IRLF SB 33 bOfl GIFT OF NOTES ON IN THE UNITED STATES; THEIR NATURE, POSITION, AIMS AND WANTS. "Is there any such happiness as for a man's mind to be raised above the confusion of things, where he may have the prospect of the order of nature ? " "Are we the richer, by one poor invention, by reason of all the learning that hath been these many hundred years ? " BY S. EDWARD WARREN. C. E., * > PROP. OF DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY, ETC. IN THE RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, AND GRADUATE OF THE SAME. (CLASS OF '51.) NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY AND SON, 535 BROADWAY. 1866. A. W. SCRIBNER, PRINTER, CANNON PLACE, TROY, N. Y. '": ,V I-7H ' PREFATORY NOTE. These unpretending pages, put forth in advance of a possible fuller treatment of their subject, are an attempt to respond, even if but very briefly, and provisionally, to much earnest inquiry concerning the true nature, position, and aims of Polytechnic Schools; and to the evident immediate need of correct popular information relative to them. It is hoped that they may also contribute to unity of sentiment and action, both among their friends in the community at large, especially their alumni, and among their officers and thoughtful and earnest members. That the need just alluded to exists, is riot surprising. The whole class of Polytechnic otherwise called Scientific, Technical, Technological,' or Industrial Schools is of modern origin everywhere, and in this country, comparatively unique. Hence misapprehension of their true nature and grade, and consequent legitimate mode of administration, not unnaturally arises, on slight misleading occasions. For statements of facts, we have relied on official publications, corres- pondence, and standard educational literature, without, however, inter- rupting the reader by continual foot note references to them. The statistics of the concluding section are mainly abridged from the valuable report on the reorganization and proposed development of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, prepared in 1855, by the then Director.* We have been unable, in the short time which could be spared for recording these notes, to hunt up many later or fuller authorities. JANUARY, 1866. B. FRANKLIN GREENE, A. M., C. E. 3G1399 NOTES ON POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. i. It will be convenient to present, first, in these notes, a list of the existing "Scientific Departments" and Technical Schools in the United States, so far as they are known to the writer. In reference to the first section of the following table', it should be understood that it embraces those schools, whose character as truly distinct professional schools, is most apparent. This distinctive character is more or less obscured in the case of the schools named in the second part of the table, owing to their comparatively undeveloped condition, so far as now known, or else to their being merged in the general courses of the institu- tutions including them. Hence it has been impossible to arrange them in the same list with those of the first section, in the order of definite dates of beginning. The familiar professional schools Theological, Medical and Legal are, as is well known, sometimes separate institutions, and sometimes, attached to colleges. The same is true of Sci- entific Professional Schools. Hence, in any case where the name does not indicate the fact, the first column of the table shows the condition, in this respect, of each school mentioned. c^3 o . t> - 1 .. > -a S ' ff> SS^&sSS ^ 1 fd ^ H 32 w g- H GO . . . . Sooccc tB H oJ w ' c/3 a O S P W d &' pa W CO 6 aag Q Kg g2 | 1 S W CO CO 50 06 S -s fi *s D 5 27? S a a B 1 .2 2 S II i 5 5 5 i i i ^ ri . oo > p s i 2 S 1 1 ?! CO H | 1 jj i i H K o (H I I 2 2" ri I g ^ i S ! o f! c3 W * 1 " 3 > a c <1 a H o> CS O n 8 3 H h 03 -A- B W m \ . "w . . aJ UQ ...-S H cS * ^ - C3 ^ S SI * M 2ci ^ ^ ^ ^* - ci rt - - cs S 2 - - 2 sl OJ >> o> " ^ >>' D i i ^,* ^^0 w ^ ^ a "3 a? a 2 CONDITION H 1 CRSE AT I w a S 2~ 111 fe'o! H '"'3 s!S 11 I! o as "3 si ||| B ^g 1|| O a * O coP^O CO" 03 p co S O M S 55 w| O O)^ H| S . S3 < Bs|S sll __3 H ^ ^^ w *** V^ 5*-l o S S e *- < & h P3 * . S c "a g ^ SI p ' HOW -< !| ii H S ij t-) 5 a g SH'^ 57-1 i GO ^ f S 1 K T 1 p< e< M NJ ?D Q PH OPQ 02 cd Diploma & Medal. rf I 9 Q Diploma. MT V T>Vi Tl onrt i j i | ill s I CD "o to a 'O .2 3 92 I -v - CO 31 in 1865 a t" 1281inl864 173 in 1864 PI I a 1 I *i II i | ^ i i 1 , J i i ll i" ork City. 6 SB Q O E i OD 1 1 1" * a o> ef 1 oT >-i ^ 8 i | 3 i i | i * o> fe 0) I 1 1 3 e E E E > E E E | 3 S g cS 9 1 G? S CO 60 25 of 414 7 of 2 Harvard College, 1851-2,.. 71 of 104 34 of 116 17 of 69 " * 1861-2, 53 of 103 45 of 206 13 of 57 " " 1863-4 75 of r>3 50 of 167 15 of 75 Yale College, 1863-4 12 of 31 10 of 45 7 of 57 Union College, 18HO, 2 of 46. 44 ** 186o, 5 of 40 Columbia College, 1864-5, 88 of 158 3 of 43 Philadelphia Polytechnic College, 1864,. . 2 of 136 Reusselaer Polytechnic Institute, I860,. . 3 of 75 41 " 1865,.. 10 of 152 The above results show that all professional schools stand in an attitude of compromise. While their most earnest friends would like to see every member of them possessed of a " de- gree," representative of a previous "liberal" or general train- ing, they must accept the nearest attainable equivalent for it. Considering, now, at what a disadvantage the scientific techni- cal schools are placed, in the scarcity of collegiate institutions giving a previous general culture, suited to their wants, the fair 41 proportion of collegiate graduates among their members is sur- prising, and gratifying. In connection, too, with the undoubted fact that many others of those members have, by diligence, and pursuit of extra studies in the best academies and high schools, obtained the substantial equivalent of a college education, the above proportion of graduates is a new vindication of the claim of these technical schools to full recognition as professional schools. Definite statistics, in respect to the nature and extent of the previous studies of members of the "Scientific Schools," are, of course, not very readily obtainable. The following view exhibits the results of inquiries, for three times of admission to the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Out of 132 men, of whom inquiry was made, the figures below show how many had studied, more or less, the subjects against which the figures stand : Botany, 32 History, 75 Chemistry, 73 Composition and Rhetoric, i)2 Geology, 26 Mental Philosophy, 24 Physical Geography, 48 Moral Philosophy, 28 Natural Philosophy, 101 Greek, 25 Physiology, 47 Latin, 65 Astronomy (Popular), 49 French, 65 Music, Vocal or Instrumental, 49 Other Languages, ...'.. 25 Free Drawing, 50 This result gives nearly seven subjects, on an average, to each man, besides the fundamental subjects for admission, viz : Arithmetic, Elocution, Algebra, Penmanship, Geometry, General Grammar, Geography, Orthography, and besides something done, perhaps, in Zoology, etc., Geometrical Drawing ^ Logic, Book Keeping, Political Economy, Trigonometry, Surveying, subjects not embraced in the inquiry, though they very perti- nently might have been. 6 42 Much might be gained to the cause of sound and advanced scientific professional scholarship, by the general adoption of the Elements of Physics (Natural Philosophy), of Trigonometry, of French, and of Geometrical Drawing, as requirements for admission to Polytechnic Schools, in addition to the eight sub- jects above mentioned. A second method, by which the polytechnic institutions are supplied with due preparatory courses, is by carrying back- ward their own courses of study behind the point at which they are wholly or strictly professional. As may be seen by refer- ence to numerous catalogues, two years, only, occasionally three, is the usual length of Law and Medical courses of in- struction, the commonly required three years' residence with an approved practitioner, in the latter case, being offset by the subordinate positions generally occupied by young engineers, etc., for an equal time. But, by reference to the Table in Sec- tion I, we see that the scientific school courses are frequently of three, and sometimes four, years' duration. Now, in several of these institutions, the earlier portions of these extended courses, embracing as they mainly do, subjects which every one, aiming at a high standard of " liberal" scientific culture, should be acquainted with, are expressly placed within the sphere of collegiate, or general, disciplinary culture. Thus, at the Philadelphia Polytechnic College, there is a separately entitled general "scientific course" of one year, disclaimed as profes- sional, surrounded by a circle of six professional courses of two full years each. In the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first two years study, while evidently designed to corres- pond to a very elevated standard of what general scientific training should be, is only assigned to the sphere of such train- ing, while the several parallel courses of the last two years are designated as strictly professional. And once more, in the Eensselaer Polytechnic Institute, whose course is one of four years, the studies are, from the beginning of ** Division D," narrowly, but increasingly, and at last almost purely, profes- sional ; and, correlatively, at first widely, but decreasingly general ; or of a kind necessary to be understood by persons desiring only a liberal disciplinary education. 43 From the results thus far indicated in this section, two important inferences, and a concluding reflection, arise. First. The Officers, Members, Alumni especially, and Friends generally, of technical schools, have a mission to perform, in elevating them to an unobscured, and undisputed, level of rank, with the universally acknowledged professional schools of other kinds. This mission embraces such particulars as the follow- ing : 1. As college graduates, other things being the same, naturally make the most appreciative and well qualified mem- bers of professional schools, every effort should be made to increase the number of those colleges which afford scientific general courses, of riot less than three years' duration, as the legitimate forerunners of scientific technical courses. To expedite this desirable movement, academies also for in them the work must begin should divide their upper classes into sections, the members of one of which should be put in special training for a scientific college course, while the members of the other would be preparing for the parallel classical course. 2. That the profes- sional rank of the technical schools should be unobscured, the more fully developed among them, so far as they desire to do their own preparatory training, might well resolve themselves into a distinctly pronounced two-fold general organisation, the first department of which should be of a collegiate character, and adapted to the earlier wants of youth seeking a finished scien- tific education ; the second department embracing any proposed number of strictly professional schools, managed exclusively as such, in respect to matter of instruction, and tone of administra- tion. 3. The establishment of resident graduate, or true univer- sity, courses, according to the standard, named on p. 23, for the benefit of those who have means, and desire to pursue particular subjects to an unusual extent; also, efforts to secure, at all times, at least a few students in such courses, who would also peculiarly benefit, both themselves, and the institution, by be- coming assistant instructors in it. 4. The general adoption, in full, of the three fundamental tests of student proficiency, viz : 44 a. The daily recitation, or interrogation, upon assigned les- sons, or performance of assigned exercises, and solutions of new problems, as the distinctive test of regular daily fidelity to duty, and growing command of principles ; first, in advance; second, in review. b. The oral session examination, or test of power to retain matter once learned. c. The written examination (upon new applications of gen- eral principles) the test of retained available command over one's knowledge, for purposes of varied practical application. The examinations, should, moreover, to possess the greatest value, cover three different periods, first, each term as a whole, second each year as a whole, third the total course, as a whole, so that the graduate could, most truthfully, as by the law of public morality bound, be represented as possessed, at gradua- tion, of at least a fair available knowledge of the entire course of study pursued by him. The efficient maintenance of these three tests, and legitimate external stimulants, on the one hand, and natural adaptation, as the natural internal stimulant, on the other, might doubtless be relied on to secure results, permanent and solid, if not brilliant, and such as would demonstrate the impertinence of every arti- ficial stimulant, such as prizes, etc., etc. 5. With the adoption of such essential measures as the above, the merely formal representative, but very desirable, ones, of increased age, and scholastic requirements for admission to technical schools (see p. 42), would fall into place as matters of course. They are worthy of separate mention, however, since their adoption would doubtless react, especially in conjunction with the fourth particular just named, to secure the desired movement in respect to the first three of the above fundamental measures. It is our conviction that the best rule for settling the somewhat arbitrary point of age for admission, would be, to subtract the total length of the course from the age of twenty- one years, as the minimum for professional graduation. Second. In view of the more or less mixed character of most existing Technical Schools, as now explained, the grand ques- 45 tion arises, shall their governmental administration accord with the provisional, abnormal, and subordinate general, or colle- giate, character found in their earlier stages, or with their per- manent, normal, and more and more prevailing character, as purely professional schools ? With the latter character, by all means, we most heartily say, after much experience, with many a company of efficiently self-governing young men. If a single qualification is to be made, as a provisional concession to the mixed character of our Technical Schools as at present found, it would be in favor of the adoption of the single rule requiring regularity of attendance, and responsibility for preparation, since, when these points are secured, nearly everything is se- cured, so true is it that idleness is the open door to every vi- cious folly. For all the rest, uniform conformity, without rules, to the standard implied in previous statements, is to be tacitly demanded, and practically enforced, quietly, and as matter of course. But while the inviolable honor of a professional school demands this plain speaking, it should be regarded, first, as no less the voice of all its members, than of its Faculty ; arid second, as in no way inconsistent with that sacred regard for human nature in the stage of young manhood, which would, by every kindly means, forestall all need of discipline. Few are so strongly self-centred, through possession of that controlling personality, which consists of a vigorous will, guided by enlightened reason, as to be the same, in character and con- duct, under the strain of greatly varied surroundings ; as to be free from the sway of the principle that men will often be to a great extent what you, by your manner of dealing with them, practically declare them to be. Wherefore, if a professional school is operated on college or academy principles, i. e., under a code of formal rules too often embracing petty provisions, or commanding, and enforcing by an espionage, humiliating to all concerned, those higher duties, performance of which must be free, or worthless the characteristic blemishes found in the weaker and frivolous elements of college and academy life, will find their familiar " habitat" and spring up with the certainty of fate. But, conduct the almost completely professional school 46 in the interest of its own best aspirations to be undisguisedly and undisputedly such, and there is abundant and bright evi- dence to show, that, even with its youngest members, regard for its honor and dignity, as well as for the home whose wish is law, will maintain all needful supremacy over the natural im- pulses of earlier young manhood. Why then repress this rising, and easily cultivated, spirit of healthy manliness, and profes- sional honor ; and, for no equivalent good secured, postpone the full attainment of the acknowledged rank of professional school for, and of, young men? But the most complete and decisive justification of the policy, here advocated, lies, it seems to us, in the obvious propriety, if not positive obligation, of making the closing stage of a young man's student life correspond, in its prominent features, with the closely subsequent practical life, in which he must stand, or fall, according to the amount of his own knowledge, and power to use it, and according to his self-governing power. Is it jus- tice, we ask, to the unalterable constitution of human nature, to plunge it at once from a system of floats, and guide-ropes, in a shallow tank, into deep and troubled water, where the powers of a practised swimmer are required? Are not educators for professional life bound to afford, by a system o administration which demands substantially self-governing manliness, a little experimental, and last, school circle of practical life, prelimi- nary to the world's great circle of real life ? Should not the discipline of the professional school, as the closing one, be stim- ulative of interest and alacrity in the good work of self-disci- pline and early self-government, instead of listless or murmuring obedience to ignoble external restraints ? Why should the character of the final system of control over student life be based on the conduct of the meanest few, who have no claim to their position, rather than on that of the honorable and self- regulating many ? In other words, why should it be based on a few mean facts, rather than on many goodly ones, so as to present to all right endeavor the pledge of the best recognition, viz., recognition of its right to real freedom. And here we add, that every member of every kind of professional school, who would 47 see, and be animated by, what is practicable in self-government, under rules, courts, and procedures, of their own devising, among such students, and practicable in elevated and refined associate life, would do well to ponder the account of a cele- brated Swiss school, described in the article, " Student life at Hofwyl," in the Atlantic Monthly for May, 1865, an article which, it is to be wished, might be separately printed for wide circulation as an educational tract. As this article may not be accessible to all, we cannot exclude an intimation of the character of the system described in it. According to this system, the primary disciplinary power of a superior institution should be its students themselves, acting through an organized and dignified tribunal with regular rules of procedure, and acting in behalf of a high-toned student civili- zation. The decisions of this tribunal, in reference to offenders against the true honor of the institution, were to be subject to revision, or absolute veto, by the Faculty. The practical effect of this feature was, however, to stimulate the students, strongly, to weigh and consider their decisions so dispassionately and carefully, as, if possible, never to have them vetoed ; and even modified, as seldom and as slightly as possible. Under such a system, the well-being of school buildings, and the absolute immunity of its furniture from all needless deface- ment, could never be more complete than when committed to the voluntarily responsible charge of the students ; while nothing could so restrain idleness, drunkenness, or offences against neighborhood peace, or property, or disorderly concomitants of out of door exercises, or excursions, so effectually as wholesome sense of strict accountability to the high-toned collective senti- timent of one's peers, enforced, through the orderly action of a tribunal of those peers. It is also but justice further to add, in finally dismissing this topic, that the writer, himself, attended, for two years, a private free school* of high order, in which no code, if it existed, was ever posted or heard of, and in which the grounds were In Newburyport, Mass. 48 laid out, and well kept, by the pupils, and the building was treated as a home by them, and all the relations of teachers and pupils were those of a polite company, bound together, and to duty, by unwritten laws of social decorum and kindness. But it should be added, in partial explanation of this elevated character of student life, that this school embraced pupils of both sexes, who associated freely, under the fewest guiding restraints, not only in daily classes, but in musical and horti- cultural associations, and in editorial and anniversary managing committees, all of which were active organizations. Eational faith, in young humanity thus put on a fair footing, here had its perfect reward, in the absence, nay more, the practically impossible occurrence of any indecorum. Does not, then, the advancing and purified civilization of the day demand that colleges should prove their ability to rise to the level of deserved emancipation from sumptuary laws, rather than that, by a retrograde policy, professional schools of any kind should be lowered to the level of involuntary subjection to such laws? But we contemplated a closing reflection to this section, as follows : It may be questioned whether, with our familiarity with the advantages of the present, and our comparative incapacity to realize, as by experience, the disadvantages of the past, we duly appreciate the bearings of the great contrast between them. Consider, then, that classical instruction, not essentially differ- ent from the present, dates back to days when those mighty agencies of popular enlightenment and kindly civilization the public school ; the popular lecture ; the cheap, ever present, and well-filled, periodical ; the free library ; the wide extended and diffused facilities for cheap and rapid travelling, so influen- tial in opening and liberalizing the mind; the Sunday school, too, and generally accessible kindly and helpful pulpit minis- trations, sources of intelligence as well as of moral and religious soundness when all these, were nearly or quite unknown. In a word, the truly educating agencies of civilized practical life, were far more meagre in earlier days than now. Hence many a bright and steady lad, of twelve to fourteen years, now, 49 could far exceed in mental development, and general ability to act in current life, many a rude bumpkin of former days. Hence also and this is a point not often considered, as would appear so large a proportion of one's total education being accomplished by the common and constant agencies of ripening civilized society, a less proportion is left to be still committed to special organizations expressly designed to impart instruc- tion. Therefore, there seems to be no need for the general or technical scientific school to be sensitive about adopting as the total time appropriated by them, the stereotyped allowance of six or seven years, as in the usual classical course of four years, followed by a professional course of two or three years. Indeed a general and technical course, united, of from four to six years, added to what the best public schools and academies can now do for diligent members of them, would doubtless place their recipients more than on a par in general culture and available power, with the graduate, in generations gone by, of such a seven years' course as could then have been had. If, then, a seven years' course be still retained, as the ideal of a full extent of general and professional school training, it would be with a view to greatly raising the standard of both general and profes- sional scholarship, over that of times when the school was far less richly supplemented by the educating agencies of common life than now. Such a result is most desirable, in behalf of still continued human progress, while the enlarged area of know- ledge offers ample resources for filling seven years of time with elevated, delightful, and fruitful study. Meantime, we see in these efficiently educating instrumentalities of our enriched modern life, so many of which are especially consonant with scientific study, a source of that substantial equivalent for the old collegiate disciplinary preparation for professional study, which the technical schools have, at present, partly to rely upon. 7 V. Sources of information concerning polytechnic instruction in Europe are remarkably, and unfortunately, scarce and inacces- sible. Long extended encyclopedia articles on education, supe- rior institutions of learning, and nations, in Europe, pass over the polytechnic institutions, which there justly claim equality of rank with the highest, with bare allusions, or partial enumer- ation ; quite barren of all definite information. This may arise from the comparatively recent origin of these schools, whereby they have not yet fallen into a recognized place in national systems of education. In view of the probable lack of informa- tion still remaining in various quarters, concerning the number and character of European polytechnic schools, we have thought that the best concluding section of these notes would be a brief account of some of them, and notes of matters suggested by a view of them, as follows : IN FRANCE. The Imperial Polytechnic School. This cele- brated institution was founded in 1794. Its course of study occupies but two years, but this is only because its require- ments for admission, especially in mathematics, would be a fail- qualification for a professorship in many institutions, while its own professors have often been the generally acknowledged leaders in their respective branches. This school being, more- over, mainly one of general science, it is supplemented for pur- poses of strictly professional and technical education, by various special schools, some of which are the following : The School of Eoads and Bridges, for the special training of civil engineers. Course three years. 51 The National School of Mines, with ample illustrative collec- tions, and a course covering three years, for the professional training of mining engineers. Three National Schools of Arts and Trades, in conjunction with the splendidly equipped Conservatory of Arts and Trades at Paris, form an effective instrument for educating higher arti- zaris. The Imperial School of Forestry. The Imperial School of Agriculture. All these high and useful institutions, and others like them, are as yet, being of so recent origin, out of the pale of the great central state department of National education, known as the " University of France," and which embraces the whole old and long organized graded system of National instruction, from the primary schools to the Academies, so called, which are under the charge of eminent Faculties, and have a university character. The above institutions are, however, national ones, but there is one, the Central School of Arts and Manufactures, which is a private institution, founded in 1829, of too high grade to be overlooked. Its courses occupy three years, and provide for the wants of Civil Engineers, Mining Engineers, Mechanical Engineers, arid Chemical Technologists. IN GERMANY. Here, as might be supposed, from the reflect- ive turn of the German mind, national education is more thoroughly organized than anywhere else in the world, and popular education, through common schools, more universal than even in this country, except perhaps in the most favored portions of New England. The comprehensive organization of German schools, of all grades, is as follows : Primary. All the Elementary Schools. Secondary. Classical Schools ; Real Schools ; Artizan Schools. Superior. Universities ; Polytechnic Institutes. 52 The Classical schools, called gymnasia, are of about the same grade as our classical colleges. The Real schools are about equivalent to the parallel "scientific courses" advertised in some of our colleges, where physical and mathematical studies, with modern languages, largely replace attention to sundry frivolities of pagan mythology. The Artizan schools, or indus- trial colleges, are yet more decidedly modern and practical, and stand in a relation to the Polytechnic Institutes, or Industrial Universities," similar to that of the Classical Schools (colleges) to the old Universities. In 1852, there were 26 of these indus- trial colleges in Prussia, and their substantial equivalency to the classical schools, and our own colleges, is seen in the fact that there, as here, fourteen years is the minimum age for admission to them, while the actual age on entering is consid- erably higher. Coming now to the true Polytechnic, or Professional Insti- tutes, we find, among others : The Royal Trade Institute of Berlin, founded in 1821, with a general course of three years, followed by three special courses, for civil and mechanical engineers ; for professional chemists ; and for architects. The Polytechnic Institute at Vienna was founded in 1815. It includes its own preparatory (real school) course, of two years, followed by a technical course of five years, also a commercial one, and commanding a total attendance upon its regular courses, of 1637 students in 1852. The Bohemian Nobles' 1 Technical Institute at Prague, founded in 1806, with a preparatory course of two years, and a tech- nical course of three years. In Bavaria, also, there are twenty-six of the artizan or trade schools (industrial colleges) having courses of three years each, preparatory to the three superior polytechnic schools, the oldest of which is the Polytechnic School at Munich, founded in 1827. It embraces a preparatory course of three years, and a poly- technic coarse, proper, of four years. 53 The technical schools of Saxony are of a high order, embra- cing in their lower grades, the Eoyal Trade and Building School at Chemnitz, with courses respectively of four, and two, years. Above these, are the Eoyal Polytechnic School at Dresden, with a lower and upper section, embracing courses of three, and two years, respectively. Also the celebrated Mining Academy at Freiberg, the oldest in the world of its kind, which was founded in 1765, and provides a four years' course of study. The Polytechnic School at Carlsruhe in Baden, established in 1825, is remarkable for its completeness of organization, embra- cing a foundation course of three years, followed by numerous technical courses, viz. : one in Engineering, of three years ; in Architecture, of four years ; in Technical Chemistry, of two- years; in Mechanism and Technology, of two years ; in Forestry, of two years ; in Commercial Science, of one year ; and in Postal service, of two years. GREAT BRITAIN. While this nation was fancying itself to be secure in its commercial and manufacturing supremacy, the London Exhibition of 1851, roused it to a sense of the danger of its falling into a secondary scientific industrial position, owing to its comparative neglect of Modern Applied Science in its higher schools of learning. Glasgow University, how- ever, in 1839, Kings' College, London, and Queen's College, Birmingham, in 1851, were giving formal and quite elevated theoretical and practical instruction in Applied Science. King's College embraced courses of three years in civil and mechanical engineering, and in general and technical chemistry, requiring sixteen years as the age for admission. Queen's College announced courses in civil engineering and architecture of three years duration, requiring their entering members to be eighteen years of age. There are also, in London, we think, a College of Civil En- gineers, a Government School of Mines, and a Department of Science and Art in the Institute of Civil Engineers ;; besides numerous Schools of Industrial (ornamental) Design throughout the United Kingdom, and a College of Civil En- gineers for the Indian department, at Madras, India, notices of which we have met in Madras papers ; and, without doubt, means 54 must exist in scientific chairs of instruction attached here and there, to the other colleges and universities, and supplemented, perhaps, more than elsewhere, by private study, or by the adoption of continental precedents ready furnished to hand, or by attendance at continental schools for educating the accom- plished engineers, to whose qualifications, however attained, British engineering works testify. We therefore close this notice of foreign polytechnic institutions, with the remark, that the one at Carlsruhe is the most nearly typical one, from its comprehensiveness of organization. The preceding statistics may be presumed to be interesting, if only as showing what earnest and intelligent fellow laborers have done and are doing elsewhere, and under different political systems from ours. But they serve a higher end. They de- monstrate the existence of a universal demand, in all civilized countries, for a new form of general educational culture, and professional training ; not to supplant the old, which includes much that is permanently precious, but to run parallel with it, as the legitimate outgrowth of modern science and life, and as the fountain of supply for the new order of intellectual and industrial wants. This view is confirmed by the fact that the continental appre- ciation of polytechnic instruction is such, that the larger and lesser European States make appropriations for its support within their borders, as regular! 3^ as our American States do for common school instruction. Some may have a conceit that the man-developing effect of freedom alone, without special educating organizations, is an equivalent to the elaborate systematic instruction, thought of, perhaps, as only necessary to counterbalance the repressing agencies of despotic governments. But with duly admiring deference to Yankee ability to fall back upon native resources in many an emergency, we think the following to be, rather, the true line of argument, relative to this point. If the numerous and crowded polytechnic schools of Europe accom- plish so much, as they indisputably do, with all the depressing hindrances of a half-suffocated civil life as the political lot of 55 their graduates, what might they not do, if every graduate was there, as in this country every person is, one of the royal family ? In other words, if partly untutored American freedom can compete with the world besides, in many of the truly best contributions to World's Exhibitions, and well-called "Univer- sal Expositions," what might not thoroughly cultured and trained American freedom accomplish, with its fire and elasti- city acting through finished intellectual machinery, such as thorough scientific and polytechnic education may produce out of the material, turned out in an only partially wrought form by the common school from the native ore of original talent ? Finally, therefore, it is to be most earnestly hoped that at least among the institutions, having so large resources as those provided for by the National land grants to the States for endowing Scientific Institutions in each, especially if also other- wise liberally endowed, if not among the riper Technical Schools of this country, some one will ere long be found, to signalize an era in American scientific education, and confer a new and peculiar glory on the fortunate State containing it, by constituting itself a true typical Polytechnic University, charac- terized by a completely comprehensive unity of design, and built up, if gradually, not in a disjointed manner, but, even in the planning of its grounds and distribution of its buildings, as well as in its component courses, and " schools," in accordance with a complete original plan. Such a " University " should be distinguished First: by a central foundation, or general, scientific school, of high charac- ter, with a course of liberal training in general disciplinary and useful knowledge, embracing such a proportion of elective studies as to possess due flexibility in providing for the wants of those who should be contemplating any particular subsequent technical and professional course. Second : it should be distin- guished by possession of the highest ^true university attribute, of making express provision for the indefinitely extended pur- suit of single or associated subjects of general science, and real learning. Third : circling as it were, around this central gen- eral school, which should be in a plain, but rich and massive o6 structure, there should be a collection of all the technical pro- fessional schools, congruous with the distinctive idea of a Poly- technic, rather than a Humanistic, University, viz : one of Civil and Topographical Engineering (sections of one school) ; one of Mechanical Engineering ; one of Mining and Metallurgy; one of Civil Architecture, naval included ; one of Technical Chem- istry ; one of Physical Technology and Technical Natural History (sections of the proper school of " arts and trades") ; one of Agriculture and Forestry ; one of Industrial Ornamental Design (Schools of Purely "Fine Art" should, we think, collectively form a separate " Art University" disconnected from the dis- tinctively "Industrial" or Polytechnic one) ; a Commercial one of high order; and a Technical Normal School, for the train- ing of professors of general or technical science. Fourth: As a collateral group of buildings, each to be as far as possible an architectural model, there should be the General Museum and Assembly Hall, the General Library, the Chapel and Observa- tory. Fifth : The plan should include Professors' residences and Students' homes, the latter to accommodate six to twelve persons each, with the householder's family; a gymnasium, and the requisite lodges. Also, in respect to grounds, they should be ample enough to embrace, wood, lawn, ground for manly field games ; a botannical garden, and arboretum ; and a park and pond for animals. Lastly, the buildings of the technical schools, should include the various laboratories, cabinets, scientific society rooms, appa- ratus and work rooms, appropriate to their uses. It would be easy to add the outline of a simple plan of dis- tribution for all the foregoing structures, by which the essential unity of the entire establishment should be elegantly, as well as visibly, expressed in the very arrangement of its material components. But we forbear, and pass on to consider briefly the subject of the Endowment of Polytechnic Schools. Col- leges are quite generally, and not incorrectly, regarded as existing for the general intellectual, and, incidentally at least, for the moral good of the entire country. They exist for this end more than for any merely private, especially any pecuniary, 57 good of their members. Hence they are treated as having a recognized claim upon the wealthy liberality of the country, and are very often quite largely and cheerfully endowed, as may be seen by the frequent large donations to them, reported in the newspapers at " commencement " times. Professional Schools, however, especially those of Law and Medicine, while existing in a very high sense for the general good, exist, to a greater comparative extent than colleges, for the immediate pecuniary benefit of their members. They are, therefore, except Theological schools, less generally and liber- ally endowed, and more supported by current tuition receipts. But the exception shows that a school should not go unendowed merely because a professional one. Let us, then, examine the claims of Polytechnic Schools in reference to this question of endowment. We should confess the impropriety of publishing, here, defin- ite statistics as to the endowments of the schools given in the Table in Section I, but it may be said, in general terms, that they vary, from sums too small to name, up to $50,000, $100,000, $250,000, $750,000, $1,000,000, and upwards. And the life of the institutions, thus variously conditioned, may be supposed to vary correspondingly, from that of a dry and wiry cedar growing in a cleft of a rock, drawing support from every- where but the immediate place of its growth, to the spreading luxuriance of willows by the water courses. But, seriously, the Polytechnic Schools provide a ready entrance to lucrative positions for their graduates. Still, the labors of those gradu- ates tend directly and powerfully to increase the wealth of the nation, by developing its mineral resources; by opening up avenues of inter-communication, as in railroads, canals, and river and harbor improvements ; by adding to its mechanical appliances ; and by the increased production of articles of com- merce derived by application of Industrial Physics, Chemistry, and Natural History to many 'arts and trades. On the other hand, the studies of Polytechnic Schools, being largely mate- rial, require elaborate material appliances for their most successful prosecution; Models, Instruments, Apparatus, Cabinets, Botani- 8 58 cal Gardens, and Scientific Libraries, with numerous Diagrams, Illustrative Drawings, and Charts. They thus have a two-fold claim to a liberal endowment, at least with funds to equip them handsomely with these necessary material appliances, if not with endowed professorial chairs. But there is another fund which Polytechnic Schools especi- ally need, viz: a publication fund. Being partly, at least, a unique class of schools, their text-books can often best be pre- pared by their own professors. The cost of making such books is necessarily great, and their sale of necessity relatively small. Hence, as it is by no means an unknown custom, such works should be published, in part certainly, from a fund for the purpose. We here, though rather abruptly, close, considering that, if these Notes have not failed of their immediate object, they have justified their title page, in that they have shown that Poly- technic Schools are, in their nature, truly professional ; that their position is, provisionally, and in part, one of compromise with their ideal condition ; that their aim is, to attain the everywhere undisputed rank of fully professional schools ; and that their wants are, adequate preparatory schools, (colleges) which, in turn should have previous academy training courses of general science ; and material detachment from collegiate and professional schools of the humanistic type not, of courses in any narrow exclusiveness of spirit, but as a matter of expe- diency. Our work thus done, we only add a word of ancient tes- timony to the impossibility of knowing the whole of anything, much less, of everything, and hence, to the propriety of the recognized double line of learned pursuit, humanistic, and polytechnic, which we have advocated. In this testimony, the great regal example of the polytechnic learning and practice of old, who says, " I gave my heart to search out by wisdom concerning all things that are done under heaven," and, " I made me great works," declares : " He hath made everything beautiful in his time : also He hath set the world in their heart, so that no man can find out the work that God maJcethfrom the beginning to the end" OTHER BY THE SAMP: AUTHOR, ON Practical and Descriptive Geometry and Geometrical Drawing. Published by JOHN WILEY & M>\, 535 Broadway, \. Y. ELEMENTARY COURSE. J|. ELEMENTARY PLANE PROBLEMS. (In preparation.) <1. DRAFTING INSTRUMENTS AND OPERATIONS. Div. I. Instruments and Materials. Div. II. Instrumental Operations. Div. III. Constructions in two dimensions. Div. IV. Elementary ^Esthetics f>f Geometrical Drawing. Price $1.25. 5. MANUAL OF PROJECTIONS, ETC. Div. I. Elementary Projections. Div. II. Details in Masonry, Wood and Metal. Div. III. Ele- mentary Shades and Shadows. Div. IV. Isometrical Drawing. Div. V. Simple Structure Drawing. Price $1.50. 6. ELEMENTARY LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. Part I. Primitive Methods. Part II. Derivative Methods. Price $1.00. HIGHER COURSE. 7.- 8. DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. General Problems. Price $3.50. 9. 10.- The above published works are all fully illustrated with cuts and plates. They are used in several of the Scientific or Polytechnic Schools of the Country ; and have received warm commendation in various quarters. The volumes of the Elementary Course, are especially adapted for the upper classes in High Schools and Academies ; and for the Scientific Undergraduate Courses in Colleges, as well as for the lower classes in the Polytechnic Schools; and for the self-instruction of Artizans, etc. Vol. 6 is also especially adapted for Ladies' Seminaries and Schools of Design, in which the principles of perspective are taught. RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT 202 Main Library LOAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE 2 3 4 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 1 -month loans may be renewed by calling 642-3405 6-month loans may be recharged by bringing books to Circulation Desk Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW DEC 2 H979 SANTA BARBARA INTERLIBRARY LOAI ( t UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY FORM NO. DD6, 40m, 3/78 BERKELEY, CA 94720 s Makers Syracuse. N. Y, PAT. JAH. 21. 1M8 YC 20036 36/3 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY