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CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
-y'^y^' 
 
CLASSROOM MANAGEMlir^f' -^'^ 
 
 ITS PRINCIPLES AND 
 TECHNIQUE 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM CHANDLER BAGLEY 
 
 PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 AUTHOR OF "THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS" 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 LONDON : MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
 1911 
 
 AU rights reserved 
 

 EDUCATION DEPTi, 
 
 Copyright, 1907, 
 By the macmillan company 
 
 Set up and electrotyped. Published April, 1907. 
 Reprinted August, September, October, 1907; 
 January, June, November, December, 1908 ; July, 
 September, 1909 ; January, April, December, 1910 ; 
 July, 191 X. 
 
 Norinootr ^ress 
 
 J« 8. Onshing & Co. — Berwick &, Smith Co. 
 
 Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This book is intended primarily for students of edu- 
 cation in universities, training scho -Is, and normal 
 schools, who are preparing for classroom teaching, 
 especially in the elementary grades. It aims, first, to 
 furnish the prospective teacher with a compendium of 
 precepts that will aid him in the mastery of technique ; 
 secondly, to interpret these precepts in the light of 
 accepted psychological principles ; and, thirdly, to unite 
 both precepts and principles into a coherent and fairly 
 comprehensive system. 
 
 The data have been gathered from four sources: 
 first and chiefly from observing the work of efficient 
 and successful classroom teachers ; secondly, from text- 
 books and treatises upon the subject of school manage- 
 ment and classroom practice, numerous references to 
 which will be found in the footnotes and at the close 
 of the chapters ; thirdly, from the writer's own experi- 
 ence; and fourthly, from general psychological prin- 
 ciples. Data of the last-named class have, in every 
 case, been subjected to actual test before being in- 
 cluded in this volume. The writer is convinced that 
 a successful science of education can never be pro- 
 duced by working backward from highly wrought 
 theory to concrete practice. This procedure is a 
 
 jClP.fiSfk'^O 
 
VI PREFACE 
 
 survival of the deductive habit of mind which science 
 has long since discarded as totally inadequate to the 
 discovery of truth. Valid principles of teaching can 
 be derived only from observation and induction based 
 upon successful school practice. The expert teacher 
 learns through a selective process of trial and error how 
 most effectively to deal with the pupils under his care. 
 If a given educational practice is effective, there must 
 be back of it somewhere a valid principle. It has been 
 the writer*s attempt, first to find the successful practice, 
 and then to discover the principle that governs it. Of 
 the difficulties to be encountered in this method of 
 procedure, the writer is fully cognizant ; of the dangers, 
 he is not unaware. A given practice may be effective 
 in one school and ineffective in another. Many of the 
 precepts here presented will not be applicable to all 
 schools, but the writer is convinced that practically all 
 are applicable to the typical American classroom. It 
 is the teacher who has charge of such a classroom that 
 the book is primarily intended to aid ; not that it will 
 make the work of this teacher expert from the outset ; 
 no book could accomplish that end; but it may serve 
 to shorten the period of necessarily amateurish prac- 
 tice, — to eliminate some of the early errors, and to 
 augment, both in quality and in quantity, the successful 
 efforts. 
 
 The manuscript has been read by Professor Amos W. 
 Farnham, of the Oswego State Normal School, to whom 
 the writer is heavily indebted for many valuable sug- 
 gestions. Acknowledgment must also be made of the 
 
PREFACE vii 
 
 aid and inspiration gained from the writer's association 
 with the schoolmen of St. Louis during his service as 
 a grammar school principal in that city, and especially 
 from the fortnightly sessions of the St. Louis School- 
 masters' Club. To State Superintendent W. E. Har- 
 mon, of Helena, Montana, he likewise owes a debt of 
 gratitude for a fresh and stimulating example of the 
 attitude that one may take toward the detailed and 
 seemingly trivial problems of Schoolcraft. 
 
 For especial courtesies in the furnishing of data and 
 illustrative material, acknowledgment is due to Assistant 
 Superintendent C. C. Rathmann, of St. Louis ; Super- 
 intendent C. L. Robbins, of the Montana State Normal 
 College; Superintendent John Kennedy, of Batavia, 
 N.Y. ; and to Miss C. V. Sinnamon, Miss L. L. Love- 
 ridge, Miss Katherine Hayes, and Miss Jennie McGrath, 
 of the Oswego State Normal School. 
 
 State Normal and Training School, 
 Oswego, New York, March, 1907. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Introduction i 
 
 I. The classroom the unit of educational system.. 
 2. The problem of classroom management has to do with 
 the effective training of children in the mass ; funda- 
 mentally a problem of economy. 3. Complex character of 
 education makes a clear perspective necessary. 4. Anal- 
 ogy between school and factory; limitations of this 
 analogy. 5. Ultimate aim of education must be consid- 
 ered. 6. Social efficiency as the aim. 7. Difficulties of 
 testing results of education with reference to this aim. 
 8. Can these difficulties be overcome ? 9. General plan 
 of treatment. 
 
 PART I 
 
 THE ROUTINE FACTORS OF CLASSROOM 
 MANAGEMENT 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 Routine and Habit 13 
 
 I . System and organization as solvents of the problem 
 of waste. 2. Instinct and habit as representing organiza- 
 tion and system in the individual. 3. The law of habit- 
 building. 4, Analogies between habit in the individual 
 and routine or custom in the group. 5. Application of 
 law of habit to group activities. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 Initiating Routine: Preventing Waste by Starting 
 
 Aright 20 
 
 I. Importance of a " good start." 2. Preparing for the 
 first day of school. 3. Preliminary arrangements. 4. The 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 first day's work. 5. The first intermissions. 6. Prob- 
 lems of the first day in ungraded schools. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 Mechanizing Routine 30 
 
 I. Problem of the chapter : to justify routine and deter- 
 mine the extent of its application. 2. The two opposing 
 theories of school management as regards routine : state- 
 ment of the "anti-machine" doctrine. 3. Arguments 
 against mechanical organization. 4. Arguments in favor 
 of mechanical organization. 5. Conclusion: mechanical 
 organization may be applied under certain restrictions. 
 6. Details to be subjected to routine organization : (a) pass- 
 ing of lines ; fire drills. 7. (d) Signals. 8. (c) Passing 
 to the blackboard. 9. (d) Passing to the recitation 
 bench. 10. (<?) Distributing and collecting wraps. 
 
 11. (/) Distributing and collecting books and materials. 
 
 12. (g) Orderly arrangement of books and materials in 
 desks. 13. (^) Insuring tidiness in the classroom. 
 14. (/) Leaving the room. 15. (J) Neatness of written 
 work and blackboard work. 16. Monitorial positions. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 The Daily Program 50 
 
 I. Factors involved in construction of program. 
 2. (a) The length of school year. 3. (d) The length of 
 the school day. 4. (c) Time devoted to recesses and 
 intermissions. 5. (^) Subjects to be taught. 6. (^) Rela- 
 tive importance of the various subjects. 7. Prevailing 
 practice in evaluating subjects. 8. (/) Relation of subject- 
 matter to fatigue. 9. The general factors of fetigue. 
 10. (g) The place of general exercises. 11. (/t) The 
 number of pupils and the number of classes ; typical graded 
 school programs; typical ungraded school program. 
 12. Danger of placing too many subjects in curriculum; 
 law of diminishing returns in education. 13. Necessity 
 pf holding to the program. 
 
CONTENTS XI 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Regularity and Punctuality of Attendance . .71 
 I. Waste involved in delinquencies of attendance. 
 2. Regular attendance should become a habit with each 
 pupil. 3. What constitutes a necessary delinquency? 
 4. Initiating habits of regular attendance : (a) enforcing 
 attendance statutes and rulings. 5. (b) Encouraging at- 
 tendance by prizes, privileges, etc. 6. {c) Competitions 
 in attendance. 7. Tardiness. 8. Fortifying habits by 
 ideals. 9. Should delinquencies in attendance detract 
 from pupils' scholarship standing? 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 Preserving Hygienic Conditions in the Classroom . 81 
 I. Relation of unhygienic conditions to waste. 2. Hy- 
 gienic habits of posture ; characteristics of hygienic sit- 
 ting position. 3. Law of habit-building as applied to 
 posture. 4. The writing posture. 5. Posture in stand- 
 ing. 6. Hygiene of eyesight. 7. Fatigue, relaxation, 
 and exercise. 8. Personal cleanliness. 9. Contagious 
 diseases. 10. Moral heahh. 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 Order and Discipline 92 
 
 I . Problem of discipline concerned primarily with wel- 
 fare of the class as a whole. 2. Authority the first con- 
 dition of effective discipline ; factors in securing authority : 
 {a) courage. 3. XJ>) Tact. 4. (c) Persistence. 5. {d) 
 Scholarship. 6. {e) Justice. 7. (/) Good nature. 
 8. Other factors involved in securing order: (a) the 
 teacher's voice. 9. (3) Mechanized routine. 10. (c) 
 Keeping pupils occupied. 11. {d) Substitution vs. re- 
 pression. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 Penalties 105 
 
 I . Government must always provide penalties for offenses 
 against order. 2. Relation of inhibition to order in the 
 
XU CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 classroom. 3. Spencer's doctrine of natural punishments. 
 4. Inadequacies of Spencer's theory. 5. Necessity of 
 helping nature out in inhibition of unsocial tendencies. 
 6. Discipline a different problem in classroom manage- 
 ment from what it would be in management of an indi- 
 vidual pupil. 7. Unsocial impulses must be eliminated 
 at any cost. 8. Characteristics of an effective penalty. 
 9. Corporal punishment as a penalty; advantages and 
 limitations. 10. Rules for application of corporal punish- 
 ment. II. Corporal punishment at most only a tentative 
 and extreme measure. 12. The reaction against corporal 
 punishment ; consideration of chief arguments that have 
 been advanced against its employment. 13. Citations from 
 authorities upon corporal punishment. 14. Regulation of 
 corporal punishment : {a) necessity of a standard method. 
 15. {b) Application by the principal. 16. {c) Presence of 
 witnesses. 17. {d) Corporal punishment must not be 
 made a spectacle for other children. 18. (e) Corporal 
 punishment in general to be limited to pre-adoleecent years. 
 19. Other penalties : {a) rebukes. 20. (b) Loss of privi- 
 leges. 21. (jc) Suspensions. 22. (d) Expulsions. 
 23. {e) Sending to the principal. 
 
 PART II 
 
 JUDGMENT FACTORS IN CLASSROOM 
 MANAGEMENT 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 The Problem of Attention 137 
 
 I. Problem of Part II: consideration of problems that 
 cannot be reduced to routine. 2. Inattention as a source 
 of waste. 3. Contribution of psychology of attention to 
 education. 4. The doctrine of ends : the immediate end ; 
 primary passive attention; the first law. 5. The remote 
 end and active attention : the second law. 6. The remote 
 
CONTENTS xiii 
 
 FACK 
 
 end becomes immediate : the third law ; secondary passive 
 attention. 7. The first and second laws Oi especial im- 
 portance in classroom management. 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 The Problem of Attention (Continued) : The Opera- 
 tion OF the First Law 147 
 
 I, Primary passive attention determined by instinct. 
 
 2. (a) The instinctive desire for change and variety. 
 
 3. Application to classroom practice in providing variety 
 of stimuli. 4. Dangers involved in applying this prin- 
 ciple ; lack of persistence. 5. (d) The play instinct; 
 field of application in school work. 6. Advantages and 
 dangers of educating through play activities. 7. (c) The 
 instinct of curiosity ; application in devices. 8. School 
 use of curiosity should be temperate. 9. (^) The instinc- 
 tive liking for bright colors, sharp contrasts, and intense 
 stimuli of all kinds ; examples of expression of this instinct 
 in school children. 10. (e) The instinct of construction ; 
 application in securing attention to objective processes. 
 
 1 1 . Other instincts to be discussed in following chapter. 
 
 12. Summary. 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 The Problem of Attention (Continued) : The Opera- 
 tion OF the Second Law 158 
 
 I . Relation of instinct to active attention ; instinctive 
 desire makes idea of remote end directive over present 
 impulse. 2. Idea of remote end technically termed an 
 incentive. 3. Positive and negative incentives; hope of 
 future reward or fear of future pain the criterion for classi- 
 fication. 4. In 'general, incentives used in school should 
 make appsal from positive standpoint. 5. But this does 
 not mean that negative incentives have no place. 6. In- 
 centives in which the predominant appeal is negative. 
 7. Difficulty of applying negative incentives. 8. Negative 
 
4 
 
 XIV CONTENTS 
 
 incentives should be applied only in extreme cases. 
 9. Summary. 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 The Problem of Attention (Continued) : Application 
 
 OF the Second Law through Positive Incentives . 168 
 
 I. What is meant by an "acquired interest"; incen- 
 tives high or low, as they involve an acquired interest or 
 a primitive instinct. 2. Scheme for classifying positive 
 incentives. 3. (a) Incentives that make a positive appeal to 
 the instinct of emulation : (i) Competitive prizes of intrin- 
 sic value ; use of such prizes is bad practice. 4. (2) Com- 
 petitive prizes not intrinsically valuable ; conditions under 
 which these may be effectively applied. 5. (3) Immuni- 
 ties : in general, granting of immunities from school tasks 
 as prizes for effort is bad practice. 6. (4) Privileges: 
 conditions under which privileges may be employed as 
 incentives. 7. (5) Exhibition of pupils' work: dangers 
 and limitations of this incentive; value if used under 
 restrictions. 8. (6) Grades, marks, and promotions: 
 reason for efficiency of these incentives. 9. Objections 
 against use of these incentives. 10. How the dangers 
 may be counteracted. 1 1 . Advantages and disadvantages 
 of the grading system. 12. (3) Incentives that make a 
 positive appeal to the social instincts: (i) praise, com- 
 mendation, and adulation ; place of these incentives. 
 13. Efficiency of these incentives. 14. (2) Pupils' pride 
 in the good name of the school : advantages and dangers ; 
 how to be used in small schools. 15. School exhibits as 
 creating an esprit de corps. 16. {c) Ideals as incentives : 
 what is meant by an ideal. 17. The psychology of ideals : 
 relation of ideals to habits. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 The Technique of Class Instruction . . . .188 
 I. Method of instruction in its relation to classroom 
 management. 2. Classroom management must secure 
 
CONTENTS XV 
 
 attention of all pupils to matter in hand. 3. Greatest 
 difficulty is attention during unsupervised periods, espe- 
 cially in the study lesson ; hence importance of technique 
 of text-book instruction. 4. Difficulties of text-book in- 
 struction. 5. Divisions of the text-book lesson: {a) the 
 assignment and its two functions: (i) to clear up diffi- 
 culties. 6. Formal difficulties that are apt to be trouble- 
 some. 7. (2) To develop a need for, or interest in, 
 material of the text. 8. Assignments which stimulate 
 curiosity. 9. Assignments which give the "setting" of 
 selections. 10. The "lecture-assignment.'" 11. The 
 assignment a field for giving oral instruction and still 
 making effective use of text-books. 12. (J?) The study 
 lesson: as test of the assignment. 13. The technique of 
 the study lesson : (i) study questions : their structure and 
 function. 14. (2) Study topics. 15. Written work in 
 the study period should be reduced. 16. {c) The recita- 
 tion lesson : fundamental principle, " Hold pupils respon- 
 sible for assigned lesson." 17. Question-and-answer vs. 
 topical recitations. 18. Rules for conduct of recitation. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 The "Batavia System" of Class-individual Instruc- 
 tion 214 
 
 I. Sources of waste inherent in class organization. 
 2. Necessity for a compromise between individual and 
 class instruction. 3. The Batavia system effects such a 
 compromise ; history of the Batavia movement. 4. Sum- 
 mary of the virtues of the Batavia system : {a) it makes 
 individual work a definite and required part of the daily 
 program ; {b) it insists that best teachers give individual 
 instruction ; {c) it has developed a technique of individual 
 instruction. 5. These factors safeguard the system against 
 inherent dangers. 6. Batavia system "makes good" in 
 actual test. 7. General applicability of Batavia system to 
 present organization of schools ; the " doubly-alternating" 
 program. 8. Cautions. 9. Summary. 
 
XVI CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 Testing Results 
 
 I . Can the test of actual results be applied to the work 
 of the school? 2. The educated individual must possess 
 (a) a fund of habits. 3. (^) A fund of knowledge. 
 4. (c) A fund of ideals. 5. Conclusion: habits and 
 knowledge are amenable to fairly accurate tests. 6. Test- 
 ing the efficiency of habit-building : (a) purely physical 
 habits; posture. 7. Line-movements. 8. (d) Written 
 work. 9. Comparison of written work at successive stages 
 of development. 10. Testing habit-building in blackboard 
 work. II. (c) Habits of speech. 12. (d) Testing habit- 
 building in arithmetic: (i) accuracy. 13. (2) Rapidity. 
 14. (<?) Testing habit-building in spelling ; the results of 
 Cornman's investigations. 15. Automatically correct 
 spelling the test of effective teaching of spelling. 16. Test- 
 ing knowledge ; difficulty of establishing a true standard. 
 17. The formal examination as a test of knowledge ; value 
 of the examination as an educative process. 18. Can the 
 examination be made a test of ability to apply knowledge ? 
 19. Structure of examination questions with reference to 
 this end. 20. Examinations should test ability to organize 
 as well as ability to apply. 21. Modification of methods 
 of teaching through results of examinations. 22. Marking 
 examination papers. 23. Summary. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 The Disposition of the Teacher's Time 
 
 I. Teacher must be able to concentrate a maximum of 
 energy upon problems of class work. 2. Division of time 
 between prime school duties and accessory school duties. 
 3. The out-of-school duties of the teacher: (a) profes- 
 sional: (i) preparing for school work. 4. Correcting 
 written exercises. 5. (2) Broader professional culture. 
 6. Professional reading. 7. Teachers' associations. 
 8. (^) Hygienic duties. 9. (^) Civic duties. 10. (</) So- 
 
CONTENTS xvii 
 
 PAGV 
 
 dal duties, ii. What proportion of time should be 
 devoted to social diversion? 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 The Teacher's Relation to Principal, Supervisors, 
 
 AND Superintendent 261 
 
 I . Concentration of authority and responsibility essen- 
 tial to efficiency of organized effort ; the superintendent 
 of schools as the center of authority and responsibility. 
 
 2. The principal of the building and his responsibilities. 
 
 3. Unquestioned obedience the first principle of effective 
 service. 4. The relation of the teacher to special super- 
 visors. 5. Supervision of rural schools. 6. Summary. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 The Ethics of Schoolcraft 267 
 
 I. Significance of the term "craft ethics." 2. Unsatis- 
 factory condition of ethics of schoolcraft. 3. Some of the 
 ideals and standards that are being recognized as essential 
 to a true schoolcraft : (a) specialization of the teacher's 
 work. 4. (d) Members of the teachers' guild must legis- 
 late for themselves in craft matters. 5. (c) True school- 
 craft will not make excuses for inadequate results. 6. (d) A 
 true craft spirit will demand high standards of scholarship 
 and preparatory training. 7. (e) It must be insisted that 
 teaching is social service. 8. (/) Dogmatism and pedan- 
 try must be abjured. 9. Teaching a constructive as well 
 as a conservative art. 
 
 Appendix A: Suggestions for the Study of Class- 
 room Technique through Observation . . . 275 
 
 Appendix B: Pupil-government and the School City 290 
 
 Appendix C: The "Springfield Questions" in Arith- 
 metic 299 
 
 Appendix D : Pupils' Written Work as an Index of 
 Growth 301 
 
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT: ITS PRIN- 
 CIPLES AND TECHNIQUE 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The Problem of Classroom Management 
 
 I. An extensive diffusion of education among the people 
 is made possible by dealing with children, not individually, 
 but in masses. Provided that they are approximately 
 equal in age, ability, and degree of attainment, thirty 
 pupils can be simultaneously trained and instructed by one 
 teacher. This working unit of the educational system is 
 termed a "class," a '* grade," or a **room." The last 
 term is perhaps the most convenient as a technical desig- 
 nation, for, in practice, the working unit, assembled under 
 the supervision of one teacher, is frequently made up of 
 two or more distinct classes or grades. Whether it is wise 
 ever to divide a "room" into separate classes is a disputed 
 point in educational policy, but the condition is well-nigh 
 universal in American schools, and may be considered as 
 representing the normal type of classroom organization. 
 
 The relative merits of the class and individual systems of 
 instruction will be discussed in greater detail in a later section.^ 
 It should be said at this point, however, that the class system 
 * See below, ch. xiv. 
 
2 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 has certain advantages to recommend it in addition to the fact 
 that it permits a large number of pupils to be instructed by a 
 single teacher. While pupils have doubtless been gathered 
 together in this way since the earliest days of formal education 
 " simultaneous " instruction may be dated from 1680, when it 
 was first introduced into the Christian Brothers' schools by 
 Father La Salle of Rheims, the founder of this Society. The 
 practice extended gradually to other schools, until to-day 
 it is the usual method of school organization in all civilized 
 countries.* 
 
 2. The problem of classroom management has to do 
 with the efifective treatment of this "room" or unit-group 
 of pupils. Primarily it is a problem of economy : it seeks 
 to determine in what manner the working unit of the school 
 plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon 
 the material investment of time, energy, and money. 
 From this point of view, classroom management may be 
 looked upon as a "business" problem. The handling of 
 children in masses is its central point of interest. How to 
 secure the best results from an educative process carried 
 on imder this condition is the question for which it seeks 
 an answer. 
 
 3. In a complex process, like education, it is always 
 necessary to keep a clear perspective. One is apt to con- 
 
 * Cf. J. Landon, School Management, Boston, 1884, p. 151: "The 
 system was early employed in Austria, and soon became general in Hol- 
 land and Germany. It was adopted here and there in France from its 
 first introduction. After 1840 it began to extend rapidly, and jt is now 
 in use in the majority of French schools. ... As might be expected, 
 the various schemes of simultaneous organization all resemble each other 
 in general features, though each local variety has its peculiarities." 
 
INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 fuse means and ends : the means are concrete and tangible, 
 the ends are often abstract and ideal. Thus the teacher 
 accepts the dictum that silence, good order, "discipline," 
 punctuality, etc., are self -justified — that these things are, 
 in themselves, real ends of "school keeping." This error 
 of perspective may not work injurious results under normal 
 conditions. The true ends of good order, discipline, etc., 
 may be gained, although the teacher may be quite unaware 
 of what these ends really are. But lack of perspective 
 may easily cause some serious misplacements of emphasis, 
 if not more disastrous consequences, under exceptional 
 conditions. The waves of fads and reforms that sweep 
 through the educational system at periodic intervals will 
 have but little detrimental influence upon the teacher 
 whose theoretical foundations are firm and stable; but 
 the teacher who lacks secure moorings is tossed from wave 
 to counter wave, until he either loses his bearings entirely 
 or collapses from mal de mer. One who maintains good 
 order and discipline for no other reason than that one has 
 been told that it is "the thing to do" is often the first to 
 fall under the spell of the faddist who proclaims that dis- 
 ciplinary processes unduly repress the child ; deprive him 
 of the spontaneity and freedom that are his dearest birth- 
 rights ; and are, in general, to be looked upon as relics of 
 barbarism. 
 
 It is for this reason that an adequate foundation in educa- 
 tional psychology and in the general theory of education is so 
 essential to every teacher; and it is for this reason that every 
 effort should be made to discover the fundamental laws that 
 
4 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 underlie the educative process and so to make possible an edU' 
 cational psychology upon which there shall be universal agree- 
 ment. The classroom teacher needs a sound theoretical foun- 
 dation in a measure that is not even approached by the rank 
 and file of other crafts and professions. The almost infinite 
 possibilities of education make the influence of even the 
 humblest subordinate a matter of tremendous import, jlf op; 
 portunities are neglected, if wrong principles are applied, if 
 true principles are misinterpreted, conditions may result which 
 are all the more disastrous because their insidious character 
 cannot be detected perhaps until years have elapsed. Even 
 the educational psychology that is now available is sufficient 
 to develop in any teacher an acute sense of his responsibility if 
 nothing more. And a sense of responsibility will do much 
 toward preserving one's equilibrium in a whirlwind of conflicting 
 theories and antagonistic practices. 
 
 4. The "business" concept on of the school must be 
 viewed in this perspective of means and ends. The school 
 resembles a factory in that its duty lies in turning a cer- 
 tain raw material into a certain desired product. It differs 
 from a factory in that it deals with living and active, not 
 with dead and inert, materials. Because of this vital factor, 
 the material with which the school deals is influenced by 
 all the forces of the environment, and not alone by those 
 that are consciously designed to mold it to the desired 
 form. Some of these forces — those of the home and of 
 the street, for example — are largely beyond the pale 
 of the school's influence. There are, however, certain 
 activities of the school itself which exert a profound 
 influence over the pupiPs life, and yet which are not 
 generally recognized by teachers as vital elements in 
 
INTRODUCTION $ 
 
 the educative process. School studies are supposed to 
 "educate"; the personality of the teacher is recognized 
 as an influencing factor ; and the notion is slowly grow- 
 ing that the physical surroundings of the pupil — the 
 buildings, the walls of the rooms, the hallways, the 
 yards — '■ exert a formative influence that cannot be neg- 
 lected. But even those who will agree with all of this 
 sometimes fail to appreciate the fact that, in such details 
 as passing books and writing materials, passing to and 
 from the blackboard, getting wraps, preserving silence and 
 good order, an educative influence is being exerted that 
 may equal in value the influence of lessons and recita- 
 tions. 
 
 This, then, is the factor that makes school management 
 so different from the management of other business insti- 
 tutions. The very jorms that school management adopts 
 to make the lessons and the recitations effective are, in 
 themselves, vital factors in the educative process. 
 
 For example : Assuming that a thoroughgoing mastery of the 
 multiplication tables is essential to the educated individual, it 
 becomes the province of classroom management to see to it 
 that this mastery is attained by all of the members of a given 
 class with as little waste of time and effort as is possible. It 
 may be proved that the fear of an examination, or of failure, 
 or of the loss of a privilege, or of a physical punishment, will 
 result in an intense application of the pupil to the tables, and 
 so insure the desired mastery with a minimal expenditure of 
 time and of the teacher's energy. If one of these incentives 
 were found to work most economically, the problem of manage- 
 ment in this connection would, superficially speaking, be solved. 
 
6 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 But it will be readily seen that an incentive might be thoroughly 
 effective in this narrow and superficial way, and yet work an 
 irremediable injury to the pupil. 
 
 Again, an accurate mastery of the mechanics of reading may 
 be assumed as essential to the educated individual. Class- 
 room management must provide conditions that will insure this 
 mastery. Perhaps nothing leads more quickly to this mastery 
 than to have each pupil in the class watch for the mistakes that 
 other pupils make, and point out the correct form to the one 
 who is in error. By adopting this device, the teacher can assure 
 himself that every pupil in the class will give the lesson his 
 undivided attention, and that every pupil who reads will strive 
 as strenuously as he can to avoid mistakes. The desired end 
 is gained — but classroom management must go farther than the 
 attainment of superficial ends, no matter how desirable these 
 may be. It must inquire into the effect upon the pupil of the 
 means that are employed to reach the end. It must consider 
 the net results — which, in the instance cited, will probably be 
 detrimental in that the pernicious habit or attitude which we 
 characterize as hypercritical or pedantic is developed by the 
 practice in question. 
 
 Another instance : Punctuality and regularity of attendance 
 are essential if the school is to be operated with a minimum of 
 waste. From the narrow point of view, classroom management 
 fulfills its function in this regard when all pupils attend regu- 
 larly and punctually upon all the sessions of the school. From 
 the narrow point of view, such a result would represent the 
 acme of efficiency for classroom management; but it is clear 
 that the strenuous measures that would be essential to the ful- 
 fillment of such a condition would work injury and injustice 
 out of all proportion to the value of the result obtained. 
 
 5. It may be concluded, therefore, that the measures 
 which classroom management adopts to prevent or elimi- 
 
INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 nate waste must always be considered, not only with refer- 
 ence to the specific end sought, but also in the Hght of the 
 much broader end of education in general. 
 
 Can the ultimate end of education be so definitely stated 
 as to form an adequate guide or criterion for questions of 
 this sort ? This depends obviously upon the character of 
 the aim that one adopts. If one has distinctly in mjnd 
 certain definite and tangible quahties that must be pos- 
 sessed by the educated individual, one's judgment as to 
 the influence of certain measures upon the development of 
 such an individual will at least be better than an aimless 
 practice that is trusted to *'hit upon" the right procedure 
 by chance or accident — and much of our educational 
 practice, even to-day, could be subjected to this stricture. 
 
 6. The Aim of Education. Fundamentally, the task of 
 the school is to fit the child for Ufe in civihzed society. 
 The child, when he comes into the world, is not, like the 
 young of most animals, adapted by nature to the Hfe that 
 he must lead. During the plastic period of immaturity 
 he must be trained and instructed in order to enter, at 
 maturity, upon the Hfe that is represented by the social 
 world into which he is bom. Education is the largest 
 name for this process, and educative forces consequently 
 include all forces that influence the individual to this end. 
 School education is only a specific kind of education : the 
 education represented by the home, the church, or any 
 other social institution is equally justified in assuming 
 the same name. 
 
 In general, the aim of the school may be formulated 
 
8 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 as social efficiency} Whatever the school undertakes to 
 accomplish must be judged in the light of this standard. 
 Not only must the materials of instruction be subjected 
 to this test, but the methods of instruction must not exert 
 an unsocial influence ; and, what is especially important 
 in the present connection, the schemes and devices of 
 classroom management must meet satisfactorily the same 
 requirements. The test of the ultimate aim must be 
 apphed at every point ; otherwise the work of the school 
 will lack system and harmony, and adequate results will 
 be secured only through the operation of the law of 
 chance. 
 
 7. It is not to be assumed, of course, that a rigid appli- 
 cation of this test is possible in the present state of our 
 knowledge, (a) Not all authorities are agreed upon the 
 essential characteristics of the socially efiicient individual. 
 Nevertheless there is sufficient agreement for practical 
 purposes. Every one knows that such qualities as honesty, 
 self-control, wilUngness to cooperate, a certain measure of 
 amiabiUty, and a certain measure of altruism or social 
 spirit, are essential to one who is to live and deal with 
 one's fellows; and every one knows that the antitheses 
 of these qualities tend to render one socially inefficient. 
 There can be no disagreement upon points so manifest 
 as these, (b) Again, it is often impossible to state with 
 certainty whether a certain method or a certain device 
 
 * See the theoretical discussion of this aim in the writer's Educative 
 Process, New York, 1905, ch. iii; cf., also, M. V. O'Shea: Education as 
 Adjustment, New York, 1903, chs. vi, vii. 
 
INTRODUCTION 9 
 
 will operate favorably or unfavorably with regard to these 
 or other desired quahties. The actual results of the teach- 
 er's labor cannot be accurately determined until years after 
 the work has been done ; by that time, it may be, the 
 methods have been forgotten and the teacher himself per- 
 haps has gone to his reward. But, while this assertion is 
 not to be doubted,, it is none the less true that sober re- 
 flection and a careful weighing of probabiHties will enable 
 one to judge with some degree of accuracy ; and anything 
 that approaches rigidity and exactness, even remotely, is 
 vastly to be preferred over the " hit-or-miss " manner of 
 deahng with troublesome questions that has so long made 
 education a butt of ridicule for members of other crafts 
 and professions. 
 
 We are speaking here of the influence upon social qualities 
 of the methods and devices of instruction and management. 
 The same question may be asked concerning subject-matter 
 of instruction. The whole problem is, beyond doubt, one 
 of the most intricate and involved that science has ever 
 attempted to solve. If a test for intellectual growth were 
 sufiScient, the task would be difiicult enough; but intellectual 
 growth and development is so inextricably bound up and 
 wound about with emotional factors practically defying analy- 
 sis or reduction to quantitative and numerical terms, that a 
 complete and satisfactory solution would seem to be far in 
 the future. Nevertheless, the difficulty of a problem is not a 
 plausible excuse for neglecting it. Here, as elsewhere through 
 the realm of scientific investigation, patience and perseverance 
 cannot fail gradually to overcome what seem at the outset to 
 be insuperable obstacles; and here, as elsewhere, the grave 
 danger lies in assuming a problem to be insoluble and in set- 
 
lO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 tling back into the easy, complacent attitude of blind and 
 empirical practice. 
 
 8. Specifically, the question that classroom manage- 
 ment must ask of every device or method that is proposed 
 for the elimination or prevention of waste in the work of 
 the school is this : Will the method or device be consistent 
 in its operation with the ultimate end of education; 
 namely, the social efiiciency of the individual who is being 
 educated? To consider a concrete case: The "prize" 
 system encourages intense application on the part of 
 pupils. It makes possible concentrated and sustained 
 effort with a minimum of supervision. So far it tends to 
 subserve the economy of the educative process. But what 
 will be its ultimate effect upon the social qualities of the 
 pupil? Does it make him selfish, self-centered, and self- 
 seeking? Does it tend to develop in him non-social or 
 anti-social ideals? These are questions that must be 
 asked and for which an answer must be sought through 
 careful reflection and investigation. It is not sufficient in 
 such cases to *^jump at conclusions^^ or to draw one^s con- 
 clusions from prejudice and dogma. Evidence must be 
 sought and sifted, and generalizations based upon this 
 evidence must be understood as having validity only in 
 proportion to the number and authenticity of the facts 
 upon which they are based. 
 
 But this does not mean that action is to be delayed until 
 scientific investigation has revealed absolute truth: it 
 simply means that the reflection which precedes action 
 should be of the rational, and not of the emotional, order ; 
 
INTRODUCTION II 
 
 that all available facts should be considered ; and that the 
 question should be viewed from every possible point of 
 view and with reference to every probable outcome. 
 
 9. Plan 0} Treatment. The problem for which a solu- 
 tion is sought in the following pages is how most effec- 
 tively and economically to subject a group of individuals 
 to the educative process. Two general sources of waste 
 are involved in the " simultaneous " system of education : 
 (i) Waste may be induced by the mechanical difficulties 
 that arise in the mere fact of numbers; progress may be 
 delayed because the group is "unwieldy." Confusion and 
 disorder, irregular attendance, lack of system, and unhy- 
 gienic conditions in the schoolroom are all specific factors 
 which demand consideration from this point of view. In- 
 asmuch as this source of waste can be largely eliminated by 
 building up a number of specific habits in the various indi- 
 viduals of the group, and by organizing a system that will 
 take care of the mechanical details, these factors may 
 conveniently be treated together under the designation, 
 "Routine Factors of Classroom Management." (2) A 
 second general source of waste, however, inheres in the 
 very system thus produced. The "machine" tends to 
 absorb the individual, and the progress of the class is 
 measured by the progress of its slowest member. The 
 problems of inattention, "scamped" work, "backward" 
 pupils, and the varying needs of individuals must be con- 
 sidered from this point of view. While the routine fac- 
 tors will soon come to take care of themselves, this second 
 class of factors must always receive the explicit attention 
 
12 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 of the teacher. In view of this fact, they may be grouped 
 together and conveniently designated as the "Judgment 
 Factors of Classroom Management." 
 
 References. — J. Landon : School Management, Boston, 1884, 
 pp. 150-153 ; J. Baldwin : Art of School Management, New York, 
 1887, pp. 15-17; R. N. Roark: Economy in Ediication, New York, 
 1905, pp. 7-10; A. Tompkins: Philosophy of School Management, 
 Boston, 1898, pp. ix-xiv; E. E. White: School Management, New 
 York, 1893, pp. 9-16. 
 
PART I 
 
 THE ROUTINE FACTORS OF CLASSROOM 
 MANAGEMENT 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 Routine and Habit 
 
 I. System and organization are the imiversal solvents 
 of the problem of waste. This is as true of social life as 
 it is of animal and vegetable functions ; it is as true of the 
 spiritual and ideal phases of social life — religion and 
 education — as it is of the material phases of social Hfe, — 
 "business" and government. Sometimes, it is true, sys- 
 tem and organization defeat their own purpose; they 
 become ends in themselves, and thus tend to obscure the 
 true ends for which they were established. When the 
 true perspective of means to ends is lost to view, the means 
 naturally become magnified in importance, and the result 
 is "red tape" with all of its attendant evils. This degen- 
 eration is the Une of least resistance ; the unfortunate fact 
 is that the responsibility for the evil results is apt to be 
 placed upon system in general, rather than upon perverted 
 system where it properly belongs. 
 
 In education, the evils of perverted system are the chief 
 cause of the violent reactions which periodically affect the 
 
 13 
 
'T4y',l ; /* ' "j CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 school system. Such reactions are often initiated by men 
 of wide experience and high standing in the educational 
 world. These reformers would cut the red tape of school 
 organization; discard, once and for all, the repressive 
 forces that confine and limit the child's activities; and 
 leave teacher and pupil to work out each his own salvation 
 in the chaos of confusion and disorder. These frequent 
 and extreme reactions are often beneficial in that they call 
 attention to useless and wasteful routine, and thus serve 
 to stimulate a healthful reform. The young teacher, 
 however, should view them with distrust, for the natural 
 tendencies of the young teacher are normally all in their 
 favor. Youth is instinctively radical; it resents the iron 
 rule of established custom. Age is naturally conservative; 
 the form has been before its eyes so long and so constantly 
 that it accepts it as equivalent to the substance. The 
 path of progress lies in the middle ground. But to discard 
 system and organization entirely is to repudiate the basic 
 law of all advancement ; evolution is simply a progressive 
 development toward forms that are more and more elabo- 
 rately organized, and in which system and coherence take 
 the place of chaos and incoherence. 
 
 2. In the life of the individual, system and organization 
 are represented, first by instinct, and secondly by habit. 
 Instincts are the organized reactions that are inherited 
 from past generations — complex systems of reflex me- 
 chanical movements that have been built up through 
 natural selection in the course of thousands of generations. 
 The lives of most of the lower animals are governed entirely 
 
ROUTINE AND HABIT 1 5 
 
 by instinct, leaving very little latitude for individual devel- 
 opment. 
 
 Habits, on the ether hand, are organized reactions built 
 up in the course of the individual's hfetime. They are 
 formed through the operation of consciousness in govern- 
 ing the adjustment of the muscles to suit any particular 
 environment. Animals that can form habits are, there- 
 fore, much more plastic, much more adaptable, much less 
 at the mercy of circumstances, than are animals which 
 depend entirely upon instinct. Thus mind or conscious- 
 ness is the characteristic of the higher forms of animal 
 life. It changes, modifies, reconstructs, instinctive ad- 
 justments, and then fixes the new forms as habits, thus 
 permitting their operation independently of conscious 
 control. Mind might be said to stand midway between 
 instinct and habit; it is the factor that changes the rigid 
 adjustments of the lower forms into the plastic adjustments 
 of the higher forms. 
 
 In the last chapter, it was stated that education aims to 
 reconstruct the child's adjustments in such a way that he 
 will be fitted for the social Ufe. That is, social hfe — 
 civilized life — is an artificial thing. It is developing 
 every hour farther and farther away from the plane of 
 "natural" or instinctive Hfe. As each generation is bom 
 into the world, its members must be taken and readjusted 
 — transformed to meet the conditions to which their in- 
 stinctive reactions are inadequate. This is done largely 
 by building up new systems of habits. 
 
 3. The law oj habit-building becomes, therefore, one 
 
l6 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 of the basic laws of education. In brief form, this la^ 
 may be stated as follows: Focalization of consciousness 
 upon the process to be automatized, plus attentive repetition 
 of this process, permitting no exceptions until automatism 
 results. The fundamental significance of this law can- 
 not be overestimated. If there is one psychological prin- 
 ciple that may be looked upon as a universal solvent for 
 educational problems, it is this. If carried out to "the 
 letter, its operation is as certain and relentless as that of 
 the law of gravitation. 
 
 Objections have been urged against this formulation of the 
 law of habit-building on the ground that habits are frequently 
 formed without attentive repetition. The mere fact of repe- 
 tition is held to be sufficient for the formation of a true habit 
 and even initial focalization is, by some, held to be unneces- 
 sary. The grounds upon which this position is taken are, on 
 the surface, quite convincing. It is well known that one may 
 lapse into bad habits without effort. For example, it is not 
 a difficult matter for one to acquire the habit of rising at eight 
 in the morning instead of at six. The habit of giving way to 
 anger instead of inhibiting its expressions can be acquired 
 easily enough, and so on through a long list of undesirable 
 reactions. The discrepancy between these facts and the 
 fundamental law as stated above is not, however, difficult to 
 clear away. Habits which follow the lines of instinctive tend- 
 encies will, of course, be built up without effort. Such "hab- 
 its" are, in truth, nothing but instincts; the old "pathways of 
 discharge," which have been closed up through drill and dis- 
 cipline, may be reopened with a minimum of difficulty. The 
 path of least resistance is always downward — is always toward 
 the instinctive and brutal, and away from the civilized and 
 
ROUTINE AND HABIT 1 7 
 
 human. The law of habit-building holds only when habits are 
 being formed in opposition to instinctive tendencies; but it 
 is hardly necessary to point out that the great civilizing habits 
 which it is the duty of education to develop belong to this 
 class. 
 
 4. Routine or customary action in a group is not only 
 analogous to habitual action in the individual, but the 
 former is based upon the latter. That is, the "like- 
 response" * of a number of individuals to the same stimu- 
 lus demands, if such response is to become a matter of 
 custom, the building up of like habits in the individual 
 members of the group. The law of habit-building lies 
 therefore at the basis of group routine. 
 
 In its application to classroom management, this prin- 
 ciple means that whatever is to become a matter of in- 
 variable custom in the classroom must be made conscious 
 to the pupils at the outset (that is, focalized), then drilled 
 upon, consciously and explicitly (attentive repetition), and 
 held to rigidly, until all impulse, tendency, or temptation 
 to act in any other way has been entirely overcome. 
 
 Thus, in the passing of lines, the teacher will give minute 
 directions on the very earliest occasion — before bad or inade- 
 quate habits have been formed. During several days these 
 directions will be brought to the pupils' attention (refocalized) 
 just before the Hnes pass. Perhaps several drills will be given 
 at times other than those at which the lines regularly pass, in 
 order that a more distinct impression may be made. Abso- 
 lutely no exceptions will be tolerated until the routine has 
 
 ^ Cf . F. H. Giddings : Descriptive and Historical Sociology, New York, 
 1906, p. 182. 
 
l8 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 become rigidly fixed — after which time, of course, exceptions 
 will not, in the nature of things, be apt to occur. 
 
 5. Most of the difl&culties of school-keeping owe their 
 existence to the fact that this fundamental law is so easily 
 neglected in practice. One begins a process with every 
 intent to persevere, but the desire for change and variety, 
 the instinctive disUke for continuous effort, frequently 
 prevents attentive repetition in sufficient amount to insure 
 the functioning of the process as habit. Unless the process 
 reaches the stage of automatism, all of the initial repe- 
 titions represent time and energy practically thrown away. 
 That is, if one starts out vaHantly to establish a habit, 
 carrying on the repetitions for some time, but becoming 
 discouraged before automatism is reached, practically all 
 of the effort that has been given to the preliminary stages 
 is absolutely wasted. The stages preceding the final 
 repetition which induces automatism are necessary, it is 
 true, but, taken alone, they are quite without value. 
 
 In school work, a vast amount of time is wasted by leav- 
 ing processes at the "halfway house" between focalization 
 and automatism. This is true both in the work of in- 
 struction (the mechanics of reading and spelling, the 
 automatization of the addition and multiplication tables, 
 etc.) and in details of school management. The pressing 
 need, especially in the elementary school, is for strong 
 teachers who can rigidly "hew to the line" in all of these 
 initial stages of habit-building. Even scholarship could 
 be sacrificed, if necessary, in attaining this end. The 
 
ROUTINE AND HABIT 19 
 
 demand is for firmness and tenacity of purpose on the 
 part of the teacher; not firmness and tenacity for their 
 own sakes — this makes the martinet ; but rather a tenacity, 
 a steadfastness, that comes from a clear perception of ends. 
 Perhaps the best teacher, from this point of view, is one 
 whose natural tendencies are all in the direction of leniency, 
 but who, recognizing the importance of the end to be 
 gained, uses this leniency only to check and temper the 
 measures that might otherwise, through their severity, 
 defeat their own purposes. 
 
 It is the writer's observation that the rather rare individual 
 known as the "born" teacher belongs to this class. Innate 
 sympathy for childhood is demanded of the teacher who has to 
 deal with little children, but this sympathy must not be of the 
 weak-kneed or sentimental variety. Long before they reach 
 school age, children become keen in their estimates of those 
 who have them in charge. The parent or nurse who can be 
 deceived or imposed upon is quickly and surely recognized, and 
 probably ninety per cent of these owe their weakness to lack 
 of persistence. Disciplinary measures are undertaken spas- 
 modically; exceptions are permitted in the operation of the 
 necessary rules; and the result is that adequate habits are 
 never formed. The situation is precisely the same with the 
 weak teacher. His sympathy for childhood may be excep- 
 tionally acute, but this will not serve to build up effective habit** 
 if persistence is lacking. 
 
 References. — W. James: Principles of Psychology, New York, 
 1900, vol. i, ch. xiii (also Briefer Course, ch. x); E. A. Kirkpatrick: 
 Fundamentals of Child Study, New York, 1906, pp. 350-352; E. L. 
 Thomdike: Elements of Psychology, New York, 1905, pp. 199-209. 
 
CHAPTER n 
 
 Initiating Routine : Preventing Waste by Starting 
 
 Aright 
 
 I. In classroom management, as in other forms of 
 activity, efficiency of effort depends in no small measure 
 upon the way in which one starts. Psychology teaches 
 that "primacy" is a powerful factor in the recall of ex- 
 periences; first impressions lend the dominant tone to 
 succeeding impressions. The disastrous effects of a bad 
 beginning multiply disproportionately the chances of 
 failure. In the career of the teacher nothing is more 
 important than to make a ''good start." It estabhshes a 
 certain measure of prestige in the minds of parents and 
 school officers; it has important bearings upon one's 
 standing with one's principal and superintendent; but 
 most of all it "counts" with one's pupils. 
 
 It is true that the evil influences of a bad beginning may 
 sometimes be overcome by strenuous effort, and it is equally 
 true that the lessons of experience gained in this way may mean 
 much for the growth of the teacher. One may admit all this 
 and yet conclude that, if mistakes can be avoided by a careful 
 adherence to principles derived from the experience of others, 
 a great gain may be made. In the work of teaching, novices 
 often fail to profit by others' experience, not because they think 
 themselves above learning in this way (although it must be 
 
INITIATING ROUTINE 21 
 
 confessed that this attitude is sometimes met with), but simply 
 because they do not appreciate the significance of the cautions 
 and precepts proposed for their guidance; without the experi- 
 ence, they lack an "apperceptive basis." This can be suppHed 
 only in part by concrete cases illustrative of the way in which 
 other teachers have solved certain problems. Many of these 
 problems appear very simple and trivial from the outside. 
 "Why bother with them now?" asks the novice; "I can solve 
 them without difficulty when they make their appearance in 
 my school — if they ever do." This is the typical attitude of 
 youth, and it is almost always an attitude, not of self-conceit, 
 but of self-confidence. It would be far from the purpose of 
 the present discussion to destroy or lessen that confidence. It 
 is the most valuable asset that any young teacher can possess. 
 Without it failure, or something akin to failure, is almost pre- 
 destined. The purpose here is rather to fortify self-confi- 
 dence by pointing out the quicksands that would swallow it up; 
 and the chief of these is a bad beginning. 
 
 2. Preparing jor the First Day of School. The "first 
 day" of school becomes, therefore, a most critical point 
 in the teacher's career, but it is rather comforting to know 
 that its critical significance is somewhat counterbalanced 
 by the comparative ease with which its problems may be 
 solved. As far as the pupils are concerned, every condition 
 favors the teacher; to them the situation is novel, and 
 the "new" always demands attention. Thus far the 
 problem solves itself. 
 
 With the conditions so favorable for attention and good 
 order, preparation for the first day's work should be di- 
 rected toward a speedy settling of the pupils into the regu- 
 lar channels of the term's work. It is generally agreed 
 
22 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 among schoolmen that, the sooner the regular routine is 
 estabUshed, the better will be the results. The custom 
 of letting the pupils simply assemble for classification and 
 the assignment of seats and then dismissing them for the 
 remainder of the day, is to be looked upon as bad practice 
 from the standpoint of school economy. It simply means 
 that the second day must be given over to more beginning 
 work, and very frequently the first week passes with abso- 
 lutely nothing accomplished. If the first week goes off 
 in this sHpshod manner, the second is Hkely to follow upon 
 its heels with the same characteristics, and by the end of 
 the third week, pernicious and time-wasting habits will 
 have been initiated. The only way absolutely to insure 
 a school against such waste is to make the very first day 
 thoroughly rigorous in all its details. Some time, it is 
 true, must be devoted to focalizing and drilling upon mat- 
 ters of routine, but some time will also be given to strenu- 
 ous instruction and equally strenuous acquisition along 
 the lines of the regular work. 
 
 3. The teacher, therefore, has many things to think 
 about and plan for before he goes to school on the morn- 
 ing of the opening day. The more important of these 
 may be listed under the following precepts and direc- 
 tions : — 
 
 Preliminary Arrangements, (i) Visit the school some time 
 before the opening day. Become familiar with the arrange- 
 ment of the building and of the room that you are to occupy. 
 Note carefully the entrances and exits. Note the location of 
 the wardrobe. Determine the best method of passing lines. 
 
INITIATING ROUTINE 23 
 
 Work out the routine of collecting and distributing wraps. 
 Note location of toilet rooms and closets. Note method of 
 heating and ventilation, and plan how ventilation may be pro- 
 vided for without causing serious draughts. 
 
 (2) Have upon your desk enough paper to supply material 
 for the first day's work for all pupils in case some should come 
 without the necessary materials. Also have enough pencils, 
 already sharpened, to supply each member of the class. Often 
 boxes of pencils will be found in the schoolroom, even when 
 the supplies are not furnished free to the pupils. In case, 
 however, no pencils are found, it will be economy for the 
 teacher to purchase a supply from his own purse. With paper 
 and pencils, a day's work can be carried through, even if text- 
 books are not available. 
 
 (3) Make certain that the blackboards are clean and fit for 
 use. Plan a definite method of having classes pass to the 
 blackboard. Be sure that chalk and erasers are provided. 
 
 (4) Look through the teacher's desk for the last term's 
 register. In it you will doubtless find a list of the pupils pro- 
 moted and a list of those remaining in your room. If your 
 predecessor has been thoughtful, you may also find a statement 
 of the work done during the previous term. This will show 
 you where to begin with at least one of your classes. 
 
 (5) Secure a course of study. If the school has no regularly 
 adopted course, use the state course. In any case, the work 
 should check with the state course, where the latter is manda- 
 tory. Procure the adopted text-books, and plan to start your 
 pupils at the point ^ indicated for the grade and class in the course 
 of study, unless the record of the previous teacher indicates 
 definitely the point that the classes have already reached. 
 Every teacher should be careful to leave in his desk at the close 
 of each term a statement of the work done by his various 
 
 * In such subjects as arithmetic and grammar, the first lessons should 
 generally be given over to reviews of the previous term's work. 
 
24 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 classes. This will frequently save the next teacher a great 
 deal of trouble and useless work. 
 
 (6) Plan the first day's work for each class, aiming to cover 
 in every subject some work with which the pupils may be 
 assumed to be familiar. Plan especially careful assignments 
 that will provide definite work for study periods in case pupils 
 come (as many will) unprovided with text-books. If the text- 
 books are furnished free, and if a supply will be available for 
 the opening day, the work may, of course, be so arranged as to 
 utilize the texts from the outset. This will materially simplify 
 the first day's problems, but, unhappily, it is a condition not 
 frequently fulfilled. For classes up to the fifth grade, reading 
 lessons may, if necessary, be placed upon the blackboard. 
 Picture study is available in geography and in language work 
 where texts are unavailable. Map study from a wall map, and 
 map drawing from a blackboard model, are suggestive for the 
 work in geography. In every case, care should be taken to plan 
 for real, efifective teaching, and not merely for "busy work." 
 Seriousness of purpose must be the dominant note throughout. 
 
 (7) Construct a tentative program based upon the course 
 of study. Make this as nearly perfect as possible from the 
 theoretical standpoint (see principles of program construction, 
 Chapter IV), so that subsequent changes will be limited to those 
 details that are demanded by unforeseen contingencies. 
 
 (8) If the school is graded, try to arrange for preliminary 
 consultations both with the principal and with the teacher of 
 the preceding grade. If the principal does not suggest this, 
 the teacher should. Note very carefully any suggestions that 
 the principal may make and follow them implicitly. In a 
 rural school, consult with the county superintendent, personally 
 if possible, if not personally, at least by correspondence. Ask 
 definite questions in all cases where you are in doubt concern- 
 ing the course of study, the policy on disputed methods of 
 instruction or management, the text-books to be used, etc. 
 
INITIATING ROUTINE 25 
 
 4. The First Dafs Work. These preliminary matters 
 well in hand, the teacher is ready for the first day's work. 
 The following suggestions cover some of the points to be 
 borne in mind ; — 
 
 (i) Be on hand early. 
 
 (2) See that the classroom is in good condition : floors clean, 
 desks dusted, wardrobes ready for use. Do not complain to 
 principal or janitor unless conditions are intolerable. Remedy 
 matters yourself. 
 
 (3) See that chalk and erasers are distributed at the black- 
 board, or in readiness for distribution by monitors to be ap- 
 pointed. In any case, be sure that these necessary materials 
 are on hand and in condition to be used, — chalk boxes open, 
 erasers cleaned, etc. 
 
 (4) Place upon the blackboard whatever work you have pro- 
 vided for your earliest classes. Your program will doubtless 
 indicate arithmetic as one of the earliest forms of seat work. 
 Have examples upon the blackboard in sufficient number to 
 provide work in arithmetic for all classes. 
 
 (5) Pupils who arrive early should be greeted pleasantly 
 and directed to take seats. Many successful teachers require 
 pupils arriving before the "first bell" to observe the same 
 decorum that they would observe during the regular session, 
 so long as they remain in the schoolroom rather than upon the 
 playground. Whether you adopt this policy or not, it is well 
 on the first morning to check any tendency to run about the 
 room or to pass from seat to seat. 
 
 (6) It is good poHcy always to enlist the aid of the pupils 
 in helping you about the routine preparatory to the real school 
 work. On the first morning, they may, at your direction, dis- 
 tribute the chalk and erasers, slips of paper for the names of 
 the pupils, the pencils, etc. 
 
26 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 (7) Everything should be in readiness when the bell rings 
 and the lines come in. The teacher should direct the pupils to 
 take seats regularly in the different rows in the order of their 
 entering the room. After this first preliminary seatmg, changes 
 may be immediately made if desired. If there are two classes, 
 and if one has already been in the room, — as will be the case 
 wherever the promotions are semi-annual, — let the older pupils 
 take the seats occupied the preceding term. If all or most of 
 the pupils are new, let them take seats as suggested as speedily 
 as possible, making temporary changes where necessary to ac- 
 commodate pupils to different sizes of seats and desks. This 
 should occupy but a very brief period. 
 
 (8) Place into immediate application your prearranged 
 plan for disposing of the hats and wraps. If they are to be 
 collected, appoint the first or the last pupil in each row as a 
 monitor for this purpose. Give clear, distinct directions, and 
 enforce these directions rigidly from the outset. If the wraps 
 are to be left in the wardrobe as the pupils pass in, have the 
 lines file out and return to the room according to your plan, 
 depositing their wraps as they pass. The manner in which you 
 handle this, the very first bit of routine, will have a large share 
 in determining the first impression that you leave with your 
 pupils. 
 
 (9) When this has been accomplished, the time is opportune 
 for your opening remarks, if you wish to make any. Let these 
 be brief, clear-cut, and devoid of threats, cant, or platitudes. 
 Especially guard against ''soft soapiness.'* A song is also in 
 place if you can select one which is familiar to all the pupils, 
 and lead it well yourself. Devotional exercises are in place 
 unless prohibited by law, ruling, or public sentiment. 
 
 (10) After these preliminaries direct each pupil to write his 
 name upon the slip of paper handed to him. Have the first 
 pupil in each row collect the slips, placing his own at the bottom 
 of the bundle, and the others in order. As the slip* f^f each 
 
INITIATING ROUTINE 27 
 
 row are brought to you, place a rubber-band about them, and 
 then arrange the bundles across your desk in the order of the 
 rows. You will then be able, with a minimum of trouble, 
 to find the name of any pupil by reference to the slips belong- 
 ing to his row. 
 
 (11) All this should occupy but a brief period of time — 
 certainly not more than twenty minutes — and from this time 
 on, in a two-class or three-class room, the regular program 
 should be adhered to. Assign work to the more advanced 
 class, if there are two, or to all but the lowest class, if there 
 are more than two. The first recitation should begin with 
 this. If the pupils are to come forward to occupy a recitation 
 bench, give explicit directions for the passing of the lines, and 
 explain the signals that you propose to use. It will probably 
 be necessary to give two or three drills upon this before the 
 movement to the bench and back to the seats satisfies you. 
 The first day's work may very well be devoted in part to such 
 drills, but always save time for some serious work. If the 
 class passes to the blackboard, drill it several times in the pre- 
 arranged movement of lines. 
 
 (12) In an ungraded or rural school, the work cannot be 
 begun so expeditiously on account of the time necessarily taken 
 up in finding out what pupils belong in the several classes. In 
 such a case, start this work of classification immediately after 
 the slips have been collected. Let the older pupils group them- 
 selves tentatively and then set the different groups at some 
 form of seat work. The younger pupils can then be examined 
 more carefully and classified. This is a difficult matter to 
 handle successfully at the outset, and changes will probably 
 be found necessary in several instances. Up to the fifth grade, 
 classification should be based mainly upon the pupils' stage 
 of advancement in reading. From the fifth grade on, arith- 
 metic is the most convenient subject to use as a test. 
 
 (13) Stop all work a few minutes before recess time to driU 
 
28 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 pupils Upon the passing of lines. In a large graded school 
 it will be necessary to know how all the lines pass to the play- 
 ground in order that you may assemble your pupils in the proper 
 place. This should be one of the matters learned beforehand 
 by consultation with the principal or with other teachers. 
 
 (14) Appoint monitors to distribute pens, tablets, copy-books, 
 etc., just prior to the first periods when these materials are used. 
 Distribute the monitorial functions among as many pupils as 
 possible, holding each strictly responsible from the first for 
 the efficiency of his service. Devote some time during the 
 first day to drilling the monitors in these duties. Let them 
 pass and collect the materials again and again, until they can 
 do the work with celerity, dispatch, and good order. If you 
 propose to use this monitorial service as a reward of good 
 standing (see discussion. Chapter III), let the pupils know 
 this at the start, Stating that changes will be made at the begin- 
 ning of the second week or month, as the case may be. 
 
 5. The teacher will find plenty to do during whatever 
 time may be at his disposal the first recess and noon inter- 
 mission. In the first place, work for the classes that 
 come after the intermission must be placed upon the 
 boards. Probably some time can be devoted to examining 
 the work that the pupils have done in their early exercises. 
 In this way some notion may be gained of the previous 
 work and present attainments of the pupils, and a gauge 
 secured for measuring their application. Doubtless it will 
 be found that some of the pupils are not "up to grade," 
 while a few may have been placed in classes below their 
 standard of attainments. Notes should be taken of all 
 such cases, and the pupils that are very obviously mis- 
 placed should be readjusted without delay — after con- 
 
INITIATING ROUTINE 29 
 
 sultation, of course, with the principal. Care should also 
 be taken to furnish whatever reports the principal or super- 
 intendent may desire at the close of the first session. 
 
 Just prior to the close of the first session, time should be 
 taken to instruct the pupils in packing away books, ar- 
 ranging desks in a uniform and orderly manner, etc. If 
 pencils, tablets, etc., are to be collected, the monitors 
 should be drilled in this duty. 
 
 6. In an ungraded school the conditions are, of course, 
 much more involved and compUcated than in a graded 
 school. The amount of preliminary work is much greater, 
 and the chances for a smooth running of the first session 
 are much smaller. The general procedure, however, is 
 the same in both cases: minute prearrangements that 
 shall look out for all mechanical details; extremely care- 
 ful preparation of first lessons ; strenuous drills in class 
 movements, lines, passing to blackboards, monitorial 
 functions, etc. 
 
 The first day should leave with the pupils a distinct im- 
 pression that work has begun in earnest, that no time has 
 been "frittered away," and that something definite has 
 been accomplished. 
 
 References. — For valuable directions regarding the classification 
 of pupils, especially in ungraded schools, see J. Baldwin: Art of 
 School Management, pt. ii, ch. iii; for exceptionally good advice on 
 the work of the first day, see a copyrighted article by F. A. Wagner: 
 "A Special Method of Class Management," in Western Journal of 
 Education (San Francisco), 1905, vol. x, pp. 15 flF.; also, Roark: 
 Economy in Edttcation, pp. 37-40; L. Seeley: A New School Man- 
 agement, New York, 1903, chs. iii, iv. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 Mechanizing Routine 
 
 1. In discussing the problems of the opening day of 
 school it was impUed that the routine activities of the class- 
 room are to be reduced as rapidly as possible to the plane 
 of unvarying habit, and the fundamental thesis of that 
 discussion was the first article in the law of habit-build- 
 ing: initial focaUzation of attention upon the activity to 
 be mechanized. It is now necessary to justify the position 
 imphed, and, in doing this, it will be necessary to treat 
 these details of routine on a broader plane than that in- 
 volved in their relation to the first day's work. 
 
 2. There are at present two opposing theories of school 
 management. The advocates of one theory protest 
 against anything that resembles a military organization 
 of the schools. The advocates of the other theory favor 
 some measure of reversion to the old-time school fashion of 
 rigid discipline and machinelike organization. The for- 
 mer class must not, however, be looked upon as positively 
 approving chaos and disorder. They disapprove of good 
 order only when it is forced from without ; in other words, 
 all government must be 5e//-govemment. Nor do the 
 members of the latter class indorse the sterner measures 
 which the old-time schoolmaster employed to secure the 
 
 30 
 
MECHANIZING ROUTINE 31 
 
 desired end. They do believe, however, that some form 
 of restraint and control must be imposed from without. 
 The chief difference between the two theories is a differ- 
 ence of opinion as to the capacity of the child for self- 
 government. 
 
 There can be no doubt that most of the advanced and 
 progressive educators of to-day are advocates of the 
 former doctrine. Neither can it be doubted that many 
 who hold to the "machine" doctrine are teachers of small 
 mental caliber and indifferent training who would be com- 
 pletely discomfited were the acme of good teaching con- 
 strued as anything more than the ability effectively to 
 administer discipline. When originaHty and spontaneity 
 of instruction and abihty to secure and hold interest are 
 demanded, many of these teachers are not equal to the 
 task, and they consequently attempt to cover up their 
 inefficiency by deriding the worth and utiUty of a task to 
 which they are themselves incompetent. It is an old 
 trick — as old as human nature ; but this does not prevent 
 it from making the situation rather difficult to one who 
 recognizes some measure of justice in their attitude to- 
 ward details, while at the same time recognizing the 
 unworthy motives that animate their opposition. 
 
 3. One might infer from this discussion that the "ma- 
 chine" doctrine is not criticised in and for itself, but 
 rather because it may be so easily applied by mediocre 
 talent. This, however, is not altogether true. The ad- 
 herents of the "anti-machine" doctrine offer some very 
 cogent arguments against mechanical organization by 
 
32 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 whomsoever it may be applied. These arguments may 
 be briefly summarized in the following propositions : — 
 
 (i) Mechanical organization disregards the individuality of 
 the child. All must act in concert; each must do what the 
 others do. 
 
 (2) Mechanical organization is imposed from without. It 
 is an expression of arbitrary and despotic rule. Pupils are 
 required to do things for which they can see no reason. This 
 is contrary to the fundamental principle of democratic govern- 
 ment. 
 
 (3) Mechanical organization imposes a dead and dull back- 
 ground of routine which effectively discourages spontaneous 
 effort. As a result, the brighter pupils react against it, while 
 the duller pupils find the atmosphere perhaps somewhat con- 
 genial. This places a*premium upon those who are naturally 
 the less capable, while those naturally the more capable are 
 branded as mischievous and ''bad." 
 
 (4) Mechanical organization in matters properly routine 
 tends to "spread" to matters of a different nature. Classes 
 that are led to move in a lock-step physically tend soon to 
 move in a lock-step mentally. Memoriter work of the most 
 formal type tends to displace rational work. 
 
 (5) Habit is always the antithesis of judgment;* routine 
 antagonizes reason. If machine reactions are overemphasized, 
 intellectual reactions will be underemphasized. The tendency 
 will always be to produce the machine, the automatism ; and a 
 machine reacts as fatally when the reaction is inadequate as 
 it does when the reaction is adequate. The machine, in other 
 words, lacks initiative, and initiative — ability to solve novel 
 situations — is the power that is needed to meet the conditions 
 of our complex modem life. 
 
 » Cf. The Educative Process, ch. viL 
 
MECHANIZING ROUTINE 33 
 
 (6) If success in mere mechanical organization is held up as 
 the acme of effective teaching (as is often the case), teachers 
 who are really efficient from the standpoint of instruction and 
 inspiration will be discouraged from entering or continuing 
 in the work of the school. This work will therefore be left to 
 the drill-masters and gradgrinds — men and women of small 
 caliber minds. 
 
 4. No one can justly deny the cogency and force of these 
 arguments; in fact, they carry certain conviction if one 
 for a moment loses the perspective that comes only from 
 an adequate conception of fundamental principles. In 
 what manner, then, are these arguments inconsistent with 
 fundamental principles? 
 
 In the first place, it should be remembered that the 
 contention is not between organization and no organiza- 
 tion, but rather concerns the question. What constitutes 
 an irreducible minimum of organized routine ? the " anti- 
 machine '* camp insisting that it is better to run the risk of 
 some waste through too little organization than to incur 
 the dangers noted in the above arguments through too 
 much organization. It therefore becomes necessary to 
 examine these arguments to determine (i) whether they 
 are valid, and (2) whether, having proved their validity, 
 one can find some means of counteracting the dangers 
 that they involve. One should at least take these steps 
 before repudiating organization entirely. 
 
 (i) The argument that mechanical organization disregards 
 the individuality of the pupil by imposing the same activities 
 'upon all, has little force unless it can be proved that no ade- 
 
34 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 quate channels remain through which individuality can find 
 expression. This is not apt to be the case, for the organization 
 of routine provides only for the invariable school activities. 
 Individuality and originality and initiative may still find ade- 
 quate expression, and this expression (theoretically, at least) 
 will be the more untrammeled because routme has been re- 
 duced to habit. 
 
 (2) That mechanical organization is imposed from without, 
 and that the pupil sees no reason for its existence, would be an 
 effective argument only if it could be proved that that organiza- 
 tion for which the pupil sees a reason would be more effective. 
 Probably this would be true with children in the period of ado- 
 lescence or a little before adolescence, and when this age has 
 been reached, it is doubtless well to explain the reasons for 
 routine drills. Prior to this period, however, much time spent 
 in explaining the "why" is time thrown away. Young chil- 
 dren may give every indication of perceiving the reason for a 
 certain requirement and yet find that requirement just as 
 irksome as it would be were the rule stated dogmatically and 
 enforced arbitrarily. 
 
 (3) That mechanical organization favors the weaker pupil 
 at the expense of the brighter, and, through its unnatural 
 insistence upon small and seemingly trivial matters, disgusts 
 the latter and incites him to revolt, is an argument of some- 
 what greater weight. Still it must be proved that the average 
 "rebel" in school is found among the brighter pupils, and this 
 would be extremely hard to demonstrate; even if it were 
 demonstrated, it would have further to be proved that com- 
 pliance with disciplinary measures is not a good thing, even 
 for a bright pupil. Society can bear up under the strain of a 
 few geniuses who have never learned the lessons of self-control, 
 but these few practically exhaust its patience. 
 
 (4) The statement that habit and judgment are antithetical 
 processes is best answered by the equally true statement that 
 
MECHANIZING ROUTINE 35 
 
 both are necessary. Here again the perspective, the balance, 
 must be kept steadily in mind. Habit is good only in so far as 
 it makes judgment more effective by looking after the details 
 that are unvarying. Judgment is effective only when it can 
 confine itself to the new and variable, confident that habit will 
 care for the customary and invariable. Habit may interfere 
 with initiative, but initiative without habit would be thoroughly 
 unreliable and futile. The discrepancy is fundamental, and 
 can be solved only by compromise. 
 
 (5) That mechanical organization keeps from the teacher's 
 calling the men and women who can inspire as well as administer 
 discipline and instruction, is doubtless true. The inspirational 
 type of teacher is usually the type to whom routine and details 
 are infinitely irksome and laborious. Yet these are the men 
 and women that education stands in greatest need of enlisting 
 in its work. So great is this need, in fact, that one might almost 
 say, "Secure them at any cost; routine, discipline, organiza- 
 tion, even instruction, may be quoted at a discount when inspira- 
 tion is in the market." And yet it would seem not impossible 
 to find inspirational power combined with a certain delight in 
 routine; perhaps not natively, instinctively, but at any rate 
 combined through some discipline of experience. One who 
 studies educational theory aright can see in the mechanical 
 routine of the classroom the educative forces that aire slowly 
 transforming the child from a little savage into a creature of 
 law and order, fit for the Hfe of civilized society. One who 
 gains this conception no longer looks upon mechanical routine 
 as something that is merely humdrum and static. To see a 
 habit take root and grow is fully as fascinating an experience 
 to the initiated as to see an idea or an ideal dawn upon the mind 
 of the child. It is the latter privilege that is supposed to be 
 the reward of the inspirational teacher — the man or woman 
 who possesses the true "genius" for teaching. But the former 
 privilege may come to be a reward just as highly valued. 
 
36 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 5. To summarize: While mechanical organization of 
 school routine involves some grave dangers, there is no 
 one of these dangers that cannot be effectively counteracted 
 by simple precautions. As long as these precautions are 
 taken, the more thoroughly and elaborately routine is 
 reduced to the plane of automatism, the better for the 
 economical operation of the school. Under this condition 
 the most efl5cient school is one that "goes like a machine." 
 The moment, however, that this machine spirit enters the 
 work of instruction, the moment that it becomes the mas- 
 ter instead of the servant, the moment that it threatens the 
 inspirational and ideal aspects of the educative process, 
 it becomes a menace to the ultimate efficiency of the school 
 and should be instantly reformed. 
 
 6. What details of school routine are to be subjected to 
 this process of mechanical organization? The answer to this 
 question vdll vary somewhat with the grades represented 
 in the school. In the lower grades very little dependence 
 can be placed upon individual responsibiUty ; almost every 
 detail must be looked after exphcitly by the teacher, and 
 the more quickly all details are reduced to system and order, 
 the more effective will be the routine work of the school. 
 In the upper grades, on the other hand, a greater degree 
 of individual responsibiUty can be assumed, although there 
 is little doubt that the present tendency, especially in the 
 high school, is toward too little mechanical organization. 
 
 In general, for the elementary school, the following mat- 
 ters will need specific attention and persistent drill at the 
 outset. 
 
MECHANIZING ROUTINE 37 
 
 The Passing of Lines. For the expert observer, there 
 is probably no detail of school management that indi- 
 cates more clearly the efficiency or inefficiency of the 
 teacher than the manner in which the Hnes pass to and 
 from the room. Are the pupils quiet and orderly in hne ? 
 Do they move energetically (even though slowly) or do 
 they "shuffle" along and crowd and stumble? Whether 
 pupils should be required to "keep step" is a mooted 
 question, but no very cogent arguments are advanced 
 against this procedure, and it adds much to the ease and 
 facility with which the lines pass. In a "first-class" 
 school the lines should pass quietly and in an orderly 
 manner when they are not supervised ; but orderly Hnes 
 that are supervised are greatly to be preferred over dis- 
 orderly lines that are unsupervised. 
 
 Especial care should be observed in moving lines up 
 and down stairs. The best plan is rigidly to prohibit any 
 running or "skipping steps" on the stairs at any time. If 
 this habit is eUminated, the lines will pass quietly even in 
 case of fire or other accident that might give rise to a panic. 
 The serious responsibility that rests with the teacher in 
 this connection cannot be too strongly reaHzed. The 
 only insurance against panic in case of fire is perfect dis- 
 cipline. If bad habits are allowed under normal con- 
 ditions, no strength of will can bring order out of chaos 
 on an unusual occasion. 
 
 Fire Drills. The fire drill is generally recognized as abso- 
 lutely essential in a large school. Drills should be held at 
 least once a month, and oftener at the opening of the term. 
 
38 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 They should be given at the time when they are least expected 
 both by pupils and by teachers. Ordinarily, the best method 
 of emptying the building is to follow the normal formation of 
 lines. Thus every dismissal will add stability to the fire disci- 
 pline. Unless the cloakrooms are difficult of access, pupils 
 should take their wraps as they pass out. This preserves the 
 regular routine and, when carefully drilled upon, occupies a 
 minimum of time. Of course, where the danger of a minute's 
 delay would imperil life, the fire drill should not include this 
 operation. The construction of the building, the arrangement 
 of exits, and the capacity of the stairways must all be con- 
 sidered in this matter. It is the writer's opinion that the 
 pupils should not be permitted to run downstairs in the fire 
 drill. The danger of falling is not to be slightly regarded, and 
 an accident of this sort is far more apt to cause panic and con- 
 fusion than anything else. However, in buildings that are 
 recognized "fire traps," even this may be necessary. If it is, 
 drills should be more numerous, beginning with walking, and 
 then gradually increasing the pace until a maximum has been 
 reached. 
 
 In passing from the exits to the gates, it is good practice 
 to insist upon unbroken lines. This avoids confusion at 
 the gates, and adds much to the appearance of the dismissal 
 when viewed by passers-by. The line formation should 
 also be preserved until the pupils reach their seats on 
 entering the building. 
 
 7. Signals. The verbal signal, "Attention!" should 
 be understood by pupils from the earliest grade to mean a 
 definite attitude of mind and body. Psychology teaches 
 that the attentive attitude of mind is closely related to an 
 attentive attitude of the body. Should the hands be folded 
 
MECHANIZING ROUTINE 39 
 
 upon the desk, or the arms folded at this command? 
 There is certainly no valid objection to either of these 
 procedures, and either will effect a very desirable end — 
 that, namely, of keeping the fingers from picking up pens 
 or pencils that may be lying upon the desk, or from play- 
 ing with inkwell-covers : activities which may be initiated 
 quite unconsciously and yet which may easily result in 
 some distracting noise. In general, the command, 
 "Attention!" should be the stimulus for the habitual 
 adjustment of the body in a certain definite posture : head 
 erect, eyes turned toward the teacher, hands or arms 
 folded (preferably the former), feet flat on the floor, in- 
 stant cessation of all other school work or activity. 
 
 Other signals may be either verbal or visual. "Turn," 
 "stand," "pass" — or counts, "one," "two," "three," 
 or simple gestures with the hand or head — may be used 
 to indicate that the pupils are to rise and pass. In any 
 case, with the seats and desks constructed as they are in 
 most American schools, three signals are necessary for 
 this movement, and each signal should represent a definite 
 adjustment that should be carefully explained and formally 
 drilled upon imtil it is a matter of habit. Pupils should 
 arise always upon the same side of the seat ; the feet should 
 be moved to a definite position upon the first signal ; and 
 the body should rise with equal definiteness and precision 
 at the second signal. Ten minutes spent in carefully 
 explaining and exemplifying each of these movements 
 will be time saved. 
 
 8. Passing to the Blackboard, It is strict economy 
 
40 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 to have each pupil assigned to a definite place at the 
 blackboard and to insist that, whenever blackboard work 
 is required, he pass to this place. If this is done, uni- 
 form movements can be made to and from the board. 
 Generally it is necessary to have one row pass at a time, 
 and in order to do this with celerity and dispatch, initial 
 drills are necessary. 
 
 9. Passing to the Recitation Bench. If the classes 
 that recite move forward to the front of the room, similar 
 habits must be estabhshed to insure economy in making 
 the change. Because of the frequency with which this 
 movement is necessary in ungraded schools, it is probably 
 well, in such schools, to have all signals, save that for 
 attention, visual, rather than verbal. 
 
 10. Distributing and Collecting Wraps. Where the 
 location of cloakrooms prevents the passing of lines through 
 them so that each pupil may take down his own wraps, it 
 is necessary to inaugurate a system of monitors to bring 
 the wraps into the schoolroom, distribute them, and, when 
 the session is resumed, collect them and hang them in the 
 cloakroom. At best this system will take up valuable 
 time in its operation, and therefore pains should be exer- 
 cised to make the movement as effective and economical 
 as possible. The first or the last pupil in each row is the 
 logical monitor. These should be carefully drilled in their 
 duties, being directed to move quickly but carefully and 
 to hang the wraps of each pupil in the same place on each 
 occasion. After some prehminary drills, a minimal time 
 should be set for the work, and the monitors held respon- 
 
MECHANIZING ROUTINE 4I 
 
 sible for doing it within the time limit. This will tend 
 effectually to check any tendency on the part of monitors 
 to loiter unduly in the cloakrooms. 
 
 II. Distributing and Collecting Books and Materials. 
 In the lower grades, the writing materials — pens, pencils, 
 and tablets — cannot well be kept in the pupils' desks 
 without much inconvenience. Pens and pencils are 
 easily lost or broken, and tablets and writing books 
 become soiled. In some schools a lesson requiring the 
 use of these materials is always preceded by several 
 minutes' waste of time in providing certain delinquents 
 with the necessities. It becomes requisite, therefore, to 
 keep these materials in a closet or drawer provided for 
 the purpose and to distribute them either at the beginning 
 of the session or whenever they are needed. For sanitary 
 reasons, each pupil should have individual materials, 
 especially pens and pencils, and this necessity still further 
 complicates matters. A good plan is to have for each row 
 a holder made of a pasteboard box with holes punched 
 in the cover into which pencils and pens can be inserted. 
 These boxes can be quickly passed, each pupil taking his 
 pen or pencil from the holder or returning it. By this 
 means, too, the teacher or a monitor can see that the 
 pencils are properly sharpened before the session begins, 
 and that the pen points are in good condition. Tablets can 
 be distributed in the same way. Up to the fifth grade it is 
 probably economy to follow this method, although it takes 
 some time. This is compensated, under an effective system, 
 however, by the time saved at the points indicated above. 
 
42 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 Where free text-books are furnished, it is often prescribed 
 that the books shall be collected each night, locked in 
 cases, and distributed in the morning. This seems to 
 be a laborious procedure for rather insignificant results, 
 but it has many virtues. In the first place, it prevents 
 the loss of books. The teacher can tell at a glance whether 
 a book is missing from the equipment of each pupil. In 
 the second place, it insures the cleaning out of the desks 
 every day, and so prevents the accumulation of debris that 
 is otherwise inevitable. In the third place, it necessitates 
 the packing of books in a uniform order, and thus makes 
 possible the taking of any book without overturning the 
 contents of the desk in order to find the book wanted. 
 The system requires eflScient monitorial service, but, once 
 well established, its operation need occupy but a brief 
 period at the beginning and at the close of each daily 
 session. Formal drills are again necessary at the outset 
 to insure order, uniformity, and celerity in the required 
 movements. 
 
 12. Orderly Arrangement of Books and Materials in 
 Desks, If books and materials are not distributed and 
 collected daily, the teacher should at least give explicit 
 directions relative to the packing of these articles in the 
 desks. A definite order should be prescribed and care- 
 fully demonstrated. The pupils should be given drills 
 in taking books, tablets, pencils, etc., from the interior 
 of the desk at the command of the teacher, and without 
 bending down to see where the required article is located, 
 or tossing the contents of the desk about in order to get at 
 
MECHANIZING ROUTINE 43 
 
 it. At the beginning of each study period, the necessary 
 materials should be secured, without noise or confusion, at 
 a simple signal from the teacher. At the beginning of the 
 recitation they should be replaced as quickly and quietly. 
 13. Insuring Tidiness of the Classroom. There are 
 many conditions in a classroom that make for untidiness. 
 Papers are easily dropped upon the floor, pencil sharpen- 
 ings are scattered about, ink is spilled, bits of crayon fall 
 from the chalk trays and are tramped into the floor, 
 muddy shoes leave visible and tangible traces in wet 
 weather. All of these conditions must be counteracted 
 by specific routine. It is safe to lay down a rule that no 
 work done on paper should escape the supervision of the 
 teacher ; an obvious corollary of this rule is that an over- 
 plus of written work should be avoided. If this policy 
 is carried out rigidly, the tearing up of papers or the 
 leaving them upon the desks where they will readily drop 
 to the floor, will be easily prevented. Papers should be 
 collected by monitors or passed to the front of each row 
 after every period when written work is required. It is 
 not enough that such papers be inspected by the teacher; 
 the pupils should have visible evidence of this. Conse- 
 quently the papers will, as a rule, be returned with the 
 corrections, and the corrections will be studied by the 
 pupils. This done, the papers should again be collected 
 and either filed for future reference or destroyed. The 
 former plan will enable the teacher or principal to make 
 comparisons of the work done by pupils at successive 
 periods during the term, wliile knowledge that the papers 
 
44 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 are to be preserved and filed for this purpose will probably 
 have a salutary effect upon the pupils' work. In any case, 
 it is safe to say that a continually overflowing waste-paper 
 baisket is generally an indication of ineffective teaching, 
 although if waste paper is to be found anywhere in a 
 schoolroom, it should certainly be in a basket. 
 
 Pencil sharpenings will not be a source of untidiness if 
 the pencils are collected and a monitor appointed to look 
 after their sharpening either after school or before the 
 opening of the session. This plan is commonly followed 
 in the lower grades, but it could be made general through- 
 out the elementary school with beneficial results. Pencil 
 sharpeners which do the work effectively can be purchased 
 for a small outlay and should form a part of the material 
 equipment of every school. 
 
 For the spilling of ink by pupils who are at work at their 
 desks, there is probably no remedy except verbal caution- 
 ing and a strenuous treatment of such lapses as are plainly 
 due to carelessness, but the ink-spilling that is caused by 
 the hurry of the teacher or pupil to get the inkwells sup- 
 plied just before a writing exercise can be eliminated by 
 routine. There should be a daily inspection of all ink- 
 wells to insure that each is well suppUed before the begin- 
 ning of the day's work. This is another matter of routine 
 that can be looked after by an efficient monitor. 
 
 Chalk trays should be cleared of all crayon at regular 
 intervals — preferably at the close of each day's work. 
 This will eliminate the small pieces that otherwise collect 
 in the trays and are easily scattered upon the floor. The 
 
MECHANIZING ROUTINE 45 
 
 teacher should inspect the chalk trays at the beginning of 
 each session and make sure that there is sufficient crayon 
 for the work of the day. Holding a class of twenty pupils 
 for one minute while a crayon box is passed to supply one 
 pupil is to throw away just twenty minutes of valuable 
 time. It is through such drains as these that so much of 
 the brief time spent by the child in school is time wasted. 
 
 Muddy shoes will probably form the least remediable 
 source of untidiness. Yet the efficient teacher can, by 
 strenuous effort, develop in his pupils habits that will, in 
 a measure, counteract this evil. If pupils imderstand that 
 their shoes are to be cleaned before lines form, and if rather 
 unpleasant consequences uniformly follow upon a failure 
 to fulfill this requirement, it will not take long to build up 
 an effective routine in this matter. In some schools, boys 
 are expected to blacken their shoes each morning before 
 coming to school. This is an excellent habit to develop, 
 and it is not difficult to make this requirement and keep 
 to it, provided that one meets with no decided opposition 
 from parents. A habit of this sort, well developed, will, 
 of course, do much to keep the floors free from dirt. 
 
 14. Leaving the Room. The beginning teacher is apt 
 to encounter some trouble with regard to this matter; 
 for in view of the rather dehcate nature of the subject, 
 it is difficult to deal with it frankly and effectively. When 
 a teacher is sure of himself and has the discipline of his 
 room well estabHshed, pupils in all grades above the fourth 
 may be permitted to leave the room, imder certain restric- 
 tions, without asking permission ; but it is not wise for the 
 
46 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 beginning teacher to grant this privilege at the outset, 
 for with the average child constituted as he is, it is a 
 privilege that is certain to be abused. On the other hand, 
 the constant interruption of pupils asking for permission 
 is a serious source of inconvenience. The best plan is to 
 say nothing about the matter until the interruptions be- 
 come so numerous as to be a disturbing factor. When 
 this time comes, the pupils who ask most frequently should 
 be spoken to privately to discover, if possible, whether the 
 necessity really exists. In case the pupil states that it is 
 necessary to leave the room more than once in a session, 
 the teacher should request a written statement from 
 parent or physician to that effect, and then make a special 
 case of this particular pupil, allowing him the privilege 
 without requiring a request each time. 
 
 With the normal child, however, regular habits should 
 be speedily estabHshed with regard to the bodily func- 
 tions. With a recess each session, the number of pupils 
 requesting to leave the room during class hours should be 
 reduced to a minimum. In some schools the hnes are 
 passed to the latrines and closets at each recess before 
 being allowed to go upon the playground, and this will 
 gradually control the difficulty. One teacher of the 
 writer's acquaintance, who was greatly troubled by this 
 matter in a new school, kept his boys after dismissal one 
 evening and talked to them good-naturedly but seriously 
 about the necessity for forming regular habits, suggesting 
 that the bowels be encouraged to move every morning 
 before school time. The talk had a good effect, not only 
 
MECHANIZING ROUTINE 47 
 
 upon the discipline of the school, but also upon the health 
 of the pupils. This matter is comparatively simple for a 
 male teacher to deal with in the case of boys, but presents 
 greater difl&culties for a woman teacher. Nevertheless, even 
 in such cases, private admonition would probably have a 
 good effect, and a tactful teacher should be able to make 
 suggestions without causing embarrassment to either party. 
 
 In general, it is safer to run the risk of having the privi- 
 lege abused than to run the counter risk of causing bodily 
 injury to the pupil, especially through the retention of 
 urine. For the beginning teacher, a poHcy of wide lati- 
 tude in this matter is far safer than one of close restriction. 
 
 15. Neatness of Written Work and of Blackboard 
 Work. One of the most accurate indices of a teacher's 
 efficiency is the character of the papers and of the black- 
 board work that his pupils produce. These matters may 
 not appear, at first thought, to be of profound importance, 
 and it is true that their significance may in certain instances 
 be overestimated. Nevertheless scientific investigation * 
 indicates that accuracy in handwriting varies directly as 
 general school intelHgence ; in general, the better the 
 handwriting — that is, the more accurate — the higher 
 the mental attainments of the pupils. In any case, the 
 ability to train pupils to produce accurate written work is 
 a fairly good index of the teacher's general capacity in 
 habit-building. 
 
 * Cf . A. L. Gesell : " Accuracy in Handwriting as Related to School 
 Intelligence and Sex," in American Journal of Psychology, 1906, vcd. xvii, 
 pp. 394-405. 
 
48 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 Accurate written work, whether on paper or on the 
 blackboard, involves several specific features, each one of 
 which can and should be reduced to the plane of au- 
 tomatism, (a) The writing itself must be legible. This 
 means that the letters must be uniform in height, and that 
 each letter must possess sufficient individual pecuUarity 
 to permit its ready recognition, (b) The spaces between 
 letters and between words must be uniform and sufficient 
 in extent, (c) The arrangement of the written work must 
 present a neat appearance, reveaHng through indentations, 
 headings, etc., the main relations of the data expressed. 
 {d) The punctuation should be meaningful and adapted 
 to the conventional but none the less important functions 
 that the different punctuation marks fulfill, {e) The 
 name of the pupil, the date, and the name of the school 
 or number of the grade or room should be placed at the 
 head of all papers in a uniform manner. In blackboard 
 work the name of the pupil, at least, should appear, and 
 it should uniformly be written neatly and without super- 
 fluous flourishes (a trivial matter, it may seem, but a very 
 important index of the "taste" that is being developed in 
 pupils). 
 
 Advice with regard to the details just mentioned is very 
 frequently couched by supervisors in very general terms: 
 "Get better writing"; "Make your blackboard work 
 neater"; "Improve the form of your papers." This 
 advice frequently fails of effect for the reason that the 
 teacher does not recognize the specific nature of the habits 
 that he attempts to impress. Neat papers and neat black- 
 
MECHANIZING ROUTINE 49 
 
 board work involve a number of little, specific habits, and 
 each of these must be taken up and drilled upon apart 
 from the others, and, in some measure, apart from the j 
 content or thought of the work that is being expressed. 
 i6. From the foregoing discussion it is manifest that 
 there will be a number of monitorial positions to be filled 
 by pupils whenever this system of routine is adopted. 
 While some of these monitors will be chosen from those 
 occupying convenient seats, the majority of the positions, 
 and especially those involving some measure of trust or 
 responsibility, may be given as rewards for good work. 
 This phase of the subject will be discussed in a later 
 section. 
 
 References. — White: School Management, -pp. 94-99; Roark: 
 Economy in Education, pp. 40-44; J. S. Taylor: Class Manage- 
 ment and Discipline, New York, 1903, pp. 42-43; Baldwin: Art of 
 School Management, chs. iv, vi; Landon: School Management, 
 pp. 109-iri. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 The Daily Program 
 
 lo To secure a maximal degree of efficiency in its work 
 the school must make the most effective use of the time 
 at its disposal. This is a complex problem, involving the 
 adjustment of several determining factors. Among these 
 the following require detailed consideration: (a) the 
 length of the school year, (b) the length of the school day, 
 (c) the time devoted to recesses and intermissions, (d) the 
 subjects required, (e) the relative importance of these 
 subjects at different levels of the child's development, 
 (/) the relation of different types, of subject-matter to 
 fatigue, ig) the general factors of fatigue, and the sig- 
 nificance of these factors to recesses, rest-periods, etc., 
 (h) the time devoted to general exercises of all kinds, 
 (i) the number of pupils and the number of separate classes 
 for which each teacher must be responsible. As in the 
 preceding discussions, these factors will be treated in their 
 relation to the classroom teacher rather than in their 
 broader significance to the duties of the principal, the 
 superintendent, or the school board, 
 
 2. The Length of the School Year. This is com- 
 monly determined either by statutory enactment or by 
 the decision of local school boards. In graded schools 
 
 so 
 
THE DAILY PROGRAM 5 1 
 
 it is usually either thirty-six or forty weeks; in rural 
 schools seldom more than thirty-six weeks, and generally 
 much less. The tendency at present is probably toward 
 a longer school year, both in the cities and in the rural 
 districts. The length of the school year has two relations 
 to the daily program: (a) If the school year is very 
 short, the daily program must emphasize the studies that 
 are admittedly important in elementary education, and 
 minimize those that are less important ; thus a city school 
 that is in session forty weeks of the year might devote per- 
 haps thirty minutes each day to music, while a rural school 
 that is in session only twelve weeks could not possibly 
 justify so long a period, (b) If the school year includes all 
 or a part of the summer months, the daily program must 
 be so adjusted as to give the maximum of "heavy" work 
 during the cooler season of the year and the minimum 
 during the heated season. 
 
 3. Length 0} the School Day. This is, of course, 
 the prime controUing factor in the gross structure of the 
 program. The traditional length of the school day in the 
 United States is six hours, — 9 a.m. to 12 M. and i p.m. 
 to 4 P.M. Although this is somewhat shorter than the 
 school day in foreign countries — notably Germany — 
 the prevailing tendency seems to be still further to abbre- 
 viate it. At the present time there are very few city schools 
 that have a six-hour school day, and the rural schools are 
 coming to cut it down, generally by giving a somewhat 
 longer noon intermission. In practically all schools the 
 school day for the first two years is from thirty to sixty 
 
52 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 minutes shorter than that for the remaining years of the 
 course. The classroom teacher, as a rule, has nothing to 
 do with determining the length of the school day, except 
 with the lower classes in imgraded schools. In su'-h cases, 
 and in the absence of ruHngs of the board to the contrary, 
 the teacher should, if possible, dismiss the first and second 
 grade pupils not later than 11:30 in the morning and 
 3:15 in the afternoon. The third-grade pupils may be 
 kept until noon for the morning session and until 3 : 30 
 for the afternoon session. This is sometimes out of the 
 question in rural schools where the younger pupils must 
 wait for their older brothers and sisters. In such cases the 
 program should be so arranged as to permit the first and 
 second grade pupils to do the lightest part of their work 
 in the later periods. In good weather, and if other 
 conditions are favorable, they should be permitted to play 
 out of doors. 
 
 4. Time devoted to Recesses and Intermissions. This 
 must, in all cases, be subtracted from the total time 
 of the school day in order to determine the amount avail- 
 able for actual school work. With two sessions of three 
 hours each, the rule is invariable to give at least fifteen 
 minutes in the middle of each session to "free play" in the 
 open air. When the afternoon session is reduced to two 
 and one half or to two hours, as it is in many of the city 
 systems, the afternoon recess is shortened to ten minutes 
 for all grades up to the fifth or sixth, and omitted entirely 
 for grades above this point. The tendency to do away 
 with all recesses is probably to be condemned in the light 
 
THE DAILY PROGRAM 53 
 
 of studies on fatigue.^ It is probably best to have the recess 
 in each session begin at a point midway between the open- 
 ing and close of the session, thus making the periods after 
 recess a little shorter than those before recess. 
 
 5. The Subjects to he Taught. The responsibility of 
 determining the subjects of instruction seldom rests with 
 the classroom teacher. In case the local or county 
 authorities do not prescribe a definite course of study, that 
 prescribed by the state department of public instruction 
 should be used. The teacher frequently has some lati- 
 tude, however, with certain "accessory" subjects (draw- 
 ing, music, nature study, agriculture, etc.), especially in 
 schools that are not under the control of a principal or 
 superintendent. In case such discretionary power is 
 granted, it is a wise rule to teach only such of the accessory 
 subjects as one can handle effectively. If, for example, a 
 teacher is weak in music and strong in drawing, the latter 
 is the one to emphasize if a choice is permitted. Much time 
 is wasted in the attempt to teach either music or drawing 
 by those who have neither a special aptitude nor a special 
 training for such work. In general, the fundamental 
 subjects should be provided for first, and then whatever 
 time can be spared may be devoted to the accessory 
 subjects. 
 
 ^ " Recess time has been displaced in many places by brief physical 
 exercises in the schoolroom. The school appears more mannerly, more 
 subdued, more orderly. By this means there is not so much chance for 
 lowering the moral tone by speech or action on the school grounds. But 
 how about the physical condition of the child?" — W. A. Baldwin: 
 Industrial Social Edtication, Springfield, Mass., 1903, p. 46. 
 
54 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 6. The Relative Importance of the Various Subjects. 
 The time to be allotted to each subject manifestly de- 
 pends very largely upon the importance of the subject 
 in relation to others. This must frequently be determined 
 by the teacher, although in many systems definite rulings 
 are made by the superintendent which relieve the teacher 
 from responsibility in the matter. 
 
 The prevailing practice in American schools seems to 
 indicate that the "form" studies (reading, virriting, arith- 
 metic, spelling, and language) are more important in the 
 elementary school than the content studies (geography, 
 history, literature, physiology, etc.). Dr. B. R. Payne,* 
 summarizing the programs of ten typical American cities, 
 finds that the formal studies receive sixty-two per cent of 
 the assigned time, while the content studies receive but 
 little more than thirty per cent. In spite of the opinion of 
 many competent authorities^ that more "content" work 
 
 * B. R. Payne: Public Elementary School Curricula, New York, 1905, 
 
 P- 39- 
 
 ' For example, Payne, op. cii., pp. 197 S., constructs what he terms an 
 "ideal" course of study for American schools in which he allots to the 
 various subjects the following per cent of the total time: Scripture 
 opening exercises, 10%; English (including reading, spelling, writing, 
 grammar, literature, and oral and written composition), 27.5%; arith- 
 metic, 12.5 % ; geography, 7.5 % ; history and civics, 7.5 % ; nature study, 
 7.5%; drawing, 5%; music, 5%; physical training, 7%; and hand 
 work, 10%. This maybe profitably contrasted with his findings for the 
 ten cities mentioned above: opening exercises, 3.1%; reading and 
 literature, 20.7%; writing, 4.7%; spelHng, 4.7% ; language and gram- 
 mar, 14.4%; arithmetic, 17.3%; geography, 7.2%; history and civics, 
 4.8%; nature study, 3.4%; physiology, 0.7%; physical training, 4-7%; 
 drawing, 6.4%; music, 5.1%; manual training, 2,4%. It will be noted 
 that arithmetic, language, and drawing are cut down in Mr. Payne's pro- 
 
THE DAILY PROGRAM 55 
 
 should be given in the elementary school, the prevailing 
 practice receives some support from theoretical considera- 
 tions. The preadolescent years which are represented by 
 the elementary school seem preeminently to be the time 
 for drill, discipline, and the formation of habits, and it is 
 these things that the so-called "form" studies emphasize. 
 Again it is fairly well established that an overemphasis 
 of content work must, by a law of compensation, detract 
 from the efl&ciency of form work. In other words, the evi- 
 dence of practical hfe indicates that pupils who have had 
 the advantage of a very "rich" curriculum — a curriculum 
 overloaded with "content" subjects — are weak in the 
 formal requirements when they leave the elementary 
 school. 
 
 7. Wherever the young teacher has an option in this 
 matter, then, it would seem to be the wise plan to follow 
 the prevaihng practice.^ From the standpoint of program- 
 building, this conclusion carries with it several corollaries : 
 (a) the best periods of the day should be given to the for- 
 mal subjects ; (b) if sacrifices are necessary, the content 
 subjects should be sacrificed, at least in the lower grades ; 
 (c) the bulk of the time should be devoted to the formal 
 work ; (d) if any extra periods are available — say five- 
 minute periods just before the noon hour, or before the clos- 
 
 posed allotment, while the time to be given to opening exercises, history, 
 geography, and manual training, is decidedly increased. 
 
 ^ This is not to imply that one should do the "safe " thing from motives 
 of policy. If the teacher is convinced that the content work should re- 
 ceive the greater emphasis, he should lose no opportunity to act in accord- 
 ance with his honest convictions. 
 
56 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 ing hour — they should be given to drills upon those phases 
 of formal work in which pupils show especial weakness. 
 
 Both this conclusion and its corollaries are somewhat quali- 
 fied by the factors of development. The seventh and eighth 
 grades belong to the adolescent period of growth, and it is 
 generally agreed that, at this time, there should be some relaxa- 
 tion of drill, and a greater enrichment of the curriculum from 
 the content standpoint. Measures looking toward these ends 
 can be easily adopted if the drill work has been well done in 
 the preadolescent period, and the programs for these upper 
 grades should be constructed with reference to this qualification. 
 
 8. The Relation of Subject-matter to Fatigue. The 
 above conclusions must be submitted to another and 
 broader quaUfication. The "form" subjects are, in 
 general, more fatiguing than the "content" subjects,^ 
 hence they are not only to be given the most favorable 
 periods of the day, as is demanded by their greater im- 
 portance, but they are also to be arranged in such a manner 
 that two fatiguing subjects will not follow one another 
 directly. It is also to be remembered that the periods 
 devoted to the form subjects must not be too long, else the 
 effectiveness of the work will be decreased through fatigue. 
 Thus it is sometimes well to give two short periods rather 
 than one long period to certain of the formal drills, plac- 
 ing a content subject in the intervening period. 
 
 9. The General Factors of Fatigue. The capacity for 
 
 ^ Mathematics, formal language work (including spelling, penmanship, 
 and formal grammar), formal gymnastics, and foreign languages are 
 most fatiguing according to the best authorities; nature study, geog- 
 raphy, history, singing, and drawing are least fatiguing. See citations, 
 Educative Process, p. 341. 
 
THE DAILY PROGRAM 57 
 
 sustained attention or work manifests itself in rhythms. 
 The best work is never done at the outset, but only after 
 a certain inertia has been overcome and a certain mo- 
 mentum gained.^ The daily "work curve" or "course of 
 power," on a school day, reaches its highest point between 
 nine and ten in the morning, and then dechnes rapidly, 
 reaching a minimum at noon. In the afternoon, the high 
 point of the curve is reached shortly after two o'clock, but 
 this point is much lower than the morning's maximum. 
 The decHne is not so rapid as in the morning, but the 
 minimum is somewhat lower.^ It follows from these laws 
 that the heaviest work must be assigned for the morning 
 periods immediately preceding the first recess. The tasks 
 that stand next in "fatiguing power" should be distributed 
 between the morning periods after recess and the after- 
 noon periods prior to half-past two. 
 
 Again the rule is subject to qualification. As was shown 
 above, it is not wise to have two difficult subjects — especially 
 two "form" subjects — in succession, nor is it consistent with 
 good hygiene to have in close succession two subjects that 
 involve writing. Practical experience proves that it is best not 
 to have writing or drawing or other exercises requiring minute 
 muscular adjustments immediately after a recess or immedi- 
 ately after the noon intermission. "Class exercises needing 
 steady nerves, such as writing or drawing, ought not to follow 
 a recess or any time of physical exertion." ^ 
 
 Recuperation from fatigue can be secured in a complete 
 
 * For authorities, see O'Shea, Dynamic Factors in Education, New 
 York, 1906, p. 282. 
 
 ^ See Educative Process, pp. 340 fiF. ; also O'Shea, op. cit., pp. 292 f. 
 ' A. N. Raub; School Management, Philadelphia, 1897, p. 73. 
 
58 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 form only by nutrition and sleep, but a partial restitution 
 may be accomplished through (i) "free play" (that is, 
 spontaneous activity preferably in the open air) and (2) re- 
 laxation. Formal gymnastic exercises have been proved 
 to be more fatiguing than any other school "study" except 
 mathematics/ This does not mean, of course, that there 
 should be no place for gymnastics in the program, but 
 simply that gymnastics must not be looked upon as 
 recreative exercises in the popular sense of the term. 
 
 10. General Exercises. It is customary in nearly all 
 schools to devote some time, generally at the opening 
 of the morning session, to exercises of a general nature. 
 These may fulfill several functions: (a) "When carefully 
 planned and inteUigently carried out, they constitute an 
 effective remedy for tardiness and irregularity of attend- 
 ance; they can be made so interesting that the pupils 
 will let nothing get in the way of prompt attendance upon 
 them." ^ {h) They ofifer an opportunity to give explicit 
 instructions in matters that are not touched upon in the 
 regular work of the school. "The teacher will frequently 
 have remarks to make to the school, reproof may need to 
 be administered, or cautions may need to be given. None 
 of these ought to interfere with the recitations of the day." ^ 
 (c) They offer an opportunity to begin the work of the 
 day upon a high plane. It is for this reason that devo- 
 tional exercises of a simple nature are thoroughly in place 
 
 * Cf. O'Shea, op. cil., p. 222; also Educative Process, p. 341. 
 
 ' R. N. Roark: Economy in Education, New York, 1905, pp. 49-50. 
 
 * Raub, op. cit., pp. 73-74. 
 
THE DAILY PROGRAM 59 
 
 at this time, unless prohibited by legislative enactment or 
 by public sentiment, {d) One's fund of knowledge is 
 drawn in as great amount, perhaps, from general sources 
 as from specific and organized sources. That is, one 
 picks up items of information from general talks, cursory 
 reading, casual observation, and these unrelated facts 
 form no small part of one's intellectual capital. They 
 may be less valuable, less accurate, than the items of 
 knowledge obtained by sytematized study; but they are 
 important, nevertheless, and some provision for their 
 gleaning should be made by the school. General exercises 
 probably offer the best medium for this purpose. 
 
 In arranging the daily program, then, time should be 
 allowed for general exercises of some description, and it is 
 perhaps best to place them at the beginning of the morn- 
 ing session. From five to fifteen minutes may be profit- 
 ably utilized in this way ; probably the average in the bet- 
 ter schools is ten minutes. Here, if anywhere, it is quality 
 rather than quantity that counts. 
 
 II. The Number of Pupils and the Number of 
 Classes. These two factors are by far the most trouble- 
 some to the classroom teacher in making out a program. 
 The problem is far from simple in the graded school 
 where a single teacher has but one grade divided into 
 two classes, one half year apart in age and classification. 
 Where two grades with three or four different classes are 
 given to one teacher, the problem is much more compli- 
 cated, but the greatest complication is met with in the un- 
 graded schools where one teacher must teach all classes in 
 
6o CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 all subjects. In the discussion of the problems involved in 
 adjusting the program to these conditions, it will be well 
 to begin with the simple conditions of the graded school.^ 
 
 The Graded School Classroom Program. Assuming the room 
 to contain but one grade divided into two groups, the mem- 
 bers of each of which are approximately equal in capacity and 
 attainments (and this assumption must be made in practice), the 
 first point is to determine the number of minutes in the school 
 day. This is done by subtracting from the total time the num- 
 ber of minutes given to recesses, intermissions, and general exer- 
 cises. The required subjects are then enumerated, and the 
 available time divided by the number representing the total of 
 required subjects, in order to see what time can be devoted to 
 each, assuming that all are equal in value. This average time 
 should then be divided by two, in order to determine the length 
 of each study and recitation period. The average length must 
 then be compared with the accepted standard length of the pe- 
 riod for the grade in question. These standard lengths of peri- 
 ods as given in the table commonly credited to Chadwick and 
 generally adopted in the United States are as follows : 5-7 years, 
 15 minutes; 7-10 years, 20 minutes; 10-12 years, 25 minutes; 
 12-16 years, 30 minutes. 
 
 In most grades the quotient of the available time divided 
 by the number of subjects required, and this divided by two 
 in order to equalize study and recitation periods, will be much 
 smaller than the number represented by the above table for 
 the grade in question. It therefore becomes necessary to make 
 an adjustment (i) by determining the subjects that will, from 
 their nature, require no study period, and (2) if the grade 
 standard is not thus secured, by providing that certain subjects 
 
 * If one teacher has charge of but one class, the problem is, of course, 
 extremely simple. But this condition is seldom met with in American 
 schools. 
 
THE DAILY PROGRAM 6l 
 
 shall be taught only on alternate days. Even then it may 
 become necessary to cut down the time recommended as the 
 standard length of period for the grade in question. 
 
 To take a concrete instance : suppose the grade to be the fifth, 
 the sessions to last from 9 to 12 and from 1:15 to 4, with a re- 
 cess of 15 minutes for each session, and the required subjects 
 to be the following : reading, arithmetic, geography, language 
 or grammar, history, physiology, writing, spelling, nature study, 
 music, drawing, physical training, and "morals and manners." 
 For the "teaching" of these thirteen subjects, 305 minutes will 
 be available, after deducting 30 minutes for recesses and 
 10 minutes for general exercises. If all subjects are to be 
 given an equal allotment of time each day, it is clear that each 
 will receive approximately 24.2 minutes. This would give 
 1 2.1 minutes to each study and recitation period, or about one 
 half the standard period's length — and, moreover, a period 
 far too brief for effective work. It may be assumed, however, 
 that the following subjects will require no study period : music, 
 drawing, physical training, nature study, and morals and man- 
 ners. But even if these are to be given the standard period 
 (25 minutes for this grade) each day, there will not remain 
 enough time to supply the other subjects adequately. Either 
 alternation of subjects or reduction of the standard length of 
 period is absolutely necessary. 
 
 It is perhaps best to try alternation first. It is evident that 
 nature study and drawing can be conveniently alternated. 
 Morals and manners, while constantly emphasized, need receive 
 explicit attention only once a week, but physical training must 
 come every day, although it need not occupy the full period. 
 The following arrangement seems therefore to be justified : draw- 
 ing or nature study, alternating, 20 minutes daily ; physical cul- 
 i^ure, 10 minutes daily ; music, 20 minutes daily, except for one 
 day, when morals and manners may occupy the music period. 
 
 The subjects named can be taught to both classes simul- 
 
62 CXASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 taneously. There are two other subjects that are amenable to 
 similar treatment, — spelling and penmanship. For the former, 
 at least 20 minutes daily should be apportioned, 10 minutes 
 for study and 10 minutes for recitation. For written recitation, 
 words can be dictated, first to one class, then to the other. 
 Oral spelling can be provided for by assigning the same les- 
 son to both classes. This is especially valuable for frequent 
 reviews on words commonly misspelled. Writing should have 
 at least 15 minutes daily, and may be given to both classes 
 at the same time. The total daily apportionment thus pro- 
 vided will amount in all to 85 minutes. Subtracting this from 
 the 305 minutes available for all work, 220 minutes will be left 
 for apportionment to the subjects requiring study periods, 
 assuming that grammar (or language), history, and physiology 
 are all text-book subjects as they usually are in the fifth grade. 
 The 220 minutes divided among the six subjects will give less 
 than 40 minutes for each, or less than 20 minutes for a study 
 or recitation period. Again, either alternation or shortening 
 the standard is required. The only subjects among the six 
 that will permit alternation are history and physiology. Sup- 
 pose these to be alternated; the total is now constructively 
 diminished by one. But five subjects will still not permit 
 full 25 minutes for study or recitation. The last resort 
 is a partial shortening of the standard, which is inevitable 
 wherever the contingency arises and where home study is not 
 permitted.* This partial shortening can be accomplished by 
 allowing some subjects 25 minutes for study and 20 minutes 
 for recitation. In other words, if a certain period is 25 minutes 
 in duration, the next can be made 20 minutes, the next 25 
 minutes, and so on. While one class recites, the other studies, 
 so that approximately 45 minutes may be devoted by each 
 class to each of the text-book subjects. In both classes, how- 
 
 * In the writer's opinion, home study should be permitted not earlier 
 than Prade V, and preferably not prior to Grade VIL 
 
THE DAILY PROGRAM 
 
 63 
 
 ever, one subject will be limited to 40 minutes. Care should 
 be taken that this will not be a subject of great importance for 
 this grade. The following program is based upon this arrange- 
 ment. It is inserted merely as suggestive of a possible outcome 
 of the situation that we have imagined. "R" indicates recit- 
 ing class; ''S " indicates study class.* "A" is the latter half of 
 the fifth grade ; *' B " the first half. 
 
 Period 
 
 9:00- 9: 10 
 9 : 10- 9 : 20 
 9 : 20- 9 : 30 
 
 9:30- 9:5s 
 9:55-10:15 
 10: 15-10:30 
 10:30-10:45 
 10: 45-11 : 10 
 II : lo-ii : 30 
 11:30-11:50 
 II : 50-12: 00 
 
 1:15- 1 : 40 
 1 : 40- 2 : 00 
 2 : 00- 2 : 20 
 2 : 20- 2 : 30 
 2:30- 2:45 
 2 : 45- 3 : 10 
 3:10- 3:30 
 
 3:30- 3:50 
 
 3 : 50- 4 : 00 
 
 Dura- 
 tion 
 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 25 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 25 
 20 
 20 
 10 
 
 25 
 20 
 20 
 10 
 
 IS 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 20 
 10 
 
 ^A" Class 
 
 B" Class 
 
 Opening ExerciseS/, 
 
 S. spelling ^iUtt 
 
 R. spelling ^ 
 
 R. reading 
 
 S. arithmetic 
 
 Writing 
 
 Recess 
 
 R. arithmetic 
 
 S. geography 
 
 R. geography 
 
 Physical culture 
 
 S. grammar 
 R. grammar 
 S. history or physiology 
 Music 
 Recess 
 
 R. history or physiology 
 S. reading 
 
 Drawing or nature study 
 Music, 4 days, morals 
 
 Opening exercises 
 
 S. spelling 
 
 R. spelling 
 
 S. arithmetic 
 
 R. arithmetic 
 
 Writing 
 
 Recess 
 
 S. reading 
 
 R. reading 
 
 S. geography 
 
 Physical culture 
 
 6cJ^^-j7^tlJ 
 
 R. geography \J^l< ' 
 
 S. grammar^,^^^/^/^,,^ 
 
 R. grammaf/^ // /7 ^ -^ 
 
 M,usic u 
 
 Recess ' 
 
 S. history or physiology 
 
 R. history or physiology - ff 
 
 Drawing or nature study ^^^^''^1^'f 
 
 and manners, i day 1 
 
 The above program has some apparent weaknesses. Spell- 
 ing, for example, is given the first period in the morning, while 
 in most schools it is placed at some less important period. The 
 
 * " The best programs show what is being done at the seats as well as 
 what is being done in recitation." — Akron, Ohio, Course of Study, 1904, 
 p. 174. 
 
64 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 disposition, however, to place drill subjects at unfavorable 
 periods is probably to be condemned, and to give the first 
 school period to spelling is, especially in the intermediate grades, 
 a commendable, although not a common, practice. Penman- 
 ship is given the period just prior to the morning recess. This 
 is open to criticism in that it makes a writing exercise follow 
 arithmetic; it is justified only on the ground that the 15 
 minutes just prior to recess is too brief for any other subject 
 that is entitled to a favorable morning period, and also by the 
 fact that writing should not come immediately after any recess 
 or intermission because of the difficulty of making fine adjust- 
 ments after vigorous exercise ; thus by a method of elimination 
 the period assigned seems to be the only period available. 
 The 10 minutes just preceding the noon intermission are not, 
 perhaps, the best time for physical exercises ; but in view of the 
 fact that these are very fatiguing whenever effectively carried 
 on, it is difficult to find a period when they will not have a 
 deleterious influence upon other work. The division of the 
 music into two periods could also be objected to. The last 10 
 minutes of the day, however, are frequently devoted to sing- 
 ing, and the arrangement indicated may be interpreted as 
 meaning that this is to be the policy here. The other music 
 period just preceding the afternoon recess may profitably be 
 devoted to instructional and drill work in music. All of the 
 text-book subjects are allotted 45 minutes, except geography 
 of the "A" class and grammar of the "B " class. It would be 
 better, of course, if the "cut" could come altogether from the 
 content subjects, but this is impracticable because the content 
 subjects aside from geography — physiology and history — 
 have already been reduced in time-allowance by alternation. 
 
 The Three- class Program. If three classes are in charge of 
 one teacher, there is no alternative but to shorten the periods 
 for recitation and increase the time devoted to seat work, unless, 
 as is frequently the case, different classes may pursue some 
 
THE DAILY PROGRAM 
 
 6s 
 
 assignments in common. Supposing this not to be the case, 
 however, it is clear that two thirds of the time allotted to each 
 text-book subject must be devoted to seat work, and one third 
 to recitation. For an example of this type of program, let us 
 assume that the teacher has the following classes: IV "A," V 
 " B," and V " A." In all probability the course of study will 
 show practically the same subjects, except that two reading les- 
 sons will be prescribed for the fourth grade to replace physiology 
 and history. Practically the same disposition can, therefore, 
 be made of the music, drawing, nature study, morals and 
 manners, and (perhaps) spelling and penmanship. Thus 
 approximately 220 minutes will be available for distribution 
 among the five text-book subjects. By taking 5 minutes 
 from one of the other branches, — perhaps music will be best 
 able to stand the sacrifice, — this total will be increased to 225 
 minutes. The advantage of doing this is obvious : each of the 
 five text-book subjects can be allotted 45 minutes, and this 
 time can be divided into a study period of 30 minutes and a 
 recitation period of 15 minutes. Needless to say, the study 
 periods are too long and the recitation periods too short; but 
 this will always be the case where more than two classes are 
 placed in charge of a single teacher. The following program 
 indicates the advantage of the division into 45-minute units : — 
 
 Period 
 
 Length 
 
 V "A" Class 
 
 V"B" Class 
 
 IV "A" Class 
 
 9: 00- 9: 10 
 
 10 
 
 Opening exercises 
 
 Opening exercises 
 
 Opening exercises 
 
 9: 10- 9: 30 
 
 20 
 
 Spelling 
 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Spelling 
 
 9:30- 9:4s 
 
 
 S. arithmetic 
 
 
 S. arithmetic 
 
 R, reading 
 
 9: 45-10:00 
 
 
 S. arithmetic 
 
 
 R. arithmetic 
 
 S. arithmetic 
 
 10:00-10: IS 
 
 
 R. arithmetic 
 
 
 S. reading 
 
 S. arithmetic 
 
 10: 15-10:30 
 
 
 Writing 
 
 
 Writing 
 
 Writing 
 
 10: 30-10:45 
 
 
 Recess 
 
 
 Recess 
 
 Recess 
 
 10:45-11:00 
 
 
 S. reading 
 
 
 S. reading • 
 
 R. arithmetic 
 
 11 : 00-11: 15 
 
 
 S. reading 
 
 
 R. reading 
 
 S. geography 
 
 11: 15-11:30 
 
 
 R. reading 
 
 S. geography 
 
 S. geography 
 
 11:30-11:45 
 
 IS 
 
 S. geography 
 
 S. geography 
 
 R. geography 
 
 11:45-12:00 
 
 IS 
 
 S. geography^ 
 
 R. geography 
 
 S. reading 
 
66 
 
 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 
 Period 
 
 Length 
 
 X 
 
 IS- 1:30 
 
 IS 
 
 I 
 
 30- 1:4s 
 
 IS 
 
 1 
 
 45- 2:00 
 
 IS 
 
 3 
 
 00- 3: IS 
 
 IS 
 
 3 
 
 15- 2:30 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 30- 2 : 45 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 45- 3:00 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 00- 3: 15 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 IS- 3:30 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 30- 3:50 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 SO- 4:00 
 
 10 
 
 V " A " Class 
 
 V"B" Class 
 
 IV "A" Class 
 
 R. geography 
 S. grammari 
 S. gramm; 
 grammar 
 
 ^1-^ 
 
 S. grammar S. reading 
 
 S. grammar R. reading 
 
 R. grammar S. language 
 
 S. physiology, history S. language 
 
 Divided between physical culture and music 
 Recess Recess Recess 
 
 S. physiology, history S. physiology R. language 
 
 S. physiology R. physiology S. reading 
 
 R. physiology S. arithmetic S. reading 
 
 Drawing or nat. st. Drawing or nat. st. Drawing or nat. st. 
 Music, 4 days a week, morals and manners, i day 
 
 Upper Grade Programs. On account of the numerous lines 
 of work demanded by modern courses of study for the upper 
 grades, it is imperative that one or two assignments be prepared 
 aw home. A brief reference to either of the above programs 
 will show how much the problem of program-making would be 
 simplified if at least one subject could be assumed in each class 
 to be provided for by home study. Above the sixth grade, 
 however, where effective periods must be at least 25 minutes 
 in length, it would be impossible to arrange a satisfactory 
 program without this provision. 
 
 The program (page 67) suggests a possible distribution of the 
 eighth-grade work. The "A'* class prepares arithmetic and 
 spelling at home, the "B'* class, history and speUing. The 
 text-book periods are, with three exceptions, 30 minutes in 
 duration. (The abbreviation "H.P." indicates home prepara- 
 tion.) 
 
 It will doubtless be practicable in most instances to have 
 the two classes study the same literary masterpieces; this 
 would enable both classes to "recite" literature at the same 
 period. No time is allotted for physical exercises, and if these 
 are prescribed, it will be necessary to cut two more periods to 
 25 minutes. 
 
 The Ungraded School Program. An inspection of the three- 
 
THE DAILY PROGRAM 
 
 67 
 
 Period 
 
 Length 
 
 "A" Class 
 
 "B" Class 
 
 9 : 00- 9 : 10 
 
 10 
 
 Opening 
 
 Opening 
 
 9: 10- 9: 20 
 
 10 
 
 Spelling (H.P.) 
 
 Spelling (H.P.) 
 
 9 : 20- 9 : 50 
 
 30 
 
 R. arithmetic (H.P.) 
 
 S. arithmetic 
 
 9: 50-10: 20 
 
 30 
 
 S. grammar 
 
 R. arithmetic 
 
 10: 20-10: 30 
 
 10 
 
 Writing 
 
 Writing 
 
 10 : 30-10 : 45 
 
 15 
 
 Recess 
 
 Recess 
 
 10:45-11:15 
 
 30 
 
 R. grammar 
 
 S. grammar 
 
 11: 15-11:40 
 
 25 
 
 S. physiology or civics 
 
 R. grammar ^ > 
 study or agriculture^ ^ 
 
 11:40-12: 00 
 
 20 
 
 Drawing or nature 
 
 1:15-1 •• 45 
 
 30 
 
 S. history 
 
 R. history (H.P.) 
 
 1:4s- 2:15 
 
 30 
 
 R. history 
 
 S. physiology or civics 
 
 2:15- 2:30 
 
 IS 
 
 Music 
 
 Music 
 
 2:30- 2:45 
 
 15 
 
 Recess 
 
 Recess 
 
 2:45- 3:10 
 
 25 
 
 R. physiology or civics * 
 
 S. literature » 
 
 3' 10- 3' 35 
 
 25 
 
 S. literature ^ 
 
 R. physiology or civic^ * 
 
 3:3s- 4:00 
 
 25 
 
 R. literature ^ 
 
 R. literature i^^^^J:^' 4 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 class program (page 66) will indicate the diflBiculties that are 
 to be overcome when the number of classes is increased beyond 
 two. The recitation periods must be greatly abbreviated, the 
 study periods proportionately lengthened, and the classes com- 
 bined wherever the effective teaching of the subject will in any 
 measure permit combination. 
 
 The most practical arrangement for an ungraded school is 
 probably that proposed by the late Dr. Emerson E. White.^ 
 According to this plan, the time of the teacher is equitably dis- 
 tributed among three classes of pupils, representing approxi- 
 mately the primary, intermediate, and grammar grades. The 
 recitation periods are 20, 25, and 30 minutes in length, the 
 longer periods being assigned to the older pupils. Provision 
 is made for frequent changes of work during the long study 
 
 * Manual training may be provided for by alternation in these periods. 
 
 * E. E. White : School Management, pp. 86-94. 
 
68 
 
 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 periods, especially for the younger pupils. Modifications of 
 this general plan have been incorporated into several state 
 manuals. The following four-class arrangement is a suggestive 
 variant. 
 
 A FOUR-CLASS PROGRAM RECOMMENDED FOR 
 
 UNGRADED SCHOOLS IN NEW YORK ^ 
 
 (Exercises italicized are for the reciting class.) 
 
 Time 
 
 ist Year 
 
 3d Year 
 
 6th Year 
 
 8th Year 
 
 0:00- 9:10 
 
 Opening ex. 
 
 Opening ex. 
 
 Opening ex. 
 
 Opening ex. 
 
 9:10- 9:30 
 
 Reading 
 
 Reading 
 
 Reading 
 
 Reading 
 
 9:30- 9:50 
 
 Copying 
 
 Reading 
 
 Reading 
 
 Reading 
 
 9: 50-10: 10 
 
 Emplo3rment 
 
 Reading 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 10: 10-10: 25 
 
 Dismissed 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Reading 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 10: 25-10: 35 
 
 Recess 
 
 Recess 
 
 Recess 
 
 Recess 
 
 10:35-10:45 
 
 Number 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 10:45-11:05 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 11:05-11: 25 
 
 Employment 
 
 Arithmeiic 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 History 
 
 11:25-11:45 
 
 Dismissed 
 
 Reading, Spelling Arithmetic 
 
 History 
 
 11:45-12:00 
 
 
 English 
 
 Geography 
 
 History 
 
 1:00- 1:05 
 
 
 Singing or 
 
 other exercises 
 
 
 I : 05- I : 20 
 
 Reading 
 
 Reading, Spelling Geography 
 
 English 
 
 1 : 20- 1 : 30 
 
 Copying 
 
 Reading, Spelling Geography 
 
 English 
 
 1:30- 1:45 
 
 Drawing ' 
 
 Drawing * 
 
 Drawing » 
 
 Drawing » 
 
 1:45- 2:00 
 
 Physiology ' 
 
 Physiology » 
 
 Geography 
 
 English 
 
 3 : 00- 2 : 20 
 
 Dismissed 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Phys., English 
 
 English 
 
 2 : 20- 2 : 35 
 
 
 Writing 
 
 Writing 
 
 Physiology 
 
 2:35- 2:45 
 
 Recess 
 
 Recess 
 
 Recess 
 
 Recess 
 
 2:45- 2:55 
 
 
 General lessons 
 
 
 »'-SS~ S'oo 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Geography 
 
 Phys., English 
 
 Civil government 
 
 3:00- 3:15 
 
 Tracing 
 
 Geography 
 
 Phys., English ♦ 
 
 Phys., dv. goT. • 
 
 3:15- 3:30 
 
 Dismissed 
 
 Geography 
 
 SpeUing 
 
 Civil government 
 
 3:30- 3:4s 
 
 
 Dismissed 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Civil government 
 
 3:45- 4:00 
 
 
 
 spelling 
 
 Special work 
 
 * 4gth Annual Report, Department of Public Instruction, New York, 
 1903, Appendix 4. 
 
 ' Drawing: two or three classes; two recitations a week. 
 
 * Physiology : two classes ; two or three recitations a week. 
 
 * English : two classes ; three recitations a week ; more if possible. 
 
 * Civil government may be alternated with some other study. 
 
THE DAILY PROGRAM 6g 
 
 12. The program-maker in the elementary school can- 
 not fail to be impressed with a very grave danger that is 
 inherent in the present tendency to enrich the curriculum 
 by the addition of a host of new subjects. How diflScult 
 it is to find time for the adequate presentation of accepted 
 subject-matter is quite evident from the above discussion. 
 The length of the periods for the various grades is the 
 result of long years of schoolroom practice and seems to 
 indicate both a maximal and minimal time for effective 
 and economical work. To shorten periods below this 
 limit is to risk a serious waste both of time and energy. 
 Moreover, the addition of each new subject must, if car- 
 ried beyond a certain point, detract from the effectiveness 
 of instruction in other subjects. There is a law of mental 
 activity somewhat analogous to the law of diminishing 
 returns in agriculture. Variety up to a certain point is 
 essential to effective mental work; variety beyond that 
 point promotes dispersed attention and inadequate ap- 
 perception. In the struggle to "teach'' everything that 
 is now demanded, the school is forced to give almost every 
 subject a superficial treatment. This is wrong both from 
 the standpoint of school economy and from the standpoint 
 of mental development.* 
 
 13. Holding to the Program, Practically all principals 
 
 * A recent writer in the School Journal proposes a possible reform in 
 this direction by advocating that all the subjects of major importance — 
 in brief the "three R's" — be given the bulk of the time in the ele- 
 mentary school, and that the "accessory" subjects be taught by lectures, 
 readings, and exercises involving a minimal expenditure of energy on the 
 part of the child^ 
 
70 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 and superintendents of schools agree that the beginning 
 teacher should hold rigidly to the program and time- 
 table. This is, at first, a rather difl&cult matter. There are 
 innumerable temptations to hold a class a moment with 
 one subject until a certain point has been made or a cer- 
 tain conclusion driven home. It is, of course, debatable 
 whether this is not justified, but it is the writer's experi- 
 ence that the results are much better if the time-table is 
 adhered to rigidly. There would seem to be a sound 
 reason back of this conclusion. In the first place, it is 
 comparatively simple to establish the habit of adjusting 
 one's work in preparation to fit the period for which it is 
 intended ; thus the teacher, after a httle experience, is able 
 to bring each lesson to a satisfactory finish within the period 
 allowed. In the second place, if the teacher begins to 
 extend or abbreviate the periods, it soon becomes impos- 
 sible to designate the point at which work is to be varied. 
 "Going over" the allotted time becomes a habit that 
 entails much waste and no little injustice. In the third 
 place, almost every teacher is apt to prefer some subjects 
 to others, and, unless a strenuous effort is made to be 
 impartial, it will be practically impossible to escape length- 
 ening the favorite periods. 
 
 References. — White: School Management, pp. 86-94; Roark: 
 Economy in Education, pp. 64-72; Seeley: A New School Manage- 
 ment, ch. v; Baldwin: Art of School Management, pt. iv, ch. v; 
 M. V. O'Shea: Dynamic Factors in Education, New York, 1906, 
 ch. xviii. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 Regularity and Punctuality of Attendance 
 
 1. Irregularity of attendance is a serious source of 
 waste in all grades of the school ; but for obvious reasons it 
 is most troublesome in the lower grades where the stimulus 
 of the teacher and of class instruction is so essential to 
 progress. Delinquent pupils not only miss the work that 
 has been done during their absence, but they necessarily 
 retard the progress of the class when they return. In other 
 words, the habitual delinquent is a dead weight that the 
 remainder of the class is forced to carry. 
 
 2. Regular Attendance should become a Habit. The 
 aim in all measures looking toward the improvement of 
 attendance is to make regularity and punctuality of 
 attendance a habit with every pupil. It is not until this 
 point has been reached that maximal economy of school 
 administration from this point of view can be attained. 
 Here as elsewhere, so long as the struggle between impulse 
 and idea is a conscious struggle, waste must ensue. The 
 following discussion, therefore, must consider the applica- 
 tion of the law of habit-building to this problem. How 
 can this important habit be initiated, and how may repe- 
 tition be sustained until automatism results? 
 
 It will be recognized at the outset that there must be 
 a certain irreducible minimum of absence and perhaps 
 
 n 
 
72 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 also of tardiness in every school. Moreover, this irre- 
 ducible minimum will vary with different grades,, different 
 localities, and different seasons of the year. Consequently 
 an absolute standard cannot be adopted: one cannot lay 
 down a hard-and-fast rule that ninety-four or ninety-seven 
 per cent of the pupils enrolled should be present at school 
 every session. The standard can, however, be established 
 within certain limits. Probably all authorities would 
 agree that a school showing an average attendance lower 
 than ninety per cent of its enrollment would be greatly 
 handicapped in doing effective work, and furthermore 
 that such a condition should be remedied, and could be 
 remedied if the proper methods were employed. All 
 authorities would also probably agree that a school show- 
 ing an average daily attendance of ninety-eight per cent 
 of its pupils could do very effective work (other things 
 equal), and furthermore that attempts to secure a higher 
 per centum would involve a danger that must never be over- 
 looked — namely, that some pupils would be forced to at- 
 tend school when such attendance would be inimical to 
 their health.^ 
 
 3. What constitutes a Necessary Delinquency ? Whether 
 distinctly provided by statute or not, it should be definitely 
 understood in every public school that the only acceptable 
 
 * In computing the per centum of attendance, the number enrolled 
 should not, of course, include those who have been registered and then 
 transferred to other schools. It is, however, unjust to consider the num- 
 ber "belonging" in place of the number enrolled, if, by the number 
 belonging, one means all who have not been absent more than three or 
 five consecutive days, as is done in most schools. 
 
REGULARITY AND PUNCTUALITY OF ATTENDANCE 73 
 
 excuse for absence or tardiness is either the presence of 
 some condition that would make attendance inimical to 
 the pupil's health, or the existence in the pupil's home of a 
 very serious misfortune. Absence from school or tafdiness 
 in coming to school caused by employing the pupil in 
 services either at home or elsewhere should not be con- 
 sidered as legitimate. If the child's services are required 
 either directly or indirectly to provide the necessities of 
 life, the case is one demanding attention from the poor 
 commissioners. If lack of proper clothing prevents 
 regular attendance, the community should provide such 
 clothing. All this is not charity; it is public economy. 
 In view of the disturbing influence of absence and tardi- 
 ness upon the work of the school as a whole, and in view 
 of the heavy cost of maintaining a pubhc school system, 
 no other position is tenable. This does not mean that the 
 school is to be the "juggernaut" so vividly described by 
 opponents of compulsory education ; it simply means that 
 school work is to be recognized as a serious business, and 
 that the time, energy, and wealth expended upon the school 
 system are to make an adequate return ; it simply means 
 that the rights of the majority are not to be invaded and 
 invaUdated by the whims or the incompetency of the 
 minority. 
 
 4. The habit of regular and punctual attendance must 
 be initiated by estabUshing this principle. How can this 
 be done ? 
 
 (a) Enforcing Attendance Statutes and Rulings. Fortu- 
 nately most of the states (except in the South) have forti- 
 
74 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 fied education with laws that compel the attendance of 
 all children of school age during the time that school is in 
 session, unless they are excused for one of the two reasons 
 mentioned above. Some of these laws, it is true, have been 
 made practically ineffective through sharp manipulation, 
 but the majority can be enforced. And yet, even where 
 the legal conditions are ideal, the per centum of attendance 
 is often deplorably low. The chief difficulty lies in the 
 fear of the teacher to give offense to parents. Perhaps he 
 is strenuous enough with pupils whose parents are not 
 influential, but his laxity in other cases much more than 
 counterbalances his partial rigorism. This attitude is not 
 only unfortunate from the standpoint of school efficiency 
 and economy; it is improfessional, uncraftsmanlike, and 
 inconsistent with the accepted standards of pubUc service. 
 How should unnecessary delinquencies be treated in 
 communities where a compulsory education law operates ? 
 Simply and solely as offenses against discipline and order 
 in the school and against the pubKc welfare in society 
 at large. Persisted in, they should be looked upon as 
 direct affronts to the authority of the school, and, in case 
 the delinquency is due to the pupil and not the parent, 
 the action should be construed as insubordination and 
 treated accordingly. Written excuses should be demanded 
 in all instances, and no written excuse should be accepted 
 unless it is at least formally consistent with the provisions 
 of the law. 
 
 To act professionally in matters of this sort does not mean 
 that one should act tactlessly and blunderingly ; it does mean, 
 
REGULARITY AND PUNCTUALITY OF ATTENDANCE 75 
 
 however, that one should act firmly. A courteous note to the 
 parent, informing him of the statutory requirement, and 
 briefly explaining its justice, will often be effective. If it is 
 not, a personal interview may remedy matters. If this measure 
 fails, there are still left an appeal to the law and action through the 
 regularly constituted legal channels. If local authorities refuse 
 through pressure from interested parties to enforce the law, it 
 is the plain duty of the teacher to lay the facts of the case before 
 the state superintendent of public instruction. Though so 
 drastic a policy should cost the teacher his position, the fact 
 should not lessen his determination to be just. 
 
 5. (b) Encouraging Regular Attendance by Prizes ^ Privi- 
 leges ^ etc. The "excuse" system, even under a rigid ap- 
 plication of a compulsory attendance law, will render it 
 impossible to eliminate all unnecessary delinquencies. 
 As long as the parent's word is accepted without investi- 
 gation (and American ideals of individual liberty properly 
 preclude ofl&cious prying into one's private affairs), a cer- 
 tain amount of injustice will be involved in accepting writ- 
 ten excuses. Compulsory education statutes can mitigate 
 but they cannot entirely eradicate the evils of irregular 
 attendance. Other methods of initiating the habits of 
 regularity and punctuality must be employed, even under 
 the most favorable conditions. 
 
 Material prizes for all who reach a certain standard in 
 attendance are justifiable under exceptional conditions. 
 They often fail, however, to reach the cases that are most 
 troublesome. Immaterial prizes (certificates of perfect 
 attendance, "honor" seats, names published in the local 
 paper if attendance is perfect, etc.) are more to be preferred, 
 
76 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 and are sometimes extremely effective. Exemptions from 
 school duties (half holidays for those perfect in attendance 
 for the month is a typical example) may be employed as a 
 last resort, and especially in communities where there is 
 no compulsory attendance law.^ Where such a law exists, 
 it is possible that such a practice would be declared 
 illegal by the courts. It may be objected that these 
 measures propose to give some sort of prize for attendance 
 even when the law states that attendance is a duty and 
 delinquency a misdemeanor. Nevertheless the difficulty 
 of probing into every case of absence renders the law par- 
 tially inoperative, and remedial measures are in such cases 
 justified. 
 
 6. ic) Competitions in Attendance and Punctuality. In 
 a large graded school, or in a city or county system of 
 schools, it is often possible to create an effective esprit de 
 corps with respect to absence and tardiness by instituting 
 a competition for school honors in freedom from delinquen- 
 cies. Some principals have reports of attendance sent to 
 the office daily or weekly, and then compile a Hst of rooms 
 in the order of excellence in attendance. A reward in the 
 shape of a banner for the room showing the best attendance 
 during the term may add zest to the competition, although 
 
 * The case is somewhat peculiar in the high school where compulsory 
 laws do not commonly apply. Cf. the following: "The most valuable 
 expedient for good attendance that I have found ... is the exemption 
 of those pupils perfect in attendance and punctuality for a specified period 
 from the formal examinations covering that period." — H. M. Hart: 
 "How to Get and Keep Pupils in the High School," in Inter-Mountain 
 Educator, 1906, vol. i, p. 170. 
 
REGULARITY AND PUNCTUALITY OF ATTENDANCE 77 
 
 good results can be obtained without employing this 
 device. 
 
 All attempts to secure good attendance (and especially the 
 competitive device just mentioned) must be rigorously subjected 
 to the qualifications that have been so frequently referred to 
 in the foregoing discussions. There can be such a thing as 
 attendance that is too nearly perfect, A shortsighted principal 
 or teacher, in his enthusiasm for results in this regard, is apt to 
 create a nervous tension among his pupils that v^^ill prevent even 
 legitimate absence. This condition should not, of course, be 
 permitted to exist. The difficulty lies in effecting a compromise 
 between leniency and stringency. It is easy to overstep the 
 limit on either side, and the teacher must be constantly on his 
 guard against this tendency. There are no explicit directions 
 that will avail in this matter. One must depend entirely upon 
 one's judgment and good sense. But the danger must be con- 
 stantly borne in mind. 
 
 7. Tardiness. The foregoing discussion has been de- 
 voted chiefly to the consideration of absence. The gen- 
 eral principles brought out apply, however, to tardiness. 
 Tardiness is, in some respects, a greater evil than absence, 
 but it should never be made to appear so in the child's eyes, 
 else he will be apt to remain out of school during the 
 entire session if he chances to arrive a few minutes late. 
 The habit of tardiness is worse than occasional absence 
 because it is apt to be carried over into later life and to 
 cause the individual no end of trouble in its eradication. 
 The child should very early form the habit of meeting every 
 engagement promptly, and there is no way to form this 
 habit save by making tardiness a serious offense. 
 
78 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 Aside from those delinquencies in punctuality that are 
 due to conditions in the child's home, and which should be 
 treated as similar delinquencies in attendance are treated, 
 the greatest trouble arises from the "naturally" dilatory 
 child. In young children this is often due to an inade- 
 quate "time sense" (more properly "time judgment"). 
 This is usually a result of arrested development. The 
 judgment of time intervals is not a native gift, but an ac- 
 quisition, and the only way for the young child to acquire 
 it is through the pleasure-pain economy. For the habitu- 
 ally tardy pupil there is probably no remedy so effective in 
 stimulating time judgment as a judicious use of corporal 
 punishment, provided, of. course, that the tardiness is 
 due entirely to the pupil's carelessness. 
 
 8. Habits of punctuaUty may be fortified and generahzed 
 by concrete instruction on their practical value in the 
 social and business world. The time allotted to instruc- 
 tion in "morals and manners" or "ethics" (which is so 
 commonly given to something else) might profitably be 
 used in part for this purpose. This is a field in which a 
 little "preaching" may perhaps be more than commonly 
 effective, for the alert, competent, "hustHng" business 
 man is the popular hero of the day, and punctuality is one 
 of his chief virtues. Anecdotes drawn from business life, 
 backed up by rigorous insistence on punctuality in school 
 life, will do much toward building up an active and effec- 
 tive ideal of punctuality among the pupils. 
 
 Interesting opening exercises, as stated in a former section, 
 will help to curtail tardiness. 
 
REGULARITY AND PUNCTUALITY OF ATTENDANCE 79 
 
 In some schools there are two bells at the beginning of every 
 session, — a signal for forming lines and passing to the class- 
 rooms, and a "tardy'' bell. Where this plan is followed, 
 technical tardiness (arrival after the tardy signal) can be almost 
 entirely eliminated by treating rather seriously those pupils 
 who fail to pass to their rooms with the lines. In general, the 
 question of tardiness is least troublesome where there is a large 
 school bell which rings five or ten minutes before the session is 
 begun. 
 
 9. Should Delinquencies in Attendance and Punctual- 
 ity detract jrom Pupils^ Standing in Scholarship ? This 
 is a question that admits of argument. It cannot be 
 doubted that absence from class exercises theoretically 
 prevents a pupil from reaching the standard gained by 
 his fellows who have been regular in attendance. Indeed, 
 if an habitual absentee is just as well prepared for the 
 work of the following grade as is a pupil who has been 
 regular in attendance, the fact is an unfortunate commen- 
 tary upon the character of the instruction and training 
 afforded by the class work. Nevertheless it is true that 
 the delinquent pupil may sometimes be just as capable of 
 fulfilling the conditions of the higher grade as is the pupil 
 who has been perfect in attendance. On the other hand, 
 to count absence arbitrarily against scholarship standing 
 is often extremely effective in impelling all pupils to regu- 
 lar attendance, and the temptation is strong to employ the 
 incentive to its limit. While such a measure is justifiable 
 in very obstinate cases, it could hardly be reconmiended 
 for general practice. To retain a pupil for a second term 
 in the same grade except for deficient scholarship is a very 
 
8o CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 severe penalty. It means practically the loss of a year or 
 half-year of the child's Ufe, and tends to discourage him 
 from further effort. 
 
 References. — Seeley. A New School Management^ pp. 107-110; 
 Kellogg: School Management, ch. vi; Tompkins: Philosophy of 
 School Management^ pp. 70-71. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 Preserving Hygienic Conditions in the Classroom 
 
 1. A school environment that is free from factors 
 making for ill health is manifestly of prime importance in 
 securing maximal efiSciency in the operation of educative 
 forces. Specialized investigation, undertaken especially 
 in Germany, has made school hygiene one of the most 
 complete and trustworthy departments of appUed science, 
 and every teacher should master the fundamental prin- 
 ciples of school hygiene at least to the extent in which they 
 are set forth in such text-books as those of Kotelmann ^ 
 or Shaw.^ The present chapter will indicate only those 
 practical rules that the classroom teacher should have 
 constantly in mind, laying particular emphasis upon the 
 hygienic habits which it is the duty of every teacher to 
 develop in his pupils. 
 
 2. Hygienic Habits of Posture. One of the very first 
 tasks that a new teacher should set for himself is the 
 initiation of proper habits of sitting. So much of the 
 pupil's time is spent at his desk and during a period of 
 development when bad postures easily become fixed into 
 permanent malformations, that this matter is of the very 
 greatest importance. 
 
 * L. Kotelmann : School Hygiene, English trans., Syracuse, 1899. 
 'E. R. Shaw: School Hygiene, New York, 1901. 
 
 G 81 
 
82 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 Whatever the form of seat found in the classroom, it 
 should fulfill three conditions : (a) it must permit an upright 
 position of the body ; (b) it must provide a support for the 
 back ; (c) it must permit the pupil's feet to rest squarely upon 
 the floor. Adjustable seats should certainly be provided 
 for growing children, but this matter is not often within the 
 classroom teacher's control. Generally he must make the 
 best of existing conditions. Practically all schoolroom seats 
 fulfill the first two conditions, but the third is often a source 
 of difl&culty. If pupils are *' hung up " (the technical term 
 for the position in which their feet do not rest squarely upon 
 the floor), the only recourse is to provide blocks of wood 
 for them to rest their feet upon. This is not the best thing 
 for the appearance of the classroom or for the temper of 
 the janitor or sweepers, but it is absolutely essential to 
 the welfare of the child. 
 
 3. Even in classrooms that are provided with adjustable 
 seats, however, one frequently finds most imhygienic 
 postures. The most common defect is the reclining po- 
 sition, where the pupil "slides down" in his seat until the 
 body is entirely supported by the lower end of the spinal 
 column (which rests on the front edge of the seat) and the 
 back of the neck (which rests against the top of the seat 
 back). The legs are stretched under the desk and the 
 head is thrust forward. The evils of this position are 
 obvious at a glance. The spinal column is curved out- 
 ward, the shoulders are thrust forward, the chest is de- 
 pressed, and proper breathing is prevented. In addition 
 to these disastrous consequences, the appearance is in- 
 
HYGIENIC CONDITIONS IN THE CLASSROOM 83 
 
 dicative of an inert, shiftless relaxation that is quite incon- 
 sistent with effective concentration of attention. Another 
 common malposition is the forward incHnation of the 
 body, compressing the chest against the front edge of the 
 desk. 
 
 The only safeguard against unhygienic posture is a 
 careful demonstration of the correct position and a strenu- 
 ous insistence upon this position until the pupils assume 
 it at all times as a matter of habit. This does not mean 
 that the pupil is to be permitted no freedom of movement, 
 or that he is to be kept constantly in a rigid posture. 
 Indeed, if the requirement is new to the pupils (as will fre- 
 quently be the case), it will be wise to introduce frequent 
 relaxation or "rest" periods during the first few days. 
 It will take time to accustom the muscles to a fairly con- 
 stant adjustment, but it can be done successfully if per- 
 sisted in, just as the army recruit can be trained into 
 soldierly form. In any case, variety should be secured 
 by a change from one hygienic posture to another hy- 
 gienic posture — not by a change from a bad posture to 
 one that is worse. 
 
 4. The Writing Posture. This is an extremely impor- 
 tant matter. If pupils sit ".sidewise" at the desk while 
 they are writing, one shoulder is almost always slightly 
 higher than the other. A long continuance of such a pos- 
 ture will inevitably cause lateral curvature of the spine. 
 It is for this reason that a system of penmanship is de- 
 manded that will render impossible the sidewise position, 
 and among other virtues this has been one of the chief 
 
84 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 characteristics to recommend vertical writing. If vertical 
 writing is prescribed for the schools, every classroom 
 teacher should see to it that the proper position is taken : 
 feet flat on the floor, head well elevated, paper directly in 
 front of the pupil, its front edge on a hne parallel to a line 
 connecting the pupiVs eyes. Not to make this position a 
 matter of unvarying habit is to repudiate the chief virtue 
 of the system. 
 
 The reaction against the vertical writing has led to a 
 compromise termed the "rational" or "medium" slant. 
 The position for this writing is stated by some authorities 
 to be the same as that for the vertical system. Other 
 authorities, however, would permit a slight angle in the 
 placing of the paper. The great defect in this recom- 
 mendation is that no specific angle is recommended, 
 consequently the child follows the line of least re- 
 sistance, which is to assume the sidewise posture. In 
 such cases the teacher should determine the angle that 
 will permit the greatest ease in writing and at the 
 same time will not allow the pupil to shift the body 
 from a position directly in front of the desk. It would 
 be a good plan to have a line painted diagonally across 
 each desk indicating this angle, and to insist that the 
 pupil keep the upper edge of his paper parallel to this 
 line. 
 
 5. Posture in Standing, The erect posture should, of 
 course, be made a matter of habit with all children during 
 the formative period of growth. Careful insistence, forti- 
 fied by "setting up" exercises such as are usually included 
 
HYGIENIC CONDITIONS IN THE CLASSROOM 85 
 
 in every course of physical training prescribed for the 
 schools, will reduce to a minimum the troubles that ensue 
 from inadequate standing positions. The crying need 
 here, as elsewhere in the elementary schools, is for teachers 
 who have the strength, the patience, and the stamina nec- 
 essary to carry habit-forming processes to a successful 
 conclusion. 
 
 6. Hygiene of Eyesight. This subject should be worked 
 up by each teacher from some authoritative text-book ^ on 
 school hygiene or, better, from a special work on the 
 hygiene of eyesight.^ In the present connection the 
 following points may be noted: {a) Books and papers 
 containing reading matter in type of the average size 
 should be held at a distance of about twelve inches from 
 the eyes. If pupils find difficulty in reading type at this 
 distance, they should be encouraged to consult an oculist. 
 {h) The light should come exclusively from the left while 
 the pupils are engaged in reading or writing at their desks. 
 {c) "Hard" lead pencils should not be used for writing, 
 because of the lack of contrast between the dull mark of 
 the graphite and the background of the paper. Slates are 
 unhygienic for the same reason. Slate blackboards are 
 to be condemned unless a soft, white crayon is used. 
 {d) Ink — dead black — should be used from the earliest 
 possible moment. Many authorities introduce the use of 
 ink in the second grade and discourage the use of pencils 
 
 ^ For example, Kotelmann or Shaw. 
 
 'For example, S. Snell: Eyesight and School Life, Bristol, 1895; 
 J. H. Smith : Defects of Vision and Hearing, Chicago, 1902. 
 
86 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 after that time.^ (e) Glazed paper, blue white paper, and 
 dead white paper are all inferior for hygienic reasons to 
 yellow white, unglazed paper. 
 
 7. Fatigue J Relaxation^ and Exercise. The subject of 
 fatigue has already been referred to briefly in connection 
 with the structure of the program. Happily the problem 
 of fatigue in the sense of overwork is not a pressing problem 
 just now in American education. Nevertheless it is wise 
 constantly to bear in mind the factor of fatigue in reducing 
 the efficiency of effort. Where sessions are upward of 
 two and one half hours in duration, they should be broken 
 by at least one recess of ten or fifteen minutes, given over 
 to "free play" in the open air. The writer has known 
 advocates of "no recesses" openly to defend their poHcy 
 on the plea that it is difficult to control children in free 
 play — especially to control the larger children in the 
 upper grades. Such an argument requires no comment. 
 As stated in a former section, formal gymnastics are 
 not recreative in the manner commonly supposed. The 
 only true recreation comes from entire relaxation or from 
 spontaneous play. The play should always be super- 
 vised in large schools in order to prevent accidents. It 
 is wise to provide by rule against certain dangerous games 
 upon the school grounds. Some of these may, indeed, be 
 good, healthful sports, but with three or four hundred 
 
 * In some schools first-grade pupils are permitted to write with ink 
 as soon as their penmanship reaches a certain standard of excellence. 
 This provides a stimulus for good writing, and at the same time pro- 
 motes the interests of hygiene. 
 
HYGIENIC CONDITIONS IN THE CLASSROOM 87 
 
 children of all ages playing together, they introduce an 
 element of danger that it is folly to ignore. 
 
 Among the games that the writer has seen fit to prohibit in 
 a large school are "crack the whip," ''foot-and-a-half " (as 
 distinguished from ''Bombay"), baseball or other ball games 
 using a hard ball, and Rugby football, except when limited 
 to regular teams of the older pupils. Wrestling, boxing, and 
 other rough sports should be permitted only when the pupils 
 are properly clothed for the exercise, and when such activities 
 do not degenerate into rough-and-tumble scrimmages. It is 
 wise not to make a specific ruling covering all forbidden sports, 
 but to curtail each as it crops out, stating the dangers involved, 
 and ruling that the specific game or exercise shall not be in- 
 dulged in during school hours. 
 
 Snowballing is a nuisance if indulged in promiscuously. 
 The writer has found it advisable to prohibit it (and to enforce 
 the prohibition by rigid penalties) both upon the school grounds 
 and in passing to and from school. He has, however, permitted 
 snowball battles where the school premises were large enough, 
 curtailing the permission whenever it was abused. 
 
 Playing Marbles ^'for Keeps.'' Marble playing for stakes, 
 or any other form of gambling, should be rigidly prohibited. 
 When the marble season first opens, this rule should be definitely 
 established. By passing among the groups of boys at the recess 
 period or at noon intermission, a principal or teacher can soon 
 learn whether the rule is observed. This precaution should be 
 taken, no matter how thoroughly the teacher may believe in 
 the virtue of his pupils. Needless to say, lapses from a rule 
 of this character should be treated as most serious offenses. 
 
 Cigarette smoking, while hardly to be classed among games 
 and sports, certainly deserves mention in connection with pro- 
 hibited exercises. In view of the disastrous effects of nicotine 
 upon young children, and especially because of its interference 
 
BS CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 with school work, all pupils who are known to indulge the 
 habit at any time should be instantly reformed. If the offense 
 occurs while the pupil is under control of the school authorities, 
 severe penalties can be imposed without consulting with parents. 
 If the offense occurs at other times, the parent should be notified 
 at once and every effort made to secure the cooperation of the 
 home in checking the evil. An habitual cigarette smoker will 
 find it impossible to hide the evidences of his vice from a 
 teacher who has normal acuity of smell. It should be remem- 
 bered that the disastrous effects of smoking are most marked 
 during the preadolescent period — prior, perhaps, to the fifteenth 
 year. 
 
 8. Personal Cleanliness. The classroom teacher should 
 insist rigorously upon personal cleanliness in his pupils. 
 Almost every board of education rules explicitly that all 
 pupils shall fulfill reasonable requirements in this respect, 
 and where no ruling is explicitly made, it can certainly be 
 assumed in the interests of common decency. Private 
 admonitions to pupils are generally effective for this pur- 
 pose. If something further is needed, a courteous request 
 to the parent will usually bring results. For very obsti- 
 nate cases there is no recourse save to the school lavatory. 
 Some city systems now provide shower baths in the schools 
 of the poorer districts. 
 
 The teacher can also do much to promote good habits 
 of neatness and taste in matters of dress. The writer 
 knows of one school where a tactful but aggressive cam- 
 paign in this matter was rewarded by improvement 
 throughout an entire community. Needless to say, the 
 teacher's example is here an all-important factor, as is 
 
HYGIENIC CONDITIONS IN THE CLASSROOM 89 
 
 also the appearance of the schoolroom and the school 
 surroundings. 
 
 9. Contagious Diseases, Almost every community pro- 
 vides, through its health department, a set of regulations 
 governing the duties of the teacher in dealing with con- 
 tagious diseases; but occasional trouble is caused by the 
 failure of the school authorities properly to cooperate with 
 the health officials in this matter. Certainly the school, 
 as representing enlightenment, should be the last to evade 
 quarantine restrictions, even though the attendance 
 record may be sadly disfigured. All children who have 
 eruptions on the face or hands should be excluded from 
 school until a physician certifies that no danger of infection 
 is involved in attendance. Symptoms of whooping-cough 
 should be watched carefully, and suspicious cases should 
 be sent home to await a physician's diagnosis. Parents' 
 pleas should not be permitted to have weight in such 
 matters, no matter how eloquently they may be presented. 
 All children from quarantined houses should be excluded 
 from the school unless they are removed to other quarters, 
 in which case they should be permitted to attend only after 
 the period of incubation for the disease in question has 
 elapsed. 
 
 A great many teachers permit the almost universal rul- 
 ings with respect to vaccination to become "dead letters" 
 until an epidemic arouses them to their duty. It is not 
 too much to say that every epidemic of smallpox could be 
 prevented if the school authorities were constantly vigilant 
 in requiring the vaccination of all pupils. 
 
90 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 With all the instruction upon the subject of physiology and 
 hygiene in the elementary schools, there should certainly be 
 some room for impressing the simple facts of pathology and the 
 relation of microorganisms to disease. This is a matter of the 
 first importance to public welfare. There are, indeed, many 
 phases of the subject that only a trained mind can understand, 
 but the simpler facts can be made clear to any child above the 
 third grade. 
 
 lo. Moral Health. Waste in the operation of school 
 forces is often due as much to moral as to physical ill 
 health. The mind that is absorbed in morbid interests 
 is bound to profit in minimal degree by school instruction. 
 What we term immoral tendencies are not infrequently 
 *' natural" tendencies; they have their root in instincts 
 that are deeply seated and fundamental. The problem 
 is to prevent an immature, ill-timed development of these 
 instincts that will result only in perversion. Mental filth, 
 like physical filth, grows upon itself: in the latter case, 
 we term the germ that makes for degeneration a bacillus ; 
 in the former case, we call the degenerating germ *' sug- 
 gestion." The suggestion arouses the instinct into a 
 premature and perverted functioning, just as the physical 
 germ stimulates the chemical compounds of animal or 
 vegetable tissues into premature decomposition. 
 
 The great danger in a large school is that these degenerat- 
 ing influences will find lodgment in the minds of the chil- 
 dren at a time when the budding instincts provide a fertile 
 field for their growth and rapid propagation. It is for 
 this reason that recess periods should be carefully super- 
 vised, and that pupils should be encouraged to engage 
 
HYGIENIC CONDITIONS IN THE CLASSROOM 91 
 
 in physical sports rather than permitted to congregate in 
 groups where the gossip gleaned upon the streets and 
 amidst questionable surroundings by a few pupils will 
 contaminate the many. It is for this reason that a care- 
 ful watch should be kept of outhouses, latrines, and 
 closets. To eliminate and prevent the shameful condi- 
 tions so often represented in these places by indecent 
 writing and drawing requires the most watchful and per- 
 sistent care. In districts where this particular form of 
 vice has become embedded, it is often necessary to make 
 hourly or half-hourly inspections of the toilets, tracing 
 every misdemeanor to its source, and inflicting the most 
 severe penalties. Tliis is not a pleasant business to be 
 concerned with, but it is a duty that no true craftsman 
 will shirk. 
 
 References. — M. V. O'Shea : Dynamic Factors in Education, 
 chs. xv-xix; L. Kotelmann: School Hygiene, chs. ix-xiii; E. L. 
 Thomdike: The Principles of Teaching, New York, 1906, ch. ii. 
 
CHAPTER Vn 
 
 Order and Discipline 
 
 I. The problem of discipline looks first to the welfare 
 of the whole. The conditions that are most favorable 
 for the concentration of attention by the entire class must 
 be established and preserved, otherwise waste is involved 
 which is cumulative in proportion to the size of the class 
 or the number of pupils in the room. This requirement 
 impHes that each member of the class inhibit any impulse 
 that may be inconsistent with these conditions; each 
 member of the class must subordinate his own desires to 
 the welfare of the class as a whole. This thesis is so 
 simple and so closely parallel to the requirements that are 
 demanded by all forms of civiHzed society that it is strange 
 that one should think for a moment of denying the neces- 
 sity for preserving discipline; and yet there have been, 
 and still are, educational theorists who must needs becloud 
 this simple proposition with a haze of sentiment that dis- 
 torts the true perspective and involves in practice great 
 waste and marked injustice. 
 
 There is but one way to avoid troubles of discipline, and that 
 one way is to avoid all measures that make for good order, and 
 resort to the laissez-faire doctrine that practically commits one 
 to anarchy. When children come into the world free from 
 every trace of primitive impulse, evincing none of the instincts 
 that heredity impressed upon the race long before it became 
 
 93 
 
ORDER AND DISCIPLINE 93 
 
 human, with civilized habits bred in the bone, and with altru- 
 istic tendencies full-fledged — then the problem of discipline 
 will have been eliminated from elementary education. But 
 then, it must also be added, the need for education will have 
 passed away and the teacher will be a luxury without a purpose. 
 
 2. Authority the First Condition of Effective Discipline. 
 The first condition of effective discipline is respect for the 
 authority of the teacher. If this respect be sufficiently 
 strong, the whole problem clears up and the solution is 
 comparatively simple. To permit children to grow up in 
 a constant attitude of disrespect for authority is to commit 
 the gravest of pedagogical crimes. Legitimate responsi- 
 bility must always be equalized by legitimate authority; 
 authority must always be checked by responsibihty. The 
 law endows the teacher with sufficient authority to enforce 
 every requirement for which he is legally and morally 
 responsible. The vital question is how to assert this 
 authority effectually over one's pupils. The following 
 discussion will indicate some of the salient characteristics 
 of the teacher that are absolutely essential to this end. 
 
 (a) Courage. Absolute fearlessness is the first essential 
 for the teacher on whom rests the responsibility for govern- 
 ing an elementary or secondary school. This fearlessness 
 is not alone or chiefly the expression of physical courage, 
 although this must not be lacking.* It is rather an 
 
 * In the training of wild animals, loss of "nerve" is fatal to the trainer's 
 success. The same condition holds in the training of children who at 
 certain stages of their development are, as President Hall points out, 
 "the wildest of all wild animals," In either case, to show the slightest 
 sign of fear is to surrender. 
 
94 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 expression of moral courage; daring the sometimes cer- 
 tain interference of parents, officious trustees, and others 
 of like character; standing firm in one's convictions even 
 though the community may not approve. And, after all, 
 it is this sort of courage that is the rarest and, at the same 
 time, the most essential. One must brave unpopularity. 
 One must jiot- 4iesit^te, if necessary, to make enemies, 
 to incur the dislike — temporarily, at least — of one's 
 pupils. Happily this is a condition that is not often to 
 be met, neither should it be permanent in any particular 
 case, and yet it is from just such crises as this that the 
 true craftsman will not shrink. The standards of his 
 craft should be far more precious to him than popularity 
 either with children or with parents. The world is wide, 
 and the community that wishes to bring up its children in 
 lawlessness and disrespect for authority is presumably at 
 liberty to follow its whims ; but the schools of such a com- 
 munity should be rigidly boycotted by all members of the 
 teaching guild who respect themselves and hold in some 
 measure of veneration the ideals of their craft. 
 
 3. (Jb) Tact. The eflScient exercise of authority must 
 always" involve that intangible quality known as tact. 
 The teacher who blunders every delicate situation of 
 discipline that he meets will fail, whatever degree of cour- 
 age he may possess. One should not understand by tact 
 a willingness to surrender a single increment of the au- 
 thority that belongs to one. But, after all, it is the result 
 that is important — the fact, not the form. If the teacher 
 can preserve his authority without vaunting it upon all 
 
ORDER AND DISCIPLINE 95 
 
 occasions, his path of life will run smoothly. Order and 
 respect for his authority are the sahent points. If these 
 are secured, it matters little what people think, so long, 
 of course, as their opinion has no injurious influence upon 
 his work. In other words, there is no reason for a display 
 of authority simply to emphasize the fact of authority. 
 Those who exercise the greatest power in the world are the 
 very people who keep the fact from impinging continually 
 upon their neighbors' consciousness. The stamping, 
 storming, blustering teacher or principal is one who lacks 
 tact. The teacher who "fires up" before the occasion 
 demands, declaring that he will have order or " kill some- 
 body," is simply inviting serious trouble. The tactful 
 teacher never blusters, never brags, never storms — but 
 when occasion demands he acts, and acts swiftly, unerr- 
 ingly, effectively, without "fuss," without fear of the con- 
 sequences. 
 
 4. (c) Persistence. In creating a condition of order 
 in the classroom, it is essential that every rule laid down 
 be adhered to rigidly, unremittingly. The acme of good 
 discipHne is reached when the conditions of order are 
 preserved automatically, without thought or judgment 
 on the pupils' part. In other words, a classroom that is 
 well disciplined has the conditions of good order reduced 
 to habit. But the law of habit-building operates here 
 with unrelenting certainty. To make the conditions of 
 order automatic, every slightest exception must immedi- 
 ately be noted and corrected. At first, some allowance 
 should be made for forgetfulness on the part of the pupils; 
 
96 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 that is, an exception to an established rule should be cor- 
 rected by brief admonition. But this must not be per- 
 mitted to continue. *'I didn't think'' cannot be condoned 
 more than once. It is the business of education to train 
 pupils to ** think" about the matters that require thought ; 
 and pupils who habitually forget to obey rules should 
 have their memory stimulated by something more effective 
 than an admonition. The teacher who must constantly 
 warn pupils and correct them for the same misdeeds over 
 and over again is not an efficient discipHnarian. 
 
 The vital import of this principle cannot be too strongly 
 emphasized. It is a b)rword that more teachers fail through 
 inability to ''discipline" successfully than through any other 
 one cause. And failure to discipline is most commonly due 
 to l^ck pf persistence. The teacher lays down a rule. The 
 pupils break it once or twice to test the teacher, or perhaps 
 they break it through forgetfulness. The experienced teacher 
 gives the pupil the benefit of the doubt in such cases once and 
 once only. But the young and inexperienced teacher keeps 
 on with admonitions which become increasingly ineffective the 
 longer they are employed ; or, what is far worse, he neglects to 
 note a lapse from the established rule. That insidious Rip- 
 Van- Winkleism, "This time will not count," is the rock upon 
 which many a teacher's prospects are wrecked. 
 
 "What shall I do?" the young teacher will surely ask in 
 this connection; "What shall I do when I have tried every 
 device that I can think of, and still fail ? " There is no explicit 
 formula that will cover each specific case, but one general sug- 
 gestion may be given: Get order. Drop everything else, if 
 necessary, until order is secured. Stretch your authority to 
 the breaking point if you can do nothing else. Pile penalty 
 upon penalty for misdemeanors, and let the "sting" of each 
 
ORDER AND DISCIPLINE 97 
 
 penalty be double that of its predecessor. Tire out the re- 
 calcitrants if you can gain your end in no other way. Remem- 
 ber that your success in your life work depends upon your 
 success in this one feature of that work more thoroughly than it 
 depends upon anything else. You have the law back of you, 
 you have intelligent public sentiment back of you. Or, if the 
 law be slow and halting, and public sentiment other than 
 intelligent, you have on your side right, justice, and the ac- 
 cumulated experience of generations of teachers. 
 
 5. (d) ScholarsM^.. Those who have constantly to 
 deal with children well know how hard it is to deceive 
 them. Pupils may not detect weaknesses in the teacher's 
 knowledge of which he himself is unaware, but they will 
 unerringly detect any attempt to hide ignorance or to 
 "bluff." A teacher whose scholarship is sound and 
 secure, who knows his subject-matter, and who has the 
 ability to present his knowledge in a form that children 
 can comprehend will, other things equal, have less trouble 
 with discipline than a teacher whose knowledge is uncer- 
 tain or inaccurate, and especially one who is aware of his 
 deficiencies and attempts to hide them. A frank con- 
 fession of ignorance is far better than an attempt to gloss 
 over inadequate knowledge ; but this confession must not 
 come too often, and should certainly be offset by innu- 
 merable instances of enlightenment. The teacher should 
 never lose sight of the fact that his prime duty is to teachy — • 
 to transmit to the child experience in one form or another, — 
 and that his chief stock in trade is experience or knowledge. 
 The teacher who is deficient in this respect may maintain 
 his authority by force, but the maintenance of authority 
 
98 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 by this means alone will be of but little service. It is 
 only as the child comes to respect authority spontane- 
 ously — only as he comes to recognize the work done in 
 school as worth while — that subservience to authority will 
 become a desirable factor in his education. 
 
 6. (e) Justice. " Be just and fear not," is an excellent 
 motto for a teacher who wishes to preserve the conditions 
 of discipline and good order. Children, Hke adults, will 
 respect what they beheve to be justice, and like adults 
 they will resent injustice. Sometimes it is difficult if not 
 impossible to convince children of the justice of a disci- 
 plinary measure, but generally they will recognize that a 
 demand or a request is " fair " if it really possesses this 
 characteristic. The spirit of " fair play," — the " square 
 deal " of which we hear so much in these days, — makes 
 a strong appeal to the very pupils who are most fre- 
 quently troublesome from the standpoint of discipline. 
 
 An essential corollary of this principle of justice is a thorough- 
 going impartiality in administering disciplinary measures. If 
 there is such a thing as justice, it applies with equal force to 
 the rich and the poor, the influential and the uninfluential. 
 The public school should be the most democratic institution in 
 the community, — and it must be said in its favor that it 
 usually is. Only occasionally is the social " snob " to be found 
 among the rank and file of the teaching guild. 
 
 7. (/) Good Nature. One of the worst enemies of 
 good order is an ill-tempered teacher. All the innate evil 
 in children seems to be brought out and intensified under 
 the influence of a sour, morose, unlikable disposition. On 
 
ORDER AND DISCIPLINE 99 
 
 the other hand, there are some teachers who can command 
 respect by the very fact of their genial, sunny dispositions. 
 Doubtless these extremes depend upon conditions over 
 which the individual has Kttle control — some people 
 inherit ill-favored dispositions, just as others inherit 
 sunshine and laughter. But every teacher can control 
 the conditions of good temper in some measure. First 
 of all comes the matter of health, and first in this category, 
 sufficient sleep. Even the best temper will be ruffled at 
 the shghtest provocation if the normal amount of sleep is 
 long denied its possessor. A good digestion is too obvi- 
 ously connected with a good disposition to require em- 
 phasis at this point, except to say that a good digestion 
 can often be acquired by appropriate measures, even if 
 heredity has seemingly decreed otherwise. Sufficient food 
 and whatever outdoor exercise the individual may need 
 are Hkewise conditioning factors. 
 
 By far the most important factor in this respect, how- 
 ever, is freedom from worry. To escape the pitfall of 
 "borrowing trouble" is one of the most difficult lessons 
 for the beginning teacher to learn. The cares of the class- 
 room are not fight, even under the most favorable con- 
 ditions. Some pupils will progress so slowly that their 
 advance is not to be detected. Some will remain out of 
 school for trivial reasons, and so delay the progress of the 
 class. Some will torment the teacher with ingenious but 
 soul-trying mischief. And, as if these were not enough, 
 principals and supervisors and superintendents will sub- 
 ject one to carping criticism, and patrons will threaten to 
 
lOO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 deprive one of one's position unless certain ridiculous 
 demands are acceded to. To "keep sweet" amidst a 
 combination of all of these disturbing influences is a stu- 
 pendous task. It is simple enough to say that it should be 
 done : how to do it is another quite different matter. 
 
 For all of these vexations and worries there is, in the writer's 
 opinion, no balm so soothing and so generally effective as the 
 sympathy of an older and more experienced teacher. The 
 cultivation of outside interests will help, perhaps ; and certainly 
 no teacher should be without some recreative activity that is 
 more or less alien to his daily work. But outside interests, if 
 employed to offset the trials of the classroom, will tend to take 
 too much energy and attention to themselves. In their nature 
 they will be more attractive than school problems, and the 
 teacher is apt to say to himself, "If I cannot succeed in teach- 
 ing, I can at least do well at music, or at writing, or in business 
 pursuits." On the other hand, sympathetic intercourse with 
 fellow- workers will constantly emphasize the craft spirit, — 
 the most priceless possession of the teacher, and the possession 
 that he is most likely to lose in the earlier stages of his career. 
 His effort should be to keep the craft spirit alive at all hazards. 
 He should constantly look upon his work as professional service, 
 and upon himself as an initiate into the privileges of that service. 
 The free association of kindred minds will do more to keep this 
 craft spirit alive than anything else. Any form of social service 
 must be dreary, discouraging work if the tasks that it imposes 
 are not attacked with enthusiasm. In many cities one may 
 find little coteries of teachers that gather together at stated 
 intervals for the purpose (not always avowed) of cultivating 
 the craft spirit, of keeping alive enthusiasm in the work. From 
 these meetings the pessimist, the malcontent, the teacher 
 ashamed of his calling, and the teacher who works witli his 
 
ORDER AND DISCIPLIl^ ; , ; ' tg^L 
 
 eyes upon the clock and his mind upon pay day, are all rigidly 
 excluded. No better lot can befall the beginning teacher than 
 to become identified with one of these guilds — for guilds they 
 are, although not always consciously. There he will find the 
 comfort that really cheers, the advice that really helps, the 
 idealism that really inspires. And there, too, he will receive his 
 due share both of the praise that will not pufiF him up, and of 
 the blame that will not cast him down. But above all, he will 
 learn from this intercourse that the trials and troubles are not 
 his alone, that many of them are intrinsic in the very nature of 
 his calling, and that the safest and sanest policy is to look upon 
 them as problems of the day's work — problems to be studied 
 in sober reflection, and solved with dispassionate judgment. 
 
 8. Other Factors involved in Securing Order, Respect 
 for the teacher, however, is not the sole condition of order 
 in the classroom. Many classrooms in which the pupils 
 would not dare to break a rule or infringe wittingly upon 
 the rights of others are characterized by a confusion that 
 makes good work practically impossible. The difl&culty 
 here is not lack of effective authority, but rather lack of 
 skill in exercising authority. 
 
 {a) The Teacher's Voice. Probably superintendents 
 and principals would generally agree that, next to inability 
 to secure respectful obedience from pupils, most of the 
 trouble indiscipline has its source in the voice of the teacher. 
 The temptation to speak to children in a high-pitched, 
 rasping voice is very hard to resist, especially when there 
 is the least bit of noise or confusion in the classroom. As 
 the teacher's voice becomes louder and louder, the timiult 
 increases in like proportions, until finally one must shout 
 
t « f C f 
 
 ^6? ; ' J 'e : .'/. ci^AssRooM management 
 
 r t « f t 
 
 in order to be heard. To one who tries, for the first time, 
 the remedial measure of a low voice in such a situation, the 
 result is Uttle less than astounding. As the teacher lowers 
 his voice, the hubbub gradually dies away, and almost 
 before one is conscious of the change, quiet and order have 
 succeeded confusion and chaos. Each pupil is on the 
 alert to catch every word, and, through an imitative im- 
 pulse, almost immediately lowers his own voice and 
 modulates its accents to fit in with the new scheme. The 
 remedy is so simple that one could hardly be pardoned for 
 mentioning it here, were it not so frequently overlooked 
 even by teachers who are otherwise highly efficient. 
 
 9. (b) Mechanized Routine, This matter has been 
 discussed in detail in an earher chapter ^ and needs notice 
 here simply as a factor in good order. Haphazard methods 
 of forming fines, passing materials, etc., not only waste 
 time in themselves, but also produce noise and confusion 
 that interfere with good work. Many a school in which 
 disorder prevails could be almost instantly reformed by a 
 few simple regulations governing routine. 
 
 10. (c) Keeping Pupils Occupied. This is one of those 
 blanket provisions that one meets so frequently in treatises 
 upon the subject of school management. Every one knows 
 that children who are kept occupied in some educative ac- 
 tivity occasion a minimum of trouble from the standpoint 
 of discipline. The chief difficulty fies in the " How," not in 
 the "What," and this question is for educational method 
 and not classroom management to answer. After all, there 
 
 * See below, ch. iii. 
 
ORDER AND DISCIPLINE I03 
 
 are in every school enough tasks to be done. The difficulty 
 lies in the fact that some pupils would rather do almost any- 
 thing else than the tasks that are imposed. The problem, 
 therefore, is reduced to that which will claim our attention 
 in the following chapters. Incentives must be suppHed 
 which will lead the pupil to put forth effort toward the 
 attainment of the ends that he should seek. Work should, 
 indeed, be made interesting and worth while, but it is not 
 to be inferred from this that the teacher should strain 
 every effort to provide "entertaining" tasks for his pupils. 
 The very excellent doctrine of interest has been far too 
 frequently interpreted to mean a doctrine of entertain- 
 ment. The pupil should assuredly be kept occupied. 
 Assuredly also he should, in course of time, become inter- 
 ested in this activity. But neither of these requirements 
 is or should be inconsistent with the functioning in the 
 pupil's mind of a strong and effective ideal of duty. If 
 the teacher possesses sufficient authority and can assert 
 this successfully, ideals of duty can be cultivated with a 
 minimum of trouble. Even under this condition there 
 will still be plenty of room left for applying the legitimate 
 doctrine of interest. 
 
 II. {d) Substitution versus Repression. The dictum, 
 "Keep pupils busy," finds a much more practical and 
 dignified expression in what may be termed the "doctrine 
 of substitution." ^ This doctrine would prevent the ex- 
 pression of undesirable impulses by substituting some 
 
 * Cf . E. L. Thomdike : Principles of Teaching, New York, 1906, 
 pp. 22 f.; J. A. H. Keith: Elementary Education, pp. 124 f. 
 
I04 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 Other form of activity rather than by requiring an abso- 
 lute inhibition of all movement. Thus the introduction of 
 manual training is justified, from one point of view, because 
 of the fact that it provides objective work demanding an 
 exercise of various muscles; the surplus energy finds an 
 outlet, and does not express itself in undesirable ways. 
 The alternation of form and content subjects in the daily 
 program also provides opportunity for an application of 
 the doctrine of substitution. The tendency to do away 
 with recess periods is to be condemned, among other 
 reasons, because it ehminates an opportunity for apply- 
 ing this principle. In general, it may be concluded that 
 substitution is to be preferred to absolute repression in se- 
 curing freedom ixom undesirable and unsocial tendencies. 
 On the other hand, it is quite impossible to do away en- 
 tirely with repressing influences. Actual experience in 
 managing children has convinced the writer that the intro- 
 duction of manual training and hand work in its various 
 forms may mitigate but certainly does not eliminate the 
 difficulties of "discipline." 
 
 References. — Seeley: A New School Management, ch. vi' 
 Button: School Management, ch. vii; Kellogg: School Manage- 
 ment, ch. vii; Tompkins: Philosophy of School Management, 
 pp. 157-183; Thomdike: Principles of Teachings ch. iii; O'Shea: 
 Dynamic Factors in Edttcation, ch. i. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 Penalties 
 
 1. Under the conditions of imperfection through which 
 humanity must struggle, every form of government that 
 aims to secure law and order must employ penalties for 
 offenses against established rules. It must be remembered 
 that not every individual needs to be subjected to a penalty 
 in order to insure the inhibition of his unsocial impulses. 
 The infliction of the penalty is always the last resort, 
 reserved for those cases in which all other means fail. 
 The welfare of society must be preserved at any cost to 
 the individual, but it is the fundamental principle of gov- 
 ernment that the welfare of society should not cost the 
 individual any more in the way of pain or inhibition or 
 repression than is absolutely necessary. The same prin- 
 ciple appHes with equal force to the government of the 
 school. The welfare of the mass is a consideration against 
 which the claims of no single individual can have pre- 
 ponderant weight. The individual must, if necessary, be 
 sacrificed to the mass ; but this sacrifice must not be made 
 unless the necessity is clear, nor in any greater degree than 
 the necessity demands. 
 
 2. What is to be understood by a well-ordered class- 
 room? Nothing more nor less than this: a room from 
 
 105 
 
I06 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 which all unnecessary distractions due to lack of control on 
 the part of individual pupils have been eradicated. The 
 concentration of attention on the part of individual pupils 
 is best accompHshed under conditions that are free (i) from 
 intermittent sound stimuU; (2) from olfactory stimuli, 
 either pleasant or unpleasant; (3) from visual stimuU 
 caused by erratic and intermittent movements. The 
 necessity of some form of government or discipline arises 
 from the fact that especially the first and last of these 
 distracting influences are very easily occasioned by lack 
 of inhibition on the part of individual pupils. 
 
 The point that needs emphasis is this : inhibition is an 
 acquired art, not a primitive instinct. The instincts are 
 all, practically, in the direction of movement; repression 
 of the impulse to move must be learned through experi- 
 ence. The basic principle that underHes this develop- 
 ment is best expressed in the "pleasure-pain" hypothesis; 
 whenever an instinctive movement results in pain, it tends 
 thereafter to be repressed ; whenever it results in pleasure, 
 it tends thereafter to be repeated. 
 
 3. Spencefs Doctrine of Natural Punishments. This 
 fundamental biological principle lies at the basis of the 
 most thoroughgoing theory of discipline that has yet been 
 elaborated — Herbert Spencer's doctrine of "natural pun- 
 ishments." ^ It will be necessary at this point to consider 
 this theory in some detail, not only because it is, Hke 
 everything that this great master brought forth, thoroughly 
 
 * H. Spencer: Education, New York, 1895 (Appleton's edition), pp. 
 161 ff. 
 
PENALTIES 107 
 
 worth serious study, but also because it has had a pro- 
 found effect upon educational practice. 
 
 Spencer argues from the biological postulate that the 
 function of pain is to act as a deterrent with reference to 
 experiences that are injurious to the organism. Harmful 
 adjustments, he assumes, always issue in pain; beneficial 
 adjustments in pleasure. In moral conduct, this biological 
 principle becomes the criterion for "right" and "wrong": 
 "That conduct whose total moral results, immediate and 
 remote, are beneficial, is good conduct; while conduct 
 whose total results, immediate and remote, are injurious, is 
 bad conduct." ^ Thus the happiness or the misery that 
 results as the inevitable consequence of any act becomes the 
 reward or the punishment of that act. To subject a child 
 to a "natural" punishment, therefore, is simply to stand 
 out of the way and let him reap the natural consequences 
 of his act. 
 
 Spencer maintains that a natural punishment has the 
 following advantages over an artificial punishment: (i) It 
 is unavoidable and inevitable.^ (2) It is proportionate to 
 the degree of offense — "to the degree in which the organic 
 laws have been transgressed." "A slight accident brings 
 a sHght pain, a more serious one, a greater pain." (3) It 
 is "constant, direct, unhesitating, and not to be escaped." 
 "No threats, but a silent, rigorous performance. If the 
 child runs a pin into its finger, pain follows. If it does it 
 again, there is again the same result, and so on perpetually. 
 
 * Spencer, op. cit., p. 173. 
 
 ' Ibid., p. 175. (All following citations are from the same section.) 
 
Io8 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 In all its dealings with surrounding inorganic nature it 
 finds this unswerving persistence, which listens to no 
 excuse, and from which there is no appeal ; and very soon 
 recognizing this stem though beneficent discipline it 
 becomes extremely careful not to transgress." (4) Natural 
 punishments "hold throughout hfe." "It is by the 
 experimentally gained knowledge of the natural conse- 
 quences that men and women are checked when they go 
 wrong." 
 
 It will be readily seen that on the surface this theory 
 has much to commend it to the educational practitioner. 
 If a pupil fails through idleness to prepare his tasks during 
 school hours, he is "kept in" after school to make up his 
 deficiencies. If he is unduly disorderly at recess time, he is 
 deprived of his recess. If he abuses the privileges of the 
 school, he is suspended or expelled. All these punish- 
 ments Spencer would term "natural" ; although, in a strict 
 interpretation of his theory, the natural consequences of 
 failure to perform the tasks required by education would 
 be the evils attending lack of knowledge and training, and 
 this punishment would not, of course, come to its full frui- 
 tion short of the maturity of the pupil. This is the weak 
 point in the practical application of Spencer's theory ; his 
 illustrations do not always illustrate the point that he is 
 trying to make. Taking them at their face value, how- 
 ever, it will be noted that the punishments instanced, 
 whether natural or artificial, are among those most gener- 
 ally condemned by experienced teachers. "Keeping in" 
 after school, depriving a pupil of recesses, and suspension 
 
PENALTIES 109 
 
 and expulsion, are all looked upon as akin to bad prac- 
 tice. And primarily for a very simple reason — namely, 
 that they are generally ineffective. 
 
 4. The difficulty with Spencer's theory is not, however, 
 confined to the inapt illustrations that he uses. His 
 fundamental hypothesis in so far as it pertains to human 
 action is inadequate, as will appear from the following 
 analysis : — 
 
 (a) The natural consequences of an act are frequently 
 too far removed both in time and in space from the act 
 itself to permit in the agent's mind that firm association 
 which is essential if the pain is to become a deterrent. 
 Especially is this true with immature children, whose span 
 of attention is narrow, and who cannot think back from 
 painful consequences through a multitude of intermediate 
 experiences to the act that gave rise to the consequences. 
 Adults not infrequently fail to make the connection between 
 effect and cause unless the one follows directly upon the 
 other; the ignorant and superstitious will invariably 
 ascribe pains and penalties to bad luck, supernatural forces, 
 insidious enemies, fate — anything rather than their own 
 misdeeds or lack of foresight. The doctrine of natural 
 punishments becomes, therefore, impracticable in all 
 cases where the consequences are separated from the act 
 by a long period of time. 
 
 (b) Again the painful consequences of a given act may 
 be inflicted, not upon the agent, but upon others, perhaps 
 in the distant future long after the agent himself has gone 
 to his reward. How such a condition can be a deter- 
 
no CLASSROOM MANAGJisLd:iNT 
 
 ring factor in the adjustment of the agent is hard to 
 see. 
 
 (c) It is not clear that natural punishments are always 
 "proportionate to the degree in which the organic laws 
 have been transgressed." "Nature" does not make 
 distinctions so fine as this. It works by the law of aver- 
 ages, and if, in the long rww, an action is injurious, it is 
 rendered, through the slow process of natural selection, 
 either painful or fatal. But so long as the race as a 
 whole is perpetuated, nature (speaking metaphorically, 
 of course) is satisfied. Natural selection is crude in its 
 operations. Whatever it permits to survive is not, for 
 that reason alone, perfect. It is useful only, perhaps, in 
 the bare majority of cases ; in a large minority of cases, it 
 may, indeed, be fatal. 
 
 (d) Nor is the brute instinct of pleasure and pain a valid 
 and indisputable guide to conduct under the conditions of 
 social lije. The main reason, biologically, for the exist- 
 ence of mind and intellect is the very inadequacy of in- 
 stinct. As man comes more and more under the control 
 of civiHzed conditions, many of the things that once meant 
 danger to the organism no longer mean danger, although 
 they still have the primitive mark of danger attached to 
 them — they still cause pain. On the other hand, some 
 of the things that were once good for the organism Hving 
 under primitive conditions are no longer good for the 
 organism living under social conditions; but they still 
 have the primitive sign of the beneficial attached to them 
 — they are still "pleasant." Through experience, man 
 
PENALTIES III 
 
 comes to learn this. In other words, he comes to under- 
 stand that present pains and discomforts may be essential 
 to the full fruition of a desired end. The abihty to make 
 this judgment is the distinctive feature of human intelli- 
 gence as opposed to brute instinct. 
 
 5. Nevertheless, Spencer's theory may be held as basic 
 in this regard : the first steps in self-control are taken at 
 the behest of immediate consequences, be these either 
 pleasant or painful. Until mind can look into the future 
 and govern adjustment with reference to remote ends, the 
 primitive pleasure-pain economy will and must be the 
 only guide. Civilization imposes requirements the true 
 value of which cannot be comprehended in the narrow 
 span of the primitive mind. To wait until natural con- 
 sequences shall correct misdemeanors is impossible under 
 these conditions. In fact, some misdemeanors may, if 
 left to themselves, bring pleasant immediate consequences 
 that will greatly multiply the chances that similar misdeeds 
 will follow. Obviously the only recourse is to introduce 
 artificial punishments that will associate so vividly with 
 the misdeeds as to prevent the recurrence of the latter. 
 It is the duty of adult inteUigence to do this. The very 
 essence of the helplessness and dependence of infancy and 
 immaturity is to insure the government of the child's 
 action more or less completely through adult precept and 
 direction. 
 
 6. In individual instruction, where the needs of but one 
 person require consideration, the practice of having all 
 delinquencies made up in kind (keeping after hours for 
 
112 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 idleness, depriving the pupil of a privilege in case of its 
 abuse, etc.) may be effective. This, however, as has 
 been indicated above, is not true of class management. 
 In deaUng with children in masses, disciplinary measures 
 are undertaken primarily to promote the welfare of the 
 whole. Whatever penalties are inflicted, therefore, must 
 be measured by this standard. The individual must not 
 be forgotten, but the welfare of no single individual can, 
 in equity, be counted against the welfare of the class. 
 Where the so-called natural punishments (keeping after 
 school, etc.) are employed in class management, they often 
 fail to have a deterring effect upon other pupils, and they 
 fail very frequently to reach the offender himself. The 
 distraction that the offense brought about is repeated 
 again and again, so long as the pleasant consequences of 
 the offense overbalance the unpleasant consequences — 
 and one needs only to refer to one's own school days to 
 recall that being "kept after school," or losing a recess, 
 was a very light penalty to pay for certain forbidden 
 pleasures. In short, the end of discipline in such cases is 
 not gained. The body of the class suffers from the mis- 
 demeanors of the individual, and the penalty fails to bring 
 justice to the majority. 
 
 7. This guiding principle indicates that individual mis- 
 deeds which prevent the economical operation of classroom 
 influences for the welfare of the majority of the pupils 
 must be eliminated at any cost. Any measure which will 
 effect this end with the least possible injury to the penahzed 
 pupil must be looked upon as legitimate. The great and 
 
PENALTIES 113 
 
 vital question is this : Is the measure effective in fulfilling 
 the aim of discipline — namely, the preservation of those 
 conditions that are essential to the welfare of the majority ? 
 Once this question is answered, a second question may be 
 raised: What effect does this measure have upon the 
 penalized pupil, and could equal efficiency be secured by 
 a measure involving less injury? In short, the whole 
 process is one of compromise. 
 
 This does not argue for a return to the blind, rule-of-the-rod 
 discipline of the early schools. The old-time policy defeated 
 its own purposes just as thoroughly, just as completely, as does 
 its ultra-modern antithesis. But the tendency of civilization 
 in corrective measures is toward leniency only in so far as lenient 
 measures are more effective than harsh measures. Intelligent 
 leniency is often the high-water mark of moral strength ; blind 
 and emotional leniency is just as frequently to be identified with 
 moral weakness. And this is quite as true of the justice's 
 court as it is of the classroom. The community that is cursed 
 with hoodlumism usually supports a ''weak-kneed " administra- 
 tor of the law, and the school that is cursed with constant and 
 unrelieved disorder is commonly presided over by a weak- 
 kneed principal. The combination of a soft heart and a soft 
 head is fatal to efficiency in either office. 
 
 8. The Fundamental Principles. From the preceding 
 discussion it is clear that the efficiency of a penalty 
 in securing the repression of undesirable activities will 
 depend upon three factors: (i) the degree of pain, 
 discomfort, or disagreeableness which the penalty in- 
 volves; a penalty from which the "sting" has been 
 carefully extracted has lost thereby its chief virtue as a 
 
114 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 penalty ; (2) the closeness with which it is associated with 
 the undesirable impulse; a penalty that is not associated 
 explicitly and directly with an undesirable act may, by 
 chance, become associated with a desirable response : thus 
 if the pain of chastisement, for example, is associated with 
 school life in general instead of with some forbidden ac- 
 tivity, school will become distasteful and will be avoided 
 whenever possible; (3) its freedom from painful conse- 
 quences in excess of those needed to inhibit the undesirable 
 impulse ; a penalty that is not sufficiently severe is unjust 
 to the mass; a penalty which is unnecessarily severe is 
 unjust to the individual ; a penalty which is effective in a 
 given instance and yet which lingers and rankles in the 
 pupil's mind may, in the last analysis, work more injury 
 than good. 
 
 9. Corporal Punishment as a Penalty. From the stand- 
 point of theory, corporal punishment probably best fulfills 
 the conditions named above as a penalty for appUcation 
 in the elementary school, (i) In the first place, the " sting" 
 is generally present and, except under abnormal conditions, 
 disagreeable enough to deter the offender from a repetition 
 of the act. (2) Corporal punishment can be inflicted in 
 close sequence upon the forbidden act and so insure the 
 association that is so essential. (3) Corporal punish- 
 ment does not, as a rule, leave a pain that persists and 
 rankles, as do some other forms of punishment usually 
 looked upon as more humane; for example, "scoldings." 
 
 On the other hand, corporal punishment sometimes fails 
 of these virtues, (i) Some pupils probably become hard- 
 
PENALTIES 115 
 
 cned to chastisement, and thus the penalty comes effectually 
 to lose its "sting"; again, abnormal individuals maybe 
 quite anaesthetic — practically insensitive to pain stimuH ; 
 again, the fact of corporal punishment may be given a high 
 value among pupils as a hero-making process; conse- 
 quently the pleasure of adulation will overtop the physical 
 pain of chastisement, and thus the *' sting" will, in effect, 
 be eliminated. (2) Corporal punishment may be so long 
 delayed as not to be associated with the forbidden act ; it 
 may be administered so frequently that the association 
 is lost to view; even if administered in close sequence to 
 the act, the association may not be definitely forced home 
 by the teacher. (3) Corporal punishment may have 
 injurious after-effects that are out of proportion to the 
 seriousness of the penalized offense; for example, if the 
 pupil thinks himself to be punished unjustly, the physical 
 pain may be replaced by a mental pain that lingers and 
 rankles. 
 
 10. If corporal punishment is applied, therefore, it must 
 always be with a distinct recognition of its limitations and 
 dangers. The points noted above may be embodied in 
 three sets of rules or cautions : (i) Do not employ corporal 
 punishment if its sting has been extracted, either actu- 
 ally or effectually. Do not apply corporal punishment to 
 "hardened" cases; these can generally be more effectively 
 influenced by some other means. If youthful recalcitrants 
 court corporal punishment because it gives them prestige 
 with their fellow-pupils, either increase the intensity of the 
 stimulus so that it will overtop the pleasure of adulation, 
 
Il6 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 or, in case this is impracticable, resort to expulsion or sus- 
 pension; it may be assumed, however, that the latter 
 measure will be needed only in very exceptional cases; 
 at any rate, it is well to keep on with the punishment until 
 there is no doubt of its inefficacy. 
 
 (2) The application of corporal punishment should 
 become less and less frequent as the teacher's authority 
 becomes more and more adequately recognized. Where it 
 is necessary to use the rod day after day and year after 
 year on the same pupils, a possible agency for good has 
 been transformed into an unquestioned agency for evil. 
 It is treatment like this that hardens boys into fit recruits 
 for the criminal classes. Nevertheless this should not be 
 interpreted to mean that a recalcitrant should be chastised 
 once and once only. The first application is sometimes 
 looked upon by the pupil only as a test. He may accept 
 it graciously and still persist in the undesired act. It may 
 take several appHcations firmly to associate the act with 
 an unpleasant consequence. But in course of time the 
 pupil will come to understand that the teacher must be 
 obeyed. This conviction may later be transformed into 
 a "tradition" that is effective with succeeding classes. 
 The writer knows of several cases where a teacher or a 
 principal entering a new school has estabhshed his authority 
 at the outset by means of severe disciplinary measures, 
 and where such measures have become so essential a part 
 of the traditions of his room or his school that the neces- 
 sity for their repetition has never arisen after the first year 
 of service. The pupils are certain in their own minds that 
 
PENALTIES 117 
 
 unpleasant consequences will follow an infraction of the 
 rules, and the tradition of these consequences (perhaps 
 even magnified in the course of time) comes to operate, 
 vicariously as it were, for the actual penalties. 
 
 (3) If corporal punishment is applied, the teacher 
 should always be certain that the pupil either recognizes 
 its justice or will come to recognize its justice. The best 
 guide in this matter is for the teacher to be certain that 
 the penalty is just. Whenever misdemeanors occur, the 
 responsibility for which cannot be accurately placed, it is 
 unwise to administer corporal punishment to any pupil 
 or pupils on the mere chance that he or they may be guilty. 
 In short, circumstantial evidence should never justify 
 corporal punishment. It is the writer's experience that 
 this is the only safe policy, although now and then a guilty 
 pupil may escape the penalty. If the pupils gain the 
 idea that the teacher is absolutely just and fair, the 
 chances are that imidentifiable guilt will be reduced to a 
 minimum. 
 
 11. Summary. Corporal punishment is at best only a 
 tentative measure, designed to teach the child the initial 
 lessons of decency and order. It is an extremely effective 
 agency for fulfiUing this function if it is used temperately 
 and with good sense. Its possibiHties of evil are incal- 
 culable if it is used in any other way. 
 
 12. The Reaction against Corporal Punishment. So 
 many evils have sprung from the abuse of the rod in the 
 past that the prevailing tendency of the present time is to 
 aboUsh it entirely from the educative process. This is 
 
Il8 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 an extreme reaction, and the pendulum will doubtless soon 
 come to swing back toward a position of equilibrium, as 
 it does in the case of all extreme movements in education. 
 Nevertheless, the reaction is at present so pronounced that 
 one who dehberately recommends corporal punishment as 
 a school penalty cannot overlook the arguments against 
 it. These may be briefly summarized as follows : — 
 
 (a) The progress of the race is away from the brutal and 
 toward the human — conjecturaliy, at least, toward that 
 highest ideal of humanity that is termed ''divine." Corporal 
 punishment appeals to the brute instincts, consequently it is 
 inconsistent with the general trend of progress. It is largely 
 for this reason that it has been abolished as a civil penalty. 
 
 This argument overlooks a very important fact. Although 
 the progress of the race is away from the brute, the individual 
 who is born into the world is, biologically, no farther away 
 from the brute than was the infant who was born at the very 
 dawn of human progress. That is, everything that makes man 
 human is a product not of heredity but of culture and training 
 — education in the broadest sense of the term. No matter 
 how far civilization may develop, civilized society must always 
 take the child at the brute level and raise him to the social 
 level. Human progress is extremely rapid; but biological 
 progress — and this is the only kind that will have any effect 
 upon heredity — is extremely slow. This is one of the most 
 profound truths that modern science has revealed, and 
 it is a truth that the great mass of mankind, who have no 
 knowledge of biology, find it hard indeed to appreciate. Every- 
 thing else is advancing, they say; why should the principles 
 of early education remain stationary? And yet they must 
 remain practically stationary so long as the race remains what 
 it is physically. There is as yet no evidence that the culture 
 
PENALTIES 119 
 
 and virtue accumulated by each generation are transmitted 
 to its offspring through the forces of heredity. 
 
 That corporal punishment has been abolished as a civil 
 penalty does not necessarily argue its inadequacy as a school 
 penalty. The criminal may be so hardened to pain — or so 
 abnormally anaesthetic — that blows would have no effect 
 upon him. But even beyond this, the cases are entirely differ- 
 ent. In the one case, we are dealing with a child who has no 
 experience to draw upon, who cannot project himself into the 
 future and see the remote consequences of his acts. In the 
 other case, we are dealing with an adult who, presumably, has 
 reached the age of reason. 
 
 (b) Corporal punishment antagonizes the child, placing him 
 in an attitude of habitual opposition to authority. 
 
 This is true in a very small proportion of cases, and these are 
 probably, in the main, cases that represent an abuse of the 
 measure. If all corporal punishment had this disastrous effect, 
 ninety-nine per cent of the men and women of to-day would 
 be enrolled among the anarchists. (The figure, of course, 
 is only conjectural, but it would be surprising if more than 
 one per cent of the adult population of the land failed to taste 
 either the slipper, the shingle, or the birch during their child- 
 hood.) 
 
 (c) Corporal punishment leads the child to hate and despise 
 the parents and teachers who inflict it. 
 
 And yet adults not infrequently have the greatest respect and 
 love for the parents and the teachers who corrected them in 
 their youth. Children will resent an unjust punishment, and 
 this resentment will probably linger for a long time — even 
 into adulthood. This is not a reason, however, for abandoning 
 the rod of correction. It is rather an indication of the care 
 that must be exercised in not permitting a child to be punished 
 unjustly. He may not always see the justice of his chastise- 
 ment, but the likelihood is that he will see it later if justice ha« 
 
120 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 really been done him. It is in cases of flagrant injustice that 
 resentment brings evil results. 
 
 (d) It is cowardly for an adult to "take a stick and attack a 
 defenseless child." 
 
 This is hardly deserving of a place among serious arguments. 
 In the first place, it is decidedly distasteful for the great major- 
 ity of men and women to administer corporal punishment. In 
 the average of cases, one may safely assume that it takes cour- 
 age rather than cowardice to resort to this measure. In the 
 second place, the indictment would easily cover all cases where 
 authority is armed with the power of execution. If it is cowardly 
 for the teacher to wield the rod, it is cowardly for the policeman 
 to carry a "billy," for the judge to pass sentence on a prisoner 
 (surely the prisoner is defenseless in the same sense that the 
 child is), and for the jail warden to keep his keys in his own 
 possession instead of distributing them among his prisoners, 
 in order that they may have an "equal chance." 
 
 (e) Corporal punishment and other harsh measures of dis- 
 cipline tend to discourage pupils with school life and lead them 
 to take the first opportunity to seek remunerative employment. 
 
 This is the most serious indictment against every measure 
 that tends to make school work in any way irksome. Exami- 
 nations have been condemned for the same reason; also the 
 formal drills that are necessary to lay the automatic foundations 
 of life. School work must be made pleasant, interesting, agree- 
 able, otherwise education will fail to reach the individuals who 
 need it the most.^ 
 
 * It would be difl5cult to conjecture the practical results of this argu- 
 ment. In every school system there is a desire on the part of the authori- 
 ties to "show numbers." The man who can build up a large school is 
 the successful man in education. How he attracts his pupils is a matter 
 of little importance as long as he gets them. The motive may not be 
 consciously formulated, but it is frequently present, whether one is con- 
 scious of it or not. A^ain there are well-meaning but shortsighted indi- 
 
PENALTIES 121 
 
 This argument has little force against a temperate use of 
 corporal punishment in the elementary school. The great 
 majority of pupils on whom corporal punishment is inflicted 
 remain in school, and it would be hard to prove that those who 
 leave do so for the reason ascribed. Beyond this, nearly every 
 state has a compulsory education law that operates in the ele- 
 mentary school. Under an effective enforcement of such a 
 law the condition mentioned could not, of course, exist. 
 
 (/) Corporal punishment tends to brutalize the individual 
 who inflicts it. 
 
 This is an argument of some force, suggesting a condition 
 that may easily come to operate. That corporal punishment 
 necessarily brutalizes is certainly disproved by innumerable 
 cases of schoolmen (and schoolwomen) who have employed the 
 measure and are still within the pale of humanity. But the 
 danger is one to be borne in mind and counteracted in all pos- 
 sible ways. It is quite analogous to the danger that confronts 
 all who deal largely with immature minds, — the tendency, 
 namely, to become dogmatic and unyielding through too wide 
 an exercise of autocratic authority. 
 
 viduals who believe that the privileges of the school should be extended 
 as widely as possible, but who fail to discriminate between a large attend- 
 ance and effective work. Certainly if good work can be accomplished 
 without drill, examinations, or the imposing of penalties for disorder, let 
 us abolish all these things. No one would perpetuate a disagreeable 
 thing if its function could be fulfilled in any other way. To "let down 
 the bars" is imperative unless there is good and valid reason for keeping 
 them up. Is there this reason? Ask a high school principal whose 
 pupils have been "kindergartened" up through the grades what he thinks 
 of eliminating the drills in the elementary school, — or ask a business man 
 whose apprentices have come from a high school where " soft " pedagogy has 
 prevailed. The progress of a class is always measured by the ability of 
 its slowest members, and it makes little difference in the end whether 
 these slow members are naturally stupid or whether they are simply 
 indolent from want of a proper incentive for effort. 
 
122 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 (g) Corporal punishment is ineffective in securing the ends 
 which it seeks. To quote a contemporary authority: ''The 
 rod never did produce good results in any case, unless there 
 was character in the teacher who used it. This character in 
 the teacher properly used would have produced better results 
 in every case without the rod. Every experienced superin- 
 tendent knows many cases in which men and women who used 
 corporal punishment have ignominiously failed, and whose 
 classes have been restored to good order and kindled to a spirit 
 of enthusiasm for working by a little woman who did not practice 
 coercion in any form." ^ 
 
 The supposititious cases cited could, of course, be easily offset 
 by innumerable instances in which a teacher who failed through 
 lack of firmness in asserting his authority has been succeeded 
 by another teacher who has brought a decadent school *'up 
 with a sharp turn " by a judicious use of the rod.^ For every 
 superintendent who could adduce one instance of the former sort 
 there are doubtless ten who could bring up as many instances 
 of the latter variety. Until an accurate investigation is made 
 upon the matter, one statement is precisely as good as another. 
 For example, take the following testimony by the principal of 
 a large grammar school in Buffalo : " While I believe that the 
 time of frequent use of the rod of punishment as a warning to 
 others has passed, I firmly believe that, notwithstanding the 
 great progress made in the management of our educational 
 affairs, there has not yet been found an adequate substitute for 
 a good strap to bring a real bad boy to his senses." ^ 
 
 13. Practically all authorities upon school management 
 admit the efficiency of corporal punishment, but would 
 
 * J. L. Hughes, in Journal of Edtication (Boston), vol. Ixiii, pp. 485 f. 
 
 * Cf . the case cited by White : School Management, pp. 208 f . 
 
 ' J. L. Bothwell: "How to dispose of the Incorrigible Boy," in Pro- 
 ceedings of the New York State Teacher^ Association^ 1905, p. 104. 
 
PENALTIES 1 23 
 
 restrict its application to a very narrow sphere. White* 
 recommends its use only in cases of rebeUion, meaning 
 by that term a positive refusal on the part of the child to 
 accede to the request of the teacher. Button* admits 
 that "theoretically there are extreme cases where it (cor- 
 poral punishment) is needed for the good of the offender," 
 but he implies that teachers cannot be generally trusted 
 to use the measure temperately and effectively, and that 
 the school boards that have abolished it "have chosen the 
 lesser of two evils." Roark ^ agrees that corporal punish- 
 ment should be used but rarely, but insists that "no teacher 
 can afford to let it be understood that whipping is abol- 
 ished." Kellogg* indorses "bodily chastisement" as a 
 last resort. Tompkins® believes it to be justified with 
 pupils "whose integument is the only avenue to the main- 
 spring of conduct." Seeley** also indorses a temperate 
 use of the rod as far preferable to many other penalties 
 commonly employed. Baldwin ^ summarizes his discus- 
 sion of corporal punishment in the maxim, "Grant the 
 right, but avoid the use." Landon's position * is equally 
 explicit : " Moral offenses of a grave character, deliberate 
 and continued neglect of admonition or rebeUion, may be 
 
 * E. E. White : School Management, New York, 1893, pp. 207 f. 
 2 S. T. Button : School Management, New York, 1904, p. 104. 
 ' R. N. Roark: Economy in Education, New York, 1905, p. 45. 
 
 * A. M. Kellogg: School Management, New York, 1884, p. 69. 
 
 * Arnold Tompkins : Philosophy of School Management, Boston, 1898, 
 
 P- 173- 
 
 * L. Seeley : A New School Management, New York, 1903, pp. 97 ff. 
 ' J. Baldwin: Art of School Management, New York, 1887, p. 176. 
 
 * J. Landon : School Management, Boston, 1884, pp. 352 f . 
 
124 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 justly treated by corporal punishment; and it is some- 
 times necessary to give a physical check of this kind, as 
 a counterpoise to wrong propensities or long-established 
 habits, as a means of arousing the pupil from that dreamy 
 irresolution which is frequently the greatest obstacle to 
 reformation." The last-named authority also has this to 
 say with regard to the supposed evil efifects of the prac- 
 tice: "Those persons who have most carefully watched- 
 its effects will probably concur that, where used with skill 
 and discretion by a sympathetic teacher, and where care 
 is taken to neutralize its side tendencies by other good in- 
 fluences, there is httle or no cause to fear any evil results. 
 There is something radically wrong besides the mere use 
 of corporal punishment wherever the long train of evils 
 laid to its charge are ever realized in practice." Keith * 
 indorses corporal punishment as a last resort, asserting 
 that it is better for the child that " he should suffer the 
 pain of corporal punishment and even the disgrace of 
 being whipped in the presence of his peers than that he 
 should persist in acts of selfishness and meanness." 
 
 Conspicuous among the recent writers upon this subject 
 is Dr. J. S. Taylor, assistant superintendent of the New 
 York City schools. Dr. Taylor^ anathematizes corporal 
 punishment as a "relic of barbarism," and asserts with 
 ItaUcized vehemence that a principal "who cannot disci- 
 pline a school without corporal punishment, could not 
 
 * J. A. H. Keith : Elementary Education, Chicago, 1905, p. 288. 
 ' J. S. Taylor: Art of Class Management and Discipline, New York, 
 1903, pp. 62 fif. 
 
PENALTIES 125 
 
 successfully do so with corporal punishment/' His dis- 
 cussion is extremely suggestive, but he is obviously in a 
 decided minority among authorities upon the subject. 
 It should be said, however, that he writes chiefly for the 
 teachers in a large city system, where the prestige of a 
 vast organization is very much in evidence, and where 
 authority is backed up by truant officers and parental 
 schools. Nevertheless, even under these conditions, it 
 is interesting to note that the Male Principals' Association 
 of Manhattan Borough received a report ^ from a represen- 
 tative committee, recommending corporal punishment in 
 extreme cases, and basing this recommendation upon 
 some very sane and cogent arguments. 
 
 "Dr. G. Stanley Hall, in his article on 'Moral Education and 
 Will Training,' cites from Richter the record of a Swab ian school- 
 master, named Haberle, as an example of the severity which 
 once prevailed in Germany in the matter of punishment — 
 truly a remarkable count for 51 years and 7 months as a teacher : 
 '911,527 blows with a cane; 124,010 with a rod; 20,989 with 
 a ruler; 136,715 with the hand; 10,295 over the mouth; 
 7905 boxes on the ears; 1,115,800 snaps on the head; 22,763 
 fwta benes with Bible, catechism, hymn book, and grammar; 
 777 times boys had to kneel on peas; 613 times on triangular 
 blocks of wood; 5001 had to carry a timber mare, and 1701 
 hold the rod high — the last two being punishments of his own 
 invention. Of the blows with the cane, 800,000 were for Latin 
 vowels, and 76,000 of those with the rod for Bible verses and 
 hymns. He used a scolding vocabulary of over 3000 terms, 
 of which one third were of his own invention.' 
 
 "Against this punitory maximum. Dr. Hall, the gist of whose 
 * These resolutions will be found in Taylor, op. cit., pp. 71 £F. 
 
126 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 article is 'that only in so far as the primitive will of the child 
 is wrong by nature are drastic reconstructions of any sort 
 needed,* ever3rthing depending on how 'aboriginal our good- 
 ness is,' and upon ' that better purity established by our mother 
 in our heart before the superfetation of precept is possible,' 
 ranges ' the now too common habit of coquetting for the child's 
 favor, and tickling its ego with praises and prizes, and peda- 
 gogic pettifogging for its good will, and sentimental fear of a 
 judicious slap to rouse a spoiled child with no will to break, to 
 make it keep step with the rest in conduct, instead of delaying 
 a whole schoolroom to apply a subtle psychology of motive.' " * 
 
 14. Regulation of Corporal Punishment, The reaction 
 against corporal punishment, although doubtless carried 
 too far, has accomplished one very desirable end : it has 
 shown the necessity for curtailing the practice and for 
 regulating it by sane restrictions. In practically all schools 
 corporal punishment is much less prevalent than it was 
 two decades ago, and, wherever it is inflicted, it is almost 
 universally under strict prescription by explicit rulings as 
 to the nature of the offense that can be met with this meas- 
 ure, the time and method of administration, and the agent 
 who inflicts it. The following summary is given as repre- 
 senting a fair consensus of typical rules in force in a num- 
 ber of city systems. 
 
 (a) There should be a "standard" method of inflict- 
 ing corporal punishment. Blows upon the head, in the 
 neighborhood of the spinal column, or near any vital 
 organ should be rigidly prohibited.^ Just what cutaneous 
 
 * Cited by A. F. Chamberlain : The Child, London, 1900, pp. 388 f . 
 ' " Shaking a child, striking him upon the head, slapping his face, 
 boxing his ears, and similar means of inflicting physical pain are strictly 
 
PENALTIES 127 
 
 area can be most effectively stimulated is a matter of 
 differing opinion, as is also the particular instrument to be 
 used. Many good teachers advise "spanking'* for young 
 children, and there is much to recommend this traditional 
 means of discipHne. Upon those who have grown callous 
 to the palm of the hand, a shingle may be profitably em- 
 ployed, although it should be noted that some authorities 
 object to any blows upon the buttocks as unhygienic-— 
 maintaining that they tend to cause congestion of the 
 capillaries in the neighborhood of the genital organs, 
 thereby giving rise to serious dangers. St. Louis ^ pre- 
 scribes that corporal punishment "shall not be inflicted 
 otherwise than by using a thin rattan upon the fleshy part 
 of the back." La Crosse, Wis.,^ rules that corporal pun- 
 ishment "shall be restricted to the use of a leather strap, 
 preferably on the palm of the hand." A light "switch" 
 (such as the birch of our grandfathers) appHed around the 
 legs is sometimes effective. Unyielding rods should not 
 be used in any case, and it is always well to avoid anything 
 that will leave a "welt," which, although it may look far 
 more dangerous than it really is, is apt to cause trouble- 
 some investigations. 
 
 prohibited, and the Board will hold its teachers strictly responsible for 
 any violation of this rule." — St. Louis Public Schools: Abstract from 
 Rules and Regulations, Reg. 7, Sec. ii. 
 
 "Striking the children on the mouth, on the car, or on the head is 
 strictly prohibited." — Chester, Pa. : Manual of the Public Schools^ 
 1904-1905, p. 61. 
 
 * Op. cit., p. 24. 
 
 ' La Crosse, Wis. : Course of Study and Rules and Regulations, 1898, 
 p. 81. 
 
128 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 15. (b) In a graded school it is customary for the prin- 
 cipal to inflict all necessary corporal punishment. This 
 is essentially a man's duty, except, perhaps, with children 
 in the primary grades. Most ruHngs upon this matter 
 prescribe either that the principal shall inflict the punish- 
 ment in the presence of the classroom teacher or the 
 teacher in the presence of the principal. In almost every 
 case the principal's sanction is necessary before the teacher 
 can inflict corporal punishment. 
 
 The following citations will sufficiently indicate the pre- 
 vailing practice in this regard : — 
 
 "Teachers are charged under the principal with entire con- 
 trol and discipline of their pupils and are held responsible 
 for their conduct; but must not inflict corporal punishment 
 except after consultation with and by permission of the prin- 
 cipal." * 
 
 "Teachers shall use kind and persuasive measures with their 
 pupils, and should this fail, they shall report the case to the 
 principal, who may inflict, or cause to be inflicted, such corporal 
 punishment as he may think the case demands; but no teacher 
 or principal shall in any case, or under any pretense, punish 
 children in the schools by striking or slapping on or about the 
 head, or on the hand, or by shaking them violently. Corporal 
 punishment shall not in any case be administered in the pres- 
 ence of the school, but in the presence of the principal or super- 
 intendent, or one or more teachers." ^ 
 
 "Where corporal punishment is necessary, it must be ad- 
 ministered by the teacher under the direction and supervision 
 
 * Course of Study and Rules and Regulations, Public Schools of Duval 
 County, Fla. (Jacksonville), 1902, p. 57. 
 
 •Fort Worth, Tex., Public Schools: Manual, 1904-1905, p. 15. 
 
PENALTIES 129 
 
 of the principal of the school, or, where this is impossible, in 
 the presence of another teacher." * 
 
 "The authority to inflict corporal punishment is given to 
 every teacher, but such punishment shall be inflicted only in 
 the presence and with the sanction of the principal. Each 
 teacher shall file with the superintendent, at the close of each 
 month, a list of all cases of corporal punishment inflicted by 
 said teacher during the month, giving date, name of pupil, and 
 cause and extent of punishment." ^ 
 
 16. (c) In view of the natural tendency of the child's 
 mind to exaggerate or, at least, to distort actual occur- 
 rences, it is well always to have an adult witness when 
 punishment is inflicted. This is sometimes impracticable ; 
 indeed, the fact that such punishment should be associated 
 very closely with the act that occasioned it would fre- 
 quently make the delay in securing witnesses inimical to 
 the efficiency of the penalty. But in all cases from which 
 outside interference is anticipated, witnesses should be 
 secured. In such cases, also, every precaution should be 
 taken to eliminate any conditions that might imjustly be 
 turned against the teacher. For example, if a brittle rod 
 is broken during the act of punishment, the very statement, 
 "The teacher broke a stick over the child," has an ugly 
 sound, and will surely tell against one in popular opinion, 
 if not even in a court of law, although the blow itself 
 may be quite innocuous.' 
 
 > Chester, Pa.: Manual of the Public Schools, 1904-1905, p. 61. 
 ' Bay City, Mich. : Manual of Public Schools, 1904, p. 203. 
 * For a digest of regulations in the larger cities, see Report of Com- 
 missioner of Education, 1900, pp. 2578 S. 
 
I30 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 17. (d) Most of the citations also prescribe that pun- 
 ishment shall not be inflicted in the presence of other 
 children. This is doubtless a wise provision, although it 
 may be urgjed on the other side that an occasional pun- 
 ishment inflicted before the class will have a preventive 
 influence among other pupils. The benefits of such a 
 practice must be balanced up against its disadvantages. 
 An exhibition of the brute strength that a teacher can if 
 necessary command may strike fear into the hearts of the 
 witnesses, but it may also arouse a spirit of antagonism that 
 will encourage others to court the penalty for sake of the 
 accompanying martyrdom. In general, the practice is to 
 be condemned on the same grounds that public executions 
 are condemned ; namely, because, in both cases, morbid 
 interests are aroused that tend to brutalize the onlookers. 
 
 18. {e) The general principles of child development 
 would indicate that corporal punishment has its chief 
 sphere during the formative period of the child's life 
 (eight to twelve) ; but this rule, while holding in the main, 
 is subject to some exceptions. Occasionally an adolescent 
 is benefited by the application of the rod, but experience 
 in the classroom testifies that most cases of imfortunate 
 results from corporal punishment originate in the pun- 
 ishment of those who have passed puberty. It must be 
 remembered that corporal punishment is an extreme 
 measure to be resorted to only when a reasonable trial of 
 more gentle methods fails in effect. It is generally agreed 
 that " moral suasion" is not often effective with pupils in 
 the formative stage of growth, but that it is very frequently 
 
PENALTIES 131 
 
 effective with adolescents. It appeals solely to the " rea- 
 son " and to the sentiments founded upon rather advanced 
 judgment-products. If the pupil can be led to see why 
 his misdemeanors cannot be permitted to continue, he 
 will, if he is an average child, desist from their practice. It 
 is at this point that corporal punishment or any form of 
 extreme penalty becomes useless, and its application beyond 
 this point, while often practiced for the sake of " form," 
 or for making an " example," should certainly not be 
 countenanced. When an adolescent lacks adolescent char- 
 acteristics, however, — when he fails to respond to reason, 
 — corporal punishment is not only justified but demanded 
 for the protection of the majority. 
 
 19. Other Penalties, (a) Rebukes. Before resorting to 
 corporal punishment the efficiency of other less strenuous 
 penalties should in every case be tested. Lapses from 
 order should first be met with severe (although not neces- 
 sarily harsh) verbal reproval. This should be accom- 
 panied by a fair warning that further lapses must result 
 in a severer penalty. The great majority of children will 
 respond effectively to a rebuke; it is only the small mi- 
 nority that need anything more drastic. When a penalty 
 has been promised, it should in every case be inflicted if the 
 occasion arises. One of the worst habits in school mis- 
 management is to tell a pupil that he must accept a cer- 
 tain punishment for a misdemeanor and then "back 
 down " from inflicting that punishment. A " suspended 
 sentence " may sometimes be employed, but it is dangerous 
 for the young teacher to practice this too often. 
 
132 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 20. (b) Loss of Privileges. To deprive a pupil of a 
 privilege is a legitimate and often effective penalty for 
 offenses against discipline. It is for this reason that the 
 monitorial system described in a former chapter is to be 
 recommended, especially for those communities where 
 corporal punishment is forbidden either by statute, by 
 board ruling, or by public opinion. Deprivation of 
 a privilege is, however, often ineffective because the 
 privilege is not prized by the pupil. Keeping *' after 
 school" and "keeping in" at recess soon lose their sting, 
 and are further to be condemned as discipHnary measures 
 on account of the extra service which they require of the 
 teacher. No single pupil should be led to think that his 
 misdemeanors will entitle him to a greater amount of 
 attention from the teacher than the average well-behaved 
 child can command. It is for this reason that discipHnary 
 penalties should always be swift, certain, and as Httle 
 wasteful of time as is possible under the conditions, 
 
 21. (c) Suspensions. To suspend a pupil from school 
 in order to secure the cooperation of his parents in his 
 government is not to be looked upon as good practice 
 except under abnormal conditions. School officers have 
 legal authority over the child while he is within the school 
 premises. They are paid to exercise this authority, not to 
 evade the responsibiHty that it imposes. They are in loco 
 parentis J and, legally, the parents themselves have no more 
 power during this time than the teacher. If the former 
 have more influence with the recalcitrant, the fault lies 
 with the teacher, and the duty of government should not 
 
PENALTIES 133 
 
 for this reason be placed upon the parents' shoulders. 
 Moreover, the pupils who are most difficult to govern in 
 school are usually those from whose homes the least help 
 could be obtained. 
 
 Occasionally a parent demands that all cases of discipline 
 with reference to his children be referred to him before being 
 acted upon by the school authorities. The writer has, once or 
 twice, been informed that, if a child is to be punished, the 
 parents withhold the right to inflict the penalty. He acceded 
 willingly enough to this request on the first occasion, but the 
 results were so disastrous to the discipline of the school that' 
 he has made it a rule since that time tactfully but firmly to 
 insist upon parents' recognition of his legal status, unless, 
 indeed, the parent is willing to inflict the punishment in his 
 presence. He has explained that the teacher is always respon- 
 sible to the law for the abuse of his power and that an injured 
 party may, if he wishes, seek redress through the courts. He 
 has also explained that such interference by the parent with the 
 duties that rightfully belong to the teacher cannot fail to place 
 the teacher m an unjust light in the eyes of his pupils and of the 
 community at large. 
 
 Far mor^i disastrous, however, than the interference of parents 
 is the officious meddling of boardsmen and others who may 
 happen to have "influence." In such cases, there is but one 
 alternative open to the true craftsman: either such interfer- 
 ence must cease or he must resign instantly. It would be a 
 bright day for the calling of Schoolcraft if all teachers could 
 come to an absolute agreement upon this point. One who for 
 a moment truckles to political influence in school work does 
 incalculable harm to the cause of education. If craft ideals 
 and standards are needed anywhere, it is surely at this point. 
 There must be some things that a teacher will not do, no matter 
 what the temptation, — no matter^ even^ if one's bread and 
 
134 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 butter depend entirely upon doing them. The physician would 
 starve rather than be unfaithful to certain standards of his 
 profession. He might gain wealth by such infidelity, but he 
 would lose something that is far dearer to him than any amount 
 of wealth; namely, professional standing. The same is 
 true, although in lesser degree, of the lawyer. The members 
 of these professions make their own standards, set up their own 
 ideals. The general pubHc very wisely keeps its hands off. 
 This is the condition that should prevail in schoolcraft, and, 
 until it does prevail, the work of education will never rank 
 with other human callings requiring a like training of its novi- 
 tiates. 
 
 22. (d) Expulsions. To expel a pupil from school is 
 the very last resort in cases of discipline. With even the 
 worst offenders there is less danger to society in keeping 
 them at school than in permitting them to run at large. 
 Where parental schools are maintained for the reception 
 of such cases, there are occasions when the ordinary public 
 school may wisely turn over to this special institution the 
 cases that are relatively incorrigible by normal methods. 
 But where parental schools are not provided, ceitainly no 
 pupil not positively degenerate should be turned out into 
 the street. This, of course, does not apply to older pupils 
 who have passed the legal school age. Such individuals 
 may be presumed to have attained a maturity that will 
 render disciplinary measures unnecessary, and, if they 
 fail to accommodate themselves to the requirements of 
 the school, it is an injustice to the others to retain them. 
 
 23. (e) Sending Pupils to the Principal. A large pro- 
 portion of the classroom teachers in the city systems serve 
 
PENALTIES 135 
 
 under supervising principals. This condition should make 
 discipline rather simpler than where the classroom teacher 
 is independent. The principal is usually a man, while 
 the classroom teacher is almost invariably a woman. The 
 natural division of labor would seem to indicate that the 
 heavier tasks of discipline should devolve upon the male 
 official, and many principals are chivalrous enough to 
 take this view of the matter. They will support the class- 
 room teacher with all the muscular force and all the in- 
 fluence emanating from higher authority that each indi- 
 vidual case demands. If the pupils respect the principal, 
 they will dislike being sent to him for offenses against 
 order, and in this simple measure the teacher can often 
 solve the most troublesome problems. Not all principals 
 will shoulder this responsibility, however. Some believe 
 that it weakens the classroom teacher. Others are only 
 too glad to leave the " heavy work" to the women. In 
 any case, a teacher's reputation and standing will be 
 lowered if the practice is indulged too frequently. The 
 young teacher who tries this remedy several times and 
 finds it ineffective may safely come to the conclusion that 
 other measures are demanded. 
 
 The most reliable source of data concerning punishment of 
 school children nlust always be the experience of the teach- 
 ers who are in closest touch with the problems of discipline. 
 The following propositions are taken from a report* which 
 represents a consensus of the experience of about ©ne himdred 
 successful teachers in Rhode Island. 
 
 ^ " Report on Syllabus concerning School Punishment and Penalties," 
 apth Annual Report, State Board of Education, Rhode Island, 1899. 
 
136 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 (i) The classroom teacher should administer punishment 
 for classroom offenses. 
 
 (2) Little time should elapse between the misdemeanor and 
 the punishment. ' 
 
 (3) Children should not be punished in the presence of 
 other children. 
 
 (4) Children should not be punished by one who is labor- 
 ing under the emotion of anger. 
 
 (5) Intentional, willful, and premeditated offenses should 
 be punished. 
 
 (6) Repeated offenses should be punished. 
 
 (7) Offenses not apt to be repeated should not be punished. 
 
 (8) Not all children require the same punishment for the 
 same offense. 
 
 (9) Children should always clearly understand why they 
 are' punished. 
 
 (10) Punishments tend to reform the pupil if he sees their 
 justice. 
 
 (11) Suspension should be the last resort. 
 
 (12) Punishment should not be used for the sake of " mak- 
 ing an example." 
 
 (13) Sarcasm, ridicule, and satire should not be used as 
 punishments. 
 
 (14) The majority of parents who are consulted favor cor- 
 poral punishment. 
 
 (15) Tasks should not be employed as punishments. 
 
 References. — Tompkins.: Philosophy of School Management, 
 pp. 1 70-181; J. S. Taylor: Class Management and Discipline, ch. v; 
 Kellogg: School Management, ch. viii; Seeley: School Manage- 
 ment, ch. viii; J. A. H. Keith: Elementary Education, Chicago, 
 1905, pp. 119-133, 288. 
 
PART II 
 
 JUDGMENT FACTORS IN CLASSROOM MAN- 
 AGEMENT 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 The Problem of Attention 
 
 I. It has been attempted in the preceding chapters to 
 indicate the various points at which an application of the 
 law of habit-building may serve to prevent waste in the 
 educative process as applied to children dealt with in the 
 mass. In a well-organized classroom the matters already 
 mentioned will take care of themselves ; and the first aim 
 of the classroom teacher should be to reduce to the plane 
 of routine or group-habit all of the necessary details that 
 can profitably be cared for in this way. The problems of 
 management, however, do not end with this reduction of 
 detail to automatic routine. Even in the classroom that 
 is best organized the teacher must constantly meet new 
 questions that arise with regard to the main problem of 
 our discussion. The effective treatment of pupils in the 
 mass must, in other words, always involve judgment; it 
 can never be reduced entirely to the machine basis. 
 
 The problem of Part II, therefore, is to consider the 
 general principles, standards, or ideals that should govern 
 the teacher in the non-routine phases of his work. As in 
 
 137 
 
138 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 Part I, the question is still, at basis, a question of economy : 
 How can class work be made to return the largest possible 
 dividend on a practicable investment of time, energy, and 
 money ? 
 
 2. Beyond doubt the greatest source of waste in the work 
 of education results from the difficulty encountered in 
 securing and holding the attention of all pupils to the 
 subject-matter of instruction. The problem is complex 
 and difficult, and its solution involves the balancing of a 
 multitude of diverse factors. Simply to secure attention, 
 simply to hold attention — if these were the only factors, 
 the situation would be somewhat simplified. But here, 
 perhaps, more than anywhere else, the methods that are 
 employed to insure economy in school work must be sub- 
 jected to the rigorous test of the ultimate end of education, 
 for they involve the operation of educative forces that are 
 as fundamental as the subject-matter of instruction itself. 
 
 3. The first step in the solution of this problem is to 
 inquire of the psychologist what laws govern attention. 
 Every one knows that some things are easily attended to, 
 and that other things are attended to with great difficulty. 
 Every one also knows that the things attended to with 
 difficulty are often the things that are most essential for 
 one to attend to. These are facts of common knowledge. 
 
 Psychology attempts to go further than this — it tries 
 to classify the things that attract attention easily and to 
 find out just why they do so. It tries also to classify the 
 things that are difficult to attend to, and to discover the 
 reason for this difficulty. Various bases have been adopted 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION 139 
 
 for these classifications, and not all psychologists are yet 
 agreed as to the best basis. The following discussion will 
 adopt what may be called the biological point of view as 
 offering the most satisfactory explanation of the phenomena 
 of attention as applied in schoolroom practice. 
 
 4. The Doctrine of Ends. From the biological point of 
 view it is clear that attention must bear some direct rela- 
 tion to the needs of the organism. We attend to certain 
 things primarily because they are, in one fashion or 
 another, essential to our well-being. We are not always 
 conscious of these needs; one, for instance, may attend 
 to a flash of light, or to a sharp pain, or to a moving object, 
 for no conscious reason save that the stimulus, as we say, 
 " catches the attention." But why are we so constituted 
 that we attend to these things? The real reason must 
 be sought in race history. When our ancestors lived 
 under very primitive conditions, as they did for thousands 
 of generations, it was absolutely essential to the existence 
 of the organism that it be able to note any marked dis- 
 turbance in its environment. Survival under primitive 
 conditions was conditioned absolutely upon the instinctive 
 tendencies to attend to all stimuli that could, in any marked 
 degree, become danger signals. 
 
 All of our instincts^ then, — all of those complex adjust- 
 ments with which nature has provided us, — become cor- 
 relates, on the mental or conscious side, of what may be 
 termed tendencies to attend — tendencies to hold conscious- 
 ness open and receptive to whatever impressions may fit 
 in with the instinct. Thus, the instinctive need to note 
 
I40 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 the presence of moving objects in the environment is 
 correlated with a law of attention : movement anywhere 
 within the range of the field of vision will "draw the eyes" 
 in that direction — will attract our notice. When the 
 cra\ings of hunger affect us, anything that will satisfy 
 these cravings attracts our attention. Our minds are, as 
 it were, keyed or attuned to these various sorts of stimuli 
 by the tension of the instinct that is functioning at the 
 time. 
 
 It will be noted that attention in all these cases is de- 
 termined by an immediate end, and that this end is the 
 satisfaction of the organic need which is instinctively felt. 
 Action based upon attention of this sort does not look into 
 the future, it takes no account of any remote consequences. 
 Furthermore its expression is, so far as the individual is 
 concerned, purely selfish. It may, it is true, have social 
 or altruistic impHcations, as in the case of the mothering 
 instinct, but in so far as the direct reaction upon the 
 individual is concerned, it satisfies an immediate, organic, 
 innate, instinctive need. 
 
 It is clearly evident that this law of attention can be 
 appUed effectively to improving the application of pupils 
 to the tasks that are set for their accompHshment. If an 
 instinctive need can be appealed to, the result will be sure 
 and certain. This may be called the "First Law," or the 
 •*Law of Primary Passive Attention," and its operation 
 \vill be treated in detail in a later section. 
 
 5. The Second Law. The operation of the first law is 
 quite independent of any conscious end or purpose save 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION I4I 
 
 the immediate satisfaction of an instinctive or organic 
 need. It is distinctively the law of the lower types of 
 mind. No animal below the rank of man ever rises very 
 far above its operation. It is the essential prerogative of 
 the human mind, however, to "look ahead," to project 
 itself into the future, to construct in imagination an idea 
 of what this future will bring forth or demand, and then 
 to adapt its adjustments to the end thus previewed. The 
 fundamental importance of this capacity to human de- 
 velopment can never be overestimated. It stands as the 
 prime factor in human evolution. It is the significant 
 characteristic of Homo sapiens^ for thinking — reasoning 
 
 — is nothing more nor less than this constructive activity 
 of the human mind. 
 
 What does this mean in terms of attention? Simply 
 this, that whenever attention is determined by an end 
 that is consciously beyond the needs of the moment, — 
 whenever present desires and impulses are inhibited or 
 suppressed for the sake of some remote end to be gained, 
 
 — a struggle is inevitable between the thing that one de- 
 sires to attend to and the thing that one knows one should 
 attend to. It is clear that, in general, the nearer the end, 
 the more likelihood that it will conquer the momentary 
 impulse. It is also clear that, the more vivid the image 
 of the end to be reached, the more HkeHhood that the 
 momentary impulse will be defeated. Likewise, the more 
 highly the end is tinged with desire or positive emotional 
 force, again the greater hkelihood that it will be victorious 
 in its struggles. All of these principles are simple corol- 
 
142 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 laries of the general law; they are practically axiomatic; 
 and yet it is safe to say that no principles so fundamental 
 as these have been so woefully neglected in educational 
 practice. 
 
 Because of this struggle between the impulse of the 
 moment and the idea of a remote end that may be gained 
 by suppressing this impulse, this variety of attention is 
 known as " active," and the principle governing its 
 operation may be conveniently referred to as the "Second 
 Law" of attention. 
 
 One or two concrete instances will suggest to the reader a 
 number of personal experiences that will tend to bear out the 
 above statements. The effort essential to ''get down" to 
 work, unless forced by some immediate need or impelled through 
 the operation of habit (which, however, involves an element 
 yet to be discussed), is typical of the struggle between the 
 end and the impulse. Impulse always makes for variety and 
 abhors monotony, but monotony is often necessary to reach 
 some remote end. One is ambitious, for example, to become a 
 musician. The start is made valiantly enough, the bright pic- 
 ture of future honors and adulation being sufficient to keep one 
 to the routine and discipline of the preparatory process for some 
 little time. Sooner or later, however, the monotony becomes 
 irksome, and the intense desire to have done with it all and be 
 off "on another tack" is apt to take complete possession of one's 
 mind. In case the triumph is complete, — as it is in the sad 
 majority of cases, — the change is made, the discipline lapses 
 by degrees, and is finally abandoned altogether, and the ambi- 
 tion that once burnt so brightly dies away. Hence arises the 
 necessity in all branches of education to present as an incen- 
 tive to effort, not only one remote end, but all sorts of inter- 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION I43 
 
 mediate ends, the approach and attainment of which shall keep 
 the worker at his task until finally the daily discipline of toil 
 becomes a matter of habit, and the remote end is constantly 
 approached without undue struggle, and perhaps drops entirely 
 out of consciousness. 
 
 In the work of the schoolroom, the principle finds application 
 in a multitude of devices, some of which will be discussed in a 
 later section. The grading and promoting system may serve 
 as an illustration in the present connection. The remote end 
 of education is far too distant and abstract a conception for 
 even fairly mature students to grasp, much less little children 
 in the early stages of the process. For this reason a series of 
 ends, less remote, must be introduced, and this gives rise to 
 the grading system with its attendant examinations and pro- 
 motions. Each step in the attainment of the remote end is 
 terminated by some sort of test as to the character of the work 
 done during the step, and this test will act, under the proper 
 conditions, as an incentive to effort in the pupils. At the out- 
 set the steps are short, for the end cannot be too remote, else 
 it will lose its effectiveness as an incentive. As the pupil 
 develops, the end is placed at a point farther and farther away, 
 until, in the graduate courses of the university, a period of 
 three years may lapse before the student is subjected to an 
 examination. 
 
 6. The Third Law. In the preceding discussion it has 
 been assumed that the kind of attention termed "active" 
 always operates against some impulse or instinctive ten- 
 dency. If such is the case, what shall we call that form of 
 attention that is given freely and without effort to an 
 activity that makes for a remote end and still does not 
 " fit in " with an instinctive tendency ? It is obvious enough 
 that one comes to enjoy one's work; that one finds no 
 
144 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 difficulty whatsoever in following a line of activity that 
 makes unerringly for an end that one has previewed. 
 The explanation is to be found in an extension of the law 
 of habit. We become habituated in course of time to 
 almost anything that we persevere in, no matter how dis- 
 agreeable that thing may have been at the outset. That 
 is, the inhibition of distracting impulses becomes a habit, 
 becomes unconscious. This sort of attention is termed 
 ** secondary passive," and the principle that governs its 
 operation may be called the "Third Law" of attention. 
 
 This must not be construed as meaning that attention be- 
 comes a habit. Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as a 
 "habit of attention." Habit and attention are the two ex- 
 tremes of mental life. One may, however, habitually assume 
 the attitude of attention, and one may habitually repress im- 
 pulses that are inconsistent with attention, or habitually resist 
 temptations which distract. It is only in this sense that a 
 "habit of attention" means anything whatsoever. 
 
 This secondary passive attention might be called the 
 terminus ad quern of the teacher's work. When the pupil 
 has reached this stage, all that he needs is direction and 
 suggestion. Prior to this time his effort must be incited 
 by one form of stimulus or another; after this time, his 
 effort is given freely : all that now needs to be done is to 
 see to it that this effort is expended profitably and econom- 
 ically. The successful teacher is he who can get his pupils 
 into this stage most effectively. The ideal school (which 
 can probably never be realized in practice) is one in which 
 every pupil works for the joy that the working brings him. 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION I45 
 
 Needless to say, the problem that pedagogy is concerned 
 with lies not so much in the operation of the third law as 
 in the operation of the first and second laws. The effort 
 of educational theory is to find some means of applying 
 the first and second laws in such a fashion that the con- 
 ditions demanded for the successful operation of the 
 third law may be fulfilled. Too many treatises on teach- 
 ing start with secondary passive attention. They assume 
 that the effort of the pupils will be given freely in any 
 desired direction. This is a simple case of begging the 
 question. 
 
 Most authorities upon pedagogy and school management, 
 for example, speak of interest in one's work as an incentive to 
 effort ; but interest in work for its own sake is not at all akin to 
 an interest that attaches to a remote end, toward the attain- 
 ment of which the work or effort is but a means. The very 
 common advice given as a sort of blanket precept to insure suc- 
 cess in teaching — ''Make the work interesting" — is about 
 as futile and ineffective as the dictum discussed above, — "Keep 
 the pupils busy." Every teacher knows that the thing to do 
 is to make the work interesting; the point where advice is 
 needed is not what to do, but how to do it. There are many 
 tasks involved in education that are not intrinsically interesting. 
 Sometimes, however, after effort has been initiated and sus- 
 tained by means of a powerful incentive, the task gradually 
 becomes fascinating in itself. The incentive may now very 
 well be forgotten, for its utility is at an end. 
 
 7. It will be necessary in the present discussion to leave 
 the treatment of the third law at this point, and to devote 
 our time and energy to the first two laws. These will 
 
146 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 accordingly be treated in some detail in the two following 
 chapters. It should always be borne in mind, however, — 
 even if not always expHcitly stated, — that the third law 
 must come to operate if the school is to accomplish its 
 work with a minimum of waste. 
 
 References. — J. R. Angell : Psychology ^ New York, 1906, 
 pp. 64-76; E. B. Titchener: Primer of Psychology, New York, 1899, 
 ch. V ; H. H. Home : The Psychological Principles of Education, 
 New York, 1906, ch. xxviii; W. C. Bagley: The Educative Process, 
 ch. vi. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 The Problem of Attention (Continued) : The 
 Operation of the First Law 
 
 1. The first law represents the activity of attention at 
 its lowest level of development. Primary passive atten- 
 tion is determined solely by instinct. If any end is con- 
 sciously in view, it is simply the immediate gratification of 
 an instinctive desire. The problem of the present chapter, 
 therefore, is to inquire into the operation of those instincts 
 that can be utilized in schoolroom practice to secure atten- 
 tion of the passive order. 
 
 2. (a) The Instinctive Desire for Change and Variety. 
 This is the most general expression of the first law. The 
 desire for change and variety is instinctive in all human 
 beings irrespective of age or degree of culture. Other 
 instincts may be outgrown entirely or so greatly subdued 
 that the accompanying desires never become a source of 
 trouble, but this fundamental instinct seems too deeply 
 planted ever completely to be eradicated. It is true that 
 custom and habit work toward stabiHty of habitat and 
 occupation. The older one grows, the less one likes the 
 thought of moving to another locality or of taking up 
 another line of work ; the less one likes, also, to have one's 
 routine of life interfered with in any way. But, notwith- 
 standing these undoubted facts, it still remains true that 
 
 147 
 
148 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 variety of stimulation is the first condition of an alert 
 mind. One must be almost abnormal who is not tempted 
 by the prospective delights of a journey to new re^ons; 
 who is not attracted by the ''news" page of his daily paper, 
 irrespective of the bearing of its contents upon his own Hfe 
 or work; whose attention is not caught and held by the 
 novel and unusual in the routine of his daily Ufe. The 
 instinct that impels us to seek variety, to attend to the new 
 and strange, is a wise provision of nature, for it is through 
 this instinct that attention to new or changed conditions 
 is insured, and it is the one important junction of attention 
 to concern itself with the new, leaving habit, custom, and 
 automatism to take care of the old and familiar. 
 
 3. It is obvious that the child is more completely the 
 slave of distracting influences than is the adult, and that 
 the younger the child, the more pronounced is this char- 
 acteristic. The pupil in the lowest grades of the school 
 is quite incapable of following a single line of effort, 
 either in play or in work, for a long period. One who 
 watches children at play will be quickly impressed by the 
 rapidity with which one game or activity gives way to 
 another. At one moment the child seems to be absorbed 
 in a certain play object. As you watch him, you think 
 that so deep an interest will last indefinitely. But in 
 another moment, perhaps, this object has been dropped 
 and another taken up, and, try as you will, you cannot force 
 the interest back to the first object that attracted it. 
 
 It is necessary for the educator to recognize this funda- 
 mental fact at all stages of the educative process. Variety 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION 149 
 
 must be constantly introduced in some form or another 
 if the energy that expresses itself through the activity of 
 attention is to be expended economically. The successful 
 teacher in the elementary school is he who can clothe the 
 famiUar in a new garb; for repetition and reiteration 
 are essential at all points of the teaching process, and, 
 unless repetition and reiteration can be robbed of their 
 monotony, they lose by far the greater part of their efl5- 
 ciency. 
 
 4. The operation of the first law in this phase of its 
 apphcation, however, involves a danger that should not 
 be overlooked or minimized. Although attention may be 
 secured by changing the occupation of the pupil the 
 moment tedium sets in, the net result, if such a poHcy were 
 apphed ad libitum, would be far worse than any loss of 
 energy that might come from the inattention d'le to tedium. 
 If a pupil is always reheved of a task of duty the moment 
 that it becomes irksome to him, — the moment that he 
 grows "tired" of it, — development is bound to be arrested 
 upon a very primitive plane. To stick to one line of effort 
 in spite of tedium is the characteristic that differentiates 
 work from play; education is essentially work, and the 
 school must never bUnd itself to the necessity of requiring 
 the conditions of work in the environment that it affords. 
 Here, as elsewhere, there must be a nice adjustment of 
 opposing forces. The first law of attention will certainly 
 find frequent employment through the satisfaction of the 
 desire for variety; but its field will manifestly be much 
 wider in the earlier than in the later stages of the educative 
 
150 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 process, and at all times the law must be applied with a 
 full recognition on the part of the teacher of the dangers 
 that it involves. 
 
 No small part of the criticism passed by foreigners upon 
 American schools finds its justification in the fact that American 
 teachers recognize the necessity of variety, but neglect its dan- 
 gers. The result of such practice is haphazard, "scatter- 
 brained" effort, devoted to a multitude of diverse tasks, but 
 never sustained and directed toward the complete accomplish- 
 ment of any one line of work. The "formal" subjects of the 
 curriculum — reading, spelling, penmanship, arithmetic — 
 naturally suffer most seriously from this oversight. The notion 
 that monotony must be avoided at any cost has led to the 
 attempt to teach these branches "incidentally" in connection 
 with more interesting and attractive "content" work. The 
 results are what one who was well grounded in fundamental 
 psychological principles might easily have foreseen. 
 
 The problem here presented is difficult but not impossible 
 of solution. There must needs be variety in the drill required 
 for the mastery of the formal subjects, but this variety must 
 always respect the fundamental nature of the form that is to 
 be impressed. So long as this is done, no harm will result, but 
 when variety and interest become ends in themselves, — when 
 content work of all kinds becomes the only explicit subject of 
 instruction, — elementary education misses its main purpose. 
 
 5. (b) The Play Instinct. This may be looked upon 
 as but a specific expression of the instinctive desire for 
 change and variety. Play is characterized by activity 
 which is sufficient in and for itself ; the activity of play is 
 an end in itself. The play instinct doubtless has a deep 
 and vital function in the development of the child, insuring 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION I5I 
 
 the activity essential to the growth and coordination of the 
 muscles and to the development of motor or kinesthetic 
 images.^ The play instinct is largely used in kindergarten 
 practice as a simple and effective means of securing and 
 holding the pupil's attention. It has also a legitimate 
 field of application in the lower grades of the elementary 
 school, where the repetition that is essential in the learning 
 of arithmetical facts, word-forms, and the like can be made 
 more interesting by employing "games." 
 
 6. The use of this instinct is obviously subject to the 
 dangers and limitations mentioned in connection with the 
 instinctive desire for variety. If carried too far, the pupil 
 is apt to gain the notion that all of the routine work of the 
 school must be made interesting and attractive by the intro- 
 duction of the play element. The powerful ideal of duty, 
 which carries men safely through so many crises, cannot be 
 developed under such conditions, and it is safe to say 
 that no more important task is imposed upon education 
 than to develop this ideal. But one should not rush to 
 the other extreme and aver that the play instinct is entirely 
 out of place in the school. Again there must be a nice 
 adjustment of forces; again one must strive to hold the 
 clear perspective. An environment of irksome tasks, un- 
 relieved by anything that could gratify the play instinct, 
 would be as fatal to the ideal of duty as an environment 
 that gratified instinct at every turn. 
 
 What is termed common sense may be very safely trusted in 
 determining the limitations to which the play instinct must be 
 * Cf. G. S. Hall: Adolescence, New York, 1904, vol. i, pp. 202 ff. 
 
152 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 subjected. The writer once heard an institute instructor recom« 
 mend a certain game with bean-bags for use in drills on the 
 facts of multiplication. The teachers who were present agreed 
 with the instructor as to the value of the device, believing 
 it to be recommended for very young children only. But 
 when the instructor intimated that it could be profitably util- 
 ized in the seventh and eighth grades, the teachers questioned 
 its value. The great majority of those who have had actual 
 experience in handling children know pretty accurately what 
 can be done with them, although even such teachers will some- 
 times "lose their heads" when a new and radical departure is 
 proposed by one high in authority and presented with the zeal 
 and earnestness of assured conviction. It is for this reason 
 that the university professor of education is apt to do so much 
 harm if he lacks practical experience in dealing with little 
 children. He speaks with the voice of authority, and he gen- 
 erally believes implicitly in the absolute validity of his untried 
 theories. 
 
 7. {c) The Instinct 0} Curiosity. Like the instinct of 
 play, this is but a specific expression of the desire fornovelty. 
 It is evidenced by the constant succession of ''Why's" 
 with which children of certain ages besiege their parents 
 and teachers, and by the "Paul Pry" activities of both 
 children and adults. Like all instincts, it has its roots in 
 past necessity. The first manifestation of dawning in- 
 telligence in the race was doubtless the random investi- 
 gations that followed upon the birth of the instinct of 
 curiosity. In the beginning this instinct is easily gratified, 
 for primitive curiosity looks only for something new, and 
 anything that is new suffices. The search after hidden 
 causes, the passion to know the reason for phenomena, is 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION 1 53 
 
 an acquired characteristic formed through the operation 
 of active attention in carrying to a successful issue the 
 vague desires aroused by the instinct. 
 
 The instinct of curiosity has a place in education. It 
 can be utilized in directing attention to natural laws that 
 explain phenomena whose mystery appeals to the child- 
 mind, — spectacular phenomena especially, like the thun- 
 derstorm, the earthquake, etc. It is safe to lay down the 
 rule that, whenever curiosity is aroused concerning some- 
 thing of legitimate interest, the teacher should do every- 
 thing within his power to gratify it. Attention can at that 
 time be easily secured, and truths driven home that might 
 prove highly resistant if left until a later period. 
 
 A great calamity, like the California earthquake or the 
 Galveston flood, that attracts universal attention for a brief 
 period, opens the way for the explanation of the catastrophe in 
 terms of natural law. At such a time all children are open 
 and receptive to whatever instruction may be offered that is 
 germane to the center of interest. It is strict economy to make 
 such discussion a special order of the day, interrupting the 
 program, if necessary, in order to get from the burning interest 
 of the moment every particle of educative value that can be 
 extracted. Legitimate occasions of this sort come so infre- 
 quently that one need fear no serious effect upon the regular 
 routine. In the writer's experience, for example, only the fol- 
 lowing events within the past five years have been deemed 
 worthy of such treatment; the Pelee disaster, the Baltimore 
 fire (a center of interest insuring the ready assimilation of 
 geographical facts about that city), the outbreak of the Russo- 
 Japan War, and the San Francisco earthquake. Matters that 
 are of less general interest, owing to the remoteness of the scene 
 
154 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 of action or other causes, — for example, the eruptions of 
 Vesuvius, the Valparaiso earthquake, and the Hong Kong 
 typhoon, — may be profitably referred to in the geography 
 classes, but will hardly repay a special order of business or a 
 breaking into the regular program. 
 
 8. Inasmuch as the instinct of curiosity is mainly excited 
 by the spectacular, it is clear that its use in the school should 
 be temperate. Of course, a spectacular halo may be 
 thrown around almost any event, but such a policy v^U 
 sooner or later defeat its own purpose: witness, for ex- 
 ample, the experience of the "yellow" newspapers in 
 attempting to find a new sensation for each issue. Their 
 cries of "Wolf!" have been proved so often to be bogus 
 that the public will no longer heed them, even though the 
 wolf should happen at some time to be real. There is back 
 of this a sound psychology that operates with equal force 
 in the schoolroom. The teacher who constantly caters to 
 the pupils' love of the spectacular must go to greater and 
 greater lengths if he would attract the attention of his 
 pupils, and the time must come, sooner or later, when his 
 blasS charges will be bored even by matters of legitimate 
 interest. 
 
 9. (d) The Instinctive Liking for Bright Colors, Sharp 
 Contrasts y and Intense Stimuli of All Kinds. One of the 
 most primitive methods of attracting attention is the use 
 of bright colors. This instinct is commonly employed in 
 the lower grades of the school by the use of colored ob- 
 jects (balls, splints, etc.), by permitting pupils to write 
 and draw with colored crayon, and by other similar prac- 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION 1 55 
 
 rices. The use of colors and contrasts, however, for the 
 purpose of securing attention to drill processes is subject 
 to a very important limitation. It has been long known 
 that in teaching children to count, the objects used must 
 not be too attractive in themselves. Variety must be pro- 
 vided, but the qualities of the various objects must be of 
 such a nature that they will not distract the attention from 
 the process in hand. 
 
 In their anxiety to provide a variety of objects for drill in 
 counting and in combining numbers, some teachers select 
 flowers that are brightly colored, cubes and balls of contrasting 
 hues, and not infrequently edible articles such as nuts and 
 fruits. If the reader is skeptical as to the distracting influence 
 of these qualities that are extraneous to the matter in hand, let 
 him watch an exercise, say, in counting peanuts just prior to 
 the noon dismissal. 
 
 lo. (e) The Instinct of Construction. The child likes to 
 put things together, to make things, and this instinct is oi 
 the highest value in the lower grades in securing attention 
 to arithmetical processes. The constructive instinct must 
 not be confused, however, with the acquired interest of 
 construction * which is a much higher product, and works 
 through a series of systematic efforts toward the accom- 
 pHshment of some remote end. The pure primitive instinct 
 is best illustrated by the child's rather aimless manipula- 
 tion of blocks in the making of whatever may be dictated 
 by -momentary fancy. It can be turned to educative account 
 by leading the pupil to count the number of blocks that 
 
 ^ Cf. Educative Process, pp. io6 £f. 
 
156 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 he uses for this purpose or that, by encouraging com- 
 parisons of different magnitudes, and by suggesting pos- 
 sible numerical combinations; for example, "Let us make 
 a wall that will be three inches high and twelves inches 
 long,'* using inch cubes; "Make the picture of a house 
 with splints, having the house ten splints long and one 
 half as high, with three windows in the side"; etc. 
 
 11. The instincts discussed above do not exhaust the 
 list of those that function during childhood and which 
 form the basis for the manifold operations of the first law. 
 They are, however, the principal instincts with which the 
 school is concerned from the standpoint of passive atten- 
 tion. In the next chapter, other instincts will be discussed 
 that operate in a slightly different fashion. But it must be 
 borne in mind that all instincts have this in common : they 
 are native, inherited forces, forming the basis upon which 
 the educative process must lay its foundations. Those 
 that have just been discussed operate educatively through 
 securing passive attention to mechanical repetition. Those 
 that will be discussed in the next chapter may express 
 themselves, it is true, in attention of the passive order; 
 but they are educationally important in that they may be 
 readily transformed into incentives for active attention; 
 in other words, the anticipated gratification of the instinct 
 forms a remote end toward which effort may be directed 
 as a necessary condition of this gratification. 
 
 12. Summary. The first law is to be used extensively 
 only in the earUest stages of education. Here the teacher's 
 first duty is to provide conditions that will make effort 
 
THE PROBLEM OE ATTENTION 1 57 
 
 attractive. This duty is partially fulfilled by frequent 
 changes in the content of the school exercises, by utiHzing 
 the play instinct, by a judicious use of intense and con- 
 trasting stimuU, and by encouraging the pupil to employ 
 his constructive instinct in an educative manner. These 
 means are always in place during the early school years. 
 They may occasionally be employed in the later stages 
 of instruction, and with abnormally backward children 
 (feeble-minded children and imbeciles) it is doubtful 
 whether they can ever be entirely dispensed with. To 
 continue with them, however, in the education of normal 
 children is to run a serious danger of arrested develop- 
 ment. 
 
 References. — J. R. Angell : Psychology, New York, 1905, ch. xvi ; 
 Irving King: Psychology of Child Development, Chicago, 1903, 
 ch. xiii; Thomdike: Principles of Teaching, ch.s.y,yin; Kirkpatrick: 
 Fundamentals of Child Study, New York, 1906, chs. viii-x; W. James: 
 Talks to Teachers, New York, 1902, ch. vii. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 The Problem of Attention (Continued) : The 
 Operation of the Second Law; Incentives 
 
 I. The essence of active attention is concentration upon 
 matters that are not in themselves attractive, — that do 
 not in themselves naturally solicit attention, — for the 
 sake of some desired end, the attainment of which 
 such focahzation will further. It should be remembered 
 that active attention does not preclude the operation of 
 instinct; in fact, probably all operation of active atten- 
 tion is dependent primarily though indirectly upon some 
 instinctive desire. Instinct is the force that makes the 
 idea of the remote end effective in controlHng action along 
 a given Une until one either gains the end sought, or 
 lapses into secondary passive attention in which the means 
 of attaining the end become attractive and interesting in 
 themselves. 
 
 For example, the pupil is attracted to bright colors because 
 of the instinctive impulse to attend to strong or contrasting 
 stimuli. The end here is immediate, the attention passive. 
 On the other hand, the pupil may, by effort, attend to a dull 
 lesson, because he does not wish a fellow-pupil to **win out" 
 over him in a recitation. The end here is remote, but it is 
 made effective by the instinct of emulation. Instinct operates 
 in the one case just as clearly as in the other; but in the second 
 
 158 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION 1 59 
 
 instance it operates on a higher plane, because the end has been 
 moved into the future, a process of ideal or imaginative con- 
 struction is demanded for its envisagement, and action or 
 adjustment must be controlled with reference to the end 
 sought. 
 
 Almost every case of willed or volitional action is similarly 
 determined in the last analysis by one instinct or another. 
 The student at college prosecutes his studies industriously, even 
 though they are not perhaps always interesting; he is held to 
 the task because he does not wish to let others get the degree 
 when he fails (instinct of emulation), or because he wishes 
 to secure remunerative employment because of his training 
 (instinct of self-preservation), or because he wishes to avoid the 
 unpleasant consequences of failure (instinct of fear). Similar 
 analyses could be made of dominant motives in any walk of 
 life ; always, however, with this proviso : whenever the task 
 becomes attractive in itself and the remote end is lost sight of 
 temporarily, the attention has passed over into the secondary 
 passive form. Thus the student, driven to his work by one of 
 these various ideals that are supported in their turn by funda- 
 mental instincts, becomes gradually absorbed in his study and 
 no longer thinks either of the fellow-students whom he is try- 
 ing to outdo, of the position that he has hoped to obtain, or 
 of the unpleasantness that may result from failure. But when- 
 ever this secondary passive attention lags, — whenever primi- 
 tive impulse again asserts its inherited right to distract, — the 
 idea, backed up by its appropriate instinct, must act again as a 
 spur to renewed effort. 
 
 2. Incentives. The idea of a remote end toward which 
 effort is to be organized is known as an incentive. With 
 certain qualifications, the problem of securing and hold- 
 ing the attention of pupils may be said to be the problem 
 
l6o CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 of providing effective incentives. The first law is legiti- 
 mately applied only up to the point where an effective 
 incentive can be introduced — up to the point where a 
 remote end can be made to dominate the pupil's mind 
 and hold him to whatever tasks are imposed as a con- 
 dition of attaining this end. 
 
 This point is approximately coincident with the birth of 
 what is termed the capacity of the child for reasoning. Reason- 
 ing, in its simplest form, is nothing more nor less than a con- 
 scious application of past experience to a given situation. 
 Logical reasoning, however, is more complicated in its nature. 
 It presupposes the ability to condense past experience into con- 
 cepts, and to manipulate these concepts through symbols, — 
 usually words. An end that is fairly remote in its nature must 
 be held before mind in a compact form if it is to be effective 
 over action, hence the conditions imposed by active attention 
 of a high order are quite similar to those imposed by logical 
 reasoning. But active attention is possible in cases where the 
 experience has not been condensed into concepts, but stiD 
 functions concretely. This form of attention, however, is 
 directed to ends that are not very remote. As the pupil in- 
 creases in the capacity to form concepts, therefore his capacity 
 also increases for holding in mind ends that are further and 
 further removed from the present impulse. 
 
 Just where this capacity is to be attributed to the pupil in 
 school is a matter of dispute. Some practitioners would as- 
 sume that the child is capable of governing his action with 
 reference to remote ends immediately upon entering school, 
 but this is manifestly not in accord with practical schoolroom 
 experience. It is probable, however, that, if a beginning is 
 made with incentives that appeal to fairly immediate ends, and 
 if a gradual progression is insured, the pupil should be able in 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION l6l 
 
 the third or fourth grades to realize the import of putting forth 
 effort during the term in order that he may make a satisfactory 
 grade at the term's close. This also suggests the importance 
 of having relatively short terms in the earlier years of the 
 elementary school. 
 
 3. Positive and Negative Incentives} A remote end 
 may make either a positive or a negative appeal to one's 
 desires. In the former case, action is governed and 
 directed for the purpose of enjoying some pleasant conse- 
 quences; in the latter case, action is controlled for the 
 purpose of avoiding some unpleasant consequences. In 
 other words, incentives may be divided into (i) those that 
 depend for their efficacy upon the hope of a reward, and 
 (2) those that depend upon fear of punishment. Needless 
 to say, one and the same object sought may make its 
 appeal either from the positive or negative side. Further 
 
 * Whitens Classification of Incentives. In his treatise on school man- 
 agement, Mr. White makes a distinction between "natural" and "artifi- 
 cial" incentives. Under the former head, he includes those incentives 
 that grow "naturally" out of the effort involved. Thus the perception 
 of a distinct need for knowing arithmetic would be the natural incentive 
 for studying and mastering arithmetic. These natural incentives are, of 
 course, the most effective whenever it is possible to employ them. It is 
 one of the peculiar duties of education, however, to impart knowledge at 
 a period in the individual's life when he is unable to see very far ahead. 
 The knowledge that is imparted, on the other hand, generally owes its 
 value to the fact that it will be useful in adult life. For this reason 
 natural incentives can be employed very infrequently. Mr. White's 
 theory is also defective in that many of the incentives that he classes as 
 "natural" are really "artificial" by his own definition, while others are 
 not incentives at all, but rather acquired interests that owe their eflSdency 
 to the operation of the third law. When, for example, he speaks of the 
 love of knowledge as an incentive, this is either an acquired interest or an 
 ideal of a very elaborate type. 
 
1 62 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 than this, one and the same object may appeal to the same 
 individual now from this and now from that point of view. 
 The pupil may be impelled to learn a dull lesson in hope 
 of "getting ahead" of his fellow-pupils, or he may learn 
 the same lesson from fear that his fellow-pupils may "get 
 ahead" of him, and the consciousness of the end to be 
 gained may alternate rapidly between these two desires. 
 Back of every hope there is a complementary fear, and 
 back of every fear, a complementary hope. 
 
 4. These facts involve one of the most important prac- 
 tical principles in school management. In generalj incen- 
 tives should appeal to the pupil from the positive rather than 
 from the negative point of view. This principle depends 
 for its validity, not upon mere sentiment alone, but upon 
 the rigid requirements of economy. It is only a practical 
 expression of the well-known psychological law that de- 
 pression chokes up the channels of energy, while hope and 
 buoyancy tend to Hberate energy and make it available. 
 It is the verdict of experience that one can put forth more 
 energy and do more effective work if the confidence of 
 success overbalances the fear of failure. 
 
 This general rule is certainly subject to some qualifications. 
 The fear that amounts to desperation sometimes impels one 
 to put forth almost superhuman effort. But, in this case, it is 
 seriously to be doubted whether the so-called "fear" of despera- 
 tion is really deserving of that name. Its keynote is exhilara- 
 tion rather than depression; it has passed beyond the pale of 
 a distinctly unpleasant emotion, and so should be characterized 
 by another and more appropriate term. Recent theories of 
 emotion advanced by competent psychologists are quite in 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION 1 63 
 
 accord with this view.^ In general, then, fear expresses itself 
 in less violent forms, — moodiness, lack of confidence, dissatis- 
 faction with one's self, etc., — and these are all depressing 
 agencies. 
 
 5. It is not to be concluded, however, that the negative 
 incentives have no place in education. In extreme cases, 
 where all other measures appear to be futile, the fear of 
 failure, or of physical pain, or of the loss of a privilege, 
 may be the only available means of possible -redemption, 
 and as such its employment is undoubtedly justified. It 
 is safe to lay down the rule, however, that, if fear is stimu- 
 lated, it should be limited to individual cases. In other 
 words, the great majority of pupils will not need an extreme 
 incentive, and to use the stimulus of fear upon an entire 
 class is to run the risk of needless worry on the part of 
 pupils who do not need to worry, and to whom, perhaps, 
 worry would involve a nervous strain that would quite 
 discount any positive benefits to be derived. This limi- 
 tation in mind, we may pass to the specific consideration 
 of the fear incentives. 
 
 6. Incentives in which the Predominant Appeal is 
 Negative. Under this head are to be included, obviously, 
 all school practices that inflict punishment for failure to 
 perform some school task. In Chapter VIII, punish- 
 ments were discussed, but in another connection, — namely, 
 as means of securing order in the classroom. The point 
 of departure there was the necessity for preserving con- 
 
 * For example, J. R. Angell : Psychology, New York, 1905, pp. 
 328 S. 
 
164 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 ditions favorable to the welfare of the class as a whole. 
 In the present connection the fear of punishment as an 
 incentive for individual effort is the point at issue. In 
 other words, is it legitimate or wise to employ what we 
 have termed penalties not only for offenses against disci- 
 pline, but also for failure on the part of individual pupils 
 to concentrate upon the tasks required of them, even 
 though this lack of concentration does not interfere with 
 the rights of others? 
 
 7. Reverting to the principles established in the preced- 
 ing discussion, it will be recalled that undesirable impulses 
 tend to be inhibited if they are closely associated with 
 painful consequences. The pain-reaction is justified in 
 offenses against discipHne, because the impulses that are 
 checked are, in general, unsocial impulses that should 
 always be inhibited. Applying this principle to the use 
 of pain stimuU as incentives to effort, it is clear that the 
 justification or condemnation of such a poKcy depends 
 primarily upon what association is made. If the pupil 
 always connects lack of application, mind- wandering, pro- 
 crastination, and similar factors, with painful consequences, 
 it is clear that he will tend to curtail the operation of these 
 factors in his school Hfe. If, on the contrary, the associa- 
 tion is between the pain stimulus and arithmetic or spell- 
 ing or geography, it is clear that the penalties inflicted 
 will defeat their own purpose in a most disastrous fashion. 
 
 The two forms of punishment most commonly employed 
 to incite pupils to greater effort are : (a) corporal punish- 
 ment, and {h) "scoldings." There are very few teachers, 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION 1 6$ 
 
 probably, who now use corporal punishment as an incen- 
 tive to effort, and the prevailing practice may, in this 
 instance at least, be accepted as in harmony with funda- 
 mental principles. For a child to "learn his lessons" 
 simply because he fears the pain or physical punishment 
 in case the lessons are not learned means that he is as- 
 similating knowledge with reference to a very primitive 
 need. Whether this fact will, as Professor Dewey ^ im- 
 plies, absolutely prevent the knowledge gained in this way 
 from being appHed to the situations of Hf e, is to be doubted ; 
 but it is clear that such assimilation will be at least uneco- 
 nomical as compared with that which proceeds from a 
 higher purpose. On the other hand, if a pupil can be stim- 
 ulated to effort in no other way, it is far better that his tasks 
 be performed, even inadequately, through the stimulus of 
 physical pain than that he be permitted to grow up in 
 ignorance. Especially would physical stimulus be justi- 
 fied if the lack of application on the part of an individual 
 pupil interfered with the progress of the class as a whole. 
 8. In extreme cases, where the fear of pain is needed as 
 a stimulus, a temperate use of corporal punishment is 
 probably to be preferred to the employment of the more 
 common penalty, — "scolding." And yet this is not to 
 say that there is no place for the latter stimulus. A sting- 
 ing rebuke may temporarily depress a delinquent pupil, 
 and it may even rankle in his memory for an indefinite 
 period, but it is sometimes the only thing that will stir him 
 
 * J. Dewey: The Child and the Curriculum, p. 38; cited by Thom- 
 dike: Principles of Teaching, p. 56. 
 
1 66 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 to effort. One general principle, however, certainly con- 
 ditions the efficiency of this measure: "Scoldings" are 
 effective in inverse proportion to the frequency with which 
 they are employed. Rebukes lose their "edge" far more 
 quickly than corporal punishment. The teacher who 
 continually "nags" his pupils will find that the good 
 results will be less and less noticeable as the nagging 
 becomes more and more frequent. A quiet rebuke, ad- 
 ministered without passion or rage, may be extremely 
 effective if it breaks in upon a long period of harmony 
 and good-will, but there is nothing to which a pupil will 
 more quickly become callous if the measure is repeated 
 frequently. 
 
 The sin of nagging is the most common vice of the woman 
 teacher, and in the popular mind it is undoubtedly the char- 
 acteristic sui generis of the traditional "schoolma'am." So 
 easily does the nagging proclivity become a habit, and so 
 disastrous are its effects, not only upon the discipline of the 
 school, but also upon the temperament and social qualities of 
 the teacher who indulges it, that every woman who goes into 
 the schoolroom should watch herself closely to prevent the 
 genesis of the practice. 
 
 9. To summarize: Attention cannot be economically 
 or adequately secured by introducing the fear of punish- 
 ment as an incentive. Nevertheless there are very ex- 
 ceptional cases where the employment of such an incen- 
 tive is the only measure that will have any effect upon the 
 pupil. In such extreme cases, corporal punishment is 
 probably to be preferred to "scolding," although there 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION 167 
 
 are occasions when rebukes will stimulate pupils to greater 
 activity. The utmost care, however, is required in em- 
 ploying either of these two forms of stimulation, and it 
 is perhaps the safest policy for the beginning teacher to 
 avoid them entirely until he feels absolutely certain that he 
 can use them effectively and without working an injury. 
 The use of corporal punishment as an incentive and its 
 use as a penalty for breaches of discipline are not to be 
 confused with one another. The latter may be justified 
 where the former would be fatal. 
 
 Reference. — White : School Management, pp. 185-188. 
 
CHAPTER Xn 
 
 The Problem of Attention (Continued) ; Application 
 OF the Second Law through Positive Incentives 
 
 I. The most important applications of the second law 
 imply the hope of reward as an incentive to effort. It 
 will be recalled that the interposition of a remote end as 
 an object to work for does not preclude the operation of 
 instinct. It simply postpones the satisfaction or gratifi- 
 cation of an instinctive desire, using the desire as a means 
 of stimulating effort toward its gratification. When in- 
 stinctive interests are thus made incentives to active atten- 
 tion, they are transformed through the process, becoming 
 what may be termed ''acquired interests." Such interests 
 may, in course of time, be so far removed from the original 
 instinct that all trace of the latter seems to have disappeared ; 
 but careful search will always discover a core of instinct 
 at the center of every acquired interest, no matter how 
 elaborately the latter may have become complicated in its 
 development. 
 
 It would follow from this that the remote ends which 
 are used as incentives to effort must, in the early stages of 
 education, appeal to one or another of the primitive in- 
 stincts, and that this appeal must be direct and unequivo- 
 cal if the incentive is to function effectively. Incentives 
 will accordingly be "high" or "low" as they appeal to an 
 
 -68 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION 1 69 
 
 acquired interest far removed from a primitive instinct, 
 or to a primitive interest closely correlated with a primitive 
 instinct. Education must manifestly begin with incentives 
 of the lower orders and pass to those of the higher orders ; 
 but, even under the most favorable conditions, this transi- 
 tion will be but gradual. 
 
 2. The following discussion will consider incentives in 
 the ascending order of merit, employing the standard set 
 forth above. The accompan3dng outline will give a gen- 
 eral view of the treatment: — 
 
 (a) Incentives that make a positive appeal to the instinct of 
 
 emulation, 
 (i) Competitive prizes of intrinsic value. 
 
 (2) Competitive prizes not intrinsically valuable. 
 
 (3) Privileges. 
 
 (4) Immunities. 
 
 (5) Display of pupils' work. 
 
 (6) Grades, marks, and promotions. 
 
 (b) Incentives that make a positive appeal to the social 
 
 instincts, 
 (i) Praise, commendation, and adulation. 
 (2) Pupils' pride in the good name of the school. 
 
 (c) Ideals as incentives. 
 
 3. (a) Incentives that make a Positive Appeal to the 
 Instinct of Emulation, (i) Competitive Prizes oj Intrinsic 
 Value. To offer material prizes as incentives to effort is 
 generally recognized by authorities upon school manage- 
 ment as bad practice. It is contended that such prizes ap- 
 peal only to a very few pupils, who are, in general, those 
 that need incentives the least ; that the prize system tends 
 
lyo CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 to develop unduly the selfish instincts, often giving rise 
 among the brighter pupils (who alone stand a chance of 
 securing the prize) to such perverted forms of the property 
 instinct as avarice and cupidity; that, even when rivalry 
 exists, such rivalry is usually between two or three of the 
 brighter pupils, and that this condition greatly augments 
 the danger that healthy emulation will degenerate into 
 spite and jealousy; and finally that the material prize 
 offers no inducement that could not just as well be involved 
 in an immaterial reward. Some authorities^ maintain that 
 prizes awarded to all who reach a certain grade rather than 
 to one who gets the highest may be legitimately employed. 
 This is certainly an improvement on the traditional 
 prize system, but still fails to meet the second objection. 
 4. (2) Competitive Prizes not intrinsically Valuable. 
 Among the commonly employed incentives of this class 
 are merit cards, diplomas, badges, buttons, medals, etc. 
 Where only a "first" prize of this sort is offered for com- 
 petition, many of the disadvantages involved in material 
 prizes will result. Competition is narrowed to a few 
 bright pupils, while the duller pupils, needing incentives, 
 are stimulated either not at all or in a negative direction, 
 becoming so depressed, perhaps, by the ^ fact of their 
 own inefficiency that they put forth less effort than they 
 would otherwise. Such incentives also tend to develop 
 certain traits of character in the very bright pupils that are 
 extremely undesirable, — conceit, priggishness, etc. While 
 
 » For example, S. T. Button: School Management, New York, 1904, 
 pp. 107 f. 
 
/^ 
 
 THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION 171 
 
 the system is not so seriously to be condemned as the prac- 
 tice of offering material prizes, it is still to be looked upon 
 with a degree of suspicion, and to be resorted to only 
 under exceptional conditions. It is safe to say that a 
 poUcy of providing penalties for poor work is far better 
 and more effective than the poHcy of offering such prizes 
 as have already been mentioned for good work. That is, 
 the appeal would reach and stimulate a larger number 
 of pupils. 
 
 5. (3) Immunities. In general, the granting of holidays 
 and the exemption of pupils from examinations are to be 
 considered as bad practice. The granting of holidays is 
 less objectionable than exemption from examinations, but 
 it is disadvantageous in that it places a regular school 
 duty in a bad Hght by making of it a punishment. Under 
 a strict interpretation of the laws of many states, the 
 practice would probably be illegal. 
 
 The very common practice of exempting pupils from 
 examinations in case they reach a certain grade or "pass- 
 ing mark" in the daily work is open to serious objection 
 for two reasons: (a) it places the examination under a 
 stigma by implying that it is a punishment ; (b) it deprives 
 pupils of the privilege of taking the examination: this 
 may not appeal to them as a privilege, but if the conten- 
 tion that the examination is one of the most valuable parts 
 of the educative process is vaUd,* it is certainly imjust to 
 deprive the benefits of this exercise to the very pupils who 
 would profit by it in the highest measure. 
 
 * Cf. The Educative Process^ ch. xxii. 
 
172 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 6. (4) Privileges. Among the privileges that are com- 
 monly employed as incentives are monitorial positions, 
 favored locations in seating, high rank upon a "roll of 
 honor," etc. The general rule that should govern the 
 use of these incentives is this: Privileges that bring con- 
 stantly before the poorer pupils the consciousness of their 
 inferiority should be avoided; the depressing influence 
 in such cases far overbalances any advantage that the 
 system may possess. This appHes principally to the seat- 
 ing of pupils. 
 
 In the case of monitorial positions as rewards for effort, 
 the situation is somewhat different. The employment is 
 only for temporary periods during the day, the number of 
 monitors to be employed is generally large enough to 
 supply places for most of the pupils, and the system puts 
 a premium upon service, making it a privilege instead of 
 a penalty. In the lower grades this incentive is among 
 the best of those that appeal to the instinct of emulation. 
 Its main disadvantage lies in the fact that monitors must 
 be changed frequently if the privilege is to be effective. 
 This involves the ** breaking in" and training of pupils 
 for new duties, thus distracting somewhat from the eco- 
 nomical operation of the school machinery. 
 
 A "roll of honor" is permissible if it is not constantly 
 in evidence. All devices of this sort must be used tem- 
 perately and not permitted to become the be-all and end- 
 all of the pupil's existence. Too often the roll of honor 
 becomes this in the eyes of the pupils whose names are 
 upon it, while with the less industrious (or the less fortu- 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION 1 73 
 
 nate) it becomes a list of the "goody-goodies/' — a type 
 of pupil that an overplus of "fol-de-rol" tends to develop. 
 
 7. (5) Exhibition of Pupils^ Work. This incentive is 
 coming into very general use in the better schools. It 
 provides a means of gratifying the instinct of emulation 
 without involving many of the dangers inherent in the 
 more artificial devices discussed above. It also tends, 
 when handled carefully, to arouse in the pupils a sense 
 of pride in the work of the school as a whole. 
 
 The exhibition of work, however, involves some marked 
 dangers that must not be overlooked or minimized. Chief 
 among these is the undue emphasis that it places upon form 
 as contrasted with content. Where work is suspended 
 upon the wall in long rows, — essays, examination papers, 
 drawings, etc., — it is the total effect of the display that 
 counts, not the individual merit of any one paper, and it 
 is the total effect in artistic appearance rather than in the 
 intrinsic worth of the composition or the examination as 
 revealing the thought of the pupil. Under these condi- 
 tions it is the pupils who produce the neatest work that 
 are singled out for the highest honors, and these are not 
 always the pupils who do the best work from the stand- 
 point of thought and content. Again, the exhibition of 
 work is apt to overemphasize written work at the expense 
 of oral work — a sin which the public school commits far 
 too frequently in other ways than this. Oral expression 
 is vastly more important than written expression, and the 
 energies of the school should be devoted toward its train- 
 ing far more strenuously than is now the case. If, how- 
 
174 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 ever, written work becomes the standard of efficiency, this 
 reform will receive a serious setback.^ Under these quah- 
 fications, the exhibition of work may be recommended as 
 a safe and effective incentive.^ 
 
 8. (6) Grades, Marks, and Promotions, These devices 
 occupy a middle position in that they make their appeal in 
 part to the instinct of emulation and in part to the social 
 instinct. It is probable that the most effective appeal is 
 made from the latter standpoint, at least in the higher 
 grades. With pupils in the adolescent period and some- 
 what earlier, the inducement to effort that comes from 
 hope of promotion or from fear of retroversion owes its 
 force largely to an instinctive desire to be with one's fel- 
 lows — to remain an integral part of the class with which 
 one has been associated. The desire to obtain a high 
 standing, while often an expression of the instinct of emu- 
 lation, is sometimes also due to the desire to be *'with 
 the crowd," — a desire which is negatively expressed by 
 the instinctive aversion toward abnormahty — toward a 
 noticeable differentiation from the "crowd." In what- 
 ever class these incentives are to be placed, however, every 
 teacher (and every pupil) will testify as to their efficiency 
 in stimulating effort. 
 
 9. There is a tendency ^ at the present time to criticise 
 the employment of these devices, especially in the elemen- 
 
 * Cf. an excellent discussion of this matter in P. Chubb: The Teach- 
 ing of English, New York, 1903, pp. 106 fif. 
 
 ' For valuable suggestions on this topic, cf. J. Taylor: Class Manage-^ 
 ment, New York, 1903, pp. 95 ff. 
 
 • Cf. Dutton, op. cit., pp. 100 f. 
 
THE PROBLEM OF AITENTION 1 75 
 
 taiy school. The evil effects of worry, among pupils of 
 nervous temperament, are frequently urged against the 
 promotion and marking system. It is also maintained 
 that promotion, in the school use of the term, has nothing 
 in common with any condition to be met in real life. 
 The great men who were dullards in school are pointed 
 out as evidence that scholastic standards and the standards 
 of adult society in measuring efficiency are vastly different. 
 For these and other reasons the formaHty and ceremony 
 involved in ''passing" from grade to grade have, in many 
 cases, been dispensed with, and pupils are advanced with 
 httle reference to their attainments or their abihty to do 
 the work required of the grade to which they are sent. 
 This "reform" has, of course, gone hand in hand with 
 the abolition of final examinations in the elementary 
 school. 
 
 While the arguments against a rigid system of grading 
 and promotion carry a certain measure of conviction, they 
 involve several pronounced fallacies. If the work of the 
 school is not similar to the work of life, the fact surely 
 offers no excuse for doing it in a slip-shod fashion, and 
 experience teaches that it will be done in a sHp-shod 
 fashion, unless definite standards are set up and rigor- 
 ously adhered to. That all or even an appreciable pro- 
 portion of the great men of to-day were dull pupils at 
 school is a statement that must be proved by statistics of 
 an accurate sort before it can be used as a basis for re- 
 organizing the school system. Aside from a few excep- 
 tional cases that attract notice purely because of their 
 
176 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 exceptional nature, whatever evidence is now available 
 seems to point quite in the opposite direction. That 
 children sometimes worry needlessly about promotion is 
 doubtless true. That this condition ever reaches the 
 extraordinary dimensions attributed to it by some au- 
 thorities is gravely to be doubted — at least until proofs 
 are forthcoming. Some worry is bound to be involved 
 in carrying out any task or duty that is really worth while; 
 in fact, the worry is sometimes directly proportional to the 
 worth. On the other hand, to take away the formality of 
 "passing" is not only to ''let down the bars" and encourage 
 low standards or no standards at all, but it is also to deprive 
 the teacher of one of the most powerful incentives that he 
 can command. 
 
 10. But even if it is decided that the grading of pupils 
 and the formalities incident to promotion are legitimate 
 incentives, the dangers pointed out above are real dangers, 
 and pains must be taken to counteract them, or, at least, 
 to mitigate their evil influences. "Passing" can easily 
 be made altogether too important a thing in the pupils' 
 eyes. After all, it is only a device, not an end in itself, 
 and the moment that it becomes an end in itself, it is in a 
 fair way to defeat its own purposes. It is certainly bad 
 practice to keep the fear of failure continually before the 
 pupils' mind. It is equally bad practice to encourage 
 the pupil into the beHef that "making the grade" should 
 be his sole and only end in life. Like all other devices, 
 promotion, considered either from a positive or from a 
 negative standpoint, — either as hope or fear, — should 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION 1 77 
 
 be used as a spur to effort only when a spur is needed^ and 
 when some more worthy incentive fails to operate. When- 
 ever a pupil falls behind in his work, and fails to respond to 
 the suggestions and hints of the teacher, it is but justice 
 to him that he be informed of the questionable nature of 
 his standing and of the likehhood that, unless greater effort 
 is forthcoming, failure or retroversion to a lower grade 
 will result. 
 
 An occasional retroversion in mid-term may prove a valuable 
 and effective stimulus to other less weak but still doubtful cases. 
 This should not be commonly resorted to, of course, because of 
 the effect upon the penalized pupil ; but in cases where pupils 
 are passed conditionally, the condition should be fulfilled to 
 the letter if it is to mean anything in the eyes of the pupils. 
 Too often, conditioned pupils are permitted to remain in the 
 advanced grade, although their work falls very far below the 
 standard. This is a most reprehensible form of "soft peda- 
 gogy-" 
 
 II. Grades and marks are indispensable factors in the 
 mechanics of grading and promotion. Some authorities 
 disapprove of the practice of letting pupils know their 
 grades until the end of the term, and even then, it is recom- 
 mended, the pupil should simply be recorded as "passed" 
 or "failed" or "conditioned." Certainly there is much 
 to be said against the grading system, and yet, like the 
 system of promotions of which it is only one phase, the 
 difficulties lie mainly in its abuse. Here as elsewhere it 
 is possible to take a middle course, taking advantage of 
 whatever efficiency the system may possess in stimulating 
 
178 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 to greater effort, and still stopping far short of making 
 marks an end in themselves. A monthly statement of 
 pupils* standings, sent to the parents, is one of the best 
 methods of securing the effective cooperation of home and 
 school. It serves as a valuable reference in case, at the 
 end of the term, there is any difficulty about failure to 
 promote. Needless to say, great care must be taken to 
 make these reports accurate indices of the pupils' work. 
 While elaborate bookkeeping should be avoided, it is a 
 simple matter to record at the close of each day a numerical 
 estimate of each pupil's work in different subjects. These 
 estimates can be averaged at the end of the month. For 
 the report cards, letters are to be preferred to numerical 
 estimates, because of the ease with which one figure's dif- 
 ference may change a pupil's fate, and the difficulty of 
 satisfying both parents and pupils that John, whose grade 
 is 74, should be kept back ; while James, whose grade is 
 76, may be sent on. 
 
 The writers upon school management are not inclined to 
 admit that any incentive having its basis in the instinct of emu- 
 lation is justified, except in so far as the operation of the incen- 
 tive does not involve the degradation of those who do not suc- 
 ceed. Professor Seeley's discussion * of the matter is typical : 
 "As emulation is a natural instinct, it can be used in the school 
 without evil effects. The principle governing its use should be 
 excelling without degrading others. ... A child reads a para- 
 graph. ' Who will try to read it better ? ' asks the teacher, and 
 many hands will be raised in generous and ambitious rivalry. 
 Children are invited to do their best in a written exercise, and 
 
 ' L. Seeley: A New School Management^ New York, 1903, pp. 172 ff. 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION 1 79 
 
 the teacher selects the best and commends it. Rapid and neat 
 work in number is called for, and the successful pupil is praised. 
 . . . Such rivalry is healthful, generous, and inspiring." It 
 is diflGicult to see that these recommendations remove the initial 
 difficulty. The very question, "Who will read this better?" 
 implies that the pupil who has just read must take a low rank. 
 In fact, emulation must involve this factor if it is to be emula- 
 tion. 
 
 The same criticism could be made of the defense of emula- 
 tion presented by the Jesuit father, Robert Schwickerath.* In 
 mentioning the strictures that have been passed upon the Jesuit 
 system of education because of its emphasis of emulation, he 
 says: "That these exercises were by no means intended to 
 develop the bad emulation, or false self-love in the young, is 
 evident ; this would have been little to the purpose with religious 
 teachers. . . . What is appealed to, is the spirit of good and 
 noble emulation, — honesta cemulatio, as the Ratio says, — 
 and that by a world of industry which spurs young students 
 on to excellence in whatever they undertake, and rewards the 
 development of natural energies with the natural luxury of 
 confessedly doing well. This makes the boys feel happy in 
 having done well, however little they enjoyed the labor before, 
 and will rouse them to new exertions. Gradually they may 
 then be led to higher motives in their endeavors." 
 
 It must be confessed that the distinction between good and 
 bad emulation is not very clear from this discussion. At any 
 rate, "the natural luxury of doing well" has very Httle affinity 
 to emulation as an instinct. Much more to the point is the 
 same author's positive justification of the Jesuit practice, lay- 
 ing aside all sentimental distinctions that fail to distinguish: 
 "Is it probable that j^oung pupils will readily be diligent, when 
 told that they ought to do their work ? Kant's teaching of the 
 
 * R. Schwickerath : Jesuit Education, St. Louis, 1903, p. 512. 
 
l8o CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 autonomy of the human reason is not only deficient, but posi* 
 tively erroneous; but least of all will the rule, you ought he- 
 cause reason tells you so, have any effect on the young." ^ 
 
 In the problem of emulation we have an example of that 
 condition which has recurred so frequently in our previous dis- 
 cussions, and which sometimes makes the entire process of 
 education appear to be a huge paradox. Education, like civili- 
 zation, is an artificial process, — a compromise between the 
 brutal and the human, a readjustment from primitive to social 
 conditions. The teacher cannot always choose the methods of 
 this readjustment. The cloth must be cut to fit the wearer, 
 not the tailor. That the instinct of emulation sometimes 
 works evil in the school does not in itself condemn it; the evil 
 must be measured up against the good. Success for one may 
 mean failure — must mean failure — to another; but if this 
 failure becomes a spur to increased effort, the net result may 
 be commendable. It is the same test that must be applied 
 over and over again in education : not. Is there any danger in 
 using this method ? but rather, Are the possible benefits numer- 
 ous enough and certain enough to warrant the risk? If this 
 test is applied to emulation as a school incentive, especially dur- 
 ing the preadolescent period, there can be little doubt of a 
 favorable verdict. 
 
 12. (b) Incentives that make a Positive Appeal to the 
 Social Instincts, (i) Praise, Commendation, and Adu- 
 lation. That a child will put forth effort in orcjer to win 
 the praise or commendation of his parents or teachers is 
 a proposition that needs no proof. That the fact is due 
 to the operation of an instinct is also not to be doubted, 
 for the tendency appears too early in the child^s life to 
 admit of any other explanation. Whether the instinct 
 
 * Schwickerath, op. cU., p. 513. 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION l8l 
 
 belongs to the social order or is to be classed as a form 
 of emulation is not a matter of serious moment in the 
 present connection. The fact, however, that praise is 
 effective even if there is no competition in gaining it, 
 would seem to eliminate emulation, while the fact that 
 the love of praise is closely associated with the altruistic 
 tendencies — for one generally covets the praise of those 
 whom one admires — would indicate its social basis. 
 
 13. The efficiency of pr2ase and commendation in stimu- 
 lating effort cannot be doubted.^ Through all stages of 
 education these incentives are probably among the most 
 potent. Their maximal efficiency is, however, strictly 
 conditioned by some very important principles, (i) A 
 nice compromise must be made between too Uttle praise 
 and too much. The latter extreme certainly defeats its 
 own purpose by giving the child an exaggerated opinion 
 of his own abiUty; as a result, instead of putting forth 
 more effort, he is apt to put forth less. (2) Praise must 
 always be justified by the effort that calls it forth. While 
 it is permissible to praise a dull child for work that could 
 not be accepted from a more capable pupil, it would be 
 bad practice to praise a bright pupil for work that may be 
 beyond anything that his duller fellow could accompUsh, 
 but which still has cost him (the brighter pupil) only a 
 minimal effort. (3) Indiscriminate praise or mere flattery 
 will unerringly be detected by pupils, and the most deplor- 
 
 * "To be in disgrace with its parents ought to be for the child the 
 heaviest penalty. To have their favor should be its highest reward." — 
 Felix Adler: "Punishment of Children," in Journal of Educaiion 
 |(Bostoi]^), 1906^ vol. Ixiii, p. 481. 
 
1 82 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 able consequences will, in all probability, be the result. 
 (4) Even justifiable praise, if carried too far or continued 
 too long, may lead the pupil into the very unfortunate 
 attitude of thinking that everything which he does well 
 must meet with a commendatory reception, — a mistake 
 of which he will certainly have to disabuse his mind when 
 he leaves school and faces the problems of real Hfe. There 
 are not a few men and women in the world who can trace 
 their failure to the fact that the praise with which effort 
 was rewarded in childhood, and especially during school 
 life, was not forthcoming when they began their real work. 
 As a consequence, they become depressed and discour- 
 aged, sour and morose, and such an attitude is fatal to 
 success. 
 
 It may be concluded that, in the early stages of educa- 
 tion, praise should be neither begrudged nor lavished. As 
 the child develops, it is only superlatively good work that 
 should be highly commended. It is only through some 
 such plan as this that praise can be made an effective and 
 safe incentive. Under such conditions it becomes, per- 
 haps, the most effective of all incentives. The desire to 
 "win recognition" is the driving force that is back of 
 most of the best work that is done in the world. Nothing 
 more specific than the above principles can be laid down 
 as governing the operation of this incentive in the 
 schoolroom, but its basic significance cannot be overesti- 
 mated. 
 
 14. (2) Pupils^ Pride in the Good Name of the School, 
 In the writer's opinion one of the most powerful incentives 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION 1 83 
 
 to effort on the part of pupils is the pride that they may be 
 led to take in the good name and high standing of the 
 school. This incentive operates most effectively in the 
 large cities where there is a distinct and recognized rivalry 
 between different schools, and where the interchange of 
 visits among teachers of different schools is a common 
 practice. In such cases the best schools receive the 
 greatest number of visitors, and the presence of visitors 
 never ceases to have a stimulating effect upon the work of 
 the pupils. In a Chicago school, for example, over two 
 thousand visitors were registered in a single year. They 
 were attracted by the excellence of the work done in the 
 school, but there is no doubt that the benefit was mutual, 
 — that the fact of constant inspection acted reflexly in 
 stimulating pupils to greater effort and in building up an 
 esprit de corps that must mean much to the school's efl&- 
 ciency. 
 
 A danger lurks, of course, in the operation of this in- 
 centive, as danger always lurks in the operation of any 
 incentive. When a school becomes a "show" school, the 
 spectacular features of school work are more than apt to 
 be overestimated and overemphasized. The pupils, too, 
 may acquire an exaggerated opinion of their own abihties. 
 Under a wise principal, however, — and only a wise prin- 
 cipal can establish a permanent reputation for his school, — 
 these dangers will be recognized and counteracted. 
 
 In the smaller systems of schools the efficiency of this 
 incentive will be somewhat diminished because of the 
 lack of rivalry; but in all schools visiting should be 
 
184 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 encouraged, and especially the visiting of teachers to one 
 another's rooms. Where the population is relatively dense 
 and neighboring towns are easily accessible, there should 
 be frequent interchange of visits among the various corps. 
 The value of this poHcy is by no means Umited to the stimu- 
 lating effect that these visits have upon the pupils. They 
 serve in no less degree to stimulate the teachers by bringing 
 them in contact with the actual work of others who are 
 meeting and solving the same problems.^ 
 
 15. The value of school exhibits in the creating of an 
 esprit de corps is also great, although probably less than 
 that which accrues to the visiting of schools. The dan- 
 ger lies in the fact that the school exhibit places a pre- 
 mium upon "show" work of a specific sort, — "showy" 
 results. The time of the pupils is apt to be given in un- 
 due proportion to the preparation of the exhibits. The 
 really important part of school work — the daily routine 
 — is thereby broken up, and the more intangible results 
 of this routine receive no adequate recognition. Where 
 the regular work forms the exhibit, as it does in school 
 visiting and inspection, the routine itself becomes the 
 important thing. Nevertheless, school exhibits at county 
 and state fairs, and at national expositions, have a certain 
 value and may be profitably used as incentives under 
 conditions that render visiting and inspection imprac- 
 ticable. 
 
 16. (c) Ideals as Incentives. While the distinction be- 
 
 * Cf . some valuable suggestions on this naatter in Putton : Scho/d 
 l^anagement, pp. 37 ff- 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION lS$ 
 
 tween an ideal and the incentives that have just been dis- 
 cussed cannot be closely drawn, there is a real distinction 
 which needs to be recognized and emphasized* The 
 latter depend upon the idea of an end to be reached in the 
 somewhat immediate future. If effort is put forth, one 
 may escape a punishment, or procure a reward, or be " pro- 
 moted," or increase the respect in which the school is 
 held. Unless the effort led to the fulfillment of the promise 
 held forth by the incentive, the idea of the end would soon 
 cease to be effective. 
 
 An ideal, however, stands upon a higher plane. One 
 puts forth effort, — one performs a task, does something 
 that one does not wish to do, — not because the putting 
 forth of the effort will necessarily lead to the desired end, 
 but because the effort is demanded by an ideal, and not 
 to put forth the effort would mean infidelity to the ideal 
 involved. When one works from a sense of duty, from a 
 sense of self-respect, from an appreciation of the glory 
 of work in itself and of the ignominy of idleness, — when 
 one puts forth effort under any of these conditions, even 
 though the desires of the moment are in another direc- 
 tion, — the operating force is an ideal. 
 
 17. The psychology of ideals is, as yet, a dark chapter 
 in the science of mind, but there can be no doubt that an 
 ideal is a highly evolved product, in the development of 
 which the incentives named above must play an important 
 part. ]Sl either can one doubt that the all-important task 
 of the school is to develop in its pupils some of the ideals 
 that have just been referred to. The danger of an educa- 
 
1 86 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 tional policy that lays too much stress upon incentives of 
 the lower orders is that the stem disciplines of duty, self- 
 respect, and self-sacrificing effort find no place in the 
 system. The time should certainly come in the school 
 life of every pupil when tasks can be assigned without bring- 
 ing vividly before him a definite end that the performance 
 of the task may bring about; when merely from the 
 "sense" of duty the necessary effort will be forthcoming 
 without involving the questions of Why? or Wherefore? 
 Is it interesting? What good is it going to do me? As 
 the author of the "Message to Garcia" clearly points out, 
 the lack of ability to do something, the reasons and details 
 and modus operandi of which are not thoroughly explained 
 and made clear beforehand, is one of the prime causes of 
 social inefficiency. One would certainly not argue for an 
 educational policy that should make the bhnd obedience 
 to authority its sole and only end ; but between this extreme 
 and that which is deliberately encouraged by contemporary 
 educational theory, and which disapproves explicitly of 
 setting tasks for which the pupil can see no reason, there 
 is plenty of room for a sane compromise. 
 
 The important principle in school practice is this: 
 Effective ideals derive the greater part of their power from 
 the specific habits that have been developed during the 
 formative period of life. The ideal of duty grows out of 
 the specific habits of obedience, the ideal of work out of 
 the specific habits of industry, and so on. These habits 
 may be initiated by the application of the various incentives 
 named above, and then, in the later periods of the pupil's 
 
THE PROBLEM OF ATTENTION 1 87 
 
 school life, the habits should, in turn, be generalized on 
 the basis of ideals. 
 
 References. — White: School Management, pp. 130-188; Seeley: 
 A New School Management, ch. xiii; Roark: Economy in Educa- 
 tion, pp. 55-58; Button : School Management, ch. viii; Kellogg: 
 School Management, pp. 36-50; Kirkpatrick: Fundamentals of 
 Child Study, chs. xi, xii; Thoradike: Principles 0} Teaching, ch. v. 
 
CHAPTER Xm 
 The Technique of Class Instruction 
 
 1. Although a discussion of methods of teaching is 
 not germane to the purpose of this book, there are certain 
 principles and devices of method that have to do specifically 
 with the effective treatment of children in the mass ; these, 
 it is clear, must claim attention from the standpoint of 
 classroom management. It is obvious to any one familiar 
 with pubUc school work that no small amount of waste is 
 involved through lack of an adequate technique of class 
 instruction. Principles of method are, as a rule, derived 
 from broader psychological principles, which, in turn, rest 
 upon a study of the individual mind. While such prin- 
 ciples are, in general, valid in appHcation to a group of 
 individual pupils, the fact of grouping introduces some 
 modifying factors, and the operation of these factors neces- 
 sarily makes the treatment of the group somewhat differ- 
 ent from what the treatment of a single individual would be. 
 
 2. The unique problem of class instruction is to secure 
 the attention of all pupils to the matter in hand, and to keep 
 all of the pupils up to practically the same level of attain- 
 ment in spite of individual differences in previous attain- 
 ment and capacity for further growth. These difficulties 
 are augmented by the American method of classroom organ- 
 
 i88 
 
THE TECHNIQUE OF CLASS INSTRUCTION 1 89 
 
 ization whereby two or more distinct groups or classes are 
 often placed in the same room and under the instruction 
 of a single teacher. This plan requires that the members 
 of each class work independently of the teacher for at 
 least half of the time that they spend in the classroom* 
 Thus, while the difficulties of securing attention from all 
 pupils during the periods of direct instruction are not sHght, 
 the addition of independent work will multiply the oppor- 
 tunities for wasting time and misdirecting energy, and will 
 render still more difficult the task of securing imiform and 
 maximally good results from all pupils. 
 
 3. The first concern of classroom management with 
 method of instruction has, therefore, to do with this 
 problem: How may the teacher make efifective that part 
 of the class work which is necessarily more or less unsuper- 
 vised ? In more definite terms this question becomes the 
 problem of the study period : How may the independent 
 work of the pupils during their study periods be made 
 effective ? 
 
 The presence of two or more classes in the same room, 
 which is so common in our schools, is probably one cause 
 of the extent to which text-books have come to be employed 
 as media of instruction. The text-book, indeed, is the 
 easiest solution of the problem of educating children in 
 the mass. It makes possible the systematic assignment 
 of seat work by providing each pupil with the same task. 
 It relieves the teacher very largely of the task of mapping 
 out his own courses, and keeps instruction to a definite 
 line. On the other hand, it introduces a dangerous ele- 
 
1 90 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 ment in that it makes for lower standards of scholarship 
 in the teaching profession than would be possible if every 
 teacher were responsible for direct instruction. The system 
 is also defective in that the text-book frequently "tells" 
 too much and leaves very Httle latitude for the discovery 
 of truth by the pupil. On the whole, however, the text- 
 book system possesses virtues which probably counter- 
 balance its defects, provided, of course, that an adequate 
 technique of using text-books is developed ; and in addi- 
 tion to this, the text-book policy is too thoroughly a part 
 of American education to permit of eradication save by 
 some process akin to revolution.^ 
 
 The problem of the present chapter, then, is the elimi- 
 nation of the waste that is involved in the study period, 
 but inasmuch as the use of text-books offers a general 
 solution of the problem, the question may be stated still 
 more specifically: How may text-books be used effec- 
 tively ? 
 
 Text-books may be roughly divided into three classes: 
 (a) readers; (b) manuals or handbooks, such as arithmetic 
 and grammar texts which provide a minimum of facts and 
 principles with a maximum of exercises or problems to be 
 worked out by the pupils; and (c) text-books proper, such as 
 geographies, histories, and physiologies, in which the chief aim 
 is the logical and systematic setting forth of facts and principles. 
 The general principles of text-book instruction apply with 
 equal force to each of these classes; they are especially im- 
 portant, however, in the use of the third class. 
 
 * Cf. a more detailed discussion of this matter in The Educative 
 Process, ch. xvii. 
 
THE TECHNIQUE OF CLASS INSTRUCTION 19I 
 
 4. The Difficulties 0} Text-book Instruction. In using 
 text-books three general difficulties must be overcome: 
 (a) The pupil must have some motive for attacking the 
 printed page, or some interest in its contents, if he is to 
 give it the attention that is necessary for the assimilation 
 of the matter presented. Not all of the material presented 
 in text-books is intrinsically interesting to every pupil, nor 
 can it be assumed in every case that the pupil possesses 
 an adequate motive for acquiring something that is not 
 intrinsically interesting, (b) The text-book may employ 
 terms the meanings of which are not familiar to the pupils. 
 It may use familiar words in new connections. It may 
 present matter for the apperception of which the pupil 
 lacks an adequate basis of fact, (c) Even if these con- 
 ditions are not operative, the reading of the text will not 
 hold attention so well as would the oral presentation of the 
 same matter. Attention is a rhythmic process, presenting 
 periods or phases which we describe as rise, dominance, 
 and decline.* These rhythms follow one another very 
 rapidly, whether the pupils are listening to oral instruc- 
 tion or preparing lessons from text-books. In the former 
 case, however, the character of the instruction "fits in" 
 more or less perfectly with the rh5rthmic nature of atten- 
 tion. The speaker modulates his voice; he emphasizes 
 some words and minimizes others; he introduces facial 
 expression and gestures: in short, oral instruction pro- 
 
 * The current controversy among psychologists with regard to the 
 rhythms of attention has, of course, no bearing upon the fact of the rhyth- 
 mic characteristic of the attentive state. It concerns merely the ex- 
 planation of the rhythms. 
 
192 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 vides a greater variety of sensory impressions, and variety 
 of stimulus is one of the most essential conditions of atten- 
 tion. The printed page, on the other hand, is more 
 monotonous in respect of the sensory impressions that it 
 provides ; it might be described as presenting its material 
 on the same level continually; while the speaker works 
 in three dimensions, the writer is, as it were, limited to 
 one. 
 
 The technique of text-book instruction must, in some 
 manner, counteract or overcome these difficulties. Its 
 problems are (a) to give the pupil a motive, or to develop 
 an interest in the material presented ; (b) to clear up the 
 difficulties of thought and form that would otherwise be 
 insuperable barriers to the assimilation of the material 
 presented; and (c) to provide some measure of variety 
 that will serve to reheve the monotony of the printed page — 
 to make the salient and important points stand out clearly. 
 
 5. Divisions of the Text-book Lesson, (a) The Assign- 
 ment. The text-book lesson normally falls into three 
 parts: (a) the assignment; (b) the study lesson; and 
 (c) the recitation. Of these, the first is undoubtedly the 
 most important from the standpoint of the teacher. 
 
 The assignment of a lesson should fulfill two functions : 
 (i) It should clear up the insuperable or relatively insuper- 
 able difficulties in the way of form. These difficulties 
 may consist of new words, obscure passages, and difficult 
 or unusual constructions. How far the teacher should go 
 in this direction will be a matter of judgment in each 
 specific case. To spend valuable time in explaining the 
 
THE TECHNIQUE OF CLASS INSTRUCTION 1 93 
 
 meaning of words with which the pupils are already 
 famiHar is obviously a waste of time and energy. Again, 
 to do too much for the pupil may be to miss a valuable 
 opportunity for encouraging independent ejffort on his 
 part. Some authorities beHeve that the teacher should 
 give absolutely no help in the assignment; the pupil, they 
 assert, should solve the difl&culties for himself. Let the 
 new words be "looked up" in the dictionary, and let the 
 constructions be worked out independently. But is it 
 always profitable or economical to do this? Are the 
 results gained, for example, in "running down" all new 
 words in the dictionary commensurate with the time and 
 energy expended? Is not the dictionary definition often 
 misleading, and does one not often get meanings from 
 famiUar context that are far more valuable than those de- 
 rived from formal definitions? It is such questions as 
 these that must be met and answered in determining how 
 much to do for the pupil in assigning lessons.^ In the 
 
 ^ It is interesting to note how authorities diflfer with regard to the use 
 of the dictionary in the lower grades. The Illinois "Course of Study" 
 contains the following recommendations: "By the time the pupil reaches 
 the sixth grade, he should be able to pronounce all the common words at 
 sight. He should be required during the study hour, to look up in the 
 dictionary the pronunciation of all words unfamiliar to him. In Grades 
 V and VI he is taught how to use the dictionary for definitions. . . . He 
 should learn to decide between the meanings of a word to select the 
 meaning that the context calls for. This work is begun in the fifth 
 grade and carried on more independently by the pupil himself in the 
 sixth." (p. 61.) Superintendent R. G. Young of Butte recommends 
 the use of the dictionary in the last half of Grade III. The Portland 
 (Oregon) "Course of Study" prescribes the dictionary for pronunci- 
 ation in the first half of Grade IV. State Superintendent Carring- 
 ton of Missouri recommends the dictionary for Grade VI. In the Los 
 
194 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 writer^s experience the best results have been obtained 
 by carefully explaining all formal difficulties in lessons 
 assigned to the lower grades — through the fourth grade 
 in any case. In the upper grades more reUance is placed 
 upon dictionary work, but even then new terms that are 
 especially important are developed orally.^ 
 
 The technique of developing new words permits numerous 
 variations. In some lessons the subject-matter treated by the 
 text is briefly outlined, the new words being written upon the 
 blackboard and explained through illustrative sentences when- 
 ever they come up in this preliminary development of the lesson. 
 In other lessons it will be unnecessary to give an oral develop- 
 ment of the subject-matter, and the new words in such cases 
 may be given in sentences that are not directly related to the 
 content of the text. In any case it is much better to give the 
 word in a familiar sentence and ask the pupils to tell its mean- 
 ing than to write the word upon the blackboard and give a 
 formal definition. In all assignments there should be more or 
 less "give-and-take" between pupils and teacher if the pupils 
 are to follow the development attentively. 
 
 Angeles schools it is prescribed for Grade V. Many other authori- 
 ties make similar recommendations. On the other hand, Principal 
 Chubb warns us not to "overwork the dictionary" in the earlier grades, 
 and Professor S. H. Clark would have the meaning of words gained from 
 context rather than by dictionary definition. 
 
 * "What is the teacher for? . . . Good pedagogy says, To give such 
 a preview of every subject, of every lesson, as will make the pupil's study 
 effective, as will help him to see relations, and save him from misconcep- 
 tions. Without the proper preview, a great part of the teacher's work is 
 correcting errors that ought to have been avoided — is requiring the pupil 
 to 'unlearn' what he never ought to have learned. The preview is the 
 'ounce of prevention' that is worth a whole night occupied in correcting 
 the pupil's written work." — F. H. Hall, in School News (Taylorville, 
 Illinois), 1906, vol. xix, p. 338. 
 
THE TECHNIQUE OF CLASS INSTRUCTION 1 95 
 
 6. Formal difficulties are not infrequently due to the 
 fact that pupils fail to notice shght peculiarities of form 
 upon which an important meaning may turn. Thus the 
 "thought" of a paragraph may sometimes depend upon 
 a small word that may be overlooked, or upon the peculiar 
 emphasis that must be given to a certain word. The 
 pupils should, of course, be encouraged to search these 
 things out for themselves ; but they will not accomplish this 
 end unless some hint as to the method is given in the 
 assignment. 
 
 These unobtrusive peculiarities of form are really the factors 
 that make English spelling so difficult to master. The slight 
 formal difference between "thought" and ''though," "saw" 
 and "was," are instances that will be familiar to all teachers 
 in the primary grades. Even more troublesome are the words 
 that are identical in sound, but which have different meanings 
 and different spellings, — "knew" and "new," "deer" and 
 "dear," and the like. 
 
 The assignment is consequently at no time more important 
 than in preparing for the spelling lesson. The pupils' attention 
 must be explicitly directed to the minute differences that are 
 apt to cause trouble. This is best done by emphasizing the 
 correct form, without, at the same time, suggesting the mistake 
 that the pupil is likely to make. A very good example of an 
 effective assignment in this respect was recently brought to 
 the writer's attention by an institute instructor. In a spelling 
 lesson for the fourth grade the only word that was apt to cause 
 trouble was "separate." The instructor suggested writing 
 this word slowly upon the blackboard, pausing briefly at the 
 end of the first syllable, — "sep," — then writing the trouble- 
 some "a" with bright red crayon, completing the word with 
 white crayon, — "separate." Whenever a wrong letter is apt 
 
196 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 to be substituted, owing to phonic resemblances, some device 
 like this that will bring the correct letter vividly before the 
 pupils* minds may appropriately find a place in the assign- 
 ment. 
 
 In another fourth-grade spelling lesson the following words 
 were assigned for spelling: close, clothes, brought, thought, 
 carpenter, advantage, devour, pieces, comfortable. The 
 teacher's general method of assignment was to have each word 
 carefully focalized, syllabicated, pronounced, and spelled, first 
 silently and then aloud. In discriminating between homo- 
 phones, the pupils were required to used the words correctly 
 in sentences. In focalizing the word "clothes," the teacher 
 pointed to the "e" and said, '*I want you always to remember 
 to put this letter in." When "brought" and "thought" were 
 under discussion, the teacher asked if the words were alike in 
 any respect. A pupil suggested that they ended in the same 
 way. "Yes," said the teacher, "if we cover up the first two 
 letters of each, they are alike. Then let us remember what 
 these two letters are for each word." Mnemonic devices were 
 used in focalizing "devour" and "pieces." In the former case, 
 the "our" was arbitrarily associated with "devour"; in the 
 latter case, "pie" was associated with "pieces.^' The pupils 
 were famihar with the spelling of both "our" and "pie." 
 Just how far such mnemonic devices should be employed is an 
 open question, but the results in these instances seemed to 
 justify the practice. In order to test the efl&ciency of this 
 assignment, the same words were given to the class five days 
 afterward. Eighty per cent of the pupils spelled all of the 
 words correctly; twenty per cent failed on one of the nine 
 words. The same lesson was given to another class of the 
 same age and grade without assignment or study. One pupil 
 spelled eight words correctly; another spelled only one cor- 
 rectly; the average standing of the class in the test was 47 
 per cent. 
 
THE TECHNIQUE OF CLASS INSTRUCTION 197 
 
 7. (2) The second function of the assignment is even 
 more important than the first. It is to develop in the pupil 
 either an interest in the subject-matter of the text, or a 
 motive for attacking the text aggressively. In this con- 
 nection the first task is to make clear the relation between 
 the forthcoming lesson and those that have preceded, — 
 to "connect up" the new and the old. If this is not done, 
 the text may be comparatively meaningless to the pupil; 
 and his assimilation of the content will, of course, be im- 
 possible. 
 
 It is at this point that the inductive development lesson, 
 involving the five "formal steps" of the Herbartian pedagogy, 
 has its field of widest application in our American schools. 
 Many teachers who have mastered the theory of the formal 
 steps in their normal school or college work fail to use the 
 inductive method of development in their teaching, because 
 the public school system in which they work is dominated by 
 text-books, and they cannot see how the text-book and the 
 development lesson can go hand in hand. As a matter of fact, 
 the assignment of any text-book lesson in which a new prin- 
 ciple is brought out may involve an inductive oral development 
 covering, perhaps, an entire period. 
 
 This is clearly seen in the teaching of arithmetic and gram- 
 mar. In taking up any new principle, such as the division of 
 decimals, or the definition of a preposition, the proper pro- 
 cedure is inductive development, involving (a) the preparation 
 (bringing into consciousness the material already mastered 
 upon which the new principle depends) ; (b) the presentation 
 (generally concrete cases involving the new principle) ; (c) the 
 comparison and abstraction (comparing the concrete cases and 
 picking out the common elements); (d) the generalization 
 (formulating the common elements in a rule, definition, or 
 
198 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 principle); and (e) application (showing how the principle 
 applies to new cases). 
 
 The following lesson in arithmetic represents an actual 
 assignment given to a ninth-grade class: — 
 
 The lesson had for its purpose the development of the prin- 
 ciple that, in a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypote- 
 nuse equals the sum of the squares of the other two sides. 
 The teacher had prepared a diagram showing a right-angled 
 triangle with squares constructed upon the hypotenuse and the 
 two sides. The perpendicular of the triangle was labeled AB, 
 and was three inches in length; the base (BC) was four inches 
 in length; the hypotenuse (AC) was five inches in length. 
 The diagram was carefully drawn upon a flexible blackboard, 
 which the teacher had rolled up, and which was not displayed 
 to the pupils until the step of preparation had been completed. 
 (Note the value of this small detail of technique in the appeal 
 made to the instinct of curiosity.) 
 
 Preparation. The class had been working problems involving 
 the application of square root in determining the side of square 
 when the area is given. Problems of this nature had been as- 
 signed for home work, and a few moments at the beginning of 
 the recitation were devoted to a discussion of two problems with 
 which the pupils had found diflSculty. By this means the prin- 
 ciples governing the extraction of square root were reviewed. 
 
 Statement of the Aim. * ' To-day we shall study another appli- 
 cation of square root." 
 
 Presentation. The flexible blackboard which has been 
 hanging on the wall is unrolled. The teacher calls the atten- 
 tion of the class to the diagram. 
 
 Teacher. "Where did I begin to make this drawing?" 
 (Calling on a certain pupil.) 
 
 Pupil. "You drew the triangle first." 
 
 T. "What kind of a triangle did I draw?" (Calling on 
 another pupil.) 
 
THE TECHNIQUE OF CLASS INSTRUCTION 1 99 
 
 P. "A right-angled triangle." 
 
 T. "We call these two lines (pointing to AB and BC) the 
 perpendicular and the base. This third line, however, has a 
 name of its own with which you are not familiar. We call this 
 the hypotenuse.^* (Writes the name on the board as she pro- 
 nounces the word.) 
 
 The names are then rapidly reviewed, the teacher pointing 
 to the three lines in rapid succession, and calling upon different 
 pupils, who rise quickly and give the required names. 
 
 T. "After drawing the triangle, what did I next do?" 
 
 Various pupils volunteer different opinions. Finally one 
 pupil replies : — 
 
 "You made a square with the perpendicular for one side." 
 
 T, "Yes; and how long is the perpendicular?" 
 
 P. (After measuring it) : "Three inches." 
 
 T. "How shall I find the area of the square?" (Calling on 
 a particular pupil by name, as is the invariable custom of 
 most good teachers in work of this sort.) 
 
 P. "Multiply the length by the breadth. The area of this 
 square would be nine square inches." 
 
 T. "Right; I shall put 'g square inches ' in the center of 
 the square. How many little squares each containing one 
 square inch are there in the large square?" 
 
 P. "Nine." 
 
 The other squares are then treated in the same way, and with 
 little less detail. The terms are reviewed in each instance, and 
 the answers are obtained from different pupils in every case. 
 
 T. "Count the squares upon this side." (Pointing to the 
 base.) " And upon this side ? " (Pointing to the perpendicular.) 
 "How many altogether?" 
 
 P. "Twenty-five squares." 
 
 Comparison and Abstraction. T. "But this is the same as 
 the number that I had upon the hypotenuse. Now if I knew 
 that there were twenty-five squares on the hypotenuse, and 
 
200 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 nine squares on the perpendicular, how could I find how many 
 would be on the base?" 
 
 P. "You could subtract nine squares from twenty-five 
 squares, and you would know that there were sixteen squares 
 on the base." 
 
 T. "And if I knew that there were twenty-five squares on 
 the hypotenuse and sixteen on the base, how could I find the 
 number on the perpendicular?" 
 
 P. "You could subtract sixteen from twenty-five. You 
 would have nine squares on the base." 
 
 T. "What is the square of three?" 
 
 P. "Nine." 
 
 T. "What is the square of four?" 
 
 P. "Sixteen." 
 
 T. "What is the sum of the squares?" 
 
 P. "Twenty-five." 
 
 T. "What is the square root of twenty-five?" 
 
 P. "Five." 
 
 T. "What is the square of five?" 
 
 P. "Twenty-five." 
 
 T. "What is the square of three?" 
 
 P. "Nine." 
 
 T. " What is the difference of the squares?" 
 
 P. "Sixteen." 
 
 The same questions are asked with respect to the difference 
 between twenty-five and sixteen. Different pupils answer the 
 different questions at the request of the teacher. The teacher 
 then reviews the facts very briefly with the pupils. 
 
 Generalization. T. * * How, then , may we find the hypotenuse 
 if we know the base and perpendicular?" 
 
 P. "Square the two sides, add, and extract the square 
 root." 
 
 T. "How may we find one side if we know the hypotenuse 
 and the other side?" 
 
THE TECHNIQUE OF CLASS INSTRUCTION 20I 
 
 P. "Square the hypotenuse and the side you know, subtract 
 the square of the side you know from the square of the hypote- 
 nuse, and extract the square root." 
 
 Other pupils make similar formulations until a general rule 
 is obtained that covers all cases. 
 
 Application. T. "Let us see what application we can 
 make of this." An example is read by the teacher from the 
 book : — 
 
 "Base, i6o; perpendicular, i68; hypotenuse?" 
 
 A pupil draws a triangle that will approximately represent 
 these conditions. 
 
 T. "I want some one to put the figures where they belong 
 on this triangle." Several pupils volunteer; one is selected 
 and does the work correctly. 
 
 T. (To another pupil): "Right or wrong?" 
 
 P. "Right." 
 
 T. "Why?" 
 
 The pupil quickly explains why the arrangement is correct. 
 
 Two other problems are similarly diagramed and the dia- 
 grams labeled, the teacher requiring criticisms in each instance 
 and insisting upon the reasons. The first problem is then solved. 
 Then others that involve the reverse process are taken up. A 
 more concrete problem is next considered : — 
 
 "A boy is flying a kite. The string is one hundred feet long. 
 The kite is directly above a point eighty feet from where the boy 
 is standing. How high is the kite above the ground?" 
 
 T. (Calling on a pupil): "Put upon the board a cross 
 standing for the boy." 
 
 "Put upon the board a cross standing for the kite." 
 
 "For the point directly under the kite." 
 
 "Draw a line corresponding to the string of the kite." 
 
 "To the line connecting the kite and the point on the ground 
 immediately beneath it." 
 
 "To the line connecting this point with the boy." 
 
202 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 ''Place the numbers where they belong on the diagram." 
 DifiFerent pupils do these different things as the questions 
 are asked. 
 
 T. "Now how shall I solve this problem?" 
 The solution is sketched by a pupil, although the operations 
 are not actually made. 
 
 One or two other problems, taken from the book, are dia- 
 gramed in a similar manner, and the teacher then assigns 
 several additional problems for home work. 
 
 The lesson, of which the above account is practically an 
 exact transcript, occupied forty minutes, and is a typical 
 example of the inductive development lesson functioning as 
 an assignment in arithmetic. 
 
 8. In some cases a direct interest may be aroused in 
 the subject-matter through the skillful stimulation of the 
 instinct of curiosity. Many lessons which the pupil would 
 otherwise attack listlessly and ineffectively may be so art- 
 fully introduced through an anecdote or some personal 
 allusion that the pupils v^U wish to read the material as 
 quickly as possible. 
 
 An example of such an assignment is represented by the 
 following incident which was related to the writer by one of 
 the ablest schoolmen in the country. In teaching a beginning 
 class in United States history, he had been in the habit of making 
 rather elaborate assignments, but when the topic of Arnold's 
 treason was reached, he changed his policy, and assigned the 
 lesson somewhat as follows: "The next few pages of the book 
 tell about a very mean man. I do not think that I have ever 
 heard of another man so mean and contemptible as he was. 
 I don't know that it will pay us to spend very much time on 
 this man; but, after all, it was a rather pathetic case, and 
 
THE TECHNIQUE OF CLASS INSTRUCTION 203 
 
 you might read it over this evening." The teacher character- 
 ized the next day's recitation as the best that he had ever 
 secured from any class in history. 
 
 Assignments of this type will probably not be made very 
 frequently, for the reason that opportunities for stimulating 
 curiosity do not often occur. A more extended use can be 
 made, however, of an acquired interest that is closely 
 related to instinctive curiosity. Pupils may be led to 
 infer what events might happen under certain conditions 
 and then sent to the text-books to verify or disprove their 
 inferences. 
 
 This type of assignment involves what the writer has termed 
 the ''deductive development lesson,"* and is perhaps most 
 frequently to be applied in geography and history. In the 
 former subject, for example, the assignment of a lesson on 
 England would consist of a map study of England. From 
 this study the pupils would be led to infer such facts as the 
 climate, productions, occupations of the people, etc. Having 
 made these inferences, the text-books could be consulted in 
 order to determine how close the pupils had come to the real 
 facts. This general method is also important in that it gives 
 wide scope for the effective employment of reference books 
 other than the regular text. In history, pupils may be encour- 
 aged to make inferences as to the next move that an army 
 would make, or the next step that a statesman would take in 
 carrying out a given policy, and then referred to the text for 
 verification of the inference. Care must, of course, be taken 
 to prevent such exercises from lapsing into mere guesswork; 
 properly handled, however, they furnish an incentive for 
 effective study that could hardly be gained in any other way. 
 
 * Cf . The Educative Process, ch. xx. 
 
204 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 9. In assigning selections of literature for reading it is 
 frequently necessary to give a general account of the 
 "setting" of the selection. Thus the selection may be 
 taken from a more extended work, or it may have reference 
 to some historical event. In either case, the reading will 
 be rendered more intelligible if the "setting" is described 
 in some detail. 
 
 In a reader used in the fifth grade, Lincoln's Gettysburg 
 address is given. The writer attempted to have fifth-grade 
 pupils read this under the ordinary method of assignment, 
 "Take your readers, turn to page 65, and study this lesson." 
 He found the results so inadequate that he had the pupils close 
 their books, and then he told them the story of Gettysburg, 
 making as clear as possible the situation between the North 
 and the South, showing the decisive character of the battle, 
 and dwelling briefly upon the tremendous loss of Hfe that was 
 involved, and the general significance of the victory. All this 
 was necessary in order to show why an occasion had arisen for 
 Lincoln's address. Then he went through the text, carefully 
 explaining the allusions and assigning the reading for the next 
 lesson. The pupils worked at it during the study period and 
 came to the recitation well prepared. Since that time he has 
 made it a practice always to have masterpieces of literature 
 carefully assigned and frequently read aloud to the class before 
 setting the pupils to work upon them independently.^ 
 
 10. The assignment very infrequently takes the form of 
 a formal lecture, covering points developed in the text. 
 This procedure would generally be regarded in elementary 
 
 ^ The reading of a literary masterpiece to the pupils before assigning 
 it for study is recommended by Chubb. Cf, Teaching of English 
 pp. 99 ff. 
 
THE TECHNIQUE OF CLASS INSTRUCTION 205 
 
 education as "soft pedagogy,'^ although, strange to say, it 
 is perhaps the most common method of teaching in the 
 colleges and universities, where many introductory courses 
 are nothing more nor less than lectures on a text-book 
 which is in the students' hands, and which they cover in 
 parallel readings. In elementary education such a pro- 
 cedure is eminently in place in introducing the more difficult 
 conceptions of physical geography, where objective demon- 
 stration through globes, tellurians, etc., is essential to the 
 pupils' understanding of the subject. After a demon- 
 stration of this sort, accompanied by the descriptive "lec- 
 ture," the pupil is given the text-book and assigned the 
 lesson which treats of the same principles. 
 
 II. In general, it may be concluded that much of the 
 time which young pupils waste in attempting to "get 
 lessons" out of text-books could be saved and turned to 
 educative use if the lessons were skillfully and properly 
 assigned. The careful assignment offers a safe compro- 
 mise between the German method of oral instruction and 
 the American method of book instruction; it provides a 
 field of appHcation for the inductive and deductive develop- 
 ment lessons ; in short, it is the field in which the skillful 
 and efl&cient teacher does most of his real teaching or in- 
 structing. It is not without its dangers; subject-matter 
 may possibly be made too easy for the pupil ; but, in view 
 of the inadequate results in the common use of text-books, 
 it would appear that the danger line is far in the distance. 
 Opponents of elaborate assignments tell us that the pupil 
 gains strength by overcoming difficulties, and that he should 
 
2o6 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 attack the printed page without help and get out of it what 
 he can. And yet every teacher of experience in elementary 
 school work will testify that pupils who are treated by this 
 method almost invariably come to recitation unprepared, 
 and all will agree that it is unjust to hold pupils responsible 
 for something that must necessarily be vague, hazy, and 
 obscure to them. The natural result is that the teacher 
 who does not teach in the assignment is forced to teach in 
 the recitation. He must go over the lesson at that time, 
 clearing up the points that should have been cleared up 
 before the pupils attacked the text. Under these con- 
 ditions, pupils soon come to know that, if they do not mas- 
 ter the text, the teacher will recite it for them, and the 
 most important stimulus to effort — the idea of respon- 
 sibility for results — is eHminated. It is this condition 
 that makes text-book work on the whole so inadequate. 
 With a careful assignment, however, pupils can be held 
 rigidly responsible for the mastery of the text, and the 
 recitation becomes a word with a meaning. 
 
 12. (b) The Study Lesson. The application of the 
 pupils in their period of seat work tests the efficiency of 
 the assignment. One of the surest indices of a teacher's 
 abihty is the diligence of the study class. Indeed, the ex- 
 pert and experienced supervisor will always look first at the 
 study class. If these pupils are working vigorously and with 
 evident efficiency, he turns his attention to the class that is 
 reciting. The prime test of a teacher is not the manner in 
 which he conducts a recitation, but the growth that his pu- 
 pils make in ability to work efficiently without supervision. 
 
THE TECHNIQUE OF CLASS INSTRUCTION 207 
 
 13. The Technique of the Study Lesson. However skill- 
 ful the assignment may be, it should not be entirely de- 
 pended upon to secure the appHcation of the pupils during 
 the study period. It was said above that the main difficulty 
 in holding the attention to the printed page is the lack of 
 sensory variety in the material which the page presents. 
 The technique of the study lesson must, therefore, do 
 something to counteract this difficulty — it must intro- 
 duce variety of sensory stimulus. 
 
 (i) Study Questions. When the pupil first begins to use 
 text-books, it is well to furnish study questions that will 
 aid him during the study period to pick out the salient 
 points treated in the text. There are two types of such 
 questions: these may be termed for convenience the 
 "fact" questions and the "thought" questions. Certain 
 points of the text may be selected and questions asked 
 which can be answered by reference to these points. Thus 
 the central thought of each paragraph may be indicated 
 by a question. If the paragraph is long and involved, 
 several subordinate questions may be included to cover 
 the details. Questions of the "thought" type aim to 
 secure the original reaction of the pupils upon points that 
 may later serve as centers for discussion. In history, for 
 example, the pupil may be asked to form an estimate of 
 a certain character, or to tell why a certain policy would 
 be good or bad. In geography, he may be encouraged to 
 think out the reasons for the facts presented in the text, 
 why New York has become a large city, why New Orleans 
 is an important shipping point, etc. 
 
2o8 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 The following suggestions, taken from the Illinois ''Course 
 of Study," indicate questions that may be used in the study of 
 the reading lesson: "In the preparation for the lesson, let the 
 teacher assign definite questions, having a care that her ques- 
 tions are suggestive enough and not too suggestive. Sugges- 
 tions: For enlarging the pupil's vocabulary, for giving him 
 fresh thoughts and a feeling for literary expression, the teacher 
 may ask questions that require the pupil to answer in the words 
 of the author ; as, he may be asked to give the words and phrases 
 that describe Rip Van Winkle, Miles Standish, or the characters 
 in Snow-Bound, or that make a scene real and beautiful to 
 him. How does he know that Sleepy Hollow is a sleepy place ? 
 Just what things make Ichabod Crane exultant as he looks over 
 the Van Tassel farm? Let him select the pictures in the 
 lesson and tell in detail what he sees in them. ... He may 
 also be asked to pick out the comparisons applied to the char- 
 acters and to the objects in nature and explain the point of 
 comparison. Thus the pupil may early come to a conscious 
 appreciation of truthful and effective expression." (pp. 60-61.) 
 
 The writer has found by actual test that it is much better 
 to have the questions placed upon the blackboard than to 
 have them printed at the end of the lessons in the text. 
 If the texts furnish suggestive questions or topics, the 
 teacher is advised to copy them upon the blackboard for 
 use during the study period. The alternation of attention 
 between the printed page and the blackboard tends, un- 
 doubtedly, to introduce a superficial variety of stimulus 
 and movement that helps in the concentration of atten- 
 tion. Whatever the explanation, however, there is no 
 doubt that the blackboard questions hold the attention 
 more adequately. 
 
THE TECHNIQUE OF CLASS INSTRUCTION 209 
 
 After the pupils have gained some skill in studying the text 
 Dy means of suggestive questions, they may be encouraged to 
 make out lists of questions which shall embody the salient 
 points of the text. This is an extremely serviceable device, 
 for it requires that the pupil study the text carefully in order 
 to make out intelhgent questions. Occasionally, a pupil hav- 
 ing a good hst may be permitted to " quiz " the class. 
 
 14. (2) Study Topics. Study questions will at first be 
 detailed and concrete; they will gradually become more 
 and more condensed and schematic as the pupil becomes 
 more and more familiar with their use, until finally they 
 develop into mere statements of the topics. If the pupils 
 are accustomed to the logical arrangement of questions, — 
 main questions, subordinate questions, etc., — the logical 
 arrangement of topics will not trouble them. Gradually, 
 also, they may be led to ''skeletonize" the lessons for 
 themselves, at first writing out the topics in logical order 
 and later gaining the ability to hold the topics in mind 
 as they proceed with their reading. When the pupils have 
 gained this ability, they have, of course, acquired the art 
 of study. Proceeding in this systematic way from de- 
 tailed and concrete questions to schematic questions, then 
 to topics, the pupil can hardly fail to acquire a standard 
 method of attacking the printed page. It has been the 
 writer's experience that, unless this matter is taken up 
 explicitly and systematically, the progress of pupils in 
 all text-book work will be slow and halting.^ 
 
 * ** There is a definite pedagogical problem in teaching to study . . . 
 but the problem is being largely neglected in current educational practice. 
 . . . Pupils should be taught to study from the time they enter the pri- 
 
2IO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 15. Written Work in the Study Period. As a general 
 rule, the work of the study period in text-book subjects 
 should be so organized as to demand a minimum of writ- 
 ten work from the pupil. The pupil should be encouraged 
 to get on without the aid of pen or pencil. This proposal 
 will seem quite out of harmony with existing practice, for 
 almost every study period in our pubhc schools is domi- 
 nated by the pencil and paper. The grievous error of this 
 practice lies in the inadequate writing habits that it in- 
 volves. It is generally agreed that our pupils do far too 
 much writing, and especially too much careless writing. 
 The result is that the formation of good habits in this 
 regard is almost an impossibiUty. The practice of hold- 
 ing the attention of the pupils by demanding writing is 
 also to be criticised because it fails to develop ideals of 
 silent study — concentration upon the "thought" of the 
 text, ability to hold in mind a long series of topics without 
 resorting to pen or pencil, ability to work without objec- 
 tive aids. 
 
 16. (c) The Recitation Lesson. The work of the reci- 
 tation should test both the efficiency of the study period 
 and the efficiency of the assignment. In order to be 
 maximally effective, it should be dominated by this funda- 
 mental precept : Hold the pupil rigidly responsible in the 
 recitation for whatever tasks were set for him in the assign- 
 
 mary, but more and more attention should be given to the matter as they 
 advance upward in the grades, and more attention should be given to it 
 in the high school and college. Here the 'how' to study becomes at 
 least of as much importance as the * what. ' " — W. C. Ruediger : " How 
 to Study," in Int^r-Mountain ^di^ator, 1906, vol. i, p. i6i. 
 
THE TECHNIQUE OF CLASS INSTRUCTION 211 
 
 ment. Unless this principle is adhered to strictly, the 
 most skillful assignments and the most artful devices for 
 the study period will be a waste of time and energy. 
 
 17. The recitation usually takes one or another of two 
 forms: (i) the quesHon-and-answer recitation; (2) the 
 topical recitation. The former is the simpler in that the 
 pupil is held responsible for separate facts, not for holding 
 in mind the relations that bind separate facts together. 
 All text-book recitations are necessarily of the question- 
 and-answer type at the outset, the questions asked being 
 detailed and concrete. As the pupil gains in proficiency, 
 however, the questions (which correspond closely to the 
 study questions discussed above) become more and more 
 comprehensive, demanding that the pupil hold in mind a 
 larger and larger number of facts, and express them in a 
 connected and coherent fashion. Finally the recitation 
 passes over to the topical form, in which the mere state- 
 ment of the topic by the teacher initiates a full and com- 
 plete discussion of that topic by the pupil. This type of 
 recitation can be required in all grades above the fifth 
 (and in some recitations in the earlier grades), provided 
 that the pupils have had an adequate training in the art 
 of study. 
 
 One of the tests of a teacher's efficiency in the upper grades 
 is the freedom of his recitation work from "pumping questions." 
 In many recitations one will hear a series of questions like 
 the following : Who discovered America ? When ? Of what 
 country was Columbus a native? What country aided him 
 in discovering America ? What difficulty did he have with his 
 
212 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 sailors? etc. Each of these questions can be answered either 
 by a single word or by a brief sentence. They require a mini- 
 mum of mental activity on the part of the pupils. If one hears 
 such questions as these in an eighth-grade class, one may safely 
 infer that the teacher is not thoroughly alive to the possibilities 
 of recitation work. It would be much better to ask a single 
 question like this: "Give a brief account of the discovery of 
 America." If pupils have, been inadequately trained, it may 
 be necessary to indicate in greater detail the points to be in- 
 cluded in the discussion: "Give a brief account of the dis- 
 covery of America, telling who made the discovery, the country 
 of which this man was a native, the country that sent him out, 
 and the troubles that he encountered." The pupil is then 
 required to hold the various points in mind, and to express 
 himself coherently. 
 
 1 8. In order to secure the attention of all pupils to every 
 topic it is well to observe some simple rules regarding the 
 conduct of the recitation : (i) State the topic or ask the 
 question first, then wait a short time before calling upon a 
 pupil to recite. (2) Avoid calling upon pupils in any 
 definite and uniform order; be sure that all pupils think 
 out an answer to every question or a statement for every 
 topic. (3) Occasionally interrupt a pupil before he has 
 completed a recitation and ask another to continue the 
 discussion from that point. (4) Encourage by some form 
 of commendation all exceptionally good efforts on the 
 part of pupils to make complete and coherent statements ; 
 discourage in some effective manner all "scamped" or 
 inadequate work. (5) Do not help pupils in the recita- 
 tion ; if the entire class is obscure upon the point at issue, 
 
THE TECHNIQUE OF CLASS INSTRUCTION 213 
 
 reassign it with a more complete explanation, holding the 
 pupils responsible for its mastery at the next recitation; 
 if a single pupil is obscure upon any given point, do 
 not take class time to help him out; rather provide a 
 period when he can be given individual aid. 
 
 The last precept involves individual instruction, which will 
 be more fully discussed in the following chapter. It is sufficient 
 here to note that a great deal of time is wasted in recitations 
 by redeveloping some point or principle about which one pupil 
 is uncertain. The other pupils, understanding the principle, 
 have no incentive for following the discussion. The writer 
 has observed a recitation in which ten minutes were spent in 
 clearing up a point that one pupil and only one had failed to 
 grasp in the previous assignment. There were twenty pupils 
 in the class, not one of whom was attentive after the first few 
 minutes of the redevelopment. At least one hundred minutes 
 in the aggregate were thus wasted. The only way in which 
 to eliminate such waste is to provide some time for individual 
 work with backward pupils. 
 
 References. — B. A. Hinsdale: Art of Study, New York, 1900, 
 ch. x; Seeley: A New School Management, ch. xvi; Button : School 
 Management, chs. xi, xii, xiii ; C. De Garmo : Interest and Education, 
 New York, 1903, chs. xii, xiii; J. A. H. Keith: Elementary Edu- 
 cation, chs. viii, ix. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 The "Batavia System" of Class-individual 
 Instruction 
 
 I. The class system, which has come to dominate 
 formal education, possesses certain advantages over an in- 
 dividual system of instruction, (a) It is more economical 
 in its maintenance (and this is, of course, the chief reason 
 for its extensive use), (b) It involves in itself a certain 
 educative 'nfluence in that it teaches the subordination 
 of individual impulses to the welfare of the class as a 
 whole, (c) Its greatest advantage, however, lies in the 
 stimulus that is gained from competition, emulation, and 
 the group interests. 
 
 ' On the other hand, the class system involves some dis- 
 advantages that may, under some conditions, quite over- 
 balance its desirable qualities, (a) It may lose sight 
 entirely of indi\idual dififerences, becoming a "machine" 
 in the worst sense of the term, (b) It tends to impart 
 instruction with reference to an ideal "average child," who 
 may have no existence in reaHty. (c) It may involve con- 
 ditions that are injurious to the health of the weaker pupils 
 in the worry and overstrain that result from an attempt 
 to keep "up to grade." (d) It undoubtedly tends to dis- 
 courage a certain proportion of pupils and to keep them 
 from continuing with the work of the school. 
 
 214 
 
THE "BATAVIA system" 21$ 
 
 2. It is clear, therefore, that some form of compromise 
 between individual and class instruction is essential to the 
 best work of the school. Furthermore, it is clear that any 
 readjustment, to be practicable, must not be too radical. 
 The existing machinery of the educational system must 
 be employed, but some steps should be taken to render its 
 operation more efficient. A system of pure individual 
 instruction is obviously impracticable and is also to be 
 condemned because it would eliminate the stimulus that 
 comes with group activity. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to say that formal education began 
 with what we now call individual instruction. As late as 
 1843, according to Landon, there were still 5844 primary 
 schools in France organized in this way: "The master con- 
 ducted and taught the whole school himself, if of moderate 
 size, or a division where the school was too large for single 
 management. He remained at his desk, or rostrum, and 
 called up the pupils, one by one, to repeat the lesson learned, 
 or to receive any help or explanation needed. . . . The teach- 
 ing or questioning was directed to each pupil alone, the rest of 
 the children not participating in any way in the work. In 
 time a modification was introduced in most cases, a whole 
 class being called up and the pupils taken in turn. Even 
 here, however, there was no 'class teaching,' as we understand 
 the term." ^ 
 
 3. What is now known as the " Batavia system " of 
 *' class-individual" instruction is perhaps the most suc- 
 cessful method yet devised of effecting a compromise 
 between the individual and class methods. In essence, 
 
 * J. Landon: School Management, Boston, 1884, p. 119. 
 
2l6 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 this system aims to preserve the stimulus which comes 
 from group-instruction, and, at the same time, to provide 
 explicitly and systematically for whatever extra instruction 
 the weaker members of the class may need to keep them 
 abreast of the brighter members. 
 
 The Batavia system owes its origin to John Kennedy, super- 
 intendent of the public schools of Batavia, a small city in western 
 New York. The " discovery " of the system was in one sense 
 the result of an accident. The older school buildings of 
 Batavia were constructed with classrooms capable of seating 
 from sixty to seventy pupils. In 1898 it was thought necessary 
 to employ an additional teacher in order to accommodate an 
 increase in the number of pupils. The rooms, however, were 
 aU occupied, and it did not seem advisable at the time to con- 
 struct a new building. Mr. Kennedy proposed placing the 
 additional teacher in one of the larger classrooms, and then 
 filling this classroom to the limit of its seating capacity. He 
 suggested that one of the teachers could take charge of the 
 class work, while the other could look after the needs of indi- 
 vidual pupils. The suggestion was adopted as an experiment. 
 The results were so unexpectedly good, that other large class- 
 rooms were supplied with two teachers under the same divi- 
 sion of labor. A marked improvement was noted in all of 
 these cases, and soon the system of "class-individual" instruc- 
 tion was made general throughout the city. 
 
 4. The virtues of the Batavia system may be summarized 
 as follows: (i) It makes individual instruction a definite 
 part of the regular school work. In nearly every school 
 individual instruction finds a place, but not a definite 
 place; the teacher attempts to "work up" the weaker 
 pupils after school, or at such moments as he may snatch 
 
THE "BATAVIA system" 21 7 
 
 during the regular school session. The Batavia system 
 makes individual instruction coordinate in importance 
 with class instruction, assigning it a definite place upon 
 the daily program, and subjecting it to a systematic and 
 orderly treatment. 
 
 (2) The Batavia system provides that individual instruc- 
 tion shall be given by teachers who are just as competent 
 as those giving class instruction. In other words, the work 
 of individual instruction is not given over to novices or 
 apprentices. It is not intrusted to pupil-teachers or 
 monitors as in the case of the Bell-Lancaster system, which 
 had so wide a vogue in England a century ago. 
 
 (3) The Batavia system requires the development of a 
 technique of individual instruction which differs in many 
 respects from the technique of class instruction, and 
 which is absolutely necessary to the success of the system. 
 This special technique is governed by two general prin- 
 ciples: (a) The initiative in individual instruction must 
 always be taken by the teacher; that is, the pupil is not 
 permitted to ask for aid, but the teacher must discover 
 his weakness and proffer aid. (b) All individual instruc- 
 tion must be given by the development method; that is, 
 a weak pupil is strengthened by helping him to help him- 
 self ; direct instruction is forbidden. 
 
 5. These principles are intended to safeguard individual 
 instruction against the danger by which it is very obviously 
 menaced; namely, that the weaker pupils will be still 
 further weakened by a "coaching" process that does 
 nothing whatsoever for their real education. The Batavia 
 
2l8 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 system without the check of some such principles as these 
 would be apt to degenerate into a most pernicious form of 
 "soft pedagogy." In the Batavia schools this tendency 
 is still further checked by a rigid examination system. 
 Tests are prepared by the superintendent at the close of 
 each term, and all promotions are made upon the basis of 
 these tests. This examination system operates through all 
 the grades. It should also be remarked that the *'form" 
 work is strongly emphasized in the Batavia schools; 
 reading, spelling, arithmetic, and formal language work 
 are all undertaken very strenuously and with noticeably 
 good results. This pohcy would also tend to check any 
 weakening or "softening" influences that may be inherent 
 in individual instruction. 
 
 6. The main argument in favor of the system, however, 
 lies in the fact that it actually accomphshes (in the Batavia 
 schools, at least) that which it sets out to accompHsh. The 
 "backward pupil" is ehminated, not by casting him out of 
 school, but by developing him up to the level of the brighter 
 pupils. Some good results may be found in almost every 
 school, but in the Batavia schools the results are uniformly 
 good with all pupils. Every pupil, so far as the visitor 
 can learn, is either "up to grade" or practically so, for 
 the moment that he begins to lose ground, the individual 
 recitation period brings him up. At the present time, 
 even under the rigid system of final examinations, there 
 are practically no failures in promotion. Superintendent 
 Kennedy also asserts that a large number of pupils are 
 able to do two years' work in one, and that, in at least two 
 
THE "BATAVIA SYSTEM" 219 
 
 instances, an entire class has done the work of the 
 seventh and eighth grades in a single year. 
 
 Other evidences of the success of the system are the high 
 per cent of attendance, the large number of pupils who 
 remain in school through the full course, the large pro- 
 portion of boys in the high school (over fifty per cent), and 
 the freedom of the pupils and teachers from nervous dis- 
 orders — a condition that is attributed to the fact that the 
 system largely ehminates the "worry" that is so often 
 involved in the common system. 
 
 7. Applicability oj the Batavia System. To apply the 
 Batavia system to the work of any school, it is necessary to 
 take but two steps: (i) provide definite periods for indi- 
 vidual instruction; (2) impart individual instruction ac- 
 cording to the principles named above. On the! surface, 
 the first condition may perhaps seem the more difficult of 
 fulfillment ; as a matter of fact, it is by far the simpler of 
 the two. Contrary to general behef, the Batavia system 
 does not demand the presence of two teachers in every 
 classroom. The general method can be applied in one- 
 teacher rooms, and is so appUed in more than half of the 
 Batavia classrooms. 
 
 The apphcation of the system to one-teacher rooms is 
 made possible by what may be termed a "doubly-alter- 
 nating" program. For example, if the regular program 
 provides for five recitation periods each week in geography, 
 each alternate recitation period is given over to the indi- 
 vidual instruction of the weaker members of the class. K 
 the recitation period to-day is given over to class work, thq 
 
220 
 
 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 recitation period to-morrow will be given over to indi- 
 vidual instruction ; the pupils requiring individual instruc- 
 tion are called to the teacher's desk one at a time, the other 
 pupils meanwhile working independently at their seats as 
 they would during the study period. 
 
 The double alternation is provided in this way: if the 
 geography recitation period of to-day is given over to 
 individual work, the following recitation period of to-day, 
 say in arithmetic, will be given over to class work; that 
 is, under normal conditions, there will not be two indi- 
 vidual periods in immediate succession. 
 
 The illustrative program given on page 63 may be arranged 
 for individual work as follows. (The morning periods alone 
 are given here.) 
 
 Period 
 
 Dura- 
 tion 
 
 "A" Class 
 
 "B" Class 
 
 9:00- 9: 10 
 
 10 
 
 Opening exercises 
 
 Opening exercises 
 
 9: 10- 9: 20 
 
 10 
 
 S. spelling 
 
 S. spelling 
 
 9:20- 9:30 
 
 10 
 
 R. spelling (indiv.) 
 
 R. speUing (indiv.) 
 
 9:30- 9:55 
 
 25 
 
 R. reading (class) 
 
 S. arithmetic 
 
 9:55-10:15 
 
 20 
 
 S. arithmetic 
 
 R. arithmetic (class) 
 
 10: 15-10:30 
 
 IS 
 
 Writing 
 
 Writing 
 
 10:30-10:45 
 
 IS 
 
 Recess 
 
 Recess 
 
 10: 45-11: 10 
 
 25 
 
 R. arithmetic (indiv.) 
 
 S. reading 
 
 11: lo-ii: 30 
 
 20 
 
 S. geography 
 
 R. reading (indiv.) 
 
 11: 30-11: 50 
 
 20 
 
 R. geography (class) 
 
 S. geography 
 
 11: 50-12: 00 
 
 10 
 
 Physical culture 
 
 Physical culture 
 
 "Indiv.," individual recitation; "class," class recitation; "S," study 
 period; "R," recitation period. 
 
THE "BATAVIA SYSTEM" 221 
 
 On the following day the subjects designated as individual 
 recitation periods in the above program will be devoted to class 
 recitations, and vice versa. 
 
 Under this plan of double alternation the system may 
 be applied to the work of any classroom, irrespective of 
 the number of classes in the room or of the number of 
 recitation periods of the day. Thus it is just as appli- 
 cable to the ungraded rural school as to the graded city 
 school. 
 
 It would, of course, be possible to introduce other forms of 
 alternation; thus every third recitation period may be given 
 over to individual work, or every fifth period. As long as a 
 definite school period is explicitly assigned for individual work, 
 the essential condition of the Batavia system has been fulfilled. 
 The results in Batavia would seem to indicate, however, that 
 the best results are obtained where the recitation periods are 
 equally divided between class and individual recitations. 
 
 8. One of the most serious drawbacks to the application 
 of the system in one-teacher classrooms is the difficulty of 
 supplying independent work for the pupils who are not 
 undergoing individual instruction. It will be noted that 
 the difficulties of the study period (already serious enough) 
 are greatly augmented by this system. The need, there- 
 fore, of careful assignments of seat work for the majority 
 of the class is paramount, and for this reason a well- 
 developed technique of class instruction, especially with 
 reference to the assignment, is obviously of great impor- 
 tance in the appUcation of the Batavia system. Care 
 must also be taken not to overemphasize written work, 
 
222 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 which will be the line of least resistance in supplying 
 independent tasks. 
 
 The following suggestions have been made by Superintendent 
 Kennedy * as possible guides for teachers who introduce his 
 system into their schools : — 
 
 "(i) Do not give individual instruction on forthcoming 
 lessons. Train the children to be self-reliant lesson getters. 
 
 " (2) Do not tell the child anything, but see that he knows 
 it. . . . The danger of individual teaching is that it may be 
 treated as a labor-saving device. 
 
 "(3) Do not do anything for the child but see that he does 
 it. Individual teaching is not to level mountains. It is to 
 make brave and capable mountain climbers. Correct indi- 
 vidual teaching treats the difficulty (or mountain) as an educa- 
 tional opportunity." 
 
 These restrictions should be understood as applying solely 
 to individual instruction, and stand as safeguards against the 
 dangers of such instruction. They should not be interpreted 
 to mean that the teacher is to do no direct teaching, but rather 
 that this would best be confined to class work. The danger in 
 individual instruction is to give too much help; the danger 
 in class instruction is to give too little — especially in the 
 assignment of independent work. 
 
 The following suggestions are taken from a circular issued 
 by a Minnesota superintendent who recently introduced the 
 Batavia system into his schools : — 
 
 "Keep the guiding aims steadily in view. 
 
 **See that assignments of work for the class in the individual 
 period are clear and definite. Assignments of work should 
 always provide for methods of work as well as amount. 
 
 "Use the individual period to give the pupil a grasp of prin- 
 ciples, not to aid him in getting his next lesson. 
 
 * J. Kennedy, in Educational Work, 1906, vol. ii, p. 49. 
 
THE "BAT A VI A SYSTEM ' 223 
 
 **Make notes in the recitation period, and, at other times, of 
 help needed. Make notes at other times as to help given and 
 pupils' characteristics. 
 
 "Use the individual instruction period to bring into line 
 pupils who have been absent. 
 
 "Do not hurry in attempting to help too many pupils in one 
 period. 
 
 "Make the plan for yourself a means of growth in power 
 and not merely the adoption of a device." * 
 
 9. It may be concluded that, while the Batavia system 
 is still in the experimental stage, it promises to effect a suc- 
 cessful compromise between class and individual instruc- 
 tion, preserving the valuable features of each and elimi- 
 nating some of the disadvantages of both. It must, 
 however, be applied with a full recognition of its pitfalls. 
 It requires teachers of skill and scholarship for its effec- 
 tive application. It demands the elaboration of a special 
 technique of individual instruction, and requires that this 
 be combined with an equally effective and specialized 
 technique of class instruction. It may eliminate some of 
 the worry incidental to the class system, but it must not 
 be looked upon as a "royal road to learning," nor must 
 it be thought of as eliminating in any degree the struggle 
 and effort that are always essential to mental growth. Its 
 value will be greatest in those schools that are domi- 
 nated by high ideals of scholarship ; and least in schools 
 that are already committed to " soft pedagogy." 
 
 * S. Smyser: " Batavia Plan Circular," reprinted in Educational Workf 
 1906, vol. ii, p. 60. 
 
224 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 References. — Landon: School Management, -pp. iiy-i6s', But- 
 ton : School Management, ch. vi ; Thomdike : Principles of Teaching) 
 ch. vi ; P. W. Search : The Ideal School, New York, 1905, chs. i, iii, vii ; 
 J. Kennedy: "The Need of Individual Instruction," in Addresses 
 and Proceedings, National Educational Association, 1901, pp. 295- 
 300, with discussions of Mr. Kennedy's paper by J. F. Millspaugh, 
 G. Stanley Hall, A. K. Whitcomb, Delos Fall, T. M. Balliet, and 
 J. Kennedy, pp. 301-303; Ediicational Work, a monthly journal 
 devoted to the Batavia system, edited by W. H. Holmes, Jr., and 
 published at Worcester, Mass. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 Testing Results 
 
 I. The ultimate test of the efficiency of effort is the 
 result of effort. Unhappily this test is seldom appHed to 
 the work of teaching. We judge the teacher by the 
 process rather than by the product, and we introduce a 
 number of extraneous criteria to hide the absence of a 
 real criterion. We watch the way in which he conducts 
 a recitation, note how many sHps he makes in his diction 
 and syntax, inspect his personal appearance, ask of what 
 school he is a graduate and how many degrees he pos- 
 sesses, inquire into his moral character, determine his 
 church membership, and judge him to be a good or a poor 
 teacher according to our findings. All of these queries 
 may have their place in the estimation of any teacher's 
 worth, but they do not strike the most salient, the most 
 vital, point at issue. That point is simply this: does he 
 "make good" in results? Does he do the thing that he 
 sets out to do, and does he do it well ? 
 
 It will be objected that this is an impossible criterion, — 
 that the influences of the teacher's work can be determined 
 only after his pupils have attained maturity and have 
 demonstrated their fitness or unfitness for the duties of 
 life; and at that time who can lay the responsibihty of 
 failure to your door or mine ? Or perhaps it will be urged 
 Q 325 
 
226 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 that the real results of teaching are too complex and in- 
 tangible ever to be weighed or measured by any method 
 that finite mind can devise. Both of these objections must, 
 in some measure, be sustained, and yet the situation is not 
 nearly so hopeless as either statement would make it appear. 
 
 2. Taking either social eflBciency or "moral character" 
 as the ultimate end of education (and, from the practical 
 standpoint, the two may be considered as synonymous), 
 it is clear that the product of the school must fulfill some 
 fairly definite and tangible conditions if his education is 
 to be adjudged successful. 
 
 (a) In the first place, he must possess a certain capital 
 of habit — or, better, he must possess a certain number 
 of habits. These are essential to all who are to live a so- 
 cial life among other civiHzed men and women. There is 
 nothing indefinite or intangible about this requirement. 
 The necessary habits can be labeled and enumerated, and 
 their formation during childhood can be prosecuted sys- 
 tematically and in graded steps, so that, at the end of each 
 year, each month, each week, even, the teacher may test 
 with reasonable accuracy his work in this respect. 
 
 3. (6) In the second place, the product of the school 
 must possess a certain capital of knowledge, — a basis 
 in facts and principles for the judgments that will be 
 necessary in the meeting and solving of the problems of 
 civiHzed Hfe. Of what facts and principles this knowl- 
 edge should best consist, educators are. not in entire agree- 
 ment. But this disagreement does not prevent whatever 
 teaching may be devoted to the impressing of facts and 
 
TESTING RESULTS 227 
 
 principles from being tested with a fair degree of accuracy, 
 for in this field, too, the various items can be enumerated 
 and labeled, and presented systematically and in graded 
 steps. The pupil may be examined from week to week, 
 or from month to month, or from year to year, in respect 
 of his growth and degree of attainment. The difficulties 
 are more numerous than in the case of habit, but they are 
 not insurmountable; for, while the situation is intricate 
 and involved, it permits of analysis and so makes possible 
 a systematic attack. 
 
 4. (c) Finally, every individual who comes out of the 
 school must possess a certain capital of ideals — certain 
 standards and criteria which are sufficiently colored with 
 emotion to make them directive over his conduct. It is 
 in attempting to meet this requirement that the actual 
 results of teaching are apt to be so intangible and difficult 
 of evaluation. And yet here one can at least label and 
 enumerate the desired quahties. One may safely say, 
 for example, that the pupil must be inspired with ideals of 
 industry, accuracy, carefulness, steadfastness, patriotism, 
 culture, cleanliness, truth, self-sacrifice, social service, and 
 personal honor. It is true that one cannot tell in any 
 specific case whether all or any of these ideals have been 
 effectively implanted ; a youth may give every evidence of 
 being imbued with them, and still prove himself unfaithful 
 in the ultimate test. 
 
 And yet, although the situation here is much more com- 
 plex and involved than in the two preceding instances, it 
 is still far from hopeless. We may be tolerably certain of 
 
228 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 this, at least : the great ideals have their origin in specific 
 habits, and habits can be rigidly tested. Farther than 
 this, perhaps, we may not go, except to do all in our power 
 to generahze the specific habits on the basis of ideals 
 through whatever means may be at our command, — 
 literature, history, art, biography, objective example. 
 But the necessary basis of habit is under our control, and 
 without that all else will be but little more than senti- 
 mental froth. 
 
 The common acceptance of "moral character" as the aim 
 of education has this defect: it is so large a conception that 
 those who propose it as the aim of education are apt to become 
 confused in determining the means that will work best toward 
 its attainment. And yet moral character certainly presupposes 
 as its basis a multitude of effective specific habits. To para- 
 phrase an ancient proverb one may safely say, "Take care of 
 the habits, and moral character will take care of itself." This 
 is not quite true, of course, for the factor of ideals must be 
 reckoned with; but it is at least as true as the proverb which 
 it paraphrases — and that is saying a great deal. But again, one 
 must guard against the danger of using the term "habit" in 
 too general a fashion. Character or social efficiency does not 
 rest upon habit in general nor upon generalized habit; it 
 rests upon a vast number of little, specific habits: the habit 
 of saying "four" when the formula "two times two " is given; 
 the habit of saying "I shall" when simple futurity is to be 
 implied; the habit of bathing at regular intervals ; of brushing 
 one's teeth; of blackening one's shoes; of speaking distinctly; 
 of speaking in a pleasant tone; of speaking courteously; of 
 not speaking at all when others are speaking ; of moving grace- 
 fully; of remaining motionless under certain conditions; of 
 writing legibly; of taking off one's hat to one's elders and to 
 
TESTING RESULTS 229 
 
 ladies; of giving precedence to women when passing through 
 a doorway; of standing erect and looking one's interlocutor in 
 the eye; of working steadfastly at this task or that until it is 
 completed; of breathing properly; of repressing the impulse 
 to yawn, the impulse to strike, and a hundred other impulses 
 that nature never intended to be repressed, and yet the habitual 
 repression of which is essential to civilized life. One could 
 perhaps be "moral" if some of these habits were lacking; 
 we know that one could not be socially efficient, and we doubt 
 whether one could be moral if all of these habits had failed of 
 development. 
 
 5. It may be concluded, therefore, that, in habit-build- 
 ing and in the imparting of knowledge, the efficiency of 
 teaching can be accurately and adequately tested at stated 
 intervals by any teacher. And it may further be concluded 
 that, since ideals must operate on a basis of habit, even this 
 phase of the educative process is not to be altogether ex- 
 cluded from the sphere of the educational measuring rod. 
 It now remains to state explicitly how these tests may be 
 made and what standards the teacher shall employ in any 
 given case. 
 
 6. Testing the Efficiency of Habit-building, (a) Purely 
 Physical Habits. The prime essential in testing the 
 growth of any specific habit is to preserve some record 
 of results at different stages. This is sometimes easily 
 accomplished, particularly in cases where growth in power 
 of written expression is concerned. It is more difficult 
 in cases where the teacher must trust to mental images of 
 former conditions. For example, in making correct pos- 
 ture either in sitting or standing a matter of habit, it is 
 
230 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 often impossible to determine how much gain has been 
 made, owing to the fact that the older conditions are not 
 present and cannot be recalled with sufficient vividness 
 to serve the purposes of comparison. 
 
 In a case of this sort, it is well for the teacher to supply 
 himself with diagrams showing the proper position, and 
 especially with photographs of classrooms where the pupils 
 are sitting properly. These will furnish definite standards 
 or ideals toward which effort may be directed. For one 
 who visualizes freely, nothing is better than to inspect 
 some school that is noted for its excellence in this particular. 
 
 The efficiency of habit-building, however, is not alto- 
 gether dependent upon the existence of these standards 
 or ideals. One must be certain that one's pupils are 
 progressing toward the desired end. If the teacher has 
 the standard well in mind, he will correct the pupils who 
 assume inadequate positions. But if habit-building is to 
 be effective, it is manifest that these corrections must 
 become fewer and fewer in number as practice continues. 
 It is well, therefore, to keep a simple record of the number 
 of pupils that need correction each day, and of the number 
 of times each day that any particular pupil requires cor- 
 rection. This record need not involve any very elaborate 
 bookkeeping. A check mark may be made on a pad 
 whenever a correction is made, and the names of the more 
 troublesome cases can also be written upon this pad and 
 checked against. This plan is effective in that it keeps 
 the teacher informed as to the efficiency of his efforts. If 
 the habits are not being formed, — if corrections seemingly 
 
TESTING RESULTS 23 1 
 
 have no effect, — it is obvious that other methods must be 
 employed. 
 
 The beginning teacher is apt, at the outset, to consider the 
 habits of the pupils as very inadequate and to criticise the 
 preceding teacher for leaving pupils in this condition. Later 
 in the term, the habits seem very much more commendable, 
 and the teacher congratulates himself on the resuhs. Very 
 frequently both judgments are unjust and inconsistent with 
 the real facts. As the teacher comes to feel more and more 
 that he is responsible for existing conditions, he tends unwit- 
 tingly to emphasize the good points and to overlook those that 
 are not so good. It is also true that pupils seldom do their best 
 under a strange'jteacher. A certain degree of acquaintance must 
 be gained before they can come up to their former standards. 
 
 7. In improving line-movement and similar mechanics 
 of the classroom, standards are best gained by visiting 
 schools that are especially good in this particular. In 
 almost every city system there are one or two schools 
 that enjoy a local reputation for good "mechanics.*' It 
 is manifestly impossible to reduce such standards to the 
 form of pictures or diagrams. While the routine is in 
 process of crystallization, the teacher should reflect every 
 day upon the degree of progress that has been made. If 
 individual pupils are admonished for failure to do their 
 part in preserving Une-formation, some record should be 
 made of the cases, and repetitions of such delinquencies 
 should cause the teacher to look carefully into his methods. 
 Where Une-movements are a constant source of worry to 
 the teacher, month in and month out, something is radically 
 wrong with the process. 
 
232 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 8. (b) Written Work. To secure good written work, -^ 
 neat, legible, well arranged, — both on paper and at the 
 blackboard, should be one of the earhest endeavors of the 
 beginning teacher. Again the first requisite is an adequate 
 standard for testing results. The visitation of schools where 
 good written work is done will generally furnish one with 
 these in abundance; the aim should be, however, either 
 to secure papers that represent ^' first drafts" of the pupils* 
 work or to have rewritten and corrected papers distinctly 
 marked, so that one will not confuse them with "first 
 drafts." In testing the eflficiency of habit-building in this 
 particular, it is the abihty of the pupil to produce a credit- 
 able paper on the first writing that is important. Almost 
 every pupil can obtain good results if given time enough 
 and permitted to concentrate his attention upon form ; but 
 the very thing that we wish to develop is the capacity to 
 do neat, legible, and well-arranged work quickly and while 
 the attention is concentrated upon content. This is pos- 
 sible, however, only through formal exercises in which 
 attention to formal matters is the main consideration, but 
 the results of such drill should always be tested by refer- 
 ence to work in which the pupil uses the form as a means 
 to an end. 
 
 This is a matter of extreme importance in the elementary 
 school. If one attempts to cultivate habits of neatness, legi- 
 bility, and good order in arithmetic or language work, one 
 will always notice this phenomenon : after a certain degree of 
 excellence has been attained through exercises that are more 
 or less formal (that is, through exercises in which the content 
 
TESTING RESULTS 233 
 
 is SO familiar that the pupil may freely concentrate upon the 
 form) there will be a falling off in formal excellence whenever 
 a new subject is taken up requiring attention to content. For 
 example, third -grade pupils are cautioned to "take pains" 
 with their papers in arithmetic. As long as the problems are 
 those with which they are familiar, a noticeable improvement 
 will be made in form; the moment a new and difficult prin- 
 ciple is introduced, however, the form immediately "falls oflf," 
 but under the stimulus of the teacher's cautions it "picks up" 
 as the pupil gains greater and greater proficiency in the new 
 process. The explanation is probably to be sought in the 
 psychology of attention. Attention cannot be concentrated 
 upon two dissimilar things or processes or adjustments at the 
 same time; attention to one thing always involves inattention 
 to others. 
 
 This is not to imply, however, that the formal drills have 
 been unavailing. The important point is this: the teacher 
 should assure himself that each new setback still represents an 
 advance over the last setback. When the pupils take up long 
 division, for example, the papers for some little time may be 
 poorer in appearance than they were just before long division 
 was introduced; but they should be better than the papers 
 immediately following the introduction of the last new princi- 
 ple, although these in turn were of lower standard than those 
 immediately preceding the introduction of the principle.^ 
 
 9. To test the results of habit-building in written work, 
 therefore, it is well to keep complete sets of papers in all 
 subjects and to compare these frequently in order to assure 
 
 * This is one of the most interesting principles that the concrete study 
 of school work reveals. The writer has found the phenomenon so con- 
 stant in its appearance under the conditions mentioned that he would 
 respectfully suggest the general field as one that would amply repay 
 scientific investigation by the expert educational psychologist. 
 
234 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 one's self that progress is being made. The most con- 
 venient plan is to arrange each pupil's work in bundles, 
 beginning with the earhest efforts. As each new paper 
 is added to the bundle, it can be carefully compared with 
 those preceding, and the advance noted. When new 
 content is introduced, the paper immediately following 
 the last introduction of new content should be compared 
 with it. The advance each day will, of course, be gradual 
 — often quite unnoticeable — consequently it is well 
 occasionally to take papers that are a month or two 
 months apart, where the advancement will be more accu- 
 rately measurable.^ If no advancement can be detected, 
 or if there is a positive retrogression, the case is one 
 that calls for an immediate and drastic change of method. 
 
 Professor Kirkpatrick has voiced the same caution in the 
 following words: *'In directing the formation of habits in 
 which improvement with practice is desired, as in learning to 
 write and draw, the teacher should be satisfied with the work 
 as long as it shows improvement, but should be very careful 
 when improvement stops, because one of two undesirable 
 results is likely to appear: either the habit with its imperfect 
 execution becomes fixed by repetition, so that after a time it is 
 almost impossible to change it; or else, when the volitional 
 effort to do good work decreases, the execution begins to revert 
 back to a less developed stage at which it may then become 
 fixed.'* 2 
 
 * Sets of such papers would form excellent exhibits for educational 
 meetings, expositions, etc. As indices of actual school work, they would 
 be far more valuable than the laboriously rewritten and shamelessly 
 "cooked" results that commonly make up such exhibits. 
 
 2 E. A. Kirkpatrick; Fundamentals of Child Study, pp. 351 f. 
 
TESTING RESULTS' 235 
 
 10. Blackboard Work. Progress in adequate habits of 
 blackboard work is rather more dilG&cult to measure, owing 
 to the impracticabihty of keeping former results for com- 
 parison. Standards and ideals can, however, be gained 
 from inspection of good schools, and records can be kept 
 of the corrections that are necessary. An important ele- 
 ment in securing good blackboard results is to discourage 
 the frequent use of the eraser. It is safe to lay down a 
 general rule that the eraser should not be used except to 
 clean the board at the conclusion of the exercise. 
 
 11. {c) Habits 0} Speech. In testing habit-building 
 in oral expression it is again difficult to make accurate 
 measurements of progress. The best plan is to take up 
 one point at a time, beginning, say, with clear enunciation 
 and good articulation. If corrections for lapses in these 
 particulars do not decrease daily, the method employed is 
 obviously inejffective. With mispronunciations and errors 
 in construction, a more accurate record can be made of the 
 progress. If one error is attacked at a time, pupils who 
 need constant correction can be noted and perhaps sub- 
 jected to individual instruction. In any case, these 
 specific habits should be taken up systematically and 
 drilled upon until perfect automatism results. A good 
 course of study usually enumerates the common errors 
 in speech that are to be replaced each term with effective 
 habits.* The classroom teacher should arrange these in a 
 definite order, so that he will know what to concentrate 
 
 »The Illinois "Course of Study" and the Montana "Course of 
 Study " are especially helpful in this respect. 
 
236 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 upon each week. He should, of course, supplement the list 
 from errors that he observes in the course of class work. 
 Again it is not sufficient that the pupil know the error and 
 the proper form ; too many teachers believe that efficiency 
 in these matters can be adequately tested by a formal ex- 
 amination in language. The test, of course, is the habitual 
 use of the proper form ; that is, its use on occasions when 
 one does not explicitly think about it. The only test here 
 is a diminishing number of corrections in the daily expres- 
 sion of the pupils. "I knew, but I didn't think" is one 
 of the many inadequate but commonly accepted excuses 
 which make scamped work the rule instead of the excep- 
 tion in our schools. It simply means that correct expres- 
 sion has not been reduced to the plane of automatism, and 
 this means that the work of habit-building has not been 
 effective. 
 
 12. {d) Testing Habit-building in Arithmetic, (i) Ac- 
 curacy. In making number facts automatic, it is neces- 
 sary rigidly to test the results at very frequent intervals 
 if wasteful processes are to be eliminated. Several 
 methods of testing are available. The best criterion is 
 probably the number of mistakes in the written problems 
 of the pupils. In applying this test, it is necessary to 
 preserve the arithmetic papers and to note the frequency 
 with which the same combination is erroneously stated in 
 the papers of each pupil. The total number of mechanical 
 errors made by the entire class should also show a uniform 
 decrease as the work progresses. It is probable that the 
 number of mechanical errors will sHghtly increase immedi- 
 
TESTING RESULTS 237 
 
 ately after the introduction of new principles, for the same 
 reason that the form receives a setback at such times; 
 but these temporary increases should become less and less 
 noticeable as the child matures. 
 
 Another method can be appUed by noting "^he proportion 
 of pupils who make no errors in a single exercise. This 
 number should show a gradual and imiform increase. In 
 the oral work (the rapid "mental" solution of both abstract 
 and concrete problems) the number of pupils giving in- 
 correct answers should become smaller and smaller; it 
 is a good plan to keep brief records with regard to these 
 points. 
 
 13. (2) Rapidity, Efficient number habits must in- 
 volve rapidity of combination as well as accuracy, although 
 the latter factor is, obviously, of greater importance. After 
 the combinations in any series (multiplication table of 
 threes, for example) have been mastered accurately, — 
 when 7 times 3 are 21 in the reaction of every pupil with- 
 out any doubt, or any temptation on the pupil's part to 
 say 22 or 24 or any other number save 21, — drill should 
 be initiated for increasing the rapidity of the reaction. One 
 very good device for this purpose is to have the table placed 
 upon the blackboard by each pupil in the regular order : — 
 
 1X3 = 3 
 2X3 = 6 
 
 3 X3 = 9 
 
 4 X 3 = 12, etc. 
 
 With watch in hand, the teacher "times" the pupils in 
 this exercise, encouraging competition in rapidity, but 
 
238 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 counteracting the inevitable tendencies toward inaccurate 
 results and the careless writing of figures. After writing 
 the table in the regular series, the pupils may be directed 
 to erase the third column (the "answers") and to rewrite, 
 beginning at the bottom. Again the teacher "times" the 
 exercise. The pupils may then be directed to erase the 
 figures in the first and third columns (the multipliers and 
 the answers), the teacher later dictating multipUers in an 
 irregular order, and requiring the third column to be filled 
 from the top downward. This will check the tendency 
 of the pupil always to refer back to the regular series 
 in order to get any desired combination. In testing the 
 efficiency of this drill, the records of the time consumed 
 in each exercise should be preserved. The time should, 
 of course, diminish with practice, otherwise the drill is 
 ineffective. 
 
 14. (e) Spelling, The general inadequacy of the 
 methods of teaching spelling as commonly applied in 
 the schools has been adequately demonstrated by Corn- 
 man ^ in a very notable series of experiments. Dr. 
 Comman came to the conclusion that the "amount 
 of time devoted to the specific spelling drill bears no 
 discoverable relation to the result, the latter remaining 
 practically constant after the elimination of the spelling 
 drill from the school program." This simply means 
 that, in Dr. Commands tests, it was foimd that formal 
 
 * O. p. Comman: "Spelling in the Elementary School," in Experi- 
 mental Studies in Psychology and Pedagogy (University of Pennsylvania), 
 1902, vol. i. Cf. Thorndike: Principles of Teaching, pp. 268-273. 
 
TESTING RESULTS 239 
 
 and separate exercises in spelling had no appreciable 
 result. The investigator in question argues from this 
 fact that spelUng drills should be eliminated and that the 
 mastery of spelling should be accomplished in connec- 
 tion with the other school exercises. It should be stated, 
 however, that he does not indorse the "incidental" teach- 
 ing of spelling in the usual sense of the term. That is, 
 he^ would require the pupils to focalize the form of words, 
 and he would provide exphcitly for such focaUzation, but 
 he would not devote a specific school exercise to this task. 
 One may venture the opinion, however, that the meager 
 results of the spelUng exercises are due, not to the fact that 
 spelling is given a specific place in the school program as 
 Dr. Comman imphes, but to inadequate methods of teach- 
 ing spelling during that exercise. As a matter of fact, in 
 no school exercise is the inadequate comprehension on the 
 part of teachers of the simple principles of educational 
 psychology more clearly to be seen. The average spell- 
 ing lesson is ineffective because the average teacher fails 
 to understand the impHcations of the law of habit-build- 
 ing. Words to be spelled effectively must be spelled 
 automatically, — that is, without "thinking" of the form 
 of the word. To gain this end, however, the form must 
 first be focahzed and then the appropriate adjustments 
 must be repeated attentively until automatism results. 
 The average spelHng lesson involves a certain amount of 
 concentration upon the form, it also involves one or two 
 repetitions. At this point, ordinarily, the whole matter 
 ends. Very naturally the next time that the pupil meets 
 
240 CXASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 the word in the course of written composition, where he 
 is concentrating upon the content rather than the form, he 
 misspells the word. 
 
 15. The remedy for this condition lies in an adequate 
 apphcation of the law of habit-building. The initial 
 focaHzation must be undertaken more carefully and the 
 repetitions must be more numerous and must involve more 
 explicit attention. It is insuflScient to have misspelled 
 words rewritten five or ten or even one hundred times, 
 unless one can assure one's self that the repetition thus 
 involved is conscious and focal. Words that are mis- 
 spelled should be drilled upon, day after day, week after 
 week, if necessary, until perfect automatism results. What 
 is the test of effective teaching of spelHng ? Nothing more 
 nor less than the infrequency with which misspelled words 
 appear in composition work or other exercises where the 
 pupil concentrates upon content. If improvement is shown 
 in this respect, the teaching of spelling is obviously effec- 
 tive. If improvement is not shovm, the teaching is in- 
 effective. The composition papers should be kept and 
 carefully studied with this end in view. The number of 
 misspelled words in each one hundred should be carefully 
 computed, and these computations should form the basis 
 for judging the efl5ciency of the formal spelling lessons. 
 Needless to say, these formal lessons should include the 
 words that the pupils use in their expressive work, and 
 especially the words that are difficult should be repeated 
 from day to day in the spelhng lesson, until absolutely 
 no mistakes occur in the written work. 
 
TESTING RESULTS 
 
 241 
 
 As an example of this method of measuring the results of in- 
 struction in spelling, the following test may be instanced. Prior 
 to November 19, 1906, a ten-minute period was devoted to 
 formal spelling in the Training Department of the Oswego 
 Normal School. Since that time, the length of the speUing 
 period has been doubled, and a specific time has been desig- 
 nated for the assignment of the spelling lesson, applying the 
 method of assignment indicated in Chapter XIII. The papers 
 that the pupils produced in their " story " work in the lower 
 grades and in history in the upper grades were used as a basis 
 of the test. The per cent of correctly spelled words in the 
 papers of November 19th was computed and compared with 
 the per cent of correctly spelled words in the papers of January 
 4th, 1907. The following table shows the gain made in each 
 
 Grade 
 
 Correctly spelled, 
 Nov. 19 
 
 Correctly spelled, 
 Jan. 4 
 
 Gain 
 
 IV "B" 
 
 87 
 
 per cent 
 
 98 
 
 per cent 
 
 II 
 
 per cent 
 
 IV "A" 
 
 93 
 
 per cent 
 
 98 
 
 per cent 
 
 5 
 
 per cent 
 
 V"B" 
 
 79 
 
 per cent 
 
 95 
 
 per cent 
 
 16 
 
 per cent 
 
 V"B" 
 
 80 
 
 per cent 
 
 96 
 
 per cent 
 
 16 
 
 per cent 
 
 V "A" 
 
 96 
 
 per cent 
 
 98 
 
 per cent 
 
 2 
 
 per cent 
 
 V "A" 
 
 95 
 
 per cent 
 
 98 
 
 per cent 
 
 3 
 
 per cent 
 
 VI "B " 
 
 95 
 
 per cent 
 
 97 
 
 per cent 
 
 2 
 
 per cent 
 
 VI "B" 
 
 98 
 
 per cent 
 
 99 
 
 per cent 
 
 I 
 
 per cent 
 
 VI "A" 
 
 94 
 
 per cent 
 
 98 
 
 per cent 
 
 4 
 
 per cent 
 
 VII "B" 
 
 96 
 
 per cent 
 
 97 
 
 per cent 
 
 I 
 
 per cent 
 
 VII "B" 
 
 96 
 
 per cent 
 
 99 
 
 per cent 
 
 3 
 
 per cent 
 
 VII "A" 
 
 98. 
 
 I per cent 
 
 98.3 per cent 
 
 0.2 per cent 
 
 VIII "B" 
 
 95 
 
 per cent 
 
 98 
 
 per cent 
 
 3 
 
 per cent 
 
 VIII "A" 
 
 96 
 
 per cent 
 
 98 
 
 per cent 
 
 2 
 
 per cent 
 
 of the several rooms in the school, and forms a fair index of 
 the efficiency of the instruction in spelling. It should be noted 
 
242 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 that the words forming the material for the spelling lessons 
 were selected from the daily work of the pupils.^ 
 
 1 6. Testing Knowledge. The efl&ciency of habit-build- 
 ing is to be measured by the pupiPs ability to react ap- 
 propriately in an automatic way — without "thinking" 
 of the various elements involved in the reaction. The 
 efficiency of instruction that seeks to impart facts and 
 principles is tested by the abihty of the pupil to apply these 
 facts and principles to the problems of Ufe in the formation 
 of judgments.^ Habit-building can be more easily tested 
 in the school than the imparting of knowledge, because the 
 school provides innumerable situations in which habits 
 must function effectively, while it fails to provide many 
 situations in which the knowledge gained is to be applied 
 in judgment form. For example, the pupil writes and 
 spells in the course of his everyday school work; his 
 number habits function throughout the later work in 
 arithmetic; he speaks, sits, stands, walks, and has social 
 relations with other members of the school group. Any 
 deficiency in habit-building is revealed clearly and tme- 
 quivocally. But the child does not apply his knowledge 
 in the same unequivocal fashion. In theory, it is true, he 
 
 * These results should not be interpreted as meaning that the length- 
 ening of the period was entirely responsible for the improvement. No 
 attempt was made to make the test an experiment to prove this thesis. 
 Other factors entered, not the least important of which was a general 
 insistence on "better spelling" in all work. It should be added, how- 
 ever, that words were not spelled for pupils during the composition 
 periods. 
 
 * Cf. the distinction between habit and Judgment in The Educative 
 Process, chs. vii, viii. 
 
TESTING RESULTS 243 
 
 may be expected to use his geographical facts in inter- 
 preting history, his arithmetical principles in the con- 
 structive activities of manual training, his physiological 
 principles in making better the hygienic conditions of his 
 daily life. But every teacher knows that this expectation 
 is seldom realized in practice, and then only in a very small 
 degree. 
 
 17. This lack of some real criterion for measuring the 
 efficiency of instruction has led to the employment of a 
 formal and rather artificial criterion, — the examination. 
 The relative inefficiency of this method is a by-word among 
 teachers, and there are not a few educators who would 
 discard it entirely, evidently preferring no standard at all 
 to an inadequate and often deceptive standard. 
 
 The examination, however, seems to possess certain 
 virtues as an educative process that counteract in some 
 measure its deficiencies as a test either of knowledge or 
 of the efficiency of instruction, (i) It gives the facts and 
 principles to be mastered a certain importance in the eyes 
 of the pupils that might otherwise be lacking. (2) It fur- 
 nishes a motive for the compact organization and close 
 correlation of facts and principles; it is a unifying and 
 integrating agency without the operation of which in- 
 struction is prone to " scatter," and knowledge to be diffuse 
 and incoherent.* 
 
 18. The problem would therefore seem to involve the 
 
 * Cf . The Educative Process, ch. xxii ; a similar position is also taken by 
 L. Dugas: "Psychologic des Examens," in Revue Philosophique, 1904, 
 vol. Iviii, pp. 379-399. 
 
244 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 improvement rather than the elimination of the exami- 
 nation. In one way or another, the examination must be 
 made to test, not the memory for specific and unrelated 
 facts, but the capacity of the individual first to organize, 
 and secondly to apply, the facts and principles that con- 
 stitute the subject-matter of instruction. 
 
 It is in respect of the latter point that the greater diffi- 
 culty will be met. A fact or a principle is obviously valu- 
 able only in so far as it may either be applied to the problems 
 of life or form the key to other facts and principles that 
 may be so applied. Knowledge which fulfills neither one 
 of these functions is just so much useless furniture which 
 mind will discard at the earliest possible opportunity. 
 The great trouble with the average examination is that it 
 does not test these two capacities. Consequently it is not 
 the check that it should be upon the efficiency of instruc- 
 tion; for, if knowledge is to be used, it must be imparted 
 in such a way that it can be used. The examination, as 
 usually conducted, tests the memory for discrete facts: 
 consequently the instruction aims at fixing such facts. 
 If the examination could be remodeled, instruction would 
 necessarily be modified to meet the new demands.^ 
 
 ^ The influence of examinations on methods of instruction is clearly 
 to be seen in school systems that are dominated by formal examinations 
 sent out from a central office. The questions are preserved from year 
 to year, and pupils are drilled upon these questions to the practical ex- 
 clusion of other methods of instruction. This is not education in any 
 sense of the term, and the practice has, through its abuse of the examina- 
 tion, brought the latter into a disrepute that is not justified. In this 
 connection, cf . H. Latham : Examinations considered as a Means of Selec- 
 tion, Boston, 1886, chs. ii, vi, ix. 
 
TESTING RESULTS 245 
 
 The general inadequacy of the average examination as an 
 index of the ability of the pupil is well evidenced by the writer's 
 experience in the training of teachers. He has found that 
 proficiency in academic work as measured by the examination 
 test is in no sense correlated with the ability of the students 
 to do efifective teaching in the practice school. Very frequently 
 the students who have the lowest records in the academic depart- 
 ment make excellent records in practice, and, even more fre- 
 quently, the students who are sent from the academic courses 
 with the highest grades, make most disastrous failures in 
 actual teaching. 
 
 Similar testimony is offered by university experience, as 
 witness the following : "In university faculties the observation 
 has been very often made that graduates who come from 
 colleges with the highest standards of attainments as tested by 
 examinations, are less disposed to attempt original work and 
 are less successful when they do so. They have been trained 
 in receptive processes, and it is a serious question whether 
 examinations do not tend directly to prevent knowledge from 
 striking deep root, and to delay it in the 'memory vestibule.' 
 If this be true, they are a distinct hindrance to the assimilation 
 of mental pabulum." ^ 
 
 19. How should examination questions be set in order 
 to fulfill the conditions essential to making the examination 
 a test of ability to organize and apply rather than a test 
 of ability to remember isolated facts? In the first place, 
 the teacher must bear in mind the fundamental principle 
 of effective testing, which has been very clearly formulated 
 by Professor Thomdike : ^ "To know whether any one has 
 a given mental state, see if he can use it ; to know whether 
 
 * G. S. Hall : Confessions of a Psychologist, Worcester, p. 52. 
 ' E. L. Thomdike : Principles of Teaching, p. 260. 
 
246 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 any one will make a given response to a certain situation, 
 put him in the situation arranged so that that response, 
 and that response alone, will produce a certain result, 
 and see if that result is produced." 
 
 The only practicable method of applying this principle 
 to the formal examination is to construct ideal situations 
 and ask the pupil to apply his knowledge to their solution. 
 Thus the examination questions in arithmetic will be made 
 up largely of concrete problems, taken from real life — 
 problems that the men and women in the world are facing 
 every day. The same class of questions should be given 
 in other subjects. 
 
 Questions of this type are to be found in the problems of 
 the better and more recent text-books. Especially to be com- 
 mended in this respect are che Meyer and Brooks arithmetics, 
 the Smith arithmetics, and others of similar scope. The Tarr 
 and McMurry and the Dodge geographies will also furnish 
 valuable suggestions. Best of all, perhaps, from the stand- 
 point of the pedagogy of test questions are some of the recent 
 books in educational theory; especially O'Shea's Dynamic 
 Factors in Education, De Garmo's Principles of Secondary 
 Education, and Thorndike's Principles of Teaching, in each of 
 which the various chapters or sections conclude with practical 
 topics and questions, suggesting actual situations which are to 
 be solved by an application of the principles brought forth. 
 
 20. It must not be forgotten, however, that the ability 
 to organize knowledge into coherent systems should form 
 an important factor to be tested by the examination. In 
 the writer's experience it has been found best to direct 
 either one in every three, or one in every two, of the ques- 
 
TESTING RESULTS 247 
 
 tions asked in an examination toward this end. Such 
 questions should be broad and general in their formula- 
 tion, thus both testing and encouraging the capacity for 
 organization. The remaining questions should be specific 
 and pointed, having particular reference to the solution of 
 practical, concrete situations. 
 
 The following questions on the geography of South America 
 may serve to illustrate the principle : — 
 
 (i) Discuss the location and extent of South America. 
 (This is a general question, and, to be answered adequately, 
 requires the ability to hold a number of facts in mind and to 
 determine the relations between them. Thus the question 
 might be made more specific by asking that South America be 
 located with respect to other continents, and by requiring defi- 
 nite comparisons of South America with other continents in 
 respect of extent. The instruction, however, should have 
 made clear that a topic like this involves these various points.) 
 
 (2) Would London or New York be in a more favorable 
 position for commerce with Buenos Ayres? Give reasons. 
 (This is a specific question, demanding the practical applica- 
 tion of the general principles brought out in the first question 
 and having direct reference to a matter of practical business 
 significance.) 
 
 21. It is clear that examination questions of this type 
 will demand a rather marked modification of methods of 
 teaching; and this, after all, is the important point. // 
 knowledge is to become applicable to the needs of lije, it 
 must be presented in a manner that will bring out its prac- 
 tical or social values. Examination questions can then be 
 framed that will test the pupil's ability to apply the knowl- 
 
248 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 edge gained. If such questions are answered inadequately, 
 it simply shows that instruction has been inadequate ; con- 
 sequently the formal examination can be made a test of 
 the efficiency of instruction as well as a method for en- 
 couraging organizing activity on the part of the pupils.^ 
 
 22. Marking Examination Papers. Except in mathe- 
 matics or some similar branch of exact science, it is im- 
 possible to apply an exact scale of marking. For example, 
 if in a geography test there are the questions similar to 
 those given above, one cannot value a pupiPs answers 
 on the basis of a finely graduated series of marks — run- 
 ning, say, from i to 100 ; but one can safely say whether 
 the pupil's answer is excellent, good, fair, poor, or abso- 
 lutely bad. If different teachers mark the same papers 
 on the scale of 100, a certain variation will be found in the 
 grades given by each. In fact, if the same teacher marks 
 the same paper at different times, a certain amount of 
 variation is almost always to be noted. On the other 
 hand, within wider limits, the variation is slight ; that is, 
 an excellent paper will usually be so adjudged by different 
 teachers and by the same teacher at different times; and 
 a poor paper would be very infrequently marked excellent, 
 
 * It is well to have access to typical examination questions set in 
 dififerent subjects, together with the average standings obtained by various 
 classes taking these examinations. In this way the teacher can "check" 
 the efficiency of his own teaching by comparing his results with others. 
 Rice's articles, referred to at the close of this chapter, furnish sets of 
 "standard" questions in arithmetic for Grades IV- VIII inclusive, and 
 also give the results of a large number of classes taking these examina- 
 tions. The " Springfield " questions are also available for comparative 
 tests. (See Appendix C.) 
 
TESTING RESULTS 249 
 
 or good, or fair, under any conditions. Consequently, 
 although finely graduated markings are not to be trusted, 
 the possibility of a reasonably accurate marking must be 
 admitted. 
 
 23. To summarize: the efficiency of instruction may 
 be tested by a careful application of the method of formal 
 examinations. This test will not be so accurate as are 
 the various tests to which habit-building may be subjected, 
 but it is far better than no test at all, and it may be made 
 more and more effective by gradually improving the tech- 
 nique of examination questions, and by adopting a scale 
 of grading more elastic than the numerical system affords. 
 
 References. — Thomdike: Principles of Teaching, ch. xvi; Dut- 
 ton: School Management, ch. xiv; Seeley: A New School Manage- 
 ment, ch. XV ; J. M. Rice: articles in Forum as follows: vol. xxxiv 
 (1902), pp. 117-130; 181-297; 437-452; 588-607. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 The Disposition of the Teacher's Time 
 
 1. The efficiency of the teacher is influenced by a variety 
 of factors, but the chief of these is his ability to give a 
 maximum of attention to the problems involved in instruc- 
 tion. If his life is not so ordered that he can meet each 
 class with a maximum of energy at his disposal, the value 
 of his work to the community must be seriously impaired. 
 It is germane to our problem, therefore, to inquire into the 
 disposition of the teacher's time, not only in school, but 
 also out of school. 
 
 2. The prime school duties of the teacher may be classed 
 as instructional and disciplinary. Both are important in 
 and for themselves, and neither should be neglected for 
 the other. The accessory school duties may be classed as 
 clerical and administrative. These are not to be neglected, 
 but should never be permitted to interfere with instruction 
 and discipline. 
 
 In every well-regulated life there must be a time that is 
 specifically allotted to all routine tasks. The teacher's hours 
 of actual service are comparatively short — at most thirty 
 hours each week for a maximum of forty weeks, or twelve 
 hundred hours annually. In view of this fact, it is not too 
 much to expect that the teacher dispose of the necessary 
 clerical work outside of the regular school hours. By far the 
 
 250 
 
THE DISPOSITION OF THE TEACHER'S TIME 251 
 
 best plan is to set aside the hour immediately following the 
 close of the daily session for such work, and to keep reports 
 and records "up to date." The tendency to postpone clerical 
 work until reports are called for is pernicious and should be 
 strenuously combated from the outset. 
 
 3. The out-oj-school duties of the teacher may be con- 
 veniently designated as (a) professional, (b) hygienic, 
 (c) civic, and {d) social and personal. 
 
 (fl) Professional Duties. These include (i) preparation 
 of school work, and (2) study, reading, and discussion 
 along broader educational lines. To the true craftsman 
 the dominating interest in life is the doing of each day's 
 work in the best possible manner. To him no other reward 
 can ever equal the consciousness of work well done. It 
 takes some time, however, for the young teacher to assume 
 this attitude. His first experiences will fascinate him 
 because of their novelty, but when this novelty wears 
 away, — as it must sooner or later, — there will almost 
 invariably ensue a period of time, more or less protracted, 
 during which he must hold himself strenuously to his 
 tasks, and resist with all his power the inevitable distaste 
 for continued effort. This is the most critical period in 
 the life of any worker, and it is during this time that every 
 teacher stands in direst need of all the encouragement 
 and inspiration that he can command. 
 
 One of the surest means of attaining the mental attitude 
 that finds the daily tasks fascinating in themselves is to 
 set out resolutely with the intention of making the day's 
 work the most important phase of life. The most effective 
 
252 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 way to fortify this resolution is to give from the very begin- 
 ning a stated period of time outside of the regular school 
 work to preparation for, and reflection upon, the details 
 of that work. From two to three hours in the evening will 
 be none too long for this purpose. Every lesson that is 
 to be taught should be worked over beforehand. The best 
 manner of approaching the lesson should be determined, 
 and questions framed that will prepare the class for the new 
 material. Illustrations should be sought from all possible 
 sources, worked over, and adapted to the age and mental 
 attainments of the pupils. At the beginning, the teacher 
 would do well to write out carefully the plan of each lesson, 
 including the specific questions and explanations, and to 
 rehearse the whole before an imaginary class. This is a 
 strenuous program, but it will return large dividends upon 
 the time and energy invested. In addition to work of this 
 nature, one should reflect carefully upon the order in which 
 pupils are to be called upon for recitation, and adapt 
 questions and topics to the peculiarities of individual chil- 
 dren. Finally, the independent work of the pupils during 
 the study periods should be planned and the necessary 
 materials provided. 
 
 4. An important task of the teacher in connection with 
 out-of-school work is the supervision of written exercises. 
 This should not be classed with the clerical duties men- 
 tioned above, for it is too important to be left for the 
 clerical hour after school when the teacher's energies are 
 necessarily at a low ebb. The wise course is not to de- 
 mand written work from pupils in so large an amount that 
 
THE DISPOSITION OF THE TEACHER'S TIME 253 
 
 it cannot be carefully supervised in the evening without 
 intruding upon the time that the teacher must devote to 
 the preparation of lessons. In many cases, teachers give 
 too much time and energy to the correction of examination 
 papers, problems, essays, and note-books, and too httle 
 attention to preparation for teaching. The very fact that 
 so much written work is demanded often renders the labor 
 of the teacher in correcting papers quite without effect. 
 Pupils continue to make the same mistakes because the 
 large number of mistakes precludes effective concentration 
 upon any one, and because, in the chaos of interlineations 
 and marginal comments, it is impossible for the pupil to 
 attack the mistakes in the systematic manner that alone will 
 bring results. If the written work in most of our schools 
 could be reduced to about one third of its present pro- 
 portions, the efficiency of instruction would be greatly 
 increased. 
 
 5. (2) Broader Pro jessional Culture. The young teacher 
 can fortify the craft spirit by forming regular habits of 
 study both along general educational lines and in gaining 
 a more thorough grasp upon specific subject-matter of 
 instruction. He should read regularly three or four edu- 
 cational journals. One of these should be his state or 
 local journal, another a national school newspaper. These 
 will give him the ** gossip'* of his craft — the personal 
 items concerning the men and women who are his col- 
 leagues in school work. He will become familiar with the 
 "big names" of contemporary education, and will know 
 what the great movements are and the people who stand 
 
254 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 for them. Another journal should be devoted to the par- 
 ticular problems of the special field with which the teacher 
 is most intimately concerned, — primary work, upper 
 grade work, high school work, as the case may be. A 
 fourth should be one of the more general reviews, cover- 
 ing the entire field of education and discussing school 
 problems in their very broadest relations. Not everything 
 in all of these journals should be read by every teacher, but 
 it is well to have access to at least one journal in each 
 of the four classes, and to examine every number care- 
 fully to discover what it contains that may be of value. 
 
 In this day of periodical literature, one very easily contracts 
 a vicious habit of desultory reading. In fact, this habit bids 
 fair to become one of the most pernicious intellectual diseases 
 of modern times. So great a variety of reading matter is pro- 
 vided at so small a cost that one is tempted away from that 
 protracted and sustained reading from which alone one can 
 make measurable gains in culture and attainment. Discon- 
 nected items of information are not educative, except in 
 homoeopathic doses. The cheap magazines and weekly 
 newspapers that cater to the popular demand for change 
 and variety are undoubtedly doing much toward weakening 
 the intellectual fiber of the race. One does not realize how 
 pernicious is their influence until one sits down to a serious piece 
 of work in an environment that is filled with these distracting 
 influences. The best plan for the young teacher is to keep out 
 of temptation's way, otherwise he is apt to find that all of his 
 well-laid plans for evening study and self-improvement come 
 to naught. Certainly, as a matter of habit, he should read at 
 least two serious articles in a general educational review each 
 month. This is an example of what Professor James terms 
 
THE DISPOSITION OF THE TEACHER'S TIME 255 
 
 "giving the will a little gratuitous exercise." The articles may 
 not be particularly interesting or particularly germane to his 
 work, but the fact that they appear in a high-class review indi- 
 cates that they are important, and a great many articles that 
 seem dull and heavy at the outset will be found interesting 
 before they are finished. 
 
 6. Every teacher should read each year one or two of 
 the season's new books on general education. Some of 
 these are not to be taken too seriously, but many of them 
 will give fresh points of view and offer valuable suggestions. 
 Educational theory is just now in a transition stage of its 
 development, and no one can tell at what moment some 
 epoch-making principle may be enunciated. It behooves 
 the progressive teacher to keep in touch with the firing 
 line, even though he reserves his own judgment as to the 
 practical significance of each little victory. 
 
 7. Teachers* Associations. It is unnecessary to point 
 out the stimulus which the annual state and national 
 gatherings of teachers give to the craft spirit. The young 
 teacher should avail himself from the outset of this medium 
 of inspiration. Again, what is presented in the formal 
 papers is not always to be taken- too seriously, but the give- 
 and-take discussion of mooted questions, the animated 
 "shop talk" of the hotel lobbies and parlors, the oppor- 
 tunities to exchange experiences with others who are 
 facing similar problems — these factors often give the 
 meetings an untold value. 
 
 In this connection, also, must again be mentioned the 
 visiting of schools. The teacher who limits his profes- 
 
2$6 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 sional life to the narrow confines of his own classroom is 
 almost certain to have low standards of instruction and 
 discipline. To have in mind a vivid image of conditions 
 in a first-class school is to have an ideal toward which one's 
 own energies may be directed. Not a few teachers con- 
 scientiously believe that their pupils are doing just as 
 good work as can be got from them ; a visit to another 
 school of the same grade is apt to open their eyes — unless, 
 indeed, they be hopelessly blinded. 
 
 8. (b) Hygienic Duties. The teacher must preserve 
 his health if his work is to be maximally effective. The 
 work of the classroom is extremely fatiguing — far more 
 so, in the writer's experience, than anything in the way of 
 administration or supervision. One's attention must be 
 continually concentrated, and concentrated upon the same 
 thing for relatively long periods of time. It is for this 
 reason that every effort must be made to supply an ade- 
 quate amount of energy and to husband this energy against 
 the time when effective concentration is most needed. 
 Sufficient sleep is the first requisite, and not even a zeal 
 for the preparation of lessons should interfere with regular 
 hours of complete rest. Exercise is also important, and 
 many teachers devote the hour from five to six to exercise 
 in the open air. Next to sufficient sleep an abundance 
 of nutritious food, rich in proteids, should be the last fac- 
 tor to neglect. For those engaged mainly in intellectual 
 work, the heavy meal of the day should come at the close 
 of the day's work, not at noon. The processes of digestion 
 can then be given the necessary two hours in which to do 
 
THE DISPOSITION OF THE TEACHER'S TIME 257 
 
 their work before one attacks the serious tasks of the 
 evening. 
 
 9. (c) Civic Duties. The ideal democracy is not direct 
 government by the people, but rather a government by 
 experts who are responsible to the people and in whom 
 the people can repose implicit confidence. It is incon- 
 sistent, to say the least, to leave governmental functions 
 to amateurs when every other department of the division 
 of labor is in the hands of specialists. This ideal, however, 
 is far in the future, and until it is realized every citizen 
 must devote a portion of his time and energy to the work 
 of government. The teacher is no exception to this rule, 
 although the fact that most teachers are women, and that 
 women have little direct influence in political matters 
 makes the situation here rather different from that which 
 obtains in other crafts and professions. Nevertheless even 
 women teachers should interest themselves in political 
 movements, and use every influence within their power to 
 promote the ends of civic virtue. They should, at least, give 
 the inspiration of their presence to associations and meet- 
 ings that have for their object civic improvement. In not 
 a few instances municipal reforms in the direction of 
 cleaner streets, more artistic buildings, better parks, more 
 equitable taxation, etc., owe their initiation to the activity 
 of public school teachers; and every expression of sane 
 and temperate public spirit on the part of teachers cannot 
 fail to act reflexly upon the schools themselves, giving them 
 an increased hold upon the respect of the community, and 
 elevating their importance in the eyes of the pupils. 
 
258 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 Nor must the teacher be blind to the responsibility that rests 
 upon him for developing effective ideals of civic virtue in the 
 minds of his pupils. All dominant ideals of conduct must 
 have their inception in childhood and youth. Reforms can 
 be initiated "from the top," but if such reforms are to be 
 permanent, their necessity must be impressed upon the minds 
 of the rising generation. The contemporary revolution in the 
 ethics of government, of politics, and of business enterprises 
 will doubtless have but small effect upon the conduct of the 
 great mass of men and women belonging to the dominant 
 generation. These men and women will indeed admit the 
 necessity of such reforms, but their habits are too firmly estab- 
 lished to be transformed in a day; they have been looking at 
 things in a different light too long to admit of a sudden ''change 
 of front," no matter how acutely the need of such a change 
 may be felt. But all this agitation toward a higher conception 
 of public service should furnish the most favorable condition 
 for inspiring youth with higher standards and ideals than those 
 which govern the present generation, and the duty of the school 
 plainly lies in this direction. The teacher should never lose 
 sight of the fact that it is within his power to transform the 
 character of a race, for the character of a race is determined by 
 its dominant ideals, and these the skillful teacher can mold to 
 his own liking. That the hope of the future lies in the youth of 
 the present is a platitude so often repeated as quite to hide from 
 view its fundamental truth. And yet each new interpretation 
 of education from the standpoint of modem science, and each 
 new investigation into the history of education among different 
 people and diverse races, add convincing testimony to this fact. 
 The opportunity lies with the school, and, under our modern 
 conception of ethics, with opportunity must go responsibility. 
 
 10. (d) Social Duties. Recreation in one form or 
 another is necessary for maximal efficiency in any line of 
 
THE DISPOSITION OF THE TEACHER'S TIME 259 
 
 work, and nothing more accurately indicates the character 
 of a man than the way in which he seeks recreation — 
 the way in which he spends his leisure. For the teacher, 
 dealing as he does with immature minds, some form of 
 recreation that will afford a complete change of environ- 
 ment is absolutely essential if he is to escape the intolerable 
 pedantry and dogmatism to which the members of his craft 
 are so commonly subject. He should frequently seek social 
 diversion among men and women who are engaged in other 
 lines of work. He must strive to retain that plasticity of 
 adjustment that will enable him successfully to adapt him- 
 self to general rather than technical interests. This does 
 not mean that he should be ashamed of his colleagues in 
 education, or ashamed of his calling as a teacher. It 
 simply means that, in common with men and women in 
 other walks of life, he should be able to drop his profes- 
 sional mannerisms on occasion and to think and talk in 
 terms other than those used in his daily work. 
 
 II. What proportion of his time may the teacher devote 
 to social diversion? Of course one cannot propose a 
 dogmatic answer to this question, but there are certain 
 factors that should be borne in mind in every specific 
 determination. The necessity for evening work will pre- 
 clude social engagements on at least five evenings of the 
 week. The teacher is sometimes apt to rebel at this 
 suggestion, forgetting that, unlike workers in other fields, 
 he has one day each week (usually Saturday) free from 
 classroom employment. In return for this, the community 
 has a right to expect longer actual hours of work upon 
 
26o CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 Other days. This arrangement, however, leaves two even- 
 ings free for recreation. The teacher is also unique in 
 having a longer annual vacation than other workers. Cer- 
 tainly a part of this vacation should be spent in pro- 
 fessional improvement — "keeping up with the times"; 
 but the rest is free for whatever healthful recreation the 
 teacher may care to take. On the whole, therefore, it is 
 hardly too much to expect of a teacher that, during five 
 days of each week throughout the school year, he make 
 the problems of his daily work the dominant subject of 
 his attention. 
 
 References. — Button: School Management^ chs. ii, iii; Seeley: 
 A New School Management, ch. xviii; W. E. Chancellor: Our 
 Schools: Their Administration and Supervision^ Boston, 1905, ch. xi; 
 Keith: Elementary Education^ ch. xiv. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 The Teacher's Relation to Principal, Supervisors, 
 AND Superintendent 
 
 I. The successful operation of a school system involves 
 the organized effort of a number of individuals toward a 
 common end. As in other social institutions, the highest 
 degree of efi&ciency is secured by centralizing authority 
 and responsibility in a single individual. To this indi- 
 vidual is delegated a degree of power commensurate 
 (theoretically, at least) with his responsibiUty. In some 
 systems both the power and the responsibility of the 
 superintendent of schools are almost negligible factors: 
 the office is a mere bagatelle, concerned only with clerical 
 and mechanical functions. There can be no doubt, how- 
 ever, that the present tendency is toward a stronger and 
 closer organization of educational forces within the limits 
 of a conveniently large "working imit." The city com- 
 munity represents the type of such a unit. The county 
 school system and the state school system must necessarily 
 be much looser in their organization because of the diffi- 
 culty that confronts a single head in governing widely 
 separated elements. 
 
 Wherever a system of schools exists, the classroom 
 teacher is responsible to the head of that system, who in 
 turn is responsible to the representative board of educq.- 
 
262 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 tion, and this body to the community at large. Owing to 
 the complex character of our governmental machinery, 
 however, a division of responsibiHty commonly confronts 
 the superintendent, for he is answerable not only to local 
 authorities, but often to state authorities. 
 
 2. Generally between the superintendent and the class- 
 room teacher intervenes the principal of the building. 
 The office of principal is now recognized as one of the 
 most important in the school system — perhaps, every- 
 thing considered, the most influential for good or ill. The 
 position of the principal is quite analogous to that of a 
 ship's captain. He is responsible for everything that 
 belongs to or goes on within the limits of his school, — 
 for the instruction, for the discipline, for the care and 
 condition of the material equipment. Teachers, super- 
 visors, and janitors are all answerable to him for the 
 eflficiency of their work. The prevailing tendency is to 
 relieve the principal of teaching duties in order that he 
 may devote all of his time and energy to the general wel- 
 fare of the school. 
 
 3. An obvious corollary of this condition is the necessity 
 for loyalty on the part of each subordinate to his chief. 
 A centralized organization can be effective upon no other 
 assumption. Unquestioned obedience is the first rule of 
 eflficient service. The classroom teacher owes this to his 
 superiors, and whenever he cannot yield such obedience, 
 his resignation is the only alternative. 
 
 In practice, this condition is not so arbitrary and auto- 
 cratic as it may appear in cold print. The responsibility 
 
THE teacher's RELATION TO PRINCIPAL 263 
 
 of teacher to principal or superintendent is almost ex- 
 clusively a responsibility jor results. Certain requirements 
 are made in the way of results. Pupils must be taught 
 certain facts, drilled into certain habits, in each grade. 
 The superintendent demands these results of his principals, 
 the principals pass on the demand to the classroom teachers, 
 the classroom teachers exact the required work from the 
 pupils. A group of unorganized teachers, each working 
 independently and unsupervised, might secure the same 
 results, but the chances are strongly against the suppo- 
 sition. Centrahzed authority, working through inter- 
 mediate officials, is the only known method of insuring 
 economy of school administration in this respect. 
 
 When it comes to the details of method and the tech- 
 nique of instruction, however, the classroom teacher is 
 left very largely to his own initiative. Superintendents 
 and principals rarely go beyond suggestion in such mat- 
 ters, although there are sometimes occasions when sugges- 
 tion must be interpreted to mean authoritative direction. 
 The same is true in respect of discipline. It is the end 
 of discipHne that is important in the eyes of the princi- 
 pal and superintendent; the teacher must work out the 
 method. It will readily be seen that the initiative of the 
 classroom teacher has still a large scope even under rigid 
 systems of organization and supervision. 
 
 It must not be inferred that the classroom teacher has no 
 voice, even in the larger questions of policy in the administra- 
 tion of the school system. Although the typical organization 
 appears to be little less than an autocracy when viewed from 
 
264 CXASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 the outside, it is almost a democracy in the great majority of 
 city systems. The classroom teachers are regularly assembled 
 for discussion of important questions with the principal of the 
 school, and the principals meet regularly with the superintend- 
 ent. In small systems all of the teachers meet together at 
 frequent intervals. The general policy in all such meetings 
 is to permit absolute freedom of speech. If a subordinate 
 teacher does not agree with any prescription that is made for 
 his conduct, he is generally at liberty to state his reasons in this 
 forum. It would be a rash superintendent, indeed, who would 
 attempt to carry through a measure that met decided disap- 
 proval from his subordinates. Whenever a decision is reached, 
 however, the subordinates must accept it, no matter what their 
 individual opinions may be. Discussion is then closed and the 
 time for action has arrived.* 
 
 4. The Teacher and the Special Supervisors. Practically 
 all of the larger systems of schools now employ special 
 supervisors of music, drawing, manual training, and 
 sometimes physical culture and nature study. These su- 
 pervisors go from school to school, giving model lessons 
 in each room and instructing the classroom teachers in 
 the technique of their special branches. The classroom 
 teacher is responsible to the supervisor for the special 
 work supervised, and for the methods employed in such 
 work. The supervisor is, however, under the nominal 
 control of the principal in whose building he chances to 
 be at work, consequently the classroom teacher's first 
 
 ^ An able discussion of the relation of the classroom teacher to the 
 principal and superintendent will be found in a paper by ex-Superintendent 
 E. P. Seaver of Boston, published in the Report of the Commissioner oj 
 Education^ Washington, 1899, pp. 546 ff» 
 
THE teacher's RELATION TO PRINCIPAL 265 
 
 loyalty is to the principal. This rule does not hold in all 
 cases, but it is manifestly the only way in which an equi- 
 table balance can be maintained between different lines of 
 special work. 
 
 5. Supervision in Rural Schools. The teacher in a dis- 
 trict or ungraded country school is nominally under the 
 control of the county superintendent or commissioner of 
 education, and through him responsible to the state depart- 
 ment of public instruction. In practice, however, the 
 county superintendent exercises but little supervision over 
 his subordinate teachers. Schools are so widely separated 
 that he can visit them only infrequently, and inasmuch 
 as his office is almost universally a political prize, he is 
 naturally very careful about making severe criticisms. 
 In general, the only checks upon the work of the rural 
 teacher are his own conscientiousness and the very fallible 
 judgment of his patrons. It is perhaps owing to the 
 generally high character of the former factor that the 
 results in the rural schools are as good as they are. No 
 more pressing problem confronts American education, 
 however, than to provide some effective means of super- 
 vising the rural schools. 
 
 6. Summary, The problem of the relation of the class- 
 room teacher to his superior officers should be solved by 
 an attitude of obedience to constituted authority. This is 
 very far from saying that the teacher should adopt an 
 attitude of servihty ; intelligent loyalty is the better term 
 to employ. The situation is entirely analogous to that 
 in any other organization or system, — the army, the 
 
266 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 ^avy, governmental departments, great business enter- 
 prises (or small business enterprises, for that matter). 
 Concentrated effort can be secured in no other way. 
 The teacher should thoroughly understand this basal 
 proposition and act in accordance with its dictates from 
 the outset. Youth is prone to resent authority. Indeed, it 
 is hardly too much to say that our contemporary theories 
 of education do much, perhaps unconsciously, to inculcate 
 an attitude antagonistic to authority. This represents a 
 healthful reaction against the ultra-machine tendency 
 prevalent in school organization some years ,ago, but it 
 is a reaction that can easily be carried too far. 
 
 References. — W. E. Chancellor: Our Schools: Their Adminis- 
 tration and Supervision, Boston, 1905, chs. iv-vii; Button: School 
 Management, chs. vi, xix; Seeley: A New School Management, 
 ch. xix; Roark: Economy in Editcation, pp. 88-91. 
 
CHAPTER XVm 
 
 The Ethics of Schoolcraft 
 
 I. The relation of the classroom teacher to his prin- 
 cipal and superintendent is but one of the many questions 
 that are gradually becoming crystallized in the unwritten 
 laws that govern the teacher's calling. Every trade and 
 profession must possess a recognized code of craft ethics, 
 — certain standards of right and wrong, honor and dis- 
 honor, as these terms are appHed in the special field that 
 the trade or profession covers. The tenets and doctrines 
 of these ethical systems are sometimes elaborately organized 
 and impose restrictions upon the members of the guild 
 the value of which a layman may frequently find it hard 
 to appreciate. The ethics of medicine, for example, for- 
 bids a physician to advertise his services save in a most 
 modest and unobtrusive fashion. The moment that the 
 physician breaks this unwritten law, he is ostracized from 
 the society of his fellow-craftsmen. MiHtary service is 
 carefully guarded by restrictions, imposed by military tra- 
 dition, which demand of all initiates into the service a 
 standard of personal honor that is much more exacting 
 than similar standards in civil life. The various fields 
 of fine art — music, painting, sculpture, architecture — 
 are also dominated by codes of craft ethics many of whose 
 tenets are frequently meaningless to the uninitiated. Nor 
 
 267 
 
268 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 are the manual trades exceptions to the general rule: 
 carpenters, plumbers, stonecutters, metal workers, all 
 have their pecuHar standards and ideals in which each 
 apprentice is carefully instructed, and to which he must 
 prove his fidelity or lose the caste of craft. 
 
 The essence of the craft or professional spirit is revealed 
 in each of these instances ; in matters pertaining solely to 
 craft welfare, the members of each guild legislate for them- 
 selves. The guild is essentially a close corporation; its 
 rulings are self-imposed, self-sustained, and self-sufiicient. 
 
 2. From one point of view, education suffers in com- 
 parison with other human callings in just this fact : it has 
 not as yet developed an adequate system of craft ethics. 
 If a human calling would win the world's respect, it must 
 first respect itself. And the more thoroughly it respects 
 itself, the richer will be the measure of homage that the 
 world renders it. War, medicine, art, literature — all 
 bear testimony to this principle. To be faithful to the 
 craft spirit is the highest ambition of a true soldier, a true 
 physician, a true artist. To lose the caste of craft is the 
 most severe punishment that can be inflicted upon him. 
 For the plaudits or the sneers of the crowd he cares but 
 little. He seeks commendation from another source — 
 from a source that metes it out less lavishly, and yet with 
 unconditioned candor; he seeks the commendation of his 
 fellow-workmen, the applause of those who know, 
 
 3. And what are some of the ideals and standards that 
 the new Schoolcraft is slowly crystallizing into an ethical 
 code? First and foremost stands the conviction that the 
 
THE ETHICS OF SCHOOLCRAFT 269 
 
 work of teaching is coordinate in rank and dignity with 
 other branches of the pubHc service; that its work to be 
 done well must be done by trained specialists who devote 
 their best energies to the solution of its problems; that 
 any one who looks upon it as a "stepping-stone" or a 
 "time-filler" offers it an insult which mere decency and 
 self-respect demand that it resent. And the true teacher 
 will not be patronized. He does not need to be told that 
 his work is "the noblest and highest of all human call- 
 ings " — a sample of the pious mouthings not infrequently 
 voiced by men who would not for a moment encourage 
 their sons to enter the work of the public schools. If the 
 teacher is a true craftsman, he knows what education means 
 — he knows this far better than a layman can tell him. 
 
 4. In the second place, the craft spirit in education will 
 insist that its own trained and expert judgment shall es- 
 tablish craft standards of excellence and efl&ciency. It will 
 resent the unwarranted interference of laymen in purely 
 technical matters. It will resent such interference manfully 
 and vigorously as would a reputable physician, a reputable 
 artist, or a reputable engineer in a similar situation. 
 
 5. In the third place, the craft spirit in education will 
 turn a deaf ear to excuses. It will hold each member of 
 the guild strictly responsible for the task that he has 
 assumed. Not the inefficiency of previous teachers, nor 
 the poverty of the homes from which pupils come, nor 
 the peculiar conditions of the social environment, will be 
 accepted in heu of the results demanded. This seems the 
 cruelest, the most relentless, of all possible standards — 
 
270 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 and yet it is the only standard that will bring Schoolcraft to 
 an equal rank with other callings. As Kipling says of Find- 
 layson in the Bridge Builders : " There were no excuses in 
 his work. Government might listen, perhaps, but his own 
 kind would judge him by his bridge, as that stood or fell.'' 
 
 6. In the fourth place, the craft spirit will demand high 
 standards of scholarship and preparatory training for 
 admittance to the guild. It will reject the idea that, be- 
 cause teachers deal with little children, their minds are 
 the minds of children, or that their intellectual pabulum 
 should consist of milk and water. It will stand for reason 
 and abjure sentiment. 
 
 7. In the fifth place, it will insist upon the conception of 
 Schoolcraft as social service^ and that the rewards of such 
 service are not to he measured in dollars and cents. In this 
 respect it will class its guild with art, music, literature, 
 discovery, invention, and pure science. If all of the 
 workers in each of these lines of human activity demanded 
 of the world the real fruits of their self-sacrifice and labor, 
 — if they received all of the riches that have flowed, 
 directly or indirectly, from their efforts, — there would be 
 very little left for the rest of mankind. Each of these 
 activities is dominated by a craft spirit which recognizes 
 this fundamental truth. The artist or the scientist who 
 has an itching palm, who prostitutes his craft for the sake 
 of worldly gain, is quickly relegated to the oblivion that 
 he deserves. He loses the caste of craft which is more 
 precious to the true craftsman than all the gold of the 
 modem Midas. In each of these branches of activity, 
 
THE ETHICS OF SCHOOLCRAFT 271 
 
 service is its own reward, and this must be true of educa- 
 tion. All that the true teacher should ask of the world is 
 a Uving wage, the privilege to serve, and "a seat at the 
 table around which the competent members of his guild 
 hold council." 
 
 If one should think this standard to be visionary and im- 
 practicable, a brief acquaintance with the ideals of other crafts 
 and professions will quickly dispel the illusion. Let such a 
 person turn to the biographies of Darwin, Spencer, Helm- 
 holtz, Huxley, Miiller, Newton, and a score of other masters 
 in science. Let him inquire of the men on the geological survey 
 who first laid bare the great gold deposits in Alaska and still 
 remained faithful to their service and content with their pittance. 
 Let him ask the scholars at a score of universities. Let him 
 ask any one of a thousand talented men who are devoting their 
 lives to painting, sculpture, music, pure literature, for the sake 
 of an art that they might far more comfortably commercialize 
 and exploit for their own pecuniary benefit. The answer will 
 be the same in every instance. All that these men ask is a 
 living wage and a chance to serve. It is only a great national 
 delusion — a virulent jaundice of the mind — that leads men 
 to believe that efficient service can be obtained only under the 
 stimulus of the dollar. Our national ideal, "Material success 
 at any price," has woefully distorted our perspective.* 
 
 * The advice of the late Senator Hoar to the students of the Yale Law 
 School represents an effort to reestablish in the legal profession the ideals 
 of service that formerly inspired the lawyer to his best work. The fol- 
 lowing extract indicates the spirit of his plea : — 
 
 " If you will walk these high paths, you must abandon the pursuit of 
 wealth as a principal 01 considerable object. Of course the lawyer must 
 have his quiddant honorarium. He must have his ample library. He 
 must provide for his wife and children a comfortable home, lay up some- 
 thing for old age, and start his children in life with a good education, and 
 the stimulant of his own good example. That is pretty much all. I hope 
 
272 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 8. In the sixth place, the craft spirit in education will 
 abjure pedantry and dogmatism. It will discount the 
 hypertrophied " good-goodyism " that so often emanates 
 from an overweening consciousness of mental or moral 
 superiority. It will hold industry, courage, and effi- 
 ciency as the cardinal virtues; sloth, inefficiency, and 
 covetousness as the cardinal sins. 
 
 9. Fundamentally, teaching is a creative as well as a 
 conservative art. Its task is to mold a certain raw ma- 
 terial into a certain desired product. Society imposes 
 certain limitations and restrictions upon the process of 
 creation in education, just as convention restricts the 
 painter, the sculptor, the composer, the poet. The prod- 
 uct must represent certain definite minimal requirements; 
 but when this condition is once fulfilled, the teacher, like 
 the artist, has a large scope for his creative talent. 
 
 Society demands that the product of the school shall 
 be able to read and write and "cipher." These conserva- 
 tive factors will always form an irreducible minimum of 
 
 to see our profession everywhere return to its ancient and healthy abhor- 
 rence of everything that savors of speculation in justice. When you are 
 once known to the people, not as masters of the law, but as traders and 
 traffickers seeking your own gain, the virtue has gone out of you." — 
 Quoted by W. G. Cook, in North American Review^ 1906, vol. clxxxiii, 
 p. 114. A similar view with regard to the profession of scholarship is 
 taken by Professor W. M. Payne {International Quarterly, 1904, vol. viii, 
 p. 273): "That scholar is unworthy of his high office who joins in the 
 querulous complaint raised now and again to the efifect that scholarship 
 does not command material rewards proportional to those won by other 
 forms of endeavor. Are its own peculiar rewards to count for nothing 
 then — its honors, its self-sufficing activities, its sense of the esteem in 
 which it is held by all whose approval is worth having?" 
 
THE ETHICS OF SCHOOLCRAFT 273 
 
 education. Their necessity is inherent in the very essence 
 of civilization, for civilization demands first of all that 
 men lead the social Hfe at the very foundation of which 
 must always lie an effective medium of communication; 
 and civiHzation demands a division of labor and the 
 interdependence of social units for material necessities 
 and comforts, and for this reason an effective means of 
 computation is indispensable. If civihzation were to 
 begin anew, formal education would still be face to face 
 with the three R's. 
 
 But the finished product of the teacher's art must be 
 more than a reading-writing-ciphering automaton. It 
 must represent a highly complex mechanism of civilized 
 habits, deHcately adjusted to respond effectively to the 
 innumerable stimuli of an increasingly complex social 
 life. It must represent a storehouse of organized race- 
 experience, conserved against the time when knowledge 
 shall be needed in the constructive solution of new and 
 untried problems. It must represent the initiative that 
 is competent to adapt means to ends in the solution of 
 such problems. And, beyond all this, it must represent 
 ideals — those intangible forces that can lift a race in a 
 single century through a greater distance than it has 
 traversed in all preceding ages. Every teacher who comes 
 in contact with the plastic material that we designate as 
 childhood and youth can add a touch to this creative 
 process — can influence definitely, tangibly, unerringly, 
 the type of manhood and womanhood that is to dominate 
 the succeeding generation. 
 
APPENDIX A 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF CLASSROOM TECH- 
 NIQUE THROUGH OBSERVATION 
 
 Courses in the observation of classroom work are to be 
 found in the curricula of practically all normal schools. They 
 are also coming into favor in the universities that offer instruc- 
 tion in the theory and practice of education. It is the writer's 
 belief that observation of expert teaching forms an indispen- 
 sable part of the candidate's training. His own experience in 
 normal school work of different types has offered opportunities 
 for comparisons, and has led him to conclude that the students 
 who enter upon their practice teaching after a systematic course 
 of observation under supervision do much better work at the 
 outset, make fewer mistakes, and apply their theoretical peda- 
 gogy more effectively than the students who go to practice 
 without this preparatory observation. 
 
 It seems to be tolerably certain that the beginning teacher 
 follows, in his first efforts, some concrete model of teaching. 
 The most common procedure is to imitate one's own instruc- 
 tors. If these instructors are engaged in teaching relatively 
 mature students, it is obvious that their technique will not 
 always be adapted to the pupils in the lower grades. The most 
 frequent cause of failure among college graduates who go into 
 elementary and secondary teaching is admittedly the tendency oi 
 such beginners to employ college methods in their instruction.* 
 
 If the beginner does not imitate the instructors from whose 
 
 » Cf. some statistics upon this point gathered by Professor M. V. O'Shea 
 published in School Review, 1902, vol. x, pp. 778 ff. 
 
 275 
 
276 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 classrooms he has just come, the chances are that he will imi- 
 tate his earlier teachers in so far as he can recall the methods 
 and devices that they employed. In some cases, this will result 
 in the initiation of valuable habits of technique; more fre- 
 quently, however, the formation of good habits is impeded 
 rather than helped by this process. 
 
 A third procedure, which is rarely met with in actual practice, 
 is the adjustment of the teacher to his new work on the basis of 
 the principles that he has assimilated during his study of theo- 
 retical pedagogy — "general method" and ''special methods." 
 This is a rare procedure in the beginner, because it involves the 
 operation of the conceptual judgment. The line of least re- 
 sistance is to solve a new situation by a practical judgment — 
 by the conscious recall of a concrete experience and an imita- 
 tive adjustment, copying, as faithfully as may be, the details of 
 this recalled experience. As a matter of fact, the connection 
 between theory and practice is very seldom made by the begin- 
 ning teacher, unless the theoretical instruction has been imparted 
 in a manner that will enable the student vividly to associate with 
 each principle a concrete image of its practical application in 
 the classroom. Many students complete with high honor 
 strenuous courses in psychology and in educational theory, 
 and then proceed as quickly as possible to forget what they 
 have acquired, because they can find in actual school work no 
 instance of the application of the facts and principles that they 
 have learned.* 
 
 A practicable — and, in the writer's experience, a most 
 
 * In this connection it is interesting to note the strangely inconsistent policy 
 in normal school practice which insists that the student shall first study ab- 
 stract theory and then note its application, while the very first principle that 
 the theory itself teaches is that education must proceed from the concrete to 
 the abstract, and from cases to principles. 
 
APPENDIX A 277 
 
 successful — solution of this problem is to parallel the courses 
 in psychology and educational theory with such observation of 
 actual classroom work as will illustrate the principles and pre- 
 cepts as they are developed. In this way an immediate connec- 
 tion is made between the principles and the cases upon which 
 they rest, and the student is supplied with concrete images of 
 classroom technique which he can apply when he begins his 
 practice teaching. 
 
 General Principles of Observation. — It is a fallacy of edu- 
 cational theory to look upon the study of concrete cases as in- 
 trinsically easier and less fatiguing than the study of general 
 principles. Objective teaching is, by far, the most difficult 
 form of teaching. It is easy, indeed, to watch objective proc- 
 esses that are novel and for that reason attractive from the 
 standpoint of passive attention; but to obtain from objective 
 study anything of real value requires the closest sort of concen- 
 tration and a marked degree of sustained attention. Simply 
 sending students to an elementary classroom with instructions 
 to "observe" the work of the teacher is a good way to begin, 
 but it cannot be profitably employed after one or two visits. 
 The matter must be taken up systematically and attacked ag- 
 gressively, if a measurable value is to accrue to the time and 
 energy expended in the work. 
 
 The following principles and cautions are suggested for the 
 conduct of courses in observation : — 
 
 (i) If possible, observation should accompany all work in 
 educational theory, including psychology, general method, 
 special methods, school hygiene, and school management. 
 
 (2) If it is not practicable to devote so much time to obser- 
 vation, it should be given just prior to the beginning of practice; 
 in other words, the concrete images will be less effectively recalled 
 
278 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 if a period of long duration intervenes between the observation 
 and the practice. 
 
 (3) Classrooms selected for observation should be in charge 
 of teachers whose work can be honestly commended. 
 
 (4) The observing students should be cautioned at the outset 
 that their duty is to learn and not to criticise. The good 
 points should be constantly emphasized. Even the best of 
 teachers will sometimes make mistakes, and it requires very 
 little experience or mental acumen to find fault. The hyper- 
 critical attitude should be discouraged from the very first. 
 
 (5) The teachers whose classrooms are visited should 
 thoroughly understand that the purpose of visitation is not 
 critical. Otherwise they will almost invariably become self- 
 conscious and fail to do their best. 
 
 (6) Only occasionally should a teacher be asked to rearrange 
 his program for the sake of providing exercises for the obser- 
 vation classes. Observators can find almost every principle 
 of education illustrated in any school exercise. 
 
 (7) The instructor should at first accompany the sections to 
 the class under observation, and provide for a subsequent 
 period to discuss the points noted. After four or five obser- 
 vations made in this way, syllabi may be used and written re- 
 ports required. 
 
 (8) Observation sections should be limited to the smallest 
 possible number of students; certainly not more than ten 
 should visit an elementary classroom of the average size at one 
 time.^ When syllabi are used, observators can go to class- 
 rooms alone or in pairs. 
 
 ^ In some of the recently constructed training school buildings, amphi- 
 theaters are provided for the presentation of model lessons. This plan, how- 
 ever, should not exclude observation in the regular classrooms, where pupils 
 work under normal conditions. 
 
APPENDIX A 279 
 
 (9) The first observation may be rather general in its nature, 
 but each subsequent observation should concentrate upon one 
 or two particular phases of class work. 
 
 (10) The writer has found it advisable to require an exami- 
 nation at the close of each course in observation. This en- 
 courages students to take the work seriously, and furnishes an 
 additional incentive for attacking the problem aggressively. 
 It is also valuable in that it requires a review of the important 
 points and a revival of significant images just prior to the 
 beginning of practice. 
 
 An Outline for a Ten Weeks* Course in Observation. — The 
 following outline is intended merely to suggest a general plan 
 of treatment. It is based upon a forty weeks' course given dur- 
 ing four successive years at the Montana State Normal College, 
 and upon a twenty weeks' course given during the present year 
 ( 1 906-1 907) at the Oswego State Normal School,* — one period 
 a week being devoted to the work in each case. It is, however, 
 limited to such phases of observation work as might well be 
 undertaken in connection with a course on classroom manage- 
 ment. The same general plan can be profitably applied in 
 connection with courses in psychology and general educational 
 theory. 
 
 First Period 
 
 This may profitably be devoted to an explanation of the pur- 
 pose of the course, especial emphasis being laid upon the con- 
 duct of the observators while in the classroom, the attitude 
 
 ^ The writer is indebted to Superintendent C. L. Robbins, of the Training 
 Department of the Montana Normal College, for many of the questions pre- 
 sented in the syllabi. He has also received valuable suggestions from Super- 
 intendent W. B. Mooney of the South Dakota State Normal School (Spearfish), 
 and from Professor Guy Montrose Whipple, of Cornell University. 
 
28o CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 toward the work, the value that may be derived from it, and 
 the details of note-taking and summarizing the points observed. 
 
 Second Period. General Observation 
 
 The students are instructed to note the four points concern- 
 ing the work of the classroom that make the most distinct im- 
 pression upon them. The observation should be followed by 
 a discussion in which each student reports upon the points 
 noted, stating in each case the reasons for believing them to be 
 significant. At the close of this discussion, the instructor should 
 state the topic for the following observation, and furnish refer- 
 ences that will enable the student to refresh his memory con- 
 cerning the principles that are to be illustrated. 
 
 Third Period. General Topic: Attention 
 
 (For this and subsequent observation periods, a syllabus of 
 questions, similar to the following, may be profitably employed. 
 This does not, of course, preclude subsequent discussion. It will 
 be noted that the questions given below are applicable to the work 
 of practically any classroom at any period. This makes syste- 
 matic observation possible without at the same time requiring 
 a special order of exercises in the classroom under observation.) 
 
 General Data: Classroom Observed. Grades Represented, 
 Exercises Seen. Date and Hour 
 
 Observe first the study class. How would you characterize 
 the attention of the pupils ? What proportion of the pupils 
 are giving strenuous attention? How do you judge 
 whether a pupil is attentive or inattentive ? 
 
 Is the attention in general of the passive, active, or secondary 
 passive variety ? How can you tell ? Note any exceptions. 
 
APPENDIX A 281 
 
 If you detect any instances of primary passive attention, can 
 you determine the instinct that is operative ? 
 
 In cases of active attention, what appears to be the motive or 
 incentive ? Give reasons for your answer. 
 
 Note any lapses in the attention of particular pupils. Can you 
 discover in each case the cause of the lapse ? What seem 
 to be the most common distractions? 
 
 Can you detect any rhythms of attention ? If so , how frequently 
 do they occur ? 
 
 Has the teacher provided any objective aids to attention, — 
 study questions, topics, etc. ? What is their eflfect ? 
 
 Does the teacher give directions or admonitions to the study 
 class ? Is the teacher's attention distracted from the reci- 
 tation by pupils in the study class ? 
 
 If possible, compare the attention of pupils who are writing with 
 that of pupils who are studying lessons out of text-books. 
 
 Observe the reciting class. What proportion of the pupils 
 appear to be giving attention to the lesson ? What are the 
 evidences of this attention ? 
 
 Compare the attention of the reciting class with that of the 
 study class. In which case is the attention more strongly 
 concentrated ? In which is it the longer sustained ? Can 
 you give any reasons for the differences that you note ? 
 
 What is the character of the attention in the reciting class, — 
 active, passive, secondary passive? Note any exceptions 
 to the general rule. 
 
 What does the teacher do to revive attention when it lags? 
 Note any change of method or device that makes for im- 
 proved attention. 
 
 What are the most disturbing distractions in the reciting 
 class? 
 
282 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 Fourth Period. General Topic: Habit 
 
 Note as many completely formed physical habits as you can 
 discover in the pupils. 
 
 Do you discover any physical habits in the process of formation ? 
 How can you tell that they are not "full-fledged"? 
 
 Note habits of speech. Do the pupils articulate distinctly? 
 Do they do this as a matter of habit? What steps 
 are taken to improve habits of articulation and enuncia- 
 tion? 
 
 What grammatical errors can you discover that seem to be 
 matters of habit? What correct forms are evidently still 
 in the judgment stage? Does the teacher attempt to 
 break up inadequate habits by correcting mistakes? 
 What effect does this have upon the pupil corrected? 
 (Note actual conditions.) 
 
 Note the writing of pupils. Are good form of letters, correct 
 spacing, good alignment, and adequate arrangement mat- 
 ters of habit, or are they obtained through judgment 
 processes ? Are the results in writing uniform throughout 
 the class, or is there a wide variation among individual 
 pupils ? 
 
 Note the blackboard work. If inadequate in any way, can 
 you determine just what details need further treatment 
 from the standpoint of habit-forming, — size of letters, 
 uniformity in size of letters, vertical alignment, horizontal 
 alignment, spacing, etc.? 
 
 In the work in arithmetic and spelling, what habits are still in 
 the formative stage of development ? WTiat number facts 
 and word-forms seem to be thoroughly automatic? How 
 do you judge ? 
 
APPENDIX A 283 
 
 Note the points in the teacher's technique that seem to have 
 especial reference to the building of adequate habits or 
 the breaking-up of inadequate habits. Give instances 
 which show the application of the law of habit-building. 
 
 Fifth Period. General Topic: Classroom Routine 
 
 Note the mechanics of the classroom. Note, first, the general 
 appearance of the room. Is it orderly and well arranged ? 
 If so, try to discover some of the elements that go to make 
 up the "total l.:ipression " that it makes upon you — clean 
 floors, well-arranged tables, a place for everything and 
 everything in its place, etc. 
 
 Do the pupils rise quickly when called upon ? Do they stand 
 in the center of the aisle without leaning? Do they al- 
 ways arise upon the same side of the desk ? 
 
 Note the movement of lines. If the pupils rise together, de- 
 scribe the signals that are used to initiate the movement. 
 
 Note the manner in which pupils pass to the board. Have 
 the necessary movements been reduced to habit ? Is there 
 any confusion or disorder in the movement that might be 
 eliminated by forming specific habits? 
 
 If tablets, books, or other materials are distributed or collected, 
 note the mechanism of the process. Can you detect any 
 point at which a bit of established routine would save 
 time or prevent disorder? 
 
 Note the precautions taken to have materials for general use 
 in readiness — crayon and erasers at the blackboard, ink 
 at the desks, etc. 
 
 Is the teacher initiating any new routine ? If so, describe the 
 method employed. How does it illustrate the law of 
 habit-building ? 
 
284 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 Sixth Period. General Topic: Discipline 
 
 Note the class not reciting. Are any of the pupils engaged in 
 activities not connected with their assigned work? Do 
 these activities disturb other pupils? What seems to be 
 the most serious source of disturbance? How seriously 
 does it affect the work of the class as a whole ? 
 
 Would you judge the disturbance to be willful and intentional, 
 or accidental and unintentional ? How can you tell ? 
 
 Do the pupils who are not disturbing others appear to be 
 consciously inhibiting impulses that would cause disturb- 
 ance, or is inhibition a matter of habit ? 
 
 If pupils are consciously inhibiting impulses, what appears to 
 be the motive or incentive for such inhibition? What 
 effect does conscious inhibition have upon the regular 
 work of the pupils? 
 
 What is the attitude of other pupils toward the one who disturbs 
 them? Does disorder tend to "spread" among neigh- 
 boring pupils? 
 
 What measures does the teacher take to preserve discipline in the 
 study class ? Are they effective ? 
 
 Observe the reciting class. How does the "order" compare 
 with that of the study class ? 
 
 What general disturbances are caused by lack of control on the 
 part of individual pupils? How are these treated by the 
 teacher ? 
 
 Do you note any instances of "vohtional action" (conflict 
 between impulses or between an impulse and an idea)? 
 If so, describe a t)^ical case. 
 
 In what way does the teacher encourage right choices in cases 
 of volitional action? 
 
APPENDIX A 285 
 
 What penalties are imposed for misdemeanors ? What is their 
 effect so far as you can observe ? 
 
 Seventh Period. General Topic: Affective Qualities 
 
 Is the general tone of the classroom pleasant, unpleasant, or 
 indifferent? How do you determine this? 
 
 Can you ascribe the general condition to any specific cause, — 
 subject-matter studied, method of presentation, physical 
 conditions such as heating, Hghting, ventilation, time of 
 day, previous exercises? 
 
 What is the effect of the "tone" of the room upon the pupils* 
 work? Does it make them more or less attentive? Does 
 it seem to impede or accelerate memory, judgment, reason- 
 ing? 
 
 Do you notice particular cases of any pronounced emotion 
 among the pupils, — joy, grief, hope, satisfaction, disap- 
 pointment, sympathy, antipathy, delight? (Take a par- 
 ticular case and describe it in detail, noting the cause, the 
 physiological expressions, and the effect upon the pupil's 
 work and upon the work of other pupils.) 
 
 Note particularly any cases of extreme depression or extreme 
 buoyancy. What appears to be the cause? How does 
 the condition express itself, — inertia, light breathing, 
 general relaxation; activity, suffusion of blood to the capil- 
 laries, high tension, rigidity, etc.? 
 
 Does the predominant "tone" of the room appear to have any 
 effect upon the teacher? Does the teacher take advan- 
 tage of any specific emotion or mood appearing in a par- 
 ticular pupil ? 
 
 What is the dominant "tone" of the teacher? What it the 
 
286 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 effect of this upon the instruction ? Upon the pupils ? Do 
 you notice any ** contagion" of mood or emotion? 
 
 Eighth Period. General Topic: Hygiene 
 
 Note the sitting posture of the pupils. What proportion are in 
 an adequate sitting position ? Can you see any permanent 
 effects in individual children of bad sitting posture, — 
 curvature of the spine, round shoulders, depressed head, 
 etc. ? 
 
 Are the seats so arranged and adjusted that all pupils can as- 
 sume a correct position? What proportion of the pupils 
 are "hung up"? What proportion have desks that are 
 too high? Too low? 
 
 Can you by looking over the class notice any pupils who have 
 defects of vision ? How do you judge in each case ? 
 
 Is there any evidence that any pupils are defective in hearing ? 
 What special measures does the teacher take to aid such 
 pupils ? 
 
 What proportion of the pupils appear to be anaemic ? Compare 
 the work of these pupils with that of the others. Are they 
 listless, relaxed, inattentive; or nervous, high-strung, and 
 "fidgety"? Note their manner of standing, their recita- 
 tion work, and their general affective tone. 
 
 Would you class any of the pupils as "mouth breathers"? 
 If you find such cases, compare them with the other pupils 
 as to ability to sustain attention, ability to concentrate, 
 general mental ability, affective tone, and temper. 
 
 Note the lighting of the room. Does the light come exclusively 
 from the left ? If it comes from other directions, can you 
 note any bad effects in the way of cross-shadows, etc. ? Does 
 
APPENDIX A 287 
 
 inadequate lighting appear to affect the "tone" of the 
 room? 
 
 Is the temperature uniform or variable ? If variable, note the 
 effect of changes in temperature upon the pupils and upon 
 the work. 
 
 Note any signs of fatigue. Can you distinguish cases that 
 appear to be real fatigue from those that appear to be 
 merely ennui? 
 
 Note the effect of slight changes in methods and devices upon 
 apparent fatigue. What does the teacher do to provide a 
 partial restitution of energy? If pupils are given gym- 
 nastic exercises, note the result on the work. If free play 
 is permitted or if "rest periods" are provided, note the 
 result. 
 
 What provision has been made for ventilation ? Does it appear 
 to be effective? Note any disastrous consequences that 
 seem to be the result of bad ventilation. If windows are 
 opened and the air is changed, note the effect upon the 
 pupils and upon the work. 
 
 Ninth Period, General Topic: Technique of Instruction 
 
 What assignments were given ? Note the amount of time spent 
 in assignments. 
 
 What lesson type is represented by the assignment? (Induc- 
 tive or deductive development, preliminary focalization 
 preparatory to drill lesson, etc.) 
 
 Describe in detail the method of the assignment. 
 
 Were the functions of the assignment fulfilled ? (Did the as- 
 signment clear up relatively insuperable difficulties and 
 create an interest in the new lesson ?) 
 
288 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 What effect did the assignment have upon the subsequent study 
 period ? 
 
 Were devices employed to make the seat-work effective ? (Did 
 the teacher provide blackboard questions, topics, objec- 
 tive exercises, problems to be solved?) What were the 
 effects of these devices upon the study class ? 
 
 What recitations did you hear? Could the recitations be 
 classified according to lesson type ? (Development lesson, 
 review lesson, drill lesson.) 
 
 If a recitation can be definitely classified as to tj^e, describe 
 how the technique of the lesson was adapted to fulfill the 
 function of the type represented. (If a review lesson, the 
 function of organization ; if a drill lesson, the function of 
 habit-building; if an inductive development lesson, the 
 function of establishing a general principle, rule, or defi- 
 nition; if a deductive development lesson, the function 
 of anticipating experience or explaining facts.) 
 
 Tenth Period. General Topic: Technique of Instruction 
 Note time devoted to assignment, and describe the methods 
 
 employed in assignment. 
 Observe especially the recitation. Classify according to lesson 
 
 type. 
 Would you characterize the recitation as "question-and- 
 
 answer" or *' topical"? Which of these two varieties is 
 
 demanded by the lesson type represented? 
 Are all of the pupils attentive to all of the questions and topics? 
 
 What precautions does the teacher take to insure such 
 
 attention ? 
 Are "pumping" questions employed? Are they justified by 
 
 the lesson type ? 
 
APPENDIX A 289 
 
 Are the questions broad and general or specific and pointed? 
 Give instances. 
 
 Are the questions asked in a logical sequence, or is the con- 
 nection between successive questions slight? In either 
 case, is the procedure consistent with the lesson type ? (In 
 a drill lesson, for example, logical sequence of questions is 
 not so important as in a development or a review lesson.) 
 
 If the recitation is topical, note the character of the topics stated. 
 
 Are they broad and comprehensive, or narrowly limited? 
 
 Are subsidiary points included in the statement of the topics, 
 
 or does the teacher expect the pupil to have these so well 
 
 in mind that the statement of the general topic suggests 
 
 them? 
 
 How would you characterize the topical recitations of the pupils ? 
 (Are they coherent and well organized, or loose and dis- 
 jointed?) Do the pupils discuss the topic in such a way 
 that the necessary thought-connections are clearly brought 
 out? 
 
 Does the teacher "prompt" the pupils in recitation? If so, 
 describe a typical case. Is the reciting pupil ever inter- 
 rupted in the course of a recitation in order that another 
 may proceed with the discussion ? What effect does this 
 have upon the attention of the class ? 
 
 Does the recitation close with a summary ? If so, describe the 
 method of summarizing. 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 PUPIL-GOVERNMENT AND THE SCHOOL CITY 
 
 Many attempts have been made within the past ten years to 
 establish the principle of self-government in the school com- 
 munity. Many of these plans have through premature news- 
 paper exploitation won an ephemeral notoriety, which the sub- 
 sequent results have failed to justify. Others have met with a 
 measure of success that would seem to indicate that there is 
 something to be said in favor of pupil-government, at least in the 
 upper grades of the elementary school and in the high school. 
 
 Probably the most notable instance of a democratic juvenile 
 community is the "George Junior Republic,'* of Freeville, 
 New York. This "Republic" is peopled mainly by waifs 
 rescued from the streets of New York City. It provides a 
 community life, partly self-supporting through the labor of the 
 "citizens," and almost entirely self-governing. The mem- 
 bers of the community elect their own legislature, their police 
 justices, their executive officers. The laws are rigidly enforced, 
 and penalties, among which the most serious is actual impris- 
 onment at hard labor and on a very plain diet, are extremely 
 effective. How much of the success of the George Junior 
 Republic is due to the dominant and inspiring personality of its 
 founder, it would be difficult to determine, but that some credit 
 must be given to the principles that are involved is hardly to be 
 doubted. It is not clear, however, that the same principles would 
 operate with equal efficiency in all schools. The "citizens" of 
 the George Junior Republic are different from the average child 
 in that they have been accustomed to take initiative and to 
 
 390 
 
APPENDIX B 291 
 
 assume responsibility almost from infancy. As a result, they 
 are prematurely developed in a great many directions. 
 
 The *' School City" is perhaps the most successful form of 
 self-government in schools existing under normal conditions 
 and catering to the needs of normal children. The establish- 
 ment of a school city is almost invariably successful at the 
 outset — for the simple reason, of course, that anything that 
 is novel, and especially anything that involves self-activity, 
 will always appeal to children. When the novelty begins to 
 "wear off," however, the duties involved in self-government 
 become as irksome as any other duties, and, unless upheld by 
 a strong head, the school city soon lapses, and the reins of 
 government are again assumed by the principal and teachers. 
 Nevertheless, while it lasts, the school city may be a very valu- 
 able object-lesson in the mechanics of a democratic govern- 
 ment, and it is this feature more than any other that strongly 
 recommends the general plan. 
 
 The following "Charter" may be suggestive to those who 
 wish to try the experiment. It was framed by Principal 
 Norman Strong, of the Arsenal School, Hartford, Conn., 
 after a very careful study of the whole problem, — and, it 
 should be added, with a full recognition of the general Hmita- 
 tions of pupil-government. It is now in operation in the 
 Arsenal School, and has thus far proved to be successful. The 
 writer is indebted to Principal Strong for permission to reprint 
 the charter here. 
 
 CHARTER OF THE ARSENAL SCHOOL CITY, HART- 
 FORD, CONN. 
 
 The committee and faculty of the Arsenal School, Hartford, 
 Conn., do hereby create the Arsenal School City, granting 
 
292 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 the following charter and delegating the necessary powers to 
 Garry out its provisions. 
 
 Article I. Citizens and Jurisdiction 
 
 Section I. The citizens of the Arsenal School City shall 
 consist of the pupils above Grade III in the main building, their 
 teachers, and the principal of the school. 
 
 Section II. Its jurisdiction shall extend to all parts of the 
 school property, with the exception of the classroom. This 
 jurisdiction may be extended to the classroom by a two-thirds 
 vote of all the pupils registered and by the consent of the prin- 
 cipal and the teacher. A notice of such action shall be sent to 
 the city clerk. 
 
 Article II. Powers and Duties 
 
 Section I. The Arsenal School City shall be a body politic 
 with legislative and judicial powers, within bounds, and in 
 harmony with, the Constitution of the United States and the 
 Constitution of the State of Connecticut. 
 
 Section II, The City shall have the right to nominate and 
 elect ofl&cers for its government. 
 
 Section III. It shall be the duty of its citizens and its offi- 
 cials to maintain such order as is necessary for the best interests 
 of school life; to become thoroughly familiar with their city 
 charter; to secure justice to every citizen; and to enforce as 
 laws, all ordinances that shall be made by its legislative body, 
 and such rules and regulations as have been established in the 
 school either through custom or by the direction of the principal. 
 
 Section IV. It shall be the special duty of the city officials 
 to inform themselves as to the duties of their office by reading, 
 and by questioning those most able to give them information. 
 
APPENDIX B 393 
 
 Article III. Legislative Department 
 
 Section I. The legislative body shall consist of the citizens 
 of the city. 
 
 Section II. A bill to become a law must pass through the 
 following stages : — 
 
 1. It shall be presented by any citizen to the mayor and 
 principal, who shall, if they think it is a proper bill to come 
 before the voters of the city, direct the city clerk to post it. 
 
 2. It shall be posted for five school days. 
 
 3. On the school day following the last day that the bill is 
 posted, the citizens, as they pass out to recess, shall cast their 
 ballots in their respective rooms. They shall vote *'yes" if 
 they favor the bill, and "no" if they oppose it. 
 
 4. During the recess of the day aforesaid, the ballots shall be 
 counted and a certified record of the result be sent to the city 
 clerk. Two counters and two inspectors shall be previously 
 chosen. 
 
 5. The city clerk, with the mayor and the judge of the city 
 court as inspectors, shall summarize the ballots. 
 
 6. If the bill shall receive a majority of all the votes cast and 
 the signatures of the mayor and principal, it shall become a 
 city ordinance. 
 
 Article IV. The Legislative Department 
 
 Section I. The executive officers shall be a mayor, a chief- 
 of -police, and a city clerk, elected for one school term. 
 
 Section II. Duties of the Mayor. Clause i. The mayor shall 
 be the chief executive officer and, in case of his temporary dis- 
 ability, absence, or removal, his duties shall devolve upon the 
 following officers in the order given : chief-of -police, town clerk. 
 
294 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 Clause 2. He shall appoint with the consent and advice of 
 the principal and the chief-of-police, such police officers as he 
 thinks necessary for the maintenance of order. 
 
 Clause 3. Police officers having control of corridors, cloak 
 rooms, and basements shall be appointed upon the advice of 
 the classes using said parts of the building. (See Art. VI, 
 Sect. VI.) 
 
 Clause 4. The mayor shall communicate during the first 
 week of the term at a public meeting or meetings the condition 
 of the city and make recommendations for its improvement. 
 
 Section III. Duties oj the Chiej-of-Police. Clause i. The 
 chief-of-police shall have general charge of the police force. 
 
 Clause 2. It shall be the duty of the chief-of-police to bring 
 all persons before the City Court and the Court of Appeab on 
 the order of the prosecuting attorney. 
 
 Section IV. Duties oj the City Clerk. Clause i. The city 
 clerk shall be the custodian of all city property, keep the records 
 of the city and post the same. These records shall include the 
 following: (i) results of all elections; (2) the ballot on all 
 bills ; (3) all city ordinances ; (4) a complete record of nomi- 
 nating conventions; (5) a record of all classrooms that pass 
 under the jurisdiction of the city government. 
 
 Clause 2. He shall have power to administer the oath of office 
 to the city officials. 
 
 Clause 3. He shall appoint, with the advice and consent of 
 the mayor and principal, an assistant city clerk. 
 
 Article V. The Judicial Department 
 
 Section I. The judicial department shall consist of the 
 City Court and the Court of Appeals. 
 Section II. The City Court. Clause i. The City Court shall 
 
APPENDIX B 295 
 
 have original jurisdiction over all cases of violation of the laws 
 of the city. 
 
 Clause 2. The officials of the City Court shall be a judge and 
 a prosecuting attorney elected by the city, and a clerk of the 
 court, appointed by the judge, with the advice and consent of 
 the mayor and principal. 
 
 Clause 3. It shall be the duty of the judge to preside at all 
 sessions of the City Court, to discharge all persons found not 
 guilty, and to sentence those found guilty. To become opera- 
 tive, a sentence must receive the written approval of the prin- 
 cipal, or a teacher authorized by him. 
 
 Clause 4. The pupil associate judge of the Court of Appeals 
 shall preside over the City Court during the temporary ab- 
 sence or disability of the judge of the City Court. 
 
 Clause 5. Any person aggrieved by the judgment of the City 
 Court shall have the right of appeal to the higher court. 
 
 Clause 6. The jurisdiction of the City Court as to penalties 
 may be limited by the ordinances of the legislative department 
 and in all cases where no penalty is prescribed by ordinance, 
 the court shall impose such penalty as it deems just and equi- 
 table, subject to the right of appeal as aforesaid. 
 
 Clause 7. It shall be the duty of the prosecuting attorney to 
 prosecute before the City Court (and the higher court when 
 an appeal is made) all violations of the laws of the city. 
 
 Clause 8. It shall be the duty of the clerk of the City Court 
 to keep all records of persons brought before the court as 
 follows : the defendant's name, his offense, by whom arrested, 
 defendant's plea, the defendant's attorney, the witnesses for 
 and against, the decision and penalty imposed by the court 
 and the appeal. (He shall also be clerk of the Court of Appeals 
 and record its decisions.) 
 
296 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 Clause 9. The principal or a teacher authorized by him shall 
 be present as an adviser at each session of the City Court. 
 
 Section III. The Court of Appeals. Clause i. The Court of 
 Appeals shall consist of the chief justice, who shall be the prin- 
 cipal, and two associate justices, a teacher, and a pupil elected 
 by the city for one school term. 
 
 Clause 2. The Court of Appeals shall have appellate and 
 final jurisdiction on all cases brought to it on appeal from the 
 City Court, and original jurisdiction over all applications to it 
 for the removal from office of any of the officials of the city. 
 
 Clause 3. The prosecuting attorney, clerk of the City Court, 
 and chief -of-police shall also be officials of the Court of Appeals 
 when it is in session. (See Art. V, Sect. Ill, Clauses 7, 8, and 
 
 9-) 
 
 Clause 4. The sessions of the Court of Appeals shall be sub- 
 ject to the call of the chief justice. 
 
 Article VI. The Nomination and Election of Officers 
 
 Section I. The Delegates. Just prior to dismissal on the 
 afternoon of the Monday of the last full week of school in each 
 school term, each room of the Arsenal School City shall elect 
 a boy and a girl as delegates to a nominating convention and 
 send a certified list of the same to the city clerk. 
 
 Section II. The Convention. Clause i. On the following 
 Tuesday at 3.30, these delegates shall meet in convention and 
 shall nominate two candidates for each of the following officers 
 in the order given: mayor, chief -of-police, judge of the City 
 Court, prosecuting attorney, a teacher and pupil as associate 
 justices of the Court of Appeals, and a city clerk. 
 
 Clause 2. The city clerk shall call the convention to order, 
 and a chairman shall be elected. The chairman shall direct 
 
APPENDIX B 297 
 
 the city clerk to call the roll of the delegates from his certified 
 lists. The convention shall then proceed to nominate candi- 
 dates. 
 
 Clause 3. The principal or a teacher authorized by him shall 
 be present as an adviser during the session of the convention. 
 
 Section III. The Election. Clause i. Just prior to the dis- 
 missal on the afternoon of the Thursday of the last full week 
 of each school term, ballots shall be cast in each room for the 
 candidates, and a certified record of the result sent to the city 
 clerk. Previous to the election, two counters and two inspec- 
 tors of election shall be chosen. 
 
 Clause 2. The city clerk shall summarize the ballots, with 
 the mayor and judge of the City Court as inspectors. 
 
 Clause 3. The officials receiving a majority of all votes cast 
 shall be elected. 
 
 Section IV. Term of Office. Clause i. The term of office 
 of all city officials shall be for one school term and until their 
 successors are installed unless otherwise provided for. 
 
 Clause 2. The installation of officers shall take place at such 
 time and place as the principal may arrange. 
 
 Section V. Vacancies Filled. All vacancies in office, unless 
 otherwise provided for, shall be filled by the mayor with the 
 advice and consent of the principal. 
 
 Section VI. The First Election. The first election shall take 
 place at the call of the principal. 
 
 Section VII. Police Officers. Clause i. Each room shall 
 choose on the last day of each calendar month three boys and 
 three girls, and shall send a list of the same to the mayor. 
 (See Art. IV, Sect. II.) 
 
 Clause 2. The term of office of a police officer shall be for 
 one calendar month and until his successor is installed. 
 
298 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 Clause 3. The first and most important duty of a police 
 officer shall be to prevent a violation of the laws. 
 
 Clause 4. A police officer shall make an arrest by serving 
 upon an offender the following warrant : — 
 
 Date 19.... 
 
 To 
 
 You are hereby accused of violating a law of the Arsenal 
 School City and are summoned to appear before the next ses- 
 sion of the City Court. 
 
 Offense 
 
 Signed Police Officer 
 
 Clause 5. A duplicate of the above shall be sent by the 
 police officer to the prosecuting attorney at the time of the arrest. 
 
 Clause 6. Before assuming the duties of office, officials shall 
 take the following oath : — 
 
 "You do solemnly promise that you will perform with pa- 
 tience and courtesy the duties of the office of 
 
 and will, to the best of your ability, preserve, protect, and defend 
 the interests of the Arsenal School City." 
 
 Article VII. Amendments 
 
 Amendments to this charter shall be made in the same way 
 
 that city ordinances are enacted, with the exception that they 
 
 shall receive a three-fourths vote of all ballots cast. (See 
 
 Art. III.) 
 
 Article VIII 
 
 This charter shall become operative by the three-fourths 
 vote of the city, and shall become inoperative at the close of any 
 term by a majority vote of the teachers having classrooms in 
 the Arsenal School City. 
 
APPENDIX C 
 
 THE "SPRINGFIELD QUESTIONS" IN ARITHMETIC 
 
 In 1905 a set of examination papers written by ninth grade 
 pupils in 1846 was found in one of the grammar school build- 
 ings of Springfield, Mass. The questions were given to an 
 eighth grade class in the same school for the purpose of com- 
 paring the results in arithmetic under the older methods of 
 teaching with the results obtained under contemporary methods. 
 In several other schools throughout the country the same ques- 
 tions have been given, and it is generally agreed that they form 
 a very fair test of what pupils should know of arithmetical proc- 
 esses at the close of the elementary course. They are ac- 
 cordingly reprinted below, together with the standings attained 
 by the earlier class and by present-day classes : — 
 
 "i. Add together the following numbers: Three thousand 
 and nine, twenty-nine, one, three hundred and one, sixty-one, 
 sixteen, seven hundred and two, nine thousand, nineteen and 
 a half, one and a half. 
 
 "2. Multiply 10,008 by 8009. 
 
 "3. In a town five miles wide and six miles long, how many 
 acres ? 
 
 "4. How many steps of two and a half feet each will a person 
 take in walking one mile ? 
 
 "5. What is one third of 175J? 
 
 "6. A boy bought three dozen of oranges for 374 cents, and 
 sold them for i^ cents apiece; what would he have gained if 
 he had sold them for 2^ cents apiece? 
 
 299 
 
300 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 "7. There is a certain number, one third of which exceeds 
 one fourth of it by two; what is the number? 
 
 "8. What is the simple interest of $1200 for 12 years, 11 
 months, and 29 days, at six per cent?" 
 
 The class of eighty-five pupils who underwent this examina- 
 tion in 1846 averaged 29.4 per cent. In 1905, the eighth grade 
 Springfield class averaged 65.5 per cent, and a class at Frank- 
 fort, Ind., 62.2 per cent 
 
APPENDIX D 
 
 PUPILS' WRITTEN WORK AS AN INDEX OF GROWTH 
 
 The following plates are reproductions (reduced in size) of 
 papers produced by pupils in the elementary grades. They 
 are inserted here as possibly suggestive to the beginning teacher 
 of the quality of written work that may be expected from pupils 
 in the grades indicated. 
 
 Plate I shows the improvement made in form (arrangement, 
 alignment, neatness, and good writing) in a period of four 
 months. Similar results were secured from the other mem- 
 bers of the class. (Grade III "B.") 
 
 Plate II and Plate III also show the growth that may be 
 made within comparatively brief periods of time. The first 
 paper represented in Plate II is typical of the rather careless 
 work often accepted as the best that a pupil can do. The 
 second paper, written two months afterward, shows a notice- 
 able improvement in matters of form. The first paper of 
 Plate III reveals a deterioration in form, due to the intro- 
 duction of a new process (the "long" method of division). 
 The second paper, produced three weeks later, shows recovery 
 from the deterioration, and also a measurable improvement 
 over the second paper of Plate II. 
 
 Plates IV-XIII represent types of written work for the 
 various grades. They are reproduced from papers selected 
 from complete "sets" comprising the work of entire classes. 
 In every case, the paper is a "first draft," that is, there has 
 
 301 
 
302 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 
 been no correction or rewriting. The object is to show, not 
 the most "finished" results, but the results that can be ex- 
 pected from the pupils, day in and day out, as a matter of 
 habit. In every case, the paper reproduced is fairly typical 
 of the set from which it is taken. The papers represent schools 
 in all parts of the United States — the East, the Middle West, 
 the South, and the Far West. The presence of certain con- 
 tent in any paper does not, of course, imply that the writer 
 necessarily indorses such content for the grade in question. 
 The suggestions printed under the cuts indicate possible lines 
 of improvement. 
 
H^I lb ^C- 2,2 i9*i 55-> 
 / 6 dU/Yv^j^l dbwxn.. 
 
 'H% 
 
 /^c?!? 
 
 '/o? 
 
 ^o:?it 
 
 /^ 
 
 +H^3J^ 
 
 +s:.o/o_ 
 
 iO,Sb9 
 
 1^3 ^ 
 
 Plate I. — Showing Growth in Form Habits from September to January. 
 (Grade III " B.") (Note particularly the improvement in form of figures, 
 and in vertical and horizontal alignment.) 
 
 303 
 

 •20 V- a.075 3(>t)^ 
 
 f«o 
 
 tana.d. it 67 
 
 J3JLI t 7Ai ^1 1 J 
 
 SUzi^JL. ^nSlASL. 5"U£iiL5L 
 
 I uour nruxnrvji rum/i^ l/n \x dcup? 
 it 
 
 Plate II. — Showing Growth in Form Habits from November to Januaiy. 
 (Grade III " B.") 
 
it&LxnJi 
 
 1 
 
 
 H13X 7»f?-5 t,.<} 31 
 
 a<?t3 a7Ht ¥154 
 
 8-H<? 32-75a. 
 
 33qb tULHJLHi- 5-13 7, TO 
 
 -t-.^rt'?'^ I Oy 6 7 75 
 
 5V33b 
 
 Plate ill. — Showing (a) Deterioration in Form on Introduction of New Process; 
 (*) Recovery from Deterioration. (Grade III *' B.") 
 X 30$ 
 
Plate IV. —Type of Work from First Grade Pupils just Learning to Write. 
 
 306 
 
MM 
 
 Plate V. — A Type of First Grade Work. (Rather crowded and some 
 figures not well-formed.) 
 
 307 
 
a-a 
 
 4^*3 
 
 a. ^ \ 1 3SL 
 
 «» C) -1 Ll/vvb. 3 b b CLo-ub. 
 
 Plate VI. —An Average Paper selected from all " B " Number Set. (Note 
 a "backhand" tendency that needs correction.) 
 
 308 
 
tjtcrui/n, //ace/ JcA,<rcca^/ijt^^izyA^t/zru>icO^^A/c^^ 
 .JkicLh^ yOtLcAu oy>U>0 . A^xjt ^/U/nv.ci<Tuyn/>d£b^u}yy-ia^ 
 
 PLATE VII. — A •' Story " Paper from Grade III " A." (More uniform slant 
 and wider spacing would improve the paper.) 
 
 » 
 
^ynJur -tJ^XJL CuJJ o^TlVi^U.^^ 
 It^TxlykAJ irnycnc<n^t<^ytyy^ 
 
 Plate VIII. — An Average Fourth Grade Paper showing " Medium Slant" 
 Penmanship. (Margin needs correction.) 
 
 310 
 
1i CUutl/mU^, 
 U 
 
 1 ^- Oa;t of I ^ of. wthJL., 
 
 Plate IX. — Arithmetic Paper from Grade V " B." (Lack of uniformity in 
 height of letters and figures is the chief defect.) 
 
 3" 
 
r4 
 
 1^ i!rtwuu»V>) T^^cvi/JvuUWt; 
 
 Hci^jLU, vXowvtr ^ovwijl va^AAXj^ <wut ^iu(1a/u. cxaaA "tUx 
 
 ■U/OAA/'tUjt yiouii^ yaJ^iUi <^^ 
 
 VnJLoJl ^ oi/YUjL kxu-K^ oL CXnjcL vtLojkX^a. Ji^^ cuwcL 
 crCtk, t5xoX tJhju^. \vxnAJlcL vurt IxTuxK.'tkft. 
 
 Plate X. —A •• Story " Paper from Grade V " A." (Lines too close together ; 
 spaces should be wider between words.) 
 
 3«« 
 
5. "VQaxi^wAXa. -* 3 «^ oL . i ^ . 5 «A. .to- wv . 
 
 H JvcL .= 4 X H tfdL.* 5,a t| cL. 
 
 Plate XI. —An Arithmetic Paper from Grade VI " A." (Note vertical 
 alignment.) 
 
 313 
 
Plate XII. — An Average Paper selected from an Elementary Science Set 
 (Grade VII "A ") . (The " sketch " inserted by the pupil may be profitably 
 compared with the elaborate decorations often seen on exhibited papers.) 
 
 314 
 
;0'jLri_&iJL Stoiirt-rvlSti. f(jT.faA4»*<l>V»». ,' ^jTr^U^. 
 
 Plate XIII. — An Arithmetic Paper from Grade VIII " B." (What would other- 
 wise be good form is impaired by crowding on a small sheet of paper.) 
 
INDEX 
 
 (Names of authorities cited are printed in small capitals. References given at the end 
 of the chapters are not repeated in the index.) 
 
 Absence, 6, 71 ff.; as influencing 
 
 standing, 79. 
 Accuracy, tests for, in arithmetic, 236 f . 
 Abler, F., 181. 
 
 Adulation as an incentive, 180 S. 
 Affective qualities, 285 f. 
 Aim of education, 7 f., 226 f. 
 Akron, Ohio, course of study cited, 63. 
 Alternation of studies, 61 ; in Batavia 
 
 system, 219 ff. 
 Angell, J. R., 63. 
 Anti-machine theory of government, 
 
 30 ff. 
 Arithmetic, 5 f., 23 »., 148 ff., 197, 
 
 299; testing results in, 236 ff. 
 Art of teaching, 273. 
 Assignment, functions of, 192 ff.; 
 
 helping pupils in, 193 f. 
 Association, of cause and effect in 
 
 punishment, 109; of theory and 
 
 practice, 276. 
 Attendance, 6, 71 ff.; delinquencies 
 
 in, 72 ff. 
 Attention, 137 ff., 188, 280 f.; active, 
 
 140 ff., 158 ff.; function of, 148; 
 
 and habit, 144; passive, 140, 147 ff.; 
 
 in recitation, 212; and reasoning, 
 
 160; rhythms of, 191; secondary 
 
 passive, 143 ff. 
 Authority, in securing order, 93 ff.; 
 
 overemphasis of, 95; and justice, 
 
 98; and scholarship, 97. 
 
 Backward pupils, treatment of, 218. 
 Baldwin, J., 123. 
 Baldwin, W. A., 53. 
 Ball-playing, regulation of, 87. 
 Batavia system, 214 ff.; applicability 
 of, 219 ff.; dangers of, 217 f.; his- 
 
 tory of, 216; program in, 220 f.; 
 
 virtues of, 216 f. 
 Bay City, rules cited, 129. 
 Bell-Lancaster system, 217. 
 Biology, of attention, 139 ff. 
 Blackboard, routine in use of, 39 f.; 
 
 neatness of, 48 f.; 235. 
 Book vs. oral instruction, 191 f., 205. 
 bothwell, j. l., 122. 
 
 Carrington, W. T., 193. 
 
 Chadwick, E., 60. 
 
 Chamberlain, A. F., 126. 
 
 Change, instinct of, 147 ff. 
 
 Chester, Pa., rules cited, 127, 129. 
 
 Chubb, P., 174, 194, 204. 
 
 Cigarette smoking, control of, 87 f. 
 
 Civic duties of teacher, 257. 
 
 Civic virtue, instruction in, 258. 
 
 Civilization, changes due to, 7, no. 
 
 Clark, S. H., 194. 
 
 Class as technical term, i. 
 
 Classes, number of, in relation to pro- 
 gram, 57 ff. 
 
 Classification in rural schools, 27. 
 
 Class-individual instruction, system 
 of, 214 ff. 
 
 Class instruction, system of, i f.; as 
 source of waste, 11; technique of, 
 188 ff. ; advantages and dangers of, 
 214. 
 
 Cleanliness, personal, 88 f. 
 
 Closets, inspection of, 91. 
 
 Commendation as an incentive, 180 ff. 
 
 Competition in securing attendance, 
 76 f. 
 
 Compulsory attendance, enforcement 
 of, 73 ff. 
 
 Construction, instinct of, 155 f. 
 
 317 
 
3i8 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Contagious diseases, 89. 
 
 Contrasts, instinctive liking for, 154 f. 
 
 Cook, W. G., 272. 
 
 cornman, o. p., 238. 
 
 Corporal punishment, 114 S.; by 
 whom administered, 128 f. ; dangers 
 of, 1155.; frequency of, 116; as an 
 incentive to study, 164 ff.; in pres- 
 ence of class, 130; limitations of, 
 115 ff. ; opinions upon, 123 ff. ; 
 period when most effective, 130 f.; 
 reaction against, 117 ff. ; regula- 
 tion of, 126 ff.; witnesses for, 129; 
 as penalty for tardiness, 78. 
 
 Courage as factor in discipline, 93. 
 
 Course of power, 57. 
 
 Craft spirit in teaching, 100; ideals 
 of, 267 ff. 
 
 Curiosity, instinct of, 152 ff., 202 f. 
 
 Daily program, 50 ff.; under Bata- 
 via system, 220 f. 
 
 Day session, length of, 51 f. 
 
 Deductive development lesson, 203 f. 
 
 De Garmo, C, 246. 
 
 DeUnquencies, necessary, 72. 
 
 Delinquency in attendance, 71 ff. 
 
 Desks, adjustable, 82; arrangement 
 of materials in, 42 f. 
 
 Devices, 158 ff. 
 
 Dewey, J., 165. 
 
 Dictionary, use of, 193 f. 
 
 Diminishing returns, law of, in educa- 
 tion, 69. 
 
 Discipline, 92 ff., 284 f. 
 
 Distributing wraps and materials, 
 40 ff. 
 
 DuTTON, S. T., 123, 170, 174, 184. 
 
 Education, ultimate aim of, 7 ff . ; as a 
 creative art, 272 f.; and civiliza- 
 tion, 7 f., 180. 
 
 Emotions, as determining attention, 
 141; as compUcating mental pro- 
 cesses, 9. 
 
 Emulation, instinct of, 158 f., 169 ff.; 
 objections to use of, 178 ff. 
 
 Ends, doctrine of, 139 ff.; immediate, 
 140; remote, 141 ff., 159 f., 168 
 (and ideals), 185. 
 
 Environment, influence of, 4. 
 
 Ethics of Schoolcraft, 267 ff. 
 
 Examinations, 243 ff.; in Batavia 
 system, 218; exemption from, 171. 
 
 Excuses, for poor teaching, 269 f.; 
 for absence and tardiness, 73 ff. 
 
 Exemptions, as incentives to attend- 
 ance, 76; as incentives to study, 
 171 f. 
 
 Exercise in open air, 52, 53 »., 86 f. 
 
 Exercises, general, 58 f. 
 
 Exhibition of school work, 173 f., 184, 
 234 ». 
 
 Expulsions, 134. 
 
 Factory, analogy of school to, 4 f , 
 
 Fair play, respect of children for, 98. 
 
 Fatigue, general factors of in program- 
 making, 56; hygiene of, 86 f.; re- 
 cuperation from, 58; relation to 
 subject-matter, 56. 
 
 Fear, as an incentive, 162 ff.; instinct 
 of, 159. 
 
 Fire drills, 37 f. 
 
 First day of school, 20 ff. 
 
 Formal steps, 197 ff. 
 
 Form vs. content, 54 ff. 
 
 Fort Worth, Tex., rules cited, 128. 
 
 Fundamental vs. accessory, in school 
 subjects, 53 f., 273. 
 
 Gambling, 87. 
 
 Games, permitted and prohibited, 
 
 87 f. 
 Geography, 203, 206, 207. 
 George Junior Republic, 291. 
 Gesell, a. L., 47. 
 GiDDiNGS, F. H., 17. 
 Good nature, as factor in discipline, 
 
 98 f. 
 Government, 92 ff.; by pupil, 290 ff. 
 Grade, as technical term, 2. 
 Graded school program, 60 ff. 
 Grades, as incentives, 143, 174, 177 ff. 
 Grammar, 23 w., 197. 
 Group, like response of, 17 f.; as 
 
 modifying discipUne, 112. 
 Gymnastics, and fatigue, 58. 
 
 Habit, Z4 ff., 282 f.; and attention, 
 144; and discipline, 95; and ideals, 
 186; and initiative, 33, 34; and 
 
INDEX 
 
 319 
 
 judgment, 32, 34; and moral 
 character, 228 f. 
 
 Habit-building, law of, 15 f.; re- 
 sults in, 326; testing, 229 ff.; and 
 attention, 233; and spelling, 242. 
 
 Habits, specific nature of, 43 f.; 
 hygienic, 80 ff. ; of sitting, 82 ; of 
 regular attendance, 71 ff.; of pos- 
 ture, 81 ff.; in individual life, 15; 
 in education, 11. 
 
 Hall, F. H., 194. 
 
 Hall, G. S., 125, 151, 245. 
 
 Hart, H. M., 76. 
 
 History, 202, 203. 
 
 HoAJR, G. E., 271. 
 
 Holidays, as incentives, 171. 
 
 Hughes, J. L., 122. 
 
 Hygiene, of eyesight, 85 f.; of class- 
 room, 81 ff., 286 f. 
 
 Hygienic duties of teacher, 256. 
 
 Ideals, as incentives, 184 ff.; of duty, 
 103: psychology of, 185 ff.; im- 
 pression of, 227 f. 
 
 Idea vs. impulse, 158. 
 
 Illinois course of study, cited, 193, 235. 
 
 Immunities, as incentives to attend- 
 ance, 76; as incentives to study, 
 171. 
 
 Impartiality in administering dis- 
 cipUne, 98. 
 
 Incentives, 159 ff.; classification of, 
 169; highvj. low, i68f.; naturals, 
 artificial, 161 ».; positive, 161 f,, 
 168 ff.; negative, 161 f., 163 ff.; and 
 reasoning, 160 ; and association, 164. 
 
 Incidental learning, 150. 
 
 Individual instruction, i f., 213, 
 214 ff.; punishment in. Ill ; tech- 
 nique of, 222 f. 
 
 Individuality of pupil, 32, 38. 
 
 Inductive development lesson, 197 ff. 
 
 Infancy, significance of, 7, iii. 
 
 Inhibition, an acquired art, 106; ne- 
 cessity of, 92. 
 
 Initiative vs. habit, 32, 34. 
 
 Ink, use of, in school, 44, 85 f . 
 
 Inspiration in education, 35. 
 
 Instinct, 14 f-; inadequacy of, no; 
 and active attention, 158; and in- 
 hibition, 106; and interest, 168; 
 
 and incentives, 168 ff.; as deter- 
 mining education, 139 f. 
 
 Instincts, social, 174, 180 ff.; of 
 change, 147 ff.; of construction, 
 155 f.; of curiosity, 202 f.; of 
 emulation, 158 f.; of fear, 159; of 
 play, 150 ff.; of self-preservation, 
 159; in corporal punishment, 118, 
 
 Instruction, class -individual, 214 ff 
 methods of, 189 ff.; technique of, 
 188 ff., 287 ff.; text-book, 189 ff. 
 testing efficiency of, 242 ff. 
 
 Interest, 102 f., 139 ff., 143 ff.; and 
 assignment, 197; and secondary 
 passive attention, 145. 
 
 Interests, primitive vs. acquired, 168. 
 
 Jacksonville, Fla., rules cited, 128. 
 Journals, educational, 254. 
 Justice, in corporal punishment, 117; 
 as factor in discipline, 98. 
 
 Keith, J. A. H., 103, 124. 
 Kellogg, A. M., 123. 
 Kennedy, J., 216, 222. 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A., 234. 
 Knowledge, results in, 226; testing, 
 
 242 ff.; and discipline, 97 f. 
 Kotelmann, L., 81, 85. 
 
 La Crosse, Wis., rules cited, 127, 
 
 Lancaster-Bell system, 217. 
 
 Landon, J., 2, 123, 215. 
 
 La Salle, Father, 2. 
 
 Latham, H., 244. 
 
 Law of habit-building, 15 ff. 
 
 Laws of attention, 139 ff. 
 
 Leaving the room, 45 f. 
 
 Lecture-method, in assignment, 105. 
 
 Leniency in teaching, 19. 
 
 Lessons, study, 206 ff.; recitation, 
 210 ff.; development, 197 ff. 
 
 Like-response in group action, 17. 
 
 Lines, passing of, 22, 37 f. 
 
 Literature, teaching of, 204, 208; edu- 
 cational, 255. 
 
 Los Angeles, course of study cited, 193. 
 
 Machine theory of organization, 30 ff. 
 Manual training, and discipline, 104; 
 in program, 67 ». 
 
320 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Marble playing, 87. 
 Marking .examination papers, 248. 
 Marks as incentives, 174 S., 177. 
 Mechanics of classroom, 231 ff. 
 Metiiod, general, 276; special, 276. 
 Methods, of insfaoiction, 188 ff.; of 
 
 testing results, 225 ff. 
 Mind, function of, 15. 
 Monitorial work as an. incentive, 172. 
 Monitors for distributing materials, 28. 
 Montana, course of study cited, 235. 
 MooNEY, W. B., 279. 
 Moral character, and habits, 228; 
 
 as aim of education, 226 ff. 
 Moral health, 90 f. 
 
 Nagging, 166. 
 
 Natural punishments, 106 ff. 
 
 Neatness, personal, 88; of classroom, 
 43 ff. ; of written work, 47 f. 
 
 Needs, primitive, 165; as determin- 
 ing education, 139. 
 
 New York, state course of study dted, 
 68. 
 
 Normal school, observation in, 275 ff. ; 
 policy of, 276 n. 
 
 Objective teaching, diflBculty of, 277. 
 Observation, course in, 275 ff.; prin- 
 ciples of, 277 f.; syllabi for, 279 ff. 
 Oral vs. book instruction, 191 f., 205. 
 Oral vs. written work, 173 f. 
 Order, 92 ff., 284 f. 
 Organization, economy of, 13 ff. 
 O'Shea, M. v., 8, 57, 58, 246, 275. 
 Outlines, topical, 209 f. 
 
 Paper for school use, 85. 
 Parents, cooperation of, 133, 178. 
 Passing, formality of, 175 f. 
 Payne, B. R., 54. 
 Payne, W. M., 272. 
 Pencils for school use, 85. 
 Periods, standard length of, 60. 
 Persistence as factor in discipline, 
 
 95 f. . ^ 
 
 Play, supervision of, 86 f . ; instinct of, 
 
 150 ff. 
 Pleasure-pain theory, 106. 
 Portiand, Ore., course of study cited, 
 
 193. 
 
 Posture, habits of, 81 ff.; in sitting; 
 81 ff.; in standing, 84 f.; in writ- 
 ing, 83 f . 
 
 Practice vs. theory, 275 ff. 
 
 Praise as an incentive, 180 ff. 
 
 Preparation of lessons, 252. 
 
 Pride of pupils in school, 182 ff. 
 
 Primacy as factor of recall, 20. 
 
 Principal, duties of, 262; sending 
 pupils to, 134 f. 
 
 Privileges, as incentives to attendance, 
 75 f.; as incentives to study, 172; 
 loss of, as penalty, 132. 
 
 Prizes, as incentives to attendance, 
 75 f.; as incentives to study, 169 ff. 
 
 Professional duties, 251 ff. 
 
 Professional study, 253 ff. 
 
 Program, for first day, 24; daily, 
 50 ff.; necessity of adhering to, 
 69 f.; in Batavia system, 219 ff. 
 
 Promotions as Incentives, 174 ff. 
 
 Psychology, educational, 3 f . ; of atten- 
 tion, 138 ff.; of habit, 14 f.; of 
 ideals, 185 f,; and observation, 277. 
 
 Punctuality, 77 ff. 
 
 Punishments, 105 ff. 
 
 Question-and-answer recitation, 211. 
 Questioning, art of, 212. 
 Questions, examination, 245 f.; study, 
 207 f. 
 
 Rapidity in number associations, 
 237 f. 
 
 Raub, a. N., 57, 58. 
 
 Reading, 6, 193 ff.; professional, 
 254 f. 
 
 Reasoning, capacity for, 160. 
 
 Rebukes as penalties, 131. 
 
 Recesses, providing for, in program, 
 52 f.; and discipbne, 86, 104. 
 
 Recitation lesson, 210 ff. 
 
 Reform in schools, 14. 
 
 Relaxation, 86. 
 
 Repression in childhood, 31. 
 
 Results, responsibility for, 263; spec- 
 tacular, 184; testing, 225 ff. 
 
 Retroversion, to lower grade, 177. ^ 
 
 Rice, J. M., 248. 
 
 Rivalry, 169 ff. 
 
 Roark, R. N., 58, 123. 
 
INDEX 
 
 32J 
 
 JlOBBINS, C. L., 279. 
 
 Room, as technical term, i. 
 
 Routine, of classroom, 37 ff., 283; 
 in group action, 17 f.; justification 
 of, 33 ff.; as factor in discipline, 
 102; of teacher's life, 250 ff. 
 
 RuEDiGER, W. C, 210. 
 
 Rural schools, program of, 64 ff.; 
 supervision of, 265; classification 
 of, 27. 
 
 Scholarship, as affected by absence, 
 79 f.; as a factor in discipline, 97. 
 School city, 290 ff. 
 School day, length of, 51. 
 School duties of teacher, 250 li'. 
 School exhibits, 184. 
 School organization, 261 ff. 
 School year, length of, 51. 
 
 SCHWICKERATH, R., 1 79, 1 80. 
 
 Scolding, as negative incentive, 165 f. 
 Seats, conditions to be fixlfilled by, 
 
 82. 
 Seeley, L., 123, 178. 
 Selection, natural, in instinct, 100. 
 Self-preservation, instinct of, 159. 
 Shaw, E. R., 81, 85. 
 Signals for class movements, 38 f. 
 Simultaneous system of instruction, 
 
 I f., II, 189 ff. 
 Sitting, proper position in, 81 f. 
 Slant writing, postvure for, 84. 
 Smith, J. H., 85. 
 Smyser, S., 223. 
 Snell, S., 85. 
 
 Snowballing, control of, 87. 
 Social duties of teacher, 258. 
 Social efficiency, 186, 226 f.; as aim of 
 
 education, 7 f. 
 Social instincts, 174, 180 ff. 
 Social values of studies, 247. 
 Social vs. primitive life, no. 
 Social vs. scholastic standards, 175. 
 Soft pedagogy, 177, 205, 218. 
 Speech, testing habits of, 235. 
 Spelling, teaching of, 195 f.; testing, 
 
 238 ff. 
 Spencer, H., 106, 107 ff. 
 Spontaneity, 3. 
 Sports, permitted and prohibited, 
 
 87 f. 
 
 Y 
 
 Springfield questions in arithmetic, 
 
 299 f. 
 Standards, social vs. scholastic, 175; 
 
 of good teaching, 225. 
 Starting aright, importance of, 20 f. 
 Strong, N., 291. 
 Study, art of, 207 f. 
 Study lesson, 206 ff. 
 Study period, problem of, 189 ff., 
 
 207 ff.; in Batavia system, 221 f. 
 Study questions, 207. 
 Substitution vs. repression, 103 f. 
 Suggestion, in breeding moral disease, 
 
 90. 
 Superintendent, duties of, 261 f. 
 Supervisors, duties of, 264 ff. 
 Suspensions, 132 f. 
 System, economy of, 13 ff. ; in educa- 
 tion, 261 ff. 
 
 Tact as factor in discipline, 94 f. 
 
 Tardiness, 6, 77 ff. 
 
 Taylor, J. S., 124, 125, 174. 
 
 Teacher, relation to superior officers, 
 262 ff. 
 
 Teachers' associations, »$$. 
 
 Teaching as a creative art, 273. 
 
 Tests, for educative values, 9; f<w 
 results, 225 ff. 
 
 Text-book instruction, 189 ff. 
 
 Text-book lesson, 192 ff. 
 
 Text-books, difficulties in use of, 
 191; classification of, 190; tech- 
 nique of use, 192 ff. 
 
 Theory vs. practice, 275 ff. 
 
 Thorndike, E. L., 103, 165, 238, 245. 
 246. 
 
 Thoughtlessness, as excuse for iius> 
 demeanors, 95 f. 
 
 Tidiness of classroom, 45 f. 
 
 Time sense in children, 78. 
 
 Toilets, inspection of, 91. 
 
 Tompkins, A., 123. 
 
 Topical analysis, 209. 
 
 Topical recitation, 211 f. 
 
 Topics, study, 209. 
 
 Ungraded school (see Rural school). 
 
 Vaccination, 89. 
 Variety, desire for, 147 ff. 
 
322 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Vertical writing, posture in, 84. 
 Visiting schools, 183 f., 255 f. 
 Vividness in assigning lessons, 195. 
 Voice of teacher, loi f. 
 Volitional action, 159. 
 
 Waste, sources of, 11. 
 Whipple, G. M., 279. 
 White, E. E., 67, 12a, 123, 161. 
 Will, 159. 
 
 Worry, avoidance of, 99 ff.; evils o^ 
 in pupils, 176. 
 
 Wraps, collection of, 23. 
 
 Writing, in study period, 210; pos- 
 ture in, 83 f. 
 
 Written work, supervision of, 43, 
 252 f.; neatness of, 47 f.; testing, 
 232 ff.; 301 ff. 
 
 Young, R. G., 193. 
 
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