseri, 
 
 Gfol.Tenn.rU
 
 NO. III. ROOFING SLATE BELT. 615 
 
 Perry township. 
 
 244- A flagstone quarry, at the northeast corner of the 
 township, worked by Jacob Derby. The stones make good 
 flagging, and are taken out generally 2' X 3' X 3" in size. Some 
 are 10 feet long. They are dark gray and come out regu- 
 larly. The sandstones roll to the north and south and dip 
 to the northeast.* 
 
 850. W. Collier's flagstone quarry, f m. N. E. of Shoe- 
 makersville, is 150 feet long. 10 feet of flagstone exposed 
 has from 5 to 10 feec of broken slate on top. Stones, from 
 2' to 4'x5' to 8', show dark gray generally, 2 inches thick, 
 with smooth faces. The joints are not regular, making a 
 loss of about one-third in squaring them up. Half a mile 
 southeast of this quarry the slates dip 80 south. 
 
 51. A small flagstone quarry, two miles east of Shoe- 
 makersville, 20x30x10 feet. The stones on the pile are 
 6x6x3 feet; quarry full of water. One mile south the 
 slates dip 50, S. 10 W.f 
 
 * Half a mile west slates dip 50 south. 500 feet south limestone outcrops ; 
 30 ieet; shows west for three miles. Just west of the Zion church it is flat 
 with rolls in it { m. N. of the church slates dip 50 south. 1000 feet south 
 of the limestone red slate outcrops. One mile south of the above limestone 
 outcrop is another about parallel to it. On Peter Folk's farm the limestone 
 dips under the slate at an angle of 20 to the south. At the corner of the 
 roads the slate dips 18, S. 70 west. 1 mile further west the limestone dips 
 32 U south ; light blue and broken. lj in. further west the limestone dips 
 20, S. 20 E. Is light blue with some siaty limestone on top. Limestone 
 shows again at the creek above the grist mill. 
 
 t At the north end of Mohrsville the slates are flat 1| m. N of Shoe- 
 makersville on the canal slates dip 45, S. 30 W. 200 feet further north, 
 dip 90, N. 30 E. ; probably an anticlinal brings up the limestone further 
 east. 1 m. further up the canal slates dip 60 S., 30 W. 
 
 In Ontelaunee township, 1 m. N. of Evansville, limestone outcrops show 
 100 feet wide. 1J m. E. of Leesport slates dip 55", S. 20 K. 1 m. N. of 
 Leesport, slates and some slaty sandstone dip 40, S. 20 E. The Crane 
 Iron Co. J s ore bank, 2| m. N. E. of Leesport consists of two open cuts now- 
 full of water. At one place could get a slate dip of 45 south. The surface 
 is covered with loose slate, and pieces of slate coated with hematite. From 
 the looks of the dump I should say that the mine had a great deal of slate 
 in it.
 
 616 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 JotiH Aeaweejk 
 
 Copied cund reduced, to /*jroin,jiyivreA
 
 NO. III. FOSSILS. 617 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 The Fossils of No. III. 
 
 The Utica Slate (Ilia) formation is very fossiliferous 
 in Newfoundland, Labrador, the island of Anticosti, Can- 
 ada (as far west as Lake Huron, where it thins out), Ver- 
 mont, New York, New Jersey and middle Pennsylvania, 
 its characteristic fossil everywhere being a beautiful little 
 qnaker-like trilobitethe Triarthrus (three jointed) becMi of 
 Green*. On the Ohio river this fossil is abundant, asso- 
 ciated with Leptobolus lepis and other Utica forms, not in 
 black slate but in blue lime shales and marls, which are 
 beds of passage from the Trenton limestone beds up into 
 the Hudson River slates, as in Lebanon and Cumberland 
 counties Pennsylvania ; and also in the Western States. 
 None of its characteristic fossils are found in the Galena 
 limestone, and none of the characteristic Galena forms nre 
 found in the Utica. f 
 
 In Centre county, Professor Evving cites Matternville as 
 a good locality for seeing the sandy slates at the base of 
 the Hudson River formation graduating downward into 
 the Trenton through a series of limy layers which carry 
 "fossils common to the Trenton and Utica.* 
 
 * Monograph of Trilobites, 1832. Other species of this genus are T. cana- 
 densis, Smith; T. glaber, Billings; and T. spinosus, all in the Utica and 
 the last very abundant in Canada. S. A. Miller, p. 44. The figures of these 
 trilobites are given life-size in my Dictionary of Fossils in Pa. Report P4, 
 Vol. 3, 1890, pp. 1208, 1209 ; and reduced to one-half linear on plate 38, p. 526, 
 and plate 43, p. 536, above. 
 
 fS. A. Miller, p. 44. 
 
 JThe whole of No. Ill, Utica and Hudson River combined seems to be 
 only 800 feet thick. At Egg Hill in Penn's valley, and Spring Mills, tran- 
 sition (Utica) shaly limestones holding Trenton fossils are well seen. Me- 
 tween Jacksonville and Howard near the base of Bald Eagle mountain a 
 tough black lime shale crops out (overturned to 60) ; and near Hoy's house, 
 at the base of the mountain (that is, high in III) fossils are seen like those 
 at Egg Hill.
 
 618 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 ,a&ffiafy6 t 1/orJr county
 
 NO. III. FOSSILS. 619 
 
 Prof. Ewing makes no attempt to separate the Utica from 
 the Hudson River, but names the following list of fossils of 
 No. Ill as a whole as being in his collection : 
 
 Stems of Glyptocrinus decadactylus ; Orthis lestudin- 
 
 aria; a cast of OrtTiis subquadrata(\) ; OrlJiis / Stro- 
 
 phomena alternata ; Leptcena sericea ; BelleropJiou bilo- 
 batus ; Murcltisoniagracilis ; Modiolopsis modiomorpha ; 
 
 Modiolopsis curta ; Ambonychiaradiata; OrtJionota, ; 
 
 Trinucleus concentricus ; Callimene ( Triarthrus) becJcii ; 
 Callimene ; Orthoceras .* 
 
 The Utica fossils catalogued in C. Hall's special collec- 
 tion for the Survey (O3, p. 190 to 192) consist of 44 indi- 
 viduals of Triarthrus (Calymene) beck ft, got by him at 
 Bellefonte, with crinoid stems, fragmental and poor ; also 
 47 hand specimens collected by W. A. Fellows, along the 
 Bellefonte outcrop, some of them slabs showing on their 
 surfaces numerous fragments of that trilobite, mostly heads, 
 comparatively few bodies, and these nearly all more or less 
 crushed or distorted ; tail pieces comparatively rare. Also 
 85 other specimens of the same trilobite. 
 
 These suffice to show the vast abundance of this charac- 
 teristic trilobite life in that .part of the Utica sea which 
 covered middle Pennsylvania. No doubt any collector 
 could fill his cabinet with^individual specimens at any place 
 along the numerous and very extensive outcrop lines. 
 
 In Bedford county, the Utica black shales, about 200' 
 thick, containing a few compact slate layers an inch or so 
 thick, show a few graptolites. They pass gradually up- 
 ward into brown shales, and then into non- fossil if erous 
 yellow shales which make up the mass of the Hudson River 
 formation, some thin sandstones being seen near the top. 
 The whole of III is only about 700' thick, f 
 
 * Report Centre county, T4, 1884, page 427. He adds that most of these 
 forms are found also in the Trenton limestones. So far as the fossils can 
 guide us in the identification of strata at a distance it would seem as if in 
 middle Pennsylvania only the lower half of No. Ill was deposited, the 
 upper or roofing slate division being wanting. Yet the distance between 
 Allentown and Bellefonte is only about 150 miles. 
 
 t Stevenson, T2, 1882, page 93.
 
 620 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Clisiophyllum oneidense. (Billings Canad. . 
 
 VIH a-. Cornift/reuS 7/ 
 
 UngTila cuneata, Conrmd. (He. Tren/on in Pa.
 
 NO. III. FOSSILS. 621 
 
 The Hudson River formation, Hlb, a marine deposit 
 from the Gulf of St. Lawrence west to the Red River of the 
 North, and south to Tennessee and Texas, varies in thick- 
 ness from 6000' on the Delaware and 2000' in eastern 
 Canada, to 1100' at Toronto, 250' in Missouri, and 100' in 
 the far northwest. 
 
 It is very fossiliferous around the Falls of the Ohio, where 
 it consists of 800' of blue lime shales and limestone layers. 
 The seas swarmed with animal life and seaweed, and many 
 of the strata are composed wholly of their remains.* Some 
 fossil forms lived through the whole age, and occur from 
 bottom to top : Callimene callicephala / A saphus gigas, 
 and megistus ; Bey rich ia chamber si ; Leptcena sericea / 
 Bellerophon bilobalus ; Zygospira modesta ; Stropho- 
 mena alternata ; and Orthis testudinaria / and all of them 
 (except the Beyrichid) have been found in older strata 
 (No. II). L. sericea continued to live into a later age. 
 
 Other forms (at least in the Cincinnati country) seem to 
 have had but a short range of life : Streptorhynchus hal- 
 lianum has a limited range in the lower part ; Streptor- 
 hynchus planoconnexum and sinualum are limited to 
 strata below the middle ; Streptorhynchus nutans and sul- 
 catum are confined to the middle zone of the upper division ; 
 Streptorhynchus subtentum and filitextum are confined to 
 the upper part. Of five species of Lichenocrinus three, 
 crater if ormis, dyer I, patter soni. are confined to the lower 
 half ; two, tuberculatus, affinis, to the upper part. Of 
 species of the trilobite Acidaspis one, crossota, occurs 
 below ; two. anchoralis, Cincinnati ens is, in the middle ; 
 one, coralli, above. RhynclioneUa capax and dentata, 
 Streptelasma corniculum, Favistella stellata, Tetradium 
 fibratum, Cypricardites, &c., are confined to the upper 
 
 *S. A. Miller's N. A. G. and P. Cincin. 1889, p. 46. He describes the out- 
 crop from Cincinnati west, 50 miles, to Osgood in Indiana, N. to Dayton, 
 and X. E. to Xenia. The hills at Cincinnati expose the lower half (400'). 
 In Kentucky it makes a circular clay crop around the Bluegrass country. 
 It is rare to find a layer of solid limestone (in the 50' of clay) more than 
 one foot thick. The stone is a mass of more or less ground up shells, corals 
 and crinoids.
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 NO. III. FOSSILS. 623 
 
 part. Grinoids as a rule have a limited vertical range, each 
 species holding by its own separate horizon. 
 
 Characteristic and widely distributed species of No. Illb 
 are : Aulopora arachnoidea, St^matopora inflata, Ortliis 
 occidentalis, Or this subquadrata,0rtkisretrorsa, Pterinea 
 demissa, Pterinea insueta, Cyclonema bilix, and Glyplo- 
 crinus decadactylus .* 
 
 At Henrietta station, in Blair county, Mr. R. E. Sanders 
 in 1875 obtained from the Hudson River slates ten speci- 
 mens of brachiopods of undetermined species. (O3, p, 
 191.) 
 
 From the same slates, 1 miles S. \V. of the Henrietta 
 mine, he got Glyptocrinus decadactylus, and other crinoid 
 stem impressions. (O3, p. 191.) 
 
 From the same slates in Leathercracker cove, besides the 
 crinoids, he collected ScJiirod.us cequalis ; Triari/trus 
 (Calymene) beckii , a head of Dalmanites limulurus fairly 
 well preserved : GraptolilTius mucronatas (?) ; and poor, 
 faint, indistinct impressions of other graptolites. (O3, p. 
 192.) 
 
 A collector of Hudson River fossils in Middle^Pennsyl- 
 vania must devote a long time and close attention to the 
 business, and if successful, will find most of his specimens 
 injured and distorted by the excessive pressure and shear- 
 ing movement of bed upon bed which took place when the 
 anticlinal and synclinal waves were produced 
 
 Peach Bottom roofing slate fossil seaweeds are figured 
 on plates LXX, LXXI, on pages 616, 618, above, for com- 
 parison with the seaweeds figured on plate XXVI, page 
 502, and on plate CXI, page , Chapter LIII on the fos- 
 sils of Oneida and Medina, No. IV : and to illustrate what 
 is said on page 183, above. 
 
 *S. A. Miller's N. A. S. and P., p. 47. See also a lull synopsis anil discus- 
 sion of the relationship of the Cincinnati rocks to No. Ill and No. II in the 
 east, in Jos. F. James' paper "On the age of the Point Pleasant, Ohio, beds," 
 in Journ. Cincin. Soc. Nat. Hist, July, 1891 ; in which the conclusion is 
 arrived at that no beds as low as Trenton appear on the Ohio river within 
 the limits of the State of Ohio.
 
 624 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 I 
 
 it i
 
 NO. IV. ONEIDA AND MEDINA. 625 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 Formation No. 1 V. Oneida and Medina. 
 
 Middle Pennsylvania west of the Susquehanna river is a 
 labyrinth of parallel mountains, with straight sloping sides 
 and sharp horizontal crests, none of them elevated more 
 than a thousand feet above the valleys which they include. 
 These mountains interlock in zigzags, sending out spurs 
 and knobs into the large valleys, and enclosing longer or 
 shorter narrow parallel coves. (See pi. 73, 74, &c.) 
 
 With three exceptions, to be noted directly, all these 
 mountains are composed of Formation No. IV, subdivided 
 into three sets of sandstone and sandy shale beds; the 
 lowest one (IV a) known as the Oneida conglomerate; the 
 middle set (IV b) known as the Medina red sandstone; 
 and the upper (IV c) as the Medina white sandstone. 
 
 The Oneida conglomerate (IV a) was so named by the 
 geologists of New York because of its coarseness, being a 
 pudding stone or pebble rock ; but in middle Pennsylvania 
 its beds are mostly a gray sandstone interleaved with a few 
 beds of conglomerate. Professor Rogers therefore called 
 it the Levant gray sandstone, because the aspest of the rock 
 is that of ordinary sandstone. The Medina or Levant red 
 sandstone (IV b} contains so many interstratified softer 
 shaly beds, and is so charged with iron, turning red when 
 exposed to the air, that it makes a. visible division between 
 the lower and upper parts of the whole formation. The 
 uppermost subdivision, the Medina or Levant white sand- 
 stone (IV c] is not only characterized by its purer color, or 
 rather absence of all color, but by its greater massiveness, 
 so that it constitutes the real backbone of the mountains, 
 cropping out along their crests. 
 
 Formation IV has been a boon to Appalachian geolo- 
 gists. It gave them at the very outset, fifty years ago, a key 
 40
 
 GEOLOGICAL SUEVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 BALD EACLE CAP AT BELLEFONTE 
 
 contours of 100 feel. 
 %y %.H Sanders.
 
 NO. IV. ONEIDA AND MEDINA. 627 
 
 to the structural geology of the whole region from Tennes- 
 see to New York. It marks the maps of Pennsy vania, Mary- 
 land, Virginia and Tennessee with topographical lines not 
 to be overlooked or misunderstood. It furnished a safe 
 basis for that enthusiastic investigation which resulted long 
 ago in the establishment of the science of geological topo- 
 graphy or Topographical Geology. By means of these 
 numerous bold mountain outcrops the plication of the 
 earth-crust along the Appalachian belt was at once com- 
 prehended and could be estimated at its full value ; could 
 be measured, sectioned, mapped, and modelled in solid form ; 
 and a number of such models have been made by the Penn- 
 sylvania Geological Survey. In the latest of these models 
 the formations which cover No. IV have been lifted off, 
 and the great arches in the air (long since destroyed and 
 carried into the Atlantic) have been restored ; so that the 
 complicated structure of the region is now as well known 
 as the internal anatomy of the human body. And this is 
 due, chiefly, to the great thickness of Formation No. IV, 
 and to the extensive outspread of its sandy sediments over 
 the bed of the Appalachian sea. 
 
 For a description of this model, and two photographs of 
 its surface, see the close of Chapter LIT. 
 
 I will first consider the thickness of the formation ; sec- 
 ondly the variations which obtain in its internal constitu- 
 tion in different parts of its outspread ; and, thirdly, the 
 effect which these variations have had in producing differ- 
 ent topographical "aspects of the country, and the lessons 
 which they teach respecting the formation of mountains 
 in other parts of the world. 
 
 The thickness of No. IV. 
 
 First : As to the thickness of the formation as a whole ; 
 and then, as to the variation in thickness of its subdi- 
 visions. 
 
 In measuring the thickness of any of our greater forma- 
 tions there is almost always some uncertainty as to where 
 the measurement at the bottom is to begin, and as to where
 
 628 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 thro 
 
 ug
 
 THE THICKNESS OF NO. VII. 629 
 
 the measurement is to end at the top ; for, as I have already 
 sufficiently set forth, there never has been stop or pause in 
 the tribute of the rivers to the sea ; and there never has been 
 uniformity in the nature of that tribute ; sand being de- 
 posited in one place at the same time that mud was being 
 deposited in another ; and innumerable alterations of sand 
 and mud of every possible variety have taken place through 
 the entire process. The bottom of a formation in one place 
 may not exactly correspond to its bottom in another place ; 
 and the same is true of its top. Nature has never written 
 its historical memoir of geological operations in distinct 
 and well-rounded sentences; has never numbered and 
 headed its chapters ; has seldom drawn strong black lines 
 between its paragraphs. The formations grade and fade 
 away into each other ; and that, both downward and up- 
 ward ; and the geologist who attempts to measure any for- 
 mation at any place must simply do his best to select some 
 bottom rock to begin it with and some top rock to end it 
 with. But in doing this he is always liable to mistake. 
 He must make his selections on his own responsibility. He 
 can never confidently assert that the bottom and the top 
 of his formations are established facts of science. When 
 he multiplies his measurements of a formation in various 
 places in order to obtain by comparison a knowledge of its 
 variations in thickness he subjects himself to the risk of 
 multiplying his errors. Sometimes, indeed, a special bed 
 at the bottom or at the top of a formation is so flagrantly 
 different in constitution, in color, or in its fossil forms, 
 from all the other beds near it, that he can adopt it as a 
 key rock with considerable confidence. But this is rarely 
 the case ; and even when such a key rock presents itself in 
 one part of his district, and another such key rock almost 
 or exactly like it presents itself in another part of his dis- 
 trict, there is always a possibility that the two are not con- 
 tinuous ; that they were not deposited at exactly the same 
 time throughout the region ; and that perhaps nature has 
 repeated the deposit locally and subsequently. 
 
 In measuring No. IV therefore we have been obliged to 
 assume as its bottom limit the first massive sandstone to be
 
 630 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 THE THICKNESS OF NO. VII. 631 
 
 seen lying regularly upon the upper or roofing slate division 
 of Formation No. Ill ; and we have been obliged in like 
 manner to assume as the upper limit or top of No. IV, the 
 highest massive white sandstone bed which presents itself 
 at any given locality overlaid by the softer although still 
 sandy reddish shale beds of No. Y hereafter to be de- 
 scribed. Very exact instrumental measurements of No. IV 
 have been made in accordance with this plan, that is, be- 
 tween such assumed bottom and top limits, in many parts 
 of Pennsylvania : at the Delaware, Lehigh and Schuylkill 
 Water Gaps ; at the Susquehanna gap above Harrisburg; 
 at Logan gap near Lewistown; at Rockhill gap near Orbi- 
 sonia ; at the Bald Eagle gaps near Bel lefonte and Tyrone 
 City ; and at the gaps near Bedford. But as these meas- 
 urements were made by different assistants of the Geolog- 
 ical Corps they can be compared together only by making 
 allowance for the inevitable differences of personal opinion 
 respecting the best top and bottom limits of the formation. 
 Yet, after all, these differences are so moderate as not to 
 vitiate the conclusions drawn from the comparison ; and we 
 have moreover on record for comparison the equally intel- 
 ligent and conscientious measurements of the assistants of 
 the First Geological Survey under Professor Rogers, which 
 serve in a measure to check, and in fact help to verify their 
 accuracy. 
 
 The measurement of No. IV by Mr. Sanders in Blair 
 county sums up 2896' ; that of Mr. Dewees at Logan gap 
 in Mifflin county, 2722' ; that of Mr. Billin in the south of 
 Centre county, 2440'; that of Dr. Chance in Clinton county, 
 2301' ; that of Professor White at Spruce Creek tunnel in 
 Huntingdon county, 2000' (made uncertain by a fault); that 
 of Mr. Ashburner in southern Huntingdon county, 1808' ; 
 that of Professor Stevenson, in Yellow creek gap, Bedford 
 county, 2035' (diminishing toward the Maryland line to less 
 than 1000'); and in Fulton county about 1600'; (according 
 to Professor Rogers' estimate in Cove mountain 2100', and 
 in Tussey mountain 1650'). In the Lycoming county gaps 
 Mr. F. Platt estimates it at 1375'. Dr. Chance's measure- 
 ment at the Schuylkill Water Gap was 1400' ; at the Lehigh
 
 682 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 /LXXV//
 
 THE THICKNESS OF NO. VII. 633 
 
 Water Gap (complicated with a fault) 1125' ; and at the 
 Delaware Water Gap 1565'. 
 
 It will be seen by the above statement that the greatest 
 observed thickness of No. IV is in the center of the State, 
 and that it evidently diminishes in all directions from that 
 central district. When followed southward through Vir- 
 ginia it thins, at first gradually, and then rapidly, to such 
 an extent that the whole formation appears to be only about 
 40' thick at its outcrop west of Knoxville, in Tennessee.* 
 Westward, under western Pennsylvania and Ohio, it has 
 not been reached by the deepest borings ; but that it dimin- 
 ishes in that direction also, is evident from the fact that its 
 outcrop is too small to be recognized in the Columbus and 
 Cincinnati region. Under northern Pennsylvania and cen- 
 tral New York it is also completely concealed ; but it must 
 diminish in that direction also, for its outcrop along the 
 Mohawk valley amounts to only 400', diminishing toward 
 Albany ; and it makes no appearance at all around the 
 eastern foot of the Catskill mountains. This is a remarka- 
 ble phenomenon not to be easily explained. To most geo- 
 logical minds it will seem'quite sufficient to say, that dry 
 land existed there while two or three thousand feet of sand 
 and gravel were being floated into a deep sea in middle 
 Pennsylvania. The difficulty of this explanation is in- 
 creased when one follows the lofty crest of the Kittatinny 
 mountain along the north line of Berks, Lehigh and North- 
 ampton counties in Pennsylvania, crosses the Delaware at 
 the Water Gap into New Jersey, and follows the equally 
 high crest of the Schawngunk mountain into New York, to 
 see it suddenly cut off a few miles east of the hotels at Lake 
 Mahunk, to appear no more until the western border of 
 New England is reached. Now, when 'a mountain ridge, 
 the bold outcrop of a great sandstone formation 500 miles 
 long suddenly terminates, not as an anticlinal nose descend- 
 ing underground, not as a cynclinal knob rising into the 
 air, but as if the end of a slanting board had been sawn off, 
 
 *In the White Oak mountains of East Tennessee, however, it measures 
 between 800 and 900'.
 
 634 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 THE THICKNESS OF NO. VII. 635 
 
 the structural geologist cannot do.ubt that the formation 
 has been swallowed by a fault.* 
 
 *Dr. Mather, Geologist of the First District of the New York Survey, in 
 his quarto report of 1843, pages 355 to 361, describes this shattered condition 
 of the mountain. He says that the Indians called the mountain Swang- 
 gum, that is "white rock." The sandstone mass he called "Schwangunk 
 Grit," and gives its thickness as variable between a maximum of 500 feet 
 and a minimum of 60, "its usual thickness being between 60 and 150." It 
 is traversed by two systems of faults, one parallel to the strike (N. 20, E. ), 
 and the other transverse (N. 60 W.). The cross faults are lew between the 
 Delaware river at Carpenter's Point (Port Jervis) and Ellen ville and Wa- 
 warsing in Ulster county, where the mountain is traversed by great breaks 
 and faults. "The ridge then sinks and rapidly disappears beneath the val- 
 ley, while several wrinkles or parallel axes of elevation spring up on the 
 east at the same height, run eastward between the Stony Kill, Mule Kill, 
 Sanders' Kill, etc.; sink down gradually towards the mouths of these 
 streams, and finally disappear below the valley in Rochester and Marble- 
 town, or show their continuation only by low broken ridges of upheaved lime- 
 stone. These axes of elevation are terminated apparently on the south by 
 the high cliffs along the transverse lines of fault. On the cast of these minor 
 axes the main axis of elevation takes its rise from High Point, which is a 
 high cliff of grit rock on the main fault, and ranges thence northeastward, 
 more or less broken and dislocated by minor transverse and oblique faults, 
 and diminishing in height until the Shawangunk mountain and its grits, 
 which envelope most of its higher parts, entirely disappear below the lime- 
 stone and quarternary deposits at and near Rosendale. Several high points 
 with mural fronts and ends are seen between High Point and Springtown, 
 as Sam's Point, Great Mogunk, Puntico Point, etc., all of which are caused by 
 faults along the main features of the mountain. It has been mentioned that 
 the wrinkles or subordinate axes of elevation seem to terminate at these 
 rocky points on S. E. side of the mountain, but the termination is only ap- 
 parent, caused by transverse fractures. The ridges almost all slope down 
 to the N. and N. E. from where the main fractures cross each other, and the 
 rocks disappear below the more recent formations, while their southward 
 extremities almost always present high precipitious and often vertical cliffs.." 
 
 Although these statements of Mather are not A'ery lucid, they are substan- 
 tially correct, as any geologist may observe who makes one of the great sum- 
 mer hotels, the Mohunk or the Manawaska, his headquarters. Overlooking 
 lakes which lift on top of the mountain, surrounded by vertical cliffs of 
 sandstone and conglomerate, and dammed by glacial moraines, these com- 
 fortable and hospitable places furnish unrivaled iacilities for exploring one 
 of the most interesting and instructive fields of geological research in Amer- 
 ica. Mather's illustrations of the Shangunk grit and its fractures on plates 
 V, f. 13 ; VI, f. 7 ; VIII, f. 2, 3, 4 ; VIII, f. 4 ; XV, f. 3 ; XXVI, f. 4, 5, 6, 7, 
 and XXXIX, f. 1, 2, 3, are so bad as to serve no purpose but that of contrast- 
 ing the slovenly and absurd drawings of his day with the precise and math- 
 ematical sections of our own. Yet even then the best geologists like Hall, 
 Logan, Lyell and Murchison illustrated their lucid English text with wood 
 cuts hardly since surpassed for correctness and beauty.
 
 636 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 LXX/X.
 
 AT THE GAP ABOVE HARRISBURG. 637 
 
 At the Gap above Harrisburg. 
 
 From the list of localities above mentioned where For- 
 mation No. IV has been measured to obtain its total thick- 
 ness, one locality has been omitted because it requires a 
 separate and special consideration, namely, the gap of the 
 Susquehanna above Harrisburg. Three separate measure- 
 ments have been made in this gap by Professor Rogers by 
 Mr. Sanders, and by Professor Claypole, without, however, 
 reaching absolutely sure results, owing to the overturned 
 and somewhat crushed condition of the formation. Every- 
 where else along the line of the Kittatinny, Blue or North 
 mountain, from the Delaware to the Potomac, the beds of 
 No. IV slope northward and westward at various angles 
 from 20 up to 80 and even 90. But where the Susque- 
 hanna breaks through, the earth movement from the south 
 has done more than press up the beds into vertical attitudes ; 
 it has pushed them over 20 beyond the vertical, overturning 
 them to a south dip of about 70. It will be shown in the 
 next chapter that this overturn or inversion affects not only 
 Formation No. IV, but all the overlying formations up to 
 No. XI ; and that the squeeze produced by folding 20,000' 
 of rock into a sharp synclinal basin has resulted in a large 
 amount of sliding and slipping of one group of beds upon 
 another, in the production of minor irregularities of dip 
 and strike, occasional rolls, small faults, etc., and perhaps 
 in the lessening of their original thickness. How much 
 No. IV has suffered in this respect is uncertain ; but it is 
 evident that under such circumstances the measured thick- 
 ness of any formation, whether hard or soft, cannot be im- 
 plicitly accepted as the real or original thickness. At all 
 events it would be unsafe to draw the same conclusions 
 from measurements made at such a place that we can safely 
 draw from measurements made of it at places where no 
 such violent upturning and overturning has occurred. 
 
 The measurement of No. IV in the Susquehanna gap 
 sums up less than 500'. This is at the southeast corner of 
 Perry county ; but in the western and northern parts of 
 that same county No. IV appears to be about 2000' thick.
 
 638 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 AT THE GAP ABOVE HARRISBURG. 639 
 
 Following the mountain only a few miles eastward from the 
 Snsquehanna, to where the beds of No. IV lean in their 
 natural attitude (dipping north) the formation becomes of 
 its usual thickness ; and following the mountain westward 
 from the Susquehanna not more than 15 miles, the usual 
 thickness of the formation is again resumed. We have, 
 therefore, some right to ascribe its abnormal thickness at 
 the Susquehanna to the overturn. Another explanation 
 tyowever has been suggested and will be described in the 
 next chapters, since it affects still more seriously Formations 
 No. V and No. VI in this locality. 
 
 The thickness of Formation No. IV as a whole is of 
 course the sum of the thickness of its three subdivisions, 
 (lower, middle and upper) Oneida, Medina red, and Medina 
 white. If the relative thickness of these divisions remained 
 constant, and if the_hardness and softness of the beds of 
 the three divisions were everywhere the same, it is evident 
 that the shape of a mountain of No. IV would be always 
 the same. But the law of universal geological irregularity 
 operates upon all three subdivisions. In fact each sub- 
 division of No. IV has as much right to be considered an 
 individual r and distinct formation as if it had no topo- 
 graphical relationship with the other two ; and the only 
 reason why the three subdivisions of No. IV have been 
 grouped together into one formation is the fact that the 
 three together always make one mountain ; the shape of 
 which, however, necessarily varies with the Variations in 
 solidity and thickness of the subdivisions, as will be shown 
 directly. For the present we will regard simply the thick- 
 ness of the subdivisions; repeating, however, and insist- 
 ing still more earnestly upon it, what has already been said 
 respecting the indefiniteness of the bottom and top limits 
 of all formations and groups of beds. If the three sub- 
 divisions of No. IV had been made by a stone cutter out 
 of three slabs of rock placed one upon another there would 
 be no uncertainty as to their thickness ; but seeing that 
 they are three artificial groupings of an immense number 
 of sand and mud deposits, each varying in its individual 
 character and thickness, white and gray sandstones alter-
 
 640 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 LXXX/
 
 THE THICKNESS OF NO. IV. 641 
 
 nating with gray and reddish muds, it is extremely diffi- 
 cult to decide upon any fixed planes of division between 
 them. All that we can do is to group the lower gray sands 
 togther as the Oneida, the upper white sands together as 
 Medina white, and call the softer and more or less reddish 
 beds between them as the middle division, or Medina red; 
 and arrange their thicknesses at the various places where 
 they have been measured in a table like the following : 
 
 At the Delaware Water Gap. H. M. Chance /* 
 
 Medina upper sandstone, 200' 
 
 " upper shales, etc., 530, . 
 
 " white conglomerate, 200' 
 
 " lower shales, etc., 110' 
 
 Oneida gray sandstone, 75' "j roe 
 
 " lower shales, etc., 240' ^ 
 
 " white conglomerate, 210' J 1565' 
 
 At the Lehigh Water Gap. H. M. Chance :f 
 
 Medina upper sandstone, 85' \ 
 
 " upper shale, 180' I 
 
 " gray sandstone, 70' f 
 
 " lower shale, 330' J 
 
 Oneida cong. sandstone, 290' ) 460' 
 
 " conglomerate, 170' i . , 
 
 * H. D. Rogers gives different measurements of No. IV at the three water 
 gaps, in Geol. of Pa., 1858, Vol. I, p. 126 to 130. 
 
 At the Delaware : Levant White sandstone (some sparsely pebbly beds) 
 making a prominent rib of the mountain, 200', (overlying sandstone and 
 slate alternations, may be added, or may be thrown into the formation V.) 
 2. Levant Red, wanting. 3. Levant Gray (Oneida) , upper division thin 
 bedded, soft sandstones, 400' ; lower pebbly member, 300'. Total, 900', in- 
 stead of Dr. Chance's 1565, the latter being the result of instrumental meas- 
 urements of subdivisions. 
 
 |H. D. Rogers, at the Lehigh: 1. Levant White; top division, massive 
 grey and red sandstone with shale partings, 100' ; shales and flags, 300' ; 
 sandy shales, 30' ; sandstones and shales, with fucoidal mar kings, 50' ; sand- 
 stones and shales, 100' ; white and gray pebble rock, 80' ; concealed (sand- 
 stone and shale) beds, 200' ; total 760'. 2. Levant Red, wanting. 3. Levant 
 Gray (Oneida) fine sandstone, small conglomerate and shale, 200' ; coarse 
 pebble rock and sandstone, 75' ; fine sandstone and coarse conglomerate, 75 ; 
 very coarse pebble rock at bottom, 50' ; total, 400'. Total thickness of IV, 
 1160', agreeing remarkably with Dr. Chance's instrumental measure above, 
 1125'. 
 
 41
 
 642 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 THE THICKNESS OF NO. IV. 643 
 
 At the Schuylkill Water Gap. H. M. Chance ;* 
 
 Medina upper sandstone, 90' "j 
 
 " upper iron shales, 480' I 
 
 " white sandstone, 60' j 1230/ 
 
 " lower iron shales, 600' J 
 
 Oneida white conglomerate, 200 
 
 1430' 
 
 At the Susquehanna Gap. H. D. Rogers. f 
 
 Medina upper, 300' to 400' \ 
 
 " lower (red), 0' J> max. 470' 
 
 Oneida, 60' to 70' J 
 
 In the Juniata gaps of Perry county. E. W. Claypole : 
 
 Medina sandstone and shales 1500' ) 2000* 
 
 Oneida conglomerate and sandstone, 500' > 
 
 * Rogers gives no measurements at the Schuylkill and Swatara Water 
 Gaps. 
 
 The bottom coarse red pebble rock of the Oneida, only 5' thick, with 
 white coarse sandstone, full of fault slips which suggest a greater thickness 
 than 40', is separated from the visible upper limit of No. Ill slate by a con- 
 cealed interval of 50' more or less. Prof. Claypole in his report on Perry 
 Co., F2, 1885, p. 310, describing Rye township, makes the Medina rock rib of 
 the mountain to be only 100' thick, and says nothing about the Oneida. He 
 places 500' of " soft material" between the top of the Medina and the bot- 
 tom of the Clinton Iron Sandstone rib which makes the other crest of the 
 North mountain at Sterrett's gap, the Medina crest being the lower of the 
 two and in Cumberland county. In Carroll township, he says, the Medina 
 makes little or no show, running along south of the county line on the 
 crest (F2, 159). The same in Spring township (p. 333). Tyrone township, 
 next west, gives vertical Medina at McClure'sgap (p. 370). I have expressed 
 my belief and the reasons on which it is based, that this excessive thinness 
 of No. IV and the total disappearance of one or two thousand feet of over- 
 lying measures in Perry county, west (and east) of the Susquehanna Water 
 Gap, described by Prof. Claypole in F2, p. 303 (see illustration p. 304), and 
 assumed by him as good evidence of the existence of a district of dry land 
 in Upper Silurian times in that district of the State, is rather to be explained 
 by the upturned and overturned condition of the south side of the Cove 
 synclinal and Dauphin county coal basin, producing not only the oblique 
 fissuring of the Oneida outcrop in the Gap, but, as I believe, great slip-faults 
 paralled with the strike, swallowing up and pressing underground the softer 
 formations. I do not believe that No. IV was originally any thinner at the 
 Susquehanna than at the Schuylkill or Delaware, or than it seems to be in the 
 gaps of the Juniata river, even in Perry county, where in the Tuscarora 
 mountain, etc. Prof. Claypole gives it a total thickness of 2000' (F2, 
 page 36).
 
 644 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 THE THICKNESS OF NO. IV. 645 
 
 Logan's gap, Mifflin county. C. A. Ashburner: 
 
 Medina white sandstone, 820' ) 21(xy 
 
 Medina red sandstone, 1280' $ 
 
 Oneida red conglomerate, . 300' ) 622 , j 2722 '* 
 
 Oneida gray sandstone, 313' > 
 
 Jack's Narrows, Mifflin county. H. D. Rogers: 
 
 Levant top red sandstone,! 30' ) 45)) , 1 
 
 Levant upper white sandstone, 420' ) [ 
 
 Levant red sandstone and shale, 650' ' 
 
 Levant lower white sandstone , 250' 
 
 Rockhill gap, Orbisonia, Huntington county. Ashburner : 
 
 Medina white sandstone, 400' ) JOQ/W 
 
 Medina red sandstone, 930' J 
 
 Oneida red conglomerate, 158' ) ,-gg, 
 
 Oneida gray sandstone, 410' 3 
 
 Canoe Mt. gap, Huntingdon Co. H. D. Rogers : 
 
 Levant (upper) Avhite sandstone, 550' "l 
 
 Levant (middle) red beds,|| 1050 i 2100' 
 
 Levant (lower) gray sandstone, T 500' J 
 
 Bald Eagle Mt. gaps in Blair Co. R. H. Sanders : 
 
 Medina white sandstone (north crest), 1068' 
 
 Medina red alternations,** 520' 
 
 Oneida gray sandstone (south brow), 1319' 
 
 * Rogers does not measure the Upper division of IV here (Geo. Pa. I, p. 
 130), but subdivides the Middle division into (at top) dark red flags with 
 some red shale pebbles, 500' ; coarse friable red sandstones, iron-specked, 
 100' ; pink sandstones with layers of quartz, slate and other older pebbles, 
 400' ; total 1000'. The lowest ( Oneida) division, fine massive gray sandstone, 
 iron-specked, he makes 300'. Total only 1300'. 
 
 fSome of the layers are covered with a net-work of the sea weed, 
 Arthrophycus harlani. 
 
 J These and other asigned thicknesses given by Rogers in his Geo. Pa. 
 1858, have been proved incorrect by the close instrumental field work of Bil- 
 lin and Ashburner, Sanders and Chance since 1874. 
 
 " Measured with precision." Ponderous, homogeneous, fine grained 
 white and gray sandstone beds." Geo. Pa. I, 130. 
 
 || " Reddish brown, rather argillaceous, with beds of gray sandstone, all 
 alternating with much red shale," p. 129. 
 
 1 " Wears its usual character of grey-greenish and pinkish hard siliceous 
 massive sandstone beds, p. 127. 
 
 **The detailed section of these alternations will be found in Report T, 
 on Blair county, by Franklin Platt, 1881, p. 17, discussed on p. 47. The de- 
 scription is minute and very interesting. The division made in the text is 
 liable to a great modification, inasmuch as the north crest of the Bald Eagle
 
 646 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 THE THICKNESS OF NO. IV. 647 
 
 Bald Eagle, Bellefonte gap. H. D. Rogers : 
 
 Levant white sandstone, 400' to 500' 
 
 Levant red sandstone and shale,* about 500' I, 1550' 
 
 Levant upper green sandstone,! 380' > 55() , 
 
 Levant lower gray sandstone,} 170' ) 
 
 Bald Eagle, Mill Hall gap. H. M. Chance : 
 
 Medina upper (north crest), 695' 
 
 Medina middle (vale), 705' < 2301' 
 
 Oneida (southern crest), 901' 
 
 is really made by 100' of white sandrocks at the top of the section, sup- 
 ported by 255' of red sandstone beds parted by layers of red slate from 6 inches 
 to 5 feet thick. Underneath this 355' the rocks are concealed for 540', and 
 the detailed alternations begin and go down for 1000', leaving the bottom 
 division to be 1309' thick. In fact only 400 or 500' of the upper division of 
 1068' answer to the description of the White (upper) Medina; the Red 
 (middle) Medina is really 500+520=1020' thick. All this is merely a matter 
 of classification and does not at all invalidate the correctness of the detailed 
 section. The Medina White is made up of hard white and greenish gray 
 flinty sandstones, fine grained, compact, homogenous, with almost none of 
 the pebbles which make it so coarse a pebble rock in the North, Blue or 
 Kittatinny mountain outcrop. Its top beds are thin, mottled red and grey, 
 and often covered with sea weed impressions. They are parted by or alter- 
 nate with soft greenish non-fossiliferous shales. They are much specked 
 with yellow pits of decomposed iron. The Medina red upper member is 
 made up of red clay flagstones, with (toward the bottom) some other layers 
 of small quartz pebbles, flattish fragments of red shale occur throughout 
 the pile of sandstone beds. Such is its general character in Mifflin county. 
 The Oneida in Mifflin county has pebbles of quartz and slate and sandstone 
 apparently derived from some antient land or coast of No. Ill and No. I. 
 But in Blair county the Oneida shows obscure vertical plant stems. Steven- 
 son does not recognize the Oneida in Bedford county. The Oneida is char- 
 acteristically speckled and pitted by the decomposition of minute granules 
 of some iron ore, perhaps pyrites. Its upper subdivision is a clayey sand, 
 greenish gray, slightly micaceous, ochre-pitted, and its rock beds parted by 
 thin fissile yellow shales. The lower is an ochre-pitted hard gray sand- 
 stone! (T, 48. ) 
 
 *Thin grey and red clay sandstone layers, alternating with a fourth part 
 red, grey and greenish shale partings. High in the division are found ver- 
 tical plant stems like Hall's Scolithus verticalis at Medina, N. Y. 
 
 t Greenish grey slightly micaceous, specked with ochre, with thin fissile 
 greenish slate partings. In Pleasant Gap, Center county, it is quarried for 
 flagstones. (T4, 428. ) 
 
 t Hard gray sandstone without pebbles, but full of yellow specks. 
 
 See detailed section in Report G4 on Clinton county, 1880, p. 120. The 
 subdivisions are empirical. The upper hard, massive, red, grey and white 
 sandstones are not well exposed. The middle softer sands and shales make 
 the little trench between the crests. Then come hard, massive, white (with 
 a few speckled) sandstones, 188' : concealed, 118' ; hard, massive, siliceous 
 dark grey and greenish grey speckled beds, 155' ; and at the bottom a mass 
 not well exhibited, but principally hard massive sand rocks, 410'.
 
 648 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 THE THICKNESS OF NO. IV. 649 
 
 Bald Eagle gaps in Lycoming county. F. Platt :* 
 
 Medina upper hard sandstone, 100' "| 
 
 Medina middle red beds, 1200' i> 1375' 
 
 Oneida hard sandstone, 75' j 
 
 Wills' Mt. gap, Milligan's cove. H. D. Kogers. 
 
 Levant white sandstone, 400' ] 
 
 Levant red sandstone,! 800' 1 1300' 
 
 Levant grey sandstone, 100' j 
 
 No. IV thins southward into Virginia and Tennessee. 
 On the James river the whole Medina measures only 300' 
 and whole Oneida only 90' ; together 390'4 
 
 Stevenson calls the Medina in Waldron's ridge, Lee Co. 
 Va., " evidently more than 300'." 
 
 West of Knoxville, in Tennessee, I saw it represented by 
 only 40' of sandstone. 
 
 Towards the west it entirely disappears from the Ohio 
 and Kentucky column. 
 
 Northward it thins away in an equally remarkable man- 
 ner. At Niagara the Medina is 300' or 400' ; and the Oneida, 
 in Oneida county, N. Y., only 100' to 120'. 
 
 But going eastward along its northern outcrop it increases. 
 Prof. Prosser's general section of Western Middle New 
 York State gives Red Medina sandstones and shales, 942'. | 
 
 * Mr. Platt says in Report G2, p. 29, that no exact measurements were made 
 for want of satisfactory exposures, and that the figures given above are only 
 probable. 
 
 t Includes here a larger amount of grey sandstone than on the Juniata. 
 Rogers says that in this main gap through Wills' mountain into the cove the 
 Oueida is last seen going south. He suspects a fault swallowing up a part 
 of the formation, "a conjecture suggested by the vertical and shattered con- 
 dition of the strata in Buffalo ridge the western barrier of the cove." Geo. 
 Pa. 1858, p. 128. 
 
 JJ. L. Campbell, Geol. Rich Patch in "Virginias," Vol. I, No. 12, Dec., 
 1880, illustrated with sections. 
 
 Proceed. Am. Philos. Soc. Phila., Aug., 1880. 
 
 || "Thickness of Devonian and Silurian Rocks, etc." Amer. Geologist, 
 Oct., 1890, p. 205. His section is made up from well-borings. Under his 
 Medina the Oswego sandstone, 210', is placed in No. III. In the Walcott well 
 on Lake Ontario, red shale and red siliceous sandstones alternating, meas- 
 ure 690' ; but they may be Clinton ; under them Oswego sandstone, 210'. 
 In the Clyde well, Wayne Co., N. Y., Medina red shales, etc., 24', 3', 915= 
 942'. At the bottom of the Seneca Falls well, Medina red shales and sand- 
 stones, 150' ; how much more unknown. At Rochester Logan made the Me- 
 dina 600'. Geo. Sur. Canada, 1863, p. 310.
 
 650 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

 
 NO IV. AT LOGAN GAP. 651 
 
 No. IV at Logan Gap. PL LXXXI, p. 64.0. 
 
 The best place perhaps for studying No. IV is at the 
 Gap through Jack's mountain in Mifflin county. 
 
 Here the white Medina sandstone beds measure 820' ; 
 most of them consisting of massive lawers of exceedingly 
 hard rock varying from 2' to 4' in thickness ; some of them 
 fine grained ; some of them slightly argillaceous, that is 
 the grains of sand are imbedded in a matrix of clay. They 
 slope up from the floor of the gap at the south end and 
 make the upper part of the mountain and its high, bold 
 rock-covered crest, running eastward toward the Susque- 
 hanna, and westward toward the Juniata ; and it is the great 
 thickness of these Medina while sand rock beds that makes 
 Jack's mountain one of the highest in middle Pennsylvania. 
 The weather acting upon the slight cement, dissolves it, 
 and sets free the sharp grains of sand, producing along the 
 top of the mountain collections of glass sand. Some of 
 the more solid beds, resisting dissolution, break up into 
 great blocks which slide down and cover the upper part of 
 the northern slope. 
 
 The Medina red middle division of No. IV in the heart 
 of the gap is 1280' thick. It consists of laminated reddish 
 sandstone layers, too soft and friable for building purposes, 
 interstratin'ed with red sandy shales. On the surface of 
 these shales ripple marks and the impressions of sun cracks 
 like those seen on a modern sea shore abound, leading one 
 to suspect that the waters of that ancient time were shal- 
 low, and the sea bed in places exposed to the air and sun. 
 But at the same time, many of the strata are obliquely 
 cross-bedded, as if deposited in swiftly flowing currents. 
 
 Beneath these lie the Oneida rocks, divided into an upper 
 and a lower group, called the Oneida red conglomerate and 
 the Oneida gray sandstone. 
 
 The upper group consists of massive sandstone strata, 
 reddish in color, very coarse, full of small pebbles which 
 in some places become as large as hens' eggs ; the layers 
 varying from V to 6' in thickness, so that large stones are 
 quarried from them in the gap. This mass of pebble rock
 
 652 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 
 
 NO. IV. AT ORBISONIA. 653 
 
 rising at an angle of 55 to the brow of the famous terrace 
 which surrounds Kishacoquillis valley is 310' thick. 
 
 The lower group measures also 310', and is made up of 
 very hard greenish gray sandstone, the grains of sand coarse 
 and strongly cemented together, mixed with pebbles of 
 quartz, none of them as large as those in the group above. 
 Some of the beds are five grained, equally hard and massive, 
 and contain small scattered pebbles. Some of the beds 
 show a good deal of disseminated oxide of iron.* 
 
 About 25 miles west of Logan Gap the Juniata breaks 
 through the mountain at Jack's Narrows. 
 
 Here the Medina white sandstone is only 450' thick, the 
 30' of beds at the top being a group of alternating red, pink 
 and gray sandstone layers and red and green shales ; some 
 of the sandstone layers being covered with a net-work of 
 sea weed markings (ArtTirophycus Jiarlani). The remain- 
 ing 420' consists of strata, massive and compact, of white 
 and greenish gray sandstone, with scarcely a trace of any 
 organic life. Under these lie 650' of soft clay sandstone 
 generally red, and speckled yellow with iron, current bedded 
 to a great degree, and interstratified with beds of very soft 
 red shale. Under these lie 250' of greenish white, hard, 
 sandstone, down to the bed of the river in the gap, be- 
 neath which nothing can be seen, as the exposure is anti- 
 clinal. 
 
 No. IV at OrUsonia. PL LXXXV1, p. 650. 
 
 At Orbisouia, 10 miles further south, Black Log mount- 
 ain shows No. IY in Rockhill Gap in its three divisions. 
 
 The Medina white, 400' thick, consists of massive white 
 and gray, fine-grained, hard sandstone beds alternating in 
 the upper part with red and grayish shales. The Medina 
 
 *Professor Kogers estimated the middle division of No. IV in Logan Gap, 
 at 1000' ; of which the uppermost 500' consists of dark red flaggy beds of 
 mixed sand and mud, some of which contains curious pebbles of red shale 
 of unknown origin. Under these lie 100' of coarse red sandstone, loosely 
 cemented together, friable under the weather, some of them sprinkled with 
 small pebbles and showing a great number of iron stained spots. Under 
 these lie 400' of pale red sandstone beds containing pebbles of quartz and 
 fragments of slate apparently like No. III. These 1000' of reddish and more 
 or less pebbly soft rocks constitute the middle division of No. IV.
 
 654 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 NO. IV. AT SPRUCE CREEK GAP. 655 
 
 red, 930', consists of soft brown and red clay sandstones 
 and shales ; the sandstones in the central part softer and 
 more friable and specked with iron. The Oneida is divis- 
 ible here also into two groups, the upper (158') consisting of 
 hard red and greenish gray, broken up sandstones with 
 conglomerates ; the lower (410') of hard massive greenish 
 sandstone and gray conglomerate strata. 
 
 No. 2 Vat Spruce Creek Gap. 
 
 In the gap of the Little Juniata through Tussey mount- 
 ain 20 miles northwest of Jack's mountain narrows, the 
 Medina white sandstone, 1000' thick, showing few pebbles, 
 but many impressions of the sea weed above mentioned, 
 descends from the crest of the mountain to the bed of the 
 river southward on a slope of 20. Under this lies 700' of 
 Medina red sandstones and shales. The next underlying 
 200' are concealed but probably belong to the middle divi- 
 sion, making it 900' thick. Under these concealed rocks, the 
 Oneida conglomerate appears with its massive coarse and 
 pebbly beds, apparently only 100' thick ; but the Spruce 
 creek tunnel fault at this place obscures the section. Frag- 
 ments of the Medina white, sliding from the crest of the 
 mountain, cover its southeastern slope and also the upper 
 part of its northwestern side ; for the thin beds broken up by 
 the weather into innumerable flagstones slide upon each other 
 down that slope ; and in this respect the surface show of 
 Medina formation in this part of the region is peculiar. 
 The best place to see this operation of gradual destruction 
 is in Jack's Narrows before mentioned ; where the formation 
 is thrown into a double anticlinal arch cut through by the 
 river. The two walls of the gap are slopes of about 30, 
 entirely covered from the crest of the mountain to the bed 
 of the river with a smooth and regular universal stone slide, 
 composed of millions of broken flags slipping over each 
 other farther and farther in their slow but never ceasing 
 descent. The material thus provided by nature has been 
 thankfully accepted by man ; and railroad engineers find 
 in this great stone slide an inexhaustible provision for the 
 finest railroad ballast that can be conceived.
 
 656 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 LXXX/X- 
 
 Langtudifial Section ofJacts Mountain miavmy between Three Springs and Saltillu 
 shotting the subsidence at the Anticlinal at the end of the Mountajn.hyCha$.AAshbur 
 
 r.p.n*.
 
 NO. IV. AT TYRONE GAP. 657 
 
 The ravine which descends into Spruce creek gap has been 
 excavated in the Medina middle; and the Juniata river 
 makes its very remarkable bend below the Spruce creek 
 station in order to use the lower part of this ravine for a 
 water way. The long hog-back in the bend (through which 
 the Pennsylvania tunnel has been driven) is made by the 
 Oneida conglomerate ; the outcrop of which slopes up the 
 mountain side and becomes the brow of the terrace which 
 surrounds Nittany and Canoe valleys. This terrace is the 
 prominent feature of the northwest slope of Tussey mount- 
 ain for many miles eastward. 
 
 No. IV at Tyrone Gap. 
 
 In the gap of the Little Juniata through Bald Eagle 
 mountain at Tyrone City, Formation No. IV stands verti- 
 cal, affording a fine opportunity for the study of its beds. 
 But all the beds are not visible, being concealed by the ma- 
 terial which has slidden from above. The section pub- 
 lished in Report T, page 17, and Report T3, page 144, is as 
 follows : 
 
 Sandstone, white Medina, 100 rb 
 
 Sandstone, red, with layers of red slate from 6" to 5' thick, 255' 
 
 Concealed interval, 540' 
 
 Sandstone, red massive, 84' 
 
 Sandstone, green slaty, 1' 8' 
 
 Sandstone, red, with a few layers of red shale, 87' 
 
 Slate, green, 0' 6" 
 
 Sandstone, red, 10' 
 
 Shale, red, 5' 
 
 Slate, green, . . 5' 
 
 Sandstone, red, 5 
 
 Sandstone, gray, 20' 
 
 Shale, red, 1' 
 
 Sandstone, gray, 10' 
 
 Shale, red, . f 0' 6" 
 
 Sandstone, red, 10' 
 
 Sandstone, grayish red, 15 
 
 Slate, red, 
 
 Slate, green, ... 16" 
 
 Sandstone, gray, 15 
 
 Slate, gray, 1 
 
 Sandstone, brown, 20 
 
 Slate, gray, 1 
 
 Sandstone, brown, 8 
 
 Shale, red, 6' 
 
 42
 
 658 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 NO. IV. IN MILL HALL GAP. ( 
 
 Sandstone, reddish brown, 75' 
 
 Slate, red, ... 1' 
 
 Sandstone, red and gray, 200' 
 
 Sandstone, red, 9' 
 
 Shale, red, 4' 
 
 Sandstone, red, 2 
 
 Slate, red, 3 
 
 Slate, green, 1 
 
 Slate, red, 4 
 
 Slate, green, ... 2 
 
 Sandstone, red, 6' 
 
 Sandstone, red, some little of it gray, 15' 
 
 Sandstone, red, 10' 
 
 Slate, gray, 2' 
 
 Sandstone, red, 18' 
 
 Slate, gray, 0' 5" 
 
 Sandstone, grayish brown, 12' 
 
 Shale, red 0' 3" 
 
 Sandstone, brown, 20' 
 
 Shale, green, 0' 2" 
 
 Sandstone, brown, 4' 
 
 tehale, red, 1' 
 
 Sandstone, brown and gray, and concealed, 150' 
 
 Sandstone, gray, and concealed, 409 
 
 Sandstone, gray, 320' 
 
 Sandstone, gray, and slaty sandstone, 440' 
 
 2906' 6" 
 
 In Tyrone gap, according to Mr. Sanders, the Medina 
 white measures 1068', the Medina red 668', and the Oneida 
 1160' making a total of 2896'. A crush fault (apparently 
 of no great magnitude) makes the statement a little doubt- 
 ful. It is evident from the section above given, that the 
 whole formation has a very different character along this its 
 westernmost Bald Eagle outcrop, from its character along 
 the Jack's mountain outcrop, 25 miles to the southeast. 
 Many of the beds of the upper Medina, although massive, 
 have a red color and might justly be thrown into the mid- 
 dle division (Medina red). 
 
 No. IV in Mill Hall Gap. 
 
 In the Bellefonte gap through Bald Eagle mountain, 30 
 miles to the northeast of Tyrone gap, the Medina white 
 may be said to have a thickness of 400' or 500'. The Me- 
 dina red here consists of thin bedded gray and red clay 
 sandstones, constituting three parts of the whole mass.
 
 660 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 ~~ XcT 
 
 Section tine J-% OCTOM Centre tomukip.
 
 NO. IV. IN THE BEDFORD GAPS. 661 
 
 separated by and alternating with beds of red, gray and 
 greenish shale. In the uppermost beds have been found 
 stem-like vegetable forms (Scolithus vertical-is) which are 
 probably the casts of the burrows of worms going down 
 and coming up in the sand'on the shore of the sea ; its total 
 thickness say 500'. The Oneida is here again divisible into 
 two groups, the upper (380' thick) composed of greenish gray 
 slightly micaceous sandstones, specked with iron ochre, and 
 separated from each other by thin layers of finely lami- 
 nated greenish slates ; the lower (170' thick) a mass of hard 
 gray sandstone beds, entirely without pebbles, but com- 
 pletely covered (where exposed to the weather) with yellow 
 ochre specks produced by the decomposition of iron pyrites 
 disseminated through the whole rock, in what original form 
 has not been investigated. This iron speckled aspect of 
 the Oneida division of Formation No. IV is characteristic 
 of it throughout the central region of the State, and is a 
 peculiarity which marks it quite as plainly as the flagstone 
 slides mark the Medina upper division. 
 
 No. IV in Williamsburg Gap. 
 
 In the gap'of the Juniata river through Canoe mountain 
 in Blair county, the Medina white is a mass of white and 
 gray, line grained heavy sandstone beds, 550' thick. The 
 Medina red consists of softer, reddish brown, clay sand- 
 stone beds, a few beds of gray sandstone, and a great many 
 beds of red shale, subdividing a total thickness of 1050'. 
 The Oneida is as usual composed of massive greenish gray 
 and pinkish, iron speckled, very hard sandstone beds, in 
 all 500' thick. 
 
 No. IV in the Bedford Gaps. 
 
 In Bedford county the Medina white, still making the 
 crests of the mountain, is a mass of almost snow white, 
 line-grained, very hard and gritty rocks, 860' thick in the 
 Yellow creek gap through Tussey mountain, but growing 
 thinner southward, so that it is only 300' thick in the Rays- 
 town Juniata gap through Tussey mountain, near Bedford,
 
 662 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 ?'m(wy ftudt in, Spring 
 
 M?) limed fane 
 <3>erry Co
 
 NO. IV. IN THE BEDFORD GAPS. . 663 
 
 and 200' in the gap through Evitt's mountain (T2, p. 91) ; 
 no fossils but the sea weed Arthrophyous being seen in 
 it at any exposure. The Medina red in the Bedford dis- 
 trict contains comparatively little soft shale ; its beds being 
 chiefly hard fine-grained red sandstone grits ; containing 
 innumerable pellets of ochreous clay, which when exposed 
 to the weather are dissolved out, leaving the rock in a 
 curiously pitted, or finely honeycombed condition. Flat- 
 tened lumps of red clay may be found by breaking the 
 rock of many of the beds ; and these suggest an explana- 
 tion for the universal iron speckled condition of the Oneida 
 beds.* 
 
 As for the Oneida or lower division of No. IV in Bed- 
 ford county, Dr. R. M. S. Jackson of the First Geological 
 Survey could find only 100' of beds which he could so call 
 in the gap of Will's mountain into Millikin's cove. He 
 suggested that the lowe'r part of it might be concealed by 
 a fault along the western edge of the cove, seeing that the 
 strata in Buffalo ridge are much broken and turned up ver- 
 tical. But Professor Stevenson, in report T2 on Bedford 
 county, could not recognize any Oneida rocks south of 
 Morrison's cove. Gray sandstones indeed appear in Raver's 
 creek gap through Tussey, on the Henrietta road in Wood- 
 
 *How these balls of clay enclosed in fine sand originated is a curious ques- 
 tion. It is also a matter of some moment to get any answer to the enquiry, 
 whether they were originally round, or whether they were deposited in their 
 present flat shape. For if they were originally round their flattened con- 
 dition now must be ascribed to pressure, that is, to the consolidation of the 
 Formation No. IV under the burden of all the formations up to the Coal 
 measures, which were afterwards laid down upon it. And this would in- 
 troduce a subject which has hardly yet received attention from geologists, 
 namely, the amount of compression and loss of bulk vertically which all 
 our formations have suffered in the lapse ot time, partly by the closer pack- 
 ing together of their sand and mud grains, but chiefly from drying out of 
 the original sea water with which they must have been for many ages com- 
 pletely soaked or water logged. For if this diminution of bulk could be 
 shown to bear a considerable proportion to the original thickness of sand 
 and mud deposits, the calculation, if made upon a sound basis of fact, 
 would materially modify the. speculations now so popular, oftentimes so 
 rash, and in all cases so unsatisfactory, respecting the mutations of the sea 
 level in various geological ages. For if our formations in drying have lost 
 only 5 per cent of their thickness, the total shrinkage in thickness of say 
 40,000' of Palaeozoic strata would amount to 2000'.
 
 664 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 XCfif 
 
 tcJ^irom twc&ifoal ortion o foe 
 
 g^TT-rE? 
 
 K / I L L
 
 NO. IV. IN THE BEDFORD GAPS. 665 
 
 berry township, and obscurely at two places on Banning' s 
 mountain ; but Oneida beds are certainly absent along the 
 Raystown Juniata in both Tussey and Evitts mountain 
 gaps. In fact Oneida sandstone beds were seen by him at 
 no locality in Bedford county more than 35' thick. At the 
 two places last mentioned there can be no question of con- 
 cealment by faults, for the top layers of No. Ill are regu- 
 larly overlaid by Medina red or brownish red shales con- 
 taining two fossils which unmistakably belong" to that divi- 
 sion(Ambonyc7im radiata and Rliynclionellacapax}2c&& th 
 Hudson river slates pass without any break of sequence 
 upward into Medina shales ; so that there can be no doubt 
 that the Oneida formation was not deposited in the bed of 
 the sea in this locality, even in the condition of tine sand. 
 Yet it must not be rashly concluded from this fact, that 
 dry land existed here. For had dry land existed it must 
 have been land of No. Ill raised above the sea level and 
 afterwards submerged to receive the deposit of No. IV. 
 But the moment a portion of sea bottom is lifted above 
 water level rain-erosion commences, and continues until re- 
 submergence ; and rain-erosion must leave its marks in the 
 shape of hills and hollows however small or low. Some 
 break in the continuity of the deposit must take pi ace, and 
 must remain visible ever after wherever the consolidated 
 rock strata are now exposed to examination. If no such 
 break appears we ma} 7 be sure that the sea bottom has not 
 been lifted to the air. Therefore if the Oneida format! on, 
 thick and pebbly further northeast, grows thinner and finer 
 and at length disappears going south, allowing the Medina 
 above it and the Hudson river below it to come quietly 
 together, it is certain that its disappearance is really and 
 surely due to the fact that the sediments were floated fur- 
 ther out into deep water according to their fineness, until 
 at length the finest material was exhausted, or, mingled with 
 equally fine material floated in from other directions.
 
 666 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Ml 
 
 ylkil Wafo^ap, 
 
 (mdjie/ne, reduc&lto ft. ivneaf
 
 NO. IV.- IN CLINTON, CENTRE AND LYCOMING. 667 
 
 No. IV in Clinton, Centre and Ly coming. 
 
 Following the Bald Eagle outcrop of IY eastward into 
 Clinton count}', the gaps at Lock Haven, Jersey Shore and 
 Williamsport furnish sections of it along a stretch of 40 
 miles. 
 
 In the gap at Millhall, near Lock Haven, the Medina 
 upper hard massive white, gray and red sandstones, not very 
 well exposed measures 695'. The middle division of in- 
 terstratified softer sandstones and shales measures 705'. 
 Under these lie hard massive sand rocks mostly w r hite; with 
 a few beds of gray, mottled with iron rust, 188'. Under 
 these, partly concealed, softer sandstones and shales, some 
 of them red, 118'. Under these, massive, hard, dark gray 
 and greenish gray, iron specked, flinty sandstones, 155'. 
 Under these are hard and massive sandstones with con- 
 cealed intervals of softer rocks, 440' ; which makes a total 
 thickness of 2301'. (G-4, 129). It is evident that no useful 
 classification of the beds of the whole formation into three 
 divisions can be made out of the mere terms of this sec- 
 tion ; but it will be shown in its proper place that where 
 the eye of the geologist is at fault, the hand of nature works 
 with unerring certainty, and carves the shape of the mount- 
 ain in accordance with the larger groupings of the hard and 
 massive beds. 
 
 In the gaps issuing from Nippenose valley and Mosquito 
 valley in Lycoming county the rocks of No. IV are not 
 well exposed. The Medina upper hard sandstone is esti- 
 mated by Mr. Platt at only 100' ; the middle red division 
 he makes 1200' ; arid the Oneida hard sand rock only 15' ; 
 the total being only 1375' (G-2, 29). The contrast between 
 the section at Mill Hall carefully measured by Dr. Chance 
 and this roughly estimated section of Mr. Platt at Jersey 
 Shore and Williamsport is very striking, and not easily 
 explained. It certainly affords no safe basis for generaliz- 
 ing on the extent, thickness or method of the deposits.
 
 668 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
 
 NO. IV. ALONG THE GREAT VALLEY. 669 
 
 No. IV along the Great Valley. 
 
 Passing now to the long outcrop of No. IY, which bor- 
 ders the Great Valley, we have, first, at the gap of the 
 Susquehanna above Harrisburg an expression of the for- 
 mation totally different in character from anything observ- 
 able in the outcrops northwest of it toward the Allegheny 
 mountain. The Medina upper division consists of a series 
 of comparatively thin white sandstone beds, alternating 
 with greenish and yellowish slates ; some reddish sand- 
 stones occurring among the upper layers showing impres- 
 sion of marine plants ; altogether making only 300' or 400'. 
 The absence of massiveness here in the upper division of 
 No. IV is quite remarkable. The consequence is that in- 
 stead of making the crest of the mountain, these upper 
 beds crop out below the crest on the southern side, over 
 the outcrop of the Oneida ; the crest being made by the 
 Iron sandstone of the Clinton formation No. V. that is, 
 in Perry county. 
 
 The Medina middle soft red division of No. IV is here 
 entirely wanting ; and the geologist must travel along the 
 mountain westward toward Franklin county to find it again 
 appearing in the ridges which enclose Path Valley, but only 
 feebly developed. Or he must cross Perry county north- 
 westward to find it coming into the series in the gaps of 
 the Tuscarora range. If he continues further northward 
 to the Shade mountain, Blue Ridge and Black Log mount- 
 ain gaps, he will find it much increased in thickness. Be- 
 yond these to the northwest are the sections in Jack's mount- 
 ain, Tussey mountain, and the Bald Eagle range, which 
 have already been described, where it attains its maximum 
 thickness. 
 
 No. IV at the Susquehanna Water Gap. 
 But, in the Susquehanna gap above Harrisburg the Oneida 
 makes a great mark rising steeply to the top of mountain, 
 along which its rocky outcrop runs, on the southern slope. 
 It is about 70' thick, 40' of which consists of white sand- 
 stone beds containing pebbles ; under this an exceedingly
 
 670 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Xcvi.
 
 NO. IV. AT THE SUSQUEHANNA WATER GAP. 671 
 
 coarse, heterogeneous, red pudding-stone, 5' thick. Under 
 this, between it and the uppermost layers of Hudson River 
 slate, there is a concealed space of 40' or 60'. How much 
 sliding and faulting has taken place in this interval, or how 
 much of it is occupied by concealed sandstones cannot be 
 made out. The wall of Oneida exhibits so many oblique 
 slips and fault joints that its present thickness may be dif- 
 ferent from that which it had when it lay horizontally at 
 the bottom of the sea. The most interesting feature of 
 this famous exposure (apart from the fact already men- 
 tioned that the formation is here pushed over the vertical 
 to a reversed south dip of 70) is the five foot 'coarse pud- 
 ding-stone. As this lies at or near the bottom of No. IV, 
 and more or less directly upon the slates of No. Ill, it is 
 certainly an indication of some disturbance having taken 
 place in some other and perhaps distant district of the 
 earth's surface. But it is useless to speculate upon the 
 origin of a bed, composed of pebbles and fragments of all 
 kinds, since we are entirely ignorant of the depth of water 
 which then and there existed, of the nature of the tide- 
 runs or other currents which could transport the material, 
 and of the shape, character or location of the shore lines 
 which bounded the then water basin. 
 
 It serves no good purpose to suggest that we have here a 
 shingle on a sea beach. It would be equally useless to 
 suggest an isolated gravel bank in the midst of the sea. 
 Towards the west, for a thousand miles, no land could have 
 existed at that time ; nor for less than three or four hun- 
 dred miles towards the north. Our South mountains, and 
 in fact all southeastern Pennsylvania was then not only 
 under water, but covered by the limestone and mud for- 
 mations No. II and III. If the great mountain mass of 
 North Carolina was at that time out of water, which is 
 very doubtful, it was nearly 500 miles distant to the south. 
 All the highlands of New Jersey were at that time sub- 
 merged. The Adirondack mountains in northern New 
 York, and perhaps parts of New England, may possibly 
 have been out of water, and possibly the Oneida pebbles were 
 derived from those sources (but were certainly subsequently
 
 672 OEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 #/ / XCVH 
 
 . fffi'/fy 
 
 of If 4 
 
 ^-!> M i . . '.I h^
 
 NO. IV. AT THE SCHUYLKILL WATER GAP. 673 
 
 submerged, as the Barnardston fossils show). But it would 
 defy the keenest genius to make out the case, or paint the 
 picture of the transaction in colors which would not fade 
 into an ^indistinguishable gray under the light of precise 
 enquiry. And the hopelessness of the attempt is accented 
 by a fact which seems to be never alluded to by those who 
 generalize on such subjects ; namely, the fact that our for- 
 mation No. IV while being deposited in the Appalachian sea 
 of America was at the same time being deposited in the 
 prolongation of that sea which reached Europe ; being re- 
 cognized in England under the name of the May Hill sand- 
 stone ; and it will be shown in discussing Formation No. 
 VII that this critical fact was repeated in the case of the 
 OrisJcany sandstone which was deposited in the United 
 States at the same time that it was being deposited in 
 France ; specimens from that formation, full of the same ani- 
 mal forms and presenting exactly the same aspect, having 
 been collected from the outcrops on both sides of the 
 present Atlantic. 
 
 No. I Vat the Schuylkill Water Gap. 
 
 A topographical contour map of the Schuylkill Water 
 Gap at Port Clinton made by Mr. Chance, with careful 
 measurements of the five groups into which No. IV is there 
 subdivded, gives us the following description of it : 
 
 Three prominent ribs of sandrock rise vertically from the 
 bed of the river to the north slope of the crest of the mount- 
 ain. No distinction can be made in the Medina between 
 an upper white and a lower red division. At the top rest 
 90' of Upper Medina gray sandstone beds, supported by 
 480' of iron stained shales ; under which are 60' of Lower 
 Medina white sandstone beds supported by 600' of iron 
 stained shales ; and at the bottom, 200' of Oneida white 
 sandstone and gravel beds, which make the crest.* 
 
 *This is a rare occurrence, due to the great thickness and massiveness of 
 this rib. The terrace on the north slope is made by the outcrop of the com- 
 paratively thin and unsupported Upper Medina rib. See cross-section, 
 ng. 4, plate LIT, on p. 554 above. 
 43
 
 674 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 At this interesting locality the bottom of No. IV is wholly 
 separated from the slates of No. Ill by a vertical fault, on 
 the north side of which the sandstones of IV rise vertically 
 into the air, making the crest and north slope of the mount- 
 ain. On the south side of the fault the slate formation 
 No. Ill is sheared off like a cake of cheese, the edges of 
 the slates abutting nearly horizontally square against the 
 upturned bottom plate of Oneida conglomerate. It is im- 
 possible to affirm that it is actually the bottom layer of the 
 Oneida ; but there is very little reason to doubt it ; seeing 
 that when the break took place, and the whole mass of No. 
 IV was turned up at right angle, it is probable that it was 
 turned up as a solid mass ; and that the lower surface of 
 the bottom bed acted as a grinding surf ace against the edges 
 of the slates. As no verbal description can give a clear 
 idea ^of this phenomenon the section is presented in the 
 figure cited in the last footnote. 
 
 The Schuylkill Water Gap is 50 miles east of the Sus- 
 quehanna water gap ; and in these 50 miles the character of 
 the formation has evidently changed in an extraordinary 
 degree ; and this change goes on becoming more and more 
 striking eastward. 
 
 No. 1 V Lehigli Water Gap. 
 
 At the Lehigh Water Gap (25 miles east of the Schuyl- 
 kill Water Gap) Dr. Chance's measured section gives the 
 following details : Upper sandstone rib 85' ; upper ferru- 
 ginous shales 180' ; Middle gray sandstone rib 70' ; lower 
 ferruginous shales 330'; (total Medina 665';) Oneida sand- 
 stones, some of them pebble-rocks, 290' ; Oneida massive 
 conglomerate 170' ; (total Oneida 460') ; total of Forma- 
 tion No. IV, 1125'. 
 
 We see that the pebble-rock, which at the Susquehanna 
 gap was less than 100' thick and at the Schuylkill gap 200', 
 is at the Lehigh gap nearly 500' ; constituting everywhere 
 from the Susquehanna to the Lehigh the central rib of the 
 mountain and sometimes its crest ; while the middle and
 
 NO. IV. AT THE DELAWARE WATER GAP. 675 
 
 upper sandstone ribs crop out as terraces and benches 
 along the northern slope.* 
 
 No. IV at tlie Delaware Water Gap. 
 
 At the Delaware Water Gap (25 miles. still further east) 
 the gradual change in the constitution of No. IV produces 
 another feature, namely, the subdivision of the Oneida into 
 three, the Medina continuing to be sub-divided into four. 
 We now have seven distinct subdivisions of the formation 
 No. IV as follows ; Upyer Medina sandstone'rib 200' ; upper 
 ferruginous shales with some sandstone beds 530' ; Lower 
 Medina sandstone rib (here a white conglomerate) 200' ; 
 lower ferruginous shales with the sandstone beds 110' ; 
 (total Medina 1040') ; Upper Oneida gray sandstone rib 
 75' ; intermediate shales with sandstone beds 240' ; Lower 
 Oneida white conglomerate rib 210' (total Oneida 525'} ; total 
 thickness of No. IV, 1564'. f 
 
 At the Lehigh Water Gap there is some doubt about the 
 relation of the bottom bed of Oneida to the slates of III on 
 which it rests ; but at the Delaware Water Gap there is no 
 confusion or concealment whatever ; the under surface of 
 the bottom bed of the lower division of the Oneida con- 
 glomerate rests quietly and regularly upon the uppermost 
 sandy slates of No. III. And, what is more important 
 
 * At the Lehigh the Upper Medina sandstone makes the crest, but as it is 
 comparatively thin the crest is not sharp ; and as it is supported by the sec- 
 ond rib, with only 170' of hard shales between them, the two ribs act like 
 one, and as if 235' thick, making a very high gently rounded crest See 
 figure 3, LII, page 554. The south slope of the mountain becomes steeper 
 and steeper across the 330' of hard shales ; and becomes 35 across the 
 290' of Oneida sandstone and 170' of Oneida conglomerate, more than two- 
 thirds of the way down to the foot Here the slates of III commence, 
 and the slope suddenly becomes gentle. It is a remarkable contour for the 
 mountain of IV, well worthy of careful study. The outcrop which was at 
 the very crest at the Schuylkill is here at the Lehigh nearly at the south 
 foot of tbe mountain ; not on account of dip, but on account of the differ- 
 ent arrangement of the rock ribs and parting shales in the body of the 
 mountain. 
 
 t Here the Oneida upper sand rock rib, thin as it is, makes the crest, be- 
 cause it is so closely supported (within 110') by the huge Lower Medina 
 sand rock rib, and by the very sandy character of the Oneida middle shales. 
 The Oneida conglomerate makes precipices along the southern slope half 
 way down the mountain. See cross-section, PI. LXXX, p. 638.
 
 676 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 still, the uppermost beds of No. Ill are here so sandy as to 
 contain thin beds of sandstone, showing a regular proces- 
 sion of deposits, and a sort of passage from the slaty 
 kind (III) to the coarser sandy and gravelly kind (IV). 
 And yet the transition is in fact instantaneous ; as if avast 
 quantity of grav.el was deposited upon a level sea bottom 
 of dark sandy mud. We are again left in total darkness 
 as to the cause of this remarkable operation. But after 
 all, it is no more extraordinary than the way the May Hill 
 sandstone of England rests upon the shales and limestones 
 of lower Silurian Age. 
 
 No. IV in New Jersey. 
 
 The Kittatinny mountain (called Shawangunk mountain) 
 after crossing the Delaware river at the Water Gap runs on 
 for 35 miles to the north corner of New Jersey at Port 
 Jervis. Oneida conglomerate (Shawangunk grit) is de- 
 scribed in the Geology of New Jersey (1868, p. 146) as a 
 mass measuring (at Otisville) 800' or 900' thick, composed en- 
 tirely of beds of conglomerate and sandstone. The lower 
 part is a mass of quartz pebbles, from one quarter to three 
 quarters of an inch in diameter, in a light colored quartz 
 cement. In the beds above, the pebbles become smaller ; 
 and near the top they can hardly be distinguished from the 
 paste in which they are imbedded, the whole rock being a 
 massive compact quartzite. No fossil forms have been 
 found. Some of the beds contain crystals of iron pyrites 
 which have yielded to chemical assay as much as $11 of gold 
 to the ton, This occurs at the bottom of the formation next 
 the slates of III. The lead ore veins which traverse the 
 rock will be mentioned directly. 
 
 I The Medina beds outcrop along the northern slope of the 
 mountain descending to the Delaware river. Their esti- 
 mated thickness where the Erie railroad crosses the mount- 
 ain east of Port Jervis is 800'. The two formations Me- 
 dina and Oneida are here seen to pass into each other by 
 a series of alternations, white and red, fche white being 
 Oneida, the red Medina. These colors strongly contrast 
 and distinguish the two formations. The Indians called
 
 NO. IV. IN NEW YORK. 677 
 
 the mountain "Shamgum" the white rock. It is evident 
 from the change of color that the sea water at the begin- 
 ning of Medina time, began to receive large accessions of 
 iron ; but there was not at any time deposits of iron ore. The 
 red Medina sandstones are interstratified with reddish 
 shales ; and these are so abundantly traversed by trans- 
 verse cleavage planes as to give the rock in some places the 
 appearance of a red roofing slate, dipping steeply across 
 the bedplates towards the southeast ; but the coarser and 
 harder brownish red sandstones do not show this cleavage 
 and exhibit the true northward dip. Occasionally a gray- 
 ish green shale occurs. The bottom Medina beds (next 
 over the Oneida) are all sandstone, made up of grains of 
 quartz, some of them containing small pebbles of white 
 quartz, interstratified with soft shales ; while the upper 
 Medina beds are nearly all reddish shale (much split by 
 cross cleavage) interleaved with thick red and grayish sand- 
 stone beds. No fossil of any kind except a sea weed has 
 been found ; and this is the more remarkable because, ex- 
 cellently well preserved ripple marks are common, in fact 
 almost universal. 
 
 No. IV in New Yoik. 
 
 The Shawangunk mountain in New York runs on north- 
 east about 45 miles, to within 10 miles of the Hudson, and 
 abruptly ends at Rosendale where the Rondout and Wai- 
 kill valleys come together. Leaving New Jersey "the mount- 
 ain has a crest of white Oneida, and a northern slope of 
 red Medina. But advancing northeastward the Medina 
 rocks disappear and at last the mountain consists exclu- 
 sively of Oneida beds, estimated by Mather at 500' running 
 down to 150' and even as thin as 60'. Some red beds at the 
 top would seem to indicate that the Medina is slighly rep- 
 resented ; but no division between the two formations is 
 possible ; and it will be seen hereafter that the next supe- 
 rior formation No. V thins away in the same direction, let- 
 ting the limestone of No. VI rest upon the beds of No. IV. 
 These details respecting the geology of New Jersey and 
 New York are given here merely for the purpose of show-
 
 678 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 ing that the variations in Formation No. IV throughout 
 Pennsylvania are not to be compared for magnitude with 
 its variation in this New York district. The mountain in 
 New York is broken by great cross-faults which traverse 
 also the formations above it and below it. In fact the re- 
 gion bordering the Hudson river valley has been shattered 
 by the earth movements which elevated New England; and 
 probably it is to the greatest of these faults that the mount- 
 ain owes its sudden termination. 
 
 Lead ore veins in No. IV. 
 
 The remarkable lead veins which traverse No. IV in New 
 York are among the consequences of the shattered condi- 
 tion of that region. Such lead veins are not to be expected 
 in Pennsylvania where the outcrop mountains of No. IV 
 exhibit few cross fractures. In the early settlement of 
 America, Indians and hunters searched everywhere for 
 galena to furnish themselves with bullets. Hundreds of 
 traditions of Indian lead mines have been handed down, 
 most of which are pure fictions. Indians and hunters cer- 
 tainly did find lead in certain places and carefully con- 
 cealed their discoveries as long as it was possible to do so ; 
 but probably every such actual lead locality is now known, 
 and are few in comparison with the great number of fic- 
 titious places. Most, if not all of the actual veins have 
 been repeatedly explored, and some of them mined at con- 
 siderable cost, none of them to profit. Forty years ago 
 the Ellenville mine at the base of the Shawangunk mount- 
 ain, the Ulster mine near Red Bridge 600 or 700' up the 
 side of the mountain, and the Shawangunk mines near 
 Wurtsboro in Sullivan county, N. Y., 600 or 700' up the 
 mountain, were all in operation. They were all abandoned. 
 In the Ellenville mine some lead and zinc were obtained. In 
 the Ulster mine masses of zinc, lead, copper, and iron 
 pyrites were obtained. In the Shcwangunk mine three 
 masses of lead ore were taken out weighing from 800 to 1400 
 pounds. But the lead veins were only 2' or 3' thick, and 
 the ore very irregular. The abundance of finely formed
 
 LEAD ORE VEINS IN NO. IV. 679 
 
 rock crystals, together with the mixture of ores, show that 
 they were deposited from solution in the cracks which tra- 
 versed the region after it had been shattered by the great 
 earth movement which took place at the end of the coal 
 age. It is idle to look for such veins in No. IV in middle 
 Pennsylvania. The same may be said of gold. Although 
 the lower beds of the Oneida are largely made up of gold- 
 bearing quartz, of course they cannot be considered in any 
 sense ancient glacial placer gravels ; and free gold has 
 never been reported. What gold exists is in the quartz 
 pebble itself. It is perfectly certain that no gold mining 
 can be successful in any of the mountains of No. IY in 
 Pennsvlvania.
 
 680 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 J/ltJd-c/i Spring on Sinking Cr. 
 
 Lin. 
 
 Canoe Mounkwn terrace and linking valley.
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF MIDDLE PENNA. 681 
 
 CHAPTER LII. 
 Topograplucal features of middle Pennsylvania. 
 
 The facts presented in the foregoing chapter introduce 
 the subject of the topography of the central belt of Penn- 
 sylvania, especially of that half of it which stretches from 
 the Susquehanna river to the Maryland state line : for this 
 topography has for its most striking features the bold ridge- 
 outcrops of Formation No. IV. 
 
 It has already been said that all the Pennsylvania mount- 
 ains from the North mountain of the Great Valley to the 
 Bald Eagle mountain facing the Allegheny, in the country 
 west of the Susquehanna river (with only three excep- 
 tions) are mountains of Formation No. IV*. 
 
 The mountains of No. IV may be classified in three 
 groups of zigzags, so complicated in their shape that they 
 can only be described by a map. To the inhabitants of the 
 various counties in which these groups stand they seem 
 like separate mountains, and so each has received some 
 separate local name. 
 
 Names of Mountains of IV. 
 
 The number of local names is very great ; the prominent 
 ends of the zigzags being usually named after some settler, 
 like Parnell's knob and Jordan's knob in Franklin county, 
 
 *Two of these exceptions are in Perry county, namely; Cove mountain, 
 ten miles and Buffalo mountain twenty miles above Harrisburg, which are 
 mountains of No. X, and belong to the anthracite region of eastern Penn- 
 sylvania. The third exception is that of Sideling hill and Terrace mountain 
 in Huntingdon county, surrounding the Broad Top coal basin, and continu- 
 ing under various local names, like Harbor mountain and Town Hill, into 
 Maryland, all mountains of No. X. The Broad Top mountain enclosed by 
 them is made by No. XII capped with coal measures. A fourth exception 
 might be mentioned in the case of Great and Little Savage mountains, in 
 Somerset county, surrounding the Cumberland coal basin in Maryland ; but 
 this outcrop of No. X and XII is nothing but a zigzag of the Allegheny 
 mountain and belongs properly to the general bituminous coal region of 
 western Pennsylvania.
 
 682 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Sidney knob in Fulton county, Jacks mountain in Union 
 county, Tussey's mountain, Dunning' s mountain and 
 Evitt's mountain in Mifflin, Blair and Bedford counties. 
 Others have been named after the animals that haunted 
 them in early times ; Bear Meadow mountain in eastern 
 Huntingdon ; the Buffalo mountains in Union ; White Deer 
 and Bald Eagle mountains in Ly coming. Tuscarora mount- 
 ain, ranging through Juniata county, was named after the 
 principal tribe of Indians in middle Pennsylvania.. Stand- 
 ing Stone mountain on the borders of Huntingdon and 
 Mifflin, was named after a remarkable monolith or solid 
 stone pillar 70' high, which once stood on the bank of the 
 Juniata, at the mouth of the creek, near the present town 
 of Huntingdon. Around it the grand council fire of the 
 tribes was lighted. Sometimes a name was repeated ; as, 
 for instance, Path Valley mountain, along which the south- 
 ern county line of Centre runs, which has no connection 
 whatever with the mountains surrounding Path valley in 
 northern Franklin county. Several projecting spurs are 
 called Dividing ridge, or Dividing mountain, because they 
 separate two parts of an enclosed valley. German settlers 
 from the Rhine, familiar with the name Siebengebirge, 
 called the knot of ridges between Kishicoquillas valley and 
 Brush valley the Seven mountains ; but their ends toward 
 the Susquehanna, in Snyder and Union, retained their 
 Indian name of the Buffalo mountains ; a proof that the 
 bison roamed through Pennsylvania, when the beaver made 
 its dams on many of our streams, and herds of elk ranged 
 through the Allegheny uplands. 
 
 Three groups of mountains of IV. 
 
 1. The southernmost group of mountains of IV lies be- 
 tween the North mountain of Cumberland and Franklin 
 and the Tuscarora mountain which ends at the Juniata at 
 Millers town. The eastern zigzags are represented in lig. 3, 
 pi. LXXIV, p. 626. They enclose the fertile valleys of 
 Perry county, Greenbrier, Kennedy's. Henry's, Shafer's, 
 Little Illinois, Sherman's, and Horse valleys, with Path 
 valley, Burn's valley, and Amberson valley in Fulton
 
 THREE GROUPS OF MOUNTAINS OF IV. 683 
 
 county, issuing southward upon the Great Valley at Mer- 
 cersburg. This group is extended southward through 
 Fulton as Sidney knob, Tuscarora mountain, and Cove 
 mountain surrounding McConnellsburg Cove in Fulton 
 county, into Maryland. It includes also the isolated mount- 
 ain which ends in ParnelPs knob ; and the two mountains 
 which project from Maryland toward Mercersburg. 
 
 2. The middle group of mountains of IV., is of a pecu- 
 liar character. Tt resembles three long narrow canoes 
 moored side by side, but projecting beyond each other ; or 
 rather three canoes floating bottom up, each one with its 
 bottom knocked out. They are in fact the eroded tops of 
 three long closely folded anticlinal arches of No. IV, sep- 
 arated from each other by equally long narrow and closely 
 compressed basins filled with Formation No. V. (a)The 
 southern anticlinal, having West Shade mountain for its 
 south dipping and Black Log mountain for its north dip- 
 ping outcrop, extends from Fort Littleton on the Fulton 
 county line to within ten miles of the Juriiata at Mifflin- 
 town. (5)The middle anticlinal, called Blue ridge, ex- 
 tends from the Horse Shoe bend of the Juniata at Newton 
 Hamilton to the Juniata river above Mifflintown. (c)The 
 third extends from the Juniata river at Lewis town to within 
 8 miles of Sslinsgrove, on the Susquehanna, in Snyder 
 county. The shape and arrangment of these three is 
 shown in the Vignette Map of the State at the beginning of 
 this volume. Nothing in topography is more beautifully 
 symmetrical ; nor can anything illustrate to greater advan- 
 tage the plication of the formations in middle Pennsylvania. 
 
 3. The third group of mountains of No. IV is of so com- 
 plicated a character as to defy description in words, and is- 
 therefore given in outline in the Vignette just mentioned. 
 In this figure a black line represents the Medina white 
 sandstone outcrop which everywhere in this group, extend- 
 ing from the Susquehanna at Muncy in Ly com ing county 
 to the Maryland line, makes the mountain crest; while the 
 broken line alongside of it represents the Oneida gray 
 sandstone outcrop which everywhere in this group forms 
 a bold terrace on the mountain flank. The southern
 
 684 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 border of this group is the noble ridge of Jack's mountain, 
 which borders the Lewistown valley on the north and for 50 
 miles, shuts in behind it the fertile Kishicoquillis lime- 
 stone valley, bordered on the northwest by the Standing 
 Stone mountain, and on the north by the Seven mountains, 
 which spread (northward) as Short mountain, Brush mount- 
 ain, Nittany mountain, Buffalo, White Deer and Bald 
 Eagle mountains as far as the Williamsport valley. From 
 the western end of the Seven mountains projects Tussey's 
 mountain which runs on uninterruptedly about 100 miles 
 to the Maryland line, shutting in behind it the fertile lime- 
 stone valleys of Penn's creek, Brush creek, Spruce creek, 
 Canoe valley and Morrison's cove. The Bald Eagle out- 
 crop is the second finest in the State, extending along 
 the West Branch of the Susquehanna for 30 miles, from 
 Muncy to Lock Haven; than onward along the Bald Ea- 
 gle creek for 50 miles, from Lock Haven to Tyrone City; 
 thence onward along the upper Little Juniata for 15 
 miles, to Frankstown; then returning to the Little Juniata 
 (13 miles) as Brush mountain ; bending back and running 
 south (20 miles) as Canoe mountain; turning and running 
 north (6 miles) toward Hollidaysburg as Lock mountain; 
 resuming its south course as D tinning' s mountain (25 miles) 
 it bends round Dutch corner and runs south (30 miles) as 
 Evitt's mountain into Maryland. Isolated geographically 
 from this outcrop on the west is the anticlinal of Will's 
 mountain and Buffalo Ridge, extending from Bedford (25 
 miles) to the Maryland line. 
 
 This long and perhaps tedious enumeration of the mount- 
 ains of IV in middle Pennsylvania, west of the Susque- 
 hanna river, will interest the people of that part of the 
 State who will now understand the geological identity of 
 the labyrinth of mountain ridges among which they live. 
 But its principal value arises from a single geological 
 idea, namely : that this continuous series of mountain 
 crests and slopes are all made in one and t the same way, 
 out of one and the same set of rocks, exhibiting every- 
 where the same internal constitution and differing only, (1) 
 in the thickness of the beds or groups of beds at one
 
 THREE GROUPS OF MOUNTAINS OF IV. 685 
 
 place and another, as has been fully explained in the last 
 chapter ; and (2) in the various angles to the horizon, at 
 which their strata have been tilted up. 
 
 It now remains to show, first, why these mountains some- 
 times run in straight lines parallel to each other for many 
 miles; secondly, why these parallel lines sometimes come 
 together at both ends, as do the gunwales of a boat at the 
 prow and stern; thirdly, why in other districts they unite 
 in a series of zigzags; fourthly, why the opposite points of 
 such a series of zigzags have two totally different charac- 
 ters, one long and sloping gradually into the plain, the 
 other high, sharp and abrupt, projecting like a knob into 
 the air ; fifthly, why the mountains of the first or southern 
 group have only one crest and two slopes, whereas the 
 mountains of the middle and northern groups have a crest, 
 a long continuous slope on one side, and a bold terrace half 
 way up the slope on the other side; sixthly, why the Bald 
 Eagle mountain in Centre county has two crests of e'qual 
 height and no terrace ; seventhly, why the terraces are cut 
 through at short and regular intervals by double headed 
 ravines; and, eighthly, what all this teaches us respecting the 
 great rock arches which once rose high in the air, but have 
 long since been removed and swept into the Atlantic, furn- 
 ishing collateral evidence that the surface of Pennsylva- 
 nia is still being slowly but continuously fretted down 
 toward the level of the sea. 
 
 Before taking up these several items it is essen tial to the un- 
 derstanding of the subject that the reader first imagine For- 
 mation No. IV as originally lying in a continuous and 
 nearly horizontal sheet, deeply buried beneath Formations 
 V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII, and all the coal meas- 
 ures from XIII to XVII. He must then picture to himself 
 this continuous sheet Formation No. IV, with all the forma- 
 tions beneath and above it pressed sideways and folded 
 into arches and troughs also under western and northeastern 
 Pennsylvania, just as we see it at the surface in middle 
 Pennsylvania west of the Susquehanna. Beneath the 
 anthracite coal basins it lies at various depths from 
 10,000' to 20,000'; but between the basins the tops of its
 
 686 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 great arches approach much nearer to the surface; and one 
 of them actually comes to the present surface in Montour's 
 ridge at a single point between Danville and Sunbury, 
 where, in a ravine descending to the North Branch of the 
 Susquehanna, 37' of its upper beds are actually exposed 
 (See G7, p. 114). The mountainous exhibition of it at the 
 present surface west of the Susquehanna is the conse- 
 quence of a gradual upward slope of the whole formation 
 from beneath the anthracite country, westward. Going west- 
 ward the arches rise first, like the backs of whales issuing 
 from the surface of the sea, covered with soft red shales of 
 Formation No. V, and gradually lifting themselves higher 
 and higher into the air. This is why all the eastern ends 
 of all the mountains of IV, facing the Susquehanna valley, 
 have one and the same character of long gently sloping 
 mountain noses. 
 
 Parallelism of mountains of IV. 
 
 A. The first point mentioned above is the parallelism of 
 the mountains of IV. This parallelism is perhaps the most 
 remarkable feature of the topography of middle Pennsyl- 
 vania. It is a consequence of the extraordinary symmetrical 
 shape of the anticlinal arches, which can be compared to 
 nothing better than the long even folds in heavy woolen 
 carpets when pushed sidewise over a floor. The formations 
 composing each fold may be well explained by the annual 
 layers of wood in a fallen tree trunk which arch over each 
 other, flat along the top, and steeply sloping on the sides. 
 Now let a lumberman adze off the upper part of such a 
 tree trunk, reducing it to a flat surface, he will expose 
 the edges of the wood-layers in two sets of parallel lines, 
 one set to the right and the other to the left ; exactly 
 corresponding to each other ; the uppermost layers being 
 the farthest apart, and the lowest layers to which his work 
 reaches occupying a middle line over the center line of 
 the log. 
 
 This it precisely what nature has done in her carpentry 
 work upon the long prostrate anticlinal folds of the Palaeo- 
 zoic formations ; only with a difference of tools. Instead
 
 PARALLELISM OF MOUNTAINS OF IV. 687 
 
 of the carpenter's adze, she has employed frost, the thaw- 
 ing heat of sunshine, and the transporting power of rain 
 water. With these tools everlastingly at work she has 
 planed off all the anticlinal arches of middle Pennsylvania 
 nearly to a common level. 
 
 But the difference in the tools employed by the carpenter 
 and by nature makes a signal difference in the neatness of 
 work done in the two cases. The adze and jack plane make 
 no account of variation in hardness or softness of the several 
 layers of wood ; the edges are all reduced to the same 
 plane surface ; for such tools have no selective power and 
 care nothing for either the resistance or the compliance of 
 the wood which they remove. But the tools of nature ex- 
 ercise a kind of selective judgment ; or, rather, they are 
 sensitive to the slightest differences of hardness or softness 
 in the rocks upon which they operate. If we could ascribe 
 intelligence to nature we should be obliged to say, that she 
 has no intention to produce an even smooth topography, that 
 is, to reduce the surface of the State to a perfectly level 
 plane. Her water work has gone further into the softer 
 rocks, leaving the harder outcrops elevated, and the hard- 
 est and most massive formations standing out as mountain 
 ridges. But her manner of working has been essentially 
 the same as that adopted by the carpenter who, instead 
 of the rapid action of adze and plane, should content him- 
 self with the slow and tedious operation of sandpaper, 
 would himself produce the same variety of parallel ridges 
 separated by creases on his log of wood. 
 
 The parallelism of any two mountains of IV on two 
 sides of any anticlinal which extends for many miles 
 teaches us two facts : 
 
 1. We learn that to have exact parallelism in long straight 
 outcrops the crest of the anticlinal must be level for a long 
 distance ; for it is evident that if the crest of the anticlinal 
 slope upward the opposite outcrops must diverge ; if it 
 slope downward they would approach each other. (2) We 
 learn that the characteristic form of our anticlinal arches 
 cannot belong to one formation, but to a whole and very 
 thick series of formations, all folded together. This can
 
 688 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 be easily understood by crumpling two substances even 
 as different in thickness as silk and woolen ; or by com- 
 paring the short irregular angular crimpling of one thin 
 sheet of paper with the ample and regular fold of an entire 
 ream of paper. The Palaeozoic formations, lying upon 
 each other like a pile of Canada blankets, could not have 
 been pressed by the earth movement into any arches and 
 troughs not of magnificent length, height and depth, and of 
 beautiful symmetry. Therefore it must be kept in mind 
 that we are dealing not with a few layers of sandstone, but 
 with 40,000' of superimposed sediments ; and that when 
 they were thrust into anticlinals and synclinals they all 
 moved together, yielding and adjusting themselves to each 
 other, especially the softer to the harder, but yielding to 
 the earth movement as if they all constituted one single 
 formation. 
 
 Convergence of mountains of IV. 
 
 B. The second point to be noticed seems at first sight a 
 violation of the principle just stated ; for the parallelism 
 is not perfect and universal ; it has its variations ; but these 
 variations, when explained, will be seen to be essential to 
 the principle. However many miles two mountains of IV 
 may run parallel, they are sure sooner or later to approach 
 and unite at one end or at both ends. If this occurs at 
 both ends it shows that the anticlinal fold dies down in 
 both directions. 
 
 The student of our geology must be careful to make a 
 strong distinction in his mind between the end of an anti- 
 clinal mountain and the end of its anticlinal fold. The 
 mountain comes to an end because two parallel outcrop 
 mountains have converged and sink together beneath the 
 present surface. But the anticlinal fold itself keeps on, 
 carrying the formation deeper and deeper In this way one 
 formation disappears in a loop at the surface and is replaced 
 by another further on, also in the shape of a loop. Following 
 the axis of an anticlinal fold we have say first an arch of No 
 II in the valley coming to a point ; then, a loop of No. Ill, 
 filling up the end of the valley; then a loop of No. IV mak-
 
 MOUNTAIN SPURS OF NO. IV. 689 
 
 ing the end of the double mountain; on the outside nose of 
 which is a loop of No. V settling into the plain ; then a 
 loop of the limestone formation No. VI descending be- 
 neath a looped ridge of Oriskany sandstone No. VII ; which 
 descends beneath a rolling hill country of No. VIII, ending 
 in a grand mountain cove of red sandstone No. IX 
 capped with white sandstone X; sinking as an anticlinal 
 nose into a deep loop valley of the red shales of XI, en- 
 closed between opposite dipping mountains of the Conglom- 
 erate XII, separating two coal basins. 
 
 This is the rule in all cases where the anticlinals are of 
 the first order of magnitude. 
 
 Mountain spurs of No. IV. 
 
 C. A third point to be explained is the production of 
 groups of mountain zigzags. This requires a little more 
 strenuous effort of the imagination, but it is merely a com- 
 plicated form of what has just been described. When the 
 earth-movement pressed the whole series of Palaeozoic for- 
 mations into folds it obeyed a thousand variations of local 
 stress and strain, and produced therefore not merely a few 
 grand arches of the first order one or two hundred miles in 
 length, but scores of folds and wrinkles of the second and 
 third order of far inferior height and length. These sub- 
 ordinate folds may properly be considered mere parasites 
 of the great anticlinals ; they are, in fact, wrinkles on the 
 descending sides of the grand arches. But these smaller 
 arches bring the outcrop of No. IV to the surface and re- 
 turn it underground in the same way, but more rapidly 
 and locally. They produce the same topography, but on a 
 smaller scale. Each minor fold has its two opposing 
 outcrops of No. IV, coming together in the direction in 
 which the fold dies down. Where there are six such minor 
 folds side by side, all dying down in one direction (say 
 eastward, as in Snyderand Union counties) there are neces- 
 sarily as many pairs of outcrop mountains of IV one on 
 each side of each fold, producing a group of mountains in 
 zigzag, with six points in one direction, and as many in the 
 other. Perhaps the best way to comprehend this phenom- 
 44
 
 690 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 enon, would be to take a sheet of corrugated zinc roofing, 
 and hold it slanting in a basin of water. The edge of the 
 water will make similar zigzags against the surface of 
 the tin. The more erect the zinc plate is held the shorter 
 will be each zizzag. If the plate be held nearly flat, one end 
 scarcely below the water and the other scarcely above it, 
 the zigzags will be long and sharp pointed. By varying the 
 shape of the bends in the tin plate, that is, by represent- 
 ing anticlinals and synclinals of different height, breadth 
 and sharpness, all sorts of variations in the zigzag water 
 line can be got, and all the variations of our No. IV. mount 
 ain zigzags may be imitated. 
 
 The inelasticity of sand and mud deposits greatly helps 
 us to explain their present folded condition. It cannot be 
 too of ten repeated, that, when the earth movement took place 
 the whole 40,000' of Palaeozoic formations were still in a 
 moist and plastic state. Had they been of any dry, hard, 
 elastic material they would have been bent into a very few 
 perfectly regular folds, each formation sliding upon the sur- 
 face of the one beneath it, and none of them wrinkled. 
 But the actual mass of mud and sand deposits being wet 
 and plastic, was necessarily, when thrown into folds as a 
 whole, compressed into ten thousand subordinate folds and 
 wrinkles. The great anticlinals are none of them mathemat- 
 ically perfect vaults. Their opposite sides do not descend 
 in smooth unvarying curves into the synclinal troughs, but 
 wave and halt and pitch irregularly in their descent. In 
 geological language, the dip is constantly changing to 
 steeper or less steep, and is occasionally reversed ; so that 
 on the long slope of a grand anticlinal there are always 
 seen to be one or more subordinate rolls'and basins. When 
 the bottom of the long anticlinal slope is at last reached, 
 we are in the middle of a great synclinal basin, and begin 
 to ascend the long wavy slope of the next parallel grand 
 anticlinal. Thus, anticlinals and synclinals virtually oc- 
 cupy the same ground ; each anticlinal measuring in breadth 
 from the center line of one synclinal across the arch to the 
 center line of the next synclinal ; each synclinal measur- 
 ing in breadth from the crest line of one anticlinal across
 
 MOUNTAIN SPURS OF NO. IV. 691 
 
 to the crest line of the next. From the very nature of the 
 curves it is impossible to avoid embarrassment in the use 
 of these terms ; and it is unfortunate that the double mean- 
 ing of the terms employed makes their representation to 
 the mind of the student somewhat vague. If it were pos- 
 sible to assume points half way down 1he slope we might 
 confine the term anticlinal to the arch above these lines, and 
 the term synclinal to the trough below these lines ; but in 
 practice this cannot be done ; the reader must exercise his 
 intellect to understand the facts of the case, and keep the 
 distinction between the upward curves or arches and the 
 downward curves or troughs as distinctly as possible be- 
 fore his mind's eye. Nothing in geology is simple ; noth- 
 ing in any branch of science is easy ; to understand the 
 true nature of the commonest fact of the world requires a 
 strenuous endeavor of the judgment and the imagination 
 working harmoniously together. And this is especially 
 true in geology, most of its facts being concealed from the 
 naked eye, and therefore to be mentally conceived, and 
 cautiously reasoned upon. 
 
 Illustrations of the complicated character of the anti- 
 clinals and synclinals of No. IV are given in fig. 1, pi. LX XIII, 
 p. 624, and fig. 1, pi. XC, p. 660. See also pi. XCV, XCVI, 
 XC VII, p. 670. One of these represents a series of sections at 
 intervals apart of about a mile across the Seven mountains 
 in eastern Huntingdon county. The other represents a 
 series of transverse sections, taken at greater intervals 
 across the main anticlinal of Perry county which crosses 
 the Susquehanna and runs on eastward between the two 
 arms of the Schuylkill county anthracite coal basin the 
 Dauphin basin on the south and the Wiconisco basin on 
 the north. In the first section the large white band repre- 
 sents the folds of No. IV, mostly along the plane of the 
 present surface. In the second section No. IV is every- 
 where underground, but waved in the same manner ; at 
 the sections on the Juniata and Susquehanna rivers it is 
 covered by 10,000' or 15,000' of higher formations. 
 
 How is it possible then, it may be asked, to draw cor- 
 rectly the shape of the waves of the deeply buried forma-
 
 692 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 tion. The answer is, that they can be geometrically con- 
 structed on the supposition that the thickness of the over- 
 lying formations remain unchanged throughout the region ; 
 at least that any irregularities of thickness in each will 
 practically be compensated for in all ; and that the dips 
 observed at the surface will give a good practical idea of 
 the basins and arches concealed underground. Nearer than 
 this to the exact truth the geologist cannot come, unless he 
 employs boring tools, which is of course not to be thought 
 of for such great depths. Enough is plainly observable at 
 the surface to make the complicated structure of middle 
 Pennsylvania completely evident. Wherever formation 
 No. IV comes to the surface in mountain ridges a thousand 
 feet high, cut through to their bases by rivers exposing the 
 strata, there the character of the anticlinals of the first order 
 reveals itself with admirable clearness. 
 
 The difference between the anticlinal and the synclinal 
 Knobs of IV. 
 
 D. The fourth question must now be answered ; why 
 the opposite points of a series of zigzag mountains of No. 
 IV are so totally different in shape and character? 
 
 It must be remembered that zigzags of No. IV are pro- 
 duced only in districts where the plicated formation is de- 
 scending beneath the surface eastward and consequently 
 rising into bhe air westward or vice versa. If now we im- 
 agine such a set of zigzags pulled out to a straight line 
 in other words, the formation not waved, but still descend- 
 ing underground in one direction and rising into the air 
 in the other it is evident that in the descending direc- 
 tion, it will be first thinly veneered and then more and 
 more thickly covered with the next soft red shale forma- 
 tion No. V. In the other direction the bare sand -rock 
 edges will be abruptly broken off in a line of cliffs, from un- 
 derneath which will crop out the soft dark shales of No. Ill, 
 making a steep slope from the foot of the cliffs down to the 
 floor of the valley ; and in the valley will crop out the 
 limestones of No! II. 
 
 Let us now restore the zigzags. The only difference will
 
 ANTICLINAL AND SYNCLINAL KNOBS OF IV. 693 
 
 be, that instead of a long straight range of cliffs at the 
 crest of the mountain there will be as many pointed pro- 
 jections as there are zigzags, each projection being a peak 
 of cliffs, around which the slope of underlying slate will 
 bend. Between the peaks, and running up into the zigzags, 
 will be long narrow vales of slate, No. III. 
 
 By merely looking from a distance at the shape of the 
 eastern and western ends of a zigzag mountain of IV a 
 geologist can tell with certainty in which direction the an- 
 ticlinals which make the zigzags are dying down, whether 
 eastward or westward ; for if the anticlinal is rising west- 
 ward and descending eastward, the east end of the mount- 
 ains must be a long and gentle slope covered with the red 
 shale of V ; and the west end of the mountain must be a 
 high peak, rocky and precipitious, with a steep slope of 
 slate No. Ill into a valley of limestone No. II. The geolo- 
 gical county maps furnish plenty of examples of both 
 kinds ; that is cases where the rocky point is at the west 
 end and the red shale slope at the east end of the mountain; 
 and cases where the rocky point is at the east end and the 
 red shale slope at the west end of the mountain. To assist 
 the reader some prominent examples may be pointed out. 
 
 Taking the southern outcropof No. IV, and following it 
 from the Delaware Water Gap west ward, Off set knob appears 
 as a synclinal cliff-tipped projection looking east, while the 
 red shale end of the zigzag sloping to the west is behind the 
 Wind Gap. The zigzags.'of the little Schuylkill in northern 
 Berks are produced by ten small anticlinals sinking west- 
 ward ; consequently it is the eastern points of the zigzags 
 which have the Knob cliffs. In Cumberland county the two 
 projections of the North mountain into the Great Val- 
 ley are towards the west ; their corresponding red shale 
 zigzags pointing east are in Perry county. Parnell's knob 
 and Jordan's knob are similar synclinal end cliffs pointing 
 southward. The mountains of No. IV in Perry county, 
 all end northeastward in long slopes of red shale ; their 
 southwestern ends, projecting into Franklin county, are 
 high and rocky. The triple central anticlinal group of No. 
 IV, in Shade, Blue and Black Log mountains die down at
 
 694 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 both erids^ eastward and westward, in long red shale slopes. 
 So does Jack's mountain at its southwest end in Hunting- 
 don county, and its northeast end in Snyder county. The 
 Buffalo. White Deer mountains slope their east ends be- 
 neath the red shale country of Union county, but project 
 westward into Kishicoquillis, Penn's, Brush and Nittany 
 valleys in long high rocky ridges, with ranges of cliffs on 
 each side and broken off sharply at their western end.* 
 
 Let us take the case of the west end of the Nittany 
 mountain in Centre county. Thousands of years ago the 
 mountain did not end where it now does, but extended fur- 
 ther west; and ages before that old time it extended still fur- 
 ther west, indeed all the way to the Juniata river. In fact, 
 Nittany mountain at that time extended to and was merely 
 an extension of Canoe mountain in Blair county. In like 
 manner Brush mountain once extended westward and 
 united with Tussey mountain. Short mountain once ran 
 past Aaronburg, Millheim and Spring Mills to join Tussey 
 mountain, and Egg hill was part of it. The same is true of 
 the two beautiful mountains which project westward into 
 Kishacoquillis valley. There was once a time when the 
 northern knob was extended to meet the Standing Stone 
 mountain atMilroy ; and the southern knob continued on 
 through the center line of the valley towards Reedsville. 
 
 The proper way to express the fact, then, is to say that 
 the cliff knobs of No. IV show how far the destruction of 
 the formation by sunshine, frost and rain in the synclinals 
 up to the present time has gone. In each instance a rocky 
 knob marks the exact center line of a synclinal basin ascend- 
 ing into the air ; and on the other hand every long sloping 
 red shale nose of a mountain of No. IV marks the. exact 
 center line of an anticlinal arch descending into the under- 
 ground. With this clue in hand the student of our geology 
 
 *The term broken off, is that which an artist would use, or a mere topo- 
 grapher, or railroad engineer ; but the student of geology ought not to use 
 it if he can find any substitute for it ; for there is no geological break at the 
 ends of these craggy mountains. Let this be well remembered and under- 
 stood, for otherwise the most important geological idea of this subject will 
 be lost
 
 CRESTS, SINGLE AND DOUBLE. 695 
 
 cnn find his way through the hilly labyrinth of middle 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 The elaboration of this subject has been intentionally 
 carried to an unusual length and minuteness in the foregoing 
 pages, because the laws of Structure and Erosion, expressed 
 on so grand a scale by the outcrops of IV, hold good in the 
 million details of structure and erosion on a smaller, and 
 on the smallest scale, in all the other Palaeozoic formations, 
 whether regarded in mass, in groups of strata, or in one 
 single layer. Therefore further allusion to the subject will 
 not be necessary in other parts of this book beyond occa- 
 sional references to what has been written in this chapter. 
 
 Crests, single and double. 
 
 E. The fifth question to be answered, namely : Why 
 the southern mountains of No. IV have a single crest and 
 two slopes, while the northern mountains of IV have but 
 one crest and a terrace, and the northernmost of all, the 
 Bald Eagle, two crests and no terrace, can be easily an- 
 swered by merely pointing to the fact, stated in the last 
 chapter, that Formation No. IV is practically a single sheet 
 of sandrock at the southern side of the district, and a 
 double sheet of sandrock at the northern side of it. To state 
 the fact more precisely : In the Kittatinny mountain facing 
 the Great Valley the Onieda conglomerate, the bottom 
 member of No. IV, is coarser, and more massive, and has 
 resisted erosion best ; while the Medina strata are not only 
 comparatively thin, but are weakened in their resistance to 
 erosion by large intervals of softer rocks ; so that the whole 
 northern slope has been worn down by the weather without 
 leaving any very bold terraces. In Perry, Fulton and 
 Franklin counties the Oneida is thin and has a mass of 
 harder massive rocks above it which make the top of the 
 mountain, with a pretty regular slope, showing slight in- 
 dications of terraces. But in the middle and northern 
 groups of mountains of IV the formation consists of very 
 massive Oneida at the bottom, and still more massive 
 Medina at the top, the two separated by a thick, soft, red 
 mass. The Medina therefore makes the crest of the mount-
 
 696 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 ain, protected by the softer but still pretty massive middle 
 division; while the Oneida, undermined by the soft sin re 
 ormation of No. Ill on which it rests, unable to rival the 
 Medina in its resistance to the weather, and therefore in its 
 height, is necessarily left as a bold terrace on the outcrop 
 slope, about two-thirds as high as the crest of the mount- 
 ain. In the majority of cases the dip of the formation as 
 a whole, whether toward the south or toward the north, 
 ranges between 40 and 60 ; so that the Medina upper 
 slants upward through the mountain as its central rib or 
 plate from base to crest, its cliffs overhanging the terrace 
 of Oneida below. 
 
 Difference in tlie height of mountains of IV. 
 
 F. The sixth point of topographical interest to be ex- 
 plained geologically is the fact of the Bald Eagle mountain 
 having two crests of equal height and no terrace ; and the 
 additional fact that this mountain with two crests is in- 
 ferior in height to the opposite Tussey mountain, which has 
 but one crest and a terrace. 
 
 In Tussey mountain the upper Medina is thick and the 
 Oneida thin ; whereas in Bald Eagle mountain the upp^r 
 Medina and the Oneida are of about equal thickness. In 
 Tussey mountain therefore the upper Medina makes a 
 high crest and the Oneida a terrace ; whereas in Bald 
 Eagle mountain each makes a separate crest. 
 
 The inferior height of the Bald Eagle mountain is due to 
 the fact that its stratification is vertical. 
 
 This leads us to the consideration of another law of topo- 
 graphy, namely that (other things being equal) the relative 
 heights of mountains is determined by the angle at which 
 their rocks lie to the horizon ; the flatten the rocks the 
 higher the mountain; the steeper the dip the lower the 
 mountain ; the steepest dip (90) makes the lowest mount- 
 ain. 
 
 Surface erosion, that is, the gradual destruction of 
 strata at their outcrops, comes about as a double process 
 of undermining, and toppling down. However hard and 
 massive a formation may be, and therefore in itself consti-
 
 KEEL MOUNTAINS OF IV. 697 
 
 tuted to resist erosion, its powers of resistance will not avail 
 it, if it lies, at a moderate slope, upon a soft, easily weather- 
 ing formation underneath. For, as the underlying softer 
 rocks are removed by the weather, the overlying, massive, 
 hard rocks tumble down in blocks separated by the cleavage 
 planes. But if the underlying softer formation has in it 
 numerous interstratih'ed beds of hard rock, its own rate of 
 erosion is made slower thereby, and the overlying forma- 
 tion is less rapidly undermined ; consequently its height 
 above the valleys remains always relatively greater. 
 
 But when the stratification is vertical, a lower massive 
 formation (like the Oneida) can no longer give a protective 
 support to an upper massive formation (like the upper Me- 
 dina}. Each must take care of itself separately. It is a 
 case of "divide and conquer." The sunshine, frost and 
 rain have the mountain at a disadvantage, and reduce its 
 relative height to a secondary rank. This interesting law 
 of erosion illustrates itself by producing various features 
 of topography which are inexplicable to minds not familiar 
 with the character of the war which is perpetually waged 
 between the attacking and defending parties, the elements 
 of erosion on the one side, and the rock constituents on the 
 other. 
 
 One beautiful illustration of the way in which the rocks 
 support each other against the assault of the weather may 
 be found in the synclinal knobs ; for, in these knobs two 
 outcrops come together and are therefore united in self-de- 
 fense. In addition to their union they lie horizontally 
 along the center line of the basin. The anticlinal knobs 
 are still better protected, and are therefore relatively higher 
 than the synclinal knobs, as shown in the sketch of Tussey 
 mountain as seen from the top of Terrace mountain, back of 
 Stonerstown, in Huntingdon county (Fig. 42, p. 143, of 
 Manual of Coal). 
 
 Keel mountains of IV. 
 
 Before leaving the subject of the crests and terraces of 
 No. IV, the most beautiful phenomenon in the topography 
 of middle Pennsylvania must be mentioned. When two
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 crests converge and become one. projecting as a single 
 high narrow ridge, between two limestone vales, and end- 
 ing in a synclinal point, their two terraces curve and unite 
 around the end of the point.. If the curve be a semi-circle, 
 that shows that the synclinal is rising rapidly into the air. 
 But if the synclinal rises very slowly the combined terraces 
 project miles beyond the end of the crest, and then come 
 to a similar, but lower synclinal point of their own in the 
 limestone valley. This is the case with the two synclinal 
 terraced mountains at the east end of Kishicoquillis valley; 
 and it is the case with Short mountain, Brush mountain 
 and Nittany mountain in Clinton and Centre counties. A 
 spectator regarding these mountains from the floor of the 
 valley, sees them end on in perspective, or as if in section, 
 arid is struck with surprise at their symmetrical shape, re- 
 sembling ships that have been turned over with their keels 
 uppermost (Figs. ). For this reason they received from 
 the geologists of the First Survey the name of Keel mount- 
 ains of IV. 
 
 Ravine system of IV. 
 
 Gr. The seventh and last item of topographical interest 
 relates to the two entirely different modes in which the 
 two sides of a terraced mountain of IV is drained. Tussey 
 mountain, for example, with rocks dipping south into 
 Huntingdon county, and outcrops overlooking northward 
 the great limestone valley in Centre. On the Huntingdon 
 side there is a long slope of the red rocks of formation No. 
 V, down which the rainfall delivers itself by innumerable 
 rivulets, flowing in straight and shallow channels from crest 
 to base. On the other or Centre county side the uppermost 
 slope next the crest is a sheet of fallen fragments of upper 
 Medina, stopped in their descent by the Oneida terrace, the 
 rainfall cannot deliver its waters in straight lines to the base of 
 the mountain on account of the massive Oneida strata which 
 out-crop along the brow of the terrace. Consequently it cuts 
 deep ravines sideways, right and left, in the soft lower Me- 
 dina ; and these ravines meeting in pairs, break out through 
 the Oneida terrace and its supporting slates of III, in deep
 
 THE ANTICLINAL VAULTS RESTORED. 699 
 
 short gorges debouching upon the limestone valley. The 
 regularity of this system of terrace ravines is wonderful. 
 The ravines are all alike in depth, narrowness and steepness 
 of sides. The distance from ravine to ravine is almost ex- 
 actly the same from one end of the mountain to the other. 
 Each ravine has a double head, one to the right the other 
 to the left, its branches being usually of equal length.* It 
 is impossible to repress one's admiration at this flagrant 
 proof, first, of the regularity of the mountain constitution ; 
 secondly, of the equal action of the elements upon it at all 
 points ; thirdly, at the total absence of violent, paroxysmal or 
 irregular conduct in the processes of nature. In fact it may 
 be said, that a student who wishes to investigate the subject 
 of Erosion, that is, the perpetual destruction of the earth's 
 surface by the surrounding atmosphere, and the ways in 
 which this destruction is accomplished, could not do bet- 
 ter than to start his investigation with a close study of the 
 terrace ravines of No. IV; for he would tind out in his 
 subsequent experience that this special physical phenome- 
 non will suggest the true explanation of every detail of the 
 features of an eroded region. 
 
 The Anticlinal vaults restored. 
 
 It only remains to say, that when one has familiarized him- 
 self with a limestone valley shut in between two mountains 
 of IV, with their even rocky crests, and ravine cut ter- 
 races, the strata dipping always away from the valley in 
 both directions, he cannot hesitate to drawing the conclu- 
 sion, that as the two mountains come together at the two 
 
 * See also the map of the south flank of Jack's mountain in Mifflin county, 
 given on page plates CIV, CV, CVI, CVII in the next volume. These 
 plates present (on a scale of |) the eastern half of the unpublished MS. map of 
 the south flank of foot hills of Jack's mountain from Logan's Gap west to 
 McVeytown. The map stretches westward to Mount Union and Jack's 
 Narrows, exhibiting similar features. It was one of the earliest pieces of 
 topographical work of the Survey (1874-75), and was intended to illustrate 
 Report F on the fossil ore belts of the Lewistown valley, but was not finished 
 in time for the publication ot that Report. It is now used as an illustration 
 in the chapters on the Clinton formation, No. V. The terrace ravines are 
 shown in fig. 2, plate XIV, p. 376 ; in plate XVII, p. 389; plate XXII, p. 
 400 ; and especially by the great map sheets of Morrison's Cove, in Report 
 T, Atlas.
 
 700 
 
 MODEL OF PLICATIONS OF IV.
 
 ANTICLINAL VAULTS RESTORED. 701 
 
 ends of the valley, so their strata were formerly united in 
 the air above in an immense arch or vault of unbroken sand- 
 stone miles high. 
 
 This effect upon the judgment and imagination com- 
 bined is irresistible in the case of the larger valleys. In 
 the case of a long and narrow anticlinal valley like Black 
 Log, a casual visitor might not be led to this conclusion, 
 but to a very different one. His first impression would 
 probably be that the strip of limestone land along the center 
 line of the valley had been pushed up, splintering asunder 
 the overlying slate and sandstone formations (III and IV), 
 and thrusting the broken edges of the fracture to the right 
 and left. In the beginning of the present century such was 
 the theory of the Swiss geologists, Thurman, Desor, and 
 others, respecting the valley formations of the Jura ; and 
 such was the theory respecting all the mountains of the 
 world entertained by one of the fathers of German geology, 
 Leopold Yon Buch. Quite recently has this old and false 
 conception ceased to mingle intimately with correcter views 
 in many minds. The principles enunciated in this chapter 
 nevertheless cannot be called new, for they were fully ex- 
 plained and sufficiently illustrated in my "Manual of Coal 
 and its Topography," published in 1856, and in Professor 
 Rogers' Geology of Pennsylvania published in 1858. But 
 even then they were not new ; for the whole subject of Pli- 
 cation and Erosion was placed permanently on its proper 
 basis of demonstrated theory fifty years ago, by the assis- 
 tant geologists of the First Survey of Pennsylvania ; and 
 both facts and principles were known and used by Whelp- 
 ley, Henderson, Jackson and McKinley in their daily field 
 work, and in the construction of the maps and sections with 
 which they illustrated and embellished their reports. It has 
 been recently stated as a new discovery that there is an or- 
 ganic connection between anticlinal folds and down-throw 
 and up-throw faults ; and the credit of this supposed dis- 
 covery has been given to the able geologists of the United 
 States Survey in the Rocky mountain regions. But like 
 other applications of principle to fact in this whole sub- 
 ject, the passage of arches into f units was so fally explained
 
 MODEL OF PLICATIONS OF XO. IV.
 
 THE ANTICLINAL VAULTS RESTORED. 703 
 
 by the early surveys of Pennsylvania and Virginia that 
 nothing essentially new or different has in recent years been 
 added to it, except in the one point of the distance to 
 which Onerthrust faults have been carried horizontally, as 
 in Western Scotland, the Alps, and the Rocky mountains. 
 
 Model of the upper surface of the Medina, No. IV, after 
 its plication and before its erosion. 
 
 Page plates LVII, LVIII were made from two photo- 
 graphs of the surface of a model constructed by me in 1886, 
 to show the crumpled geology of Middle Pennsylvania, as 
 contrasted with the gently waved structure of the whole 
 country back of the Allegheny mountain (the western and 
 the northern counties) and the almost wholly undisturbed 
 condition of things in the Pocono and Catskill mountain 
 region on both sides of the upper Delaware river.* 
 
 *I planned this model In 1841 while I was drawing the thirteen long sec- 
 tions across the State which Prof. H. D. Rogers published in 1858 along 
 the bottom border of my State Map. But the data obtained by the First 
 Survey did not seem to me sufficiently precise. When the Second Survey 
 was organized in 1874 I waited until the surveys of the middle counties could 
 be mapped, with local sections abundant enough to cover the whole area. By 
 1886 most of the county maps had been published on a scale of two miles to 
 the inch, with well-defined limits to the formations. In 1885 1 published, in 
 Report X, count3 r maps of the whole State on the scale of six miles to an 
 inch. Of these I selected enough to cover a sufficient area, and afford a sat- 
 isfactory basis for a model. 
 
 There are but two methods of making such a model ; one is to cut it down 
 to fixed limits ; the other is to build it up from a base plane. With hypso- 
 metrically surveyed contour line maps of the surface the simplest method 
 is to jig out the contours in paper, card board, or veneer wood ; pile them on 
 one another ; paste, glue or tack them fast ; cover them with wax ; tool the 
 whole to a smooth surface ; cast a mold ; from the mold cast a positive ; and 
 finally tool it to satisfaction. In 1856 I made such a model of the Johnstown 
 district in Cambria and Somerset counties, from Edward Smith's contour 
 map of the country for the Pennsylvania railroad. Sheets of paper repre- 
 senting Smith's 10-foot contours were scissored by myself and my wife in 
 the evenings, and the result was a very beautiful model, the photograph of 
 which was made into a relief plate and published in 1877 in Report H2, page 
 92. But it was a tedious and laborious job. 
 
 Most of the models of the Second Survey have been made in this manner, 
 chiefly by Mr. E. B. Harden, topographical assistant of the survey. The 
 process requires nothing but accurate, patient labor. 
 
 Another method is to construct cross sections at various intervals across 
 the area to be modeled, and as nearly as possible at right angles to the
 
 704 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The model is limited on the south by the Maryland and 
 YV. Virginia state line, from Adams county to Fayette 
 county ; on the southeast by the range of the South mount- 
 ains, the Reading and Durham hills, and the Highlands of 
 New Jersey and New York : its lower left hand corner is 
 
 strike ; draw them on slips of paper, wood, lead, zinc, or block tin ; leave 
 the bases of the strips straight cut the upper section surface lines ; arrange 
 the strips on a solid basis at their true geographical distances from one an- 
 other ; nil in the intervals with plaster or wax ; and tool the whole model 
 to the upper section lines. This, however, requires the eye and hand of an 
 artist ; but it has the advantage of a more delicate and truthful treatment of 
 the intervals between the section slips, governed and guided by the topo- 
 graphical features of the survey map of the region modeled. The geological 
 artisst is not encumbered with the solid plates of the first method, and can 
 work freely in correcting and bringing out to clear view the characteristic fea- 
 tures of the topography, provided he has studied them himself and appre- 
 ciates their character. This method can safely be adopted only by the geolo- 
 gist who has done the field work himself, and it cannot be safely delegated 
 to office hands. 
 
 I used a modification of this process for a model of Morrison's Cove, in 
 1853, for the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, to show the iron ore horizons. 
 I took prisms of soft wood 18" long, 3" wide and 2" thick, and drew on their 
 contiguous sides duplicate geological sections ; then tooled down the surface 
 of each block. When laid side by side in a series, the surface of the country 
 was exhibited topographically. By separating the blocks the geological 
 structure on the cross lines between block and block could be consulted. 
 The surface of the whole series was painted to show the outcrop belts. 
 
 In constructing other local geological models I have found this method 
 much more satisfactory than the method of jigging and building up. 
 
 But in making my model of the corrugations of middle Pennsylvania I 
 was compelled to use the method first described, on account of its rapidity 
 of execution, since I accomplished in six weeks what would probably have 
 cost me as many months of labor by the method of cross sections. A descrip- 
 tion of the details will be useful to geologists who are not familiar with 
 such work. 
 
 I first laid the colored geological Hand Atlas county maps together to 
 cover the field. I divided the field into four parts by equal N. W. interval 
 lines to make four models which could afterwards be cast in one. Then I 
 drew on tracing paper the outcrop limits of the formations above and below 
 the Medina. The known thickness of the overlying formations gave the 
 depth of the top of Medina in reference to sea level. Sea level was the nor- 
 mal datum of the model. The deepest sea level of the top of the Medina was 
 adopted as the plane base of the model. The contour lines of the top of the 
 Medina were determined by measuring down from the contour limit lines 
 of all the upper formations. Account had to be taken of the known thin- 
 ning of all the formations northwards and westwards. The columnar sec- 
 tions governed the whole process. When the dips were steeper a reduction 
 for angle had to be made. When the dips were gentle, no such reduction 
 was necessary, as the error would be trivial. In the end I obtained an un-
 
 UPPER SURFACE OF MEDINA, NO. IV. 705 
 
 in Butler county. The area exhibited is about 230 miles 
 long by 130 broad. The scale adopted was that of the 
 small county maps in the Hand Atlas, Report X, 6 miles to 
 the inch. The photograph plates reduce the scale to about 
 33 miles to the inch. 
 
 It was essential to my design of a true representation of 
 the amount of plication that the vertical scale of relief 
 should be the same as the horizontal geographical scale, a 
 principle which has been kept in view in the construction 
 of all cross sections published in the Reports of the Survey 
 from the beginning. No matter how gentle the gradients 
 they must conform to nature. The human eye is a perfectly 
 competent instrument and may be safely trusted to notice 
 and estimate accidents of relief of the minutest size and 
 most delicate variation from the horizontal. Nothing 
 should be left to the imagination. Science gains nothing 
 and loses much by any exaggeration under any circum- 
 stances. There is no such thing as meeting nature half- 
 way. Absolute truth in relationships is as necessary for 
 knowledge as correct understanding of individual things. 
 
 For plate .L/VII the model was photographed upside 
 down, with a slant light from the left (S. E.) to bring out 
 the master feature of the structure, the Nittany Valley or 
 Bald Eagle Mountain Anticlinal, which occupies in crescent 
 shape the center of the area. As its western slope is very 
 steep, in parts vertical, the shadow cast is heavy. The 
 prevalence of steeper western than eastern slopes in the 
 case of most of the other anticlinals is marked on this 
 plate ; especially in the case of the three great anticlinals 
 which lap each other and make the southern border of the 
 First Anthracite coal field from Mauch Chunk, Tamaqua 
 and Pottsville to the end of the Dauphin county basin, and 
 so onwards through Perry and Cumberland county into 
 Franklin. The echelon arrangement of this combined over- 
 
 derground contour line map of the top of the Medina approximately correct. 
 It was only necessary afterwards to take the curves of dip in the air to re- 
 store the aticlinals destroyed by erosion, and the model was complete. The 
 scale being 6 miles to the inch horizontal and vertical alike, an inch of height 
 represents 31,680 feet. 
 45
 
 706 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 thrown anticlinal is very remarkable and could be well ex- 
 hibited only by a model seen under a S. E. slant light. 
 
 For Plate LVIII the model was photographed erect under 
 a slant light from the left (N. W.) to bring out other fea- 
 tures ; especially the Anthracite synclinals and their con- 
 tinuation southwestward into Maryland. The reader will 
 notice that from Carbondale (an inch below the center of 
 the top line of the plate) there is a continuous synclinal 
 trough, much crumpled in the center of the plate (Seven 
 Mountains), with a local deep hole (Broad Top), shallowing 
 into Maryland. It will be noticed that the Nescopec anti- 
 clinal of Luzerne county, which separates the Middle and 
 Northern Anthracite basins, keeps on as the anticlinal of 
 Kishicoquillis valley and Jack's mountain, dying down in 
 Bedford county. 
 
 The crescent shape of the corrugations of the region is 
 visibly explained by Plate LVII, which brings into relief 
 the great Nittany anticlinal. By taking its crescent as an 
 arc of a great circle, and drawing a radius from its middle 
 and highest point (in Centre county), southeastward towards 
 the head of Chesapeake bay, it will be made evident that 
 along that radius was exerted the maximum force of the 
 horizontal thrust which displaced the formations and piled 
 them together in folds. By laying a string upon the model 
 along this radial line, I found that the forward thrust of 
 the earth crust (so far as the Medina can indicate it) was at 
 least 40 miles. It is worth noting also that the Bald Eagle 
 Mountain and Black Log Mountain faults are southwest of 
 said radius, and have their right hand (N. E.) side walls 
 thrust forward. 
 
 Conformity of IV upon 111. \ 
 
 1 have expressed my opinion on this interesting geolog- 
 ical topic in the third report on Lehigh and Northampton 
 Counties, D3, Vol. 1, 1883, pp. 32 to 35. 
 
 A non-conformity of the Oneida conglomerate, No. IVa, 
 upon the top of the Hudson river slates, No. Ill, has fre- 
 quently been asserted. In Pennsylvania they appear to be 
 quite conformable ; no erosion of the uppermost slates of
 
 CONFORMITY OF IV UPON III. 707 
 
 III previous to the deposit of the conglomerates and sand- 
 stones of IV having been noticed. 
 
 At the Rondout quarries in New York the Helderberg 
 limestones seem to lie upon the upturned edges of the Hud- 
 son river slate. At Catskill village they appear to lie di- 
 rectly but conformably upon the slate. 
 
 Mr. Davis in his recent beautiful memoir (quoted in G 6 ) 
 states in his text and shows in his sections an apparently 
 perfect conformdbility of the Lower Helderberg limestones 
 (JVo. VI) upon Hudson river sandstones and slates (No. 
 Ill] in the vale of the Catskill, a mile or two back from the 
 Hudson river; with an apparent absence of the Clinton ( V) 
 and Medina and Oneida (IV) which usually intervene. 
 
 Although the district of country in which these phenom- 
 ena present themselves is small, yet, out of these local phe- 
 nomena an hypothesis has been framed and made to apply 
 to a thousand miles of the continent, viz : that the Hudson 
 river age closed not merely with a disturbance of the re- 
 lations of land to sea, resulting in the shifting of coasts and 
 the deposit of gravels and sands (which might be easily 
 admitted), but with huge elevations and upturnings of the 
 sea-bed, extensive erosion, and the deposit of horizontal 
 upon vertical strata.* 
 
 * S. A. Miller in his N. A. Geol. and Pal. 1889, p. 48, says : It always rests 
 unconformably upon the Hudson river group, and bears the internal evi- 
 dence of having been derived from land immediately north and east, and of 
 having been deposited in shallow water, subject to waves and currents which 
 transported only short distances. The conglomerate indicates a shore-line 
 and rapid deposition, and is almost non-fossiliferous, although a few frag- 
 ments of fucoids and shells, generally too imperfect for definition, ba^e been 
 found in it The sandstone too bears the evidence of having been deposited 
 near the land in shallow water, not only in wave-lines, rill-marks about 
 shells, and ripple-marked slabs, but in mud-cracks produced by sun-drying. 
 In all these respects it compares with the Potsdam, which separates the Ta- 
 conicfrom the Lower Silurian." 
 
 Certainly a sand deposit that extended from May Hill in England to Lake 
 Huron and Tennessee in America, must exhibit the character of a shore de- 
 posit in some places, but could not possibly have done so everywhere. Cer- 
 tainly in its many hundreds of miles of outcrop in Pennsylvania itshows noth- 
 ing of that character. The fine grain of almost all of the sandstone layers of 
 its upper and lower divisions and the loamy nature of its whole middle di- 
 vision, is satisfactorily good evidence that the great Medina sea was not 
 shallow, but deep ; and the pebbles of its conglomerate beds are so small
 
 708 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 To this I object : 1. the almost universal conformability 
 of the Oneida upon Hudson river formation ; 2. the ab- 
 sence of pre-oneida plications; 3. the impossibility of ob- 
 taining the principal materials of the Oneida conglomerate, 
 out of any known Hudson river strata ; 4. the fact that 
 Oneida deposits still remain far south of the Hudson river 
 belts (as at Greenwood lake in New Jersey) ; 5. and above 
 all, the fact that at the Schuylkill Water Gap, where the 
 Oneida rests at right angles on the apparently eroded edges 
 of Hudson river slate, there is in reality a snapped anticli- 
 nal and downthrow of the slates, and no unconformability. 
 
 Mr. Davis shows the Lower Helderberg conformably over- 
 lying the Hudson rioer "sandstones," in a synclinal. 
 
 At first glance this would seem to settle the question of 
 land elevation and subsequent subsidence ; and he there- 
 fore speaks of a long interval of time (Oneida, Medina and 
 Clinton ages) during which no deposits took place. 
 
 But a little consideration will serve to show the uncer- 
 tainty of this kind of evidence. For, during all these ages 
 it no doubt rained as often as it rains now ; and if so, all 
 land surfaces must have suffered erosion ; and yet the Hud- 
 son river slates in his Catskill section are not eroded ; they 
 could not therefore have been rained on i. <?., they could not 
 have been above water. 
 
 The alternative is 10 imagine a stoppage of deposit with, 
 out elevation of sea bottom. This is not impossible, but very 
 improbable. For, the Oneida was heavily deposited a few 
 
 that they could be carried out some hundreds of miles from shore, as De- 
 lesse has shown the pebbles of the Loire are now slowly worked along out- 
 ward over the sloping bed of the Bay'of Biscay into the deep Atlantic. 
 
 The assertion that it " always rests unconformably on the Hudson river 
 group is unwarranted; because not the thousandth part of the formation 
 is visible at the surface; and because, as 1 state in the text, an examina- 
 tion of many hundreds of miles of outcrop contact of III and I Vat the pres- 
 ent surface has shown not non-conformability but conformability. The 
 "Water Gaps of middle Pennsylvania furnish abundant evidence of the fact. 
 
 A very good evidence of deep sea deposition is the almost total absence of 
 oblique-bedding in IV, showing that its sands and muds were not subject to 
 the tidal currents of shore deposits and shallow water. In this respect it is 
 in marked contrast with the Pocono formation No. X, which contains the 
 Tipton Run coal beds and was a shallow water deposit, as will appear in a 
 future chapter.
 
 CONFORMITY OF IV UPON III. 709 
 
 miles west of Newburg. and from there on for hundreds of 
 miles westward and southwestward. 
 
 An easier hypothesis would be to consider the " Hudson 
 river sandstones" which lie beneath the limestones, to be a 
 finer part of the same deposit as the Oneida and Medina 
 conglomerates and sandstones elsewhere. 
 
 But there is another alternative, in view of the close 
 proximity of vertical and overturned strata between the 
 quarry and the banks of the Hudson. The crumpling which 
 Mr. Davis so eloquently describes and so artistically por- 
 trays has been produced by the sliding down upon itself 
 and mashing together of the still moist formations on the 
 western slope of the Hudson river uplift. Precisely simi- 
 lar crumplings characterize the same limestones all along 
 the north foot of the Medina-Oneida mountain range 
 through New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. And 
 it is in front of these crumplings at the Schuylkill water 
 gap that the great fault occurs which plunges the edges of 
 the slates underneath the bottom of the conglomerate. 
 
 It should be kept in mind that our massive formations 
 (XII, X, IV) act independently of the softer formations be- 
 tween them, preserving their own larger plications intact 
 and for themselves, and compelling subjacent and super- 
 jacent formations of inferior tenacity and greater ductility 
 to conform to limited spaces by crumpling and sliding. It 
 is quite possible that the faulted edges of the missing rocks 
 may lie deeply buried. At all events, such is not so violent 
 an hypothesis as that the Hudson river slates remained two 
 or three geological ages out of water without suffering the 
 least erosion. 
 
 Non-conformity of IV upon III has been argued from the 
 presence of pieces of shale in IV. But there are also dis- 
 tinct bands of intercalated slate between the sandstones. 
 Even supposing fragments of foreign slate, they could not 
 come from neighboring Hudson river outcrops. For, if the 
 Oneida was deposited over the whole region of Northern 
 New Jersey as far south as Greenwood lake, how could any 
 shore produced by an upheaval at the close of the Hudson 
 River age be near enough to furnish such materials as
 
 710 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 those of which the Oneida is composed ; and how could 
 "'pieces of Hudson river slate" get into the Oneida? 
 
 But the most complete evidence that there was no change 
 in the relations'of land to water at the top of the slate for- 
 mation No. Ill, and before the deposit of the great sand- 
 rocks of No. IY, comes from the shape of the Kittatinny 
 mountain along its whole line from the Delaware water gap, 
 past the Lehigh water gap, to the Berks county corner, and 
 far beyond. Any erosion of the slate formation previous 
 to the deposit of the Oneida sandstone beds would have 
 made the outcrop of the Oneida beds very irregular. It is 
 on the contrary remarkably regular ; and the synclinal 
 sandstone crest in Offset mountain, just east of the Wind 
 Gap, lies quietly in a synclinal of slate ; all the rocks dip- 
 ping in conformity. Any slight difference in angle re- 
 corded in the Water Gaps between the sandstone beds 
 above and the slate beds on which they rest must be due 
 either to imperfect instrumentation ; or to the concealment 
 of the actual plane of contact ; or to the inevitable slip of 
 the upper rigid mass on the lower flexible mass in the pro- 
 cess of uplifting the whole 30 or 40 from the horizontal. 
 When this uplifting reached 90 at the Schuylkill water gap, 
 a great fracture took place, and the whole sandstone mass 
 shot upright into the air, grinding the edges of the slate 
 mass, which remained nearly horizontal, to a smooth plane.* 
 
 Along the whole range of mountain in Northampton and 
 Lehigh counties, the upper limit of the slates rises to the 
 top of the long slope, to within about 200 feet of the actual 
 crest of the mountain, where the cliffs of Oneida commence. 
 
 * At the Lehigh Water Gap, on the east bank of the river, near the railroad 
 bridge over the wagon road, massive conglomerate strata at the base of IV, 
 ascend at an angle of 30 to the crest of the mountain. This conglomerate 
 consists of white and black pebbles an inch in diameter. Fine grained 
 sandstone beds ^overlie and underlie the conglomerate. Fifty feet lower 
 than the conglomerate the rocks are concealed for 50 feet, and then under- 
 lying sandy slates appear gradually, passing downward into the top slates 
 of ill, which soon after turn over an anticlinal and dip south. It looks as 
 if the concealed interval is the plane of a fault, and the north dipping slates 
 a downward brush. But there is no proof of non-conformability, and it is 
 quite possible that the anticlinal arch is unbroken, just as in the case of the 
 anticlinal behind the Hole mountain at the Swatara Water Gap.
 
 CONFORMITY OF IV UPON III. 711 
 
 Downwards the mountain slope dies away in the slate plain, 
 chiseled by a thousand brooks which collect the rain water 
 and continue the operation of lowering gradually the gen- 
 eral level of the slate belt.
 
 712 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 CHAPTER LIU. 
 
 Tfte mineral worthies sness of the North Mountain along 
 the Great Valley and of all the other mountains of IV 
 in Middle Pennsylvania. 
 
 This is a fixed fact. There is not a valuable mineral of 
 any kind in the Oneida or Medina formations. 
 
 In the mountains of IV there is nothing but worthless 
 slate and common coarse and fine sandstones, the outcrops 
 of which make the crest and back slope of the mountains, 
 and the great ribs of rock in the gaps where the rivers break 
 through. Some of the layers yield excellent building stone ; 
 but building stone is a drug in the market in Pennsyl- 
 vania. Almost every citizen of the state can build a stone 
 house or barn by digging a hole on his own farm ; so that 
 what is valuable to himself is of no value to his neighbors, 
 much less to commence. The limestone of the valley is a 
 better building material than the sandstone of the mount- 
 ain, and more easily t obtained ; therefore the sandstone 
 rocks may be said to be worthless. Occasionally a piece is 
 wanted for the hearth of an iron furnace. 
 
 There is no gold,f no silver,:}: no copper, no lead, no tin 
 
 fTLie latest deception respecting a gold mine in No. IV occurred two 
 years ago in the neighborhood of Jack's Narrows in Huntingdon county, 
 where a company was formed to mine gold in Jack's Mountain west of 
 the Juniata river at Mapleton. What gave rise to it I do not know, but it is 
 probable that a trace of gold was found in some pebbles in the conglomerate, 
 such as is described in the geology of the Schwangunk Mountain in New 
 Jersey. All quartz seems to have a trace of gold in it. But gold-bearing 
 quartz veins have no existence in the mountains of No. IV. 
 
 } Nothing can be >more ridiculous than the report of silver veins in any 
 mountain of IV. As gold goes with quartz silver goes with limestone. If 
 there were faults filled with lead ore in the Medina Mountains more or less 
 silver, if only a trace, would be found in the lead ore. But no lead ore vein is 
 known in Pennsylvania in any of its mountains of IV. The lead ore is con- 
 fined to the limestone valleys. 
 
 The remarkable cross fault lead veins of [the Schwangunk Mountain of 
 IV east of the Delaware have already been noticed. None such have been
 
 MINERAL WORTHLESSNESS OF MOUNTAINS OF IV. 713 
 
 in these mountains. All the old Indian stories about lead 
 ore, and all the lying assurances of wandering miners that 
 they have discovered gold and silver ores in the mountain 
 amount to nothing at all. 
 
 As for iron ore the only show of it is in the slates just 
 under the sandstone near the summit. These top slates con- 
 tain enough iron to coat the stones, and to make little iron 
 ore bogs lower down the slope where the springs of water 
 issue. The iron-coated sandstones are of course worthless. 
 The bog ore is good enough, what little there is of it, and 
 mixes nicely with other ores ; but the farm clearings where 
 these bogs lie can hardly be said to be a dollar more valuable 
 for them. There is no iron ore bed which could be found 
 by searching for it. The iron is distributed through the 
 slate and cannot be mined.* 
 
 On the backside of the mountains of IV run outcrops of 
 the valuable iron ore beds of the Clinton formation No. V, 
 
 noticed in that mountain from Port Jervis westward in New Jersey, nor in 
 any mountain of IV in Pennsylvania. When I was surveying the Strouds- 
 burg country in 1839, I learned that a geological tramp from Germany had 
 been deluding the people into preposterous mining operations in the 
 Pocono Mountain. There were traditions of sixteen different Indian silver 
 ore veins in the Kittatinny Mountain east and west of the Wind Gap. This 
 impostor told the people that he had found one of these veins, had traced it 
 across the Aquanchicola Creek valley, across Godfrey's ridge, across Broad- 
 head's creek near Stroudsburg, across the Devonian hills to the foot of the 
 Pocono Mountain escarpment and up the escarpment to a place where it 
 could be successfully mined. He collected one or two thousand dollars in 
 small sums from the farmers and village storekeepers, and kept him- 
 self and one or two hands at work for eighteen months making a large hole 
 in the face of the mountain, and then disappeared leaving the hole behind 
 him. Such is a history of fraud many times repeated in the last fifty years. 
 
 * One remarkable exception to this statement must be noticed. There is 
 a gash fault across Black Log Mountain west of Orbisonia in Huntingdon 
 county, which was filled with limonite iron ore long before the mountain 
 and valley surface of that country was established at the present level. 
 Nothing of that sort escapes the keen eye of the hunters and farmers of any 
 region. The search for iron ore keeps men and boys on the qui vive ; and 
 this curious and exceptional deposit was exploited by furnace men and ex- 
 hausted. No other such instance is known in our state, and probably no 
 other exists. It is strictly analogous to the lead veins of the Schawngunk 
 Mountain east of Port Jervis ; for the Black Log Mountain is shivered by 
 cross faults in the same manner ; as exhibited in the Rock Hill Gap and in 
 the gangways of the fossil ore mine southwest of Orbisonia.
 
 714 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 block ore aud fossil ore. These beds have been foun dand 
 opened here and there along the North Mountain, but with- 
 out financial success. In 1839 I discovered the block ore 
 just behind the mountain on the bank of the Little Schuyl- 
 kiJl opposite Port Clinton. Since then the bed has been 
 opened ; but the attempt to mine it was abandoned ; the ore 
 was poor and the bed thin. And this appears to be the 
 case along the whole line for a hundred miles. Back of 
 Cowan's Gap in Fulton county it was tried. In the Lit- 
 tle Cove southwest of Mercersburg it is of little value. 
 But this has nothing to do with the Oneida and Medina. 
 
 If any religious mind asks why God made the mountains 
 of IV without a single valuable mineral in it a question 
 which has been more than once put to me respecting other 
 mountains mineralogically worthless the answer is a plain 
 one and should be satisfactory to any reasonable man. 
 Mineral value is not the only kind of value. The true worth 
 of mountain land is to cool the air and condense its mois- 
 ture into rain, to feed the streams which supply the valleys, 
 and to preserve the forests. For such benefits as these the 
 inhabitants of the Great Valley should be ever thankful to 
 the North Mountain without looking so fine a gift horse 
 in the mouth or pining for gold or silver mines, which 
 after all are not half so desirable as fertility and water 
 power.
 
 FOSSILS OF ONEIDA AND MEDINA NO. IV. 715 
 
 CHAPTER LIV. 
 Fossils of Oneida and Medina No. IV. 
 
 The whole formation is remarkably destitute of remains 
 of animal and vegetable life. The abundance of molluscan 
 and crustacean forms in the preceding Trenton and Hudson 
 River ages seem to have given place to a barrenness of all 
 living existence. Nothing but the stony casts of macerated 
 seaweeds are to be found in the two or three thousand feet 
 of rock strata of Oneida and Medina age in Pennsylvania. 
 These are so abundant in some places as to cover extensive 
 surfaces of the sandstone beds. Their forms are repre- 
 sented on plate CXI, page 716. They are most abundant 
 in the upper division.* This species of seaweed is called 
 Arthrophycus Tiarlani. The surfaces of great slabs torn 
 from the Tussey Mountain outcrops on the Juniata and 
 floated by ice down the bed of the river, are completely 
 covered with a network of its stony casts in high relief. 
 
 In New York State James Hall describes from the mid- 
 dle division of IV two small lamellibranch shells Cypricar- 
 dia orthonota, and Modiomorpha alata (Conrad's Unio 
 primigenius), and two small gasteropod shells, BelleropJion 
 trilobatus (Conrad's Planorbis trilobatus) and EnompTia- 
 lus (Cyclostoma, Pleurotomaria} pervetustus. the earliest 
 known appearance of this kind of shell. Dana says that 
 one of the most common Medina brachiopod shells is the 
 
 *Prof. W. B. Rogers, Geo. Va., 1884, p. 175, says that "near the upper limits 
 of the group, as well as in the shaly bands beneath, organic impressions are 
 often abundantly discovered. The thin slabs of buff and olive sandstone 
 lying near the top are particularly rich in these remains, among which may 
 be noted as abundant a small globose terebratula, and at least two well 
 characterized species offucoides [sea weeds]. Cylindrical markings, simi- 
 lar to those of No. I, are often exhibited in great numbers in the more com- 
 pact and fine-grained white or pinkish white strata.
 
 716 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 HarUnla halll. (Go.pp.rt. Fo. Klor. de. Ueberg, 1. 
 
 ~ 
 
 Conrmd. (tic. Trfn/bn in Pa. 
 
 Collect*? from /to, at Pert C2w ton; 
 and front IVi.c, ' 
 
 Omitted from 
 "&*nf*fou 
 
 * /U/a/At above 
 <o f 
 
 Cypricardla orthonota. Ha/I. 
 
 ModiomorphaalaU.atf. 
 (G/on'(a.tci 
 alata, 
 (llnio prhmyfiui 
 
 Bellerophon trilobatua M*n*lfa MflaJ
 
 FOSSILS OF ONEIDA AND MEDINA NO. IV. 717 
 
 wedge-shaped Lingulella cuneata.* He figures also two 
 lamellibranch shells Modiolopsis orthonota, and Modiolop- 
 sis primige/iia, and the two gasterpods Pleurolomaria 
 litorea, and Bucanella trilobala (Conrad's PlanorMs above 
 mentioned). He adds that a considerable number of Me- 
 dina species lived on into Clinton times. In fact the dearth 
 of Medina life in Pennsylvania was due to peculiar circum- 
 stances, as the astonishing thickness of the sand deposits 
 sufficiently attest. In other parts of the earth's waters 
 there was an abundance of life. For example, the rocks of 
 this age exposed on the island of Anticosti in the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence are crowded with fossil forms. f 
 
 The English May Hill sandstone formation, the repre- 
 sentative of our American Oneida-Medina formation, was 
 deposited in waters so full of life that 261 species (of 91 
 genera) have been found in it, 136 species being peculiar to 
 it. Among them is the oldest known sea urchin, Palceec/ii- 
 nus phillipsi, Forbes4 
 
 The oldest insect recorded up to 1887, Palceollattina 
 douvillei, was found on a slab of May Hill Sandstone at 
 Turques in Calvados, France, by C. Brongniart It is one 
 wing of a cockroach, distinguished from all other known 
 cockroach wings, fossil or recent, by the length of its anal 
 vein, and the narrowness of the axillary area. 
 
 The abundance of plants and animals of the sea, and the 
 existence of land beetles being demonstrated, it follows as 
 a matter of course that the land surfaces sustained a vege- 
 tation of their own. No remains of land plants have been 
 found of the definite Medina age ; but a superb fossil fern, 
 Eopteris morierei, Saporta, has recently been discovered in 
 
 * The figure on Plate CXI, from Hall's Pal. X. Y. Vol. IV, shows three of 
 these little lingulas (lingulellas) stranded on a beach over which the waves 
 dragged the fine sand into pointed ridges in the wake of the shells. Ripple 
 marks and mud cracks prove that the beds were out of water and exposed 
 to the sunshine, and that the sunshine was as genial then as it is now. 
 
 t Dana's Manual of Geology, 3d Ed., 1880, p. 223. 
 
 + Figured by him in the early Memoirs of the Geol. Sur. G. Brit., Vol. II, 
 plate XXIX, p. 674. Desor's Synopsis des Echinides fossiles, 1856, page 159. 
 Geikie's Text Book, 1882, page 674. 
 
 Woodward's paper in Geol. Mag., Feb., 1887, p. 49, quoting ComptesRen- 
 dus A cad. d. Sci. Paris, No. 29, Dec. 26, 1884.
 
 718 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 the schists of Anglers. These schists are placed by French 
 geologists at or near the base of the Middle Silurian, which, 
 in America, may be assigned to either the upper part of No. 
 Ill, or the Oneida, No. IVa. It is a pinna (leaf) with large 
 leaflets and a perfectly distinct venation resembling a Neu- 
 opteris of the Coal Measures. Of this fern, our lamented 
 palseobotanist Leo Lesquereux remarked that "it plainly 
 proves that the land vegetation of that age, including 
 already plants of so advanced types, must have been varied 
 in character. Therefore, according to the law of evolution, 
 it is evidence that a still more ancient land flora existed, 
 probably contemporaneous with the first appearance of the 
 vegetable marine flora." 
 
 Several years ago Lesquereux discovered land plants in 
 the Lower Silurian rocks near Cincinnati, and descanted on 
 their importance. His determinations were at first doubted, 
 but have since been accepted by Saporta and other authori- 
 ties. The confirmation of Lesquereux' s views afforded by 
 the French fern is all the more valuable inasmuch as this 
 fern, which lived in an early Palaeozoic age, resembles those 
 which grew in the much later Carboniferous times ; and the 
 earth's surface was no doubt clad locally with ferns of that 
 type during all the ages intervening ; so that Upper Silu- 
 rian, Devonian and Subcarboniferous Neuropterids may 
 turn up in the future exploration of deposits favorably situ- 
 ated in regard to ancient shore lines, from which soil-laden 
 rivers debouched. Such ferns are therefore no longer to be 
 accounted characteristic of the Coal era ; and what is true 
 of ferns must be true of all other kinds of fossil forms. It 
 is the general fades or aspect of its flora or fauna which 
 characterizes an age, and not any one species. The identi- 
 fication of the same deposit in two geological regions, far 
 removed from each other, by means of one or two "charac- 
 teristic forms" must always be done at the risk of making 
 some great mistake certain to be discovered in the further 
 progress of the science. 
 
 It should always be kept in view that fossil plants were 
 drifted seaward from the mouths of rivers draining certain 
 kinds of land ; delivering therefore certain kinds of mineral
 
 FOSSILS OF ONEIDA AND MEDINA NO. IV. 719 
 
 matter. The lithology of the rock must be quite as "char- 
 acteristic" of that special age as its palseobotany. As 
 land surfaces become worn away their river detritus changes 
 character. The same river must make quite different de- 
 posits in successive ages. Moreover the drainage system 
 changes ; rivers run in other directions and in other vol- 
 umes ; so that the same central forest-covered land district 
 may furnish very different successive deposits with the 
 same kinds of plants. On the other hand changes of vege- 
 tation are often rapid ; the Delaware and Susquehanna 
 rivers are floating deciduous leaves and twigs now into the 
 Atlantic, whither only a century ago they floated coniferous 
 foliage and fruit. 
 
 The same is true of animal fossil forms. The stability, 
 the number, size and association of types has always de- 
 pended upon the lithological output of the land-drainage. 
 This has always been changing in its direction, intensity, 
 extent, and mineral constitution the changes being 
 brought about slowly or swiftly, and often alternately, not 
 merely by movements of various kinds, but by secular ero- 
 sion, uncovering deep rocks to the surface, and removing 
 upper rocks from it. Therefore, it is impossible to believe 
 in "characteristic forms," in the dogmatic way in which 
 they have been adopted and applied to stratigraphy. 
 
 At the same time all the considerations mentioned above, 
 while throwing doubt on "single characteristic forms,' 
 tend to increase our faith in "characteristic groups," and 
 in their close generic relationship to characteristic lithology. 
 
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