t GIFT OF 1903. f - NEW SOUTH WALES. COMMISSION ON PRIMARY, SECONDARY, TECHNICAL, AND OTHER BRANCHES OF EDUCATION. f INTERIM REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONERS ON CERTAIN PARTS OF PRIMARY EDUCATION. CONTAINING THE SUMMARISED REPORTS, RECOMMENDATIONS, CONCLUSIONS, AND EXTENDED REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONERS; WITH ILLUSTRATIONS, ETC. I SYDNEY: WILLIAM APPLEGATE GULLICK, GOVERNMENT PRINTER. 1903. 19862 178- (a) IKV.hW.] o By His Excellency The Honourable SIE FREDERICK MATTHEW DARLET, Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George, Lieutenant-Governor of the State of New South Wales and its Dependencies, in the Commonwealth of Australia. To Geobge Handlet Knibbs, Esquire, F.R.A.S., of Sydney, in the State of New South Wales, Greeting : — Know you, That reposing great trust and confidence in your zeal, discretion, and integrity I, SiE Eeedeeick Matthew Daklet, as Lieutenant-Governor of the State of New South Wales, with the advice of the Executive Council thereof, do, by these presents, appoint you, the said George Handlet Knibbs, Esquire, E.R.A.S, in conjunction with John Wilmam Turner, Esquire, to proceed to Europe and America for the purpose of inquiring into existing methods of instruction in connection with primary, secondary, technical, and other branches of education, and of recommending for adoption whatever improvements you may consider might with advantage be introduced into the State of New South Wales. Initd.— J.M.G. Given under my Hand and the Public Seal of the State, at Sydney, in New South Wales (l.s.) aforesaid, this tenth day of April, in the year of Our Lord one thousand nine hundred and two, and in the second year of His Majesty's reign. EREDK. M. DARLEY, * Lieutenant-Governor. By His Excellency's Command, JOHN SEE. Entered on Record by me, in Register of Patents, No. 24, page 29, this eleventh day of April, one thousand nine hundred and two. For the Colonial Secretary and Registrar of Records, CRITCHETT WALKER, Principal Under Secretary. By His Excellency The Honourable SIR FREDERICK MATTHEW DARLEY, Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George, Lieutenant-Governor of the State of New South Wales and its Dependencies, in the Commonwealth of Australia. To John William Tcknee, Esquire, of Sydney, in the State of New South Wales, Greeting : — Know you. That reposing great trust and confidence in your zeal, discretion, and integrity, I, Sir Frederick Matthew Darley, as Lieutenant-Governor of the State of New South Wales, with the advice of the Executive Council thereof, do, by these presents, appoint you, the said John William Turner, Esquirei, in conjunction with George Handle! Knibbs, Esquire, F.R.A.S., to proceed to Europe and America for the purpose of inquiring into existing methods of instruction in connection with primary, secondary, technical, and other branches of education, and of recommending for adoption whatever improvements you may consider might with advantage be introduced into the State of New South Wales. Initd— J.M.G. Given under my Hand and the Public Seal of the State, at Sydney, in New South Wales (l.s.) aforesaid, this tenth day of April, in the year of Our Lord one thousand nine hundred and two, and in the second year of His Majesty's reign. FREDK. M. DARLEY, Lieutenant- Governor. By His Excellency's Command, JOHN SEE. Entered on Record by me, in Beoisteb of Patents, No. 24, page 28, this eleventh day of April, one thousand nine hundred and two. For the Colonial Secretary and Registrar of Records, CRITCHETT WALKER, Principal Under Secretary. I Qo^jrii * • ^ • -* • 1904.. Legislative Assembly. NEW SOUTH WALES. COMMISSION ON PRIMARY, SECONDARY, TECHNICAL, AND OTHER BRANCHES OF EDUCATION. INTERIM REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONERS ON CERTAIN PARTS OF PRIMARY EDUCATION. To His Excellency Sm Harry Holdsworth Rawson, Admiral in the Royal Navy, Knight Commander of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath, Governor of the State of New South Wales and its Dependencies, in the Commonwealth of Australia. May it please Yotju Excellency, — We, your Commissioners, appointed oa the llth day of April, 1902, io proceed to Europe and America for the purpose of inquiring into existing methods of instruction in connection with primary, secondary, technical, and other branches of Education, and of recommending for adoption whatever improvements you may consider might with advantage be introduced into the State of New South Wales, have now the honour to submit a Report on certain parts of primary education, its organisation and administration. Before the issue of the Commission a letter to the following effect was received by each of the Commissioners from the Under Secretary of the Department of Public Instruction : — Department of Public Instruction, N.S.W., Sir, Sydney, 8 April, 1902. In cor.nection with your appointment as Commifsioncr of Education, I am asked by Mr. Perry, the Minister of Public Instruction, to send you the following directions: — It is not desired that you should report on the general systems of education in force in the towns or countries you visit, as such information can bo obtained from official reports open to all readers. If, however, in any subjects taught, you find the methods or results in any European or American Schools superior to our own, you should state in detail what you consider is the cause of the difference, and how improvement may be made here. If you lind that the advantage in any subjects is on the side of this State, you should report why, in your opinion, this is so. In visiting Technical, Commercial, Continuation, or any other schools, you should take special notice of subjects taught which have not been introduced into New South Wales, but which might with advantage be introduced. In reporting on these matters you should deal fully with the course of study, the buildings, the hours of attendance (distinguishing between day and night classes), the enrolment, the general age of pupils, whether attendance is compulsory or voluntary ; if the latter, whether it is the rule or the exception for students to complete their wliole course, or to discontinue their study alter the newness wears off, the teaching staff, salaries paid, total expenditure, students' fees, and other sources of income, and generally should collect such information as would assist the Gorerameut of this State, if it were thought desirable, to establish schools of the kind described. 19862 *15— (6) You Tou should make yourselves acquainted with the details of the training of Teachers and Pupil Teachers, and report on the scope of their examinations. You should not divide your work in making inquiries, but both should be present at every visit or inspection, and in your interim or final reports the matters upon which you agree should he signed by both. In cases where you arrive at different conclusions, each should state his own views above his own signature. After commencing your inquiries, a short fortnightly diary should be posted to the Under Secretary, stating what visits have been made during the period, and at the end of each month a brief interim report on work done should be sent, not for publication, but for the information of the Minister. It is not desirable that you should give lectures or engage in public discussions. It will be left to your own judgment, when you are on the spot, to select the places to bo visited; but, speaking broadly, you are not required to visit any country or town where it is generally recognised that there is little or nothing to be leared in connection with the objects of your journey. Generally, it is the wish of the Minister that you should report on any matter that you think may be of value to the Department. This may be done in your final comprehensive report. I have the honour to be, Sir, Tour most obedient servant, (Signed) J. C. MATNAED, G. II. Knibbs, Esq., F.E.A.S. Under Secretary. J. W. Turner, Esq. We left Sydney on 12th April, last year — 1902 — and returned on 23rd February of tliis year, having travelled through the United Kingdom, France, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, E-ussia, Bohemia, Austria, Hungary, the United States and Canada, visiting various educational institutions and conferring wath distinguished educationists. It is undesirable, in your Commissioners' opinion, to delay certain improvements which your Commissioners recommend for adoption, until sufficient time has elapsed for the preparation of the full report. This report, therefore, does not traverse the whole subject-matter of inquiry, but deals only with certain features of primary education, which appear to your Commissioners to demand attention as early as possible. Summarised Report on Certain Parts of Primary Education. .•' ■' I- GENERAL. [G. H. KNIBBS AND J. W. TURNER.] 1. The Scope of the Present Report. — An inquiry into practically all branches of education is necessarily an elaborate task, involving three elements, (1) The subject-matter of education; (2) the organisation of instruction ; (3) the administration. It was necessary to consider these three for the following reasons, viz. : — {a) The subject-matter is not identical in substance, form, or range in different countries ; (5) The general plan of instruction differs ; and moreover (c) The administrative scheme, by means of which the general plan is made best to serve its object, is very variously organised. Tliese matters are more fully set forth for certain parts of primary education in Chapters I to LVIII of the extended lleport. It sliould be observed that the scope of inquiry, to determine the organisation of primary education alone, must necessarily be comprehensive, and a purview qf the higher education to which it must lead, for those whose circumstances and ability admit of their advance, is essential. For the unity of educational organisation demands that the primary system shall he properly adjusted to the higher. 2. Scheme of Uxtended Heport. — It has been thought desirable to discuss the many questions, the consideration of Avhich was essential in the course of the Commissioners' investigations, in a series of separate chapters, which may be regarded as constituting the body of this Report.- Seeing that the Commissioners had necessarily to traverse a considerable range of subjects, and examine a large number of documents, this course was the only practicable one by which the appearance of the Report could be expedited. Neither Commissioner has attempted to cover the whole range himself. The several chapters are either reports upon the details of the visits of educational institutions, or are monographs on the scheme of work therein, or upon subjects of special importance. In order to enable each Commissioner to freely express his views, the various chapters have been written by the Commissioners independently, the name of tho writer being indicated beneath the title. For this reason each Commissioner is responsible only for the facts and conclusions set forth in the chapters written by himself, and is not responsible for those appearing in the chapters written by his fellow-Commissioner. This proceeding secured whatever advantage was to be derived from independent study of the important question of public education. To some extent, division of labour was also made possible thereby, thus considerably economising time. 3. Time invoiced in investigation. — In regard to the time devoted to tlie investigation, it ought to bo said-that however long it may appear, it has been really inadeqitate. The Commissioners felt that their duty could not be properly discharged unless they undertook a thorough study of educational systems of the lands through which they had travelled, and unless they disclosed in the Report sufficient evidence to shew the high character of education in those countries. It is by contrast alone that we can justly estimate where we stand educationally, and only by realising the extent of our defects that we can hope to progress. The letter of instruction, dated April, 1902, previously referred to, carries with it at least a virtual implication that a complete examination of educational systems of other countries was unnecessary, and states that " such information can be obtained from official reports open to all readers.'^ To this statement the Commissioners must enter a respectful demurrer. Had the educational system of the State of New South Wales been substantially perfect, and had it, therefore, needed but slight modification in regard to detail, such direction would have been applicable. In view of the fact, however, that important reform has 'appeared to the Commissioners to be necessary, it was incumbent on • them to report on educational systems as a whole, and to compared education in New South Wales with the whole scheme of education in other countries. • ■ For this reason, both the details atid the system itself should be regarded as under review in this Report. A comparison of the time occupied by the Commission over so extensive a task, with the time occupied by other Educational Commissions dealing with a much more limited educational field, will reveal the fact that the time spent has been, ■ as^aid, insufficient. The urgency of reform, however, will condone the effort of the Commissioners to discharge their task as expeditiously as possible ; and, at least, the place of our educational • system among others has been determined by them with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes, viz., to outline the features of that reform thtough which alone it can hope to reach the plane of American and European ■education. J ■ -. I 4. Scheme of Summa7'ised Report. — Although it was necessary to set out in ' considei'able detail, some part of the basis of facts, upon which the opinions of the * Commissioners have been founded, both for the purpose of illustrating the difference l:otwcon between Continental and American primary education, and that of this State, and also for the purpose of affording, as far as possible, the opportunity for the formation of independent opinions, it is very difficult, in an extensive document, to bring into clear relief the real issue. The aim, therefore, of this summary, will be to present a sketch of the whole question, and of the conclusions reached ; and detail will generally be ignored, as tending to obscure the main issue. 5. Coincidence and divergence of view.— A. critical study of the chapters written by the Commissioners would, of course, reveal the extent of the coincidence and divergence of their views. It was considered desirable, however, that all agreement or difference should be brought into prominence in this summary, and an endeavour has been made to do this. The logical consequences of the coincidence or divergence of view are disclosed in the detailed recommendations of each Commissioner. They also appear to some extent in the Synopsis of Conclusions forming an appendix to this summary. It was not to be expected that an independent stvidy should lead to absolutely identical views, and it is believed that the best interests of public education will be served by each Commissioner fully stating his own opinion. It may be added that the detailed conclusions, at which the Commissioners have arrived, are in general set out at the end of the various chapters, and their general drift will appear in this Summarised lleport, the synopsis of conclusions herein being somewhat more complete than a mere aggregation of the conclusions set forth at the end of each chapter. 6. Visits in Australia. — Before leaving Sydney, the Carpenterian and Parramatta Heformatories, the "Sobraon" boys' training-ship, several of the leading public-schools, and the Technical College, Sydney, were visited. Calls were made on the Consuls of the different countries, through which it Avas proposed to travel, and their advice was sought. The Commissioners were met by these gentlemen in the kindliest possible way, and afforded valuable advice and introductions. Acknowledgments of their courteous services will be found in Chapter I of the full Eeport. In passing through Melbourne, Adelaide, Frcmantle, and Perth the opportunity of visiting the Departments of Education, of seeing something of their school organisation, and of ascertaining their school-law, and the drift of their opinion, Avas embraced, and acknowledgment of the kind assistance rendered is also made in Chapter I. It may be added that, since the return of the Commissioners, several primary schools have been visited, including three of A'cry recent construction. 7. London, etc. — On reaching England, the Commissioners, after putting themselves into communication Avith the Agent-General of Ncav South Wales, and the Board of Education, AA-orked partly together and partly independently of each other, each seeing both primary and secondary schools and technological institutions, and each dnuviiig the attention of the other to features considered to be conspicuous. In no other Avay Avould it have been possible to accomplish the task invoh'cd, viz., of seeing something of the educational establishments in and about London. In regard to London and its suburbs, and in fact the United Kingdom generally, the principle that the Commissioners Avere compelled to act upon, in vicAv of the limitation of time for the accomplishment of their task, AA'as, that only those places should be visited that were likely, orAvere said to shcAV newer features in their material equipments, or in, the arrangement of (heir buildings. It is, of course, regrettable, that many educational institutions of eminence had to be omitted, but it would have been quite impossible to have visited them all ; and this will explain the deliberate decision to leave out of the visiting programme many institutions of very high reputation. Their curricula, histories, and special features were inquired into as far as was deemed necessary ; and every endeavour was made to ascertain from all available sources of information, the spirit guiding their educational effort. In this connection it ought to be stated that many schools of high reputation, which are doing excellent work in building up manly characters, and in maintaining high traditions traditions, have, after all, very inferior material organisation. In such cases a mere visit to the actual huilding, and a view of equipments, would be of no value ; but to learn the way in which they aimed at realising their ideals, is of the highest value. This could be ascertained in other ways. It should be remembered in this connection that the Commissioners had at their disposal, not only the very kind advice of able officers of the Board of Education, but also of various professors engaged in the higlier teaching institutions of England, of distinguished men of science and other branches of learning, and of public men Avho had given special attention to educational matters. This advice was in all cases most cordially given. As is generally the case, progress, from a variety of causes, was somewhat slow in the initial stages of the Commissioners' Avork. In addition to endeavouring to see the best institutions in and about London, and also to get at the best informed opinion as to tlie educational needs of the English people, inquiry had also to be made as to the best scheme of movement through the various countries of Europe. [Chap. I, sees. 19, 20.]. Passing through France, Switzerland was visited first, commencing in the French portion and going on to the German. , 8. Switzerland. — From the standpoint of any democratic community, Switzerland is a very important place to visit, since the spirit of the people has in some respects a semblance to our own. What difference there is, is mainly due to the temperaments of the Swiss, Avhich are very dissimilar in the French, German, and Italian parts. In democratic spirit they are more thoroughly in agreement with the Australian. (It is worthy of note that one of the Presidents of the Swiss Confederation, did not regard it as beneath his dignity to continue his academic teaching during the term of his office as President.) But as regards their attitude to public instraction it may be said that Switzerland has a practical respect for education which has no counterpart in this State. Their educational institutions are very fine and very thoroughly equipped ; their organisation and plan of instruction possesses a degree of thoroughness, that would well serve as a model for our future effort ! The study of Swiss education was therefore made as thorough as was possible in so rapid a movement, for its primary system is probably unsurpassed. In regard to certain features, this was one of the most profitable parts of the Commissioners' tour. The cities and towns seen in Switzerland were Geneva, Lausanne, Moudon, Payerne, Neuchatel, Berne, Lucerne, Winterthur, Zurich, and Basel. 9. Italy. — Passing southward, Italy was visited ; the schools, however, were, unfortunately, in vacation. The proper Minister being absent. His Excellency Signer Malvano was seen, also the chief of the Department of Public Instruction, and a number of professors and teachers ; each most courteously affording all the information in his power as to their educational systems. These appear to be very finely organised, so far as scheme is concerned, and in the superior branches of education attain to a high degree of perfection. Recent primari^ schools in Northern Italy are excellent, one in Turin being much superior to anything in Australia. The cities of Italy seen were Milan, Venice, Bologna, Florence, Rome, Naples, Genoa, Pisa, Turin, At the last-named place a very fine exhibition was visited, as it afforded a valuable opportunity of observing the development of the decorative arts, etc. 10. Western Germany. — Returning from Italy and completing the examina- tion of Switzerland, the Commissioners travelled through Alsace, Baden, Bavaria, Hessen, and tlie Rhine Provinces, visiting Strasburg, Karlsruhe, Heidelberg, Darmstadt, Frankfort on the Main, Marhurg, Mayence, Coblenz, Bonn, and Cologne. In these cities and towns, folk-schools, real-schools, gymnasia, poly- technica, and universities, etc., were seen, and some insight into German educational institutions Avas obtained. The equipments of the poly tech nica were excellent, and far superior to anything in this hemisphere, hydraulic and electro- technical equipments, being, perhaps, among the most striking features. 11. 6 11. Belgium and Holland. — Belgium was next visited ; the cities, etc., seen being Li^ge, Brussels, Louv.iiu, Malines (Wavre Notre Dame), Gembloux,. Ghent, Bruges, Ostende, and Antwerp. The Agricultural University at Gembloux was an institution of more than ordinary interest. It may be mentioned that Belgium .is bilingual, instruction in many parts being given in both French and Flemish. Passing then into Holland, some of the educational institutions of Rotterdam, Delft, The Hague, Leyden, and Amsterdam were visited, all shewing important developments in response to modern educational needs, and a serious attempt to thorouglily equip the Dutch people educationally. 12. Germany and Denmark. — Eeturning somewhat on their path, the Commissioners next visited Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), Diisseldorf (where a large exhibition, in which Education was represented, was being held), Hanover, and Hamburg, in Germany; and Fredericia and Frederikshavn in Denmark. Later, Copenhagen was also visited. In the last-named place an important technical establishment for the improvement of dairying, etc., was inspected. 13. Norway, Stceden. — Crossing the Cattegat, various schools, etc., in Gothenburg, NiUis, Trollhattan, Kristiania, Basto, and Stockholm, were visited. The equipments in this country were also excellent. Features of special interest were the Seminarium for Sloyd (Slojd) at Njias, the Art School of Stockholm, an exhibition of Swedish gymnastic in that city, and the Reformatory at Basto. 14. Finland and Russia. — It was originally the Commissioners' intention to return southwards, but comments on the excellence of some of the institutions of Finland and Russia led to a determination to sec at least the capital cities. ■ O Crossing the Baltic Sea, and passing through Abo, the old capital of Finland, the present capital Helsingfors was visited, where the Commissioners learnt that the Finns also have excellent primary schools. St. Petersburg was next reached by rail, and some of its magnificent educational institutions Avere seen, the stay there, however, being all too short. 15. Prussia and Saxony. — Returning from Russia, Berlin was made the next place of sojourn, the great Reichanstalt at Charlottenburg, and the Versuchsanstalten at Charlottenburg and Gross-Lichterfelde, being among the institutions of special technical interest. On leaving Berlin, Leipzig and Dresden were visited. 16. Bohemia, Austria, Hungary. — Prague, the capital of Bohemia, a bilingual country, Avith Czech and German schools often housed under the one roof, was the Commissioners' next city of call. Its fine Czechish polytechnicum has a special laboratory for investigating questions relating to sugar production. Vienna, and Buda-Pest, the capitals of Austria and Hungary, were next visited, but the stay was ridiculously short. The information collected by the Commissioners has, hoM^ever, been very kindly supplemented through the valuable and generous efforts of His Excellency the Ambassador at Vienna. A return was made via Breslau to Berlin, where the examination of the Prussian system was completed. 17. France. — Passing on then to Paris, the French systein in primary, professional, and training schools was examined. The time available was becoming very limited, and although much was seen in a short time, the inquiry was necessarily hurried. Among places of special technical interest were the 13ureau des Poids et Mesures, St. Cloud ; and the Bureau Central Meteorologique at Paris. Through the kind offices of the English Ambassador and Consuls, a large amount of information was gathered, however, from various important cities of France. The French primary system was deemed excellent, and was therefore thoroughly studied. 18. The United Kingdom. — After some further investigation in London and its immediate neighbourhoorl, a journey was made to Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Edinburgh, and Glasgow. Then crossing the ^'orth Channel, Belfast and Dublin were visited, and crossing the Irish Sea, a return was made made via Holyhead, etc., to London. The various Welsh institutions most readily gave the Commissioners a large amount of valuable information as to their school systems, for which their appreciative thanks are here expressed. 19. Uniled States and Canada. — Leaving Southampton, the journey to America was made via Cherbourg. On reaching New York the Commissioners took train at once to Washington, visiting afterwards Philadelphia, New York and its suburbs, Newhaven (Yale University), Springfield, and Boston (Harvard University). Next Canadian institutions were seen at Montreal and Toronto ; then the Niagara Palls, Ithaca (Cornell University), Detroit, Ypsilanti (Normal School), Ann Arbour (Michigan University), Chicago and San Prancisco were visited, and a return was made via Honolulu and New Zealand. 20. Assistance afforded the Commissioners. — It would be difficult to over- appreciate the very kind assistance that was afforded the Commissioners in the details of their inquiry, not only in the United Kingdom, but in all parts of their tour. In each country the greatest consideration was shewn, and both Ministerial and Educational officials did all that was possible to facilitate the very rapid movement ijecessary to return within the limited time available. Por the assistance referred to, the Commissioners desire to express their warmest appreciation and thanks ; and it is only just to say that any success tliat inay attend their efforts must be credited largely to the unexpected way in whicli assistance was given, both during the occasion of their visit, and since through correspondence. ;Por this universal and generous help our State is deeply indebted. Nothing that would help to reduce the time spent at each place to an absolute minimum was omitted, for it was only in this way that so extensive a tour could be accomplished in the very brief time allowed. It is to be regretted that more deliberate study was not possible. It is but right to record here the very valuable assistance given by the officers of the Department of Public Instruction, assistance that has much facilitated the task of the Commissioners. Pinally, the Commissioners desire to express their heartiest thanks to the Honourable the Minister for Public Instruction for the assistance afforded them under his authorisation, and for much personal kindness and encouragement during a very lengthy and arduous inquiry. 21. The conclusions and recommendations of each Commissioner. — It remains to be added that the Commissioners, while in substantial agreement as to the necessity of abolishing the pupil-teacher system, of making the professional education and training of the teachers more thorough, of changing the scheme of inspection, of taking fuller account of hygiene in regard to the general arrangement of schools and the furniture therein, of increasing the practical efficiency of education, and of improving the equipment of schools, have, nevertheless, thought it wise to summarise their views independently. Those of one of the Commissioners (G. H. Knibbs) are given in Divisions II to X, and of the other (J. W. Turner) in the remaining Divisions of the summarised report, viz., XI, etc., the name of each Commissioner being attached to each Division. In all parts of the summarised or extended report which have been written independently, the word " Commissioners," when (or though) used in the plural, is to be regarded as involving only the individual writer. Sometimes, of course, it will also express the opinion of both. Each Commissioner desires to place on record an acknowledgment of his sense of obligation to his fellow Commissioner, a sense of obligation that any existing difference of view has not in the least diminished. SUMMARY 8 Summary and Recommendations ; by G. H. Knibbs. INQUIRY INTO EDUCATION. ?| [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introdiictory. — The comprehensiveness of the Commission demanded a review of the whole matter, from the standpoint of the Education of the People, rather than from tliat of the education of particular ela'^scs, or of the education that may happen at the present time to fall under a particular jurisdiction [Chap. LV, soc. ].]. The State is concerned with the well-being of the entire community, and has an undoubted and unequivocal interest in such an organisation and liberal unification of educational methods, as shall assist in creating a self-reliant, mentlally able, practically capable, and moral community. This matter is more fully dealt with in Chapters LIV and LV, and will be again referred to, and the significance of such an undertaking will be seen from Chapter III. The Commissioners endeavoured to study the educational systems of each country from the standpoint indicated, and further, to acquire an accurate knowledge of the material and mechanical side of school administration and organisation in the various countries visited. They sought also to ascertain, what is far more important^ viz., the educational principles upon which the organisations were founded, ana further, to estimate the consequences of these upon the people. It is only in such a Avay that educational systems can be truly and properly appreciated. A review of the merely mechanical side would often lead, and has often actually led, to most erroneous views, and many subjects have, in this way, been misunderstood. For example, true kindergarten has the ireest possible organisation, and does not resort to repressive discipline, for the reason that it proposes to stimulate self-expression and respect for one's own individuality, and to secure, ultimately, steady behaviour by self-control instead of through coercive discipline. This is characteristic, yet it has often been so completely misconceived that in its place have been found a few Proebelian occupations, Avith a I'egime of ordinary infant-school discipline, absolutely without freedom ! [Chap. XVI, sec. 5]. It is worthy of comment that in countries where great weight is attached to the fundamental principles of education, and to educational theory generally, and where, consequently, these have been most thoroughly debated, it is naturally realised that the mechanism of education is relatively (but not absolutely) of slight importance ; and yet it is in such countries that the equipment and, material organisation have been most developed [Chap. LI, sec. 1]. This is explained only by the significance of every aid to education being appreciated in proportion as its theory and principles are thoroughly studied, a fact which throws light upon the value to a teacher of a study of the theory of education before its practice is undertaken by him. Either in the case of an individual, or in the system adopted by a State, the intellectual outlook and grasp is completely transformed by a knowledge of educational theory, and, it may be added, of educational history. It remains to be said that the great paedagogues of many countries have, both by their lives and ideas, stimulated and inspired the teaching profession in its arduous daily work, for the virile mind needs the support of a large view as to the real character of the work, in order without deterioration to tolerate daily association with the child-mind. * 2. State of Education in New South Wales.— It would have been a most agreeable task had it been possible to return with the report that the educational system of our State was excellent, or needed but slight amendment or insignificant additions. Unfortunately to so represent it is quite out of the question, for it has been made evident to the Commissioners that the citizens of this State have educational opportunities falling far short of those in other parts of the world [vide Chap. I, sees. 1, 11], and in the training of our teaching-staffs there are defects, the seriousness oftchich can hardly be overstated [Chap. I, sec. 8]. 9 To have to make a report in sucli terms is natui'ally a painful and disagreeable duty, but in view of the great issues which depend upon education, issues which involve the whole future of our people, candour is an essential, and any disposition to hide the defects of our educational system could not, under such circumstances, be too strongly deprecated [Chap. I, sec. 7]. A clear and unqualified recognition of our shortcomings, and of their gravity, is the initial condition for that complete reformation which seems to the Commissioners to be necessai*y. The details of this will be referred to hereafter. It is proper here to observe that a condemnation of the educational system should not be confused tcith a failure to appreciate the labours of the teaching staff. The industry, devotion, and genivis of many a teacher has, luckily for the children of this State, enabled him to minimise its evils. Despite the poverty of the professional education and training it supplies, many a teacher, by assiduous use of every opportunity of self-culture, has become able and well-informed. If he has been cramped by the mcichanism of the system, and has been forced to adopt methods which his judgment could not approve, he has also put himself under pressure to avoid its untoward incidence upon his pupils. Thus there has often been good education under a bad system, and there is no inconsiderable number of teachers in the Department who will most gladly welcome reform. 3. On the significance of Education. — The significance of education to any nation can be understood only from general considerations. It is most vividly realised in contact with the better-educated peoples, and in sight of their daily activities. The range of the influence of education may be said to cover all individual, communal, or national effort, whethei% industrial, commercial, literary, or scientific. It affests all that a nation is or does ; it gives not only the power of wisely creating or exploiting territorial wealth, but also the power of recognising its existence [Chap. I, sees. 2, 9]. Countries ahead of us are progressing, and their better education is rewarded by certain achievements which need not here be referred to. There arc two special reasons why our Slate system of education should be advanced till it is comparable with the education of Europe and America. These are : — (a) Tlie issues which may arise at any time through national rivalries demand that our industrial and commercial activity should be at least as wisely and ably directed as in other countries of the world. To secure this we must depend upon our primary education conferring the requisite self-reliance, purpose, general intelligence, skill, and moral force on our population, [Chap. I, sees. 5, 3 0, 14]. (fi) The rapid progress in all departments of human knowledge, and in the application of science to industry and commerce, demands that our educational system should be such as to make it possible to keep in touch thercAvith. It is necessary, therefore, so to educate our teachers as to enable them to follow intelligently and with interest the world's economic and scientific development, in order that they may become inspirers of the children a3sthetically, intellectually, and morally. [Chap. I, sees. 12, 15]. 4. Urgency of Improved Education — "We are, as already implied, so far behind America and the leading countries of Europe in, — {a) The character of tlie education given, and in {b) A sufficient education and training of our teaching-staffs, that the improvement of education is urgent. [Chap. I, sees. 8, IG]. Evidently it will take some time to properly develope our teaching power, and our educational transformation ought to be without violence in respect of existing conditions. [Chap. I, sec. 6]. The teachers already in office will have to be brought into line with the new methods and developments. There can be no doubt also that the development of the resources of our territory depends largely on practical education, viz., that which developes character and teaches to think. [Chap. I, sees. 9, 30, 12, 1.3]. A Avide-spread recognition of the value of education, if it can be brought about, will greatly strengthen the hands of the people of our State, and the increase of intelligence, consequent upon any forward movement, will be the fulcrum for further development, 5. 15-(c) 10 5. Reasons of Existing Defects. — What lias been said implies grave defects in our existing educational institutions, and among these is the organisation of our primary" system. In this connection it ought to be said that the task of educating a large and very sparsely-populated community is far greater than might at first sight appear, and the administration of Public Education has had a gigantic problem to deal with. There has obviously been much zeal and devotion in its work, and there is mechanical precision in its scheme. The greatness of the work undertak(>n should command public respect for it. How far it meets public needs will be discussed later. It has already been indicated that reform is needed. Some idea of the magnitude of the work of the Department may be had from the following statement, kindly supplied by the Chief Inspector (now Acting Under Secretary), Mr. F. Bridges. The total number of schools under the Department of Public Instruction of this State, open in 1902, was as follows : — High Schools 4 Public 1,903 Provisional ... 464 Half -Time 406 House-to-house 26 Evening 43 Total... ... ... 2,846 comprising 3,005 departments. The following will give a general idea as to the distribution of these schools : — The State is divided into thirty-five inspectorial districts, five of these being in the metropolitan area. Eor these districts there arc tliirty-one inspectors' headquarters ; Sydney being the headquarters of five inspectors. Some idea of distance and area to be covered by inspection can be had from the following table, which shews that, approximately, 114,000 miles are covered annually by the Inspectors of the Department. This travelling extends over an area of about 2S1,000 squai-e miles. In compiling these figures, suburban districts have not been included. The details are as follows : — NuMBEE OF Miles Tratei LED ON InSPECTIOX WoitK. Inspector's Headquarters. JCo. of Miles travelled. Area of District. Inspector's Headquarters. No. of Miles tiaTcUed. Area of District. sq. miles. sq. miles. Armidale 6,372 5,000 Kempsey ... 2,650 4,500 Glen Innes 4,000 7,000 Maitland, East 3,500 3,000 Tamworth ... 2,900 7,583 Newcastle... 2,000 180 Quirindi 5,114 12,000 Dungog 3,500 5,000 Bathurst 2,500 1,400 Sub- Metropolitan .. . 4,073 1,650 Blackheatli 3,900 6,000 Parramatta 3,000 1,100 Forbes 4,937 12,000 Wagga 5,500 2,500 Bowral 3,290 1,120 Albury 3,.500 5,0()0 WoUongong 3,800 900 TouDg 3,400 5,500 Crookwell 2,920 4,000 Hay 2,630 30,000 Goulburn 2,492 8,551) Broken HilL 3,440 60,000 Braid wood ... 3,465 3,500 "Wellington 3,490 13.200 Tass 2,992 5,000 Mudgee ... 2,000 10,000 Grafton Tareo 4,100 2,615 8,700 4,200 Dubbo 7,500 36,000 Lismore 5,169 4,000 Total 114,279 280,683 The early difficulties of the departmental work, viz., those connected with travelling, with the food, the accommodation, and the difficult communication, in a sparsely populated territory, can be adequately appreciated only by those who have travelled extensively over the State. Here it may be said that however much, in the Commissioners' opinion, the educational system adopted in this State falls short of what it ought to be, past endeavour to meet the educational needs of our widely scattered population must challenge respect. The state of education in any territory is a relative thing, and must be judged by comparisons with the state of education in other countries. In making sucli a comparison between education in New South Wales and elsewhere, it may often happen 11 happen that what one (or both) of the Commissioners has to say will seem to assume the character of stron2:lv adverse criticism, or to lose sisrht of elements of merit in our own educational scheme. By way of rejoinder it ought at once to be said that this is in appearance only, for it is impossible to bring our system into real com- parison with that of other lands without revealing in a strong light its grave defects. In order that it may be known exactly where we stand educationally, it is the bounden duty of the Commissioners to speak absolutely without reservation, and to reveal unequivocally the true state of the case as it appears to them after long investigation. Eut, inasmuch as it becomes necessary to disclose how much we have to progress, it is all the more incumbent upon the Commissioners to acknow- ledge their iinqualijied appreciation of the labours, often under most arduous and disheartening conditions, which the teachers and other officers of the Tublic Instruction Department have J)een called upon to discharge in the great cause of education. In submitting their conclusions, and expressing their views, therefore, the Commissioners, however seemingly severe, are not unmindful of the strenuous efforts of the teaching profession on behalf of the rising generations of New South Wales; and to anyone acquainted with the state of our interior, the above synopsis of the activity of the Department will sufficiently suggest how great is public indebtedness to the teaching staff of our State. To what is above said may be added that the teachers of the State cannot he held directly responsible jor the present state of things. They, as others, can transcend their surrounding conditions only with the greatest difficulty. In loyalty to the system adopted, in facing hard conditions bravely, they deserve undoubted praise ; and further, it ought not to be forgotten that the existing regime by no means expresses a consensus of their opinions or their educational ideals. The fault lies in a scheme of education to which the State has been long committed ; the supposed excellence of this zcill be sheion to be quite mythical, and our demerits are the inevitable consequence of an espousal of the pupil-teacher system, which tends to limit the horizon of the teacher educated under tt. G. The Nattire of an Inquiry into Education. — Inquiry into a public, or, indeed, into any educational system, involves an investigation chiefly of four things, [Cliap. Ill, sees. 1, 2], viz. : — (1) The laws concerning education. (2) Tlie curriculum or sul)ject-mattcr of instruction. (3) The organisation of the teaching, including training and supervision. (4) 'J he administration of the laws, and of the Department created under them. An analysis of educational theory has been outlined in Chapter III; this will shew at a glance what must be taken into account. Chapters LIV and LV may also be referred to as shewing the fundamental features of education. In subdividing the several matters (2 to 4) they naturally fall under the following heads : — V V (1) statutes relating to Public (a) Xormal Education. (i) Primary. Instruction. (ii) Secondary. (iii) Continuation and Technical (iv) Superior. (b) Education of tbe (i) Defectives. Abnormal. (ii) Criminals. (2) Subject-matter of (a) Subjects. Instruction. (b) Extent of Instruction therein. (c) The methodology of their teaching. (3) Organisation of (a) Material equipment. (!) School!). Teaching. (ii) Furniture. (iii) Teaching materials. (b) Teaching Staff. (i) Education of teachers. (4) Administration. (a) Scheme of administration. (b) Personnel of administration. (ii) System of teaching, (iii) Maintenance of efficiency— i.e., Inspection, etc. In regard to the second and third sections, it may be said that if efficiency can be reached in the organisation of teaching, the subject-matter of instruction will present no difficulty, but Avill simply have to be declared. 7. 12 7. General remarks on Education in the State of Neic South TFales.- - Looking at Education in the State of New South Wales as a whole, it may be said that, in common with England, it has as yet no properly organised system — that is to say, there is no scheme embracing in a comprehensive and connected way all branches of public education. Strictly speaking, the State has no general system, for the various grades of education do not fall as individual elements into any definitely co-ordinated scheme. This feature, common to Australian as to English education, may be said to bo the characteristic difference between English and Continental education ; and it is one of the most serious defects of the former. In respect of different stages of education, of the scheme of qualification for particular callings, of the relationship between the State and private schools, and of the connection between lower and higher institutions, absence of proper co-ordination makes everything indefinite, uncertain, and unsatisfactory. In Chapters LIV and LV, the mode in which education is co-ordinated in different countries, and thus unified, is referred to, and it will be seen at a glance that countries Avhich have a definitive scheme have great advantages. AVhen in any country having a properly qualified teaching staff, the curriculum of each class of school has by law to conform to at least a definite minimum of education, the transfer from school to school, Avhether of the same or different grades, can be fixed on definite lines. Thus, tlie passing through a certain stage, say, in a higher primary school— the examination being held by the primary school itself, — would qvialify for entrance into the lower secondary school (equivalent in New South Wales to passing, say, from the " Public School " to the " Public High School." Similarly, qualification in the last stage of a higher secondary school could be taken as matriculation. This is, generally speaking, the Continental system, and has great advantages over the English system of the University holding examina- tions to determine the conditions of entrance. This important matter will be referred to more fully in the later report. In certain professional callings, preliminary qualification has to be assured in several ways. In a country with a real system, it is much easier to say how fa^ this qualification exists, and to prescribe conditions ensuring its thoroughness. ["Chap. LIV, sec. 9]. Further, the satisfactory preparation of teachers for different classes of teaching is facilitated when the main lines of their professional occupation are clearly determined, because a primary teacher has to be generally proficient — i.e., possessed of considerable knowledge of many subjects, while a secondary teacher has to be specially proficient — i.e., possessed, in addition to general proficiency, of thorough knowledge of a limited number of subjects. From what has preceded, it can be seen that it is important in the public interest for the State to so shape its educational policy as to bring all educational • institutions under such degree of control as will ensure efficiency and full participa- tion in the State system. This, of course, cannot be done instantly and by mere enactment ; it is to be brought about only through increase of mutual sympathy and touch between the totality of educational institutions and the State Department. Eor practical objects, this would have in view the permission for each institution, Avhen thoroughly equipped both as regards material and personnel, to determine the qualifications of its own pupils for the purpose of passing them to a higher grade of education. This may appear a matter too remote for practical concern. It is not really so. If the State Department is to fully justify its title of "Department of Public Instruction," and to forward in the best possible manner the education of the people in all grades of education, it will be necessary to develope a long-sighted policyj aiming at making all public education what it ought to be in the interests of the people. It cannot rest satisfied with the situation from moment to moment. The de die in diem policy will never place us on a footing comparable to that of the countries of Europe, nor one equal to that of America. It is essential that our educational system should be developed with foresight, and should aim, not at merely following in the footsteps of others, but at contributing its own quota to the educational experience of the world. The direct and present bearing of this is, that the policy of the Department of Public Instruction ought now to be shaped, not merely in regard to its own •primary, higher primary, and lower secondary schools, and its technical schools — that 13 that is to say, all those schools immediately under its jurisdiction, — but also in regard to corains: into liberal relationship and sympathy with all the secondary and higher schools of recognised standing in the State. Tlic efficiency of its administration, therefore, is in a great measure determined by its degree of prescience and its width of outlook, not merely as regards educational developments in different parts of the world, but also in regard to the interrelation of all branches of education in the State. Tor there ought to be thorough cordiality between all tho educational institutions worth taking into consideration, and this can be secured only through liberal and comprehensive views. In order to strengthen its influence, the State system itself, in the various schools under its direct charge, ought to emhoOy an education that must command the respect of educationists and the public — a view the force of which must be obvious to all those who have given the matter real attention. That the policy of the State Department should be so determined is seen Avhen it is realised that, to acquire the influence it ought to exercise over the entire field of education, it is essential that it should commend itself to institutions now independent of the State, which deal especially Avith secondary and higher education, to which the primary system has perforce to be preparatory. [See Chap. Ill, sec. 22]. This points out the importance of placing these branches of education, which are immediately under the direction of the State Department, on as sound a footing as possible. The defects of the present system are serious ; tliey concern the scheme of trainin" and educatinsr teachers, wliich is one of the most fundamental elements. They concern, also, the curriculum and the liygiene of tho scliool. Until these matters are remedied the condition of education in iNew South Wales must be regarded as very defective. The pcedagogical equipment of our schools also is unsatisfactory and insufficient. The organisation requires considerable amendment, but this is mainly a consequence of our having adopted the pupil-teacher system and a certain scheme of inspection. Unfortunately this reacts on the quality of the education given, as will be shewn hereinafter. These matters i-eferred to will now be dealt with — that is to say, the nature of the defects which must be remedied will be pointed out, and the means and scheme <.i reform outlined. 8. General in regard t) Reform. — In order to clearly shew what, according to the view of one of the Commissioners (G. H. Knibbs), is required to make our system of primary education satisfactory, it Avill be necessary to summarise what the body of the report has to say on the following subjects, viz. : — (III) The System of Education. (IV) The Curriculum in Schools. (V) The Training of Teachers. (VI) The School Buildings and Hygiene. (VII) Scheme of Reform. (VIII) General matters not included in the above. These will be dealt with in the divisions indicated by the Roman figures above. Then the conclusions and recommendations of one of the Commissioners (G. H. Knibbs) will be outlined, viz., in Division IX. In the concluding remarks. Division X, some reference is made to the attitude of senior officers of tho Public Instruction Department to the pupil-teacher question. In Division XI, and those following, the views and I'ccpmmendations of the other Commissioner (J. W. Turner) appear. III. 14 III THE SYSTEM OE EDUCATION. [O. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introduction. — All authorities on education recognise that it must be systematic ; and, therefore, at no stage, and in no type of education (primary or other), is it to be regarded as merely embracing a series of subjects of instruction , but rather as education through subjects of instruction — that is to say, the matter of instruction must be so organised and treated as to be educative. [Chap. Ill, sees. 9-14]. The difference between instruction and education, however inconspicuous to persons who have not thoroughly studied the subject of education, is fully recognised by every educationist^ as fundamental. It may even be said that not to perceive this distinction would be to betray failure to realise in what education really consists. In Chapter III its inner nature is briefly outlined, and it is there shewn that what educationists aim at developing is human character, the cultivation of the body and mind being really ancillary and secondary thereto [Chap. Ill, sees. 3, 5]. The fundamental purpose in education is to give tliat special direction to the will or character w^hich shall ensure the mental and physical powers being thoroughly developed and normally applied. The second and subordinate purpose is to call into exercise the power of independent thinking, and to supply information Avhich shall be at once cultural and useful. There are few better ways of judging the essential character of an educational system than by taking cognizance of Avhat is regarded as necessary in the education and professional training of the members of its teaching-staff, through whose personalities the system is to be realised. Suppose, for example, that stress is laid upon the moral pui'pose of education, upon the thoroughness of knowledge in the subjects to be communicated, upon the necessity of realism in teaching, upon the importance of teaching with a wide outlook, then, obviously, the preparation required of the teacher will reflect this, and his education will be in accordance with such a demand. If, on the contrary, the idea of education be that it is concerned merely with imparting a few elementary subjects of instruction, then quite a different regime is to be expected ; lower qualifications will be demanded, and training will be regarded as of less importance. The fact is, that the si/stetn uj)proved by an educational administration stands revealed in the provision it makes for the education of its teachers, for nothing so fully explains its conception of that subject. A second element by means of which an educational system may be judged is its curriculum, or rather the evidence which that affords of co-ordination of the various subjects included therein. That reveals the theory of education adopted, rather however indirectly than directly, and must be taken with the general person- ality and education of the teachers and with the character of the professional preparation for their work. Where comments upon the mode in which a curriculum is to be developed exist, these are much more serviceable as an indication of the educational method than the curriculum itself. Eor this reason, when translating the curricula of other countries, comments of the character indicated have always been included. Throughout, European programmes reveal the thoroughness with which educational method is developed. 2. Defects in the New South Wales' System of Education. — There are two points of view from which a system can be judged, viz. : — (i) The perfection of the mechanism of its administration, (ii) The thoroughness with which it achieves its proper aim. As a means to the end, 'the first is, of course, important, but does not here call for special consideration, and sufficient reference has been made to the matter in the previous division (II). The ' Not necessarily by every teacher. Educationist is used to denote one who has sj'stematically studied the theory and ractice of education from the higher standpoint. 15 The second is the all-important and diflacult matter, the former being relatively simple, inasmuch as it involves mainly mechanical elements. Those which demand immediate and serious attention directly concern the realisation of the objects of education. They are— (a) Higher education of teachers, especially in regard to the significance of education. {b) Better instruction in the individual subjects which they will be called upon to teach. (c) Considerable change in the curricula of schools. (d) Improvement of the educational equipment of schools. (e) More thorough attention to school-hygiene, both as regards buildings, furniture, and the condition of children while in school. (/) Special education for abnormal children. These several matters will be now referred to. 3. Educational theory. — Any system of education whatever, in so far as it is deliberately organised, is the expression of some theory of education, and such theory must necessarily deal with three questions, viz. : — (i) Why education is undertaken, (ii) What to teach, so as to teach educafively. (iii) How to teach so as to educate. It is by the answer given to these questions that the system of education is Teally determined. It is, moreover, obvious that, in order to secure the intelligent co-operation of a teaching-staff in the realisation of the system, the outlooii upon such questions must be commensurate in breadth with the system itself. In Europe, during their training, teachers arc made conversant with the general theory of education and with the special system adopted, so that their whole work may be done in the light of an intelligent understanding thereof. Thus, in dealing with individvial subjects of instruction, teachers so prepared do not rest content with the mere methodology of teaching. They must recognise its place in the general scheme, and what constitutes its educational value. True teaching can never be reduced to a merely mechanical process, and relies therefore not mei'cly on the intellectual knowledge of a teacher, but also on his sympathy and power to inspire. This is true, not only in regard to teaching addressed to the intellectual faculties, but still more in regard to that which more immediately aims at the building up of character. Some knowledge of the history of education is rightly regarded as essential to the proper understanding of the present position of educational theory, and as some defence against an ignorant and ill-advised introduction of exploded ideas. It has, Jhowever, a very much higher function, viz., that of revealing the magnitude of the task of raising educational theory and practice to its present position. Such k:nowledge is disciplinary. The great educationists of hi>story have been men of •conspicuous devotion ; hence the record of their labours is a source of inspiration to ■every person who by character is suitable as a teacher, and is capable of sustaining Mm in a higher degree of effort than is possible where he views his work only from :a purely professional standpoint. In the curricula of the training colleges of this State, the genei^d theory of education is not adequately taught. A certain amount of metho dology is included, but is not founded upon a psychological basis. This absence of sy stematic treatment of the theoi-y of education, the absence of the teaching of paidagogic ' psychology, with its important bearing upon methodology, are the strongest possibl ^ evidence that the educational system of our State "is undeveloped. In this connection it ought, however, be said that teachers are advised to read certain books on education. [Chap. XXVIir, sec. 7]. Such text-books ss, Gladman's " School Method," Bain's " Education as a Science," Baldwirts "Elementary Psychology and Education," r.re prescribed for study, at a stagrj, however, when 'tea chers have been engaged in their professional work for many years. In Europe, fcueh important preparatory work ijrecec/^'* the undertakin'/'of teaching, and tJm .^» «^ essential di(ference in the view as to what constitutf .^^nijakle preparation. IG 4. The Pupil-teacher Si/sfem. — The most serious defect in the educational system of New South Wales is the employment, as teachers, of young people of immature education, of immature physical and moral development, utterly without experience in teaching, and therefore without professional knowledge of its scope and significance. Until recently they could be taken at 14 years of age, a limit which, it Avas suggested at the Departmental Conference of January, 1902, should bo merely changed to 15. [Under regulations coming into force in 1901 the age will be 16]. A conception of what is iuvoloed in, education, which both advocates and defends, or even which tolerates, the employment of such persons as teachers, is in collision with that of the whole of Europe and America. With few exceptions, and these men of little eminence, it is admitted in tlie United Kingdom that economy, and not efficiency, is the justification for the employment of such persons, and their employment is deplored by educationists of high standing as injurious to the interests of British education. [Chap. XXXI, sec. 1\ It is quite impossible in a country employing untrained and poorly educated persons as teachers to make popular education comparable to that of the countries where teachers are required to be previously well educated and trained, and if the State should decide to adhere to the practice of employing pupil-teachers, it should be with the full knotvledge that in so doing it is electing to maintain a system of education decidedl'i inferior to the systems of Europe and America, undone that cannot possibly produce satisfactory results. In considering, therefore, any proposal to retain the pupil-teacher system, with its — to the minds of the Commissioners — educationally injurious consequences, it is important to bear in mind that the effect of these in any system is cumulative. In contrasting education undpr a pupil-teacher system with education under a system demanding previous training, it should be recollected that the inferior system tends to provide inferior material from which to draw the teaching staff. Tor under the better system pupils at a giv( n age will, on the whole, be better than the pupils educated under an inferior educational system. Uence a lad is actually better (]ualifled in countries that do not permit him to embark on teaching without training than he is in coimtries with a pupil-teacher system. And since the adverse judgment of other countries as to this system is based on their experience with better educated children, with those educated under our system it would be still more adverse. The removal of aspirants to a teaching staff from systematic education at so early an age as 14 or 15\ and the endeavour to make good their educational limitations, by private reading, by instruction to be had from a more or less exhausted primary teacher, by the year spent in the training-school, etc., cannot be viewed with complacency if it be desired to make our education comparable to that of other countries. Let it be borne in mind, also, that, inadequate as it is, the training-school experience is that of only a relatively small number. Thus the Avhole case is even less favourable than above implied. In regard to the outlook of a teaching staff, a matter of no small importance, it may be said that under the best of circumstances, teacher.", as a consequence of their daily association with children — that is, with those who cannot meet them on a level of equal intelligence and information, and cannot subject their opinions to criticism, as Avould an adult — need a corrective, viz., one Avhich will tend to broaden the view, and give a mora normal outlook upon the totality of things. There can be no doubt whatever that the pi-ofessional employment of children as members of the teaching-staff", places that staff under such limitations as must, in their influence upon the spirit of thj community, be regarded as detrimental ; for under any regime that tended to leave teachers generally restricted in outlook, their power of educating — i.e., of developing children's characters and minds — must be corres- pondingly defective. The training- system of New South Wales— that is, the teaching of pupil- teachers by primary school-teachers, coupled with a year spent at the training- college by some (not all) of the teachers — cannot be considered as an alternative to the European ntethod— i.e., as un alternative in any way comparable therewith. The difference is radical, and hat", been set out in full in Chapter XXVIII, where the tAVO methods are contrasted. [See especially sec. 4]. It should be borne in mine" that, in respect of the thoroughness in his education, the Continental teacher has conspicuous advantages as compared with teachers taught andcr the departmental .-system of this State. During his career in the 'Or even 16. 17 the normal or training school, he is taught each of the various suhjects hy men, with extremely few exceptions, of university standing, and who are in all cases specialists in their subjects of instruction. Each teacher limits himself to a single subject or to a cognate group, and is a professionally trained teacher of higher and better education and training than in the case of the continental primary teacher. Here the primary teacher, with less educational advantage, is actually the instructor of the junior teacher. 5. Contrast between Pvpil-teacher and other Systems. — As already mentioned* the pupil-teacher system has been contrasted with the previous training systems of Europe in Chapter XXVIII, sec. 4. This is so important that the following brief indication is given. Reference to the chapter mentioned is necessary to fully understand the difference of the two methods. Pupil-ieacher. European and American Teacher. Eeceives initially a very ordinary primary education. Keeeives initially a primary and secondary educa- tion. Enters on teaching work without any special educa- Cannot enter on teaching work until he has been tion and training. specially educated and trained. Commences teaching at the age of 14 or 15. Commences teaching at the age of 18 or 19. Is not prepared by systematic study of theory, Is so prepared, and by persons who are specialists history, and psychology of education, and educa- in such matters. tional methodology. Is immature physically, mentally, and morally. Is more mature, having passed a critical age. The pupil-teacher has not a prepared mind, and has The previously trained teacher has, by maturer no adequate conception of the nature and years, higher education, and special pro- responsibility of his task. fessional instruction, a better conception of what he is undertaking. Is in general a poor disciplinarian, and has made no Is in general a good disciplinarian, and has made systematic study of the theory of discipline. a systematic study of the theory of discipline. Cannot appreciate the physical, psychical, hygienic. Has been taught how to recognise satisfactory and otlier conditions of school life and school physical, psychical, and hygienic conditions. education. Is generally incapable of inspiring children with Is better capable of inspiring high ideals. high ideals. Starts with the idea that teaching is communicating Starts with the idea that teaching aims at Educa- information in subjects of instruction. Hon — that is, the building-up of the moral character, and of the mind and physique of the child. This inadequate contrast should be read with sec. 4, previously referred to. 6. Tendency of Pupil-teacher System. — It will be seen that under the pupil-teacher system, there is an inevitable and distinctly recognisable tendency to deterioration, while under the European system there is an equally certain tendency to improvement. The very fact of permitting mere children to teach implies, on the face of it, what would in Europe be regarded as an extraordinarily low estimate of what constitutes a normal qualification to teach. As a matter of fact, such a practice excites among educationists of Europe nothing short of astonishment. It is only because we are accustomed to it that a system so seriously defective does not arouse a similar censure. The fact of starting on one's professional career with so low an estimate of what constitutes competency has, on the pupil-teacher himself, a morally bad effect. There is nothing to inspire him witli ideals, and without such inspiration he is not likely to labour strenuously to make good his educational deficiencies. In this connection it ought to be said tliat a pupil-teacher's efforts to educate himself after his routine duties have been discharged are quite inadequate, unless he be uncommonly gifted and industrious. He is sufficiently occupied in learning subjects of instruction, and in the preparation of the lessons he has to give ; and to think it possible that, other things being equal, he could by private study make himself the peer of the European teacher taught by specialists in a seminary, would be to wholly misunderstand the situation, and to betray a complete failure to recognise the character of the education supplied in the normal schools and pjedagogic seminaries. 7. Character of Instruction for Student-teachers. — To form a proper idea of the instruction afforded teachers in the training schools of Europe, the very high professional qualifications of their instructors must be borne in mind when reading tlie curricula. Both 18 Both as regards matter and form, eacli subject is thoroughly studied ; it is studied, too, from the standpoint of liberal and thorough education, and definite opinions are entertained as to the principle of its development. So as to give a clear idea of the degree of education received by primary teachers in Europe, the curricula have been translated. [See, for example, Chap. XXXV, sees. 2-18, giving a translation of the official programme in the French normal schools ; Chap. XXXVII, sees. 7-10, for the programme of some of the normal schools of Switzerland, and sec. 11 for some indication of the Hungarian programme ; Chap. XXXVIII, sees. 4-6, for an idea of the training for the German folk-schools.] Much more could be cited to the same effect. To afford evidence of the detailed treatment, however, the preparation of teachers for specific subjects is referred to under the several chapters dealing therewith. Thus, for example, in Chapters XXIII, XXIV, and XXVI, dealing respectively with the teaching of drawing, geometry, and geography, not only arc the programmes for the primary schools given, but also the mode of development of the subjects in the training of the teachers. [See Chap. XXI, sec. 17, regarding the education of primary teachers in Switzerland in drawing ; Chap. XXIII, sec. 12, regarding the education of Swiss teachers in geometry; Chap. ^XIV, sec. 12, for their education in geography, etc.] 8. Difference in tendency between European system and Neio South TTales system of training Teachers. — Owing to the fact that in the European system the instructors of student-teachers, during their course in the normal schools and seminaries, are men whose education is of a higher grade than that of the primary teachers, — since they are men of university experience, who have specialised in their particular subjects, and who endeavour to keep themselves in touch with universal progress in their subjects— the primary teacher there is favourably influenced by the wider outlook. It is easy to see that, in contact with such teachers, he must enlarge his vision, and, as time rolls on, the primary teacher is continually advancing in thoroughness and breadth. And since he is the centre of moral and intellectual influence for the community at the most critical period of life, viz., that when the mind and character are plastic, and most subject to formative influences, the European system possesses the essential characteristics of progress. Not so, however, the pupil-teacher system; that tends distinctly to deterioration. Starting with an implied or expressed assumption that education of children is possible through the employment of immature and imperfectly educated children, it wields no adequate moral or mental influence during the formative period, viz., the younger years of school life. By engrossing the young and undeveloped mind of the teacher with his professional work, it prevents him from himself receiving an adequate education, and it fails to create in him any sufficient recognition of the work he has elected to undertake. His teachers, being primary teachers themselves, developed under the same imperfect system, and prevented by their professional occupations, viz., preparation for lessons, teaching pupil-teachers, ordinary school- teaching, etc., from higher self-culture (since practically the whole of their time is thus taken up), are on the whole incapable of inspiring him. Nor can they be adequately qualified to teach him. It is not possible, under such conditions, for any but exceptional men to be even moderately well-informed, and this is in no way their own fault, inasmuch as the difficulty is forced upon them by the system. It is a well-known fact that limitations of knowledge and self-sufficiency are likely to go hand-in-hand, and that this worst of all dangers is one to which the pupil-teacher system is peculiarly liable, and which needs the corrective of broader outlook through better education. Primary teachers developed under the pupil- teacher system are in great danger of never being able to rightly estimate their own limitations ; whereas, under the previous training system, they are likely to more definitely recognise their true function in the economy of education, — a matter of importance. 9. Pupil-teacher System not endorsed by the entire Primary Teaching Staff of the State. — It ought here to be said that it must not be supposed that the pupil-teacher system expresses the ideals of the entire staff of primary teachers in New South Wales. At the same time, it must be admitted that at the Conference held in January, 1902, of Inspectors and Departmental Officers of the Department of 19 of Public Instruction, there was no definite dissent. On tlie contrary, the system was strongly approved. The Minister for Public Instruction specially submitted the question whether it was a good one, asking whether the present methods succeed in " not only imparting Jmowledge of the technique of the teaching profession, but also in inspiring teachers with high aims.'" The Conference affirmed that " the existing pupil-teacher si/stem, toith modif cations, should be continued.'" Under the system of the Department, individual teachers can hardly be expected to publicly express views strongly antagonised to the general policy, and in fact are commanded by Regulation (32) to " abstain from public controversy upon the merits of the system of education now in force." There are, however, many teachers in the Department who recognise the inefficiency of the pupil-teacher system, and who will welcome its abolition. 10. University Education no Substitute for Special Education as Teachers. — ■ It may here be pointed out that, while there is an obvious advantage in having highly educated teachers rather than ordinarily educated ones, a university education in Arts, etc., is not a proper substitute for special education definitely aiming at the professional qualification of the teacher for his work. A university education is valuable on account of the advanced character of the teaching, and because it teaches science subjects realistically. It is valuable also, because in university life the narrowness of elementary education tends to be corrected. The larger view and wider outlook are calculated to create liberal sympathies, and to make men realise that criticism is valuable, and that limit of touch with the outer world is serious, inasmuch as it is likely to deprive one of that corrective to the sense of self- sufficiency which is so liable to arise, and which constitutes one of the most serious of obstacles to individual, communal, and national progress. 11. Training of Teachers. — At the Departmental Conference previously referred to, the subject of the training of teachers was discussed. In this connection it must be pointed out that considerable confusion appears to exist as to the difference between mere practice in teaching and training. The efficiency of the latter depends obviously upon the efficiency of the system under which it takes place and upon the educative value of the sclipmc. Training, in the Continental sense, operates mainly on the mind of the student of teaching. This mental preparation, coming through a study of the theory, psychology, and history of education, through a sound education, including not only the subjects of instruction as taught, but also their broader and higher developments, through the systematic elucidation by specialists of their methodology, is the main element of the training. This is the part where the difficulties really lie, not in the mechanical part of the teacher's work. Since, however, teaching is an art depending upon, a science, practice in the art is also necessary ; for it familiarises the student of teaching with the m.echanical 'and purely administrative elements of his professional duty, and it enables him to make some observation of the importance of the routine of school life, of the mode of dealing with human beings; it gives him confidence in himself; it enables him, by coming into disciplinary relations with children, to feel and develope the touch of his moral personality with theirs ; it reveals to him the weak points in his professional equipment, and generally it focusses his attention on the art of teaching in a practical and definite way. Nevertheless, important as this element in training is, it is undoubtedly subordinate to the higher part, viz., that which has to do with the mental preparation of the teacher. This is at once seen in the fact that a teacher may teach all his life and yet be quite unworthy of the name of " trained teacher," or indeed to be called " teacher" at all ; so that the merit of training does not lie in the amount of practice in teaching. Hence, if the dictum be correct that a particular system is bad, the " experience and the training " under it is correspondingly dis- counted, since it is not true training for the office of teacher. And even more may bo said, viz., that the systent's defects may actually operate as a hindrance, in virtue of fahe ideas as to the real nature of education, acquired tinder the defective system. Reviewing all the circumstances, it ought to be stated that the kind of training supplied at present under the Department of Public Instruction is quite inadequate; it cannot be compared in thoroughness with the training in Europe. It omits tlie elements of most conspicuous importance, as already pointed out, and the prejudicial eflect of this is inevitable. Though 20 Though it ought not to bo forgotten that there are teachers who, to some extent, make good the defects in the departmental programme by attendance at other institutions of learning, by private study, and by thorough analysis, in the light of psychology, etc., of their own experience in teaching, yet they are also greatly handicapped in comparison with the European teacher. As compared with him, they have small opportunity to learn an adequate amount of science realistically, — practically none in connection with their official life and experience. It ought to be stated that at present the Department of Public Instruction has no mechanism for training teachers equal to that of England, Europe, or America ; and its two training colleges cannot compare Avith any of the colleges seen by the Commissioners, since they are not equipped for a thorough course of teaching. It is impossible to suppose that those Avho abandon the ordinary courses of education at 14i or 15 can compare in knowledge wdth those who continue till they are 18 or 19, other things of course being equal ; and this difference between the two classes of teachers is striking, for one commences his professional work at 14 or 35 with absolutely no training, and with only a primary education given by primary teachers, and the other commences at 18 or 19 after both primary and secondary education, the latter given by secondary teachers of still higher education than the primary teacher. The properly-educated teacher has studied psychology and history of education ; he has had some little practice under almost ideal conditions ; and he has learnt to some extent the art of handling and developing the child-mind, of directing and guiding the child-will, and these prepare him thoroughly for his professional task. 12. Absence of teaching in Science, and its effect on the System. — The absence of a sufficient amount of science-teaching in the case of a primary teacher is of serious import. An intelligent attitude to modern industrial and commercial activity demands a far greater amount of science now than was requisite in the past. In order to profit by their opportunities, especially in our young country, it is requisite that the people as a whole should have some idea of the significance of science for daily life and for ordinary avocations. Eor example, a dairyman or agriculturist ought to know something of the meaning of botany, zoology, chemistry, bacteriology, etc., in relation to his chances of success. Therefore, he must get elementary instruction in the primary school about such matters, and clearly the only persons competent to give it would be the persons who have at least been taught by specialists, and Avho have had opportunities of confirming and applying that knowledge by actual experiment, and who, moreover, enlarge their experience through suitable means. Here it must be pointed out that the consensus of opinion among persons competent to judge is, that mere literary attempts to learn science are of small value [Chap. XXVI, sees. 2, 8]. Bearing this in mind, the system adopted by us for training our teachers is also wholly unsatisfactory in this respect. The physics that is obtained by male teachers (only) at the Technical College, under the particular conditions now in force, may be disregarded, as it cannot in any way be compared with the teaching in the European seminaries. The training colleges of Sydney are not equipped for science teaching. It has to be remembered that the special instruction in science for teachers in Europe has a definite orientation, viz., that which directly concerns the art of teaching science subjects. It serves, therefore, a double purj)ose, viz., of subject-instruction and instruction in methodologv. ^o.' 13. Limitation of system as regards practical orientation of teaching. — The practical orientation of education is a common feature almost throughout Europe. It has to be remembered, however, that instruction must first of all be educatice, and that all attempts to reduce it to useful occupation, or to mere practice in various trade handicrafts, ai-e injurious. It is o£ the first importance to maintain its educative value. The practical orientation of education is not an introduction of practical arts, agriculture, trades, occupations, etc., but is the selecting as illustrative material in lessons, such things as are more immediately intelligible and useful. Eor example, in conveying to children in an agricultural district some scientific point, an illustration would be selected, tlirowing light upon things with which they were familial', or which, under surrounding conditions, they could readily test. If the place were an industrial centre, the same scientific truth might be illustrated by some feature of local industrial activitv. It 21 It is easy to see tliat an intelligent command of illustration, and real ability to practically orientate knowledge without allowing it to degrade in educative value, involve a very different kind of scientific education from that which is received by our teachers during their training. Chapter XXV has been devoted to the discussion of this question. The better and more practical teaching of Europe is not a matter of recent origin ; in order to demonstrate which, programmes even more than ten years old have been translated in various chapters of tliis Eeport. Thus, that of Lille is dated, in the preface, 1883, and the programme cover bears the date 1891 [Chap. XXI, sec. 13] ; those of Belgium are dated 1893 and 1S97 [Chap. XXI, sec. 2, and Chap. XXVI, sec. 7], etc. 14. Traininrj of Teachers in relation to Cvrriculum. — The limitations in the training of teachers, to which reference has been made, affect the significance of, and reappear in, the curriculum. Not only so, but the actual development of instruction has also to suffer. The limitation is further reflected in the equipment of the schools ; for example, where Science is not realistically taught, the necessary equipment for such teaching will not be found. That the quality of teaching is necessarily governed by the quality of the education and professional training of the staff, is a truism ; hence, identical curricula do not necessarily mean identical grades of teaching. Science, for instance, cannot be efficiently taught by mere direction of the admin islralion, but only by properly educating the teaching staff so that it may teach from a real and sufficient acquaintance with the subject matter of Science. In order to understand the qualification of teachers to teach Science in the Public Schools of New South Wales, as compared with the qualification of teachers in primary schools in other parts of the world, the teaching of Science subjects in the respective training schools must be compared. Take Chemistry for example. In the Training College at Eoiough-road, Isleworth, near London, there is a large chemical laboratory, in which students do practical work. Ihe teachers of this State do none, unless they are university graduates, etc. In Europe the subject is taught, not by general teachers, but by properly trained chemists. The courses of instruction extend over a sufficiently long period to really learn something of the subject. It is learnt as one element in a general course in Science. So far as the training college here is concerned, it may be said that Natural Science is 2iractically absent, and, further, the majority of the teachers do not go even through this college, and therefore officially get no instruc- tion at all, unless they get it from the head (primary) teacher. This, however, they do not, since it is not a prescribed subject of study for pupil-teachers. 15. The New South Wales System of Inspection. — The work of inspection is intended to maintain efficiency in the work of an Educational Department. Where the employment of an insufficiently educated and trained teaching staff is a feature of the administration, the normal function of the Inspector is at once affected. In this State he is charged with endeavouring to ascertain how far the teaching has been efficient, and an attempt is made to do this by the holding of examinations. To some extent such a course, perhaps, is, under the circumstances, necessary, though even that is doubtful. It- lends itself, however, to well-understood abuses, which ought to be pointed out, so as to make clear the nature of the defect to be remedied ; but what is far more serious is tlie fact that it is detrimental to the cause of true education, as will be explained hereinafter. Where Inspectors undertake the examination of the pupils of a school, and where the official estimates of the teacher's efficiency is based upon the Inspector's percentages of marks, etc., it becomes necessary for the teacher to study the Inspector's idiosyncrasies, as exhibited in his examining scheme, and his predilection for particular subjects. And the teacher's effort must be directed to making his pupils, as far as possible, respond thereto, mainly by taxing their memories. The effort ought normally to be directed to making the best use of the opportunity to promote the education of the children in the light of the teacher's own experience of their special conditions, not to satisfying some examination test applied by one who has not a daily acquaintance with the children. Supposing 22 Supposing him to be qualified to teach, the teacher undoubtedly is himself tht proper judge of the best way to lead along the path of education the pupils under his charge at the particular time. It can easily he demonstrated that the Department's inspection does not gauge the merit of the teacher's work, nor reveal how far he has made the best use of his opportunity with the material passing through his hands. Two illustrations will make the matter clear ; they need not be regarded as anything more than typical of what can happen under the present system. Teacher A., knowing that Inspector B. believes that a detailed knowledge of the constituents of the atmosphere, including those most recently discovered, are very important, and that the percentages of these constituents to decimals ought to be known by children, gives an "object lesson" thereon, writing upon the board all the said constituents, with their percentages, and such supposed important facts in regard to the atmosphere as he thinks will be appreciated by the Inspector, He then demands that his pupils shall memorise them. At the inspection by Mr. B., it is found that the children have memorised, say, fifty facts, including the decimals ; this the result, say, of two lessons on the same thing. Mr. A. is awarded 100 per cent., Inspector B. going away highly gratified at the success in scientific teaching. Later, the same teacher, having really learnt, let us suppose, something of physics and chemistry, repeats the lesson on "the atmosphere," actually demonstrating, with such simple apparatus as he can command, some of the physical laws of gases, the nature of its constituents (by removing its water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, etc.), and also the actuality of the atmospheric pressure and its consequences. This lesson makes so much demand on the available time that reference to some element — argon let us imagine — and the decimals are omitted, the children, however, learning realisti- cally and thoroughly something of the constituents and properties of the atmosphere, and how these can be actually proved. At a second visit of Inspector B., the atmosphere being again taken as a subject of examination, it is found that a very large number of standard questions (50) as supposed, and the percentages elicit no response. Teacher A, has his new effort rewarded by a low marking, and the expression of disapprobation, and it is also possible, under the system of the State, for this result to prejudice his career. Or in Latin say, a teacher takes the first 30 exercises of a " Via Latina," and by thoroughly drilling his pupils gets 100 per cent. On a second occasion the same teacher, having taken them over a more extended course, giving a far broader and better idea of that language, but of course leaving many things in abeyance on account of the range of work, finds his work is deemed poor because the children cannot ansAver evei^y question. Thus, with better teaching, he may get inferior marking. Such cases can easily be multiplied. As a matter of fact, the literary way of learning science, which is in vogue in our system, lends itself to such results as are typified in the first illustration, and the mode of examination to such consequences as are typified in the second. The unimportant is often magnified out of all proportion to its merit, critical facts are often wholly ignored, and to obtain good marks subjects are restricted. Moreover, mere memory knowledge is cultivated. The morale of the system is moreover obviously bad. The tendency to develope dexterity in meeting the special demands of individual Inspectors, by the mere training of the memory within a limited field, so as to escape the consequences of a bad report, does not end merely with the teacher, but afiects the pupils too. They see something of what is going on, and cannot be favourably influenced thereby; and further, their normal education is sacrificed to satisfy the Examiner's demands. In a normal system, the Inspector, while exercising a sort of general oversight, is constituted the professional adviser and friend of the teacher, and devotes his energies to helping the latter in his educational method. His visit to the school, instead of being an occasion for some trepidation, may be looked upon with pleasure, not only by the excellent but also by the indifferent teacher; for, after all, the object of an Education Department is to make the best possible use of the teacher as an element in the educational machinery, for the benefit of the children concerned, and for the ultimate good of the public ; and to do this it must play upon his moral nature through sympathy. The present system of inspection-examination involves a sacrifice of the educational efficiency of the school to the meeting of the Inspector's demands for ready responses to his questions. Since the value of the teacher's work is prac- tically determined by the number of questions that are answered by his scholars, and 23 and since also the teacher's official position and emoluments depend upon the result, the whole scheme of teaching has to be framed to meet, not the demands of a rational system of education, but the Inspector's anticipations. Children are drilled in replies that involve mere memory response, for this is the easiest way to ensure results. Obviously there is no real interest in such work and no really educative element therein.^ The whole matter reveals the importance of the proper education of our teachers and of our Inspectors. The only correct judge of profitable attention to the lessons is the teacher himself ; he is, in the nature of the case, the only person, qualified to estimate the progress of his pupils. What is most serious in the matter is this, that teachers need be loyal to the interests of their pupils, but under our defective regime they are compelled to study self-interest. This regime is, to a large extent, a consequence of a general want of confidence in the teachers, which in its turn is the outcome of the employment of pupil-teachers. Where no doubt exists as to the education and professional qualifi- cation of teachers, the whole situation is changed. The above defects do not appear in Cotttinental systems. There is no such thing as special preparation to meet the contingencies of examinations. 16. Defect in School Equipments. — The system of education is reflected, among •other things, in the paidagogical equipment of its schools, and, as already stated, this is defective. To this day the State Department of New South Wales has not an ideally equipped primai-y school, neither has it in connection with its training school a model psedagogical equipment, nor an educational library, such as would give teachers during their training some notion of the normal outfit of a good school. This defect limits the teaching, and, what is still more adverse, the ideals of the teacher. The educational equipments of schools in Switzerland are an "object lesson" in the proper method of fitting out a school for its educational work. The opportunities in Sydney for teachers to ascertain what is being done in other parts of the world are' also wholly insufficient. They have no rendezoous in. each centre where they may have an opportunity of acquiring special information about the latest developments of any branch of their calling in which they take a •special interest. Reference may be made to Chapters LI and LVII for a more adequate idea of the matter. It Avill suffice here to say that in Europe they have i/he advantages referred to. The system of New South Wales is further defective in regard to the small .attention paid to hygiene. In the schools of those countries which have given systematic attention to this subject, and have consequently provided proper seating for the pupils — in which their backs are suitably supported, their bodies erect, and at their desks they are in a natural position — there is "no difficulty in maintaining such a posture as Avould satisfy any disciplinarian. Every lad who has sat in a New South Wales' " public school " and has retained any memory of his experiences, will remember that the " sitting-up straight " and atfecting to look profoundly interested in what was going on, was no light task. Of the morality of the affectation little need be said. [Chap. XVI, sec. 5] . The sooner we recognise that, when properly seated, the discipline of positioi presents no difficulty, and that a child comfortably seated has a far better opportunity ©f -concentrating his mind upon his work, the better for the efficiency of our schools. TJaat is the way to really secure efficiency and to dismiss an affectation of discipline, ■wfiich is worse than worthless. The consequen.ces of bad hygienic conditions will be flififerred to hereinafter. 17. Conclusion as to New South Wales' /System.— The system of education in New South Wales indicates, bv its scheme of training its teachers, by its absence ■of scientific and literary equipment in its train. 'ug schools, by its curriculum, by its treatment of the subjects in its curriculum, by its lack of proper educational equipment in its scliools, by its inattention to pre T^r hygiene, that it needs to be radically reformed; and one of the most important elements of the reform will be the better education and training of its teachers. The curriculum question Avill now be discussed, ^^- ' An illustration will explain «hat in meant. Suppose for example that the lesion » geography. The towns on the mer, are let us suppose, required. The teacher eajs to his class, " Kepeat after viit-Murrumbylgee : Gundagai. Wagga Uaaf-a, Narrandem. Hay, M.^rray : Mbm-y, Kchuea," ete. This is repeated ,er. 'ral t.me.. Such repetition ensure^ a response to the question, -Whiit are tho towns on the Murrumbidgee," etc. Being al '.«"♦*••'' T°'^. "^ '>""»" '"'"*''• '' '' ^uUoJboHjJUUu'Mi e^,^a^i^n^llg wo^J/Uesf ; yei it would secure nia-ks in an inspeijt^ir, *1 eiamination. 24> IT. THE CURRICULUM IN NEW SOUTH WALES SCHOOLS. [G. II. KNIBBS.] 1. Introduction. — When one compares the cun-iculumof the ordinary primary- school (" public-school ") of New South Wales with that of the primary schools of the majority of other countries, class by class — that is, according to the age of the children therein — it becomes evident that \vc have much leeway to make good. If, further, regard be had to the particular way in which the curriculum is developed in each case, and to the more tliorough education of the teachers in other countries, the recognition of this fact intensifies in significance. We are not on a par with England, and yet English teachers who have studied European methods, recognising how much need there is for reform there, are strenuously labouring to bring it about. A fortiori, the need of reform is more urgent here. Two things require thorough reform, viz., the Si/stcm of Education as pre- viously stated, and the curriculum and its treatment. The character of the reform of the systoin has now been partly dealt with, viz., in the preceding division, but will be again referred to. In this division the curriculum must be discussed, subject by subject. The elements in the curriculum that stand in particular need of improvement are natural history, physical science, mathematics, languages, and the subjects previously mentioned. The characteristic difFerence between our school education and that of Europe and America, inheres in the greater importance Avhich the latter attach to the formative elements ; with us the curriculum, is practically, merely informative. It is recognised by modern educationists that the important question is not hoic much is learnt, but hoic thoroughly each thing is learnt, and what is its educative value. The notion that subjects of instruction can be satisfactorily taught by any one Avhose acquaintance with them is limited to the grade of the required teaching has disappeared. Not only must every element in a curriculum be taught with a wide outlook in the subject itself, and a recognition of its relation to other subjects, but also in such a way as to truly give it educative value — that is, the teaching must lead to apperception. Hence, the need of ])iXida^ogic psi/chologj/, a subject wholly neglected in our scheme of training teachers. The question of the defects in this training have been partly, and will hereinatter be more fully, dealt witli. Ilestricting this consideration to the curriculum, it may be said that the two most important matters requiring attention in regard thereto are reform in the teaching of individual subjects, and the development of tupe-programmes for the different classes of schools. In treating these programmes, great attention should be paid to intuitive methods, to the co-operation of the children, especially in regard to their OAvn thought. The teaching nmst ensure apperception, it must develope original thinking power, and it must edticatc — not merely instruct. 2. Kindergarten. — The introdu';tion of kindergarten is important. A com- mencement lias already been made in the schools of the Kindergarten Union. That in the public schools belongs I'athor to the transition from kindergarten to the primary school. It is good so far t^s it goes, hut is not p)i'oper kindergarten, and misses some of the most important cl-jments, viz., freedom, and full opportunity for awakening the children's self-expres.y ion. Further, there are not a sufficient number of teachers Avho have studied kir.dergarten thoroughly, and have command of the psychology of the subject. Ki'idergartners in the United Kingdom, in Europe, and in America are thoroughly tra'.ned [Chap. IV, sees. 4, 5] ; that will be necessary here also. The transition-period frc m kindergarten to the primary school should be between the ages of 6 and 7, jmd every effort, therefore, should be made to afford the opportunity of attending kindergarten schools earlier than this ; it should be organised on the principles iridicated in Chapter IV. The school-rooms for kinder- garten must allow of free n^.ovcment. To have fixed-desks, as in the schools of the Department 25 Department of Public Instraction, is to make true kindergarten an impossibility. To lose sight of the element of freedom is to miss the whole meaning of kindergarten, for this condition is Si sine qua non in developing as much as possible the individuality and originality of the child. Tlie occupations and instruction of the children should be on Eroebelian lines. In the chapter referred to, an account of the theory of kindergarten, of the kindergarten work seen by the Commissioners, and also of the spread of kinder- garten tliroughout the entire world, is given. The im-porlance of kindergarten can hardly be overstated. It is the basis of a good educational development, its formative value being very high indeed. It awakens good will in the children ; its moral influence (in the hands of the right class of teachers, properly trained) is excellent — it prepares the children to think vigorously and with originality ; it has engendered — if it has been developed properly — that mental liabit which transforms perception into apperception. Tliere is no doubt that good kindergartens are the initial and one of the most important steps in a good system of popular education. The Commissioners' con- clusions are given later. 3. General in regard to Curriculum. — The subjects referred to by special chapters in this Report are : — Drawing [XXI], Ancient and Modt'rn Languages [XXII], Geometry "XXIIIl, Geography [XXIV], Arithmetic and Algebra [XXV], Natural Science XXVI], Physical Culture and Gymnastics [XVII], and Manual Training and Sloyd [XVIII and XIX]. Ethical subjects are dealt with in chapters on Ethical and Religious Instruction, the Education of the Will, and arc touched upon also in other chapters. If education in New South Wales is to be comparable to that in Europe and America, considerable improvement will have to be made in regard to the teaching of all these subjects. The aim of the several chapters has been to exhibit the nature of the teaching in other countries, so as to shcAV both tliat improvement is necessary, and the direction it must take. It should be stated that no spasmodic inclusion of new subjects in a curriculum, nor sudden adoption nf neic methods in, teaching, is real reform, and it is important that we should not fall into the delusion that a fete superficial changes toill bring our loork into line with European education. Reform involves an absolute change in the education of the teacher, in his knowledge of the history and theory of teaching, of the psychological method, as well as a great improvement in his knowledge of subject-matter, by acquiring it systematically. It is to be remembered, also, that University education is, as previously stated, not in itself a substitute, and at the present time the University of Sydney is not equipped for the training of teachers. It cannot provide special education adapted to the require- ments of primary teachers, or equal to that provided by the great Normal Schools of Europe, nor has it a chair of pajdagogy. Before passing to the details in the curricula of the Primary Schools, a few general matters may be referred to. 4. Moral Elements in Eluoation. — Ero:Ti tii3 standpoint of modern education, one of the most serious defects of our system is the insuflBcient attention paid to the elements of character-building. This is shewn in inadequate training of teachers, in the absense of definite plau for influencing character, and in the details of the system. Character-building involves, in ascending order of importance, the consideration of physical culture, civic instruction, those elements of education which are concerned in the education of the AVill, and with ethical and religious instruction. The Department of Public Instruction has published no clear expression of the official view as a systematic guide for its leaching staff in regard to these matters, and everything is practically left to the individual teachers. In the absence of a type-programme such as is used in other countries, there can be no adequate system of dealing with such subjects. Nor is there, in the training of the school-teacher, any treatment of tliat part of educational theory that Avould give form to the ethical teaching, or explain the bearing of psychology and ethics in dealing with the child-mind, and in endeavouring to secure a normal development. To 15-(e) 26 To understand the continental position, and its moral force, account must be taken of the fact that the ethically tonic effect of pliysical culture p;ymnastic is well appreciated [Chap. XVII, sec. 6] ; manual training is viewed from the ethical stand- point [Chap. XIX, sec. 2] ; the special instruction in ethics or religion is svstematised ; and all is dealt with by teachers specially educated and trained [Chap. XV, sec. 3]. The value of civic instruction has been recognised in Europe, and recently in America. It is felt that, to intelligently discharge one's duty in a community, a definite idea of its Constitution and the laws to which its members are subject is essential. And, further, a conception of personal responsibility in relation to the affairs of the State and the Empire is necessary to create an intelligent patriotism, in contradistinction to a mere "jingoism" and to that vulgar and unthinking national prejudice which is not without serious danger. ; 5. Co-ordination in Teaching. — In modern educational method, subjects are taught, as far as possible, in the light of their mutual relationship. This may be called the "natural method" in contradistinction to the empirical, and to the logical or analytical, whicli tend to dissociate each subject from every other. Although for certain purposes it is necessary to analyse human knowledge, and to classify it under subject divisions, it does not follow that that process is sound from the point of view of paidagogy ; on the contrary, the psychology upon which modern educational method is founded has shewn that the more intimately subjects are interrelated in teaching, the more fully is apperception developed thereby, and the more thorough does education become. Thus, for example, it" drawing, geometry, arithmetic, geography, subjects which have inherently most intimate relationships, are treated as far as possible simultaneously, and always as mutually helpful, they will be far better taught. In the several chapters dealing with such subjects, attention has been drawn to the matter. Here, again, the necessity for a more thorough education of the teacher is apparent in order that he may appreciate the full significance of what is here merely suggested. 6. Logical and Pcedagogical Order in the Development of Subjects. — By analysis, all subjects of knowledge may be exhibited under a scheme of development, passing from Avhat may be regarded as elementary forms to those whicli are more complex. Both in England and in this country the greater part of the teaching has been based upon this logical development, a consequence of our failure to attend to the contributions of psychology to the theory of paidagogy. Eor example, in arithmetic, the first four operations are learnt in succession instead of simultaneously; similarly in regard to the differential calculus, integral calculus, and differential equations. This method is, however, unsatisfactory from a paedagogical point of view. Instead of instruction being given in this way, it should, as far as possible, traverse each subject as it were from end to end, dealing initially with the most elementary facts or principles and developing themi by recapitulation ,with inclusion of more complex material. [Chap. Ill, sees. 11, 12]. This general principle of methodology totally transforms teaching, and undoubtedly makes it vastly better. It demands, however, higher qualification on the part of the teacher, and a keen appreciation of how far, with individual children, it is desirable to push a subject in its initial and developing stages. This method of extending a child's knowledge in any subject over as great a range as he can understand, and of early familiarising his mind with its fundamental ideas and principles, goes far to remove its later difficulties, for the ideas introduced into his thought germinate and develope of themselves. The paedagogical order also differs from the logical in taking more account of the psychical elements, viz., interest, etc., and of the moral and intellectual influence of the sphere of ideas created by the teacher in the child mind [Chap. Ill, sees. 9, 10, 13j ; a fact revealing the need of psychology in the training of teachers. The mere reading of a book or two on this subject is, however, not sufficient. What is wanted is exercise in applying its principles in teaching. This application is Avliat makes the practice in a European or American sjminary so valuable [Chaps. XXXVIIf, XXXtX], a matter already dealt with. (See sec. 12 of the preceding division.) 7. 27 7. Beligioiis Instruction. — The important question of religious instruction is discussed in Chapter XV. By the Public Instruction Act of 1880, section 17, 43 Victoria No. 23, it is declared that four hours during each school-day — that is, for five days a week — shall be devoted to secular instruction exclusively. This number of hours, it may incidentally be remarked, is quite inadequate. It is further pro- vided that " a portion of each day, not more than one hour, shall be set apart when the children of any one i^eligious persuasion may be instructed by the clergyman or any other religious teacher of such persuasion," the pupils being kept separate from the others. A provision that children of different religious persuasions shall be instructed on different days would, if interpreted literally, prevent the daily instruction of children by the clergyman of any one denomination. Secular instruction is, however, held to include general religious teaching, as distinguished from dogmatical or polemical theology, and this teaching is placed on the same footing as other subjects. Scripture lesson-books are read, and historical and perhaps also ethical comments are made thereupon. Objections to the receiving of such instruction are respected. Opinions are divided as to the efficiency of religious instruction given by clergymen under such conditions as are above indicated. The aggregation of children of different ages in a single class for common instruction in religion by a clergyman, however, is obviously a most imperfect scheme, and no doubt has much to do with the relatively small extent to which the provision is utilised. The division of schools in Germany into Evangelical (Lutheran) and Roman Catholic leads to far better results from one point of view, for the religious instruction is given by the teaching staff' as a part of the general curriculum. With properly trained teachers this will secure efficiency in the instruction, and under such a regime the ordinary Scripture lessons form part of tlie general programme for religious instruction. In France, however, it is held, that such teaching tends to create divergence of feeling between children of different sects. It is alleged by many Germans M'ith whom the Commissioners conversed, that the religious teaching is apt to degenerate into merely formal catechetical teaching, and an official preparation for confirmation at the close of the school career. The Commissioners, however, had no adequate opportunity of reaching a definite conchision as to the 2')'>'os and cons of tliis matter, for that would involve a long stay in Germany, and even then decision would, for certain obvious reasons, not be easv. There is much variation of opinion as to how far purely ethical teaching may wiselv be substituted for the religious instruction in schools. France has endeavoured ■to make the substitution, depending however upon an antecedent and more or less definite idea of God as the fundamental basis of the system. Later this will be .referred to again. Since all educationists make cliaracter-building the supreme aim of education, -and religious people believe that the formation of character cannot be perfected except through specific religious instruction, it is desirable that the State system afford every opportunity for efficient religious teaching by the clergy. Much may be said for the French system, which ?ims at bringing about the close association of all children dui'ing the period of primary education, so that natural sympathy and respect shall tend to annihilate sectarian bigotry. 8. Ethical Instruction. — In view of the fact, however, that various circum- stances prevent tlie clergy availing themselves of the opportunity of utilising to the fullest extent the opportunity of religious instruction afforded under the Act, it is desirable that definite instruction in ethics should be given as part of the general programme. For this purpose, the scheme of France may well be taken as a model. This is roughly outlined in Chap. XV, sec. 4. There can be no doubt whatever of the high value of such a programme. In regard to the moral qualifications of the teacher himself, sec. 5 of the same chapter makes some reference to what is demanded of him in the official programme of the Canton of Vaud. These are important hs sliewing the view of a Protestant Canton ; and it may be said that Protestant and Catholic countries are agreed as to the importance of both religion and ethics. Some idea of the German view may be had from sec. G. Ethical !28 Ethical instruction should embrace the relation of the child or person to — (flf) Himself. (Personal Ethics.) (b) His fellows. (Social Ethics.) (6-) His country. (National Ethics.) (rf) The AVorki. (Philanthropy.) And he should he so tausfht to recoErnise somctliinsr of the realitv of such relation- ships through the cultivation of — • (i) Personal ideals and charactor. (ii) The social virtues. (ill) Patriotism, loyal response to the just claims of his country, and the wish to sec its institutions perfected. (rv) The love of mankind, Avithout regard to racial or religious differences. All these elements should, in the actual instruction, as far as possible be united, not dissociated — that is to say, the above ropre?cnts only the logical order, and not the poedagogical. The relation of the child to himself, to his fellows, to his country, and to the world should be explahied — that is to say, the teaching should embrace actual illustrations of personal, communal, social, national, and cosmopolitan relationships. [Chap. XV, sec. 13]. The present system is seriously d(!foctivc in regard to its scheme of influencing the ideals of childhood, and yet in any true education the cultivation of noble ideals is of transcendent importance.' 0. Education of the JFill. — It is recognised by those who have systematically studied the question, that high intellectual culture is not necessarily associated with strength of character [Chap. XVI, sees. 2-6], and further, that the* latter is of the higher importance both individually and nationally. Strength of chai-acter depends upon the vigour of the Will, and goodness upon its right direction. [Chap. Ill, sees. 3, 8]. In this connection the contributions of psychology to education are seen to be of great importance, inasmuch as they shew that discipline lohich secures obedience by repression is inejfective and injurious. [Chap. Ill, sec. 10]. Proper school-discipline aims at securing self-expression, and therefore a good behaviour and assiduous effort by self-direction. Although the education of the Will is naturally not a " subject " in the school curriculum, it is none the less necessary that the school-teacher should concern himself about his pupils in this respect [Chap. XVI, sees. 5-7], and therefore that he should be better trained and better taught than at present. In this connection, the function of play, referred to in sees. 8 and 9 of the last-mentioned chapter, is seen to be of sufficient moment to demand the systematic attention of the teacher. CoDS'derable attention is given thereto in both Europe and America. The importance, referred to above, of teachers appreciating the difference between coercive and directive discipline, dealt with in sec. 10, demands further remark. Wherever teachers imagine tiiat the imparting of subjects of instruction is the main function of the school, and wherever the scheme of inspection and examination makes their official future dependent upon success in this respect, much is certain to be sacrificed to mere response to the type of question given by the examiner, as previously explained, and the whole scheme of teaching is liable to be subordinated thereto. The truer education, aiming at the best results in the end, endeavours to secure thoroughness at every stage ; it relies upon the co-operation of the pupil, and therefore upon the exercise of his will ; it induces him to think for himself and so acquire original power and resource. This type of education may seem to move slowly in its earliest stages: it is almost certain NOT to secure the approbation of an Inspector toho marks percentages on sul'jecta of instruction. Ikit " little and well, and with a good heart," is a maxim that will do much to build up the will-power and national force of a people, a fact which shews how carefully the efficiency of education must be judged. Corporal punishment as an inducement to assiduity and good behaviour is not unknown in the primary schools of New South Wales. Boys are thrashed with the cane. This ought to be abolished, except for offences so flagrant as to almost require expulsion. [Chap. III., sees. 7, S, and Chap. XVI., sees. 5, 6, 7, 10]. 10. ' It ought to be remarked, however, that the reading matter is often good, and noble lessons are inculcated. 29 10. Civic Instruclion. — Another important ethical element in education is what is known in Europe and America as " Civic Instruction " or " Civics." It is often taught in close relationship with history. No special chapter has heen written thereon, hut reference is made to tlie Swiss programme in tliis suhject [Cliap. V, sec. 8]. Tlio civic instruction given to French teacliers has also heen outlined [Chap. 35, sec. 6], and also that given to Swiss teachers [Chap XXXVII, sec. 7]. The ol)ject of such instruction is to give children an intelligent idea of their rights, responsihilities, and duties under the laws of their country. For this State, it should caihrace some explanation of hoth tlie Federal and btate Constitutions, some of tiic larger facts of Common Law, the significance of some of the more important statutes, the development of civilisation, and the characteristic differences of government {e.(/., ricpublics, Constitutional and Absolute Monarchies, etc). It should also touch the question of international law. A vounsr and democratic countrv, Avhose citizens are educated without an adequate knowledge of tiie responsibilities of Constitutional Ciovernmcnt, of the nature of the incidence of Common Ijaw, of the nature of international relationships, of the etfect of legislation on a community, of their rights and duties in relation to the State, to the Federation, to the Empire, and to the world at large, is in serious danger, both as regards its domestic development and its relations with other nations; in fact, the lialtility of a democracy to ignorance is one of its special dangers, to guard against which civic instruction is important. This instruction should therefore be given to school cliildrcn of all ages, the development being adapted to the ages of the pupils. 11. Ph'/sical Cidlnre a'ld Gymnastics. — Since there is a well-recognised reaction between the mental and the bodily states and hal)its, physical culture and gymnastics may undoubtedly be made an important instrument of education, acting both upon the minds and characters of the children. By bringing into requisition the full power of the lungs, by promoting the activity of the circulatory, digestive, and excretory organs, it intensifies the feeling of vitality, and, other things being equal, gives greater mental and moral power [Chap. VIII, sees. 1, 4, G]. So far, insufficient attention has been paid to these matters in the primary system of the State, Avhile, on the other hand, Europe and America have given to physical education the most thorough consideration, and the physique and morale of the people have been correspondingly affected. [Chap. XVI f, sec. 6]. The question of such teaching, and of the proper education of teachers therefor, is dealt with in Chapter XVIT, where the distinction is drawn between mere athletic gj'mnastic and true pliijsical culture based on physiology. It is shewn in section 6 that there is a curious duality between the needs of the body and of the spiritual part of us, which may be expressed as follows : — Human djiaUty. Bod;/ ueeds. IJcsult. Snul needs. Nutrition (food) Physical Growth Mental Experience (knowledge). Proper nourishment „ Normal growth ,, Hi^jht education. Physical training „ I'owtT „ IMcnlal training. Physical precision „ Skill „ IMental precision. Physical excellence and „ Ideal manliness „ Intellectual and moral exccl- grace of form. lence and grace of spirit. Physical culture has three elements, viz., the physical, psycho-physical, and the psychical, and has two forms, viz.. the systematic or educational, and the recreational. The first aims at bringing about both conscious and unconscious self-control and self- expression, and the latter at securing physical and mental exhilaration. Physical culture, therefore, should be physiologically efficient, and it should be interesting, simple, educative, and, as far as possible, recreative [sec. 7]. Its physiological aim is to enlarge the chest-capacity, and to fully exei-cise the lungs; to develope the muscular power of the heart and the general tone of the circulatory system ; to stimulate normally the digestive and the excretory organs ; and to develope the symmetry and vigour of the body generally. Tasmania has taken a distinctly forward movement in this matter, undei' Mr. C. Bjelke-Petersen [sec. 12], but this State, notwithstanding that Dr. R. Eoth's views practically coincide -^ith the doctrine expounded in Chap. XVII, has not adoj led 30 adopted any general system of physical culture. There is some imperfect gymnastic and a little swimming, but nothing in any way comparable to what is being done in the United Kingdom, Europe, and America. Very many Continental and American schools are now provided with well- equipped gymnasiums [Chap. XLVIl, sec. 22], even where education is absolutely free. In the towns, instructors thoroughly understand their art as specialists, having had the necessary physiological and other scientific instruction as a basis for their special education in gymnastics. The primary school teachers themselves are also thoroughly taught gymnastics and its relation to hygiene [Chap. XVII, sec. 5-14; Cliap. XXXV, sec. 3-15], and the exercises for children arc, in consequence, everywhere systematically developed. It may be pointed out that tlie study of fatigue by the means of the ergograph, SBstliesiometer, etc , shew tliat severe gymnastic is not recreative, and indeed may be made quite as exhausting as the most difficult subjects. There arc, in nearly all recently-built schools in Eui'opc, well-fitted shower- baths, and in some few cases splendid swimming-baths. These arc, without exception, so designed that the water can be made an agreeable temperature. The function of the skin, aud the importance of cleanliness in relation thereto, is recognised both by teacher and pupil, through lessons in hygiene. 12. Ilanual Training and Sloyd. — It has often suggested itself to the minds of persons with small acquaintance with educational processes, that children ought to be taught during their school life things that are practicaLly uspJuI ; and those who hold this doctrine generally include in their purview some trade or liandicraft teaching. The teaching of children, however, during their primary scliool life should have the character of rjcnevalUy, should be educative, aud should not bo merely of the nature of practical exercises. [Chap. III]. True education aims at developing their moral, mental, and physical powers in such a way that they may be turned to account in any direct iun whatsoever. Educatice manual training, therefore, must react on the moral nature by demanding conscientious execution of the assigned task, precision, assiduity, etc. It must make a demand on the thinking power ; it must develope control over the muscles ; that is to say, it must give physical dexterity. These are the features which so fundamentally distinguish a carefully organised set of exercises in manual training from mere exercises in agriculture, or in carpentering, ironwork, or other trade-occupations. Just in proportion as an administration recognises that the higher functions of teaching are something of far greater importance than the mechanical elements, so will it appreciate the difference between the vulgar utilitarian conceptions and the higher utility of truly educative ones. The exercises in Sloyd, the essential characteristic of which is that they should be educatively organised, should not be confused with lessons in carpentry, joinery, cabinet-making, etc. This is wliat the educational empiric does not clearly recognise, but what is well understood by all educationists. The actual exercises are, of course, not absolutely identical in different places. In one respect, however, they are, viz., they are e very whei'e organically arranged, and are not simply a set of isolated exercises, graduated by mere differences of difficulty. Anyone who has studied the doctrines of Dr. Salomon, of Nails, in the light of psychology and educational theory will recognise the important difference between the two classes of manual training. All schools Avhicli aim at making education practical, should give instruction of this kind ; where it is neglected, the education will lag behind that of Europe and America in an element of considerable moment to our industrial future. It ou^ht to bo remarked here that the time for this work should not be taken from the present curriculum, already very short. Manual work, Avhen properly conducted by a good teacher, is not more taxing than play ; it is highly appreciated by the children, since it strongly engages their interest. It should not, however, be taught by mere carpenters or other tradesmen, but by special teachers who have learnt the subject educatively, that is, by teachers who have studied that type of teaching with the same thoroughness as is required in other branches of instruction. Thus, at the seminaries for Sloyd, none but educated teachers Avill be i-eccived for tuition. It 31 It may here be noticed that certain parts of draioing may be taught in connection with the course in manual work, and this is a way in which two subjects may be co-ordinated. Again, exercises in arithmetic, geometry, and even algebra may also be connected with the manual instruction, so that the co-ordination will be extended through the range of these four or five subjects, and the children will have a direct interest in solving such applied questions. Not only will the answers to geometrical, algebraical, and arithmetical problems be practically tested, but, by the great majority of children, the abstract principles will be more clearly grasped. Still further, the interest in purely abstract questions will be enhanced by a keener realisation of the possibilities of their practical occurrence. The manual training should extend over the whole period, from the Kindergarten to the highest class in the primary school. Finally, it may be added, the period of 6-14 years, and the short school hours of New South Wales, will not allow of the addition of trade or business subjects, without overcharging the curriculum. It is vastly more important to make the educative foundation sound, than to attempt to include industrial or commercial teaching. 13. Drawing. — Drawing in the European schools is on a totally different plane from Avhat it is in the schools of New South Wales. In general, the mere copying of lithographed forms, sketches, etc., is regarded as of very little value. The European view may be summed up in the following words, translated from the Belgian programme : — " The system of copying substitutes for the material thing merely its graphical representation, and the task of the pupil is to imitate an imitation." And to make this dictum more impressive, it continues : — " In suppressing direct observation, and the analysis of the outlines of the object, one suppresses the intelligent part of the toork,from which, above everything, drawing derives its educative and practical value." And it goes on to add that : — " It is important, therefore, that teachers should be convinced of the necessity of teaching drawing from actual objects placed before the pupils' eyes, i.e., to employ a phrase already appropriated, drawing from nature." [Chap. XXI, sec 2]. Drawing lessons commence in the Kindergarten, where they are, of course, freehand. 'J'he declared aim is : — {n) To develope skill in iha us;^ of the hand. {J}) To develope memory of form. (c) To develope some power of invention. {d) To develope a sense of colour, and recognition of the laws of harmony of colour, (e) To assist in obtaining a knowledge of geometry. (/) To give skill in the representation of objects, and in technical drawing, etc. The Belgian programme includes the drawing of common objects, geometrical drawing, ornamental drawing, drawing from memory, composition and invention, application of the theory of colour, etc. The faculty of exact observation is said to be strongly stimulated by the practice of drawing from nature about which there can be no doubt, and Belgian children are taught to make an exact analysis of the constituent elements of the outline of whatever object is to be represented. The educative value of the work depends very largely upon this. Considerable weight is attached to the practice of drawing from memory, which is regarded as indispensable to those who afterwards mean to make use of drawing in tlieir life-work [sec. 6]. These exercises are undoubtedly excellent for developing form-sense and form-memory, and are of great assistance also in invention. Difference of opinion exists in regard to the use of colour in the Kindergarten, it being held by some that to allow children to daub with colour is a waste of time ; while others believe that not only is their interest in their work greatly increased, but also that their colour-sense is more thoroughly awakened and trained. The Commissioners incline to the latter opinion. Drawing 32 DraAving is used in connection with arithmetic to illustrate magnitudes, and to explain processes; in geography, to illustrate hy diagrams, maps, etc., to make the conceptions of cosmography, etc., more clear. It is used also to illustrate natural science. The French theory of drawing outlined [sec. 10], insists on the unity of all drawing, on the recognition of geometi'y as its foundation, on the necessity of free- hand drawing, on the great importance of visual ohservation, and on the reaction of this last upon manual observation. llence it attaches considerable weight to geometrical drawing in the development of the programme, this, however, being executed at first freehand. On the other hand it has been urged by some German authorities that geometrical drawing should nut be taken (!arly since it imperils the aesthetic sense; some go even so far as to propose the abolition of geometrical drawing in the lower classes. [Cliap. XXf, sec. 14]. In some countries objects belonging to various periods in the history of art, arc drawn so as to give some idea of ti»e development thereof [sec. 16]. rerspective draAving is Avidely taught, both for its value as geometry, and its great value in guiding one in freehand draAving. In the development of forms borrowed from the vegetable and animal kingdoms, the method usually followed is to first draw the object, and then to conventionalise it ; beautiful decorative patterns are evolved in this way. Some of the recent drawing of this character in English schools is excellent, and Avas occasionally comparable to anything seen elsewhere. Teachers are thoroughly prepared for teaching the subject, its methodology being fully treated in the normal schools [sec. 17]. Of tlic advantages to any teacher, of the ability to draw, it is needless to speak ; it is also important that he should be educated in the general theory of pedagogy. It may further be pointed oat that many of the draAving exercises are directly valuable in connection Avith arithmetic, algebra, geometry, physics, and natural historv, and the drawing lessons should be co-ordinated with the others as much as possible. Especially is this true of geometry, geography, etc., while graphic arithmetic and algebra can be made of service as one of the technical forms of drawing. 14. Teaching of Languages. — Tlic general practice throughout Europe is to restrict languages to the mother-tongue in the case of people Avho desire to qualify themselves for unskilled libour only, or Avho intend to folloAV only trade avocations. In a democratic country, however, it becomes necessary to constitute the ordinary primary school a preparatory school for higher education, and, therefore, at a suitable stage languages should be taught to those Avho desire such instruction. If, however, they are taught at all, the teaching should be thorough. The difficulties of unlearning erroneous quantity or accent in Latin or Greek, or mispronunciation in French or German, are far greater than those of correctly learning the elements. [Chap. XXLI, sees. 15, 13]. The general question of language-teaching, at least so far as French and German are concerned, vA^as recently very carefully considered by an American committee of twelve language-professors, Avho, two years after their appointment, presented a report on the subject. In Cliapter XX [I a synoptical statement of their opinions is given, and the question is further discussed in the light of subsequent experience. If one analyses the various methods of teaching languages, they may be divided [Chap. XXIIj as folio avs, viz., into : — .; (a) The grammatical method, viz., that in Avhicli an attempt is made to leara the language through its grammar. This is the method generally adopted, and is also the poorest method |sec. G]. {h) The reading or empirical method in Avhich the grammar is to some extent dispensed Avitii, and the language is learnt by reading it and from its vocabu- lary. This method is also common [sec. 7]. ((?) The so-called "natural" or conversational-method in Avhich it is attempted to learn a language as one learns the mother-tongue. -This has elements of value, but in its simplest form is by no means satisfactory [sec. 8]. iA) 33 (d) The psycliological or visualising method in wliich one associates the heard and printed forms of the Avord with the ohject or action represented, and endeavours to form in that way an indissoluble association [sec. 10]. (e) The phonetic or vocal-analysis method, which starts hy drill in phonetics, aims at securing accurate pronunciation, hy overcoming the difficulty introduced by the vocal habits engendered in learning one's own language [sec. 12.J In a highly-developed form this last is taught in Sydney for German by Mr. F. Bender. There is a method which seems to give good results generally known as the Berlitz method [sec. 11] ; and in Sydney M. Perier has a method based upon psychological principles for learning French which also gives good results. The latter is, in a quasi-official Avay, taught at Fort-street school.^ The psychology of the relation between thought and its expression as applied to learning languages is indicated in section 9. The teaching of languages in other countries is very successful, and leads to an idiomatic knowledge of the language and to accurate accent and pronunciation. English people when properly taught are also able to learn foreign languages Avith facility. The methods adopted by different classes of teachers have been indicated. It is well known that the ordinary or classical method of learning through grammar is one of the most tedious and unsuccessful of all possible metluads. On the other hand, the psychological-conversational method leads to excellent results, especially if supplemented by phonetic suggestions as to pronunciation. It has quite lately been pointed out that this method will lead to a far more rapid acquirement of languages than is possible under the old system, and Professor Postgate of Cambridge gives it as his opinion that children Avho are taught by this method will hopelessly outdistance their competitors. Further, grammar should be learnt after some acquire- ment of the language — not before. In a country such as ours, and bearing in mind the present state of education, the importance of securing correct methods of pronouncing Latin or Greek, and French or German, suggests the use of the phonograph. This has lately been largely called into requisition for the teaching of languages, apparently with good results [Chap. XXII, sec. 14]. The question of the importance of teaching the dead languages and modern languages is touched upon in Chapter XXII. It may be said that the great difficulty of finding sufficient time for the teaching of Latin (and Greek), and also for teaching modern languages, will be much alleviated by better methods of teaching. Whatever languages are to be learnt, lessons therein should commence at 10 years of age, or, if attention has been paid to etymology beforehand, they might, perhaps, be deferred till 12. Properly taught, language is not a difficult subject. Wherever modern languages are taught by teachers unfamiliar Avith the correct pronunciation, the phonograph should be made available. Seeing, as previously stated, how much more difficult it is to unlearn erroneous pronunciation or quantity, than to initially learn correctly, the pronunciation should be most carefully attended to at the commencement of the instruction. 15. Teaching of Geometry. — By the great majority of European countries, the use of Euclid's Elements as a means of learning geometry has, for a fong time, been wholly abandoned. England luis retained this method, and though the unAvisdom of this retention has been pointed out, and though it has also been obvious that mathematical education in England has been placed at a great disadvantage thereby, it is only lately that it has been admitted that Ave must follow in the footsteps of European method. The matter has been the subject of a long debate, in Avhich a great number of persons, Avhose opinions have weight, have taken part, and the whole issue has been discussed by the British Association for the Advancement of Science. The recommendations of a committee, specially appointed by that Association, approves such abandonment. [Chap. XXIII, sees, i'5-46]. The defect of a text-book of Euclid's Elements is that it teaches, after all, very little geometry, and that in a most tedious way. Its scheme of demonstration, while affecting to he extremely rigorous, is not really so {e.g., the 5th proposition cannot ' A general arrangement permitting special teaching in the schools of the Department would be ao excellent one. The lessons are not actually given in the Fort-street school buildings. 15-(/ 34 cannot be proved except by the introduction of a new postulate allowing the rotation or inversion of a figure) ; by false construction (not obviously false) impossible results can be established by the scheme of reasoning followed. [See Sir John Gorst's remarks, Chap. XXIII, sec. 31]. Not only can nearly the whole of such geometry be taught intuitively, but by a different scheme of demonstration the proofs can be more readily and more obviously reached. [Chap. XXIII, pt. 2, sees. 48-60]. French and German treatises on geometry of quite a moderate size teacli a great deal more of the subject than can be gleaned from Euclid, and there is no doubt that the abandonment of Euclid's Elements will not only make it possible to handle the subject more interestingly, but also to learn it more thoroughly and more comprehensively. [Chap. XXIII, sees. 5, 6]. . . Since the greater part of Euclidean geometry can be reduced to almost self- evident propositions, so that the teaching may be made intuitive, quite small children may learn a considerable body of geometrical truth in an interesting way, and very easily. The widespread dislike for Euclidean geometry is largely responsible for the indifferent appreciation of the subject and for a general absence of geometrical knowledge. Moreover it ought to be said that the reading of the books of Euclid occupies a considerable time in the primary schools, (though in the end but little geometry is learnt), and the more interesting branches of the subject are left absolutely untouched. 16. Geography. — The methodology of the teaching of geography in Europe is very thorough, the subject being made interesting by being taught in relationship to allied subjects. In many places it commences in the kindergarten, the morphological element receiving first attention ; then the idea of locality, the orientation of places known to the child being dwelt upon. His local knowledge is then extended to surrounding regions, of which he has some knowledge ; from these to his country generally, and from his country to the empire, and from tliat to the world at large. In every way possible it is made interesting. Dry repetition is avoided. History is. taught in connection therewith, each subject helping and making significant the other. By little exercises in geographical drawing, sometimes made from his own survey, the child learns also how maps are built up. The maps of Europe, it may be ,s/iid, are excellent. .. :; The European view, viz., that it is of the first importance to have a realistic arid thorough knowledge of one's own countiy, of its characteristic features, its ways of communication, its touch with the outer world, its natural Avealth, and its. general resources, should govern the teaching of the subject in this State also. By explanations of its historical and commercial relationships, our country should be connected with England, and the possibilities of tlie mission of English-speaking people should be broadly outlined. Then the relation of the British Empire to the rest of the world could be made intelligible, viz., through subjects giving a real interest in the issues that lie open to any great race. In this way national dignity of character, a very necessary corrective to blind national prejudice, may be developed. The characteristics and resources of other countries, in relation to our own, will not be without interest to children. If all branches of geography were, as far as possible, taught simultaneously, its educative value might be made very high indeed ; and here again is seen the need for well-educated teachers with broad outlook, such as a scheme of training, similar to that of other countries, can assure. Wherever history is taught, maps illustrating historical movements, and pictures giving reality to geographical forms, and giving general information, should be lai'gely used. In this connection may be mentioned historical, ethnographical, and similar pictures. To give a vivid idea of the world's morphology, or the real appearance of different places, the Commissioners saw nothing better than thd beautifully coloured, photographically reproduced scenes, known as Photochromes. [Chap. XXIV, sec. 10, Chap. LI, sec. 3], and a small selection was made at the instance of the Commissioners, and supplied to the Department at a remarkably low cost. Physical geography is always taught. The place of the world in the solar system, and of the solar system in space, are explained, thus carrying onward the conceptions of children into the larger reaches of time and space. An d5 An important aspect of the subject is its dualistic nature [Chap. XXIV, sec. 2], touching abstract science on the one hand, and human relationships on the other. This is obvious from the following : — Geography. Scientific side — humanistic side — Mathematical, Historical, Morphological, Political, Topographical, Commercial and Industrial, Physical, etc. Ethnographical, etc. Some idea of the perfection of maps may be had from Chap. XXIV, sec. 4. It may be mentioned that in the rural schools of Prance, and many of the schools of Switzerland, elementary surveying is taught, so that the people can measure up their crops, etc., and undertake any simple surveying desired. [Chap. XXIY, sec. 5.] Another feature of great interest is the practice of taking school children for geographical exctirsions. With teachers who know something of geology, physical geography, history, general science, etc., such excursions are extremely interesting and very instructive. [Chap. XXIV, sec. 17]. The mere copying of maps is everywhere falling into deserved discredit, but map drawing may be made educative. [Chap. XXIV, sec. 13]. This subject is worthy of our serious attention, and if the State Railways made the opportunity here, it would be an excellent thing for both teachers and scholars. The equipment for the teaching of the subject consists of a black globe, a tellurium, a planetarium, an armillary sphere, a uranotrope, sometimes a relief globe of the moon, pictures, photographs, lantern slides, etc. [Chap. XXIV, sect. IS, to which reference should be made]. Ecference is made to the special method of teaching the blind geography. By a special series of maps this subject is most successfully taught to them [Chap. XXIV, sec. 19], and olten their achievements in the subject are surprisingly excellent. 17. Arithmetic and Algebra. — In the school system of New South "Wales, arithmetic is taught eai'ly and algebra comparatively late. It is desirable, however, tbat subjects, the logical elements of which are so fundamentally identical, should as far as possible be taught together, although in the early stages of the teaching the algebra need not be formal. The mode of teaching these subjects in other countries is briefly outlined in Chap. XXV. Perhaps the characteristic difference between the European and our teaching is the weight attached in the former place to mental arithmetic, and it is often required that mental processes shall be followed unless they are liable to lead to mistake or are tedious. It may be remarked that the lengthy arithmetical sums often given with us are practically valueless, since in practical computations pi'ofessional computers have no difficulty in making use of abbreviated methods. The educative value of arithmetic lies in the thinking involved. The principles underlying arithmetical and algebraical processes are very carefully handled in European schools, stress being laid upon the importance of the children thinking accurately. Endeavour is made to give the children concrete ideas of the significance of number. The mere writing down or utterance of such a number, say, as 10,000, has no meaning for a small child ; if, however, he be taught to represent it to his mind as groups of real objects, the numerical conception acquires reality. Examples in arithmetic, to be of direct interest to the child, must have some practical value, be in concrete form, or concerned with something in which he is interested. Mere rule-of-thumh processes are to he avoided, such, for example, as certain forms of compound multiplication, duo-decimal multiplication, etc. It is better to take simple cases that are thoroughly understood, and expound the rule when the intelligence is sufficiently advanced. It is, of course, eminently desirable that no arithmetical or algebraical examples leading to false conception of physical phajnomena should be given. Some English treatises on arithmetic offend in this particular, an example being given 36 given in the chapter on " Reform in the Training of Teachers" [Chap. XL, sec. 13]. A question leading to false physical conceptions Mill not be given when the proponent has a proper knowledge of physics, and similarly for other sciences ; and hence the necessity for thorough education in general elementary principles, even for the proper teaching of arithmetic. Questions for arithmetical practice should be always normal cases. The nature and laws of arithmetical operations may readily bo explained to quite young children, provided they are thoroughly understood by the teacher, are put in proper form, and are suitably illustrated. The aim in Europe and America is to make every slep rational. Special care is taken in Europe not to develope mere "parrot-memory " of multiplication and other arithmetical tables. Unfortunately, all English children are greatly handicapped by the English systems oL" weights and measures — systems that, so long as they are retained, must placn our people at a disadvantage, both industrially and commercially. By teaching the metric systen^ to children in schools it will be very easy, even in one generation, to eliminate the difl&culty and to avoid the inconveniences of the present cumbrous system. In the German methodology of arithmetic, distinction is made between the introduction to arithmetical ideas, facility in arithmetical operations, and the application of arithmetic to various problems. As far as possible the Avhole range is covered in the earliest classes, the arithmetic, however, being so developed that the cases, simple at first, become more and more complex as the pupil passes into higher classes. Mental arithmetic receives the greatest possible attention, the arithmetical problems being drawn as much as possible from other branches of instruction [Chap. XXV, sees. 2 and 6]. In dealing with mathematics generally, the British Association for the Advancement of Science recommend a constant appeal to concrete illustrations. They strongly urge the introduction of the metric system, the abandonment of the elaborate manipulation of vulgar fractions, tlie introduction of the ideas of ratio and proportion concurrently with vulgar fractions, the early inti'oduction of decimals, the use of contracted methods and the exhibition of the method of finding result true to a limited number of figures, the use of tables of simple functions— for example, of logarithms, circular functions, etc. These recommendations must commend them- selves to everyone who has given the matter any attention. [Section 6]. In algebra they recommend the testing of formulye by arithmetical applica- tions, the use of graphs, the method of commencing with simple illustrations, the abandonment of extravagantly complicated algebraical expressions, of elaborate resolutions into factors, of difficult combination of indices, of equations that demand considerable ingenuity and manipulations; and so on. [Section 6]. It is desirable that the connection between algebra and geometry should also he more clearly indicated in teaching, so that the three subjects — arithmetic, algebra, and geometry — may be closely inter-related in the scheme of instruction. Vector algebra is not taught in this State in the primary schools, but it would be very easy to make children understand its elementary conceptions — a matter of great importance as an element of mathematical thought. Some little idea also could easily be given ot the significance of determinants. Naturally, all this involves a training of our teachers comparably to the training in Europe and America. 18. Nahiral Science. — The place of natural science in the curriculum for primary schools is receiving increasing recognition in the United Kingdom and is well recognised in Europe and America. [Chap. XXV, sec. 1]. That it should find a place in the curriculum of this State is evident if reference be made to the work done in other countries. A special committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, consisting of eminent scientists and educationists, strongly recommended in 1902 the introduction of science teaching in English elementary schools. This has been done in recognition of the fact that such teaching is essential to enable the community as a whole to respond to the demands of existing conditions in commerce and industry. The very serious consequences to Great Britain of national neglect of scientific knowledge has been pointed out in no unmistakable terms hy Lord llosebery, Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, Dr. Haldane, Sir Norman Lockyer, and many others, mIio fully recognise the necessity of English industry and commerce more fully availing itself of scientific knowledge 37 knowledge. To do so in a way comparable to European practice, it must create interest in scientitic subjects in the elementary school. In order to accomplish this there must necessarily be adequate scientific equipment for the schools, and proper scientific training for the teachers. The report of the British Association Committee, above referred to, is to be found in Chap. XXXVI, sec. 4. At tlie pn sent time the schools of the ])epartment of Public Instruction are inadequately equipped for scientific teaching, both in respect of material and personnel ; nor have the teachers, even when passing through the training school, any adequate scientific teaching — certainly nothing comparable to what they receive in Europe. This absence of science-teaching in the primary (public) schools of the State is a grave defect, and cannot be remedied except by a different scheme of educating our teachers. Wl)at little science is learnt is not, speaking generally of course, realistically learnt, either by tlie teachers or by the scholars. In the words of M. Dr. Guex, of Switzerland, '• Direct observation of tilings must be substituted for the study oitcovds ; the child must be taught to exercise his judgment, by guiding it, without imposing upon him ready-made ideas; he must be made to learn little but discover much," etc. Special attention is drawn to the teaching of natural science in Europe in the lowest classes of scliools. Anyone who has been through the primary (public) schools of this State, or knows tlic natvirc of the object lessons given therein, will see, on making a comparison with the programmes given in Ciiap. XXVI for Austrian, Belgian, German, Swiss, and other schools, how very far behind we are in this State. Primary schools in some parts of Europe are excellently equipped for the teaching of science (far better than even the secondary schools here), and it is a hopeful sign in England to see that the training schools for primaiy teachers arc recognising the necessity for properly educating tlieir teachers in this respect, by having well- equipped laboratories for the scientific education of the student of teaching. The great educative value, as well as the immense practical importance of scientific knowledge, affords one of the strongest reasons for making reform in this matter urgent. Reference may be made to the recognition by Belgium of the value, of scientific knowledge to the farming and dairying population and its influence on education. At. the present time 13elgium practically supplies lier own needs in respect of dairy products, whereas a decade ago her imports were large. This is the result of a suitable education of her people. Scientijic insiruclion in the primary school is an, essential basis for proper subsequent development, either in higher education, or in education for ordinary agricultural, commercial, industrial, or other pursuits. 'J'he child, properly taught the elements of science, has a far more intelligent outlook upon the world, and a better understanding of its present activity, than he has where the subject is neglected. Chapter XXVI should be read in connection with these remarks. A very interesting circumsfancc noted by the Commissioners Avas the frequency of gifts of materials for the school museums by tiie principals of various industrial establishments. Anotlier matter of interest was the fact that collections are frequently contributed to by the school children themselves. In regard to apparatus, there will be little difficulty when the teacher is properly educated. " It is by simple and inexpensive apparatus that such concep- tions of physical science as may be included in the programmes of the primary schools, are established," says the Ercnch official programme [Chap. XXVI, sec. 8], and the student-teachers in at least one of tlic normal schools take, on hiaving, a cabinet for chemical and similar experiments, made by them during their course. [Chap. LT, sec. 4]. Given an education equal to that given in the European schools for the training of teachers, our teachers throughout the country will have little difficulty in practically orientating their teaching according to the circumstances of the locality, and without causing the instruction to lose its educative value. In tliis way the instruction will not only be of far greater interest to the children, but will also materially help to increase our Avealth and well-being. The primary school is not the place to substitute trade or professional for educative instruction ; nevertheless, a practical orientation of all subjects is in no way inconsistent with the maintenance of the educative value of the teaching. To make primary schools mere schools of book-keeping, of agriculture, of dairying, of carpentry. 88 cai'pentry, joinery, etc., would enormously reduce their educative value. On the other hand, an intelligent and properly-educated teacher will have no difficulty in illustrating the subjects in the curricula (arithmetic, algebra, geometry, science, etc.) in such a way as to immensely reinforce their interest, and render them directly beneficial. It is important not to be betrayed into this mere trade or professional view, on the assumption that the value of the education is increased. The contrary is the truth. It ought to be added that systematic science-teaching by a properly educated and trained teaching-staff should not be confounded with a spasmodic inclusion of science-subjects in a curriculum, to be taught by insufficiently educated teachers, who will at best learn the science in question in a merely literary way. V. THE TRAINING OF TEACHEllS. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introduction. — There is but one way of making the educational system of this State satisfactory, and that is by — (a) Properly educating and training our teachers. {b) Making our school buildings respond to the requirements of a good school-hygiene, (c) Making the educational equipment of the schools more complete ; and {d) Introducing a suitable scheme of instruction. The defect in our s;/f,fem at present, unmistakably evidenced by our employ- ment of pupil-teachers, and by the method of educating and training of the teachers, both during their pupil-tenchership and in the training college, has been dealt Avith in Division III. It remains to shew how our teachers may be thus better educated as the most Jtmdmnental stf^p in. reform. Anything short of an equal education and training to what is received in Europe, must necessarily be inadequate, since it would inevitably leave our system inferior. Mere changes in the curriculum amount to very little, unless they are parts of a properly organised system, taught by adequately educated and trained teachers ; for the thoroughness of the teacher's professional preparation for his work is what makes any curriculum significant, and it is obvious, therefore, that the personal factor must be taken into account. Education cannot be materially improved by merely mechanical changes. In considering how much the State has to make good in this respect, it ought to be borne in mind that the effect of good teaching is cumulative, and that where the primary school is supplied by a thoroughly qualified staff, the education and outlook of the candidates for teaching are, age for age, far better than in countries where, from defects in the curriculum, imperfect methods, or from want of properly qualified teachers, the teaching is inferior. Consequently, one of the most serious difficulties is that of rapidly improving the average professional qualification of the teacher. Owing to the svstem followed, the teacher's calling does not command the respect it should — an inevitable consequence of the pupil-teacher system, and, indeed, of any system that is lax as regards such qualification. This reacts, of course, upon the willingness of the better class of men and women to engage in teaching, far more so than the question of emoluments, which also is not unimportant. In Germany and America, and in fact in many European countries, ladies of good social standing are entering into primaiy and kindergarten teaching, despite the fact that the emoluments are small. In Europe especially, the social status of female teachers is often distinctly higher than that of male teachers. This influx of a better class into the teaching profession is a consequence of increasing public respect for the office of the teacher and of a recognition of the fact that woman, especially in junior classes, has an important mission, and one which will greatly affect the national future, viz., the creation of noble ideals in the child mind. When viewed in relation to its ultimate influence on the communitv, and Avhen the nature of true education is regarded, the improved status is seen to be one of the most potent factors for good, for it fundamentally affects the development of the national character. Teachers are called upon, in fact, to deal with the human heart and mind at a period of life when they are most susceptible to formative influences, and 39 and this is whv all educationists realise that the earliest influences are those of highest importance. It is for this reason that so much weight is attached to the kind of work done in the kindergarten, and why kindergartners are asked to prepare themselves very thoroughly, not only by acquiring a good education, but also by studying psychology, educational theory and history, the phajnomena of child life, etc., in addition to their special professional work, viz., the technique of the kindergarten. No one can witness the effect of the true kindergarten without realising the justice of this view of the teacher's function, and what a transforming influence the kindergarten has on the character and ideals of the little child. When the question of the education and training of teachers is examined, the importance of the formative elements for their own development is equally obvious, and it is seen how much depends upon the tone and character of the whole scheme. This is important in two respects — firstly in relation to the teacher directly, secondly in relation to public appreciation of his work ; for it is desirable to induce men and women of the highest character and education to enter this calling, to remain in it, and to command for it public respect. To some extent the inducement may be created by increase of emoluments, and in this State that aspect cannot be overlooked. It is, however, more dependent upon the fact that the people of this State, as a whole, recognise that the higher qualification of the teacher is necessary. J iniblic opinion in favour of sound education is an essential if toe are to be educationally the peers of America and of Europe. Without the prepai'ation we must be content to admit our inferiority. Pretence at anything else is idle, and it is in this Avay that one may see the unspeakable imi)ortance to the future of our State and Empire of our educational system, and the Commissioners feel that it would be difficult to state this too strongly. 2. principles of reform in the training of teachers. — The subject of reform in^ti-aining our teachers is discussed in Cliapter XL. In order to place education in this State on a proper footing, it will be necessary to pass as quickly as possible from the present system, which charges itself only \tith a very imperfect training of (only a portion of) its teaching staff, to one lohich completely abandons the pupil- teacher system, and which gives all teachers a better preliminary education and an adequate professional training before they are allowed to teach at all. This will involve strenuous effort and, as pointed out in Chapter XL, sec. 41, the sending of several of the younger and better educated men to Europe to learn the methods of the great ptcdagogical seminaries of France, Switzerland, and Germany, the men being selecttd from those Avho, in addition to possessing the necessary general qualifications, have also qualified themselves linguistically. Much may be done through th(} personal influence of the directors of the training colleges, for their aljility to inspire with high ideals is among the most powerful of the formative influences that aft'ect student-teachers. In this light it is evident that a director should liave the fullest opportunity of maintaining close touch with the higher view of education, and with its movement throughout the world. That he should be liberally cultured and possess savoir faire so as to help to form the disposition of the teachers during their professional education goes without saying. As his personality must react on the teachers, so must the teachers react upon the rising generations of the State in order to reach the results desired. All this is obvious when account is taken of the elements determining the moral and mechanical efficiency of the teacher. These elements [Chap. XL, sec. 3], may be indicated as follows : — Efficiency of teacher depends upon his — {a) Moral— i Character. (i) Mechanical— i Intelligence. ii Moral outlook. ii Intellectual outlook, iii Grasp of moral significance of iii Grasp of intellectual signi- ^ education. ficanco of education, iv Knowledge of moral or ethical iv Knowledge of subjects of subjects. instruction. V Sympathy and enthusiasm. v Porce and vitality, vi Knowledge of t!;e art of stimulating vi Knowledge of the art of ethical expression, will, purpose, stimulating intellectual etc. effort, developing practical skill, etc. ▼ii Ability to direct, in regard to moral vii Ability to direct, in regard to culture. intellectual and physical culture. 3. 40 3. Formative Injluences. — The formative influences, the powerful operation of which on a teacher's mind, in order to prepare him for his work, is so necessary, are partly historical and partly philosophical in their origin. The function of the study of the history of education is indicated in Chap. XL, sec. 4. Properly treated this subject will elfaoe the narrowing tendency to empiricism, and will serve ae a source of inspiration to high effort. If the selection be properly made, no candidate for the teaching profession can help feeling his moral fibre stirred by the noble examples of the great figures in the history of education. The function of the philosophy of education is indicated in Chap. XL, sec. 5. The study of this subject ensures recognition of the real aim and process of education, and guards against the belittling etFect of that self-sufficiency to which, through daily contact with the child-mind, the teacher is liable, unless he specially safeguards himself ; thus it tends toward professional thoroughness. The philosophy of education, covering, as it does, the question of its purpose (teleology), and itsmethod (methodology), greatly broadens the outlook on the subject. The former deals with the moral aims of education [Chap. Ill, sees. 3-8, Chap. XL, sec. 7], and the latter largely with the psvcliologv of method [Chap. Ill, sees. 9-18, Chap. XL, sees. 6-13]. From the study of pa^dagogic-psychology it has been learnt that the essential difference between empirical and rational methods depends, not upon the empirical prescriptions of psychology, but upon its rational guidance [Chap. XL, sec. 10]. Bearing in mind that the teacher is daily moulding the child, by influencing the formation of his physical, mental, and moral habits [Chap. XL, sec. 7], it is evident that he ought to have an intelligent knowledge of physiology, hygiene, general psychology, and ethics. How great the need for the first two subjects is shewn, both in the way we have built our schools, and the conditions under which we have placed the children in them, especially in regard to lighting and seating [Chaps. XLVIl to XLIX], and in regard to the physical discomfort of schools in cold parts of the State during winter. Without serious increase of cost, and often without cost at all, the hygienic conditions of school-life could be made to correspond with normal requirements. This defect is deplorable, and illustrates the importance of keeping our system in proper touch with the progress in school hygiene elsewhere. One matter, viz., the seating, was referred to long ago by Dr. lleuter Eoth (1885), and there is no doubt that the physique of our people suffers through it. [Chap. XL VIII, sec. 3-18]. In this connection, the importance of better and wider professional education for the teacher is clearly seen. It may be remarked that these ideas are not Utopian. Tliey represent the practice of other parts of the world where the value of sound education is appreciated ; and ichat is possible elsewhere is possible here if only uce are in earnest. 4. The Curriculum for Teachers. — -The subjects in the curriculum for teachers may be analysed under two divisions, viz., the formative and informative, or, ia other words, those that favourably influence his mental attitude toward his professional work, and those that inform him, i.e., qualify him to give instruction with a sufficiently wide outlook. These are dealt witli in Chap. XL, sees. 11 and 17. The formative subjects, or those which confer educative power, may be regarded as the following : — (i) History of Education. ' (ii) Theory of Education. '■ (iii) Psychology in relation to Psedagogy. (iv) Ethics in relation to Poedagogy. (v) Elementary anatomy and physiology, (vi) School Hygiene, (vii) Physical Culture and Gymnastics. The inclusion of these is necessary to place the teachers of this State on the same footing as their confreres in Europe, and to properly develppe our education system, through the force of a wider outlook. 5. Qualification in subjects of instruction. — When the curricula of the seminaries of Europe and America, and the modern training colleges of England, are compared with the work done in the training colleges of this State, it will be at once realised that we are a long way behind. It is, of course, impossible to compare a short 41 short course like that of the Nevv South Wales system Avith fully developed courses like those of Europe, where the necessity for educating and training every teacher is more thoroughly recognised. To place the teachers of this State on a similar footing in regard to large outlook and educative power, the subjects of instruction ought to have about the following range : — (i) English (a) The development of the English language and literature, (6) Grammar and analysis, (e) Prosody, {d) Outlines of logic and rhetoric. (ii) Languages (a) Latin, or (S) French, or (c) German. (iii) History ... ... (a) Ancient, (i) Modern, (c) English. , (iv) Geography... ... («) Topo!»raphical, (4) Industrial, (c) Commercial, (J) Political, (f) Physical, (/) Mathematical. (v) Cosmography ... (a) The solar system, (i) The stellar universe. (vi) Mathematics ... (pi) Arithmetic, (5) Algebra, (c) Trigonometry, (d) Planimetry, (e) Stereometry, including spherical trigonometry, (/') Projective geometry, (y) Historical development of mathe- matics. (vii) Natural Science ... (a) Botany, (i) Zoology, (c) Chemistry and Mineralogy, ('0 Geology. (e) Physics, (/) Anthropology and Hygiene. (viii) Music ... ... (a) Tiieory of Music, (J) Class-singing, etc. (c) Instrumental Music. (ix) Drawing, etc. ... (a) Freehand, (i) Geometrical, (c) Modelling, etc. (x) Writing, etc. ... («) Theory of position in writing. (6) Plain and Ornamental Writing. (c) Lettering. An outline is suggested in sees. 17-34, based upon the work done in the Seminarium at Klisnacht, Switzerland, Avhicli should be regarded as illustralir.e of the kind of work done in Europe. This may be read in conjunction with Chaps. XXXII-XXXIX for a more complete idea. 6. Inslructors of Teachers. — ^The principle followed in Europe is that the instructors of teachers shall be men of good general education, either University graduates, or men of University standard of general education, and that they shall be specialists in their particular subjects. They teach either a single subject or a cognate group. This method obviously has enormous advantages. [Chap. XXVIII, sec. 4]. Each teacher is a master of his subject, having enthusiasm therein if he be rightly selected. Moreover, each teacher is expected to have thought of the methodology of imparting his subject. His function is not merely to instruct the teacher, but also to reveal to him the relationship of cognate subjects, and to educate him as a teacher. 'J he difference between a properly-equipped teachers' training college and a University proper should be distinctly recognised. A training college is a professional school, and must adapt its teaching accordingly — that is, it must aim at properly equipping the teacher for his professional work. 7. Proper Nature of Training Colleges. — The defects of the New South Wales training scheme are stated in Chap. XL, sec. 37. These defects touch the curriculum, and the scheme of the college itself. Attention may now be restricted to the latter. No seminary for teachers can be regarded as properly equipped that has not an adjunct school for practice. This school should be ideally equipped, so as to be an ol)ject-lesson in educational equipment, and in school-method, to all teachers passing through it. The adjunct school must necessarily be small, and pro- vide for student-teachers as auditors. The idea of such an establishment is outlined in Chap. XL, sec. 38. Athough, perhaps, it should not be part of the University, yet it is eminently desirable that the training college in the metropolis should be in the closest possible association therewith, so as to maintain sympathy and touch with higher education generally ; and, further, that, as far as possible, it may have such instructional advantages as a University can offer. Student-teachers will be favourably influenced by being thus brought into direct qoixtp^Qt with higher education. The \o-{g) 42 The teaching staff of the Seminary should be specialists in their subjects, and the grade of teaching should be superior to ordinary secondary school teaching. The length of the curriculum should be three years, and during a portion of that time — say, twelve months — practice in teaching, substantially on the lines, say, of the Jena Practising School, should be a feature in the curriculum. [Chapter XXXIX.] This practice is not to be confounded with the type of practice obtained in the primary schools or training colleges of this State. Before a single lesson can be given in the Jena seminary, it must be drafted so as to give it such methodical unity as the subject will admit of ; its matter must be exactly and clearly articulated, the individual parts being indicated by marginal headings. The synthesis of the lesson must be clearly defined, so that there shall be distinct evidence of the student-teachers' apprehension of the theory of education. In developing the lesson, it is required that a system of questions be devised (known as concentration questions), the object of which is to strongly direct the mind of the pupil to the essentials, to intensify his attention, to make him apperceive those elements in which the logical unity inheres. Each one of these concentration questions have to be definitely set out in the draft of the lesson. After the first lesson has thus been carefully sketched out, it is submitted for the approval of the Director of the Seminary. If faulty it is revised, and when finally approval is accorded the lesson is given. It is then criticised, first by the student himself, and afterwards by the instructors and fellow students. This process ensui*es thoroughness of preparation and gives the practice a high educative value. It tends also to perfect the form of the lesson to the last possible degree, and to ensure that the psychology of its method is satisfactory, Tlie merely mechanical pai't of any properly designed school system is of course very easily learnt, and does not require discussion. This thorough professional practice is what is so sorely needed for the teachers of this State. 8. Adjunct Schools for Practice. — As just implied, the adjunct school for practice is a most important part of the equipment of a training seminary. It gives the Director an opportunity of testing how far the student- teachers really grasp the matters they are studying ; it enables him and the special teachers to assist them in that self-criticism which, more than anything else, is necessary to perfect their training. It helps to reveal how individual freedom in teaching may be secured, notwithstanding that a definite type-programme must be followed ; it accustoms the student-teacher to the disciplinary problems that arise in school life, and so on. The adjunct school serves also as a model to which the student-teacher will afterwards aim at making his school conform. It should of course be a frimary school. There arc obvious reasons for this. The art of teaching should be most highly developed in the teacher of the youngest, while the extent of knowledge needs to be greatest in those that are called upon to teach adults. The reason for this is, that the teacher of little children is called upon to create their ideals, to stimulate their self-expression, to establish them in good physical, mental, and moral habits ; and owing to the adaptability or plasticity of the child, what is done in its earliest years has, as is well known, the greatest influence on its development. In one sense, all education is self-education, and the teacher of young children needs therefore the greatest sympathy and tact, the help that an intelligent study of educational process can give, and all the inspiration that the history of past achievement in education caa .afford, in ofder that he may lead children iato those habits of thought and action which will help them throughout life in self- development. Here it may be parenthetically remarked that it is by no means an unknown thing in American elementary schools to place the ablest and most highly paid teacher in charge of the youngest class. In the higher classes of schools, where the children are more established in their bodily and mental habits, and where the content of the instruction has to be increased, the knoioledge of the teacher becomes of increasing importance, and his skill in teaching is of less moment, since the formative influences become less and less effective as time goes on. Hence, as the school life progresses, the purely educative content of the instruction decreases in importance, while the informative content increases in importance. The 43 The adjunct scliool must, as previously stated, be a S7nall scTiool, so as to afford the best conditions. To send teachers to an ordinary school for practice is not satisfactory, and cannot be compared in efficiency with the method above indicated. The special practising school is the more educative. The practising schools of the type mentioned have generally so excellent a reputation that considerable fees would readily be paid by children attending them, for throughout their efficiency is very high. [Chap. XXXIX, sec. 1]. An amount of attention can be bestowed upon every part of the organisation and equipment, upon the curriculum, and upon the pupils, which is neither necessary nor possible in the ordinary school. The great advantages of a seminarium associated, as at Jena, with a University, are pointed out in Chap. XXXIX, sec. 3. 9. General matters. — Since teaching by sense-perception ought to be as conspicuous a feature of our schools as of the schools of Europe, the methodology thereof should constitute a special feature of the training colleges. The art of stating that which it is desired to impart so as to make it obvious — that is, so that it will be apperceived by the children — is the secret of thoroughness in education. A clear perception of each new idea, a wide association with pre-existing ideas, and a recognition of their genei'al significance, make them truly permanent items in one's intellectual endowment. Education in a University ought not to he in any way regarded as a substitute for propter professional education at a teaching seminary of the character indicated. While it is of great importance that primary teachers should be liberally educated, it is by no means necessary that they should be University graduates, and a graduation course is not in itself an adequate preparation for a teacher. The seminary, with its adjunct school, is undoubtedly a better scheme of preparation ; in fact, it is the only efficient scheme. Although at the present time it may be necessary, at least in the metropolis, for the student- teachers to attend for certain subjects at the University, it i? desirable that ultimately much of their instruction should be received in the training-college itself. If, however, a Chair of Paidagogy were established in the University of Sydney, and student-teachers were required to attend for lectures, this dictum would be modified. The occupant of such a Chair would, doubtless, deal with the history and theory of education, and, as a part of the latter, with ptedagogical psychology and methodology. Such a course would be necessary for both j)rimary and secondary teachers. The stafE of the practising-school should consist of the ablest class of primary teachei"s, and passage through this experience might be regarded as a normal element in the qualification for the position of Inspector of primary schools. Each teacher should be a specialist in methodology, and this would make his subsequent services as an Inspector more than ordinarily valuable. As already pointed out, the educational equipment of the training-college is a matter of imijortance ; so also is the existence of a suitable pajdagogical museum, not only for the education of teachers, but also for the education of the public as to the requirements and value of education. A good pa^dagogical library and museum, containing respectively all the most important works on education, and teaching- material from all parts of the world, would not only be a focus of interest for members of the teaching profession, it w^ould also give the public a suitable opportunity of learning something definite in regard to the material organisation of modern education in other countries. Such a revelation as it would afford of our educational position in relation to that of other nations would probably assist the Department of Public Instruction in acquiring that cordial financial support, without which it is difficult to see how to bring about the desired reforms, or in fact to secure any reform that could promise to make our system comparable to the better systems of Europe and America. Chapter LI should be referred to in connection with this matter. VI. 4,1 VI. SCHOOL-BUILDINGS AND SCHOOL-HYGIENE. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introduction. — The question of school-hygiene has in this State received very little systematic attention. This is evidenced by the ventilation-conditions of most of the schools, their orientation, their scheme of lighting, the arrangements for seating the pupils, the yards and conveniences associated with the school, the general conditions to which children are subject while in the schools, and the absence of proper provision for physical culture. Recently the question of ventilation has received incre?-sed attention, but the whole arrangement in regard to heating and cooling our schools is still far from satisfactory, from a European standpoint. This will be seen on a comparison with Avhat is indicated in Chapters XLVII-XLIX, in which school-hygiene in relation to school-buildings and premises, in relation to school- furniture, and in relation to the conditions of the school-pupil himself, are briefly discussed. School-hygiene is to-day fully recognised as a part of the normal treatment of an educational system [Chap. XLVII, sec. 2], and there is great force in the Swiss dictum that it is " only through the fruitful alliance of hygiene and pa^dagogy " that " the great hopes which have been born in every heart by the splendid develop- ment of primary instruction can be realised " [sec. 3]. Teachers are required, therefore, to understand the subject of school-hygiene, and to be seized of its importance. Attention is drawn to the Genevcse Regulations of .January, 1S9S, in regard to hygiene for schools [sec. 4]. A synopsis of the whole subject is given in sec. 7, to Avhich reference should be made. 2. School-pluts. — However hopeless it is to now think of attempting to acquire ideal school-plots in existing towns, all future selection of school sites should err, if at all, on the side of liberality, and we can do little better than follow the indications of Switzerland set out in Chapter XLVII, sec. 8. London has already realised that, however costly, valuable sites must be acquired for school purposes. In 1883 the Swiss Federal Council enacted that the plot for gymnastic exercise alone shall be a minimum of about 8G square feet per pupil — that is to say, there must be about 200 feet by 215 feet for gymnastics and games in the case of a school of 500 pupils. 3. Form and dimension of scliool-huildings. — In all European schools there is a class-room for each class, and this must ahvays be the case where there is any attempt to reach high efficiency. A degree of concentration on the part of both teacher and pupils is secured in the single class-room which is quite impossible to attain in the schools arranged as in New South Wales. The division of what was originally a long school-room by means of glazed partitions, is a recent feature of our schools, and, though an improvement, is still very unsatisfactory. ^ It is one of the defects associated with the employment of unqualified teachers, for it is intended to admit of supervision by the head-master. Such a scheme of supervision is in any case a bad one. The long school-room has the further disadvantage that the lighting arrangement cannot possibly be made satisfactory, sec section 7 hereinafter. The 45 The normal equipment of a scliool is indicated in Chapter XLVII, sec. 9, and is as follows : — 1. Each class- group should have a separate class-room; more than one room, therefore, may be required for the whole of the pupils of one grade. 2. In addition, there should be a large room for manual- work for boys. 3. Similarly a work-room for girls. 4. A large hall for gymnastics. 5. A large hall for general meetings, reunions, etc. 6. A laboratory for physics, astronomy, etc. 7. A laboratory for chemistry. 8. A museum of natural history. 9. A library. 10. A reading-room. 11. If cooking be taught, one or two kitchens will also be required. 12. And pantry and store room. For lower-grade schools, Nos. 6, 7, and even S, may be all together ; so also may Nos. 9 and 10 be in the one room. 4. Grientation of Building. — The question of orientation is one of well- recognised importance [sec. 9]. The fa9ade of the school allowing the admission of light to the class-rooms should liavo a north-easterly orientation. Any onen- tation, in fact, between east and north, Avill be, on the whole, satisfactory in New South Wales. The school-building should consist of a long row of schoolrooms, with wings containing a single class-room at each end, and perhaps a third one in the centre. Attention is drawn to Chapter XLVII, sees. 10 and 15, and to the illustrations in the chapter generally. The question of the best material to be used in construction is referred to in Sec. 11, and of the dimensions in sec. 12. 5. Floor-space — The regulation floor-space per pupil of New South Wales is just about half of what, according to modern ideas, it ought to be. In a country like ours, subject to considerable heat in summer, probably rooms allowing 16 square feet per pupil, instead of 8 square feet, are needed [sees. 6 and 12]. The best colour of the walls is, perhaps, pale green ; almost any pale tint, however, is agree- able. Pale grey has been strongly recommended by M. Dufour, of Lausanne. The vestiaries in Europe are either recesses off the wide corridors, or are special rooms, neatly furnished. Often each hat or cloak peg is numbered, and each child has a definite number. 6. Liglding. — The question of the proper direction for the light has also been thoroughly studied in Europe ; it should come from the left, and where the quantity so i*eceived is insufficient, a little high rear light might also be allowed. It must not be in the teacher's eyes, nor the pupil's. The question is thoroughly discussed in Chapter XLVII, sees. 14 and lu. The windows are carried as near as possible to the ceiling, so that the angle of the rays of light will be about 36° from the horizontal, the Swiss practice being to allow from 4 to 12 inches from the ceiling to the top of Avindow. Semi-circular and Gothic tops are interdicted in Switzerland. Without doubt the rectangular form for windows is by far the best. The complete abandonment of the long subdivided class-room of the New South Wales scliool, is absolutely necessary to obtain a proper system of natural lighting, and is most important if the welfare of the children is to be considered. In regard to artificial lighting, it may be pointed out that gas flames are avoided if possible. The incandescent electric light is hygienically the best. In some schools seen the light was indirect, being reflected from a white ceiling, though the lights themselves were invisible. 'O' 7. Ventilation. — Children in the schools of this State are often very drowsy in summer. This arises from the diminution of oxygen through imperfect ventilation and the presence of anthropotoxines. Sitting as he is compelled to do in uncomfortable and improperly formed seats, often without back support, and drowsy 46 drowsy from impure air, the school pupil is in an unsatisfactory condition for receiving instruction. In Europe and America it is recognised that good paedagogy requires attention to these matters. In winter, in colder parts of the State, the child is uncomfortable from the cold. We have no schools in the State fitted out with proper heating appai*atus. This matter is referred to hereunder. The cubic space allowed for each pupil should be about 200 cubic feet — i.e., nearly double what is demanded in our Kegulations. The purity of the air is a matter of considerable importance from the point of view of physical culture. The consequences of the impurity depends upon the presence of an organic poison, viz., the anthropotoxines of expired air. This may be approximately measured from the quantity of carbon-dioxide found, for it is generally sensibly in proportion to this. The rate of vitiation of air is discussed in Chapter XLVII, sec. 16. The scheme of summer and winter ventilation is discussed in the last-named section, and in sec. 17. 8. Seating Apparatus. — The simplest form of heating, by which means also ventilation is secured, is by a special form of stove, an illustration of which is given in the last-mentioned section. Open fires and cast-iron heating-stoves are absolutely interdicted in Switzerland. In the Swiss stoves the heated air is given with a proper degree of humidity. These stoves, however, shewn in an illustration, are used only in the inferior country schools. Special heating furnaces and ventilating apparatus are installed in all the larger schools. The supply of heated air is often controlled by thermostatic contrivances so as to maintain automatically a constant temperature. 9. Laoaioines, etc. — The hygienic arrangements in respect of lavatories and latrines in this State are inferior to anything seen in modern schools elsewhere. The matter has been fully discussed in Chap. XLVII, sec. 18. The arrangement of cabinets in some of the schools of the State admits of no proper privacy for the children using them. This is inconsistent with a normal sense of decency ; and since the depression of this sense is a positive moral injury, the existing arrangements ought not to be repeated, but, on the contrary, remedied as soon as possible. Shower-baths are a feature of the great many modern schools in Europe, the water being heated to an agreeable temperature. Italy is following this example. A recently built elementary school seen in Turin was splendidly fitted in this respect. We have at tlie present time no school in our State comparable to this elementary Italian school. In fewer schools, large bathing-tanks are to be found in which swimming can be indulged ; these also are supplied with water at an agreeable temperature. 10. Courtyards and Gardens. —The space demanded for courts or play-grounds is about 85 square feet per pupil. For kindergartens, school-gardens are required, and it is desirable that they should exist in every school. They afford opportunities for' nature-study, and for scientific instruction. Shade-trees, so little used, ought to be regarded as a necessity. The plane-tree [Platanus orientalis), with an upright stem of about 10 feet, with branches trained so as to form a horizontal stratum of foliage, constitutes a perfect shade in the summer months, while in the winter, Avhen its leaves are shed, it allows full play of sunlight. The covering of a sufficient part of every play-ground so as to allow of recreation in the wet weather is desirable. The matter is fully referred to in Chapter XLVII, sec. 22. 10a. Continental Schools. — Examples of the form of Continental schools are given in this chapter (see sees. 24 to 31.) Sec. 29 gives an illustration of a Swiss school kitchen for the teaching of this branch of domestic economy. 11. School Furniture. — The question of the proper character of school furniture, and of its hygienic importance, is discussed in Chapter XL\'IIL The method of seating children in this State, and the form of desk, are in serious conflict with good hygiene. We have sometimes cedar desks and forms— though cheaper material would be better — but they answer to no single requirement of school hygiene. The history and theory of school seating is discussed in Chapter XLVIII, sec. 3. The seats should properly support the back, the desk should be of the right height according to the size of the child, and the distance of the seat from the desk should be properly determined. The injuriousness of bad school furniture was pointed out by Henry Barnard as early as 1841, and by Dr. Eahrncr of Zurich in 1863. Systematically 47 Systematically considered, scliool-desks ought, as far as paedagogy is concerned, to answer the following requirements : — (1) They should be so arranged as to allow each child to take his place without disturbing other children. (2) Their manipulation and alteration ought to be noiseless, and without danger to the child's fingers, etc. (3) They should be provided with places for books, note-books, ink, pencils, etc. (4) They ought to admit of easy supervision by the master. From the hygienic point of view, the conditions to be satisfied are : — (5) They ought to enable the pupil, during writing, drawing, etc., or during rest, to take up a position which is normal as regards his vertebral column, and as regards the distance of the eye from the paper. (6) They ought to be proportioned to suit the bodies of the children that occupy them. (7) They ought to be made without sharp edges, or points which could wound the child. Prom the standpoint of convenience, etc., they ought to be : — (8) Light, movable, so as to admit of easy shifting from place to place, aiid so as to facilitate sweeping and cleaning. (9) They ought to be simple, firm, compact, cheap. The anatomical reasons for having adjustable desks are set out in detail in the section mentioned. In brief, it may be said that there is unquestionable evidence that bad seating means injury to child development, and is responsible for increase of spinal curvature as well as myopia. In other parts of the world, account is taken of the influence of school conditions upon tlie children attending, and this has shcAvn what might have been anticipated, viz., that bad physical conditions during school hours mean injury to the human frame, since these conditions are imposed upon it when it is most plastic. The various dimensions for a proper school seat and desk are discussed in Chapter XLVIII, sees. 5 to 18. The type of seating found even in our most recent schools would not be regarded as satisfactory by educational authorities in oiher parts of the world visited by the Commissioners. 12. School Material. — Large sheets of ground glass, backed by black, are ■substituted for blackboards. These are certainly much more agreeable to work upon. Slates are rapidly disappearing as unhygienic, paper being used in their place. It is customary for each school to have a small dispensary, and material for " first aid." An outline of the matei'ial provided in Switzerland is indicated in sec. 22. Incidentally it may be mentioned that, in a large number of schools, not only are no fees paid, but even the school materia!, pencils, text-books, paper, etc., are al-so provided gratis for all pupils, 13. Hygiene in Belation to the School Fupil. — Defective vision is far more -common with children than is generally stipposed ; so also is defective hearing; — and the investigations of countries where these matters are systematically examined have shown that the subject demands atten'^ion. There is no doubt that punishment ihas often been inflicted upon children whose failures to profit by the lessons' Avere mainly due to these defects. [Chap. XL.IX, sec. 2]. In European schools the 'distance at which each child can see and hear is always ascertained, and his position in the class-room is determined tliereby. [sees. 3 and 4]. Where lighting in the ischool is not good, it is found that myopia is more frequent and more severe than in TA'ell-lighted schools [sec. 2]. Deviations in the vertebral column are by no means ■of rare occurrence, and Dr. Lorenz, of Vienna, has drawn attention to the extreme importance of school authorities being alive to the reality of tlie danger of bad conditions in school-life. His remarks shew clearly that in his opinion school statistics should be systematically taken Avith a yiew to criticising the hygiene of the condition of children during their school-life. In places where there arc no proper schoo.' -statistics, there is unfortunately an easy-going but arroncQi^s assumption that thes^ ,«evils do not exist. Ansemia 48 Anaemia is too often in evidence, and is conspicuous in this State. The breathing of air, in which an excessive quantity of carbon-dioxide is present, with the accompanying anthropotoxines expired by the pupil, accentuates the mischief [sec. 6]. Dental diseases are on the increase in this State as elsewhere [sec. 7]. There is a growing recognition of the necessity of paying attention to the incipience of nervous disease which is by no means rare. The matter is discussed in sec. 8. Infectious, contagious, parasitic diseases are referred to in sees. 9 to 11. 14. Disinfection avd Frophylaxis. — In America, and also in Europe, the dis- infection of schools and other prophylactic measures are vei'y thoroughly carried out [sees. 12, 13]. In some of the Swiss schools it is required that the building be so constructed that tlie walls may be thoroughly washed. The flooring, being parquetry, does not allow of dust lying between the cracks, and they are kept in perfect order. Vapourised solid formalin, corrosive sublimate solution, solution of cresol and soap, and milk of lime are used as disinfectauts, and in Switzerland schools are thoroughly renovated yearly at least. One cannot enter an average European school without instantly recognising how superior the hygiene is to our own. In America, though the immigrants belong often to the inferior classes, a special effort is made to at once create in the children a high regard for cleanliness. They are thoroughly bathed by a special attendant, and acquire rigorous habits of bodily cleanliness. The American doctrine is that, whatever their nationality, they must, on arriving in the United States, be transformed into American citizens as quickly as possible. 15. Position at TFoi'k. — The position of children during their school-work is a matter which has been seriously studied in Europe. It has been found that the effect of sloping writing on very young children is to increase myopia and spinal curvature, owing to the position assumed by children during their writing, and that the best position is that in which the book is exactly in front of the child. If the book be parallel to the desk this involves upright writing. In the opinion of one of the Commissioners (Mr. J. W. Turner), the downstrokes should be about one-eighth of a right angle from the vertical. In the opinion of the other (Mr. G. II. Knibbs), the writing should be absolutely vertical, and sloping writing should not be learnt until the body is fairly well developed— certainly not before 12 or 13 years of age [sect. 16]. 16. Physical and 31ental FaUgue.—The investigation of the question of fatigue has proved that botli physical exercises and mental tasks involve the genera- tion in the body of an organic poison, which produces some paralysis of the muscular system. This has been established by means of the acsthesiometer, ergograph, etc., and shews that the heaviest work should be performed in the morning, and the lighter in the afternoon. Gymnastic exercises are not recreative in the ordinary sense, and if severe, may even be as taxing as mathematical subjects which are among those that produce the greatest fatigue. There is a very hopeful and rapidly increasing recognition of the necessity for teachers understanding the evidences of fatigue and of nervous troubles generally. These shew themselves by disturbance of balance, twitching of hands and face, restless eye movements, peculiar postures of head and hands, excitability, irritability, inattention, etc. The amount of home-icork Avith which children are charged ought to be made to depend very largely upon tlic individual characteristics — i.e., in fact upon their ability to get through the task without injury. 17. General. — It is very desirable, not only that there should be a thorough review of the state of hygiene in all t'le schools of the State, but also that new schools should be built consistently wi'.h the requirements indicated in the three chapters, XLVII-XLIX. Such stati jtical hygienic examinations of the scholars as will ensure an intelligent criticism of their condition during school-life should be made, and physicians with a special knoTv^ledge of school-hygiene should be officially associated with schools. Probably female physicians loauld he the best for this j)arpose, in view of their natural sympathy with children. VII. 49 YII. SCHEME OE REFORM. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Generalities concerning the Heform of Education. — According to what lias been indicated, a radical reform of the whole scheme of primary cdiicalion in New South Wales is urgently needed. This reform must include — {a) The subject-matter of instruction. {b) The organisation of the teaching, or system under which the instruction is given, (c) The machinery of administration. {d) The statutes Avhich prescribe the general conditions governing public education. These may be referred to in this order ; but it is desirable first of all to give, in brief outline, the whole scheme, so that, after taking it in detail, the way in which each part falls into its place will be made clear. 2. Theoretical principles of Reform. — In any reform whatever, and perhaps especially in the reform of a great Department like that of the Public Instruction, it is essential that the existing system, organisation, and administration, shall be taken practically as it stands, and that in bringing about necessary changes so as to cmnpletely transform the educational elements of the system, there should be the least possible disturbance, insofar as the continuity of public education is concerned, which of course is the sole raison d'etre of the whole system. Further, although the changes in the administration and organisation should be a minimum, the reform should nevertheless begin at once and proceed steadily to its end, being so designed that any unpleasant features of its incidence will be felt as little as possible. In other words, the changes should be made uniformly and as rapidly as possible, so as to steadily improve the educational efficiency. The essential elements of reform are only two, viz. : — (1) Merely mechanical changes, such as rearrangement of teaching system, or introduction of new material or new methods. (2) Changes in the spirit of education, and in the spirit of its administration. The first element is of undoubted importance, and there is a great deal to be done, for the educational machinery of our State does not satisfactorily attain the end for which all educational machinery exists. It is, however, the second element that is by far the more important ; and, owing to the lines on which education has for so long proceeded, nothing short of a thorough revivification and transformation of the leading ideas will be adequate. An administration which has espotised the pupil-teacher system has elements which imply the necessity for radical change. 3. No real difficulty in reform. — There is no inherent difficulty in bringing about such a reform, provided of course that those who are to be the instruments, animated by feelings of loyalty to the good of the people of the State, lend their best efforts to its execution. It need not be anticipated that there will be any serious difiiculty, for doubtless there are large numbers of zealous and devoted teachers who are willing to render the greatest assistance, and who will make the necessary personal sacrifices to put the education of the people upon a sound foundation. And should strenuous opposition present itself, there are obvious ways of dealing with it. Naturally, it must take some little time to eliminate the present view as to what consitutes a proper method of education, and to replace it by the traditions that obtain in those countries where the school-systems rest upon a better basis than with us. Although the system now adopted, must as said be radically departed from, especially in the direction of giving greater freedom of initiative to every teacher, and of calling upon him to naake himself acquainted with njodern educational" methods, \0-{h) V 50 methods, it will not be found a hardship. Teaching, which operates upon the spirit of the child, which secures his hearty co-operation, which invokes his own mental effort, not by fear, but alfection, completely alters the nature of a teacher's task for the better, and makes it more agreeable. Loyalty to the great cause which they have been called upon to serve will enable all teachers to do the best they can for their pupils, and a new regime will not be found difficult. Under this regime the Inspector would he the inspirer and adviser of the teacher. His visit, even in the case of a teacher of inferior mental endowment, could be looked forward to with pleasure as an opportunity for improvement. The exacting inspectorial examinations, educationally without value, would disappear. Instead of being the inquisitorial critic of the teacher, the Inspector would be the friend and helper. Judging by experience in other parts of the world, and remembering that no man can educate children without an inspiration of the significance of his work, the abandonment of a mechanical system will not lead to a dereliction of duty to an extent which may be viewed as serious, and as liable to jeopardise the reform ; it does not do so elsewhere, and it need not do so here, for where men are highly trusted, they will, on the whole, react to the faith put in them. The teacher who proved that he could not be trusted would have to be subjected to suitable discipline, or removed. Just in so far as it is alleged that the teacher cannot be trusted in the way indicated, so must it be regarded as trenchant criticism upon the regime which creates and appoints him. The present inspectorial examining system is of value to drive teachers who cannot be trusted ; but for properly trained teachers, who understand, or endeavour to understand, the why and wherefore of their effort, it is waste of time : it irritates ; it fails to inspire by appeals to the nobler idea of duty and of the high character of the teacher's work, and it fails to estimate their work from a right basis. Every real teacher will hail the day when he is free to work according to a general plan and curriculum, but within these limits on his own lines ; he will have fresh inspiration in his work. 4. The present System of Education. — In the initiation of our present educational system, certain educational traditions derived from the United Kingdom, which even then did not represent the best knowledge on the subject, and whicli are now wholly outgrown, dominated tiie fundamental conceptions of its initiators. The excellence imputed to them is mythical. The defect was hardly their fault ; it is one of those national limitations which the intensity of modern English educational effort is endeavouring to overcome, and which is, as a mattei' of fact, rapidly being overcome. The inspiration of a neic vieio of their duty, when the drudgery of preparation for inspections of schools will be no more, when there will be leisure to read the proper educational literature, Avlien each Inspector will be expected to inspire, encourage, and advise the teachers under him, helping them to feel something of the new spirit, something of the sacredness of their work, will help to completely transform the spirit of educational effort. The office of the inspectorial staff wall pass from a bondage to mechanical things to a far nobler sphere. The work of infusing the spirit of earnestness into teachers, of helping them to understand and use better teaching methods, not by the driving fear of bad reports, but the encouragement of large and sympathetic hearts and good advice, is the only way of producing such a transformation ; for the teacher's uorh will never he good while it is mechanical. True education of the people, education of the mind and heart, can only be achieved through a teaching-staff animated by a recognition of the real character of the work they are doing. It is in this cgnnection tliat the importance of directing the whole system hy sympathy and culture, instead of placing a reliance upon mechanical elements, is seen. A change from one mcciianical system to another mechanical system is not sufficient. In this connection, too, is seen the immense significance of touch with the world's progress in educational effort and educational theory.^ 5. Conditions of maintaining touch with ioorld-progrsss. — To keep abreast of the world's progress in any department, it is important that high public officers should have adequate time for that private study, and that deliberate and mature reflection, ' Had adequate touch with the world-wide progress o£ educational thought been maintained, such declarations as were made in the 1902 conference would have been impossible, and the pupil-teacber system would probably have long ago disappeared. 51 reflection, which is not only ahsoluteh/ essential for the best discharge of their puhho duties, but is also most economical. This opportunity of quiet study and reflection ouglit to be a characteristic feature of our Public Service system; for when tlie time of chief officers of important departments is consumed in detailed administrative duties, the best results cannot bo achieved. In many other countries visited by the Commissioners, it seemed to be more clearly recognised that it is an important duty to guard against limitation of knowledge by appropriate reading and study — a condition of things which certainly helps high public officers in the discharge of the higher elements of their public duties. At present we are tempted to blame them unreservedly for short-comings which, under our present system, are inevitable. The matter is so momentous that some slight further reference may be made thereto. 6. Method of Securing the Highest Efficiency. — When the chief administrator of any great department merely directs the operations of his subordinates, and attends to only its weightiest affairs, and outside the relatively small amount of time so devoted is absolutely free to occupy himself with those much higher matters which, in the public interest, ought to engage his attention, the requisite condition for his continued development is secured. Not only must he be a specialist in his own proper branches of knowledge, but he must in addition be in touch with the collateral elements of human progress. This is why leisure for study and research, by which alone he can call into requisition his highest powers, viz., those powers the full exercise of which tlie State has a right to expect, and which enable him to review local matters in the light of world-wide experience, is so essential. Chiefs of administration and tlieir understudies, who keep in touch with all important progress in their special sphere, and in cognate subjects, have that purview and advantage which come from a large mental horizon. Failure to maintain a wide survey is failure to maintain the most important qualification for high office, and to spend one's whole time in mere administrative duties is not only extremely unwise, but is also a waste of talent. This is more clearly perceived in Europe and America than here. 7. Economy of Securing Leisure for Chiefs of Administration. — When the activities of the Public Service are characterised by those broad traditions which express the experience of the great centres of civilisation, the normal results which are attainable through the mental endowment of the higher public officers are more likely to be reached. In tliis way large public economies, depending upon a wide horizon, and consequent clear-sightedness into the trend of things, are better ensui'cd, and the higher efficiency of a service promoted. It ought, therefore, to be practically recognised that wide culture and intimate contact with modern development in any subject imperatively demand some leisure, and that responsible officers of public departments and their chief under- studies can better discharge their public duties when they have the fullest opportunity of equipping themselves in every necessary way. An administrator cannot possibly maintain the truest efficiency if he devote himself wholly to mere routine duties, for this will operate against his culture and outlook, and prevent him keeping in touch witli his special department and cognate matters. Here one may see where the need for the highest element of the reform lies, viz., in assisting the direction of the administration of a great department like education — a department which demands something vastly higher than merely mechanical efficiencies to achieve its destiny. The lower elements of reform lie in the carrying out of certain definite suggestions for improvement which may now be referred to. 8. Subject Matter of School-programmes. — It is necessary to prepare typical programmes for each class of school as a guide for the etfort of the teachers. This should indicate the essential features of the subjects, and afford hints as to their treatment. Inspectors, by sympathy and advice, should encourage the teachers in their effort to follow modern methods of teaching. Driving, and the tyranny of overbearing opinion, will fail to reach the desired end. The type-programme ought to be developed in considerable detail, in view of the fact that it is proposed to wholly reform the teaching. The principles followed should be those outlined or suggested in Division IV. 9. 52 'd. The Organisation of Teaching. — The proper training of teachers, though a serious difficulty, is not insuperable. It is a difficulty, because time has to elapse to pass from the present regime to one Avhich will allow of the proper training of the teachers and of their better education. Special inducements may have to be offered during the period of transition. The scheme of training is sufficiently indicated in Division V. ^ 10. The machinery of Administration. — In the machinery of administration the role of the Inspector in the bringing about of reform must be totally different from that at present existing. The present system of examining by Inspectors may be abandoned as useless, and as a waste of their time and opportunity. Their whole effort would have to be directed to getting the teachers to understand the new regime, and to reform the views of the latter as to the aims and processes of education. 11. School hygiene. — The Inspectors could also greatly help in the matter of hygiene and in securing interest in schools. It has to be remembered that the public itself has to be educated to understand the reform, and if Inspectors would undertake to give public addresses in country towns on " Education in other Countries," suitably illustrated by lantern views, sufficient interest would soon be created, and it would probably not be difficult to induce the various communities to assist the local schools. There is certainly the necessary public spirit in the community if the appeal thereto be rightly made, if not, then 'the State would indeed be in a bad way. 12. The Fnblic Instruction Act. — The only important amendment needed is that to compel attendance at school. This has been dealt with in Chapters XLIII and XLVI, by one of the Commissioners (.T. W. Turner). The other Commissioner (G. H. Knibbs) has not completed his study of the question of Truant and Reformatory Schools, especially of tlie latter, which involves a wide review of recent studies of the anti-social and criminal tendencies of human beings. The necessary changes that should be made in the regulations in connection with any change in the regime do here not demand special attention. The public school system ought to be improved before compulsion is rigorously enforced. 13. Personal elements in Reform. — To bring about real reform it will be necessary to ask the whole staff of the Department to earnestly assist by putting forth a special effort till progress is assured, and it is believed by the Commissioners that if each teacher and officer of the Department will reflect upon the real signiticance of education to the people of New South "Wales, and to the Empire of which it forms part, there is zeal and loyalty sufficient to practically overcome the great difficulties in the way. 14. Direction of Education. — Under any scheme of Government the political policy and general aim of a Department of Public Instruction must necessarily devolve upon a Minister acting under the authority of Parliament. Education is, however, so special a subject that no Minister would claim to be an expert therein, and, therefore, a comprehensive educational scheme for any State needs to be shaped as regards its general technique and details by a well-directed and far-sighted policy of development. This must proceed from some individual having a commanding knowledge of modern education, and of modern educational method. In the natureofthingsaMinister cannot devote sufficient time to become an educational expert of the highest order himself, nor is that his appropriate function, either here or elsewhere, so that although the Minister must ever control the great questions of departmental policy which represent the decisions of the State as regards the whole issue, the realisation of the educational system requires that the chief administrator shall be really Director of Education. The direction must necessarily aim at the perpetual embodiment of such advances and improvement of method as the total experience of mankind shews to be necessary, and must be that of an expert who thoroughly understands the educational systems of the world, and the special needs of our own territory. An educational systetn cannot be a 'patchwork production, it must hace organic unity if we are ever to have education equal to that of the greater countries of Europe. 15, es 15. The Drift of Education. — Since refoi*m must perforce follow the trend of modern educational improvement, an attempt has been made in Chapter LVII to give an apergu thereof, which should he read in connection with the scheme of reform. It may be remarked that to-day interest in education is widespread, and is probably more intense than at any previous period in the world's history, and naturally the generality of effort to improve education by focussing experience, and by obtaining free and thorough criticism, is a conspicuous feature almost in any part of the -world. It is extremely important to guard against the developing of a departmental regime such as Avill tend to induce teachers merely to re-echo as a matter of policy the opinion of the official administration [Chap. LVII, sec. 2]. Hence as long as it is done propsrly, teachers ought to have great freedom to express their opinions, and should be encouraged so to do. A wider recognition of the real end of education, of the function of one's mother tongue, of the relation between classical languages and sciences, is leading to a truer view of what constitutes real education [sees. 3-5], and mei^e pedantry is approaching its doom. The distinction between formative and informative elements of real education is becoming better understood [sec. 6], and the essential parts of educative manual training, as an integral element of a normal education, is better appreciated. The primary scliool cannot be allowed to degrade into a number of divisions of trade schools, nevertheless the wisdom of a practical orientation of the education is fully recognised by great educationists. Such practical orientation, if dealt Avith by intelligent and properly educated teachers, will, i«s^e«(Z of being less educatice, be vastly move so than, the present system [sec. 8J. Tlie necessity of securing a high development of individuality and self- expression, of eliminating the brutality of corporal pmiishment (which is still in vogue in this State, and is used to compel children to learn their school tasks !), of inspiring tlie will so that it shall direct the mental and physical activity, and of helping the normal development of the human being by adequate attention to physical culture, arc features of modern education, the import of which is as wide as is their spread over the world [sees. 8-llJ. Tims one may see at a glance how unequivocal is the demand for the better training of teachers, and, at the same time, wdiat need there is for the development of typical programmes for different classes of schools as a guide, but not an overpowering direction to the heads of various schools. 16. Recent criticism of our Educational System. — The educational system of this State has, as is well known, been subjected for several years past to strong criticism, wdiich, undoubtedly, has been as strongly resented. It is well in such cases to get away if possible from the heat of local feeling, and it is an additional advanta'ge, Avhen it is possible, to obtain a criticism directed not solely to the question of education, but to that question as one feature only of national characteristics or development. In January this year appeared a masterly criticism of the Australian nation, published under the title, " The New Nation," by Percy F. Rowland, London (Smith, Elder & Co.), 1903. The following quotations are worthy of our thoughtful attention : — " . . But pciliaps most hope of all, in the acceptance, albeit tardy, of idndergarten principles in the schools. For it is in their earliest years that men and women are most susceptible to colour and ibrm. Children have hitherto in Australia been brought up for the most part among influences of abnormal ugliness, most Australian schoola being considerably more rcpellant in appearance than Australian gaols p. 1G7 The key for national progress in music, as in all else, lies in the nation's schools. And there are signs in Australia of a wise and efficient discontent with the mechanical school system at present in vogue, and of a growing determination to substitute the methods of Pestalozzi and Common Sense for those of Tape and Drill (late Squeers), pp. 173-4 The majority pass from scholar to pupil-teacher, and from pupil-teacher to teacher, without receiving any training, or, in fact, any education worthy of the name, p. 234 We realise that, as in England, the large schools are enormously understaffed, and that classes of over seventy are by no means uncommon, often under the charge of a mere child. What hope of individual attention, what hope of the personal knowledge that is the soul of teaching, under this barrack system ? Can we expect any real knowledge, except of drill and of mechanical arithmetic, of unintelligent reading and unintelligible writing? The ablest and best of teachers may well be rendered hopeless by the impossibility of their task. Any 64, Any efficient system of public instruction would inrolveTialvingthe size of the classes, and doubling the remuneration of teachers. As this means a quadrupled expenditure,' and as the expenditure is already as high as public opinion in Australia thinks fit, it is clear we are as far from elRcient primary education in Australia as we are in England, pp. 23">-236. But that Australia has done so much is the very reason for hoping that she will do much more. All is now ready for education. How long before the education will begin ? It is primarily a matter of cost. To say that Australia cannot afford it is absurd. Cannot afford to make the most profitable of all investments ! Kather she cannot afford not to ! It is only by improved education that the British dominious can hope to hold their own in the markets of the world. Mr. Sidney Webb has reminded England that it is in the class-rooms of her primary schools that the battles of the Empire for commercial prosperity are being already lost. The The saying is no whit less true of Australia, which, worthy of all praise as have been her efforts to secure primary education for her far-scattered children, has now to face the harder task of rendering that education efficient, not here and there in favoured districts, but throughout the Commonwealth. There are not wanting signs that Australians are beginning to be conscious of the need for improvement in their much-vaunted education system. The Victorian education reports are rich in good suggestions, some of which are already bearing fruit. Thus a trained kindergarten mistress has been brought out from England to Melbourne, where she is to teach, to lecture, and gradually gather round her a competent staff, with a view to revolutionising Victorian infant education by kindergarten methods. Western Australia has departed from the calamitous custom of appointing as Inspectors only those who have passed through the sterilising routine— pupil-teacher, assistant teacher, head teacher. Inspector — and has appointed Mr. Cyril Jackson, of Toyiibee Hall, as Chief Inspector of her schools. Mr. Jackson has had a free hand, and the colony is already enjoying the results. In four years the number of children attending the public schools has doubled. Instead of making the promotion of pupils depend entirely on their examination by Inspectors, Mr. Jackson allows teachers who have received good reports in the previous year to conduct examinations for promotion themselves, liealising that the wretched rate of pay obtaining in the teaching profession is a chief cause of the difficulty in securing able men for teachers, Mr. Jackson has already succeeded in raising the average salary of head teachers and assistants from £121 7s. 4d. to £131 18s. 9d., and this he looks on as only the beginning of a general levelling-up of salaries and attainments Highly-paid labour, our economists tell us, is not, as a rule, dear labour, because of its greater efficiency. And if there is any one matter more than another in which a country cannot afford cheap and inefficient labour, it is surely in the education of her future citizens. But Victoria and West Australia are not alone in their desires for reform Even New South Wales, in some respects the most lethargic of the States, is boijinning to bestir her.'s for schools should respond to the requirements indicated in Chapter XLVII, i.e., in respect to sanitary conditions, possibility of satis- factory orientation of school. building, etc. (3) All future school buildings should be properly orientated, and should conform to the conditions specified in the Swiss regulations, indicated in Chapter XLVII. (4) The form of building, arrangement, and dimensions of school-rooms, the scheme of ventilation, heating, or of cooling, etc., the accessories, as lavatories, latrines, etc., the yards, shade-trees, etc., should meet tlie demands generally indicated in the same chapter, XLVII. These matters are more fully referred to hereunder. (5) The present arrangement of the building approved by the Department, viz., the long class-room, at best subdivided by glass and wooden partitions (designed to make supervision of pupil-teachers by the head-master possible), absolutely prevents the architect arranging for the light to fall in the proper direction. It should therefore be abolished for hygienic reasons, apart from the ptedagogic reason, viz., that it hinders concentration both in the case of pupil and teacher. (6) 64 (6) The single class-room for each class-group should be adopted. (7) Proper hygiene demands greater cubic and jlojr space than has hcen allowed in the State, for it shovild, in both instances, be about double the present amount. [Chap. XLVII, sees. 12, 16.] (8) The lighting arrangement needs to be wholly altered, as previously indicated, ' and as shewn in Chapter XLVII, sees. 14, 15. This matter is important, since bad lighting tends to produce myopia. (9) The lavatory and latrine (w.c.) arrangements are very unsatisfactory in the " Public Schools," the latter being inconsistent with a due sense of decency. They should conform to the indications of Chap. XLVII, sec. 18. (10) Shade-trees should be provided in the school-yards, as indicated in Chap. XLVII, sec. 21. (11) Every school should have, when possible, its ichcol-garden to assist in the " Nature study," and in the practical orientation of the scientific teaching. (12) All the larger schools should be looked after by caretakers, who should keep both school and grounds in proper order, as in Europe. (13) The school-desks should satisfy hygienic requirements, that is, the relations of seat and desk should be properly adjusted, and the seats should have suitable backs, supporting the body of the pupil. (14) The present system of seating is unhygienic, and operates adversely to the proper physical development of the rising generations of this State. It tends to produce myopia, spinal-curvature, and to reduce the lung-power and consequently the vitality of the people.' Much of the lassitude of children in school is due to tlie unhygienic system of seating, and to tlic Avant of adequate cubic space, as well as to bad ventilation and bad conditions as concerns heat. The matter is extremely important as it continuously affects the physique o£ the Avistralian people. The present form of seating (a long desk) is the worst seen by the Com- missioners, and should therefore be abolished as soon as possible, while that indicated, in Chap. XLVIII, sees. ;5-18, viz., the best forms of seating used in Switzerland, should be adopted. (15) Every school should be provided Avith a simple dispensary and 'first-aid' chest [Chap. XLVIII, sec. 22]. (16) All schools should be provided with simple apparatus for the demonstration of facts in physics and chemistry, and also with science museums.^ (17) Larger schools should hnYeslvaT^le physical and chemical laboratories and museums for scientifiG material, to enable the science teaching to be made realistic' (18) The general equipment in the way of wall-char(s, diagrams, pictures, maps, etc., needs to be considerably improved [Chap. LI]. The use of slates should disappear as unhygienic. (19) All larger schools in the chief centres of population, at least, should have projecting lanterns, and slides.^ (20) Larger schools in the chief centres should be at once equipped for manual training and Sloyd, and such equipment extended to smaller schools also, in the near future. (21) Similarly for the teaching of domestic economy, cooking, laundry work, etc. (22) The general educational equipment of schools should conform to the requirements indicated in Chapter LI. (23) All schools should be provided with libraries for the use of teachers, con- taining suitable works of reference, encyclopaedias, etc., to enable them to maintain a high degree of efficiency. (24) The establishment of suitable libraries for the children is worthy of encouragement. 8. 'The evidence is much more serious than is commonly supposed. * The cost of these is not so serious as might at first be supposed. » Many of these matters might well be allowed to offer scope for the expression of local inlered in education and school eiuipment. Unfortunately it is not yet the fashion for our State scliools to benefit by local generosity. 65 8. General matters not included in previous recommendations. A number of subjects bave not been dealt witb. Tbese include : — (i) Hygiene in relation to the school-pupil, corporal punishment, etc. (ii) Co-education. (iii) Schools for the feeble minded. (iv) Schools for the deaf and dumb, etc. (v) Reformatory schools, (vi) Truant schools, (vii) Special courts for the hearing of cases of truancy, offences by children, etc. These rarious subjects will be referred to in the order indicated. (1) Teachers generally should be made aware of the necessity and mode of testing the sight and hearing of children, and should place Ihem in class accordingly, or refer them to the school physician if necessary. (2) The hygiene of the school-pupil both as regards his condition in school and generally should be better appreciated by teachers in charge of the school, who should be thoroughly instructed in school-hygiene. (3) A properly qualified physician and surgeon, who has specialised in school- hygiene, should be permanently associated with the Department of Public Instruction. (4) Every school should have a school physician officially associated therewith, to whom reference could be made in cases of necessity, and who would be competent to advise in matters of hygiene, infectious disease, etc. (5) For the metropolis and larger centres a visiting school physician should bo appointed (preferably a lady), to secure a good general hygiene, and to advise as to infection, disinfection, and to obtain statistical information, etc. (6) Corporal punishment should be abolished, except as a punishment of disgrace, one degree short only of expulsion. It is at present used in many of the public schools as an incentive to study, that is to say, boys are " caned " who do not acquit themselves satisfactorily as regards their school-tasks. Such a regime is obsolete in Europe and the greater part of America, and reflects discredit upon our system. (7) It is too early to judge with certainty the ultimate effects of co-education. The testimony of educationists who have had educational experience in Europe varying from Southern Italy to the Northern countries like Scandinavia and Einland, is that with the northern peoples it is advantageous, but with soutliern, impracticable. It has on the whole a strong advocacy in the United States of America. It of course exists to some extent in country schools everywhere, including those of the State, and may be tentatively adojited in the cities. The effect of co-education seemed favourable as far as the Commissioners were able to jiidge, the general result being that the relationship was more normal and the influence of each sex upon the other beneficial. It could very easily and should be introduced in schools built on the European system, and ultimate adverse decision would be of no consequence so far as mere school arrangements are concerned. Its general adoption could be deferred till the light of further experience in countries with co-education practically decided the question. (8) Schools should be established as soon as possible for the feeble-minded, on the lines indicated in Chapter XLI. (9) Schools for the deaf and dumb should adopt the lip-reading method, so as to have the advantages of oral instruction, and should be generally developed as indicated in Chapter XLII. (10) \5~{k) 66 (10) The general regime in the reformitory schools of this State compares satisfactorily with that seen elsewhere. As a general result it appears that the more kindly the treatment meted out, and the more the past criminal or anti-social history is apparently ignored, the better the resvilt. In the majority of cases the reposing of confidence generates a favourable response. (11) The lads on a ship like the Sobraon would be better and more conveniently housed ashore. (12) The general school education of the inmates is subject to the same criticism as the education in the public schools, that is to say, it could be greatly improved, since it is in fact the same system. (13.) The whole question of reformatory education is, however, one of great difficulty, and one in which considerable difference of opinion exists. To treat it perfunctorily, in view of the issues involved and the elaboration of recent investigation therein, would be unjustifiable. Detailed recom- mendations are consequently left for a later report. (14.) Truant schools were seen, and apparently give good results, but the whole question is closely allied with the preceding being also one in regard to which strong differences of opinion exist. Since in general children should be allowed to remain with their parents, if attendance at school can possibly be secured without arrest and prac- tically imprisonment in the Truant school, the creation of such schools demands most careful consideration in the light, not only of what was seen by the Commissioners, but also in that of the world's experience. Eor that reason recommendations are postponed for a later report, to follow after a more deliberate study of the question. It ought to be added that the rosvdts appeared to be excellent, and that the question has been more thoroughly studied by Mr. J. W. Turner. (15.) The prevention of children being brought into contact with the ordinary surroundings of a police court is of sufficient importance to justify the creation of courts for the trial of child-offences, and for dealing with delinquencies in regard to the obligation of attendance. The method of bringing them before ordinary Police Courts deserves strong reprobation. X. CONCLUDING EEMARKS. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introduction. — The above recommendations imply that the Public School System of New South JFales needs to be completely reformed. If they were given immediate effect, primary education might with strenuous effort be brought in two decades on to the plane of primary European education as it stands to-day. The present state of things is a consequence of the adoption of the pupil-teacher system, with its inevitable deteriorating influence. Unless this system is abolished, real reform will reach but a veiy little way, for the professional education of the teaching- staff is the most fundamental element of an educational system. 2. The Departmental vieio of the Pupil-teacher System,. — In recommending a course so absolutely antagonised to the present views of the Department of Public Instruction, as to what constitutes a proper scheme of education, an omission in this Report of all reference to the departmental view of the pupil-teacher system would be unjustifiable, and might seem to have failed in due respect for the expression of its deliberate opinion. It ought therefore to be said that that opinion has been most carefully reviewed in coming to a decision. It should be recollected ihat high officers of the Department were quite recently (January, 1902) associated in Conference, and after deliberation proclaimed their preference for the pupil-teacher system, and practically for the whole depart- mental scheme of preparing teachers for their avocation. It was recognised, however, that the educational qualification was insufficient. This ft . 67 This system was not defended on the ground that, though defective, it must necessarily he adopted from the pressure of circumstances ; on the contrary, as will appear from the extracts hereinafter quoted, it was strenuously supported as an ideal system. That the decision to maintain the system was not hastily reached is obvious from the serious form in which it was remitted to the Conference. In response to a question by the Honorable the Minister of the Department, whether the "present methods succeed in not only imparting knoioledge of the technique of the teaching profession, but also in inspiring teachers with high aims, the Conference affirmed ' that the existing pupil-teacher system, icith modifications should be continued.'' " It would not be correct to infer that the whole teaching staff of the Public Instruction Department believe in the system. As a matter of fact many of the widely-read teachers of the Department who have put themselves in touch with the larger view of what is requisite in teaching, with the traditions of Europe and America, and with the controversy in the LFnited Kingdom as to the pupil-teacher system, keenly realise its defects, and are anxious for Reform. It may be pointed out that not only did the Minister raise the question of a higher and better system as an issue, but so also did the Under Secretary (Mr. Maynard), in the words " Shall toe continue to have picpil-teachers, or shall we as is done in Canada, do without them. That is the question." (Conference Report p. 23.) Then it was that the decision was reached to continue the system, and it ought to bo added that the opposition to its abandonment was pronounced. The failure on the part of high officers to recognise and appreciate the inefficiency of such a class of teachers as the pupil-teachers, is very significant. The pupil-teacher system had previously been somewhat warmly attacked. Those who realise with any clearness the inevitable effect of the employment of young, inexperienced, and imperfectly educated persons (children really) as teachers, and whose conception of the real nature of education forces them to appreciate the disastrous effect of this upon the educational development of any country, are likely to be vehement in any adverse reference to the system ; ion: from the public point of vieto it is in the interest of the quarter of a million children icho are being educated in our territory that is of paramount importance, not the verdict on the system adopted by the State Department. That there was no expressed objection to the system might seem remarkable, but this may be explained by the fact that the dissent was not sufficiently influential. Though practically voiceless, it nevertheless exists. One officer stated "that in England they are now discarding the pupil-teachers,^* but that some misconception was prevalent appears from the fact tliat another affirmed (see p. 30 of the Conference Report) that in Sweden, Norway, Belgium, and Switzerland, pupil-teachers are employed in schools, and even the mode of preparing for examination was particularised. 3. Decision of 1902 Conference as to pupil-teacher system. — In his opening speech at the " Conference of inspectors and departmental officers," held late in January, 1902, the Minister of Public Instruction, the Honourable J. Perry, when remitting the question of the proper method of training of teachers referred to its significance in the following terms : — " Taking our business-paper in the original order of its drawing up, ' the training of teachers ' is placed first for our consideration. Tht^ training of teacliers is, icithottt doubt, the most important responsi- lility devolving upon the Department. I realise that our present system has succeeded in producing many- admirable teachers whose work to-day is recognised from one end of the country to the other. You can only judge a system by the results it produces, and it is not for me to say whether better results could have been obtained under different conditions. I am Iceenh/ alive to the necessity of seizing every opportunity for improving things. To he content with anything that we do is but the prelude of stafjnation, but I know full well that the leading spirits of the Department are not content, and are as eager as any- one to secure the best results. I am anxious to extend and improve, as far as possible, the conditions of our training colleges, and my intentions have been strengthened considerably by the knowledge that I am supported by the sympathy of all grades in our service to-day. I do not claim to have fully analysed the methods connected with our training colleges, and, therefore, in putting a few questions in this speech I am fully prepared for satisfactory assurances on the points that I raise. When I ask, therefore, — Do our present methods succeed in.not only imparting knowledge of the technique of the teaching profession, but also inspiring cur teachers icith high aims and a consciousness of the need of something better than we have so far attained, and a determination to take a share in the attainment of it? — I am inviting the testimony of the Conference upon the point. Wo all learn by experience ; hut the man whom we can least permit to gain his experience ivhile tvorJcing is the teacher. Dr, Abbott says : ' I gained my experience as 68 as a teacher at the expense of my pupils for at least two years' No doubt this is true, and doubtless many teachers have taken a much longer time than two years. The traininf; of teachera is supposed to obviate, as far as possible, this loss to the children ; and wo should, tlierefore, commence early and ontinue the period of training for a sufficient time, in order to send our teachers properly equipped to heir work." In response the Conference recommended : — "^ 1. (rt) That the existing pupil-teachers' system, with modifications, should be continued. (h) That the standard of the pupil-teachers' entrance examination be in accordance with the course of instruction attached, (c) That no applicant pupil-teacher be examined until the ago of 15 years, and that no successful applicant be appointed until the age of IG years is reached. 4. Opinions expressed at the Departynental Conference. — The following opinions expressed at the Departmental Conference are important as an indication of the traditions and concensus of opinion regarding the proper method of traming teachers obtaining in the Department, or rather among the senior officers of the Department. The opinions are taken in tlie order in which they Avill he found in the Conference llejiort. The italics do not appear in the original, but serve to give prominence to important statements. Mr. F. Bridges, Acting Under Secretary, Department of Public Instruction (then Chief Inspector), stated : — "If there is one subject on which I am competent to speak it is that with regard to pupil-teachers. I started as a pupil-teacher at the mature arje of twelve. ... I would like to allude to a statement made by jVIp. Wilkins to the old National Board. Mr. Wilkins' name is one always to be held in reverence in connection with educational matters in this State. He said, that these youny people, being hoys and girls, really were more in touch toith the children taught, because they understood the children's Tiacures better. My experience has sJioion me that his words are true. I have had charge of hundreds of pupil-teachers, and the supervision of thousands. I cannot but think that under existing circumstances we exact too much from them. When I started as a pupil-teacher I was told I should have an hour off each day for private study. As Mr. Bradley knows, that " hour-off " was merely a myth. We had to be at work at half-past eight, and we were there until five o'clock. In those days pupil-teachers had a much more difficult row to hoe than at present. On the other hand, I know that there are teachers who are too lazy to give proper instruction to their pupil-teacher.;. I have frequently asked a teacher what instructions he was giving his teachers. I remember one celebrated case. I went into a school and found the head- master teaching eleven boys in a corner of the place at the same time that his pupil-teacher was away elseiohere teaching ninety pupils. Tot that man considered that he was doing his duty. To make the system perfect we leant, first of all, to hold an entrance examination. Those successful would be required to attend at a district Model School, or a similar school, where they would be taught by a first-class teacher, and have excellent opportunities. ... I consider, further, that any head-master who prepares a pupil-teacher for matriculation or any other examination of that kind should receive a bonus, pp. 21, 22. Another officer's view was expressed as follows : — "There is no doubt that we, as inspectors of schools, feel very strongly on this question of pupil- teacljcrs. They form such a very large proportion of those engaged in the work of teaching I have given a lot of attention to this matter I do not know of anything in connection with it that is better for the advancement of primary education in this State than a good training o/ tlie pupil- teachers. The pupil-teacher system has been tried in all our big schools, and has been very successful. It has been extended to the smaller schools of our State. We find pupil-teachers in the remote country parts doing work which they could not have done under any other teaching arrangement I know of. We have them everywhere. These ex-pupil-teachers are doing a great work. They will do a greater work. With regard to their training, I do not hold that four years is too long a term, if we alter our methods somewhat. If, as Mr. Bridges suggests, we gave them a short period of service in the schools prior to putting them on the staff, and made them responsible for class teaching, we should have better results. That is where the shoe pinches with a good many of our head- masters. They say that a pupil-teacher is put into the school, and although he has never had experience, he is made responsible for a large class oj children, and the school suffers to a certain extent at the hands oj an inexperienced person." p. 22. The resolution to adhere to the pupil-teacher system was moved in the j following speech : — ' "There appears to be a question underlying all this that is now under discussion, which it would be well to tave settled. The method of training teachers by means of the pupil-teachers'' system — and tvhick has been in existence ever since our Department has been in existence — has been attacked and found fault with. There is certainly plenty of scope for di^erences of opinion. We find different countries adopting rf/^eren^ ci'eios on the matter, and putting those views into domestic legislation. We find, for instance, that in England they are now discarding the pupil-teachers. Scotland, on the other hand, is retaining them * Conference Report, p. 14. Tlie italics are not in the original, and are inserted to draw atteption to the point Minister's remarks. Ibid., p. 4. 69 them. The pupil-teachers' system has Iieen still furtfcer extended ia Victoria by the establishment of the monitorial system. It would he well \i we decided, before going any further, 1o srttle whether %oe are going to continue to adopt the pupil-teachers' system or not. To be brief, I will move : — That we continue the pupil-teaohera' sjstem, with modification?. It may be said that nearly all of m were pupil-teachers, and, therefore, will vote for thia system, and that it is for that reason an ex parte vote. We are supposed — and I hope the supposition is warrantable — to be sensible persons, coming here to consider this question in the interests of the State, on all points and from all sides. It luould he desirable to sai/ lohether we shall continue the pupil-teachers' si/stem with modifications, or do away inth it altojether, as England has already done." pp. 22, 23. The resolution was seconded in the following terms : — " I have very great pleasure in seconding It is a system I have been led to believe is worthy of all respect. It has done good work in the countries in which it has been established, and we have here, in the concrete, prominent jexamples of what it has done in this country. It is idle for people to say that pupil-teachers are half educated. We have gentlemen here who are distinguished examples of what that system effects. It is idle to contend that it is necessary for the education of any human being that he should go through a certain process, and that that process atone will produce an educated man. Our system has produced numberless educated men and women throughout this State. It has done so much ijood tliat tee hesitate to touch the system lest we he supposed to belong to the inemics camp. That is my feelinj;;. I know tlie diicipline under which the ^lupil-teachers liave suffered. I sympathise with all tlie suggestions for improving their position. We should have no hesitancy in urging the doing of something for the pupil-teachers because of any criticism on the part of those who know nothing about the New South Wales system. It behoves us, therefore, at the outset to express, in the terms of the resolution, that ice are in favour of the retention of this system in New South Wales, and I heartily second the resolution submitted." .... p. 23. Mr. Maynard : "It seems to me that that will start the thing fairly. Shall we continue to have pupil-teachers, or shall we, as is done in Canada, do without them. That is the question." p. 23. The preceding remarks made at the Departmental Conference afford a sufficient indication of the tenacity with which the pupil-teacher system was espoused by the highest departmental officers, and it should he noted that these defences of the system were made after a long series of attacks upon it, pointing out its inherent weakness. As already stated, this antagonism of officers holding the highest positions in the Department to any departure from tht? pupil-teacher system is very significant, and commands attention. The traditions of the Department are clearly evidenced in the speeches above quoted, and can be recognised in the tone of the Conference in discussing the question. This system has been regarded as one of the important contributing factors to the success alleged to characterise the work of the Department. Here it ought to be recognised that the loyalty to departmental traditions, and the cultivation of a high respect for the earnest labours and personal characters of former chiefs of the administration, are happy auguries of the possible benefits of a right direction of the departmental activity. It is, however, the devotion they exhibited to the cause of education, not the system they espoused, which properly claims the unqualified respect of the departmental staff. The failure on the part of the highest officers of the Departmemt to recognise the obvious inefficiency of the pupil-teacher system in comparison with that of previous training, the practical impossibility of voicing any disseat, the oblivion to the fact that educated men in the United Kingdom condemned it, the want of appreciation of the significance of the very extensive literature open even to those who read English alone, are the best evidences of the natural effect of the system itself. It is in these things that its deteriorating influence is most conspicuously betrayed, for among the highest officers of the the Education Department there are many of most undoubted ability. If in the professional training and education of teachers nothing more had been done than to outline the history and theory of education, such a fact as that above referred to would have been impossible. The failure of the Department to avail itself of the world's educational experience, is the only possible explanation of the ardent defence of the pupil-teacher system, despite the continual criticism to which it had been subjected. The failure permeates the system. It is seen in the curriculum, in the method of inspection, in the hygienic arrangements, in fact in nearly every important feature of the system. If, as indicated herein, the Department charged with popular education has it-self failed to recognise and appreciate the gravity of our educational limitations, how can it be hoped to bring about a clear public recognition thereof ? Eor the people 70 people of this State have been largely educated under this system, and as a whole have not been brought face to face, either through reading or experience, with the incomparably better systems of America and Europe. How then can they acquire any adequate conception of the extent of our educational shortcomings ? The answer may be found in this— that _;ms^ in so far as the recommendations (which merely attempt to bring into existence the features of the better educational systems of Europe and America) seem impraoticable, so is the need of reform urgent. No one competent to form an unprejudiced judgment can review the material and spiritual evidences of the superiority to ours of the European and American systems of education, without acutely realising how much leeway we have to make good. Disagreeable therefore as is the task of unreservedly proclaiming what one deems to be the truth of the matter — inasmuch as it reflects severely upon tlie existing regime, and expresses a decision opposed to the official view, deliberately formulated — the transcendent importance to the future of this State and People of a sound educational system imperatively demands that personal feelings be set aside. To hesitate in the effort to clear the way to a truer understanding of our nrgent need of a better educational system would be unworthy of the responsible duty assigned the Commissioners. Nothing short of a radical reformation, touching every plane of our primary system, can effect the great change necessary to constitute our education a peer among the nobler systems of civilised mankind, and enable the devoted labours and aspirations of the teachers working under it to achieve that success which we have a right to expect. The hope is entertained that it will be clearly recognised that it is the system which is so adversely judged, not the zeal, devotion, and ability of those whose equal xifforts under a better educational system would have benefited the people of this State to an extent that can hardly be estimated. As previously stated, there has been good education, but it has been because the genius and industry of teachers have enaliled them to transcend, to some extent, the system w(! have adopted. Finally, the Commissioner here writing feels it to be his solemn duty to point out that there is an increasing recognition in the United Kingdom of the fact, that to fail in making English Education equal to that of the other great nations, is to fa^ in a matter of the highest national import ; it is to court national disaster. The educational system that successfully aims at building up noble, vigorous, purposeful, and able citizens, is a system that creates national wealth, and begets national force ; hence it is the foundation upon which every true patriot will hope to build up the future of Australia, and to consolidate the interests of tlie Empire. , Summary 71 Summary and Recommendations ; by J. W. Turner. XI. PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. [j. w. tuknee,] Erance. Introduction. — The information given in the chapters on the primary and upper primary scliool system of Prance is gained from official reports generously supplied by the scliool authorities in Prance, and from observations of the Com- missioner, made during his visit to Paris last year. The very comprehensive and logical scheme of instruction, as set out in the official reports so fully quoted, appeals to the Commissioner as one containing some very desirable elements that may with advantage be adopted in any improvements to be effected in our own system. Por these reasons the views and opinions of those responsible for directing public education in Prance, Ministers of Public Instruction and Directors of Primary and Upper Primary Education, have been given very fully, the plan of administration out- lined, and the best parts of the system dealing with methods of instruction detailed. The Prench system of national education is the most perfect piece of educa- tional machinery in existence, and provides for an uninterrupted and thoroughly graduated course of instruction, starting at the age of 4 and 5 years in the maternal schools, extending through intermediate classes, through upper primary classes, to the secondary schools, and ending about the age of 18 years. Administration. — In the general administration of this great national scheme, the Minister of Public Instruction is assisted by a Superior Council, and in the immediate administration of the system he is supported by general inspectors, rectors, academy inspectors, prefects, primary inspectors, and Depart- mental Councils. The general inspectors are not permitted to remain more than two years in a district ; the rectors have charge of the public educational establishments in their divisions, and supervise private primary schools in accordance with law ; the academy inspectors are at the head of primary instruction in their Departments ; the prefects have a large amount of power and influence in school matters, and work in considerable harmony with the academy inspectors ; primary school inspectors are largely employed in visiting schools, private as well as public, in judging the school-work, and particularly in advising and guiding the teacliers in their methods ; the Departmental Councils are entrusted with considerable powers in their Departments, much greater than those possessed by our State School Boards. Their composition, it will be seen on referring to the report. Chapter VIII, is largely professional in chai'acter. Inspectresses are employed in some Departments in Prance, but there is such great satisfaction with the inspectors, who have proved themselves well qualified to supervise girls' and infant schools, that there is no intention of making any further appointments of inspectresses. In matters of general inspection it may not be necessary to have lady inspectors, but they are required for special subjects as domestic economy. Lady inspectors are largely employed in America, and, perhaps, in a less degree in England, to supervise such subjects as cooking, house-keeping, drawing, and needlework. The work of administration is still further extended by the appointment of Citizen Committees, whose duties arc very similar to those of our own School Boards. These bodies have nothing to do with instruction in the school, but are concerned with the material orsranisation and condition of the buildings, with the behaviour of the pupils, school attendance, and the provisions for assisting poor children. Their appointment serves to show the great care bestowed in keeping every link in the national scheme of education intact, and their share in the administration tends to bring more closely together the home and school life. Methods 72 Methods of Teaching. — TIjc French methods of teaching are just as carefully thought out as the work of administration. In the training of infants the teachers arc careful in the teaching of the mother tongue to correct, hy way of oral exercises, faults of pronunciation or local accent ; in teaching writing the work is done on l)aper ; history is taught hy way of short simple hiographies, illustrated l)y pictures ; geography, which consists of observation of the natural surroundings and simple phenomena, and familiar chats on hygiene, jjlants, and animals, form in the French infant school the beginnings of a course in Nature study. Appointments, Promotions, etc. — The earliest age at which a person is alloAved to teach in France is 18 for males, and 17 for females. To take charge of a primary school, a teacher must be not less than 21 years of age, and must hold the certificate of aptitude. There are no examinations of teachers similar to our own. Promotions are made on the recommendation of the inspectors and the Departmental Council. Tliis recommendation is forwarded to the Minister, who decides on the number to be promoted according to a certain standard of appointments. In determining the promotion of teachers, the reports of Primary and Academy Inspectors have much weight, and their decisions are largely influenced by the efficiency and length of service of the teachers due for promotion. Probationer teachers are employed as assistants, but not earlier than the ages above mentioned. Methods of Instruction and the Curriculum. — It has been urged against the French public school system that it is bound by cast-iron conditions, that it is wanting in elasticity, and that its teachers must adhere rigidly to time-table and programmes, which are determined by the central administration. This at first sight appears true, for on visiting the different schools the same stereotyped printed time-table confronts one. The determination of the subjects to be taught and the time to be devoted to each subject, are matters settled by the Minister, with the advice of the permanent heads of his Department, but the methods of instruction to be adopted are well discussed at frequent pedagogical conferences which teachers are compelled to attend. Armed with his own views of method, and equipped with the additional knowledge he has gained bv the discussions in the conference, the teacher returns to his school prepared to teach the subjects of his programme according to the regulation time table, in the light of the greater experience acquired by intercourse with his fellow-teachers and the Primary and Academy Inspectors. If he falls into a narrow groove, the fault is not with the system but with the individual. The value of such conferences is universally admitted, and one welcomes the movement of our own teachers in coming into line in this respect with other parts of the world. Let us cherish the hope that the day is near at hand when, as in France, representatives of all grades of teacliers will meet their inspectors in friendly and unconstrained conference. The benefit will not only be professional but also largely national. The wide range of subjects in the elementary primary school and the issue of a leaving certificate at the age of 11 years are two matters which, it is believed, will not meet with the approval of the New South Wales teachers, who feel these drawbacks in their own system, but it is clear that the curriculum stated in the report of the French primary system is the maximum, and that the practice of cramming — if such mottoes as "Do not teach much, but teach well" ; "Let the pupil leave the school, it may be with a minimum of knowledge but with undoubted tastes and capacities for learning," mean anything — has no place in the teaching methods of the French schools. So far as the Commissioner covild judge from the limited time at his disposal, the aims of the French teacher in all instruction appeared to be quality rather than quantity. The absence of all formal examinations, and the sympathetic character of the inspection, furnish favourable conditions to the attainment of this end. The early age at which many of the French boys and girls obtain the leaving certificate is engaging the serious attention of the governing bodies, and there is a strong disposition to retain the children at school for a longer period. Instructions have been given to increase the difficulty of the examination for the leaving certificate. Undoubtedly this early leaving is a weak point in the school system of the country. Leaving 73 Leaving Certificate. — The desirableness of issuing leave certificates to pupils in our own State schools was discussed in the Conference of Inspectors and other officials, held early in the year 1902, and reference was made to the practice in France and Scotland. In the public schools of Scotland a pupil may take the Merit Certificate at at the age of 12 or 13, but the possession of the certificate does not exempt him from school attendance until he has reached the age of 14 years. The certificate is a qualification for admission into a higher grade school, or a testimonial for entrance into a business establishment (but not under the age of 14- years), showing that the holder has passed the highest standard of elementary instruction, and that his moral character has been satisfactory. In Erance the certificate may be obtained on the completion of tlic work in the middle course of the Primary School, and statistics show that a great number of French children never enter the superior course of the school. Unfortunately, in New South Wales a somewhat similar state of things exists. Under the 20th section of tbe Public Instruction Act of 1880, a pupil who holds the certificate of being sufficiently educated may leave school before the age of 14 years, Avhich, in our State, as in Scotland, is the statutory ago for leaving school. The examination for this certificate is one wliich an ordinarily intelligent lad of 11 or 12 years in a good upper third or fourth class can easily pass. As a matter of fact, many of our pupils do get the certificate at this age, and pass away from their schools with this insufficient equipment, to their own undoubted detriment, and to the regret of their teachers, to enter upon the sterner duties of life. Scotland, despite its dense labour population, has abolished the " Labour " Certificate which, until recently, permitted children to leave school earlier than 14 years of age. France is striving to educate her people to the advantages of a longer period of school attendance, and is discouraging the early issue of tiie leaving certificate. New South Wales must not lag behind in a matter of such vital significance. As Scotland abolished the " Labour" Certificate, so must our country abolish " the certificate of a child being sufficiently educated " before he is 14 years of age. This must be done in the interest of the child. The granting of a certificate of merit, or leaving certificate, when the child has reached 14 years of age, recording his class attainments, his general conduct, and his moral character, is a right and proper course to take. Moral Teaching. — The teaching of religion has no place in the regular programme of the French school, and it docs not appear that there exists any special provision for dogmatic or general instruction in the subject. The existence of God is assumed, and reverence to His name inculcated. One's personal views on the value of religious teaching to children of public school age need not be intruded here. It will suffice to say that our own State seems to have made the best attempt at solving the difficulty of religious instruction in schools by the facilities it gives clergymen and accredited teachers under Clause 17 of tlie Public Instruction Act, and by the excellent general Scriptural instruction contained in the Irish National Scripture Books which are still in daily use. The moral and civic side of the school instruction in France is strongly emphasised. " The teaching given in the name of civil society," says the lyOO lleport, " draws its principal strength from its essentially secular spirit, opposed to all sectarianism, and profoundly respectful of the rights of conscience." Later on, the lleport makes a strong appeal to teachers to carry on the ennobling work of moral education, "for it is a question of the cultivation of the conscience." Temperance teaching receives great attention, thrift is encouraged, and school savings banks are numerous, while mutual help societies are popular and growing institutions. So much importance is attached to the proper teaching of morals by the French authorities that the subject in the Upper Primary Schools is always taken by the head masters. Under some conditions, as has been stated, it is the only duty he is called upon to perform. Singing. — Singing is valued not so much for the pleasure derived from music as for its moral effect, and in the choice of songs those are recommended which treat of patriotism, nature, the liome, etc. Hence, the words of a song are taught with as much care as the reading lesson. The teaching is usually by ear, and the singing is largely in unison. Societies, 74 Societies. — Pupils' societies for inculcating tlirift, similar to our savings banks, and for mutual aid, form part of the organisation in the French schools, and are very common in the large cities. Aims. — The great aim of the French system, upon whiclx the Government prides itself, is to form the man in the child, and then to prepare him for a practical life, and so the education while general in character has a moderate trend towards the technical side. With this end in view drawing and manual instruction are on the daily programme for all courses. The Government pays the instructor; the Municipality erects tlie workshop and provides the equipment; the pupil pays nothing. Temperance Teaching. — France is making a great eifort in her schools to combat the evil of intemperance. Teachers have been instrvictcd to give the subject very special attention, and to emphasise the teaching anti-alcoholic pictures are used, and the formation of temperance societies encouraged. The Practical Direction given to Teaching. — Seeing that a great number of French children will be occupied on the soil, decided emphasis is given to the teaching of agriculture, especially in the rural schools. The object of the teaching in the primary school is not to provide an apprenticeship as farmers, but by means of lessons, largely on the lines of Nature study, to cultivate the pupils' general intelligence, so that later on they may have some elementary knoAvledge of scientific matters connected with their occupation. The aim in giving this particular bent is the retention of the people on the land. The teaching of agriculture in the Upper Primary and Professional Upper Primary Schools is cai-ried on in the most practical manner. The adaptation of the instruction to the prevailing local industry is a feature of the Frencli school system. Rec7'eation. — The pupil in a primary school in France attends six hours daily, Thursday and Sunday excluded, usually from 8 to 11 a.m., and 1 to 4 p.m. The practice of granting the pupils five minutes at the end of every hour "tor purposes of recreation is almost general in the schools of the Continent. In France the practice is only applied to the junior classes. The seniors are allowed two quarter hours midway between the sessions. In French Switzerland some of the time between 11 and 1 o'clock is spent, in the summer session, in the swimming baths. Corporal Punishment. — Corporal punishment is unknown in French schools. The discipline of the pupils is very satisfactory. Pupils are bright, active, and well behaved. The teachers control without difficulty. General Inspectors. — The practice of changing the Divisions of the General Inspectors every two years has some advantages. There can be no doubt that the General Inspectors, with an experience, after many years' service in the various Divisions, must be in the position of very capable advisers to the permanent heads and the Minister of Public Instruction, on the general conditions of education existing throusrhout the countrv. "O' Inspectors. — The character of its inspectorial staff is vital to the well-being of any system of education, no matter how adequately the system fulfils, in other respects, approved theoretical principles. It may indeed be said that as is the inspector so is the system. This vital interrelation of inspector and system is fully recognised in France, and so the method of appointment is one eminently designed to secure a body of ladies and gentlemen who have furnished incontestable evidence of the highest cultural and literary qualifications, and who, in addition, have a proved practical acquaintance with school work and organisation. The examination of candidates for the Primary School Inspectorship is, as we have seen, both literary and practical, and the standard is so high that but a small percentage of those who present them- selves are successful ; indeed, though candidates are considerably in excess of the number of vacancies, it has been frequently found necessary to hold special examina- tions. The result is that France has an inspectorial staff whose members are enlightened on all that pertains to pedagogical doctrine and practice, who are qualified to enter a school and furnish just criticisms and suggestions as to the methods employed, who by their ability command the highest respect of the teachers, and who, finally, by the high sense entertained of their office, inspire those teachers with an abiding interest and enthusiasm in their work. The 75 The widely attested devotion of the French public school teacher to his work may, for the most part, be attributed to the excellent Academy and Primary Inspectors, whose relations with their teachers are almost invariably those of a kindly and sympathetic adviser. The Commissioner was, unfortunately, unable to be present at one of the many conferences of teachers presided over by the Academy or Primary Inspector, but, from inquiries made, it is safe to say that the presence of either of those gentlemen, far from being a hindrance, is rather an encouragement to outspoken and unconstrained expression of views. Promotions of Teachers. — When a teacher in France has obtained his "certificate of aptitude" he is not required to pass a further examination to qualify as headmaster of a primary school. His advancement then depends to some extent on seniority, but merit is the chief factor. Summing Up. — The most important features of tlie French primary system of instruction may be summed up under the following heads : — {a) The work of administration — ministerial, inspectorial, and municipal, {h) Its unbroken continuity from the Maternal schools through the Elementary, Middle, Superior, to the Upper Primary schools, (c) The character of the instruction in the Infant School, notably the amount of informal conversational teaching. [d) The aims of the Primary School, practical while maintaining the general character, {e) The concrete basis of the whole instruction. (/) The great attention paid to manual instruction and drawing, {g) Specialisation and localisation of studies, as witness the character of the instruction in agricultural districts compared Avith maritime districts, {h) The aims of the Upper Primary School, education practical but not an apprenticeship. {i) The liberal scheme of scholarships, especially the provision made for advancing the education of lads in remote country places. {See also " Eeport on Paris Schools," Chap. X). (_;■) The special care devoted to the teaching of morals, {k) The super- vision of private schools. {I) The absence of all formal examinations of schools for statistical results, {m) The character of the inspection — kindly, co-operative, and suggestive. (») Excellent training system. {See Chapter XXXVI). UPPER PRIMAllY EDUCATION. The next stage in the public educational system of France is upper primary education. There are two kinds of schools entrusted with this teaching — upper primary and cours complementaires — and in them the children of the working classes get the finishing touches to their education. The cours complementaires are advanced classes in some primary schools, and are established very much on the same lines as our own Superior Schools. The instruction in these schools is distinguished by its practical and utilitarian character, but it is not to be "confounded with apprenticeship. It remains a true education.' )) Headmasters' Duties. — Headmasters in these schools are relieved from the charge of a class, but must teach some hours every week, except in the large schools, where they are responsible for the moral and civic instruction only. In our own large schools, headmasters arc held responsible for the work of their schools at the same time that they have charge of classes. So. ui arrangements have recently been made to free them from the responsibility of a class, and give them time to supervise the general w^ork of their schools. The change is decidedly in the interests of the system. Scholarships. — The scheme of scholarships is another proof of the paternal regard of the French people for their public schools. Our own liberal scheme compares most favourably Avith that of France in respect to bursaries and scholar- ships, and many cases can be cited where poor boys, tlu'ough the generous endow- ment of our State, have been enabled to pass on to the secondary schools and the University. Character of Instruction. — The character of the instruction in upper primary schools is very practical, and is made so in the interest of the pupils of the labouring classes. Statistics show that a large majority of the pupils in French schools follow up agricultural, commercial, and industrial work. Cotirses 76 Courses in Tippet^ Frimary Schools. — Pupils enter the upper primary scliools on procuring the leaving certificate, and taking one year of the superior course, at about the age of 12 years ; and in their second year, nearing the age of 14, they elect, Avith the knowledge of their parents and the advice of the teachers, to follow one of four courses — general, agricviltural, commercial, industrial. The subjects of instruction are arranged to suit the particular courses chosen, as may be seen by referring to the comparison of timetables in Chapter XIV. A glance at these tables will show at once the difference between the curricula of the Superior Schools of this State and the Upper Primary Schools of Prance, and will demonstrate the advantages which the Prench boy possesses in the choice of studies offered. Professional Primary Schools. — In addition to these two classes doing advanced primary school work, professional upper primary schools are established in the large cities. These are not now controlled by the Minister of Public Instruction, having been transferred to the Minister of Industry and Commerce in 1893. Their aim, as will be readily seen by a reference to the timetable, is distinctly practical, and the authorities openly state that they are intended to train pupils for immediate employment at the " counter and the workshop." Instruction to Oirls. — The instruction in girls' upper primary schools is almost identical with that on the boy's side, the exception being that the mathe- matical subjects are modified, and agriculture gives place to horticulture. The subjects peculiar to girls' schools, housekeeping, cookery, etc., are taught both theoretically and practically. In connection with any changes to be effected in the organisation of our Superior Schools the French system of upper primary schools should be very carefully considered. THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF PAEIS. These in their general organisation are like the schools already described, biit the citizens of Paris have very high ideals of public school education. The work of primary education is practically handed over to the Municipality, which has nobly responded to the trust. The most prominent feature of its management is seen in the character of the schools, which are magnificent, well-equipped buildings, containing the most up-to-date improvements. These have already been erected at considerable cost to the citizens, but so impressed are they with the necessity for progressiveness in educational matters that they propose to raise a loan of nearly £2,500,000 to further improve and equip their schools. The question of the numbers in a class to be taught by one teacher is a matter which has been studied by the Paris School Authorities, with the result that the classes are limited to between forty and fifty pupils. Special teachers are employed to give instruction in drawing, singing, physical exercises, and manual work. The systematised scheme of the Municipality in regard to benevolent activities has no counterpart in any other city, and such institutions as the " School Colonies " and " Classes de Gardes " are worthy of the greatest admiration. The vacation schools serve a good purpose in P'rance and other countries, where the holiday is about two months in duration ; but their establishment in our own State is not necessary, as our vacation is comparatively short, and only sufficiently long to enable a boy to seek change away from his home. The Ex-pupils' Associations so prevalent in the schools of Paris are organisations like our Old Boys' Unions, but have a wider sphere of work. The Mutual Benefit Associations are unique institutions. Advanced instruction is provided for in forty -five schools, with complementary courses, seventeen for boys, twenty-eight for girls ; in seven upper primary schools, five for boys and two for girls ; and in twelve professional upper primary schools, six for boys and six for girls. Evening classes for those who leave school early are numerous. At the head of the whole primary system in Paris stands the College Chaptal, a great primarv school giving a secoudarv course of instruction. The 77 The system of bursaries in Paris is on a scale of munificence only second to tlie generous endowment of its schools. Some interesting statistics are furnished at (he end of Chapter X. In the rapid delineation of the Pai'is system of Primary Education, only those features have been touched upon which had not already been dealt with in a previous section of this report ; innumerable details of interest have been necessarily omitted. Sufficient has been given to demonstrate the prodigious activity of the Authorities in ail the spheres of school, after-school, and auxiliary work. Indeed it may be said that if the Erench were slow, compared to their German neighbours, to recognise the vital relevance of education to the national well-being, they are now fast making up the lost ground. In Paris, as in the rest of Erance, that characteristic of Erench genius which expresses itself in logical order and symmetrical arrangement has embodied itself in the establishment of a vast system of Primary Education closely inter-related and continuous, which is designed to meet the varying demands of the people. "With its liberal scheme of bursaries, in its subsidies to the innumerable Associations of Patronages, by its Evening and Vacation Classes, its School Colonies, Dispensaries, Cantines, &c., the Paris system displays a generosity, a sympathy with the needs of all, and a modern-day wide-awakeness, which eloquently testify to the higher sense entertained by the Authorities of the scope and value of education. PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. United Kingdom. The Board Schools of Great Britain are divided into infant, elementary, and higher grade. The schools are graded in seven standards, each representing a year's work, and pupils enter the first standard from the infant schools about the age of 7 years. Under some Boards pupils pass into the higher grade after completing fifth standard, whilst under others they are not admitted to the higher grade until the seventh standard has been completed. As a rule on the completion of the work of these standards, pupils are promoted to the advanced classes, but in some places the higher grade schools are centres for districts, and competitive examinations are held for admission. Admission into higher grade schools of Scotland is by means of the merit certificate {see Chapter XII). Tiie higher grade schools of the United Kingdom, while giving a general education, aim at preparing their pupils for the duties of life, and hence their teaching lias a tendency towards the practical side. A study of their programmes of work shows that the courses most favoured are science, commerce, industry, and art. London schools give most attention to the teaching of drawing, manual work, and a few commercial subjects; the higher grade schools in the towns of the provinces and in Scotland are strong in their science, manual instruction, and commercial subjects. A time table of the work of one of the higher grade schools of England appears in Chapter XIV. In some schools the education of the sexes is carried on in the same rooms with the best of results, and it may bo said that co-education is favoured by the majority of teachers. Edvication in the higher grade schools is generally free, and where a charge is made, the fees are only nominal, viz., 30s. a year. The course is for three years, and a very satisfactory percentage of the pupils remain to its completion, about their 17th year. Scholarships and Certificates. — In Scotland pupils in the higher grade schools arc sufficiently educated to take the lower leaving certificate {see standard of questions in Chapter X LI), and their training fits them to become pupil-teachers under the shortened course of training, viz., two years. In England the higher grade pupils at the end of their school course compete for bursaries which qualify for admission into secondary schools ; for various scholarships, as the Oxford and Cambridge Local Examinations ; and for the London Chamber of Commerce and other certificates. In some higher grade schools in England, pupils arc prepared for admission into the day training colleges of universities without vmdergoing a terra of pufil-teachership. The 78 The Stajf. — All the higher grade schools have staffs of men and women specially trained for the different subjects taught. Many of the teachers in every school are graduates of some university, and the majority hold teaching certifi- cates. In Eruntsfield School, Edinburgh, every member of the staff is a university graduate, and specialists are employed in teaching domestic economy, manual instruction, singing, drill, and swimming. Buildings. — The attendance at the higher grade schools is generally large, and the buildings are great structures, usually of three stories. The class-rooms are on the principle of single rooms, and are well provided with furniture and wall decorations. With such a liberal list of practical subjects, one would expect to find in these schools suitable laboratories and workshops for the teaching of science and manual work, and he would not be disappointed, for in all the schools the equipment is very superior. Photographs and plans of buildings appearing in Chapters XI and XII will give some idea of the organisation of higher grade schools in the United Kingdom. There is nothing special to comment on in the playgrounds. There is no superior school in New South Wales with an equipment equal to that of any one of the higher grade schools of the United Kingdom. The seating accommodation is much better than with us, the dual seat with proper support to the back being far more comfortable than the long form in general use in our schools. The single class-room is to be preferred to the long room for obvious reasons. It has been noticed that glass partitions are now placed in all the new school buildings of the State ; but this arrangement, though an improvement on the long room, is not so good as the separate class-room. The laboratories, workshops, and art-rooms of the higher gi'ade schools of the United Kingdom, not in every school but according to specialisation, and the teaching given in these buildings, are among the best features of primary instruction in the old country. In any development of specialised courses of instruction in this State some good ideas of organisation can be got from such towns as Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, EdinburgJi, Glasgow. The limiting of the numbers in a class to thirty pupils, and the appointment of specialists in the higher grade schools of the United Kingdom, are matters which might well receive our attention. The system of merit certificates for primary instruction, and leaving certificates for higher grade instruc- tion, produces good results in Scotland, and would be worth introducing into our own system. Ameeica. Courses. — There are two distinct kinds of schools in the United States of America engaged in primary instruction : the elementary, in which children from () to 10 years of age are found, and the grammar, for pupils from 11 to 14* years of age. The grammar school, as regards the extent of its curriculum, cannot be compared with the upper primary schools of France or our superior schools. Its course is limited, and there is no place for geometry, algebra, or Latin ; but in some schools a modern lancruage is tauijht. A movement has been started to shorten the primary instruction course, and to introduce in the last year the subjects mentioned above, with a view to the earlier admission of pupils into the high schools. America has no system of upper primary schools, but in her high schools she gives her pupils facilities for an education more advanced and more secondary in character than that provided in either upper primary or higher grade schools. Buildings and Furniture. — The school buildings are vei'y fine, modern, structures, and arc constructed on the separate class-room principle, with accommo- dation in each room for about fifty children. The desks are either single or dual, and are of very good type, though not equal to those in use in Switzerland. The long form which holds from six to ten pupils, and which gives no support to the back, is not known in American schools. It seems to be a permanent part of the equipment in the State schools of New South Wales. It certainly is a very inexpensive method of seating ; but if the form is unhygienic, and there can be little doubt of this, it should be abolished. The Canadian schools are supplied with desks and forms constructed on a very hygienic principle, provision being made by which they are adjusted to the needs of the pupils. School 79 School adjuncts. — The mural decorations in the American class-rooms, the class libraries, the societies for mutual help and instruction, and the collections for Nature study, are all attainable and possible where the separate class-room prevails. Discipline. — The pupils in American schools arc very amenable to order, and at their work shew more earnestness than our own boys. Co-education is very general, and women teachers are in the majority. Corporal punishment is not forbidden as it is in France, but is only resorted to in flagrant cases. Fire-drill is given occasionally in schools situated in very densely-populated areas. The practice would be of but little use in our city schools, as most of tliem are well isolated, and WG do not house our pupils in lofty buildings. Moral teaching. — -A very strong point is made of the teaching of morals and manners in all the public schools of America. The people are proud of their public institutions ; and a healtliy public opinion, which influences the younger memljers, is noticeable in every community. Closely connected with the splendid ideals of moral teaching is the sentiment of patriotism, which is taught systematically in the primary schools. The national flag is regularly saluted, tlie pledge repeated, and the true meaning of the ceremony fully explained. Canadian primary schools have a similar ceremony, in which the Union Jack is tlic central object. physical training. — Gymnasiums are attached to some of the large primary scliools ; but the best physical training is that gained in the open air. Cadet corps do not exist in the schools of the States, but in Canada the movement has met with much success. Special School. — A special school for lads engaged in selling papers or wares in the streets, exists in Toronto. A minimum daily attendance of two hours is fixed, and the instruction is thoroughly practical. The school is a great success ; a good attendance is maintained witliout dilFiculty and with no inconvenience to the public. A school of the same kind in Sydney is much needed. Every one will admit that our State system of primary education is capable of improvement, and comparing it Avith other systems it may be ?aid that, while tliere are good features in our work, some important changes should be introduced to bring it up to the standard of what is best in other countries. Organisation. — Dealing in the first instance with school buildings, the plan of separate class-rooms to accommodate between forty and fifty pupils at the most should be adopted, and single or dual desks and seats of the most approved hygienic type should be supplied. The long desk and form at present in use in the great majority of our schools are not only obsolete but dangerous. The lighting and ventilation of the rooms in the older school buildings are very imperfect, but it has been noticed that in the more recent structures, such as the additions to Kogarah, Marrickville, Chatswood, and the new school, Crystal Street, Petersham, the buildings are well arranged for obtaining light and fresh air. In the construction and an-angement of the private conveniences our system, compared with other places, admits of little improvement, but it is to be remarked that in many towns careful provision is made for privacy by means of separate semi-enclosed compartments. School Courses. — The courses for the two divisions of infants are different in regard to time, one extending over four half-years, the other over three half-years, and as the standard of proficiency is almost identical in each, they should be identical in point of duration. An alteration is also recommended in the primary course, which should be made to include the w ork of six classes, with half-yearly programmes, instead of four classes as now, an arrangement which would get rid of the long period in third class. When a pupil completes his fifth year in the primary course he should be fit for promotion to the superior course. Standards : 80 Standards : Kindergarten. — The standards of instruction require remodelling. Instruction in kindergarten is at present confined to very few of our infant schools, and one of the first changes to be considered should be the introduction of the subject into all infant schools. Oar ideas of the furniture necessary for this work are erroneous. The costly cedar desk with its ruled squares and the awkward gallery are both unnecessary. Low fiat movable tables and little chairs would do for all purposes of written work. It is a mistake to coop up the child in fixed desks for hours together ; what is required is that the little ones should have airy rooms with plenty of space for movements and games. Pending the estabiisliment of a training college for Kindergarten, the Hurlstone students should receive regular instruction in the theory and practice of the subject. Manual Instruction. — This work does not get sufficient attention in the second and third classes of our schools, and no systematic instruction in the subject, ex- clusive of drawing, is attempted. The manual training workshops in tlie city are attended by a few hundred boys at the most, and, while the instruction is both educative and practical, its usefulness is greatly circumscribed. The instruction needs remodelling entirely. Iland-and-eye training of some kind, in addition to drawing, should be made compulsory in all second and third classes. Manual training, such as modelling, working in wood and iron, etc., should be provided for fourth class boys, and for those boys in the superior schools Avho have a leaning towards industrial occupations. In every class the educative value of the teaching should be emphasised. The instruction should be free, and the State should supply all tools and materials. The provision made for teaching the subject to girls is superior to that provided for the boys. Our cookery schools are a credit to our system. The introduction of other features of domestic economy, not as additional subjects, but as part of the domestic science course, is advocated. Superior School Standards. — ^The instruction in our upper classes gives but little preparation towards commercial, agricultural, or industrial life. Within the last year or two a few teachers of superior schools have introduced commercial subjects into their programme, and have employed specialists to teach the mechanical branches after school hours; but no general scheme of elementary commercial teaching exists. Classes should be established in superior schools in which a preparation might be given for commercial life. The teaching of elementary science — physics and chemistry — has not the place in our system which is assigned to it in the higher classes of schools in the United Kingdom and France. In the schools oE these countries systematic courses of instruction in the subject are provided for the pupils, and experiments are carried on in splendidly-furnished laboratories. The proper equipment of science laboratories, even for elementary teaching, is a matter of considerable expense, and therefore the number of such establishments must necessarily be limited, but provision should be made for instruction in the subject in all important centres. The subject of drawing requires our most careful attention. The syllabus needs a complete remodelling from the lowest to the highest classes. The work accomplished in the London Board Schools {see syllabus in Chapter XX) Avould form a guide for us. The teaching of agriculture, especially in rural districts, is a subject of sufficient importance in our State to interest those engaged in education. The instruction should be educative and closely correlated to elementary science and Nature study. Great prominence is given to agricultural teaching of this character in many continental countries. Superior schools with classes for general education would form the link between primary and higher secondary education. The schools adopting special courses would lead up to technical, commercial, and agricultural colleges. XII. 81 XII. TRAINING SCHOOL SYSTEMS. [J. W. TURNER.] The countries with a pupil-teacher system are England, Scotland, and Ireland. System in England. — The chief features of the English system are : — Government by School Boards. Eive years' course, starting about 14. Professional training in day schools. General education in pupil-teacher centres. Teaching responsibilities only in later years of apprenticeship, and then with small classes. Preparation for King's scholarships, which admit to training colleges. System in Scotland. — Chief featu.res : — Government by School Boards. Three classes employed — («) Monitors, entering at 13 years. {b) Pupil-teachers, taking a four years' course, commencing at 11. (c) Pupil-teachers, taking a two years' course, commencing at IG, and possessing higher grade or secondary school certificates. No responsibility for classes, but sections taught under supervision. General education in pupil-teacher centre (exceptions). Preparation for King's scholarships. In some towns the professional training of pupil-teachers and their general education are carried on in the day school, but there are pupil-teacher centres as in England. In towns without centres the head-masters are responsible for the general education of the pupil-teachers, and are expected to devote nine hours each week to the work, outside the regular school hours. This is the practice in the city of Edinburgh, and is almost identical with that which obtains in New South Wales. System in Ireland. — Chief features : — Two classes employed — [a) Monitors, 13 years old, with five years' course. {h) Pupil-teachers, 16 years old, with two years' course. General education given in day schools after school hours, nine hours each week. No responsibility for classes, but small sections taught under super- vision. Preparation for King's scholarships. System in New South Wales. — Chief features : — Age of admission, from 14 to 18. Pour years' course. Responsibility for classes throughout the course. General education given in day schools — minimum instruction, one hour each day. . Preparation for entrance examination to training schools. Of the three systems in the United Kingdom, that of England is the best organised. It provides a superior preparation for admission into the training colleges, but it does not give the best training for practical teaching. The pupil-teacher centres are very fine institutions, in which the pupil-teachers make half-day attendances. The 15— (m) J 82 The centres are not concerned with the professional part of the pupil-teachers' equipment. This is obtained during: half-day attendances in the primary schools to which they are attached. The professional training of pupil-teachers is the work of the head-teachers in the primary schools, hut although the latter are freed from the responsibilities of teaching a class, they find that the general management of their schools demands so much of their attention that it is not possible for them to give sufficient time to the supervision of the pupil-teachers. The half-time principle does not, in the opinion of many, provide a thorough practical training for pupil- teachers. The systems in Ireland and Scotland, while on the whole not equal to that of England, the employment of monitors being a great blot, have some good features, the best of which are the amount and character of the professional training which is given in some schools, in teaching sections of classes under the supervision of the head-masters, and the admission, to a two years' course, of candidates of maturcr years with a higher grade qualification. Opinions of the System. — Public opinion with regard to the pupil-teacher system varies, but there is a large and increasing section of inspectors and teachers who are either opposed to it right out or who advocate radical alterations in it, Mr. Coward, speaking as President of the National Union of Teachers, England, says that the system has to continue — " amended, under new conditions, with different conceptions of its aim and scope." (Chapter XXX.) Mr. Hughes says that " the system is slowly disappearing from the English schools, and that it is not even economical, much less efficient." The Rev. E. E. A. MacCarthy, Chairman of the Birmingham School Board, quotes in his annual address, 1900, the following words from the report of a departmental Committee on the pupil-teacher system (1898) : The system •' has some merits as well as many defects ; its defects are so serious that they hope to see early measures, by legislation and by administration, taken by the Education Department towards its ultimate complete reformation." In December, 1902, the complete reformation had not yet taken place, but a fine class of girl candidates from the higher grade schools, well prepared in general subjects and specially trained in elementary science, was seeking admission to the pupii-teacher ranks in Birmingham. The time-table and curriculum of the pupil-teacher centre in that town appear in Chapter XXX. It Avas observed that in some schools in the large provincial towns of England, even where pupil-teacher centres existed, pupils remained on in their classes to the age of 17 years, and, without serving a term as pupil-teacliers, entered the day training colleges attached to the Universities to qualify as primary school teachers. This method of training has many supporters in England. It is argued by them that it is wrong to require children of the ages of 13 to 15 or even 16 years of age to teach, and that such children would be better employed in learning in their class the subjects necessary as a preparation to become teachers. The age of 17, advocates of this system contend, when the pupil is physically and intellectually better equipped, is quite young enough for him or her to start learning the duties of a teacher ; and even entering at this age, those who favour the system maintain that, while it is advisable during the period of training that frequent opportunities for gaining practical experience should be given, nothing in the way of responsible class-teaching should be imposed. TRAINING COLI.EGES, UNITED KINGDOM. The King's Scholarship Examination, which is held by the Government for the selection of candidates for admission into training colleges, is competitive, and is taken by pupil-teachers on the completion of their course. There are three grades of passes ; but as the accommodation in the training colleges is inadequate for all the successful candidates, only those who gain first or second passes are eligible to enter. All who pass the King's Scholarship Examination are certified as assistant teachers, and may qualify for the certificate examination without attendance at a training college. Under 8S Under the New South Wales system, the final examination of pupil-teachers is at the end of their fourth year of service, provided that they have successfully passed their yearly examinations. The examination is competitive, and the first fifteen of each sex on the list of successful candidates receive scliolarships of the. value of £72 per annum. The next ten of each sex receive half-scholarships of the value of £36 per annum. In the case of female students, for whom a residential training school is provided, hoard and lodging are provided in lieu of salary, and an allowance of £1 and 10s. per month respectively is made. The remaining candidates are permitted to attend the training schools at their own expense, and are allowed all the privileges of those holding scholarships and half-scholarships. Those Avho do not enter the training schools are employed as ex-pupil teachers, and receive appointments to small schools or positions in the country as assistants. England. — There are two kinds of training colleges for primary education in England — residential, which are private institutions chiefly connected with denominational bodies ; and day, which are unsectarian, non-residential (but students must lodge in approved buildings), and are attached to a University. The Govern- ment has no training colleges, but subsidises the two classes mentioned. The annual grant to residential colleges is £50 per annum for each male student, and £35 for each female ; to the day training colleges the amounts are less. No salary is paid to the students. The day training college, in addition to normal school courses, affords opportunities to the best students for a University training. The day college is much in favour with King's scholars, particularly in the large provincial towns, and with many educationists who desire to bring primary education into close touch with the University. Two types of English training colleges are described — one residential and undenominational, the other a day training college. The scope of the work in the residential college is set out fully ; its chief features are the drawing syllabus, syllabus of manual instruction, course of general science and Nature study, extended course of general science. The general course is for two years, but a third year is added for the best men. Ireland. — The Government has one training college under its direct manage- ment, and subsidises others. The Government training college has two courses — a two years' course for King's scholars, and a one year's course for principals, assistant teachers of national schools, and University graduates. The college is non-residential, but students are boarded and lodged free of expense, out of the annual grants for King's scholars, in hostels supervised by the principals. The sexes are taught separately. The " Example School," which is attached to the Model School of this college, affords good practice in the art of teaching and class management. The arrangements in the college for teaching science, drawing, and agriculture, are very good. Scotland. — The training colleges in Scotland are denominational institutions, but are under Government inspection, and are subsidised by the State. Four classes of candidates are admitted : — 1. Those with a matriculation certificate or the corresponding Leaving Certificate. (Chapter XII.) 2. Pupil-teachers with Higher Grade Leaving Certificate, or the Matriculation Certificate of any Scotch University. 3. Non-pupil-teachers with Higher Grade Leaving Certificate. 4'. King's scholars. King's scholars, who have taken a matriculation pass, enter at once on a graduation course at a University, and are allowed a reduction of time in their professional work in the college. The colleges are non-residential, but females residing away from their homes must live in boarding-houses certified by the college authorities. The usual course is for two years, but a third year is granted to students who show special merit. The syllabus of the Glasgow United Free Church Training College is given in full. The main features in the curriculum are drawing, manual instruction, and general science. America. 84' America. — Admission to the training colleges of America is by examination, and candidates must have completed a four years' course at a high school. There is no special preparation, either academic or professional, for the office of teacher. The examination questions given in Chapter XXXIII were set for tlie entrance examination to New York Training College in January, 1903. They indicate the standard expected from candidates seeking admission. The chief features of the American training colleges are — A course of two years — generally divided into four half-yearly periods. Free tuition, but no scholarships. Comprehensive pedagogical training. The time devoted in learning to teach. The means adopted for giving practice in teaching. The excellent treatment of Nature study and elementary science. The special courses for teachers of kindergarten and college graduates. The organisation and equipment. The training school systems of America are in striking contrast with those of the United Kingdom. In American normal schools the student is just commencing to learn how to teach when the British' pupil-teacher is about finishing his apprenticeship. The British pupil-teacher, between the ages of 14 and 18, receives a good general education in the pupil-teacher centre, attending one-half of each day, and some professional training during the other half ; but the American student spends the whole of this time in acquiring a knowledge of the subjects taught in the high school. For two years more the British student adds both to his academic and professional knowledge ; the American student devotes the two years to an exclusively pedagogical training. The great strength of the American training systems lies, in the first place, in the educational status of the candidate at the time of admission, and, in the second place, in the character of the practical training and in the comprehensiveness of the syllabus, which realise some of the best ideals of education. Canada. — Canada has not the pupil-teacher system, but has training schools to wliich candidates are admitted between the ages of 17 and 18. The courses are short and the training professional. In the Province of Ontario there is provision for preparing teachers for elementary classes in training schools attached to Model Schools. The course in this class lasts only four months, and on its completion the students receive appointments to elementary schools. Provincial Normal and Model Schools exist in the important cities of the Province, and among the candidates are teachers who have already had some experience in the elementary schools. The course is for six months, and is confined to professional subjects. The Normal Training College receives candidates of not less than 18 years of age, who hold the qualification of a senior leaving certificate from a Canadian high school, or that of a graduate in Arts of any University in the British Dominion. The course lasts eight months, and the training is professional in character. France. — Candidates for admission into the French training schools must hold the brevet elementaire, which is merely an elementary certificate of upper primary school work. Tliey are admitted on the results of a competitive examina- tion, but not before the age of Itj. The French authorities recognise that they are not getting the best class of candidates into their training schools, and steps have been taken to render the teaching service more attractive to the better pupils who pass through their splendid upper primary schools. In our own State, the better boys are not always attracted to the ranks of teachers. If in the Government Service, they are not found in the employment of the Department of Public Instruction as teachers. There can be no satisfactory settlement of this question until the teacher of every grade gets equal rights and recognition with other branches of the Public Service. It seems anomalous that trained teachers of eight or ten years' standing, or even less, should be promoted to other Departments. After spending a large amount of money on these young persons, with a special object in view, the State cannot afford to lose their services as teachers. They naturally accept the new position, with its increased emoluments and opportunities for promotion, without hesitation ; but there should be no reason for them to leave the 85 tlie service for which they were specially trained, because it should afford them equal advantages with other Departments. The position of this class of teachers demands earnest consideration, for the success of the system is largely dependent on a contented service. The most important features in the training schools of France are : — The work of the practising school, especially the character study of the individual child. The course of three years — academic and professional. The pedagogical instruction. The instruction in physical and natural science, hygiene, and agriculture. PUPIL-TEACHERS, NEW SOUTH WALES. Our own training system now comes under review, and it must be stated that it occupies an unsatisfactory position in comparison with systems investi- gated in the United Kingdom, Europe, and America. Compared with countries where pupil-teachers are employed, our system makes inadequate provision for teaching its pupil-teachers the ordinary subjects of instruction. The pupil-teacher, entering as lie usually does about the age of 14 or 15 from our Superior Schools, must be carefully instructed throughout his course, and this instruction, Avhicli must not be less than one bour daily, has to be given by head teachers and mistresses outside school liovirs. The ordinary hours of teaching commence at 9 o'clock and last till after 4, and as the work needs almost continuous application from all teachers, the extra hour's instruction comes at a time when all are more or less jaded, and unfit for further mental effort. The teaching has been described as inadequate ; and in saying so, no. reflection on the teachers giving it is intended. Teachers cannot be expected to do the work of a pupil-teacher centre with its stafF of specialists and its superior science equipment. There is no comparison between the general attainments of a boy taught in a pupil-teacher centre and one taught by the teachers of a day school. The only places in the United Kingdom (in so far as came under observation) in which the instruction is given by the day-school teachers are in Ireland and in the city of Edinburgh. The head teachers of that city, dis- satisfied with the practice, are moving for the establishment of a pupil-teacher centre. Our system then, in this respect, suffers by comparison with those countries where pupil-teacher centres exist. Another essential point of difference between our system and those of other countries is to be found in the amount of teaching expected from the pupil-teacher. In New South Wales he teaches full time daily in charge of a class, but if he is a beginner he receives much kindly assistance from his principal. At the same time he is on the regular staff and is responsible for his class. The pupil- teacher in the United Kingdom, where centres exist, attends on half days only at the day school, and is not responsible for classes until the latter part of his term. This arrangement, it has been stated, does not give entire satisfaction, because the pupil-teacher cannot be always profitably employed. Tlu^ fact remains, however, that the pupil-teacher in New South Wales has a more responsible position than the pupil-teacher elsewhere. The system of pupil-teachers in New South Wales is defective in the following respects : — {a) The age of admission of candidates as pupil-teachers, (6) The standard of their attainments on admission. (c) The practice of making youths responsible for teaching. {d) The practice of daily instruction outside ordinary school hours. TRAINING SCHOOLS, NEW SOUTH WALES. The training schools of New South Wales are two in number, residential for females and non-r{;sidential for males, and are under the direct control of the Minister of Public Instruction. Three classes of candidates are received into them — scholarship (30 in number), half scholarship (20 in number), and non- scholarship candidates, and only those pupil-teachers who pass the entrance examination are admitted. The term of training lasts for one year. In the Training School for male 86 male students, Fort-street, the course of study is the first year in Arts of the Sydney University. All the students are taking the course this year, but only a few of them have matriculated. The professional training consists of lectures in the art of teaching and practical work in the practising schools. Special teachers are engaged for di'awing, manual instruction, music, physiology, and drill. In the Training School for female students, Hurlstone, Ashfield, the course of study is the standard of matriculation, pass work, Sydney University. The professional training consists of lectures in the art of teaching and the management of classes in the practising school. Special teachers are employed for drawing, music, drill, physiology, kindergarten (theory), and cookery. Buildhigs. — The accommodation at the Training College for Male Students consists of a class-room to seat about thirty-six, and a small retiring-room. The practising-school is an unsightly wooden structure, large enough to work three classes comfortably. There is no provision whatever in the institution for teaching science, but students visit the Technical College one hour each week for instruction in physics. The buildings are totally unfitted for the work of a training school, and laboratories, museums, gymnasiums, which arc prominent features in most schools abroad, do not exist. The Training College for Females is beautifully situated on the heights of Ashfield, in spacious grounds well laid-out; but the rooms, while not so unsatisfactory as at Port-street, are small, and, with the exception of the practising school, very unsuitable for training school purposes. There is no science equipment. Courses. — The courses of study in our training schools are too comprehensive for one year's work, and it is felt that the professional part of the training — the lectures on the art of teaching, and the Avork of the practising school — suffers in consequence. If both sides of the training course are to be carried on together, the academic and the professional, the term should be extended to two years. Such an extension would allow for the arrangement of a complete course in pedagogy. In the English Training Colleges, whose students at the time of admission are better prepared than is the case with us, the courses are for two years. In the Scotch Training Colleges, which students in many cases enter with matriculation passes, the courses are for two years, and in the American Colleges, which train only for professional work, the courses are also for two years. Slaff". — The staffing of our training schools is altogether inadequate. At the present time there are over seventy students in Hurlstone Training School — a number too great for any one lecturer to teach properly. Under existing conditions, the staff should be largely increased, and with any extension of the scheme, such as the provision for tlie teaching of science and pedagogy, additional lecturers must necessarily be appointed. The duties of principal of a training school are suffi- ciently onerous to engage his w hole time. Three kinds of training school systems have been described in the chapters on training schools : — {a) A pupil-teacher course (starting at age of 14), followed by a training school course, including both academic amd professional subjects. (i) A secondary school course of general education (starting at age of 18), follow^ed by a purely professional training. (c) A secondary school course of general education (starting at age of 17), followed by a normal course at a University. The first system is common in the United Kingdom, and our own training schools come under it ; the second system is general in Europe and America ; the third is growing in favour in England, particularly in those towns with modern Universities. After a most careful investigation of the three systems, based upon personal observation in each case, the Commissioner gives his opinion in favour of the third system, with some modification. He has come to the conclusion that the system where youths of immature age, whether pupil-teachers or monitors, are employed to instruct their fellow pupils, or are made responsible for the progress of classes, is entirely wrong. He therefore is opposed to the system of pupil-teachers. The second system supplies a good training for teachers who will engage in elementary 87 elementary primary instruction, but it makes no provision for brilliant, ambitious students who are needed for upper primary work. In this respect it would not suit our State, because it is necessary for us to train our students to fill positions in our Superior Schools. The third system — with the following modification — is recommended in place of our present system : — (a) Standard of admission — The leaving certificate of a Superior or High School (such as the Scotch leaving certiticate) ; candidate about the age of 18. (b) Two years' training — general and professional — hi a normal school, under the Department of Public Instruction. (c) A University course for the best students on the completion of the normal school course — the whole time to be spent in University work. The scheme would afford a suitable training for that impoi-tant class of teachers, those responsible for the success of primary instruction, and also provide the staffs necessary to carry on the work of Superior Schools. Admission to the normal school should be by competitive examination. The allowance should be sufficiently liberal^ to attract the better class of candidates. Every student should matriculate not later than the second year of the course. An examination should be held at the end of the term for provisional certificates and promotion to the University. The alterations proposed in the training system are envimerated in the following statement : — A. Abolition of present pupil-teacher system. B. Establishment of normal school system with the undermentioned features — 1. Two years' course. 2. Complete course in pedagogy, 3. Course in science. 4. General education. 5. Professional training. 6. Manual training. 7. Physical training. C. Erection of new buildings for nornial schools — day classes — with complete equipment for above-mentioned courses. D. Adequate and suitable staffing. The question of providing teachers for small schools in outlying districts of our State still remains for consideration. The matter is one of difficulty which cannot be overcome l)y the establishment of a normal school. The present arrangement is not satisfactory, and in its place it is suggested that the scheme of training in District Model Schools, which prevails in parts of Canada, be substituted. The District Model Schools which are to form part of our national system before long will make very suitable institutions for training candidates for .ie very gradually introduced. 11. 96 11. That the compulsory clauses of the present Public Instruction Act be amended to provide for : — {a) The abolition of a stated minimum attendance so as to deal with default from day to day. {b) The establishment of truant schools. (c) The establishment of special Courts for the hearing of juvenile cases. {d) The establishment of special schools for newsboys and other working lads. 12. That a thorough reconstruction of our Public School Training System be made in the following directions : — A. Abolition of present pupil-teacher system. B. Establishment of a training school system with the following features : — 1. Age of admission to be not less than 17 years. 2. Standard of admission to be that of tlic completed course in a superior or high school, or its equivalent. 3. The course to be of two years, and to comprise the following : — (a) General education. {b) Professional training. (c) Complete course in pedagogy. (f/) Pull course in science. {e) Manual training. (/) Physical training. C. A university course for the best students on the completion of the training school course — students to be free from teaching in schools. D. Construction of new buildings for training scliool purposes — complete equipment for general and scientific teaching to be provided. E. Establishment of classes in the District Model Schools for the training of teachers of small schools, which will not come within the scope of the centralised scheme. 13. That the process of inspection should be substituted for examination. 14. That the central school system, so successful in America, should be brought gradually into operation in this State. To this end it is recommended that no more small schools be erected until it has been ascertained whether or not it is practicable to centralise the teaching for the district concerned. As regards groups of existing small schools, it would be Avell to try the experiment in certain localities, and to extend the principle, without undue sacrifice, if initial results proved satisfactory. 15. In the matter of the construction of school buildings and the seating arrange- ments the Commissioner does not propose to sul)mit specific recommendations, because he is well aware of the fact that the alterations and re-arrangements entailed could not be carried out witliout enormous expense. He will content iiimself with calling attention to the methods adopted in other countries, which make for all that is best in hygiene and teaching convenience : — («) Single class-rooms to accommodate about fifty pupils arc preferred to the long rooms in which from four to six classes are taught. Such rooms are more easily ventilated, lighted, and heated, and the teacher is greatly assisted by the isolation. {b) As regards the furniture there is room for considerable improvement. The school furniture in use in our schools is of the most obsolete type, long, plain, backless forms, and the long desk being mostly in use. In a few of our superior schools there is some good furniture which has been imported from Canada. The best type of school furniture is seen in Switzerland, and there is no reason why the Swiss style of desk cannot be made in our own State, from our own timber, and supplied to our schools. CONCLUSION 97 XVIII. CONCLUSION. In transmitting to your Excellency this Report as to the character of the existing system of primary education of this State, and as to the nature of improvements which, in your Commissioners' judgment should be effected therein, it remains but to add that the following Extended Report, Chapters I to LVIII, is not really of the nature of an Appendix. It expresses in greater detail the Commissioners' opinions, and the facts upon which they are founded ; it affords fuller information as to the operation or character of other educational systems ; it focuses information upon, and discusses with greater thoroughness, many of the more important features of education and instruction. It is intended, therefore, to be read in connection with these Summaries, which, in the nature of the case, can give only a very imperfect conception of the general question. Latei*, your Commissioners hope to have the honour of submitting for your Excellency's acceptance a report upon other branches of education. We have the honour to be. Your Excellency's most obedient servants, G. II. KNIBBS, J. W. TURNER. 3 December, 1903. 15-^(0) 99 Appendix to Summarised Report. SYNOPSIS OP CONCLUSIONS. (1.) Conclusions. — The following synopsis of conclusions expresses the opinions of the Commissioners in as brief a form as possible in reference to the subjects dealt with in the several chapters written by them. In many cases, but not invariably, they appear at the termination of the various chapters. Without necessarily taking the form of recommendations, they at least indicate the views of each Commissioner as to the necessity and nature of the reform that should, in the Commissioners' opinion, characterise the future history of tlie Department of Public Instruction. In this way they serve to reveal the extent of our educational limitations, and their grouping in this Division admits of those limitations being readily perceived. As in the case of the chapters, each Commissioner is responsible only for his own conclusions, and for the statements upon which they are based. The extent of agreement and difference between the Commissioners and the attitude of each Commissioner to the question of reform, has already appeared. Chaptee IV. — The Kindergarten and School for Infants, Part I [G.II.K.], Part II [J.W.T.], Part III [G.H.K.] (1.) Judging kindergarten (a) by its rationale, [b) by its history, and (c) from actual observation, the Commissioners consider it to be of high importance in an educational system, and to be the proper initial step in all educa- tion. This they believe to have been long ago demonstrated beyond all doubt. (2.) Its absence in any scheme of public instruction they believe to be a serious defect, and one wiiich, particularly in a democratic community, ought not to continue. (3.) The form of kindergarten most desirable is what may be called modified Proebelian kindergarten. (4.) It is essential, in modifying the kindergarten, that its systematic character be maintained, and that the Froebelian principles be strictly adhered to ; that is to say, while the scheme should be thoroughly organised and articulated, the whole of the instruction should be developed through play ; self-activity should be promoted ; the course should not be allowed to become charged and burdened merely with primary work, which of course would destroy its Eroebelian character. (5.) Desultory employment of some or all of the gifts and occupations is not kindergarten as understood by educationists, and should not be substituted for true kindergarten. (6.) Kindergartens should be conducted by properly educated and properly trained teachers, who, in addition to having a good secondary education, have systematically studied at least Eroebelian occupations, the psychology of psedagogy, the theory of education, the history of paedagogy, and hygiene. (See particulars hereinafter.) Teaching by uneducated persons, or by those who do not thoroughly understand kindergarten theory, is to be deprecated. (7.) The kindergarten that exists at present in the schools under the Depart- ment of Public Instruction (a) is not yet systematic ; [b) nor is it adequate; moreover, (c) it is not kindergarten in the European or American sense, {d) Erom the preceding brief indication of the geographical extension and history of kindergarten, it is obvious that this State, in so far as its Department of Public Instruction is concerned, is seriously behind the practice of Europa and America in respect of kindergarten- teaching. (8.) Where it exists at all, the present kindergarten-equipment of ' public schools ' is quite inadequate. (9.) 100 (9.) Every kindergarten should possess an infants' garden, a full equipment of material, and should have a well articulated kindergarten scheme. (10.) Children should be allowed to attend the kindergarten at any age above three years and up to seven years. (11.) The hygienic condition of kindergartens, as well as of other schools, should be perfect, and very different from what they now are ; (a) in regard to school-buildings ; (i) and in regard to care of the children. (12.) When kindergarten is introduced, it should be thorough, and not attempted at all until thorough. The value of kindergarten cannot be judged from a half -developed scheme, and it has often been adversely judged through imperfect presentation. (13.) As soon as infant-schools are properly equipped with respect to hygiene and to kindergarten material, strong inducement to the people should be held out to send their little ones to them by suitable advertisement of the advantages of such schools. (14 ) Attendance at the kindergarten should be compulsory at the age of six years, but not before. Chapter V. — Outlines of some Educational Systems, Switzerland. [G.H.K.] (1.) The educational opportunities are much greater for children in Switzerland than they are for children in New South Wales — the system of education being better both in respect of (a) curriculum and (b) professional qualification of the teaching staff. (2.) The primary schools of Switzerland are generally excellent in respect of their design, hygiene, pgedagogical equipment, and general appearance. (3.) The scientific outfit, and their lighting, ventilation, and heating arrange- ments leave but little to be desired. Chapteb VI. — Primary Education in Germany and other Countries of Europe. [G.H.K.] (1.) A general review of European primary education reveals the fact that it is far superior to that of New South Wales in almost every respect. (2.) The great difference is in the inadequate provision made by us for the training of teachers, and in our practice of utilising the service of mere children as teachers. (3.) This blot on our system reacts unfavourably on the teachers themselves. Chapter VII. — Public Instruction in Russia. [Edited. — G.H.K.] (1.) Hussian education is rapidly advancing, and exhibits, in particular directions, excellent features. (2.) The Russian Government is making efforts to liberalise the system of public instruction. Chapter VIII. — The Primary School System of France. [J.W.T.] The French primary system provides for well-arranged, properly co-ordinated courses of instruction. Its aim in the first place is to form character in the child, and in the second place to prepare him for the duties of life. The moral teaching reaches a high standard. The plan of inspection gives the best results. Chapter IX. — Upper Primary Schools of France. [J.W.T.] The upper primary schools of France are practical and utilitarian in character, but not to the extent of giving an apprenticeship. The preparation of the pupils proceeds along the lines of a general education, or in the direction of a commercial, industrial, or agricultural training. The scheme of scholarships provides for the poorest in the land. Chapter X. 101 '•• ■•■'•' ■ ' " ' Chapter X.— The Public Schools of Paris. [J.W.T.] The benevolent activities in Paris are wonderfully developed. "While it is not necessary to introduce all these features into our system, some of them could be adopted with advantage. The scheme of bursaries is on a most munificent scale. Chaptee XI. — Elementary and Higher Grade Schools of England. [J.W.T.] The higher grade schools of England afford a very fine training. They give a good general education, with a specialisation towards scientific, technical, and commercial subjects. Eor the general needs of a community they are better than our superior schools. Co-education of the sexes exists in many of these schools with the best of results. Chapter XII. — Elementary and Higher Grade Schools of Edinburgh. [J.W.T.] The modern curriculum and the up-to-date equipment of higher grade schools obtain in Edinburgh. A leaving certificate is issued on the completion of the course. A similar certificate should be awarded to our pupils on completing their superior school course. Chapter XIII. — Elementary and Grammar Schools of the United States. [J.W.T.] Buildings are well arranged on the single-room principle. Good discipline prevails. This in some measure is accounted for by the organisation. Moral teaching forms an important part of the instruction. Special attention is given to instructing the pupils in the rights and duties of citizenship. Patriotism is regularly inculcated. Moral and civic instruction in our schools should be more systematically and thoroughly taught. Nature study has a prominent place in the programme of the American teacher. The separate class-room facilitates the work. Chapter XIV.— The Public Schools of Toronto, Canada. [J.W.T.] The Toronto school authorities have made excellent provision for the teaching of newsboys. The instruction is largely practical. An institution of a similar character in Sydney is urgently needed. Chapter XV. — Ethical and Religious Instruction and Education. [G.H.K.] (!) The provisions, relating to religious education, of the Public Instruction Act are not availed of by the clergy of the various religious denominations, as it might have been hoped. It would be well, therefore, if a circular were issued, calling attention to the provisions of the Act, and inviting the co-operation of the clergy in providing for the moral-religious education of the people of this State. (2) Since the clergy have many calls on their time, and since in country districts visitation of the schools is often impossible, a scheme for ethical instruction on very similar lines to the French, which is at once noble, and, as regards religious difierences, neutral, is much to be desired. Such instruction should be developed on the lines suggested in section 10 of chapter XV., and ought to embrace the relation of the child or person to (a) Himself. (Personal ethics.) (6) His fellows. (Social ethics.) (c) His country. (National ethics.) {d) The world. (Philanthropy.) He ' •"•'•'' 102 He should thus be taught to recognise something of the reality of these relationships through the cultivation of (i) Personal ideals and character. (ii) The social virtues. (iii) Patriotism, loyal response to the just claims of his country, and the wish to see its institutions perfected, (iv) The love of mankind, without regard to racial or religious differences. All these elements should in the actual instruction as far as possible be united, not dissociated. (3) A text-book for the guidance of teachers should be Avritten, not by an ordinary ptedagogue, but by a specialist in moral philosophy, having in addition a thorough grasp of modern theory of instruction, and of the child mind in its different stages of development. (4) Wall-sheets, containing the fundamental points of the text-book, worthy of an effort to create noble ideals, ought to be placed on the walls of every school in the State. (5) The elements of good manners, which depend upon nobility and generosity of heart, ought to be impressed vipon the children, and they ought to be taught that i^oliteness and grace of manner, when the natural expression of a good heart and of sensitive regard for the personality of others, are among the finest adornments of the human being, (6) In the training of teachers, attention should be paid to ethics and the importance of the social graces. CuAPTEB XVI.— Education of the Will. [G.H.K.] (1) An educational system that fails to take account of the training of the human will as the fundamental element in developing personal and national force of character, utterly fails in one of its most important functions. (2) All teachers should, before commencing to teach, receive such psychological and other instruction as will enable them to appreciate and discharge this part of their task. (3) The mechanical discipline should be recognised as injurious, as tending to diminish force of character. (4) The only satisfactory discipline is that which secures obedience and good conduct through the pupil's own self-directed response to the personality of the teacher. (5) A strong respect for the individuality, and for the self-expression of a child, is to be expected of every teacher, since only by the tact and sympathy therewith associated can the personal influence be directive, and not coercive. (G) The disciplinary relationship between teacher and pupil should always be regarded from the double standpoint, viz., that the development of character, and the securing of good conditions for instruction, are the real aims of all truly educational discipline. (7) Merely mechanical teachers who fail to see this should be required to thoroughly inform themselves as to the theory of discipline, and to introduce the directive, in lieu of the coercive discipline. Cha-PTEr XVII. — Physical Culture, Gymnastics, etc. [G.H.K.] (1) Insufficient attention has been paid in New South Wales to physical culture and gymnastics. (2) Systematic instruction therein should be given to all teachers in training by a competent instructor having the necessary theoretical and practical knowledge. The theoretical knowledge should include sufficient general scientific education, and knowledge of the art of teacliing his subject to others. (3) 103 (3) With a view of qualifying teachers in different parts of the State to give instruction in their schools, holiday courses, similar to those in Tasmania, should be given in the larger country towns. (4) Suitable gymnastic exercises on the lines of a rational physical culture should form part of the ordinary curriculum in schools. (5) Special effort should be directed to making these exercises as attractive as possible to the children, as well as educative. Chapter XVIII.— Manual Training. [J.W.T.] Manual training, on account of its educative and practical value, should he given in every class in our schools. Provision should be made for working in wood and iron in the case of the older boys. Specially trained teachers should be employed. The teaching of domestic economy in our girls' schools should be extended to include other features of housekeeping. Chapter XIX. — Manual Training and Sloyd. [G.H.K.] (1) Manual training should be included in the curriculum of the public schools in all the larger towns, as a natural extension of kindergarten, and because of its educative and practical value. (2) It should take the form of Sloyd, and not be merely trade-teaching. Carpentry and trade-teaching is not comparable to Sloyd, and is not adequate. (3) It should be taught by properly trained teachers who have systematically studied Sloyd and are thoroughly acquainted with its theory. (4) Instruction in Sloyd should form part of the curriculum in the training college. Chapter XX. — Di-awdng : London Board Schools and San Francisco. [J.W.T.] The drawing in our schools should be completely I'emodelled. A thoroughly qualified teacher of the subject with the best credentials from London art centres should be at once introduced. Chapter XXI. — The Teaching of Elementary Drawing in Europe. [G.H.K.] (1) Drawing should be more thoroughly taught, both in schools and to the teachers of the State. (2) " Drawing from nature " should be first practised, and should be freehand at the commencement, so as to stimulate form-memory. (3) Colouring should be early introduced, so as to stimulate the colour-sense and colour-memory. (4) Geometrical and perspective drawing should also be taught, collaterally with purely artistic drawing. (5) The use of drawing instruments should be learnt in the primary school. (6) The drawing lessons should be intimately associated with other subjects, especially geometry, algebra, and manual work, and should also be connected with other science subjects. (7) The copying of drawings should be abandoned as being of inferior educative value. (8) Modelling may be included in the drawing lessons and commenced in the kindergarten. The report of the Second International Congress on the teaching of drawing should be obtained and considered before the details of its general introduction is definitely settled. Chapter XXIL 104 Chapter XXII. — The Teaching of Modern and Ancient Languages. [G.H.K.] The prevailing systems in this State of teaching languages are psychologically erroneous, and in general neither give a command of the languages, ancient or modern, nor do they lead to a love of them. The modern languages are generally read for their utility. (1.) Latin, French, and German should be optional subjects in the primary school, and should be commenced not later than, say, 12 years of age. (2.) Tlie teaching should initially be purely oral, both in the case of ancient and modern languages. (3.) The grammar of each language should be learnt inductively. (4.) Language-teachers in addition to being able to speak a foreign language accurately, should be competent to assist their pupils by suggestions based upon phonology. (5.) In country towns it is desirable that the phonograph should be used, so as to secure at least an approximation to correct pronunciation. (6.) The scheme for learning languages should follow the principles defined in chapter XXII. Chaptee XXIII. — The Teaching of Geometry in Primary Schools, and its lleform. [G.H.K.] The present methods of teaching geometry lead to a very limited conception of its range, interest, or value. Euclidean geometry is too restricted. It neglects many extremely interesting matters, and is tedious. Properly taught, geometry is not a difficult subject. (1) As a text-book guiding the method of learning geometry, Euclid's Elements should be abandoned. (2) Geometry should commence in the Kindergarten, and proceed continuously. (3) Geometrical drawing, or practical geometry, should precede demonstrational. (4) Demonstrational Geometry should be more general, and proofs should, as far as possible, be self-contained. (5) Projective and analytic geometry should be introduced, as early as possible, in an elementary form. (6) Geometry shovild be taught in connection with other mathematical subjects. (7) Trigonometry should not be dissociated therefrom. (8) Elementary field geometry should be taught {i.e., elementary surveying) as in France, Switzerland, etc. Chapter XXIV.— The Teaching of Geography in Primary Schools. [G.H.K.] The teaching of geography has, of late years, been completely reformed. The old, dry descriptive form, burdened with much uninteresting and useless information, taught without aids, without any careful attempt to make the pupil realise what geography means, has practically disappeared in Europe, and is being abandoned in England. Something like the Continental idea of teaching the subject has already been introduced here. The conception put forward by Professor J. W. Gregory, of Melbourne, in his " Austral Geography," is practically a move toward the Continental methods of teaching. To reach the plane of European teaching it will be necessary to (1) Abandon the employment of untrained teachers. (2) Give our teachers an education in Science subjects equal to what is received in Europe. (3) Develope the methodology of geography on Continental lines. (4) Equip our schools better for teaching of geography and cognate subjects. (5) Make larger use of pictures, lanterns, and slides, etc. (6) Adopt the school-excursion as a means of geographical teaching. Chapter XXV. 105 Chapter XXV. — The Teaching of Arithmetic and Algebra in Primary Schools. [G.H.K.] (1) The four fundamental operations of arithmetic should be taught intuitively and simultaneously. (2) A much larger quantity of " mental arithmetic " should be undertaken, the written work being wholly based on the mental. (3) All arithmetical proc(^sses should be rationally understood by the pupils, and the working by " rule " introduced after, and not before, a process is understood. (4) The teaching, according to the " logical order," should be abandoned, and the "psychological order" followed, i.e., the range should extend over the whole of arithmetic as soon as possible, the very simplest cases being first taken, and the complexity advanced as the work proceeds. (5) Algebra of a simple character should be early introduced, and taught on the same principles as arithmetic. (6) The spirit, and to a great extent the letter, of the British Association's recommendations should be carried out in the teaching of the State. (7) The subjects, arithmetic and algebra, should be taught in conjunction with geometry, planimetry, and stereometry. (8) Examples in arithmetic should be real, i.e., drawn from the life-surroundings, which can be really appreciated by the child. (9) Care should be taken that none of the examples introduce false conceptions. (10) All opportunities of real applications of mathematical subjects should be embraced in the working plan of the school, so as to create interest and to ensure a real understanding of the work. (11) The teaching should not merely follow text-books, but the European methodology of teaching the subject should be studied by the teachers. Chapter XXVI. — Natural Science in the Primary Schools. [G.H.K.] (1) Elementary physics, chemistry, zoology, botany, geology, mineralogy, sliovild be taught in the primary schools. (2) All teachers should be so educated as to be competent to give such teaching. (3) In illustrating this teaching, the practical needs of the district in which the school lies should be borne in mind. (4) All science teaching should be realistic and not literary, children being brought whenever possible face to face with the things spoken of. (5) Every school should be equipped for science teaching. (6) Children should be induced to take an interest in the school's scientific equipment, and encouraged in the direct study of natural bodies and natural phsenomena. Chapter XXVII.— Training School System of New South Wales. [J.W.T.] In this preparatory statement reference is made to views expressed on this subject at the Annual Conference, 1902, and a change of opinion regarding some of those views is indicated. Chapter XXVIII. — Training of Primary Teachers, Pupil-teachers, and Previous Training Systems contrasted — New South Wales System. [G.H.K.] (1) A comparison of the pupil-teacher system with that of previous training shews the former to be hopelessly defective. (2) Eadical reform of the training of New South Wales teachers is urgentlv needed. (3) The preliminary education of the primary teacher should be extended as far as secondary education, and the professional training should be thorough, which at present it is not. This question is further considered in Chap. XL. Chapter XXIX. l5-(p) 108 Chapter XXIX.— The State Training Schools of New South Wales. [J.W.T.J The age of admission for the position of pupil-teacher is too low. The best boys are not attracted to the Service. The pupil-teacher has too great a responsibility in the management of a class. The daily instruction imposes too great a strain on all concerned. The training school buildings are altogether unsuitable for training school purposes. They contain no provision for teaching science. The course of study in the training school is too short. The staff is inadequate. The system of appointing teachers to small schools, with little practical knowledge of teaching, should be discontinued. Applicants for such positions should undergo a course of training in District Model Schools. Chapter XXX. — Pupil-teacher systems, United Kingdom. [^.W.T.] The practice of spending half-time in a pupil-teacher centre in obtaining general education, and the other half in a day school in acquiring professional training, does not give entire satisfaction. The latter suffers. The plan of daily instruction after hours has the same objections as in our own system. The employment of monitors is deprecated. Chapter XXXI. — Some English Opinions on the Pupil-teacher System. [G.H.K.] (1) Educated Englishmen, whose general education and linguistic attainments qualify them to judge, strongly condemn the pupil-teacher system. (2) They also recognise that the Continental system of professionally educating teachers leads to better results. (3) No educationist of eminence met by the Commissioners, who was personally familiar with European education, had any hesitation in condemning the pupil-teacher system. (4) The pupil-teacher system is adopted in the United Kingdom for reasons of economy, not because of its efficiency. Chapter XXXII. — Training Schools of the United Kingdom. [J.W.T.] The courses being not less than two years allow sufficient time for practical training, and for comprehensive courses in pedagogy and science. Chapter XXXIII.— Training Schools of the United States. [J.W.T.] In the training colleges of America candidates for primary schools must have passed the high school course, generally accomplished about the age of 18 years, before they can be admitted. {See questions given at entrance examination.) Their whole time in the college, usually two years, is then devoted to the study of teaching methods — practical and theoretical. CflAPTBR XXXIV.— Training Schools of Canada. [J.W.T.] Admission into the teaching ranks of Canada is not earlier than 17 or 18 years of age, and candidates must possess the high school leaving certificate. The period of training is very short and restricted to professional subjects. The training of teachers for small schools is carried on in District Model Schools. The teachers, after an experience of the management of small schools, are allowed to enter a Normal School. Chapter XXXV. 107 Chapter XXXV. — Prencli Primary Normal Schools — Plan of Studies and Teaching Programmes. [G.H.K.] (1) The professional education of the French school teacher is hroad and thorough. (2) The professional education of teachers in this State cannot he compared with that of Prance. (3) Both the informative and formative elements are very thoroughly developed, as is shewn hy the curriculum. (4) The instructors of students of teaching are thoroughly educated and are specially expert in their branches of teaching. Chapter XXXVI.— The Training School Systems of Prance. [J.W.T.] The training schools of Prance form a part of its great system of national education. The educational authorities are not yet satisfied with their position. They do not get their best boys into the ranks, and the probationer class is too large. By means of additional grants from the Government they have been enabled to offer better inducements to lads to enter the training colleges. The question is one for our consideration. Emoluments on the same scale as those granted to other Departments of the Service will be necessary to attract our best lads, and the salaries of our trained students should be increased. Chapter XXXVII. — The Education and Training of Primary Teachers in Europe (Switzerland, and Hungary). [Gr.H.K.] (1) The curricula of the training schools of Switzerland and Hungary indicate that the professional education of teachers is far in advance of the highest form of professional education obtainable in this State. (2) The above is true for most countries of Europe. (3) The principal normal school of Buda-Pest is a very fine and finely equipped establishment, and reveals the great difference between the Hungarian estimate of the educational necessities of teachers, and the estimate of this State, as expressed in its training establishments. Chapter XXXVIII. — Training of Teachers in Germany. [G.H.K.] (1) The professional education of the German teacher is excellent. (2) "The director of a training college is almost invariably a man of University education. (3) The principal teacher (Oberlehrer) is similarly a highly educated man. (4) The ordinary teachers must possess the rector's certificate, which involves a far higher degree of education than is required for the highest class of primary teacher (lA) in New South Wales. (6) The professional education of the ordinary teacher is also more thorough than the ofl&cial education of the highest grade of teacher in New South Wales. Chapter XXXIX.— The Jena Practising School. [G.H.K.] (1) The professional training of the Jena Seminarium is excellent. (2) It has the advantage of direct association with a University. (3) This seminary, and that of Kiisnacht in Switzerland, would form excellent models for this State. Chapter XL. 10?J Chapter XL. — Reform in the Training of Teacliers. [G.H.K.] It is evident from what has preceded that onr whole scheme of training teachers needs reorganisation. The present system is a natural sequence to the pupil-teacher system, and is equally unsatisfactory. It is impossihle to compare our curriculum and general method with the curricula and methods of other countries, without recognising that considerable progress is necessary in order to equip our teachers educationally as well as they are equipped in Europe. The following are recommendations, which if carried into effect, will place the training of teachers on a sounder footing : — (1) Establishment of a Seminarium with a three years' course, sufficiently near the University of Sydney to permit of attendance there for special subjects. (2) Entrance to the Seminarium to take place not earlier than 16, and after passing either the Senior examination or its equivalent. (3) The curriculum to be practically as outlined in Sections 11 and 17, in Chapter XL. (4) All subjects to be taught by specialists. (5) In country centres a psBdagogical course could be given in secondary (bigh) schools, as a temporary way of meeting the difficulty of educating a sufficient number of teachers. It may be remarked that the necessity of offi^ring special inducements 'iov persons to enter the teaching profession will probably cease when the rate of the emolument of teachers is reasonably increased. During the transition period the present principle may perhaps be maintained, the extent of the inducement being however diminished. Chapter XLI. — Schools for the Feeble-minded. [G.H.K.] Schools for imbeciles have given most encouraging results. Many individuals of this unfortunate class, who were till comparatively recently considered beyond remedy, are now restored to the possibility of a useful and happy life. Not only has a healthy sense of independence been developed in them, but also a considerable understandinsr of the world and of their fellow beings. Their interest in life is thus enlarged and deepened. Apart from all humanitarian considerations it is a public economy to so educate an imbecile ; thus even though we repudiate our human duty, it would still remain true that there is an economic advantage in attending to the education of this class. It is therefore recommended : — (1) That special schools for the backward be established on the lines of the Swiss and German schools for the same class. (2) That these have small classes, not more than ten in a class, for most subjects of instruction. (3) That devoted teachers, with proper knowledge of the psychology of the abnormal, be chosen for these schools, who will charge themselves with the special study of the education of these unfortunates, and keep themselves specially informed to this end. Chapter XLII. — Schools for the Deaf and Dumb. [G.H.K.] By the oral method of instruction, children may be educated much more thoroughly than by the method of speaking only through signs. So excellent is the system now followed that there can be no valid excuse for failing to adopt it. That it is incomparably better to give the unfortunate deaf mutes an opportunity of being able to understand their fellows by watching tbe vocal organs during speech and to give them also the power of vocal reply, than to leave them without these powers 109 powers, needs nothing more than statement. This is what has heen achieved for humanity hy so many schools of Europe and America. The only formal conclusions to be drawn are : — (1) That in the education of the deaf and dumb, the art of reading speech and of speaking should be taught as in Europe and America. (2) That the oral method of instruction should then be employed. (3) That the primary school curriculum should be generally followed, intuitive methods and manual training being given, however, special prominence. Chapter XLIII. — Compulsory School Attendance — English System and New York School Attendance Law. [J.W.T.] Irregularity of attendance is very prevalent in our midst. The comparative tables in the Chapter show to what extent this is the case when compared Avith London. The English system of obtaining regularity of attendance is recommended. To secure improvement in the matter of school attendance in this State it wall be necessary to amend the compulsory clauses of the Public Instruction Act, especially in regard to the minimum period of attendance. Chapter XLIV. — Day Industrial and Truant Schools, London. [J.W.T.] In the case of those children who will not attend school regularly, an institution similar to the Day Industrial and Truant School of England should be established. Juvenile Courts should be instituted to investigate such cases. Chapter XLV. — Permanent Industrial Schools, London. [J.W.T.] We already have in our State, reformatories doing very similar work to those described in this chapter. Chapter XLVI. — Other Eeformatory Schools — English and Foreign. [J.W.T.] Tlie institutions for boys, described in this chapter, aim at giving some know- ledge of cultivating the soil. Our State Reformatory Avorks on much tlie same lines. The family principle of government, which obtains in some of the English and foreign reformatories, is recommended for adoption in this State. Chapter XLVII. — School Hygiene, Buildings, and Premises. [G.H.K.] (1) School hygiene receives far greater attention in Europe than with us. (2) The local hygienic standards are seriously defective. The rooms to be provided in a completely equipped school, and found in all modern school-buildings where efficient teaching is aimed at, and where that is not sacrified to economy, are as follows : — (3) Each class-group should have a class-room. More than one room, therefore, may be required for the whole of the pupils of one grade. (4) In addition, there should be a large room for manual w^ork for boys. (5) Similarly a workroom for girls. (6) A large hall for gymnastics. (7) A large hall for general meetings, reunions, etc. (Aula, Salle de conference). (8) A laboratory for physics, astronomy, etc. (9) A laboratory for chemistry. (10) A museum of natural history. (11) A library. (12) A reading-room. (13) If cooking be taught one or two kitchens will also be required. (14) And pantry and storeroom. (15) wo (15) In smaller scIiqqIs (8), (9), and (10) may be satisfied by one roomi and (11) and (12) by one room. (16) The best designed schools are those of Switzerland. (17) TUe results of European discussion of school hygiene (indicated in this chapter) ought to be applied to the educational system of tlie State. Ch4?TER XLVIII. — School-furniture and its Hygienic Importance. [G.5!,JC.] (i) Ouy State schools at present are unsatisfactory as regards (a) their orientation, (b) their general design, (c) their internal arrangement as to classes, (d) their system of seating, (e) their arrangement as regards lighting, (/) as regards heating and cooling, (^) ventilation, (A) lavatories, (i) latrines, (j) in the continuing to use slates, (k) in insufficient provision for accidents and " first aid." (a) An inspection should be made of all State schools with a view to immediate amelioration of their condition by someone technically familiar (a) with the forms and equipments of school-buildings approved in Europe as hygienic, (b) and with European school-hygiene as a specialty. (3.) All selections of sites in future should be made by some person competent as regards modern ideas of school-hygiene. (i.) All future school-buildings should be designed by an architect familar with modern schools, especially those of Switzerland, and with school- hygiene as a speciality. (§,) Every school should be thoroughly cleaned, repainted, and generally renovated once a year. All the material should be then thoroughly overhauled, and put into proper condition. Chapter XLIX. — Hygiene in relation to the School-pupil. [G.H.K.] (1.) There should be systematic examination to determine the existence or otherwise of physical defects — especially such as defects of sight and hearing — of every child entering school with a view of properly placing him. (It is desirable that records of these should be preserved.) (2.) The troubles from which any child is suffering should have the attention of a physician, in regard to his fitness to remain at school, whenever the master is in doubt. (3.) The general effect of the school-regime on each child should be subject of observation for the responsible master of each class. (4.) General ideas of hygiene should be communicated to the teachers of all schools under the Department of Public Instruction, explaining their importance, and hygienic instruction should be given in every school. This should include, at least, the importance of cleanliness, of asepsis, and of general hygiene. In secondary schools the physiological aspect of hygiene should be included in the teaching. (5.) The upright-system of writing should be adopted up to the age of twelve at least. Some effort to create a sound public opinion on this matter should be made so as to win its support, and to correct the prevailing prejudice in favour of sloping writing. (6.) The question of fatigue should be systematically considered so as to regulate the future school practice of the State. (7.) It is desirable that regular school-physicians be appointed to whom children might be referred in needful cases ; and, further, that a physician, who has specialised in school-hygiene, should be permanently associated with the Department of Public Instruction to make aU necessary hygienic investigations, and to advise on all matters of school-hygiene. (8.) Hygienic statistics should be taken in every school on a scheme sufficiently extensive to admit of a criticism of our school- methods and conditions. (9.) All teachers during the professional education should be instructed in systematic school-hygiene, and should be taught to recognise the initial indications of nervous disorder in children. >.'') Chapter L. Ill Chapter L. — School Equipment. [J.W.T.'j The general plan of construction adopted in our school huildings is not equal to that of Switzerland, America, or Sweden. The long rooM containing several classes, the arrangement and construction of the desks and seats, the lighting and ventilation, are all, more or less, open to objection. Repairs should be effected at regular intervals. Chapter LI. — The Educational Equipment of Schools and Museums of Pgedagogy. [G.H.K.] (1.) The present educational equipment of the primary schools of the State needs to be greatly improved. (2.) There should be at least some simple apparatus tot the teaching of the natural science. (3.) All primary schools should be equipped for manual training), and the teaching of domestic economy should be better provided for. (4.) The manual training classes should be encouraged to make such simple apparatus as is serviceable in the teaching of natural science. (5.) A fully-equipped educational museum should be established, preferably adjoining the teaching seminary and its practising school. This museum should contain examples of all new teaching material of value from all parts of the world. (6.) The opportunities for teachers to keep themselves adequately infoi'meti »i to educational movement throughout the world are not yet sufficient. Chapter LII. — Inspection v. Examination. [J.W.T.] )ec th introduced. Inspection is general in every country, and the popular verdict among teachers is that it has made for contentment and efficiency wherever it has been Chapter LIU. — Co-education. [J.W.T.] The present arrangements with regard to teaching the sexes should not bc changed, but some of the instruction in the special classes of the superior schools might be taught with the greatest advantage to boys and girls together. Chapter LIV. — The Co-ordination of Education. [G.H.K.] (1.) Primary Education during the obligatory period — 6-14, should be divided into four stages, viz. : — -Transition Kindergarten, 6-7 ; Elementary, 7-10 ; Primary, 10-12 ; and Higher Primary, 12-14. (3.) Defectives should not be removed till 8 years of age to special schools, (3.) The elementaiy school should meet the need of all classes of the community. (4.) The ages of 10, and 12, would under this system, be suitable for de|)arture to other special classes of schools (private or otherwise). (6.) Definite type-programmes, shewing the normal curriculum for each stage, should be prepared for the guidance of teachers and for public information. (6.) The ultimate possibility of replacing special examinations held by outside authorities by examinations held by the schools themselves should be kept in view^ in every future attempt to more thoroughly co-ordinate the educational system ; since the present method is not the best in the interest of educational thoroughness. (f .) A definite programme of educational possibilities under existing tilStitutidlil should bo officially outlined fix)m time'" to time, shewing clearly the scheme of qualification for particular callings. Chapteb, LV. o: 112 Chapter LV. — State's Relation to Education, Unification, Subsidy, etc. [G.H.K.] (1.) The absence of a complete organisation of education tends to operate adversely in regard to the elRciency of public education. [ (2.) The general policy of a department of public instruction should be to unify all educational effort in such a way as to ensure efficiency. (3.) "With certain important restrictions, the subsidising of schools has advantages — (a) In relieving the State of expense; (b) In obtaining better equipped and more excellent schools ; (c) In promoting a spirit of healthy educational rivalry and ensuring ^ a decentralising tendency. (4.) There is considerable advantage, not, however, absolutely free from disadvantages, in founding two classes of primary schools in the larger centres of population, in the better of which pupils will pay for the special advantages. '^ (5.) Ultimately, all primary education, at least, shoidd be free. Chapter LVI. — General criticism of courses of study and standards of instruction , - . of the Primary Schools of New South Wales. [J.W.T.] '■■■'— The standards in the two classes of infant schools need adjustment. '■■ ' The teaching of Kindergarten should be general in all infant schools. The primary school standards should be made to include six years of instruction in six classes. Our superior schools should make more definite provision for instruction in commercial subjects, manual training, drawing, science, and agriculture. The equipment in such schools should be on a liberal scale. Chapter LVII.— The Drift of Modern Primary Education. [G.H.K.] (1.) The drift of modern education may be summed up by saying that better education of teachers, better teaching methods, better hygiene, better schools, better equipments, are characteristic of educational activity ia other lands. (2.) It will be seen by comparing some even of the old programmes of continental schools that here we are much behindhand. (3.) The most strenuous efforts will be necessary if we are to reach the condition of either Europe or America of to-day in two decades from the present time. (4.) Modern education is practically orientated, but care is taken not to reduce its educative value. (5.) Manual training, domestic education, civic instruction, are modern features of great importance ; so also is physical culture. (6.) The classic languages are less insisted upon, and children who are not intended to qualify in any higher branch of education are relieved of them entirely, a good knowledge of the mother-tongue being regarded as sufficient. (7.) In democratic communities it is necessary, however, to afford opportunity of learning them in the primary school, i.e., before the end of the compulsory period. (8.) Teaching methods have been vastly improved, and the modern systems of learning languages remove much of their difficulty. This is true of other subjects also. Chapter LVIIL— Rural Schools. [J.W.T.] The plan of consolidation of several small schools, to form one central higher school, has been tried in the rural districts of America, and has been productive of good results. The scheme is worth a trial in our State. SYNOPSIS. 113 SYNOPSIS OF CHAPTERS. Chapter I. Introduction and Acknowledgments. [Gr. H. Knibbs.] — 1, Significance of education. 2. Eange of its influence. 3. Spirit of the inquiry. 4. Eecommendation for complete educational scheme necessary. 5. K^ecessity for comprehensive study of whole range of the subject. 6. Educa- tional system must harmonise with national temperament. 7. Necessity for candid admission of existing defects. 8. Our system is really not satisfactory. 9. Value of educational systems seen from general considerations. 10. Belief of modern world in education. 11. Opportunity here for good education is not equal to that in other parts of the world. 12. Difference between ill and well educated communities. 13. Practical importance of education. 14. Competition in modern industry and commerce accentuates necessity for education. Ifi. Neces&ity for widespread public recognition of value of education. IG. Necessity for immediate action. 17. Effort to reach issue of inquiry. 18. Primary education only the initial element in a general scheme. 19. Eeasons determining choice of route. 20. Place of Europe proper in educational effort. 21. Acknowledgments. 22. OflBcial end unofficial courtesies received by the Commissioners ... ... ... ... ... P, 1 Chapteb II. Hanrje of Inquiry. [Gr. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Character and range of Continental education. 2. Education organised on military and industrial bases. .S. Cultural and practical aims. 4. Study of details in educational scheme not adequate. 5. Methodology and range of education. G. Lower and higher views of education. 7. Subjects considered in inquiry. 8. Eelation of independent subjects to systematic investigation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 4 Chapteb III. Education and its investigation. [Gr. H. Kxibbs.] — 1. Nature of an investigation of education. 2. Outline of the general theory of paidagogy. 3. The supremo purpose of education. 4. Physical culture in relation to education. 5. Mental education. G. Theory of guidance. 7. Theory of punishment, supervision, etc. 8. Theory of moral training (self-control). 9. General theory of instruction. 10. Theory of interest. 11. Determination of the matter of instruction. 12. Co-ordination and concentration in instruction. 13. Sphere of ideas. 14. Formalism and idealism in education. 15. Didactic materialism and psychological realism. IC. Modern teaching method and its psychological basis. 17. Conclusions from theory of education. 18. Empirical and rational education. 19. Empirical investigation of education insufficient. 20. Necessity of rational investigation. 21. Necessity of rational education. 22. Consequences immediately flowing from a rational system of education. 23. Sphere of investigation of an educational system ... P. 7 CifAPTEE IV. Kindergarten and Schools for Infants. [Paut I. G. H. Knibbs.] — I. Origin of tho kindergarten and infant school. 2. Pestalozzi and Eroebel. 3. Importance of initial stages of education. 4. Necessity for understanding of child-mind. 5. Infant-teaching involves serious pre])aration. 6. Value of infant-school. 7. Aperyu of the Eroebelian theory. 8. Modifications of the Froebelian idea. 9. Tendency to merely mechanical acceptance of Eroebel to be avoided. 'Part II. J. "VV. Tubnee.] 10. Investigation of kindergarten practice. 11. Question of State's relation to kindergarten. 12. Impressions of English kindergarten. 13. German kindergarten, 14. Dutch kindergarten. 15. French kindergarten. 16. American kindergarten. [Part III. G. H. Knibbs.] 17. "What kindergarten may include. 18. Moral education through Kindergarten, without inhibition of activity. 19. Ethical elements in the kindergarten. 20. Ethical teaching may be indirect. 21. Kindergarten to be judged qualitatively. 22. Appreciation of the infant-school. 23. The statistics and a brief sketch of kindergarten development. 24. Infant- schools in ancient Egypt. 25. Maternal schools in France. 2G. Kindergarten in United States. 27. Guardian schools in Belgium. 28. Gruardian schools in Luxembourg. 29. Kindergarten in Holland. 30. Kindergarten in Denmark. 31. Infant-schools in Norway and Sweden. 32. Infant- schools in Switzerland. 33. Infant-schools in Germany. 34. Kindergarten in Eussia. 35. Infant- schools in Finland. 36. Kindergarten in Austria. 37. KinderRarten in Hungary. 38. Infant-schools in Croatia and Slavonia. 39. Infant-schools in Italy. 40. Kindergarten in Spain. 41. Maternal schools in Portugal. 42. Kindergarten in Greece. 43. Kindergarten in Turkey. 44. Ki..-.1ergarten in Japan. 45. Kindergartens in various other countries. 46. Kindergarten in Great Britain. 47. Kindergarten in Cape Colony. 48. Kindergarten in Natal. 49. Kindergarten in Victoria. 50. Kindergarten in South Australia. 51. Kindergarten in West Australia. 52. Effect of kindergarten training. 53. Conclusions res2)ecting kindergarten ... P. 15 15 — (2) Chapter V. 1I4< Cdai'ter v. Outlines of some Educational Stistems. — Switzerland. [G. H. Knidbs.] — 1. Introductory. 2. Tho system of the Canton of Geneva. S. Secondary education. 4. Secondary and superior school (ladies). 5. The programme of tho infant-schools of Geneva. 6. Programme of the Geneva primary schools. 7. Object-lessons of the first two years in Genevese primary schools. 8. Programme of the primary schools of the Canton of Vaud. 9. Secondary education in the Canton of Vaud. 10. Outline of some of tho subjects in the preceding scheme. 11. Conclusion ... ... P. 32 Chapter VI. Primari/ Education in Qcrmany and other Countries of Europe. [G. H. Knibbs.]^ 1. Introduction. 2. The development of Gorman elementary education. 3. Character of German elementary education. 4. Curriculum in the elementary schools of Dresden. 5. Eeligion. (). German. 7. IJecitation. 8. Speaking. 9. Heading. 10. Writing. 11. Gr.ammar. 12. Writing. 18. Composition. 14. Computation, or arithmetic. 15. Geometry. 16. Geography. 17. History. 18. Natural history. 19. Natural science. 20. Writing. 21. Drawing. 22. Singing. 23. Gymnastics, 24. Needlework. 25. General remai'ks regarding the German schools. 2G. The teaching of fruit-culture in German elementary schools. 27. The school system of Germany. 28. Some modern tendencies in German education. 29. The sy.stem of primary education in Holland* 30. Primary schools of Denmark. 31. Primary education in Norway. 32. Scheme of educational co-ordination in Norway. 33. Special features noticed in Norway. 34. Primary education in Sweden. 35. The equipment of a school in Stockholm. 36. Other countries of Europe. 37. Austria. 38. Belgium. 39. Bohemia. 40. Italy. 41. Finland. 42. Hungary. 43. Agricul- tural teaching in the Prench jjriniary school. 4i. Elementary maritime education in primary schools. 45. Conclusion ... ... ... ... ... P. 51 Chapter VII. Public Instruction in Russia. [Edited by G. II. Knihbs.] — 1. General. 2. Higher technical institutions. 3. Intermediate and elementary technical and industrial education. 4. Benefactions for educational purposes. 5. Artisan schools to bo established. 6. Professional schools for girls. 7. Technical schools. 8. Commercial schools. 9. Schools of art and of art industry. 10. Agricultural education. 11. Elementary education. 12. Secondary education. 13. Eeform of secondary education. 14. Superior education. 15. Conclusion)... ... P. 80 Chapter VIII. The Primary School System of France. [J. W. TaRXER.] — Introduction. Bureaux. Superior Council. General Inspectors. Hector's duties. Academy Inspector's duties. Elementary and maternal schools. Brevet elementaire. Certificate of aptitude. Appointments. Prefect's duties. Duties of Departmental Council. Primary school Inspectors. Appointment. Examinfition. Inspectresses. Citizen committees. General Outline of the Primary School System. — Programme (5f the infant class. Primary schools and their organisation. Programme of elementary primary school. General time table. jNIethods of instruction. Aims of the primary school instruction. Manual instruction. Temperance teaching. Agricultural teaching. Courses of instruction in maritime schools. Practical direction in girls' schools. School attendance. Leaving certificate. Conclusions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 86 Chapter IX. Upper Primary Schools of France. [.I. W. Tcexer.] — Introduction. The upper primary school. General organisation. Head master's duties. Salaries. Scholarships. Committee of patronage. Character of the instruction. Professional upper primary schools. Subjects and methods of instruction in upper primary schools. Summary from Prench standpoint. Summary of the primary and upper primary school systems of France ... ... ... ... ... P. 96 Chapter X. The Public Schools of Paris. [J. W. Turner.] — Introduction. Enrolment. Organisation. Benevolent activities. Vacation schools. E.f-pupils' associations. Mutual benefit associations. Complementary courses. Evening classes. Upper primary schools. College Chaptal. Bursaries. Expenditure on primary education. Statistics of schools and attendance. Conclusions... P. 101 Chapter XI. Elementary and Higher Grade Schools of England. [.I. W. Turner.] — Introduction. Establishment of higher grade schools, Birmingham. Waverley Hoad Higher Grade School, Birmingham. Central Higher Grade School, Manchester. Higher Grade School, Leeds. Higher Grade School, Fleet Hoad, JEIampstead. Burghley Hoad School, London ... P. 106 Chapter XII. Elementary and Higher Orade Schools of Edinburgh. [J. W. Turner.] — Elementary schools. Higher grade system. Syllabus of subjects. Specialisation. Leaving certificate. Examina- tion papers. Merit certificate ... ,. ... ... ... ... P. 115 Chapter XIII. The Elementary and Grammar Schools of the United States. [J. "W. Turner.] — Introduction. Buildings. Furniture and hygiene. Discipline. Morals and manners. Classes of schools. Curriculum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 126 Chapter XIV. The Public Schools of Toronto and Canada. [J. W. Turner.] — Schools and school methods. Cadet corps. Buildings. Special school for newsboys... ... ... ... P. 133 Chaptkr XV. Ethical and Religious instruction and Education. [G. II. Knibbs.] — 1. The significance of morals in an educational system. 2. Moral and religious instruction of New South Wales. 3. Moral education in France. 4. Schemeof moral instruction in primary schools in France. 5. Moral education in Switzerland. C. Moral education in Germany. 7. Tlie moral interest of teachers in their pupils, in Germany. 8. Moral-religious education, as presented at Jena. 9. The building up of character, the recognised basis of education, in Germany. 10. Ethics and religion in schools in other parts of the world. 11. t!hildren's National Guild of Courtesy. 12. Cultivation of patriotism. 13. Scheme of ethical and religious education for New South Wales ... ... ... P. 148 Chapter XVI, 115 Chapter XVI. Education of the Will. [G. IT. Knibbs.] — I. Introductory. 2. Necessity of develop-, merit of will through educational system. 3 Insufficiency of intellectual culture. 4. Foreign testimony of importaneo of maintaining robustness of will and self-reliance. 5. The injurious discipline of repression. 6. The psychology of repression-discipline. 7. Qualifications of the teacher for educating the will of pupils. 8. Play and its function. 9. Difference between play and gymnastic. 10. Coercive and directive discipline. 11. Conclusions ... ... ... P. 158 Chapter XVII. Physical Culture, Gymnastics, etc. [G. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Introductory. 2. Two types of physical education. .3. Athletic gymnastics. 4. Eational physical culture. 5. Various conceptions of physical education. 0. Importance of gymnastic and physical culture generally. 7. Outline of the theory of physical culture. 8. Health elements in physical culture. 9. Other, elements in physical development. 10. The psvcho-physical and physical aspects of gymnastics. 11. Physical culture and manual training. 12. Physical culture in Tasmania. 13. Physical culture for children. 14. Qualifications of an instructor in physical culture. 15. Conclusions... P. 162 Chapter XVIII. Manual Training. [J. W. TuR?fEn.]— Introduction. English practice. Training in woodwork, England. Training in ironwork, England. Manual training in Italy. Manual training in Switzerland. Manual training for boys in Canada — Educative reasons, economic advantages Eeport on manual instruction in the primary schools under the National Board of Education in.i Ireland. Domestic Economy, England. Cookery, New South Wales. Cookery, England. Laundry- work, England. Housewifery, England. Cookery, Copenhagen. Needlework. New York syllabus of woodwork ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 167 Chapter XIX. Manual Training and Slor/d. [G. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Introduction. 2. Moral value of manual training. 3. Continuity of manual training. 4. Practical value of manual work. , 5. Rational theory of manual training. G. Sloyd. 7. The principles of Sloyd. 8. A criticism of Sloyd. 9. Sloyd series of exercises. 10. Sloyd for girls. 11. Conclusions ... ... ... P. 174 Chapter XX. Drawing in the London Board Schools and in the Schools of San Francisco. [J. W. Turner.] — Introduction. London Board Schools, drawing and art classes. Coil's Iload Board School. Fleet Eoad Board School, Hampstead. Broomslcigh Koad Board School. Drawing in the schools of San Francisco. Drawing syllabus, by Mr. A. Wilkinson, Superintendent, London School Board ' P. 181 Chapter XXI. The Teaching of Elementarg T.rawing in Europe. [G. II. Knibbs.] — 1. Introduction. 2. Belgian view of teaching drawing. 3. The different sections of drawing in Belgian primary schools. 4. Theory of exact observation. 5. Theory of drawing from memory. 6. Theory of invention in drawing. 7. Colour in drawing. S. Eelatiou of drawing to other branches of teaching. 9. Detailed programme of drawing in Belgian schools. 10. Teaching of drawing in France. 11. Drawing in the infant-schools of France. 12. Drawing in French primary schools. 13. Detailed programme of French primary school. I4r. Drawing in the elementary schools of Germany. 15. Drawing in the primary schools of Norway and Sweden. 16. Drawing in the primary schools of Switzerland. 17. Education of Swiss primary teachers in drawing. IS. Drawing in other parts of Europe. 19. Modelling. 20. Conclusions P. 184 Chapter XXII. The leaching of Modern and Ancient Languages. [G. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Language in general. 2. Eeasons for the study of languages. 3. The American committee on modern languages. 4. American opinion as to value of modern languages. 5. The methods of learning language. 6. The grammatical or classical method. 7. The reading method. 8. The natural or conversational method. 9. The idea, the common term in two languages. 10. The psychological method. 11. The Berlitz method of learning languages. 12. The phonetic method. 13. Language by correspondence. 14. The teaching of languages by phonograph. 15. The difficulties in foreign languages for English pupils. 16. Teaching of modern languages in other countries. 17. A modern exposition of language- teaching. 18. The theory of language-teaching. 19. Teaching a language without a foreign teacher. 20. International phonetic association. 21. Ancient languages. 22. Conclusions ... P. 197 Chapter XXIII. The Teaching of Geomelrg in Primary Schools and its Eefurm. [G. II. Knibbs.] Part I. — 1. Introduction. 2. Austrian programme for geometry. 3. Belgian teaching of geometry. 4. Elementary geometry in France. 5. French treatises on elementary geometry. 6. Germat conceptions of geometrical teaching. 7. Geometry in primary schools of Hungary. 8. Italy. 9. Geometr)' in Eussia. 10. Geometry in primary schools of Sweden. 11. Geometry in jjiimary schools of Switzerland. 12. Geometrical education of teachers — Switzerland. 13. Geometry in the United Kingdom. 14. Some English opinions as to Euclidean geometry. 15. Professor Sylvester. 16. Professor J. Perry. 17. Professor Hudson. 18 Professor Forsyth. 19. Major McMahon. 20. E. M. Langley. 21. Professor Everett. 22. Professor lliicker. 23. Professor Silvanus P. Thompson. 24. Mrs. W. N. Shaw. 25. Professor Greenhill. 26. Professor Olaus Henrici. 27. Professor Alfred Lodge. 28. Professor Miall. 29. Professor Minchin. 30. Professor Andrew Jamieson. 31. Sir John Gorst. 32. Principal Oliver Lodge. 33. Oliver Heavside. 34. Dr. J. Larmor. 35. W. N. Shaw. 36. Dr. Snmpner. 37. W. D. Eggar. 38. A. J. Pressland. 39. Sir Philip Magnus. 40. Professor D. E. Smith. 41. Professor Horace Lamb. 42. Professor Perry. • 43. The Belfast report on teaching of geometry, etc. 44. The committee's report. 45. Mr. Eggar'w programme for experimental geometry. 46. Professor I'erry's progi-amme. 47. Conclusion of Part II. 48. Introduction as to reform. 49. The scope of geometry. 50. Methodology of geometrical teaching. 51. Geometry in the kindergarten. 52. Geometry in the ])riniary school. 53. Practical geometry and geometrical drawing. 54. Demonstrational geometry. 55. Descriptive and projective geometry. 56. Analytical geometry. 57. Trigonometry as geometry. 58. Surveying as geometry. 59. Unity of mathematical subjects. 60. Conclusion ... P. 212 CUAPTKB XXIV. 116 CuAi'iEB XXIV. The Teaching of Geography in Primary Schooh. [Gr. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Introduction 2. Geograpliy and its divisions. 3. Value of geography. 4. The maps of Finland. 5. Geography and defence. 6. Psedagogio theory of geographical teaching. 7. The Belgian programme in geography. 8. German conception of the teaching of geography. 9. Programme of geographical teaching in Saxony. 10. The teaching of geography in Switzerland. 11. Geography in the different cantons of Switzerland. 12. Geography for Swiss teachers. 13. Difference between geography and cartography. 14. Map-drawing. 15. The teaching of geography in Italy. 10. Geography in the United Kingdom. 17. Geographical excursions. 18. Apparatus. 19. Geography for the blind. 20. Conclusion P. 233 Chapter XXV. The Teaching of Arithmetic and Algehra in Primary Schools. [G. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Introduction. 2. Arithmetic. 3. Belgian programme in elementary arithmetic. 4. Arithmetic for Swiss teachers. 5. Bibliography of treatises on arithmetic used in several countries. G. General remarks concerning the teaching of arithmetic. 7. The metric system. 8. The teaching of algebra. 9. The connection of algebra and geometry. 10. The connection between algebra and arithmetic. 11. Theory of algebra. 12. Co-ordination of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, planimetry, and Btereometry. 13. Conclusion ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 247 Chapteb XXVI. Natural Science in the Primary Schools. [G. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Introduction. 2. Teaching of science in English primary schools. 3. Literary methods of learning science. 4. The Belfast report on the teaching of science in elementary schools. 5. General remarks concerning the teaching of natural science. G. Elementary science-teaching in Austria. 7. Science in Belgian primary schools. 8. Science in primary schools of France. 9. Science in German schools. 10. Other countries of Europe. 11. Science-teaching in Switzerland. 12. Science for primary school teachers in Switzerland. 13. Cosmography. 14. Apparatus for teaching science. 15. Conclusions P. 255 ClIAPTEE XXVII. Training School System of Neiv South Wales— Preparatory Statement. [J. W. TuKNEB.]— Preparatory statement. Extracts from Report of Educational Conference, 1902. Piii)il- teachers. The training of teachers ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 266 Chapter XXVIIf. Training of Primary Teachers— Pupil-teacher and previous Training Systems contrasted — N.S.W. System. [G. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Introductory. 2. Pupil-teacher and previou!* training systems. 3. Implication of the theory of teaching. 4. Traiuing as a pupil-teacher con- trasted with European training. 5. The system of qualifying teachers in New South Wales. G. Dual scheme of qualification in the N.S.W. system. 7. N.S.W. scheme of examinations for teachers. 8. Details of the examination method, N.S.W. scheme. 9. Insufficiency of text-book instruction'. 10. Defect of literary mctiiod of learning science in N.S.W. teacher-training system. 11. Contrast between N.S.W. and European and American systems of qualifying teachers in science. 12. Serious omissions in the curricula of the training-colleges. 13. Professional traditions of N.S.W. system. 14. Fundamental issue between the pupil-teacher system and previous training system ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 268 Chapter XXIX. The State Training Schools of New South Wales. [J. W. Tubneb.] — Classification. Trained teachers. Pupil-teachers' examinations. Kemuneration. Apportionment. Examination for admission to Training Schools. Courses of study. Staffs of Training Schools. Practical training. Eolation of University to Training School. Departmental examination. Classes of certificates. Rate of remuneration to ex-students. Scholarships. Partially-trained teachers. Untrained teachers. Procedure in the appointment of small-school teachers ... ... P. 283 Cdapteu XXX. Pupil-teacher Systems : United Kingdom, f J. W. Tcener.I — Introduction. English opinions concerning the pupil-teacher system. The London School Board system. The Marylebone Pupil-teachers' School. The Birmingham School Board and its pupil-teacher centre. Syllabus and time-table. The Manchester School Board and its pupil-teacher centres. The Leeds School Board and its pupil-teacher centre. The pupil-teacher system in Ireland. Monitors' and pupil-teachers' programmes, Ireland. The pupil-teacher system in Scotland. Details of Scotch system... P. 292 Chapter XXXI. Some English Opinions of the Pupil-teacher System. [G. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Intro- ductory. 2. Opinions in paper on elementary schools of Prussia and Saxony. 3. Opinions in report on bilingual teaching in Belgian schools. 4. Opinions expressed in report on Swiss education. 5. Origin of pupil-teacher system in Holland. 6. Reason of retention of pupil-teacher system in the United Kingdom... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 304 Chapter XXXII. Training Schools of the United liingdom. [J. W. Turner.] — Introduction. Borough Road Training College. Syllabus. Practical training in the Borough Road College. Normal department, Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Instructions to students attending practising schools. Classes in art of teaching. Prospectus. Training colleges of Ireland. Training schools of Scotland. Programme of the Glasgow United Free Church Training College... P. 307 Chapter XXXIII. Training Schools of the United States. [J. W. Turner.] — Introduction. Training school of Boston. The regul.ar course. Kindergarten course. Courses for college graduates. Details of the Boston normal school courses. Optional courses. Graduate clubs. Lectures. School garden. Certificates. The Training School of New York. Observation. Actual practice. Co- education. Blackboard work. Course and aim of nature study. Wall decorations. Examination papers ... ... ... ... .<» .,, ... ... ... ... P. 318 Chapter XXXIV. 117 CiiAPTKK XXXIV. The Training Schools of Canada. [J. W. Tuuser.] — Introduction. Training School of Montreal. Training schools, Province of Ontario. County and city model schools. District model schools Provincial normal and model schools. Ontario Normal College. Teachers' certificates P. 329 Chapter XXXV. French Primary Normal Schools — Plan of Sluiies and Teaching Programmes. \G. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Introductory. 2. General. 3. Psychology, ethics, and pajdagogy. 4. The French language. 5. History. 0. History and civic instruction. 7. Geography. 8. Arithmetic, the elements of algebra, and bookkeeping. 9. Geometry. 10. Physics and chemistry. 11. Natural science and hygiene. 12. Modern languages. 13. Agriculture. 14. Drawing. 15. Vocal and instrumental music. IG. Gymnastic and military exercises. 17. Manual work. 18. Course for women teachers. 19. General remarks ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 331 CnAPTER XXXVI. The Training School System of France. [J. W. Tursee.] — Introduction. Supply of candidates. Entrance e.xamination. Admission to training schools. Examination in training. Difficulties in getting best candidates. Lesson for New South Wales. The Practising School, Douai. Training College, Anteuil. Child study. Criticism and other lessons. Directors' qualifications. Superior training schools. Curriculum of training schools, France. Time-table oFsubjects. Training schools for females ... ... P. 338 Chapteb XXXVII. The Education and Training of Primary Teachers in Furope (Switzerland and Hungary). [G. H. KxiBBS.] — 1. Introductory. 2. Poedagogic psychology and methodology. 3. In- fluence of the thorough education of the secondary teacher on the primary-school teacher. 4. Effect of educational spirit of Europe on education of teachers. 5. The training of teachers in Switzerland. General — G. Professional Associations of teachers and conferences. 7. Pa;dagogic section of the College of Geneva. 8. The admission to the normal-school in the Canton ofVaud. 9. Details of the Zurich system. 10. Scheme of instruction at the Kusnacht Traiuing College. 11. Training schools in Hungary ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 343 CllAPrEE 3iXXVlII. Training of Teachm in Germany. [G. II. K.vibbs.] — German view of education. Inaufficiency of German Ilniversities as regards the science of education. 3. The importance of training of teachers for ])rimary schools. 4. German " prcparing-schools " for primary teachers. 5. Prussian training colleges for primary teachers. G. Training of teachers in Saxony. 7. The Jena Seminarium ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 352 Chapter XXXIX. The Jena Practising School. [G. H. Knibbs.] — 1. The Jena Seminarium. 2. Some English references to Jena. 3. A University Seminarium. 4. The Kegulations of the Seminarium at Jena P. 356 Chaptee XL. Peform in the training of teachers. [G. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Introductory. 2. Principles determining preliminary education proper for primary teachers. 3. Principles determining the professional education proper for a teacher. 4. Function of the history of education. 5. Function of the philosophy of education. G. The relation of psychology to education. 7. The place of ethics in the student-teacher's curriculum. 8. The place of anatomy and physiology in the education of teachers. 9. Hygiene as a necessary subject in the student-teacher's curriculum. 10. The methodology of teaching individual subjects. 11. Summary of the educative instruction necessary for the student-teacher. 12. Technical efficiency in the art of instruction. 13. Realism in teaching. 14. The absence of science in public-schools. 15. The teaching of languages. 16. Special methodology. 17. Subjects of instruction for teachers. 18. Geography. 19. Cosmography. 20. Arithmetic. 21. Algebra. 22. Trigonometry. 23. Planimetry. 24. Stereometry. 25. Pro- jective geometry. 25. History of mathematics. 27. Botany. 28. Zoology. 27. Chemistry and mineralogy. 30. Geology. 31. Physics. Mechanics. 32. Anthropology and school-hygiene. 33. Music. 31'. Drawing, ^o. The instruction of student- teachers. 36. Division of subjects of instruction. 37. The New South Wales training colleges. 38. General idea of a fully equipped teaching-seminarv. 30. Seminary associated with a university. 40. Length of curriculum. 41. Con- clusion ... ' P. 361 Chapteh XLI. Schools for the Feeble-minded. [G. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Introduction. 2. General principles of educating weak-minded children. 3. General history of the education of the imbecile. 4. France. 5. Germany. G. Scheme of the German Hilfsschule. 7. German form of personal record. 8. Hungary. 9. Norway and Sweden. 10. Switzerland. 11. The Swiss individuality register. 12. United Kingdom. 13. United States. 14. Bibliography. 15. Conclusions P. 371 ChapxeeXLII. Schools for the Deaf and Bumh. [G. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Introduction. 2. Instruction of the deaf and dumb in France. 3. Teaching of deaf and dumb in Holland. 4. Teaching of deaf mutes in Hungary. 5. Training of special teachers for deaf mutes in Hungary. 6. Swiss teaching of the deaf and dumb. 7. Teaching of the deaf and dumb in other countries. 8. Conclusion P. 378 Chaptee XLIII. Compulsory School Attendance — English System and New York School Attendance Law. [J. W. TuENEE.] — -Introductory. Opinions as to New South Wales Act. Chief Inspector's reports (N.S.W.) as to compulsory clauses. Early administration in regard to obligatory attendance. English system. Details of attendance in London schools. Comparisons of daily attendance, London and New South Wales. Divisional control. Mode of procedure in dealing with irregular attendance. Special return. "Slip" system. Street visitors. Legal enactments for enforcing compulsory attendance. New York School Attendance Law. Juvenile Courts. Schools in loco parentis P. 382 Chapteb XLIV. 118 Chapteh XLIV. Day Industrial and Truant Sclioolt, London. [J. W. Tcenek.] — The Drury Lane Jndustrial School. Benefits of Drury Lane industrial system. Various classes, Drury Lane. OflBcial estimate of value of work. Upton House Truant School. Opinions formed during visit. Highbury Truant School. Eegulations, &c., of Upton House and Highbury Truant Schools ... P. 388 CiiAPTEB XLV. Permanent Industrial Schools of London. [J. W. Tcbneh.] — The " Shaftesbury " Training Ship. Observations during visit. Ideal training ship for boys. Statistics. Gordon House, Girls' Home, Eichmond Eoad, Isleworth. Efficiency of schools and disposal of children. General statistics in reference to industrial, truant, and day industrial schools ... ... ... P. 395 Chapter XLVI. Other Beformatory Schools — English and Foreign. [J. W. Tubkeh.] — The Ecole de Eeforme, Les Croisettes, Lausanne. Ecole de Eeforme, Moudon. The Basto Eeformatory. The Philanthropic Home, Eedhill, Surrey. Dietary Scale, Eedhill. Summary P. 400 Chapteb XLVII. School-Hygiene, Buildings, and Premises. [G. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Importance of school-hygiene. 2. Origin of school-hygiene. 3. Eelationship of psedagogy to hygiene. 4. Swiss school-hygiene. 5. Swiss regulations regarding sanitary inspection. 6. Local hyi^ienic standards defective. 7. Outline of systematic school-hygiene. 8. Choice of site for school. 9. Form and dimension of school buildings. 10. Construction of building and material, etc. 11. Materials used in construction of schools. 12. School-rooms and their dimensions. 13. Vestibules, coriidors, cloak and hat rooms, etc. 14. Lighting— natural and artificial. 15. Quantity of light. IG. Ventilation — heating and cooling. 17. Heating. 18. Lavatories and latrines. 10. Douches and bathing-rooms, gymnastic-hall, cleaning, etc. 20. Courts and yards. 21. Gardens and shade-tree.-), etc. 22. (c) Provision for physical exercise and wet weather, etc. 23. Illustrations of school-buildings and heating apparatus ..^ ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 403 Chapter XLVIII. School Furniture and its Hygienic Importance. [G. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Introduction. 2. School blackboards. 3. The history and theory of school-seating. 4. Application of the theory of posture in sitting to the dimensions and form of school-desks. 5. The desk-seat. 0. Back of seat. 7. Foot-rest. 8. Table. 9. Height-relation between seat and table. 10. Distance-relation i between seat and table. 11. The repository for books, etc. 12. The construction of school-desks. 13. Kindergarten desks. 14. Primary-school desks. 15. Variable " distance " desks. 16. The desks of variable " difference." 17. Desks of variable " distance " and " diff'erence." 18. Desks for higher schools. 19. School-maps, etc. 20. School-laboratories, museums, libraries, etc. 21. School material and its hygiene. 22. The school dispensary. 23. Eetrospect. 24. Conclusions ... P. 427 Chapter XLIX. Hygiene in Eelalion to the Schoolpupil. [G. H. Kmbbs.] — 1. General. 2. Defects of sight. 3. Defect of hearing. 4. The ascertainment of defective vision and audition. 5. General physical defects. 6. Anscmia. 7. Caries, Adenoid growths, etc. 8. Brain, nervous, and minor diseases. 9. Infectious, contagious, and parasitic diseases. 10. Eye-diseases. 11. Parasitic diseases. 12. Prophylaxis and disinfection. 13. Belgian directions as to hygiene. 14. Circular concerning infectious diseases in New South Wales. 15. Conditions of school-wcrk. If3. Position in writing. 17. Physical and mental fatigue. 18. School-hours. 19. Homework from the hygienic standpoint. 20. Conclusions P. 438 Chapter L. School Equipment. [J. "W. Turner.] — Switzerland. Buildings. Playgrounds and weathersheds. Teachers' room. Caretaker's room. Basement. Baths. Gymnasium. Furniture. Libraries. Sanitary arrangements. Laboratories. Museums. Pictures. Permanent exhibitions of school equipment. Museum of Training College, Lausanne. Exhibition in Bern. Pestalozzianum in Zurich P. 448 CnAPTER LI. The Educational Equipment of Schools and Museums of Pasdagogy. [G. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Introductory. 2. Pajdagogical equipment of schools. 3. Maps, etc. 4 Physical, chemical, and natural history laboratory. 5. Lantern apparatus. G. Phonographic records for languages. 7. Equipment for manual training. 8. Equipment for the teaching of domestic economy. 9. The making of apparatus in school. 10. Interest in science in schools. 11. School libniries snd museum. 12. Pedagogical museums and libraries. 13. Conclusions ... ... ... P. 452 CSapteh LII. Inspection v. Examination. [J. W. Tuener] — Practice in London schools. Opinions of 3oard school teachers. Procedure in inspection. Opinions on the Continent and America, llxtracts from General Eeport, Board Inspectors, London, 1901. Extracts from " Teachers' Times," 1903. Extract from the " Making of Citizens." Conclusions P. 467 Chapter LIII. Co-education. [J. W. Turner.] — Opinions on co-education. British practice. Continental practice. Canadian practice. American practice. Views of superintendents. Boston School document, majority and minority report. Opinions of foreign educationists: Dr. Schlee, Prussia; Professor Wactzoldt, Berlin; Professor Ilausknecht, Berlin; Anna Berntzen, Norway. Opinions of M. E. Sadler, Esq., England. Opinions of Dr. W. T. Harris, United States, America. Conclusions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 464 Chapter LIV. The Co-ordination of Education. [G. H. Knibbs] — 1. Introduction. 2. The stages of education. 3. Further outlines of the co-ordination in some educational systems. 4. Eequisites of co-ordination. 5. Definite curriculum. 6. Definite qualification for teachers. 7. Examinations of pupils. 8. Equal values among various curricula. 9. Uncertainty in the absence of co-ordination. 10. Co-ordination to end of higher primary education. 11. Co-ordination in advanced stages of education. 12. Conclusions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 469 Chapter LV. ) 119 Chapter LV. States Relation to Education, Unification, Sulsidy, etc. [G-. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Introductory. 2. Or^anisatioa of educatioa in general. 3. Organisation of education in Mew South Wales. 4. Effect of public opinion on the organisation of education. 5. Absence of general educational organisation in New South Wales. G. State and private schools. 7. Different classes of schools. 8. The nationalisation of education. 9. Advantages and disadvantages of different c'asses of schools. 10. Practical policy, independent of the settlement of the system of greatest advantage. 11. The question of vested interests in education and of subsidy. 12. Advantages of subsidising schools. 13. Disadvantages of subsidising schools, li. Principle of subsidy already exists. 15. Conditions of State subsidy. 1(5. Opposition to State control. 17. What can be accomplished through subsidy. 18. Development of secondary schools through subsidy. 19. Unification of all important educational establishments ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 475 CuAPTER LVI. General Criticism of New South Wales Primary Soliool Courses of Study and Standards of Instruction. [.I. W. TtTRXEB.] — Introduction. Primary school courses, New South Wales. PriuiJry school courses, America. Standards of instruction. Kindergarten. Manual training, superior schools. Commerce. Science. Manual instruction in the higher classes. Cookery. Drawing. Agriculture. Kegular class subjects. Reading. Writing, Arithmetic. Geography. Grammar. Singing. History. Object Lessons. Moral Lessons. Drill. Needlework. Geometry. Algebra. Latin. Scripture Lessons. Suggested improvements ... ... ... ... ... P. 481 CiiAi'TER LVII. The Drift of Modern Primary Education. [_^. H. Knibbs.] — 1. Introduction 2. Generality of effort to improve education. 3. Wide recognition of moral aim of education. 4. Function of knowledge of one's own language 5. Attitude to dead languages. G. Formative and informative elements in education. 7. Manual training as an integral part of an edui;ational system. 8. Practical orientation of education. 9. Individuality and self-expression. 10. The will and physical and mental activity. Jl. Increased attention to physical culture. 12. Better training of teachers. 13. Definite curricula with freedom in teaching. 14. School directors. 15. The function of inspectors. 16. Itelation between teachers and pupils. 17. Status of teachers. 18. Character of the teacher's work. 19. The direction of education. 20. Free education. 21. Urban and rural education. 22. Conclusion ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... P. 488 CnAPTEK LVIII. Rural Schools. [J. W. Turner.] — Experiences of school inspectors, New South Wales. American experiences. Views of State Superintendent, Nebraska. Views of the agent, Massachusetts State Board of Education. Views of the State Superintendent, Illinois. Success of the central school system in America. Advantages of consolidation of schools over system of small separate schools. Commissioner's recommendations ... ... ... ... P. 495 CHAPTER I. Introduction and Acknowledgments. - ' [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Significance of Education. — Although the creation of a Commission, charged with an inquiry covering practically the educational systems of the civilised world sufficiently testifies per se the recognition of its necessity and of the significance of the subject with which the Commission has beer; called upon to deal, it is by no means out of place for the Commissioners to express their consciousness of that necessity and significance, or to voice their sentiment in regard thereto. Per, the intensity of their impression that a great deal has to be done here, is certainly a factor in the whole issue ; and the vivid realisation of the fact, that the citizens of this State have educational opportunities falling far short of those in other parts of the world, is the justification of a fuller and more serious discussion of the issue than would otherwise appear necessary. 2. Range of its influence. — While it would seem to hardly need affirmation that no factor in the development of a people or of a country is of such far-reacliing importance as its educational system, it is nevertheless true that so far we have not yet adequately realised this in our State. Forasmuch as it evidently lies at the root of, and fundamentally affects, all individual, communal, or national effort, whether industrial, commercial, intellectual or artistic, an educational system tinctures all that a nation is, all that a nation does ; it is at once an expression of a people's inmost nature and of its ideal of life ; it is the instrument by which the energies of nature are commanded ; the means through which exploitation of territorial wealth is made effective ; it even confers the power of recognising the actual existence of such wealth ; it is the guide and director of efi"ort into profitable paths ; and in that groat industrial and commercial competition, which forms a feature of ever-growing significance in the modern world, it is the essential of success. It is equally obvious that neglect to improve our system will, and indeed must necessarily, be fraught with serious consequences. 3. Spirit of the inquiry. — It was with a vivid impression of the momentous character of such facts as the above that the Commissioners extended their purview over the world's educational systems ; and in so doing they have endeavoured, in so far as rapid travel would permit, to trace in national character and national achievement the consequences of the special features of the various systems. 4. Recommendation for complete educational scheme necessary. — As the report proceeds to traverse the various matters with which it will be necessary to deal, it will be seen that the real difficulty lies in the fact that no inquiry can be of value unless finally focussed in a recommendation for the creation of a complete educational scheme, based not only on a sufficiently wide outlook, but also on an adequate recognition of its inevitable influence on the traditions and spirit of our people, and a realisation that it must constitute one of the greatest factors in our future weal or woe. 5. Necessity for comprehensive study of whole range of the subject. — Any real inquiry, therefore, having for its object the founding of this comprehensive scheme of public education, must take account of the whole range of the subject, viz., from the most elementary to the most advanced features thereof ; it must embrace not only the so-called cultural, but also the so-called practical elements ; it must have regard to every form, from the most theoretical and abstract, to the most practical and concrete ; and this would be true, even were the aim merely the establishment of a satisfactory primary system. How much more cogently does it apply, when it is desired to so develope a country's educational opportunities as to enable its citizens to fully equip themselves lor the multifarious duties and privileges of life, and for the development in a worthy manner of its local resources. And when it is said in a worthy manner, this must be understood in relation to the world as a whole, for by modern developments of science, the different parts of the earth have been brought more closely in touch in industrial effort, in commerce, in art, and indeed in every element affecting daily life. 6. Educational System must harmonise with national temperament. — It may be said further that an Educational System ought to be so adjusted as to continually take cognizance of, and be in harmony with, the temperament of a people ; it should take account also of its population-concentration, of its leading forms of industrial activity, of the limitations of organisation, either in respect of material or personnel, of the existing system; and in regard to improvements, it has to be remembered that prae^jca/ recom- mendations must, while taking full account of present conditions, shew how, with a minimum of violence, to pass from them to better ones. 7. Necessity for candid admission of exist inij di feet s. — At the same time the Commissioners feel that without absolute candour in regard to the defects of the existing system the necessary changes can hardly be brought about, and therefore that any disposition to hide them, whether small or great, cannot be too strongly deprecated. In every living organism there is a continual removal of effete material, and an addition of new ; there is a continual readjustment of the organism to the variations in its environ- ment. Kapidity of waste and repair, and mobility in respect to adaptation, instead of stultifying the character of an organism, are indeed the evidences of its vitality. So, too, is it in the educational systeru of a people. As the world grows the system must necessarily advance ; its effete elements must be continually eliminated, and new elements introduced in lieu thereof; its form must be strengthened and 198G2 13— A perfected J 2 perfected ; it must take full account of changes in the systems of other parts of tlic world, and, above all, of all human progress. If it appear that our existing system, when considered in relation to the immediate educational needs of our people, is subject to grave, or even to the gravest defects, this does not necessarily imply that, in its day, and under the limitations of the development of a new country, and with our restricted means and aims, and before the great features of the past century's progress have developed, our system was without great merit. That it has been hampered by traditions, methods, and limitations of scope which cannot be longer allowed to remain, if we intend to progress comparably to other parts of the world, argues only the vitality of our people in endeavouring to bring about an adjustment to conditions which have so marvellously changed during the last few decades. 8. Our system is really not satisfactory. — No one, having any knowledge of the educational systems and educational opportunities of other countries, can regard that of this State as even approximately satisfactory. And it must be said at once that in the range of subjects, in the harmonious development of various grades of education, and in the training of our teaching staffs generally, there are defects the seriousness of which can hardly be overstated. That individual achievements here, both as regards teacher and taught, have often been great, and that even great limitations have been overcome by fine examples of personal assiduity and personal genius, in no way challenge the dictum that better opportunity for scholar and teacher ought to be provided ; for all education does, and must necessarily, proceed on the basis that educational organisation should be so designed as to admit of the greatest possible progress for a given amount of effort. While, therefore, it may be true that no disadvantages very seriously deter genius, and may even be its stimulus, it is certainly true that the rapid progress of a people as a whole depends upon the excellence of those institutions which stimulate and secure its development. First among these is its Educational System. 9. Value of Educational Systems seen from general considerations. — It may be remarked that educational systems and their practical value cannot be judged by any system of book-keeping. Peoples who have learned, instead of relying upon tradition and rulo-of-thumb, to use their mental powers in all the activities of life, who habitually apply to every industrial occupation the results of scientific research, ■who in their commercial enterprises mako use of the fruits of wide and continuous commercial investigations — such peoples must inevitably advance ; and the cost of education, however high, compared with the wealth that will accrue as its fruit, is insignificant. 10. Belief of modern world in education. — That the modern civilised world realises, or at least believes in this, is shewn by the magnificent developments in the educational institutions of Europe and America ; and in looking upon modern progress — each year more and more rapid, — it is easy to see that the secret thereof is that better knowledge of the world in which we live, that deeper insight into its mechanism and it possibilities which have been acquired as the result of more perfect educational systems, and also the character to rise to the opportunity so reached. 11. Opportunity here for good education is not equal to that in other parts of loorld. — No one, familiar with the young life of this State, can, when comparing with that of other European countries or with America, fail to be impressed with the local absence of scholastic assiduity, which, together with the relatively very imperfect educational equipment of the State, constitute a serious menace to its future. The truth is that our youth have not the opportunities of the youth of Europe or America. The schools and their equipment, even in our metropolis, do not give our people anything like an even chance as compared with those countries, and the life and vigour of our community must be, and is, greatly prejudiced thereby. 12. Difference between ill and well educated communities. — That the difference between a finely- educated and an ill-educated people is fundamental, and affects not only every relationship of domestic, industrial, and commercial life, but also international relationships, is not a theoretical observation, but a stern fact that may be witnessed by anyone who does not permit national prejudice to utterly blind him.i And that the educational institutions of many countries have directly and conspicuously benefited their inhabitants is beyond dispute. 13. Practical importance of education. — A commanding position in the world's progress absolutely demands of a people physical robustness, and a good education. The reason of this is obvious : not only is self-direction more efficient because it is more intelligent; not only is practical knowledge fuller because more profound ; not only is the scientific heritage of the whole world and of all time more directly at command, because with good education an apcrfu thereof is immediately to hand ; — but the more vigorous mental habit which that education induces is itself a factor of incalculable practical value. Moreover, as each advantage accrues it tends to intensify further advantage, and it is for this reason that it has become a necessity, now widely recognised, for each country to take systematic account of educational progress in others, and to profit thereby in regard to its own system. 14. Competition in modern industry and commerce accentuates necessity for education. — The histories of modern commerce and modern industry are replete with testimonies shewing how far-reaching are the consequences of good industrial and commercial education, not only to the individual, but also to the State to which he belongs. And it may be noted that it is difficult to assign a limit to the issue, inasmuch as the two factors of national progress and prowess — outside that of personal character — are natural wealth, and the knowledge of how to exploit it. These obviously depend upon education — that is, upon the cultivation of the knowledge and of the powers of a people ; and it must be remembered that even the third factor, viz., character itself, is largely determined by certain elements of education, viz., those which affect the moral and ajsthetic consciousness, the strength and direction of the will, and the vigour of the body. 15. Necessity for wide-spread public recognition of the value of education. — A strong and wide-spread public recognition of the dignity and significance of a good system of education is the indispensable condition of its establishment; and herein lies the strength of many countries through which the Commissioners have travelled. That recognition cannot be said to have 3'et been created here in any adequate measure ; yet it is immensely important that it should be created, for every progression in the higher 'The very forcible observations of Mr. Zonsaliu Sano, which will be hereinafter quoted, touching commercial education, may be taken as representing educated Japanese opinion on the matter. higher direction reinforces itself by raising public intelligence, and with us, as with America, it is to public intelligence that we must look for the authority and support of a forward movement. Every advance in our educational system is a lever for further advance ; and its fulcrum is the development which it has itself produced. 16. Necessity for immedinfe action. — In this State, however, we have so much leeway to make good, and the world's progress has been so e.xtremely rapid, that anything short of a unique effort to reach, within a decade, something like the standard of, say, Europe proper, will be utterly inadequate. So long as it remains true that in some other parts of the world the opportunities for education are vastlt/ superior, so long as the systems of education there are on an incomparahlif higher plane, the outlook is grave, and will be seriously regarded by every one capable of any breadth of vision or affected in any degree with patriotism. We may briefly state here that we feel profoundly that the conditions of things at present existing should not be allowed to remain ; for the truth is that we are seriously behind. We shall shew that the necessity for a forward movement does not merely touch an item here and there, but goes down to the very foundations of the educational systems prevailing in this State. 17. Effort io reach issue of inquiry. — Conscious from the first that our education ought to be brought more into line with the better systems of other parts of the world, the Commissioners have felt with each enlargement of their experience, a deepening sense of the importance of so doing. It is this fact that, perhaps more than anything else, intensified the recognition that anything short of a comprehensive study was quite inadequate. The time allotted was in reality wholly insufficient ; but so far as application and exploitation of all available sources of knowledge are concerned, no effort possible in the limited period was spared to reach a satisfactory issue. And the Commissioners have indeed, through the very great kindness everywhere shewn them, succeeded in obtaining a large quantity of information, which, while it will in some measure enter into the conclusions of this report, cannot be exhausted therein ; in fact, it will not be possible within the narrow limits of the report, to give more than a faint idea of the range covered. 18. Primary Education only the initial dement in a general scheme.— H.h&ve is another reason why the study of education by the Commissioners had necessarily to be comprehensive. Even a primary or elementary system ought to be developed with regard to the higher education to which in many cases it must form a prelude, and with which therefore it ought to be consistent. Primary education should always form but part of a homogeneous and harmonious educational scheme, at the bottom of which it stands appropriately leading upwards to the various forms of higher education. A fortiori, a study embracing anything beyond a primary system must take a wider and deeper view of the inter-relations of the higher branches of education. 19. Reasons determining choice of route. — In deciding upon their route, the Commissioners were guided somewhat by the educational reputation of each country, and wherever material, organisation, method, or results were alleged to be good, no effort was spared in making full inquiry. Certain countries have been distinguished either for general, industrial, or commercial advance, or for advance in some particular direction. An endeavour was made to trace how far these were dependent upon, were influenced by, or reacted upon, the educational systems of such countries. It ought further to be said that intentionally the Commissioners did not confine themselves only to the best institutions, but tried to get, in addition, some idea of the practical working of each system in its entirety ; hence regard was had, not only to metropolitan establishments and those of great and wealthy cities, but also to those on more sparsely populated places. 20. Place of Europe proper in educational effort. — Europe proper has for a considerable period been the theatre of the most distinguished educational effort ; the theory of education has been there discussed with an unsurpassed acumen and depth ; there the equipment of greater institutions is from every point of view astonishingly excellent ; and there recent progress has in every respect been as extraordinary as anywhere in the world. The Commissioners consequently spent a considerable proportion of their time in Europe proper, and in reviewing the whole of their investigation are able to say that the course followed was a wise one. The feature of American educational experience, on the other hand, is the startling rapidity with which experiment has followed experiment. A visit to that country, therefore, appropriately concluded the Commissioners' tour of inspection. 21. Acinowledgments. — The Commissioners desire to express their grateful appreciation of the invaluable assistance of the Eight Honorable the Marquess of Lansdowne, Secretary, and His Brittannic Majesty's Poreign Office. Through his introductions on behalf of the Commissioners, and his request of assistance to His Majesty's representatives in various countries, their work has been greatly facilitated. It would be difficult also to speak in too high terms of the extremely kind offices of the following Ambassadors, their Charges d'Affaires, and in most cases of the Secretaries of their Legations : — The Eight Hon. Sir F. E. Plunkett, G.C.B. Austro-Hungary. The Hon. Sir Edmund C. H. Phipps, K.C.M.G Belgium. The Hon. Sir Wm. E. .1. Goschen, K.C.M.G- Denmark. The Eight Hon. Sir Ed. Monson, G.C.B France. The Eight Hon. Sir F. C. Lascelles, G-.C.B Germany. The Eight Hon. Lord Currie, G.C.B Italy. The Hon. Sir Henry Howard, K.C.M.G Netherlands. The Hon. Sir Chas. S. Scott, G.C.B Eussia. The Hon. Sir VV^m. A. C. Barrington, K.C.M.G, Sweden and Norway. The Hon. Sir Win. Conyngham Greene, K.C.B. ... ... Switzerland. The Hon. Sir Michael H. Herbert, K.C.M.G United States of America. And of His Majesty's General and Yiee-Consuls, etc. — Mr. Consul C. J. Cooke, of Helsingfors, Finland ; Mr. Consul J. l)uff, of Goteborg, Sweden ; Mr. Consul-General M. C. Gurney, Marseilles ; Mr. Consul Paytoi;, and Mr. Vice-Consul Walker, Lille ; Mr. Consul LidJell, Lyons, France. In most cases Ilis Majesty's representatives not only secured suitable official introduction to the proper authorities in each country, but also personally interested themselves, with the result that the Commissioners' work was both greatly accelerated and more efficiently discharged. But for this assistance, it 4 it would have been quite impossible to cover so large an area in the time. Our State is, therefore, under very "reat obligations for the courtesy shewn, and for the kind assistance so generously given to, its Commissioners by His Majesty's representatives. 22. Official and unofficial couHesies received by the Commissioners. — In each country visited the chiefs of the Public Instruction Departments, their olficers, the various directors and professors of tho learned institutions, and the public officials generally, have all been most cordial in their assistance, and in many cases also, public spirited citizens ; and the (Commissioners take this opportunity of publicly expressing to them their warmest thanks. It ought to be added that, owing to the range of the inquiry, as well as the extent of the cotintri/ to be covered in a very limited time, great demands had very often to be made upon the good offices of the public officials of the various places visited. Without making such demands it would have been quite impossible to have accomplished the task. These, however, were met in the most ready manner, and it would indeed be difficult to speak too strongly both of the personal and official kindness shewn the Commissioners. For such pood offices, therefore, the hearty thanks of our State are also due, forasmuch as in the absence of such obliging help, it would not have been possible to have properly succeeded in the mission of inquiry. The Commissioners desire also to express their appreciation of the kind offices of tho Consular representatives in Sydney of the various countries they visited. Before starting on their journey tho Commissioners called on the several Consul?, who, in a(ldition to providing them with official letters of introduction, were good enough also to communicate with their several Governments, and in this way mucli facilitated the work of the Commissioners. It ought also to be added that the Commissioners are indebted to the late Acting Consul- General for Germany, Mr. H. Grunow, for his services in Berlin in communicating with the Foreign Office there with a view to facilitating the official inspection of German schools. Finally, it may be said that the professorial staffs of the various learned institutions visited did their utmost to make the visit of the Commissioners both instructive and agreeable. CHAPTER 11. Range of Inquiry. [Q. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Character and range of continental education — The characteristic features of the best continental systems of education are thoroughness of method, and extent of range ; and they are, speaking generally, the product of acute observation and exhaustive criticism, not only as to theory, but also as to method and practical result. 2. Education organised on military and industrial bases. — Eeference has already been made to the fact that the traditions and temperament of a people have to be considered in relation to any really thorough educational inquiry. This will be best illustrated by contrasting, for example, the German educational atmosphere with the American, and will throw some light upon the sense in which the terra "range of inquiry " must be understood. The German organisation is throughout on a military basis, America on an industrial ; the one country is aristocratic in its traditions, the other democratic. Social movement in the one is mainly, if one may so speak, in well-defined horizontal strata, and translation upward is subject to some resistance ; in the other there is free movement vertically. 3. Cultural and practical aims. — As pointed out by Mr. Sadler^, in Germany the basis of all education is definitely linguistic and an idea of general culture is maintained ; while in America manual and practical exercises receive continually increasing prominence, and more stress is laid upon mental alertness and adaptability, than on general culture. Hence the ideals aimed at in the two places are quite diflferent, and this afEects the whole work of the school. For in the one the work is quiet, methodical, persistent ; in the other it tends to be restless and less methodical, and persistency gives place to a strenuousness apt sometimes to be effervescent. The pa;dagogic atmosphere is also altogether different. In Germany there is a general and profound respect for learning, as such ; while in America, the appreciation seems to be for the genius of applying knowledge to the so-called practical needs of life. Now it is beyond dispute that, in drafting an educational system, such differences as are here illustrated must tremendously affect the result. How far is this country to follow continental ideals and methods, or how far those of America, is a question the solution of which is not quite so obvious as a superficial view might allow. 4. Sfudi/ of details in educational scheme not adequate. — It will now clearly appear that mere observation of educational detail, such as has been suggested, with a view of grafting some particular item or items on to an existing system— as for example that of our State — is quite inadequate. It would be at once recognised, both in America and on the continent of Europe, as a complete failure to conceive the problem in its true light. All elements of education are moreover, inter-related, and it is owing to this fact that the subject had to be studied in its entirety and in relation to its fundamental principles and ' "Contrast between German and American Ideals of Education." Special reports on educational subjects, Vol. XI, Part 2, p. 438. and theory and in relation also to the spirit of the Australian people. With respect to the necessity of regard to theory, it may be pointed out, for example, that the real function of the " Kindergarten," or of " Slojd " cannot bo properly understood or appreciated without such regard. And this is true also of the whole methodology of instruction. No one can be a real expert in education without having some appreciation of its philosophy, and of its psychology — that in, without perceiving in a broad way what is the whole aim of education, and what noetic and psychic factors enter into its methods and affect its efficiency. Instruction is not per se education, but is onlij a factor therein ; and the subtle part of the whole subject lies just here. 5. Methodology and range of education. — Speaking broadly, it may be said that the methodology of education has for its aim, not only the ready acquisition of organised knowledge, but the acquisition in such a way that it so transforms its subject as to be productive of rich result — that is, will be useful, inspiring, and creative; while the range of education must have regard, not only to the so-called practical requirements of mankind, but also to the rounded development of its powers and qualities as a whole. 6. Lower and higher views of education. — The lower utilitarian view, which regards education merely as a training to earn a livelihood, may be at once dismissed as requiring no attack. The higher view, viz., that all education may be so treated as to become an instrument of self-discipline and self-culture, not only without in any way impairing its practical value, but in such a way as even to increase its utility, obtains universally among educational experts, and with everybody who gives the matter serious consideration. Indeed, the history of education, of literature, and of science, abounds with illustrations of this point, and shews that abstractness, generality, and cultural value are absolutely consistent with the highest and most far-reaching utility ; while on the contrary the so-called practical view, which professes to despise the theoretical and abstract, everywhere shews signs of utilitarian failure. It is for this reason that the great educational experts of Europe and America are, so far as principles are concerned, in absolute agreement as to the higher view. This fact is mentioned as explanatory of the attitude of the Commissioners in regard to the scope, manner, and subject-matter of their inquiry. 7. Subjects considered in inquiry. — Among the questions or subjects to which the Commissioners directed their special attention, and which they studied and discussed with experts, are the following, viz. : — THEORY OF EDtTCATIOX. The Philosophy of Education. Ita fundamental ideas and principles. Multiplicity and unity of its aim. Physical in relation to moral and intellectual development. Tfio formative functions of Education. The development of the mind in respect of intellect, and of imagination. In relation to originality and consistency of thinking. In relation to the disposition (or passive character). In relation to the will (or active character). EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. Psychology in relation to paadagogy in general. Psychology in relation to the child-mind and its development. The harmonious cultivation of the mental and physical powers. The development of receptivity ; and the cultivation of habits of observation. The development of mental concentration. The intensification and fixation of mental impressions. The deepening and significance of apperception. The acquisition of readiness in memory, and the strengthening of its various types. The stimulation of initiative and of the originating and inventive faculties. The function of the so-called heuristic, socratic, catechetic, acroamatic, and other methods of education. METHODOLOGY. The theory of methodology in general. In the teaching of — Ancient and modern languages, and their structure. The mathematical sciences. Physical science and chemistry. Natural history. The various forms of geograpliy. Art subjects. General knowledge. JUVENILE MILITARY EDUCATION. The appreciation of the national duty of self-defence. The creation and cultivation of the patriotic spirit. The relation of the school to the military system. Tlic cadet system. THE KINDERGARTEN AND INFANT-SCHOOL GENERALLY. Function of the infant school and of the kindergarten in its various forms. Forms of manual-training and their significance. Stage at which they should enter into an educational scheme. The cultivation of sense of form, colour, sound, muscular-sense, touch, etc. The moral sense and its development. Tlie a'sthetic sense and its education. 'i'he formation of will and character in school-life. The fundamental ideals of life and their relation to early education. THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. Subject-matter and Ecope of primary education. Limitation of its range. Age of commencement. EH'ect of sex upon particular elements of education. The question of co-education in primary strliools. Conseiiuenees of a National or Stale system. Qualification of primary school teachers. The equipment of primary schools. THE 6 THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS* Subject-matter and scope of secondary schools. Age of departure from primary into secondary education. Question of sex and its consequences upon education. Necessity of a flexil)le scheme. Necessity for generality in the earlier stages of education. Partition of effort as between ancient languages, modern languages, and the sciences. Point at whicli intended career should determine the dilFcrcntiation of study. Questions of mode of teaching various subjects. Qualification of secondary school teachers. The equipment of secondary schools. CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. Continuation schools and their functions. Scope of continuation schools. Advantages of a State system. Qualilication of teachers. Equipments. OTHER BRANCHES AND HIGHER EDUCATION. Industrial and trade schools. Schools of Commerce. Art schools and schools for the decorative arts. Lower technical schools. Higher technical schools. Agricnltural schools. Dairying and farming schools Housekeeping schools. Other professional schools. Universities. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. For primary schools. For secondary schools. P'or professional and technical schools. For Universities. For special schools. Normal schools and their equipment. Museum and library of piedagogy, and of paedagogic material and of school-hygiene. Libraries of science and technology. SPECIAL SCHOOLS. Schools for the mentally defective. Reformatory schools. Schools for deaf, dumb, and blind. SCHOOI^HYGIENE, PHYSICAL CULTURE. School buildings and their design. School sanitation. School bathing. Cultivation of the powers and care of the body. The relation of school-equipment to health. Gymnastic training. Military drill. Other forms of physical development. GENERAL QUESTIONS. School discipline and corporal punishment, The care of schools and caretakers. Directors of .schools and their duties. Teachers of schools and their extra-official activity. Maintenance of efficiency. Examinations. Inspectors. Tlie higher activities of schools and of teachers and inspectors. 8. Relation of iiuhj)p.ndent suhjects to systemaiic investigation. — An investigation of subjects does not really constitute an inquiry into education ; it ought to be added, therefore, that the subject was also studied ia its unity. The essential characteristics of such an investigation are outlined in the next chapter. CHAPTEE III. CHAPTER III. Education and its Investigation. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Nature oj an investifjation of education. — The nature of a real investigation of education, as distinguished from a mere inspection of its machinery, involves a reference to the general theory of pedagogy. This reference can only be in outline, because it is hardly the function of the Report to develope the general theory. Its object is to reveal the essential ieatures of a thorough inquiry into educational systems. 2. Outline of the general theory of Pwdagogy. — Pajdagogy may bo divided in two branches — (1) Practical Paedagogics ; (2) Theoretical Pa;dagogics. The former deals with the following: — PRACTICAL ivEDAGOGICS. f Individual Education in.. Practical Forms of Education. I L Collective Education in Pajdagogy ... -{ Organisation of Education...-; .Forms of Administration C Personnel. Material. Legal Private. Public. C Private schools. ( Public schools. Law of Education. Administration of Law. i Control of the preparation and training of teachers. Supervision to ensure efficiency. These subjects may, of course, again bo subdivided, but tlio range of practical pa)dagogy is sufficiently indicated, and it is easy to see the type of questions that at once arise. For example, that of the State's relation to private and public education, at once suggests itself. Some idea of the way in which these questions open out, may be had from the following brief indication of the most obvious and important subordinate elements: — (o) Eelation of State to Private Education in regard to — (M Policy of State as regards Public Edu (i) Individual liberty in private teaching. |ii) Efficiency of private teachers. "I (i) Establishment of State schools. (ii) Condition of school-attendance. Free or otherwise. (iii) Obligations on tlie State's subjects. Compulsory or optional education. l^fjnJ'l"' Tn^'llfnollf \ (i^) Scliools privately organised, as to whether their liberty shall be absolute or subject to r ^ laws ensuring eihcicncy. I (v) Unification of educational scheme, and co-ordination of different grades of education. J (vi) Grade of education required of teachers, or of the community generally, etc., etc., etc. But to pass on to the second branch — (2) Theoretical Pasdagogics. This maybe subdivided as follows: — THEORETICAL PEDAGOGICS. ' Development of Body Physical Culture. Theoretical Pa:dagogy ...- Purpose of Education (Teleology).. Development of Mind ^ 3°,^ Senses. Memory. Imagination. f Guidance (Hodegetics) .Means of Education (Methodology) -j I Instruction (Didactics) Emotion. LWiU. Development of Soul Personal Character. Control. Moral Training. { General Aim. ( Special Aim. 8. 3. The supreme purpose of Education. — Here again each subject divides itself. First of all it may te asked, ". What is the purpose of education?" That question has been exhaustively discussed from every point of view. Without going into its detail, it may be said that, however much unthinking popular views may differ therefrom, educationists are practically in agreement that the moral education of the will is the highest purpose of education, that aim including through its perhaps unrealised compre- hensiveness, every other good of education ; > and it may be taken as settled that all responsible opinion fundamentally agrees with Dr. Eein's when he says, "The educator ought to so educate his pupil that his future personality will harmonise with the ideal of human personality." - That dictum places all other aims as subordinate and ancillary .^ This aspect of the matter is treated in the chapter on "Ethical and Eeligious Instruction and Education." The supreme aim of education is the development of personal character. 4. Physical culture in relation to Education. — In the view of Plato, the two great causes of human depravity were ill-directed education, and the corrupt influence of the body on the soul, and he urged the claims of mental and physical culture (music and gymnastic).* The importance of physical culture has been recognised in recent years in a remarkable way, and a rational system has been developed. This is outlined in the chapter on " Physical Culture, Gymnastics, etc." (Chap. XVII), where it is ishewn that rational physical education depends mainly upon physiology and psychology, this fact explaining in part the appreciation of these subjects as items in the training of teachers in Europe and America. The true teacher must ever be interested in the bodily growth and vigour of the child, and he should understand, tiierefore, the theory of gencr.al and school-hygiene, and the theory of health. School- hygiene is discussed in Chapters XL VI I to XLIX.) The dependency of the health and power of the mind upon physical health, and tlie value of guarding against defective dispositions and functional defects of the nervous systems of the rising generations during the forinative period of life (the school-years), reveal the importance of the question of physical education both to the individual and the State. 5. Alental Education. — In order to reach the purpose of education, the all-round development of the mental faculties is essential. Element. Qualities to he Developed. (1) Senses Discriminative precision, (quantitative and qualitative). (2) Memory Receptivity, range, retentiveness, recollectivity. (3) Imagination Versatility, vividness. (4) Intellect Intuition, ratiocination, analytic and synthetic power. (5) Emotion Delicacy, force, r.ange. (6) Will Tenacity, energy. Thus the education of the young may be said to involve operation on each of these mental elements with a view to developing them, that they may more efficiently contribute to the chief purpose of life. Education, in this view, demands on tlie part of the educator a knowledge at least of psychology, and it may be also said of philosophy ; and a full inquiry into the part played by these subjects is truly a part of the investigation of educational processes. Consider for a moment memory alone, how much depends in practical life upon its right use, upon the possession of a well-trained, receptive, and retentive memory, alert to every side of a subject or fact. This may bo taken as a typical illustration, for it is true in respect of other things depending upon psychology and philosophy. C. Theory of Guidance. — Hodegetics has, as previously indicated, two branches, — (A) The theory of control or discipline. (B) The theory of moral training. The former is concerned with external discipline, or the regulation of individual and of individuals from without, while the latter aims at regulation from within ; that is, through the disposition and character. Inasmuch as human beings have to live socially and communally, and spontaneous and uncontrolled self-expression is not uniformly agreeable, all have to learn — (a) To submit to social and communal restraints. (i) To acquire respect for other personalities as a ground for self-control. Impulse, unbridled power, reckless impetuosity, must be held in check either by the child himself, or by adequately strong means from without, and the child has to learn the existence of and respect for authority. The measures that are involved in controlling, or rather eliminating disorder, incivility, etc., are of two kinds, viz., those that — (i) Prevent disorder, etc. ; (ii) -Suppress disorder, etc. The discussion of (i) and (ii) involves a consideration of the theory of punishment and supervision. 7. ' Professor Dr. W. Rein says : — " Haben Kant und Herbart recht, dass der Wille das eigentliche Objekt aller ethischen Wertschiitzung bildet, so geht rtaraus mit unabweisbarer Cewissheit hervor, dass die sittliche Bildung des Willens als oberster Erziehungszweck angesehen muss." (If Kant and Herbart are right, that the will forms the proper object of all ethical estimation, then it follows with undeniable certainty that tlie ethical culture of the will mu.st be viewed as the supreme purpose of education.)— "Piidagogik," p. 71. ^Jbid.,p.2. ' Les m(5thodes r(5gnantes, elle ne travaille pas encore assez a la formation du caractore et voit trop son role dans la communication d'une close plus ou moins forte de gavoir On ne cesse de r(5peter qu'enseigner est peu de chose, qu'il faut savoir instruire, .... rendre Tesprit plus vif, mais aiissi le caraclere plus elere. (The prevailing methods do not yet sufliciently aim at the formation of character, and view their work too much in the light of communicating a greater or less amount of knowledge One can only ceasele3sly repeat that teaching is a small matter ; it is necessary to know how to instruct, .... to make the mind more eager, but also the character higher.) Les ^coles primaires. F. Guex, p. 190. * "The Republic." Books II, III. 7. Theory of PunisJiment, Supervision, etc. — The preyention of disorder is attained by — : (1) Suitable occupation — i.e., work and recreation — which keeps the minds and wills of the children occupied, thus regulating their conduct. (2) Supervision in which disorder of all forms is extinguished in its incipent stage. These matters require no comment. To (ii) belongs punishment. The infliction of which, experience has shewn, cannot be avoided. This maj take the form of — (ii) 1. Punishment increasing insight into conduct (punishment which acts by warning). 2. Punishment influencing the will {moral punishment). 3. Punishment discouraging certain acts {deterrent punishment). The function and operation of punishment, it may be said, is much better understood by educationists, and the insolence, cruelty, and stupidity of making corporal punishment one of the most frequent instead of the most rare aids to education, is widely recognised. In many places it has theoretically disappeared, as in our State, except for flagrant offences against discipline ; but it still exists. In other places it has altogether disappeared, except where it is used as the last resort, and consequently expresses the strongest form of disgrace.' shovt of expulsion. Corporal punishment tends to lower the self-respect of both master and pupil in all cases. A better understanding of psychology has shewn that discipline should bo directive, not coercive, and the significance of this on the character, is indicated in the chapter on " The Education of the Will." (Chap. XVI.) Briefly, it may be said that the true teacher will be felt by the pupil to be liis friend, and bo esteemed as such. Punishment, therefore, ought to be so regulated as to awaken the pupil from his (often) unthinking conduct to reflection or introspection, and this is its normal function. Ho must always feel that it was deserved. It is recognised that since punishment, to be effective, must be an unusual disturbance of the emotional life, it ought to be rare, for repetition dulls its moral ejfect. Pree obedience leads to moral independence, and to secure it, is a real education of the will, because it means leading the pupil to exercise self-control instead of coercing him. 8. Theory of Moral Training {self-control). — Turning to the second part of the theory of guidance (B), from Plato to Herbart it is recognised that "to make the pupil himself choose the good and reject the evil," is true education of character.i Throughout Europe and America it is now recognised that the teacher who has neglected psychology is seriously lacking in professional qualifications. Prom the kindergartner up, all are required to study its contributions to and meaning for pnedagogy. The ideal of the school, with the great educationists of the world, is a fusion into what may be called a united moral personality, the head of the school standing as its representative, and each teacher and pupil in his degree contributing a quota to its character and force. Concern for the reputation for character and intelligence of the little school-community can be made the instrument of progress, through a generous emulation. In most countries the following are regarded as playing an important part in moral education : — (1) School devotions and religious exercises. (2) School celebrations of every kind. (3) School oflSces of honour, monitorial duties, etc. (4) Study of individualities. (Character sketching.) The general aims of moral training should be : — (i) To restrain and regulate, so as to confer on the pupil stability of character, (ii) To lead to self-determination by the pupil ; but at the same time (iii) To inhibit unwise self-determination. Put briefly, it may be said that the value of intimacy of relation and personal moral influence is thoroughly and practically recognised by teachers in other lands, and in very many places seen by the Commissioners there was a most real aifection on the part of the pupils for the teachers, which after all is the only condition allowing of their personalities being made operative on the children. It is that direct and friendly influence by which discipline is made easy and efficient, and through which children can be inspired to effort. It is only with the old-time empirical teacher that the corporal-punishment discipline remains. Better understanding of the reactions of human feeling to moral treatment have forced a recognition of its demerits. The modern teacher looks for the cause of disciplinary failure in himself, and does not propose to find the corrective in producing pain in his pupil. Not only elsewhere, but also in this State, the beneficial influence of directive discipline is easily seen wherever it exists. 9. General Theory of Instruction. — As previously mentioned, didactics include two elements, viz.: — {a) The general aim of instruction (general didactics). {h) Its special aim (special didactics). Each branch deals with the — (!) Selection, (ii) Inter-relation, and (iii) Treatment, of the material of instruction, the former with regard to its general aim, and the latter with regard to the special aim of each subject. In regard to {a), the supreme purpose of education has already been indicated in section 3 herein. Kant held that the normal education of a human being should initially aim at — (1) The transformation of the sentiments ; and (2) The foundation of the character. Herbart agreeing with this, attaches great importance, as also does Eein, to what may be called the circle of ideas or sphere of thought developed in the human being, for these are what give tone op character ' Machen, (lass der Ziigling sich selbst finde, als wiihlend das Gute, als verwerfend das BUse : das ist nach Herbart sittliche Charakterbildung. Rein, Piidagogik. p. 121. 15— B 10 character to his life. Bearing in mind that character lies in the nature of the will, and that separated from all ideas the will is undetermined, it is evident that our ch.aracter of self-expression depends upon the ideas and thoughts through which the will is habitually solicited. There are three chief forms in our inner or psychical life, viz. : — (i) Eepresentation (mental); (ii) Feeling (or emotion) ; (iii) Striving (or desire). Knowledge in itself may, of course, consist of facts that in no way touch the will or solicit to action ; and though we are not wholly without the capacity of appreciating that which lies in what may be called the plane of pure intelligence, where the self as such is in no way involved, practical life is concerned with a very different state of things, viz., that where ideas invoke interest and incite to action. The general aim of instruction may consequently be described as that training of the sphere of thought in such a manner as to develope personal activity of a beneficial kind. The scheme of development may be indicated as passing through the range — Knowledge Interest Volition. In order that the human sympathies should have wide range — in other words, in order that all men and things should have interest for the individual— it is important that instruction should be so designed as to create generaliti/ of interest. 10. Theory of Interest. — It is a trite observation that we learn almost nothing in regard to wliich we have absolutely no interest. Educationists have consequently recognised that to be excellent the art of the educator must invoke interest, and that it is not suilicient unless the interest be many-sided. The possible range of human interest will appear from the following outline: — INTEREST. Objective. Subjective. Theoretical. Practical. Humanity. Deity. f'xternal Internal conceptions Useful. Beautiful. Individual. Society. As Idea. As Object, nature as of natural object. phenomena. Empirical Speculative Utilitarian ^-Esthetic Sympathetic Social Religious Personal Interest. Interest. Interest. Interest. Interest. Interest. Interest. Interest (Worship). According to Eein, instruction is truly educative when it begets in the pupil — (i) A deeply penetrating, many-sided, permanent interest ; when it assumes (ii) A moral-religious interest of the necessary strength ; and when it vouches for (iii) A unity of consciousness as a basis for the development of a personality of strong character.^ 11. Determination of the Matter of Instruction. — The general aim of instruction has to be conceived in a double relationship, viz. : — {a) In relation to the child as an individual ; and (V) In relation to the child as a unit of society. First, in regard to the child as individual. Goethe's observation, that " the human mind receives nothing but that which suits it," at once suggests the fundamental law in determining the matter of instruction. This law is : — (i) Instruction must be adapted to the degree of comprehension or stage of apperceptive develop- ment to which the child has attained. It is only in this way that instruction can create in him the requisite interest. Unless he thoroughly grasps its matter he will neither be interested nor will it operate favourably upon his character. The second law is : — (ii) The instruction must be adapted to awaken in the child not only self-consciousness, but also consciousness of his relationship to society (humanity) . This perception of the relationship with the world at large is very important, as it is the necessary foundation for large sympathies, large outlook, and broad culture. In his mental development, self- realisation and realisation of the world in which he is in contact, ought to -p'^oc.eed. pari passu. It is further to be observed that so long as the citizens of the world are aggregated under national divisions, so long will it also be important, that in the thought of his own progress, development, or achievement, ear^h child shall identify himself with his own family, community, nation, and by natural enlargement finally extend his sympathy to humanity. In this way his personality is developed through an ever- widening sphere of sympathy, which, while it can stimulate to the highest his patriotic feeling, will also deliver him from narrowness and insularity. This extension of his thought and feeling in regard to relationship, viz., from self to humanity — that is, through the range — Self — Family — Community — Nation — Humanity, is an element of education, the importance of which can hardly be overstated. -The area of sympathy depends on the area of consciousness, and this is why the teaching of History is so important, and why even from the first its more massive and striking facts, rather than its detail, should be imparted. 12. Co-ordination and Concentration in Instruction. — In the endeavour to impart instruction to his pupil, the educator is forced through two reasons, viz. : — (o) An ethical one ; and (5) a psychological one, — to co-ordinate all material of instruction, and to concentrate his own and his pupil's thought thereupon, in order that its moral influence shall be a maximum, and that what may be called its unity in his consciousness, shall be complete. The infinite variety of things that touch feeling or thought have through personality to be organised, so as to stand, as it were, in some unity of relationship. Eein quotes » Op. cit., p. 86. 11 quotes Stoy as saying : — " lustruction can, scarcely be better represented in thought, than under the form of a symphony, in which at different times a single voice takes up the motive, then retiring and making place for another, finally all harmoniously unite in a grand stream." i This conveys something of the right idea, viz., that through all the variety of teaching there should be a unity which the consciousness of the pupil will ultimately learn to recognise, the end being a well-organised body of knowledge. 13. Sphere of Ideas. — Reference has been previously made to the function of our sphere of ideas upon character. The real nature of cultural education cannot well be perceived without some explanation in regard to this. To the educational empiric there is no need to attend to anything but subjects. His conception is that this or that subject is useful, either as mental gymnastic or in practical life. This idea is, of course, wholly inadequate. There is a species of antithetical parallelism between the two groat divisions of matters, with which education is concerned, that can be represented as follows : — SPHERE OF IDEAS.' (A) Experience. Material environment. Nature. Knowledge. Broadening of experience. Natural Science. Realistic direction. (B) Intercourse. Personal environment. Life. Participation. Broadening of intercourse. Historical subjects. I Humanistic direction. General education given in educative scliools. Many subjects of instruction lie definitely in one of the two regions (A) or (B). For example. Pure Mathematic belongs to (A), and Pure Literature to (B). Others lie in both ; for example, Geography may lie in both regions. Some idea of the relation of the whole to educative instruction, may also be had from the following groujnng of subjects of educative instruction : — EDUCATIVE INSTRUCTION. Two spheres of subject matter. • Man. Humanistic subjects. Nattire. Naturalistic subjects. I Ethical. I Sacred History. Ethics. Religion. II Informative. I Literature. History. Languages. Ill Aesthetic. I Drawing. Modelling. Art Subjects. Singing. Ill Physical. I Manual Training. Gymnastics. Games. II Informative. I Geography, etc. Natural Sciences. Natural History. I Intellectual. I Mathematic Logic, etc. The above should be taken as merely suggestive of the organic relationships of subjects ol knowledge. In the development of a curriculum, it is held that what is known as educational atomism (Atomismus') should be avoided ; a curriculum should not be a mere aggregation of material, but should take account of — (a) Ethical purpose. (5) Psychological anci historical gradation of subject-matter. (c) Correlation of various parts of material of instruction (which after all is a re-expression of Plato's doctrine). 14. 'Formalism and Idealism in Education. — Educationists have been divided upon a matter of great importance, and which also affects teaching a good deal, viz., whether the material of instruction should be selected as a means to an end, and with regard to its formative value for the understanding ; or whether it should be selected on account of the value of its content, and its formative value as regards the disposition. The former is known as formalism (Formalismus) and the latter as realism {liealismus) . 15. Didactic Materialism and Psychological Realism. — In regard to the treament of the subject matter of instruction, the two views presenting the strongest antithesis are what are known as : — (a) Didactic materialism, (i) Psychological realism. In the former, the method of teaching depends on the subject, not, as in the latter, upon the capacity and development of the jmpil. The ordinary teaching of geometry in this State, namely, the following of Euclid through his several books,^ is an example of didactic materialism in teaching. The philanthropists sought to put teaching-methods on a somewhat higher plane than this lowest of all teaching-methods, and Pestalozzi endeavoured to adjust teaching to the capacities of the pupils at each stage of their development. The methods known as Socratic, heuristic, acroamatic, catechetic, demonstrative, practical, mechanical, etc., have disappeared as independent methods with educationists of eminence ; so also have the so-called analytic and synthetic methods, as representing the true expression of educational method. These are matters which every true teacher ought to consider, and upon which he should have an opinion. 16. ' Stoy, " Encyklopiidie der Piidagogik," p. II. ' See Rein, " P.adagogik," p. 103. * The truths of geometry are easily learnt, and are interesting, but the detestation of Euclid's Books is very general. 12 IC. Modern Teaching-metJtod and its Psi/cTiological Basis. — In modern teaching-method, which, however, is not that of this State, it is recognised that it is essential to take into account : — • («) The intellectual constitution of the pupil, (i) The psychical process in the child-mind. To do this properly all teachers should have studied psychology, which in this State they do not, even in the Training College, a fact which tells its own tale. '' Perceptions," said Kant, " without general notions are blind, and general notions without perceptions, empty ;" hence, if this dictum bo accepted, the true teacher must derive from psychology a knowledge of how to make his pupils form clear percepts, and clear concepts of the subject-matter of instruction. This is achieved through apperception and abstraction, that is to say: — (i) Distinct percepts depend upon Apperceptions.^ (il) „ concepts „ „ Abstraction.'^ The methods of subject-preparation and of individual lesson-preparation consequently involve a knowledge of what psychology has to teach in regard thereto. Each of these topics is a field in itself. As the object of this chapter is merely to explain the true nature and range of an educational investigation, the details of the theories of apperception and abstraction must be left untouched. It will suffice to mention that modern teaching is guided by psychology, and aims at changing ordinary perception into apperception. Each new item of knowledge must be perceived not in its isolation, but in its organic rel.ation to the conceptions already in possession of the mind ; that is to say it must be significantly perceived. Through apperception and abstraction clear, sharp-outlined concepts are finally formed, which, however, are significantly related to other concepts in the mind. This will sufficiently indicate the true method of teaching, and why all over Europe and America children are not considered qualified to teach. 17. Conclusions from Theory of Education. — Prom the preceding sketch, outlining the subjects with which education is concerned, and giving some idea of its detail, it will be seen that education is really a science, as well as an art. As a science it may be said to be dependent upon general researches in regard to the phiBnomena of development both of the body and of the mind. As an art it may be viewed from two standpoints : — (o) The Empirical. (J) The Eational. In any examination, that is either empirical or rational, teaching processes, organisation, teaching equipment, scheme of training, and the whole machinery through which the results are attained, would of course be studied. If the examination be purely empirical, the reason of each step in the process would not be inquired into, and judgment as to efficiency would necessarily be based on the mechanical elements of efficiency — for example, the ability to pass examinations conforming to certain prescribed standards, or in some such mechanical way. If the examination be rational, the elements of the curricula are important not so much in them- selves, as in regard to tohat they aim at. An empirical educationist will always be satisfied to witness process and machinery, and to ask for tangible results ; a rational educationist will inquire as to reasons of organisation and aim, and for results on mind and character as expressed in the disposition, characteristics, practical power, and general intelligence of the people as a whole. IS. Empirical and Rational Education. — First, in regard to former educational method. As has been shewn, Empirical Education is education that does not concern itself with the organic functions of education ; and to the empiric, Plato's idea of its unity is without meaning. The way in which an empirical scheme of education arises may be explained as follows : — Stage 1. — To " read, write, and cypher " are useful and necessary accomplishments, so that human beings may understand one another, and deal with the most urgent of the practical affairs of life. Let them, therefore, be made subjects of instruction. Stage 2. — A little Grammar, Geometry, Algebra, and Book-keeping, etc., are now commonly needed; let them be added. And so it goes on from stage to stage, subject after subject being added ; a little manual training, perhaps ; agricultural teaching ; and anything else that may suggest itself as useful, so far as the time available will permit. This fairly represents the growth of a curriculum under empiricism ; it includes this or that element because it will " be useful in after life," etc., and, properly speaking, it has no general theory of education, and no real recognition of the body of instruction as psychically organised. national education is totally different from empirical education. Even if the curricula under the two systems were identical, it would still be totally different ; and this is one of the reasons why a superficial examination of education is of-such inferior value. It recognises only subjects of instruction, equipments, and the machinery of education. But these things throw little light upon its real nature. Eor education that is cultural, which acts on the will, which favourably moulds the character, which awakens the mind to the issues of its own existence, which endows it with the power of thinking, may use exactly the same machinery ; but it not only secures all that the empirics can secure, it attains to the higher end of moulding the character of a nation. Subject instruction never does that. It is this great fact that has once and for all swept away the empirical conception as an adequate expression of what is necessary, in every country where education has been thoroughly studied. In fact, with teachers educated as they are in Europe, such a conception could not be entertained, for their whole education has rendered it impossible. The fact is, that the empirical conception only lives where teachers hare been trained under the system of pupilage. To this point reference will be made later. 19. ' Ueber Apperzeption. L»Dge. Plauen. ' Denken unci Gediichtnis. Dtirpfeld. Gutersloh. 13 19. Empirical investigation of education insufficient. — It is obvious that where education, its subject matter and method, aro exhaustively studied, educational experience has a unique value, because it continually tests educational theory, and helps to bring about adjustment of practice so as to conform to the conditions of hi(;hest efficiency. This, however, can take place only under the rational system ; the empiric never materially changes. Empirical education grows by accretion of elements, while rational grows organically. In the former, subjects are added; in thelatter, they are incorporated. This difference is fundamental, and though not very evident to the empiricist, simply because he does not study the philosophy of education, and often, indeed, believes that that is a mere name without reality, it profoundly affects the whole organisation of education, and the question of the proper method of training teachers; and it seems hardly necessary to add that the quality of training which teachers receive, determines the quality of the education afforded. The highly-trained teacher, competent as regards his information, well educated in the fundamental knowledge of his art, keenly conscious of the reality of the contributions thereto of psychology, etc. — conscious, moreover, of the direct aim of particular lessons, of the subject of which they form a part, and, moreover, of the whole group to which tliey belong — is a wholly different person from the teacher who teaches subjects merely. It is the former who appreciates the formative influence of education upon the individual, and. through the individual, upon national character. The fact that, to the superticial observer, the externals of education often seem identical in the two systems, viz., the empirical and rational, shews how necessary it is to go to the root of the whole matter, and view the subject in respect of its infellitjible aims. An illustration will perhaps make this clenr. Two schools may be identically equipped, the teachers in them knowing e.xactly the various items of knowledge constituting the series of lessons. If, in the one, however, the ])lan of teaching takes an intelligent account of the contributions of psychology to teaching, and the other does not, the first will bo efficient and the second relatively a failure. A casual visitor, however, perceiving only an individual lesson, will be wholly unable to judge concerning the merits of the two systems, unless ho understands their philosophy ; that is to say, the empirical investigation would be practically valueless. As a matter of fact, it sometimes happens that the better equipped and more pretentious school is the inferior in educative value. Important as the material school-equipment of a community is, and, in view of the aim of education, its importance is not likely to be over-estimated, it is still true that its theory or philosophy of education is vastly more important.'^ To understand the education of a country as regards its ideals and inwardness generally, is recognised as essential by all educationists. Curricula afford, it is true, a better gauge of the quality of education, and are therefore important ; but what is still more important, and what curricula do not always, and never perfectly, reveal, is their unity of treatment, and the perfection of their adaptation to the pupil, at each stage of the latter's development. It is evident, therefore, that, in themselves, they are inadequate for the purpose of judging an educational system, though taken with the training of the teaching-personnel, the two together throw considerable light upon it. These, united with a knowledge of the theory of education adopted, make it possible for the system to be thoroughly comprehended. 20. Necessity of rational investigation. — It is now clear what the rational investigation of the education of any country involves, viz., a sufficient command of its general theory of education, the nature and range of which subject have very briefly, and all too imperfectly, been outlined in the earlier sections of this chapter. Countries that have a national system of education have always this great advantage over those that have not, viz., their scheme of public instruction can be systematic. The public organisation of education can achieve for a community what private education cannot, viz., unity of aim and method. It is in the ])ower of every country that is in earnest about education, to so organise it, and to so train their teachers, that the schools of the people shall mould the characteristics of the rising generation in any way deemed desirable. In no country of Europe is it deemed sufficient for the State to propose merely to teach subjects. In other words, every country of Europe has deliberately rejected educational empiricism. The fact that European countries have rational systems of education is the real explanation of their excellence. Almost every possible mode of teaching has been exhaustively investigated in Europe, it having been the theatre of an intensity of educational discussion with which we are here as yet unfamiliar. Consequently, most of the ordinary questions that can be raised in regard to education have been practically settled. The school systems of the different countries are an attempt to embody their educational ideals, and, from what has preceded, it is evident that, to really grasp their meaning, it is not sufficient to study material organisation, equipment, educational method, and the training of teachers, one must endeavour to understand also the philosophical principles on which the whole is developed. One might say that where a country has only an empirical system of education, its system is hardly worth investigation ; if it has a rational system, the only sufficient investigation is the rational one. 21. Necessity of rational education. — To completely discuss the reasons why the rational is the only satisfactory system of education would be an exhausting task. It will be sufficient to suggest one or two important reasons. It has been found in certain countries (see hereinafter Chapter XVI on the " Education of the Will"), that instruction may be very perfect, and yet maybe defective as regards enabling a people to attain national achievement and development. Education is not merely instruction ; great knowledge is perfectly compatible with great weakness of will. A people may be well- informed and yet be without national ambition ; their acquirements maybe critical, but not practical — in short, they may know much and do little. It is ca.sy to see, therefore, that systems of education are not to be judged by the percentage of marks given by some teacher or inspector. Such awards could at the best only prove the mechanical efficiency of the system. As a matter of fact, they do not even prove that. The real test of a system of education is the progress, or otherwise, in the character of the people that comes under its influence. As each new generation arises, if it shew greater intelligence and force of character, if individual and national purpose seem to grow in vigour, if intellectual, industrial, commercial, and moral achievement become more and more striking — then one can rest assured that the educational system is well founded. It ' It is assumed, of course, that this theory controls the educational practice, 14 It is in this way that it is realised that the philosophy of education is important. Eevorting to what was said in the commencement of this section, it niay be pointed out that an intelligent direction of education will, on discovering that it leads to excellence in some directions, yet fails to develope important powers, seek to discover the reason. This means that it will resort to a rational investigation of the educational system. If it be found that a people is splendidly informed, but feeble in the practical affairs of life, it will be necessary to change the system of education in such a way as to confer practicality ; or, to restate this, the system must bo so transformed that not only will knowledge be at the service of the will, but the disposition, too, must be changed in such wise t\\a.t practical tendency will bo reinforced. Eational administration of education endeavours, by every possible means, to keep itself informed in regard to the tendencies expressing themselves in the life of the people ; and if these are for good it rests satisfied, if not it investigates the cause. An empirical administration is content with the reports of its inspectorial staff, and mistakes an even working of its oion mechanism for educational excellence. No system of education is satisfactory that does not equip a community to hold its own in the great rivalries of the human race, and to make it adept in exploiting its territorial wealth. 22. Consequences immediately flowing from a rational system of education. — Since the State is con- cerned in the education of the people from the lowest to the highest plane of education, forasmuch as every grade is necessary in the general development, it is essential that the State system of education should be profoundly influenced by the highest forms therein. Higher education carries with it some consciousness of all lower forms of education; but the contrary is not true. For this reason it is recognised throughout Europe and America that the more thoroughly primary education is permeated with University influence, the more certainly will its character be raised, and the more assuredly will it be forced to abandon empiricism and adopt rationalism in its educational processes. The influence must pass from above downward. The higher culture and wider outlook of the University must, as it wore, affect the primary system before it can achieve its end. The philosophy of education has come mainly through tho universities. Genius, if not immediately recognised, has always been finally appreciated in these homes of universal culture. The University influence tends so to mould the intellectual character of the teacher, and so to widen his sympathy and outlook, that he is, as it were, forced by natural tendency to sympathise with the rational view of education. That he should be a graduate is unimportant ; but that he should acquire the larger outlook is unspeakably important. The two most far-reaching consequences that flow at once from the higher view of education, are — (o) That in their education teachers should be subject to the highest educational influences ; and (5) That none but trained teachers should be allowed to operate educationally upon the minds of children. Rational education will not admit of the employment of teachers who do not understand the reasons for every step in the system. In order to make its elements organic — that is to say, in order to unify their influence, and to make them absolutely efficient in building up the character and intelligence of the people — each teacher must, in his teaching method, consistently maintain that character which not only conforms to the special aim of the instruction be gives, but also to its general aim ; in fact, he must be philosophically trained to teach. This at once reveals why untrained teachers (pupil-teachers) have either been absent, or are disappearing, from all countries which in their scheme of public instruction have endeavoured to reach the highest efBciency — that is, a rational system of education. To leave Europe out of consideration, the fact that in a practical country like America it should be considered necessary for a teacher of kindergarten, dealing with infants even before they are G years of age, to learn such a subject as psychology, and after a good secondary education to spend still one or two years in learning how to teach infants, not subjects of knowledge, but those things that make them dexterous and self-expressive, awakening their self-respect and respect for the individuality of others, ought to carry conviction that, to the American mind, the philosophy of education is of unqualified impor- tance. Between the view of education that regards such training as necessary, and that which allows the employment of unmatured, ill-educated, and untrained children as teachers, there is a great gulf. Put briefly, it may be said that if rational education is what is aimed at, the employment of such a class of teacher as has just been mentioned is wholly indefensible. The discussion of this question in Europe is, as already said, an impossibility. The allegation that rational education can satisfactorily proceed under such teachers, would be deemed to carry with it its own refutation. The contrast of the pupil-teacher system with that of the previously-trained teacher system will be developed in another chapter (Chapter XXVIII). Sphere of investigation of an Educational System. — From what has been outlined, the character oE a real investigation is evident. It may be defined as inquiry into education in respect of its — (a) Theory (J) Organisation, these being understood in the most comprehensive sense. CHAPTER IV. ■4 - CHAPTER IV, The Kindergarten and Schools for Infants. [G. H. KNIBBS, Pt. I, III; J. W. TURNEE, Pt. II.] Pakt I. 1. Origin of the Kindergarten and Infant-school. — Aa far back as tne IGth century, Bacon drew ii parallel between the child in the hand of the educationist and the plant in that of the gardener, as illustrating the immense importance of the earliest influences which are allowed to operate on the human mind. So also was Komensky (Comenius) not less impressed with this truth, and in his paedagogic doctrine he laid great stress upon it. He, however, as some educationistsi still do, believed that the proper educator was the mother, and in his view, it is on her that the duty of the child's first educational development should fall. But it must be admitted that, even where both the disposition and the instructed intelligence to properly undertake the task exist, there is frequently a lack of opportunity, owing to the pressure on the mother of various life-duties. This was realised by Pestalozzi, who planned, while Oberlin first formed, a sort of asylum for children, in which their early education could be looked after.2 These asylums were the forerunners both of the infant-schools and of the kindergartens, though something of the kind appears to have long ago existed in Egypt. ^ 2. Pestalozzi and Froehel. — Froebel, a pupil of Pestalozzi's, whose life-long consecration to his work, and whose original mind gave great value thereto, came, in course of time, to differ somewhat from his master's view of the true method of human education, and, grounding his whole theory on a belief that the laws of man's mental and moral nature, and those of external nature, had the same origin, developed on principles consistent therewith the special views associated with his name, and exliibited in the " Kindergarten " which he created. These were set forth, in part, in a work (Menschenerziehung) which appeared in 1826, but Froebel did not open his first kindergarten till the year 1837. Pestalozzi's fundamental idea of education was that the human faculties were developed by exercise; Proebel's that, in the initial stages, at least, the development depended rather tipon aronsin/f and directing voluntary activity (Selbstiitigkeit). Now it is this conception, according to Michelet,* that constitutes the ground on which Proebel must be regarded as one of the greatest contributors to educational theory, reform, and method. 3. Importance of initial stages of Education. — Both Pestalozzi and Proebel strenuously taught that the education received in the first seven years of life was a foundation profoundly aff'ecting the subsequent career, and they considered it to be, therefore, of transcendent importance. This first period, the most plastic of the human organism, is, in their view and that of their followers, and perhaps, too, in that of everyone who has seriously considered the question, uniquely the time when the physical, mental, and moral elements of the individual receive the determining initial impulses ; the time when that specific direction and energy, which constitute idiosyncrasy, are received. Then it is that a definite " set " is given to the physique, to the mind, and to the disposition of the child — a " set" which, lasts for life, for good or evil. All Pestalozzians and Froehelians feel that the early direction of education is of such moment that it should be the wisest of all ; that the initial steps should be taken with the createst care. In the highest branches of education the teacher must, in this view, be well-informed in his special subject, and possess in that subject the genius of discovery and invention, but his command of the art of teaching is then of least consequence. On the other hand, in the lowest branches, the art must be at its highest, and the teacher so widely and liberally educated as to rise to a deep sense of the significance of his or her work. It is only by the adequate recognition of the importance of the first steps in education that enthusiasm is possible ; it is only by vividly realising what it all means to the future of the individual, of the community, of the nation, that it is possible to receive that inspiration, without which the teaching will amount to little more than dull routine, without value. 4. Necessity for understanding of child-mind — Apart from the function of Proebolian kindergarten, or any modification of it, it must be stated that there is a world-wide recognition of the necessity of a deeper understanding of the child-mind, and ofhunan development as affected ly education, and of the necessity of this deeper understanding being possessed above all by the teachers of infant and kindergarten schools, and also those of the youngest classes in primary schools. . . . . ^ ' Many educationists believe that when general education has reached a more developed stage, tliere will be more and more home education; and in a Belgian home (that of Monsieur P. de Vuyst, I'lnspecteur d'Agriculture, Bruielles), an citremely fine equipment for infant-teaching was seen by the Commissioners. - The Salles d'asile, which are the direct progenitors of the Ecoles maternclles of France to-day, were started at Ban-dc-la-Roche, in the Vosges, in 1771, by Pasteur Oberlin. He opened there the first of the " £colc8 ii. Trieoter." • See section 21, hereinafter. * " Nos ills," 1869. In developing his life-work Froebel fused the ideas of Pestalozzi and Fichtc, the former regarding the child as in the deepest sense belonging to his family, the latter as belonging to the State ; and he endeavoured by instructing the mothers, and, through the kindergarten, to incite the cliild to self-activity. This is the fundamental principle of the kindergarten, and its whole machinery has that incitement for its object. 16 5. Infant-teaching involves serious preparation. — Some conception of tlie serious view, which obtains in almost every country visited, may be had by considering the programme for the training of such teachers — a training which stands out in startling contrast witli what has been officially considered necessary in this State. The following, for example, is the programme for kindergarten-teachers, as given in a Berlin iustitutioni, and it lasts about two years for an educated student: — 1. Psychology. 10. Froebelian occupations and development of same. 2. Theory of Education. 11. Drawing. 3. History of Piudagogy. 12. Manual work. 4. Theory of the Kindergarten. 13. Singing. 5. Hygiene. 14. Gymnastics, ball, and movement games. 6. Natural Philosophy. 1.^. Kindergarten practice in the various classes. 7. Theory of instruction. 16. Household work and work in the garden. 8. Theory of space. 17. The physical care of children. 9. German language. Bathing, cooking, and foods for children, . Such preparation for kindergarten-teaching, as is implied in the above course, is obviously in direct collision with the opinion so widely diffused among those who have given the matter no special attention that almost anybody is qualified to teach infants. The serious Pestalozzi-Frocbelian view is everywhere endorsed where the question has been studied in the light of experience by competently- informed people. Another example, taken at random, and from a very different quarter, may be cited, pro tanto, as tending to confirm the fact that educationists of experience do not propose to employ uninstnicted ^evaoviS in the education even of infant- children. The following programme, viz., that of the Department for training kindergarten teachers in the University College of North Wales, Bangor, is referred to : — KINDERGARTEN TRAINING, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, NORTH WALES. Preparation is offered for the Higher Practical and Theoretical Examination of the National Froebel Union. These examinations are open to candidates who have passed certain public examinations, including London Matriculation, Oxford and Cambridge Joint Board Higher Certificate, and the Elementary Teachers' Certificate of Board of Education. Candidates who have received a good general education may also qualify by passing a preliminary examination conducted liy the Board itself, which includes English, History, Geography, Arithmetic, and one other subject from the following Groups : — Elementary Latin, Greek, French, (Jernian, Mathematics, Physiography, Botany, Zoology. Course. — The Complete Course (Parts 1 and II) covers two Sessions. Students who have })as3ed examinations which exempt them from further tests in Botany, Zoology, Physiography, and Music, may complete the Course in five terms. Syllabus of Clas.ies at the Uninernity College, North Wales. (1.) History of Education, with special reference to the works of Pestalozxi, Herbart, and Froebel. Text-books. — Quick's "Educational Reformers," Pestalozzi's "Leonard and Gertrude," Froebel's "Education of Man," Felkin's " Introduction to Herbart," and such other special books as are from time to time required for the examination. (2 ) Theory of Education, includingt he elements of Psychology and Ethics so far as they relate to educational practice." Text-books. — Sully's "Teacher's Hand-book of Psychology" (now edition), Lange's "Apperception," James' " Talks to Teachers on Psychology." (3.) Practice of Education, including — (a) Theory of Curricula; (b) General Method, and Methods of Teaching the ordinary school-subjects ; (c) School Organisation, with special reference to Kindergartens, Transition and Preparatory Classes ; (d) Kindergarten Gifts and Occupations." (4.) Drill. — Theory and practice of Swedish Drill, (5.) B.B. Drawing, and Music. In addition, students attend the Junior College courses in Botany, Physiography, or Zoology, unless they have already qualified in these subjects. Practical Work. — Attached to the Department is a model Kindergarten and Preparatory School. To this school students are attached for purposes of observation and practice. In connection with this part of the course, students will be required to prepare notes of lessons, give criticism lessons, and make a special study of the gifts and occupations. This will sufficiently accentuate the point that kindergarteji work is treated seriously. The subject of the kind of training necessary for kindergarten and other teachers is, however, a matter with which we are here not immediately concerned, and will be dealt with later on. It is sufficient at present to observe that the fundamental idea, true also of other forms of infant-schools, and almost for the entire civilised world, is that even the teachinij of injanfs should he undertaken, only hy educated persons who havfi made it a special study, and not by uneducated novitiates iu the art of teaching, and that the work itself is transcendently important. C. Value of Infant-school. — The question of the special form or constitution of the infant-schools or kindergartens, and of their exact function, is one about which absolute agreement does not exist — a fact that will later be more fully discussed, as also the question of the relation of the State to infant- education generally. The former question, though presenting dissimilar features in different countries in regard to detail, differs but little in principle, and the trend of thoughtful opinion is that when the education even of very young children — 8 to 7 years of age — is not undertaken by the mother or guardian, it is desirable that it should be in a suitable " play-school ;" and it must be recognised that there are distinct moral advantages in such control of the child. The report of a Swiss authority, M. Clerc, previously referred to, puts the matter well, and has some application to our own State. Speaking of hie own country he says : — In Switzerland the State intervenes in the domain of the folk-school, only to accord its subsidies and to exercise the right of supervision. More and more is the disposition shewn in this country to place, an the foundation ofindinpenitable studies, the Kindergarten wyaniied accnnlinQ to the l<'roehelian xyntem. While many Swiss educators hold that the education of little ones ought to be wholly confided to their natural educators — the mother and the family — it is recognised that a greater and greater number each year find themselves in the position of being quite unable to discharge their natural mission. The daily necessity of earning their bread, and various occupations, cause many to leave their children to themselves. Liviuy in the street, these contract for life pernicious habits of idleness and vagabondage, and for such family education does not exist at all.^ This ' Berliner Verein fur Volkserziehung (Pestalozzi-Froebolhaus). See the " Verwaltungsbericht des Vorstandes filr 1901," p. 21. ' See L'Ecole populaire Suisse, par M. le conseiller d'Etat ; J. Clerc, Neuch itel. Chap, II. 1? This last remark applies to some extent to most cities throughout the world, and is true of the capital here, and of the larger towns of this State. Prom what the Commissioners have seen, there can be no doubt that the children are really happier in properly-conducted infant schools, in the " ecoles maternelles," and in the kindergartens, than they could possibly be, left to their own devices ; and, of course, they are profitably employed. Moreover, if the schools are hygienically satisfactory, they are also more healthily employed physically. What has been said so far suggests chiefly the importance of right method of child education. But as has already been said Froebelian schools exist in many degrees of modification, and there are also some infant schools which can hardly be called Froebelian in the rigorous sense, and many more that are in no sense either play schools or kindergartens. In order to understand the diflerence between these — that is, between the infant school of the ordinary sort and the Froebelian kindergarten — it is necessary to point out the original theory and form of the latter. The foundatioa ideas of the Froebel system are as follows : — 7. J^;erfM of the Froebelian Theory. — Man is a creatiye being in a state of physical and spiritual interdependence with nature, with an innate tendency to activity, and a desire for representing things ; the activity, together with the representational tendency, express themselves by creative impulses in the child, to fulfil which he seeks material, viz., play-things, and he attempts to draw. These efforts — i.e., the unconscious expression of the child's creativeness — are to he sacredly respected, and used as the means of his development, not by inhibition but by direction. The gifts and occupations, the gymnastics, the songs, the children's garden itself, the material of the kindergarten generally and the way of using it, are the outcome of Froebel's ideas as to the best means of teaching through piny. The fundamental notion of a Froebelian occupation is that it shall be a method which calls forth and directs the child's productive poicers} The inner nature of the child demands materials, but the child himself needs teaching their ttse in order to properly satisfy and profit by his inner impulses. Inactive observation can never take the place of productive activity. The earlier it is possible, by dexterity of hand, to objectify an idea, and in general the more intimately mental activity is associated with physical, the more normally will the mind unfold. Froebel aimed, therefore, in giving his exercises, not merely to make the children ttse all their faculties and members, but, clothing each exercise in the form of play, he required that they should produce a result appreciable to the child himself. By making him recognise that he is able to accomplish something, the foundation of moral dignity is established. Mere mechanical results and irksome ivork are to be avoided. Infant play, infant amusement, infant joy, are not only the proper conditions for child life — they are the essential conditions of child-development. That this development should have a definite sequence loas FroebeVs doctrine, and he endeavoured to ascertain the normal working of the child- soul, so as to make his method conform thereto. To this sequence he gave great attention, making it the subject of very careful and prolonged study. Ko one familiar with Froebel's work will lightly think of departing from his developments. It must be remembered, however, that the genius of the Froebelian method lies in its principles rather than in the details, and further that it is difficult to assign a limit to the sphere of application of these principles, as also will be obvious on reference to the following scheme of procedure : — THE FROEBEL PROCEDURE. Ball. Most primitive and clementarj' form : sphere. II. Ball {solid), Ciihe, Ci/linder. Three fundamental forms. III. Four boxes with blocks for buildings Division of solids. IV. Wooden Planes, Paper-folding. Concrete and tangible plane. Static. Paper-irp.aving, Transition surface to line ; plane divided by lines. VI. Sticks. Metal rings. Straight tangible lino VII. Beads. Peas, Tangible point. Corks. VI. Modelling. Return to solids. Form in flexible material (clay) V. Pea-work. Outlines of objects lines con- nected with points (concrete- sticks and peas). Thread-laying. ; curved tangible line IV. Paper-cutting. Divided plane in mathematical and regular sequence. III. Paper-folding. Folding in mathematical forms. 2. From objects. 1. Froebel's net drawing. II. Dramrx,:, 2. Visible point connected with 1. Line (embroidery figures). I. Seicing. Point. This Froebelian procedure is naturally the subject of an elaborate exposition, which need not here be considered. It will suffice to state that the " gifts" and "occupations " are regarded as a connected whole, designed and intended to developc the mental and physical capacities ; and it is alleged that their inter-dependence is such that this or that gift or occupation cannot be arbitrarily left out without impairing the utility of the whole and injuring the result. • Lif) Paper-folding : Globular forms ; large flowers. (c) Reelwork by boys : Cord and string made into table-mats (d) Knitting-frames : Caps made. IV. Pupils 7 years old (lower section) — (a) Straw-splitting and weaving. (/)) Blob-painting; Early lessons child's own effort ; crude it may ho, 1 the child s own; later on fill in with colours. Hectographed designs supplied by teacher, (c) String-work in frames. V. Pupils 7 years old (middle section)— (a) Daisy mats : Winding and cutting. (b) Paper-folding and cutting, advanced. VI. Pupils 7i years old — (o) Canvas-work : Sewing and weaving. (b) Blob-painting : Covers for flower-pots. (c) String-work : Cotton and silk. Nothing has been said here specially of drawing, because this subject is included in all infant- school curricula, and will be fully treated under the head of primary instruction. The Froebel Educational Institute, Kindergarten Section, West Kensington, is attended by about forty pupils, ranging from 3 years of age to 7, and is carried on under private management. To the institution there is attached a training college for the study of Froebel's principles, and the students gain their practical training in the kindergarten school. The school itself exists for the better class of people, who pay £2 2s. a term for the education of their children. The building is situated in a very nice part of the suburb ; the rooms are large, especially those used for the games and plays, well-lighted and well ventilated ; the curriculum is largely composed of the usual gifts and occupations, games, plays, and stories. Nothing is done in the way of clasa-work, reading, and writing. The school has also an upper section which is fed from the kindergarten, and the principal claims that the training gained in the lower school is a fine preparation for the advanced work. A visit to the higher classes did certainly prove that such subjects as drawing and brush-work are of very high standard. In connection with these classes it should be stated that no teacher has more than twenty pupils to teach, and in some instances only eight or ten. In the Wimbledon High-School, provision is made for the teaching of games and the usual kindergarten occupations, etc. ; and very good accommodation has been provided. With the actual results the Commissioners are not acquainted, for the visit was made with the object of investigating a new method of teaching the child to read. Under their teacher was heard an exposition of her method given by little boys and girls of from 4 years to 7 years of age, and the importance of teaching a clear enunciation was ably demonstrated, the actual work, oral and written, performed by the pupils themselves, being worthy of the highest appreciation. While the method seems a rational one, it does not appear to give results superior to those seen in some of the English Board Schools. This teacher is on the staff of the school, and her ideas have become so popular that she has been asked by the London School Board to explain her methods to the teachers under their management. It may be observed that perfectly clear enunciation is a very marked feature of all continental teaching of either the mother tongue or foreign languages, and the exact appreciation of the phonetic elements of language receives the highest degree of attention. This was, perhaps, most strongly exemplified in the folk-schools of Holland. The matter should receive consideration throughout the whole of the kindergarten-teaching. 13. German Kindergarten. — In Frankfort, the Frauenbildungs-Verein supervises the training of females for kindergarten and housewifery. The kindergarten visited had an attendance of ninety pupils, taught by a mistress and two certificated permanent assistants, with further assistance of the students of the training institute, obtaining their practical knowledge. The pupils, aged from 4 to 6, attend from to 12 in the morning, and from 2 to 5 in the afternoon, and pay 4 marks per month. At 1030 there is a break of half-an-hour during which the little ones sit down to their meals — which they bring with them — in one of their class-rooms under the supervision of the whole of the students. The programme is based on the principles of Pestalozzi and Froebel, and the first feature of the institution was the excellent playground beautified with plants and flowers. In this area there was opportuiiity for physical activity and every child was occupied, some with their barrows and carts, others with a heap of sand which is provided. After this outdoor recreation, one of their inside games, an orchestral rehearsal, was witnessed — this was of great disciplinary value. The internal arrangements of the institution did not contrast favourably with the large and cheerful playground. There is no teaching of reading, writing, or arithmetic, and at the age of G years the pupils are sent to the primary school. 14. f UNI) at 14. Butch Kindergarten. — The Kindergarten School and College at Leyden, Holland, is a very interesting institution. It is the only state training-school for infant teachers in Holland, and has accommodation for twenty-five students in residence, but is attended in all by seventy students, who come from various parts of the country. The institution is subsidised by Government to the extent of 3,500 gulden annually (about £299), by the city of Leyden, L',000 gulden annually (£172), while the twenty- five students in residence pay, in the aggregate, 12,500 gulden annually (about £1,068). In return for the contribution of Leyden, the College supplies infant-teachers to the schools of that city free. The pupils' ages range from 3| years to (i; at 6 they enter the primary school. The teaching is a modification of the Froebelian kindergarten with a strong bias in favour of hand and finger-work. Great encourage- ment was given to verbal explanations by the pupils. The Director has introduced a system of well- designed coloured prints, in book form, presenting some well-known nursery rhymes or familiar objects. Each child has one of these books and each is asked in the hearing of his class-mates to describe all he sees. The object of this exercise is first to train the power of observation, and secondly, to give facility of speech. The College issues a diploma, recognised throughout Holland. 15. French Kindergarten. — In Paris kindergarten work was seen in a municipal primary school, in the Hue de la Jussienne. This school is worked in three separate departments — boys, girls, infants, and the work of each branch received attention. In each department the aesthetic characteristics of the French people were very noticeable in the excellence of the pictorial mural illustrations. The black- boards in the different class-rooms, the panes of glass, and the walls, bore telling evidence of the style of teaching adopted. The whole room was beautified with them and this pictorial work, often actually descriptive of the daily lesson, was carried out by the teachers in the presence of the pupils. For hygienic reasons, even the youngest pupils work on paper; in the highest classes they are encouraged to write out their ideas on a subject and illustrate it — e.g., a fire, a tram-car, abridge. Some time is devoted to finger-work. In the lowest classes games and play and stories, with the simpler gifts and occupations form the programme, but it was noticed that in the higher classes reading on the phonetic principle was introduced, a large amount of writing on paper with the lead pencil, and some counting. The system of education, both primary and secondary, in Paris isiu the hands almost entirely of the Municipal Council, and the teaching in ])rimary schools is absolutely free. In the school just mentioned the course of instruction is free in all the departments. The following is the time table for the ecoles maternelles, in the Department of the Seine: — Tuesday. Wedmnday. Friday. Saturday. of cleanliness. Visit to the cabinets. Entry into class. Heading exercises, writing and language. Play. School games or gymnastics. Object lessons. Same as Monday. Dismissal from class. Lunch. Play. Visit to the cabinets and lavatories. Re-entry into class. Exercises in reading and language. Singing. Arithmetic. Arithmetic. Singing. Play. School games or gymnastics. Morals. Drawing. Drawing. Drawing. Manual work. 10. American Kindergarten.— In America the system was investigated in the cities of Now York, l?oston, Springfield (M.), Chicago, and Toronto. The leaching forms thcfoundation of the public school, system in each of these towns and includes none of the ordinary branches of infant-school classwork. The pupils enter the school about the age of four and at six years are transferred to the lower grade of the primary school where reading, writing, and arithmetic are first introduced. The methods approach more closely to those of the German school than was noticeable in other countries excepting Switzerland, but the internal arrangements and the material organisation were very comprehensive. The rooms sot apart tor the games and plays are bright and cheerful in appearance, well-ventilated and well-equipped. The apparatus is of the best quality and is manufactured in the country; and in the city of Springfield, Mass., one of the largest factories for the manufacture of kindergarten material was inspected. The pictorial illustrations, colour sketches, which pleased the eye so much in Paris, are reproduced here with equally artistic skill and effect. This free use of the coloured chalks is very general in all the American schools, and appears to be a direct result of the teaching in the normal schools. In Boston and Chicago it was quite clear that the educational authorities had fixed upon the most densely-populated parts of the city in which to locate their kindergartens. In the former city the kindergarten visited was in the midst of dull .and gloomy-looking buildings, which, with most people, would have a depressing influence. This was the impression as the institution is viewed from the outside. What a change takes place as one leaves the street, which is the common playground, and enters the institution ! Here each of the class-rooms is a little paradise ; bright, sympathetic teachers ; clean, happy, little children, for if not clean on entry they have been bathed on the premises ; rooms cheerful and bright ; walls and window-blinds in colours restful to the eye ; " chalkettes " on every panel ; beautiful plants and flowers and pretty pictures wherever they could be placed ; in a word everything that could excite interest in the minds of the children attending. In the Chicago kindergarten visited, two different lots of children are taught daily under the one staff, the morning session lasting from 9 to 12 with the recess ; the afternoon from 1 to 3. The opportunity of seeing ' Anecdotes, biographies from national history, accounts, geography, travels. On Thursday and similar days, . . the morning class begins at 9-.30 and ends at 11-30, and is broken by recreation for a half-hour; the afternoon class commences at 1 -30, and terminates at 4, and is broken by play for three-quarters of an hour. The programme of Thursdays clas.ses comprehends all the conversations, stories, drawing exercises and manual work, and singing. For each class in the school, the time-table made by the lady-principal conformably to the aljove general directions, with any modifications which necessitate school-games and gymnastic exercises, is to be approved by both the primary inspector and by the lady- inspector of manual schools. These time-tables are to be put up in the class-rooms. Hours. Monday. 9 915 Inspect 915 1015 101.'5 10-45 10-45 11-30 Stories." 11-30 1-0 10 1-15 Vi 115 1-45 1-45 2-30 Arithmetic. 2-30 30 3 3-30 Drawing. 3-30 4-0 22 seeing the Chicago kindergarten college at work was fortunate. Some of the students were engaged in occupations that they would later on be expected to teach ; a small advance class was receiving instruction in psychology from one of the college professors, and later the whole body of the students under the " directress of games " gave a display, such as forms part of the ordinary kindergarten curriculum. In all the kindergartens visited the furniture is of the simplest description, and advisedly so. The seats and tables are of cheap material, and are suitable for all requiremeuts. Galleries fitted up with cedar dusks and other costly articles of furniture are not known, and are unnecessary ; they are also inconsistent with the kindergarten ideal of freedom. In all schools a good supply of apparatus was noticed. Paht III. 17. What Kindergarten may include. — In viewing the matter in its entirety, and in the light not only of what was seen, but also in regard of the multitude of existing opinions, the Commissioners feel that the original Froebelian kindergarten, while just in principle, limited itself in dwelling so much on the use of the gifts and the occupations ; and they recommend for general introduction into this 8tato what may be called the modified kindergarten. Whether one agrees with the mysticism of Froebel or not, the spirit of M. Guex's remark commends itself to the Commissioners when he says : — In order that tlie cause of the Froebelian School sliall progress more and more, it is necessary to disarm the still too numerous adversaries of that institution ; to shew that one is able to have a gooer. I, Preparation Jor Winter by Man : — 1. In the homo : Food, clothing, shelter, 2. On the farm : Harvest. II. Thanksgiving. (Thanksgiving Day occurs in November.) December. I. Winter : — 1. Moon and stars, ) g^^^^j ^j -^ 2. Irost, ice, snow, \ II. PrejTaration for Christmas i — 1. By others for us. 2. By us for others. Christmas celebration. January. I. Time:— 1. Division of time. II. Go-operation through Industries : — 1. Trades : Carpenter, blacksmith, cobbler, weaver, baker, etc. February. I Patriotism ; 1. Soldiers. 2. Washington. 3. Heroes and heroic deeds. March. I. Forces in Nature : 1. Water : Water-wheels, mills, navigation. ) ,,..,. , , 2. Wind : Wind-mills, kites, sails. *" f Utilised by man 3. Heat : Melting of ice and snow. April. I. Awakening of Life in Nature : 1. Flowing of sap. 2. Budding of trees. 3. Butterflies. 4. Return of birds. May. . Life in Nature : 1. Nest building. 2. Gardening. 3. The farm. 4. Bees, ants, fishes, etc. June. I. Beauty in Nature : 1. Flowers, verdure, cloud sky, rainbow, sunshine. 2. Excursions. The 25 The two strands — the child's environment in nature and his human relationships — are carried through the entire year, continuity being the basis of the kindergarten. Such a programme as the above is itself a revelation, not only of the moral possibilities, but also of the inestimable value of the kindergarten from every point of view. It brings into prominence also the notion of the kind of teaching to be done in the infant-school. The so-called scholastic elements, " reading, writing, arithmetic," etc., can be treated in an equally effective manner, still retaining the Proebelian ideas of play, homogeneous development, and incitement to self-activity. 21. Kindergarten to he judged qualitatively. — Throughout the whole of the work of the kinder- garten, it must be borne iu mind that it has always to be judged qualitatively. The Swiss view is well expressed as follows : — This institution, viz., the kindergarten, is not to be judged by the total knowledge communicated to the pupil, or the level to which the teaching attains, but rather by the ensemble of good physical, moral, and intellectual habits which the child exliibits ; by tlie pleasure which ho takes in all his work, and not by a veritable ransacking of ideas, choking up the precious germs of reflection and judgment ; and, above all, of tliat fine and healthy curiosity that we name interest. What nonsense such premature teaching is : instruction from the beginning ! What is necessary to be insisted upon, once for all, is not to compel these little ones to read, calculate, or write with such or such a degree of ability. The essential aim is rather to make them know loell the little that they do know ; to see that they are not disgusted with school-tasks, the work of the school, and that they shew their earnest desire to see, observe, to listen, and to have the soul open to every good moral impression. The servile pajdagogy of the books, injurious enough in the primary school, is here still more so. Is there any need to say : " VVlio will deliver us from it for ever?" Wherever attempts to bring about an accord between the Froebelian and primary schools have been commenced, they continue ; but may it never come to pass that the primary school shall encroach upon the infant school, for it is the infant school that should force the gates of the primary school. Sufficient has been adduced to indicate the value of the kindergarten, to prove that it is more than worthy to become a part of the State system. No one can have a real knowledge of well-organised kindergarten without appreciating it highly. 22. Appreciation of the Infant-school. — It remains to indicate what is thought by countries that have originated infant-school systems, and what development and extension have taken place. Franco and Algeria together had, in 1896, a population of about 43 millions, of which 2f millions were children between the ages of 2-6 years, the period during which they may attend the Ecole Maternelle, and about three-quarters of a million were actually enrolled in such schools. For these there were 5,683 schools, 2,574 being public, and 3,109 private. There was, therefore, one school for every 470 children of from 2-6 years of age, and for every 128 children in actual attendance.^ Since that date the provision for little children is still greater. France is a country, therefore, whose experience lends some weight to its opinions. Writing in 1900 for the Exposition Universelle Internationale, the Ministerial report states : — Since the earliest education has become a service of the State, it has been transformed and bettered in a marvellous manner. The exact instructions have indicated the end, viz., the physical, intellectual, and moral development of the child, taking account of age, temperament, and means. The Ecolle Maternelle of the exhibition has shewn how our directresses attain that end by force of patience, by perseverance, by the (liveliness of ingenious affection ; how they bring about a liking for regularity and neatness ; how they habituate the eyes to better seeing and the ears to better hearing ; how they render the little fingers agile and skilful ; liow, above all, they awaken the intelligence and open the souls to good moral impressions without concerning themselves overmuch to add several pages more or less of the spelling book. 23. The statistics and a hrief sketch of Kindergarten development. — The following sketch mainly statistical makes no pretension either to definite arrangement or to completeness. Its whole purpose is merely to give some conception of the extension of kindergartens. A full history has yet to be written, and it was quite impossible, in view of the urgency of this Eeport, to give any time to elaborating and completing the information, which had naturally to be drawn from very varied sources. Unfortunately, the statistics of many countries were either not available, or reference to them would have involved an excessive expenditure of time. 21. Infant Schools in Ancient Egt/pt. — That some of the fundamental ideas of kindergarten are really very old, will appear from the fact that a notion of learning by play was in vogue with the ancient Egyptians, as the following passage from Plato will shew : — "All freemen, I conceive, should learn as much of these various disciplines as every child in Egypt is taught when he learns his alphabet. In that country, systems of calculation have been actually invented for the use of children, which they learn as a pleasure and amusement. They liave to distribute apples and garlands, adapting the same number either to a larger or less number of persons ; and they distribute pugilists and wrestlers as they follow one another or pair together by lot. Another mode of amusing them is by taking vessels of gold, and brass, and silver, and the like, and mingling them or distributing them without mingling. As I was saying, they adapt to their amusement the numbers in common use, and in this way make more intelligible to their pupils the arrangements and movements of armies and expeditions ; and in the management of a household they make people more useful to themselves and more wide-awake ; and, again, in measurements of things which have length and breadth and depth, they free us from that ludicrous and disgraceful ignorance of all these things which is natural to man.^ " 25. Maternal Schools in France. — At Paris, in 1855, the Baroness Marenholtz-Biilow created interest in the Froebelian idea, giving over one hundred lectures in three years, and through her ardent advocacy winning over to her cause the Cardinal of Tours, Monseigneur Marlot (afterwards Archbishop of Paris), Marbeau (founder of the Protective Associations for Children), Martin Pachon (counsellor of the Consistory), Fourier (the philosopher and economist), and others The Catholic asylums, schools, and convents, accepted the kindergarten, owing to its espousal by Jules Mallet, a philanthropist ; and the Empress Eugenie became interested and had a trial made in the croches.3 In his "La Femme" (1860), Michelet writes: — "It is not enough to promote natural energy, it must be encouraged by preparing its course of action ; this is what Froebel's genius discovered. ... I saw at once that this is, in truth, the education for our times." Before ' Statistique de I'enseignement primaire, VI, 1896-7. Paris, 1900, 2 Dialogues. Vol. IV, Book VII, p. 356. ' An interesting account of the Baroness' efforts in Paris will be found in the account of her life by the Baroness Von Bulow-Wendhausen. Harison, New York, 1901. pp. 233-252, 15— D 26 [ ' Before the Baroness left Prance, the Froebel system had been introduced into Paris and many smaller cities. The political events that shortly afterwards arose are mainly responsible for the disappearance of the name of Froebel from the schools of Prance; but the Froebelian spirit is undoubtedly incarnate in the work of the Ecoles Maternelles in a very real way. In regard to actual numbers France (with Algeria) probably heads the list with: — Year. Infant Schools. Teachers. Pupils. Population (1896). Public 1896-7 1896-7 2,574 3,109 452,289 277,359 I 42,947,396 rriviite Total 5,683 9,414 729,648 Some idea of the development will appear from the following statistics from Paris alone, for these Ecolea Maternelles : — Year. Schools. Classes. Pupil 1878 110 127 159 lis 269 663 17,081 22,879 1889 1900 29,539 For the year last-mentioned there were 717 teachers for these schools, viz., 158 directresses, 506 assistants, 53 licentiates {starjiaires), and in addition 250 women engaged in cleaning, etc., and 75 conciergies. It will be observed that France has, for each million inhabitants, 1!52 infant schools of the modified kindergarten type with nearly 17,000 infants, in a dense population, and for them 219 teachers per million inhabitants. It is, of course, obvious that there is hardly a sufficient number of teachers. In our own sparsely-populated State the proportion should, of course, bo much higher, but the whole kindergarten work in New South Wales is a negligible quantity. 26. Kindergarten in United State*. — Next to France, in the kindergarten development, comes the United States of America, where, perhaps, the average kindergarten approaches still more closely to the Froebelian model. As early as 1854, Henry Barnard reported to the Governor of Connecticut that the Kindergarten was " Jy Jar the most original, attractive, and philosophical form of infant development the world has get seen." Two of the important pioneers of the movement in the United States were Miss II. Haines of New York and Miss E. Peabody of Boston. Tho latter had studied Froebelian methods ir( Germany and became an ardent advocate of his doctrine ; while the former had asociated with her a Misa Boelte who, for three years, had worked with Froebel's widow. To-day there are about ■ 160 local associations for tho propagation of the kindergarten methods. The most important are — ■ Golden Gate, San Francisco, which has 41 kindergartens; ». New York association with 70 ; Brooklyn with GO; and Chicago with 80. In 1873 the United States had only 42 kindergartens, with 1,252 children in attendance. The public kindergarten institutions in the United States commenced at St. Louis in that year, viz., 1873, when Mr. W. T. Harris, now the Director of the Bureau of Education, was School Superin- tendent of that city. On his resignation, in 1880, there were 7,828 children attending public kindergartens. Mr. Harris' work had shewn that the period of infancy, from four to six say, was really critical, inasmuch as it affected the whole future life ; and he argued that if the family does not provide for education during these important years the state should ; that the creation of maternal schools of the kindergarten type were just as much a state duty as the creation of primary schools. Some idea of how the Froebelian views have engrafted themselves on the American educational "system appears in the fact that in New York alone there were, in 1900, about 100 public and 500 private kindergartens, and the total number of kindergartens had increased, as shewn in the following tables: — Year. Kindergarten Schools. Teachers. Pupils. 1900 2,998 2 1,365 ? 93,737 Public 95,867 Total kinderj jartens in U. S. A 4,363 8,937 189,604 The rate of growth is exhibited best in the following table :- Year. Population. g^ten's: I Teachers. Pupila. Year. Population. ^^^^ Teachers. Pupils. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 Millions. 41-490 42-570 43-700 44-881 46 112 47-397 48-744 50-135 51-274 42 73 55 125 95 216 130 364 129 3.36 159 .S70 195 452 232 524 273 676 1,252 1,6.36 2,809 4,090 3,931 4,797 7,554 8,871 14,107 1882 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1892 1898 1900 1900 MillioDS. 52,441 54,919 56,221 57,447 58,712 59,9.35 64,834 72,737 75,273 348 354 415 417 544 521 1,311 2,884 4,363 4,811 814 831 905 945 1,256 1,202 2,5.35 5,764 8,937 9,641 16,916 17,002 18,8.32 21,640 25,9-25 31,227 65,296 143,720 189,604 ' 225,394 3 ' According to statistics for the Paris Exhibition. 'According to the Report of the Commissioners for Education, 1899-1900. Vol. 2. Canada. 27 Canada.— In Ontario the system of kindergarten instruction was introduced in 1882, and in 1885 made part of the school system, by the Public Schools Act passed in that year, for children of from 4 to 7 years of age. In 1882, 1893, and 1S98 the development was as follows : — Year. Population. Kindergartens. Teachers. Pupils. 1882 1,926,922 2,115,.S21 2,130,000 (about) 1 (Origination of syste: 69 1 160 n). 1892 6,375 1893 85 116 200 8 056 189S 240 11,083 The proportion is good, though not quite so large as for the United States. Kindergarten is taught in all the training classes. North-west Territories. — Kindergarten can be established under the public instruction system for children of 4 to G years of age — fee, 1 dollar a month. Nova Scotia. — Kindergarten is formally taught at the provincial normal school Truro, and all students for the career of teacher have the opportunity of visiting the Truro kindergarten and of there witnessing the application of Froebelian methods. 27. Guardian Schools in Belgium. — It was in 1857 that the Baroness Marenholtz-Biilow, by invitation of President Eogier, urged the establishment of the kindergarten in Belgium, the system being introduced into schools, convents, and monasteries. Kindergartens were established in Brussels, Ghent, Antwerp, Namur, Nivelles, etc. The development of the e'coles tjardienncs of Belgium is shewn by the following statistics : — Year. Population. Schools. Teachers. Classes. Pupils. 1894 1895 6,378,000' 6,447,900' 6,517,000 ' 6,5S6,593 6,K69.732 6,745,000' 1,347 1,431 1,769 1,905 2,065 2,108 2.263 2,3S0 2,809 2,973 3,266 3,503 2^713 3,396 151,289 158,504 1896 182,649 1897 1898 194,992 210,952 1899 222,007 ' That the»o ccoles ijardiennes of Belgium arc Procbelian will be seen from the following directions: — The teaclier (mistress) of an iro!i: (jardiemic i« above all to devclope the spontaneous and free acHviti/ of the child. She is to make the teaching thoroughly iiituiiiie, presenting tlie thing before the worlt. She is to proceed from that wliich is at hand to that which is remote, from the simple to the complex, from tho concrete to the abstract. (She is to provoke unceasingly association of ideas, and to make evident the link, uniting the occupations, etc., the games, and the successive exercises. She is to frequently return to the same notions, but to present tliem under variotts forms. She is to use the Socratic and expositive forms of instruction with discernment. She is to early accustom the child to express simply, but correctly, the result of his observations, as well as his thoughts and feelings. These are the essential things in the Froebelian method, and besides these there are all the other features, e.y., manual Froebelian occupations, games, gymnastics, singing, etc. Eoference will later be made to the kind of knowledge which must be possessed by a teacher of an dcole gardienne. 28. Guardian Schools in Luxemhourg. — The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, with a population of about a quarter million, had, in 1899, 16 public and 13 private dcoles gardiennes for the infant children. 29. Kindergarten in Holland. — In the summer of 1858 the Baroness Marenholtz-Biilow visited Princess Heinrich of the Netherlands, at the Hague, during which time she won over the sympathy oi- Van Eochuszen and Van Thorbecke, State Ministers, Frau Von Calcar, and others. Kindergartens were established in many places, and, in 1SC5, tho last-named lady shewed the Baroness a number of well- conducted kindergartens in Amsterdam and the Hague, which she herself bad laboured todevelope. There are now such schools throughout Holland. The State, however, does not charge itself with the care of the infant schools (BetcaarscJiolen). In 1880 there were 972 infant schools, and in 1900, J,047; but complete statistics are not available. : 30. Kindergarten in Denmark. — In Denmark, Dresden Froebelian graduates have been at work for some time, and a Kindergarten Association lias been formed to organise the founding of kindergartens, and to prepare the directresses for their work.s 31. Infant Schools in Norway and Sweden. — The development of infant-schools in Sweden is exhibited in the following table ; they were first established in 1853: — 1874. 1882. 1386. 1890. 1896. ' Pupils- Stationary ; 1 90,327 105,362 102,490 93,161 111,729 78,577 127,2-22 64,481 Total J 19;),0.S9 195,651 190,308 191,703 Teachers 1 4,298 4-341 4,920 4-621 5,080 4 702 6,43S 4-784 5,789 9 5010 ' Approximate only. ' Tho above table gives 326 infant schools, with 519 teachers, for each million inhabitants. ' According to a statement mode by Baroniu Bulow-Wendh&uscn in tho Dreedner Anxeiger. 32. 28 32. Infant Schools in Switzerland. — Although Proebel had developed his system in the G-erman cantons of Switzerland about the year 1833, there was little survival of result when the Baroness Mavenholtz-Biilow revived the cause in 1856 at Zurich. During the interval up to 1865 kindergartens were re-established, Professor Eoux, of Lausanne, Frederic Soret, and others helping ; and Geneva, Lausanne, and Neuchatel being the three chief centres of activity. From that time forward the development has been very great, as the following statistics of infant schools {r.coles enfantines, ecoles maternelles, ecoles frobeliennes, kindergartenschulen, kleinkinderschulen) from 1886 to 1900 abundantly shews : — Year. Population. Infant-schools Teachers. Scholars. 1887 2,917,754 554 508 515 564 563 636 679 711 669 671 720 723 759 767 611 581 589 681 703 768 816 881 86S 914 962 978 955 960 20,014 20,745 1888 1889 21,689 24,577 25,202 27,986 29,432 .30,201 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 2,986,848 1895 30,747 1896 32,419 .33,784 34,673 1897 1898 1899 1900 "'i,znfi\i 38,918 40,344 Prom 1900 this is equal to 231 infant schools, with 290 teachers and 12,174 pupils per million inhabitants. The age of entry varies from 2 to 4 years. 33. Infant Schools in Germany. — Although Germany was the home of Froebel, the kindergarten was, through an official mistake, suppressed in Prussia. This suppression was revoked only through the influence of the Baroness von Marenholtz-Biilow. By ] 874 kindergarten-societies were sufficiently numerous to lead to the organisation of a union, and the Kindergarten Association of Thuringia was formed about the same time. The Dresden celebration of Froobel's hundredth anniversary in 1882 intensified the movement. In 1894 Saxony alono had as many as 234 schools, with S40 teachers and 11,015 pupils (kindergartens alone). Bavaria has a considerable number of kleinkinderhewahranstalten and kinder- gartens ; in 1891, 34 of these were public and 179 private. In addition to these exist also a number of krippen (creches), in which no educational work is attempted for children of 1 to 3 years of age. 34. Kindergartens in Sussia. — In 1865 the Grand Duchess Helene Paulovna, who did so much for Russian education, sent three young Russian ladies to Berlin to study the kindergarten system. Shortly afterwards these schools were established throughout the Russian empire. There are several at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Riga, Dorpat, Odessa ; the first in this latter place being started in 1886.1 35. Infant Schools in Finland. — Uno Cygnaeus, the father of the Finnish people's school, became acquainted with the Pestalozzi-Froebel education in St. Petersburg, in 1844. In 1858 he was required to organise a system of public schools for Finland, his idea was to found creches and kindergartens in connection with the training-college for women teachers. Unfortunately, his committee did not always support him in his paedagogical ideas. Kindergartens were, however, actually established in Finland through the efforts of Pastor Cygnseus about 1866 (?). In a population of about 2^ millions, about 13,000 are entered as being in ecoles maternelles at the present time. 36. Kindergartens in Austria. — For twenty-five years past kindergartens have developed in Austria through the efforts of the Minister von Stromeyer -,2 and the Public School law deals fully with the subject.3 In 1889 Austria had 546 kindergarten and 486 infant schools. In 1892 Vienna alone is said to have had 546 (?) kindergartens. Owing to absence of statistics more complete information cannot be given here, but the kindergarten is a widely-established and permanent institution in Austria. 37. Kindergartens in Hungary. — The Hungarian Countess, Therese Brunswick, who had become acquainted with the methods of Pestalozzi at Tverdon, and had been impressed with some infant schools in England at the commencement of last century, inaugurated at Buda, in 1828, the first ecole mafernelle, calling it the "angel's garden" (^" angyalkert"). In 1836 a society was formed in Hungary for the propagation of these schools, afterwards called kindergartens ; and also in 1837 a training-school for the education of the teachers for them was established. Although in 1848 there were eighty-nine ecoles maternelles, in ten years they had dwindled down to fifty-two. In 1875 they were recognised by the State, and by 1876 the number rose to 215, directed by 315 teachers and attended by 18,624 children. In 1888 there were 603 infant schools, with 1,212 teachers and 55,639 pupils. In 1889, 474 out of 12,685 communities in Hungary had 644 infant schools and kindergartens, with 59,066 pupils of from 3 to 6 years of age, with 722 teachers and 504 nurses. The attendance at the kindergarten was made compulsory from 3 to 6 years of age by Statute XV of 1891. The Ministerial instruction of 1892 indicated clearly the spirit of the education which it was desired should be given, viz., the institution was to be a maternal one, whose mission was " to develope the physical and intellectual aptitude of children by occupations and games appropriate to their ages." In 1900 Hungary possessed in all 2,427 schools substantially of this type, having a roll of 202,861 children. Besides 22 normal schools for teachers generally, Hungary had no less than 12 specially devoted to the education of mistresses for maternal schools, and these gave instruction to 677 student- mistresses. ' According to Baronin von Bulow. Life of Baronin Marenholtz-Btilow. Vol. 1, p. 281. ' According to Baronin von Biilow-Wendhausen. ' Oesterreich Gesetze, 27. Volkschulgesetze, Bd. 1, Abt. 12, pp. 141-148. 29 mistresses. The Hungarian kindergarten, while retaining the Proebelian principle, developed the details of the method on national lines, the influence of Magyar history and life being apparent in the songs, games, and occupations. Kindergarten teachers are trained at Buda-Pesth for two years, and are not qualified till 18 years of age. Their studies must include languages, literature, drawing, physics, hygiene, psychology, teaching-method, singing, and violin-playing. The Hungarian kindergartens are among the best in the world, and are comparable in excellence to the finest Swiss and American institutions. The following table indicates the rapidity of the development : — Year. Schools. Teachers. Pupils. 1828 I 89 215 603 644 703 2,427 Origin. J 315 1,212 1,226 829 3,111 ? 1848 9 1875 18,624 55,639 59,066 63,000 202,801 1888 1889 1890 1900 38. Infant Schools n Croatia and Slavonia. — The infant-schools in Croatia and Slavonia have about 2,000,000 inhabitants and possess 7 asiles d'evfants and 17 ecoles maternelles with 35 mistresses and 1,358 children. The infant-school work consists of recital of little stories, songs, and easy work in the garden. The Croatian teachers have shewn a tendency to transform the ecole maternelle into a little primary school, but this has been interdicted. 39. Infant Schools in Itali/. — In Italy the Baroness Marenholtz-Biilow urged the doctrines of Froebel, between the years of 1868 and 1873, as also did the American Minister, George P. Marsh. Italian piedagogues had, however, occupied themselves with something of the sort for the past fifty years ; and when the Baroness visited Venice,i in 1873, there were two well-organised kindergartens already established, partly owing at least to her advocacy of the Froebelian cause. Shortly after, the first kindergarten in Florence was opened. 2 The Istituto Peterman and the Istituto Vittorio Emmanuele, of Kome and ^Naples respectively, and the Institute of Udine are really Froebelian, though they do not rigorously imitate the kindergartens of Germany. The Itnlian infant schools (asiliinfantili) of this type are perhaps more like the French ecoles maternelles. Tlie manual work consists of folding, cutting, pricking, modelling. The avowed object according to the lielazione of the lady principal of the Istituto Vittorio Emmanuele, is "to produce clear and exact impressions in the mind of the child, to fix his attention, to develope in him accurate observation and manual dexterity." In 1880, the hundredth anniversary of Froebel's birthday, the envoy of the Italian Government brought albums containing the expressions of thanks from forty cities in Italy where kindergartens then existed. The following indicates the development of infant schools in Italy : — Year. Infant Schools. Teachers. Pupils. Population. 1879 1,489 ? 2,813 3,762 5,603 6,884 183,809 252,763 317,117 28,4.37,091 29,943,607 ? 31,500,000 ? 1886 1896 Of these last 992 were absolutely free ; 1,208 were free only to the poor but not to others ; G13 required payment from every pupil, 193 being public, and 418 private establishments. Of the 2,813 kindergarten or infant schools, 478 were Froebelian, 135 followed the Aporti method, and 2,200 a mixture of the two methods. The following more complete table, compiled from statistics kindly supplied by Dr. V. Marano, His Majesty the King of Italy's Consul in Sydney, will shew the steady increase of infant schools in Italy. Apparently, in the preceding results the private infant schools have not been included in 1883, as there were 050, which with 1,489 makes 2,139 : — Year. Infant Schools. Pupils. Population. 1884 2,0.r5 2,083 2,1.S9 2,224 2,218 2,220 2,296 2,2.32 2,348 2,572 2,627 2,799 2,819 229,510 240,365 252,763 258,838 261,506 268,182 278,204 279,965 292,124 302,754 302,939 313,841 317,313 28,931,4.38 29,120,162 29,308,886 29,497,610 29,686,3.34 29,875,058 30,063,782 30,252,500 .30,441,224 .30,629,955 30,818,677 31,007,399 31,196,126 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 Of the above, about two-thirds are public and one-third private schools, and about four-fifths of the children are in the former. 40. ' According to Dr. W. T. Harris, a kindergarten was founded in Venice by the Baronees in 1868, vide Report of th a Commissioner for Education 1888-9, p. 189. ' This was in 1871, so Dr. Harris states. Ibid., p. 189. 30 AQ. Kindergarten in Spain. — Tlie first kindergarten in Spain was established by Friiulein Graft about 18G0, and the Froebelian ideas tausjht at the University by Professor del Rios. In the seventies, Count Vale de San Juan studied at the Eroobel Institute at Dresden in order to introduce the system into Spain, several graduates of that Institute also going there. 41. Maternal Schools in Portugal. — The maternal schools of Portugal, for children of from 3 to G years of age, are managed by directors, with one assistant for every twenty children. Some of these are Froebelian. 42. Kindergarten in Oreece. — In the early seventies, several wealthy Greek women studied at the Froebel Institute at Dresden, and succeeded in introducing the system into Greece, Madame Lascardi and Mademoiselle Zoto being among these pioneers. 43. Kindergarten in Turkey. — Fraulein Johanna Sack, granddaughter of Professor von Fiehte, founded the first kindergarten in Turkey in 1860 at Constantinople. 44. Kindergartens in Japan. — In 1890 Japan had no less than 138 kindergartens, with 271 teachers and 7,486 pupils. Of these 39 were private, and 99 belonged to the Government. The girls numbered 3,301, and boys 4,185. In 1891 the attendance had risen to 12,484. The Japanese kinder- garten exhibit at the Columbian Exposition attracted much attention through its excellence. Uru'/uay. — Between 1890 and 1892 an effort was made in Uruguay to establish the kindergarten as a preliminary to the elementary grades in their ordinary school-system. This was done after a report by Doiia Eoriqueta Compte y Rique, who had investigated the subject in Europe. The period to be covered was from three to seven years, the last year beint/ preparatory to the lowest grade in the elementary school. The Educational System of Uruguay is said to be very good. Population about 700,000. 45. Kindergartens in various other countries. — In Jamaica instruction in Froebel-kindergarten is being provided for teachers. Kindergartens are said by Baronin Biilovv-Wendhausen to exist in Arabia, in China, and in India, mostly for foreigners, but also for natives, at least in the last two instances ; and also in Armenia, and the Argentine Republic. One has even bo founded in Persia by a Russian princess. 46. Kindergarten in Oreat Britain. — At the exhibition of educational material in London in 1854, the whole of Froebel's kindergarten material, together with an explanatory statement, was shewn by the Baroness von Marenholtz-Biilow. Shortly after, and during a six-months' stay in England, she established a propaganda to promote tho Froebelian cause, and several kindergartens were actually established, llonge also took some part in the development ot the Froebelian schools. The kiiidergartnn idea was well received; and a considerable amount of kindergarten work has been going on in tlie United Kingdom ever since, not only privately, but also under the Board Schools. In Wales, as has already been seen, a high standard of training is provided, and it may be said that tho kindergarten movement is at present rapidly developing throughout the United Kingdom, and schools of this character are numerous. 47. Kindergarten in Cape Colony. — In Vol. 5, 1901, p. 160, of the Special Reports on educational subjects, it is stated that "arrangements have been made for a skilled and experienced instructress in kindergarten, with a view to opening classes for adult certificated teachers in the current year" (1900). 48. Kindergarten in Natal. — The Bishop of Natal, who had met Baroness von Marenholtz-Biiowl in London in 1S54. established a kindergarten in his See as early as 1855. In 1898 the Superintendent of Natal Education, Mr. Robert Russell wrote : — " In 1897 I went to the annual display of what the Chief Inspector of English Schools described as one of the best kindergarten and Froebel training schools in London." Tho visit does not seem to have impressed Mr. Russell, but it may be said that kindergarten has since then greatly improved in England. Infant schools in the modern sense commenced in Natal in 1878, but the report does not indicate very clearly their precise character. 49. Kindergarten in Victoria. — On the date of the Commissioners' visit, Victoria had not organised a systematic kindergarten for infants. Tho following extracts, from Second Progress Report (29 Nov., 1899) of the Royal Commission on Technical Education, are important, as shewing the decision in favour of kindergarten : — "We feel that there is no longer any necessity to urge the value and importance of kindergarten work, this being abundantly recognised by all educational authorities ; and that the results .... have heen sulficient to dispel any doubt in the minds of the people as to its value in dealing with the iniant mind, and in laying the superstructure for later educational development 'Vhe\iXe&\\i\nAeTgatten\s t^^lace mlitre. tht individiialiti/ of tivrri/ child is ittudie.d, and the bf-it possible coniiif ions given /or itii vienfal, moral, and phjisical tjroicik The Commission looks forward to kindergarten principles being universally applied in tho schools in the future Our inquiries in Nev> South Wales have ojiltj served to strenghten tha view that competency in kindergarten instruction can onli/ he secured a,fter severe course of training, and only then when the teachers are specially adapted to sympathetically appreciate the spirit of kindergarten. All competent authorities agree that the mere teaching of kindergarten methods by means of text books, or hy inspection of classes at work, must always be futile, and only result in a total misapprehension of the essential nature of the system, and waste of valuable time and energy. In this connection it is well to mention that so much importance is already paid to the training of teachers for private schools in New South Wales, that the Kindergarten Union, previously referre 1' 1' r- 1' 25 Besides these, there are optional courses in tlie following : — Greek and Latin Literature, Foreiga Literature, General History, History of Philosophy, History of Art, Civil and Commercial Law. These are all two hours per week, excepting the last, which is one hour. Li addition to the courses initiating the pupils of the psedagogic section into the methods of teaching various subjects, they are periodically invited to demonstration lessons in the primary schools. The studies end in an examination for the " Certificate of Capacity," which is exacted of those who wish to teach in the primary schools. A mere programme hardly gives any real idea of the actual character of the instruction in the establishments. Programmes may, of course, be pretentious. The best way of judging them is to come in contact, and converse with, the graduates under the system. Judged in this way, there can be not the slightest doubt that the curricula are all that they profess to be. Another way of forming some kind of opinion is to see how the programme is developed in detail. This will be exhibited in the next section of this chapter. In order to get a clear idea of the general scheme just outlined, a graphic representation may bo of some assistance. The following show the various schools and their inter-relations : — THE EDUCATIONAL SCHEME OF THE CANTON OF GENEVA, SWITZERLAND. I Infant School, from 3 to 7 years. I Primary School, from 7 to 12 or 7 to 13 years. 12 12 Girls' Secondary and Superior Schools, Lower Division, 12 to 16. I . Higher Division, 16 to 19 (r). Geneva College, Ijower Division, 12 to 15. {a) Classics Science (h) Technology Pa;dagogy 15 to 19. Professional School, 13 to 15. I (• Fine Arts I Commerce I Horology - Mechanics Industrial Arts Trades. I Technical School I School of House- keeping, 13 to 15. I Secondary Kural School, 13 to 15. / Agricultural \ Course, or f School of \ Horticulture. -13 Complementary School, 13 to 15. I. Evening Courses (Voluntary). I Professional Academy. Dentistry, Medicine, Science, Theology, Law, Literature (Arts). The scheme of relation between (a), (i), and (c) and the various Faculties, etc., is as follows :— » (a) Dentistry, Medicine, Science, Literature, Theology, Law. ('') ,. (<•) .. .. The Inter-Relation of the Ancient College of Geneva with other Sciiool.s. Entrance age, in years. ("11) Primary 5th School, year. Lower (12) Division of College. —7th Class. —6th Class. —5th Class. Primary School. 6th year. (13) (14) - Professi onal School. Secondary Rural School. — 1st year 1st year — — 2Dd year. 2nd year — (15) (16) (17) (IS) Classic Section. —4th Class. —3rd Class. —2nd Class. — 1st Cl&ss. Scientific Section. —4th Class. —3rd Class. —2nd Class. -1st Class. Technical Section. Pjedagogio Section. —4th Class. 4th Class— —3rd Class. 3rd Class— —2nd Class. 2nd Class— — 1st Class. 1st Class- Faculty of Sciences ; Letters. -Polytechnic Schools Primary Education — 5. (19) J HI the Faculties of the Univ ersity. ' These courses belong to the normal courses. ' The gymnastic course is optional for the literary section in classes. ' Renseignements gfSncSraiix publics par le Ddpartement do I'Instruction publique. Geneve, 1896. 37 5. The Programme of the Infant Schools of Oeneca.— These programmes for intant children have two divisions, but there is a kind of parallelism running through the two courses, which has been indicated in the setting out of the lesson-material. One may again be reminded that these lessons are given by teachers who have systematically studied the art of leaching, and the Proebeliau method as a speciality. Programme fob Infant Schools. Hiijher Division, 5-7 tjears. Lower Division, 3-5 years. 1. Intuitive instruction by means of Froebelian material. 2. Talks on Af orals. —Simple stories designed to contribute to the moral and educational development of the child, and to establish him in good habits. 3. Ohjed-Iessons. — Chats, the aim of which is to make the child understand the objests, plants, or animals which surround it. From 3 to 4 years, the conversations on morals and the object-lessons about any subject ought to be cast in a single narrative. 4. Mother-tongue.. — Such exercises in speech as will help the child, whether it be to exactly reproduce simple words and phrases, or to discover simple words or phrases. These exercises will especially follow the trend of the chats and object-lessons. Writing.— Vre-paTntion for writing by drawing. Arithmetic. — Preparation for reckoning by Froebelian material. Reckoning means far as of 6. Division of a whole into halves or quarters. Jeomelry.— Elementary geometrical ideas by means of Froel)elian material. Dravjing. — First year — The children are prepared for drawing by means of Froebelian material. Second year — First attempts at drawing ; the pupil forms little surfaces or sticks (baton- nets) on the slates with dotted rows by using the cubes of the second gift. The rows are then drawn upon the dotted slate. Singing. — Simple melodies with easy words, instruction as to measure (time). Intuitive OymnaMics. — Movements and ball-play. and games, marches, rounds. 1. Intuitive instruction by means of Froebelian material. 2. Talks OH Morals. — Stories of which the essential aim is tho development, in the child, of emotional feeling, conscience, love of work, and love of duty. The text of other lessons is to be drawn from the little talks on morals, which each week will in this manner give a certain unity to the instruction. 3. Ol'ject-lessons. — Narratives, discourses, or chats in which the child is given, in a manner suited to his capacity, elementary scientific notions about the objects, plants, or animals of his country. (The object-lessons have for aim the development in the child of spirit of observation, reflexion, and judgment). 4. Mother-tongue. — Preparation for reading by exercises in analysis and of decomposition, by means of which the child learns to reorganise and find words, syllables, and sounds or vowels. Study of conso- nants. Voluntary reading of simple syllables, words, expressions, and small easy phrases. Study of ecpiivalents from the point of view of reading and orthography. Easy exercises in fluent reading ; oral and written reproduction of simple words and phrases. Little oral exercises of redaction. Writing. — Elementary exercises, graduated and rhythmed (with chalk) of easy syllables and words provided in the reading. Preparatory exercises for ink. Medium. Arithmtlie. — Intuitive reckoning by means of Froebelian material. The four arithmetical operations as far as 10. Oral and written reckoning. Division of a whole into halves, quarters, and eighths. Littlo oral problems. Kumeration as far as 20. Geovietry. — Geometrical ideas by means of Froebelian material. Point, line, surface, solid. Drawing. — Third year — Continuation of exercises by means of cubes, squares, and sticks (bitonnets). Drawing according to folding. Ornamental arrangements obtained by the combination of right lines. (The right lines are given by the sticks and the folding.) Preparation for the drawing of curves. Composition. Drawing from memory. Fourth year — Division of the line into 2, 4, 8, 3, 6 parts. Decorative applications (motifs de diicoration). Combinations of lines and curves. Composition. Geometrical figures. Tri- angles. Squares. Rectangles. Drawing of common objects without indication of the relief. Drawing of letters in printed characters. Some attempts at design of leaves by counter-drawing from points. Singing. — Intoning exercises. Gamut of "do" (key of C.) Perfect accord. Singing in unison and in two parts. Melodies and easy words. Oj/mna.'ihc.'!— Movements and games, marches, rounds, and ball-play. Sewing. — Preparatory exercises. 6. Programme of the Geneva Primary Schoole. — The following programme of the work under- taken in the primary schools of the Canton of Geneva, is, of course, a mere sketch. Taking the years successively, it, however, will shew how carefully the scheme has been developed. In order to fairly estimate itj the equipment of the school, both as regards material and personnel, must bo takeii into account, as well as tho fact that tho physical or hygienic conditions are equally excellent. Everything in a Swiss school is conducive to obtaining tho best results. ' Fbogramme of Instruction in Primarv Sciiooi^. First Year.— Children 7 akes. Hills and mountains. Writing (three lessons of half-hour). — Methodical exercise in large, medium, and fine writing. Copy to be attended to with respect to corrections. Drmving and Geometry (six lessons of half-hour). — Review of the area covered in the preceding year by means of an object that permits the master to present new ideas, in particular that of angles (the hook is one of the objects most suitable to this study). Axis of symmetry explained by letters. Application of these new ideas to the drawing of leaves. Ornamentation of simple objects (in these exercises the pupils have to fill in the surfaces by hachures). Exercises from memory. Composition. Singing (two hours). — Study, by ear, of little songs of one or two voices (parts). Exercises in intonation. Reading of little airs. Notes. Conmion time. Gymnastics and Games (four hours). — Repetition and development of the exercises of the first year. Combined step exercises, standing. Manual work (six hours). — For girls. — Knitting. — Making of a strip of thirty stitches, plain and purl. Ribs, seams, and decreasings. End the strip by means of a small chain. Sewing. — Revision of work taught in the first year. English top-sewing along the straight. Felling along the straight. Marking upon canvas (alphabet, numbers, name, year). Exercises jrreparatory to making up. Hems of different breadths ; hems on the cross. Making up. — Small fichu of triangular shape. Square pillow-case fastened by means of tapes. For Boys — Cutting nut of paper and of pasteboard in the form of geometrical solids. Combinations in coloured wools upon canvas or upon paper. Third Year. — Children of 9 to 10 years. Mother-tongue (nine hours per week). Object lessons — ilfajj.— Description of man's body : bones, muscles, nerves. Organs of sense. Vital organs: brain, heart, lungs, stomach, spinal cord, liver, intestines. Animals. — Study of several types of mammals and of birds. Notions about the air, water, temperature, heating, lighting, etc. Hygienic advice. Reading and recitation. — Pronunciation and intonation. Study and recitation of very simple pieces. Grammar. — The noun, determinatives, qualificatives, gender, and number. Principal rules of agreement between the determinatives or qualificatives and tlie noun. Summary study of the statement and conjugation. Simple statement — verb, subject, attribute. Direct completion. Indirect completion of time, place, manner. Completion of words. Statements having several subjects or several completions. Elementary rules of punctuation. Orthographic dictation. Tenses, persons. Indicative, conditional, and imperative of the auxiliaries, and of verbs in er. Affirmative, negative, and interrogative forms. Role of the personal pronoun in the conjugation. Orthogra2>hy. — Study of ten words a week, selected from the reading, the object-lessons and the various other lessons given. Redaction. — Reproductions, accounts, and oral and written r(5sum(is of very short recitations read and explained. Exercises of redaction upon a summary mode in class by the pupils. Little descriptions drawn from ordinary life, from natural history, etc. Arithmetic (six lessons of half -hour).— Oral calculation. The first operation. Little practical problems with whole numbers less than 100. Calculations upon the subdivision of the franc, of the litre, and of the metre. Written Calculation. — Multiplication with three numbers in the multiplier. Division with one, then with two numbers in the divisor. Niimeration. — Multiplications and divisions abridged by 10, 100, and 1,000. Additions and subtractions of ordinary fractions in the case where one of the denominators is able to be selected as the common denominator. Multipli- cation and division of a whole number of two figures by a fraction having unity as numerator. Metric System. — Calculation with francs and centimes, addition and subtraction. Multiplication and division of francsaiid centimes by a whole number. Various calculations with pieces of money, weights and measures (exercises ident ical with tliose of oral calculation). Simple and practical problems comprising not more than three different operations. Resolution of problems, enunciated in writing. Composition of problems by pupils. Geometry (four lessons of half -hour). —Drawing and explanation of triangle, square, and rectangle. Measurement of these two last figures. Oeography 39 ography (four essons of half-hour). — Reading of maps. Outline of the plan of the class-room of the parish (communej. Study of the plan of the town. Map of the canton of (Jeneva. Study of tlie mountains. Right and left banks of the lake and of the Rhone. Parishes, principal localities. Cultivations. Important industries. Ways and methtxls of communication. Outline of the map of the canton. Rapid reWew of the terrestrial globe. Summary of ideas as to the continents and oceans. The zones. Writing (three lessons of half-hour). — Methodical exercises in large writing, medium, and fine. Copy attended to with respect to corrsctions, caligraphy and good distribution of work. Copy of small accounts. Drawing (four hours). — Representation of simple objects without indicating the depth. (The master will remark upon the analogies that exist between these drawiugs and those of other forms, letters for examples. It will be profitable to shew that the simple forms are easily recalled from combinations of triangles and rectangles). Application to architectural forms (facades of buildings). Exercises in ornamentation : drawing of leaves, compound leaves. Exercises from memory. Composition. Attempts to draw with the pen. Singing {three lessons oi half-hour). — Study of very simple songs. Exercises of intonation. Reading of little airs. Time (notes, with prolongations and rests). Gymnastici (three hours). Oirls and Boys. — Repetition and development of the exercises of the second year. Combined free exercises. Exercises with poles, standing. Traction apparatus. Balancing pole. [Girh only), balancing pole. (Boyx only), simple jumping, height and length. Preparatory exercises for the pole. Double ladders, movable. Traction apparatus. Giant stride. Manual Work (four hours), ilirls. — Knitting. — Stocking of sixty stitches (including decreasing at the edges 015 metres). Study of the heel, including decreasing at the ankle. (Repeat the heel several times.) Knitting a round with ribs, one plain one purl, applied to a pair of woollen cuffs. Sewing. — Go over the programme of first and second year. English top sewing on the cross. Felling on the cross. Back- stitching on the straight applied to top sewing. Exercise-i Preparatory for Making-np. — Curved hems. Application of sewing on the cross and of the hem, to a little sleeve, preparatory to making a chemise. Mending Stockings. — Plain stitch ; hole filled in by plain stitch. Making-tip. — Feeder. Chemise. Boyn. — Construction of objects of paste-I)oard covered with coloured paper, or of coloured designs. Little works with iron wire. Lattices. Geometrical solids. Fourth Year. — Children o/lO ^o 11 years. Mother-tongue. — Boys, 11 hours ; girls, 10 hours. Object les.ions. — J/an— ideas as to digestion ; as to movement. Hygienic counsels. Animals — study of several selected types characteristic of the different groups of mammals and of birds. Plants — studies with several selected types of the principal organs of the plant. T/te three stales of body. Reading and Recitation. — Expressive reading with reproduction of narrative. Study and recitation of several pieces of prose or poetry. Orammar. — The pronoun. Verbs in ir and in re, indicative, conditional, and imperative. Complete conjugation of regular verbs. Conjugation in the pronominal voice. General rules for the present and past participles. Applications in simple cases. Orthographic dictation, immediate corrections, as far as possible under the eyes of the pupil. Use of punctuation. Study of phrase. Orthography. — Study of fifteen words a week, selected from the pieces read, and the object lessons. Formation of families of words by means of those which have already been studied. Redaction. — Development of the programme of the third year. Little narratives ; descriptions and letters upon subjects, suitable to the ages of the pupils. Biographies, historic readings, and recitations. Arithmetic— i hours. Oral caleu/a/ion. Exercises as in the preceding years. Resolution of problems where the statement is enunciated in writing. Written Calculation. —Decimal fractions ; numeration of decimal fractions explained by means of subdivisions of common metric measures. The four operations. Metric system. Calculation of practical problems upon weights, measures of length, of surface, and of capacity. Simplication of ordinary fractions in the easiest cases. Addition and substraction of ordinary fractions (following those of third year). Multiplication and division of a whole number of two figures, by a fraction, and inversely (the denominator not exceeding 10). Intuitive demonstration and reasoning. Transformation into decimal fractions of ordinary fractions, having unity for numerators and a submultiple of 100 for denominator (1|5, 1/10, 1/20, 1/25, 1/50). Making up of problems by the pupils. Invoices and small accoimts. Geometry (2 hours). — Review and development of the programme of the third year. Triangles, quadrilaterals. I'^xact construction of those figures on the blackboard by means of square and compass. Measurement of these figures. Geography (2 hours). — Canton of Geneva. Review and development of programme of third year. Ideas upon the physical and political geography of Switzerland. Generalities concerning Europe. Great mountain chains. Great rivers. Principal seas. Natural products of the different regions. Summary of ideas concerning the orientation and the movement of the earth. Pole, equator, tropics, and polar circles. Sketches and traces of maps. Writing (2 lessons of half-hour). — Methodical exercises. Copy from models. Cursive writing. Abstract of accounts. Drawing (.3 hours). — Plan of the room. Use of scale of reduction. Vertical and oblique planes. Reconstruction of some simple bodies through combining a certain number of sections. First attempts at drawing in three dimensions. Exercises from memory. Composition. Singing {I hour). — Study of easy songs for one or two voices. Exercises of intonation. Reading of airs. Time (common' time). Gymnastics (3 hours). — Boys and girls. — See third year. Running. Exercises with poles, standing and marching. Boys: only. — Balancing pole. Exercises on the pole and rings. Horizontal ladder. Matmal work (4 hours). — Girls, — ■ Knitting. — Complete sock. Special study of finishing off. Sewing. — Go over programme of first, second, and third year (upon a single piece). Back stitching on the straight. Back stitching on the cross. Piece to be put in on white woollen material. Piece into a piece of print. Preparationi for darning upon canvas (drawing the threads of the warp, or those of the woof). Preparatory exercises for making up : — 1, a little bodice ; 2, a princess-shaped apron. (For the preparation of these exercises, see the detailed programme). Mending stockings. — Hole, from edges. Making iip. — Babies' bodices (according to the first model of the " Manual," figure 9, or with shoulder straps). Apron, princess-shape. J?02/s (3 hours). — Construction in paste-board of sections of the simplest bodies; putting together the sections. Work; with wire. Fifth Year. —Children of \\ to 12 years. Mother-tongue. — Object Lessons (2 hours). — Notions of natural history ; development from the programme of the fourth year. Hygienic' counsels. Information about the principal industries — bakery, pastry-making, distillery, etc. Clothing industry — spinning and weaving. Making-up of clothes. Making-up of footwear, etc. Building industry — materials employed in the different trades which are connected therewith. Familiar discourses on the subjects of domestic economy. Reading and Recitation (2 hours). — Expressive reading. Elocutionary and recitation exercises. Grammar (1 hour). — The most used irregular verbs. Transformation of the active into the passive voice, and reciprocally. Exercises upon the reflective verbs and the impersonal verljs. Principal orthographic irregularities. Exercises' in analysis. Role of different species of words in a statement. Subordinate statements in simple cases. Punctuation. Short dictations, immediately corrected, as far as possible under the eyes of the pupils. Redaction (2 hours). — Exercises in redaction with or without given plan. Reproductions, rcisumc^s, and written reports of recitations, readings, or lessons on geography, history, natural history, agriculture or industry. Subjects from- the imagination. Various letters. Orthography 40 Orthography (2 hours). — Study of fifteen words a week selected in the object lessons. Piincipal prefixes and suflBxes, their signitieation. Families of words. Homonyms and synonyns. Arithmetic (3 hours). — Oral calculation. Development of the fourth year's programme. WritU-M Calculation. — Ordinary fractions — the four operations in all tlie cases. Mixed numbers. Transformation of ordinary to decimal fractious and reciprocally. Complex numbers in their ordinary applications. Use of aliquot parts in oral calculation and in multiplication of a whole number by an ordinary fraction or by a complex number. Measures of volume. Rule of three by reduction to unity. Application of the rule of three to the resolution of ordinary problems. Composition of problems by the pupils. Invoices and the establishment of various accounts (in the writing lessons). Oeometry (2 hours). — First semeKlcr (half-year) : Review of the fourtli year's programme. Tracing and measuring of regular polygons, irregular polygons and the circle. Reduction of figures. Cube, parallelepiped, their surface and their volume. Secmid semester : Prism, cjdinder, their surface. For boys, practical exorcises — measurement of little areas on the ground. Making of sketches and fair copy (school-hall, corridor, yard). Geography (2 hours). — Review of geography of Switzerland with development. States of Europe and their capitals. Products, industry, commerce, great lines of railroad. Generalities as to Asia, Africa, America, and Oceania. General ideas regarding the distribution of heat on the surface of the globe. Sketches and drawings of maps. History^ (1 J hours). — Stories of Swiss history : First recitation — The first inhabitants of Helvetia. Second recitation — Roman domination and Julius Ca'sar ; Germanic invasicm. Third recitation — Rudolph of Hapsburg ; counts, bishops, monastries, towns ; the first states ; Alliance of 1291 ; Albert of Austria ; Vow of Griitli. Fourth recitation — Beginnings of Confederation ; Battle of Morgarten. Fifth recitation — Confederation of the eight cantons ; Battles of Sempach and of Naefels. Sixth recitation — Conquest of Aargau ; war of Zurich ; Battle of St. Jac(iue3 on tlie Birs. Seventh recitation — Wars of Burgundy; Battle of Grandson, of Merat, and of Nancy; Nicholas of Fliie (Brother Klaus) ; Entry of Freiburg and Solothurn into the Confederation. Eighth recitation — Confederation of thirteen cantons ; the allied and the subject countries ; mercenary service. Ninth recitation — The Reformation. Tenth recitation — Aperyu of the political, economic, and social state cf Switzerland in the 17tb and in the 18th centurj'. Eleventh recitation — The French Revolution ; invasion of Switzerland ; Helvetian Republic ; the nineteen cantons. Twelfth recitation — The Restoration ; Confederation of the twenty-two cantons. Thirteenth recitation — War of Sonderbund ; Constitution of 1848. German (.3 hours). — Reading. The ten (10) first lessons of Lescaze Grammar. Oral exercises with simple phrases. Writing (1 hour). — Cursive writing, round. Model of accounts, of invoices, and cf various instruments. Drawing (girls 2 hours, boys 3 hours) — Review. Bodies of rotation, their characters explained by plane sections ; their construction from sketches of a side view of the objects. Drawing of objects in free perspective. Exercises from memory. Composition. Singing (1 hour). — Study of songs for two voices. Exercises of intonation and of rhythmic reading. Time (triple). Sharps and flats. Explanation of the principal signs of the notation on the stave. Stave. Keys, sol and fa. Sharp, flat, natural. Signs of length of notes, semibrevc, crochet, rest. The commonest measures. Gymnistics (14 hours). — Girls and Boyn — Repetition and development of the programme of the fourth year. Combined marches, with song. Exercises with dunib-lwUs standing in position. Horizontal ladder. Boys only — Jumping. Exercises on the pole and with rings. Vaulting-pole. Manual work (5 hours). — Girls. — Knitting. — A stocking. (Insist upon the manner of commencing a stocking.) Marking the initials. Sewing — Going over the things taught in the preceding years (upon a single piece). Hemming applied to a dress pocket. Fell, on a piece. Button-hole. Loop for a button. Loop for hook. Gathering. Stroking the gathering. Putting on a band. Simple darning upon coarse canvas. Exercises Preparatory to Making Up. — Review of the exercises indicated in the programme of third and fourth years. Setting false hems on the straight and on the cross. Mending Stockings. — Review of past work. Hole in the .=eam. CtUting Out. — Bodice, chemise, knickerbockers, bib, feeder. Making patterns. Cutting and putting together. Making Up (a selected article from among the things cut out). — Boys (3 hours) — Sketch of objects for making, and con- struction of the object from the sketch. Notions about the commonest tools. Study of the principal tools used in wood-work. Planing, sawing of wood. Simple piecing together. Boxes with or without nails. Construction from a number of pieces of cardboard and of wood. Construction of objects from side elevations. Sixth Year.— Children from 12 to 13 years. Motlier-iongM. — Boy?, hours ; Girls, 8 hours. Object Lessons (2 hours). — Review and extension of tlie programme traversed in the preceding year. Man — Notions upon digestion, circulation, respiration, the nervous system, the sense organs ; practical hygienic advice ; pernicious effects of alcohol, tobacco, etc. Useful and noxious animals. Vegetables. Essential parts of the plant. Principal groups. Alimentary plants. Conversation about pumps, fountains, jets of water, barometer, thermo- meter, hydraulic machines, steam-engines, electric machines, cells, lightning-conductors, telegraph, telephone, etc. Information concerning the principal industries. Industries of precision, mechanics, horology. Industries for luxuries. Gold and silver smithing, jewellery, etc. Printing. Photography. Heading and Recitation (2 hours). — Expressive reading. Narratives. Exercises in elocution and in recitation. Grammar (2 hours). — Exercises in agreement of moods and tenses. Short dictation, immediately corrected as far as possible under the pupil's eyes. Orthography (4 hours). — Study of fifteen words per week, chosen from the object-lessons. Homonyms, synonyms. Families of words. Redaction (2 hours). — Composition on various subjects with or without given plan. R('sum(! of subjects relating it to the year's programme. Development of a subject succinctly treated. Redaction of a subject from notes taken during a reading or a lesson. General classification of ideas. Principal and secondary ideas in a composition. Literal and figurative language. Domestic Economy (Girls, 1 hour).— Conversations on the different products used in housekeeping ; their production ; tho industry and commerce which arises from them. Colonial commodities. Vegetables, fruits, foods, furniture, line, clothing, things used in washing, lighting, and heating. Qualities of a household of the future— order, cleanliness, economy, foresight, love of work. Some popular conversations upon keeping a house well. Services which the young woman should render in her family. Arithmetic (3 hours).— (?iWx— Review and developiucnt of the fifth year's programme. Numerous oral exercises and problems relating to agriculture, industry, or commerce. Calculations of volumes. Rules of interest, discount, and of mixed cases, all simple. Abridged methods. Boys — Invoices and various accounts. Extraction of square root. Oeometry (Boys, 2 hours). — First semester : Review and development of the programme of the fifth year. Surface and volume of solids— i)arallelepiped, prism, cylinder, pyramid, and cone. Development of the surfaces. Construction of these developments. Practical applications. Second semester : Truncated solids cut by a plane parallel to the base. Numerous practical applications (heap of sand, trunk of tree, etc.). Surface and volume of a sphere. Practical and abridged methods, etc., the calculation of surfaces and volumes. Girls — Application of the fifth year to shape and design. Geography (2 hours). — Special study of Europe, with indication of the best known of European possessions. Principal products. The most important places of commerce and ports. The United States, principally from the point of view of their products and their commercial relations with Europe. General review of geography. Sketches and drawings of maps. Histori/ ' In the sohocls in which the fifth and sixth year are united Swiss history alternates with Genevan, 41 History (IJ hours). — First recitation : Geneva, as far as the end of the 15th centurj'. The Bishops, the House of Savoy. The Council of Geneva. Cofle of the Franchises of Adhdmar Fabri. Second recitation : Struggles of Geneva against the House of Savoy. Philibert Berthelier, L^vrier, Besan9on Hugues. Co-citizenship of Geneva with Freiburg and Berne. Third recitation : The Reformation. Fourth recitation : New struggles against the House of Savoy. The Escalade. Fifth recitation : Geneva to the 17th and 18th centuries. Refugees. Sixth recitation : Revolutionary period. Reunion of Geneva with France. Seventli recitation : Deliverance of Geneva, which becomes a Swiss Canton. Eighth recitation : Revolution of 184(3. Principal occurrences as far as 1871. Oerman (3 hours). — End of Lescaze's Grammar : Oral exercises with simple phrases. Ordinary vocabulary. Wriliny (1 hour). — Exercises in cursive writing, round. Models of accounts of invoices and of various instruments. Drawiug (Girls, 2 hours ; boys, 3 hours). — Drawing of solids and objects from sections and side elevations. Development of their surfaces. Ornamentation of these surfaces. Drawing of ornaments from models with indications of the whole which they decorate. Notions of normal perspective. Exercises from memory. Composition. Singing (1 hour). — Review and development of the fifth year's programme. Modes. Explanation of the principal signs of notation on the stave (in view of transcription). Stave. Supplementary lines. Clefs, sol and fa (treble and ease). Sharps, flats, naturals. Armure. Tonic. Signs of duration— semibreve, minim, crotchet, quaver, semiquaver, pause, rest, minim rest, crotchet rest, simple and compound time, most frequently used. Signs of expression. Movement (temps). GymnaslicK (1^ hours). Girin.—See the programme of the fifth year. Balancing pole, fixed andmovable. Boys.— See the fifth year programme. Combined exercises, standing and marching. Tactical exercises. Jumping in compuiy. Giant-step with leap. Manual Work (6 hours). Girln. — • Knitting and Crochet. — Several samples of knitting and of crochet.. Various applications — bodices for infants, booties, etc. Sewing. — On a single piece the different stitches and seams in the programme of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th years. Hem-stitching. Going over sewing by top sewing and felling, rejoining, small jileats, hems, fancy stitches ; application of these various stitches to marking. Edging the sides of the sampler. Bottom of apron-sleeve to tho wristband. Wristband indicated in the manual (without the stitching round). Simple picking-out on canvas. Simple darning on worn canvas. Exercises preparatory to making-up. 1. For chemise. Front of the chemise with hand. Make a slit in the middle. Finish off the left side with a false hem. On the right side a flap crossing over the false hem. One sleeve of the chemise cut according to the shape of the sleeve. 2. For apron (see the programme of the fourth jear). 3. For the knickers — bottom of the leg of knickers with baud. Mending StocHngs. — Going over mending holes with ribs. Hole with decreasings and seam. Piece put on to the stocking. Cutting-out. — 1. Chemise without sleeve (buttoned or not, on the shoulder). 2. Chemise with sleeves. ,3. Apron, princess- shape. 4. Patch-work apron. Drawers for little girl. Drawing patterns. Cutting and joining. Making-up. — Anything selected from among the cutting-out work. Boys (3 hours). Development of the programme of the fifth year. Text Books. Second Year. — First series of problems. Duchamp. Third Fcar.^Elementary Course in the Mother-tongue. M. Dussaud (1st part) with supplementary exercises. Manual of Geography of MM. Rosier et Dussaud. Third scries of problems. Duchamp. Fourth Year. — Elementary Course of the Mother-tongue by M. Dussaud (1st part) with complementary exercises. Atlas Manual of M. Duchamp. Small map of Switzerland. Fourth series of problems. Duchamp. Fifth Year. — Elementary Course of the Mother-tongue by M. Dussaud (2nd part). Manual Atlas of M. Rosier. Problem Duchamp. Atlas Isleib. Sixth Year. — Elementary Course of th? Mother-tongue by M. Duchamp (2nd part). German Manual of M. Lescaze. Fifth series of problems Duchamp. Atlas Isleib. The present programme is approved for the school year. 7. Ohject-lessons of the First Ttvo Tears in Genevese Primary Schools. — The same systematic character, which is seen in the programme above, is maintained throughout. The object-lessons for the first two years have a parallelism similar to that seen in the infant-school programme. In the following table their classification according to the seasons of the year is shewn. It will be seen that they cover a very wide range, and have for the children of the country considerable local interest, and afford splendid opportunity for promoting the so-called Nature Study. PROGRAMME OF OBJECT-LESSONS FOR THE FIRST AND SECOND YEAR. Classification of Subjfcts According to the Seasons. Firs Year. End of Summer — Autwnn. School furniture. Tools of the scholar (pen, pencil, rule, school-box). Special subjects for girls classes (sewing). For boys' classes (manual work). Farina. Bread. Threshing machines. Pip-fruits, stone-fruits, raisins, nuts. Autumn flowers : Dahlia, colchicum, hedge-berries. Vegetables ; Cabbage, carrot, celery, radish. Carnivora : Dog and cat. Herbivora : Non-ruminant, horse ; ruminant, ox, cow. Aftermath : Animals in the field. Rodents : Mouse. Sparrow, duck, poultry- yard in general. Fish: Trout, fera, pike. Molluscs : The edible and ordinary snail. Reptiles : Snake, lizard. Preliminary notions upon the orientation of objects in the class-room, in respect to the position of the child (in front of, behind, left, right). Rain, fogs, mists. Husbandry : Work in the field ; a resume concerning autumn (21st September). The school, its situation ; names of streets which adjoin it. Hygiene, bathing, cleanliness. 15— F Second Year. End of Summer — Autumn. A special piece of furniture in the class-room. Sponge, gum, chalk, book, and copy-book. Notions on paper- making. Cotton. School knapsack. Cereals : Rice, oats, mill. Agricultural instruments. Fruits : Acorn, chestnuts, horse-chestnuts, nuts, hazelnuts. Vintage : Vine-year. Oils : Nut, linseed, olive, colza. Autumn Flowers : Chrysanthemum, aster, clematis (in seed Vegetables preserved for winter, dried vegetables. Wolf, tiger, lion ; ass, mule, camel, chamois, hare, rabbit ; thrush, shepherd-girl (?) ; swan, goose ; pigeon-house pigeon, turtle-dove, ruff. Preserved fish : Herring, sardines, mackerel. Shellfish : Oyster, mother-of-pearl. Frog, toad, tortoise. The four cardinal points. Orientation of the school play- ground. Rain, fogs, mists (more developed than the first year). Harvest of potatoes, seeds, wheat. Aspect of nature : 2l8t December, the days and nights. The school, its situation, names of streets which adjoin it. The development greater than in the first year. Hygiene and aeration. Winter. 42 Wiiiter. Heating : Coke, wood, matches (danger). Lighting : Candles, lamp. Clothes : Wool, sheep, goat. Furs : Rabbit, hare, fox. Down : Coverlet. Shoes : Hog. Snow and ice. Birds to be protected in winter. 11th December : Story of the Escalade. 21st December : Division of time according to the seasons. Firs. Ist January : Division of time into months, days of the week. The hours — clocks and watches. Toy, orange. The holy days. Ethical chats (chats on morals). Cotton : Choice of cotton dress, apron, etc. Preliminary notions on the human body. The members : Care to give to the feet and hands. Means of locomotion. The dwelling-house : A room. Our walks. Spring, The awakening of nature (21st March). Generalities about a plant : Root, stem, leaves. Spring flowers : Primrose, violets, anemones, squill, lily of the valley, lilac. Spring vegetables ; cherry. The swallow. Useful insects : The bee, the silkworm. The goat and the kid. The fowl (Easter eggs). Coffee. Molting of the snow. Streams of water. •Summer. The pleasures of summer (21st June) : Hay, hay-time, milk and cre.im, wlieat. The Field : Summer flowers : Eglantine, rose, pinks. Summer fruits : gooseberries, black-currants, raspberries. Syrups Walking and running. Promotions. Chats concerning the Vacation : Special recommendations from the point of view of observation. Winter, Modes of heating : The furnace, fireplace, and combustible (gas) Means of lighting : lamps, petroleum (danger), gas. The same sul)jects as the first year — Wool-working, dyeing, spinning, weaving. Furs : Otter and ijeaver. Hair : Mattress, cushion. Leather : — Animals which furnish it : Cattle, hog, bristles, soft brushes. Snow and ice, more developed than in the first year. Protection of birds in winter. Ancient and modern Geneva. The Escalade turkey and pot. 21st December (the days and nights) : Pleasures of winter. The conifers. Division of time : The quarter, half-year, week, day. Division of the day : Hour, minute, second, dial, watch. The holy days. Ethical chats upon the exercise of generosity to the sick, the lonely, and the aged. Carded and threaded cotton ; choice of several cotton materials. The human body : Notions a little more developed than in the first year. The senses. Hygiene : Care to be given to the eyes, ears, teeth and hair. Steam : Locomotive, steamsliip. House in town : Cellars, rooms, lofts. The farm : Parts w)iicli compose it. Materials of construction : Stone, brick, wood, iron, glasss. Building tradesmen : Carpenter, joiner, etc. Some public monuments Spring. The 21st March (the days and nights). Generalities concerning trees : Fruit trees, ornamental trees, shelter trees. Spring flowers : Snowdrop, corydalis, cowslip, jonquil, narcissus, ranunculus, buds and flowers of a fruit-tree, potato- flowers, strawberries. Migratory birds, graminivorous birds, insectivorous birds, birds of prey. Injurious insects : The may-bug, the caterpillar. The bat, the mole, hedgo-liog. Hen and chickens. Chocolate, sugar, tea. Melting of the snow ; various streams of water ; distinction of the banks, source, and mouth ; lake and sea. First ideas of relief designed to make intelligiljle tho slope of streams, mountains, hills and plains. Our streams. Summer. The aspect of nature in summer ; tlie 21st June, days and nights. Flowers of a meadow : S.age, scabious, marguerite, sanfoin, bugle, gramineous plants, catch-fly, Pasturage : cheese- houses, butter and cheese Harvest-time : Cornflowers, poppies, bluebottle, rose-campion. Summer flowers : One or two cultivated flowers among the best known. Summer fruits : Apricots, plums, peaches, bilberries. Preserves. Walking and running. Promotions. Chats upon the Vacations : Special recommendations from the point of view of observation. 8. Programme of Studies for the primary soliooh of tJie Commune of Lausanne, Canton Vaud, Switzerland. — Although Vaud adjoins Geneva, the educational scheme of each has its own characteristics. Switzerland has cantonal independence as far as tho details of the educational systems are concerned. i l^or this reason the programme of Vaud is given also, so that a comparison may be instituted. Intentionally, this programme has been drafted out on a different plan from that of (3-eneva. In doin" this the object was to shew the progression of study in each subject, which does not so distinctly appear in the former programme. The intense rivalry between the various Swiss cantons in the matter of their educational systems, no doubt ha« had much to do with their strenuous endeavour to reach ideal perfection. The Swiss are proud, and rightly so, of their splendid schools ; and the endeavour to have them as excellent from the standpoint of pa)dagogy, as from that of hygiene, has made their contribution to the development of an ideal, and at the same time a practical, curriculum of very high paidagogic value. The following is the programme for primary schools : — ■ The plan of studies for the primary schools of the canton of Vaud divides the period of study into three parts. The first cycle of studies, viz , the lower qrade, comprises two school-years; the second cycle, the intermediate grade, three years ; and the third cycle, the higher grade, three years. This division is maintained in the "foreign" schools of tho Commune. For the schools of Lausanne the number of grades is seven. Tho programme of each of these firrades includes the work of one school-year. The ' M. J. Clerc, iu his " L ecole populaire Suisse," says :— " Notre patrie, en ofl'et, malgr<5 1'unit^ politique sous I'aspect de laquclle elle se prcisente i I'etraDger, est en r&aliti5 fractionnce en vingt-cinq rcpubliques, toutes autonomes, toutes ind(?pcndantes les uues dcs autres, dans les limites du cadre fOdiTal, et jalouses de la prerogative, i laquelle on a essayf; de toucher rarement, et jamais impuntiinent d'organiser coninic cllcs rentendeiit Pcnseignement populaire sur leur territoire restreint." 43 The classes of the 7th and Gth grades exactly correspond to the lower grade in the plan of cantonal studies ; those of the 5th and 4th grades to the intermediale tjrade ; those of the 2nd and 1st grades to the higher grade ; those of the 3rd grade do not correspond to one of the divisions in the cantonal plan, their programme including the matters contained in those of the intermediate and higher grades. The classes of the 7th grade receive children commencing their primary studies — that is, those who have completed their seventh year in the current school-year. This school-year commences in the month of April. The pupils who obtain each year regular promotion are thus able to complete the whole course of their primary studies by the age of li ; they have not at that age, however, the right of absolute freedom from all schools, for the law requires that they shall remain at school till 15. These pupils must therefore go through the course of the highest class again, or demand admission into establishments of secondary instruction. While there does not exist an exact correlation between the primary programme and the programmes of the secondary schools, the passing can nevertheless be made without loss of time, but only on the express condition that the pupils have followed regularly the course of instruction in the German language in the higher classes of the primary schools. In Lausanne there is in every class religious instruction of an historical character as follows, starting from youngest class : — • Relioion. Tth Class. — The creation, treated in a very summary manner. Paradise. The Fall. Cain and Abel. The Deluge. The patriarchs. Abraham leaves his country. Abraham and Lot. Promise of God to Abraham. Isaac. Journey of Eliezer, 6lh Class. — Esau and Jacob. Flight of Jacob. Jacob and Laban. Return of Jacob. Joseph and his brothers. Joseph in Egypt. Joseph's brothers go to Egypt. Jacr.b also. 5th Class. — People of Israel in Egypt. Moses ; his birth, youth, and flight. Moses before Pharaoh. Departure from Egypt. Israel in the desert. Giving of the Law. The calf of gold. The spies. Death of Moses, Joshua. Conquest of Canaan. Gideon. Samson. Ruth. Eli and Samuel. ith Class. — The kings— Saul, David, Solomon. Division of the kingdom. The prophets' captivity. 3rd Class. — Birth of Jesus. Jesus at the age of 12. John the Baptist. Baptism of Jesus. The first disciples. Marriage of Cana. Jesus and the Samaritan woman. Jesus in the svnagogue of Nazareth. Healing of the paralytic ; of the infirm at Bethesda. The centurion of Capernaum. The widow's son, of Naiu. The daughter of Jairus. Jesus appeases the tempest. Multiplication of the loaves and fishes. The ten lepers. Jesus blesses the children. 2nd Class. — Parables of the sower ; of the wheat and tarr.s. Sermon on the Mount (for reading), and the Lord's Prayer. Jesns and tlic woman of Canaan. Parable of tlie pitilcs.s servant. The man born blind. Parables of the Good Samaritan, of the ricli man and Lazarus, of the inodifal child, of the Pharisee and the publican. Martha and Mary. Resurrection of Lazarus. Parable ci the husbandman, of the ten virgins, and of the talents. The tribute to Ca;sar. The widow's mile. Jesus .it Bethany. 1st Class. — Entry of Jesus into Jerusalem. Betrayal by Judas. Story of the passion. Resurrection and ascension of Jesus. Outpouring of the Holy Spirit. Ananias and Sapphira. The apostles before the Sanhedrin. The eunuch. Conversion of Cornelius. The stoning of Stephen. Conversion of Saul ; his return to Jerusalem. Principal journeys of the apostle Paul. FiiExcu, i.e., MoTHER-TONGCE— Elocution and Rkdaction. Tlh Ciass. - -Short conversations, whether accounts of object lessons, or local geography. Real stories, or fictions, relative to the object lessons. Memorising the maxims deduced from the lessons. 6ih Class. — Continuation of the conversations, ujion the objects treated of in the programme of natural history and local geography. Selected recitations. Ethical stories. Biographies adapted to the calibre of the pupils. 5th Class. — Written and oral accounts of subjects read or learnt. Reproduction of the plan, and preparation with the point of view both of composition and orthography. Narratives and oral descriptions corresponding to the subjects in tlie programme. ith Class. — Continuation of the exercises of 5th Class. Short redactions, prepared together verbally. Development of a subject according to a plan prepared with the pupils in advance. Historical, biographical, geographical, and natural-history suljjects. 3rd Class. — Continuation of exercises in redaction, oral and written. Familiar letters. Moral subjects illustrated by anecdote or recitation. 2«(i Cias.f.— Oral and written accounts. Free reproduction of subjects read about, or exhibited, in the class. Redaction of subjects prepared witli the pupils, summarised for development. Free subjects. Various letters. let Class. — Imitation of subjects read about or analysed. Historical, biographical, geographical, or scientific accounts. Accounts from personal observation. Accounts of an excursion, or of a visit to a workshop, museum, etc. Development of a proverb, or of a maxim. Business letters and various other kinds of letters. Free subjects. Mother-tongue— Reading. ^th Class. Preparatory study of the phonetic elements of langnage. Sounds and articulations. Decomposition of phrases, of words, of syllables, into phonetic elements. Study of an illustrated spelling-book, based upon the phonetic method. Writing of words read. Typographical characters. Recitation of short and easy poems. Gth Class. — Reading and resume. Indications of the principal ideas. Reflections and ethical deductions. Study of new terms from the standpoint of signification and orthography. Recitation of easy pieces. 5th Class. — Choice of pieces having relation to other lessons. Elementary study of content and form. Accounts, according to the natural divisions of the subject. Explanation of terms not well-known. Scheme of a piece. Recitation of selected pieces (prose or verse). 4th Class. — Subjects in relation witli other lessons. Analysis of content, enunciation of main facts, comparison. Moral precepts and practical applications. Srd Class. — Division of a chapter into part.s, corresponding to the principal ideas. Study of particular expressions. Comparison of passages in respect of their fundamental relations. Recitation of selected pieces. 2nlanch('(l'as.m.u(, climbing apparatus, vaulting-polo, p.-vrallels, rack, and rings, etc. (Girls)— Fovmation exercises and marching. Formation of arches. Forming the chain. Countermarching, with singing. Double and inverse countermarches. Combination of tho bercd march, with leg movement. Mazurka step. Schottische and waltz step. Study of the pas croisA saiitd, of tho double-step, of the pirouetle roisi. Execute the different steps, dancing. Marching cri, croi^ Uf the pirquette-step. Rounds, with singing. Neeplework 48 NflEDLEWORK. 'Jth Class. — ^juMt'Miy— A strip of 35-40 stitches, divided into six-. 1. Knitting a garter. 2. Purling. 3. One needle plain and one purl. 4. Ribbed stocking. 5. One needle plain, one purl with seam. 6. Repetition of (5,), including decreasing. The mistress commences the strips, for which 6cra thread is employed. Kach part of the strip should have a length of 8-10 centimetres. Sewing — Stitch in front, and scam on open canvas. Sewing a strip with tucks and borders. For the first exercises on strips use rod or blue cotton. The pupils themselves prepare the strips, making the tucks, tacking and commencing the seams, themselves starting the sewing. The exercises on canvas are so made as to keep it flat. Class. — Knitlinij — Two legs of stockings witli the strips at the heel. The mistress may commence the stockings. Sewing — Repetition of the seam. Study of back-stitching, of the cross-stitch, and side-stitoliing on canvas. Medium and narrow hem. For the exercises of the second year, utilise the same samples. Making-up. Work- bag (90 X 45). Make the pocket in the following manner : — Hem all the sides, then join them by top-sewing. Class. — Knittimi — A pair of stockings. Simple small-chain commenced by the pupil. Sewing— Sewing. Broad hem. Back -stitching on canvas. English top-sewing. Running and felling. Making-up— Pillow-slip. ith Class. — Knitting — A pair of stockings entirely made by the pnpil (small double chain). .Sewing — Run and fell a seam on the straight and on the cross. Repetition of exercises of the preceding year. String-stitch with red cotton for marking the chemise. Study of cross-stitch. Making-up — Alphabet. Chemise according to the size of the pupil. Finish the neck and shoulders by a hem and trim : make false hem for tape and fastening. 'Ard Class. — Knittiii;/ — A pair of stockings, ribbed if desired. Sewing — Gathering Setting. Button-hole. String-stitch with white cotton. Cutting-out— Pattern of a little bodice with shoulder straps ; and of a girl's chemise. Mending — Mending the strip with plain stitch. 2nd Class. — Knitting — Socks. Re-knitting the heel. Sewing — Repetition of the exercises of the preceding year. Loop. Herriogboning (optional). Cutting-out — Ciir's' drawers. Chemise for the pupil. Making-up — Chemise from commencement by pupil. Mending — Piece of flannel. Piece of print. Piece of cloth (two corners). Mending holes in the knitting with plain stitch and scam. Mending exercises applied to tlic repair of used garments. 1st Class. — Sewiny — Repetition of the exercises of preceding years. Cutting-out — Knickers. Chemise for child of 2-5 years. Bib. Making-up — Woman's chemise. Various shapes of ilrawers. Mending — Piece of material (four corners), cloth, piete to darn. Mending holes witli stitcli and seam. Application of mending exercises to garments. Domestic Economy. Apartments. — Selection and maintenance of the apartments. Care of the furniture. Kitchen utensils and vessels. The meal. Provisions of the household. Care to give to the sick — The room : ventilation, heating, clothes, and beds. Foods, drinks, potions, etc. Minor pharmacy. First-aid in case of accidents. Germax Programme. IH Year. — Oral and written exercises upon the things in school. Grammar — Articles and adjectives. Substantives in the different cases. Prepositions. Verbs hahm and sein, and some other verbs, as Icsen, schreihen, zeirhnen, etc., on the present of the indicative. Easy songs and poems. 2iul Tear. — Oral and written exercises — Man, clothes, family, weather, the house according to Deutsche Slnnden of H. Schacht. Grammar — Prepositions. Declension of substantives and adjectives. Regular verbs. Reading of easy pieces. Some poems and songs. Zrd Year. — Oral and written exercises. The bouse (continuation). The domestic animals (according to Schacht). Study of several tables of Holzel. Grammar — Declension and degrees of comparison of adjectives. Regular and irregular verbs in the principal tenses and moods. Little descriptions and letters. Reading poetry and songs. 9. Secondary Education in the Canton ofVaud. — The secondary public instruction of the canton of Vaud comprises : — (1) The secondary schools. (5) The cantonal industrial and commercial schools. (2) The girls' superior schools. (G) The cantonal college. (3) The communal colleges. (7) The classic gymnasium. (4) The cantonal school of agriculture. (8) The normal schools. The programme of studies in (1) are those of the cantonal industrial school, and includes for young women needlework and domestic economy. Pupils must be at least 1"2 j'ears ot" age ; and the communes may send meritorious pupils of the higher division of the secondary schools, free of all expense, to these schools. The aim of (2") is to give young women a sound and thorough education, and to prepare them, by means of special studies, for their future vocation in the family, or for the various possible callings in industry, commerce, and teaching. The programme of studies is as follows :-- 1. French language and literature. 8. Writing. 2. German. 9. Drawing. 3. English. 10. Music. 4. Arithmetic, accountancy, elements of mathematics. 11. Needlework. 5. Geography. 12. Domestic economy. 6. History. 13. Gymnastics. 7. Elements of physical and natural science. 14. Religion (optional). The programme of the communal colleges (3) is identical with that of the cantonal colleges or the cantonal industrial school. The programme of (4) is : — 1. Agriculture — soils, cultivation. 13. Geometry and survey. 2. Rural and Alpine economy. 14. Technical drawing. 3. Viticulture. ,- 15. Rural building. 4. Forestry. 16. Drainage and irrigation. 5. Kitchen gardening. 17. Agricultural accountancy. 6. Arboriculture. 18. Agricultural geology. 7. Zootechnics. 19. Agriculture, meteorology, and elements of physics 8. Agricultural Zoology. 20. Agricultural chemistry. 9. Bee culture. 21. Agricultural botany. 10. Fish culture. 22. Rural legislation. 11. Milk industry. 23. Civic instruction. 12. Elementary mechanics, agricultural machines, and 24. Manual work. Technology. 25. Gymnastics. The above instruction is given by university professors, secondary masters, and special masters during two winter semesters (half-years), and a diploma is conferred on those who pass the final examinations and fulfil their attendance on the course. The 49 The cantonal industrial and commercial schools comprise really the following schools, viz. :- (a) The industrial school. (b) The professional school. (c) Tlie school of commerce. {(l) The mathematical gymnasium. The subjects of the programmes of these several schools are :- Industrial. 1. French language. 2. German language. 3. Arithmetic. 4. Geometry and algebra. 5. Accountancy. 6. Geography and cosmo- graphy. 7. History. 8. Writing. 9. Artistic and industrial drawing. 10. Physios and chemistry. 11. Natural science. 12. Elements of mechanics. 13. Manual work. 14. Singing. 15. Gymnastics. IG. Religion (optional). 17 18 Proftsnonal. French language. German language. General history (com- merce and industry). Mathematics. Mechanics. Industrial accountancy. Artistic drawing and modelling. Industrial drawing. Physics. Chemistry. Natural science. Manual work on wood, atone, metal. Commercial. French language. German language. English language. Italian language. Spanish language. Caligraphy. Drawing. Accountancy. Commercial arithmetic. Commercial geograpliy. General history (com- merce and industry). Physics. Chemistry. Civil law. Commercial legislation. Political economy. Knowledge of merchandise. Practical exercises. Mathematical Gymnasium. French literature and language. German literature and language. History. Matliematics, topography, astronomy. Industrial drawing. Artistic drawing. Physics. Chemistry. Natural science. Mechanics.^ The length of each course is three ye.ars. The entrance age is 12 for the industrial coarse and 15 for each of the others. Kegular attendance and a successful pass ensures the issue of a diploma in each case ; this diploma is known in the case of the mathematical gymnasium as the Bachelier es-sciences mathemati ques . In the cantonal college, which prepares pupils for the higher classical studies, the entrance age is 10 years, and the course lasts six years. The jjrogramme of studies is as follows : — 1. French. 2. Latin. 3. Greek. 4. German. 5. History. G. Geography. 7. Arithmetic, accountancy, geometry, algebra. 8. Writing. 9. Civic instruction. 10. Natural science. 11. Singing. 12. Drawing. 13. Gymnastics. 14. Religion (optional). 10. Outline of some of the subjects in the preceding scheme. — Since a mere list of subjects does not per se indicate the standard of the teaching, some more detailed explanation is necessary, shewing more definitely how these subjects are taught, it will suffice to take several subjects, and give a more explicit statement of the teaching lor ihcm alone. Natural history, physics and chemistry, and mathematics will perhaps serve the purpose. (Translated from the official programmes). Natural Hlstoky. Age 12 to 13. — EUmeiit.iry notions: Preliminary considerations. Kingdoms. Distinction between gross matter and living beings. Study of llw human body— Digestion, circulation, respiration, secretion, assimilation, alimentation. The nervous system. Sense organs. Locomotion. Cla/iaification of the. anim'il Linydom. Mammifera— their characters and divisions. Alimentation — domestic species, cattle ; savage species ; game ; the dog. The animals serviceable to man. Industry — the ruminants, leather, tanning. Wools. Various products. Amphibia. Cetacea. The fur animals. Various species. Age 13 to 14. — Zoology : Elementary course. Recapitulation of the preceding course. Birds. Character and classifications. Alimentation. Domestic species — the poultry-yard. Savage species. Industry. Eggs and feathers. Song. Aviaries — various kinds. Beptilts — tortoise, lizard, serpent. Jintrnchians—Jixh, character and classification ; fresh-water fish ; salt-water fish. Articulata and annellata. Useful insects. Injurious insects. Arachnida. Myriapoda. Crustacea. Annelidae. Molluncs — alimentary species, industrial species, various species. Zoophytes. Age 14 to 15. — Botany, Mineraloyy, and Geology: Elementary course. Botany. Vegetable physiology. Functions of nutrition. Root, stem, leaves. Reproductive functions— flower, fruit, seed, germination, artificial reproduction of vegetables. Classification. Herborisations (field botany). Alimentary plants — Cereals, tubers, and roots. Fodder. Vegetables. The kitchen-garden. Fruits. Orchard. Exotic alimentary plants. Industrial plants. — Textile plants. Oil-bearing plants. Tinctorial plants. Timbers for construction. Firewood. Medicinal plants. — Ornamental plants. Mineralogy — Preliminary ideas. Minerals. Combustibles. Common metals. Precious metals. Materials of construction. Precious stones. Various minerals. Geology. — Internal heat of the earth. — The earth, its form, composition of its crust. Characters of the rock-fossils. Classification of strata. Terrestrial heat proper. Earthquakes. Volcanoes. Thermal sources. Artesian wells. Origin and revolution of the globe. — Fundamental ideas regarding the classification of the surface. Races that have vanished. Relative age of some of the mountains of Europe. Various deposits. Modifications produced by wind and water. Risumi. 16— 0- Chemical 60 Chemical and Physical Science. Age 13 to 14. — Physics and chemistry. — Preliminary ideas. The course must be so directed as to introduce the description of simple important elements, phsenomena, and operations. States of matter. Various gases ; their weight. Atmospheric pressure. Fusion. Sohition. Crystallisation. Boiling and distillation. Chemical modifications of matter. Chemical solution. Solvent action of some acids upon metals, upon chalk, etc. Various applications, engraving, cleaning, etc. Simple and compound bodies. Combustion in air, and in oxygen. Slow oxidation. Water. Atmospheric air. Historical conceptions as to the discoveries which constituted the starting-point of chemistry. (Lavoisier, etc.) Age 14 to 15 — PAi/stcs.— Constitution of bodies. Universal attraction. Gravity. Fall of bodies. (Experimental.) Weight of bodies. Weighing. Specific weight (flask method). General properties of solids. Liquids. — Principle of Pascal. Elements of hydrostatics. Principle of Archimedes. Areometers. Communicating vessels. Properties of Gases. — Law of Mariotte. Atmospheric pressure. Barometers and their use. Pneumatic machine and com- pression pump. Aspiration pump. Syphon. Aerostats. Heat. — Dilatation. Thermometers. Changes in the state of bodies. Ebullition. Thermal conductivity. Radiation of heat in friction and in impact. Production of cold. Electricity. — Tensional electricity and ordinary electric machine. Electrophorus. Leyden jar. Atmos- Sheric electricity. Galvanic pile. Simple cell with one liquid. Principal effects of an electric current. Telegraphy, 'eedle and compass. AeouMics. — Production of sound. Its velocity. Echoes. The gamut. Optics. — Luminous bodies, transparent, opaque, etc. Propagation of light ; its velocity. Reflexion of light by plane mirrors. Simple cases of spherical mirrors. Refraction ; its definition, and several examples. Decomposition of light. Solar spectrum. Age 14 to 15. — Chemistry. — Compound and simple bodies. (The series of elements arranged according to their atomicity). Metals and metalloids. Rules and nomenclature concerning acids, oxides, and salts (according to the unitary and atomic theory). Hydrogen. Chlorine, and hyrochloric acid. Iodine and bromine. Oxygen and sulphur. Com- bustion. Respiration. Sulphuretted hydrogen. Sulphuric acid. Nitrogen. Atmospheric air. Ammonia. Nitric acid. Ordinary and amorphous phosphorus. Properties and use of phosphorus. Carbon, carbon monoxide, carbonic acid. General composition of organic matters. Their combustion. Silicon. Study of metals and of their principal oxides, salts, and alloys. Mathematics. Special for Classic Pupils. Age 14 to 15. — Algebra. — Algebraic calculation applied to expressions, whole or fractional. Solution of equations of the first degree, of one or more unknowns. Problems. Age 15 to 16. — Calculation of roots of the second degree ; various exercises ; problems ; discussion. Progressions and logarithms. Compound interest and annuities. Age 14 to 15. — Geometry. — Plane geometry, as far as proportional lines inclusive. Areas of rectilineal figures. Proportions or equal ratios. Age 15 to 16. — Revision of the proceeding. End of plane geometry. Geometry of three dimensions, omitting supplemen- tary trihedra, and spherical triangles. Special for Pupils of the Industrial Schools. Age 3 to 15. — Algebra, and geometry the same as for classic pupils. Age 4 to 15. — Mechanics : Elementary course, comprising the study of forces, of work, of the centre of gravity, of simple machines, and the description of prime movers. In regard to languages, it may be mentioned that in the year 15 to Ifl the studies are as follows : — Latin. — Systematic study of subordinate propositions. The analysis and scansion of the lyric measures. Exercises in prosody. Interpretation, or analytic and pliilologic reading of such authors as Sallust, Cicero (the orations and philosophic discourses), Pliny (the panegyric of Trajan), Virgil, Horace (several odes, epistles, or satires). Fluent reading. Exercises. Translations. Recitation. Mythology and Roman antiquities, as far as is necessary for thoroughly understanding the authors. Greek Grammar. — Revision of the most difficult parts. Complete syntax. Interpretation of such authors as Xenophon, Herodotus, Homer, Hesiod, Theocritus. Fluent reading of a very easy author. Exercises. Translations. German Reading. — Recitation. Conversational exercises. Syutaxandanalysisof the compound sentence. Interpretation of selected pieces from easy authors, in prose and verse. Translation of French into German. Exercises. Translations. Compositions on easy subjects. The studies in Latin commence at the age of years ; those in G-reek at 12 ; and those in German at 11. Although the whole course is not shewn, suflBcient has been given to indicate its character. It is obvious in reviewing the above that the opportunity of receiving a good secondary education is given in Switzerland as it is not here. This will be more strongly felt when it is at the same time remembered that the instruction is given by teachers who have passed through such an education themselves, and have then qualified themselves as specialists. It is also to be borne in mind in a consideration of the character of this education, that the scientific equipment of the schools is adequate for thoroughly teaching the various subjects. The schools are provided with very fine physical and chemical laboratories, and also with fine natural history museums. 11. Conclusion. — Bearing in mind that the teachers of Swiss schools are more highly trained than they are in this State, and comparing the preceding programmes with the work done in the public and private schools of New South Wales, it is evident that the educational opportunities are much greater for children in Switzerland, than they are for children liere. OHAI^TER VI. 61 CHAPTER VI. Primary Education in Germany and other Countries of Europe. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introduction. — In examining the educational syetem of a country with a view to ascertaining how fav its features are applicable elsewhere, the scheme of social organisation must be taken into account. Switzerland and America are thoroughly democratic ; their lowest to their highest forms of education are, at least theoretically, for the people as a whole ; in some states the education is free, up to and inclusive of the University ; their military organisations are also on democratic lines ; personal freedom and personal opportunity are, at least in the latter country, very great. Swiss children, and those of the United States, are assumed, in so far as an educational system can assume it, to have the equal regard of the State. In a purely democratic educational system, the initial stages of education must either be absolutely identical or officially regarded as equally efficient in qualifying for all forms of higher education. Specialisation in given directions is postponed as long as possible, and freedom to select a career kept open, till primary education is closed. The German educational system does not fulfil this democratic condition : it demands a somewhat early decision as to career, at least as regards those careers which are supposed to require a specially classical or a specially scientific education ; and it demands also an early decision as to whether one intends to be an artisan, or to follow a professional calling. On this account the elementary education of Grermany presents distinct features, which ought to be viewed in the light of these facts. The education ])rovided in the ordinary Volksschulen (Folkschools, or popular primary schools), is supposed to qualify for ordinary or unskilled labour, etc. To be equipped for skilled labour, one must go on >o the Forthildungsschulen (continuation schools) of various kinds^that is, after leaving the Volksschule. For the higher callings, the educatioijal equipment is through preparatory schools (Vorschulen), the progymnasiums, etc., following on afterwards to the Eealechulen or Gymnasien. This conception of an educational system is adapted to a community where the movement is mainly in horizontal planes, as it were, of the social strata ; where the artisan class in general remain artisans — i.e., it is suitable to an old established community not essentially democratic in its tendency, and is not so well adapted to a country where the movement is freely vertical as in America. Thus in its detail the German system is not organised appropriately for democratic communities, where the popular primary school ought to be really preparatory for all higher forms of education. Nevertheless it is an excellent system, as will later appear, and with some modification it can be adapted to a democratic community. In dealing with a State system, it must first be definitely settled whether it is to be democratic or not. If the system is to aim at giving every child in the community an opportunity of rising to whatever position his talents will allow, then the American and Swiss ideals must govern us, and perhaps to some extent the French. It is still a problem as to how early it is desirable to allow specialisation in a State system, and only people who are ignorant of the complexity of the problem will be positive in regard to it. It may be said, however, that the tendency and features of change in all modern education are in the direction of giving all classes of the community equal opportunities of achieving through education what is possible with their character and natural endowment. This tendency is recognised by some of the ablest educationists of Germany as a distinct advance. Another feature of modern significance in German education is the adaptation to the rapidly changing circumstances of the modern world. Science is playing a part in modern industrial and commercial life of daily increasing significance, and it has become evident that the classical basis for all higher education can no longer be maintained in its original form. The reform movement in Germany has affirmed this, in the recent pronouncement' as regards the equality of privileges of the three forms of secondary education. To appreciate properly the German school, it must be remembered that the teachers commence their work at 18 or 19, after a good special education qualifying them for that office, in which training in teaching constitutes an important element. This secondary education is given by men of still higher education — almost without exception men of University training, — whose period of education usually extends till they are 30 years of age, and who are specialists in the branches they teach. 2. The development of German elementary education. — Popular education in Germany practically commenced with Luther's exhortations in regard to the education of children (lo2-i), and the work of Melanchthon in editing school-books, and actively undertaking the promotion of the cause of education, labours that won for him the title " Pra;ceptor Germania)." It is nearly 200 years ago (1713) since Frederick ' By the Royal decree of 26th November, 1900 : "With regard to the question of privileges, the principle to be observed that the Gymnasium, tlie Realgymnasium, and the Oberrealschule, shall be deemed equal in respect of general intellectual culture ; comequently steps are to he taken to extend the privilerje of institutions with a non-das-tical curricidnm. Tliis is the best means of raising the repute, and increasing attendance at these institutions, and of bringing about a wider spread of modern and practical subjects. . . . ," — (Signed) \Viuiej,m R, 52 Frederick William I of Prussia immediately upon ascending the throne proclaimed "evangelical-reformed" regulations concerning inspection, the gymnasia, and school?, etc.; and in 1717 he directed that, where schools existed, all children should attend. At the close of the seven years' war (1763), Frederick the Great directed that children sliould be sent to school at 5 and attend till adequately educated (13-14), but this law was not made even fairly efiBcient until about 179i, when Frederick William II determined the responsibility of providing schools by a general statute (Allgemeines Landrecht). Frederick William III (1797-1810), after his humiliation by Napoleon I, made strenuous efforts at improving popular education, sending Germans to Pestalozzi's school in Switzerland and introducing teachers from other countries. Before 18:20, town and country schools had been placed under the control of directing boards (Schuldeputationen, Schulvorstiinde) and education was made a department of state (Ministerium der Geistlichen, Unterrichts,— und Medizinal-Angelegenheiten in Prussia; Winisterium des Kultus und offentlichen Unterrichts in Saxony.) In 1825 the obligation of school attendance was more strongly enforced-, the duties of school administrations and provincial school boards defined (Schulregierungen und Provinzialschulkollegien). In 1850 regular teachers were made civil servants, and elementary education was attempted to be made free, this being consummated in 1888. In 1872 the state, under the school supervision law (Schulaufsichtgesctz), asserted the right to the supervision of all schools. This general supervision under a department of highly-educated leaders of broad culture and sympathies, is undoubtedly in the public interest. Tlio system of administration is decentralised in each province by the creation of administrations (Regierungen), these being divided in sections (Abteilungen), the personnel of the sections consisting of several — three or four— councillors (Schulriitc). These are civil servants, paid by the Government, and are subordinate to the provincial school board (Provinzialschulkollegium), the members of which, also known as Schulriite, generally number four or five. There are about three administrative centres to a province, and about sixteen districts (Schulkreise) under each administrative centre. This ensures thorough attention to the wants of each district. 3. Character of German elementary education. — The German elementary school is good, not so much because of the range of its curriculum as because its teachers are properly educated and trained, and they are not allowed to teach before passing through a special preparing and training school. They therefore teach well, as is generally admitted. It ought to be added that the theory and practice of teaching has been ably studied in Germany for many years past. The following is an expression of opinion from Eussia as to the character of the German elementary teacher, and German education: — " The German teacher is a man of short stature but of great mental calibre He is preparing the most startling surprises The English had hardly expected to cope so soon with an equal competition in industry, commerce, etc but their eyes were suddenly opened to the fact that the Germans .... were surpassing them in many ways We must give the most earnest attention to the effect of German school education." ' Belgium opinion is equally flattering according to the following testimony : — Baron de Haulleville, of Belgium, in an article on the Germans in Brussels, writes:^" The elementary schools of Germany, are on the whole, the best in Europe. Children there learn to fear God and respect authority Combine the marvellous system of technical education, with this education in the elementary schools and with disciplinary training, and you have the secret of the present power of Germany, political and economic, with its future inevitable consequences." Mr. E. M. Field, one of His Majesty's Inspectors of Schools, London, England, says : — "The great strength of the latter {i.e., the German teacher) seems to me to lie in his power of exposition and his appreciation of his own language and literature — a direction in which the average English teacher is perhaps least strong. It is impossible not to be struck on the one hand with his facility in expression, his ability to expound a piece of literature in all its lights, to discourse on a passage of history or a point in geography or science ; and, on the other hand, with the care he takes to inculcate respect for the mother-tongue upon his pupils. " He has often a very heavy burden of work — more than he can possibly do well ; but even when the state of his exercise books and other indications shew that he does not adequately perform his whole task, he is nevertheless able to hold his class attentive as soon as he begins an oral lesson. The eager faces and engrossed expression of the children in the best schools impress themselves on the observer's memory. " In good schools be is another illustration of the truth that the personality of the teacher is what matters most." " And speaking of the aim of the elementary school Mr. Field says also : — " The expansion of head and heart is the common aim, and interest the common instrument, of all intellectual work. "It follows that a limited curriculum is sufEcient. It is wrong to set high value upon the accumulation of knowledge at the expense of ethical and intellectual thoroughness. Much detail in geography and history, a large amount of reading matter, a free range of subjects, are not in themselves important. Teachers capable of thorough ethical and intellectual treatment of their work are the first necessity, men who know how to free themselves from all that is petty, and yet see that every detail needs care ; then a choice of work that can really be done, and which forms a harmonious whole." ' 4. Curriculum in the elementary schools of Dresden. — In order to acquire an adequate conception of the teaching in the elementary schools in Saxony it is necessary to review one of the official programmes. For that purpose we take that of the evangelical, that is the Lutheran, schools of the city of Dresden. (Evangelischen Bezirksschulen der Stadt, Dresden, 1900.) The following is the time-table of those schools, the ages being as noted. The > HOBOE BPEMa (Novoe Vremya), 29th January, 1898. ' Special Reports on Educational Subjects, vol. 9, p. 303, Jbid., p. 3lf, 53 The time-table for the Bezirksschulen (DiHtrict Elementary Schools) of Dresden is as Jollows : — Scholars' Age Class Subject — Biblical History "I Instruction in Catechiem j Reading Orthography 1 Mother Tongue / Composition Arithmetic Geometry Natural History Physics Geography History Writing Drawing Singing v.. Gymnastics Needlework Boys. 6-7. 7-S. 8-9. 9-10. 10-11. 11-12. 12-13. 13-14, VIII. VII. 5 2§ 23 5 J3 4 {! 1 4 18' 18' I 20 24 IV. III. 28 1} 2 1} 2 4 2 1 28 I 30 : 30 Girls. 6-7. VIII. 2i 5 2i 18' 7-8. VII. 20' 9-10. lO-U. 11-12. 12-18. I VI. III. 24 2t 30 30 30 13-14. 2 2 2 1 1 2 3 r 2 2 2 2" o 2 4 30 In exhibiting the details of the curriculum, considerable use h.is been made of the olRcial programme, which is the joint work of the Itoyal District Inspector of Schools (Der kiinigliche Bezirks- Hchuiinspektor) and the directors of tho schools (Die Direktoren der Bezirkssehulen)". It may be said that in Sections 5 to 2i the Programme of the Evangelical Schools {/Jezirksschulen) of Dresden is practically outlined in detail. 5. Beligion. — Some idea of the outline of the programme of religious teaching, both in respect of biblical history and the catechism, is given in Chapter XV, Section 6, to which reference may be made. The instruction very thoroughly embraces both elements. The object of the religious instruction is e.'cplicitly stated to be as follows : — (1) The religious instruction in the Polk-school shall educate the children in the true fear of God through the imparting of the main outlines of sacred history and the doctrine of salvation (Heilslehre), etc. (2) The instruction shall embrace the biblical history of the Old and New Testament, and the explanation of the smaller Lutheran Catechism. The details need not be given. The time devoted, as shewn in the programme hereinafter. The biblical history cover.-i a wide area. Tho following programme of the 8th, 7th, and 6th classes will shew the treatment. A verse of Scripture or of a hymn is learnt and repeated with each story. Tho iirst few words only of the verse are given. 9ith Class. (4 lessons of 40 minutes ench, per week) : — 1. The Creation. ("But our God is in the heavens) 2. Abraham and Lot. (Blessed are tho meek.) 3. Joseph. (Be devout and upright.) 4. Jacob in Egypt. (I'hou shalt rise in the presence of a grey head.) 5. The birth of Moses. (Call upon me in trouble.) 0. JNIcses in the land of Midiaii. (Commit thy way unto tho Lord.) 7. The E.xodus from Egy|)t. (Hymn 404, 1 and 2. Wake up my heart.) 8. The birth of Jesus. (Let us love Him.) 9. The Wise Men from the East. (Hymn461,8.) 10. Jesus in the Temple. (Hymn 404, 9.) 11. The marriage at Cana. (Cast all your care upon Him.) 12. The feeding of the .5,000. (All eyes wait upon Thee.) 13. The Widow of Nain's son. (Come unto me all yo that labour and are heavy laden). 14. The Good Samaritan, (lilessed are the merciful.) 15. Christ blessing the Children. (Let Jittlo children come unto me.)^ 7th Class. (4 lessons of 40 minutes each, per week) : — I. The Creation.'' 2. The Fall. .S. Abraham's journey to Egypt. 4. Abraham and Lot.'' 5. Joseph.' 0. Birth of Moses.^ 7. Moses in the Land of Midian.^ 8. Moses before Fharoah. 9. The Exodus from Egypt.* 10. The Giving of the Law. 11. Buth. 12. Hannah and Samuel. 13. The birth of Jesus.* 14. The Wise Men from the East.* 15. The flight to Egypt. 10. Jesus in the Temple * 17. The Baptism of Jesus. 18. The Marriage of Cana* 19. The feeding of the 5,000.* 20. The Widow of Nain's Son.'' 21. The Storm upon the Sea of Galilee. 22. The Good Samaritan.* 23. Jesus blesses the Children.* 24. The death of Jesus on the Cross. The Kesurrection of Jesus. Gth Class. (3 hour lessons weekly^ —1. Tho Creation of the World." 2. The Fall.' 3. Noah. 4. Abraham's journey to Egypt." 5. Isaac's marriage. 0. Jacob and Esau. 7. Moses' birth and flight." 8. Moses at Horeb. 9. Tho Exodus from Egypt." 10. The giving of the Law." 11. The Golden Calf. 12. Moses' death. Joshua. 13. Euth.' 14. Hannah and Samuel." 15. Saul becomes King. IG. David and Goliath. 17. David becomes King. IS. Birth of John the Baptist. 19. The birth of Jesus." 20. The AVise Men from the East." 21. The Baptism of Jesus." 22. The Centurion of Capernaum. 23. Bethesda. 24. Peter fishing. 25. The storm on the Sea of Galilee." 26. The ten lepers. 27. The Prodigal Son. 28. The liich M.nn and Lazarus. 29. The unfaithful Steward. 30. Jesus' entry into Jerusalem. 31 Jesus in Gethsemane. 32. Jesus before Annas. 33. Jesus before Pilate. 34. Jesus' death and burial." 35. Jesus' Resurrection." 36. Jesus' ascension to Heaven. Eeviewing the above, it will be seen that many of the lessons refer to both the previous ones, and others to the one of the preceding class. This system is followed throughout. It is known as " Wieder- holung" (recapitulation) ; but it is a recapitulation with development, and thus is well calculated to ensure thorough acquirement of the material of instruction. In The lessons in Classes VII and VIII la.1t generally from 30-40 minutes only, not one hour as the other lessons. Wilhelm Brummer, Dresden, 1900. The passage in brackets is from the German (Luther's) Bible ; liio English translation is not followed. It will be noticed that these items are included in the preceding programme^ These items are included in the preceding progruume. These iVems are iniludod ia both the preceding programmes, 54 In the 5th Class there are two hours of biblical liistory, and one hour of catechism per week. The Tea Commandmeuts are treated, special stress being laid upon what is commanded, while what is forbidden is but briefly referred to, since it is held that if one has learnt to love the good, the evil can easily be avoided. In the 4:th Class, the relation of the Old Testament history to the New Testament history — " history of redemption" (Heilsgeschichte) — is pointed out, and short geographical sketches of Palestine at the time of Christ are given. To the catechism two hours are now given per week, as well as two hours to biblical history. The 3rd Class is much the same. In the 2nd Class a short introduction concerning the origin, value, character, translation, and division of Holy Scripture is given. In the 1st Class the teaching refers to modern "atheism" (G-ottesleugnung), materialism, etc. ; to "the superstitions of the present time, spiritism" (von Aberglauben der Gegenwart, Spiritismus) ; to the sacred observance of an oath ; the maintenance of the Sabbath ; the relations of masters, servants, authorities ; to our duties to the sick ; to purity in word and deed ; to property ; to truthfulness in public matters ; to contentment and gratitude ; and to the extension of Christianity, etc., etc. Such a scheme of religious teaching presupposes that all participants are Protestant (the programme is, as said, from the Lutheran evangelical schools), and could not be adopted in mi.xed schools ; at least, in 80 far as the catechism is concerned. Although what has preceded is not in any way exhaustive, it will give a fair picture of the religious element in the teaching of the Lutheran schools. 6. Oerman, i.e., the mother-tongue. — The aim here is twofold, viz. : — (a) To accustom the children to an accurate use of the spoken and written language. (b) To achieve this end by attention to speaking (observation, repetition, elocution), to reading (literature), and to writing (orthography, grammar, composition, etc.). The instruction is classified as A. (i) Intuitional instruction. A. (ii) Eecitation. A. (iii) Exercises in speaking (elocution). B. Reading ; and C. Writing. The object of the intuitional instruction is to make the perceptions of the children clear — to regulate and extend them, so that their power of expressing themselves shall be well-developed, to the end that they may learn to speak thoughtfully and to think accurately. In treating each subject, endeavour is made to ascertain the range of the children's perceptions, touching but briefly on matters that are unessential, or arc already known, but making the pupils grasp new matter through clear, short sentences. The mportance of leading them to make direct observations and to freely express their own thoughts is strongly accentuated. The disposilions of the children should be developed, it is held, by referring their attention to the beauties and adaptations of Nature and natural objects, and by the employment of suitable anecdotes, tables, stories, verses, etc., with a view to impressing the matter on the perception and memory. In the Sth Class, in which there are 4 lessons of 40 minutes each, the preliminary exercises are : — (a) Calling the Christian and surname; place of residence ; holding up the right and left hands; indicating various directions, such as above, below, before, behind ; pointing out and giving the names of various things about the room ; and so on. (b) Convert^ations restricted to the most important phenomena of the particular season of the year. Stress is not laid upon the quantiti) of the instruction given, but only upon the thoroughness of the treatment from the standpoint of instruction in the language. While it is left absolutely to the teacher to replace it by any other he may think fit, the following programme is ofiBcially recommended : — S/>rt«_5?: 1. The daisy. 2. The tulip. 3. The cherry. 4. The bird-nest. 5. The lamb. Summer : 6. The bee. 7. The butterfly. 8. The whortleberry. 9. The meadow. 10. The fish. 11. The garden. 12. The field. Au/umn: ]3. The ap^le. 14. The forest. 15. The hare. 16. The village. 17. The horse. 18. The Cow. Winter: 19. The dwelling-house. 20. The house dog. 21. The cat. 22. The clock. 23. Water. 24. The human body. In connection with these lessons, simple things are to be drawn by the children, or parts of more difiicult ones are to be sketched. In the 7th Class the lessons are of the same duration. Noteworthy actual physical bodies, their living forms, their significance for us, are to constitute the special material tor consideration ; and, in order to develope the faculty of comparison, attention is to be drawn to their points of similarity and difference. The sentences used must be continually developed, as regards richness of content and definitiveness. Thus, for example, the exercises in the mother-tongue are required to illustrate the mandatory and questioning forms, and should include two prominent ideas, etc. The instruction is made illustrative of the season of the year, as before ; thus, the following is the programme : — Spring : ] . The Spring. 2. The apple-tree. 3. The violet. 4. The cockchafer, 5. Daisy and larch. (i. The sheep. 7. The cuckoo. 8. Garden and field. 9. Meadow and forest. Summer: 10. Summer. 11. The cock. 12. Bee and butterfly. 13. Horse and cow. 14. Dog and cat. 15. The storm. 10. Water. 17. Eye. IS. Miller and "baker. Autumn: 19. The Autumn. 20. Fruit. 2l.Thestork. 22. Hunter and fisher. 23. Stonemason and carpenter. 24. Joiner and smith. 25. Hill and valley. 20. Moon and stars. 27. The seasons. Winter: 28. Winter. 29. Christmas-time. 30. Snow and ice. 31. Birds in winter. 32. The dwelling-house. 33. The family. 31. The human body. 35. Food and clothing. 30. The clock. It 55 It will be observed that, as in the case of biblical history, there is repetition of a numher of the subjects. This also was indicated as a characteristic feature in the programmes of Switzerland in regard to the object-lessons (lefons des choses). These object-lessons, treated so as to be lessons in the mother- tongue, are a feature in European teaching (see the Swiss programmes). They are by no means identically drafted in different schools, as will ajjpear from the following programme from the Prussian schools, quoted by Mr. Field, before referred to. Easter to Harvest. Fint Year. Second Year. 1. The Sclioolrooni and its Furniture. 1. Same subject. 2. Materials used in the school. 2. Spring. 3. The Dwelling-house. 3. Marsh Marigold. The Blind Nettle. 4. The Sitting-room. . 4. 5. The Kitchen. 5. The Cuckoo. 6. Cellar and Rooms. 6. Cockchafer. 7. The Cat. 7. Boy and Bird's Nest. 8. The Mouse. 8. House-building. 9. Farm Buildings, 9. Wayfarer and Lark. 10. The Stork. 10. The Summer. 11. The Farmyard, 11. The Harvest. Harvest to Michaelmas. First Year Second Year. 12. Pug and Spitz. 12. The Corn Flower 1.3. The Garden. 13. Gardening. 14. The Arbour. 14. The Butterfly. 15. Fruit Trees. 15. The Swallow. 16. Flowers. 16. Birds and Owl. 17. Vegetables. 17. The Frog. 18. The Village. 18. Fishes. 19. The Peasant. 19. Bees. Michaelmas TO Chkistmas. First Year. Second Yeai. 20. Mare and Foal. 20. Harvest. 21. The Goat. 21. The Fruit Harvest. 22. The Cow. 22 Slicpherd and Flock. 23. The Sheep. 2S. Dog and Goat. 24. Chickens. 24. Dog and Children. 25. Doves. 25. The Potato Harvest. 26. Ducks and Geese. 26. Vineyard. 27. The Swan. 27. The Peasant and the Tilling of the Ijand. 28. Church and Tower. 28. Fox and Duck. 29. Rivers, Bridges, and Ships. 29. The Donkey. 30. The Mill. 30. Winter. 31. Water and Fishing. 31. 'J'he Fir Tree and Christmas. CnniSTMAS to Ea.steb. First Year. Second Year. 32. The Raven. .S2. The Boat. 33. The Forest. 33. Hare and Sportsman. 34. The Wild Animals of the Forest. .34. The Woodpacker. 35. Forest Trees. 35. The Wood-cutter, and the Uses of Wootl 36. The Town. .36. Tlio Squirrel. 37. The Yearly Market. .37. Snow and Ice. 38. Various Artizans. .38. Sliding and Skating. 39. Tlie Bear. .39. Tlie Snow Man. 40. The Elephant. 40. Horse and Sparrow. 41. The Lion. 41. Child and 0.\. 42. Threshing. 42. Tlie Railway. The theory of such lessons is that they serve a triple purpose, viz. : — (i) They awaken the perceptions of children to their surroundings. (ii) They develope ideas, and the faculty of observation, and they arouse interest, (iii) They reinforce and train the power of expression in language, so that the children can give an account of their thoughts and ideas. They further maintain the unity of education — i.e., reading — and the ienrning of the mother-tongue is not dissociated from other instruction. This will more fully appear as the programme is more thoroughly studied, and as the later pans come under notice. In order to appreciate the interest and value of such lessons, one has to bear in mind the thorough education of the teacher during his professional training, and that his literary ability is generally equal to an excellent presentation of the subject matter of his lessons. 7. jReeitation. — In the middle and upper classes the recitation of selected pieces of prose and poetry serve to impress the literary material on the minds of the children. The treatment is as follows : — (a) The selected pieces are first read, and are then so thoroughly analysed that, without special effort or waste of time, the children understand and learn them. (b) In classes VI-IV special attention is paid to the marks of punctuation, but in dr.sees III-I stress is liiid upon impressive and thoughtful reading. (c) 56 (c) Every care is taken to ensure good enunciation of vowels and consonants, and particularly of the mutes (p, b, t, d). Accurate discrimination between accented and unaccented (long and short) syllables has to be attended to, the common defects of speaking and the so-called school-reading tone (SchuUeseton) being avoided. (d) Every piece learnt is repeated at least once by the whole class, so that the children may become accustomed to uniformity in speaking, and that errors may be readily observed. (e) Such class has to learn yearly four pieces of poetry, and two of prose. 8. Speaking. — Exercises in speaking are a feature worthy of note, but for these there are not set times. The whole object of these exercises is to accustom the children to the oral expression of iheir own thoughts and experiences. While it is held to be sufficient in the lower class for the pupil to simply answer, in the upper classes it is regarded as desirable for him to give connected and original replies, expressing his own views and experience upon matters treated of and learnt. Exercises in oral redaction of a short piece read is recommended, or the pith of a sentence is requii-ed to be expressed in terse and definite language. 9. Reading. — (B) Conversation, after reading concerning any subject, is required to be brief, and attention to mere details is deemed unnecessary; the logical relationships and fundamental ideas are regarded as most important. In the case of the middle and upper classes, the following treatment of the reading of the lessons is recommended — (a) After some preliminary questions, the piece selected is to be read aloud, and then the reading is repeated, once or several times, the childrens' attention being drawn to difficult word-forms. (b) At the beginning of the next lesson the teacher is to endeavour to test the industry of the children at their own homes, by their ability to spell or write the more difficult words, and to answer questions as to the form and content of the words. (c) The lessons are read a sentence at a time, faults in reading being carefully noted and corrected. id) After a short explanation, the character of which is comprehensive rather than descriptive, the class reads together. In doing this, special attention is paid to commencing altogether, to good expression, to a sharp distinction being made between unaccented and accented, short and long syllables, to the marks of punctuation. In the 2rJ Class, selections giving some ideas of the life and labours of the greatest German poets arc read. In the 8/A Class, there arc ten half-hour lessons per wick, and similarly in the 7/h Class. It may be noted that the children in this latter are asked to point out the nouns, verbs, and adjectives in the reading lessons. They are also taught the Latin alphabet and accustomed to its use. In the Glk Class, four hours weekly are given to the reading lessons. The principal clauses are sought out, and recast in the interrogative mandatory forms, and form of request. They are also, where possible, cast in the past, present, and future tenses, and anecdotes are retold in the first, second or third person of the singular or plural. The comparison of the adjectives in the lessons are also undertaken. In the 5th Class, only three hours weekly are devoted to the reading lessons, special attention being paid to reading simultaneously. The analysis of the sentence is more developed, and the " parts of speech " and inflexions of the words. The exercises in varying any account in respect of tenses, persons, and method of statement are much more developed. In the4:fh Class, the reading lesson is again reduced one hour (two hours), and it aims at more perfect elocution, which is very good in German schools. In grammar, the number and case of substantives, the persons and tenses of the verbs, and the prepositions are studied. In the 3rd, 2nd, and 1st Classes, the lessons are two hours per week. Analysis is more developed, the kinds of clauses being fully described, in the 3rd Class. In the two highest classes it is endeavoured to overcome all mechanical difficulty in regard to good expression, and the children are exercised in reading aloud in a fluent and expressive manner, but without the introduction of an arlijicial style, or a style unnatural to children. The logical review of the re.iding and grammar is still more advanced. In the final year regard is had to what is called " Ecalstoffc " or " Kealien," the reading selections furnishing the required material. 10. Writing. — Children are taught to write in both the German and the Latin script forms. The general aim of ihe writing lessons is to educate the children in the proper use of the written language. It is required that the lessons shall acquaint the children with the German vocabulary and grammar, bring to their consciousness the rules governing the use of the language, aiiddevelopein this way a literary appreciation thereof (das Sprachgefiihl zu eutwickein). The rules are put in the briefest possible form and restricted to essentials, and may be given explicitly, or implicitly {i.e., by way of examples). The written forms of letters, etc., are made with extreme care on the blackboard, and writing from dictations is carefully corrected. From the outset, great attention is paid to the education of the children in the power of expression ; and they are required to write out their own thoughts upon subjects taken from the range of things which come under their direct observation. The writing lesson is thus divided, as it were, into three sections, viz : — (1) Grammar, in the wider sense (Sprachlehre). (2) Writing, in the ordinary sense. (3) Composition. These lessons start, with the exception of the last, even in the 8//i Class. Words are divided into syllables, and these into letters. The nouns and articles are written out. Single words and little phrases are dictated or written upon the blackboard. This class has not yet exercises in composition, but the children learn to write the large and small letters of the German alphabet. The treatment may be illustrated by following these three divisions through the several classes from the 7th upward. IL 57 11. Orammar. — In this subject the development is as follows : — Tth Class. — The simple sentence and its parts ; singular and plural of the substantive. The three genders. The definite article. The composition of a sentence. Its substantive, adjective, and verb. "VVord-formation (Wortbildung).^ The diminutive affixes. Vowel modification. Gth Class. — The four forms of a simple sentence, viz., the declaratory, interrogatory, volitional and mandatory.' The subject. The personal pronouns in the singular and plural. The predicate. The verb in the present and past tenses, and its future. The auxiliaries. The development of the passive forms of verbs. The adjective and its comparison. Compound word-building, compound substantives. Prefixes, affixes, and stems of words. Vowel-modification. 5tk Class. — The extended simple sentence. The extensions. The substantive, its singular and plural in the four cases. Possessive and demonstrative pronouns. Some of the prepositions. Word-building. Eecapitulation and extension of the work in the previous class. Word-families. 4 Writing Singing Gymnastics.. Needlework 2 13 2 I 2 9 9 4 4 i 4 5 24 2 11 10 2§ n 2 2 Girls only. These comparisons must be very liberally understood, because subjects are not divided in any hard- and-fast way. History, for example, in one place might be included under German (i.e., mother-tongue) in the Vorschule of one place and under Geography in another. The above takes one from G-9 years of age; then the corresponding classes will be from 9-14. The following will exhibit the difference : — • School. Folk School, Dresden. Class V. IV. III. II. Prussian Obberrealschulc aud Realsehule. VI. V. IV. III. in Prussian Real Gymnasium. Prussian Gymnasium. VI. IV. III. III. vr IV. III. in Subject — Religion German Historical Sketclies Latin Greek French English History... Geography Arithmetic Mathematics . . . . Natural History . Physics Writing Drawing }• }• 4 }« }« 2 2 1 i' 2 2 }■ It will be seen from these programmes that the distinction between the Folkschool, the Eealschool, and the Reform and Classical gymnasia, for the age of compulsory school attendance, may practically be summed up as follows : — (a) The Classical Gymnasium emphasises Greek and Latin, and attaches less importance to modern languages. (b) The Realgymnasium omits Greek and emphasises Latin ; it gives, however, a prominent place to modern languages. (c) The Oberrealschule abandons the ancient languages altogether, and gives prominence to OFrench, QEnglish. (d) The Eealschule is somewhat inferior to the Oberrealschule, but its scheme is much the same. (e) The Folk-school confines itself to the vernacular, neglecting all other languages, ancient or modern. There is another difference not apparent in the curriculum, viz., that the qualification of the teachers is higher in the Oberrealschule, the Realgymnasium, and the Gymnasium than it is in those of the Realsehule, and the teachers of the Realschulen are more highly educated than the teachers in the Folk-school. All the teachers, however, are well and realistically educated, and it is this thoroughness of education that makes so great a dift'erence. Education by well-informed teachers is totally different from education by teachers who have never had a reasonable opportunity of properly learning the subjects they are supposed to teach, or who teach without a wide outlook and considerable knowledge. It is here that the strength of the German system lies. Such education tends to continual improvement, while any system which employs untrained teachers (i.e., pupil-teachers) tends to stagnation. As each successive generation of teachers comes under the educational hands of its instructors, it is brought into touch with the accumulated knowledge in the higher forms of education in which of course the progress is most marked, are continually influencing the lower. 28. (') The only difference in the Oberrealschule is that in mathematics the hours per week are 5-5-6-5-5, instead of 4-4-5-6-5, and a little less French is taught. (') Greek does not commence till Class III. 3,09G 68 28. Some modern tendencies in German Education. — It will be observed that manual training is not a coQspicuous feature in German popular education ; nevertheless, as before said, it is beginning to be realised that there is some educative as well as practical value in such a subject. In some places it is forming an element in the curriculum ; as at Leipzig, for example. A strong tendency is manifesting itself to maintain educational control of the youth beyond the age of 14, and in parts of Germany attendance at evening continuation schools is obligatory on the e.ic-pupils of the folk-schools. The moral effect of this is proljably good. Intuitive teaching is a characteristic feature of the method of instruction, and the accessories for teaching (Lehrmittel) are excellent. The realistic character of this teaching is conspicuous, and teachers have a real, and not merely literary, knowledge of physical science. Hence their teaching does not embrace inconclusive and minor facts of small importance, but illustrates the broad features and signitieance of the subject. It may be remarked further that teaching method is most thoroughly discussed, and the whole scheme of education is being rapidly improved. Eecently built schools are on better lines hygienically, they are better seated, more convenient, and altogether better equipped than earlier ones. Some idea of the value of the school buildings may be had when it is mentioned that the Frankfort Municipal Middle School for girls cost about £20,000, and has only about nOO scholars. An elementary school for 900 children cost £23,000. An elementary school in Cologne for 1,000 children cost, building alone, £25,000. The Goethe Gymnasium in Frankfort cost £28,000 (for building alone). Throughout Germany, as throughout Switzerland, and indeed the greater part of Europe, and the same is true of many places in the United States, the educational equipment creates the feeling that these peoples believe in education much more earnestly than we do. 2f). The System of Primary Education in Holland. — Infant schools exist in Holland, but are not recognised in the State System. These are known as "guardian schools" (Bewaarscholen, or what is known in Belgium as ecoles gardiennes). At Amsterdam there are classes, however, for children of not less than 5 years in iho free public schools. In the rural districts children generally go to school at 5 and in town at 6 years of age. Unless children are educated at home, or at another class of school, attendance at the Primary Schools (Lagere Scholen') becomes obligatory at the age of 7, and must continue for six years, provided that the available school is within 4 kilometres (2^ miles) of the house. The instruction embraces : — (o) Reading. (y) Of Natural History (Kennis der Natuur). (J) Writing. (A) Singing. (c) Arithmetic. (j) First Exercises in Drawing. (rf) Elements of Dutch. (/) Free and Formation Exercises in Gymnastics. (e) Of Dutch History. {k) Useful Manual Work for Girls. (y) Of Geography. la the lower schools other instruction can also be given, viz. :— (0 The Elements of French ... 1,049 (j) Of Drawing 544 (wi) Of German ... ... 592 (r) The Elements of Agriculture ) ,^ (re) Of English 451 (r) Of Horticulture ... j ^' (o) Of General History ... 479 (s) Of Gymnastics 479 (jt>) Of Mathematics (Wiskunde) 431 (/) Fancy work for Girls 300 The upper figures give the total number of public schools : the lower, the number teaching the optional subjects. The practical orientation of the course is obvious. Owing to the condition of the population, children of 10 years of age or over may obtain leave for six weeks annually, in addition to vacations, in order to assist their parents in cattle tending, agriculture, etc., provided, however, that they have attended regularly for the preceding six months. Itcgular attendance implies that they have not been absent more than about once a month without reasonable excuse. Among the features of instruction which were striking, was the excellent teaching of the mother tongue. The phonetic method is used, and the enunciation is very perfect, so that the pupil's ear is well trained. Not only is intuitive teaching a feature of Dutch education, but in addition. Nature-study (Kennis der Natuur) is made as direct as possible. Objects in the vegetable, animal, and mineral kingdoms contribute elements for consideration, and excursions are made. The principles of direct study of facts and objects, as found in some of the Dutch schools, may be set out as follows : — (a) The objects, etc., are first seen, interest being suitably awakened. (6) The perceptions are subsequently recalled, and intensified by conversation, drawing, or modelling (in paper or clay, etc.). In order to make the knowledge extensive as well as intensive, the following procedure is observed : — (c) Objects are first selected among immediate surroundings, and later from an ever-enlarging region. (d) The material of the object is examined. (e) And the mode of manufacture, etc., described. (/) The process of development throughout is to pass from the simple to the complex, so that the children will have clear ideas of the whole matter. What ' Lower instruction legally includes home and school education. Lager onderwijs is huis- en school- onderwii's. Titel I, Art. I. " Wet tot regeling van het lager onderwijs." 24th June, 1901. Ibid. Titel I, Art. 2. 69 What may be called teclinological lessons are given, botanical, zoological, and mineralogical facts being impressed on the mind of the pupil through them. These lead him to think and to know something of raw materials, and in this connection geography is taught, as bringing under review the localities where the raw materials, etc., are obtained. Then the humanistic side is introduced — the part that man plays in their transformation being illustrated. Thus the development is — (ff) Eaw material. (h) Its geographical distribution. (j) Its preparation. (_;■) Industries directly connected therewith, and so on. It will be seen' from this that the principles of modern psedagogy are applied in Dutch-teaching. Features of special interest feen were the development in the direction of manual training for boys, and domestic economy for girls. The equipment for teaching household duties seen by the Com- missioners at the Hague and Amsterdam were excellent. Incidentally it may be here mentioned that Holland is a country which has, it is sometimes supposed, teachers analogous to the pupil-teachers of this State. By Article 8 of the law of 1889 persons of either sex, aged 15-19, can be admitted by the head-masters of either public or private schools after the giving of three days' notice to the District School Inspector. These are known as " Kwcckelingen," i.e., pupils. Children at school are known as " Leerlingen," i.e., children being taught. After three months' satisfactory work, they receive an attestation of satisfactory progress, and con- tinue their offices, or, failing to receive this, are dismissed. These students learn the practical work of teaching, luf are not assigned to any actual class in the »chod ; when teaching they must be under the supervision of a certificated teacher, and are expressly jor- hidden to teach except under such supervision. Government grants are given to the head-teachers for every pupil-teacher trained by him. Courses in the theory and practice of teaching are given by such head-teachers outside their ordinary teaching hours ; this includes paedagogy. Besides this, there are State normal schools for the training of teachers (Kijkskweekscholen ter opleiding van onderwij/.ers), the course lasting four years. The question of the qualifying of teachers is, however, not here dealt with. Holland has excellent continuation and technical schools for its youth on leaving the folk or public school ; these, however, will be referred to elsewhere. To understand the education in Holland up to the age of 14, reference must also be made to the initial stages of higher education. In the communal and State higher burgher schools (Gemeente en Eijks hoogere burgerscholen), entrance may take place as early as 12 years of ago. There are two classes of these for youths, one with a five years and one with a three years' course, and also one for girls. Entrance into the Gymnasium may also take place at the same age, viz., 12. The programmes for the first three years are as follow : School I Clas« Subject — • Mathematics Physios and Chemistry Botany and Zoology Natural History Economy Book-keeping Geography History Dutch French English German Writing Drawing Gymnastic Manual work Greek Jjatin Totals Higher Burcrher School, 3 years' Course (Boys). II. Higher Burgher School, 6 years' Course (Boys). III. Higher Burgher School, 5 years' Course Girls). Gymnasium (Entrance by Examination), 32 32 33 32 32 32 30 30 .30 28 6 6 28 28 This will give some idea of the education afforded by Holland for children up to the age of 15 years. 30. Primary Schools of Denmark. — The history of the Danish folkschool has been written by Joakim Larsen^. Education was made obligatory in this country as far back as 1739, by King Christian VI, a school attendance of seven years being now required. Children usually attend from 6 or 7 up to 14 years of age, primary education being provided by several classes of schools, viz., the folkschool or communal school (folkskole, communeskole), which is elementary; the middle-class school (borgerdydskole), folk high school (folkeh<^jskole), the "real" and classical schools (realskole, Latinskole), etc. The ' This is practically a method of Mr. J. Ligh of Education, Vol. 8, Supp. p. 11, London, 1902. thart, quoted in another form by Mr. J. C. Medd, * Bidrag til den Danske Folkeskoles Historie, 1784-1818, of Joakiq) Larsen, Copenhagen, 1893, 1818-1898. Copenhagen, im. Spec. Reports, Board Saflie title, 70^ The following programmes will give some idea of tlio general character of the curricula, one being taken from an elementary school and the other from the higher class school with a preparatory division. Programme op Frbderikhavn'h Communal School.' Boys and Girls. Boys. Girls. Clam I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. in. IV. V. TI. VII. Subjects- Danish 9 3 "f 4 9 2 3 8 3 3 4 2 2 T 1 7 3 3 4 2 2 X 1 7 3 3 4 2 2 1 1 ... 7 3 2 4 2 2 1 1 1 6 3 1 4 2 2 1 2 8 3 3 4 2 2 1 1 7 3 3 4 2 2 1 1 7 3 3 4 2 2 1 1 7 3 2 4 2 2 1 1 1 6 3 1 4 2 9 Relicion Writing GeocraDh V Singi ng 1 Zoology, Botany Physics 1 1 Intuitive Instruction Total 19 19 (2) 2 24 "2 23 1 4 "2 23 1 4 "2 23 4 "2 23 1 4 "2 24 "4 2 23 1 23 1 "4 2 23 1 "4 2 23 1 Sloyd Manual work for girls Oymnastics or regulated games' 4 2 Totals 20 21 boys 23 girls 26 26 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 It will be noticed that girls get lessons in hygiene (Anskuelsesundervisning). Although Prederikshavn is only a village of about 5,000 inhabitants in the extreme north of Denmark, its schools are well equipped, especially for the teaching of Sloyd. It may be mentioned in regard to the Sloyd exercises that the boys use either hand with the knife, chisel, and saw, that is to say, they are all ambidextrous. About 20 per cent, of the boys undertake school gardening on a little plot at the school. The manual work for girls is sewing work, etc. The numbers in the classes in this school were between thirty-five and forty. Children use the school shower-bath once a fortnight at least. The installation is similar to that of Swiss and German schools. Beneath the school rooms there is provision for games, etc., when the place is covered with snow. The communal school in Fredericia,'' a town of 10,000 inhabitants, has a fairly large gymnasium. It is easy to recognise, even in these relatively out of the way places, the influence of modern progress in education. Since so many of the more well-to-do send their children to the better class of schools it is necessary to indicate the type of education provided in them. Instead of taking one of each grade it will be BufEcent to shew what is done in the preparatory division of an establishment that embraces the several grades. Thus the programme of a Latin and Heal school will present a fuller idea of the educational facilities provided. Programme of <(isterbros Latin and Real School.* Class Subjects^ Danish and Old Norse German French English Latin Greek Religion .. Geography Katural History History Ancient History Arithmetic „.. Mathematics Geometrical Drawing Science Writing Gymnsistic Sloyd and Drawing .. Singing Intuitive Instruction.. Totals Preparatory School. III. IV. VI. Latin School. III. IV. Real School. III. IV. University Classes. 24 26 28 30 30 2 3 3 1 7 0(4) 1 2 2 2 4 2(0) 4" 2 2 3 3 7 0(4) 2" 2 0(2) 4 4 2(0) 33 34 36 33 (36) 30 (32) 34 33 31 4 (0) '(0) 1(0) 1(3) 3 2 0(7) 0(6) 1 4 1(0) (7)0 2(0) 6(3) 32 32 (33) 34 (34) It will be observed in the Classes III to TI that there are figures in brackets. These denote the classic side, the ordinary figures the modern side. All ' From the Undervisningsplan for Frederikshavns Kommuneskole, 1902, p. 5. It may be mentioned that -f denotes four half-hour lessons and similarly with other quantities so written. ' Ordnede lege. Ball games (boldspil), and for the stronger boys football (fodbold), and cricket (krlcket) are recommended. ' Fredericia Kj<()bstads Communeskole. ' From the Meddelelser om ^sterbros Latin- og Realskole i Skoleaaret, 1901-2. Copenhagen, 1902, p. 5. 71 All recently built schools seen by the Commissioners in Denmark are well built and well equipped, particularly so for Sloyd and domestic economy, cooking, etc. Gymnastics are taught by competent teachers, and with regard to the requirements of scientific physical culture. The characteristic feature, perhaps, of Danish education, as of Norwegian and Swedish, is that little weight is attached to the dead languages in the education of the people. Among special schools noticed was a "Fisherman's Navigation School (Fiskeskipperskole) at Frederikshavn.i These exist elsewhere, and will be referred to later. Denmark has both free schools (Friskoler) and schools charging fees (Betalingsskoler). Some of the latter are excellent, notwithstanding that the fee is very small. I'or example, in Copenhagen there are no less than ten Communal schools charging only 1 krone a month, say Is. 2d., and twenty free schools. Both types were visited by the Commissioners. The principle adopted is that those who are willing to pay fees are entitled to a corresponding advantage in the character of the school building and its equipment. The curricula in the two, though not absolutely identical, are substantially so. In a total of about 200 hours these are the only differences, viz. : — Free School. Paying School. History 13 hours per week. 14 hours per week. Geography 10 „ U „ Natural History 7 ,, 10 „ Science 4 ,, 5 ,, 34 hours. 40 hours ; total difference, 6 hours per week. Grand total 200 „ 206 ,, The average number of pupils to a class is about twenty-eight or twenty-nine, and in Copenhagen the total number of pupils paying is 12,927 against 24,753 non-paying in 1901. 31. Primary Education in Norway. — The primary schools of Norway are intended to cover the period of 7 to 14 years of age. The obligation of education exists — that is to say, unless children of from 8 to 15 in the country, or 7 to 15 in the town, are receiving adequate instruction, they can be required to attend the primary school. The divisions in the ordinary town school are lower, 7-10 ; middle, 10-12 ; higher, 12-14; these being divided again, of course, into yearly classes. The programme of lessons is about as follows in Kristiania: — ^ Boja. Girls. l»t Division. 2nd DiTision. 3rd Division. 2nd Division. 1st Division. 3rd Division. C1.TS9 I. U. in. IV. V. VI. vn. I. 11. III. IV. V. VI. Subjects— 3 12 5 4 ... 3 10 4 4 3 8 4 3 2" 2 i" 1 4 5 4 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 4 5 3 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 4 5 3 1 2 T 1 2 1 2 2 3 5 3 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 3 11 4 4 2" 3 8 4 3 2" 4" 3 7 3 2 i i" 4" 3 5 3 r 2 1 1 2 4 3 4 3 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 4 4 4 3 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 4 .3 Dano-Norwegian 5 Arithmetic and Geometry 3 Writing 1 Drawing 2 Geography 1 History 2 General Science 2 Singing _ Gymnastics 1 JVianual work 4 Totals 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 (Note.— In the first three classes the lessons in religion are half -hour lessons, and the gymnastic lessons in the third class for boys are also half-hour lessons.) In the small schools in the country the division of the time-table is, of course, different ; this, however, need not be given. Children passing through these schools may qualify for trades, etc., through continuation (Fortsaittelseskoler) and artisan schools (Arbeidsskoler). There are several forms of higher schools in Norway as Middle-class schools (Borgerskoler), Eeal schools (Realskoler), Middle schools (Middelskoler), Folk-high Lchools (Folkeh^jskoler), Grammar schools (Lajrdeskoler), the Eeal and Classical Gymnasia (Realgymnasier, Latingymnasier), etc. The ' From the Beretning om Fredcrikshavns Fiskeskipperskole, 1900. It appears that the programme is much the same in principle as the French one given hereinafter in this chapter. ' See the Beretning om det Kji^benhavnske borger- og almueskolevtesons tilstand for aaret 1901. Copenhagen, 1902, pp. 4-5. > See Skoleplan for Kristiana Folkeskoler. 1900, p 38. 72 The normal ago of entrance into a middle school is 9 years ; the minimum age for the Eeal and Latin gymnasia is 14, and the normal age 15. It will be sufficient, therefore, to indicate the programme of a middle school, and of a gymnasium with its preparatory and middle school. Middle School. Class I. II. III. (E) IV (L) (E) V (L) (E) VI (L) Subjects — 3 8' I 3 4 4 "4» 3 5 6 3 2 2 4 2 3 3 5 S "4 2 2 5. 2 2 2 4 4 5 ... 7 '3 2 2 6 2 ... 2 3 4 3 6 ... 7 2» 3 2 3 5 1 ... 2 3 German 4 3 English 5 Jjatin 7 2' French 3 2 Science 2 Mathematics 6 Drawing 1 Totals 26 30 30 30 30 30 ' In the second half of the year this can bo matin — Norwegian, 7 ; German, 1. - French is optional ; if not taken, Norwegian, Drawing, and Physics can be extended. ' Instead of this, can be substituted — Drawing, 1 ; Writing, 3. In the classes I, II, and III the instruction is the same for all, but in the IV, Y, and VI either the English (E) or the Latin course (L) must be elected. The programme shews the parts identical in each. The following is the programme of the Kristiania Kathedral School for 1002.' This will shew how the better class of Bchool provides for the second stage of primary education, as well as for secondary education. Programme— Krlstiania Cathedral School.' Class Subjects — Tfeligion Norwegian and Old Norse ... German French English Latin Greek History Geography Arithmetic and Mathematics Natural History Writing ] h'awing Singing Gymnastics Manual work Totals Preparatory. V. Middle School. III. IV. Gymnasium. II. R. III. 30 ?e 36 H 5 36 1 34 36 36 36 ■ 1 6(5) 3 4(.'5) 7(2) (7) 6(3) 1 2 1 36 34 34 The figures bracketed indicate certain options which need not be discussed in detail. In the two divisions in classes II and III of the Gymnasium, R denotes the "Eeal" side and C the Classic side. 32. ' Recently forwarded to the Commissioners by Mr. Klaus Hoel (Bureauchef i Kirkedepartmentet), of the Church and School Department in Kristiania. The Commissioners take this opportunity of expressing their thanks both for hia kindness in forwarding, and for the great kindness shewn during their visit to Kristiania. ' Kristiania Kathedralskole. — Aarsberetning for Skoleaaret, 1901-2, p. 12. (This school is housed in a very fine building. ) Preparatory School, 73 32. Scheme of Educational Co-ordination in Norwatf. — The diagram hereunder represents the scheme of co-ordination in the various grades of education in the Norwegian system. 7 8 9 FolkschoolJ 10 11 12 13 Kxamination .i^ 10 Middle School. 16 Elementary Technical Schools. 3-4 years. I Modern. I 19 Real. 19 Middle School Examination. 17 Classic. 19 Higher Technical Course, 3-4 years. Afgangsexamen, i.e., Examen artium and realartiuni. University. 19 I —20— Course at Weigen, 3 years ; at Trondhjem, 4 years. The Afgangsesamen is like the Arbiturientenexamen in the German system. The significance of co-ordination in education is dealt with in Chapter LIV herein. 33. Special Features noticed in Norway. — In regard to the school buildings and their equipment in Norway it may be said that some of the arrangements seen were very ingenious. Among the schools visited by the Commissioners was the Lakkegadensskole : this has thirty-nine class-rooms for 1,200 pupils; it has accommodation for fifty classes and 1,800 pupils. In this school the sexes are separated, but in most elementary schools they are together. The rector of the school spends six hours a week in teaching, the rest of his time is occupied administratively. This feature is very general throughout Europe, and has great advantages. The school benches are Dr. Schenk's type {sec Chapter XLVIII). Some features of the equipment are well worthy of notice. Maps and diagrams are hung on gracefully-shaped brackets, carrying a series of spring rollers, conveniently arranged one above the other, so that a series of maps can be quickly lowered or raised. All time-pieces throughout the school are electrically connected with a control clock, so that every electric signal rings at the same moment. The cupboards are cheaply constructed, are of very neat appearance, and have an ingenious system of closing. The equipment foi' the teaching of physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, etc., is excellent. The school has its shower-bath rooms, etc , and the pupils use them at least once every fourteen days (unless parents object). Another feature, and one of great interest, is the school-kitchen for feeding the indigent children, adjoining this school. On a long dining-table passes an endless band of canvas, faced like " American cloth." By turning a drum at either end, all the plates, etc., lying thereon can be moved along the table in either direction. The cooking is done in twelve largo boiling-pans, each of 800 litres capacity. These, in groups of four, surround three pillars carrying chains for raising the large lids. Five different kinds of food are made, and can be kept hot in the pans for twelve hours. The food is prepared alirost wholly mechanically, electric motors being used. About 7,000-8,000 children are fed per day at a cost of about II <^re each, say Hd. Pupils of the school are fed gratis, and the poor can obtain a meal for 15 <^re, say 2d. The ticket (Bespisningsbillet) for January, 1902-3, is a little blue ticket, with the days of the month marked round it. The building, apparatus, and management seem perfect. This gratifying care for the poor, manifesting itself through the whole of Europe, is a fact which must tell morally. The poor, however, are not " ne'er-do-wells," who will not work, and the generosity is not abused. Norway is evidently keeping in touch with all modern development educationally. The tendency, expressing the view, rapidly spreading over the whole of Europe, is to hold that, however valuable the study of the ancient classics may be, it is undesirable to make that study compulsory by closing higher education against all who do not care to devote themselves thereto. 34. Primary Education in Sweden. — It was by the ecclesiastical law of 1G86 that education in Sweden was first organised; its aim being to give all children a sound education on a religious basis. Compulsory attendance was enforced by the Primary Instruction Act of 1812. In organisation the primary school of Sweden is communal, but is sub.sidised by the State, which lays down a normal plan in the code. This plan is followed in the development oE the programme of the schools. Children must attend at the completion of the seventh year and the obligation ceases at the end of the fourteenth year, provided they have reached the required standard. Primary education is free. Children may attend private schools, or be educated at home if the local school-board regards the p.arents or guardians as qualified to give the necessary instruction. The ■An account of this is given in the Beretning om Kristiania folkeskolevajsen for 1901, see page 60-62. " Det nye kj(;>kken i Lakkegaden 79 (the new kitchen at 79 Lakke Street). Accounts of feeding the poor in other countries are given in Forelif)big Indberetning fra don af Christiania Formandskab neilsatte Komit(5 til Behandling af Sp0rgsmaalet om Folkeskoieb^rns 9,espisning, 1895. Also, Indstilling . . . . om folke3koleb(^rns bespisning. 1896. 15— K 74 The following programme of the folk-schools of Gothenburg will give some idea of the elementary education of Sweden : — ' Classes . Religion Mother tongue Writing Arithmetic Intuitive instruction Infant School (Smaskolor). . II. 4 5 2 10 2 4i 4J 1 I Singing Drawing Gymnastics . Classes... I. 1 II 1 1 1 1 Totals 234 25i Progr.vmme of Folk-Sciiool (Folkskolor). Classes. Boys. Girls. n. III. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. IV. Boys. Girls. Subjects — Bible reading and Psalm reading Biblical history Catechism Swedish (mother tongue) Arithmetic Geometry Geography History Natural history, etc Caligraphy Drawing Singing Gymnastics Sloyd (boys) idanual Work (girls)— (i.e., needlework, etc.) Totals . 1 2 2 9 5 2 1 1 2 1 2 H 29i 14 4 32i 2 2 1 1 14 4 324 2 2 2 1 1 14 334 1 2 3 7 4 2 2 2 2 1 1 14 6 344 1 2 3 7 4 2 2 2 1 1 1 14 334 1 2 3 7 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 14 6 344 2 1 1 1 14 33i In detail these subjects are treated as follows in the most elementary schools : — Religion. — Old and New Testament. Eeading of Psalms. Lutheran catechism. Swedish. — Reading, writing, grammar, orthography. (Extracts from Swedish classics, essays.) Arithmetie. — Elementary, viz., the four rules, fractions, etc. (Elementary algebra, including simple equations.) Geometry. — Lines, angles, triangles, quadrilaterals ; circles, rectangular solids, etc., and their mensuration. (Three books of Euclid.) Geography. — General conceptions. Geography of Sweden, of other countries. (Physical, political, industrial and commercial geography of Sweden. International commerce, climate, and characteristics of different countries, etc.) History. — Mainly national history. (Universal history, including history of civilisation ; place of Sweden in history ; constitution of Sweden.) Natural history, etc. — Most important natural objects. Human body; its functions, health. Celestial bodies. Chief natural phaenomena. (Chemistry, physics, and hygiene.) Drawing. — Linear and freehand. Ringing. — Psalms and songs. Exercises. Gymnastic. — Pree and formation exercises and with apparatus. Sloyd — (boys). — Very well developed set of exercises. Manual labour — (yiVZs).— Needlework. Recently domestic economy for girls has been added in many schools, and each recently built school has a very finely equipped school kitchen (Skolkok). Modern languages, German and English are occasionally taught. To give a more complete idea of Swedish primary education, reference must be made to the earlier classes of the higher schools (allmanna laroverk). The school divides into the "real" or modern division and a Latin line when the pupils are fourteen years of age, and when they are sixteen the Latiu line is subdivided into the Latin and Greek line, and the Latin only. Entrance ' Taken from the Undervisningsplan for Gbteborgs Folkskolor. 75 Entrance may take place into these schools at nine years of age. Only the first six classes will be outlined : — Real or non-classi ml D ivisions. Latin and Greek Division. G. L. Clas8 ... I. II. III. IV. V. VI. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VI Subjects— 3 5 6 2" 2 4 2 2" 1 3 5 7 li 2 5 2 2 1 3 6 6 .3 3 5 2 i 1 2 4 4 6 .3 1 5 3 2 2 3 3 6 3 ■J 3 •2 2 1 3 4 3 6 1 2 2 3" 3 5 6 12 4 2 2" 1 3 5 7 3' 2 5 2 2" 1 3 6 6 3' 3 5 2 i" 1 2 4 4 3" 1 5 3 i" 2 3 3 3' 3\ 1; 4 3 1 2 2 2 4" 3 3 i" 2 Swedish 2 1 English 3 French 4 3 Mathematics 4 General Science Natural History Physics 1 1 Chemistry Caligraphy 2 Totals 27 30 30 30 30 (32) 27 30 30 (30) (30) (32) (32) Note. — The G. VI., is the Greek division ; L. VI,, the Latin. The figures in brackets denote the total hours : all the subjects are not stated. If the pupil ha.s already attained the age of 15 he cannot be accepted in the first three classes. The more recent higher schools are well equipped in the way of apparatus for the teaching of Science ; schools of this class were seen at Gothenburg and Stockholm. It may be mentioned that Manual training and gymnastic are excellent features in the Swedish system. One more illustration of the curriculum of the Swedish schools is given. The following is the latest programme, viz., for the year 1901-2, for one of the most recent schools in Sweden :— ' Programme in a School in Stockholm. Common Division. Eeal Division. Latin Division. I. II. III. IV. V. c. VI. i VI. 11 VII. 1 Vll.li VI. 1 VI. 11 vn.i VII. 11 Subjects — 2 4 5 2 4" 2 2" 1 2 2 5 g" ... 2" 5 2 2" 1 2 3 G g" ... ,3 3 5 2 i 1 2 4 4" (6) G 3 2 6 2 2 2 4 4" (6) 6 3" 1 5" 3 2" 1 4 5 (5) (2) u 5 3 4" 1 2 2 3 2" (4) 4 4 e" 3 2 2 2" 2 2 2" (2) (4) (2) (4) 3 g" 2 3 2 2" 2 2 2 {2)"(4) (2) (4) 3 1 6 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 1 7 1 3 2 2" 2 2 9 2" 4 4 4" 1 1 i" 2 2 9 (*) 2 2 2 3 4" 1 2 i" 2 2 9 (4) 2 2 2 3 2 2 8 Greek (4) German 2 English 1 French 2 German or English conversation History 3 ProptEcleutics, Philosophy Mathematics , 1 5 1 2 Caligraph V 1 SinfrinfiT Totals 26 29 30 30 31 31 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 In the above the figures in the brackets denote certain options which need not here be considered. C, are the concluding classes (Praktiska Afliutningsklassen) in which the work is appropriately practical, and would not be taken by those who go on to the Eeal or Latin divisions. The co-ordination of Education is much the same as in Norway, and calls for no special comment. 35. The Uquipmenf of a Sehool in Stockliolm. — Among the schools visited in Stockholm was the Sodermalms hogre allmiinna liiroverk, Skaraborgsgatan 14. This is a higher class school, into which children enter at about 9-10 years of age, that is, after having passed through the lower elementary school. The classes have about 28-30 pupils ; 35 could be accommodated. There are really three departments in the school, viz., the " Keal," the "Classic" (gymnasium), and the " Itealgymnasium " divisions. The total number of pupils at the date of visit was G66. The fee for poor pupils is 19 kroner (say 22s.) per annum, and twice that amount for ordinary pupils This school is splendidly built. The rooms open out on to broad corridor*, and are large, well furnished, seated, and lighted. While it has only a moderate-sized museum, the material therein is admirably selected ; its mineralogical museum, for example, has only 200 specimens, but they are very well chosen. Its equipment generally, for teaching, is also very good, particularly so in the departments of physics and chemistry. The physics laboratory is provided with a gas-engine and generator for an 8-ampcre electric current at CO volts, and thus the teaching in physics may readily be made very thorough. These well-built, really hygienic, thoroughly-equipped schools of Sweden, with teachers properly educated, are the means by which an excellent education for the rising generation is provided, and make it possible in the few years available for study to get at least an intelligent outlook upon the state of knowledge as it stands to-day. 36. o > Arsredogorelse for nya elementarskolan, Stockholm, 1901-2, p. 13. 76 36. Other Countries of Europe. — The sketch of the type of primary education provided in the Tarious countries of Europe is not further extended, partly from lack of time, partly because in the rush of travel it was not possible to properly study the whole range, and attention had therefore to be confined 1o certain features, and partly because in discussing details, matters of moment in the systems will be referred to elsewhere in the Eeport. The thorough study of educational systems could of course not possibly be undertaken in the time regarded as available to the Commissioners. The folkschool laws of Austria-Hungary ' alone are two volumes of about 640 pages each : the educational laws of Italy occupy five volumes of about 3,500 pages,^ and similarly with other countries. All that is here possible in respect of other countries visited is to make a few running comments. Some details of their systems will, where necessary, be discussed in various special articles hereinafter. 37. Austria. — The Austrian system has an organisation somewhat similar to the German. Its schools are well equipped, and provided with far more and better material for teaching (Lehrmittel) than can be found with us. The " Lehrmittelsanstalten " (establishments providing teaching apparatus) visited in Vienna were excellent. Teachers are well educated and trained. In teaching, intuitive methods are used as much as possible, and the system is thorough and well co-ordinated. The higher establishments are magnificently equipped. A single programme will sufiice to illustrate the primary education, and for this purpose that of a Ilealschule will serve the purpose. This would correspond to the education from 10 years of age onward. Austrian Realschool. T CbM Subjects — Religion Mother tongue French English Geography History Mathematics Natural History Physics Chemistry Geometrical Drawing Elementary Progressive Geometry Freehand Drawing Caligraphy Gymnastics Totals II. III. IV. V. 29 29 30 30 33 34 33 This would correspond on completion to the age of about 16, and will therefore shew what type of education is provided for the ordinary Austrian youth. 38. Belgium. — Belgian education is being rapidly developed. Froebelian methods are followed in the ecoles gardiennes, and the system of teaching and of educating their teachers is excellent. The teaching of hygiene is specially well developed. In the rural schools, and to some extent also in the towns, the general education is practically orientated, and the trend seems to be in that direction. The employment of intuitive methods, and the making of the teaching realistic, are the cardinal features of the Belgian system. Manual work has been introduced, and special directions are given as to its combination with other parts of the programme. The main difficulty in Belgian education depends upon the fact that the country is bilingual, and Trench and Tlemish must therefore be learnt, and in certain cases "Wallon also. Its general programme is as follows, each division being of two years' duration : — Belgian Communal Schools.' Subjects. Lower Division. Middle Division. Upper Division. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. 3 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 ] 1 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 3 4 4 25 25 25 25 25 25 Religion and Ethics ... Reading, Writing Mother tongue Arithmetic Geography History Drawing Hygiene Singing Gymnastics Theory of Agriculture Needlework Totals ... Details of the programme have been translated and will be found in special chapters. 39. ' Die Reichs and Landesgcsetze mit den einschliigigen Ministerial- Verordnungcn und Erliissen, erlautert durch die Entschcidungen des k. k. Yerwaltungsgerichtshofes und des k. k. Reichsgerichtes Wien, 1893. * " Codice pubblica istruzione," Vol. 1-IV, Torino, 1901 ; and "Vicende legislative della pubbliea istruzione in Italia, dair anno 1859 al 1899." Torino, 1901. From the Modelreglement en Modelprogramma der lagere gemeentescholen. BrnxoUes, 1897, p. 63 77 39. Bohemia. — The Bohemian schools, German, and Czech or Tschek (Ceslsa), were seen in Prague its capital. As in Belfjium, the bilingual difiBculty is also felt, and both languages have to be learnt, liocently-built schools, though under the one roof are absolutely divided, one-half being a Czech school, the other half German. Even the inspection is under different staffs, owing to a want of sympathy between the two peoples. The school-buildings are fair. The higher institutions are very good and very well equiped. The organisation and curricula are similar to the Austrian, Bohemia being a part of the Austro-Hungarian kingdom. 40. Italy. — The development of education in Italy is most remarkable in its higher branches, but there has been a tendency in the North to vastly improve the popular schools. This was strikingly seen at Turin, in the organisation of their recent school-buildings. Eeference is made elsewhere to features of Italian education. A recently built elementary school in Turin far surpasses any school in this State, in its plan, equipment, hygiene, etc. 41. Finland. — Elementary schools in Finland wore seen at its present capital, Helsingfors. Some of the buildings are very fine, among which may be mentioned the primary school at Viborg, and the Finnish school for girls at Helsingfors. These are comparable to the Swiss in design, and almost in their finish, the equipment being not quite so good, however, except for manual training. Sloyd is one of the well-developed features, and the Sloyd programmes, as arranged by Finnish teachers, are of a very high character. The matter of manual work in Finland is however referred to in another chapter. As an instance of how Finland aims at educating its teachers, it may be mentioned that there are no less than ten normal schools in the country, viz., eight Finnish and two Swedish. Every three years the Department of Education convenes a congress of all its teachers, male and female. The general programme calls for no special comment. Children attend school as a rule from about six years of age, and a leaving certificate is given to pupils satisfactorily going through their course in either the city or rural folk-schools. This certificate entitles its holder to a reduction of the three years' military service, to one year. On the coastal district Swedish and Finnish are spoken and near the Eussian frontier, Russian also 42. Hungary. — Public education was really organised in 1777 by a royal decree, the " Eatio educationis." The Empress Maria-Theresa divided the schools into rural, town, and city (scola) pagorum, oppidanfB, et urbanse). In 1848 education was made obligatory for children from six to twelve. The organisation of to-day depends however mainly upon the law No. 38 of 1868, and in minor matters upon additional laws passed since. The following is the programme of the superior primary school : — Superior Primary School, Hungary. Classes Subjects Religion and Ethics Hungarian Any modern language Arithmetic and Geometry .. ., Book-keeping Natural history Physics Chemistry Hygiene Geography History Civic Instruction Rural or Industrial economy .. Manual work (girls) Domestic Economy Freehand drawing Geometric drawing Caligraphy Singing Physical exercises Totals m. IV. V. 1 2 5 4 ... 2 5 3 ... 2 2 2 3 2 2 ... 1 2 i 2 i 2 24 26 1 2 5 3 ... 2 5 3 '3" 2 2 2 ... 2 24 26 1 2 4 3 3 3 4 3 '3" "2 .'.'." "2 2 1 2 2 ... 3 ... 2 2 2 2 ...' 1 1 i 1 4 1 26 26 1 2 3 3 3 3 4 3 3 2 ..." '2 2 1 3 3 3 2 2 ... "i'l i 1 26 26 26 24 In the above, the first column in each class from I to IV and the columns V, VI are the hours for boys ; the second in columns I to IV for girls. The totals are not correct, because the lines for all subjects arc not included, and some subjects are alternative. There are also optional subjects outside the limits of the above pro2;ramme— viz., Latin, French, music, industrial exercises of various kinds. The education of Hungarian teachers is referred to elsewhere. The school buildings seen by the Commissioners in Hungary are finely built and finely equippt'd. The normal schools are almost palatial. In 189G, on the occasion of the J,C0Oth anniversary of the founding of the State of Hungary, the Parliament at Budapest authorised the establishment of 1,000 new public schools. Two hundred of these had been opened by the end of 1900 ; and it is expected that before 1905, the whole 1,000 will be opened. As an indication of the intense interest cf the Hungarian teacher in his professional work, it may be mentioned that, in addition to the general association of teachers, which holds regular educational conferences, there are no less than 300 free associations, either national or provincial, which, grouped under the languages spoken by the teachers, are as f'jllows : — Hungarian, 259 ; Koumanian, 20; German, 7 ; Servian, 3 ; Slav, 2 ; etc. It has already been mentioned that the Froebelian method has been warmly esponsed in Hungary. In another part of the Beport, reference will be made to the high state of intellectual culture in Hungary. 43. 43. Agricultural Teaching in the French Primary School. — lleference lias already beeu made (section 26) to elementary teaching in agriculture in connection with primary schools. The question has been given very definite attention in France, where a commission was charged with outlining a programme of instruction in agriculture for the guidance of teachers in the rural schools. The otficial instruction, bearing date 4th January, 1897, gives psedagogic directions, clearly and authoritatively defining the role of the rural school in this connection. We translate freely from this. " The teaching of the ideas of agriculture, which may be permitted in the programme of the elementary school, ought to be addressed less to the memory of the children than to their intelligence. It ought to depend upon the observation of everyday facts in agricultural life, and upon such simple experimentation as the material sources at the disposal of the school will allow, and ought also to be so designed as to elucidate the fundamental scientific notions of the most important agricultural operations. Above all things, it is necessary to instruct the children as to the ' why' of the operations, with the explanation of the accompanying phsenomena, and not burden them with the detail and carrying-out of the process. Still less should one give a resume of directions, or of definitions and agricultural receipts. To know the essential conditions of development in cultivated plants, to grasp the reason of the customary work in ordinary cultivation, and to understand the rationale of the hygienic rules which concern man and the domestic animals is what is wanted from the beginning by every agriculturist, and what can only be acquired by following the experimental method." " A teacher is taking a false route when his agricultural instruction is based merely upon a study and repeating by the pupil of matter in a manual of agriculture. However well conceived that manual may be, it is necessary to have recourse to very simple experiments, and above all to observation." " In fact, it is only by bringing the phienomenou to be observed under the very eyes of the children that one can really teach them to observe, and can establish in their minds the fundamental ideas upon which modern agricultural science rests, ideas that the country scholar can get only at school. It will not be necessary to teach him that which his father knows much better than the teacher and will certainly learn by practical experience." "The end to be attained by primary agricultural teaching is, therefore, to initiate a large number of our country school children into such elementary knowledge as is indispensable in reading with profit a work on modern agriculture, or in thoroughly following an agricultural conference. It is in this way that it is possible to create in them a love of country life and a desire not to change it for the life of the town or the factory, and to make them realise the truth that the calling of the agriculturist, the most independent of all callings, is, for practical workers, intelligent and properly-instructed, far more remunerative than many others.'"^ " In short, all that is demanded of "the rural teacher is to give his pupils, in whatever measure their age will allow, a taste for and understanding of agricultural matters. In giving unity to his scientific and agricultural teaching, which ought to form a well co-ordinated whole, where the notions of physical and natural science, those of agriculture and hygiene, and it may be added (in the case of girls) those of domestic economy, intimately penetrate and complete one another, he will succeed in this without in any way burdening his programme." A little reflection will shew that in the ordinary country school a well-educated teacher will have no difiiculty in making his teaching on scientific subjects at once practical, interesting, and educative. It may be added that school gardens are becoming a feature of French schools, and that the value of fertilisers is practically demonstrated by growing various plants under different conditions — that is, in soils starved as regards the type of nutriment required by the plant, and in soils in which the substances lacking are made good artificially. 44. Elementary Maritime Education in Primary Schools. — Among special forms of primary education may be mentioned elementary maritime education. This exists in France, Belgium, Denmark, and other places. In the first-mentioned country it was determined by a resolution of the 20th September, 1898, that object-lessons suitable to the career of the sailor and fisherman should be given in the primary schools along the coast. The details were decided by a common agreement between the Ministries of Marine and Public Instruction. As a reason for undertaking such instruction it was stated that the conditions of the fishing industry had for some years past been greatly modified, so that fishing-boats were compelled to go so far out of sight of the coast in order to obtain enough fish to make their occupation adequate, remunerative, and regular. It was, consequently, necessary to give the fisherman at least an elementary knowledge of navigation. The professional instruction of the fisherman is, of course, of the most rudimentary character. Their general ignorance of the essential conceptions of navigation led, it was said, to consequences only too well known. Many disastrous events could have been avoided had the sailor been able to take even ordinary account of the track of his vessel, and to fix his position from time to time upon the chart. Ability to do this meant the avoidance of the frequent losses of fishing-boats caused by inexperience of the fishermen ; losses that seriously affected an industry which, for the population on the littoral, meant 80 much. A remarkable feature of this instruction is not only the young pupils are the recipients of such instruction, but with them are pupils of all ages. The development of the courses is as outlined hereunder : — (1) Middle Course. — (1) The occupation of the fisherman ; its various advantages ; informal conversations concerning its value from a personal and from a national point of view ; maritime registration. Notions of marine hygiene — feeding, clothing, swimming, etc. Maritime fishing — deep-sea and coast fishing ; navigation ; coasting and long sea journeys. Description of a local fishing-smack ; a visit to a smack and to a lifeboat. Definition and use of various parts of the fishing-boat. Different classes of vessels — brig, schooner, sloop. Different parts of a harbour ; nautical terms ; nautical terms common in English ; foreign flags. (2)_ ' The passage is not italicised in the original. 79 (2) Practical maritime notions. Practical astronomy — some of the constellations ; the pole star ; apparent motion of the sun ; inequality of the days and nights ; the equinoxes ; the mooa and its phases. The sea — tides, flood and ebb ; the tidal almanac ; the equinoctial tides. Maritime charts — their use ; elementary exercises with them ; depths, soundings, light- houses, beacons, semaphores, buoys. Magnetic needles and their properties ; compasses — declination, variation ; the ship's log. (3) Practical local teaching. Geographical study of the neighbouring coasts— for example, the French and English coasts visited in coastal fishing; local fishing-grounds; walks upon the coast; plants and animals. (4) Practical exercises — manual work. Sailors' knots — -demonstrations and exercises ; making fast ; splicing ; block and tackle ; fixing and unfixing block and tackle ; making and mending ; visits to sailmakers, to rope-yards, etc. ; demonstration of ordinary working. Principles of swimming. (2) The Higher Course— (1) Notions of navigation. Movement of the stars ; equator, parallels, meridian ; position of a star. Ecliptic — position of the sun in relation to the horizon and the prime vertical. Measurement of time. Marine charts — pointing the chart when in view of the land ; reducing soundings to the zero of the chart. Use of the compass — the route by the compass; the magnetic route ; the true route ; points of the compass. Leeway. The sextant— its use ; practical determination of a position at sea. The barometer, and prediction of the weather. Cyclones. International codes of signals. Elementary notions of marine legislation. Legal condition of seamen. The maritime registration. People subject to registration. Military obligations of people registered. Advantages accorded to registered seamen. Organisation of the service. Coastal police and coastal fishing. (3) Notions of hygiene. The hygiene of the fishermen. "First aid" for the wounded and sick. The use of the principal remedies which should be kept on fishing-boats ; their care on board. At the present time education of this kind is perhaps quite unnecessary in New South Wales. The fact that it is given in several countries will, however, servo to illustrate the tendency in the educational systems of some countries to take direct account of the practical needs of the people. This intensely practical orientation of education is, under certain circumstances, undoubtedly desirable, and it ought to be borne in mind that it is not wholly inconsistent with making such instruction of some educative value in the liberal sense. Although the above programme is the French one, very similar instruction is given in a school at Ostende, in Belgium, and at Frederikshavn, in Denmark, and probably at numbers of other places overlooked by the Commissioners. It is mentioned purely as an example of practical tendency. 45. Conclusion. — Some reference is made in the next chapter to Russian education. A complete outline of each system is not possible in the very limited time at disposal. Special features will be discussed in various chapters, in dealing with subjects in which the teaching calls for reform. The great difference between our educational system and the systems of Europe is in the inadequate provision made by us for the training of our teachers, and in our utilising, as in England, but not in Europe, the services of children as teachers. This is the blot on our system, and it reacts unfavourably upon the teachers themselves. Its discussion, however, is a matter which must bo left to chapters specially dealing with the education and trainina; of teachers. The tendencies of modern education will also be hereinafter discussed. CHAPTER VII. so CHAPTER VII. Public Instraction in Russia. [E. P. KOVALEVSKY. Edited, G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. General. — Most o£ the educational institutions in Russia are under the direction of the Ministry of Public Instruction. There are, however, many special schools, which depend upon the other adminis- trative departments. To the latter belong a series of technical and commercial schools, and a complete system of agricultural schools. The need of men with higher technical education is very sensible in Eussia, and the influx of the secondary students wishing to enter the special higher schools is increasing every year. The demand for entrance increases in even greater proportion than is possible for these schools to receive. In the year 1898, 7,000 petitions were presented in the different institutes, while only 2,000 students could be admitted. The Government has shewn itself ready to help the progress of technical instruction. Since the year 1895, five large higher establishments, viz., a Polytechnical School in St. Petersburg, one in Warsaw, and one in Kieff, a Technological Institute in Tomsk, and an Engineering School in Moscow, have been established in these different parts of Russia. Taking into consideration the importance that chemistry has lately acquired in Russian industry, the State has constructed new laboratories in the existing schools, viz , in the St. Petersburg Technological Institute and the Riga Polytechnical School, in the hope of increasing the number of the students of the chemistry departments, which till now formed only 20 per cent, of all technical students, the balance, 74 per cent., being mechanics. The expenditures of the Ministry of Public Instruction alone, for the support of the higher technical education, amounts to a million and a half of roubles (about £164,000) ; the Ministry of Finance assigned more than seven millioQs (about £764,000) for the construction of the last Polytechnical School. 2. Higher Technical Institutions — There are at present thirteen superior technical institutions in Russia, with 8,000 students in them ; four technological institutes, four polytechnical schools, two engineering schools, one of civil engineering, one of mining and one of electro-technics. The aim of all these establishments is to train engineers for the service of the State, competent to act as foremen in factories, industrial enterprises, and on the public works. The students are accepted graduates of a secondary school after a competitive examination. They attend the institute for five years, the last being a practical course. Besides their occupation with theoretical studies, the students are sent every summer to practical work, in factories and railroads. The list of the thirteen higher schools is the following : — (1) The Technological School in St. Petersburg is one of the oldest technical schools, and was opened in 1828. It has two divisions, the mechanical and the chemical, attended by 1,109 students. The State assigns for it yearly 275,628 roubles (about £30,090). (2) The Technological Institute in Kharkoff, dating from 1885, contains 685 students ; receives yearly 341,544 roubles (about £37,260) from the State. (3) The Moscow Imperical High Technical School, with 865 students, is organised like the two preceding. Of the yearly income of 269,500 roubles (about £29,440), 208,000 (about £22,090) is given by the State, and the remainder (about £6,750) is from othef sources. (4) The Technological Institute iu Tomsk (Siberia) was founded in 1900 for 220 students. (5) The Polytechnical School in St. Petersburg will be ready to be opened next autumn for 1,800 students, with the four following departments : — Economy, Shipbuilding, Metallurgy, and Electro -technics . (6) The Polytechnical Institute in Riga has six divisions — Chemistry, Mechanics, Agronomy, Commercial Sciences, Architecture, Engineering, and is attended by 1,44(5 students. This school is chiefly supported by the city of Riga. (7) The Polytechnical Institute iu Kieff consists of four divisions —Mechanics, Engineering, Agronomy, Chemistry, and has a total of 710 students. (8) The Polytechnical Institute in Warsaw, with only three divisions, and a fourth division in mining to be established next ye.ar, has 644 students, and was constructed chiefly from the means provided by the city, and by the local Polish societies, who presented, on the occasion of the Czar's visit to Warsaw, and in memory of this visit, a million for this purpose. (9) The Institute of the Engineers of the Railways contains 8SG students, and is located in St. Petersburg. (10) The Engineering School in Moscow is attended by 300 students. (11) To the Institute of the Civil Engineers is yearly assigned the sum of 82,000 roubles (about £8,940) by the State. The number of students iu the institute is 300. (12) 81 (12) The Institute of Mining iq St. Petersburg is ancient, and was founded as far back as 1795, viz., in the reign of Catherine II ; 480 students are studying there, and 1-56,205 roubles (about £17,040) are assigned yearly for this school. This institute is celebrated for its splendid mineral collections. (13) The Electro-technical Institute, the. aim of which is to prepare engineers for the State's telegraphs and telephone service, has a maximum of 300 students. In concluding this short description of the higher technical institutions, an interesting parallel between Eussia and other European States may be drawn, according to the statistical tables for the year lg98_9n, exhibited last summer in the Paris Exhibition. It concerns the proportion of the higher technical students in different countries. Eussia must be put in the second place after (Jrermany, where the number of technical students was 15,000, while in Eussia it reached 8,000, in Austria 3,500, in France 1,500, in Italy and Switzerland 1,200, and in Spain and Denmark the number did not surpass 500 persons. 3. Intermediate and Elenifntary Technical and Industrial Education.— 1\\\s is supervised by a special division, formed in the year 1883, of the Ministry of Public Instruction. To this division was given the work of drawing up the ?rences, act on the examining board for the brevet of capacity (a literary certificate) and the certificate of aptitude ^professional), and for admission of candidates to tra'ning-schools. With respect to the school staffs, their duties are no less considerable. They judge the teachers in their instruction, discipline, and educational work, their fitness, their conduct, and their moral character. The reports which they forward to the Academy Inspectors must furnish an exact picture of the schools %isited, must point out the defects as well as the merits ; in a word must fully inform the Academy Inspector on the work of the school, teachers, and pupils, and on the way in which the programmes, regulations, and lessons are carried out. It is upon th' se reports that the Academy Inspectors form their own judgment and decisions regai-ding promotions and rewards. There is no examination, either of teachers or of schools, similar to our own. The supervision of the school staffs is not all the work Primary School Inspectors are called upon to perform. While the Inspectors are required to vigilantly supervise every branch of school work and organisation, they are above all expected to act as guides and advisers to the teachers placed under their authority. ./l/)/>om<»i(;?i< o/ Primary /M«jB«cortraits of the authors and some of their choicest writings. These societies for mutual help and instruction are not confined to France or America. Thtsy exist also in Australia, according to a school paper published in Sydney, in which the following passage occurs i — " The members of 5 B class having recently formed a Progress Association, a meeting was held on 1 5th May, 1 903, for the election of officers. The objects of this Association are : — 1. To promote a greater unity among the me«ibei-s of the class, for " union is strength." 2. To promote a greater sympathy between teachers and scholars. 3. To maintain the high moral tone in the school. 4. To further the well-being of the school generally, by fostering existing institutions, or by any other means that may be approved." There can only be words of commendation for those who interest themselves in such valuable adjuncts to school work. Discipline. — Corporal punishment is forbidden in French schools. No written punishments, known as " impositions " in this country, are permitted. General indefinite punishments are justly condemned. Teachers rule largely by affection and moral suasion. Austerity, imperiousness, fickleness in the teacher are deprecated. Boys from 10 to 16 years of age were seen in their class- rooms, and the general impi-ession of the school discipline was .satisfactory. In the Elementary Schools the little fellows about 9 and 10 years of age were well dressed, intelligent and earnest. They welcomed the visitors by rising from their seats and giving the military salute. In the Primary School smart looking boys, 12 and 13 years of age, were observed at their work. In every dej)artment visited bright, happy, orderly pupils were seen. Aims of the Primary School Instruction. — "The principal aim of the French system of instruction is to form the man in the child, but it has also in view a preparation, as much as possible, for the practical life, for the social condition which awaits the child, and so, whilst maintaining its general character, it has a|>peared more and more necessary to give it a moderate direction towards the agricultural and other callings. This is why the technical side of the programme has been broadened, and the dogmatic instruction diminished. From the purely dogmatic lessons practical applications are continually drawn. Manual work and drawing in the primary schools aim at the same object. They contribute to develop the spirit of observation and to educate the eye and hand. These two branches of instruction, so precious in the practical work of the different callings, rest upon geometry, the essential notions of which are also taught. Drawing is taught from the moment the child enters the school." In a primary school in the Rue de la Jussienne a class of senior girls, at the time of the Commis- sioners' visit, was engaged under a special teacher in a lesson on drawing. The room was properly fitted up with drawing frames and boards. The girls were engaged in freehand drawing from plaster casts, and their excellent work testified amply to the special care and attention devoted to this important branch of school work. This special emphasis on drawing as a primary school subject is general throughout France, as, indeed, it is in all the other countries visited. The prominence given to the subject was particularly noticeable 94 noticeable in the Board Schools of London, in the primary schools of France, in the primary schools of the United States, and in Toronto (Canada). Manual training work in iron and wood was noticed in the boys' department of the above school. The bench accommodation in woodwork provided for about "JO boys at a time, and there were sufficient anvils, vices and furnaces to keep 10 boys occupied with the iron work. The benches for woodwork are small, and are very similar to those in use in the Engli.sh Board Schools. The teaching was not on Sloyd lines. There is universal agreement at the present day as to the importance of drawing in education, not only from the utilitarian, but also from the educative point of view. It would appear that in the past France has given prominence in this subject to the utilitarian side, and thereby left herself open to the charge of having aimed at habitual mechanical but somewhat artificial perfection. This opinion was formed after an inspection of the drawings sent by French Schools to the School Exhibition held in London in June, 1902, under the auspices of the London School Board. The opinion was confirmed after a visit in November last to the Municipal Pedagogical Librarj' in Paris. In this institution a section of the buildings is set apart for an exposition of the work done by the pupils attending the primary and upper primary schools. The written work ort exhibition, from the lowest class to the highest, consisting of arithmetic, composition, mapping, and dictation, was thoroughly genuine. No attempt had been made by the teachers to " touch up " the exercises for show purpo.ses. The work was exhibited with its imperfections, and on the whole it gave evidence of good primary school teaching. The books were lying on the tables just as they came from the schools where they had been used in 1899 and 1900. The drawings into which original design largely entered were particulaily well represented. This originality of design was noticeable in the exercise books above referred to. Eveiy child had something of the kind as a heading in his or her exercise book. From the prevalence of this feature in the di'awing, and the character of some of the work one would conclude that much encouragement is given in this direction, and that a child's efforts though often extremely crude are not disparaged. Writing and drawing on paper are introduced into the elementary schools at a very early stage, and even the higher classes of infant schools are practised in the use of the pen and lead pencil. The artificiality of the drawing is not unknown to the School Authorities of France, and already they I'ecognise the necessity for some alteration. The introduction of Nature drawing is now clailning their attention. Manual Inslruction. — Manual instruction has been a compulsory subject in the primary school programme of France since 1882, but has not yet given all the results expected. The initial expenditure in equipping workshops and the unpreparedness of those engaged in the teaching are the two chief causes which have militated against a full measure of success. In the simpler processes of manual instruction L'ENSEICNEMENT MANUEL A L'ECOLE PRIMAIRE.-UN ATELIER DU FER. performed by the junior classes, such as folding, cutting, weaving, cardboard work, modelling, in which a comparatively slight outlay was necessary for purposes of equipment, good results have been achieved ; but in the establishment of workshops for instruction in wood and iron, involving, as they naturally must, considerable expense in construction and equipment, the success of manual instruction is not yet fully achieved. Every boys' school in Paris is provided with a manual workshop, and in other cities they are becoming general. The State pays the salary of the instructor, and the Commune pays for the equipment. The parents pay nothing. Under our own system the instructor in manual training is an officer immediately under the Technical College, not directly on the staff of the school where he is engaged. The expense of equipment is maintained by the Public Instruction Department ; but the boys attending the classes, while receiving instruction free, have to purchase certain tools. The cost of the necessary tools is about £1, and the question arises, does not this expense prohibit many boys from receiving manual instruction? In England, France and America, not only is instruction free, but all tools required by the boys are provided free of co?t. The -95 The diflSculty experienced in France from not having teachers competent to undertake the training in the wood and iron workshops has been overcome by giving the necessary instruction to students while in the Normal Schools. The French teacher readily recognises the double utility of manual training. While it provides for recreation of the mind, it at the same time makes instruction real by furnishing to the boy the concrete material. The same practical methods are employed in arithmetic and the physical science.s. In arithmetic, alongside of theoretical ideas, are placed exercises in mental arithmetic and problems related to the different occupations of ordinary life and to the various trades. In the Pedagogical Museum already referrefature study more keenly than those of rural schools. Whatever may be the cause of the migration to populous centres, the inclusion of the elementary ideas of agriculture connected with Nature study in primary schools cannot be otherwise than V)eneficial. Great attention is paid to practical, experimental work in the schools, such as growing plants in pots, school gardens, special visits to parks afford. On all occasions effort is made to explain appropriate theoretical principles by practical demonstrations. It may be said of the French people that they endeavour to adapt their teaching to the particular needs of the community. Nature study with them follows the natural surroundings and natural phenomena. Lessons on the life of a sailor and a fisherman must be given in all the elementary primary schools on the coast. Agriculture there, while not entirely abandoned, makes way for ideas regarding sea occupations. Although teachers of schools in the maritime districts have not had sufficient time to make more than a. superficial study of the new requirements, the Inspectors state that the results, on the whole, are not the less satisfactory. Teachers have taken the work up with great enthusiasm. In 21 of the Maritime Departments in which elementary nautical teaching is given, the instruction seems to have already borne fruit. The courses of instruction in the schools in maritime districts are as follow : — MIDDLE COURSE. 1. The vocation — words and things. Advantages of the fishermen's vocation. Personal and national interests. Appropriate hygienic ideas — food, clothing, Ac, Swimming a necessity. Deep sea fishing, coast fishing. Sailing, coasting, &c. Description of a local fishing vessel — visit to a vessel and a life boat ; different parts of the vessel ; kinds of vessels. A harbour — marine terms ; common English marine terms ; foreign flags. 2. Practical Astronomy — constellations : Polar Star : apparent movement of the sun, equinoxes, &c. Moon and its phases The sea, tides, &c. Equinoctial tides. Marine maps. Depths. Soundings. Signalling stations. Buoys, beacons, lighthouses. Magnets and their properties ; Compass ; declination ; variation. Logs. 3. Geography of the neighbouring shores (in the English Channel, for example, the French and English coasts visited by fishing boats.) Fishing grounds — Tours on the shore. Animals and plants. Practical Work. 4. Sailor's knot ; anchoring ; splice ; pulleys ; tackle ; fixing and unfixing of tackle. Nets : making and repairing (visits to sail-lofts, smithies, &c.) Demonstration of running — rigging — swimming. SUPERIOR COURSE. 1. Navigation. Movement of the stars, equator, meridians, parallels, position of a star. Ecliptic: Sun's position. Marine maps. Compass, route according to the compass. Magnetic route, true route. Ship headlands. Drift. Sextant, barometer. Cyclones. International code of signals. 2. Elementary ideas of maritime legislation. Legal position of sailors. Police of the coast, &c. 3. Hygiene. First assistant to the wounded and sick. Use of the chief medicines to be carried on board, &c. Practical Direction in Girls' Schools. — This particular practical direction is likewise given in the girls' schools. At first there is a special programme of drawing in harmony with their different needs. Afterwards, alongside work in drawing, ideas of domestic economy are introduced. The teaching in- cludes all the necessary repairs connected with the household linen and clothing, household accounts and domestic hygiene. The general education of the girl is given a distinct bias in this direction. School Attendance. — If a child should absent himself from school for four half-days in a month without justification accepted by the School Commission, the father or the guaidian is summoned to appear in the Mayor's room before the Commission. The Commission reminds him of the law dealing with com- pulsory attendance, explains to him his duty, and warns him of the consequences. If he fails to take the warning the matter goes before the police court. Children 96 Children educated in the home have each year, from the age of eight, to submit to an examination equal to the standards of public schools for the same year. If the examination is unsatisfactory and insufficient explanation is forthcoming, the parents are ordered to send their children to a public or a private school. Some dissatisfaction has been expressed with the operation of the compulsory clauses in the case of children taught in the family, and the necessity for greater strictness by the authorities has been pointed out. Teachers do much, as Aciidemy Inspectors attest, to get satisfactory attendances by popularising their schools. School restanrants for poor little children are supported by private funds or the School Fund. The little ones remain in the school or on the premises all the day, and thus escape the influence of the street and the severities of the weather. The parents are not pauperised, for the Authorities endeavour to keep alive the sense of responsibility and duty regai-ding their own by allowing them to contribute a little towards the happiness and comfort of their children. Leaving Certificate. — Examinations are held at the end of the year, and candidates are not admitted until they have completed their eleventh year. The disposition on the part of the School Authorities is to retain the child at school later than the age of 11. The Rector nominates the Board of Examiners. The examination consist of two parts, written and oral : — Written Test.— Dictation. — A passage of 15 lines at most. The passage is read slowly first, re-read to allow of corrections, and five minutes granted to the examinee to revise. Writing. — The writing in the dictation exercise is accepted. Arithmetic. — Two questions in problems — Metric System. Composition. — Simple in character, subject chosen from moral or civic instruction, history and geography, elementary science, given in usual school lessons. The Academy Inspector chooses the subjects. Sewing (for girls). — These are the compulsory subjects in the written test, each of which is worth 10 marks. Those successful in securing 50 per cent, of marks in the written part are allowed to take the oral test. Oral Test.— Reading and Recitation — 10 marks. History and Geography — 10 marks. 50 per cent, of marks at least constitutes a full pass. Both tests must be passed before the certificate is issued. Agriculture for boj's in the country and drawing for boys in the city may be offered. These subjects are not compulsory, but the successful candidates receive credit for them in the certificate. Conclusions of the Primary School System. — The instruction, while preserving its general character in certain subjects, aims at practical applications adapted to prepare children for different callings, but it is a direction rather than a preparation. CB AFTER IX. Upper Primary Schools of France. [J. W. TURNER.] Introduction. — A distinction must be drawn at the outset between the "cours complimentaires " of the primary school and the upper primary school proper. The following table indicates clearly this distinction : — Upper Primary School. Cours Complementaires. Separate building. Annex of a primary elementary school. Separate Staff. Under same control as the elementary school. Ordinary Course, two years. One year. Full Course, three years. Distinct classroom, with workshop attached. Three Rooms — Staff qualify with the brevet sup^rieur and the certificate One drawing-room. of aptitude for primary school. One gymnasium. One workshop. Staff qualify with the certificate of aptitude for the master- ship of the upper primary school. The schools are on two distinct platforms, with two distinct staffs. There is no general programme for the " cours complementaires," but the Director or Head-master, acting with the teacher of the Superior Course of the elementary school, draws up a programme of work based upon the level of the pupils' know- ledge and the needs of the district. Pupils are not admitted unless they can produce the leaving certificate of the primary school, and prove that they have had one year's attendance in the Superior School course. Our own system of establishing a Superior School, when there are twenty pupils capable of doing fifth class work, bears a close resemblance to the " cours complementaires " of France. These schools may be described as the topmost rung of the elementary primary school ladder. The 97 The Upper Primary Schools. — The upper primary school, being the continuation of the primary school, preserves its practical character, spirit and methods. It is only distinguished from it in that it assures to its pupils a more definite and a more complete preparation for their future profession, a higher intellectual training, and a wider fund of knowledge. According to a Minister of Public Instruction this teaching " must be quite a different thing from a poor imitation of secondary education; the upper primary school is not the college degenerated, it is the primary school perfected." A Ministerial circular on the subject of these schools says " the upper primary school is recognised at first sight by its openly practical and utilitarian character. In this general sense it is professional." But the circular is careful to point out " that the education is a real education, and is not to be confounded with an apprenticeship. It is a school and not a workshop — pupils are found in it, not apprentices." And in the summing-up of the Report the following statement is made : — " Complement of general instruction, commencement of professional instruction— such is the character of the upper primary education." The schools designed to carry on and complete the elementary primary instruction are divided to-day into two types of establishments —the upper primary schools of public instruction and the practical schools of commerce and industry. The essential difference between them is that in the latter schools the professional or practical element is emphasised, while in the former schools the general element predominates. The professional schools, which number thirty-three, are under the Minister for Commerce and Industry. The Upper Primary Schools proper. — The pupils for whom these schools are intended are children of the labouring classes, who have to quit school early and earn their own living chiefly by manual work. Though the education is of a practical character, it yet remains a true education, and is not to be confounded with apprenticeship. It directs all its efforts to a continuance of the work of the primary schools, and to carrying on that "cultivation of the mind which forms the judgment, the heart, the will, and the character." It is in this respect that it is distinguished from the purely professional education. General Organisation. — The ordinary course is one of two years, the full course is three years or more. The first j^ear of the course is the same for all pupils. The design is to strengthen the primary instruction received, and to afford opportunities for noting the particular bent of each pupil. From the second year in the schools with a full course, the courses of instruction are differentiated according as the particular professional bent declares itself in the pupils and commences to distinguish them from one another. Alongside the section of general education, which is composed of pupils whose career is not yet determined, and who only come to the upper primary school for a complement of general instruction, there may now be created one or several special sections — agricultural, industrial, or commercial — in which the subjects of general instruction are not abandoned, but simply reduced so as to enable greater attention to be given to the professional education. Head-master's Duties. — The head-master must give at least from ten to fifteen hours' instruction every week according to the number of years in the school course. In schools with 1 50 pupils and upwards, or in schools which are placed under the same control as an elementary primary school with more than three classes, the head-master may be relieved from all the other subjects except the moral and civic instruction. The other teachers give twenty hours to teaching and five hours to supervision each week. The head-masters' responsibilities are great. He must forward monthly to the Academy Inspector a full report on the life of the school. The masters and assistants are given every opportunity by way of internal supervision, excursions and games, to co-operate with the head-master in the moral training of the pupils. The members of the staff are appointed by the Minister of Public Instruction. The standard of the certificate of upper primary school teachers is equal to that required for teachers in the Normal Schools. Teachers of special subjects are employed. Education is .free. The leaving certificate of the primary school and an attendance of one year of the superior course are nece8.sary for admission. In some Departments, owing to the number of applicants being in excess of the seating accommodation, competitive examinations are held to determine who shall be admitted. Salaries. — There are 297 upper primary schools in France, attended by 31,000 pupils, and the amount voted annually for their maintenance is 3,000,000 francs. The salaries paid in Upper Primary Schools are as follow : — 5th Class £72 per annum. 4th Class 3rd Class 2nd Class Ist Class 80 90 100 112 Scholarships. — ^The following classes of scholarships or bursaries are awarded by competition (Age limit 12 to 15) :— (a) Boarding Bursaries — to pupils who live in a boarding-house attached to the school. (b) Maintenance Bursaries — to pupils who live at home and attend the upper primary school or the " cours complementaires." (c) Family Bursaries — to pupils whose parents do not live in the locality ; these are placed with families selected by the masters and mistresses. The Value of the Scholarships. — (a) The usual boarding rate charged for children is paid in part or whole. The amount does not exceed 500 francs (£20). (h) The maintenance bursaries vary from 100 to 400 francs (£4 to £16). (c) The family bursaries paid in part or whole do not exceed 500 francs (£20). In awarding a bursary, the character of the child and his examination, the financial condition of the parents, and their services to the State as citizens, are all matters for consideration. 15-N The 98 The bursars of the upper primary scliools may be transferred to the continued enjoyment of bursars' privileges, if they are less than 16 years of bursary is only granted on the recommendation of the Academy Inspectoi', and distinguished themselves by their conduct and work. This is a fitting place to remark on the splendid grading of the French constant vigilance exercised by the Academy Inspector and his staff over their the opportunity afforded to the poorest boy to acquire the very best education so searching and universal in its application that the poorest children, even in every facility and opportunity for educational advancement. secondary schools with the age. The secondary school to pupils who have specially system of instruction, on the teachers and schools, and on in the land. The .system is the remotest districts, have Committee of Patronage. — Connected with each upper primary school is a Committee of Patronage, whose duty it is to look after the material condition of the school, to exercise a tender guardianship over the institution, to consult with the teachers as to the best measures for bringing instruction into harmony with local industries, and to evince a paternal regard for the pupil's welfare when he starts his career in life. The Committee of Patronage is appointed by the Minister of Public Instruction on the recommendation of the Rector. The Committee regards with special can- the pupils of the upper primary schools, particularly the bursars, and concerns itself with finding situations for the most meritorious at the end of their school course. Character of the Instruction. — In re-organising upper primary education M. Jules Ferry defined it thus : — " On the one hand we wish it to remain primary, and on the other we wish it to be profe.ssional." M. Combes insisted on the latter characteristic, saying " that the upper primary education has only subsisted up to thf pre-ent day because of pupils whom agriculture, commerce, and industrj* have sent to it. It will only flourish in the future to the extent to which it is professional." Statistics show at'the jiresent time that two-thirds of the pupils enrolled follow u)) the agricultural, commercial, and industrial professions. In 189.3 the upper primary schools of Industry and Commerce were transferred to the Minister of Industry and Commerce, and there then remained the necessity to define the chai-acter of the upper school propel'. This definition by those authorised to draw it up is as follows: — "The pupils are not children intended for the liberal pi'ofessions who have an unlimited time at their disposal, and who seek a higher intellectual culture They are the children of the working classes, who will soon be compelled to leave school to earn their living. They do not aspire to the pursuit of classical studies. Their ambition, their probable destiny, is to fulfil one of those numerous employments of the middle classes which agriculture, commerce, and industry offer to the workman. If this is so the upper primary school can only give the pupils a bias towards the necessities of the practical life which awaits them. It will not turn aside for a moment their mind from the pursuit of a profession. It will take care not to give them tastes, habits, or ideas which will remove them from the kind of life and the kind of work to which they are almost all destined. And whilst reminding them that democracy has removed the barriers which formerly narrowly imprisoned the individual, it will rather aim to make them love and honour their career than to seek the means of getting out of it." Professional Upper Prim,ary Schools. — Professional schools difier essentially from the upper primary schools. They are designed to produce commercial employees and workmen, whose services may be imme- diately utilised at the counter and in the workshop. The Minister of Industry and Commerce, speaking of these schools, says " that he cannot certainly deny the benefits of general instruction. It is a solid basis which increases the worth of the man, and renders more profitable the professional knowledge he has acquired. It is not a question of pro.scribing it. The pupils will necessarily receive a complement of upper primary education. The admission of pupils carmot take place unless they have fulfilled the school obliya- tions. It has become indispensable to place at the service of our merchants well prepared assistants, and to furnish our manufacturers with select workmen, and this is the work of the practical professional school." An agricultural section is organised in all upper primary schools where a sufficiently large number of rural pupils can be obtained. The following table setting forth the time devoted to theoretical and practical instruction will show at a glance the essential distinction between the Upper Primary School proper and the Professional School : — Time table. Upper Primary School. 2nd and 3rd Years. Practical Professional School. Hours for each Week. General Industrial Section. Section. and Year. 3rd Year. (a) Theoretical Instruction (h) Practical do 20 10 2:1 14 14 1:1 12 \ 74 36 39 Ratios '.. 1:3 ■ 1:5 Subjects and Methodt of Instruction in Upper Primary Schools. — The leaving certificate and one year of the Superior Course are necessary for admission into the upper primary schools. In the grading, the upper primary school follows the Superior Course of the primary school, and the pupil enters about the age of 12. Specialisation in the direction of agriculture, commerce, and industry begins from the second year, about the age of 1 4. Moral Instruction is given in common and the subject permeates the whole of the teaching. Civic Instruction. — The pupil studies coqstitutional law and the political and administrative organisation of France, Litfirary m Literary Instruction. — Largely practical — the teaching of French language and literature Occupies the most important place in the general section. Themes for composition deal with practical every-day life. Much time is given to reading and recitation. Formal lessons on grammar are subordinated and composition emphasised. History. — 1st year — History of France to 1789. 2nd year — To present day. 3rd year — General. Ancient History is omitted through insufficient time. The teaching is mostly oral. The teachers prejjare a precis of the lesson which the pupil reads in conjunction with his text-book. Then he is questioned on the lesson which he has studied. The teacher next dwells on the important points of the lesson. The boys follow with oral accounts, which they have prepared outside the school work. At the conclusion of the lesson the teacher's blackboard and other notes are transcribed. Geography. — Maps are drawn on the blackboard and on paper — various chalk colours employed. Maps, charts, reviews, newspapers, statistics are used as sources of information. The curriculum embraces — 1st year. — Principal countries of the world, except Asia and Europe. 2nd year. — Asia and Europe. 3i-d year. — France and her Colonies. Common Law and Political Economy. — Notions of Common Law and Political Economy are introduced in the third year of the course, the boy being about 16or 1 7 years of age. The instruction is made practical, and has a bearing on his future calling. Foreign Languages. — In the commercial section four hours a week are devoted to foreign languages, in the general section three hours a week. The choice is made from English, German, Spanish, and Italian. Mathematics. — The Report of 1900 is very clear on what is required from upper primary school teachers in this brancli of instruction. It says " some teachers do not understand the significance of the word practical, whicli simply means applicable to the ordinary operations of daily life by processes that are rripid and expeditious, but always exact, and in which mental work plays a big part." Such questions as are known to teachers as problems in "taps," "hands of a clock," "leaps of a hare," "mixtures," are ridiculed. These the Report states are not practical exercises. When certain teachers defend the practice of giving such problems by reason of their tlieoretical value, and because they are necessaiy for examination purposes, the reply is " that reality may easily displace fancy to the greater profit of both theory and practice," and with regard to examinations, problems of the character d&scribed, the Report says, must be eliminated from the papers set. Similarly geometry must have a practical application by way of surveying, drawing, and manual work. Euclidean geometry is unheard-of in connection with these schools. Book-keeping.— On the commercial side this subject has a distinct value, and is taught by a special teacher. On the general side it is included in the mathematical teacher's duties. The teaching here also is concrete and practical. Hand-writing, making figures, reckoning quickly and correctly, mental and written work, receive special attention. Merchants prefer boys with this training, and pay them better salaries. Physics and Chemistry. — In the well furnished schools suitable laboratories exist, and the teaching is largely conducted by exjieriments. Teachers are particularly requested to co-ordinate diflFerent branches of scientific instruction in such a way {a) that they may complete and help one another, and converge in application to hygiene, and agricultural and local industries, and (6) to limit the theoretical part to ideas that are indispensable to the understanding of practical and common subjects. In the professional upper pi-imary schools the pupils get practical chemical work in the examination of manures, soils, grains, milk, ikc, and a special course of technology is provided for in the commercial and industrial schools. This course is ordinarily completed by visits to the factories in the neighbourhood. Natural Science and Hygiene. — The teachers establish museums in their schools and maintain little gardens for the teaching of botany. Here they grow plants that are typical of botanical families, for the purpose of specimen distribution in classes during the lessons on botany. The General Inspector proposes to place on a conspicuous wall in every upper primary .school a representation, on a reduced scale, of the local geological strata with the characteristic fossils. Twelve special lessons on hygiene are given in the third year of the course. The subject of anti- alcoholism receives special attention here too. The hygiene of domestic animals, particularly cattle, is restricted to the programme of the agricultural section. Throughout the whole general section of the three years' course there is a close co-ordination of science and agriculture. Manual Instruction. — Included in this branch are the subjects of geometrical and model drawing, free hand, and modelling. The instruction is emphasised in the industrial section. The teacher never fails to recall to the pupils' minds geometrical principles which may be applied. Much stress is placed on the model drawing, which is regarded as furnishing in the hands of a capable teacher the best training for hand and eye. WorksJwps. — In the worshop the training is educative ; it is only preparatory to apprenticeship in the industrial section. The pupils work from a drawing based upon their knowledge of applied geometry. Instruction is given in the use and proper care of the working tools. Formerly a master workman was placed in charge of the workshops, but the French authorities adhering to their characteristic thoroughness and effectiveness of system, now require a trained teacher with a special certificate for the position. The master workman assists in such duties as the preparing of materials, ifec, but the actual teaching is done by the trained man. Specialisation in wood and iron does not take place earlier than the third quarter of the first year, and sometimes as late as the second year. Practical 100 . Practical Agriculture. — There are two kinds of exercises — (a) outdoor, (6) indoor. The outdoor exercises consist of operations in the garden and field, chiefly experiments and demonstrations — ploughing, scarifying, vineyard work — gardening, vegetable and arboriculture, fruit-trees, poultry and bee farming, excursions to markets and fairs, farm accounts. All operations are followed by written reports which are carefully corrected by the head-master. The indoor exercises of the pupils are carried out in connection with manual work, and attention is given to the construction of useful farming articles. As an indispensable complement to their theoretical teaching in the subject, the pupils are instructed practically in a knowledge of the various field manures, in the mounting and dismounting of agricultural machines, and in the treatment of cattle. Physical Training. — Combined movements and games, which bring all muscles into use, and enable a large number of pupils to be exercised simultaneously, are favoured and preferred to the usual gymnastic exercises which are taken by the individual while all the rest of the class stand by awaiting their turn. In some of the schools of Germany, too, it was noticed that much attention was given to simultaneous drill, even though there was a well-equipped gymnasium. Singing. — The ordinary notation and the figure method are taken for theory. A taste for good music is inculcated, and a disgust for low songs created. Instruction of Females in Upper Primary Scltools. — Co-education does not exist in the upper primary schools. Except in mathematics and agricultui-e the courses are practically the same. In geometry there is a modified courae which is essentially practical, and which is adapted to female work and female industry. The drawing too has a practical tendency. Tlie making of clothes and small articles of furniture, house designs in connection with tapestry, picture panels, embroidery used in ornamenting the rooms, are all based on the drawing instruction. The schools specialise in the subject according to local exigencies. The manual work is educative. It aims to cultivate the taste by judicious application of drawing to needlework, by a brief consideration given to questions of clothing and to works of art, such as room decorations, and to the principles which regulate the combination of forms, colours, and materials connected with inventive designs. It seeks to develop finally the creative spirit and render the work more agreeable and remunerative. House-keeping instruction is represented by a theoretical course of Domestic Economy. In some schools it includes practical application of this theoretical course to the commonest operations of the household life — keeping and cleaning of linen, duties of the kitchen — ^particularly as to the choice, preparation, and cooking of foods. The elements necessary for a good meal, and for tiie foods required in building up the body, are fully described, and the prices of different meals studied. The whole object is to make the work of the kitchen more interesting and more intelligent. Horticulture, theoretical and practical, is also included in the curriculum. These subjects are taught by female members of the ordinary staff, who have been instructed in the Normal Schools in house-keeping and practical gardening. Summary from French Standpoint. — In the invaluable Report on Primary Education for 1900 the general aim and work of these upper primary schools were thus characterised : — "This education endeavours to prepare competent stafis for industry and commerce, and it already furnishes intelli- gent assistants with active, alert minds. It has become professional while remaining general. The two educations are necessary, and cannot be separated. The children of the masses must think early of the obligations of life, but such consideration must not turn them aside from that general culture which is the indispensable condition of the development of the intelligence. The upper primary school instruction has a character which is essentially educative but frankly professional. It is theoretical and practical without exaggeration ; it does not give an apprenticeship, but prepares largely for it. The teachers who are entrusted with it have for their principal care to prepare in every pupil the intelligent workman and the honourable man who will also be a worthy citizen." At the conclusion of the course an appropriate certificate, entitled " The Certifieate of Upper Primary School Work," is issued. Its high value is recognised by business men. CHAPTER X. 101 CHAPTER X. ' The Public Schools of Paris. fj. W. TURNER.] Introduction. — The organisation of education in the capital, Paris, deserves special consideration. It has been seen that in all other parts of France the Municipal Authorities exercise a direct but restricted jurisdiction over the schools of their locality. In Paris the restriction is almost absolutely removed, and the whole question of Primary Education practically handed over to the Municipality {Hotel de Ville). The State maintains its exclusive right to control Primary Education by its appointment of the leading officers, by its conduct of the inspection, and by its approval of the programmes of work. It has delegated all other essential powers to the Municipality, and places no restriction upon its free initiative and activity. The event has justified the confidence reposed in the city. Nowhere in the world have the needs of educa- tion received ampler and more sympathetic consideration ; nowhere have public-spiritedness and patriotism endeavoured more enthusiastically to advance the well-being of a great work. Not only has the city fulfilled all the statutory demands relative to Primary Education, but has given, in addition, an exhibition of generosity, alertness, and progressiveness that must command the highest admiration. It has already established, and is still establishing, endurable monuments of its high sense of the responsible trust placed in it. Enrolment. — In 1896 the number of children for whom educational provision had to be made was 157,205 under the age of 6, and 225,880 between 6 and 13, a total of nearly 400,000. Organisation. — To secure for these children, by a sufficiency of schools and teachers, the minimum of instruction demanded by the law was in itself a heavy enough burden, particularly when the authorities, animated by that jealousy for the reputation of their city which is so characteristic of all Parisian municipal activity, were desirous that their schools should be up-to-date institutions, carried on in bright and healthy buildings, with classes having each a limited number of pupils, with teachers thoroughly well fitted for their difficult work and in receipt of adequate remuneration, and when, for the due fulfilment of this work, large areas of land had to be purchased in the most valuable parts of the city. But, as a matter of fact, this was but an insignificant part of the work undertaken by the Municipality. In addition to maintaining a sufficiency of teachers for the general and moral education, a considerable number of special teachers were appointed to ensure the efiectiveness of the instruction in subjects for which the former were not suitably equipped and trained. Thus special teachers were appointed and a special inspection instituted for Drawing, Singing, Gymnastics, and Manual Work. Benevolent Activities. — The schools, too, were unstintingly supplied with all material accessories essential for efiective instruction, while the necessary school books, ifec, were gratuitously furnished to the pupils. The School Fund (referred to in a previous chapter) was the special object of its lavishness. Nothing, indeed, was left undone which could in any degree lessen the obstacles to regular attendance of the children at school. The disabilities of poverty were counteracted as much as possible. Clothes were freely distributed to those in need of them ; dining-rooms (cantines) were instituted, and meals given free of cost. This sympathetic and paternal regard of the authorities to the needs of the poor was particularly evidenced by their establishment of dispensaries, at which the children receive medicine and medical attention free of cost. Some of these institutions are magnificently equipped, and discharge a wide range of services. For example, in the XII Arrondissement, in addition to free consultations, medicines, and medicinal baths, a bath is given to the children of the schools every day after school, a hairdresser maintained to attend to the cutting and cleansing of the hair, a dental surgeon to see to the mouth and the teeth, and in winter cod-liver oil distributed to the schools far away from the dispensary. Medicine chests, ready for all emergencies, are also placed in one of two or three neighbouring schools. The schools are regularly visited by medical inspectors, the children themselves being subjected to examination. In like charitable regard for the poor have been established what are termed " School Colonies " (truly a noble work), whereby children are removed from the morally and physically debasing influences of their home environments and allowed, for a period of three weeks, to breathe the pure air and feast upon the fresh sights of some charming country or seaside locality. As many as 5,000 children from the worst slums of Paris were one year enabled to enjoy this priceless boon. Careful medical examination of the children is made prior and subsequent to the trips, and the results have been considered as eminently satisfactory. But this does not exhaust the benevolent activities of the authorities. " Classes de Gai-des " have been established ; in these are kept, before and after school hours, those children whose parents are, through necessitous circumstances, both compelled to leave the home to earn a livelihood. The object of the institution is to save the children from the physical and moral dangers of the streets. In 1 900 there were 84 " Classes de Gardes " receiving members between 7 and 8 in the morning, and over 300 detaining their members between 4 and 645 in the evening. The children's time is spent in both study and games. Provision 102 Provision is finally made for the children of a widow or widower left with a large family. Special bursaries have been created. These entitle the holder to maintenance in one of the numerous boarding schools of the city. To guard the parent of such a bursar from tlie charge of pauperisation, permission is given to make a greater or less contribution towards the chijd's maintenance. In thus charitably co-operating with and assisting tlie parents, the Authorities claim to have removed all obstacles to a full observance of the Compulsory Laws regarding Primary Education ; no child should lack the minimum of education because of the poverty of his parents. Nothing need be added here to what has already been said concerning the material and pedagogical organisation of the Maternal and Primary Schools ; there is no essential difference between the schools of Paris and those of the rest of France. Vacation Schools. — There is, however, one feature of latter day development which deserves some attention ; this is the creation of the Vacation School — an institution which has also secured a firm footing in some of the large cities of America. In Paris the vacation is a very long one lasting foi' a period of eight weeks. The Vacation School is carried on from the beginning of the third week to the end of the 6th., or over half the vacation. Children attending tliose scliools have thus a fortnight's rest at the beginning, and another fortnight at the end of the long vacation. Teachers receive special renmneration for their services, and the work is assured by the appointment of a large number of stagiaires. In 1899 the number of Vacation Classes was for boys 456, for girls 295, the enrolment being 23,932 for the former and 15,711 for the latter. Ex-Pupils' Associations. — There are certain auxiliaries to the work of the Primary School to which a short reference might be made. The great mass of the pupils in all countries leave the school as speedil)' as the law permits, generally between the ages of 11 and 14. Whatever beneficial influence the school has hitherto exercised upon the lives of its pupils is now abruptly removed, and for the most part little organised effort is made to continue the work of moral and intellectual education already accomplished. The consequence is the utter abandonment of the children to thoii- own devices at what is probably the most critical period of their lives ; the results are too often disastrous. In Paris there is a wide and keen recognition of the need for institutions wliich will keep their hold on the children, and enable tliem to weather this period safely, and with additions of moral and intellectual habits. Associations of similar character to our own " Old Boys' Associations " exist in connection with nearly every school in Paris ; their attachment to their old school and their general activity are, however, of a more real and influential character. The Municipal Authorities allow the free use of rooms for their reunions, and entertainments of all kinds are being continually held. Classes for general, commercial, and professional instruction are carried on ; gymnastic apparatus is supplied by the Municipality which further subsidises many of the Associations. The teachers themselves take an active interest in the work, and endeavour to give a moral direction to the various occupations and pastimes. Other Associations termed " Patronages," consisting of adults of the community, supplement materially the work of these Ex-pupil Associations. Various s|)ort meetings, tours, entertainments, lectures, ifec, are organised by them, and eflbrts made to secure for the ex-pupils satisfactory situations in their different trades and business. In the VII Arrondissement so numerous and active are the various Associations that a Central Body has been created for the purpose of establishing closer union among the individual parts by conferences, fetes, and reunions in the Municipal Rooms. The Municipal Authorities assist in every possible way this auxiliary work. Mvtual Beiiefit Associations. — The effort to cultivate permanent moral habits in the school children is manifested by the existence of Savings Banks and Mutual Benefit Associations in connection with most of the Primary Schools. The former we, in New South Wales, are familiar with ; the latter are a new and interesting development. Each member deposits with the Director or Directress every week 1 centimes (about 1 penny) ; of these, 5 are placed to his credit in the National Pension Fund, the remaining 5 belong to the Society, and form a fund which furnishes to every sick child 50 centimes (5d.) a day. In addition, the child deposits 25 centimes (2Jd.) a year as a contribution towards the burial expenses of any of the members. In these ways, the school introduces the child at an early age to the advantages of Mutual Benefit Societies. In 1899, 24,247 children were members of these Societies. Thus far the Lower Primary Schools have been dealt with. It has been seen with what magnificence and vigilance the Authorities provide for the Primary Education of the people. Turning now to a consideration of the various schools and classes designed to continue this work, it will be found that similar ample and liberal provision is made. Complementary Courses. — Coura Compl^mentaires aie to be found in 17 Boys' Schools and 28 Girls' Schools. In addition to these there are 12 Professional "Cours Complementaires," — six for boys and six for girls. The technical training embraces manual work (iron and wood, needle and housework), drawing, and technology ; there is also a scheme of general instruction including morals, history, geography, ifec. When boys have definitely determined upon pursuing a trade, they find seven professional schools awaiting them ; there are also six for girls. These schools are liberally fuj-nished with all the materials and workshops necessary for success, while the teachers are men and women specially trained for the work. The children are admitted to these schools at an age varying from 13 to 16, and undergo a thorough apprenticeship of three or four years in their chosen calling. The Authorities seem to be much satisfied with the work of these schools ; statistics are furnished by them showing that the pupils command a fair rate of wages as soon as they leave the school workshops. Thus in 1899, 78 of the pupils completed their course in one of the schools devoted to ironwork, &c., and received on the average 3 francs 82 centimes a day. These ex-pupils are thus almost fully-fledged workmen, whose services, according to the Authorities, are much appreciated. Each school is devoted to a special class of work. There is a Boys' School for all classes of ironwork and carpentry, which turns out smiths, forgers, carpenters, locksmiths, boUer'makers, (fee. ; a second is devoted to furniture and artistic metal work ; a third deals with ebony work, sculpture, carpentry, 103 carpentry, tapestry work, engraving, carving, ;es of and 14 years in the metropolitan area of Sydney, who are deaf and dumb, blind, or insane, has been received : — Deaf and dumb, 70 ; blind,. 27 ; insane, 5 ; total, 102. Through the same source the Commissioner has obtained the number of such children located in State institutions, viz. : — Deaf and dumb, 57 ; blind, 21 ; insane, 4 ; total, 82. Thus it appears that only twenty of these children, mostly the deaf and dumb, are outside the State institutions existing for their benefit. It might be well for the Education Department to further investigate the causes for non-attendance on the part of these twenty. The reasons may be quite sufficient. The Commissioner is of opinion that so excellent a school as the .New South Wales Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind is quite capable of dealing with this small number, and thinks it quite unnecessary to suggest any additional provision.] CHAPTER XII. 115 CHAPrER XII. Elementary and Higher Grade Schools of Edinburgh. [J. W. TURNER.] A knowledge of the system of public instruction in Edinburgh was obtained by means of visits to several elementary and one Higher Grade School. The Castle Hill Board School is an elementary mixed school, attended by about 1,000 pupils. The buildings are very solid, and the light, which is from the roof, is well distributed. The district in the neighbourhood of the school is peopled by the working classes, and is considered the poorest part of the city. The pupils are not among the most regular, and while many are comfortably clad the evidences of poverty are frequent. The higher classes contain some very bright- looking intelligent boys and girls. The standard of instruction is similar to that witnessed in ordinary Board Schools in England, and in neither country does it equal the range of our own standards. The master is ambitious, and has passed, and would still pass if he had his own way, his best boys into the secondary schools with the aid of bursaries ; but, acting under the advice of his School Board, he is satisfied to prepare them for the Higher Grade Schools by means of the Merit Certificate Examination. In some circumstances pupils with the Merit Certificate do not desire to attend the Higher Grade Schools, but remain in their own schools and go over the old work. This the head-master regrets he cannot prevent. Boys are not eager to join the ranks of the pupil-teachers, the emoluments and prospects being here, as in many other places, better in other walks of life. The head- master favours Inspection as against Examination, but he states that the system throws immense responsibilities on the head-master. At the last inspection of this school of 1,000 pupils, the Chief Inspector, with four assistants, completed the work in three hours. Several of the schools visited have very poor playground accommodation, and it was a common sight to see hundreds of pupils engaged in active games in the public thoroughfares. The practice of playing in the streets during the periods of recreation was very noticeable, too, among some of the London Board Schools. Higher Grade System. — The upper primary work in Edinburgh was investigated in the Higher Grade School, Bruntsfield. The buildings, which are of several stories, have a very fine appearance and are situated among pretty surroundings. The school has an infant department, a lower section in Junior and Senior Divisions, and an upper section, a Higher Grade Department. The attendance is 1,600, of whom 400 are in the Higher Grade Department. Admission to the Higher Grade School is by means of the Merit Certificate, and pupils from various Board Schools in the district attend. Education is free, and the classes are taught on the mixed system. The head-master sees a distinct advantage in co-education. He has had evidence of its benefits in his own experience, and has noticed that the presence of girls in the class has a refining influence on the boys. The following is the syllabus of subjects in the Higher Grade School, Bruntsfield, for 1902-3 : — Elkmentary Department. 1. Infant Division i5 blanohiasage— washing^. L. Ratiabonne. I ii9 (c) " La m^decine est k la mode parmi nous ; elle doit I'etre. C'est I'amusement des gens oisifs et d^sfenvr^B, qui, ne sachant que faire de leur temps, le passent i se conserver. S'ils avaient eu le malheur de naltre immortels, ilg seraient les plus mis^rables des etres. Une vie qu'ils n'auraient jamais peur de perdre ne serait pour eux d'aucun prix. 11 faut a ces gens-li des medecins qui les menaceut pour les flatter, et qui leur donnent chaque jour le seul plaisir dont ils soient susceptibles, celui de n'^tre pas morts." J, «/, Kousseau, 2. AVrite from memory a French version of the passage read out. 3. Translate into French — At the end of fifteen or sixteen years, however, it happened one day that the young princess, running about the castle and mounting from room to room, reached a turret, in a little gallery of which she saw a good old woman. " Wha^ are you doing there, my good woman ?" said the princess. " f am spinning ', my pretty child," replied the old woman, who did not know her. " Oh, how pretty that is ! " said the princess. "How do you do it ? What is that plaything in your left hand ? Lend it me, th»t I may try if I can do it as well." She had scarcely taken the spindle ', when she wounded her hand and fainted * away. > Spin=fi]er. ^The spindle^le fuaeau. ' Faint away=B'6vanouir. * 4. Write in the plural -.-nez. Iron, geiwu, sou, feu (noun), bal, cheval, celui, ce, lequel. Give the masculine oi—fraiche, favorite, imperatrice, causeiite, active, gentUle, jeune. 5. Give the present and past participles of avoir, coiulre, mourii; oivre ; the 3rd person singular and the 2nd person plural . • of the present indicative ol faire, vmUoir ; and of the present subjunctive of venir, punir ; the 3rd person singular of tlie future indicative of voir, aller ; the first person plural of the imperfect subjunctive of motidre, vaincre ; the infinitive of lu, mu, pu, su. ■ 6. Translate into French : — I am speaking to him. Is that your book ? Give it to me, if you please. No ! I cannot give it to you because I have promised it to her. 7. Give the adverbs corresponding to the adjectives ban, petit, mauvais, with the comparatives of both the adjectives and adverbs. Write in French words :— William the First, Edward the Seventh, 26th June, 1902. 8. Translate into French : — I live in Scotland. There are fewer inhabitants in all Scotland than in London. The room in which I am sitting is forty feet long by thirty wide. My eldest brother is a foot taller than I. It rains more in spring than in winter. Arithmetic. 1902. — Lower Grade. Time — IJ hour. All the work must be shown, and such explanation added as is required to indicate the methods adopted. Additional marks will be given for neatness, arrangement, and style. 1. Multiply 54098 by 6709, and give the meaning of each line of your work. 2. Amongst how many persons can £249 be divided, if each receive £3 ISs. 2id, and how much will remain over? 3. A piece of material weiging 50 kilogrammes costs £8 6s. 8d. : What is the value of a portion which weighs 6 kilogrammes 350 grammes ? 4. If a dollar be worth 4s. 2d., and a rupee 1b, S^d., how many rupees are 186 dollars worth ? 5. Simplify — (1)5-^ 6"''l0 -ii-i) 1521531 (2) 4148925 6. In the following piece of work, state what is done in each step, showing the reason for it : — i0''"l5^6~30"''30"*'30~30~5~ 5 7. If "087 of a ton cost £471, find the value of 3'4 cwt., expressing the answer in pounds, shillings, and pence to the nearest penny. 8. A debtor owes his three creditors £1,200, £900, and £300 respectively ; if his assets be £850, what would each creditor receive ? 9. If a cistern measure 3 '75 metres in length, 2-6 metres in breadth, '92 metres in height, find how many litres fi will hold ; a litre being a cubic decimetre. 10. Five per cent, of an army are killed in battle, and fifteen per cent, of the survivors die of wounds and disease, leaving 18,088 men alive : What was the original number of men in the army ? ' Algebra. 1902. — ^LowEB Grade. Time — IJ hour. All the work must be shown, and such explanation added as is required to indicate the methods adopted. Additional marks will be given for neatness, arrangement, and style. 1. If = 1,6 = 2, c=3, d = 0, find the value of— a) a{b-c) + b(c-d)-e(d-a)-d{a-b); (2) v/(6 + c)»-(o + 6)»- v/(a + 6) (c-ri). 2. State and prove the rule of signs in multiplication. Simplify (p-g) {r-8)-{p-r) {g-s) + (p-s) {q-r). 3. Divide a^-56r+16by z'-4ar + l, and verify the result when ar is made equal to 10. 120 4. Simplify — (1) (2) 5, Resolre into factor*— x-^ + l' X I f 1 _J_- • a b a+ b c 11 _I_^ 1 a c a- c b (1) a» + o-110; (2) 4x(j:-1)-3; (3) x' + ax + 2ay-4,y*. 6. Solve the equations^ (1) [x-l)(x + l) = {z-3)(x + l2); (2) a(x-b)-b(a + b)=a(a-c)-b{x + c); (3) (a:-23) (a; + 23)=(a;-22) (x + 22) - (u - 2) (x + 2). 7. Find the highest common factor of 2x* + x* - 4a; - 3 and 2x' + x' - 9 ; and determine the value of x which will make both expressions eqaal to zero. 8. A man buys § of an estate at £12 per acre, and the remainder at £20 per acre, and, by selling the whole at £18 per aore, he makes a pro6t of £500 ; find the size of the estate. 9. A can do a piece of work in m hours, B can do the same in n hours. If A work for p hours, how long will B take to finish the work ? 10. Solve the equations — ">{\ Jx-Jy=l, .ix + Jy=2; (2) x* + {a + c) x + 2<»c=2a« ; (3) \'x + l ^x-2 2 verifying your answers in each case. Gteometrj. 1902. — LowBR Grade. Time— 2 Hours. All ordinary symbols and contractions are allowed. All the steps of the proofs must be given, and the previous propositions kc., on which they depend, should be indicated. It is not necessary to write out the general enunciations of propositions, but the particular enunciations should be written out, except when they are given as part of the question. Additional marks will be given for neatness, good style, and accurately drawn figures. 1. Bisect a given straight line. I wish to bisect PQ, but the hinge of my compasses has become fixed so that the distances between the points is less than half but more than a quarter of PQ ; find a construction by which I can bisect PQ. 2. Prove that the greater angle of every triangle has the greater side opposite to it. LMN is an isosceles triangle, L being the vertex ; if P be a point in MN, prove that LP is less than LM. 3. Prove that the sum of the interior angles of any rectilineal figure is equal to twice as many right angles as the figure has sides, dimished by four right angles. ABOia an equilateral triangle in which AD is drawn perpendicular to BC meeting it in i> ; if DA be produced to E, show that .8.i4^ is equal to the angle of an equiangular polygon of twelve sides. 4. Describe a parallelogram which shall be equal to a given triangle, and have one of its angles equal to a given angle. Descrilw a parallelogram which shall be equal to a ^ven triangle, and have one of its sides equal to naif the base of the triangle, and another side equal to a given straight line. Explain whether this is always possible. 5. If a straight line be divided into any two parts, prove that the square on the whole line, together with the square on one part, is equal to twice the rectangle contained by the whole line and that part, together with the square on the other part. Show that this proposition corresponds to a well-known algebraical formula. 6. Prove that if two circles meet in a point on one side of the straight line joining their centres, they will also meet in a second point on the other side of the line, but in no other point. 7. Prove that the angle at the centre of a circle is double the angle at the circumference which stands on the same arc. 8 Upon a given straight line describe a segment of a circle containing an angle of half a right angle. Arithmetic. 1902.— HioHEB Gbadb. Time — IJ Hours. All the work must be shown, and such explanation aulded as is required to indicate the methods adopted. Additional marks will be given for neatness, arrangement, and style. 1. Find the value of a cubic foot of gold which weighs 1,210 lb. avoirdupois, if a sovereign be worth 113 grains of pure gold, and 1 lb. avoirdupois contain 7,000 grains. 2. A train 156 ft. long is going at a speed of 60 miles per hour, how long will it take to cross completely a bridge 295 ft. long ? 3. Simplify- (1) 2+1 1 -T" -5 + 1 3"i + i ^^> \/^x>/l-331 . ' . — J v/ •0484X v^ 027 (3) -0011 cubic metre .«- '11 decimetre + 11 cubic centimetres. 121 4. Define the present worth of a sum due at a future date, snd eipUin thp difference betw«*n true discount »nd banker's discount. Find the difference between the true discount and the banker's discount on £520 due a year hence at 4 per cent. 5. Multiply 47-23956 by 18-7878, using the contracted method so as to obtain the result correct to 2 decimal placet without superfluous work. 6. Find the cost of excavating a cutting 1 mile long, 13i feet broad, and 4 feet deep, at the rate of 6d. per cubic yard for the first foot in depth, the rate increasing Id. per cubic yard for each foot in depth. 7. A man sells £10,000 in a 2j per cent, stock at 9S, and buys £8,500 in a 4 per cent, stock at 106 (brokerage included in each price). If he deposit the rest of the money in the bank at 2J per cent., find the change in his income. 8. If the pressure of air in a diving-bell be 68 lb. 1 oz. on a square inch, express that pressure in grammes on a square centimetre, taking an inch as 2^ centimetres, and 10 lb. as 4fj kilogrammes 9. A certain sum of money at a certain rate of compound int«reat amounts in 3 years to £703 ^W, and in- 4 years t» £731 '1616 ; find the rate and the sum. Algebra. 1902. — HlQHIB GRiLDE. Time — IJ Hours. All the work must be shown, and such explanation added as is required to indicate the methods adopted. Additional marks will be given for neatness, arrangement, and style. 1. Expand {l+x + x^ + x*)*. Prove the identity — (6 + c - o)» (* - c) + (c + o - 6)» (c - o) + (o + 6 - c)' (« - *) + 4(6 - e) (e - a) (a - b) =0. 2. Prove that o*" x a" = o"> + », when m and » are positive integers. Explain how this theorem is used to obtain a meaning for a negative power of a number as, for example a:—*. 3. Solve the equations : — x'-x+l ^ x'-x-l . *^' x» + 2i; + 5 " a:' + 2a: + 3' (3) (x + 2 = y + 2 {a-b)' + ahxy = 0. 4. If y = a; - 1, and x* + 2a:' + 3x-l- 4= .4 y»-l- By' + Cy + Z) for all values of i, find the values of .4 , B, C, D. 5. Prove that a quadratic equation cannot have more than two difiFerent roots. If o, /3 the roots of a;' - ;)a; + 3 - 0, and 2a - 3, 2/8 - o be the roots of a:' - p'x + 9'— 0; azpren p', q' in terms of p, q. 6. Solve the equations : — (1) a:» + a;+42— 8; a;' + a; ' (2) ( x^ - xyS, l5a:y + 4y'-19. 7. When are quantities in harmonic progression ? Find two numbers whose geometric and harmonic means are 5 and 3 respectively. „ .,bt/ + cx ct + ax ax + by x y z 8. If -Ti — b =-= -i h » ^» — I? . prove that -=-■; = - 6' + c' c*-^a} o' + fe-'*^ a b c 9. Lengths of three carpets at 3s. 6d. , 3s. 9d. , and 4s. 6d. per yard were ordered, the sum of the lenghts being 114 yards, and the total cost £22. By mistake the lengths were altered in rotation so that the length cut of the first carpet was that ordered for the second, of the Second that ordered for the third, and of the third that ordered for the first. If the total cost be now the same as before, find how many yards of each carpet were ordered. , . Geometry. 1902.— HlOHKR CrKilDB. Time — 2 Hours. All ordinary symbols and contractions are allowed. All the steps of the proofs must be given, and the previous propositions, Ac, on which they depend, should be indicated. It is not necessary to write out the general enunciations of propositions, but the particular enunciations should be written out except when they are given as part of the question. Additional marks will be given for neatness, good style, and accurately drawn figures. 1. Define a right angle, parallel straight lines, a rectangle, a square. If the square described on one side of a triangle be equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides, prove that the angle contained by these sides is a right angle. If the square described on one side of a triangle be greater than the square described on the other two sides, prove that the angle contained by these sides is greater than a right angle. 2. If a straight line be divided equally and unequally, prove that the sum of the squares on the unequal parts is equal to twice the square on half the line together with twice the square on the line between the points of section. A straight line 46 inches long is divided into two parts, the sum of the squares on which is 1,220 square inches, use the preceding theorem to find the length of each part. 3. If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral be supplementary, prove that a circle can be described through its vertices. Two chords of a circle intersect at right angles, and a quadrilateral is formed by drawing tangents at the extremities of the chords ; prove that a circle can be described through its vertices. 4. Inscribe a pentagon in a given circle. A star is formed by producing the alternate sides of a regular pentagon, prove that the points of the star form a regular pentagon. Show also that the side of the larger pentagon is equal to the sum of a side and a diagonal of the smaller pentagon. 6. Equal triangles, which have one angle of the one equal to one angle of the other, have their sides about the equal angles reciprocally proportional. A BOD is a trapezium in which ^5 is parallel to and greater than DC, BD meets AG va E, and Z'i'' is drawn from D parallel to CB, meeting AC m F ; prove that EF is a third proportional to EA and EC. 0* 15— Q 122 6. If from any angle of a triangle a straight lin* be drawn perpendicular to the base, prove that the rectangle contained by the sides of the triangle is equal to the rectangle contained by the perpendicular and the diameter of the circle described about the triangle. 7. If three planes meet each other, prove from first principles that the lines of intersection are either concurrent or parallel. 8. ABCD is a tetrahedron, each of whose edges touches a given sphere without being produced, prove that AB + CD=AC+BD=AD + BC. Elementary Trigonometry and Logarithms. 1902.— Higher Grade. Time — li Hours. All ordinary symbol* and contractions ar* Allowed. Additional marks will b* given for neatness, ^od styl«, and accurately drawn figures. 1. Explain the relation between the circular measure of angle and its measure in degrees. The diameter of the moon subtends an angle of 31 minutes at the surface of the earth ; taking the distance of the moon as 238,941 miles, and a radian as 57° 18', find the length of the diameter of the moon. 2. Give a geometrical proof, applicable to all cases, of the formula cos {A +90)= - sin A . Write down the corresponding formula for sin [A +90°), and deduce the values of cos {A + 180°), sin {A + 180'). 3. ProT* the identities — (1) sin A +sm B=2 sm — ^ .cos — % — ; (2) sin 3^ ==4 sin A sin {60'+ A) sin (GO'- A). 4. Obtain an expression including all angles which have the same cosine as a given angle. Write down the expressions for all angles which have (a) the same sine, (b) the same tangent as a given angle. Find all the solutions of the equation sin' 6 cos 8= sin S cos' 9. 5. li A, B, Che the angles of a triangle, prove (1) cos A +C08 B cos <7=8in B sin C. (2) tan .i4 +tan B + tan (7= tan A tan B tan C. 6. Explain how a table of logarithms may be employed to save labour (1) in multiplication, (2) in extraction of roots. Make a double use of your table of logarithms to find x, when ( 1 •045)* = 1 '5. 7. In the triangle ABC, A =40^ 25', a=8i, 6=75. Show that in this case B has only one possible value, and find that value. 8. The base of a circular tower subtends an angle 2o at a point A in its plane ; at a point B in the same plane but 100 feet nearer the tower, the angle subtended is 2$ ; obtain an expression for the radius of the tower in terms of sin a and sin P, and calculate its value when sin a= •!, sin fl= 'ISC. Algebra. . 1902. — Honours Grade. Time — H Hours. All the work must be shown, and such explanation added as is required to indicate the methods adopted. Additional marks will be given for neatness, arrangement, and style. Candidates may try six t|ue8ti0ns, namely, !Nos. 1, 2, 3, and one of the alternatives in each of Nos. 4, 5, 6. 1. Prove that if two rational integral functions of x of the nth degree be equal for more than n values of x, they will be equal for all values of x. By applying this theorem, resolve into partial fractions xi'+px + q 4a. If (r-a) (x-6) {x-e) 2. Find the numb*r of selection* of n things taken r together. If C be this number, prove from first principles that (2) Ci + Ct+ .. + 0^*2* -1. 3. Prove the Binomial Theorem for a positive integral index. If (l+a:)''=a +a, a; + 02a:'+ .. +a^a:", \2n provis that o.' + <»i'+ . . +a '= • Show that if »=mr- 1, ct^=(OT- l)o^_j. Alternative Qntttiimi, a{y + z)=r, b{z + te)=y, c(x + y) = z, prove that (1) 2abc + bc + ca + ab=l, (2) a;' y' ^ »' * ' o(l-6c) b{\-ca) c(l-aft) If P (g+r-p) _ q(r+p-q) ^ r {p + g-r) I TO n ' prove that I {m+n-l ^ TO {n + l-m) _ n {l + m-n) P " 9 r or 46. Solve the equations : (2) 1 (i«« + 4j^)=(a: + j/)' + y'=29 ; (3) {b-e)(x-ay + {c-a){x-b)^ + (a-b)(x-ey-0. 6«. 123 : 5a. li f(x) denote prove that J {x) is convergent for all values of a;. Prove that when x and y are real quantities/ (a;) x /{y)=f{x + y), and deduce that/(a:) = |/(l)J*, or 56. Define the arithmetic mean and the geometric mean of any number of positive quantities, and show that the former cannot be less than the latter. If a, 6, c be three positive unequal real quantities, prove that (1) - + - +-r> 3, coo' (2) {o + 6 + c)»-o'-6»-c'>24o6c. 6o. Prove that in any scale of notation of which the radix ia r, if the sum of the digits of an integral number be divisible by (r - 1), the number itself is so divisible. A number is formed in the scale of r by beginning with unity, and writing down the first n digits in order. The number is multiplied by r - 2 and n is added. Prove that the result is the numb«r obtained by writing the last n digits beginning with the last. or Cb. Show that the expression «„ — «(»+ 1) (n + 2) can be thrown into the form/(n)-/(»- 1), and the expression an' + 1»' + cn + d can be similarly expressed. Hence find the sum of n terms of the series whgse rth term in 4r' + 3r^ + r. Geometry. 1902.— HONO0B8 Uradb. Time— 2 Hours. All ordinary symbols and constructions are allowed. All the steps of the proofs must be given, and the previous propositions, &c. , on which they depend, should be indicated. Additional marks will be given for neatness, good style, and accurately drawn figures. Candidates may attempt seven questions — namely, Nos. 1,2, 3, 4, and one of the alternatives in each of Nos. 5, 6, 7. 1. If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral be supplementary, a circle can be described through its vertices. Two circles have a common chord AB, a,ni a double chord CBD ; two other chords CF, DE intersect in O ; prove that A, E, Q, F are concyclic points. 2. ABO is a triangle whose base BC is divided into D, so that mBD=nDC; show that mAB' + nAC^ = (m + n)AD.AH, where H is the point in which AD meets the circumscribing circle. Deduce that, when Z> is the mid point of BC, AB^ + AC-2 {AD^ + BD''). 3. The sides about the equal angles of equiangular triangles are proportional, those sides being homologous which are opposite to equal angles. BO, BD are two intersecting straight lines, and .<4 is a point in this plane, such that the angle ABO is less than the angle CBD ; find two points in BC equally distant from A and BD, 4. Define a Harmonic Range, and show that if C and D are harmonic conjugates with respect to A and B, then A and B are harmonic conjugates with respect to and D. A circle is described touching a straight line AP ia C, and having its diameter a harmonic mean between AC and CB ; prove that it touches the circle on AB as diameter. Alternative Quettioiu. 5a. Construct a triangle having given the centre of the circumscribing circle, the centre of the nine-point circle, »nd the mid point of one of the sides. or 5b. Explain the principle of inversion, and prove that the inverse of a circle is, in general, a circle. Prove that a system of non-intersecting coaxal circles inverts into a system of concentric circles when either of the limiting points of the coaxal system is taken as the centre of inversion. 6a. If any transversal meet the sides BC, CA, AB oi a triangle in D, E, F respectively, then AF. BD. CE=BF. CD . AE. Prove that the tangents drawn to a circle at the vertices of an inscribed triangle meet the opposite sides of the triangle in three coUiuear points. or 6b. Explain what is meant by the resultant, oi sum, of two directed straight lines AB, AC; and show that in this sense the resultant of any number of directed straight lines is independent of the order in which they are taken. 7a. Define the polar of a given point with regard to a given circle. X is a point with a circle, and AB iB drawn from A perpendicular to the polar of A, meeting it in iS; if PAQ be any chord through A show that PB:BQ==PA:AQ. or "lb. ABCD is a tetrahedron in which AB is at right angles to OD, and AG ia at right angles to BD ; prove that AD is at right angles to BC. Show that if each edge of a tetrahedron be at right angles to the opposite edge, the mid points of all the edges will lie on a sphere. 124 PROVANSIDE SCHOOL, CLASGOW.-WEST ELEVATION. 10 » to ao (CALI OF III" 'I'll : ! . L ao 40 BO 00 70 «0 »0 100 I I I I I I I I , PROVANSIDE SCHOOL, GLASGOW-EAST ELEVATION. 10 e 10 20 80 SCALE OF llllilllll 1 J L 40 ftO 60 70 SO 80 100 I I J I I I I , 126 ' Tri^nometry and Logarithm!. 1902. — HoNOUBa Qradk. Time— IJ Hour*. All ordinary lymbola and contractions are allowed. Additional marki will be given for neatneii, good style, and accurately drawn figures. Candidates may try six questions— namely, No». 1, 2, 3, and one of the alternatires in each of Nos. 4, 5, 6. 1. Define the tangent of an angle of any magnitude. Draw the graphs corresponding to the equations y — tan x, and y — cos x, and from your diagram indicate in which quadrant the solution of the equation, tan z*=co« x, is to be found. 2. If, in a triangle ABC, the sides 6, c, and the angle A be known, and a be expressed in the form (i - c) sec *-+-'' + tan-' ±±f- 2 Un-'-?±*±iZ^,, - '. l-ab I -be l-ca I -bc-ca-ob 6a. Assuming De Moivre's theorem, prove that cos»-l- L +J? - . . ; andsin 9 = 9-,— + *i_ . . . H !i l^ + js AT it a, tangent to a circle at A ; and P is a point on the circumference, such that the ».tc AP = AT, T and P being on the same side of the radius OA. If TP meet AO produced in X, show that, when T moves up to .4, the ultimate value of ^X is 3^0. or 66. Sum the series - ' Un*!C tan 2z + — tan' 2x tan 4z + i^tan* 4a; tan 8a; + . . to n term*. 8 2* ... Prove that, if a = .?^, « cos 9 + cos (9 + o) + cos (9 + 2o)+ . . +oos (9 + B-la) = sin9 + sin(9 + o) + sin(9 + 2a)+ . . +sin(9 "-"Uj-O; and give a geometrical illnstration. CERTIFICATE OF MERIT. A certificate of merit' will be granted to any scholar over 12 years of age who, being of good character and conduct, has been duly instructed in the subjects of Article 19 A, 4, 5, and 7,' and shows thorough proficiency in the three elementary subjects of reading, writing, and arithmetic. To satisfy the conditions of this article, candidates must be able — (a) To read clearly and fluently, with good pronunciation, a passage of moderate difficulty chosen from a modem author, a periodical, or a newspaper. (b) To write, in a legible and regular handwriting, and with correct spelling, a letter, a description, or the summary of a narrative ; or to reproduce orally or in writing the substance of the passage read. (c) To understand the connection of words, clauses, and sentences in the passage read, and to have some knowledge of the composition and derivation of English words. (d) To perform arithmetical calculations', both mentally and on paper, with facility and correctness, and to show a power of applying the rules of arithmetic in a way likely to prove useful in the common affairs of life. (e) To satisfy the Inspector that they have been duly instructed in the subjects of Article 19 A, 7. ' The same pupil may not, unless in exceptional cases expressly approved by the Inspector, be preseuted for examination for the Merit Certificate more than once within six months. • Article 19 A 4 — Drill, needlework, drawing, singing. 19 A 5 — Reading, writing, arithmetic. 19 A 7 — Nature knowledge, English, geography, history. ' Candidates will be expected to have a knowledge of the four simple rules (including vulgar fractions), with their application to calculations of money, weights, and measures ; of proportion (simple and compound), and its application to interest and profit and loss ; of decimal fractions treated concretely, as, eg., in the metric system of weights and measures, and in the system of decimal coinage. A knowledge of the following English weights and measures only will be expected :— Weight (avoirdupois), length, area, capacity, time, in addition to some knowledge of the metric system. CHAPTER XIII. 126 CHAPTER XIII. The Elementary and Grammar Schools of the United States. • ' [J. W. TURNER.] Introduction. — The American system of primary instruction was investigated in the towns and cities of Washington, Philadelphia, New York, Springfield (Massachusetts), Boston, Chicago, Detroit, San Francisco. Buildinyg. — It has been said by some writers on education that America possesses the finest school buildings in the world, but, while admitting that its schools are beautifully constructed, and that the most careful attention has been given to all hygienic conditions — lighting, heating, ventilation, sanitary con- veniences — they are not equal, either from the architectural or hygienic standpoint, to the schools of Switzerland. The schools generally are fine brick stfttctures usually of several stories, the lower rooms being used by the younger children and the upper by the older pupils. In the design of the buildings there appears to be no fixed plan of construction. Each State has its own system of education, and its own ideas of school architecture, but even in the same State and city there is little uniformity in the character of the structures. The schools of San Francisco are an exception to this statement, for in that city one can see a great resemblance between one school building and another, both in external appearance and in the materials of construction. The school buildings in San Francisco are generally two stories in height, and are con- structed of wood. The Commissioner was in some of these wooden buildings during the coldest and wettest months, and found them very comfortable. In one important feature of school construction the school architects of America are in complete accord, the principle of single class-rooms being universal in all large towns and cities. In no school visited was there one long room for teaching several classes, or a long room divided into teaching compartments by means of glass partitions. Each class-room is a distinct part of the building, and is constructed to hold about 50 pupils. In a few schools large rooms do exist, but not for purposes of class teaching. They are used as rooms for assembling the pupils at the commencement of school, and on such occasions as music rehearsals. In one of the finest schools in New York City the top floor is one great room, provided with movable gymnastic appliances, and large enough to permit of the winter game of basket ball which among American children is played indoors when the weather makes it impracticable as an outdoor pastime. Playground accommodation in the majority of the large city schools is exceedingly limited, and very few of the schools are provided with a room for gymnastic exercises. A stranger in America has very little difliculty in determining the position of a. public school. In many of the towns the national flag flies from the highest pinnacle on the school building. Furniture and Hygiene. — The long desk, in no sense hygienic, has been abolished and the class- rooms are supplied with the single or dual desk. The size of the class-room permits of an arrangement of the desks by which the teacher is able to give considerable individual attention. A dado or wainscoting surrounds the walls to a height of about four feet, and above that the rest of the wall is usually coloured with a grey or light brown tint. In some schools the tint on the walls is a cheerful red, and the window blinds are of the same colour ; in other schools the window blinds are light green in colour. The hats and cloaks are never kept in the living rooms, provision being made for them in lobbies conveniently placed outside. The best arrangements for the care of pupils' articles of clothing are seen in the Swiss schools, where cabinets specially constructed in roomy corridors are provided for the purpose. In America the walls are panelled in part with rectangular slabs of slate which are used as black- boards. In the best equipped schools in Europe, ground glass, which takes a splendid surface for coloured chalks, is much preferred to the ordinary blackboard. Medical inspection in America is very frequent in the large city schools. The medical officer seen examining the junior classes gives much attention to the teeth and eyes, and makes minute inspection of the pupils' throats. In many of the class-rooms are small libraries containing a few choice books of biography and adventure, which the pupils are privileged to read if they finish their work before the time allowed by the teacher. Small but serviceable museums, the work often of the pupils, are common in the schools, and the evidences of Nature study are numerous. School maps and diagrams are not seen to any great extent, but the walls are frequently beautified with first-class pictures. Several American publishing firms in the chief cities — for example. The Prang Educational Company, Elson & Co., make a special business of preparing pictures of the most valuable kind for school purposes, at the most reasonable rates. The Prang Educational Co., whose rooms in Chicago were visited, says, in one of its prospectuses, " The public-school-room is fast being transformed. Pictures, casts, and 127 WASHINGTON SCHOOL, SOUTH EVANSTON. A unique and beautiful eight-room School. Opened February, 1901. Basement Pla5. 128 FiMi Floor Pla». 3e:cond Secoitd Floor Plak. 129 inexpensive ceramics placed against a pleasing background of colour are making it not only attractive and home-like, but are contributing a potent culture element which has heretofore been lacking. Of these art objects pictures are undoubtedly the most important, especially pictures by the masters which are suitable in subject, and which have been reproduced by some art process which insures permanency of colour or tone, preserves the essential qualities of the originals, and which renders the pictures relatively inex- pensive." The list of pictures which the Prang Co. supplies includes : — (a) Rejiroductions in facsimile of finest carbon photographs. — Print about 20 x 26 inches— cost in America, one dollar. Among the prints are such subjects as the Arch of Constantino, tlie Egyptian Pyramids, Fighting Temeraire, Sistine Madonna, St. Mark's, Venice. (h) Carbon Aristos (size about 12 x 17 inches). — Such subjects as Christ before Doctors (Hoffman), and the Old Mill (lluysdael) — cost, 2 dollars. (c) Carbon Prints (liaving the effect of carbon photographs). — Print, about 18 x 26 inches — cost in America, five dollars. Among the subjects are Aurora (Guido Reni), Angel Heads, (Josliua Reynolds), Notre Dame, Paris, Venus de Milo. ((/) Flatinoyraphs. — Print about 15 x 24 inches. — cost, 2J to 5 dollars. (e) Flatino Prints (having the effect of the platinum photographs). — Size about 12 x 17 inches— cost, one dollar and a quarter. Among the subjects are — Holy Night (Correggio), Infant Jesus and St. John (Rubens), Madonna and Child (Murillo), Rembrandt's Mother (Rembrandt), Holy Family (Van Dyck). (/) Large Platino Prints. — Size about 18 x 22 inches — cost, 3 dollars, Among the subjects are- Ploughing (Rosa Bonheur), Reading from Homer (Alma Tadema), Sir Galahad (Watts), Wolf Dog (Potter). Discipline. — Tlie lady teacher predominates in America, sometimes in charge of the scliool, but more frequently in the capacity of a.ssistant. Wherever she was seen she was doing her work (juietly and effectively. In New York she is paid additional salary if the class under her charge contains 40 per cent, or over of boys. (It must be borne in mind that co-education in America is very general.) The reason for the extra emolument is said to be that lady teachers are subjected to a greater physical and mental strain in the management of boys. This belief is not general, and indeed the inference tliat boys give more trouble in tbe class than girls is scarcely correct. The Commissioner inspected many schools in which boys and girls were taught together, but saw no indication of the boys being more difficult to manage than the girls. In fact the general behaviour and attention of the boys created quite a favourable impression. Still, there must be something in the practice of New York, for on the attention of one headmaster being called to the splendid work one of his lady assistants was doing, he replied that the class was wearing her out. The class was composed of boys, everyone of whom, if appearances count, loved his teacher. They had won the badge for drill under her command, and they held the flag for greatest regularity and punctuality of attendance in the whole school. It would seem that the activities of boy life make great demands on the energies of the woman teacher devoted to her calling. Corporal punishment is not unknown in the American schools, even where a lady is tlic principal, but it is judiciou.sly applied. In a school of 600 pupils, ranging from 7 to 10 or 11 years of age, the mistress in cliarge stated that her corporal punishment amounted to about six cases in a month. In a Grammar School, in which boys and girls attend to the age of 14 years, the lady in charge resorted to corpoi-al punishment in extreme cases only, and the state of her school at the time of inspection showed evidences of good training. The discipline in American schools is a very .satisfactory feature of the school work. It is not difficult to obtain becau.se the pupils are naturally obedient and earnest. A gofKl test of obedience was given during one of the weekly practices in " Fire Drill " by pupils in one of the New York schools, at the afternoon dismissal. The school is a three-story building without a playground, in the midst of a densely populated area, with houses abutting on each side. The school fire 1)011 rang, and in three minutes 1,.500 children had filed out orderly through the two wide portals on opposite sides of the building, on to the adjacent footpaths. There was no dismissal with military precision such as may be seen at four o'clock near any State School in New South Wales, but the children moved along quietly and promptly till they reached the cross streets, where those who had to pass over did so under the supervision of a policeman stationed there. Morals and Manners. — The Commissioner was called upon some 10 or 12 years back to reply in his official capacity to a statement that the Americans were in advance of the people of New South. Wales in the pride they took in the public institutions provided for their benefit. It was further stated that it was unnecessary to enclose flower' beds in the public gardens of America or to provide rangers to look after them, and that neither children nor adults interfered with the flowers and plants placed therein for the pleasure of the citizens. The statements are largely true, but the Americans themselves would be glad if they wore more generally so. The bad habit of scribbling on walls, which unhappily is far too common in New South Wales, is very rare, if not entirely absent in Americai The gardens and parks intended for the benefit of all are frequently unenclosed, and the plants and flowers are not intei-fered with. Our pupils, we have to admit, are too often cautioned for the offence of plucking flowers intended to delight and gratify the public. The Commissioner is of opinion that America's high standard in this respect is due to a healthy public opinion in the first place, and in the second place to the special character of the moral teaching which is emphasised by the school authorities in all the States. The Board of Education for the State of California, in the 1900 report, says, in its instructions to teachers — "Good manners are intimately connected with good morals, and teachers should improve every opportunity to teach civility and courtesy. In the primary schools teachers should give particular instruction in the common rules of politeness. The nianners of children in their intercourse with schoolmates should receive constant attention. No teachers can expect to make their pupils more civil or more courteous than they show themselves to be. In dress and manner they must be what they would have their pupils become." Among its golden rules the Board includes the following : — " Strive to cultivate a spirit of true Doliteness in all your dealings and associations with youth. Remember that children cannot be properly educated until they catcli the charm that makes the gentleman or the lady Take every opportunity of moral 15— li 130 moral training. Consider that it is better to make children good than clever. Let your intercourse with children be regulated with love. Remember that our Blessed Lord loved little children and ' took them in His arms and blessed them.' " The splendid buildings of the High School, Springfield, Massachusetts, have been erected about seven years, and although the school is attended by hundreds of pupils, boys and girls, daily, and occupied by scores of youths in Continuation Classes held in the evening, there is not a cut in any part of the woodwork, nor a scratch on the walls. The public men of Springfield work for the good of their various public institutions, the citizens are with their public men, the School Superintendent is universally respected, and his teachers support him thoroughly. Education there is on a high plane, and the pupils witli such examples before them catch the spirit of the place. The school teacher is a groat factor making for moral development in the progressive town of Springfield. The attention of the headmaster was directed to the excellent state of preservation in which the buildings were seen. He proudly referred to the moral tone existing in the school, and to the healthy public opinion of the citizens, as an explanation of such a result. The children's method of treating visitors is very pleasing. The question of how children should act towards a visitor when he comes into a school-room has often been considered by the Com- missioner. There is no special instruction from the Chief Inspector of New South Wales on this point and so each teacher adopts the method lie thinks best. Some of our teachers prefer to receive visitors without the participation of their pupils, performing the necessary courtesies themselves. They probably elect to act in this manner because frequent visits mean too great interruption of the regular class duties. Other teachers allow their pupils to give a formal reception by standing up on a word of command. In some schools on the Continent the salutation is given on the signal of a lad who is placed in a good position in his class-room to note tlie arrival of a visitor. In America the .salutation is spontaneous. The pupils stand on the entrance of the visitor, and if he is accompanied by the headmaster or some well-known otKcial a pleasant " Good morning, Mr. " greets the ears of the official. The official invariably introduces the visitor by name to the class, and without any further hint another hearty salutation is expres.sed : ''Good morning, Mr. ." The American teacher is deserving of great credit for the training he gives his pupils in politenes.s. Closely interwoven with the splendid ideals of moral teaching is the sentiment of patriotism which is systematically cultivated in every school. Americans have been credited with carrying instruction in this subject too far, but nothing seen by the Commissioner in any one of the many schools visited points to this conclusion. Every class-room is supplied with a miniature national flag, which is saluted occasionally. Once a week in most of the States the salute is accompanied by the pledge : " I pledge allegiance to my flag and to the Republic for which it stands — one people, one language, one flag." Civil Government, which is included with History, is part of the instruction given in the elementary schools of America, and in the lessons on that subject the significance of the flag and the pledge is made clear to the pupils. The ceremony of saluting the flag and repeating the pledge was witnessed in the Eastern States, the Western States, and the States on the Pacific Slope, and in every instance the action and the utterance were most impressive. The American school boy is intelligent, earnest and self-reliant. In his class-room he impresses one with a thoughtfulness beyond his years. His attitude in school, both in the day and evening classes, gives the impression that he feels that he has no time to waste, that he must prepare for a future busy life, that education is a good equipment for the work of that life, and that, while good positions are to be had, competition for them is always keen. The only scriptural instruction given is that which takes place at tlie daily opening of the school, when a hymn is sung, a passage from the Bible read by the head teacher, and the Lord's Prayer recited by the whole school. Classes of ScImoIs. — The Public Schools of America are classified under three heads — Elementary, Grammar and High. Kindergarten, which includes no direct teaching in reading, writing or arithmetic, is given to pupils from 3 to 6 years of age. On completion of the sixth year the primary course commences in the Elementary School. The complete course in the primary schools consists generally of eight grades, coinciding as a rule with the ages of the pupils, starting at the age of 6. Elementary School — 6 to 10 years — Grades 1 to 4. Grammar School — 11 to 14 years — Grades 5 to 8. Curriculum. — The hours of attendance in the primary schools of America are usually from 9 to 12 in the morning, and from 1.30 to 3.30 in the afternoon on five days in the week. An account of some of the important features of the class work is given in the following pages. Reading is taught to beginners on much the same principle as seen in our own infant schools, that is, phonetically ; but, judging from pictorial representations and short sentences and words in connection with these pictures, it is clear that the blackboard is much used by the American teacher in teaching this subject. The reading lesson of one of the junior classes was listened to. On one of the slate panels there was a picture in coloured chalks of a little girl with her doll. On another panel were such sentences as — " This little girl has a doll," " The name of the girl is Daisy," " It is a pretty doll." Round the room the important words occurring in the lesson, as "little," "girl," "Daisy," "name," "pretty," were written in several places. The portion of the lesson heard was actually revision of a lesson which had just been given. With the picture still present and the sentences and words still on the board, the children were called upon in turn to read the sentences or pronounce the words. The results were entirely satisfactory. The reading lesson by this lady is always centred round some little story which she illustrates by a well executed picture. The important words used in the verbal description are retained on the board for some days, and frequently revised until they are well impressed on the mind of the child. Reading and recitation in the higher classes of the public schools are generally good. The nasal twang so commonly heard among American tourists is rarely met with in their schools. Very intelligent reading was heard in Boston, U.S.A., in an ungraded school. This class of school exists in the immigrant quarters of several large American cities, and as the children are entirely ignorant of the English language when they enter the school, very litle else is done in the first two or three years 131 years besides making them acquainted with the new tongue. Unlike the American schools generally, where co-education of the sexes obtains, this particular school is set apart for girls. There is not an American-born girl, or, as the head-master put it, a " Plymouth Rock," in the school. They are natives of Southern Europe, from Hungary, Italy, and Portugal chiefly. The reading lesson was intently watched from the lowest to the highest classes. In the lowest classes pupils from 6 to 14 years of age were bravely attempting to overcome the difficulties of the new language under the instruction of one of the kindest and most patient of teachers. These were children of the latest arri\'als. In the senior class, consisting of pupils who had gone through the eight years' course, the reading was excellent. The naturally soft pure tone, the intelligent expression, and the pleasant modulation, were combined in a charming result. A supplementary reader, usually one of the standard authors, is used in this advanced class, and the pupils are trained, as a part of the regular lesson, to stand up in their class and give a description of the scenes and personages occurring in the book read. Geography is taught with the aid of illustrated text-books which pupils use in their class. These text-books are only aids to the lesson, and do not take the place of the teacher's oral matter. The text- books seen here and in other countries give pupils, by means of the illustrations and letterpress, very good ideas of other parts of the world. There is a danger that the text-book in the hands of the perfunctory teacher, who would consider preparation unnecessary, would affect the usefulness of the lesson. Geography is closely related to Nature study, and the impressions that the pupil gains from his surroundings are his first steps towards a knowledge of the world. The following scheme is adopted in the schools of San Francisco :, — First Grade. — Observation Lessons. Position. — Placing of objects with regard to a fixed object. Measuring. — Inch, foot, yard, correlating with arithmetic. Measuring objects in school, and in space. Measuring instruments under the children's eyes. Direction, — Cardinal points. — Large arrow on the floor to show them — similar construction in the playground. Direction of buildings and places with regard to the school. Simple Talks. — About simple things on the earth — in connection with the story of Hiawatha — pupils observing and asking questions about sun, moon, and stars. Concrete Work. — Sand-board illustrations in school and playground, blocks of wood, and sand representing building &c., spoken of in lessons. Second Grade. — Observation Lessons. School-room. — Its geography. Cardinal points, (fee. Measuring. — General comparisons. Height of door, wall, width and length of school — correlating with arithmetic. City. — Ground-plan on sand-board or out in the playground of school and its precincts. Develop idea of a city, locating some well-known public buildings and suburbs. Simple talks on Land and Water. — Short simple talks on rock and soil found in neighbourhood of school. Simple talks about tram-lines and their termini, using the sand model already con- structed, about the harbour and the ferry. Boats and their termini. Robinson Crusoe and his island life explained. Concrete Work. — Modelling hills, mountains. Third Grade. Study of the Locality. — Relief map of the surrounding region — natural features — using sand — similar map on blackboard — relief shown by shading. Side by side with this map, a map of the country. Children's knowledge gained by travel on train or ferry boat utilised — routes and cities marked in coloured chalks. Conversation with pupils on points of geographical interest. Correlate History with Geography. Study of Natural Features. — This leads up to study of the principal natural features, and if pupils live in a seaport town they have many illustrations of the principal geographical types. Simple technical terms introduced. Concrete study so far. Children know chief land and ocean divisions, the effect of rain on a slope, the sources, courses, and mouths of rivers. Conversaiinns on City and Commercial Life. Differences between a city, a village, and the country. Kinds of occupation, life, and commerce in each. Interchange of products between city and countrj'. Interdependence of modern life, and how the work of each one influences the lives of many others. Building of a house as a type of the union of country products with city labour. (If practicable take the class to the building.) Exports and imports from the city or place where school is located. Parks, churches, schools, libraries, police, city hall. Pictures and Maps. — Pictures in this grade — idea of scale, very general only, as applied to drawing a map of the schoolroom. Teachers' maps, approximately accurate, drawn on blackboard, of surrounding places familiar to the children. All teaching so far oral and concrete. Fourth Grade. State elementary geography now in the hands of the pupil. Mapping on the blackboard frequent. Globe introduced to give good general ideas. Talks with pupils about climate and life in different parts of the world, races and government. Pictorial illustrations freely used in this grade. Books of travel and various series of geographical readers brought under pupils' notice. Relief maps, on a larger scale, using sand-board, coloured crayons, and the same scale, constructed in presence of pupils — children now acquainted with meteorological maps. Time of journeys of trains to nearest important places noted and marked in red chalk. Geographical scrap-books introduced. This information supplemented by a map study of (a) climate of the diflFerent parts of the State ; (b) rainfall or snowfall in different parts of 13 — S the 132 the State , (c) chief drainage systems of the State ; {d) occupations of the people ; (e) density of population. The shipping news in the daily papers explained. Topical study of the productions of the State made. Pupils' visits and experiences given in writing. Inter- change of products and interdependence of modern life emphasised. Political geography as in text-book read by teachers and pupils. Correlated with history. Up to this point nothing, except in a very general sense, outside the State in which the child resides taught. Fifth Grade. ; Fall Term. — The earth and its motions. General study of North America from the State elementary geography. Construction of a model of the continent and relief maps. Study in connection with slopes of watersheds, land-slopes, drainage basins, harbours, agri- cultural and auriferous areas, sites for manufacturing centres, interdependence between various centres, and transportation facilities, distributing centres. Location of capitals and important cities on a map. Introduction of a production map showing distribution of chief products. Conversational lessons and pupils' oral explanations of their experiences. Sup- plementary lessons from publications of the industries of the Continent. Spring Term. — State elementary geography. Reading the book and answering map questions, from the open map. General study of Grand Divisions of the earth. Map interpretation, relief maps and models. Commercial and industrial conditions as determined by the geography. Commercial interdependence with the world. Comparison of climate. Mode of life of the people, education, means of communication ; forms of government. Names and locations of a few of the principal countries, cities, and physical features of each Grand Division. The early navigators, correlating with history. Sixth Grade. The State advanced geography in the hands of the pupils. Subjects : Rotunity of the earth and proofs, early voyages, motions of the earth, latitude and longitude, continent of North America in detail, progressive outline map by each pupil, relief map by teacher, drainage, climate, political divisions, production and industry map. Conversations on transportation facilities, products, fruit regions, raising of cattle, sheep, and hogs, fishing industry, mining, lumber industry. Seventh Grade. Fall Term. — Study of Canada, Central America, West Indies, South America, Eurasia, and West Eurasia or Europe. State advanced geography. Names and locations of capitals and a few of the really important cities of each country, with points of interest. More important natural features. Important rivers and their commercial significance. The reason of agricultural and industrial conditions from a study of the map. Conditions and customs of • • the people. Geographical scrap-books for each country. Rough outline maps by each pupil. Routes of vessels. Extracts from shipping columns of daily papers. Spring 'Term. — State advanced geography : The British Isles, Soutb-Western Europe, Turkey South-Eastern Eurasia, Japan, Africa, and Oceania. Eighth Grade. Physical Geography. Work in both Geography and Nature study ; clear-cut pictures great aid in this branch. Subjects : The earth in space ; latitude and longitude ; the atmosphere ; the surface of the earth ; mountains, earthquakes, and volcanoes ; rivers, glaciers, lakes, oceans ; erosion and sedimentation ; climate ; winds, air-currents, weather maps ; rain, snow, &c. ; waves, tides, currents in the ocean ; distribution of animals and plants ; mankind on the earth. Arithmetic. — The Board of Education for the public schools of the city and county of San Francisco, California, in its courses of study in arithmetic gives its teachers some very practical suggestions. In the youngest classes " the serial and ratio idea, counting and measuring, should go hand-in-hand. Some things, as four marbles or six boys, must be counted ; other things, as the length of a leaf or the width of a board, must be measured Numerical ideas are ideas of the relations of quantities or magnitudes, and must be taught through a comparison of them. The child must be taught first the idea of greater or less, which involves addition and subtraction ; then the idea of how many times greater or less, which involves multiplication, division, and fractions ; assuming any quantity as a basis involves the principle of ratio and proportion. ... It clearly follows that numerical ideas are best developed by using objects that can be measured, and by actually measuring them. Even in counting, the fixed unit plan — that is, counting only by single things or objects — should be avoided. ... In teaching let the teacher make liberal use of objects of the same kind, having different sizes in exact relation to one another, and of actual measurings, as with the foot rule, six-inch rule, pint measure, quart measure, &c Throughout the course there should be frequent short mental drills Throughout the work, teachers should give a large number and a great variety of practical problems which will apply the principles learned. Many of these should be solved mentally. In giving such problems, care must be taken not to go beyond the common experiences of the class. The home and outdoor life of the children and city life of San Francisco offer the best of opportunities for arithmetical work. . . . Teachers should not make the mistake of trying to cover too much ground, or to solve too many problems. To secure the ability to do careful, continuous thinking should be the aim of the work. . . . Teachers should also not make the mistake of attempting too difficult problems. The basis of good arithmetical work lies in the accurate and rapid use of the four fundamental operations, both with whole numbers and fractions, and accuracy and rapidity in the use of the fundamentals can be obtained better by drill with small numbers than with large." ^ The 133 The Board lays down in very plain terms what it expects from supervisors, teachers and pupils, when five years of the course have been run. " It is to be expected that as a result of this year's work (the fifth year, pupils about the age of II), there shall be accuracy and reasonable rapidity in the four fundamental operations, as applied to small common and decimal fractions, and thinking ability, as expressed in the power to give an oral analysis of such simple problems. No difficult problems or methods of solution will be expected. What is wanted is a thorough drill on a few fundamental operations, using only such problems as pupils can handle readily." Grammar. — In teaching grammar in the Board Schools of England it was noticed that very little time was given in the daily routine to parsing, but that much attention was bestowed on composition and analysis. In the schools of the United States a great point is made, especially in the earliest stages, of using correct forms of speech. The teachers are urged to " eradicate common errors and to guard the children against the contagion of bad example." They are cautioned against putting before their pupils examples of false syntax to correct. In the liigher grades of the school the danger of too great mechanical teaching of the subject is thus referred to: — "Grammar, as the subject is usually taught, is a piece of logic, and makes little appeal, except to the mature mind, and a prolonged grind on it alone is not likely to develop either ease or accuracy in the use of one's native tongue ; while on the contrary, pupils ignorant of parts of speech, parsing or analysis, are able to use good English and give an intelligent reason for doing so, if they have good training in its use." Object Lessons, taught in connection with Nature study, are strong features of the class work in American schools. As each teacher is provided with a separate class-room in which to carry on her work she is able, with the co-operation of her pupils, to mark out a certain line of study and to obtain the neces- sary concrete examples. On entering a class-room in an American school one is struck with the brightness, the cheerfulness, of everything in the room, and it will be surprising if there is not something to show in the way of preparation, for some Nature study — e.g., a collection of twigs to teach something of the' buds ; the window garden, in which the children will take an interest in preparing the soil, planting the seeds watering them ; planting similar seeds in a wet sponge so that the development of rootlets, etc., may be watched ; collections of flowers and plants. Euclid, Algebra, and Latin are not included among the primary subjects, but a modern language is taken in some schools. Manual Training and Drawing are systematically taught. Specialisation does not take place until the Grammar School course is completed. CHAPTER XIV. The Public Schools of Toronto, Canada. [J. W. TUENEE.] Schools and School Methods. — The Public School in Church-street, Toronto, among others, was visited in company with Inspector Hughes, and the teacher's usual work was watched with considerable pleasure. The relations existing between inspector and teacher and between inspector and pupils were very pleasing. It did not take long to understand the good feeling between the former. Mutual trust was apparent. There was no assumption of authority on the one hand or sign of subordination on the other. Two friends had met, one happened to be the inspector, the other the teacher, and each respected the other's position. The spontaneous welcome given to the inspector by the 50 little ones assembled in the class room showed the relationship existing between Inspector and pupils. The visitor was introduced and received a cordial greeting too. This phase of good manners appealed to the Commissioner as a fine trait in both American and Canadian schools. Singing was the subject set down on the time-table, and the little folks, about 9 or 10 years of age, were to be exercised in intervals from Curwen's Modulator, and in voice production. The Commissioner was very much impressed with the true spiritual feeling and the great sympathy manifested by the lady teacher. Christmas was just past and as an introduction she made a loving little address to her care, stating that she had heard that Santa Claus had made them all very happy during the glad season. Holidays, she said, are occasions for happiness, and school is a place where happiness can be found. Then she asked her little ones to show their happy feelings and use the sweet voices that God had given them. And in this manner this teacher reached the hearts of her little children. What a response she received to her sweet appeal ! The singing was beautiful. The tones were pure and soft. The scale was sung to various syllables for proper voice prwluction. The intervals, which introduced the " Old Hundredth " hymn, were sung from manual signs and also from the Modulator. The whole eifect was characterised by cheerfulness, brightness, and earnestness. This young teacher, with many other women seen in American schools, had caught the true teaching spirit and reahsed some of the noblest ideals of the teacher's calling. The Commissioners are inclined to the opinion that women with these qualifications would prove valuable assistants in charge of the lower classes in our own boys' schools. Cadet 134 Cadet Corps. — One of the most interesting features of the public schools of Canada is the Cadet Corps, numbering 1700, in the city of Toronto. The lads are uniformed by private enterprise, drilled by military instructors, and commanded by the Inspector of Schools. The Cadet movement in primary schools is not known either in the United Kingdom (although some of England's military men have made public reference to the great necessity for early military training), or the United States, but seems to make fair progress in Canada and Australia. The only Cadet Corps seen on the Continent was attached to a primary school in Lucerne, Switzerland. A well-kept armoury in that school, which was inspected, contains a fine little weapon for target practice. There are good rifle ranges in the vicinity of most of the large towns in Switzerland, which are used both by the regular forces and the school boys. The Cadet system in Toronto is very popular with the citizens and military authorities, who see in it a benefit to the lads physically and morally, and a good training for the future soldiers of the Dominion. Buildings. — The Canadian schools vary in size from structures of two rooms on a ground floor to eighteen rooms in a building of three stories, and each room is separate. The schools are built of brick on a uniform plan. The architecture in the Toronto buildings is simple but attractive, and the rooms are lofty, well lighted and ventilated, and heated by means of currents of warm air ascending from the basement, where the fires are placed, through ventilating shafts between the walls of the rooms. A screen about 8 feet high is placed near the entrance end of each class-room to provide a recess for hats, cloaks, etc. This arrangement is not in accordance with hygienic conditions obtaining in the schools of Switzerland and Germany and many other parts, but the architect defended it by saying that the hats and coats did not render th i ooms unpleasant. The door of each class-room opens outward, and is so placed and hung that the teacher may engage in conversation with a parent or other person who may wish to interview him, without distracting the pupils' attention, at the same time that he can fully supervise his class. The desks are either simple or dual of the same pattern as the Canadian desks which may be seen in a few of the large schools in Sydney. Some of the desks and seats are fixed, but a wise provision is made in every room for a sufllicient number of adjustable single desks and seats in the interests of chilaren who are above or below the average physical development. Such an arrangement detiacts from the orderly appearance of a room, but this is a very small matter in comparison with the comfort and health of the pupils. The necessary conveniences for the pupils are situated in the basement. In such a severe climate as Canada experiences in the winter months there would be a positive danger to health in exposing the children from an indoor temperature of about 60° or 70° to that of an outdoor temperature of some degrees below freezing point. A fairly large portion of the playground in city schools in Canada is boarded. Flower beds are generally laid out near the fences which enclose the schools, and for a good sized space immediately round the school buildings the surface of the ground is floored with stout pine planks, ten inches in width and of uniform length, resting on cross planks. When the planks wear, which they usually do at the ends or edges, the portion worn is cut out and a new piece inserted. The school architect in Toronto is of opinion that for Canada, timber as a surface for playgrounds wears best and is safer than asphalt or gravel, while equally hygienic. He also says, that owing to the vast amount of suitable timber procurable in the country the cost of laying down this kind of floor is very small comparatively. The Newshoyg' School, Toronto. — This school is a unique institution. It is under the control of the City Inspector of Schools, and is attended by about eighty boys, most o£ whom are employed in selling newspapers. No boy is allowed to sell newspapers in the streets of Toronto without a license, and no boy of school age can obtain a license unless he attends the Newsboys' School or one of the elementary schools of the city. A lady teacher is in charge, and the curriculum is a very much modified form of the elementary school syllabus. The pupils attending are compelled to spend not less than two consecutive hours daily in the School, and are allowed the option of choosing the time for study, so as not to clash with their business arrangements outside. Heading, writing, composition, and arithmetic — practical examples helping them in their little money transactions and mental operations — receive most attention. Letter-writing is well taught. Time is also found for a little manual training in wood-work. Most of the newsboys attend in the forenoon, the shoeblacks in the afternoon. The boys, in nearly every case, help to support widowed mothers. The working of this school was carefully watched. Considerable freediim is allowed, yet nothing approaching the slightest disorder was noticed. Love is the ruling principle in the management, and earnestness, attention, and general good conduct are the results. It is no matter for surprise that the City Inspector is proud of this institution. A similar school, conducted on similar lines, is wanted in Sydney. The form of license is as follows : — - POLICE DEPARTMENT, CITY OF TORONTO. License fob Bootblacks, Vexdobs of Newspapers and Small Wares. This Liceniie is isaued to , aged , living at , subject to the conditions printed hereon. Recommended, Approved, (Signed) D. ARCHIBALD, (Signed) H. J. GRASETT, Staflf Inspector. Chief Constable, No. 110. Date. Rules and Regulations for Children engaged as Bootblacks, Vendors of Newspapers and Small Wares. 1st. No license shall be issued to any child under 8 years of age. 2nd. All applications for license shall be made at the office of the StaS luspactsr by the parent, guardian, or nearest friend, accompanied by the applicant ; and every child licensed shall attend school not less than two hours each day during the school year. 3rd. Every child so licensed shall exhibit, or cause to be produced, the license when required to do so by the police, and the same shall not be transferred, exchanged, borrowed, or lent, under the pain of the forfeiture of said license. 4th. Every license shall extend to the close of the year in which it is issued 5th. Every child so licensed may be required to reside with his parents or guardian, or in lodgings to be approved of by the Staff-Inspector, 6th. Licenses will be issued without charge ; but if the license be not forthcoming when required it will Mot be replaced except on payment of 23 cents. Time-tdblea 135 Time-tables of Higher Grade School, England; Upper Primary Schools, France; Superior Public Schools, New South Wales. Chapter XIV concludes the section of this Ecport devoted to a description of Primary School Systems, in order to allow of comparisons between ihc curricula of the schools of other countries and our own the Time-tables of tho Higher Grade School, f.eeds (England), the Upper Primary Schools of France, and of three of the Superior Schools of this I'^tate, are subjoined : — SYNOPSIS OF TIME-TABLE, HIGHER GRADE SCHOOL, LEEDS. Total Number of Hodrs per Week. Subjects of Instruction. lotala Boys. Girls. B C Physics French , Chemistry English , Shorthand Scripture Latin Mathematics' Geography History Geometry Gymnasium Art Manual Instruction Dressmaking and Cookery „ Book-keeping Butineis Methods D E i i 26 26i 27J 27 27i 27 27 27i 26i Boys. 2CJ 27i B C 3i 3i 1 3 13 I 3i ! 3i 2i 3 26 26i 26} Girls. m 28i HI. Boys. Girls. 1 li i i 261 27i 26} Boys and Girls. 271 IV. Si *i 1* 27 > MkttatmatSca includes Arithmetic, Algebra, and Euclid in let year, with Trigonometry in 2nd, 3rd, and 4th years, and Conies and Calculus tor a few in 4tb year. 136 ■S 1^ s "" _ s S ~ ~ ^ ^ "^ ~ S ~ ■* c ■* a '5. b Si> T5 F= ■* 'S. >: a 5 at i 2 1 X J3 p C d c c M 1 K 3; ^ X 0) — O :•? r? >< o; » X -; '^ 9 _ PC p < _ 1 M (3 _ 9 -_ — •1- s " _ i 9 >< 2 -J 6 «! >1 fa >1 j= ja . PL4 Ph p^ 1— 1 o ,o a "1 l-H — l-H .2 n 1 a - B CO _ ■ J5 O l-H 1 a g X >i >> O CO J3 09 a 2 3h p 2 a fa -ri — >. 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OQ & ^ [^ a 3 oc c o l'3: SHP 9 ~ N b S J3 O S c a. >•' OS 3. 8 1 o ■e <■"/ r1 ^ to C *3 5 ti4 B — ;5 _ a c: « X 1— I J3 o o - a — "bt lO n< o S 0) >■ X r. « C 1^ s 1 3h o on a o 3 i 1 s £ 9 IN n i ^ ^ so • i^ -5 > ?. f Em !»( — c p- »5 s — ■3 _ >— 1 ?= o X >< ft b o o ■fn 33 5 s p. o 4 1 o X a .gis 1 a-& 51) 02 — ~ — T — • 2 s'Si; 3 S,H& H £ o ^^ 64 .a > ^ >■ >< f^ .. — r 1 ■n "3 a o ^ h Fi a 1 1 ft 9 >> ^ > > X Q a> O o — — — — - e X "^ % :^ ^ & -w o ■■^ ^^^ (?1 1 >i 1 .1 So < S p. t i 5^ » M 9 OJ — - — - ~ - s Bi'i s y E 1|&;H f>< 133 ? 'W ^' a 5- .a a, 2 r p a ■* pi: i h-i c .2 n p. 2 O s i a ►3 9 ?! C O 5 S^ ■t « 04 >< 1 « 2h p (M -- — — - - § a 2 a '£ ^ g g ^ % s -* d a >, c .2 E 8 1 5 9 c .2 e ■*:) J J Cu 1 o a . f! § o a Cl, ^ ~"~ eo l-H S s § S 'I. W 9 cs t a JB 1 p. >< 9 (1, £ ?5 ^ 1 — C4 X — >■ ^ o -o t X q> hf) ■5 ■s t! o »-) o ® 9 S-l ni M ? 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OS bd o -J o 7 '7 T 8 O 3 ■i o a H 6 & 3 J3 t 9 — 1 00 > 1 ^ Sh i X H^ P j= 3 8 3 X _ .£. s' 2 9 _ ■s ._ 0? jr 3. 2 03 a. r CD U g ^ — a > CU W p. 2 S X 9 3 3 3 5^ !5 H Cm ■iM y > i^ > >> >> 1 -2 9 t 2 -* ft p I* bO 3 ^ :*; c y s tM P 3 1 fci:a2 d S >< a 2 1 X A tn 3 CD ?, 3 __ :^ H & H fe r" M s JS X > ftn 1 9 J= ■a 1 ■r. < g -3 y > £ u < 1 ■^ !> 0. -3 a at c g ■5 1 a ^ u s X « _ _ 0» tn B CO T3 •> 3 x ^ ^™ ^"^ •2 C F E J >^ > >, I' ri 3 *" -S S ^ ^ ^ J- T) c s c £ _ © FI4 'j^ B r? P 9 — s — (u » 2 g 1--) rr X ^ ;1h ji X X j: f! 3 &^ b ;^ p _ 0) oi 0} -2 3 •d 139 SYNOPSIS OF TIME-TABLE— TJPPJiR PEIMAKY AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS OF FRANCE, Table or Hoobs Dbvoted to iach Subject pbb Week. Minister of Public Instniction— Upper Primary Schools. Minister of Commerce — Practical Schools. Subjects of Instruction General Instruction. Agricultural Section. Commercial Section. Industrial Section. Industrial Commercial. I Tear. 11 Tear. III Year. II Year. III Year. II Year. III Year. II Year. III Year. I Tear. n Year. III Year. I Year. II Year. in Tear. Morale 1 5 1 1 5 1 1 4 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 3 3 li 4i 3 3 u 3 li Writinff History and Civic Instruction 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 li li ... li li o fl-fioeranliv ■..••> >*.*... 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 li li li 3 3 Ifodera Xancua ces 3 3 2 4 4 6 6 6 s a o CI 4 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 4i 3 r. 4i 4i 1 .3 a» Phy Bics and Chemistry 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 u 3 li 3 3 3 V g Natural History and Hygiene 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 li li ... li ... is "a Agriculture and Horticulture 1 1 1 3 3 ... ... ... ... i ^ ■^ Common Law, Political or Industrial Economy ... ... 1 1 1 1 ... ... li ... ... 4i o Drawing and Modelling 3 3 3 li li li li 4i 4i 6 6 6 H li li a Manual or Agriculture] Work 4 2 4 2 4 2 6 2 6 2 2 2 6 2 6 2 30 30 33 ... ... ... Sinffins 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Hours apportioned according to the needs of the work. 3i 2i 4i 3i 2i li ... ... ... ... Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 46i 49 i 51 i 30 31i 33 15— T 140 r STN0PSI8 OF TIME-TABLE, MODEL PUBLIC SCHOOL (BOYS), FORT-STREET, SYDNEY, NEW SOUTH WALES. SubjeotB- University Senior Examina- tion Class. Public Service Examina- tion Class. Matriculation Classes — Uuiversity Junior Exammation. 5D SC SB 5A Modem Classes — UniverBity Junior Examination. SD 50 SB 5A Latin,,,, , French* BngUsh" History' Arithmetic , Algebra Geometry < Geography ,• Trigonometry* Mechanice* Precis and Letter-writing ... Geology' , , ,. Hours per week h. m. 5 3 50 2 30 5 40 1 40 2 25 1 45 2 35 3 20 28 45 h. 2 35 4 40 4 20 3 30 3 35 2 15 3 25 2 40 3 5 2 30 3 26 28 45 h. m. 7 40 6 25 2 20 2 30 3 20 3 15 3 15 2S 45 h, m. 7 6 30 2 45 2 30 3 20 3 20 3 20 2S 45 h. m. 3 60 5 35 4 45 3 4 35 3 3 h. m. 8 45 4 15 6 3 30 4 4 15 4 6 20 2 40 2 80 8 50 4 15 4 50 8 20 28 45 23 43 23 45 h. m. h, m. 6 2 30 2 15 4 30 5 5 3 30 5 45 3 4 30 4 IS 3 30 4 15 3 30 28 45 28 45 h. 3 45 3 56 4 Q 4 86 4 10 4 10 4 10 ) 28 46 1 Ancient and Modern for Senior Class — Ensrlisli History only for other classes. 2 Includes Composition and Dictation ' Includes French Conversation, ♦ Trigonometry and Mechanics are taken in Public Service Class only by those preparing for Professional work. ' Geology is alternative to English author. UNIVERSITY SENIOR EXAMINATION CLASS— GENERAL TIME-TABLE (BOYS). Time. Monday. Tuesday. Wednesday. Thursciay. Friday. 9 to 9-55 a.m 9-55 to 10-50 a.m.... 11 to 11-45 a.m. ... 11-45 to 12-30 p.m.. Trigonometry. Latin. Algebra. French. European History, Frenoh. Roman History. Geometry. Latia. Recess for Latin. English. Recess Arithmetic. Greek History. Mechan'cj. Latin. Algebra, en minutes. European History. French, or Dinner. Mechanics. English Literature. Trigonometry. ] Latin. English; ilcchanics. French. Mechanics. Latin. Algebra. European History. 1-30 to 2 20 p.m. ... 2-20 to 3'10 p.m. ... a-10to4p.m ( Roi A 3eometry. nan Hist ry. uithmetic. French. Trigonometry. Greek History. Ul PUBLIC SERVICE EXAMINATION CLASS— GENERAL TIME-TABLE (BOYS). Time. Monday. Tuesday. Wednesday. Thursday. Friday 9to955 f Algebra. \ Trigonometry. C English ^ Composition. History. f French. \ Mechanics. Arithmetic. Geography. ( Geology. I. English. } } } Algebra. Precis Writing. Rec History. French. Rec Geometry. Geography. ( Geology. "i 3 English. (. Mechanics. .' Arithmetic. History. 1 Mechanics. J ■ CSS. Dictation. Frencli. OIB. Letter- writing. Algebra. Geology. \ English. / Algebra. History. Trigonometry. f English \ \ Composition. / Geometry. Geography. Precis-writing. { / I KenauratioD. 9-66 to 10'45 History. 11 to 11-55 Mechanics, Geography. Geometry, Arithmetic. 11'55 to 12-30 1-80 to 2 20 2-20 to 3-10 French. Trigonometry, Geology, English. 3'10to4 Trigonometry and Mechanics are taken by pupils studying for the Geology and English are altcrnatiTc subjects lor this examination. Professional DiTision. MATRIGDLATIOS CLASS VD- GENERAL TIME-TABLE (BOYS) (Same Time-lalle for VA, 3, C.) Time. Monday. Tuesday. Wednesday. Thursday. Friday. 9 to 9-55 Arithmetic. Latin. Euclid. French. English. Latin, French. Latin. Algebra. Recent toj Latin. French. Euclid, Latin. Algebra. French. History, French. Latin. Latin. 9-55 to 10-45 Arithmetic. 11 to 11-45 «n minutes- English. EngUsb. 11-45 to 12 30 1-30 to 2-20 French. Recess fc History, Euclid. Latin. Latin, r Lunch. Algebra. French. Arithmetic Euclid, French, 8-20 to 3-10 Algebra, 3-10 to 4 History, MODERN CLASS V D— GENERAL TIME-TABLE (BOYS). {Same Time-lalle for VA, B, C.) Time. Monday. Tuesday. Wednesday. Thursday. friday 9 to 9-55 English. Algebra. Geography. Arithmetic. Rec English. Algebra. Algebra. 0-56 to 10-45 Algebra. ess. Geometry. Arithmetic, 11 to 11-45 Arithmetic. French. Geometry. Algebra. Arithmetic. French Arithmetic. French. Geometry, 11-45 to 12-30 Geography. Rec CSS. 1-30 to 2-20 Geometry. Geography. History. History. Gcograph;. Geometry. 2-20 to 8-10 Geometry, Geometry. English. Hietory. 3-10 to 4 French. French, French. French. French. 142 SCOPE OF WORK FOR UNIVERSITY SENIOR CLASS. History.— European— From 1789 to present time. Ancient History of Greece from B.C. 510 to 404. Ancient History of Rome from B.C. 1.S3 to 31. English. — Structure of words and origin of language. Study of worli of specified author. Outlines of English literature. French. — Study of specified works, with composition, grammar, and translation of passages at sight. Latin. — Study of specified works, with composition, grammar, and translation of passages at sight. Arithmetic. — Whole theory and practice, including mensuration. ' Igebra. — Including the three progressions, binomial theorem for positive index, and properties and use of logarithms, Euclid.— Euclid Elements, Book I, II, III, IV, VI, XI (Problems 1 to 21) with deductions. Plane Trigonometry. — Up to solution of triangles, De Moivre's theorem, limits, and simple series. Meclianics. — Elements of statics and dynamics. Applied Mechanics. — Mechanical powers with combinations, simple mechanisms, water power and strength of beams. SUBJECTS OF STUDY OF PUBLIC SERVICE EXAMINATION CLASS, Clerical Division. Compulsory. (1) Handwriting. — As valued for neatness, simplicity, and legibility ; judged in answers to examination papers of dictation and arithmetic. (2) Dictation. (3) English. — Composition, precis-writing, and letter-writing. (4) Arithmetic. — Tlie full course, such as is usually contained in a standard treatise. (5) Geometry. — EucliA1 'E2i 3i 28i 6 U } 3 2 3J H 1 2i 3i 28} 5 n i 2i 28i 4 1 a. « 3 2i 4 2 2 3f li n li 2 2} 2 li li 1 \ 2i / li 3i H li 28} 4 1 2i 2i i 2 3i 2i 1 li 2} li li li li 28} Note.— French introduced into V A and IV B will be conlinucd next and following years in V B, V C, V D, and form one of the subjects taken for Commercial and I'ublic Serrice Examinations. Physics similarly will be an examination subject when sufficient progress has been made. ' A = Australian. ' En: English, GENERAL lU m O m % ■< la P3 H PL! l4" o o fa o m o & o Ph P > 03 I « I Hi PS c5 •c Ex > o 09 o C5 fi;^ O O ? o O ^ 4) O fi O s a go OOP O V »^ o o n •c -<1 60 a « o o •E o 3 fi w a "S o O M E S o o ^ g r-: C5 t^ ^ « ^ w a a o o o ^ ^ -< *E C5 _ ^ m 3 O CO )-i g 5 O! 05 i-< pH « a ^ i i ^ *3 00 3 ^ c ■S 3 o o

M CO o I w P5 I 1-3 4 n n > > W ■c a o ^ ^ (^ ■< iS i § §= o (3 'te s S) *8 C^ g s fi IS g «s --T O S^ g ^ £5 a -^ C 3 o ^ OS >» ^ u i-u a hn » o 3 •■^ a a, E o Q a 1 t £» ^ •^ s^ c c .2 WW '5 .5 a p o o . ^ a (1> v ■«-> tU o ■s -s t- - i a HH ;:; C5 pH O O CO o O pH -4-* rH -*J I C5 ■S g a KO So ^ a a a o /^--^ T3 JJ -^ c ing an itten te wee .2 o n S P..K O « W->1 a e ^ ^ a ;0 ^ o 5 a •w .2 a •g c 3 O a <^ c : a 'S ^ : ^ s.« tiO u "■'ta ^ en ,;r' o § s "^- a & w ^ O 1 1 M 5 '^■3 ..- -a . a c M „ 8 aS o « 5 j= n a w -< S ^ g p< a a IN r- C « O I— ' ■*» ri *J •-^ O W3 O O "^ O •* fH *- CO O "•^ O f^ N M *^ OS i-H 1-1 pH rH iH CO to o 2 N CO 15— TJ CHAPTER XV. 148 CHAPTER XV. Ethical and Religious Instruction and Education. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. The significance of morals in an educational system. — No one who has given the slightest degree of attention to the ethical aspect of education has failed to be profoundly impressed with its significance. Whether for the individual or for the State, the great question must ever be, not merely " what are the children to know," or "what technical skill are they to developc," but "in what spirit are the acquired knowledge and skill to be used in after life." Whether authorities admit that the teaching of religion is desirable or not, there is an absolute consensus of opinion that all education must be grounded in the ethical bases of our being. Integrity of character, and a courteous bearing, are things of light moment only to the thoughtless ; they are in reality among the great factors of national development. Kectitude, fortitude, courage, patience, veracity, kindliness, and politeness, are graces that no educationist dare neglect to systematically consider, and it is as much a part of prcdagogic duty to attend to these as to the purely intellectual elements of education. There can be no doubt that the exigencies of everyday-life in the school, and the routine of the daili/ school-tasks, lend themselves to an unobtrusive moral education that is none the less real because it is not didactic. There can be little doubt also that much of the most powerful moral stimulus is that which asserts itself unperceived. Doubtless too, the high ideals that tincture the mind, that give their colour to each and every effort of a teacher, are the real, or are among the most real, factors involved in the growth of character in the pupils. The tone of the master inevitably affects that of the pupil. However much may be done by maintaining a due regard to the tone and traditions of a school, it is recognised by all educationists that specific moral instruction is absolutely requisite, and it is also very widely believed that unless this is founded on a religious basis it will be inadequate. It was incumbent on the Commissioners, therefore, to at least observe the attitude of the various scholastic authorities in the countries through which they travelled to this momentous question. This attitude, as regards the religious side of the question, naturally presents different aspects, but as above stated, the conviction that an educational system must take serious account of the moral element is universal. It alone possesses the necessary unifying and controlling influence. It has been pointed out in a previous chapter, that in the infant-schools of Geneva, a large part of the instruction of children of from three to five years of age consists of simple little stories, the whole purpose of which is to awaken the moral sense of the little ones in a healthy kind of way, and to establish them in good habits. And from five to seven the conversations are designed to develope in them the feelings of affection, to arouse the conscience, and to create a love of work and of duty. What is of still greater interest ia, however, that the text of other lessons is to be drawn from these little stories, so as to "give a certain unity to the instruction," viz., through its ethical element. In some form or other it is, as far as the Commissioners could judge, universally held that the unifying principle of education should inhere in this element. It is also very significant that the great personalities in the history of pasdagogy have been men who were profoundly affected with this view. And it may be mentioned in this connection that the tremendous stimulus which is derivable from a study of this history is mainly due to the fact that their Bplendid labours were inspired by high ideals, viz., their lives and work were founded on ethical bases. What is significant for the pupil, must be significant also for the teacher. One of the most serious defects of the pupil-teacher system is that the instructor enters on his work before he has any sulficient conception of its serious nature, and before he has been made cognisant of the history, philosophy, and psychology of the world's paBdagogic effort. With any person having the natural qualification for a teacher, such knowledge completely transforms the mind, and keeps alive what is absolutely necessary, an effort which rises above perfunctoriness. Wlierg,yer the moral interest of the teacher was keen, there was unmistakable evidences of the results upon the chiUreti7'an3 this is true of every country visited by the Commissioners. Perfunctory teaching fails to embrace the highest elements and consequently all teachers must be capable of appreciating the higher view of their work. Tor pupil and teacher alike, therefore, the subject of this chapter is important. 2. Moral and religious instruction of Neto South Wales. — By the Public Instruction Act of 16th April, 1880, 43 Victoria No. 23, Section 17, it is enacted that :— " In every public school four hours during each school-day shall be devoted to secular instruction exclusively, and a •portion of each day not more than one hour shall be set apart when the children of any one religious persuasion may be instructed by the clergyman or other religious teacher of such persuasion ; but in all eases the pupils receiving such religious instruction shall be separated from the other pupils of the school. And the hour during which such religious instruction may be given shall bo fixed by mutual agreement between the Public School Board in consultation with the teacher of such school and the clergyman of the district or such other person as may be duly authorised to act in his stead, and any class-room of any public school may be used for such religious instruction by like agreement. Provided that if two or more clergymen of different persuasions desire to give religious instruction at any school, the children of each such different persuasion shall be so instructed on different days. Provided also that the religious instruction to be so given, shall in every case be the religious instruction authorised by the Church to which the clergyman or other religious teacher may belong. Provided further that in case of the non-attendance of any clergyman or religious teacher during any portion of the period agreed to be set apart for religious instruction such period shall be devoted to the ordinary secular instruction in such school." In order to cover conscientious objections to religious instruction Section 18 provides that: — " Notwithstanding anything to the contrary in the last preceding section no pupil in a public school shall be required to receive any general or special religious instruction if the parents or guardians of such pupil object to such religious instruction being given." Since r 149 Since the educational system of a State, in which there is no recognised State Church, must perforce avoid the introduction into the general curriculum of the tenets of any ^larticular denomination, the same Act enacts in Section 7 that : — "In all schools under this Act the teaching shall be strictly non-sectarian but (he words 'secular instruction ' shall be held to indmle rje^ieral reliijious teachinq as distinguished from dogmatical or polemical theology, and lessons in the history of England and in the history of Australia shall form part of the course of secular instruction." The general religious teaching in the state schools of New South Wales is placed on exactly the same footing as any other subject. So far is this true that at the customary annual inspection of the schools failure of a class to reach the departmental standard in "Scripture" would be regarded under the system of the state as evidence against the efficiency of the teacher, just as success would tell in his favour in that respect. In the junior classes, when children are unable to read, all lessons are given orally in the form of lectures, and generally cover a complete course of Old and New Testament history. In classes above the second the Irish National Board Scripture-lesson books are regularly read. The standards, pages 34 to 43, under the heading "Scripture," shew how the lessons are distributed. All teachers, irrespective of the denomination to which they belong, are required to teach these Scripture lessons, and the Commissioners are informed that in no case has any refusal to do so taken place, nor has there, so far as they are aware, ever been a complaint that the lessons have been otherwise than reverently given. It is enacted by Eegulation 109 of 30th June, 1898, "that nothing must ever be said or done by any teacher, in a pupil's hearing or presence, calculated to offned the religious views of that pupil, or of any other in the school, or of the parents of any pupil." There is no doubt that this regulation is on the whole respected. Eegulations 117 and 118 prescribe that: — 117. No pupil is to be required to receive special religious instruction if the parents or guardians of such pupil object to such religious instruction being given. 118. Where any parent or guardian objects to a pupil receiving the general religious instruction prescribed in the course of instruction, notification to this effect shall be made to the teacher in writing, who shall thereupon exempt such pupil. The Commissioners are informed that as a matter of fact notifications under Eegulation 118 are so rare that for statistical purposes they may be said to be non-existent. The outcome of such instruction is that the pupils of the state schools receive some degree of knowledge of Biblical history, and incidentally are made acquainted with the moral teaching of the Bible. With the view of obtaining a wide expression of opinion upon the question as to whether the Irish NgiiaoaU^oard Scripture lessons are advantageous in promoting the moral and intellectual education of tfie pupils in schools of the State, a circular was addressed to all school inspectors under the Department of Public Instruction requesting them to state thfir views upon the matter. A large majority of these officers declared that, in their opinion, the Scripture lessons are calculated to exercise a beneficial effect upon the pupils, both morally and intellectually. The following extracts from the report of one of the most experienced inspectors may be taken as representing the Departmental conception of the value of the lessons: — "In cases where teachers deal with the books as they would with ordinary class books, giving an intelligent exposition of the subject-matter of the lessons, testing by examination to what extent the pupils comprehend its scope and meaning, and dwelling with judicious force and impressiveness upon such points of religion and morals as these lessons inculcate, there can be no doubt whatever of the benefits accruing. I believe that, in about 50 per cent, of our schools, these lessons have been so treated." The special religious instruction by any recognised clergyman, or other teacher duly authorised by his church, may consist of religious worship and purely denominational teaching. It is, as above indicated, given during school hours ; and it has been found that where two or more clergymen of different denominations desire to give such instruction the parties concerned have been so far able to make all necessary arrangements. It is rare that a teacher of special religious instruction desires to visit more than once a week. So far as can be ascertained there seem to be no denominational difficulties arising from the provisions for special and general religious instruction. The system has for many years formed a regular part of the school routine, and there is no evidence that parents would prefer a change, at least in the direction of giving less religious teaching. In order to safeguard children of one denomination against the influence of the special tenets of any other, Eegulation 119 provides that — 119. The teacher in all schools under the superintendence of the Minister shall see that the religious books employed in the classes for special religious instruction are confined to the time and place of such instruction, and not left in the way of children whose parents may object to them. It may be observed that, according to Section 17 of the Public Instruction Act, it would appear from the first part that any clergyman might appropriate one hour every day for religious instruction in the tenets of his denomination; but the provision that when "two or more clergymen of different persuasions desire to give religious instruction .... the children of each such different persuasion shall be so instructed on different days " certainly implies some, but an indefinite, limitation of such a right. Eegulation 111 prescribes that the hour from 930 to 10-30 shall be devoted to special religious instruction, but that when no special religious teacher is present the time shall be devoted to ordinary school work. It must be admitted that the clergy of various denominations have availed themselves of this provision only to a limited extent, and, speaking generally, the religious instruction in the State of New South Wales is, so far as the State schools are concerned, largely confined to the general religious instruction above referred to. Clearly, under section 17, it would have been possible in almost all schools throughout the State for any denomination to have obtained in most cases several hours a week for the purpose of instructing pupils belonging to their denomination. Consistently with the Act, it is possible for two denominations to appropriate (on an average) one hour on two and a half days per week, or for three denominations to get one hour, on an average, on one and two-thirds days per week, and so on. Such an encroachment on the already very limited time devoted to ordinary instruction in this State, as compared to the time devoted in Europe, would be serious. Owing to the fact, however, that the religious bodies have not availed themselves of their opportunities of special religious instruction, this question has never yet arisen for practical settlement. In 160 In the instructions to teacbers, which are said to have equal force with the Eegulations under the Act, it is prescribed in No. 34 that "no sectarian or denominational publications of any kind shall be used in school, nor shall any denominational or sectarian doctrines be inculcated " ; and in Instruction No. 35, it is declared that " it shall be the duty of all teachers to impress on the minds of their pupils the principles of morality, truth, justice, and patriotism ; to teach them to avoid idleness, profanity, and falsehood ; to instruct them in the principles of a free government ; and to train them up to a true comprehension of the rights, duties, and dignity of citizenship." Undoubtedly this last direction, liberally interpreted, covers a very wide range, and is in fact as comprehensive as might be desired ; but the interpretation of the instruction is apparently left to the individual teacher, and the mode of carrying it into execution has not been systematically developed. In the absence of any developed system of lectures on these subjects during the training of teachers, this is, in the opinion of the Commissioners, unsatisfactory. In the kindergarten teaching in this State, the moral elements undoubtedly receive considerable attention, both in the State schools and in the private schools, as well as in the subsidised kindergarten, as it was very gratifying to observe, where kindergarten was seen by the Commissioners, that the moral element in the teaching had undoubtedly produced a favourable transformation in the manners of the little pupils. As previously observed, kindergarten in the State schools is not kindergarten in a European sense, but belongs rather to the transition period between the kindergarten proper and the primary school. What has been already achieved in the improvement of the manners of the little children is a splendid testimony as to the inestimable value of kindergarten teaching ; and it promises well for the future of the State if such type of teaching be extended. This is much to be desired, for one cannot fail to be struck with the amiable and polite manners, and the respect of authority, which is to be found among almost all European children. 3. Moral Edtwation in France. — As is well known, the public instruction system of France aims at being absolutely secular. The conceptions of moral education of that country might appear to stand therefore at the opposite pole to that which marks what might be called the purely religious conception of moral development ; and to that of countries which base their system upon what is known as a revealed religion. France, therefore, and its experience, must have for everyone who attempts anything like an impartial consideration of the question of moral education, special interest. The International Jury of the " Exposition Universelle Internationale " of 1900 awarded its " Grand Prix " to the primary public schools of Franco for their teaching in morals. It has already been mentioned in the chapter on kindergarten teaching that the fundamental idea of French moral education is " to fortify and to ground in the soul of the pupil for life, those essential notions of human morality which are common to every doctrine and to all civilised men, and this to be done by daily exercise.''' Thev aim at " causing to grow and at developing in every child a horror of all that is low and vile and an admiration of what is noble and generous," at giving it a "clear idea and feeling of good and evil," at "cultivating benevolent emotions," at awakening in the soul "a love of liberty and of country."- The attempt to establish the whole national education in morals on substantially an ethical foundation had its origin in the effort of the Government to vindicate itself against the charge that their supposed purely secular system led to godlessness and immorality, and was responsible for an increase in juvenile crime which was alleged to exist. M. Jules Ferry vigorously affirmed that he intended to make these schools satisfactory ethically, and when created Minister for Public Instruction in 1879, he at once appointed M. Buisson as Director of Primary Education, establishing also in the same year the normal school at Fontenay-aux-Itoses to prepare teachers for the primary normal schools for women. This he placed in the charge of M. Pecaut. Shortly after M. Ferry placed M. Marion in the Chair of Paidagogy at Sorbonne. The distinguished reputation of these three appointees as masters of ethical doctrine compelled general recognition of the earnestness of the Government. The following statistics as to the frequency of juvenile crime, though not conclusive in themselves with regard to any particular deduction as to the influence of education, or as to the effect of the introduction of purely ethical instead of religious teaching, are worthy of note. It ought to be mentioned that the State secular schools were not thoroughly organised until the year 1886, and could hardly be accounted as an efficient factor in national tendency until five or six years later at least. The report published in 1889 relating to criminal statistics gives results up to the year ISOG. These are as follows : — Year. 18C«. 1876. ISSO. 1302. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1890. 29 15 637 95 30 16 686 129 23 4 535 106 24 11 541 111 24 3 601 79 29 3 558 115 19 6 465 89 17 6 477 „ Females 72 Minors, brought before what are called " Correctional Tribunals," corresponding practically to our Police Courts, charged therefore only with minor offences, shew for the period 1892-189G also a somewhat similar decrease, as is evident from the table hereunder : — Year. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. Alales under 16 6,118 1,030 27,744 3,479 5,719 981 28,350 3,532 5,967 934 28,701 3,616 5,680 960 27,261 3,502 5,635 938 Males 16 to 21 27,044 Females 16 to 21 3,386 The total number of convictions for the years 1872-187G for criminal offences was 17,811, while for the period 1892-1896 it had fallen to 13,154. 4. ' M. Jules Ferry. ' M. L. Bourgeois. 151 4. Sclieme of Moral Instruction in Frimary Schooh in France. — The following synopsis will give a practically complete idea of the official conception of what is necessary by way of specific moral instruction in the primary schools of France : — (a) General Idea. — The moral instruction is intended to complete and ennoble the general instruction of the school. Other branches tend to develope special aptitude or to increase knowledge ; this, on the contrary, tends to develope the man himself, viz., his heart, his higher intelligence, and his conscience. Moral education, therefore, stands on a different plane from instruction in general subjects. It depends less upon precision and logical relation of the truths inculcated than upon intensity of feeling, vividness of impression, contagious ardour of conviction. It aims at evoking the will rather than the intellect ; it governs action through feeling rather than through reasoning, and seeks to establish such habits of thought, feeling, and action as will favourably tincture the whole life. (J) The Function of the Teacher. — In a democratic and secular society, it is important that all members should be early initiated by ineffaceable lessons into a sense of their dignity and of their personal responsibility. The teacher, regarded as the representative of society, must, assuming that the children have from some source at least an idea of good and evil, take this and also any conceptions they have of G-od, of a Christian or other religion, as a basis on which he is to operate. He is, as previously stated, to fortify and to enroot in their mind through daily practice those essential notions of morality common to civilised humanity. He is to do this without conflicting in any way with the ideas that they have obtained from their parents and others, making it his care that they shall derive that which, it is alleged, is most precious from the social standpoint, the precepts of a high morality. It will be seen, therefore, that his mission is subject to certain limitations, which need not be more fully specified. (c) Objects and Limits of Instruction. — It is required that the teacher shall take care that the teaching be distinguished from religious instruction, without contradicting it. He is to insist upon the > i duties which tend to unite men rather than upon the dogmas which tend to separate them ; and he should ' , aim at making the children pass through as it were an apprenticeship in moral life. If in later life they become separated through dogmatic opinion, they will at least be in agreement in having life's aim as high as possible, and in having a similar horror for what is base and vile, a similar sensitive appreciation of duty, and of aspiration after moral perfection ; they will be united in fealty to the good, the beautiful, and the true, which is a form, and one of the purest, of the religious sentiment. (d) It is required that the character and conduct of the teacher should constitute a powerful stimulus through example, realising that in moral education that which does not come from, does not go into, the heart. The teacher who recites precepts and speaks ofdu/i/ without warmth and conviction does worse than waste the time of his pupils : he does wronrj ; for a course of moral doctrine, cold, common-place, and dry neither teaohes morals nor awakens moral feeling. The simplest recital in which the child can perceive the accent of seriousness, a single sincere word, is oE higher value than any series of mechanical lessons however good. The teacher is required to carefully avoid any reflection, either by language or expression, on the religious belief's of the children ; and he must not in any way betray lack of respect or of due regard for the opinions of others. He is expected to watch in a practical and paternal manner .. the moral development of the scholars with the same solicitude which he should liave for their progress \V in general instruction, regarding himself responsible as much for the education of their characters as for that of their intellects. At this price alone will, it is said, the teacher have merited the title of educator, and elementary instruction deserve the name of liberal education. The detailed programme is developed as follows: — Infant-section, aqe 5-7 years. — Simple little conversations, entering into all the class-exercises and the recreation. Simple poems, explained and learnt by heart ; stories and songs. It may be mentioned that the greatest care is taken in the selection of the poems and songs. Special care is also to be taken by the teacher in regard to children shewing any particular defect in character or a vicious tendency. Primary-section, aye 7-^ years. — Familiar conversation, and reading containing examples, precepts and allegory. Practical exercises tending to develope moral activity in class — 1. By observation of individual character, gentle correction of faults, development of good qualities. 2. By intelligent appreciation of school discipline as a means of education. 3. By appealing to the feelings and moral judgment of the child. 4. By correction of vulgar notions, prejudices, and superstitions. 5. By instruction drawn from facts observed by the pupils themselves. Intermediate-section, aye Q-\\ years. — Familiar conversation; illustrative examples with comment; practical exercises as in preceding section more develo^jed as to method and precision. The following conception of duty is developed methodically : — I. (n) Child in family — duty toward parents and grand-parents; obedience; respect, love, recognition; aiding parents in work; tending in sickness; caring-for in old age. Duties of brothers and sisters — mutual love, watchful care of elder over younger ; effect of example. Duties towards servants — to treat them with politeness and kindness. (J) Child in school — earnestness, docility, industry, civility, duty toward teacher and toward comrades. (c) Country — grandeur and misfortunes of France ; duty toward country and society. The treatment of the conception of fatherland is very fine. The children are taught that it embraces the past, present, and future ; that to all good hearts the ' fatherland ' is very dear ; they read the hymn of Hugo : " Ceui qui pieusement sont morts pour la patrie . . . " ; and Bouchor's " Aux morts pour la patrie" ; they are taught to love France, to be ready to serve her, and to die for her if necessary ; the duties of mothers to the fatherland, and, especially their duties in time of war, are also taught. II. Duty to one's self — care of body, cleanliness, sobriety, temperance; dangers of drunkenness; value of physical culture, gymnastics. Use and care of property, economy, avoidance of debt, effects of gambling, prodigality, avarice, etc. The soul. — Veracity, sincerity, personal dignity, self-respect, modesty, recognition of one's faults ; evils of pride, vanity, coquetry, frivolity ; shamefulness of ignorance, idleness ; courage in peril, in misfortune, patience ; personal initiative ; evil of anger. Attitude to animals ; kindness ; society as protector of. Duty to neighbour ; justice, charity ; golden rule ; kindness, fraternity, tolerance, respect for others beliefs. In \( 15S In teaching these subjects, the teacher is required to assume the existence of the conscience, of the moral law, of the sense of moral obligation, and to appeal to the feelings and ideas of duty and responsi- bility ; and he is enjoined not to attempt their demonstration theoretically. III. As to God. — The nature and attributes of God are not to constitute a part of the course in morals, the instruction being limited to two points alone, viz., (a) the name of God is not to be used lightly ; (b) the conception of a first cause and of a perfect being is to be associated with sentiments of respect and profound veneration. The teacher is to make the child feel and comprehend that the duty he owes is to the laws of God as revealed to him in his conscience and understanding. Higher section ; age, 11 to 13 years. — The earlier conceptions are enlarged and expounded, and the conception of social morality is developed. The family, society, justice, the social conditions, solidarity, fraternity, development of the ideas of patriotism, the duty of the citizen, taxes, the ballot. The danger of alcoholism is ex])lained ; its slow destruction of the social sentiment by relaxing tiie will, and the sense of personal responsibility. So also is obedience to law, the necessity of military service, discipline, devotion, fidelity to flag, the wrong of fraud against the State, the moral obligation of the ballot, freedom, liberty of person, of conscience, to work, to associate, security of life and property, national sovereignty, significance of the motto, " Liberte, 6galite, and fraternite." Throughout the teacher is required to avoid anything in the nature of metaphysical discussions, but to explain clearly the difference between duty and interest, distinguishing between the two when they are likely to be confounded, so as to make the pupil realise the imperative nature of the former, and the difference between the moral and written law; the one affixing a penalty as regards violation of the prescrip- tions of society, the other imposing on us, in our inner conscience, a duty which no one obliges us to fulfil, but which, nevertheless, we cannot neglect or contravene without a sense of wrong to ourselves and to God. It ought to be said that, in interpreting these general indications as to what the moral instruction should be, mtich depends, as is always the case, on the personality of the teacher. The French, as a nation, have a very high conception of the duty of the teacher, and what teaching was seen in France was of a high character. In an article by M. P. Buisson, " L'ecolo primaire en France et sa part de responsabilite dans I'education morale du pays," the limitations of the system are recognised. Put broadly, they are that, in the case of the classes who leave the school for ever when they leave the primary school, tho moral education ceases at a time when its continuance is sorely needed. The classes who are able to send their children for a longer period naturally have some advantage, therefore, in this respect. Some idea of the real conception of French moral education, as it presents itself to its greater men, may be had from the words of M. Buisson, which may be freely rendered thus : — As the ages roll on, and society advances from the savage to the civilised state, so grows tlie moral conscience. B«speot for justice is opposed to respect for mere force, and two grand ideas, essentially human, the ideas of right and duty, illumine the darkness of the animal world Each holds himself bound by the unwritten yet no less imperative law within, the feeling of moral obligation grows ever more and more intense, more exact, severe, scrupulous, and delicately refined, until the full splendour of the ideal of moral perfection bursts upon the soul ; that ideal which, though it despair of attaining, it must evermore pursue This is exactly the position of the secular schools of France on the question of Moral Education. ... Its work ia neither religious nor philosophic, but moral and true in the fullest sense. They utter nonsense who accuse it as destitute of faith ; ... it is faith in human nature, in conscience, in the absolute validity of the moral law, faith in the gooil and true, in duty without regard to reward or punishment, in the sanction of our conscience. . . . The school takes the child . . . it does not reason about, but it fills him with the spirit of morality, and impels him to its exercise. . . . Tho secular school teaches Morals as somethiiuj to he lived ratht^r than as somefhijig to he learned, . . . something diffused in the air we breathe, the language we speak, in everything that expresses the public thought and conscience. This is the conception which holds in its power the finer minds in the French educational world ; this is the conception which is infused in the mind of the young aspirant who would become a teacher, during the time he is, as an intelligent student, systematically studying the art which afterwards he is to put into practice. It would not be just to close this comment on French moral education without bearing testimony to the zeal, kindliness, and active sympathy of the French teacher as we found him or her, and to the grace of manner in the children, which no doubt flows therefrom ; and it may at once be said that wherever the moral ideas seemed vivid, and the sympathy broad, there was the same gratifying result in the children that came under their generous influences. 5. Moral Education in Switzerland. — In the chapter on kindergarten, and in that on the Swiss Bystem of education, the outline of the moral element has been to some extent indicated. The leading idea is that previously enunciated, viz., " Never put in the child-mind any but the most exquisite things," as Fenelon so well said. Eousseau's Emile has perhaps given a certain mildness and sweetness to the Swiss ideas of discipline and moral teaching generally ; but the moral education, it is unnecessary to say, is not as with Emile, left till sixteen years have passed over the children's heads. As with the French in the kindergarten period, the children are influenced through simple little stories. In the Canton of Geneva it is declared by Art. 120 of the Eegulations for Primary Education (of the 11th September, 1900) that " the religious instruction provided by tho Constitution (for primary schools) is given exclusively by tho ecclesiastics of the two creeds," and that "it is optional." Art. 127 provides that " this instruction, and also that intended for the catechumens, must not encroach upon the hours devoted to the ordinary teaching, nor prevent the pupils from being punctual in their entry into their classes." In the adjoining Canton, Yaud, the official programme sets forth a definite programme for "Religion," and it will be observed that in passing through the seven classes the pupils obtain a comprehensive view of the important parts of biblical history. By Art. 14, Chap. II, of the Law concerning Public Instruction, dated 1889, it is enacted that " optional religious teaching, conformed to the principles of Christianity, and distinct from the other part of the obligatory programme, shall be given in each school." The teaching is to be so arranged as not in any way to interfere with pupils who do not elect to follow the course (of religious teaching). It is placed under the surveillance of the pastors of the national church. If a teacher ask to be relieved of the task of giving this instruction, the Commune, with the clergyman of the parish and the authorisation of the " Department of Public Instruction and Worship," shall take steps to provide for it. The religious instruction given to the catechumens shall encroach as little as possible upon the ordinary school hours. It will be observed that this is less peremptory than the Genevese rule. In 153 In some of the Swiss Cantons the provision for religious instruction has been made in a manner very similar in principle to that adopted by this State. What has been indicated above is fairly representative of the general attitude ; but it does not convey any realistic idea or adequate impression of the Swiss attitude to the elements of moral education. First, it must be observed that Switzerland makes sacrifices for her educational system, beside which those of this State and those of England pale into insignificance. Secondly, good education has become a species of religion with the Swiss, to the great advantage of the children of that country. Thirdly, Switzerland has seen some of the grandest examples of the personal devotion of teachers which are to be found in all history. Fourthly, the ideals of the country as to the nobility of the calling of the teacher, of the sacredness of his work, are very high. Fifthly, no one commences his or her career as a teacher without hearing much of the history of the great men who have won so much for modern ideas of education, of their nobility and self-sacrifice, and of the moral elevation which was characteristic of their every effort. All this is in the picdagogic atmosphere, so to speak, and the traditions of paedagogic historj- are therefore all favourable to high development. We translate freely some passages from Articles 10-20 of a series of rules and maxims for the use of teachers, having relation to the development of the mind, heart, and physique of the pupils. The teachers are required, besides impressing upon the children the duties of cleanliness and propriety, " to give the greatest care to their health," seeing that they are properly arranged in the school, that it is well aired, " and inviting them to take part in gymnastic games in the recreation hours." Art. 12 says : " Teach your pupils to love all that is good, beautiful, true, just, honest. Tou have not only to transmit the exact knowledge required by the school-law ; you have, before all, to make, through civil and religious education, a man, a citizen, and a Christian — a man for society, a citizen for the State, a Christian for God and the other life." Exhorting the teacher that his example should never conflict with his precepts ; that, seeing that children are imitative, tvliat he does is vastly more important tlian what he says. Art. 13 says : " Let your conduct, in every particular, be irreproachable, and worthy of your mission." And Art. 14 continues: "Be for your pupils a friend, a father ; above all, let your heart be open to the poorest, to the orphans, to the little abandoned children, and to those who are exposed to evil examples under the domestic roof. A master without heart is unworthy of the noble functions consecrated by our Divine Master Jesus Christ, who was a child to children, and who uttered these sublime words : ' Suffer little children to come unto Me.' " The importance of evenness of temjier ; of guarding oneself against the rudeness which arises from anger or bad humour ; of uniformity in the treatment of pupils ; of affability, without familiarity ; of indulgency that does not degenerate into weakness ; of severity that is never capricious ; of the necessity of calmness and dignity in the infliction of all punishments; of taking care never to merely threaten ; and of knowing how to forgive such faults as are natural to the inexperience and levity of youth, — is referred to in Art. 15. Art. 16 reads : " At all times, and particularly in the presence of the young, carefully avoid all triviality of expression, nicknames, and, still m.ore, all injurious and coarse expressions. Similarly avoid all possibilities of becoming mixed up with the discussions and quarrels which too often exist between the people and families in the midst of which you are called upon to live." The necessity of the strictest impartiality ; of never forgetting that the clear-sightedness of little children let slip no case of partiality or injustice, with its tendency to develope jealousy and hate ; and the need of remembering that respect and love are never accorded by children to a master who who is not strictly equitable ; these are the subjects dealt with by Art. 17. In Art. 18 the essentially religious character of the ideas of suitable moral education, in some parts of Switzerland, is seen: "Commence and terminate the class by lifting up to God the hearts of the children confided to you. Avoid mere routine in the prayer and the religious exercises of the school. Prayer from the bottom of the heart, and a beautiful hymn, lift up the soul of the child to heaven." The remaining two Articles deal with the repression of certain vices contrary to good manners, and the necessity of regarding the age and sex of the pupils in the matter of the discipline and general management of the school. Respecting the former matter, it may be pointed out that stress is laid upon the great need of observing the last degree of prudence in dealing with the unfortunates afilicted with a disease, moral and physical at the same time, and that the revelation of the matter may only make it contagious. Both boys and girls have two and a half hours a week instruction in religion and sacred history in the Canton of Fribourg ; in Lucerne, three hours, in Berne, two hours ; and it is much the same for the other Cantons of Switzerland. The systematic regard of the needs of the poor, which is a feature in the school-life not only of Switzerland, but also of a very considerable part of Europe, admits of the children seeing something of the real side of benevolence, and gives definite point to the ethical and moral teaching. G. Moral education in Germany. — Throughout Germany, the system of education is declaredly based upon religion as its fundamental element. In general, about three hours per week are devoted to religious instruction in the lowest classes in the schools, and about two hours in the others. The two dominant " confessions " in Germany are the Evangelical and the Roman Catholic. In the case of the former, the religious instruction (Lutheranism) in the schools has for its declared general aim the building up of a Christian character through a knowledge of the Old and New Testaments, and thorough instruction in the Lutheran Creed. Through this, and through imparting a knowledge of, and through promoting participation in, the life and duties of the Christian community, it is believed a wholesome influence will be exercised upon the national life.i The declared aim of the Roman Catholic instruction in religion is to develope in the Catholic children, both in respect of their inner and outer life and action, their spiritual nature ; to make them really under.-y loitering at their shop doors in tpo street ^ ^^^ windows. Do not make slides on the pavemeut, nor throw orange peel there. I Dangerous accidents often result from these practices. Do not make fun of old nor crippled L people, but be particularly polite to them as well as to foreigners and strangers, f Always wash your hands and face before coming to table. Do not put your knife to your mouth. I Look after other people ; do not help yourself only. Do not be greedy. Do not speak nor drink At table J. with food in your mouth. Turn your head away from the table, and put your hand or 1 handkerchief before your aiouth, when you sneeze or cough. Do not sit with your elbows on L the table. ("Never be rude to anybody, whether older or younger, richer or poorer, than yonrself. Remember to say " Please," or "Thank you," "Yes, sir," or "Yes, madame," "No, sir," or "No ma'am." Before entering a room it is often courteous to knock at the door. Do not forget to Everywhere J close the door quietly after you. Always shew attention to older people and strangers by opening the door for them, bringing what they require (hat, chair, etc.), giving up your seat to them if necessary, and in every possible way saving them trouble. Never interrupt when a person is speaking. Always mind your own business. Be punctual. Be tidy. ("All these rules respecting your conduct towards others are included in the one Golden Rule 1 "Always do to others as you would wish them to do to you if you were in their place." Remember -J Whenever, therefore, you are in doubt as to how you should act towards others, ask yourself I this question, "How should I like them to act towards me if I were in their place?" and I then do what your conscience tells you is right. Children's National Guild of Courtesy.— Inaugurated October, 1892. President, Professor Meiklejohn, M.A. ; Hon Secretary, H. E. Norton., Esq,, 56, Old Bailey, London, E.G. 12. Cultivation of Patriotism. — A similar wall-.shcot may be had, the aim of which is to develope the spirit of patriotism, and is issued by the same publisher. An excellent feature in all schools of the United States of America, is the saluting of the flag, and the declaration of personal fealty to the Constitution. There can be no doubt whatever that the development of an instinct of national solidarity is of great importance to any people, so long as the nations of the earth are not living in a state of assured peace ; and therefore the recital of stories and historical incidents, capable of producing emotional reaction of a patriotic character, should be recognised as an essential part of school education. So also should the fact that we are banded together to resist aggression from any source whatsoever, and that in this matter the interests of rich and poor, of learned and unlearned, are all identical. The following is the wall-sheet referred to, which also is susceptible of improvement: — Patuiotism. Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori.' Dieu et mon droit.' " Breathes there the man, with soul so dead. Who never to himself hath said, ' This is my own my native land !' "' { Patriotism is a sincere love for, and pride in, one's couutry and countrymen. Loyalty is faithful- What is Patriotism ? \ ness and willingness in serving the Sovereign and the Constitution. Patriotism is a feeling ; ( loyalty is a duty : the one Hows from the other. Why At play r ' Horace Odes, Book III, Ode 2, verse 13—" Sweet and glorious it is to die for one's country." (Smart's translation.) » French, " God and my right. " This was the watchword of P.ichard I at the battle of Gisors (near Rouen) in 1 198, when he defeated Phillip of France. Richard meant that he was not a vassal of France, but that he owed his kingly position to God's providence alone. The words were afterwards adopted as the battle-cry of England, and as the motto on the Royal Arms. ' Scott's " Lay of the Last Minstrel," Canto 6, Stanza 1, Why we should be Patriots. 157 fl. On account of our Sovereign, who rules with justice, equity, sympathy, and kindness, over a contented and happy people, and over an Empire on which the sun never sets. 2. On account of our 1.TWS, which are, on the whole, the best in the world and, to the rich and the poor are .ilikejust. ."?. On account of the liberty we enjoy. This has been won for us by our forefathers after many hard struggles, and is the growth of ages. We have liberty of opinion, liberty of speech, liberty of worship, and liberty of the Press. 4. On account of our past history ; the activity, energy, intelligence, and enterprise of the British Nation have made themselves felt in every continent ; they have created an immense Empire, and carried truth, justice, and liberty to all parts of the world. 5. On account of our great men : statesmen, warriors, sailors, explorers, writers, and scientists, past and present ; these have L all been mighty in deeds and words ; they are our pride, and are worthy of our emulation. f 1. To render cheerful and willing obedience to the law and to these in authority, so as to — (1) Preserve our rights ; (2) Maintain our liberties ; (3) Protect our morals ; (4) Promote our interests. Strict obedience to those in authority is (as a guiding principle) essential to success, either as individuals or as a nation. " Their's not to make reply, Their's not to reason why, Our duty as Patriots. \ Their's but to do and die.' 2. To preserve national and social peace ; to hand on the noble traditions of the past, and to do nothing to sully the good name of IJritain, so that our beloved country may maintain its greatness, increase in power, influence, and glory, and in all that " exalteth a nation' — " Be just and fear not ; Let all the ends thou aira'st at be thy country's, Thy God's, and truth's.'"' GOD SAVE THE KING ! 13. Scheme of Ethical and Religious Education for New South Wales. — The provisions relating to religious education of the Public Instruction Act are not availed of by the clergy of the various religious denominations as it might have been hoped. It would be well, therefore, if a circular were issued, calling attention to the provisions of the Act, and inviting the co-operation of the clergy in providing for the moral-religious education of the people of this State. The giving of such education should not however be left entirely to them, for they have many other calls on their time ; and it must also be remembered that, in the country, visitation of the schools ■would often be impossible. A scheme for ethical instruction on very similar lines to the French, which is at once noble, and, as regards religious differences, neutral, is much to be desired. Such a scheme should be developed on the following lines, already suggested in section 10 of this Chapter : — Ethical instruction in school ought to embrace the relation of the child or person to — (a) Himself (Personal ethics). (S) His fellows (Social ethics), (o) His country (National ethics). {d) The world (Philanthropy). And he should be so taught to recognise something of the reality of such relationships through the cultivation of — (i) Personal ideals and character. (ii) The social virtues. (iii) Patriotism, loyal response to the just claims of his country, and the wish to see its institu- tions perfected. (iv) The love of mankind, without regard to racial or religious differences. All these elements should, in the actual instruction, as far as possible be united, not dissociated — that is to say, the above represents only the logical order, and not the pedagogical. On these outlines a text-book for the guidance of teachers should be written, not by an ordinary psedagogue but a specialist in moral philosophy, having in addition a thorough grasp of modern theory of instruction and of the child mind in its difl'erent stages of development. Then, with wall-sheets containing the fundamental points of the text-book, someth'ng more worthy of an effort to create noble ideals could adorn the walls of every school in our State. Those elements of good manners which depend upon nobility and generosity of hertrt ought to be assigned afar higher place than matters of mere etiquette ; and it will then not be difficult to get children to understand that the forms of etiquette are after all of some moment, as expressing the degree of cultivation attained in our social relationships. They will then understand t\iaX politeness, and grace of manner, when the natural expression of a good heart and of sensitive regard for the personality of others, are among the Jinest adornments of the humaii being. It is not sufficient, however, to know merely the right terms in which to convey ethical and similar instruction. The devoted teacher understands perfectly well that it is through sympathy and example that the communication of ideals becomes possible. His instincts will often direct him aright with gratifying results. "When such teachers reach, through better ecucation, a wider outlook, and, through the systematic study of ethics and religion, know better how to direct their efforts, their deeper and more wisely directed enthusiasm will unfailingly write itself on the future history of our people in traditions and ideals worthy of the nation from whence we sprung, and worthy of human aspiration. ' Tennyson's " Charge of the Light Brigade. ' Pro v. xiv, 34. » Shakespeare, Henry VIII Act iii. Scene 2, line 444. Wolscy to Cromwell.) CUAPTER XVI 158 CHAPTER XVI. Education of the Will. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introductort/. — Accordinp; to Immanuel Kant, the normal education of mankind should not commence with the improvement of morals, but with the reformin<]f of their mode of thinking, and the founding of their charaotcr.i All systematic study of education has ended in recognising the essential difference between informing the mind, and developing the character ; though of course each element reacts upon the other. Character differs in respect of («) energy, (h) kind. The energy with which it is manifested depends upon the will ; and the efficiency of the manifestation of the will is limited by the knowledge or intellectual culture which is, as it were, at its command. The formation of good character, and its confirmation by the establishment of good habits, in such a way that its spontaneous expression may ultimately become of the desired kind, is dealt with in the preceding chapter. Leaving now the qualitative ethical element out of consideration, education may be said to fall under two heads, viz., it takes the form either of — (fl) Instruction, or the imparting of knowledge, which feret/* to develope the critical or judicial faculty. (A) Exercises of the will, which tends to develope the practical or executive faculty. The highest cultivation of the former (critical faculty), involving the complete neglect of the development of the latter (practical skill), although of the greatest value, is a rare requirement, and may be disregarded in reviewing a national system of education ; not only because such special development is really neederl, but also because persons with the necessary intellectual endowment are practically independent of ordinary forms of education. 2. Necessity of development of Will through the Educational System. — The strength of character of an individual or nation depends upon the intensity of its will ; and, therefore, to systematically devolopo it in the individual is to develope it in the nation, inasmuch as the national life will reflect the vigour of the component individuals. In its inception, will depends upon purpose. Purpose is really manifested will ; and purpose, when strong, tends to discharge itself in external acts. It is that strong impulse to action that gives force to a character. It may be pointed out that, in itself, will is neither good nor bad. Will expresses the force, not the quality of action ; and it is here assumed that the latter has, for the present purpose, been already adequately discussed. Both in individual and in national life, vigour of will is of great value ; and, consequently, the evoking of the idea of purpose, or, what is the same thing, the cultivating of the mode that leads to habitual activity, is a matter of national importance. This is recognised by all educationists. Dr. Laurie, Professor of Education in the University of Edinburgh, in a conversation during the occasion of the Commissioners' visit to that city, laid great stress upon all elements of education which develope this idea of purpose, and which habituate the pupil to practically express it. That self-expression, which must have outlet, and discharge itself in external acts — or, to put it in other terms, that assertion of the will, which is made whenever purpose is realised — is to the soul what physical exercise is to the body. School-life which fails to find, either through play or through school exorcises, opportunity for such acts of self-expression, tends to produce weak or flabby characters. The intellect maybe good, and the character may be amiable and kindly inclined, but it does not follow that the will will bo strong. The value of the two former elements may, in real life, be practically annihilated by irresolution. Every school-teacher, therefore, should see that in the mechanical elements of his discipline opportunity for the self-expression of the pupil should be given ; and he should be extremely careful not to destroy that self-expression through overpowering the personality of the pupil by his own maturer and stronger development. There are two things to which attention may here be drawn: one is, that high intellectual culture may exist without individual or national strength of character ; the other is, that in the narrower and more mechanical forms of school-discipline, liable to be highly approved by administrations, in the attempt to achieve merely mechanical perfection, much that passes for good discipline is nothing more than disastrous repression of the individualities of the children, and the true nature of education is completely lost sight of. Such types of administration often plume themselves upon this perfection, and yet, from the individual and national point of view, they are nothing short of calamitous. The two elements will be separately dealt with. 3. Insufficiency of Intellectual Culture. — It has long been recognised that the cultivation of the knowing faculty of the human being does not in itself tend to make a vigorous and useful life. Knowledge in the service of the will, and guided by character, is what constitutes manhood in the true sense. It has been recognised that, in some countries, the intellectual elements have been pushed so far as to produce what might be called human encyclopaedias — -that is to say, persons splendidly informed, able to criticise and to see the advantages and disadvantages of almost everything, but quite incapable of self-activity in practical directions. Por j)ractical purposes, therefore, such persons are often decidedly inferior, compared with ' Piidagogik. Professor Dr. W. Eein, Leipzig, 1900, p. 81. 159 with those who are relatively ignorant, but who are endowed with a natural tendency to action. It is, perhaps, this that has given rise to the somewhat common but false opinion that intellectual capacity usually coexists with practical incompetency, and has led in so many places, especially where the general education is on a low plane, to the appointment of persons who are supposed to have, and who often, according to their lights, really do have, the genius of administration. The granting, however, of admin- istrative powers to people badly equipped intellectually, and, therefore, possessed of very limited horizons, must necessarily lead to injurious consequences, which, however, are not always readily perceived. This is a point to which we shall later recur. 4. Foreign Testimony of iJie importance of maintaining Bohustness of Will and Self-reliance. — Thoughtful educationists all over the world have taken account of the practical success of indifferently- informed people, and of the failures of people well equipped intellectually. In endeavouring to understand our own position^that is, the position of the British race — in this respect, it is well to have regard to the testimony of foreigners rather than to that of ourselves ; at least, if we desire to escape I'rom the blinding effect of national prejudice. It may be said that, rightly or wrongly, we are regarded as, on the whole, an ill-informed people. At the same time, however, there are large numbers of educationists in other nations who recognise the great vigour of English character, and who realise also that any scheme of education which fails to maintain this is nationally fatal. On thia point, the following testimony of Dr. Emil Reich, in a letter written to an English lady, Miss Catherine 1. Dodd, the letter bearing the date, August, 19U1, is of interest. 8peaking of the higher Hungarian education, he affirms as follows :— It aims at making of Hungarian young men of 18 years typos of those strange creatures whom the Germans aptly call " biUlungswiithig " (culture-rabid). No doubt, many of them know a good deal about various things ; nay, I have no hesitation in saying that the average young Hungarian disposes of a far greater amount of book knowledge than does the average young Briton. My experience of the purely intellectual aspects of the better-class British youth has been both extentive and intensive. I have taught hundreds of Oxford and Cambridge men, also younger men frouj Harrow, Eton, Wellington College, etc., and I cannot help noting that they excel neither in knowledge acquired nor in the powers of acquiring it. Their memory is indifferent ; their imagination c(jld ; their power of mental co-ordination or raf.jrrocliemenl feeble. They are by no means liebildet (educated); nor do they really care to be so. If anything, some know Greek and Latin well; others know Mathematics. That is the Ullima Thiitc of their HUdiitKj (education). But -with all these deficencies in point of book knowledge, no sane man can for a moment hesitate to prefer the nngthildete (uneducated) British youth to the hoeh for those who arc for the most part destined to engage in callings involving manual dexterity. And in the French view there are three classes of exercise that together indicale the range of physical education, viz. : — (1) Observances of rules of hygiene, clcanlines-, ete., and the development of habits conformed thereto. (2) Gymnastic exorcises. (3) Manual work. It is, of course, true that in each of these lie elements of physical education, but the conception is by no means exhaustive, nor does it convey any adequate idea of its importance. 2. Tico types of Physical Educalion. — There are two types of physical education, viz. : — (a) The Empirical, which does not concern itself with the physiological reasons for each exercise; and (i) The Rational, which proceeds in every detail under the guidance of scientific knowledge, viz., human physiology, aiming at definite results, and utilising the data of anatomy and physiology to secure those results. The former, viz., empirical physical culture, is often interested in questions of mere acrobatic gymnastic ; its exercises may be graceful as far as movements are concerned ; it may or may not datigerously tax the physical powers, heart, etc. ; and may or may not produce exhilaration or great fatigue. That such forms of physical education still exist is not mere imagination, and gymnastic exercises have in many places fallen into disrepute through their prevalence. Thus in the 1897 Eeport upon Education and Instruction, Genova,i reference is made to the fact that the earlier complicated apparatus, and too-clever exercises which inspired distaste with all children, are disappearing, in order to give way to a rational medical gymnastic, and to school games in open air. This old gymnastic consisted in a series of researches, refinements, and efforts, and ended in transforming the gymnastic lesson into a school of acrobats. 2 3. Athletic Gymnastics — Athletic and acrobatic irymnasties belong to the empirical type, and the school-programmes of lessons therein, aimed at purely athletic, and sometimes even at acrobatic results.s In the case of the vigorous these were nor. good, wliilo for the weak they were decidedly bad. It is important to bear in mind that jjhjsical exercises, as such, are not necessarily corrective of mental fatigue; and Griesbach's and other researches'' by means of the ^l^sthesiometer, in regard to fatigue effects, shewed that it may even be the reverse of beneficial. In both mental and ])hysical efforts producing fatigue, a noison is generated, the accumulation of which, when not eliminated as rapidly as generated, produces a decrease of energy, or absolute loss of physical power, and also a sense of fatigue. ^ That this enfeeblement of the muscles, and feeling of weariness, are produced by the direct result of the presence of the poison, has been abundantly demonstrated. Subjectively it is readily recognised that, when one has undergone great physical exertion, the ability to do mental work is enormously reduced, or, if done, it is at a great expenditure of effort. And although, subjectivel3% the induced bodily fatigue and muscular weakness following on mental effort are not readily recognised, they can easily be demonstrated experimentally. It will be seen from the above, that the very common opinion that physical exercise may always be invoked, by way of relaxation, when mental fatigue has supervened, is seriously challenged. Two things are at once suggested, viz : — (a) The expediency of requiring, as advocated by Wagner," a knowledge of school-hygiene on the part of teachers. (6) A qualification of the merely athletic view of gymnastics. Experiments have shewn that the severer forms of gymnastic exercises, such as may occasionally be seen in the German Turnhalle, are often as exhausting as mathematics — one of the most mentally exhausting of school-subjects. Thus, the rational study of the whole matter, has, it is easy to see, led to considerable modification of the attitude of educationists to the matter of school-gymnastic, and has forced a recognition of the fact that physical education, to achieve its purpose, must be subject to careful scientific development, in which it will avail itself of all that anatomy and physiology have to teach by way of guidance. 4. ' Rapport sur le Groupe XVII, Education et Instruction. Lausanne, 1897, p. 165. *Ihid, p. 166. *Ibid. * Energetik und Hygiene des Nervensystems in der Schulc. Miinchen, 1893. Hygienische Sehulreforni, Hamburg. ' Kraepelin, Professor of Psychiatry at Heidelberg, regards the effect of all severe mental exertion as identical in action with that of physical exertion. Vide " Zur Hygiene der Arbeit," und " Ueber geistige Arbeit." Jena, 1896-7. • Unterricht und ErmUdung. Berlin, 1898. 163 4. national Phi/sical Culture. — The object par excellence of rational physical education may be said to be the increasing of human vifaliti/, since that is the foundation of all human effort, or, to change the figure, the credit balance on which we are continually drawing. Itapidity and precision of movement and muscular strength, while very important, are yet really subordinate, muscular power in itself being worth very little sacrifice. In certain types of gymnastic, the training a special set of muscles by, as it were, concentrating the whole effort of the human organism upon them, has often, while succeeding in its special aim, seriously impaired the organism as a whole. It is well known that athletes have permanently injured both heart and lungs in their training. Rational gymnastics specially avoids, therefore, mere athleticism. The main sources of human energy are the carbon in food, and the oxygen in the atmosphere, the actual production of the energy arising from chemical combination of these two elements.i Viewed from this standpoint, it is at once evident that large lung capacity, and a vigorous circulatory system, are the secrets of an abundance of energy, and consequent power to accomplish such tasks as may be imposed upon us, and also healthy activity of the nutritive functions. Hence, rational gymnastic aims at their improvement. But other conditions also contribute to the result. In order to get rid of poisonous products generated in the organism, the efficiency of the excretory functions must be assured, so that physical education has regard also to the functions of the skin. The object, then, of rational gymnastic may be more fully set forth in general terms as the develop- ment of the physical organism in such a way that its vitality and response to the will shall be as perfect as possible ; in a word, that all its functions shall be maintained in their highest efficiency. It is at onco obvious that, to achieve this, the whole treatment must be intelligent, every exercise having an absolutely definite aim, and contributing in the best possible manner to the desired end. Unfortunately the best development of the human body does not, apparently, take place spontaneously. Injurious physical habits and postures are only too easily developed. Consequently, rational gymnastic must bo not only educative, but also to some extent corrective. This is a further reason why the instructor must have the trained eye and specially informed mind to recognise the defects — why his knowledge of anatomy and physiology must be equal to guiding the scheme of gymnastic exercises by which defects are eliminated or improved. 5. Various conceptions of Physical Education. — Physical training of boys in London commenced about 1889 under the London School Board. Two systems were in vogue, viz., the Swedish and English. Although the former is generally admitted to be the most perfectly developed, it was decided in about 1803 to adhere to the latter. In the report on Physical Education in the School Board of London, by Mr. Thomas Chesterton, Organising Teacher of Physical Exercises under the Board, the objects are declared to be — To provide a means of recreation under discipline, and to raise the general standard of health by quickening the circulation, increasing the breathing capacity, promoting nutrition, facilitating the elimination of waste products from the system, and increasing the volume and power of the voluntary and the functional capacity of the involuntary muscles , thereby promoting all-round bodily development and growth. ' It is said that systematic physical training renders the senses more acute, and that there is a reaction on the muscular activity through which the body in general is much benefited. In common with all authorities on rational gymnastics, it is recognised that, as far as possible, the exercise should be relaxation, though of course it should not be wjiolly so, and, therefore, it should avoid all unnecessary mental strain, especially in the case of children whose school tasks have already fatigued them. In designing the exercises, it was endeavoured to proceed on anatomical and physiological lines, with a view to counteracting " the prevalent o«e-szWe(/«ess of school life, from a physical point of view," and to correcting " the cramped positions assumed in the schoolroom" ; hence, " the exercises may be considered as remedial movements." It will be observed that the specialist in physical education recognises at once the unhygienic character of the position of the child during his school tasks in the English school. This position is exactly as it is with us, and the comment applies to every country that does not follow the Swiss system of using adjustable school desks. Swedish gymnastic owes its present development to P. Henrik Ling (1776-1839), who was nominated in 1805 as Master of Arms to the University of Lund, and to whose initiative the founding in 1813 of the Central Institute of Gymnastic was due. In this institution the gymnastic exercises are developed in a regular and continuous manner, and with regard to their functional influence, the choice of exercises being determined by the special needs of the body. They aim at absolute adaptation to the disposition and faculties of each individual, so as to produce perfect development and perfect self-mastery, nervous tranquillity, and equal and steady action. The scheme of movements has been developed with regard to every need of the human organism, so that, in adapting it to the individual, the health, strength, and necessary aptitude of the pupil or subject may be thoroughly developed. Pedagogic gymnastics on the Swedish system have been developed at institutions in Norway, Denmark, England, Switzerland, the United States of America. The work was actually seen by the Commissioners at the Central Institute in Stockholm, with classes of both sexes. There is a general consensus of opinion that the details of the Swedish system have been elaborated with a degree of thoroughness as yet unexampled, and that the scientific basis of the whole is perfect. It does not follow, however, that a complete Swedish gymnastic should be introduced into schools, for reasons that will hereinafter appear. In order to understand the question, its general theory needs statement. Before passing to this, however, its importance may be outlined. 6. ' Haemoglobin, to which is due the red colour of blood, is contained in the red blood corpuscles, and readily becomes oxidised in the lungs to oxyhemoglobin. This is carried in the arterial circulation to the various parts of the body, where (in the tissues themselves) it combines with carbon and carbon dioxide is formed. On return by the venous circulation to the lungs, the carbon dioxide is eliminated in the respiratory processes. These chemical combinations are associated w ith the protluction of heat, and are the main source of human energy. ^Special Ucports on Educational Subjects. Vol. 2, p. 186. 15-Y 164 6. Importance of Gymnastic and Physical Culture generally. — Statistics shew that good gymnastic undoubtedly developes the human frame. An interesting illustration of this came under notice at the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, where a statue representing the mean of the measurements of a large number of young American women exists. Since it was executed, physical education has made great progress in America, and the somewhat narrow-shouldered and flat-chested figure no longer represents the type of American women, their shoulders being broader and chests deeper. The splendid development of the Swedes is a further testimony to its value. It is affirmed, also, that predisposition to phthisis is combatted by developing, through suitable exercises, the chest capacity in childhood. The increase of breathing, however, that can be developed is very great, and the tone and strength thus given to the physical system appear to endow it with powers of resistance to the attack of injurious micro-organisms. Physical culture, also, that leads to consciousness of precision and power in muscular effort, that engenders good habits as regards posture of body, that guides the whole life in regard to good physical habits, will build up the physique of our people. Viewed aright, it will bo recognised as the complement of the other elements of education. That is evident in the following scheme shewing the theory of development. Human duality. Body needs — Nutrition (food). Proper nourishment. Physical training. Pliysical precision. Physical excellence and grace of form. Result — Sold needs — Physical. Growth. Mental. Experience (Knowledge). ,, Normal growth. ,, Right education. ,, Power. ,, Mental training. ,, Skill. ,, Mental precision. ,, Ideal manliness. ,, Intellectual and moral excellence and grace of spirit. Eecollecting that there is an interaction between all these elements, such that any one can be made to contribute to and assist the other, and that the whole leads to the ideal human being of all-round development, it will then be realised that physical education is, throughout, the counterpart of mental education, important as making self-expression possible in its highest forms. Sef'erence has already been made to some of the misconceptions of physical culture and the dangers which result therefrom. One of the commonest misconceptions is that great muscular strength implies perfection of the human organism. As a matter of fact muscle-development may be pushed so far as to be actually injurious to the organism as a whole. The reason of this may be readily understood when one remembers that the enlargement of the muscle involves the supply of blond thereto, and if pushed too far the withdrawal from other parts may involve impoverishment of the vital organs. —Physical culture may be said to range over three III. Psychical. ((?) Muscular control, (e) Muscular 7. Outline of the theory of physical culture. elements, viz. : — I. Physical. II. Psycho-physical. These may be sub-divided as follows : — I. Physical — (a) Health. (J) Strength, (c) Endurance. flexibility. (/) Muscular co-ordination. II. Psycho-physical — (a) Physical courage. (J) Presence of mind, (c) Decision (will). III. Psychical — (o) Expression of the soul through the physical organism. (A) Gesture, (c) Posture. {d) fieaction of the organism on the soul. Physical culture may also be said to have two sides, vix., Educational and Recreational. The former proposes to develope both unconscious and conscious self-control and self-expression, by invoking continually the intellect and will. » The second is concerned with those elements that lead to psychical interest, and sense of physical or mental exhilaration. The qualities of good physical culture, though in general the same for both adults and children, need more careful application in the case of the latter. For them especially it is important that it should be (a) efficient, (6) interesting, (c) simple, (d) educative, and to some extent {d) exhilarant, or recreative. 8. Health elements in physical culture. — Referring to I. («) above, certain sets of exercises in hygienic gymnastic are directed immediately to the increase of the vitality or health of the human organism. The immediate objects of these may be outlined as follows : — (i) To develope the chest capacity as much as possible, so as to produce free and deep breathing, (ii) To develope the muscular power of the heart, and generally a healthy condition of the circulatory system, (in) To promote activity of the digestive organs (healthy action of stomach, intestines, etc.). (it) To promote activity also of the excretory organs (liver, skin, and kidneys). (t) To develope symmetry and vigour of the body generally as aids to the general result. A treatise on the details of physical culture would be perhaps out of place in this report ; nevertheless, an indication of what has to be considered is not unimportant, as illustrating the difference between empirical and rational gymnastic. Before developing a special set of muscles to attain some given end, say cheat-expansion, it is often necessary to precede the special exercises for that purpose by preliminary exercises, the object of which is merely to lengthen or stretch other muscles, whose simultaneous development would otherwise take place, and either diminish the efficiency of the exercises with regard to the special object in view, or lead to unsightly developments. Such exercises may bo defined as preliminary corrective exercises. Speaking generally, it may be said that the corrective exercises have often largely to do with the stretching of a large number of anterior muscles, and it may be mentioned that obviously the exercises must be undertaken by some one who has a rational understanding of them. It may also be noticed that it is sometimes necessary to prevent the innervation of special muscles, with a view to guarding against development, and the pupil needs guidance in regard to maintaining them in a state of passivity. The scheme of developing the chest-capacity by means of physical exercises depends upon the fact that certain movements tend to lift the walls of the chest through muscular traction, and that deep-breathing exercise not only utilise the whole of the lung substance, but also tends to enlarge the chest cavity. In regard to the other exercises, viz., (i) to (v) abovementioned, it is sufficient to observe that they are designed so as to assist the physiological activity of the various organs referred to. 9. 165 9. Other elements in pliysical development. — In scientifically developed gymnastic special exercises are designed for increasing strength, endurance, muscular control, muscular flexibility, and muscular co-ordination. [I. (i) to I. (/) in section 7.] These have been all worked out physiologically and anatomically, but in their application they have to be used according to the development of the children or adults who are to profit by the gymnastic. Gymnastic exercises may be taken either individually or collectively. In order to perfectly reach their end they ought to be applied to the individual, that is to say each child must be taken separately, and the exercises selected in regard to his special needs. This being hardly practicable in connection with schools, the exercises must be collective and adapted to what may be called the group-needs of the children. In either case they must be intelligently directed, that is to say, by a competent student of scientific physical culture, and not merely by an athlete, however excellently the latter may be able to perform his exercises. -This is what is thoroughly understood in American, Swedish and Continental conceptions of gymnastic, and it explains why, in the programme of instruction to teachers, they are compelled to understand something of the structure of the humau body. (See chapter XXXV., section 16). It may be repeated that competency to direct gymnastic exercises requires, according to the French administration of primary schools, that teachers should qualify themselves to understand the mechanism of the human frame, the conditions of equilibrium of a body resting on a plane, inertia, force, weight, and centre of gravity in this connection, the organs of locomotion, their general structure and articulation, the distribution and form of the muscles, their structure and properties, and further the functions of the body in relation to gymnastic exercises. Moreover, they are required to understand the functions of digestion, circulation, respiration, and of the skin, and the relation of gymnastic thereto. They have further to understand the influence of gymnastic upon physical and moral health, and to appreciate the reason why it is necessary to regulate its exercises. 10. The psycho-physical and psychical aspects of gymnastics. — Bearing in mind the exigencies of life, it is easy to see that these aspects of gymnastic training are among the most important. Certain exercises are specially designed to call into action physical courage, to habituate the mind to self-control in moments of real or apparent danger, and to accustom it to instant decision. Eeference has been made in another chapter to the psychological importance of habit. Both the physical and mental habits which scientifically directed gymnastic induces, are of immense practical value, not only in the greater and more tragic moments of life, but in its every day routine. This would explain why it is fully recognised in Europe and America that an instructor in gymnastic must not only understand its physiological basis, but also its psychological basis. In the chapter previously referred to, viz., in the preceding section, reference is made in section 3 to the applications of the conceptions of psychology to education. In regard to physical education, these touch general hygiene, the essential characteristics of temperance, the nature of children's exercises and games, and also the more formal exercises in gymnastics. It is this thoroughness, characteristic of all European and American education, of which wo stand in so much need, not only in regard to physical culture, but all other subjects. The psychical aspects of gymnastic go still deeper. There is a well-understood, and yet, nevertheless, very mysterious, relationship between the posture of the body and the inner state of feeling. Courage and hope, on the one hand, or fear and despair on the other, tend to express themselves in a fairly definite way in the pose and carriage of the body. Straightforwardness, candour, and magnanimity have a physical expression which never can bo mistaken for that of duplicity, secretiveness, and paltriness. An erect and fearless attitute of body tends also to create uprightness of character and to stimulate courage, and similarly in regard to almost every attribute of the humau soul. The subject has been exhaustively studied, and what may be called the laws of gesture and posture, have been theoretically expounded. It is sufficient here to observe that it is well within the limits of practical education to secure a much more favourable reaction of the body on the mind, and vice versa, than is at present characteristic in our State. Proper seating in schools, and a well devised system of gymnastic, would do much to eliminate the disagreeable " slouch " of a certain class in the community, and there can be little doubt that we were unwise in not having paid greater attention to these matters. 11. Physical culture and manual training. — In Sloyd, and in other forms of manual training that have been elaborated with any degree of thoroughness, great attention has been paid to the position of the body during work, with a view to selecting the best possible position for each exercise. In considering the matter two ends are kept in view, viz., — (a) Efficiency in regard to the execution of the particular work ; {b) Normal development of the bodily frame. Some regard has also been had to symmetry of the body, as well as to ambidextrous development. Physiologists of the present time are paying considerable attention to questions of symmetry of development, and psychological consequences flowing therefrom are also being studied. The matter goes further than might at first sight appear. For example, it is said by Piper that opposite symmetry in writing with either hand, is characteristic of imbecility ; that is to say, feeble-minded children, in proportion to their mental feebleness, tend to write what has been called " looking-glass writing" with the left hand. The significance of questions about symmetrical development forms the subject of the Huxley lecture for 1902 by Professor D. J. Cunningham, of Dublin^, and there is already an extensive literature upon the whole subject. 12. Physical culture in Tasmania. — For about 18 months past an interesting movement has been going on in Tasmania in regard to physical culture, and it is interesting to note that it is proceeding on rational and not on empirical lines. The " Instructor and Organiser of Physical Culture " under the Tasmanian Government is Mr. Christian Bjelke-Petersen, an expert in the Dano-Swedish and American systems ' " Eight-handedneas and Left-braiuedness," by Professor D. J. Cunningham, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., JourD, Anthropolog. Instit. Great Britain, etc., Vol. XXXII., 1902, p.p. 273-295. 166 systems of physical culture.^ The Tasmaiiian Government provides for the iQstruclion of its primary-school teachers of both sexes and all ages in the physical culture exercises. Two courses are given to the teachers in training, and two holiday-courses for other teachers, the attendance at the latter being optional. It is interesting to notice in regard to the optional holiday-courses that there are more applications than the Government are able to provide for ; and it has been suiRciently demonstrated that, notwithstanding the neglect of physiology, psychology, and similar subjects in the education of teachers, they are nevertheless able to acquire a sufficiently intelligent knowledge of the exercises to rationally apply them. It is worth noting, too, that they realise the aims and methods of rational physical culture well enough to feel enthusiasm in regard thereto, and to recognise its value to the future of the Tasraanian people. Mr. Petersen advocates, as everyone who understands the hygiene and physiology of gymnastic must, the adoption of rational rather than of empirical physical culture, and points out that the former comprehends every benefit which gymnastic can confer, and at the same time avoids the dangers of mere athleticism. He remarks on the importance of recognising that exercises in physical culture are not to be regarded as mere games, and that they have really educational value. In the instruction of teachers, his method ensures that the object of each exercise shall bo rationally appreciated by his hearers, so that in reproducing the exercises they understand exactly what they are doing. This method of training differs absolutely from the empiricism of teaching a set of exercises from a manual without any definite knowledge of the aim of each exercise. It is needless to say that this proceeding must commend itself. The theory of physical culture for children outlined in the next section represents, very imperfectly of course, and in brief, his conception of the proper way of teaching gymnastic to school children. 13. Physical culture for children. — A scheme of physical culture for school children must, while efficient and rational, be also agreeable to them. Though disciplinary and educative, calling upon them for exercise of intelligence and will, it must at the same time not over-exhaust the children, or leave them, as it so often did. in the earlier forms of Swiss gymnastic, and still apparently does in some forms of German gymnastic, with a feeling of distaste for it. The qualities required must, therefore, be those set out in section 7 herein, viz., it must be efficient, interesting, simple, educative, and exhilarating. In his own practice Mr. Petersen makes the body of the work educative, and its conclusion recreative, so as to retain as far as possible the physic interest of the children. Ho holds that letting them depart without any feeling of dislike for the lesson, is the secret of making subsequent lessons truly beneficial. 14. Qualifications of an instructor in physical culture. — The wide world over, the reign of the mere empiric seems to be approaching its end. liule-of-thumb has had its day, and its insufficiency is well understood. In everything the empiric sees but the mechanism, and consequently his judgment is easily led astray, solicited by meretricious and superficial elements. He cannot really distinguish between athleticism and physical culture, the difference between the two being by no means evident to the man who sees mechanism only. That physical exercises should be directed by scientific knowledge seems to him absurd and unnecessary. Quite unconscious of how much lies in the subject, he regards himself as competent to pass judgment upon such an apparently simple thing as gymnastic. Smart appearance, and evolutions that border on the acrobatic, are apt to win his commendation, and rhythmical movements accompanied by music are imagined to be especially good. The ability to distinguish the difference between mere rhythmical or athletic, and true physical-culture exercises, of which of course the former may form a part, requires, as all continental nations recognise and as is thoroughlj- understood by the educationists of the United States, a sound knowledge of first principles. For example, every gymnastic teacher should have : — {a) Some knowledge of Psychology. (J) Some knowledge of Anatomy and Physiology. (c) Some knowledge of the general Theory of Education, so that the exercises may be really efficient and from every point of view the mechanical, physiological, and psychical wisely directed ; and moreover, that they may be properly adapted to the child-body and child-mind. 15. Conclusions. — The following conclusions suggest themselves : — 1. Insufficient attention has been paid in New South Wales to physical culture and gymnastics. 2. Systematic instruction therein should be given to all teachers in training by a competent instructor having the necessary theoretical and practical knowledge. The theoretical knowledge should include sufficient general scientific education, and knowledge of the art of teaching his subject to others. 3. With a view of qualifying teachers in different parts of the State to give instruction in their schools, holiday-courses, similar to those in Tasmania, should be given in the larger country towns. 4. Suitable gymnastic exercises on the lines of a rational physical culture should form part of the ordinary curriculum in schools. 5. Special effort should be directed to making these exercises as attractive &s possible to the children, as well as educative. It may be said finally, that although the results immediately reached will not be as satisfactory as could be wished, owing to the limited education of the majority of the teaching-staff of this State, the work is well worth doing, and can be made the beginning of a better order of things. There is every reason to believe that the teachers of New South Wales will appreciate its value and help forward the movement, since they are not lacking in zeal. It may be pointed out that a few lectures are given on physiology and school-hygiene by Dr. Eoth. The work, however, would have to be much increased to bring it into line with the best European training. It may also be mentioned that the fundamental principles of physical culture outlined in this chapter are identical in their aim with Dr. lloth's view. ' The importance of systematic physical culture is indicated in the subject matter of a paper on the " Growth an dovclopnient of Hobart School-boys, with some notes on Anthropometry," by Cliristian Bjelke-Petersen, read bcfor Section J of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Hobart, 1902, pp. 823-829. CHAPTER XVIII. Iff? CHAPTER XVIII. Manual Training. [J. W. TURNEE.] Introduction. — One of the very noticeable features of the Primary School system of the present day in nearly all countries is the very decided trend in the direction of giving the pupil a good general education ; and so in the common school, which is responsible for the education of the masses, provision is made for instruction in technical, industrial, and commercial subjects, by means of manual training classes, art classes, commercial classes, classes for domestic economy, lessons in elementary science, and Nature study. English Practice. — In England the awakening to the necessity for less book work and more practical teaching is general. All the large towns have made a distinct advance in presenting a broader and more interesting programme of work in their schools. Manual Training is universal, art classes and art centres have been formed in the large cities, a little commercial training is given, and some schools have well furnished laboratories for the teaching of elementary science. For obvious reasons country schools have not the facilities possessed by city schools for giving the broader education, but steps have been taken, with the co-operation of peripatetic teachers, to impart elementary science in the schools of the rural districts. Manual Training in British schools starts in the Infant Department, where it is taught as part of the Kindergarten gifts and occupations. When the pupil is promoted to the primary school he has received a certain amount of hand-and-eye training. This training is continued during the junior stages of his primary course by means of modelling in cardboard and in clay, and in some schools of exercises in Sloyd. As the pupil advances in the school, he becomes eligible for a position in the workshop, where he is taught to work in wood or iron. The subjects of Domestic Economy in the scheme of education for girls receive equal attention with those considered necessary in the training of boys. The results of investigations of the Manual Training system, as seen in English and Continental Schools, are appended. Training in Woodwork — England. — This subject is considered an ordinary branch of school work in the upper classes. No charge is made for tuition, material, or tools. The workshops are all well- appointed, and are usually in charge of young, specially-trained teachers. Some pupil-teachers give up their academic course, and choose the technical side, for the purpose of qualifying as teachers of Manual Training. The result is that the Manual Training classes are well disciplined and well instructed. The work benches are much smaller than those in use in New South Wales State schools, and are so constructed that two boys, one at each end of a bench on opposite sides of it, can work at the same time. The time devoted to the subject is two hours per week, and the methods of instruction are very similar to those adopted in our own workshops. Training in Ironwork — England. — The Commissioners visited a laboratory situated in the centre of a large and important engineering district in the East End of London. Eepresentatives from seven neighbouring schools attend this institution. At the time of the visit applications from two other schools in the same district could not be entertained, as all the vacancies were filled. In the workshop 500 boys receive instruction each week. All the boys from Standard V, that is, boys from about the age of 12 upwards, take the work, and the full course is of three years' duration. They attend in classes of about thirty-six, and are taught by a master and an assistant. The pupils work in iron, steel, tin, zinc, and copper. They spend one hour and a half each week in practical work in the shop, and three-quarters of an hour in drawing. All practical work is done from working drawings executed by the pupil. Each boy has his own stand, and all the necessary instruments are provided free of cost. The cost of each stand with its fittings is 35s. ; the cost of the whole plant in the workshop, £300. The workshop is conducted in the basement of the Board School, and is used as a Continuation School at night. The boys are encouraged in the third year of their course to make their own designs, combining wood and metal. Every boy before he completes his third year makes an electric bell, a motor and a coil. Much of the physical apparatus in the adjoining school laboratory is made by the boys of the workshop, and many of the tools used are their handiwork. Theoretical information regarding the nature of metals is given throughout the course. The head-master of the school in which the workshop is situated bears testimony to the valuable hand-and-eye training which the boys receive. This, he states, is the primary value of such an institution ; but it is a fact that, although the idea of making tradesmen in this workshop is never thought of, the boys, when they have gone through the course, have no difficulty in obtaining good positions in the engineering shops and foundries so numerous in the locality, and employers, while starting such boys on fair wages, concede a year's apprenticeship, and give the youthful employees an opportunity for acquiring a good trade. A school which interests hundreds of pupils annually ; which makes them careful and accurate in measurement; aud which, later on, fits many of them for industrial pursuits, must be classed as serving its purpose. The Commissioners would like to see such schools established in Pyrmont, Newcastle, Lithgow, Balmain, and other industrial centres. Manual 168 Manual Training in Italy. — Side by side with this experience of Manual Training in England, the results and impressions of a visit made to a special school in Turin in the north of Italy are given. Pupils from the elementary schools of the city are enrolled in the school when they have attained the age of 11 years, and the course extends through four years. The teaching is free, except that a nominal charge is made to ensure the proper care of tools. All materials and tools are supplied by the Municipality. The staff consists of ten masters for the various branches, and the .attendance of pupils is 150. The present building is poor and altogether unsuitable for the work carried on. The Municipality has secured a good site and is about to spend 300,000 lire (about £11,200) on up-to-date buildings. The programme includes arithmetic, grammar, physics, drawing, design, woodwork, ironwork. The training, as in East End London, has purely an educational value, and in no branch do the teachers aim at making tradesmen, although many of the old pupils are among the very best workmen in the city. The third-year work in wood — constructing patterns and models — is simply a revelation as to the extent of boys' powers. The amount of work accomplished is great. The furniture is much like that already described in English schools ; the benches are single and are each provided with two lockers for holding the working tools. No special attention is given to ambidextrous work in this school. Practice in iron and wood work alternates every six months. In the ironwork shop there is much to show for the time spent ; and every- thing, from the simple piece of steel to the neat little machine, all handwork, is of good quality and finish. In a sense, this institution is secondary in much of its working, and could be classed with the Manual Training High Schools of America, but the age limit (many of the pupils starting at 11 years) brings it within the scope of the primary system. Manual Training in Switzerland. — One of the evidences of the Swiss teachers' devotion to their calling was observed in the Normal School, Lausanne, during the Summer Vacation of 1902. The regular students were absent on their holidays, and the class-rooms and various workshops of the institution were occupied by 150 teachers from different Cantons in Switzerland learning some particular branch of Manual Training, in order to introduce the work into their own schools. Their attendance was purely voluntary, and their object was to gain knowledge in Manual Training, which would bo of advantage to their pupils, both from the educative and practical points of view. Many of these teachers came from country places in Switzerland, and the vacation classes afforded them the only opportunity for obtaining special instruction in Manual Training. As seen at their work, they showed great earnestness, industry, and assiduity, and all, men and women, seemed bent on getting the fullest knowledge of the branch they were studying in the time that the vacation lasted. Each Canton grants £G per teacher towards the cost of fees and board and lodging. The fees absorb £3 of the grant, and the remaining £3 do not pay for the expense of living ; but these teachers, although their salaries are small, bear the cost ungrudgingly, knowing that they are working for the good of their pupils. This spirit of devotion to their calling is very marked among the Swiss teachers ; and, as one watched these happy, intelligent men and women in the class-rooms and workshops, the reason for the success of the Swiss system of education was, in some degree, explained. Trained teachers, those engaged in the Manual Training Schools of Lausanne, are employed to give the instruction, and the course comprises seventeen branches. Only one branch can bo taken at a session, and the school teachers are at liberty to choose those branches which will be most useful to the children of their districts. The branches most popular are bookbinding, card-board work, clay- modelling, wood-carving. The bookbinding is only elementary in character. The card-board work is very practical in its application. The clay-modelling is from Nature. In wood-carving some very superior work is done. An interesting conversation with one of the teachers engaged in the summer classes elicited some information on school life in rural parts of Switzerland. This gentleman's school has. an attendance of 100 pupils, and is situated near Zurich. He is not able to get sufficient manual instruction in his usual daily programme, and, therefore, he holds voluntary classes on Saturday afternoon for the older boys in the school, and for those who have recently left. He has no difficulty in getting a good attendance. The boys willingly give up their pleasure for the instruction. Sport in Switzerland comes second to work. The people work hard, and the boys at school learn early the meaning and value of industry and perseverance. Manual Training for Boys in Canada. — About three years ago Canada made a strong forward general movement in the direction of introducing Manual Training into her system of public instruction. The impetus came through the munificence of one of her great public men. Sir William Macdonald, who used a portion of his wealth in establishing and equipping Manual Training Schools in several of the large cities of the Dominion. The gentlemen entrusted with the administration of Primary Education in Canada were requested to furnish reports and recommendations as to the best methods of teaching the subject, and the question received the most thorough consideration. Mr. J. L. Hughes, Public School Inspector, in his report on Manual Training, presented to the Toronto Public School Board in December, 1900, says : " Every subject on a school programme has two gets of advantages It may be approved for its educational value, or for its economic or practical value. There should really be no opposition between these values. The most educative subject should be most practical in its influence, and the most practical subject may be made most educative. . . . . A correct system of educative Manual Training should be logically based on the work done in the Kindergarten, and should be adapted to the ages of the boys and girls, too, as they grow older." In summarising his chief reasons, educative and economic, for the introduction of Manual Training, he states : — Educative Reasons -. — " Manual Training is educative chiefly because of its use in the development of power. ... It develops the brain because the mind is called into activity in guiding the hand. . . . . One of the chief reasons why so many pupils are lacking in independent power when they leave 160 leave school is the fact that their work in school has been chiefly the taking in of knowledge. .... The working out of knowledge in some practical way is the only sure way to give it real value, and the only sure way, too, to fix it clearly, definitely, and availably in the mind. . . . Manual Training oifers many varieties of opportunity for motor or executive mind training, and it is therefore of vital importance in the training of an independent, original, and self-reliant race, with power to initiate and accomplish new ideals and plans. ... It trains the observant powers. ... It aids in definite, independent and purposeful observation. ... It forms the best possible basis for mathe- matical culture. . . The development of apperceptive centres of size, form, relationship in the minds of the children is the true basis for mathematical power. It helps to form accurate and definite conceptions in the minds of the children. ... It aids in the development of the power of attention, and the power to give concentrated and sustained attention is the basis of all real intellectual progress. It increases the opportunities for discovering the special power of each individual pupil. . . . It not only aids in revealing the special ability of the child, but it helps to reveal the child to himself. . . . It is a great aid in discipline. ... It helps to form habits of exactness, definiteness, and accuracy. ... It stores the mind with definite, clearly conceived, thoroughly understood ideas that form the basis of accurate thinking, and clear insight in maturer years. ... It aids in physical culture. . . . It is one of the most perfect tonics for the nervous systems of both children and adults. , . . It develops the muscular sense." Mr. Hughes, in his report, quotes Dr. Birch-Hirschfelder, of the University at Leipzig, on the hygienic value of Manual Training in the following extract : — " Instruction in manual dexterity, however, acts in a much higher sense upon the nerves than upon the rmiseles. It works upon the organs of sense, such as sight, muscular sense, &c., which it brings into continual combined activity, and it works upon the peripheral regions of our nervous system. Instruction in manual dexterity is in a higher sense gymnastic of the nerves, and just because it is a gymnastic of the nerves, it has an especially unburdening effect upon the brain, which has been strained by one-sided activity." Mr. Hughes in continuing his own report, says : " Manual Training is the best possible change from study and mere book work for the direct purpose of giving culture. It makes children happy. They are happiest when using their highest power. Their highest power is selfhood, and the highest function of selfhood is original, independent, creative work in constructing something useful It is the only logical basis for a system of technical education in higher schools. ... It has many advantages in helping to lay a true moral basis for full character development. ... It gives the child correct ideas iu regard to work. ... It develops the virtues of neatness, accuracy, diligence, perseverance, order, and definiteness. ... It preserves the taste for work that children have naturally, and increases respect for honest labour. ... It increases the proper respect of men and women for their own powers. ... It makes men more truly practical, more operative, more executive, and more determined to act well instead of merely thinking and feeling well. It has a direct moral influence. Swedish statisticians claim that since the introduction of Sloyd into the schools of Sweden the people have become more thrifty and less drunken." Economic Advantages. — ■" While it does not teach trades, it gives such a training to hand and eye, acting in harmony with an independent mind, as will best qualify for any trade or occupation. . . It enables workmen to meet new conditions in the ever progressive evolution of productive machinery. . . It gives special training in the powers required by the great majority in making a living. ... It aids in qualifying all pupils to reach a higher condition of skill in any trade or occupation they may choose. By increasing the possibilities of attaining a higher degree of skill. Manual Training lays a broader foundation for individual and national wealth. The skilled workman has greater producing power than the unskilled workman. The increase of wealth-producing power adds to the possibility of comfort and culture in the home, and all the incidental physical, intellectual, and moral advantages resulting naturally from such improved conditions. Manual Training accomplishes its best work in the early years of a child's life." Mr. Hughes concludes an able report, of which only the most salient points are given, by submitting a few extracts from the report presented to the Imperial Parliament by the Commissioners on Manual Instruction in the primary schools under the National Board of Education in Ireland, in the year 1898, after taking the evidence of 186 of the leading educators of Europe: — We express our strong conviction that manual and practical instruction ought to be introduced, as far as possible, into all schools wliere it does not at present exist, and that in those schools where it does exist it ought to be largely developed and extended. We are satisfied that such a change will not involve any detriment to the literary education of the pupils, while it will contribute largely to i I I ij l;^^ <*■ -/'- 4 STRING W/NDER 6". r- ''^li-i GLOVE MENDER H Tip' CAT *-t- y "\^ /x: — > PAPER HN/FE~''^*~' BEVEL ON ONE S/DE ONLY ^ _i* LETTER OPENER -6' Rsp/ 6i"--. /i 1 j 1 1 (1 1 1 1 MN 1 1 t V; 1 1 1 : 1 1 1 A.. \ - 1 1 ClIOS Zf' 9 ■r I I *■ — B'^ -^ - 4 I I I » •k - o o ;^; o o : n mi-. It wrg /ri I I I ! I I J I I I 5T QUO/T PEG 4; EA/D MORTfSE JO/ NT It-/;"-* *-4" ,2.' \ TEAfPLA TES fOf{ BOAT MODEL */!:"-» DOUE' TAIL JO/NT (1 ,1 .1 * N wi; 1 1^ .^"- jv/'k. -^"'- •• LEVEL 174 CHAPTER XIX. Manual Training and Sloyd. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introduction. — Some form of manual training is a feature of primary education in all countries. The manual exercises of various kinds that are in vogue may be classified under two headings, viz. :— (a) Manual training that is of the nature of trade-teaching. (b) Manual training that is specially designed to be educative, and without regard to its immediate value, with respect to a particular handicraft. In the former the characteristic tendency is to confine the practice to the making of ordinary or useful articles.. For example, if the manual work be wood- work, the simpler exercises of the carpenter and joiner are selected as appropriate. In the latter these are not taken, because, though important from the standpoint of the particular trades, they are deemed to be of inferior educative value in comparison with certain other exercises. In the former system it is sought to attain manual dexterity by the exercises involved in a particular handicraft ;-in -the latter the aim is to develope general manual dexterity, serviceable in all handicrafts rather than in some particular one. Sloyd, for example, is not carpentering, but educative manual training. Carpentering, of course, may alsp to some extent be made educative, but its chief design is utilitarian, and as a system of educative exercises is, according to the advocates of Sloyd, of inferior value. 2. Moral value of manual training. — All educationists agree that manual work may be made a factor of high moral value in the education of children. It does three things, viz. ; — (i) Developes the co-ordination of muscular effort. (ii) Leads to self-control through its disciplinary character. (lit) Developes self-expression, and clearness of idea as to form, etc. Referring to these seriatim, it may he said of the first, that of course no system of exercises exhausts the possibilities of acquiring muscular independence and co-ordination. But a well designed educative system goes further in that direction than a merely utilitarian one ; that is to say, it is ultimately of higher practical value. In regard to (ii), it may be noted that children do not naturally execute their tasks with precision and exa;ct regard to detail, but are indifferent to such matters. Educative manual work supplies the corrective, by absolutely demanding accuracy as regards dimensions and form. The elimination of slovenliness and heedlessness is disciplinary in a very high degree, and the careful habits engendered by the exercises tend to express themselves in the entire domain of the child's life. The third point is equally important. The consciousness of form is intensified by its translation from idea, to an outward reality. So that when a child makes anything with attention and care, his muscular efforts, sight, etc., are all being trained in appreciation of form. At the same time, he is acquiring the consciousness of power of doing ; his self-expression is evoked. This training in habits of accuracy, and this development of the consciousness of practical skill, are that which make educative manual work so valuable. The child feels that he can achieve something of real worth. Children who have been so trained generally make good workmen afterwards. 3. Oontinuity of Manual Training. — The simplest forms of manual training commence in the kindergarten in the little exercises in which the children are taught to use their fingers, and it is recognised as desirable that there should be no break in passing from the kindergarten through the infant-school proper, to the highest grade of work. At the 12th Annual Meeting of the " British Sloyd Association," held 14th February, 1903, the committee's report drew attention to this matter in the following words : — " In this connection, your committee views with concern the practice of many school authorities to discontinue the practical occupations of the kindergarten as soon as children are removed from the infant schools, and to return to handwork only in the higher classes of the senior schools. The manual work of the higher classes is not connected with any similar work leading through the lower classes to woodwork or metal work in the higher classes Your committee would, however, urge school managers and others responsible for the organisation of school handwork, to formulate progressive courses of instruction from the kindergarten to the advanced work of the higher classes in senior schools. It is only by such progressive work that full benefit can be derived from the wood and metal work which are \iBualIy taken up by the older scholars." " It is felt that the handwork should be brought into closer connection with the ordinary school work than is commonly the case. Much may be done in this way, especially in schools where mechanics or some similar study is taken up ; and the makin^; of simple nieces of physical apparatus might very well form an application of handwork exercises. While the periodical exhibitions of such apparatus held by the London School Board shew how much has been done in this direction, they also shew that much may •till be done." Continuity 175 Continuity in the manual training, each exercise forming a part of a series, in a scheme extending in a systematic and regular way from the lowest to the highest classes, will reach the best results. It is not sufficient, therefore, to have merely some form of manual work, but a developed form, properly designed to occupy the pupil throughout, passing, as time goes on, more and more into the region of invention, rather than mere reproduction. 4. Practical value of Manual Worlc. — Mr. Booker T. Washington's Normal and Industrial Institute at Tuskegep, Alabama, is a splendid example of the educative value of practical training as compared with mere knowledge about things. All forms of practical — i.e., manipulative — work, from the construction in cardboard of geometrical solids, to clay-modelling, etc., are valuable. Speaking of " The Manual Training Movement in America," in a paper under that title read in February last, Mr. H. Thistleton Mark (Owens College, Manchester), says: — " Here we have .... two characteristic American ideas with regard to manual training. We are shewn, on the one hand, how it comes about that clay-modelling, form-study, the construction of type-forms in paper and cardboard, and other exercises are included under 'drawing' in many of the courses of study for American schools. We are also brought face to face with the view — surely one which, in every presenting of the case in favour of educational handwork, we should all wish to keep in mind, viz., that handwork is a direct means of obtaining real and valuable knowledge. Just as Pestalozzi urged that expression in language, both clenched and riveted ideas, and expressed ideas, so the American view of manual training is that it strengthens the child's grasp of knowledge at the same time that it opens up a way — and one of enormous educational value^of giving expression to his knowledge." And later he ably sums up in five propositions his conception of the view taken by American educators as to the value of manual training, and of their practical realisation of it, as follows: — (i) " Educational handwork is either it itself a source, or, when not a source, a strengthener of ideas. Many forms of knowledge, whether of literature, or history, or geometry, or the study of industry, are regarded as incapable of complete assimilation by the child without manual illustration and accompaniment. The impulse to correlate is very strong amongst American educators. (ii) " The training of the power to express thought is always one of the aims .... especially when arranging manual occupations for children in the primary schools. It is not only that working with the hand is part of the process of acquisition, but that it is . . . . one of the arts of expression. The child shews what he knows and thinks, not only by what he says, but also by what he makes. The hand shares with the organs of speech the honour of being a sort of projected brain. (iii) " In the lower grades .... an expedient is adopted whereby only a portion of the class is engaged with the teacher in oral work at the same time, the other portion or portions being occupied with what is known as seat work, or desk work, or busy work. Often this consists merely of applications of exercises upon lessons already done with the teacher ; often it is an opportunity for handwork associated with those lessons, for the most part self- directed. (Dr. Harris, the United States Commissioner of Education, speaks of this as a means of training the power of " absorptive attention," i.e., the attention to what one is doing one's self, as distinguished from "the alert or critical attention" evoked by the oral lesson, which is largely attending to what others are doing. We all know what is meant by the absorbed attention of the occupied child, and can readily see, more particularly if we have sat under Herr Salomon at Naas, the value of handwork as a means of strengthening self-reliance and self-control.) (iv) " Clearly this is the most direct way of training the child in mastery over the material elements, in the presence of which he must in one way or another assert his power later on As one expert manual instructor said to me: " Life in the large sense is an activity; literature and information, apart from practical wajs of acting and expressing thought, are only second-hand life ; experience gives a child knowledge of himself, and helps to build up character." " A boy," he added, " likes to deal with forces ; he has the feeling — When I am a man I want to do this." Handwork as a means for the developing of power has, therefore, many advocates amongst American teachers. (v) " One other point .... is specially characteristic .... Handwork of various kinds assumes a high educational value when taken in connection with the study of man's industrial life. At the University Elementary School in Chicago, known in England through Dr. John Dewey's book, " The School and Society," and other writings, the story of man's social progress, and the rise of the various industries in connection therewith, form a prominent — the most prominent— feature in the curriculum. Yet, as all know who have followed this most interesting experiment, which already is having far-reaching effects upon American education in general, the handwork is introduced for its human values rather than in any direct sense for its industrial value." Mr. Thistleton Mark points out that, even from the side of curriculum, the educational ideal is not summed up in the three R's, but in the education of head, hand, heart, — with a view to the maintenance of practical ability and sagacity, and high ideals of citizenship. He adds later: "Manual training or educational handwork, is not a mere device or expedient; it is a part of our educational creed. To co-ordinate hand and arm power with seeing power, and thereby to develope both — to connect hand power and seeing power with thought power — and whilst doing these things not to improve the mechanism of mind and body merely, but to cultivate an attitude of preparedness in facing practical issues, are ends well worthy of the educator's most earnest effort. The young American starts life with the idea that he is going to find a way through ; he has acquired the habit of attacking problems rather than that of waiting for problems to attack him. Handwork, expression work, the co-ordinating of mind with muscle, are of value for the temper and quality of mind and spirit which they help to develope. The education of the hand is a necessary accompaniment of the education of the intellect, not only if we would make the most of the boys and girls before us, but if we would do our part to maintain 176 maintain and prepare for new and more complex uses the great British endowment of practical capacity in a world which disowns all waste, whether of material or of power In so far as the child's doing is made to accompany his learning, will it be more possible for learning to accompany the industrial student's doing ? . . . . Since the introduction of manual training, parents had been more willing to pay the school tax. It had improved the morale of many of the children, and awakened within them a new consciousness of power and of opportunity." 5. Rational Theory of Manual Training. — What has been said so far leaves little doubt as to the significance of the evidence from an empirical standpoint ; but the subject appears in still stronger relief when viewed from the rational standpoint. Physiology and psychology, and pathological researches, have deepened the recognition of its real nature. Men like Pestalozzi and Froebel saw by intuition, or felt by instinct, that manual dexterity and practical intelligence might deteriorate in merely academic study. Professor Marshall (Extraord. Professor of Zoology, Leipzig), in {& monograph on the human mind, has shewn how significant is the part played by the tactile organs and their associated nerves in developing our mental powers, and Seguin and other workers in the education of " defectives " have brought to light the fact that, in manual training and occupations, defectives may be greatly helped — in fact, it is largely the key to their education. According to a phrase of Herbart, the child " sees, thinks, acts," and Froebel, in his " Menschener- ziehung" (Human Education), urged that every child, boy, or youth, whatever his place in life, should devote from one to two hours daily to some definite piece of material (or manual) work. A school which provides, as so many schools do, only for listening and not for doing, has an academic and not a practical tendency. Again, real life is individual ; yet in many, especially large, schools the children tend to be dealt with en masse. The school that truly equips for life is the school that recognises the necessity for self- expression, for individuality. This brings into relief one great principle in manual training, viz., the necessity for individuality of teaching and individuality of effort. The idea developing to-day in the world in regard to education is that touch with the subject matter must be realistic, not literary. " Froebel," said Mr Hudson,' " held that children are born with a great capacity for enjoying the sights and sounds and changes which go on in Nature around them. The child's sympathy with flowers, birds, and animals must be fostered. He is not to bp talked to about these things, nor encouraged to talk about them, but he should be in living contact with them, and occupied with them. His needs are met, not by the dry facts about Nature, but by personal relations with Nature, and through the child's own observations fresh knowledge is gained, stimulating fresh thought, and leading to further self-expression." In the same paper, Mr. Hudson later points out that the lack in school-life of action, by means of which we become " individualised and vitalised," is responsible for its failure to produce practical tendency. The child is naturally more an active than a listening being ; yet in ordinary forms of education we demand that he shall be a listener, not a doer. That is what the advocates of manual training wish to alter. Let the arithmetic and geometry, the algebra and mensuration, be practical ; and later we shall havfi no difiBculty about interest in these subjects, and about advancing the theoretical side of them." 6. Sloyd.— One of the most perfectly-developed forms of manual training is what is known as Sloyd.^ At Naas, an ancient property, which, according to tradition, was, in the I5th century, a royal hunting chateau, is the picturesque seminary of Sloyd, where the Commissioners spent an afternoon and evening with Dr. Otto Salomon, the Director, and his family. Sloyd had its origin in the year 1860-1870 in a movement which, commencing with no other aim than an immediately practical one, has drifted little by little into a more widely-educative one. In the long nights of the North there was little to do but find interior occupation, so men cut and carved, and women wove and knitted. These occupations were " sloyd." August Abrahamson, born at Karlskrona, 29th December, 1817, arrived at Gothenburg in 1831, founded an iinporting-house in 1840, and, having made a fortune by 1868, retired to Naas. In 1872 he established the " Boys' School for Sloyd," and was assisted in this enterprise by his nephew— now the Director, — Dr. Otto Salomon. At first, ten hours a day for fifty weeks a year were devoted to teaching, seven hours being given to Sloyd, and three hours to arithmetic, geometry, and linear drawing. In 1874 a similar school for girls was founded ; in 1877 a school of apprenticeship. These, in 1882, were replaced by the Normal School for Sloyd, with a concentration of effort upon short classes for the training of professors of Sloyd. The following will give an idea of the total number of attendances for the successive five years from 1875 : — Years 1875-9 1880-4 1885-9 1890-4 1895-9 Pupils 57 386 1,052 1,384 1,296— Total, 4,175 There have been actually 3,130 pupils, viz. : — Sweden 2,332 Russia 32 Roumania 4 Uruguay 2 England and Wales 312 Austria 26 Prance 3 Servia 1 Finland 63 Germany 24 Belgium 3 Abyssinia 1 United States 63 Italy 16 Switzerland 3 Brazil 1 Norway 59 Hungary 15 Argentine Republic.. . 3 Canada 1 Denmark 52 Bulgaria 9 Egypt 1 The Cape 1 Scotland 49 Ireland 5 Japan 2 Chili 1 Holland 36 East Indies 5 Iceland 2 The obligatory programme at the Normal School comprises two parts, viz. — (a) theoretical, and (b) practical. These consist of — (a) conferences, lectures, discussions, etc. ; (i) Sloyd practice, drawing, gymnastics. The ' " What is Sloyd ?" J. C. Hudson. London. 1902. * Professor Klein (Leipzig) set up a workshop for modelling near his Ificture-rcom, so that his students, after calculating curves and surfaces of liigher orders, could produce them in a plaster cast. In California University the practice of modelling structures after dissecting (first by copying, then from memory) is followed, so as to develope clear ideas and accurate memory of form. 'In Swedish " Slojd " is industry ; cf. sl8g — handy, dexterous. It is pronounced nearly like "sleude" would be in French, but the " Qj " is more liquid than the "eu." The nearest English sound is the word " slur " (with "r" silent), and " id " ending it : thus, slu(r)id ; but this is not the real sound of the Swedish word. 177 The conferences divide sometimes into two sections, viz. — (i) systematic and (ii) historic. The courses take practical account of the place in Sloyd in general psedagogy, so that the touch of the subject with the following subjects is considered : — General Paedagogy Hygiene Esthetics Methodology Technology of Tools Psychology History of Education. The founder and Dr. Otto Salomon have developed the system with special care. The latter, a disciple of Pestalozzi and Proebel, has caught their spirit of thoroughness ; and, while the casual visitor of Naas will be struck with what he sees, it is only the serious student of the system who can realise what is hidden therein, both in thoroughness of thought and careful elaboration of the system. The founder died in 1898, over 80 years of age.' The property is worth about £10,000, and all persons who have spent any time there seemed to have been delighted with their stay and its profit. In the collections of Sloyd models there are now over 2,500 different forms. 7. The Principles of Sloyd. — The fundamental principles of the Sloyd system are— (1) The instruction must conform to a fixed system, and not be subject to the arbitrary choice of the pupil. (2) It must be taught by a special teacher, who poBsesses a knowledge of psedagogic theory, etc., and not merely by a tradesman. The first is a consequence merely of the fact that the system follows a definite educative plan, which is known to the student of Sloyd education, but not to the child learning it. The second is a necessary sequitur, if it be admitted that the system is educative. To imagine that Sloyd is merely woodwork or metal-work, as the case may be, is to completely misconceive its character ; its value lies in its formative function, both in respect of character and manual dexterity. There are some other principles expressed in the system, viz.: — (i) The instruction may not be obligatory, but must always remain optional. (ii) The pupils must make useful and not luxurious things. (iii) The instruction must be adapted to each individual and not be uniform for all. (iv) The articles must remain the property of the pupil and may not be disposed of for the benefit of the school. (v) The articles must be made with great care and accuracy, but regard must be had to the sound development of the body. That which special!}' characterises the Naas system, says Mr. P. Chr. Hansen, is that they are not founded upon abstract preparatory exercises, such for example, as sawing, planing, chiselling, etc' The principle expressed all through is that through the series of models that afford the eighty-eight (?) exercises in woodwork, one passes from the easy to difficult, simplex to complex, concrete to abstract. In the models there are a certain number of " form " articles, whose design is to specially invoke the use of the eyes and to strengthen the sense of form. Uno Cygneeus, the " father of the primary school " in Finland, had conceived the idea of applying the Froebelian principle of education to the teaching of children right through their school life. Dr. Salomon had interested himself in village industries known as home-sloyd, and, after meeting Cygnseus, he elaborated that educational system of handwork which has thus appropriated the name " Sloyd." It should be recollected that educative sloyd is not restricted to a particular model, or set of models, but to some methodically developed set. This point will again be referred to. 8. A Criticism of Sloyd. — Sloyd is in principle the extension of the principles of Froebel, which he shewed could educatively transform the infant school. Mr. Hudson^ says that Dr. Salomon's thirty years' experimental work have led him (Dr. Salomon) to the following conclusions, viz. :• — (1) "That the aims of Sloyd — and, may we not say, of all forms of concrete instruction? — for educational purposes must be to arouse and stimulate logical thinking and concentration of thought. (2) To create unselfish ambition (work for work's sake). (3) To express knowledge in forms of beauty, and for definite, unselfish ends. (4) To implant a scorn for shams by developing a love of what is genuine and good. (5) To help the mental and moral development by securing a normal physical development. (6) To teach the child to investigate, measure, compare, invent. (7) To develope judgment, discrimination, and taste." " Salomon has expressed these ideas very completely and with wonderful truth and detail in a system of wood-work suited for children from 10 to 14 years of age. This period has appealed to him as strongly as the earlier years of school life did to Froebel, and to him and those who think with him, this occupation for scholars of these ages recommends itself because — (i) Sloyd wood-work accords best with the ' An extremely interesting article on Naas will be found in " Der Arbeit erf reund " (The Worker's Friend), 16'"" Jahrg. This paper is a German journal for workmen's questions, and is the organ of the Central Union tor the welfare of the working classes. (Organ des Central-Vereins fiir das Wohl der arbeitenden Klassen.) ' iJas, was die Naaser methode besonders kennzeichnet, ist, dass sie nicht auf die Einiibung von abstrakten vorbereitenden Uebungen, z.b. Sagen, Hobeln, Stemmen u.s.w. gegriindet ist, p. 23. Sonderabdruck aus der Arbeiterfreund. 'Loc. cit., pp. 3-4. UNlYr.RHITY Of THE 178 the children's capabilities at this age ; (ii) it excites and sustains interest better than any other form of school hand-work ; (iii) the objects made are useful ; (iv) it gives respect for rough forms of hand labour ; (v) it trains to order and exactness, and this in a higher degree than work in any other material ; (vi) it inculcates habits of neatness and cleanliness; (vii) it cultivates a sense of form; (viii) it is beneficial from a hygienic point of view; (ix) it allows of methodical arrangement; (i) it trains the hand in general dexterity of manipulation better than any other form of work. "Sloyd differs from what is know as manual training in the following particulars: — (i) its insistence upon developing the creative faculties of the child by the making of the useful model, which is to be a contribution to the home life ; (ii) the essential proportion which must exist between exercise, drawing, and tool ; (iii) the variety of models used ; (iv) the number and variety of the tools employed ; (v) the prominence given to form or freehand curved work in wood ; (vi) and above all, by putting the development of the child first, and all through. " Go into a room where the children are doing Sloyd work, under a sympathetic and intelligent teacher, and we find just that buoyant, vigorous, free, yet orderly spirit prevailing throughout, with the unconscious influences for guiding and educating each other, so characteristic of true kindergarten training ; the same intense self-activity of mind, and the same eagerness to attack difficulties and to overcome them. " Primary, secondary, and college teachers, school inspectors, and university professors, agree that the training which they received at Naiis opened up entirely new conceptions of the work of teaching, and that it has been a lite-long stimulus to them. Are not such results similar to the effects of a good kindergarten training?" Mr. John Byatt, Organising Inspector of the Manual Training College of Victoria, who has been an instructor and has had experience of three different systems of manual work, speaks very strongly of the advantages of the Sloyd system, as seen by him in practical experience. He points out'* that the purpose of Sloyd is to develope a hoy's faculties, not to teach him a trade; but he has also testified that the educative value of Sloyd is so high that the practical exercises of carpentry are also more excellently done by the Sloyd pupil. And this is what one would expect. The principle is right. Specific applications to trades come later in life. In the folk school, the education is properly general, and Sloyd is a general not a special preparation ; and therein lies its value. Mr. Byatt expresses it well when he says : — " Manual training is, iti reality, nothing but an advanced and gradual development of intuitive instruction." And in discussing the question of the value of manual training in general, he says : — " It was Pestalozzi who headed the struggle against verbalism to secure for children instruction through observation and intuition. His earnest pleading and precept won the day. " Doing battle for ' Intuitive Instruction ' he broke down the old routine of mechanical teaching and reformed elementary education. ... A child while engaged in handwork is never free from the necessity for intelligent observation. Pestalozzi could not, from his own nature and the circumstances of his life, forsee the consequence towards which his psedagogical reform tended, but he clearly shewed the way to it. Froebel, a pupil of his, was the first to follow his lead, and what Froebel did for early childhood, that we now continue for boyhood's school years. . . . The characteristic idea of Froebel's teaching was that the root of all educational development is action, which has for its ultimate aim, not only mere physical exercise, but the unfolding, the development, and strengthening of the mental faculties. " I think that the phaenomenal success of manual training and the wonderful progress it has made in all parts of the world, are due, very largely, to the fact that it aflfords a legitimate opportunity for the operation of this law of nature and goes a long way towards satisfying the innate craving for activity and faculty of constructiveness which are inherent in every normal child." Of the value of it all to the homes of Australian people there is little need to speak. To quote again from Mr. Byatt: — " Sloyd is a powerful factor in training in the habits of order and accuracy, cleanliness and neatness. We must all agree that the possession of these habits is of prime importance, both in business as well as in the home. ... No small part of the value of Sloyd is in the handiness acquired which enables a man to make his home more comfortable. . . . Consider for a moment the vast difference between handy and unhandy persons. . . . Owing to their unreadiness and lack of resource, they cannot hold their places among other people. No matter how capable they may be of abstract thought, there is a part of their being which, if strictly honest, they cannot respect. But he whose hands are deft and trained has a sense of mastership and power ; he is lord of himself and his actions, and more than this, there is in him a great power of helpfulness." 9. Sloyd series of Exercises. — Through the courtesy of Dr. Ambrosius, chief of the schools of Gothenburg, the Commissioners saw the wood and metal work in the schools, both excellently finished. In the Gothenburg Folkschool's Model Series for Wood-work (Goteborgs Folkskolors Modellserie for Traslojd), examples (5) shewing proper positions at work are given even before the preface of the work. There are over 50 examples.' The series for metal- work (metallslojd) has 34 examples, the last being a skate (skridskor).' The Naas series (NaAs modellserie for pedagogisk snickerislojd)' contains 40 examples, and an analysis thereof of a very complete character. „ The Helsingfors series of Mr. Vihlman's (Modellritningar for skolslojd of Ivar Vihlman, Forestan- dare for Slojdundervisningen i Helsingfors Folkskolors).* Still more complete are Mr. Stenback's set of about 70 exercises,' also for Helsingfors. All these are beautifully got up, and one cannot help realising how '*The Australian Journal of Education. Ist July, 1903, p. 1.3. ' Prefactory remarks (Forord) by Artur Leffler, Sloyd inspector. ' ,, „ „ Hans HalUn „ „ • Kaas model series for psedagogic " joinery,'' Sloyd. ♦ Model drawings for school, Sloyd, by Ivar Vihlman, director for Sloyd-instruction in the Folk-schools of Helsingfors. ' Mallikokoelman piirustuksia kasityo-opetustia varten kansakouluiasa, Helsingissa, 1888. Model collection of drawings comprehending the Sloyd-jnstruction for folk-schools. 179 how much more ready these northern peoples are to put their instruction on a thorough basis than we aro. To put manual training in the primary school on anything like a comparable basis we have a long way to go and much to do. Among the finest examples of drawings seen by the Commissionera are the model-drawings of artisans' schools used in the Tsesarevitch (Czarevitch) Nicolas' lower technical school (Mr. G. U. Gesse, Inspector). These could hardly be surpassed in excellence. 10. Sloyd for Oirh. — In Copenl-.agen, it may be mentioned, in a higher girls' school, Sloyd in exactly the same form as for boys, is also taught to girls, they having similar benches, etc.. and in addition to this they do also the ordinary lighter forms of manual work especially designed for girls. The pupils, attending this school are of the higher class socially, and it is worth noting that the work is very popular with them. There is reason to believe that a light ibrni of such Sloyd is as desirable for girls as for boys, and would be much appreciated. Very many ladies in Northern Europe do light wood-work, carving, etc., and enjoy it. If girls desire to undertake work of the kind there seems to be no reason why they should be disallowed. 11. Swiss ideas of Manual Traininrj. — The conclusions reached by the Swiss as regards manual training are of interest and value. The following is a translation from the Ecport on Education and Instruction, Group XVII, of the National SwisB Exhibition at Geneva, 1896 (pp. 422-42C). The writer of the original is M. Leon Genoud : — (1) With a view to assuring a complete and harmonious cultivation of the faculties of the child manual education ouijht to be on the fame jooting in the school as intellectual and moral education, which it supplements. This manual education consists as much in elementary manual exercises developing dexterity of the two hands, exactness of sight, as in the actual execution of manual work. (2) Consequently manual work ought to constitute part of the school programmes from the first year. (3) The teaching of manual work ought to be based on the same general principles as the teaching of other branches of the programme. Thus the (qualified) teacher ought to be alone charged with giving such instruction. (l) The teaching of manual work ought to be intimately connected with the teaching of llie geometrical forms and drawing upon which it is baaed. It could be very useful in the teaching of arithmetic, geometry, and natural science. (5) In towns it may be so arranged as to develope the aesthetic feeling of the future workman. In the country the manual work should give the children a taste for agricultural matters. (C) Each subject ought to bo made according to exact dimensions, and either before or after should be drawn (recording to the age and development of the pupil) in a sketch-book with which each pupil ought to be provided. (7) The manual work ought to bo varied and attractive. To that end it is necessary that the master exercise his ingenuity. (8) The things made should belong to each domain, viz., the school, home, garden, and even games. In the country the objects should relate to agriculture, for it is essential that the child be interested in it, working with pleasure. One might also specially recommend carving with the penknife {sculpture en cache), for it developes the taste for manual work and instructs the child. For theoretical lessons (teaching of arithmetic, geometry, drawing, geography, and natural science) the master could, with his pupils, prepare certain strong and simple demonstration apparatus, relief which would make his teaching more clear, interesting, instructive, and profitable. (9) The selected objects to be made by the class should be executed by the teacher, who is thus able to ascertain the best way of proceeding and of judiciously judging the value of the work. M. Leon Genoud recommends the following programme : — (i) Lower Division Froebelian occupations. ( i) Middle Division Froebclian occupation?, and work in paper and cardboard. (iii) Higher division Wood-work, demonstration, apparatus. In towns, carving wltli penknife ; in the country, practical agricultural instruction, and the making of simple tools for farm or garden. These exercises M. Genoud would develope as follows : — (i) Exercises for both hands on the black-board, following the system of Liberty-Tuad.' Exercises designed to develope manual dexterity, and to exercise at the same time the attention, intelligence, and address. The little children do folding and weaving, the more advanced the cutting-out of objects in thin cardboard, the whole to be combined with the instruction in drawing, arithmetic, and object-lessons These works could occasionally be executed in the class-rooms. (ii) The manual exercises ought, as far as possible, to be related to the ordinary exercises in arithmetic, the study of geometrical forms, and drawing. City. — Continuation of the cutting-out of cardboard, making of small objects by means of strips of metal plate, fastened by means of rivets (cold); small objects made of wood with a knife. Country. — Agricultural work should be explained by the notions of physical and natural science, experimentally taught. Making of various sample tools for use in farm and garden. (ii) ' Sui)erintondont of the Public Industrial Art School, Philadelphia 15—2 A 180 (iii) In the last two years account should be taken of the exigencies of real life above all that of the country One must endeavour to give the child a taste for agricultural matters, by orientating the general teaching in the direction of the needs of agriculture. Town. — Objects in wood and in strips of metal ; making from time to time and in various materials, by several pupils only, such simple instruments as will be useful in teaching various branches of the programme, arithmetic, drawing, and geometry. This apparatus should always be the result of technical work (preparatory exercises). In the choice of work, not serving the purposes of demonstration, it is necessary to take account of the social positions of the parents, and as to form, it ought to be as elegant as possible. In order to develops taste, earying (penknife) is specially recommendable. One might also add carving on the flat. Country. — Completions of the conceptions of agriculture by experimental lessons (the apparatus or instruments being made by the master, assisted by the pupils) by means of objects that may be found everywhere. Agricultural work in wood, then, perhaps, in metal sheet, making various utensils. For the country. Dr. W. Goetze, Director of the Normal School of Leipzig, proposes the following programme : — Aboriculture in the orchards and along roads ; kitchen-gardening, floriculture (in spring and autumn). In winter, wood-work aud metal-work, without workshop.' 12. Conclusions. — The following recommendations express the conclusions of the Commissioners :— • (1) Manual training should be included in the curriculum of the public schools in all the larger towns, as a natural extension of kindergarten, and because of its educative and practical value. (2) It should take the form of Sloyd,^ and not be merely trade teaching. Carpentry is not comparable to Sloyd ; nor is it adequate. (3) It should be taught by properly-trained teachers who have properly learnt Sloyd, and are thoroughly acquainted with its theory. (4) Instruction in Sloyd should form part of the curriculum in the training college. 'For some account of mannal work without a special workshop, see Rapports du Jury International. — Oroupe I ; Education et enseignenient. Exposition Universelle Internationale de 1900, Paris.— 1902, pp. 271-273 (Travail manuel), find pp. 273-276 (Travail manuel sans atelier). ' By Sloyd is meant any viethodically -developed series of exercises specially designed so that their educative value is a maximum, and thus distinguished from desultory exercises, or those that are not methodically developed. CHAPTER XX. 181 CHAPTER XX. Drawing in the London Board Schools and in the Schools of San Francisco. [J. W. TURNER. Introdtiction. — If one were asked in what branch of primary education has there been the greatest advance of late years, or in what direction has the teaching had any particular tendency, the reply would In all probability be, in drawing and art classes. The best of the London Board Schools cannot be classed with the best of the schoals in the provincial towns in respect to the teaching of science and commerce, but in the matter of drawing the London Board Schools are doing superior work. The position of New South Wales schools in regard to drawing is far from satisfactory. It is really surprising how much we are behind the weakest of the elementary schools, and the leeway we have to make up is almost disheartening. It is not the purpose of this chapter to say where the fault lies, but the subject in our State Schools has had too little importance attached to it in the past, and while other countries have made drawing one of the strongest subjects in their curriculum, alike on account of its educational as well as practical value, we have been content to give it a minor place in our programmes, and the minimum amount of time in its teaching. A complete revision of the drawing syllabus, showing more definitely what is required from each class, and a knowledge of the most modern methods of treating the subject, are necessary preparatory steps towards placing the instruction on a proper basis. (See drawing iyllahus London School Board.) It is quite beyond the power of any one man to organise and thoroughly superintend the drawing if he is held responsible for teaching the subject in the Training Schools, and examining and instructing the pupils in the public schools. Sydney and suburbs alone should have six trained art masters, and towns like Newcastle, Bathurst, Goulburn, Parramatta, Broken Hill, Albury, Armidalfe, Grafton, Dubbo, should be formed into centres, each with its residential art master. As showing the value placed on the subject in other places it is only necessary to say that the London School Board employs sixty experts to carry on the work of its art classes in the primary schools. A tery praiseworthy exhibition of drawing was conducted by Mr. J. E. Branch, Department of Public Instruction, at the recent Public School Teachers' Conference in this State. The sections of work represented were ambidextrous and free-arm drawing, brush work, and clay-modelling. The results shown by the children who gave the practical demonstration were very good, especially in the first and second sections. The Commissioners have also seen Mr. Branch's programme of work for the Training School, and are pleased to be able to state that in so far as one man can be successful, the teaching of the subject is likely to be brought into line with the best methods of other countries. London Board Schools — Draivinq and Art Classes. — The Coil's Eoad Board School, Peckham, was particularly recommended by one of His Majesty's Inspectors as one of the best schools for art work under the London School Board. The gentleman in charge of the art class is one of the art masters specially employed by the Board, and is also an assistant inspector of drawing. The school is a centre for five schools in the immediate district, and pupils of Standard IV and upwards, about ten to fourteen years of age, are admitted to the art classes. The art room is one of the buildings of the Board School, Coil's Koad, and is used exclusively for its purpose. It is well provided with all the necessary furniture. Two hours' instruction are given in the subject every week. The number in a class at the lesson is twenty-five, and these are instructed by the art master and an assistant. The branches which receive most attention are freehand drawing, model drawing, clay-modelling, and drawing from Nature. General instruction on the object to be drawn is first given by the master, and then the pupil is left largely to his own resources, getting individual attention as time permits. Each pupil models from a cast which he has previously studied as a freehand exercise. Clay-modelling and Nature drawing are the particular subjects in the course. There are fifty classes for clay-modelling under the control of the London School Board, giving instruction to 7,000 pupils. In this school alone 100 are taught every week. The aim of the master is to make his work educative rather than imitative, and he claims for his method that it exercises the powers of observation, trains the pupils to appreciate art subjects, and in some cases creates fine artistic tastes. It also has an economic value, as many of the pupils who have gone through his course specialise in the subject in the art classes of Technical Colleges, and ultimately find that their training is an avenue to employment in architects' offices, &c. Drawing from Nature seems to be the real essence of the more intellectual art teaching in the primary schools of England at the present time. In teaching the subject the idea is not to get accuracy of detail, but faithful general representations. The art room, Coil's Eoad, is surrounded with the pupils' work, all of which is of high character. There is less in the *ay of design in this school than may be seen at Fleet Eoad and Broomsleigh Board Schools, but more modelling in clay and more Nature drawing. The master's methods are very sound, and the whole teaching of the subject accords with the most modern ideas. Fleet Road Board School, Mampstead. — In this school there are classes of boys and girls from ex-standard VII., over fourteen years of age, receiving regular drawing lessons from a gentleman trained in the art classes under the London School Board. He is a peripatetic instructor, and this is one of a number of schools in London in which he is employed specially to teach the subject. The course extends over two years, and in this class the pupils Tccehe foicr hours' instruction in the subject each week. The work that came under review was designing; drawing in black and white from the object; modelling in clay from a pattern previously designed in cencil ; original designs fur lamp-shades, tapestries, silk hangings, dados lace, . 182 lacc, ladies' hat-pins, &c. ; pen and ink sketches o£ vcgetabloa and fruit, from the original ; Nature drawing from flowers and fruits. The teaching is intelligent and educative in all branches. The pupils' powers of observation are developed, and originality of ideas is encouraged. BroomsJeigh Road Board School. — The aim of the visiting drawing teacher in this school is largely to produce artistic and practical designs. The lower standards are taught by the ordinary staft' of the school, but the highest, Standards VI and VII, are under the special care of the drawing teacher. Brush work and free-arm drawing are taken in the lower standards. Model drawing and perspective in the higher standards are treated in the representation of common objects and in the plans of parts of the buildings. A class was seen drawing an open umbrella from the object placed on a table in front of the class. The boys were allowed three-quarters of an hour for the drawing and shading, and the majority made good work. One boy made a very fine drawing of the main archway of the school. Drawing from Nature and the object receives prominence in the London Schools where expert teachers are employed. Merely mechanical drawing, unless it serves as an auxiliary to some higher work, as for example the production of designs, is considered of little value. In none of the London Schools visited was ambidextrous drawing seen. Drawing in the Schools of San Francisco. — During the Commissioners' stay in San Francisco, tlie Lady Superintendent of Drawing was in attendance at one of the Grammar Schools of the city, not for the purpose of instructing the pupils, but to make suggestions and confer with the teachers regarding their methods of teaching drawing in their classes. A glance at the pupils' work, which the Superintendent was examining, showed that the usually accepted ideas of teaching the subject have no place in her system. In her method she proceeds on none of the conventional lines, but gives the child the greatest freedom in developing his originality. The coloured crayon has superseded the brush and the pencil, ajid her result.^, as shown in the work of the schools and m her own studio, are very creditable. In her teachins, imitation has little scope, but imagination has a wide field. The same central idea is at work in the Infant Schools of I'aris, where the younger children are encouraged to make drawings of fire-engines, trams, &c. A feature of the Superintendent's work is called " Spontaneous Story Drawing." A well-known theme is chosen, as, for instance, " Eed Hiding Hood." The story admits of two kinds of treatment — outdoor and indoor. The outdoor scene is chosen. In the preliminary description of the scene the several views of the main features of the story are presented to the mind of the child by familiar chats, in order that he may exercise both the faculty of imagination and selection. The child, the wolf, the forest, the ground, are each in its turn brought before the mind of the child in the general conversation. Then with this preliminary explanation the pupil is left to his own devices to tell the story through the medium of coloured crayons with no idea in his mind of making a picture or a drawing. The Lady Superintendent in one of her publications says, "the pupils' thoughts should be held exclusively to the content of the expression, the form being allowed to take care of itself." She recommends her teachers to supervise each pupil's work carefully, and to give individual encouragement and commendation where necessary, for " practice with praise will work wonders." When the drawing lesson is over she advises that the drawings, which are executed on squares of rough paper, should be pinned on the wall and studied by means of a language lesson in which the children should take part. She does not allow the pupils to criticise adversely one another's work, but encourages them to appreciate one another's efforts, and she cautions her teachers against any disparagement on their ])art of the pupils' drawings. "Everything," she says, "should be taken seriously, and each drawing looked upon as the result of the child's best effort — and hence a success. The drawings should be considered only as language expression, and if any part of the representation is indefinite or illogical, it is because the child did not comprehend the story, and not because he could not draw it." The language lesson being over the teachers are recommended to study the drawings, and to note powers of observation and amount of progress on the part of the pupils. In the more advanced classes Nature drawing and design, in continuation of the work done in the lower classes, are introduced. The Drawing Syllabus of the London School Board is appended. SCHOOL BOARD FOR LONDON. -SCHOOL MANAGEMENT DEPARTMENT. Victoria Embankment, W.C. C0RREL.4TI0X IN THE VARIOUS FoRMS OF MaNDAI. TRAINING. Drawing Syllabus by Mr. A. Wilkinnon, Superintendent. In drawing up this syllabus it has been thouglit advisable to limit, as far as possible, the number of copies and objects for study in each stage in order that the whole of the work set may be carefully completed during the scliool year, and sufEcieiit time be allowed for the repetition of more difficult lessons, for additional memory work and for absentees to make good the lessons they may have missed. Although the copies and objects prescribed for the study are few, yet considerable variety has been ensured, and by the introduction of plant, animal, and architectural forms, much useful information may bo acquired by the pupils when drawing and modelling. It will be noticed that throughout the stages the subjects are closely connected and smoothly graduated, and that disjointing has been carefully avoided. Stage I. Drawing.^Two lessons per week of 45 minutes each. Total, IJ hours. First Lesson. — Technical Training, 45 minutes.— Ruler work with foot rule and set squares. Construction of squares, oblongs, and triangles of various dimensions. Note. — The correct use and handling of set squares to be taught. Second Lesson. — Free-arm Drawing, 45 minutes. — (a) Free-arm Drawing, .30 minutes of straight and curved lines, drawn from the shoulder in various directions, upon millboards and brown paper, placed in the slate slots, and inclined at a slight angle. Notes. — (1) Millboards should be at least 15 in. by 12 in. (2) After 12 exercises in (a) free outline studies of simple leaf forms sliouUl be made, construction and proportion being the chief aim and not finish. {b) Memory Drawing, 15 minutes of work under (a). Manual Training (Optional). — One lesson per week of 45 minutes. — (a) Modelling in plasticine or clay of simple leaf forms, (b) Brushwork. — As an alternative to (a). i Stage II. Drawing.— Two lessons per week of 45 minutes each. Total, IJ hours. First Lesson. — Technical Training, 45 minutes. — Ruler work as in Stage I, First Lesson, and the construction of parallel lines, the hexagon and the octagon by means of the rule and set squares. Second Lesson. — Free-arm Drawing, 4o minutes. — (a) Free-arm Drawing, 30 minutes, as in Stage I, Second Lesson, followed by simple leaf and other forms, (b) Memory Drawing. 15 minutes of work done under (a). Manual Training (Optional). — One lesson per week of 45 minutes. — (a) Modelling, 30 minutes of leaf and other simple forms, (h) Memory ModeUing, 15 minutes of work done under (a), (c) Brushwork, as an alternative to (a) and (i). Stage IIL 183 Stage III. Drawing. — Tivo lessons per week of 45 minutes each. Total, 14 hours. First Le.sson.— Technical Training, 45 minutes.— Ruler work as'in Stage II, First Lesson, with greater attention to neatness and aecuraoy. Four Geometrical figures (equilateral triangle, hexagon, octagon, and rhombus) to be copied by- means of the ruler, set squares, and compasses. Plan and elevation of a brick. Second Lesson. — Free-arm Drawing, 45 minutes. — (a) Free-arm Drawing, 30 minutes of simple plant and animal forms, (h) Memory Drawing, 15 minutes of work done under (a). Manual Training (Optional).— One lesson per week of 45minute3.— (a) Modelling, 30 minutes of simple arrangements of leaf forms learnt in Stages I and II. (fc) Memory Modelling, 15 minutes of work done under (a), {c) Designing with brush as an alternative to (a) and (h). Stage IV. Drawing. — Two lessons per week of 45 minutes each. Total, lA hours. First Lesson. — Boys. — Technical Training, 45 minutes, in a preparation for Manual Training Classes. — Simple scales. Drawing to scale of simple objects measured by the Class. Isometric view of cube and square prism. Plan and elevation of hexagonal prism and square pyramid. Girls. — 45 minutes. — Simple scales. Drawing to scale patterns of simple details of garments from actual measurements. Second Lesson.- Free-arm Drawing, 45 minutes. — (a) Free-line Drawing, 15 minutes, with coloured chalks. (/)) Free Drawings of set copies, .30 minutes. — Construction and proportion to be considered of paramount importance. No finish required, (c) Flat Tinting (three or four degrees of shade, each filling oblongs or leaf shapes, size about 4 in. by 2 in.) with black chalk and stumps, charcoal or pencil, 45 minutes. This lesson to take place of (a) and {b) once a month. Manual Training (Optional). —One lesson per week of 45 minutes. — (») Modelling, 30 minutes, slightly more advanced than Stage III. (/;) Memory Modelling, 15 minutes of exercises worked under (a). (c) Designing with brush, 45 minutes, as an alternative to (a) and (h). Stage V. ■; Drawing. — Three lessons per week of 45 minutes each. Total, 2J hours. First Lesson. — Boys.— Technical Training, 45 minutes. — (a) Geometry, 25 minutes. — Scale Drawing continued from Stage IV. Irregular polygons described by meius of given angles and sides. Circle through those given points. Polygons in circles and between given parallel lines. Plan and elevation of tetrahedron and pentagonal prism. Lsometrieal view of either pentagonal, hexagonal, or octagonal prism. (6) Drawing for Woodwork, 20 minutes. —Some exercises for First Year's Course. Girls.— Scale Drawing, 45 minutes, as in Stage IV, but of greater difficulty. Second Lesson. — Free-arm Drawing, 45 minutes. — (a) Free-arm Drawing. 20 minutes, as in Stage IV, Second Lesson (6). (/>) Design, 25 minutes, based upon drawing done under (a). If preferred (a) and (6) may be taken in alternate lessons of 45 minutes each. Third Lesson.— (o) Model Drawing, 45 minutes. — Cube, square prism, square pyramid, and any common objects based upon them, (b) Tinting, 45 minutes, as in Stage IV. Second Lesson (c) illustrathig gradation of tints. Shading cast of egg. Note. — A blown egg, gummed to a piece of cardboard, is the best substitute for a cast. Manual Training (Optional).— One lesson per week of 45 minutes. — (o) Modelling, 30 minutes, of simple]architectural details, (b) Memory Modelling, 15 minutes, of exercises worked under (a). Stage VL Drawing. — Three lessons per week of 45 minutes each. Total, 2^ hours. " > First Lesson. — Boys.— Technical Training, 45 minutes. — (a) Geometry, 25 minutes. Scale drawing as in Stage V, but of greater difficulty. Proportional lines and figures. Simple problems of inscribed and circumscribed figures. Plan and elevation of simple solids with sections, (b) Drawing for Woodwork, 20 minutes. Some exercises for Second Year's Course. Girls.— Scale Drawing, 45 minutes, as in Stage V, but introducing patterns of greater (liflTiculty. Second Le-sson. — Free-arm Drawing, 45 minutes. — (a) Drawing and Tinting of leaf, fiower, and animal forms, 45 minutes, {h) Designin',', 45 minutes. — To lill square, circle, and oblong, using flower and leaf forms drawn under (a). Note. — (a) and (/<) to be taken alternately. Third Lesson. — (ix) Model Drawing, 45 minutes, as in Stage V, Third Lesson (a), with tho addition of cone, cylinder, and common objects, (b) Shading, 45 minutes, from three simple casts, aa Bruceiani's list, Nos. 2,482, 2,483 No. 4, 2,483 No. 7. Note. — (a) and («) to be taken altorn.atcly. Manual Training (Optional).— One lesson per week of 45 minutes. —(a) Modelling, 30 minutes, llower and leaf forms and architectural details. (6) Memory Modelling, 15 minutes of exercises worked under (a). Stage VII. Drawing. — Three lessons per week of 45 minutes each. Total, 2J hours First Lesson. — Boys. — Technical Training, 45 minutes. — (a) Geometry, 25. minutes. — Scale drawing continued from Stage VI. Tangents to circles. Elevation of cupboard, easel, door, &c., and plan of class-room, &c., drawn to scale from given dimensions. Plan and elevation of solids, with elevation on new line, also with sections. The application of Geometry to geometrical patterns, simple machine detads, &c. {h) Drawing for Woodwork, 20 minutes.- Some exercises for Third Year's Course. ' Girls. — Scale Drawing, 45 minutes, as in Stage VI, First Lesson, but of greater difficulty. t Second Lesson. — (a) Free-arm Drawing, 45 minutes, as in Stage VI, Second Lesson (a). (b) Designing, 45 minutes, as in Stage VI, Second Lesson (6), with the addition of simple borders. Note. — (a) and (/)) to be taken alternately. Third Les.son. -(emonstrational geometry be taught in the primary school or not matters little, so long as the pupils are not allowed to remain ignorant of the elements of that science. They, of course, aresupposedtobe,and are, taught the elements of geometry, (seechapterxxlll). The instruction in this subject may be given either in a special course, or partly in the drawing lessons themselves, alway provided that the teacher be authorised as competent (indien de onderwijzer daartoe door de bevoegde overheid gemachtigd wortd p. 5); and the view taken is that it is easy to combine the drawing with at least the most indispensable ideas of geometry. As * Het teekenonderwijs in de lagere gemeenteecholeii. (Ministerie van binnenlandscbe ?akeri en openbaar onderwijs ; Beslaiur van hpt lager onderwijs), Bruxeljes, 1893, p. 3. 185 As regards the kinds of exercises which constitute the Belgian programme the following may be said: — (a) Freehand geometrical drawing is held to be necessary in order to develope practical skill in drawing. The simplest examination reveals the fact that all forms can be related to elementary geometrical figures, hence a preliminary analysis of the form of a particular object, in order to be methodical and fruitful as regards results, must rest upon the partial or complete representation pf it by geometrical operations. Hence it is held to be of the first importance that freehand geometrical drawing should occupy the first place in the plan of instruction in drawing in the primary schools. It is this power of analysis, this ability to perceive the elementary geometrical forni, and to correctly reproduce it which gives command of the grammar form, and if one may so speak, pf its script. ^ (5) Geometrical drawing with the aid of scale, square, compass, etc., is regarded as a powerful means of leading the pupils to the idea of exact forms, by placing at their disposal means of executing those kinds of drawings with a higher degree of precision, than is the case case with freehand sketches. Its chief value, however, is held to lie in its efficacy as a prepartion for "geometral" or industrial drawing, ^ viz., the drawing required in trades and industries. As far a^ possible tlip teaching in both branches, i.e., freehand and with instruments, should be parallel. (c) Drawing of common, objects from Nature is regarded as contributing, more thoroughly than ariy other kind of graphic work, to accuracy in seeing, and to dexterity and suppleness pf hand. In the lower and middle division (first four years) the pupils draw flat objects, or s\ich as hayp only slight relief, seen from the front; in the higher division, they draw a,ny objects in tjigir perspective appearance. (cZ) The simplest forms of geometrical ornament, and of ornamentation developed from plantjbrtn^^ f e. leaves and flowers (De eenvgudigste yormen van het meetkundig ornament en het iDlacl- en bloemornament) are regarded as not only of practical but also aesthetic value. Well taught, they are .said to awaken in the pupil the sense of beauty and to exercise a happy influence in regard to the education of his " taste," while at the same time such drawing is indispensable in many trades and industries to give that artistic touch and elegance which doubles their value, (dat artistiekkarakter en die sierlijkheid geeft, welke de waarde er van verdubbelen). Ornamental drawing, it is said, is directly connected with geometrical drawing, by i-eason of its combining regular elements, and also by the method pf execution, and the method of drawing from Nature, is advantageously applied to the development of decorative elements. In passing it may be said that the Commissioners saw examples of this development of decorative elements from studies of natural objects in England, and in almost every country of Europe, some of the finest examples being those seen in St. Petersburg. In the Girls' classes greater stress is laid upon ornamental drawing because of its value in needle- work and fancy-work designs, while perspective drawing, in view of the limited time available, is regarcled in Belgium as of less value, i.e., for girls. The geometrical drawing and ornamental drawing are combined in a series of progressiva exercises, advancing in complexity and ditticulty, each exercise being a point d'appui for the conceptions of the next. The teacher is careful not to exhaust all the matter of the geometrical drawing in a particular course, but rather to treat it so that the drawing of objects, and of ornamentation related theretp, shall he treated at t}ie same time ; either the object or the ornamental forms being taken next, according as one or thp pthec is the easier. (e) Drawing from memory and invention are two forms that are of importance — that is tq say, thp Belgian system does not only claim to exercise the faculty pf memory in its drawing teaching, but also that of invention. In order, it is said, that the memory of the picturesque, and the creative imagination shall attain to their normal development, it is necessary to put these faculties into action by a wise selection of exercises specially designed for that purpose, s (') Colour sense, and a knowledge of the simplest laws of their harm,ony, cannot be dispensed with in the primary school teaching it is said, in view of their practical utility, and their value in educating the pupils aesthetically. Incidentally it may be here mentioned that this recognition of the need of educating the colour sense is keenly appreciated, also in the United States, and in this connection an exceedingly interesting little work by Mr. Milton Bradley on " Elementary Colour " may be mentioned. * The development of harmoniously-coloured ornamentation is excellently treated in this work. This is also a feature in the work of the Belgian primary school. The drawing and education in colour, related to the manual instruction through the work with cardboard. The programme hereinafter given embraces in each pf the three divisiflRS pf tJ\p, !p.e)g>.jects or objects of slight relief, composition and drawing from memory are employed in tlie higher classes. The lower division of the primary school may be said to be devoted to the drawing of simple objects without indication of the third dimension ; the higher divisiion embraces also perspective drawing. The various cantons shew individual features in regard to the method of ttaching. In the programme of the Geneva infant-schools the children of 3-5 years of age are prepared for drawing lessons by using the Froebelian material. In the period 5-7 years, they continue their preparatory exercises b)' means of cubes, squares, sticks ; they draw the lines produced by folding, and the ornamental forms that can be produced by combinations of straight lines. And they are prepared for curve drawing. They are called upon to make little compositions of their own. In the primary schools the lessons in drawing and geometry are to some extent fused. The following is the programme : — \Kt I'eor (7-8) (six half-hour lessons per week). — Study, by means nf objects, of the funclaniental abstract ideas used in drawing. Point. Horizontal line. Vertical line. Parallel lines. The simplest geometrical figures. Drawing of common objects without indication of the relief. Drawing of leaves by oppositely joining the principal points determining tlieir character. Simple decorative sketches (moti/x). Exercises from memory. Compositions. 2nd Tear (8-9) (six half-hour lessons per week). — Review of the area covered in the ])receding year by means of an object that permits the master to present new ideas, in particular that of angles. Axis of symmetry explained by letters. Application of these new ideas to the drawing of leaves. Ornamentation of simple objects. (In these exercises the pupils have to fill in the surfaces by hachures.) Exercises from memory. Composition. 3rd Year (9-10) (four hours per week). — Representation of simple objects without indicating the depth. The simple forms are easily recalled from combinations of triangles and rectangles. Application to architectural forms (fa9ades of buildings). Exercises in ornamentation. Drawing of leaves, compound leaves. Exercises from memory. Composition. Attempts to draw with the pen. 4th Ffar (10-11) (three hours per week). — Plan of the room. Use of scale of reduction. Vertical and oblique plans. Reconstruction of some simple bodies through combining a certain number of sections. First attempts at drawing in three dimensions. Exercises from memory. Composition. 5th Year (11-lf?). (Girls, two hours ; bnys, three hours.)— Boil ies of rotation, their characters explained by plain sections ; their construction from sketches of a side view of the objects. Drawing of objects in free perspective. Exercises from memory. Composition. ath Year (12-13). (Girls, two hours; boys, three hours. )— Drawing of solids and objects from sections and side elevations. Development of their surfaces. Ornamentation of these surfaces. Drawing of ornaments from models with indications of the whole which they decorate. Notions of normal perspective. Exercises from memory. Composition. The programme in the Canton of Vaud is very similar. It is given in Chap. V, but is reproduced hero for convenience — ^th C lass, (Children 7 to 8) (six lessons a week of twenty minutes each). — Models shewn the pupils and drawn by the mistress on the blackboards. }st fSemenler — Pupils draw on slate ; the tiial so made as not to weary the hand. Elementary exercises leading the pupils gradually to the drawing of simple objects seen in the classes, in the town or in nature. 2nd ' Schnlpraxis. Leipzig, 1900, p. 153. ' Skoleplan for Kristiania folkeskoler, 19C0, pp. 19-21. ^Betankande afgifvet den 8 Pec. j[9(.2fl./. , . de allmiinna laroverken, etQ, Stockholm, 1902. 195 2nd 6'cme«fcr.— Collective drawing with pencil, tlie hand being absolutely free — that is to say, without either rule or slip of paper. Study and methodical drawing of straight lines, viz., horizontal, vertical, oblique : division of these lines into 2, 4, 8 equal parts. Various applications of the drawing of simple objects that have been previously analysed in so far as is suitable to the age of the pupils. Elementary study by means of folding of the following geometrical figures : — Square, rectangle, isosceles triangle, symmetrical trapezium, axis and diagonals. Methodical drawing of these lines. Application of the studied lines and surfaces to several very elementary exercises in decoration. The most simple decorative elements, points, lines, crosses, small circles, right-angles ; manner of grouping them (repetition and lateration). Drawing, in elevation only, of simple objects affording applications of the acquired notions. Exercises of dictated drawing and of drawing from memory, using the slate only. Exercises in estimation by taking as a basis of comparison sticks of 10, 20, 30, 40, aud 50 centimetres. Glh Class. — Revision and completion of the ideas studied during the second semester of the first year. Division of lines into 2, 4, 8, 16 equal parts. Studies by means of folding, square, and right-angle ; rectangle of J, J, 4 ; various positions of rectangle, lozenge, (rhombus), isosceles and right-angled triangle, the square and its use, symmetrical trapezium and right-angled trapezium. Drawing, iu elevation only, of simple objects aftbrding applications of the ideas studied. Elementary decorative motifa. Exercises upon the slate, of dictated drawing and of drawing from memory. Exercises of evaluating, in decimetres, exact lengths equal to or less than 1 metre. hth Clasn. — Drawings larger than those which have been executed in the lower class. Models from nature, and constructive drawing on the blackboard. Review, with extensiim of the ideas studied in the lower class. Verticals and plummet lines. Horizontals and the level of still water. Parallel lines, lines perpendicular to each other. Study of angles by means of some object {e.g., bent rule, more or less opened book, etc.). Right-angle, square, acute, and •■ obtuse angles. Revision and completion, by means of folding and cutting out, of the study of the simplest geometrical rectilinear figures, square, square angle, relation of surface for rectangles of various proportions, 4, J, etc. Development of the cube and of the parallelepiped ; construction from paper or thin cardboard. Lozenge inscribed in a rectangle, ratio of their surface. Isosceles triangle, J of a square, or I of rectangle. Parallelogram traced by means of a rectangle. Trapeziums traced in a square and in a rectangle. Division of lines into 2, 4, 8, 16, 3, 6, 12 equal parts. Application of these geometrical ideas to drawing in elevation of various objects ; locksmith designs, mosaic, parquetry, joinery, and simple decoration. Shields of simple form, conventional hachures, denoting blue, red, and green. Design from memory upon the slate or in an album. Exercises in evaluation by the help of sticks of which the lengths are 5, 10, 15, 85, 95, 100 centimetres. 4lh Class. — Models from nature and constructive designs on the blackboard. Study and drawing of arcs, and of circumferences. Pointed and semicircular arch. Locksmithing and decorative designs. Division of circumference of circle into 4, 8, 3, 6, 12, 5, 7 equal parts. Inscription of regular polygons. Stellar polygons, and roses, (rosace-i) derived from flowers. Division of lines into 5, 10, 3, 9 equal parts. Application : — Decorative borders composed of these new elements. Armorial shield : — Typical elementary forms, varied forms approaching the modillion ; conventional hachures indicating blue (azure), red (gules), green (vert), black (sable), gold (or), and silver (argent). Federal shield (arms). Vaudoise shield. Dictated Drawing. — Lines of construction, frequently dictated by a pupil. Drawing from memory in an album, kept specially for these exercises. Exercises of evaluating lengths of from 1 centimetre to 2 metres. These lengths ought to be drawn by straight lines traced on the blackboard, by a cord, by the size of an object, or, better still, by a rule presented successively to all the pupils of the class. 3rd Class.- — Models, constructive designs on the blackboard. Study and freehand drawing of regular curves other than the circle, elliptic curves. The egg, oval and ovolo. Variation of the proportions which these two curves may exhibit. Application : — Drawing of simple vases, and decorative designs in which the ellipse or the oval enters as the dominant form. Curves borrowed from the vegetable kingdom. Study and drawing of leaves often used in ornamentation ; flowers drawn in elevation and in vase forms, which may be derived from these studies ; for example, the tulip, tea-cup ; the bell-flower ; bell, chimney for lamp or gas-flame ; the lily, bind-weed, wine- glass, or other models which industry can furnish. Similar studies made with fruits. Decoration of the vases. Spirals and volutes drawn freehand. Applications of these lines to ironwork (boys), to embroidery (girls). Models in relief, and first ideas upon the effects of light, vertical and horizontal shadows. Drawing from memory upon a special leaf and on reduced scale. Exercises in evaluation, upon lines or objects seen in the class. Measuring. — Solution of a problem which ought to be accompanied by a sketch shewing the surface or surfaces constituting the object of calculation. Freehand Drawino 2iid Class. Models. — Models in relief of large dimensions, and natural models. Constructive design on the black- board. Drawings as largfi as possible. Ancient arms, leaves, flowers and flower-buds treated ornamentally, and their use in decoration. Borders, roses, ornamental designs in bas-relief. Drawings of vases belonging to various epochs. Decorative exercises applieil to these forms. First notions of the perspective of observation. Prism with square base ; with rectangular base ; cylinder. Drawing of various olijeots approximating to these geometri- cal forms. Frequent exercises in drawing from memory. 2nd Class — continued (Boys). Oeometrical drawinj with pencil, graduated rule and square. — Notes and side-sketches in a copy-book ruled in squares with lines five millimetres apart. Making a fair copy in pencil, to a determinate scale, upon the leaves of 25 by 34 centimetres. Roman letters employed in geometrical drawing ; small letters, large, and medium. Exercises in small letters, alphabet and various letters. Utilising the squaring of the sketch-book. Titles in large Roman letters of medium breadth ; distance to be observed between the letters and between the words. Conventional lines employed in industrial drawing. Framing and titles. Perpendicu- lars and parallels drawn by means of the rule and square. Framing and titles. Rectilinear figures drawn to the scale of 1/10 and 1|100 (O'l -001). Properties and construction of triangles and of quadrilaterals. Develop- ment of geometrical solids boimded by plane surfaces. The srjuare and right angle ; grating iu forged iron affording application of these two figures ; sketch of the object, and fair cojjy to scale of 3(10. Title in large and small Roman letters. Same exercise with large mosaic models. Sketches of building-plots and fair copy to a scale of IjlOO. First notions upon communal plans and boundaries ; simple sketches having relation to working in iron, woodwork, and dressed stones. Manner of disposing the various sides to be indicated. \st Class (Boys). Large sketches draicn freehand. Models. — Models in relief of large dimensions, geometrical solids and various objects. Designs from the vegetable kingdom. Ornaments and their application. Vases belonging to various periods in the history of art. Rational application of mouldings. Attempts at decoration. More com- plete study of light-effects, utilising moreover the collections of models of VioUet-le-Duo. Ideas oj Persperlite. — Geometrical dr.awing and perspective drawing. General principles resulting from observation of seen objects whether geometrical or perspective. Principals as to verticals ; their direction constant ; apparent length of verticals of objects seen in perspective. Piinciples as to horizontals : lengths and directions of horizontals in models seen from the front ; lengths and apparent directions of horizontals seen in perspective. Plan from front (front elevation lahleau). Plan and line of horizon ; its use in the determination of the slopes of parallel, horizontal lines seen in perspective. Distance point. Decrease of distance upon the line of the horizon. The square and cube. Cubes cut by planes parallel or perpendicular to its base. Prisms. Circle inscribed in a square ; cylinder ; horizontal circles having their centre upon one and the same vertical. Pyramids and cones. Perspective sections of several solids by planes parallel or perpendicular to their base. Drawing in perspective, objects approaching in form to geometrical solids. Oeometrical drawing with the aid of a 50 centimetre-graduated ride and square and compass. \»l Class — continued. — Review of notions studied during the preceding year. Drawing perpendiculars and parallels by means of compass. Division of straight lines and of angles into equal parts. Scales of reduction. Regular polygons constructed by means of the compass. Topographical polygons. Division of the arch into equal parts. Construction by moans of the compass of the oval and of the ellipse (false). Curves called busket-handlo (anse rfs panier). Agreement of straight lines and curves ; spirals; mouldings. \st 15— 2 C 196 lit Clasn cmitinued. — Elementary ideas upon Projection. — Necessity of drawing from projection. Horizontal plane, vertical plane, of front and ground-line. Horizontal projection or plane. Vertical projection or elevation. Numerous exercises upon tlie projection of points, of lines, of suifaces, jjlancs, and the principal geometrical solids, prisms, cylinders, pyramids, and cones. Section sketches (inked over) of common simple objects, of locksmith's work, of joinery, of carpentry, and of stone structures. Profiles and sections. General idea of conventional tints. \st Class continued (Girls). — Freehand Drawing — Models in relief of large dimensions. "Motifs "and various objects. " Atolifs" borrowed from the vegetable kingdom; leaves ornamentally designed. Vases belonging to various periods of history and art. General study of mouldings, furniture, wainscots, feet of vases ; of tables, of lamps, etc. General principles of decoration. Geometrical elements. Elements drawn from the vegetable kingdom (leaves, flowers, Hower-buds, fruits, etc.) Elements drawn from the animal kingdom (butterflies, dragon-flies, bees, "lady-birds," birds). Decorative borders formed from these elements. Application of these elementary notions to tlie decorations of various vases. Lessons upon colours and tints. Decoration, style on style. Opposition of colour and harmonisation. Indication of the proper means for reproducing the designs upon material, and fixing them. Study of light-effects by using the principal models of the collection of VioUet-le-Duc. Notions of perspective of observation. Drawing of various objects from Nature. (Sroups of objects. Geometrical Draioitig — Elements of geometrical drawing by means of the graduated rule and square ; application to drawing in section. Reduction of patterns, 17. Education of Swiss Primary Teachers in Draicinij. — The instruction in drawing at the Seminarium at Kiisnacht will give some conception of the Swiss view as to what constitutes the necessary instruction in the teaching of drawing for the primary teachers. The lessons for the teachers are divided into two branches, viz. : — (i) Freehand drawing ; and (ii) Geometrical drawing. In the former the aim is to give some idea of the theory of the forms to be found in Nature and Art ; to give a rapid sketch of the development of drawing; some idea of the graphical representation of objects, introducing the effects of light and colour ; some knowledge of the various styles and of aesthetics, and some preparation for the future exercise of the teacher's calling in regard to the subject under consideration. The latter, geometrical drawing, aims at skilful and accurate work with drawing instruments, and it affords e.tercise in the technical expression of geometrical ideas. It further affords some basis for the clearer perceptions of space-relations through accurate drawing. Freehand Drawing. I Class (3 hours per week). — The drawing of ornamental forms for flat surfaces, (h) Plant-drawing, leaves, branches, flowers, (c) Free perspective and its laws. Drawing of objects bounded by plane surfaces. ((/) Exercises in colouring and shading, (e) Modelling. II Class (2 hours per week). — (a) Plant-drawing. Difficult flowers and plants. (/)) Plastic ornament, (c) Free perspective. The drawing of objects with curved surfaces, interiors, still-life, (d) Colour and shading exercises. III Class (2 hours per week). — (a) Architectural drawing. Groups of houses, (h) Drawing of figures and animals, hands, feet, stuffed animals, (c) Colouring and shading exercises. Theory of colours. IV Class (2 hours). — (a) Continuation of landscape drawing, (h) Figure drawing— heads, finally the complete figure. (c) Brief sketch of the theory of style, (rf) Methodical hints concerning the teaching of drawing. Geometrical Dravvixg. II Class (1 hour per week). — Exercises in planimetrical construction, sketches of surveys of plots of ground, (b) Construction of some practically important curves. III Class (1 hour per week). — (a) Stereometric figures in oblique parallel projection, (b) Exercises in the theory of projection applied to plans and elevations, (c) Sketching of some .simple objects. IV Class (1 hour per week). — (a) Exercises in construction .md the theory of projection, (b) Sketching of some different parts of buildings and of machines, (o) Dimensioned drawings. From the above it will be recognised that the Swiss teacher has been taught at least to intelligently understand drawing, and, both as school-pupil and as student of teaching, he has had practice, not in copying drawings, but in drawing itself; and having studied geometrical drawing and perspective in both capacities he has had considerable prac^/ee. 18. Drawing in other parts of Europe. — In Austria, Denmark, Finland, Holland, and Sussia, examples of drawing were also seen ; in many cases these were remarkably good. The satisfactory influence of the teaching of drawing in the primary school can be readily recognised in the technical draw- ing, and in the art-productions of the various countries. The more professional branches of drawing seen in the technical schools were uniformly well executed ; and the artistic drawing often of surprising excellence. In Italy in particular this was specially noted. In Russia, there is considerable originality of form, and from a technical point of view the work there was also excellent. One could not fail, in comparing the average loork in our own schools, colleges, and in the University, to be struck with the diSerence in quality. It is unnecessary to enlarge upon the details of the methods of teaching : they can be summed up very simply. All countries have a very similar methodology, and all believe in properly qualifying the teacher. Further, all believe that teaching to copy sketches, etc., is not teaching draioing, and that as an educative process mere copying is of very inferior value. It need hardly be said that a judgment concerning skill in drawing is not to be based, as it often is, upon the ability of children to copy some lithograph of a landscape, or reproduce a drawn figure in some "graduated series of drawing lessons' for, to use the Kelgian phrase, this is merely skill in imitating an imitation {op. cit., p. 4, en de taak van den leerling bestaat in het nabootsen van eene nabotsing). 19. Modelling. — Among the methods of developing the form-sense and form-memory may be mentioned the modelling of plastic materials, clay, plasticine, etc. This is becoming a feature of teaching throughout the world. During the Commissioners' visit to Lausanne in Switzerland, primary teachers were seen spending their vacation at the Ecole Normale^ learning, among other things, modelling. The teaching of modelling has already been introduced into Australia, with apparently very satisfactory results. The question of introducing modelling as part of the regular programme of the primary school will be thoroughly discussed at the second International Congress to be held at Berne next year (I90i), and anything 197 anything more than experimental introduction iniglit well be postponed until this has taken place. The opinion of a congress of nations whose educational systems are so superior to our own, cannot fail to have weight in reaching a wise decision, for "I'obligation d'unification de I'enseignement general'" is undoubtedly appreciated in Europe. The most extraordinary example of modelling seen by the Commissioners was that executed by a young boy attending an evening school in Turin. Accidentally locived in the school-room for the night, he utilised his time in modelling an elaborate ornate mantelpiece, half of which he had completed by the morning. The work was so excellent that ho was asked to finish it, when he received a present of a hundred lire (£5) as an expression of the official appreciation of his work. The drawing of quite young boys was equally remarkable for excellence. 20. Conclusions. — The following conclusions are suggested by the foregoing: — ■ 1. Drawing should be more thoroughly taught, both in schools and to the teachers of the State. 2. "Drawing from Nature," should be first practised and should be freehand at the commencement, so as to stimulate form-memory. 3. Colouring should be early introduced, so as to stimulate the colour-sense and colour-memory. 4. Geometrical and perspective drawing should also bo taught, collaterally with purely artistic drawing. 5. The use of drawing instruments should be learnt in the primary school. 0. The drawing lessons should be intimately associated with other subjects, especially geometry, algebra, and manual work ; and should also be connected with other science subjects. 7. The copying of drawings should be abandoned as of inferior educative value. b. Modelling may be included in the drawing lessons and commenced in the kindergarten. The report of the 2iid International Congress on the teaching of drawing should be obtained and considered before the question of its general introduction is definitely settled. CHAPTER XXII. The Teaching of Modern and Ancient Languages. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Language in general. — Tn the inquiry made by the Commissioners on the teaching and learning of languages, it became evident that, intrinsically, there is really no very serious difficulty in learning to speak and use living languages correctly; and as the so-called dead languages may in a sense be made living by speaking them, what is stated in regard to language in general will apply to Latin, Greek, or other " dead languages" equally with modern. 2. Reasons for ihe stmlij of languages. — Languages are studied chiefly for three reasons — (a) because of their utilitg; {b) because of the mental discipline they afford ; and (c) because of their classical value — that is, their value in regard to literature, ancient history, mythology, etc. In regard to the first reason, both Latin and Greek have, it must be admitted, considerable utility to those who afterward take up scientific work in atiy form whatever, mainly because scientific terminology has been cast in the classic mould. It is remarkable that, even in the German language, the tendency to abandon the vernacular and resort to the Greek and Latin languages is no less marked than in English. Latin, in particular, lias great value philologically, not only to students of the allied languages, as Italian, Spanish, French, etc., it facilitates the study even of the Teutonic languages. Much, however, of the benefit of this kind is really due to the fact that any language awakens, as it were, the philologic consciousness ; that is to eay, in learning any language, one becomes alive to and acquainted with the linguistic i'acts which form the basis of etymology and syatemntic philology. In regard to (6), there can be no doubt also that the severe analysis of the structure of language, the determination of the thought really expressed therein, the recasting that thought in another language, afford exercise embodying a high type of mental discipline ; and no one but those quite unacquainted with ancient languages will lightly reject them as an integral element in a currieiiluin intended to call into exercise the highest powers of the mind, even where their pr;ictical employment is not a matter of direct concern. On the other hand, the ])ractical needs in almost . -ill other directions put such pressure upon the available time, that mere mental gymnastic is ouisido the range of useful pa;diigogy. Studies that are practically essential offer abundant opportunity for the discipliDe of the mental faculties. In ' I" Congrfes International do renscignement du dcssin. Eapport g^n^ral, p. 337. (Tho obligation of iie unification of general instraction. ) 198 In reviewing the reasons for learning languages, one discriminates between the classic and modern. Respecting the former, it may be said that all higher secondary education has till recently been on a linguistic or, rather, on a classic basis ; and this fact has led to the view that theologian, legist, physician, scientist, and even technologist, must aliiie maiie Latin and Grreek the common element of culture. That position has now been everywhere abandoned. The partial substitution of modern languages is a feature in many countries, while in some the complete substitution is optional. It will bo convenient, perhaps, to deal first with modern languages. 3. The American Committee on foreign languages. — In 189G, a committee of twelve professors of languages was appointed to make recommendations upon the subject of preparatory requirements on Trench and German. In December, 189S, two years afterwards, they presented their report. The teaching of language since then has thrown some light upon their vfork and opinions. It may be stated that their report was the outcome of the examination of several hundred expert opinions on the matter at issue. Their estimate as to the value of linguistic study is set forth so excellently that it seemed desirable to quote it at some length. In the following passages from their report their whole point of view, also, is set forth with some degree of fulness. Incidentally, it contains references to what may be called the relative merits of ancient and modern languages, and these are included in the quotation. The report itself will bo found in the " Eeport of the Commissioner for Education," U.S.A., 1897-8, vol. 2, pp. 1391-1433. 4. American opinion as to value of modern languages. — " Aside from the general disciplinary value common to all linguistic and literary studies, the study of French and Grerman in the secondary schools is profitable in three ways: First, as an introduction to the life and literature of France and Germany ; secondly, as a preparation fur intellectual pursuits that require the abilitg to read French and German for information ; thirdly, as the foundation of an accomplishment that may become useful in business and travel (p. 1393). " What wc have called the general disciplinary value of linguistic and literary study is well under- Btood the world over, and has long been recognised in the educational arrangements of every civilised nation. The study of a language other than the mother tongue requires the learner to compare and discriminate, thus training the analytic and reflective faculties. The effort to express himself in the unfamiliar idiom, to translate from it into his own, makes him attentive to the meaning of words, gives a new insight info the piossible resources of expression, and cultivates precision of thought and statement. Incidentally the memorg is strengthened, and the power of steady application developed. In time such study opens the gate to a new literature, thus liberalising the mind and giving an ampler outlook upon life. Through literature the student is made a partaker in the intellectual life of other times and other peoples. Ho becomes familiar with their manners and customs, their ideals and institutions, their mistakes and failures, and with the artistic forms in which the national genius has expressed itself. When he leaves school such knowledge not only enriches his personal life, but makes him a more useful, because a more intelligent, member of society. It exerts a steadying, sanative influence, for it furnishes him icith standards based upon the best performance of the race everywhere. For us, with our large confidence in our own ways and destiny, there is special need of the wisdom that comes from familiarity with the life, literature, and history of the great makers of European civilisation (pp. 1393-4). " What has been said up to this point relates to the profit of linguistic and literary study in general, a matter about which there is no serious difference of opinion among intelligent people. When, however, we come to consider the relative value of the ancient and the modern languages, we raise a moot question over which there has been endless discussion. . . . To reach a sane view of the matter it is necessary to make some allowance on both sides for the partisanship of the professional teacher, who is generally more or less prone to overstate the importance of his speciality. Nor should we allow too great weight to the views of publicists, men of letters, and so forth, who treat the question from a purely personal point of view. The man in middle life, who has the advantage of knowing just what knowledge is most useful to him in his own work, can usually look back upon his early education and tell a tale of neglected opportunities and misapplied energy. Educational arrangements must be made for the many, and human tastes, needs, and aptitudes are various. For the boy or girl who must select a course of study long before he or she can know just what special attainment will bo the most useful in after life, it is enough to be assured that the discipline and culture derived from the study of a foreign language, whether ancient or modern, will certainly prove valuable (p. 1394). "The committee is of the opinion that the best course of study for the secondary school will always provide instruction in at least one ancient and one modern language. . . . We ask for tho modern languages in school and college nothing more than a fair chance to shew what they are worth. We believe that they are worth, when properly taught, no less than the ancient languages. It is, of course, conceded that the Latin and Greek are the more 'difiicult' in tho initial stages. But difficulty cannot be the highest test of educational utility, else Latin and Greek should themselves give way to Sanskrit and Chinese. ... It is quite possible in an ordinary school course to learn to read FVehch and German easily. . . . In the case of the ancient languages, onthe other hand, it is a well-understood and oft-lamented fact that the great majority, even of college-graduates, never learn to read latin and Oreelc with ease. Up to the last the effort is more or less painful. After leaving college theu usually drop their Latin and Qreelc, and in a short time they cannot read at all. The profit of the study thus reduces, for the many, to its purely gymnastic value. That value, we are prepared to admit, is very great, but we ■would urge that the purely gymnastic value of the modern language is, potentially, also very great. The argument of ' difficulty ' is often misused. There may be as much valuable exercise in walking 5 miles up a gentle slope as in climbing a mile up a sharp acclivity. " The first and greatest value of the study of the modern languages must be looTced for, then, in the introduction of the learner to the life and literature of the two great peoples who, next to the English stock, have made the most important contributions to European civilization. That these literatures are as important, as worthy of study, as full of instruction for the modern man and woman as are those earlier literatures that once formed the great staple of education, is a proposition that we do not think necessary to argue, though it is sometimes denied, tra toto, by zealous advocates of classical study. For the peculiar intellectual myopia that can see nothing new and nothing good in modern literature the only remedy is the classical hellebore. " We 199 " We attach ojreatest importance, then, to lioguistic discipline and literary culture. B.ut the ability to read French and German has also another value not directly connected with the study of belles-h/fres. In nearly all branches of knowledge at the present time a large part of the best that has been written is to be found in the German and French languages. One who wishes to study anything thoroughly, no matter what, finds it highly convenient, if not absolutely necessary, to be able to read these languages in the pursuit of information. " It is rest in order to remark briefly upon what is popularly called the ' practical ' value of French and German— that is, their utility as a means of intercourse. The practical command of a foreign language has a potential value that is at once perceived by everyone (p. 1395)." 5. The methods of learning Language. — Several ways of learning languages have been described as follows : — (a) The grammatical or classic method. (J) The reading or empiric method. (c) The natural or conversational method. {d) The psychological or mental visualising method. (e) The phonetic or vocal analysis method. The features of these must be discussed in detail, and it may be observed that individual schemes of language-teaching often combine several of the methods, for they are in no sense mutually exclusive. In a country like this, so far removed from Europe, good method and good teaching are even more important than in America and England, since the opportunity of sojourning in the several countries where the languages are spoken is ])ractically absent. Even the slightest attempt to analyse the method of speaking our own language will reveal that England, America, and this State have very perceptible differences of accent. The attempt at acquiring a speaking knowledge of foreign languages is a powerful aid in keeping some control over the spontaneous tendency to variation of accent, when it happens to be iu a vocal direction that is not agreeable. G. The grammatical or classical method. — Tliis method may be described as an attempt to learn a language through its grammar. Vocabulary, paradirjms, rules, exception, examples of ])hrasing, and of composition on a larger scale, are bronglit into requisition, learnt as a rule — with great heaviness — "by heart." Disconnected sentences of almost negative interest, easy at first but progressing in difficulty, arc supposed to lead to a knowled'.;o of the language. Everywhere, as far as the inquiry of the Commission revoalpd, this method fails to create a living and genuine interest, at any rate witii the m.njorit)' of those who are subject to it ; in fact, all commencement with grammar seems to end in disgust. The method is credited by the American Committee with the following merits, viz., that it trains the mnemonic faculty ; that it affords one of the best possible exercises in close reasoning, since grammatical analysis and synthesis, while less mechanical and more varied in operation than elementary mathematics, are nearly or quite equal to it as a means of inculcating the habit of accurate ratiocination. They urge that, in reacting against the hard unattractive influence of the school.s of our ancestors, modern piedagogical fashion has gone so far that the power of conscious acquisition and retention is hardly exercised at all, and children go out into life witii an embryonic memory ; or, if they go to college, the teachers' task rivals the labour of the Dana'ides. They admit that the grammatical method neglects some of the most important objects of foreign language study; the broadening of the mind through contact with the life, ideas, and forms of thought and expression in different climes and countries; that pure grammar is not calculated to inspire interest; that the day of such a method is passed. They, however, indicate that the old-fashioned method had, after all, its good features. In practice the method has probably been always more or less associated with the reading method, to which reference will now be made. 7. The reading method. — The reading method may be described as the study of phrase and sentence from the very beginniui;, these being translated at sight into one's own language. It leads ultimately to ability to read the foreign language without any very conscious interposition of one's own. In so far as grammar and composition are us'id they are regardel as merely ancillar}'. Accidence and syntax aro cither learned inductively, or a text-book is used concurrently with translation. The advantage of tlii.f method is that it enables the student to read the languages studied with some degree of facility and ultimately of interest. Systematic attempt by the pupil to render what he reads into his own tonguo developes his command of voc."vbulary therein ; it brings into evidence philological relationships ; it cultivates an appreciation of beauty of expression; it educates the linguistic sense ; it gives some command of etymology ; and it disciplines the judgment in the matter of accuracy and chasteness of expression. It is certainly less tedious than the grammatical method, but at the same time it can have strong interest only for pupils with lioguistic aptitude. It is, perhaps, with the more lazy pupil, apt to demoralise, by not requiring rigour in translation. 8. The natural or conversational method. — In its absolutely pure form, this is supposed to reproduce the method of one's learning his mother tongue. It has been referred to by the American Commission in the following terms: — "At the opposite piedagogical pole from the process just described we find the conversational or "natural" method. This educational "naturalism" is a reaction against the inflexible systematisra of earlier teachers; we should, therefore, expect it to bo somewhat aggressive and somewhat formless — more given to pulling down than to building up. It is a principle, an impulse, rather than a plan; and its products depend, to a greater extent than those of any other school, on the personality of the instructor. Too often the results of a protracted and supposedly successful course of unalloyed conversation are a rapid but unintelligible pronunciation, the fluent use of incorrect forms, and, worst of all, a most discouraging self complacency. Some peculiarly gifted teachers have succeeded in combining alertness with a reasonable degree of accuracy, but it will probably be found, in all such cases, that the instructor has resorted to devices not strictly " natural." " What 200 "What is the fjenuine "natural method"? In its extreme form, it consists of a scries of monologues by the teacher, interspersed with exchanges of question and answer between instructor and pupil, all in the foreign language ; almost the only evidence of system is the arrangement, in a general way, of the easier discourses and dialogues at the beginning, and the more difficult at the end. A great deal of pantomime accompanies the talk. With the aid of this gesticulation, by attentive listening, and by dint of much repetition, the beginner comes to associate certain acts and objects with certain combina- tions of sound, and finally reaches the point of reproducing the foreign words or phrases The new-horn child, after various unsuccessful experiments, reproduces sounds correctly, because it has no previous habits of speech to contend with. The boy or man, unless he is phoneticalli/ trained or exceptionally acute of hearing, does not imitate at all. He merely substitutes for the several strange vowels and con- sonants the English sounds tvhich the foreign ones happen to suggest to him. That is why the pronunciation of conversational classes is generally not a whit better i than that of scholars taught after the most antiquated fashion." " In the attempt to inculcate the other elements of speech-inflections, syntax, and phraseology, the purely imitative process shews itself to be almost equally inadequate. We may justly urge, furthermore, against this style of teaching, that it provides little discipline for the intelligence ; that it affords only the poorest kind of mnemonic training ; that it favours vagueness of thought and imprecision of expression ; and, finally, that it sacrifices the artistic interest of language study to a so-called ' practical' one. On the other hand, it certainly does awaken enthusiasm among its disciples, and it stimulates and holds the attention." The comment above italicised, not in tiie original, touches the radical defect of the method. On the other hand it is admitted that the ' summer schools,' etc., on the Continent, for conversational practice, attain excellent results in the case at least of those who have prepared themselves or who supplement the practice by reading and grammatical study. The Commission, while admitting that the fame of the method had forced the issue with many schools and colleges, believe that the next generation will regard tbe " naturalism " of the method rather as a vivifying influence than as its essence. It is obvious that though each one of these methods is subject to much adverse criticism, the whole three must constitute part of a complete scheme. It is equally obvious that the psychological and phonetic elements must be included. The former is somewhat complex, and really includes more than mental-visualisation. 9. The idea, the common term in two lanquagcs. — In one's own language, thought, the written loords that express it, and their sound, are as between each and all, immediately associated, and the order of learning it is first by associating sound and idea, then by the written-form and idea. The difficulty of connection between thought and its verbal expression, is to find the words, phrases, and verbal scheme, which accurately translate it. This difficulty has been acutely felt by everyone who has aimed at precision and chasteness of speech, even in his mother-tongue. Ono learns from this that, even as regards mere accuracy, the critical faculty within us discerns, and does, as a matter of fact, more or less keenly appreciate, the difference between the merely approximate and the rigorous expression of thought. Now it is this appreciation of justness as regards thought-expression, whicli indicates perception not only of the meaning of a word, but also of what may be called its ensemble; a recognition of not only what it denotes, but also of what it connotes. Every word has, through its origin, through its sound, through the frequency of its use, through the ideas, and the analogies of the ideas, with which it is associated, and indeed through, as it were, the verbal company it keeps, a sort of special aura or atmosphere, a nuance, a tincture. It is owing to this fact that great familiarity with a language is necessary, before these subtler elements are felt with any degree of clearness. Knowledge of any given languairo implies this type of perception in relation to the verbal forms of that language. It is for this reason that, in order to properly translate from one language into another, there must be a commanding knowledye of both. This is, of course, a truism to linguists; and the grotesque results which arise upon attempting to translate an unfamiliar written language into one's own, and the still more grotesque when translating one's own into an unfamiliar one, are matters of the most common observation. It is only luhen the translator has complete command of the two languages that he is able efficiently to translate, and the process, as is well known, is as follows: — "The language read generates more or less accurately the thought which it was intended to convey, or of which it is the verbal crystallisation. This thought becomes in the translator's mind, and so far as the verbal expression only is concerned, in a state of flux, and then is recrystallised directly into the second language jn so far as the lannuage will allow, or the translator's command of it will permit. No one who has ever done any real translation'^ has any doubt about the substantial accuracy of the process as thus described. The mental element, i.e., the thought, is the cons/ant element, and its expression depends objectively upon the genius of the language, subjectively on the translator's knowledge of it. Very little consideration is requisite to create a doubt, as to the propriety, as a scheme of language learning, of the customary method of translating even simple expressions from one language into another that one does not know, or vice versa ; and as a matter of fact the testimony everywhere is that languages learnt in that way are 7iot really in the command of the learner, as a means of expressing thought. And the reason is, all thinking should express itself instantly and spontaneously in the language one desires to employ. If one considers for a moment that any idea whatsoever is susceptible of being expressed in many ways in (say) two languages, and that, although one or more expressions in each may be equivalents, it is certain that the whole range will not be^ ; in fact, that a complete system of inter-relation and parallelism does not exist in lancuage, then it is easy to see that in passing from thought to its verbal expression in a particular lansjuage, not only is an intermediary language an unnecessary intrusion, involving loss of time, but it is also an intrusion which introduces needless difficulties. Hence, to be accurately as well as ' " Not a whit l>etter " is too strong a statement. ' So-called ' literal translation ' may be wholly ignored in this argument. • For example, suppose phrase a in one language is in every sense translated by b in another, and tliat a' a" a" are approximate equivalents in the former of a, and b' h" h'" are approximate equivalents of h in the latter, it does not follow and it is generally untrue that a', a", or a'" is equivalent to any or each of !>', h", h'" ; in fact, in languages, things that arc (approximately) equal to the same thing are not necessarily (approximately) equal to one another. 201 ns readil}- expressed, thought should clothe itself at once in any desired language, viz., without inter- mediary of any kind. This may be explained by recognising that the idea is really the common term between the two languages. In the grammatical and reading methods of learning languages, particularly in the former, the idea, as such, hardly enters into the consideration at ail. The whole scheme of attempting to understand the new language is cssenti.ally etymologic. This, psychologically, is obviously quite difEi'rent from direct passage through the iilca represented to the new language, in the one case the equivalence of wordj is uppermost in the mind; in tho other, unity of ideas. All this mainly applies to the written forms of the language ; the difference is still greater when one comes to language as spoken. There is generally no real connection between the word, the vocable, and the idea in any language, and in a foreign one these elements are oficn absolutely without the co-ordination that artificially exists in one's own. Purther, to speak a language it is necessary also to co-ordinate the vocal organs, so that their reaction is unconsciously responsive to the idea. And to converse in it, the hearing organs must also unconsciously analyse the sounds heard into, not so much words, as ideas. One need only remember how difficult it is, oven in the mother-tongue, to be quite sure what is said, when there is no cue and the voice is unfamiliar, to realise how great a part the ear plays in the conversational knowledge of a language. The following diagram, in which the heavy lines denote the nerve-paths Words Digital control Visual organs Language known Organs of hearing-^ Vocables Visual organs Words •< — Digital control Organs of speech Organs of speech Language being learnt •^Organs of hearing Vocables co-ordinated by practice in the known language, and the light ones those that have yet to be inco- ordinated in relation to the new one, will shew at a glance the complexity of the associational develop- ment involved. The scheme of association and co-ordination among tho nerve-paths will be evident oa studying the diagram, as also the fundamental difference between learning from ''vocables" and learning from "words." In the diagram the word " vocable " is used to denote the sound of a word ; and " word," its written form. 10. The psychological method. — In strictness, the term " psychological method" ought to include a much wider field than what is known thereunder. The best representative of the method is the Gouin. The conception, of course, existed long ago ; but it wa.s Gouin who crystallised it into a system, published in 1880, in I'aris under tho title '• L'Art d'enseigner et d'ctudier les langues." In the bringing of this method into general notice Hetis took a considerable sharp, his '" psychological method" being illustrated in a volume — " Facts of Life " — published in New York, in 1890, by Bctis and Swan. The foundation of the method is the as-^ociation of ideas and images, and the whole aim is to connect the words and their sounds with things and actions in a systematic way. The real vocabulary of a languige, that is not merely its words, but its words in their idiomatic relationships are divided into groups of p.hrases, each intimately connected with a special subject — a group forming a lesson. The groups, all treating of a general topic, make a chapter and several chapters a series. These scries were designed to give, on the completion of the whole, a real " mastery" of tho language — i.e., a complete idiomatic knowledge of it. It is, of course, evident that the mastery is of a very limited character. Each lesson is first taken orally, then reviewed with the book. On the reception of a new word, the pupil is to close his eyes and create for himself a distinct mental picture of the thing or action indicated. If this be done with real con- centration, an indissoluble association is said to bo established. Pictures, real objects, gesticulation, pantomime, anything that helps to create vivid impression, are freely employed. The system habituates the memory to good associational practice — it seems to attract ; it retains the attention well ; it gives command of an excellent vocabulary of a general kind.' Its defect is that the phonetic elements are not sufficiently well attended to, the master doing a large part of the talking ; and there is no sufficient corrective for mishearing and consequent mispronunciation on the part of the pupil. 11. The Berlitz Method of learning language!:. — At tho Paris Exhibition of 1900, there was a special pavilion at the Trocadero, where, for five or six hours daily, public lessons in English were given to a dozen pupils of the communal school of the rue Ilamelin. The jury, judging from a practical point of view, commended the method very appreciatively, and a silver medal was awarded. The first Berlitz school was founded in 1878, at Providence, in the United States of America, and its head quarters are now at New York. There are schools in most of the principal cities of Europe, and the method is evidently, on the whole, a successful one as far as teaching to speak is concerned, testimonies being favourable wherever inquiry was made by the Commissioners. The school at Paris was created in 1889, and now employs thirty-five professors of different nationalities, each teaching in his native tongue. It alone had in 1899 no less than 1,200 pupils. Actually, there are about 108 schools, in nearly every instance tho director being a Frenchman. The Berlitz method may, perhaps, be best ex])lained from its own ' In Die neueren Sprachon III, 1 to 6, R. Krim discusses the practical results. See also Die Methmlc Oouin, oder d.is Serien-syslcin in Tlieuric und Praxis, .\Iarbiug, 1S96 ; also hy V, Knorr, ibid III, 8 and V, 9 ; and Traugott, ihid VI, 6. 202 own statement submitted to the International Jury, which is here freely translated : — " The best way of learning a foreign language is, everyone knows, to spend sufficient time in the country where it is spoken. In fact, in order to speak idiomatically, it is essential that the thought should be associated with the language itself and with the ear, in such a manner that when the sound strikes the ear, the image is immediately presented to the mind ; or, inversely, when the image is presented to the mind, the verbal expression spontaneously and immediately presents itself. " The great benefit which is found by living in a foreign country is that there the association batween perception and the foreign expression defining it is direct. " The study of a language in this way has, however, the great inconvenience of not being systematic. The student hears many words which awaken no ideas in hiw mind ; and, moreover, the enunciation is often very rapid and negligent, and it is with difficulty that the beginner can distinguish one word from another." " In order to reach the highest result, it is necessary, therefore, to find a method which unites all the advantages of living in a foreign land, and yet at the same time obviates its inconveniences." " The Berlitz method endeavours to attain this end. The definition which the German encyclopoedia has given appears to be a correct one: 'The Berlitz method is the systematic application of natural laws through which a foreign language is learnt wtcn living in the foreign country.' " The general principles of the method are as follows : — 1. The exclusive use of the language taught. 2. The direct association of thought with the foreign language, witliout the motlicr tongue as an intermediary. The processes employed arc : — 1. Teaching by perception. (Object-lessons.) 2. Teaching by tlie association of ideas. 3. Teaching by examples. The first process is perfectly adapted to teaching the cmcretc, the second to teaching in the abstract, and the third is the best for the study of the grammar. In order to get the pupil to speak, after having explained to him the words, expressions, or new grammatical forms, such questions are put to him as will require him to make use in his reply of the words, expressions, or grammatical forms which he has been taught. The success of the method depends above all on the multiplicity of questions put by the professor in order to make the pupil practise thoroughly all he has learnt by ear in such a manner as shall familiarise him with the vocabulary, the idiomatic expressions, the construction of phrases, and the grammatical modifications of the language. This truth was long ago perceived by Eollin when he said : " Short questions regularly put each day, in the form of conversation, by one who has the art of making the pupils say that which they wish to learn, instructing and amusing them, will, by an unconscious process, give them a thorough knowledge of the language." The success of the system is attested by larg(! numbers of people from their own experience. The results obtained have been also good for education in common. The Berlitz methods have, in fact, been tried with success in the commercial school of the Avenue Trudaine, Paris ; they have been in use for the last five years in the Irish College at Paris ; in the "Albert-the-Great" school at Arcueil ; in the Polytechnic Institution of London ; and in a large number of schools in Europe and in America. It is, it will be seen, a systematic conversational method, that has evidently extended its sway through its practical success. 12. The Phonetic Melliod. — In all the method.'^ previously described, exact pronunciation is either absolutely neglected, or is inadequately regarded. This element of teaching, viz., the phonetic, came into ])rominence chiefly through Victor's celebrated monograph, " Dcr Sprachuntcrrioht mu^fs iimkehren " (instruction in language must be reformed), published in Hcilbronn in 1882. I'/ionelic^ a.s a science dates back to at least the middle of the Kith century, and has three well-developed branches, viz., the anatomical, physiological, and acoustifal, and the literature of the subject is now enormous. Ellis in 1877 gave a pretty full account of the phonology of English, German, Freni-ii, Italian, and Spanish, for the use of singers and speakers, and Henry Sweet, at Oxford, has done much to develope the subject, and, among other things, to determine the value and limitations of the phonof/raph as an aid to teaching ; an instrument which, while valuable in phonetic analysis, has to be u.. Engelsk Begyndergraramatik. Kjoebenhavn, 1899. Jeapersen-True Spoken Englisch. Edit. 4. Leipzig, 1897. Jespersen-Sarauw Engelsk Begynderbog. Kjoebenhavn, 1896. Jespersen-Sarauw-Meijboom Engelsch voor eerstbeginnenden. Groningen, 1900. Nader- Wurzner Elementarbuch der Engl. Sprache. Wien. ,1 ... . Englisches Lesebuch. Wien, 1886. K. Brekke Laerebog i Engelsk. Kristiania, 1887. J. Gras6 Oefeningen in de Engelsche taal. Gnmingen, 1899. J. Afzelius Engelsk j;iementarl)ok. (Joeteborg, 1888. A. Western Engelsk Grammatik. Kristiania, 1888. Lenz-Broaseau Primer libro de lectura Inglesa. Santiago, 1895. C. H. Grandgent Italian Grammar. Edit. 3. Boston, 1891. II Italian Composition. Boston, 1891. Alge-Hamburger-Rippmann Leitfaden fur Unt. im Deutsohen. St Gall, 1899. J. (Ehquist Tysk Elementarbok. Helsingfors, 1894. J. V. Lindgren Dansk ook Norsk Grammatik. Stockholm, 1894. J. Poestion Lehrbuch der Norwegischen Sprache. Leipzig, 1890. Th. Goldschmidt M(5thode intuitive des langues. Copenhague et Paris, 1895-9. Phonetic Reader.s. V. Ballu M(!thode de lecture. Paris, 1894. P. Passy Premier livre (met. p. apprendre i lire). Edit. 3. P.aris, 1890. I, Le Fran9ais pivrl(5. Edit. 5. Leipzig, 1897. Versions pojjulairea du Nouveau Testament. Paris, 1893-0. II Lectures varices. Paris, 1897. ,, Histoires pour enfanta. Paris, 1896-9. J. Passy et A. Rambeau Clirestomathie Phon(5tique. Edit. 2. Paris, 190 L Pitman Phonetic Readers. Bath, 1884. , , New Testament. Bath. L. Soames Albany Phonetic Readers. London, 1892. Nader- Wurzner Engliache Lautschrifttexte. Wien, 1891. Vietor-Dorr-Edwards Englisches Lesebuch. Leipzig, 1901. Jeafferson-Bonsel English Dialogues. Hamburg, 1891. W. Vietor Lesebuch in Lautschrift. Leipzig, 1899. Pieroe-Hempl Wilhelm Tell. New York, 1900. A. G. Vianna , Extraits des Lusiades. Paris, 1892. Djelali-Passy Contes et chants Arnu'niens. Paris, 1899. J. Spieser Hebraische Lautschrifttexte. Paris, 1898. DlCTlON.-iRY. Miohaelia-Pasay Dictionnaire Phonotique Francjaia. Hannover, 1897. Phonetic Publishers. J. Lievens 52, rue Delarue, St. Maur-lea-Foaaes, Franco. E. Roche 62'''", rue Jacquea-Dulnd, Ncuillys-Seino, France. D. Soltau Norden, Germany. Breitkopf and Hiirtel Leipzig, Germany. B. G. Teubner Leipzig, Germany. Hesse and Becker . Leipzig, Germany. R. Friedrich Marburg, Germany. S. Geibel & Co Altenburg, Germany. TurnbuU and Spears Edinburgh, Scotland. C. L. Brinkmann Amsterdam, Holland. Zollikofer'ache Hofbuchdruokerei ... St. Gall, Switzerland. Greiner and Pfeiffer Stuttgart, Wurttemberg. Languages Printing Company New Yorls, United States. It is perhaps hardly necessary to mention that the above phonetic publishers use the complete founts of phonetic type, by means of which it is possible to so render almost any language as to make it, when spoken by anyone, intellii,'ible to a native onco the sounds have been propnrly learned. A study of sygtematic phonetics, with, perhaps, the assistance of the phonograph, renders this attainment possible for almost any person. Not only can the ordinary form of the language be represented, but practically any variation or dialect ; and it may be mentioned that southern and northern English present considerable difference of appearance typographically when thu.s rendered into print phonetically. _ Incidentally it may be mentioned that, by means of the phonetic type and the phouograph, language yariation may ia future be thoroughly studied. 21. 210 21. Ancient Languages. — Perthes, referring to the teaching of Latin in higher Bchoolg, in his discussion, " Zur Eeform des Lateinischen Unterrichts auf Gymnasien und Eealschulen, 1885 " (Upon the Keform of Latin instruction in the Gymnasiums and Ileal Schools), says : — "Let no one deceive himself ; knowledge of, and even certainty in regard to the applications of, grammatical rules is not true linguistic training. An essential requirement is the acquisition of linguistic feeling, or the intuitive language sense. The formation of this is directly hindered by such sentences as contain unknown words. Neither will translation from the mother tongue materially assist in its formation, though, for acquiring sound knowledge of grammar, this last is of considerable value." In the " Mastery Series " for Latin of Prendergast, the second edition of which was published as early as 1874, the author says, " It is essential to provide for the londjide acquisition, as contradistinguished from the study of Latin, because the systems now in vogue ignore and exclude the practice of oral composition., etc. It was claimed for the system that: — (1) It treats the sentence — not the word — as the unit of speech, and the memory as the faculty principally and most prominently to be called into action. (2) It enjoins frequency, instead of contiuuitj of action, in the acquisition of new lessons, and limits them to ten minutes at a time, in order that the memory may always work at its highest power. (3) It provides typical sentences accompanied by analytical variations, which, with their English versions, illustrate and explain the latent constructions and inflections therein. (4) It enables beginners to master the principles of the constructions in the concrete, instead of tracing them through the mazes of the abstractions of technical gramaiar. (5) It employs the English versions of the mastered sentences to evoke the latter from the memory in ever-varying order of succession, and then to diversify them by altering them so as to correspond with alterations made in their English versions. (G) It restricts beginners from confusing the memory by learning any words besides those in the prescribed lessons. (7) It defines the term " mastery " with precision, in order to save beginners from being misled by a delusive thoroughness, and to secure that not one lesson shall be forgotten. (8) It exhibits sentences arranged in couplets and triplets, each of which yields a series of exercises in composition so adjusted that even beginners cannot fail to work them out faultlessly unaided. (9) It enables beginners to attain the art of constructing sentences idiomatically, thus qualifying themselves to translate also with facility. (10) It delineates an easy and most successful mode of acquiring the true utterance of the sounds and tones of any language. (11) It contains the essence of what may be called the lingual science, because it enables beginners to teach themselves to speak idiomatically and fluently without going abroad. (12) Mastery is the realisation of thoroughness, not merely in reproducing idiomatic sentences at sight of their English versions with perfect fluency, accuracy, and readiness, but also in diversifying them with equal facility. Prendergast is incisive on the fact that " technical grammar is not essential for beginners, but that, on the contrary, its study is bewildering and obstructive. The why of this has already appeared. There is no reason why Latin and Greek, or any other language, should not be learnt in the same way as modern languages, that is, by actual, suitably graduated practice, so that the grammar is based on pre-existing material, as it always is with the mother tongue. And there is every reason to believe that when it is so learnt, the almost universal abandonment of these languages after passing away from college or university will no longer be characteristic. There is something fundamentally wrong in any method which has this consequence, and it is that the " Sprachgefiihl " is not developed by the classical method of l^rocedure. That method evidently creates an inherent dislike for the languages, a dislike that is inveterate m all but a few instances ; the evidence of which is that, as soon as the end is achieved for which perforce they had to be taken, they are discarded. A definite scheme of pronunciation is a desideratum for which a consensus of opinion is required. There ought on this matter to be concerted action as between the schools of the Department of Public Instruction, the secondary schools, and the University of the State. The feeling that, as far as teaching is concerned, the classical languages have not been fairly treated in the majority of schools is very wide-spread indeed. That the great amount of time formerly assigned to their study cannot in future be afforded is obvious, and they are likely to receive too often short shrift unless improvement in teaching is brought about. This question has been recently discussed by Professor J. P. Postgate, of Cambridge, in an article, entitled " Are the Classics to go."* Eemarking that among languages, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin have had the greatest influence on the modern world, he joins issue with the confident assertion occasionally heard that the work of Greek and Latin is practically done. Believing, as he does, that these latter languages confer priceless benefits upon all higher human education, and that " The study of Latin should be kept as an integral part oi all higher education, and that of Greek as an integral part of the higher literary training," he has considered the whole question of how best to maintain the study of them. Quoting Professor Hofmann,^ as affirming that, according to the unanimous judgment of experienced teachers in mathematics and the natural sciences, the graduates of the Eealschule, however much they may have at first excelled, are almost without exception overtaken in the later semesters by the students of the classical Gymnasium, he thinks the great educative value of the classic languages has by that and similar facts been abundantly proved. The unsatisfactory nature of their teaching he believes to be to a large extent responsible for the present attitude in regard to them. Formerly they were studied as living languages and literature ; now they are too often studied as if they were dead. And speaking of recent improvements in teaching them, he says, " We have changed all that now, and if the dead languages and literature are not to retire into the background, they must be taught as if they were alive.^ The late Professor Blackie used the conversational method, and his book of dialogues is not yet, I suppose, forgotten." " Let it once be fairly tried, and I will engage to say that it will never be given up. Eor those who are taught under it will run away from their less fortunate compeers. Let it be tried in the teaching of Latin first, and the teaching of Greek will not be long in following suit." The reformed pronunciation of Latin has been improved by two bodies, the " Modern Language Association " and the " Assistant Masters' Association." If 1 Fortnightly Review, Kov., 1902, p. 866-880. ' Professor of Chemistry, University of Berlin. •Professor Postgate quotes "Spreohen Sie Attisoh?" (E, Joaunides, 1889). "Sprechen Sie Lateinisoh ? " (U. CapeJianus, 1890), as valuable in learning Greek and Latin. 211 If teacliing-method can be so improved that the expenditure of time in learninnr languages lo greatly lessened, then the temptation to discard botli Latin and Greek on account of the pressure of other necessary subjects in a curriculum, is correspondingly reduced. That this pressure really exists la sufficiently attested by the facts of the iieform movement in Germany.* 22. Conclusions. — The conclusions as to the proper methods of teaching language have been sufficiently set forth in the preceding sections, and do not need restatement. Fut briefly, they are that the prevailing systems in this State are psychologically erroneous, and neither give a command of the languages ancient or modern, nor do they lead to a love of tliem. The modern languages are, of course, read by a few for their utility. The question of the inclusion of languages in various curricula is elsewhere considered. One word may be added — there is quite as serious a recognition of the poor way that wo have of teaching languages by well-informed men in England a.s is implied in this chapter. Ilaldane wrote, during the time the Commissioners were travelling, as follows^: — " Nothing is more depressing to anybody fond of a foreign language than hearing it taught in a school in this country, and, to my mind, it is worse tauj;;ht in the secondary schools than in the elementary. Take the teaching of French, for instance. If you go into a continental school you will find everything taught according to a carefully thought-out plan. The children are not taught grammar and a whole string of dry things. You will see the little things seated in front of the teacher, and in some regions 1.h,e teacher is not allowed to teach, for example, French, unless he is of the same nationality as the children ; for up to a certain stage the best teacher is found by experience to be the man of the same nation. The teacher speaks to them simply in French, and they try to reply. They do not try to learn swimming before going into the water. From the very beginning they are tauglit in this way ; every word means an action, and they learn iti an interesting way that savours ot reality. If you go to Holland or to Germany you will, on the average, lind people twice or three times as good linguists as they are here. I thould Uke to see the inlelliqence which one there finds applied to teachinif introduced here also, and I do not see why this should not be the case. I am certain the teachers would respond if the State gave them some stimulus to do so." Language teaching can undoubtedly be made interesting and efficient; the evidence of that was seen in country after country. The quickening power that language gives, the command of scientific and technical information, the wider outlook on men and things, the broader sympathies, the sense of touch with the larger world, the cosmopolitan consciousness, if one may so speak, are all consequences of this efficiency ; and it will be a bad omen for our future if our educational system does not aim at making us the peers of the people of other nations in this respect. To take even an ordinary place in exploiting the accumulated wealth of science and technology, languages are indispensable. From the point of view of the larger consciousness that we are here so especially in need ot, they have a value that can be fully appreciated only by those who are capable of a macroscopic vision. If our people can be equipped for that larger view, and their objective be widened accordingly, it will be well for them, and iho biguificance of language teaching will assume its proper place. In every school where foreign languages are tausht there should be either an instructor who speaks the foreign latiguage perfectly as to accent, grammar, and idiom, as well as with the finished enunciation of a professional teacher of languages; or else, this being impiacticable in inany parts of this State, the school should be provided with a complete set of phonographic records for each language tautiht. In this way the ridiculous result of the jiresent system, viz., that students take honours at examinations of proficiency in langua'^es, when very often they cannot express themselves colloquially at all, or are absolutely unintelligible to people whose language they arc supposed to be speaking. That an acquaintance with foreign laiiiju.iges is essential in all the higher callings of life, so as to keep in touch with the general progress of humanity in all departments, is so obvious as to need no advocacy. The intelligent control and development of industrial and commercial underiakinf,'s absolutely involve far greater attention to this matter than has been given to it by England and ourselves in the past. As pointed out, it is fully recognised by public men in England that we are nationally paying very dearly for our insularity. All public men who are sufficiently well-itiformed to realise the features of modern progress, and all professional and technical students, realise the absolute necessity of an acquaintance with at least the French and German, and perhaps also the Italian languaties. The ease with which these can be acquired when well taught justifies the belief that there will be no difficulty in making the learning of languages in the future far more popular than it has been in the past. There is no department of knowledge in which the splendid achievements ot Europe are not worthy of systematic attention ; so fully is this recognised by all scientific students, that direct recourse to foreign journals is a feature of all modern study in any subject. The psychological eft'ect of a wider and more direct acquaintance with the industrial, commercial, technological, and scientific movement of the entire world is a mental state of greater alertness in regard to the possibility ot" our own development, and of keener apprecintion of our own similar opportunity. When these facts are borne in mind, it is easy to realise that the part played by a knowledge of languages is more far-reaching than is commonly supposed, or than would appear at first sight. If the peojileof Australia are to acquit themselves well, the matter of languages c.tnnot be neglected; and just iu proportion as we have a wide and direct acquaintance with the movement of highly developed nations, so shall we bo successful in the keen competition that assuredly promises to characterise the 2Uth century. A knowledge of languages is therefore of national moment. ' T)io Reform des hiiheren Schulwesens in Pre\issen. Hallo, 1902. ' Education and Empire. Richard Burden Haldane, M.P., LL.D., K.C. CHAFIER XXIIT. 15—2 E 212 CHAPTER XXIII. (Part 1.) The Teaching of Geometry in Primary Schools, and its Reform. [G. H. KNIBES.] 1. Introduction. — Althougli the collections of geometrical propositions known as "Euclid's Elements of Geometry " will perhaps always be regarded as a noble monument of the genius of the Ancients, the belief that they constitute the best or even a good means of teaching geometry, is one that has practically long disappeared in the greater part of Europe, and is rapidly disappearing elsewhere. The Euclidean geometry is both tedious and restricted. One of the most successful attempts at superseding it in Europe was Tjegendre's " Elements de Geometrie," which first appeared in 1794, the 11th edition being tran.slated into English by Sir David Brewster in 1823. The latter editions contain trigonometry also. Apart from the fact that Euclidean geometry is very limited in range, its method cannot be regarded either as logically perfect or practical, and experience has shewn that the Euclidean Elements often lead to strong dislike of the subject. Many propositions, most tediously proved, are obvious when hypothetical constructions are allowed, or when bisectois of angles are admitted, and when the notions of congrueney and symmetry are introduced. Geometry as taught in Europe is more practical in character, its range is wider, and the introduc- tion of geometrical ideas often commences in the Kindergarten. In order to give some conception of the way in which the subject is treated the nature of the teach- ing in several European countries is indicated more or less briefly. In many of these countries, however, the teaching of geometry in the lower schools (Volksschulen, teoles elementaires, etc.) is but slight, and is often confined really to intuitional instruction, and to such practical geometry as they get in the le.ssons in drawing. In such cases the conception of the proper mode of teaching geometry must be drawn from the higher programmes of instruction, from the method of educating their teachers in the subject, etc. This will at any rate shew the theory of its proper treatment, and will explain why translation from the lower school programmes are not given. 2. Austrian programme for Geometry.— The study of geometry commences in Austria with intui- tional instruction concerning fundamental ideas, the straight line, circle, nngles, parallels, and the simplest properties of triangles, linear and angular symmetry, the congruence of triangles and applications of these ideas. The circle, quadrilateral and polygon are next considered, and then the following : — Area. — The transformation of figures. Measurement of length and area. Pythagoras theorem. Homology. Reciprocal positions of lines and planes. Solid angles. Regular solids. Surface and volume computation. Scientific treatment of planimetry. Stereometry. Plane trigonometry. Trigo- nometrical problems. Analytical plane geometry. Conic sections.* Although this programme is taken from those of the higher schools, the work commences in the Untergymnasium, and in any case it shews the way in which mathematical study is developed. The point to be noticed is that there is absolutely no study of the books of Euclid, as a method of learning geometry. 3. Belgian teaching of Geometry. — According to the official programme (Modelreglement en model- programme der lagere gemeentescholen ; reglement et programme types des ccoles primaries communales), geometry, as a special subject, does not appear in the elementary schools of Belgium. It really enters into the teaching of geography and drawing however, and is taught by intuitional methods. The more developed teaching commences in the middle schools. Pupils enter these at the age of twelve. The official programme in geometry (meetkunde, geometrie) in them is as follows : — \at. Year. — 1. Definitions and preliminary notions. 2. Various cases, of equality of triangles. 3. Theory of perpendiculars, and of oblique and parallel lines. Sum of the angles of any triangle, and of any polygon whatsoever. 4. Principal properties of quadrilaterals. 5. Problems by way of application. 2ud. Year. — 1. Complete recapitulation of the preceding course. 2. Principal properties of the circle and of the figures resulting from its combination with the straight line. 3. Measurement of angles. 4. Problems involving perpendiculars, and parallels ; the construction of triangles and of circles, according to any given conditions. 5. Calculation of the rectangle, parallelogram, triangle, and trapezium. 6. Square on the sum and on the difference of two right lines, upon the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle. Applications. 7. Numerical application of the calculation of the elements of a triangle. 2rd * Dig Einrichtungund Verwaltung ties hiiheienSchuIwesena in den Kulturlandern von Europa und in Nordamerika* Dr. A. B-iumeister. MUnchcn. 1897, pp. 2S6-7. 213 3rd. Year. — Recapitulation of the preceding course. 2. Proportional lines. 3. Similar figures. 4. Numerical calculation of the elements of triangles. 5. Problems concerning proportional lines, figures of equal area, and similar figures. 6. Regular polygons, measurement of the circum- ference, and of the area of the circle, and its sector by practical methods. 7. Problems by way of application. 8. Surveying : Description and use of instruments. Surveying rods. Sur- veying chains. Cross-staff. Plane table. Measure of the area of plots of ground. Making plana by means of the chain, the cross-stafT, the plane table and compass. The drawing of plans. Exercises in the field. 9. Levelling: Description and use of a water-level, of an ordinary level, of Lenoir level, use of sights. Operations in field. 10. Measurement and surface of polyhedra, and of the sphere, cylinder, and cone. (Teaching to be exclusively practical.) Numerical examples. The following observations are made in the ofiicial programme by way of indicating more definitely the aim and method of the course. (1) The theoretical part of the course comprehends essentially those propositions of plane geometry which have frequent application in practical life, and those which serve as their basis. Purely theoretical questions have been thrown on one side. It is not, however, sufiicient to proceed, as in a primary school, by the merely intuitive and experimental method. The propositions ought to be rigorously demonstrated and firmly connected with one another. By way of application, pupils should be required to demonstrate theorems, to resolve problems, and to find geometrical loci. While not interdicting questions which sharpen the spirit of inquiry, and give birth to a taste of purely theoretical studies, the teacher ought to select his examples as much as possible from ordinary life — i.e., from the arts and crafts, the measurement of surfaces, volumes, industrial operations, surveying, etc., — and numerical problems, and graphical constructions with the ruler and compass ought to constitute the most numerous of the applications. It is by the intimate association of theory and practice that the master will be able to make the results as fruitful as possible, and the geometrical course both a powerful means of intellectual education and an etticient preparation for a large number of professions. (2) The teacher should be careful not to exclusively employ the expositive form of teaching. By logically conducted questioning, he should compel his pupils to themselves take part in the teaching. The practical knowledge of geometrical forms acquired in the primary course helps the pupils to readily under- stand the bearing of the master's questions ; and, if they have acquired the habit of reflection, they will often find the proper demonstration to apply, to deduce from any new theorem studied, the corollaries to which it naturally leads, and to shew its relation to propositions previously demonstrated.^ It is hardly necessary to add that the books of Euclid do not constitute the text- book of geometry. 4. Elemenlary Geometry in ¥r nee. — Franco led the way in the abandonment of tlio Euclidean notion of learning geometry. The fcheme of instruction is so totally different from the method of reading Euclid's elements that the following svnopsis of a programme is given in full, translated from the " Organisation PeJagogique des c'colos primaires de Lille" : — ELEMENTARY COURSE. Observation)!. — The pupils are from the first exercised in aciiuiring from a solid body the notions of volume, surface^ line, and point. The work done in the succassive months is as follows : — October. — Point, line, various sorts of lines ; straight, bent, perpendicular, and parallel lines. November. — Manner of drawing perpendiculars and parallels. Set square, and mode of using ; horizontal, vertical, oblique lines. December. — Angle. Various kinds of angles. Measure of angles by means of protractor. Recapitulation of the work done in the quarter. /aiHiary. — Square, its definition. Remirks concerning its sides and angles. Rectangle, its definition. Febrvary. — Triangle. Various kinds of triangles. Base. Height. Trapezium, its definition. March. — -V^alue of the three angles of a triangle. Shew this value by cutting a small piece of rectangular p&per into two along the diagonal and applying them the one to the other. Recapitulation of the quarter's work. April. — Circumference, circle, centre, diameter, radius, arc, chord, bend (versed line). Drawing of a circumference on paper and on the ground. May. — Klementary notions concerning the cube (lateral and bounding surfaces, etc.), by means of a model, in relief, June. — Notions regarding the prism and cylinder (model in relief). Recapitulation of the quarter's work. July. — Notions concerning the pyramid, the cone, and sphere (models in relief). ' Anyust. — General recapitulation. Throughout the 5'ear there are to be frequent exercises in measuring and in visual comparison of magnitudes, etc. Approximate estimations of distances and valuations in metric measure. MIDDLE COURSE. October. — Line: DiflFerent kinds of lines, drawing and defining them. Atif/le: Different kinds of angles. Drawing and defining them. The measurement of angles. Constructing an angle equal to a given angle, or equal to the sum or the difference of two angles. November. — Circumference: Definition, radius, diameter, cliord, arc, tangent, secant, length of the circumference. Polygons : Definition. Perimeter. Diagonal. Regular and irregular polygons. December. — Square: Definition, diagonal, surface, construction. Applications, Rec,tq,ngle : Same as for square. January. — Triangle: Definition, the four kinds of triangles. Simplest cases of the construction of triangles. ArM of triangles. Recapitulation of the (juarter's work. February. — Parallelogram, rhombus, trapezium : their definitions, surfaces, constructions, applications. March. — Circle and regular polygons : Their drawing ; areas of their area. Recapitulation of areas. Ain-it. — Combination of regular polygons suitable for paving, etc. Equilateral rectangles, scjuares, rectangles, hexagons, octagons. Area of a sector, of a segment, and of any polygon whatsoever. Problems of application. May. — Volumes: The cube, its surface and volume, the same for parallelepiped and prisms. Problems involving application. June. — The cylinder, pi/ramid, and cone : their surfaces, total surfaces, and volumes. July. — Sphere Surface and volume. General recapitulation. HIGHER COURSE. October. — Angles: Adjacent angles, right angles, vertical angles. Perpendiculars: Erected from a point within or without a line. Applications: Distance of a point from a straight lino. Aline such that all the points are of equal distance ; construction of a bridge c<)uidistant from two villages. Perpendicular to a line from a point, within or without. (Exercises in drawing.) Novemlier. — TrianglcM. Case of equality of triangles. Right-angled and isosceles triangles. Application. Construction of triangles. Drcember 1 Organick regloment voor de middelbaro Soholcn van doa Stit Naiuur VJ)\, pp. 72 7o 214 December. — Parallel lines cut by a secant. Equal or supplementary angles. Sum of the three angles of a triangle. Parallelogram : Its properties. Apphcationg : Measurement of an inaccessible point by means of a right-angled isosceles triangle. Eecapitnlation of the quarter's work. January. — Circumference, circle, radius, diameter, chord, arc. Measure of angle at the centre and of the inscribed angle. Application. Determining the centre of a circumference or of an arc. Measure of an angle by means of protractor or of the graphometer. February .—Chords. Kqual cliords and their properties. Tangents. Parallel secants. Perpendiculars from the centre on a chord. Applicatioun. V : Drawing of tangents. '2" : Drawing of secants of definite length. March. — Areas of the square, rectangle, parallelogram, rhombus, triangle, trapezium. Recapitulation of the quarter'* work. Application. Ascertaining the area of a class-room, of a window, of a yard, etc. I April. — Area of regular polygons. Circle, sector, segment, irregular polygons. Square on the hypotenuse of a right* J angled triangle. Application. Surveying, levelling. Maij.— Plane : Idea of plane. Line perpendicular or oblique to a plane. Line parallel to a plane. Intersection of two planes. Angles formed by two planes which cut one another. June. — Parallelepiped, and right prisms, opposite equal faces, cylinder. Parallelepiped and oblique prisms. Applications. Volumes of these bodies. Recapitulation of the quarter's work. y«/y. —Pyramid, cone, sphere, frustum of pyramid, and of cone. Volumes of these bodies. Problems of application. .4 «yK*(.— General recapitulation. In regard to the above programme, it may be mentioned that the teaching in drawing takes account of much the same kind of work. We may take at haphazard an illustraticn — Fay November — of the higher course in Drawing : — Koremhrr. — Division of a circumference. Construction of the protractor. Triangles, construction with different data. Particular case of a right-angled triangle. Drawing of sinnlar triangles, interior or exterior, with sides parallel or perpendicular. Various designs of pavements, engine-turned, frets ; flooring, oblique or straight. Geometrical solids, groups. The edncation of French teachers in the subject of g omelry will be referred to in Chap. XXXV, Beet 0. In the first and second years, the first two books of l.ogendre are studied, and the proportionality of lines, similarity of figures, the ratio of circumference to diiimeter, and the areas of figures ; also in solid geometry, the stiaight line formed by the intersection of ])lanes, dihedral angles, the polyhedra, measurement of volumes, the cylinder, cone and sphere are considered. In the third year practical trigonometry is taken in connection with the solution of triangles. Surveying is treated theoretically and practically in the field, the i)lane table and compass being used. Thus it may bo said that geometry -is treated largely from the practical point of view, and with regard to the utility of geometrical knowledge. 5. French Treatises on Elementary Gertmetry. — Some notion of the character of French text-books on geometry is necessary to the understanding of the French programme for the teaching of the subject. This may be had from a glance at one of the earlier text-books — say, for example, S. F. Lacroix's " Elements de Geometric." This work commences with general conceptions of space, pointing out that any physical hody in space necessarily has three dimensions, viz., tenytli, breadth, and thickuees. The bounding limits of three dimensional bodies are iiiirface», which have but two dimensions, viz., length and breadth ; while the limits of surfaces, viz., whether they meet or intersect each other are lineK, having but one dimension, viz., length. Again, the limits of lines, or their places of section, are poiriln, which have no dimension. A straight linei is determined in three-dimensional space by two points, and can be prolonged unequivocally — that is to say, its prolongation can occupy one and only one position in space. A plane surface is defined as that in which a straight line will lie in every direction. The development of the subject then proceeds as follows : — The properties of straight and circu'ar lines, of perpendicular and oblique lines, of parallel lines, of proportional lines and similar triangles, of polygons, of the straight line and the circle, of inscribed and circumscribed polygons, of the area of polygons and of the circle. The consideration of the above constitutes the first section of the work, and includes . 190 problems, theorems, and corollaries. A second part treats of the following subjects : — Planes, and bodies terminated by plane surfaces. Planes and straight lines. Bodies terminated by planes, polyhedra. The measurement of volumes. Round bodies, included under which arc the tone, the right cylinder, and the sphere. The comparison of round bodies. Under these various headings are included 1 23 more problems, theorems, and corollaries. The complement to this course deals with plane and curved surfaces, commencing with the consideration of planes and of the sphere. The plane and the straight line. Under this heading are also a considerable number of propositions. The second section of the complement treats of the generation of surfaces, viz., of conic and cylindrical surfaces, of curves of double curvature, surfaces of revolution, the intersections of curved , surfaces. In continuation of the subject of the generation of curved surfaces, special forms are examined. The development of surfaces, planes tangent to various surfaces, and a rdsvme of the theory of perspective, • close Lacroix's treatment of the subject. The most characteristic difference between this type of geometry and that developed in the books of , Euclid is the relatively great generality of the former, and the simplicity of the proofs. Any acquaintance ■with the two systems will reveal the fact that the reading of the books of Euclid is a failure to acquire any wide acquaintance with geometry, for the subject has now enormously developed. This question wii;, however, be later more fully discussed. G. Gnnnan Conception of Geometrical Teaching. — The German view as to what constitutes the pi-oper method of teaching geometry may be gathered from the following schemes of developing what are called "planime'ry," "trigonometry," " goniometry," and "stereometry," etc. The propasdeutics is intuitive instruction in geometry. The development is then as follows : — Exercises in the employment of the compass and ruler (i e., " practical geometry "). The theory of the straight line, angle, and triangle. Extension of the theory of the triangle. Theory of the parallelogram, chords and arcs of circles. Exercises of construction. Eecapitulation ' The straight line has been defined as the shortest distance between two points, a definition which is very unsatis- factory. See Joura. Royal Society N.S.W., 1901, pp. 2.54-25". LftCfpix's Elements, \5\\\ cclit., 1834, p. 2. 215 Recapitulation, and theory of circle. Principle of a real equality of plane figures. Pythagoras theorem. Calculation of areas of rectilinear figures. Exercises in construction. Theory of homology. Proportionality of straight lines in circles, continual division. Regular polygons. Circumference and content of circles. Problems of construction. Harmonic points, harmonic rays and transversals. Applications in algebra and geometry. Problems of construction, especially such as relate to algebraic analysis. Trigonometrical problems, and solutions by planimetric constructions. Stereometry and its application to geography and astronomy. Introduction to perspective drawing of forms in space. The conception of co-ordinates. Fundamental conceptions of the conic sections.i The above represents the course as taken in the Classical Gymnasium. In the Real Gymnasium and Oberrealschule the propsedeutics and general development is much the same, but the subject is somewhat extended. For example, in addition, spherical trigonometry is more thoroughly done, and the fundamental theory of projective geometry, the most important parts of conical sections geometrically treated (elementar-synthetischor Behandlung), and analytic plane geometry are included.^ The geometrical instruction commences with the preparatory work of using the ruler and compass, and the consideration of simple bodies, so as to get clear conceptions thereof. 7. Geometry in the Primary Schools of Hungary. — According to the law, geometry is not an obligatory subject in the primary schools of Hungary. It is not neglected, however, and is always to be found in the programmes of the two highest classes (the 5th and 6th) in schools where there are several teachers. In the fifth class, the principal properties of the line, angle, triangle, and polygon arc studied, and the pupils learn to ascertain the areas of surfaces. In the sixth cla^s, the pupils learn also the geometry of the plane and solid, and to calculate the surface of solid bodies. In the complementary school, the properties of the circle and cylinder arc considereJ, and the calculations of the surface of round bodies. The teaching of geometry in the normal schools for primary teachers commences in the second class. Starting with elementary notions, it goes in this class as far as practical surveying, and the drawing of plans. In the 3rd class, the theorem of Pythagoras, the conic sections, and also the spiral, are treated. In the 4th class, i.e. the last, polyhcdra are studied, and their volumes, surfaces, etc. calculated. 8. Italy. — In Italy, the books of Euclid arc read in the Gymnasia. In addition, t'le studies in geometry include the measurement of magnitudes, the area of rectilinear figures, the trigonometrical relations between the sides and angles of a right-angled triangle, perpendiculars, and oblique surfaces, plane and parallel surfaces, angle between planes, solid angles, perpendicular surfaces, polyhedra, similarity of solid angles. Prisms and parallelepipeds, pyramids, surface and volume of cone, cylinder, and sphere. Similarity of figures. In technical schools the above is extended to embrace homothetic and similar figures, the elements of descriptive geometry, plane trigonometry, the regular solids, and spherical trigonometry. 9. Geometry in Russia. — The following is the method of developing the subject of geometry in Russia : — • (1) Lines, angles, triangles, and their congruence. Quadrilaterals and polygons. The circle, arc, radius, diameter, chord, tangent, and secant. Concentric circles. Problems of construction in regard to all of the above. (2) Relation of straight lines to one another. Similar figures. Angle in circle. Inscribed and circumscnbed triangles and polygons. Circumference of circle. Areas of rectilinear figuies of the circle and its parts (segments and sectors, etc.). Problems touching all sections. Position of lines and surfaces in space. Solid angles. (3) Plane trigonometry. (4) Recapitulation of the whole of (1), (2), and (3). 10. Geometry in Primary Schools oj Sweden. — In Sweden the geometry of the lower primary schools consists of the drawing and measurement of lines, angles, triangles, quadrilaterals, circles, the computation of simple solids. In the higher course in the primary schools it embraces computations and the ordinary work in the first three books of Euclid. In the complementary schools, the geometry consists of the drawing, description and measurement of polygons and ellipses, of polyhedra, the sphere, etc. 11. Geometry in Primary Schools of Svntzerland. — Regarding geometry as the science of spatial form, the teaching in Switzerland may be said to commence in the infant-schools and kindergartens. All Froebelian occupations that deal with the naming and examining of forms are educating the child in geometrical ideas intuitively. In the first classes of the primary schools, the lessons in geography, in mensuration, in " tachymetrie " (measurement and estimation of distance, etc.), also constitute some form of teaching of this subject. This makes no pretension to being scientific, it is teaching by intuition, not by ratiocination (on munire plus qu'on ne demontre). Simple geometrical bodies are shewn to the children, their elements are analysed, the diScrent parts are described and named, their relations are estimated or measured. In the earlier stages of teaching, technical definitions are avoided, the development of ideas being based upon concrete objects of regular and definitely measurable shape. ITie experience of Switzerland is that this intuitive seometry is a valuable aid in drawing and manual works ; and in the highest classes it takes the practical form in which the science originated with the Egyptians — that is, field practice in surveying : hence the teaching is mainly what is called by us )>raclical geometry. These ' Dili lioheren Schuleii in Freussen und ilirc Lelirer. Adulf. Beier Halle, 1902 , pp. 78-79. « Jbid., pp. 80-81. ' Etlucation et Instruction par. F. Gucx etc. "Cct cnseignement tout intuitif de la guoim^trio trouvc un puissant auxiHairc dans colui du dessin et dos travaux manucls," [i. 117. 216 These operations in the field, demonstrating the theoretical results deduced in school lessong> give the children elementary but essentially practical conceptions of the measurement of lines, angles, areas, etc. They make plans of a simple kind by using the set square, etc.; they level, draw contours, interpret the cadastral plans, and so on. The following is a synopsis from the programme of the Geneveso Primary Schools. Children, 9-10.— 4 lessons of half-liour per week. — Drawing and explanation of triangle, square, and rectangle. Area of the two last figures. Children, 10-11. — 2 hours per week. Eecapitulation of preceding work. Triangles and quadrilaterals. Exact construction on blackboard by means of square and compass. Determination of their areas. Children, 11-12 (2 houi-s per week). FirKtSemi'ster:—\ioK!vp\t\\\a,t\onoi last year's work. Drawing and determination of area, etc. , of regular polygons, irregular polygons, the circle. Reduction of figures. The cube, parallelepiped, their surfaces, and volumes. Second Semester : — The prism and cylinder and their surface. Practical exercises for boys ; — Measurement of small plots of ground. Sketch-plans of school-hall, corridors, yards, etc. Children, 12-13 (2 hours per week). First Semester, Boys: — Recapitulation of last year's programme. Surface and volumes of solids, parallepiped, prism, cylinder, pyramid, cone. Development of the surfaces. Construction of these developments, and practical application. Second Semester: — Truncated solids (cut by plane parallel to bas-). Various practical applications — heap of sand, trunk of tree, etc. Surface and volume of a sphere. Ab- bridgments in ])ractical methods in the calculation of surfaces, volumes, etc. Girls : — Applications of last year's work to form, shape, and design, etc. It must not be forgotten that practical geometry is really taught also in the drawing lessons. The portions that arc specially geometrical are as follows : — Children, 7-8 (6 lessons of half hour each, per week) : — Point, horizontal, vertical, and parallel lines. Simplest geometrical figures. 13ox of cubes (Froebel's 6th gift), for explaining division into parts. Children, 8-9 (K lessons of half-hour each,; per week) : — Recapitulation of previous year's work by means of objects that also admit of new; ideas being presented ; example, that of an angle- an opened book. Explanation of an a^is oj mimuietrtf. Simple objects. Children, 9-10 (4 hours per week): — Drawing of simple forms easily recalled from combinations of triangles, rectangles, etc. Children, 10-11 (.3 hours per week) : — Plan of room. Scales of reduction. Vertical and oblique planes. Reconstruction of simple bodies by combining sections. Drawing of objects of three dimensions. Children, 11-12 fgirls 2 hours, boys 3 hours per week) : ^Recapitulation. Bodies farmed by rotation, and explanation of their character by plane sections. Construction from sketches of a side view. Drawing of objects in free perspective. Children, 12-13 (girls 2 hours, boys 3 hours, per week) : — Drawing of solids and objects from sections and side elevations. Develipmeiit of their surfaces. Notions of normal perspective. To understand the above work fully it is necessary to take into account the education of the teachers in the mathematical subjects ; for the interpretation of these synopses depends wholly on that. They of course mean much or little according to the culture of the teacher. 12. Geometrical Eihication of Teachers — Siuilzerland. — At the Kiisnacht Seminarium the aim in the mathematical training of teachers is the formation of thoroughly clear numerical and spatial conceptions, with a view to conferring the power of making critical and scientific deductions, in the whole province of numerical and measurable magnitudes, thus leading to a clear understanding of the interrelations of mathe- matical truths. In the 1st class of the Seminary for teachers, what is called planimetry (" Planimetrie "), is treated as follows : — The intuitions of space. Fixation of the fundamental ideas. Straight line and circle. Linear and angular measurement. Parallels and perpendiculars. Central and axial symmetry. Congruence. Motion and rotation. Construction of triangles. Propositions regarding ordinary and special quadrilaterals. The secants, tangents and angles of circles. Comparison, transformation, and measurement of the surfaces of triangles and polygons. In the second class planimetry and trigonometry are both dealt with as follows : — The theory of similarity of plane figures. Variations of scale. The regular polygons. The areas o circles. Construction of simple algebraic expressions. Straight line and circle as geometrica loci. The method of solution of planimetrie exercises in construction. Practical exercises with the simplest instruments in setting out and measuring distances and right angles. Application to the survey of small areas of ground. Trigonometry. — The definition and functions of an acute angle. Complete treatment of right angles and isosceles triangles. Exercises in calculation, by the use of the numerical value of functions. In the third class, trigonometry, stereometry and the theory of projection are taken, the develop- ment being as follows ; — Trigonometry. — Geometrical derivation of propositions concerning oblique angled triangles, and exten- sion of definitions. Practical problems, particularly such as are connected with triangulation, physics, and stereometry. General definitions and priijciples of angle measurement. The con- struction of trigonometrical expressions and examples of the trigonometrical analysis of geometrical , constructions. Stereometry. — Positional relations of space elements, in particular parallelism and perpendicularity. The notion of projection. Measurement of distances and angles. Spatial symmetry. Construc- tion of solid angles; etc., with three and more edges. Euler's theorem and the regular polyhedra. Theory of Projection — The oblique parallel projection as method of demonstration. Projection of points, straight lines, plane polygons and simple objects, in plan or elevation. The ellipse as a projection of a circle, and its focal definition. In 217 In the fourth class co-ordinate geometry is introduced, stereometry and the theory of projection are extended, and a methodical and historical review of the province of pure and applied geometry as regards the pr'imary school is given. Co-ordinate Geometry. — Rectangular and polar co-ordinates in space of two or three dimensions. Graphical representation of simple functions of a variable. Graphical solution of numerical equations. Stereometry. — The sphere and its elementary tangent-surfaces. The plane section of its surface. Sphei-ical triangle. The surfaces and volumes of elementary bodies, and of their simple parts. Application to the determination of weight. Theory of Projection. — Projection of polyhedra and of elementary bodies with curved surfaces, in plan and elevation. Development and establishment by models. The more important map-projections. Simple exercises regarding points of sections, with application to shadows. The fundamental notions of geometrical perspective, referring particularly to vanishing points, and foreshortening. Metliodical and historico-critical review concerning the province of pure and commercial calculations, and geometry as conceining the primary school. i It hardly needs pointing out that this course is an excellent preparation for the teaching of a much more thorough form of geometry than that to wliich we are accustomed in the primary schools here. The use of the intuitive or assisted heuristic-genetic method (heuristisch-genetische Behandlung) is to win interest. An historical glance at the developments of modem geometry reveals at once the power of modern general methods as compared with the older special proceeding ; and it is particularly desirable in the primary school that the material should be treated in the simplest and most obvious way. The children must be made to see clearly what is being taught. It is in this way that they obtain original and individual power. These vie^vs are impressed strongly upon the student-teachers during their course in the Continental training colleges. It may be said that the teaching is comprehensive in other parts of Switzerland also. The above may be taken as representing the ideas of the German portion ; but the French part also teaches geometry excellently. For example, in the Geneva College mathematics is taught to student-teachers according to the following scheme : — Stcidext-teacheks aged 15. Geometry. — The plane and the different lines that may be traced thereupon. Angle?, perpendiculars, and parallels. Triangle, isosceles, right-angled. Equality of triangles. Sum of the angles of a triangle, and of a convex polygon. Quadrilaterals. The parallelogram. The circle. Properties of chords and tangents. Angle at oentre, and inscribed angle. Inscribed and circumscribed polygons. Regular polygons and their properties. Proportional lines and similar figures. Principal cases of similarity between two triangles and two polygons. Metrical relation?. Calculation of ir. The area of plane figures, viz., of the rectangle, parallelogram, triangle, trapezium, polygon, and circle. Comparison of areas. Xumerous exercises on all parts of the programme. Student-teachers aoed 1G. Oeometry. — The plane. The perpendicular and oblique to a plane ; parallel planes, perpendicular planes, dihedral angles. Equality of two trihedra which have their three faces respectively equal. The polyhedra ; prism, parallelepiped, pyramid, truncated pyramid, surface and volume of these figures. Spherical bodies : cylinder, cone, truncated cone and sjjhere ; their surfaces and volumes. Numerous exercises upon all parts of the progranmie. Student-teacheks aged 17. T/^gononje^rj/.— Trigonometrical ratios of an acute angle. Solution of right-angle triangle; applications. Study of the trigonometrical functions of any angle whatsoever. Problems of inverse functions. Relations subsisting among trigonometrical functions of supplementary and complementary arcs, etc. The theory of projection. Addition and subtraction of arcs. Multiplication and division of arcs. Transformation of products of tlie sum of two sines or two cosines. Simple trigonometrical ecjuations of one unknown. Relations .subsisting between the angles and sides of any triangle wliatsoever. Solutions of any triangles ; the results should, as often as possible, be verified by means of drawing. Various applications. The elements of spherical trigonometry, fundamental relations. The solution of triangles. Studest-teaciiers aged 18. Analytical Geometry. — Introduction. The gra])hical representation of a phienomenon or a law. The notion of co-ordinates. Problems concerning the point ; harmonic division. Area of the triangle and polygon. Transformation x>i co-ordinates. The straight line ; equation of a line, its various forms, intersection of two lines, angle of two lines, distance to a point from a straight line. The circle. — Kquation of the circumference of a circle, circumference passing through three given points, tangents. Power of a point in relation to a circumference. Intersection of two circumferences. Geometrical positions. Conic sections. — Synthetic studies : demonstration of fundamental properties by means of a cone of revolution, construction of conies by points, property of tangents. The ellipse and equation of curve related to its axis of symmetry, equation of the tangent, the ellipse considered as the orthogonal projection of the circum- ference of a circle, conjugate diameters, area of the ellipse. Hyperbola. — Equations of the curve related to its axis of symmetry, discussion of the equation, the equation of the tangent, conjugate diameters. Parabola. — Equation of the curve related to its axis of symmetry and the tangent at its summit, the equation of the tangent, sub-tangent, and sub-normal, conjugate diameters. The equation common to the ellipse, hyperbola and parabola in rectangular and polar co-ordinates. Besides the study of geometry, etc., there is also a considerable time spent on the consideration of the methodology subject from a teaching standpoint. 13. Geometry in the United Kingdom. — The reading of the several books of Euclid's elements as a means of learning geometry has been maintained in England by the powerful influence of its older Universities. Despite this it is now widely recognised that such a course has been to the detriment of the English nation, in regard to its apprehension not only of geometry, but also of mathematical subjects generally. Many eminent geometricians, realising acutely the great advantages inhering in continental methods of teaching mathematics, have tried from time to time to replace the reading of Euclid by methods leading to a quicker, more extensive and more powerful acquaint;ance with the subject. Among ' See Jahrb, d. Unterrichtwesens in der Schweiz. 14 Jahrg., pp. 184-185. Zurich, 1902, 216 Among recent attempts to present the truths of elementary geometry in a more simple, general and unexceptionable form, may be mentioned that of Professor Henrici. His elementary geometry treating of congruent figures is practically an introduction of continental conceptions of the subject, though in its detail it is cast in his own form. Professor Henrici, starting with the ordinary intuition of space, defines a definite portion thereof as a x'tlid, the boundary of this being a surface. The boundary of the surface is a line, and of a line, a point. He next proceeds to shew that, in general, a line is generated by the motion of a point, a surface by the motion of a line, and a solid by the motion of a surface. Explaining the notions of congruency, reciprocity, axial and central symmetry, and the nature of loci, he shews how the application of these to the problems and theorems of geometry lead to great simplification, and further that a large number of tedious Euclidean proofs are rendered so obvious as really to dispense with the need of specific statement. At the close of his little work, he points out that curves can be generated in other ways than by the motion of a point ; for example a curve may be regarded as an envelope. Such a method of studying elementary geometry as Henrici outlined has the great advantage that the proof of each proposition is to a large extent self-contained, and the generality of the method not only deepens the appi'eciation of geometrical truth but greatly extends the power of a geometer, to say nothing of the fact that the total geometrical truth contained in the elements of Euclid is acquired; not only in a short time but also very easily, as compared with a direct study of such elements. A discussion took place in the British Association for the Advancement of Science on the teaching of Mathematics at the Glasgow meeting in 1901. This led to a report being i)resented on the subject at tlie Belfast mneting in September, 1902, during which time the Commissioners wore travelling in Europe. Quotations will be given from both of these, since they throw light upon the attitude in the United King- dom as to the question of the proper meihod of teaching geometry as a branch of mathematical science. The tenacity with which many Enulish mathematicians have clung to Euclid's elements may be thought remarkable, especially when it is borne in mind that the totality of geometrical truth in those elements is, as above said, not large. This feeling will bo greatly discounted, however, when the real facts of the average state of mathematical equipment in Europe and in England are understootl, and when too it is recollected that the old-fashioned method of toaehing has greatly hamporod our nation in taking its proper place in the world's mathematical activity, notwithstanding that Enyland has undoubtedly produced mathematicians of the highest order. The English Reform Movement will I o outlined in the paragraphs immediately following. 14. Some English opinions as to Encliilean (Jeometry. — It is beyond the limits of this chapter to give any adequate account of the discussion of the proper way of acquiring a knowledge of geometry. All that is practicable is to give a few recent rcfeiencos thereto. 15. Professor Sylvster. As far back as 1869 in an address to the British Absociation for the Advancement of Science, Professor Sylvester said : — " I would rejoice to see Euclid honourably shelved, or buried ' deeper than did ever plummet sound ' out of the school-boy's reach." " The early study of Euclid made me a hater of geometry." Of Professor Sylvester's great eminence as a mathematician it is unnecessary to speak. The paper on the teaching of mathematics read by Professor Perry and the discussion it raised in Sections A and L of the British Association has been published by Messrs. Macmillan (1901). The views expressed hereunder arc quoted from that source, the paging being as in the pamphlet. 16. Professor J, Perry alleged that the existing methods of teaching geometry do not aim at thoroughly developing a knowledge of the subject, or a love of it, but rather at qualifying to pass Examina- tion (p. 5), and he thought that they were also defective in that they did not pay sufficient attention to the fact that " the earlier the age at which you give one the chance of exercising his individuality the better " (p. 8). He charges the existing mathematical teaching with being unpractical, inadequate and tedious. " I believe," he says, " that men who teach demonstrative geometry, and orthodox mathematics generally, are not only destroying what power to think already exists, but are producing a dislike, a hatred for all kinds of computation, and therefore for all scientific study of nature, and are doing incalculable harm." (p. 16). He deprecated the complication of geometry by introducing unnecessary arithmetic (p. 20). He states the demerits of demonstrative geometry in the following terms : — " The average English boy takes unkindly to abstract reasoning, and if compelled to such study when unwilling is hurt mentally for life ; loses his self respect first, then his respect for all philosophy ; gets to hate mathematics. " Even for exceptional young boys demonstrative geometry is bad educationally because they reason about geometrical magnitudes before they know what these magnitudes really are ; they apply the same reasoning to more complex ideas of which they have the i;ame ignorance ; they become vain of their specious knowledge ; they get to hate all applications of mathematics." (pp. 21-22.) His scheme then propounded for the learning of geometry was as follows (pp. 28-29) : — Geometry — Dividing lines into parts in given proportions, and other experinient.al illustrations of the sixth book of Euclid. Measurement of angles in degrees and radians. Tlie definitions of the sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle ; determination of their values by graphical methods ; setting out of angles by means of a protractor when they are given in degrees or radians, also when the value of the sine, cosine, or tangent is given. Use of tables of sines, cosines, and tangents. The solution of a right angled triangle by calculation, and by drawing to scale. The construction of any triangle from given data ; deteimination of the area of a triangle. The more important propositions of Euclid may be illustrated by actual drawing ; if the proposition is about angles, these may be measured by means of a protractor ; or if it refers to the equality of lines, areas or ratios, lengths may be measured by a scale, and the necessary calculations made arithmetically. This combination of drawing and arithmetical calculation may bo freely used to illustrate the truth of a proposition. A good teacber will occasionally introduce demonstrative proof as well as mere nirasurement. The method of representing the position of a point in space by its distances from three co-ordinate planes. How the angles are measured between (1) a line and plane; (2) two planes. The angle between two lines has a meaning, whether they do or do not meet. What is meant by the projection of a line or a plane figure on a plane. Plan and elevation of a line which is inclined at given angles to the co-ordinato planes. The meaning of the terms " trace of a line," " trace of a plane." The 219 The distinction between a scalar quantity and a vector quantity. Addition and subtraction o vectors. Experimental illustrations. In setting out the above syllabus, the items have been arranged under the various branches of the subject. It will be obvious that it is not intended that these should be studied in the order in which they appear ; the teacher will arrange a mixed course such as seems to him best for the class of students with whom he has to deal. A good teacher must understand that no examination made by any one other than himself can be framed whicli will properly test the result of his teaching. He must endeavour to give knowledge which becomes part of his pupil's mental machinery, so that the pupil is certain to apply it in all sorts of practical problems, and will no more allow it to become rusty than his power to read or write or walk." The advanced course included " greater elaboi-ation of the work specified in the elementary course, that is, much more practice in such computation from more complex formulae. Demonstrative geometry based upon Euclid," some trigonometry, etc., and geometry as follows : — (pp. 31-32.) "Geometry. How the position of a point in space is defined by its rectangular co-ordinates x, y, z, or by its polar co-ordinates r, 0, ; the relations between x, y, z, and r, 6, ■ "Another subject that is too long postponed is solid geometry. It is postponed so long that most boys do not get it at all. Considering that we live and move in space of three dimensions, it is unreasonable and unpractical to confine all accurate thinking and teaching for three or four years to two-dimensional space. The result is to produce an instinctive shrinking from all three-dimensional thinking, as if it involved ;Some terrible mystery. It should be taught in a realistic manner, with the aid of models ; and the properties of direction-cosines should be introduced before the learner has got very far in trigonometry." " I agree with Professor Perry in recommending the use of squared paper for a variety of purposes." 22. Professor RUcker, now Sir A. W. Riicker, then president of the British Association, said (p. 48) that it was " well to approach the subject in the first instance, as far as possible, on the concrete side." 23. Professor Silvanus P. Thompson strongly supported the complete reform of mathematical education. He says (p. 49) : — " Pupils should be taught how to differentiate and how to integrate simple algebraic expressions before we attempt to teach them geometry and these other complicated things. 'The dreadful fear of the calculus symbols is entirely broken down in those cases where, at the beginning, the teaching of the calculus is adopted. Then, after the pupil has mastered those symbols, you may begin geometry or anything you please. I would also abolish out of the school that thing called geometrical conies. Teach it as a pure piece of geometry, and do not confine it to conies. There is a great deal of superstition about conic sections. The student should be taught the symbols of the calculus and the simple use of these symbols at the earliest age, instead of these being left over until he has gone to the College or University." 24. Mrs. W. iV". Shaw, referring to geometry, says (p. 52) : — " Geometry is, perhaps, the subject which suffers most from inefficient teaching. I do not agree that we should abolish Euclid from the schools ; Euclid's methods arc very valuable as specimens of sound reasoning, and as illustrating the nature of a proof ; tfte absurdity of our present system lies in using Euclid ox a means of teachiiig geometrical facts. For that purpose the children should handle solid bodies, and from them obtain plane figures. The faces of crystals supply many of the plane figures treated of in Euclid, and obtaining the figures from natural objects gives life and interest to the subject such as cannot be induced by drawing lines arbitrarily on paper. When the names of the figures are familiar language to the child, and 221 and he has for himself observed and classified their properties, he may be interested by an account of Euclid and his times, and be incited to find how the properties he has observed for the few objects he can handle can be shewn to be generalised truths for abstract forms. Moreover, it should not be forgotten that mathematical subjects have also a long and interesting history, and a great deal would be gained from a literary point of view if the history of mathematics to the part reached by the pupil were made known in a reasonable manner. The lives of great mathematicians and other men of science should be studied, the state of the special subject when they lived should be known, and their additions to it made manifest. It could not fail to be stimulating to the best of students to learn something of what any man of genius had done to extend .our knowledge of his subject, and the benefits we reap from such extension." 25. Professor Greenhill refers (pp. 53-54) to "the superiority of French methods over our own, and the backward state of our methematical instruction," and he points out that the plotting of graphs of simple algebraical curves on squared paper are inculcated in French treatises. 26. Professor Olaus Ilenrici, who himself was the author of an excellent text book on a reforpjed geometry, says (p. 55) : — "I agree that the method of teaching should be developed by the student himself on the concrete system, I also believe that the whole teaching of mathematics would be revolutionised if every child in the country were taught something of geometrical drawing. The elements must be taught scientifically; the child must understand the reasoning and the meaning of the result of reasoning. There should be not merely drawing to scale by the drawing of the same figure to different scales" "I hope mathematicians will not find it beyond their dignity to write more elementary books on the subject in a more scientific way." 27. Professor Alfred Lodge, while realising that reading Euclid's elements is an unsatisfactory way of learning geometry, seems inclined to retain Euclid to some extent. He says (pp. 56-58) : — " I wish to urge, with Professor Perry, that the teaching of elementary mathematics should be as far as possible concrete ; that, for example, areas of rectangles and other plane figures should be calculated from actual measurements made by the pupils themselves, and that volumes and surfaces of solids should be studied in the same way. The distinction between lengths, areas, and volumes would by such means "become instinctive." "In other parts of the subject there are of course many ways in which geometry (plotting of variable quantities, solution of simultaneous equations, etc.) can be made helpful ,.and stimulating." " In connection with geometry many teachers agree that Euclid as a text book labours under many disadvantages ; it pays more attention to logic than geometry, and the constructions given in it are for the ■ most part eminently unpractical. It is too much divorced from practical geometry and mensuration. But it is easier to find fault than to suggest a remedy, especially so long as a "knowledge of Euclid is absolutely necessary for examinations. But even in the study of Euclid much could be done to make its results more real and interesting to the average boy. Some practical acquaintance with geometrical magnitudes and measurements should precede any study of Euclid. Then in working at Euclid accurate but varied figures should be insisted on, and results should be frequently tested by actual measurements and numerical work. Many ideas become thoroughly assimilated ' through the fingers ' which would otherwise remain in the air." " Examining bodies could materially assist in the more rapid assimilation of Euclid if they would .agree to a few modifications of their system of setting questions." He argues the desirability of using hypothetical constructions, by which many propositions can be readily established. That he realises the desirability of change is manifest from the following passage (p. 58) : " I have mentioned only a few points in which I think improvements could be effected, pending the introduc- tion of a standard geometry other than Euclid." 28. Professor Miall meets the objection that there is no other available text book, or that various text-books would lead to confusion in the following words (p. 59) : — " We are asked : How can the pupils be examined in geometry if one has studied one book and another a different one ? What a measure does that question give of our educational methods. First ' comes the examiner ; then, I suppose, the teacher ; but where does the pupil come in 1 The difficulty does not exist outside the English-speaking nations, who have Euclid as a school-book entirely to themselves. Elsewhere it is not found to be too hard to say who is competent in geometry and who is not. The teacher in all parts of his work is too much dominated by examiners and inspectors ; he is not at liberty to try things . for himself." 29. Professor Minchin openly expresses the belief that the Euclidean order is a defective one. He says (p. 59) : — "What they (the Civil Service Commissioners) ask is that there should be no departure from Euclid's order. I think Euclid's order is bad and should he departed from, but I do not see what else the Civil Service Commissioners can do, because the real culprits in the matter are the headmasters of the public schools who stand in the way, and will have Euclid as the text-book. I think that geometry ought to be taught to the young in connection with arithmetic. Again, I think that those who teach mathe- matics have not yet learned the enormous value of graphical methods in the solution of all kinds of problems." 30. Professor Andrew Jamieson approved generally Professor Perry's advocacy of a "rational system of teaching mathematics." (p. 62). 1. Sir John Gorst stated (pp. 63—64) :— " In teaching mathematics in my younger days I had what was a very unique experience. I taught, or attempted to teach, mathematics U) the Maori boys and men in New Zealand." .... "But when in ' my youthful enthusiasm, finding the extreme rapidity with which they learnt the rules and practised the problems 222 problems of arithmetic, I proceeded to try to teach some of them Euclid, or rather geometry after the Euclid fashion, I absolutely and entirely failed. There wan not one of them that could grasp or understand the simplest of the propositions of Euclid." " Had I had the advantage of the discussion to which I had listened to-day, I should have abandoned teaching in the ordinary way until they had been famil- iarised with angles, lines, areas, and geometrical figures, of which the Maori youth was absolutely ignorant. I suppose by a method of that kind, even the least developed intellect of the uncivilised native of New Zealand might have been brought to take in some of the very simple propositions of geometry." " It might have been possible to make Maories familiar with the concrete objects of geometry, but it was absolutely impossible to get into their minds those general and abstract propositions which to them had no meaning whatever." Sir John Gorst touches the heart of the question, viz., the misappropriatencss of the method of making Euclid's Element the basis of a scheme of teaching geometry. 32. Principal Oliver Lodge strongly dissents from the view that reading Jluclid's Elements is learning geometry. He says (pp. 65-66) ; — " The ' linear ' demonstration of Euclid, where in order to be rigorous the whole order of the pro- positions must be remembered, is artificial ; and although supposed to be peculiarly crucial tt is not really demonstrative in a satisfying manner, because it is easy with a little intjennity to demonstrate a fallacy by such a process as that ; and it takes more than a beginner to be able to detect the flaw." " It is injudicious for him — a school boy — to imagine that he could always leason himself into the truth by a strictly Euclidean process, and that he would always be able to detfct the flaw wlien there was one. "I venture to say that the Euclidean geometry considered as a philosophical system, though highly ingenious and delightful from some points of view, is based upon a fallacy — that is to say, is based upon an erroneous view of what constitutes proof, an erroneous view as to the nature, of axioms." "The basis of experience underlying all axioms is so purposely masked in Greek geometry that it has been thought (and I suppose by Euclid was thought) to be nmi existent. And so geometry appears to be built upon air — a kind of mental figment, a self- woven wraith, instead of what it really is, a very abstract variety of science ; and as such it has constituted a bad introduction to science, and so far from assisting to withstand a tendency to deal with book knowledge alone, it has overemphasised that tendency, and polluted whit might have been the earlifst effort of the mind to get into reasoning contact with Nature herself." 33. Oliver Heavside clearly agrees with the more concrete forms of teaching mathematics. He writes (pp. 67-68) : — " Boys are not jjhilosophers and logicians. Boys are usually exceedingly stupid in anything requiring concentrated reasoning. It is not in the nature of their soft brains that they should take kindly to Euclid and other stuff of that logic-chopping kind. But they usually possess another sort of mental ability — namely, the ready acquisition of new facts and ideas — and that is what should be taken advantage of." " Now, the prevalent idea of mathematical works is thxt yon must understand the reason why first, before you proceed to practice. This is fudge and fiddlesticks. I speak with confidence in this matter, not merely from experience as a boy myself, and from knowledge of other boys, but as a grown man who has had some practice in applications of mathematics. " There is so much to learn nowadays, really valuable knowledge of all sorts that it seems to me a wicked sin to go in the old way, with .... Euclid". . . . " The general inability of beys to study Euclid profitably is no reason why they should not learn geometry. Even stupid boys could do tliat, when properly directed and experimentally assisted} And as regards mathematics in general, I think it a very important assistance to have it taught in conjunction with elementary physics. That is, geometry and other natural facts." 34. Dr. J. Larmor states (pp. 69-70) : — " I believe the methods advocated by Professor Perry are in the main the right ones for beginners, and are in fact the methods actually followed or aimed at by most reflecting people who have to do with elementary education whether in school or college." . ..." I am even of opinion that if there is to be a reform in the methods of elementary instruction, the most promising way to work towards it is through carefully conducted public examinations." 35. W. N. Shaw writes (pp. 71-72) :— " I had reluctantly to allow, year after year, t'lat it is possible to spend years over the study of elementary mathematics, and to \>a,m with credit an examination in Euclid without comprehending the nature of a proof or the elements of scientific method." " In all seriousness the teaching of mathematics in schools as a part of the general education of the average youth is in my experience a pitiful failure, which results in many cases in the student regarding the subject as merely foreign to his intelligence." 36. Dr. Sumpner quotes Mr. Oliver Heavside, with approval and opposes the continuance of Euclid. He expresses himself as follows (pp. 78-79) : — " As regards the necessity for the reform of geometrical teaching, which has already been alluded to in this discussion, I am largely in sympathy with the view of Oliver Heavside, who has said (Electro- May. Theory, Vol. I, p. 148) :— "As to the need of improvement there can be no question whilst the reign of Euclid continues. My own idea of a useful course is to begin with arithmetic, and then, .not Euclid, but algebra. Next, not Euclid, but practical geometry, solid as well as plane ; not demonstrations but to make acquaintance. Then, not Euclid, but elementary vectors, conjoined with algebra, and applied to geometry. Addition first, then the scalar product. This covers a large ground. When more advanced bring in the vector product. Elementary calculus should go on simultaneously, and come into the vector algebraic geometry after a bit. Euclid might be an extra course for learned men, like Homer. But Euclid for children is barbarous." 37. ' The italics are not in the original, 223 37. W. D. Eggar, in referring to geometry, says (p. SI) : — "A course of geometrical drawing to b3 agreed upon which should replace Euclid II, IV and VI. Books I and III to be taught still, but in conjunction with geometrical drawing. Euclid II. — 12, 13, to be transferred to trigonometry, which should begin at an earlier stage." 38. A. J. I'resdand recommoads the discarding of Eaolid. Ho says (p. 83) : — " Eudtd must be discarded. 1 n drafting a ' Code Geometry ' to replace the latter it might be assumed that some pupils have already had manual training, and that all will take a course of Geometrical Drawing." 39. Sir Philip Magnus obviously agrees with much that Professor Perry has said about the abandon- ment of Euclid. He writes as follows (pp. 84-86) :— " With what Professor Perry has said about the use of Euclid as a text-book I am in complete accord. . . . . It is difficult to understand the permanence of Euclid's Elements as a school text-book. It is bad geometry and inperfect logic. Throughout Europe it has been abandoned, and nothing tends more to imi)ede the proper study of Geometry in all o\ir schools than the use of Euclid. Nevertheless, it remains. As a discipline, or training in logic, Euclid is defective ; for not only is the reasoning faulty, but it is not the kind of reasoning used in sifting evidence and drawing conclusions in the affairs of ordinary life. When we are asked, 'What book sluiU we substitute for Euclid?' the answer is, '■None.' Geometry must be taught like any other branch of science without the necessary reference to any particular text-book, and it must be taught practically. It is to be hoped that Professor Perry's renewed protest against the use of Euclid may be heard in our schools and class-rooms, and a'love all in our examination halls . . . The teaching of mathematics in many of our schools lias got into a groove, nnd has become a matter of mechanical routine. It neither exercises the mind of the teacher nor of the pupil. There is no subject in which reform of method is more neede I, and Professor Perry has rendered a real service to education in directing thought to the subject." 40. Professor D. E. Smith, in referring to Professor Perry's argument that Euclid should be abandoned, says (p. 90) : — " Well, why not ? She is about the only country left that uses it, and as one looks at the mathematics of the world since Newton's time he certainly cannot foel that the results of England's use of Euclid have been such as to render the monopoly necessary." 41. Professor Horace Lamb says (pp. 91-92) : — • " A good text-book to replace Euclid is mu?h wanted ; but it should be issued with some autliority, and Cambridge is practically the only place that could confer this (!). It should also be revised every five or ten years, so that changes may be introduced gradually. Also it should be Euclidean in method, if not in phraseology. If anything else is attempted, a disastrous muddle will ensue, to be followed after a, few years by a reversion to Euclid, as happened once, I think, in Italy." This notion that Cambridge is the only place that can issue an authoritative tfxt-boole, and that the English people cannot reform any element of education recognised as defective (it is explicitly admitted that Euclid's elements are defective) until Cambridge issues such a text-book, explains why it is difficult to secure reform in England, even when the need of reform is fully admitted. 42. Professor Perry, in reply criticises very severely English education. He says (pp. 93-101) : — " The average Englishman hates school education, because every specimen of it that he has seen oflends his common-sense. And Oxford hates all ideas of education through mathematics and natural science, because what she has seen in that way everywhere has been offensive to her common-sense." " It will be found that my syllabus contains almost all the new suggestions which were made by speakers who had no time to study it. (1) Experimental geometry to precede demonstrative. (2) Some deductive reasoning to accompany experimental geometry. (3) Mathematics to enter into the experimental science syllabus as much as possible. (4) Rough guessing at lengths, weights, etc., to be encouraged. (5) Recognition of the incompleteness of any external examination. (6) The importance of familiarising a boy with problems in three-dimensional space. (7) A hard and fast syllabus undesirable ; even the sequence of subjects to be left to a good teacher's initiative. If my critics will consult the new syllabus in Practical Geometry, of the Board of Education, they will see that a very great reform has been effected in this subject, and that it is no longer a mere collection of rules ; it is now really an educational .subject allowing a student to let his mind and imagination develope in several of many directions, and bringing him into contact with many subjects through the common-sense application of a very few general principles." " Take it that we are all agreed upon the following points : — 1. Experimental methods in Mensuration and Geometry ought to precede demonstrative geometry, but even in the earliest stages some deductive reasoning ought to be introduced. 2. The experimental methods adopted may greatly bo left to the judgment of the teacher ; they may include all those mentioned in the Elementary Syllabus which I presented." Professor Perry's work has undoubtedly brought to a focus the long endeavour to secure a thorough and much needed reform in English mathematical teaching, and that reform has now taken still more definite shape in the report of the British Association meeting in 1902, a document the importance of which demands that it be quoted in full as hereunder : — 43. TVte Belfast Report on teaching of Geometry, etc. — At the Belfast meeting in September last year of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, a report on the teaching of elementary mathe- matics was presented by the Committeee, specially appointed for that purpose, consisting of Professor Forsyth (Chairman), Professor Perry (Secretary), Professor Chrystal, Mr. W. D. Eggar, Mr. H. W. Eve, Professor 224 Professor Gibson, Dr. Gladstone, Professor GreenhiU, Professor R. A. Gregory, Professor Henrici, Professor Hudson, Dr. Larmor, Professor A. Lodge, Sir O. Lodge, Profes.sor Ix)ve, Major Macmahon, Professor Minchin, Sir A. W. Rucker, Mr. Robert Russell, and Professor S. P. Thompson. That report, only just published, expresses the most recent English view as to the best methods of teaching mathematics and especially geometry, and is therefore given in full. Two schedules have been suggested, one on Euclidean lines, and the other a programme intended to accompany a general course on Arithmetic, Algebra, and Experimental Science. The 'first is by Mr. Eggar and the second by Professor Perry. These are also given in full. 44. The Committee's Report — The following is the Committee's Report : — • " In submitting the present report, the Committee desire to point out that tliis is not tlie first occasion on which the British Association has attempted to deal with the teaching of elementary mathematics. About thirty years ago a similar body was appointed to consider part of the subject, viz., ' the possibility of improving the methods of instruction in elementary geometry ' ; and two reports were presented, one at the Bradford meeting in 1873 (see the Report, volume for that year, p. 459), and the other at the Glasgow meeting in 187G (see the Report, volume for that year, p. 8)." " The two reports advert to some of the difficulties that obstruct improvements in the teaching of .geometry. One of these is alleged to be ' the necessity of one fixed and definite standard for examination purposes ' ; apparently it was assumed that this fixed and definite standard should not merely.be required from all candidates in any one examination, but also be applied to all examinations throughout the country. In order to secure the uniformity thus postulated, the Committee, thinking that no text-book had been ])roduced fit to succeed Euclid in the position of authority, and deeming it improbable that such a book could be produced by the joint action of selected individuals, suggested the publication of an authorised syllabus. In their second report they discussed the merits of a particular syllabus, that of the Association for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching ; but, in spite of such commendation as was then expressed, the syllabus has not been generally adopted/' " It is still true that (in the words of the former Committee) ' in this country at present teaching is guided largely by the requirements of examinations.' For some time to come the practice of the 'country IS not unlikely to allow examinations to retain at least a partial domination over teaching in schools. Accordingh', if the teaching is to be improved, it seems to be a preliminary requisite that examinations should be modified ; and, where it is possible, these modifications in the examinations should leave greater fre3dom to the teacher, and give him more assistance than at present" " On the other hand, there is a tendency in this country whereby, in such matters as teaching and e.xamination, the changes adopted are only gradually effected, and progress rcomes only by slow degrees. Accordingly, the general recommendations submitted in this report are such that they can be introduced easily and without any great alteration of the best present practice. It is the hope of the Committee that the recommendations, if adopted, will constitute merely the first sttxge in a gradual improvement both of ■teaching and of examinations. For the most part only broad lines of change are suggested ; this has been done in order to leave as much freedom as possible to teachers for the development of their methods in the light of their experience.' " /s Uniformity Imperativel — The Committee do not consider that a single method of teaching 'mathematics should be imposed uniformly upon all classes of students, for the only variations then possible would be limited by the individuality of the teacher. In their opinion, different methods may be adopted for various classes of students, according to the needs of the students, and corresponding types of examination should be used." " It is generally, if not universally, conceded that a proper training in mathematics is an important part of a liberal education. The value of the training depends upon the comprehension of the aims of the mathematical subjects chosen, upon the grasp of the fundamental notions involved, and upon the attention paid to the logical sequence of the arguments. On the other hand, it is freely claimed that in the training of students for technical aims, such as the profession of engineering, a knowledge of results and a facility in using them are more important than familiarity with the mathematical processes by which the results are established with rigid precision. This divergence of needs belongs, however, to a later stage in the training of students. In the earliest stages, when the elements of mathematics are being acquired, the .processes adopted can be substantially the same for all students, and many of the following recommendations are directed towards the improvement of those processes." " I'eachinff of Practical Geometry. — The former Committee recommended (and the present Committee desire ,to emphasise the recommendation) that the teaching of demonstrative geometry should be preceded by the teaching of practical and experimental geometry, together with a considerable amount of accurate drawing and measurement. This practice should be adopted, whether Euclid be retained or be replaced by some authorised text-book or syllabus, or if no authority for demonstrative geometry be retained." " Simple instruments and experimental methods should be employed exclusively in the earliest stages, until the learner has become familiarised with some of the notions of geometry and some of the properties of geometrical figures, plane and solid. Easy deductive reasoning should be introduced as soon as possible, and thereafter the two processes should be employed side by side, because practical geometry can be made an illuminating and interesting supplement to the reasoned results obtained in demonstrative geometry. It is desirable that the range of the practical course and the experimental. methods adopted should be left in large measure to the judgment of the teacher ; and two schedules of suggestions, intended for different classes of students, have been submitted to the Committee by Mr. Eggar and Professor Perry respectively, and are added as an Appendix to this Report." " Should ther e he a single authority in Geometry?— In the opinion of the'Committee it is not necessary that one (and only one) text-book should be placed in the position of authority in demonstrative geometry ; nor is it necessary that there should be a single syllabus in control of all examinations. Each large examining body might propound its own .syllabus, in the construction of which regard would be paid to the average requirements of the examinees." " Thus an examining body might retain Euclid to the extent of requiring his logical order. But when the retention of that order is enforced, it is undesirable that Euclid's method of treatment should always oe adopted ; thus the use of hypothetical constructions should be permitted. It is equally undesirable to insist upon Euclid's order in the subject-matter ; thus a large -part of the contents gf Books HI, and V could be studied before the student comes to the consideration of the greater part of Book II " '■ Tn 225 " In every case the details of any syllabus should not be made too precise. It is preferable to leave as much freedom as possible, consistently with the range to be covered ; for in that way the individuality of the teacher can have its most useful scope. It is the competent teacher, not the examining body, who best can find out what sequence is most suited educationally to the particular class that has to he taught." "A suggestion has been made that some Central Board might be instituted to exercise control over the modifications made from time to time in every syllabus issued by an examining body. It is not inconceivable that such a Board might prove useful in helping to avoid the logical chaos occasionally characteristic of the subject known as Geometrical Conies. But there is reason to doubt whether the authority of any such Central Board would be generally recognised." " Opinions differ as to whether arithmetical notions should be introduced into demonstrative geometry, and whether algebraic methods should be used as substitutes for some of the cumbrous formal proofs of propositions such as those in the Second Book of Euclid : for opinions differ as to the value of strictly demonstrative geometry, both for training and for knowledge. Those teachers who do not regard, algebraic methods as proper substitutes for geometrical methods might still use them, as well as. arithmetical notions, for the purpose of illustrating a proposition or explaining its wider significance. It is the general opinion of the Committee that some association of arithmetic and algebra with geometry ia desirable in all cases where this may be found possible ; the extent to which it may be practised will depend largely upon the individual temperament of the teacher." " Every method of teaching demonstrative geometry has to face the diflSculties inevitably associated with any complete and rigorous theory of proportion. In the opinion of the Committee, not merely is Euclid's doctrine of proportion unauited for inclusion in elementary work, but it belongs to the class of what niay be Called university subjects. The Committee consider that the notion of proportion to be adopted in a school course should be based upon a combination of algebraical processes with the methods of practical geometry." " Examinations ut Geometry. — As regards examinations in geometry, the Committee consider that substantial changes in much of the present practice are desirable. In most, if not in all, of the branches of mathematics, and especially in geometry, the examinations ought to be arranged so that no candidata should be allowed to pass unless he gives evidence of some power to deal with questions not included in the text-book adopted. Such questions might comprise riders of the customary type, arithmetical and algebraical illustrations and verifications, and practical examples in accurate drawing and measurement. The Committee consider the latter of particular importance when the range is of an elementary character ; some influence will be exercised upon the teaching, and some recognition will be given to the course of practical geometry that should be pursued in the earlier stages." "Arithvietic and Algebra. — The Committee are of opinion that in the processes and explanations belonging to the early stages of these subjects, constant appeal should be made to concrete illustrations." " In regard to arithmetic, the Committee desire to point out what has been pointed out so often before, that, if the decimal system of weights and measures were adopted in this country, a vast amount of Vhat is now the subject-matter of teaching and of examination could be omitted as being then useless for any purpose. The economy in time, and the advantage in point of simplification, would be of thj$ greatest importance. But such a change does not seem likely to be adopted at present ; and the Committer confine themselves to making certain suggestions affecting the present practice. They desire, however^ to urge that teachers and examiners alike should deal with only those tables of weights and measures which aVe the simplest and of most frequent practical use." " In formal arithmetic, the elaborate manipulation of vulgar fractions should be avoided, both in teaching and in examinations ; too many of the questions that appear in examination papers are tests rather of mechanical facility than of clear thinking or of knowledge. The ideas of ratio and proportion should be developed concurrently with the use of vulgar fractions. Decimals should be introduced at an early stage, soon after the notion of fractions has been grasped. Methods of calculation, accurate only tx) specified significant figures, and, in particular, the practice of contracted methods, should be encouraged. The u.se of tables of simple functions should be begun as soon as the student is capable of understanding the general nature of the functions tabulated ; for example, the use of logarithms in numerical calculation may be begun as soon as the fundamental law of indices is known." " In regard to the early stages of algebra, the modifications (both in teaching and in the examinations) which are deemed desirable by the Committee are of a general character." " At first, the formulie should be built on a purely arithmetical foundation, and their aignifiance would often be exhibited by showing how they include whole classes of arithmetical results. Throughout the early stages, formulie and results should frequently be tested by arithmetical applications. The arithmetical basis of algebra could be illustrated for beginners by the frequent use of graphs ; and the practice of graphical processes in such cases can give a significance to algebraical formulie that would not otherwise be obtained easily in early stages of the subject." " In passing to new ideas only the simplest instances should be used at first, frequent reference still being made to arithmetical illustrations. Advance should be made by means of essential development, avoiding the useless complications of merely formal difficulties which serve no other purpose than that of puzzling candidates in examiniitions. Many of the artificial combinations of difficulties could be omitted entirely ; the discussion of such as may be necessary should be postponed from the earlier stages. Teachers and ' examiners alike should avoid matters such as curious combinations of brackets ; extravagantly complicated algebraic expressions, particularly fractions ; resolutions of elaborate expressions into factors; artificiidly difficult combinations of indices ; ingeniously manipulated equations ; and the like. They have no intrinsic value or importance : it is only the mutual rivalry between some writers of text-books and Borne examiners that is responsible for the consideration which has been conceded to such topics." " Geimral Remarks. — If general simplification, either on these or on other lines, be adopted, particu- larly if graphical methods are freely used, it will be found possible to introduce, quite naturally and much earlier than is now the case, some of the leading ideas in a few subjects that usually are regarded as more advanced. Thus the foundations of trigonometry can be laid in connection with the practical geometry of the subject-matter of the Sixth Book of Euclid. The general idea of co-ordinate geometry can be made familiar by the use of graphs ; and many of the notions underlying the methods of the infinitesimal ciilculus can similarly be given to comparatively youthful students long before the formal study of the calculus is begun." 45. 226 45. Mr. Eggar's Projramme/or E.rperimental Geometry. —The following is the scheme submitted by Mr. Eggar for teaching geometry practically on Euclidean lines : — " Accurate moasuremonts of lines, angles, areas, and (if possible) volumes should precede any formal definitions. The following suggestions are intended for the earliest stages." ^'Instruments. — Hard pencil, compasses, dividers, straight-edge graduated in inches and tenths, and in centimetres and millimetres ; protractor (if rectangular, its connection with the division of the circle should be carefully pointed out) ; set-squares (45° and 60°) : notebook of squared paper ; traping paper ; scissors and loose paper for cutting out and folding." " It is important that careful draftsmanship and the use of properly adjusted instruments should be insisted on. All constructions should be drawn in fine pencil lines. Inaccurate work, or work done with soft or blunt pencils, should receive very little credit." " Processes. — Test of a straight line ; intersection of two lines ; notion (not definition) of a point ; measurement of a length ; estimation of the second place of decimals of inches or centimetres ; use of set- squares for drawing parallel lines ; construction and measurement of angles from 0° to 360° by the use of a protractor ; limits of error in setting off angles ; test of a right angle ; tost for accuracy of set-squares ; their use in drawing perpendiculars." "The drawing of parallels and perpendiculars by the aid of compasses ; the bisection of angles and straight lines ; construction of triangles from given dimensions ; the fundamental properties of triangles verified and illustrated by drawing ; similar triangles ; the division of lines into equal parts and into parts in given proportion ; test of equality of angles by the superposition of the angles of similar (not equal) triangles by means of tracing-paper." " The construction of rectangles, parallelograms ; and quadrilaterals, from adequate data ; notion of a tangent line ; construction of tangents to circles, using drawing-office methods ; notion of a locus ; construction of circles satisfying given conditions ; verification of the properties of circles." " Measurement of area ; use of squared paper ; area of an irregular figure found by counting the number of squares." " Illustrations and propositions relating to the areas of squares, rectangles, parallelograms, and triangles. Calculation of these areas from given dimensions {e.g., base and altitude), and verification by squared paper." " The length of the circumference of a circle determined experimentally {e.g., by rolling a coin with an ink mark on its rim down an inclined sheet of paper, or by wrapping a strip of paper tightly round a cylinder, pricking the paper where it overlaps, unwrapping and measuring the distance between (he two marks) ; the area of a circle determined by squared paper." " The area of a rectangular sheet of paper can be calculated from measurements in inches nnd in centimetres, and hence the number of square centimetres in a square inch can bo obtained by division. To how many places of decimals may the result be regarded as accurate ? " Construction of paper models of solids to illustrate the notions of surface and volume." " Measurement of volume should be illustrated by cubical bricks. Cubes of 1 inch and 1 centi- metre can he obtained cheaply. Volumes of rectangular solids, prisms, cylinders, and cones should be measured where possible, and the results verified by displacement of water if access to a physics laboratory is to be hid. Measurements of area and volume form a useful introduction to the notion of an algebraic formuli." i "As a pupil advances in elementary algebra, geometrical illustrations maybe employed with advan- tage, e.g., the verification with squared paper of the formulae corresponding to the propositions of Euclid, Book 11., graphs, the solution of quadratic equations with ruler and compasses." 46. Professor Perry's Programme. Professor Perry's programme as previously stated is intended to constitute a part of a course on arithmetic, algebra, and experimental science, and is as follows : — ■ " Practice in decimals, using scales for measuring such distances as 3-22 inches, or 12-5 centimetres." "Contracted and approximate methods of multiplying and dividing numbers ; using rough checks in arithmetical work ; evaluating formulae." " Mensuration. — Testing experimentally the rule for the length of the circumference of a circle, using strings or a tape measure round cylinders, or by rolling a disc or sphere, or in other ways ; inventing methods of measuring approximately the length of curves ; testing the rules for the areas of a triangle, rectangle, parallelogram, circle, ellipse, surface of cylinder, surface of cone, ic, using scales and squared paper ; propositions in Euclid relating to areas tested by squared paper, also by arith- metical work on actual measurements ; the determination of the areas of an irregular plane figure (1) by using Simpson's or other well-known rules for the case where a number equidistant ordinates or widths are given ; (2) by the use of squared paper when equidistant ordinates are not given, finding such ordinates ; (3) weighing a piece of cardboard and comparing with the weight of a square piece ; (4) count- ing squares on squared paper to verify rules. Rules for volumes of prisms, cylinders, cones, spheres, and rings, verified by actual experiment ; for example, by filling vessels with water, or by weighing objects of these shapes made of material of known density, or by allowing such objects to cause water to overflow from a vessel." " The determination of the volume of an irregular solid by each of the three methods for an irregular area, the process being first to obtain an irregular plane figure in which the varying ordinates or widths represent the varying cross-sections of the solid ; volumes of frustra of pyramids and cones ; computation of weights from volumes when densities are given." " Stating a mensuration rule as an algebraic formula. In such a formula any one of the quantities may be the unknown one, the others being known. Numerical exercises in mensuration. The experi- mental work in this subject ought to bo taken up in connection with practice in weighing and measuring generally, finding specific gravities, illustrations of the principle of Archimedes, the displacement of float- ing bodies, and other elementary scientific work. A good teacher will not overdo this experimental work ; he will preserve a proper balance between experimental work, didactic teaching, and numerical exercise work." " Ut(f 227 " Use of Squared Paper. — The use of squared paper by merchants and others to show at a glance the rise and fall of prices, of temperature, of the tide, etc. The use of squared paper should be illus- trated by the working of many kinds of exercises, but it should be pointed out that there is a general idea underlying them all." The following may be mentioned : — " Plotting of statistics of any kind whatsoever of general or special interest ; what such curves teach ; rates of increase." " Interpolation, or the finding of probable intermediate vaiues : probable errors of observation ; forming complete price-lists by manufacturers ; finding an average value ; areas and volumes as explained above." " The plotting of simple graphs ; determination of maximum and minimum values ; the solution of equations. Very clear notions of what we mean by the roots of equations may be obtained by the use of squared paper." " Determination of laws which exist between observed quantities, especially of linear laws." " Corrections for errors of observation when the plotted quantities are the results of experiment." " Geometry. — A knowledge of the properties of straight lines, parallel lines, right angles, and angles of 30°, 45°, and 60^, obtained by using and testing straight-edges and squares ; dividing lines into parts in given proportions, and other experimental illustrations of the Sixth Book of Euclid ; the definitions of the sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle, and the determination of their values by graphical methods ; setting out of angles by means of a protractor, when they are given in degrees or radians, also (for acute angles) by construction when the value of the sine, cosine, or tangent is given ; use of tables of sines, cosines, and tangents ; the solution of a right-angles triangle by calculation and by drawing to scale ; the construction of any triangle from given data ; determination of the area of a triangle. The more important propositions of Euclid may be illustrated by actual drawing. If the proposition is about angles, these may be measured in degrees by means of a protractor, or by the use of a table of chords ; if it refers to the equality of lines, areas, or ratios, lengths may bo measured by a decimal scale, and the necessary calculations made arithmeti- cally. This combination of drawing and arithmetical calculation may be freely used to illustrate the truth of a proposition. A good teacher will occasionally introduce demonstrative proof as well as mere measure- ment." " Defining the position of a point in space by its distances from three co-ordinate planes. What is meant by the projection of a point, line, or a plane figure, on a plane ? Simple models may be constructed by the student to illustrate the projections of points, lines, and planes." "The distinction between a scalar quantity and a vector quantity addition and subtraction of vectors ; experimental illustrations, such as the verification by the student himself of the triangle and polygon of forces, using strings, pulleys and weights." 47. Conclusion of Part 1. — What has preceded will perhaps give a sufficient idea of the vivid re- cognition of the need of radical reform in the teaching not only of geometry but also of mathematics generally. Our own English system is greatly hampering us in competition with the people of other lands, and in view of the factthat mathematics and its applications are becoming increasingly significant in the industrial, commercial, and scientific life of the world, it will be well for us to treat reform in geometry as a question of urgency. In the next part this path of reform will be outlined. CHAPTER XXIII. (Part 2.) Reform in the Teaching of Geometry. • [G. H. KNIBBS.] 48. Introduction as to Reform. — In considering the urgent necessity for reform, two features aro at once suggerited as prominent, viz : — (1) The scope of geometry. (2) The methodology of its teaching. These can be considered in general and in detail. We consider the matter first from its general standpoint. 49. The Scope oj Geometry. — When the reading of Euclid's elements is completely abandoned as a means of becoming acquainted with elementary geometry, the way is clear for an enormous yet easy extension of the subject. This may be seen as follows : — Geometry has been defined as the " Science of Space," a definition open to obvious objections which need not be here discussed. A better definition is t/i^ science of spatial forms. All objects with which we aro acquainted have volume, hence one should commence with solid forms. It is easy even for a child to understand that we may confine attention to the boundary of a solid object ; hence the idea of atirface arisas, and, as a special case, plane surface : and from the boundary of a surface the idea of a line ; and 15—2 G as 228 as a special case, the straight line. Agaio using the idea of limiting our attention, one may regard the point as marking the boundary of a line. These elementary Jorms, viz., solids, surfaces, lines and points, are the subject matter with which geometry has to deal. The subject has two great divisions : — (A) Tlie nomenclature of spatial forms, i.e., of solids, surfaces, lines. (B) The properties of spatial forms, i.e., the quantitative and positional relations that subsist among them. This division is not absolute, for often a geometrical figure is defined by a property, as when a parabola is said to be the locus of points, the distances of which from a fixed line and a fixed point are etjual, or when equidistant straight lines are said to be parallel. It is, nevertheless, radical — inasmuch as the attention may be directed either to the mere description of a geometrical figure, or to the various properties which lie concealed therein. While it is true that no geometrical relationship is really established by experimental methods since they are subject to physical limitations, it is also true that their concrete representation greatly aids in the acquirement of clear conception as to what is intended to be indicated. Familiarity with a conception, certainly facilitates an examination of what is implicitly contained therein ; and this is why mere nomen- clature is, after all, of some importance as a preliminary step even in geometry. The subject ouglit, therefore, to be treated (first) in the concrete form, the concepts of the ideal figures with which pure geometry is cimcerned being derived therefrom. This, however, is a question in tlio methodology of the subject, a matter to whieli reference will again be made. The ordinary method of considering the merest fraction of geometry (Euclid's elements), in the most abstract form, has therefore the great disad\antage, not only of artificially and tediously treating the subject, but also of producing grave misconceptions as to its content. It is far better that the range of geometry should bo understood, even if only by a mere glance at concrete representations of the type forms, the properties of which have been more or less completel}' investigated. The scope of geometry may be understood not only as denoting its range, but also as indicating its implication in other sciences, or in the ordinary affairs of life. This also ought to be considered in dealing with the subject. The complete dis.sociation from all practical application which is characteristic of the classic method of teaching geometry prevents its great utility being perceived, and also prevents the ideal significance of ordinary industrial and other occupations being adequately appreciated ; for all geometers will agree tliat in resolving practical problems we should accustom the pupil to pass from the concrete case not only to the abstract, but also to recognise the type of case to which this abstract belongs. 50. Metlwdology of Geometrical Teaching. — From what has preceded, it is clear that the ordinary methods of teaching the various branches of geometry, that is, a method based on its analysis and method- ical development along given lines, is logical and not picdagogical methodology, and the difference is funda- mental. Logical development may be appropriate for shewing very advanced students the line of develop- ment of a particular subject, or for reviewing it in its totality as a special field of knowledge, but it is inappropriate for communicating the subject'. The only appropriate way, that is, the only way that keeps alive the recognition of the unity of all branches of knowledge, is todevelope the subject tliroughout its range, as far as the capacity of the pupils will allow. " When should the teaching of geometry commence ?" may be asked. The answer is : " In the Kindergarten ", as has before been said. Secondly, the teaching should be continuous from the Kinder- garten upward. But the present system of dissociating nritlimetic, algebra, and geometry and drawing, should be completely abandoned. The more intimately these subjects are initially connected the better ; and the connection should lie informal. It is better that children should not parcel off the different branches of knowledge, but ratlier see them all as intimately related. The above principles may be set forth as follows : — (1) The teaching of geometry should commence in the Kindergarten. (2) It should be continuous through all classes. (3) It sliould be associated in the early stages with the elementary teaching in arithmetic, algebra, drawing, and any form of manual work. (4) The special differentiation of the subject should take place gradually. (5) Its initial stages should be intuitive. (6) Its next stage should be practical. (7) Its more developed stage should be mainly demonstrational. (8) Its highly developed stage should be mainly analytic. Only the simplest element.s of analj'tic geometry will of course be reached in the Primary School for some time to come, owing to existing limitations in teaching qualifications. It will be necessary to outline these items somewhat more fully, since so many persons regard the learning of Euclid's elements and learning geometry, as equivalent. To follow such a course as has been indicated means the complete abandonment of the reading of Euclid's elements. — Very little acquaintance with continental mathematics and continental mathematicians, is quite sufficient to shew that their powers have in no way been limited by the abandonment of Euclid's elements as a means of learning geometry. It may also be stated that the reading of French treatises on mathematical subjects is, for those who have any knowledge of that language, one of the best ways of acquiring mathematical knowledge. {See Professor Greenhill's testimony.) Geometry ' In English text books, for example, the differential calculus is often developed in one text book, the integral calculus in another instead of simultaneously. This will conspicuously indicate the type of defect referred to. 229 Geometry in (lie Kindergarten. — In. the Kindergarten all the teaching should be Froebelian, i.e., intuitive. Here the child is to be awakened to the consciousness of geometrical form and relation, and he learns a few names. The geometrical forms and relations to be recognised and named are : — (i) Geometrical Forms. — Solid, surface, line, point, (ii) Geometrical Relations. — Large, small ; equal, uneqijal ; greater, less ; whole, part ; contact, separation ; touching, crossing, (iii) Simplest Geometrical Element and its Relations (zero dimension). — Point — many, few, number, place or position, (iv) Geometrical JElements (one dimension). — Line — curved, bent, straight ; long, short ; its ends, points ; its position, (v) Special cases of lines. — Straight line, equal lines, oblique lines, perpendicular lines, parallel lines. Ring or circle. (Congruency of circles of equal diameter.) (vi) Geometrical Elements (two dimensions). — Surface — curx'ed, bent, straight ; great, small ; its edges, lines, position, (vii) Special cases of Surfaces. — Flat or plane surface; oblique surfaces, perpendicular surfaces, parallel surfaces ; line on, or oblique or perpendicular to surface. Line parallel to surface. Surface of ball or sphere. Curved line thereon, (viii) Geometrical Elements (three dimensions). — Ball or sphere ; cube, its faces plane surfaces ; block (rectangular parallepiped), its edges straight lines, (ix) Special Forms. — Equilateral triangle, square, any triangle, any rectangle ; circle, circle round triangle (inscribed triangle), circle in triangle, circle round square. Circle in square, (x) Special Relations. — Equalities between lines, surfaces, solids, multiples, or parts of the solids, surfaces, and lines, (xi) Regularity (symmetry), irregularity (asymmetry). (xii) Direction, change of place, or position, quick, slow (velocity). Weight : heavy, light (mass). The last ideas, though not in the common acceptation purely gcomotri<'al, m.iy an 1 ought to bo fused with geometrical ideas ; or, to state it more generally, the elementary conceptions of kinematics and kinetics ought to be incorporated with elementary conceptions of space and its forms. In the Kindergarten period, almost everything must be sacrificed to interest, and success in teaching will depend wholly upon the teacher's power of interesting the children, not in the abstract but concrete form. For example, to illustrate the " solid," a ball, cube, cylinder, anything may be taken, and the special name must be first learnt, the name solid, afterwards. And while the name is important, it is not absolutely essential, and, if not easily learnt, the absence of a name will not wholly prevent the child perceiving geometrical facts. All children appear to like colour; the use of colours in connection with their geometry is thus desirable, not only to teach colour but also to intensify interest. Again, the Froebelian gifts will lend themselves readily to geometrical teaching, and are useful aids thereto. Children are taken with pretty forms also, and in stick-laying, etc., it is easy to get in some geometrical instruction. The properly-educated and trained Kindergarten teacher will have no difficulty, either, in acquainting himself or herself with the necessary geometry, or in teaching it according to Kindergarten methods. 52. Geometry in the Primary School. — In the lower Primary School the great body of the geometrical teaching should be intuitive and practical, the demonstrational part being simple. It will, however, not be difficult to carry the demonstration as far as is done by Henrici in his little treatise, before referred to, on congruency, symmetry, etc. In the higher Primary School demonstrational work of a serious nature can well bo undertaken, graphics and projective geometry seriously treated, and the difficulties at present found, arising from ignorance of conceptions or lack of interest, will in all probability bo wholly absent under the reformed system of teaching. Drawing should play throughout a conspicuous part in the teaching, a matter which will be more fully explained in the next section. 53. Practical Geometry and Geometrical Drawing. — Practical geometry and geometrical drawing are subjects which can be treated simultaneously ; they have obviously much in common. The work could he commenced in the kindergarten. For example, it might well start with geometrical exorcises in paper- folding, the following series of exercises giving a suggestion as to procedure : — Geometrical Exercises in Paper folding : — (i) Formation of straight and parallel lines by the folding of paper, (ii) Right angles (the cardinal points), square, rectangle, etc. (iii) Angles of 45°, 22^° etc. (the eight wind directions), lozenge, parallelogram, etc., of 135°, 45'^, etc., (rhombus), (iv) Angles of 60°, 30°, 15°, etc., by folding. Equilateral triangle, hexagon, etc. (v) Division of any line into 2, 4, 8, etc., parts, and into 3, 6, 12 parts, etc. (vi) Division of any angle into 2, 4, 8, etc., parts, and into 3, 6, 12 parts, etc. (vii) Set of parallel lines, and multiplication of any particular angle. The.se are a few of many similar exercises that can be provided. They are thus far restricted to linear and plane geometry, but can readily be extended to include exercises in solid geometry. With, of course, a little cutting, the following forms can be readily produced : — (viii) Cube, tetrahedron, octahedron, some simple regular crystalline forms. Practical 230 Practical geometrical exercises using ruler, scale, and " compass " (for drawing circles) would appropriately follow the geometrical paper-folding exercises. These might be developed somewhat as follows : — • Exercises m Practical Geometry : — (i) Direct subdivision of any line with and without scale into given number of parts, (ii) Drawing of perpendiculars from point within or without a line with set-square, with compass, and with scale only. Locus of vertices of right-angled triangles on a line as hypotenuse, (a semicircle.) (iii) Drawing of parallel lines with compass, and with scale only, (iv) Bisection of angle, when vertex is visible, and when vertex lies beyond the paper. Division of angle into 4, 8, etc., parts, (v) Construction of any triangle, of regular polygons, of 2, 4, 8, etc., sides : 3, 6, 1 2 etc., sides (vi) Various exercises dependent on the preceding. Ornamental and architectural forms, tessel- lated, and rose patterns, etc. The preceding exercises might appropriately be followed by intuitive proofs of certain propositions, for example : — (viii) Shew intuitively that the square on hypotenuse of isosceles right-angled triangle is equal to sum of the squares on the other two sides, (viii) Shew intuitively that parallelograms on equal bases and of equal vertical height are equals (by superimposing the parallelograms and cutting off a piece from one of the parallelograms and adding to the opposite side so as to make the figures identical, (ix) Shew intuitively that triangles are half of parallelograms (by dividing along the diagonal), (x) Drawing right angled triangles with all their sides whole unitsi, and then with the base and perpendicular any whole units. Test arithmetically the theorem of Pythagoras, (xi) By construction divide line so that square on one part is equal to rectangle on whole and other part ; test arithmetically, (xii) Construct triangle with angles at base double of third angle (Euclid, IV, 10) ; test the drawing by way of verification. These exercises could be given a concrete form, as well as an abstract form. The course could then be followed by exercises on the circle. For example : — (xiii) Given a circle to find its centre. (xiv) Describe circle under different conditions : (a) Circle in triangle; (6) through three points; (c) through two points and touching line ; (d) to touch line at given point, and pass through point ; (e) to touch two lines, one at a given point ; (/) to touch two lines and pass through any point between them ; (r/) to touch three lines ; (h) to touch lines and circles under various conditions ; (i) to touch circles only ; (j) to describe an arc of circle without finding centre ; (k) describe circle to contain any angle, (xv) Attempt to measure I'atio of circumference to diameter of circle directly, (xvi) Area of circle by means of squared paper. Find tt from this, (xvii) Exercises in use of protractor, and in making a protractor. Euclid's Elements introduce no conic section but the circle. It is very desirable, however, that children should be early introduced to other curves than the circle, and to non-Euclidean constructions. For example : — (xviii) Through a given point to draw a straight line the intercept of which between two given lines shall be a given length, (xix) Trisect any angle. (xx) Find point on circle so that the sum of the distances to two points without shall be as great or as small as possible, and similar questions. This will subsequently awaken in the pupil a recogition of the limits imposed on Euclidean geometry by its postulates. The conic sections are practically very important, particularly the ellipse and parabola. Hence the geometrical drawing should embiace : — (xxi) Various modes of describing the ellipse; finding focal points, etc. (xxii) Similarly in regard to parabola, (xxiii) The equilateral hyperbola ; any hyperbola. The limiting relations between the hyperbola, parabola, and ellipse might be lightly touched upon. As soon as elementary algebra is studied, the representing of an algebraic expression by means of a curve ought to be undertaken, arithmetical calculation and squared paper being used. This would bo of the nature of an elementary lesson in " curve-tracing." In the higher Primary Schools the above could be extended to the drawing of all the curves, the work being kept as simple as possible. The exercises could then be somewhat as follows : — (xxiv) The logarithmic curve and curve of sines, (xxv) Simple cases of evolutes, involutes, circles of curvature, (xxvi) Cycloids, prolate, common, curtate, epicycloid, hypotrochoid. (xxvii) Spiral of Archimedes, hyperbolic spiral, the lituus, the logarithmic spiral, (xxviii) The Cassinian ovals, lemniscate, etc. (xxix) The cissoid and conchoid, (xxx) Catenary, tractory, etc. (xxxi) Lima§on, cardioid. (xxxii) Cartesian ovals. xxxiii) The Versiera, quadratrix, etc, xxxiv) Curve of pursuit, etc. (xxxv) Dipolar and magnetic curves, (xxxvi) Mechanical contrivances in drawing curves, (xxxvii) Mechanical contrivances for reducing and enlarging figures. The 1 The following say :— 3, 4, 5 : 5, 12, 13 : 7, 24, 25 : 8, 17 : 20, 21, 29, etc 231 The beauty of many of these forms make tlieir drawing of sestliotic value, and tliey are therefore also of practical value technically. The theory sliould throughout be intuitive and be illustrated by models, as far as possible. It is very desirable that children should be familiarised with at least the names of forms other than those occurring in Euclid's Elements. In solid geometry it would be sufficient to have models of the conicoids, i.e., the ellipsoid, hyperbo- loid of one and two sheets, elliptic and hyperbolic paiaboloids, etc. It is also desirable to shew by a model the properties of curves of double curvature. Actual geometrical drawing could hardly be carried this far ill primary schools. It should not be forgotten that the development of geometry on the preceding lines can be made far more interesting and altogether easier than learning the books of Euclid ; and however superficial the know- ledge coming in this way be, the conception of the scope of geometry will be more in keeping with the subject, and ultimately greater breadth of geometrical knowledge and greater mathematical power will result. 54. DemoHstrational Geometry. — Euclid's Sllements ought to be completely abandoned except as an illustration of early methods of teaching geometry. In its place such a geometry as Henrici's might well be put, or translations of the continental geometries used. The habit of depending upon particular text-books ought however to be discarded, and the subject studied on liberal lines. The course in practical geometr}', and the geometrical forms with which the pupil has become prac- tically acquainted, will make the study much easier than under the present tedious system. As said by Professor Henrici, " Geometrical drawing belongs in fact to a branch of geometry of which Euclid knew nothing (little?) and where Euclid's propositions are of little use." The aim of a suitable geometry would be : — (a) To enable the pupil to realise the truth of geometrical relationships in their generality and as far as possible by mental or physical inspection of the figures, instead of by following a long process of reasoning. (b) To make the proofs of each proposition, as far as possible, self-contained by introducing such general conceptions as congruency, axial and central symmetry, and by using hypothetical constructions.' (c) To make the truth of propositions obvious by bringing figures into positions of symmetry. (This may be regarded as the analogue of bringing figures into perspective position in projective geometry.) (d) To illustrate the two ways, each reciprocal to the other, in which figures can be brought into such positions of symmetry, thus revealing the important principle of duality." The whole geometrical truth embodied in Euclid's books may be learnt in a very short period by a bandoning his method and following the above suggestions. ] t may here be reniarked that as soon as demonstrational geometry is systematically studied, it is well to introduce at once, what the concrete preparation has qualified the pupils to receive, viz., the conception of the ideality of the forms, with which pure geovietry deals. Thus the circle of pure geometry is not actually the circle of geometrical drawing, though the latter may serve to rejrresent it crudely. Not only should the conception be reawakened of forms of one dimension constituting the boundary of forms of a higher dimension (e.g., surface as the boundary of solid, line as that of surface, and point as that of line), but also the forms of one dimension being generated by the motion of forms of a lower dimension. Thus it can be explained that the track, trace, or path of a pioint moving out of its position, is a line ; the path of a moving line, except it move along itself, is a surface, and similarly the path of a surface, with the same limitation, is a solid.s It may be further remarked that Euclid does not deal with negative geometrical forms. In geometry, negative may be understood in two senses, viz., that which implies a deficiency which can be made good only by the addition of a positive quantity, or it may imply merely change of "sense," i.e., of the direction of a line or of its rotation in generating an angle. This difference should be explained in reference to lines, angles, areas, etc. The idea of defect, requiring the addition of an equal positive quantity to produce a zero result, should also be carefully introduced and explained, the difference between the two being briefly indicated. The representation of negative quantities by position in some cases will lead to no error, in other cases it may and has led to extraordinary errors of reasoning. 55. ' Examples (a). If the third angle of an isosceles triangle be supposed bisected, it is obvious from symmetry without other proof that the angles at the base are equal, or Proposition IV., may he regarded as proving it. Keally oppositely symmetrical figures are amuniMl by Euclid to be susceptible of inversion, and liis argument in Proposition IV. in strictness fails. (/)) Let A, B be two points outside any circle. Suppose an ellipse described with these points as foci and touching the convex side of the circle at C. It is ohrious that AC + CB is a minimum distance without any other proof, that is to say no other point C can be taken on the circle which will make AC + CB as small. " The principles of reciprocity, duality, etc., may be illustrated by the following definitions, etc., from Henrici's geometry (see pp. 37, 91-2, 96). Two points have a line in common ; or, the join of two Two lines have a point in common ; or the join in two lines is points is a line. a point. Axial Symmetry. — Definition : If two figures in the same Central Symmetry. — Definition : If two figures in the same plane can be made to coincide by turning the one plane can be made to coincide by turning the one about a about a fixed line in the plane through an angle of fixed point in that plane through an angle of continua- continuation, the two figures are said to be symmetri- tion, the two figures are said to be .-iymmetrical, with cal with regard to that line as Axis of Symmetry. If regard to tliat point as Centre of Symmetry. If the two the two figures are halves of one figure the whole figures are halves of one figure, tlie whole figure is said to figure is said to be symmetrical with regard to the be symmetrical with regard to a centre, and this centre axis, and this axis is said to be an Axis of Symmetry, is said to be a Ceiitre of Symmetry or simply a Centre of or simply an Axis of the figure. the figure. Every line perpendicular to tlie axis corresponds to itself. Every line through the centre cuts corresponding lines in and cuts corresponding lines in corresponding points. corresponding points. • The conception of the motion of a solid moving out of a three-dimensional space into an imaqinary space of still higher dimension, and of its path therein, constituting an imaginary geometrical form in that higher dimension might be simply mentioned, to excite the interest of the few pupils capable of higher abstractions. This can be illustrated by the representation of imaginary (juantitia in algebra by passing out of the plane of delineation. 232 55. Descriptive arid Projective Geometry. — In addition to this elementary geometry, some idea sliould also be given of the nature of the contributions of Monge,' Poncelet,'' Mobius,3 Jakob Steiner,* von Staudt,5 Chasles,8 Cremona/ and others. It does not matter how simple the description of their work is made, the simpler the better, it will help to give a grasp of the significance of synthetic geometry. Under the present system English pupils go on with Euclid, with almost absolute unconsciousness of the gri^at developments of modern (/eometry, and even enter and leave their universities practically ignorant of geometry, and often with a feeling of dislike in regard to it. Models and the simplest exercises in perspective, and then in projective grometry will help to awaken the pupil to the fact that such a field of knowledge exists. 56. Analytical Geometry. — As soon as algebra is commenced, simple exercises in the graphical representation of algebraic formulse are desirable. For example : That y = a + bx represents a straight line, h being tangent of the angle of intersection with the x axis ; that y = a + bx' is a parabola ; and so on. As the algebra advances so should the geometry. Circular functions (and in the higher primary schools also elliptic and hyperbolic functions) could be introduced by plotting. The simpler parts of analytical geometry would in this way be made easily intelligible. 57. Trigonometry as Geometry. — Simple exercises in trigonometrical functions would readily familiarise pupils with them ; such exercises, for example, as the calculation arithmetically of the value of sines, tangents, secants, etc., from geometrical constructions and scaling ; tlie construction of triangles from trigonometrical ratios and a side or sides ; and other simple exercises of like character. 58. Surveying as Geometry. — It will be observed that elementary surveying, including field practice, is taught in France, Switzerland, etc. (see their programmes). The utility of this is undeniable not only in the case of rural populations, but generally. The rendering of geometry practical helps also to make it more interesting. The plane table, a simple measuring tape, a simple circumferonter, level, and clinometei' are all that are needed. These instruments are used by continental teachers, and lessons are given in " practical geometry in the field.'" 59. Unity of Mathematical Subjects. — The present dissociation of arithmetic, algebra, trigonometrj', and the various forms of geometry ought to be abandoned, and every opportunity taken of illustrating their interconnection. Thus any lesson in any one branch of mathematics ought, whenever it might seem desirable, to introduce elements from any other branch, the matter being always kept within the range of comprehension of the pupil. 60. Conclusion.— It will be seen from the preceding that complete reform of geometrical teaching, and in fact the whole range of mathematical teaching, is recognised in England as urgently needed. It is certainly needed here. The conservative clinging to Euclid is greatly hindering us ; it not only creates dislike, it also greatly wastes the time of children. Geometry properly taxight is not a difficult subject, its elementary truths can be easily perceived, but they are made difficult and tedious by the present system of teaching, which, as said in Chapter III, section 15, is an example of didactic materialism therein, a system which pays no adequate attention to the capacity of the pupils. The development of geometry in the elements of Euclid is unsuited for teaching, and hinders children from acquiring in a reasonable time a proper amount of geometrical knowledge.9 The path of reform has been sufiiciently indicated. The conclusions may be briefly expressed as follows : — (1) As a text-book guiding the method of learning geometry Euclid's Elements should be abandoned. (2) Geometry should commence in the Kindergarten and proceed continuously. (3) Geometrical drawing or practical geometry should precede demonstrational. (4) Demonstrational geometry should bo more general, and proofs should as far as possible bo self-contained. (5) Projective and analytic geometry should be introduced as early as possible in an elementary form. (6) Geometry should be taught in connection with other mathematical subjects. (7) Trigonometry should not be dissociated therefrom. (8) Elementary field geometry should be taught [i.e., elementary surveying). ' G6om6trie descriptive. Paris, 1795. - Traitd des propriiit^s projectives des figures. Paris, 1822. ' Barycentrische Calcul. Leipzig, 1827. • Systematische Entwiokelung der Abhangigkeit geometrischer Geslalten von einandcr. Berlin, 1832. ' Geometrie der Lage. Niirnberg, 1847. • Traits de g^om^trie supferieure. Paris, 1852. ' Elements of Projective Geometry, translated by C. Leucsdorf. O.xford, 1885. These are known as "Exercises d'arpentage " (Exercises in surveying), or when distances are measured teiemelrically, as " d(5monstrations taohymiitriques (demonstrations of telemetry). See p. 56. Kapports du Jury International, Education et euseignement, Paris, 1902, for an illustration of a school having its lesson in "lefon d'arpentage." " The text-book by Mr. Maclardy, the mathematical master in the Training College at Fort-street, Sydney, is a step in the ri^ht direction in connection with the study of Euclidean Geometry ; and though it in no way represents the curriculum in geometry above advocated, it will bo found a very useful volume for anyone taking any interest in the subject. CHAPTER XXIV. 233 CHAPTER XXIV. The Teaching of Geography in Primary Schools. [G H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introduction. — As in tho case of most other subjects, Ihe teachiag of geography has been widely discussed in Europe. In a monograph by Professor Andre Oltramare, of Geneva, on Kousseau, in referring to the necessity, in teaching, of abandoning as far as possible mere conventional signs and of dealing directly with realities, he says: — "Rousseau Ses disciples ou ses successeurs, Basedow, Pestalozzi, Froebel, ont enfin reussi a le remplacer par une initiation au savoir, plus rationelle, conforme a revolution naturellede I'esprit qui vadu concretal'nbstrait, du fait particulieral'idee gonorale, de la realito complex aux notions simples par la voie Tanalyse."! (Rousseau .... his disciples, or his successors. Basedow, Pestalozzi, Prcebel, have at last succeeded in rej)lacing it — i.e., the use of conventional signs, words, etc. — by a more rational initiation to knowledge, and one conformed to the natural evolution of the mind, which passe.s from the concrete to tho abstract, from the particular fact to the general idea, from complex reality to simple conceptions, by way of analysis.) This may be said to be the key to modern conceptions of geographical, and also much other, teaching. It is almost needless to say that the learning of long lists of rivers and their lengths, mountains and their heights, towns and tho numbers of their inhabitants, the detailed features of coast lines, etc., is recognised as a misconception of any useful elementary geography, to say nothing of its tedium. Schemes of teaching the subject will be indicated hereinafter. 2. Oeography and its Divisions. — The subject is a wide one, and touches so many others that it may and has been regarded as an associative subject: that is, one unifying others of very different character, as, for example, history and mathematics, physics, etc., for, obviously, geography lias intimate relations with these, as also with many other subjects. The division of geography into the following sections,^ viz. : I, Comparative ; II, Mathematical ; III, Physical ; and IV, Political, hardly gives an adequate idea of its subdivisions for teaching purposes. In Chapter XL, section 18, it has been divided into (_a) Topographical. (c) Commercial. (e) Physical. (6) Industrial. (d) Political. (/) Mathematical. Other divisions might easily be suggested, illustrating the fact that it has a dualistic character, touching abstract science on the one hand and the human relationships on the other. The following division will illustrate this : — CtEOaEAPJIY, Scientific side. Humanistic side. Mathematical. Historical. Morphological. Political. Topographical. Commercial and Industrial. Physical, etc. Ethnographical, etc. Other suggestions of division will readily occur. Again, these sections are subject (o subdivision, and then it would be found that there is much inter-connection. For example, on the mathematical side, the figure of the earth would be dealt with and the geometry of that subject, and consequently the history of the attempt to ascertain that figure. Tet, again, the development for teaching purposes must not be the merely logical or analytical. On tho contrary, its whole range should be developed simultaneously to whatever extent Iho capacities of the pupils will permit ; so that the above order is not pa3dagogical at all, and would be wholly unsuited. A good illustration of this last may be had from Vol. X of the International Education Series. 3 This treatise, after introducing the subject by reference to its motive, theory, method and difficulties, starts directly on the study of the structure of a river basin and of a continent. The fundamental conception seems to be the significance of the distribution of air, land, and sea, and of tho morphologj' of the two latter for the economy of the life of the world. The following quotation from the introductiot to the treatise will give a fair conception of the author's outlook upon the subject : — The uses of slopes in the economy of world life may be summed up : (a) The character of joined slopes is the basis for the remembrance of all that has taken place on the land. (b) The inclined surfaces distribute the soil ; physical forces crack off, break, abrade and grind up the solid rock. Under the law of gravitation, the sloping land distributes over its surface the ground-up masses of soil Tlie upper parts of slopes are the store-houses of soil — material for all the surface below. (c) The amount of rainfall (i) The Principles of Commercial Geography and their application to the British Empire. ' *"' (li) 'The Commetcjial Geography of Foreign Countries. ,..'';' (iii) Special Trades and Commodities. In each course there were twenty-five ]ccturc.«, thirty to forty teachers .Tttending, the, centres where they were delivered l)eiDg Leeds and Huddi-rsfield. Mr. Wethers pointed out ill these lectures that an inadequate knowledge of general geography operated as a difficulty in treating commercial geography. ]''or example, the relation of physical to commercial geography depends upon an antecedent knowledge of the former. He advocated the . ijotlection of suitable lantern slides, which have, of course, for many years been a feature of continental methods. There is every promise of a decided improvement in the teaching of geography in the schoois of the TJnited Kingdom. 17. Oeographical Excursions. — A striking feature of geographical teaching in the elementary schools of Europe is the school excursion. In England it has been realised that study in museums and libraries, etc., may be as educationally profitable as study in the school-room, or even more so, and an hour so spent is of interest and value. On the Continent they have gone much further. Not only are lessons in geography sometimes given out of doors, but in many places regular school excursions are made, varying in length from a half-day to a week or even two weeks, grants even being allowed to assist the children who cannot afiord to pay. The town of Berne pays, yearly, £600 for these excursions. They are, of course, economically arranged. The matter of school excursions has been deemed of sufficient importance to treat systematically (see Dr. F. Beust's " Die piidagogische Schulreise" — the psedagogic school excursion).'' Dr. Beust gives the following advice as expressing the results of his long experience in the matter of organising these schor-. outings. We quote from Miss Eeynold's work :— (1) The place to be visited must be carefully chosen with regard to the weather, the methods of getting there, and the special aim of the excursion. (2) The distance to be walked should not exceed 22 kilometres (14 miles) for children under 13, nor should tlie time of the outing exceed twelve hours. (3) The children should be told what food to bring with them, and should eat this out of doors, and not in an inn, or time is wasted ; and the children may consider meals as the principal events of the excursion. (4) The master should have gone over the exact route beforehand. (5) ' Report «f the British-Asseer Adv. Science, Bradford, 1800, pp. 809-810. fllnd.y p. SIO. ..... • Zurich, 1883, Orell Fiissli. See also 'M^thode pour enseigner la g*ographie par I'observation des formes dels terife nr les lieux mcmes, ec leur reproduction en relief." 1875, by same author, as to the actual value of seeing the places tliemte ves, etc 245 (5) The master should take with him a good topographical map, on the scale of 1 in 50,000, of the districts visited, a watch, a compass, a railway time-table, a whistle, and simple remedies for such sicknesses or accidents as may occur. (6) The parents of the children should be told the day before what route will be taken. , (7) The children should be shewn this route on the map, told what objects to look out for, and spoken to as to the behaviour expected of them. (8) The master should see that they possess strong shoes, and, unless the weather is very hot, wear woollen clothes. (9) Besides food, they should be told to bring a flask for water or sjrup, but be forbidden to bring wine. Each child should bring a tin case in which to place objects collected, also pencil and paper for taking notes. (10) The weakest children should be kept in front, and a few strong, responsible ones placed as rear- guard to see that no one lags behind. (11) The children should be told, in collecting objects, not to take things in a wanton fashion, not to injure plants nor to torture insects. (12) When the children sit down to take a meal the master should make them put on jackets and coats if these have been taken off for the walk, and should be careful from what streams they obtain water to drink. (13) Ample time should alwjiys be allowed for catching trains or steamers, the walking powers of the feeblest, and not the average, child being considered. Children often take double the time required by a grown-up person, even if walking steadily, as large numbers necessitate some delay. The pupils must also be impressed with the importance of punctuality. (14) The hour of return should not be late, and the master should be sure that every child knows his way home from where the party breaks up, or someone should be appointed to meet him. : (15) Teaching is required to read landscapes as well as to read maps, and the master should therefore utilise the time in'the train, as well as en route, for this purpose. (IG) These journeys must be gone over afterwards in school. Verbal accounts should be given by each child of what he noticed, and then he should be shewn how to classify these facts andarrange ) any objects he has collected. Drawings and maps must be made to illustrate the, excursion, and, where possible, reliefs. Dr. Beust also indicates what in his.opiniou.are.the advantages to be derived from such excursions. They are : — (1) The bodily development is furthered. ' ('2) The pupils learn self-denial, and gain self-confidence. They obey, not only as a habit, but bt'cause they recognise the reason of commands. In time they learn also how to set to work promptly and seriously on whatever is necessary. (3) The pupils' powers of observation are definitely trained and developed. (ij The knowledge gained in school is completed and corrected by the experience of life. (5) The children learn to value oiganisation. . (t>) The excursions afford an opportunity tor the teacher to learn much respecting the character, of the pupils. (7) They, offer the best possible method for really understanding a topographical map— that is, the repeated comparison of the formation of the surface of the earth with the map. The above refers, of course, to the one-day excursion. The longer excursions are undertaken by the older pupils only, and are practically confined to the classes of secondary schools. Students of these, and their professors, often make quite long excursions together, sometimes going to a centre from which daily excursions are made, at others travelling more continuously. For the past ten years the highest classes of the Normal College of Lausanne have made a four days' excursion each year. These journeys are not always confined to their native country ; for example, in 1894 the class visited the Exhibition in Lyons. Subjects like geology, natural history, climatology, and meteorology, etc., are touched upon, fas well as geography, and the interest which can be developed through explanation of the morphological features in view is always high. The following will give a realistic idea of a journey of ten pupils : — 1st Day. — Eail from Berne to Spiez on the Thunersee (Lake of Thun), 1,840 feet altitude ; Spies to Kandersteg by vehicle (18 miles, 3,835 feet altidude) ; on foot to Schwarenbach (about 3^ miles). 2nd Day. — Gemmi Pass to Leuk-Susten ; rail to Zermatt (altitude 5,315 feet) ; ascent to Eiffelberg (altitude 8,480 feet). 3rd Day. — Ascent of Gornergrat (altitude 10,290 feet) and HohthUligrat (altitude 10,790 feet), and return to the Hotel Eiffelberg, later to tho Unter Theodulhutte -(altitude 10,900 feet). > 4th Day. — Ascent of Breithorn (altitude 13,685 feet) ; descended over Theodulpass to the village of Valtournancho (altitude 5,000 feet). 5th Day. — On foot to Chatillon (ll| miles, altitude 1,805 feet) ; by rail to Aosta (altitude, 1,913 feet) ; vehicle to Morgex (about 20 miles, altitude 3,017' feet) ; on foot to Cour Mayei^r (2^ miles, altitude 4,015 feet). Gth Day. — Through the Val de 1' Alice Blanche (a long Alpine valley) ; over the Col de la Sjeigne (altitude 8,240 feet) to the Hotel at " Les Mottcts" (altitude 6,227 feet). , ' ' . 7th Day.— Over the Col des Fours (altitude 8,890 feet) to the Col de la Croix duBonhomtne (altitude 8,147 feet), and then on the Les Contamines sur St. Gervais (altitude 3,927 feet). 8th Day. — On foot to Cluses (about 11 miles, altitude 1,590 feet) ; by rail to Geneva (29 miles), and by rail again to Berne. This will give some idea of the longer excursions. Their iiiterest, apart from the magnificent panoramas one sees, depends upon the teachers or professors accompanying them. •^ AU'iuirgh 246 Although excursions are not unknown in Arithmetique (Petite). Eysseric et J. B. Gautier, Paris. Cours elementaire d'arithmetique. Eysseric, Paris. Nouvelle arithmetique theorique et pratique. Eysseric, Paris. Calcul mental. Ch. Fleuriot, Paris. Nouvelle methode de calcul oral. G. Bailly, Paris. Simples notions d'arithmetique thdorique et pratique. P. D. Poujol, Paris. Arithmetique agricole. J. H. Fabre, Paris. Cours d'arithmetique. Grandgaignage, Paris. Cours complet d'arithmetique. Andr^, revu par Firemann, Paris. . ' Germanj. ' Rfeglement et Programme Typeg des Ecoles Primaires Communales Belgique, pp. 24-2S. 251 Germany. — Zur Reform des Rechenunterrichts. R. Knilling, Miinchen. Das Rechnen. Tanck, Meldorf. Der Rechenunterrieht. Dr. Hartmann. Die natiirliche methode. Fitzga. Wegweiser zur Bildung heimatlicher Rechenaufgaben. Teiipfor, Leipzig. Problemes du calcul. Ducotterd, Neuchatel. Problfemes du calcul mental. Ducotterd, Neuchatel. Aufgaben zum praktischen Rechnen. H. Heer. Aufgaben iiber das Rechnen. Franz Nager, Altort. Reclmungslehrmittel. J. C. Hug, Zurich, 1896. Switzerland. — Rechnungsbiichlein fur die 1 bis 5 Klasse. H. Maag, Zurich, 1896. • Aufgaben fiir den Unterricht im Rechnen. H. Wydler, 1894. Aufgaben zum schriftlichen Rechnen u. Rechnenbuch. T. Stocklin, Liesthal. lia deuxieme ann^e d'arithmetique. P. Leyssenne, Paris. The above books can be obtained at any of the prominent educational booksellers in the places mentioned. 6. General remarks concerning the teaching of Arithmetic. — Any fundamental improvement in the teaching of arithmetic must aim at associating it more closely with other branches of mathematics, and at a more thorough abandonment of non-rational (i.e. rule-of-thumb) processes. Although, of course, it is impossible in any scheme of arithmetic teaching to wholly dissever it from other forms of mathematics, yet the tendency in English teaching has been in such direction. This is clearly implied in almost any English work on the organisation and principles of education. For example, in Gladman's " School-work " (6th edition, p. 199), this dissociation is clearly implied in the following passage. After stating that arithmetic " has been styled the ' mathematics of the elementary school,' " Gladman says that " it ought in its measure to afford the same kind of training . . . which the more advanced scholar derives from the study of algebra, geometry, and the other branches of mathematics." The modern idea is rather that the principles of mathematics should, as far as possible, unify its diiFerent forms. Much that is said in " Landon's Principles and Practices of Teaching and Class-management" (1902, pp. 324-5), really applies to the principles of mathematics rather than to those of arithmetic specially. Some of his directions are in conflict with the views of mathematicians and arithmeticians in Europe. For example, he quotes Grube's method with approval (see p. 340). While it is generally admitted that it is very desirable to educate children in such a way that numbers shall not be pure abstractions, and so that they shall throughout form concrete ideas as to what the numbers may represent, it is doubtful whether the detailed following of Grube's method is to be desired. On this point Seyfert says : — " Demnach ist auch die Grube'sche Methode, die jede Zahl fiir sich behandelt, die aber auch sonst noch vielerlei Mangel hat, nicht zu empfehlen." (Accord- ingly Grube's method, which treats each number separately, but which however has many defects, is not recommendable.) That it is desirable to treat a few of the smaller numbers by Grube's method would probably be admittted on all sides, but its over-development is tedious and unnecessary. In Chapter XXIII, section 44, on the teaching of Geometry in Primary Schools and its reform, the Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Mathematics of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, is given. The paragraphs referring to Arithmetic and Algebra are for convenience here repeated, and are as follows : — " Arithmetic and Algebra. — The Committee are of opinion that, in the processes and explanations belonging to the early stages of these subjects, constant appeal should be made to concrete illustrations." " In regard to arithmetic, the Committee desire to point out what has been pointed out so often before, that, if the decimal system of weights and measures were adopted in this country, a vast amount of what is now the subject-matter of teaching and of examination could be omitted as being then useless for any purpose. The economy in time, and the advantage in point of simplification, would be of the greatest importance. But such a change does not seem likely to be adopted at present; and the Committee confine themselves to making certain suggestions affecting the present practice. They desire, however, to urge that teachers and examiners alike should deal with only those tables of weights and measures which are the simplest and of most frequent practical use." " In formal arithmetic, the elaborate manipulation of vulgar fractions should be avoided, both in teaching and in examinations ; too many of the questions that appear in examination papers are tests rather of a mechanical facility than of clear thinking or of knowledge. The ideas of ratio and proportion should be developed concurrently with the use of vulgar fractions. Decimals should be introduced at an early stage, soon after the notion of fractions has been grasped. Methods of calculation, accurate only to specified significant figures, and, in particular, the practice of contracted methods, should be encouraged. The use of tables of simple functions should be begun as soon as the student is capable of understanding the general nature of the functions tabulated ; for example, the use of logarithms in numerical calculation may be begun as soon as the fundamental law of indices is known." " In regard to the early stages of algebra, the modifications (both in teaching and in the examin- ations) which are deemed desirable by the Committee are of a general character." " At first, the formute should be built on a purely arithmetical foundation, and their significance would often be exhibited by shewing how they include whole classes of arithmetical results. Throughout the early stages, formulie and results should frequently be tested by arithmetical applications. The arithmetical basis of algebra could be illustrated for beginners by the frequent use of graphs ; and the practice of graphical processes in such cases can give a significance to algebraical formulie that would not otherwise be obtained easily in early stages of the subject." " In passing to new ideas, only the simplest instances should be used at first, frequent reference still being made to arithmetical illustrations. Advance should be made by means of essential development avoiding the useless complications of merely formal difliculties which servo no other purpose than that of puzzling candidates in examinations. Many of the artificial combinations of difiiculties could bo omitted entirely ; the discussion of such as maybe neces.sary should be postponed from the earlier stages. Teachers and examiners alike should avoid matters such as curious combinations of brackets ; extravagantly com- plimented algebraic expressions, particularly fractions ; resolutions of elaborate expressions into factors ; artificially 15—2 K 262 artificially difficult combinations of indices ; ingeniously manipulated equations ; and the like. They have no intrinsic value or importance ; it is only the mutual rivalry between some writers of text-books and some examiners that is responsible for the consideration which has been conceded to such topics." " General Memarks. — Tf general simplification either on these or on similar lines be adopted, particularly if graphical methods are freely used, it will be found possible to introduce, quite naturally and much earlier than is now the case, some of the leading ideas in a few subjects that usually are regarded as more advanced. Thus the foundations of trigonometry can be laid in connection with the practical geometry of the subject-matter of the Sixth Book of Euclid. The general idea of co-ordinate geometry can be made familiar by the use of graphs ; and many of the notions underlying the methods of the infinitesimal calculus can similarly be given to comparatively youthful students long before the formal study of the calculus is begun." Regarding the details of teaching, the remarks in a paper on " The Study of Arithmetic in Elementary Schools "' by Mr. A. Sonnenschein may bo noticed: — " It is not an accidental coincidence that only civilised nations have in all times attached great, and occasionally even superstitious, value to the Study of Numbers, and in all Christian communities the three subjects of Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic (our three R's) are regarded as the primary and indispensable branches of Elementary Education Why do we teach the more advanced stages of Arithmetic in our public and private Elementary Schools ? Or, in other words : What mental or moral benefit do we hope to confer on our pupils by this study?" (p. 571). He answers this question by stating that it is because of its educative value. He then sketches three methods : — ■ (a) The mechanical method of giving the rule first, instead of at last. (b) The method of demonstrating the rule, a method which though better than the last is still defective. (c) The investigation on heuristic method. Mr. Sonnenschein then gives several examples of these methods, which need not be here repeated. He says, however (p. 583), that " No good teacher will follow the order of the text-book, for this " proceeds logically, while the teacher proceeds psychologically." He points out the real reason for practice in the multiplication tables, etc., and practice in computing ; and as a means to an end he recommends the following rules which are worthy of mention : — (a) Great neatness of work both in the shape and distinctness of the figures and in their orderly arrangement ; (b) Absolute mastery of the Addition, Multiplication, and Shilling and Pence tables, so as to secure : — (c) Great rapidity of work, the mind of the slow computer being apt to wander ; (d) The adoption of regular, concise, and rhythmic wording in actual working ; (e) Rapid and continuous mental application of tests of accuracy, such as casting out nines and elevens, etc.; (f) When errors are detected, the computer ought to watch what particular mistakes he is prone to commit and strive to avoid them." The mode of teaching in Europe embraces the merits of the heuristic method. That method is not uniquely the method of education, though undoubtedly it can be wisely used with advantage. 7. The Metric System. — By way of comment on the recommendations in the preceeding sections, it may first of all be said that probably the only practical way in an English community to bring about the adoption of the Metric System is to accustom the school-children to the units of the system, so that they will have real knowledge of the metre, litre, and kilogramme, and will be able to readily describe the lengths, surfaces, volumes and weights of various objects in terms of those units. It ought to be mentioned that the great majority of persons of experience, who have given the matter serious consideration, recognise that in Trade and Commerce the English nation is being increasingly handicapped, and subjected to disadvantages which tend to become greater by its failure to adopt the Metric System. Popularly as far as any real knowledge is concerned, it is unknown. When a statement expressing the size or weight of anything in metrical units is made, it fails to awaken any distinct conception as to what is meant. With scientific men, the system is already in vogue, but that avails little. For one generation we must learn both systems in order to make the change. Touching the remainder of the recommendations, it may be said that it would be difiicult to more fitly express the changes that are so eminently desirable in our teaching ; and it ought to be frankly admitted that to make these is simply to abandon our own methods of procedure, and to adopt the best methods of Europe. The question of reform, however, will be referred to hereinafter. 8. The Teaching of Algebra. — The fundamental conceptions of algebra, or at least of ordinary algebra, are substantially identical with those of arithmetic. It is not difficult, therefore, to make a commencement in elementary algebra at a very early stage in the educational career of a child. There is no real difficulty inrealising that a letter can stand for some quantity which may or may not have an invariable value, and there will be considerable advantage if instruction in algebra and arithmetic were, as far as possible collateral. In our system of teaching here and also in our system of examinations, we have even gone so far as to reject algebraic solutions of questions set in arithmetic. The tendency in Europe, where the mathematical teaching is undoubtedly better than with us, is to unite and not to sever these two subjects, as has been previously remarked herein. The principles of studying algebra are practically the same as in the case of other subjects. In the courses in algebra too much time has often been spent over the details of each stage. Rapidly extending the attack on tiie subject over the elementary parts of its whole range, then dealing with detail in successive recapitulations, would have been a far more profitable method of studying it than in going into detail initially. The oi-dinary system not only involves great waste of time in solving all sorts of algebraic tricks, it makes it impossible to acquire a comprehensive view of algebra, because it leaves insufficient time. The command of a wider range confers power in a much more satisfactory way. 9. ' Special Reports on Educational Subjocta, London, 1902, Vol. 8, pp. 571-585, 253 9. Tits connection of Algebra and Geometry. — Some connect.on has occasionally been made between algebra and geometry by accepting algebraic proofs of the propositions of the second book of Euclid's Klements, or by using the algebraic proof illustrationally. This connection has, of course, its value; but the construction of the geometrical forms which constitute the graphs of algebraical expressions is of much higher importance. This process reveals the contact between arithmetic and algebra on the one hand, and between algebra and geometry on the other. A side of algebra rarely, if ever, touched in the primary teaching of this State is vector algebra. There is absolutely no difficulty in introducing conceptions of directed quantities in the primary school, the complications of the subject being, of course, avoided.' The passage from the idea of arithmetical to algebraic quantity, and from algebraic quantities to vectors, which really after all present themselves in algebra, may be made very simple, and with the great advantage that many propositions become obvious merely as it were from enlarging one's point of view. Professor Perry has strongly advocated the introduction of vectors into elementary mathematical teaching; and would illustrate the subject by pointing out the nature of a scalar product, and the product of two given vectors. He would also outline the fundamental conceptions of vector algebra. 10. The connection between Algebra and Arithmetic. — Many questions proposed in arithmetic are much more readily analysed by algebraic methods, and should be so solved. The mental discipline involved by the more difficult method can be obtained by passing to other matters of greater profit. Besides this, there are many problems of a practical character that are not treated in ordinary arithmetic or algebra. Professor Perry, in his recommendation to use squared paper and freehand curves, had such facts in his mind.^ The approximate solution of problems, the treatment of approximate numbers, the management of abbreviations, may be instanced. The general practice of giving only such problems in arithmetic and algebra as are susceptible of unique solution is subject to the criticism that in applications to the affiiirs of everyday life unique solutions are often impossible ; consequently, simple examples giving some idea of how to proceed in such cases are of value, not only jyractically, but educationally. For instance, a solution with two or more equations to determine one unknown, thiee or more equations to determine two unknowns ; the effect of an uncertainty in any term in a problem ; the treatment of negligible quantities, and so on. In this connection it may be mentioned that long multiplication questions, and compound interest sums, solved by raising to a power corresponding to the number of terms are really a great waste of time. It would be far preferable to make children acquainted with the very rapid practical way of treating such problems. 11. Theory of Algebra. — In teaching algebraic theory, it is desirable that the laws of association, commutation, and distribution, and also the principles of substitution be taught first imjMcitly, at this stage arithmetic and ordinary algebra being taught together, for these laws would apply equally. In the advanced stage these laws ought to be taught explicitly, and finally their limited character would be pointed out, and the fact revealed that not only do they not hold for all operations, but that besides ordinary algebra there are other algebras in which the ordinary laws of operation do not hold. In the higher primary school it will be possible to get as far as the elementary treatment of complex numbers — viz., a + hi, where i denotes y^^. These numbers ought to be explained graphically • — as, say, by what is known as Argand's diagram.'' 'There are several parts of algebra to which insufficient attention is usually given ; for example, homogeneous functions, symmetry, the principle of indeterminate coefficients, the possibility of geometrically representing functions {i.e., graphics), the significance and representation of such roots as x + yi above referred to, the significance of determinants, methods of calculating their values. ^ The graphs of circular functions, and of also other functions as hyperbolic could be introduced. Instead of occupying time in attempting to develope mere mechanical expertness, and in the solution of ingeniously devised algebraic problems, it is better to extend the range. To treat these subjects on these lines, trained teachers will be needed; in fact this is the only possible way to ensure satisfactory teaching. 12. • In a paper entitled " From Number to Quaternion," by M. Gaston Fleuri, published in the Royal Society's Journal for 1894 (vol. 28, pp. C5-93), attention was drawn to the nature of generalised number and to the theory of opeiation with it. It is known to the Commissioners that M. Fleuri believed in teaoliing the nature of scalars and vectors quite early in the school career. ^ An example will perhaps indicate more clearly what is meant. Suppose it be required to make a price-list for a series of articles of, say, 7 difi'erent sizes, the cost having been accurately ascertained for the 1st, 4th, and 7th sizes. From these it is seen that the linear relation does not hold — that is to say, the 7th size is actually cheaper than simple proportion, based on the 1st and 4th, would indicate. Let the sizes be plotted as abcissa;, and the cost as ordinates for the three known cases. Then any curve of the 2nd degree being drawn through the 3 points so determined, the ordinates at 2, 3, 5, and 6 will generally represent very nearly the real cost for those sizes. > By way of illustration: Suppose ;^80 be required, 80=(3x 3 x3x 2-9629),— i.e., 3» x (3-0-03704)-. I3 - — -T — ) approximately, =2-99074. The correct answer is 2.99059. . . Approximate values of roots are sometimes readily found in this way. * In 1685, Wallis proposed to construct imaginary roots by going out qf^tho line on which, if the roots were real, they would be constructed. H. Kuhn, of Danzig, in 1750-1 represented aV-l as a line of length and perpendicular to the direction of a ordinarily. Argand did not publish his " Essai sur une maniijre de representer les quantitiSs imaginaires dans les constructions gcometriques " till as late as 1806. ' If nothing more were done than to explain how a determinant is read (for example that- ai6iC, Mjiar, in the higher primary school, it would be some advantage. One only needs to introduce the subject ; it would perhaps unwise to attempt more. 25i 12. Co-ordination of Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Planimetry, and Stereometry. — It is easily possible to make the exercises in any one branch of mathematics of service in the others, and to apply the arithmetic, geometry, and algebra, etc., to questions of manual work, to geometrical drawing, etc. Teachers educated and trained as in Europe will have no difficulty in so co-ordinating their work, and children can easily be made to feel interested in problems that, instead of being purely abstract, have a definite application to something else which they are doing. (For example, in cai-pentering, the extraction of a square root so as to find an hypotenuse, viz., c = ^ (a" + V), also that if b be small compared with a, b^ then c = a + ^ very nearly, and so on.) The whole secret of interest is to make the examples as realistic as possible, and to co-ordinate the different branches of mathematics. One can see at once what advantages can be made to flow from a training and education of the teaching staff comparable to that undertaken in European countries. Something of the connection between geometrical drawing, practical, descriptive, projective, and analytical geometry, trigonometry and surveying, and the subjects of arithmetic and algebra has been indicated in sections 53 to 60, Chapter XXIII. For primary education, all these may be practically orientated without losing in educative value. 1 3. Conclusion. — Reform in the teaching of Arithmetic and Algebra so as to maintain its connection with other mathematical subjects involves practically the following of the recommendations of the Committes of the British Association of Science. The conclusions which are suggested are as follows ; — (1) The four fundamental operations of arithmetic should be taught intuitively and simultaneously. (2) A much larger quantity of " mental arithmetic " should be undertaken, the written work being wholly based on the mental. (3) All arithmetical processes should be rationally understood, and the working by " rule " introduced after, and not before, the process is understood. (4) The teaching according to the " logical order " should be abandoned, and the " psychological order " followed — i.e., the range should extend over the whole of arithmetic as soon as possible, the very simplest cases being first taken, and the complexity advanced as the work proceeds. (5) Algebra of a simple character should be early introduced and taught on the same principles as arithmetic. (6) The spirit, and to a great extent the letter, of the British Association's recommendations should be carried out in the teaching of the State (7) The subjects, arithmetic and algebra, should be taught in conjunction with geometry, planimetry and stereorhetry. (8) Examples in arithmetic should be real — i.e., drawn from the life-surroundings, which can be really appreciated by the child. (9) Care should be taken that none of the examples introduce false conceptions.' (10) All opportunities of real applications of mathematical subjects should be embraced in the working plan of the school, so as to create interest and to ensure a real understanding of the work. (11) The teaching should not merely follow text-books, but the European methodology of teaching the subject should be studied by the teachers. 'In Chap. XLI, Sect. 13, an example is given of a (juestion which will engender ajalse conception of a phtenomenon. CHAPTER XXVI. 255 CHAPTER XXVI. Natural Science in the Primary Schools. [a. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introduction. — The necessity of "Natural Science" finding a place in the curriculum of primary schools is fully recognised throughout Europe and America, and in all forward educational movement in the United Kingdom. The significance of the part that Science plays in the ordinary aiFairs of modern life is not only beyond contention, but is so thoroughly appreciated, that in the last decade considerable changes have been made in its teaching. Continental schools are specially equipped for scientific instruction, thus standing in marked contrast with our own and English schools. During the last ten years the imperative demand made by the conditions of mode:-n life for better scientific education, not only for the captains of industry and commerce, but also for the rank and file, has bociT widely recognised, and perhaps especially so in Germany and Switzerland. Efforts are being made in England to move in the same direction, for the wide-spread recognition that the teaching the three R's is a wholly inadequate concaption of the necessities of public education is forcing itself upon all thoughtful individuals who have aj;paintance with the facts. We have not yet officially recognised in this State the need for change in this matter. It is true that some very elementary science in the shape of object-lessons, etc., is taught in the public schools of this State ; but there is no systematic &c\snt\?ic teaching — i.e, in the sense that such exists in the primary schools of the continent of Europe, or of America. That Science is practically unrecognised is testified by the curricula of our colleges for training teachers. In so far as teachers have been possessed of any true scientific knowledge, it is either by attendance at the University, at the Technical College, or through extra-Oiiicial work. And speaking generally, the teachers of the State have not been educated in the Natural Sciences, as they have in Europe, in America, or as they are now being educated in England. If tlie industrial and commercial efforts of this State are to flourish, it must, equally with other countries, avail itself of the resources of Science, and a sufficient elementary knowledge must be provided in the primary school to give that taste and aptitude through which alone scientific discovery can be properly appreciated and applied in the practical affairs of life. The foundation, necessary for profiting by such teaching as may be supplied in lower or higher agricultural schools, must be laid in the primary school. The day has gone by when it is necessary to argue the educative value of scientific teaching. It i.s thoroughly realised that in the absence of a general knowledge of the natural sciences, not only is the outlook on the world gravely limited, but also that the trend of history, especially as regards the drift, of human affairs under present conditions, can be only very partially understood. Literary culture, standing alone, even from the liberal point of view, to say nothing of the practical, is intrinsically lop-sided ; so that whether one regards education for the higher or lower classes, the result is the same, viz., that as a whole the community ought, during the primarj' school life, to get a general idea of the range and subject- matter of Science. That the foundations on which we can afterwards build should be laid in the primary school is obvious. It is being vividly recognised in England that the education of teachers in order that they may teach Science, must not in tlie future be neglected as it has been in the past. At the same time, in taking the United Kingdom as a whole, its elementary teaching in Science in the primary schools is limited and defective, though much in advance of science-teaching in this State. 2. Teaching of Science in English Primary Schools. — The partial realisation of the importance of properly qualifying primary school teachers to teach the natural sciences, is shewn by the modern developments in recent equipments of the English training colleges, and by what is being attempted in their curricula. At last it is admitted that scientific knowledge, if real, has to be acquired heuristically, and that reading scientific literature is not necessarily leai'ning science ; in fact, the wholly unsatisfactory character of the literary method of learning science is fully understood, and in order to put its teaching on a proper footing, English training-schools are now equipped with the physical and chemical laboratories, etc., essential for real teaching. There is every reason to believe that in the very near future the teaching of Science in English primary schools will be better worthy of the name than it is at present, and, certainly, English primary teachers will be better qualified to give instruction in scientific subjects. 3. Literary methods of learning Science. — It is a truism to all persons who have any real scientific knowledge that Science cannot properly he lemrnt hy literary metliods. Scientific information and scientific knowledge are, with a great many people, supposed to be collateral terms. It is desirable, therefore, to point out that those whose claim to scientific knowledije is beyond dispute, draw a distinction between these things ; and that they regard the literary method of obtaining information about Science as unsatisfactory, at least for those who are to iiistruct others in the subject. In a paper entitled " The Heuristic Method of Teaching,'" Professor Henry E. Armstrong, as far back as 1898, speaks as follows in contending against bad methods of learning Science. He says : — " Science is taught unscientifically — by literary methods in fact,^ — without regard to its essentially heuristic character. Had the literary party command of the methods we are seeking to introduce, they would long ere this have effected the reforms we desire to bring about, the field having been in their possession for generations. Either this is true, or they are incompetent to understand and use the weapons at their disposal " It must from the outset and ever be remembered that the great object in view in orlucation is ta dsvelope tlie vowsr of initiative and in all respects to form the character of the pupi,.' The appreciation of this contention is crucial. ' The pious Pestalozzi is filled with measureless remorse when he finds that he has ' Special Reports, Dept. Kducaticn, London, Vol. II, pp. 389-433, 'Net italicised in original, 256 has given a little boy a conception, instead of inducing him to find it himself,' remarks Professor Meiklejohn. So should every teacher be; and if the feeling expressed in this sentence can but be made to rankle in the mind of every teacher, the end is achieved. Schools will then become educating institutions : the didactic instruction which poisons our existence at the present day loill he properly recognised as a fell disease The whole policy of the teaclier's duty is summed up in one little word, yet the most expressive in tlie English language ; it is to train pupils to do. On this it is easy to base a simple test of competency. Children are thus encouraged to look about them — to be properly inquisitive and inquii'ing The power of reasoning from observation is cultivated in every possible way — a logical habit of mind is thus developed. The use and value of evidence becomes obvious, and that 'nothing may be taken for granted' is insisted on. The faculty of reasoned judgment is cultivated." Professor Armstrong's argument may be summed up in the phrase that " teaching should be realistic." Children should, as far as possible, get knowledge at first hand ; consequently, so also should the teacher. Both should get knowledge rather than acquire information ; they should, as it were, touch facts directly not indirectly. Literary methods call into exercise memory as to statements of facts ; realistic methods call into exercise the memm'y of the facts themselves. It may be added that the question is regarded in Europe as not needing discussion. The eminent scientific men with whom the Commissioners had an opportunity of meeting and discussing the question in England held the same view. At Belfast in September last year (1902), a special committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science presented a Special Report on the Teaching of Science in elementary schools, vide, pp. 481-483. This is given hereunder. 4. Tlie Belfast Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary /Schools. — At the Belfast meeting above referred to, the report on Elementary Science teaching presented by the Committee, the members of which were, Dr. J. H. Gladstone (Chairman), Professor H. E. Armstrong (Secretary), Lord Avebury, Profes.sor W. R. Dunstan, Mr. George Gladstone, Sir Philip Magnus, Sir H. E. Roscoo, Professor A. Smithells, and Professor S. P. Thompson, was as follows : — " The introduction of the Block grant, in place of the former Examination grants in Elementary Day Scliools, deprives your Committee of the opportunity of giving the usual statistical data as to the number of children receiving instruction in scientific subjects. The loss of this interesting information is, however, more than made up by tlie satisfaction of knowing that the teachers are now more free to adopt true educational principles than when they were trammelled by the necessity of preparing their scholars for an official examination, on the result of which the financial position of the school would be dependent.' " One of the retr.rns of the Board of Education does, however, afford some indication of the measure of attention given to certain subjects as compared with others. According to this, the number of depart- ments in which subjects of a more or less scientific character are taken are as follows, though the number of scholars is no longer given. The numbers are for schools in England and Wales ; — • Elementary Physics and Chemistry 352 Animal Physiology 413 Hygiene 34 IJotany 138 Principles of Agriculture 20 Domestic Economy or Domestic Science ... 1,07G Algfbra 1,2G6 Euclid 105 Mensuration 387 Mechanics 8GC Chemistry 185 Physics lO'J " These correspond with what were formerly known as specific subjects of instruction. " In the case of the Evening Schools, your Committee are able to continue the tabular statement for. another year. Though the total given is somewhat larger than in the two years immediately preceding, it will be noticed that in Mathematics and Physics there is a general falling off, the only increases worth noting being in those subjects that may be more appropriately designated 'applied science.' " Both the Day and the Evening Schools are now passing through a crisis in their history, and may be regarded as in a transition state. The Day Schools, under School Boards, arc adversely affected by the regulation of the Board of Education, limiting the age of scholars to 1.5 years. There were 3,697 scholars of 15 years and upwards in the year ending August 31, 1901. The corresponding numbers were 4,146 in 1898, 3,817 in 1899, and .3,828 in 1900. The Evening Schools, under the same authority, are not allowed to give instruction to adults, except with the consent of the County Council or the County Borough Council, as the case may be, and that consent, if given, is limited to the current school year. In the majority of cases that consent has been freely given, though in some instances schools have had to be closed in consequence of the consent being withheld. The uncertainty as to the future is a great cause of discourage raent, both to the managers of schools and to the scholars. Science Subjects. Number of Scholars. 1899-1900. Euclid ■ Algebra Mensuration Elementary Phy.siography Elementary Physics and Chemistry Domestic Science Science of Common Things Chemistry Mechanics Sound, Light, and Heat Magnetism and Electricity Human Physiology Hygiene Botany Agriculture Horticulture Navigation Ambulance Domestic Economy Totals 1,036 7,467 27,388 ■ 3,712 3,135 10,910 5,658 1,365 726 3,8.34 5,865 3,179 692 2,.3.55 1,001 68 9,086 19,565 107,042 1,325 9,996 29,966 4,807 2,902 117 13,874 6,590 1,129 813 3,907 6,237 4,002 763 2,300 1,354 37 13,0,30 23,271 126,740 1,216 7,4.32 24,369 4,213 3,116 142 11,499 5,963 987 4S7 3,00.5 4,296 3,276 597 1,826 1,350 46 12,980 19,915 106,665 1,601 7,247 23,090 ■3,552 3,497 471 11,418 6,704 1,252 305 3,244 4,619 3,227 718 1,847 1,511 118 14,838 18,968 108,228 1,384 6,188 22,192 2,943 3,316 303 11,892 6,542 1,050 313 2,949 4,312 3,908 747 1,937 1,846 173 18,764 19,343 110,104 ' This is a side-light on the value of the inspection-examination system espoused in this State. 257 " There have been no changes of importance in the code of regulations for Day Schools, but that for Evening Schools has been remodelled much more on the lines of the South Kensington branch of the Board of Education, and it is issued from that oliice, as these schools are now regarded by the Government as giving Secondary Education. " The Higher Elementary Schools, for wliich special provision was made two years ago, have not to any large extent superseded the Higher Grade Schools wliich had been previously established in most of the large towns. The additional grants oflfercd have scarcely proved to be an equivalent for the increased cost of conducting these schools, and this fact, coupled with the stringent regulations imposed, has discouraged the transfer of the Higher Grade Schools. " The exhibitions which have been held this summer in London by the London School Board and the Nature-Study Exhibition Association indicate the progress of practical work in science, especially in the region of Physics and Biology. The School Board has sought to encourage the making of scientific apparatus by the science masters and their scholars out of ordinary and inexpensive materials, as more instructive than the manipulation of purchased articles ; and the exhibition of what has been thus produced in the schools during the last twelve months shews a very marked advance, both in quantity and quality, over that of the preceding year. The exhibits — 651 in number— ranged over Botany, Chemistry, Heat, Light, Hygiene, Magnetism and Electricity, Mathematics, Mechanics, Natural History, Physiography, Physiology, Sound, and Steam. The Board has also entered into arrangements with the custodians of the Royal Parks for a weekly supply of cut flowers, leaves, etc., to furnisli illustrations of the reading lessons, as well as material for the scientific study of Botany. The Nature-Study Exhibition Association has been organised for the purpose of creating an interest in Ijiological studies and of illustrating the most approved methods of arranging school museums and other appliances for teaching. The Exhibitions consisted of a large collection of objects gathered by children in their own neighbourhoods, and of drawings which they had made from the plants and animals themselves, and of manuscript notes as to their development;. These illustrations were generally given in their proper colours, and often with the aid of the microscope. The Exhibition was made still more valuable by a series of conferences conducted by ladies and gentlemen who have given special attention to Nature study." 5. General remarks concerning the Teaching of Natural Science. — In the elementary or lower stage of the primary school scientific information is frequently communicated not so much directly as through what are known as object lessons (lemons de choses). In German Switzerland the scientific is known as the "real" part of the instruction. The character of the lessons, assuming, of course, that reasonable care is taken by the teacher, is necessarily dependent upon the education and real knowledge of the teacher. If he has been scientifically taught, he can make any lesson truly instructive. In order to give some idea of the .systematic character of the object lessons, reference may be made to some of the details of the Swiss programme (see chapter V, sees. 5-10). Illustrative diagrams are generally, if not invariably, used. For example, in Ticino, one of the Italian cantons, a collection such as the following is used : — (1) Diagrams showing the silk industry, wool industry, manufactured fabrics generally, corrals. (2) Thirteen diagrams for the teaching of zoology, botany, apiculture, cosmography. (3) Cabinets containing the products of the glass industry, carbon industry, salt, sulphur, and resin. (4) Scries of diagrams for general information. The phfenomena of the earth or air, the three kingdoms, i.e., animals, plants, and minerals, constitute the domain of the first lessons. In .selecting the subject matter, that is taken by preference, which may be directly observed by the children. The value of the lessons is held to depend rather upon the method by which the knowledge is communicated than upon the elements of knoioledge themselves — that is to say, it is held to depend upon the action exercised upon the minds of the children, upon their faculty of observation, upon their attention ; it is by multiplying and varying the interest concerning things accessible to the intelligence of the childi-on, by habituating them to habits of reflection, and to exact and regulated observation, that the teaching becomes truly educative. "La," said M. (luex — before referred to — " I'observation directe des choses est substituee a I'etude des mots, le jugement a la memoire, I'esprit a la lettre, la spontaneite k la passivit6 intellectuelle. Exercer les sens de I'enfant pour les rendro plus justcs, plus souples; exercer son jugement en le guidant sans lui imposer des idees toutes faites, en lui faisant peu apprendre et beaucoup trouver ; exercer sa volonte en lui donnant des occasions de se former ; exercer enfin son sens moral en lui faisant tirer de sa propre experience la notion du devoir, tel est le but de cet enseignement." (This direct observation of things is substituted for the study of words, the judgment for memory, the spirit for the letter, spontaneity for intellectual passivity. To exercise the senses of the child so as to make them more accurate, more pliant ; to exercise his judgment bj' guiding it, without imposing upon him ready-made ideas, by making him learn little but discover much ; to exercise his will by giving him occasion for self-development ; and finally, to exercise his moral sense by making him derive from his own experience the notion of duty ; such are the aims of this instruction.) The ideas above expressed are common to the whole of Europe and America. They may bo said to bo the keynote of modern education, not oidy in science, but throughout its entire province. The way in which scientific knowledge enters into the teaching is naturally identical throughout Europe ; there is, however, some diflcrenco in the various programmes. For example, where hygiene is part of the curriculum, as in the Belgian schools, there has necessarily to be a basis of physical, chemical, and physiological knowledge. Again, in certain of the Belgian schools the elementary conceptions of Natural Science are taught, and in others the Science teaching is orientated toward agriculture. The details of .some of the programmes will give a real idea of the character of the teaching, provided always that it be borne in mind that the primary teacher has been properly qualified to undertake Science teaching. 6. Elementary Science-teaching in Austria. — The teaching in the Folk School is analogous to that in the German Folk School. For this, reference may be made to chapter VI, sees. 4, 18, 19. It will 1)0 observed that natural history, zoology, geology, hygiene, and general physics are taught. In the Unterrealschule, natural history, and physics are taught. The aim of the former is declared in the official programme to be, to confer, by lessons founded upon direct perception, a discriminative knowledge of the most important forms of the organic and inorganic world. In the subject of physics the aim is to make make known by experiment the more easily understood natural phsenomena and their laws, having regard, however, to their practical applications. Chemistry is taught only in the Realschule itself, but is taught to children under 14 years of age. For reasons indicated in Chapter VI, it is necessary to indicate the teaching of Science in the earlier classes of the llealschulen : this will give a fair ground of comparison of the true state of education in Austria, as compared with that of this State. The following is translated from the official programmes : — • Science in the junior classes of the Austrian liealschiile. Natural History. — The aim of the instruction is to give a systematic review of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, on the basis of a recognition of the most important facts of their anatomy, physiology, and morphology ; and in geology to make known the main facts, and the forms and properties of the most important materials with which it is concerned. The programmes for the several classes are as hereunder : it may be recollected that the first class is for boys 10-11 years of age. Class I. (Three hours per week). Intuitive instruction in Zoology. 1st Semester. Vertehrata, chief mammals, and birds. 2nd Semester Invertehrata, articulata, viz., insecta, some of the most important and best known forms from the divisions of the mollusca, and radiata. Cla^s II. (Three hours per week). Intuitive instruction. 1st Semester. Mitieralogy, observation and description of a definite number of minerals, without special regard to systematic mineralogy ; with occasional reference to the commonest rocks. 2nd Semester. Botany. Observation and description of a number of cotyledonous plants of various orders. Physics. — The aim in this subject is to confer a knowledge of the most important natural phasnomena and their laws, by means of experimental and other observations with applications of calculations in so far as the elementary mathematical knowledge will allow. The classes and synopses are as follows : — Glass III. (Four hours per week). General and particular properties of bodies. Heat, magnetism, electricity, galvanism, acoustics. Class IV. (Two hours j)er week). Mechanics, optics, radiant heat. Chemistry. — The aim is to give, by experimental methods, a knowledge of the changes of matter in chemical action, the conditions and laws of these changes, a clear knowledge of chemical elements, and of their combination, specially regarding their occurrence and significance in the relation to the economy of Nature, as well as their industrial value. Class V. (Three hours per week). Preparatory division. Introduction to the most important physico-chemical phenomena and processes. Principal characteristics of the elements, and of the various compounds formed from them. The above are a sufficient indication of the grade of Science teaching in the Austrian schools for pupils between 10 and 14 years of age. 7. Science in Belgian Primary Schools. — The following is the programme of elementary notions of natural science as taught in the primary communal schools of Belgium.' Lower Division. — Simple conversations upon the following subjects : — (1.) Principal external parts of the human body. (2.) Pi-incipal animals known to the children. (3.) Essential organs of plants. Principal trees and herbaceous plants in the garden. Some poisonous plants widely distributed. (4.) Some mineral substances well known locally ; common metals. Middle Division. (1) 2fan. Very brief description of the skeleton, and preliminary notions concerning the principal vital functions. Organs of the senses. (2) Animals. The characterisation, by one or two essential traits, of each of the great divisions, from observation of well-selected types. (3) Plants. The study, by means of well-selected types, of : — (i.) Principal organs of the plant. (ii.) About twelve of the most important families, special regard being paid to the most useful and most injurious plants locally, and to the establishment of an herbarium. (4) Minerals. Practical ideas concerning the most important minerals of the country, and the common metals. (5) The local industries and their products. Higher Division. (1) 3Ian. Recapitulation of the preceding course. More developed ideas upon the principal vital functions. (2) Animals. Recapitulation of preceding course. Short and characteristic study of several animals selected as types of the principal orders of the manmiifera and birds. Animals that arc specially useful or specially injurious. (3) Plants. Recapitulation of principal plants studied in the Middle Division. Stuily of several new plants selected as types of families. Useful and noxious plants. Botanical excursions (herborisations). (4) Preliminary Conception of Physics. General properties of matter : divisibility, porosity, compressibility, elasticity, gravity, weight, centre of gravity, lever, pulley, wheel and axle. Preliminary ideas on tha equilibrium of fluids. Conmiunicating vessels. Level of water, jet of water. Atmospheric pressure, barometer. Air-pump. Sound and echo. Preliminary ideas upon heat : dilatation, thermometer, evaporation. Principal meteorological pluenomena. Fogs, rain, snow, hail, frost, etc., etc. Preliminary ideas upon light, solar spectrum. Rainbow. Colours. Magnets. Magnetic needle. Compass. Conception of static electricity necessary for the explanation of the phsenomena of lightning and thunder. Lightning conductors. (5) Notions of local industry. The ' Bruxelles, 1897 ; pp. 54-55. 259 Tlie above course is not taken everywhere. In country places a course in agriculture may replace this. In the Lovjer division the children are taught by means of the school garden to recognise the principal plants, some cultivated flowers, the fruit trees, noxious plants, and undertake very easy work. Lessons are given on gardening tools, plants, and vegetables, and animals. The importance of protecting insectivorous animals is dwelt upon. In the Middle division there are lessons preparatory to arboriculture, and then preliminary ideas regarding arboriculture. These deal with germination, whiclj is observed, with the principal organs of plants, root, stem, leaf, flower, and fruit, and the functions of these, with the functions of the parts of fruit-trees, the production of wood and fruit. In this course, the children cultivate cuttings in pots, eitlier at the school or at home. The treatment of trees, of grafting, etc., preparation of plot, use of fertilisers, seeds, etc., etc., are all dealt with. Insects no.xious to fruit-trees, and the means of their destruction, are pointed out. Preliminary notions of kitchen gardening are also referred to. Lessons on animals are also given. Starting with preparatory lessons, shewing the peculiarities and essential parts of the skeleton of a domestic mammal, bird, reptile, and fish, and with the simplest notions of digestion, circulation of the blood, and respiration of mammals, the course goes on to treat specially of such domestic animals as the cow, sheep, horse, pig, fowls, etc., and of their care, etc. To shew and characterise the principal insectivorous birds of the country, the saurians, bactrachians, etc., is also required. In the Hujher division the programme is as follows : — I. Elementary notions of elementary }}hysics necessary for understanding the lessons in agricultiore. (1) Properties of matter. Divisibility, porosity, compressibility, elasticity. (2) Communicating vessels. Water level. (3) Air and atmosphere : composition and principal properties. Atmospheric pressure. The Barometer. The air pump. Wind. (4) Water : its composition and role in vegetation. (5) Observation and explanation of several phsenomena due to capillarity. (6) Heat : its influence on plants and on the health of animals. Dilatation. Thermometer. (7) Meteorological phsenomena : specially as regards their relation to agriculture. Fogs, rain, hails, snow, frost, etc., etc. (8) Light : its efffects on vegetation. II. Notions of agriculture : deal with soil, treatment, drainage, manuring, seeds, and sowing, etc. III. Special notions ujwn some domestic animals : refer to the draught horse, milch cow, their feeding and hygiene. IV. Arboriculture and horticulture : deal with agricultural operations generally. The preceding course is strongly orientated practically; in educative value it is not quite equal to the preceding course, but is of practical value. Of course, in the actual teaching much depends upon the teacher, upon his education and thoroughness. 8. Science in Primary Sclwols of France. — The science teaching in France is either general, or is orientated toward agriculture in rural districts or toward industry in industrial villages. It has been well developed for a considerable number of years past, as the following programme will shew. Hie subjects of physics and natural history may be taken as illustrative. Middle division : June. — TTiree states of matter. Air and its composition. Properties of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon-dioxide. (The properties are as far as possible to be demonstrated by experiments.) Atmospheric pressure. Barometer. Potable and undrinkable water. Sea water. July. — Combustion. — Heat, effect on matter. Thermometer : lis construction and use. Evapora- tion of water : its three states. Rain, frost, snow, wind, ice. Expansive force of water in the state of vapour or of ice, produced in hermetically sealed glass. Application of that force. Steam engine. Ilighcr division : October. — Natural history. Human skeleton. Digestion and absorption. Circulation and respiration. Assimilation, secretion, transpiration. November. — Nerves. Senses, hygienic counsels. December. — Classification. — Vertebrates, mammals, birds, reptiles, fish. Invertebrates, molluscs, annelida, zoophytes, etc. Principal characters. Geographical distribution of animals. January. — Minerals. — Their utility. Mines. Fire-damp. Quartz, sand. Sandstone, tripoli, precious stones, emery, limestone, marble, lithographic stone, plaster, alabaster, etc., diamond, lignite, graphite, coal, turf, sulphur, etc. Properties and use. February. — Kaolin, clay, chalk, salt, saltpetre. Cast-iron, iron', steel, lead, antimony, tin, tinned iron, zinc, galvanised iron, copper, brass, arsenic, gold, platinum, aluminium. Properties and use of these materials. March. — Physics. — Universal attraction. Fall of body. Lever of the first kind. Balance, etc. Fqinlibriimi. — Equilibrium of liquids. Horizontal surface. Application of the principle of equilibrium of liquids. Jet of water. Artesian wells. Weight of air. Atmospheric pressure. — (Exhibit the barometric tube or a gauge, or even an ordinary glass filled with water, covered with a leaf of paiier, then inverted). Measurement of atmospheric pressure by means of barometer. Applications of tjie principle of atmospheric pressure. Pumps, syphons, pipettes, etc. 15— 2 L April April. — Ileal. — Its effect upon matter. Experiment with s'Gravesande's ring. Construction and use of thermometer. Ebullition. Steam-engine. Evaporation. Rain, dew, snow, ice, bursting of stones, etc., by frost [pierre gilive). Good and bad conductors of heat. Emissive and absorbent power. Light. — Propagation, velocity, reflexion, plane mirror. Refraction of light. Dispersion. Rainbows. White light. Newton's rings. Colours of bodies. May. — Static Electricity. — Glass and resin rods electrified. Good and bad conductors of electricity. Electrification by influence. Electricity of clouds. Kite experiment. Lightning. Lightning conductors. Magnetism. — Natural and artificial magnets. Property of magnetic needle — compass. Magnetisation. Uses of magnets. Dynamic Electricity. — Electric current. Cell. Decomposition of water. Magnetic effects of electric current. Telegraph. June. — Chemistry. — Notion of simple bodies, i.e., elements, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, copper, phosphorus, iron, tin, zinc, lead, mercury, gold, silver, platinum. As far as poissible exhibit each element to the pupils. July. — Conception of compound bodies. Water, salt, chalk, copperas, verdigris, rust ; indicate the elements from which these bodies are made up. Properties and uses of principal elements and compounds. August. — General recapitulation. This will give a general idea of the character of the work done, provided it be remembered that the work is as far as possible experimental. "C'est par de.'i experiences simples et peu couteuses," say the official instructions of 1897, "qu'on etablira Ics notions de sciences physiques (jue pent comporter le pro- gramme des ccoles priinaires." (It is by simple and inexpensive experiments that the conceptions of physical science that may be included in the programme of the primary schools are established.) In the "ecole normale d'Arras," each student teacher on leaving takes away a box for chemical experiments, made by liim during his course in manual training. (This is indicated in Chap. LI., sec. 4.) The simple apparatus permits of the preparation of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, ammonia, etc. ; distillation of wine and other liquids illustrating fractional distillation in chemistry. Experiments in physics are easily made ; electroscopes, tests of thei-mal conductivity, electro-magnets by wrapping insulated copper wire about a nail, and so on. The poorest country school with an educated teacher may easily have its scientific equipment of a simple character for the teaching of science. A point worthy of noting is that in the French view a properly educated and trained teacher is competent to orientate the science teaching so that it will bear practically upon local activity, agricultural, manufacturing, etc., without losing its educative vahie/rnni a wider standpoint. 9. Science in German Schools. — Seeing that in Chapter VI the programme in :iatural history and physics has been pretty fully outlined for a Saxony folkschool (see sections 4, 18, and 19), it will be sufficient to indicate the teaching of science in the lower classes of a German Realschule. It may be repeated that the time devoted in Dresden to natural history and physics in the folk- schools is : — Subject. Classes. V IV. III. II. I. Natural Histor v 2, 1 (girls) 2 2 1 2 1 2 In the Realschule, the aim in natural history is to confer — ■ (a) Ability to observe and describe individual plants, a knowledge of the most important families of plants, and of the phsenomena of plant-life, (ft) Ability to observe and describe representatives of individual classes in the animal world ; a knowledge of the most important orders of vertebrata and insecta. (c) Recognition of the structure of the human body, and the most important elements of hygiene. {d) A knowledge of the simplest crystalline forms, as well as of individual minerals of importance. In Physics the aim is to give — (e) By experiment a knowledge of equilibrium and motion, of heat, magnetism, and electricity, as well as the simplest laws of optics and acoustics. (/) A knowledge of the most important chemical elements anfl their principal combinations. The work is practically that of the fifth to the Untersecunda (lower second) of the Oberrealschule.' The " Lehrplan " is as hereunder : entrance taking place in the 9th year :— Class. Subject. VI. v. IV. III. II I 9-10. 10-11. 11-12. 12-13. lS-14. 14-15 Natural History Physics... 2 2 2 2 2 3 5 ' Die hoheren Schulen in Preussen und ihro Lehrer. Halle, 1902, p. 88. This 261 This programme is worked out in detail about as follows : — Class VI (two hours per week) : — Botany. — Description of phanerogams (actual specimens present). Explanation of form and parts of roots, stem, leaves, flowers, easily recognised. Flowers and fruits. Zoology. — Description of the most important mammals and birds, as regards their form, colour, size, with actual examples. Their mode of life, utility or injuriousness. Class V (two hours per week) : — Complete knowledge of the external organs of phanerogams, description and comparison of some actual examples. Zoology. — Fundamental characteristics of the human skeleton. Exercises in simple schematic drawing of observations, so also in the following classes. Class IV (two hours per week) : — Botany. — Comparative descriptions of various kinds of families of phanerogams, with actual examples. Review of a natural botanical system. Vital phisnomena of plants. Zoology. — Lower animals, viz., those that are useful and noxious, as well as their special enemies, with special regard to insects. Class III (two hours per week) : — Botany, etc. — Description of some more difficult plants, from the standpoint of morphology, systematic botany, and biology. Reference to the most important exotic plants. The anatomy and physiology of plants, including cryptogams. The diseases of plants. Review of the animal kingdom. Fundamental ideas of geography in relation to the distribution of animals. Classes II and I (five hours per week each) : — The human being and his organs, specially referring to hygiene. Preparation for Physics. Phsenomena of mechanics. Most important elements of the theory of heat magnetism. Electricity, the most important chemical phenomena ; most important minerals, and simplest crystals, acoustics, optics.' This programme indicates the thoroughly systematic character of the German teaching. The teaching is realistic, and, as far as possible, expei'imental. 10. Other Countries of Europe. — It is unnecessary to indicate the teaching for every country of Europe; science teaching is good in them all, in Bohemia, Denmark, Finland, Holland, Hungary, Norway, Russia, Sweden, etc. Switzerland will be specially referred to hereinafter (next section). The characteristic everywhere is realistic teaching ; that is to say, the objects themselves are before the children, and the experimental method is observed wherever possible. In the Russian Real-school entrance is at the age of 10. Physics is taken at 13-14, two hours per week, and Natural Science at 12-13, two hours a week being als(j given to that subject, both in that and the following year. In the city schools of three classes (elementary teaching) three hours a week are devoted to natural history and science in the second class, and four hours per week in the third, but this teaching has, till lately, been like the science teaching in the primary schools of this State ; that is to say, not definitely organised. In Holland the movement towards realism is expressed in their recognition of the value of what is often called " Nature-Study," and in its early introduction. 11. Science teaching in Switzerland. — The provision made for Science teaching in the primary schools of the Cantons of Switzerland is remarkably ample, and clearly recognises the educative and practical value of Science. In the Cantons of Geneva and Vaud, a good deal of elementary science is really given in the object lessons (legons de choses) and some geology is given in the geographical teaching. See Chapter V, sections 5, 6, 8, 9, and 10. For example : the object lessons areas hereunder in Geneva in the primary schools ; — Class I (7-8 years). Discourses on child's surroundings. Human body and its clothing. Houses and their furniture. Air, water, etc. Animals. Elementary ideas of hygiene. Class II (8-9 years). The human body ; its bones and muscles : the senses. Hygiene. Animals, plants, stones, metals known to the children. Conversion of raw material into manufactured articles. Foods, fabrics, timber, stones, metals. Class III (9-10 years). Man. — His body, bones, muscles, nerves, sense-organ.s, vital organs, brain, heart, lungs, stomach, spinal cord, liver, intestines. Animals. — General types of mammals and birds. Notions about air, water, temperature, heating, lighting, hygiene. Class ' Handbuch der Erziehungs-und Unterriohtslehre fiir hoherc Schulen. tteransg. Dr. A. BatimeUter. Munchen, 1897, pp. 47-48. 262 Class IV (10-11 years). Man. — Digestion, locomotion. Hygiene. Animals. — Types of mammals and birds. Plants. — Selected type.s. Principal organs. Physics. — The three states of matter. Cla.ss V (11-12 years). Elementary ideas of natural history. Hygiene. Industries. Dome.stic economy. Class VI (12-1 .3 years). Man. — Digestion, circulation, respiration, nervous system, sense-organs. Hygiene. Effect of alcohol, tobacco, etc. Animals. — Useful and noxious animals. Plants. — Essential parts; principal groups; edible plants. Physics. — Pumps, fountains, jets, the barometer, thermometer, hydraulic machines, steam-engines, electric machines, cells, lightning conductors, telegraph, telephone. Industries. — Mechanisms, horology. Gold and silver smithing ; jewellery. Printing and photographing. The object lessons and elements of natural science taught in the primary schools of the Canton of Vaud may be found in Chapter V, section 8. In order to get an adequate idea of the teaching in the primary school stage, reference should be made to section 10 of the same chapter. 12. Science for Primary School Teachers in Switzerland. — The programme at the Seminarium at Kiisnacht, Switzerland, for primary teachers will give an idea of the character of the preparation of Swiss teachers for the teaching of Science, and is given hereunder. The subject is known as Naturkunde, and includes botany, zoology, chemi.stry and mineralogy, geology, physics, anthropology and hygiene. The aim of this education is to reach clear perceptions of the forms and occurrences of Nature through independent observations and thoughtful criticism ; to afford exercise in logical induction, so as to reach conclusions from experience, and thus an understanding of natural laws ; and to qualify the student to teach the most important facts of the life of Nature and of the civilised life of man. In the first and second classes, botany, zoology, chemistry and mineralogy are treated ; and in the thiixl and fourth, geology, physics, anthropology and hygiene. The detailed programme work is briefly set out in Chapter XL, sections 27-32 inclusive. It is here repeated and outlined a little more fully. Class I (four hours per week) : — {A) Botany (two hours). — (a) Introduction to the natural system by means of monographs on individual representatives on the cryptogams and specially important indigenous phane- rogams. Special regard is to be paid to useful and injurious plants, from an agricultural point of view, and to the most important exotic cultivated plants and their propagation. Outlines of the morphology, anatomy, biology, and physiology of plants. (/>) Botanical practice (two hours in summer). — Exercises in determining phanerogams, as a practical introduction to the knowledge of morphology and systematic botany. Formation of an herbarium of about thirty typical examples. Practice in elementary microscopic investigation. Preparation and sketching of simple specimens. Exercises in observation, with an introduction to biology. Simple experiments in plant physiology. (c) Botanical excursions in the neighbourhood and further afield. (7i) Zoology (two hours in winter). — Introduction to the science of anatomy and the develop- mental history of the different classes in the animal kingdom, by means of monographs on single representatives. The biology of known indigenous animals. The stem of the animal kingdom, in ascending series, as far as, and including, the articulata. The most important orders of the insecta. Class TI (five hours per week) : — {A) Zoology (two hours in winter). — (o) Monographic and systematic treatment of the classes of mollusca and vertebrata. Characteristics of the most important orders, with special regard to their utility and their injuriousness. {l>) Individual Zoological excursions, in sections, in the neighbourhood, preferably for the observation of animals associated n natural groups. (B) Chemistry and Mi'neralogy (two hours in summer). — (a) The most important heavy metals ores, oxidation. Air ; oxygen and nitrogen. Water ; hydrogen, knall-gas. The most important light metals. Carbon and carbon dioxide. Sulphur and sulphuric acid. Sulphuretted hydrogen, and sulphide of carbon. Pho.sphorus, arsenic and antimony ; silicic acid. The haloids and their acids (HCl, HF). Reduction through heat (HgO), through H, K and C. Reduction of metallic ores. Electrolysis. Atomic theory, simple and multiple proportion, valency, stoichiometry. The most important acid and basic hydrates. Salts; structure, general properties, decomposition of salts through heat, through bases, acids, salts, electricity (galvano-plastic arts), and light (photography). Theory of crystall- ography. The most important salts (natural and artificial salts). Haloid salts. Carbonates, sulphates, phosphates, silicates (augite and hornblende, orthoclase and plagiocla.se, granite, mica, talc, clay ; glass, porcelain and cement making). Characteristic partial reductions. HNO3, gunpowder, H2SO4, bleaching powder, ozone. Hydrides, especially NH3. {!)) Laboratory Practice and Chemistry (two hours every fourteen days). — Arrangement of school apparatus, etc., etc. Class 263 Class III (five hours in summer, four hours in winter) : — (A) Geolofjy (two hours in summer ; in third quarter, one hour). — {a) Petrography. The most important volcanic rocks ; stratified rocks ; gneiss and crystalline schist ; conglomerates, organic rocks. (?)) Changes in ihe Earth's Surface. — Erosion and sedimentation. Chemical and mechanical action of water. Action of ice. Actions within the earth. Volcanos. Hot springs. Upheavals and subsidences. Sand-hills, hills produced by folding, earthquakes. (c) Ihstorical Geology. — Short characteristic sketch of the five periods. Significance of changes in the organic world. {d) Geological Excursions. {li) Orf/anic Chemistry (in fourth quarter, one hour). — The most important organic combina- tions. Illuminating gas. Alcohol and acetic acid. Carbohydrates. Sugar. Starch. Celluloids, fats and soaps. Alkaloids, oethereal oils, albumens. (C) /'/(y6ic.s (three hours per week). — (a) Mechanics. Laws of rectilinear and central movement, and in connection therewith the ideas of force and mass. The laws of statics. Friction. The general properties of matter. Pressure in fluids. Specific gravity. Molecular forces of cohesion and adhesion. Atmospheric pressure in various phenomena, and its applications. (b) Theory of Heat. — The expansion of matter and its applications. Specific heat. Main outlines of the mechanical theory of heat. The mode of the flow of heat. Theory of steam and of the steam-engine. Class IV (five hours) : — (A) Anthropology and School-hygiene. — The skeleton. The muscular, nervous, and vascular systems. The breathing organs and breathing. The digestive system and theory of nutrition ; the excretory organs ; the sen.se organs. (b) School-hygiene.^ — The school-house, school-room and furniture. Ventilation, heating, lighting and cleaning. Baths, corridors, and other spaces. The liygiene of the plan of instruction and of the principal subjects of instruction. Corporal punishment. Health disturbances in youth. Anomalies in development. Fatigue and over-work. Nervous injuries. Mental diseases. Disorders of sight, hearing, and speech, and their examinations. Causes, symptoms, and prevention of the most important infectious diseases. Sudden accidents and " first-aid." (c) Excursions and hygienic demonstrations. (B) Physics (two hours). — (a) Acoustics and Optics. The main features of the theory of waves. Sound. Musical tone and its properties. Tuning-fork. Resonance. Shadows. The law of reflection and its application to plane and spherical mirrors. Refraction. Path of a ray of light through a prism and lenses. Optical instruments. Prismatic colours and spectrum analysis. Interference, and the essentials of the theory of light. Vision. (6) Magnetism and Electricity. — Magnetism in general and the elements of earth magnetism The phsenomena of static electricity and apparatus for their demonstration. Condensors. Galvanic electricity and its demonstration. The action of an electric current and its most important applications. Induction, and its significance in technology. Introduction electric units. (c) Physical Laboratory Practice (two hours every fortnight). Bearing in mind that these courses are given by highly qualified teachers in each department, and with proper apparatus for demonstrational and experimental purposes, it will be recognised that the Swiss teacher is thoroughly prepared for the teaching of Science in the primary school, and it will bo readily understood that a teacher so educated will handle any object lesson in a very different manner from those whose knowledge of Science is less thorough, or where its acquisition has been attempted in a merely literary way. 1.3. Cosmography. — ITiis is generally taught in Europe in connection with geography. Some notion of the world's position in the solar system, the significance of the moon to, and its influence on the earth, the characteristics of the rotation of the earth on its axis and round the sun, the movement of the earth's axis within the earth itself, the motion of the planets, of comets, of meteoric bodies, of the path of the solar system through stellar space, of the distances of the stars, of the physical constitution of cosmic bodies and their groupings, should be given to children, if for no other reason, for its educative value — its power to enlarge their conceptions of time and space, and to help them to intelligently understand the universe. 14. Apparatus for teaching Science. — The e({uipment of most continental schools for science teaching, and, indeed, also very many American schools, stands in marked contrast with that of the best primary schools under the Department of Public Instruction in this State. It has been pointed out that where manual work is going on it will not be diflicult to make much of the apparatus required. What is needed, however, is that every important school in the larger towns should have a good equipment, serving as a gui F.H. Bunsen's cell, 16c. Daniell's cell, 16c. Grenet's bottle. Lcclanche's cell. Meidinger's cell. Grenet's plunging battery with four cells. Maten-ial for tilling the cells. Galvanoplastic apparatus. Geissler's tubes, three pieces. Inductor. Morse's telegraph. Apparatus for demonstration of telephone. Marconi's wireless telegraphy. Apparatus for experiments after Hertz. Apparatus for Tesla's light. Apparatus for standing undulations on wire. Apparatus for Rontgen experiments. Methodology: (Frick). Physical technique, two volumes (for upper Bchools). (Rosenberg). Handbook of experimenting ^for intermediate schools'! Chemistry-^ 265 Chemistry — Selection of chemical utensils. Methodology : Arendt, Experimental Chemistry. Oeography — Wall Maps {Bamberg) : Eastern planispheres, physical and political frontiers. Western planispheres. Europe, Asia, Africa, N. America, S. America, Australia, Germany, Balkan, England, France, Italy, The Pyrenees, Russia, Scandinavia, Kumnierli, Switzerland. Models and Apparatus. — Embossed globe, 33 cm. Principal formation of the earth, embossed. Embossed map of Central Europe. Embossed map of Australia. Planetarium. Armillary spheres. Model of horizon. (Letoschek). Models of surface. Pictorial fVorks. — (Lehmann). Geographical characters (42 plates). (Lehmann). Types of nations (6 plates). Principal formations of the surface of earth. (Letoscliek). Meteorological and physical pictures. Methodology. — (Tischendorf). Preparations for geograpluo teaching (for intermediate schools). (GUnther and Kirchhof). Didactics. (Gunther and Kirchhof). Methodology of mathematical and general geography. (Excerpt from Beck's Handbook of Theory of Education and Instruction). Drawing — Models : Wood-models for school-drawing, 44 models. Wood-models for individual teaching, 21 models. Models of machinery constructed after Dirlam and Simerka's collection of drawing copies. Drawing-copies. — (Tellner and Steigl). School for free-hand drawing for primary schools. For intermediate schools. — (Scheinecker). Rectilineal ornaments. (Scheinecker). Curvilineal ornaments. (Schwertner}. Ornament-drawing. (Steigl). New drawing-copies, 1 to 6. (Chilla). Floor-motives, 1 to 2. (Sodoma). Modern ornaments. For upper and professional schools. — (Grohmann). Architectonic object-teaching. (Feldegg). Renaissance ornaments. (Dirlam). Drawing-copies for house-carpenters and Ciibinet-makers. (Sehiofthaler). Elements of joinery. (Haubner). Turnery in wood. (Spindler). Motifs for lattice- work. (Dirlam-Simerka). Parts of machinery. (Rottinger). Drawing-copies of hearths. (Zoif). Drawing-copies for metal turning. Methodology : (Kimmieh). Drawing-school. Qeomelrf — Drawing-copies.— (Wildt). Projection-drawing. (Wildt). Descriptive geometry, 1(11. Models. — Geometrical figures of wood. Geometrical Kgurcs illustrative of sttreometrical notions. Models of solids for teaching descriptive geometry. (Wildt). Apparatus formed of small sticks for teaching descriptive geometry. (Wildt). Models for projection-drawing. Methodology : Refer to Beck and Ambros' works. Tevhuulogy — Collections : Paper. Glass. Graphical arts. Alkali industry. Collection of metals, ceramics, products, goods, pencil manufacture. Wall-tables: (Eschner). Technological wall-tables, 1 to 25. (Hassack). Microscopical wall-tables, 1 to 24. Methodology: (Esohner). Text for technological wall-tables, I-III. (Esehner). Natureand work of man, 2 volumes. Omeral Methodology — Scholastic curriculum for public and intermediate schools. Handbook of methodology for all branches of education. (Ambros). Eight school-years. Instruction for gymnasium-teaching. Instruction for technical school-teaching. (Beck). Handbook of theory of education and instruction for upper schools, including didactics and methodology of all branches of teaching. 15. Conclusions. — In reviewing the great difference between the education in Science of the children of this State and that of the children in Ilurope, and remembering that scientific knowledge is not only oi great educative value but is also of tlie highest practical importance, the following conclusions are suggested : — 1. That elementary physics, chemistry, zoology, botany, geology, mineralogy, should be taught in the primary schools. 2. That all teachers should be so educated as to be competent to give such teaching. 3. That in illustrating the science teaching, the practical needs of the district should be borne in mind, 4. That all teaching should be realistic and not literary, children being brought face to face with the things spoken of. 5. That schools should be equipped for science teaching. 6. That children should be induced to take an interest in the school's scientific equipment, and encouraged in the direct study of natural bodies, and in the study of natural phajiiomeua. CH/\.PTER XXVII. 266 CHAPTEE XXV J I. Training School System of New South Wales. Preparatory Statement. [J. W. TURNER.] In dealing with the Pupil-teacher System, the Commissioner deems it necessary to make a preparatory statement. Forty years as;o he entered the service of the State as a pupil-teacher, and was influenced and guided by men who had been pupil-teachers before him. In the capacity of headmaster he, too, has had ])Mpil-teaehers submitted to his care, and has assisted in their training and in their development into ])rimary school teachers. Most of the excellent primary school teachers, who are a credit to our Service to-day, have been pupil-teachers, and the knowledge of these things influenced the Commissioner greatly up to the time when he left Australia on his investigations. At the Education Conference held in Sydney in 1902, the Commissioner naturally, as Training Ma.) The student of teaching having a higher educa- tion, and studied methodology, is more compe- tent, because he looks on his subjects with a wider outlook and deeper knowledge of them. (q) In the previous-training system the teacher is not only much older, but be has been syste- matically learning what the scope of education is, how incomparably higher it is than mere subject-teaching, which, however, it includes. (r) Autliority and discipline tend to be conserved whon teaching is carried out by the older and better educated t(?aclieis of the previous-training system, educated also in the idea of responsi- bility. (a) Personal dignity has considerably developed by the time a student of teaching is permitted to teach. (/) The influence of a better educafed, older, more matured teacher, whoso [pedagogical training has been systematic, whose more developed mind has been directed to the necessity of cultivating gentlemanly habits, a dignified bear- ing, and of remembering that his mission is one of the deepest significance to the human race, tends to be decidedly favourable. (jt) Bearing in mind that the schoolmaster's person- ality is to some extent the basis of children's ideals, and that the teacher systematically trained has been thoroughly drilled in the recog- nition of the seriousness of this fact, the mean- ing of Education is more deeply understood. (i>) The significance of psychology and psycho- hygieno as regards all teaching, and of discrimi- nating between logical and pa;dagogical order in the teaching of subjects, are matters to which the attention of all students of teaching is strenuously directed ; their attention is also called to the fact that they must wisely direct their own psychical and intellectual activity in stimulating the pupils with which they have to deal, («) 272 (w) i'oung pupil-teacliers cannot bo expected, and as a matter of fact do not maintain that uniform dignity, equity, and equanimity wiiich are essential in all disciplinary relations witli a class. Apart therefore from their pa?da- gogic inefficiency, good results from their teaching cannot be expected on ])urely moral grounds. They often attempt to substituto coercive for directive discipline. {x) Pupil-teachers, though in charge of classes, have no knowledge of the significance of school - hygiene and psychical phenomena (mental fatigue, etc.) and of their relation to practical teaching. (y) Modern psedagogic theory and practice recog- nise that the early and fundamental stages of education are of the highest significance in regard to, and greatly affect, the ultimate issue. It aims therefore at ensuring on the part of the teacher, a recognition of this fact, and such preparation as will enable him to lay a pefectly sound and logical founda- tion in the elementary knowledge of all sub- jects. This demands on the part of the teacher something more than mere know- ledge of subjects, viz., a knowledge of their logical development, their inter-relations and the psedagogical scheme of establishing in the minds of the children their fundamental con- ceptions. The pupil-teacher s;/stem absoliifeli/ ignores this j)ositw7i. The pupil-teacher has no outlook on his subject. («') Students of teaching are not only instructed as to the necessity of these paidagogic virtues, but their maturer years, and the respect that they bring, as -ivell as the natural thouijhtfuluess rapidly developed at that critical period in their lives, also enable them to reach a higher plane of predagogic efficiency on moral grounds alone. (x) Students of teaching learn in their curriculum, how important it is to have regard to tho way in which children react to their daily tasks, pliysi- cally and psychically. (y) In the previous-training system the subject- education of the teacher goes of course far beyond the requirements of the primary school, where he is to be professionally occupied. Hence he is able to look on the primary sub- jects from a higher point of view, and is thus prepared to understand the significance of thoroughness in regard to establishing the funda- mental conceptions of the various subjects of teaching. He is made to recognise that the mental habits which h's method of teaching tends to develope in his pupils profoundly affect their subsequent career in life. Ho is made to see that in all matters which are subject to logical relationships, progress, and thoroughness depend upon a clear recognition of those rela- tionships, and he, appreciating the fact itself, makes his pupils also recognise that great care in tho commencement of a subject ultimately leads to a real command thereof. The previous-training system is an affirmation that education is so important, that no one should be allowed to undertake it professionally without a good secondary education, special instruction in the theory and practice thereof, and a broad outlook upon the world's past educa- tional effort, upon tho penetrating researches as to the best methods of teaching, and upon that wealth of knowledge aa to the operations of the human mind which psychology has brought to light. This system also declares that no teacher is qualified for his functions without the reali- sation of what hygiene and psycho-hygiene have to say on the conditions of school-life. And far above all, the previous-training system recog- nises that the highest element in education, viz., the moral element, the training of ivill and character, requires that the educational operator on the child mind should have the inspiration which can come only from a mature study of the noble aims and ideals of the world's great pcedagogues. (-') (z) The pupil-teacher system m.ay be summed up as practically antagonistic to the doctrine that education from the lowest grade to the highest demands, and is worthy of, high effort, great culture, and earnest prepara- tion, stimulated by all that can come to tho human mind from a deep appreciation of what has been contributed by the great educa- tionists of history, and by that deeper insight into the mechanism and consequences of education, which comes through the study of psychology and philosophy, and through the elaborate hygienic and psycho-hygienic re- searches of able scientific men. The pupil- teacher system, in regard to the moral element, fails to recognise that the moral influence of an immature mind, as yet untouched by any adequate recognition of the inheritance which has become ours through tho earnest and devoted lives of those who fill tho long list of the world's great pa;dagogues, is wholly inadequate to awaken in our children national or personal ideals. The above contrast is by no means exhaustive; it simply presents some of the more obvious points of difference. Its object is to concentrate attention on the points of issue between the two methods of training, so that in reading the schemes in detail, the evidence can be reviewed in the light of a clear understanding of the essential antagonism of the two systems. The system of New South Wales will be first outlined, and it should bo recollected that this was developed under conditions of difficulty, and that any adverse criticitim of it can only justly apply to attempts to maintain it, or to any claim that it is ideally a defensible syitem. 5. The System of qualifying Teachers in New South Wales. — In order to properly contrast this State's system of qualifying teachers for the primary schools, and the systems of Europe and America, it is necessary to outline the system of New South Wales. At fourteen years of age, any young lad or girl whose general health, certified by medical certificate, and character, are good, may, on passing the pupil- teachers' entrance examination, and a practical test in teaching, be accepted as a teacher. This examination includes : — Elementary arithmetic, elementary geography, dictation, drawing, grammar and analysis, com- position (sometimes), music, etc.; a lesson in some subject selected by t!ie candidate himself (it is customary for him to be prepared for this by the head-master of his sclool). A complete list of examination subjects is given hereinafter — Section 7. Geometry (Euclid), algebra, ancient and modern languages, physics, chenistry, mechanics, etc., in fact the physical sciences generally, are all omitted from, the examination, and the test is inferior to the fifth-cJa.s8 ^ofk ijj the " public ^chpolg " of the department. The 273 The examination is held either in Sydney, at the headquarters of the District Inspector of the Educational Department, or at such other place as may be found convenient ; and is as above indicated, of a very elementary character, the grade being lower, as previously stated, than that of the junior public examination held by the University authorities. The classes and emoluments of pupil-teachers are:— Class. Fourth. Third. Second. First. Emoluments (male pupil teacher) ,, (female pupil teacher) £40 £24 £48 £30 £57 £3i £68 per annum. £46 Progress from one class to another is dependent upon a favourable report from the head-teacher and inspector in regard to conduct and usefulness, and upon the passing of a yearly examination. Except under exceptional circumstances second examinations are not given until twelve months have elapsed ; and failure at two consecutive yearly examinations renders a pupil-teacher Ualle to removal from departmental service. In the circular of the Chief Inspector, issued to those who desire to become pupil -teachers, attention is drawn to the necessity for regular and punctual attendance, exeniplary conduct and demeanour, neatness of personal attire, propriety of speech and manner, and steadiness of behaviour on their part. Some conception of the departmental view of what constitutes experience in teaehinq appears in the following quotation from the circular referred to, which is addressed only to would-be pupil-teachers : — Until you have liad large experience in teaching, a single class will be committed to your care, for the efficient i nstruc tion of which you will be held responsible ; but it is expected that you will qualify yourself to take the principal charge of a section of a sc hool, comprising two classes. The passages underlined are not underlined in the original, and are so marked in order to bring under notice what such a circular must suggest to the mind of the pupil-teacher as to what is meant by "experience in teaching," " efficient instruction," and taking " principal charge of a section of a school." Instruction is required to be imparted by the head-master of the school " regularly and systematically, before or after the usual school hours," in accordance with the following time-table : — Monday — Reading, Grammar, and Analysis. Tuesday — Writing, Dictation, and Composition. Wednexday — Arithmetic and Mathematics. Thursday — Geography, Latin, and French. Friday— A.Tt of Teaching, History of England, and History of Australia. " In addition to these subjects. Singing and Draiving are to be taught when the teacher is competent to vive instruction in these branches. Due jjrovision will also be made for the instruction of female pupil-toacnera in needlework." One-half the cost of any te.ict-books required by the pupil-teacher is allowed on application, the amount of purchase, however, being limited to £1 10s. psr annum, with the subjeired condition that a complete refund shall be made if the school service be quitted within two years of the date of grant. The pupil-teacher is informed that, " having been admitted into a highly honourable profession, it is incumbent on you so to act as not to bring discredit upon its members, but rather to raise it in public estimation. Above all, it i.s desirable that you should be to the whole school an example of constant regard for duty under all circumstances. In your hours of leisure and recreation you should exercise the utmost circumspection as to the books you read, the amusements you countenance, the places you visit, and the companions you choose. . . . Attention to these matters may exercise an influence over youp future life incalculably great, and their importance cannot, therefore, be over-estimated." At the end of the service as first-class pupil-teacher, a competitive examination is held for entrance into the training colleges, viz., the Port-street Training School for young men, and the Hurlstono Training School for young women. The former is non-residential, the latter residential. Both training schools offer scholarships as follows : — Port-street Training School — (i) Pull scholarship; allowance, £0 per month (15 are granted), (u) Half scholarship ; allowance, £3 per month (10 are granted). (ni) There are usually two or three students each year who, while they examination, fail to obtain one of the above twenty-five scholarships, payment. The Hurlstone Training College — ook—Kxa\ey's Lessons in Elementary Physiologj- (latest edition). If as a result of this examination, the teacher obtains the Class IF B, he must in general pass to Class II A, by satisfactory school work, when he may again sit for examination. This examination also embraces alternative groups, and is as follows : — For a First-Class Certificate. Reading — 500. Prose and Poetry from a standard author. Writing — 500. Specimens of Copy-isetl ing. Mathematics — Arithmetic — 900. The whole theory and practice. Plain Mensuration. Euclid— 500. As for Class II. Algebra.— 5W. As for Class II, Orammar— 2 78 drammar — 900. Including Accidence, Parsing. Analysis, Composition, Pr,)3o(ly, and Derivation. Text-books — Conway's English Grammar, Composition, and Precis Writing (largo work). Meiklejohn's English Language. 'Giography—800. Pliysical, Political, and Commercial. Map Drawing. Text-books— A. R. Mill's Piealm of Nature. Meiklejohn's A New Geography, comparative. Art of Teacliivr] — 900. Organisation, Method, Discipline, with a knowledge of the Constitution of the Human Mind. Text-hooka — Bain's Education as a Science. Baldwin's Elementry Psychology and Education. Public Instruction Act and Regulations. Sanitary Science — 500. Text-book — Notter and Firth's Practical Domestic Hygiene (Longmans & Co.). /)/•«»•(»'/— 5t)0. To complete the full D Certificate. (For fuller information, .see special circular dealing with Drawing.) Vocal Music— 500. Rudiments of Music and Elements of Harmony, either notation. Text-books — Dunstan's Teacher's Manual of Music. Stainer'a Rudiments of Harmony. J/islori/ — SOO. History of England, 19th Century, in detail, and History of Australia. ?'t'j;',-/Venc/i— 1,000. As for Class II. t Alternative Groups. i Group 1.-1,500. I Algebra — Including the Binomial Theorem. il Text-books — C. Smith's Tieatise on Algebra, or an equivalent. I Euclid — Books I to VI, witli Deductions. • Text-books — Mackay's Euclid, j Maclardy's Euclid, i Hall and Stevens' Euclid, or an equivalent. J Plane Trigonometry — ' TeM-book — Lock's Trigonometry. I Group 11.-1,500. Latin — Virgil, first two Books of .Eneid ; Livy, Books 21 and 22. Horace's Odes, Books I to IV, inclusive Questions on Grammar. Composition. Dr. Smith's Larger Latin Grammar. Ablxitt's Latin Prose through English Idiom. Arnold's Latin Prose Composition. (Bradley.) GroupIIL— 1,.500. French — Grammar, Translation, Composition. Ilavet's French Class Book, Wellington College French Gramn\ar ^Vellington College Krencli Exercises. For Translation — Book prescribed for University Senior E.xamination of current year, and Ilcrnani (Victor Hugo) Group IV. — 1,500. Any three of the following Sciences : — Physics — Text-hook — Dcschauel's Natural Pliilosophy, by Professor Everett. Part II and Part III. Chemistri/ — Inorganic. Text-hook — Thorpe's Inorganic Chemistry, Metah, and Non-MetaU. Vols. I and II. Geology — Text-books —Geikio's Geology, and Curran's Geology of Sydney and the Blue Mountains. Botany — Text-hook— Deaily and Luca's Introduction to the Study of Botany. Physiology — Text-book — Huxley's Elementary Lessons in Physiology (latest edition). • Teachers and pupil teachers arc not expected to commit to memorj' heights, len^'ths, countries, divisions, or statistics. t NoTK,— These Groups of subjects are styled Alternative, because Candidates are allowed to choose from them the Group in which they wish to be examined. Candidates are required to contiue themselves to one Croup. NoTR 1. — Grathiates of any reco'jrniced British or Colonial Univordity of nut more than ten ycarj' standing may be exempted from examination in the Alternative Groups for Class I or Class II. NOTK 2. — Any Teacher who can shew, to the satisfaction of the Minister, that he is unable to take Music or Drawing, may substitute or each or either of these any one of the Sciences specified in Group IV, CIaS^ II. KoTK 3. — Certificates issued to Teachers and Pupil-teachers by the Technical Education Branch in the undermentioned subjects will exempt holders from further examination in such subject according to the foUowin'.; provision : — Physios- -Course B and Course C. Chemistry— First year theory, and first year practice; or first and second year's theory. Geology — First year. Botany— First year. Physiology— The full course. N.B. — Teachers sitting for promotion to Class I must hold Science certificates of having passed First Grade in each year. Freehand Orawinu' (second year)--any grade — for Freehand a. Model Drawing (first year)— any grade- for Model n ; Perspective Drawing (first year)— any grade— Section I. Geometrical Drawing (first year)— any grade— for Geometrical Drawing a and 6. A successful pass leads to Grade I B., or if the results be very good, to I A. It does not follow that because a teacher holds a certificate for a particular grade, however, that his official employment will correspond therewith, a matter to which we shall again refer. 8. 279 8. Details of the Examination Method. — ^ew South Wales Scheme. — Assistant teachers, etc., are examined every year at the Inspectors' headquarters. Printed examination papers are sent from the head oifice of the Department of Public Instruction to the Inspector as the presiding officer at the examination. The written work of the examinees is transmitted to headquarters for valuation by the Board of Examiners ; the local inspector awarding marks for reading, blackboard drawing, and skill in teaching. Tbo Superintendent of Drawing at headquarters, issues written instructions or sketches shewing how any models used, are to be placed in the examination room for reproduction by the examinees. He also personally supervises that part of the examination in Sydney. The only practical science instruction which a teacher now receives, is while hois in training at the Training College. He attends the Technical College, Sydney, for lectures in Physics, once a week. These lectures cover such subjects as Sound, Light, Heat, Electricity, etc., in a very elementary way, and as will be seen from the time devoted to such subjects, the result must be also extremely elementary, and in fact does not profess to be anything else. One might say that such instruction would assist the teacher to give ordinary object-lessons, but can hardly lead to anything like systematic knowledge of the subjects. The teaching is not comparable to the course of Applied Physics given in the same institution ; nor is it comparable in any way to instruction in the same subject, as given in the secondary-school preparation for teachers in Europe and America, or in the training colleges of the United Kingdom. Female teachers receive absolutely no instruction in Practical Physics, and neither male nor female receive instruction in Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, or similar subjects. 9. Insiijficiency of text-hook instruction. — Excepting Mathematics, it will be seen that instruction in the science subjects, viz. such as Physics, Chemistry, Geology, Botany, Physiology, is obtained from text-books, so far as the Department of Public Instruction is concerned; that is, they are learnt in a literary kind of way. It is hardly necessary to say, that no person with a competent knowledge of any of these subjects would regard such a method of learning them as satisfactory, for apart from the fact that text-books are generally behind the existing state of knowledge, they have not the advantage of giving the subject living interest. Neither in such a method is there adequate practical demonstration. Text- books are aids and adjuncts to teaching ; and are used very often because it is impossible in the time allotted to lectures to cover a sufficiently wide range of the subject. It is everywhere admitted that the living teacher is incomparably superior, assuming of course that he knows his subject, to the text-book. In order to give science teaching heuristic value, that is, to make it part and parcel of the mental endow- ment of the student, so that it shall have reality and interest for him, all such instruction should include laboratory practice. Professor Armstrong, of Londoti, referring to heuristic methods of teaching says, " The value of mere knowledge is immensely overrated and its possession over-praised and over-rewarded," and he urges very strenuously the necessity of teacliing scientific subjects practically, and in such a way to make, as it were, the scientific student a discoverer of the truths which he is to learn. He, in common with all men who have given the subject any serious attention, recognises that science cannot be really learnt except heuristically. Eeferring to the defects in English education, he points out that reform is necessary " simply because ' Science ' is taught unscientifically — by literaru methods in fad — without regard to its essentially heuristic character." This matter is so important that we must refer to it at greater length. 10. Defect of Literary Method of Learning Science in N^ew South Wales. Teacher-training System. — At the International Conference on Education held in connection with the Health Exhibition at South Kensington, 1884, Professor Meiklejohn stated in a paper read by him that " the heuristic method is the only method that is applicable to the pure sciences," and Professor Armstrong previously referred to, says " that however long it may be before we may cry ^Eureka of an ideally perfect system, recent experience justifies the assertion that we shall hasten the advent of that desirable time if we seek to minimise didactic and encourage heuristic teaching " ; and he points out that tiie very considerable progress of late " is unquestionably due to the introduction of heuristic methods and exercises. " i He recognises very keenly that scientific conceptions which enter the mind heuristically, have a totally different effect thereupon to those that are accepted didactically. Knowledge that is, as it were, discovered by the student himself, gi»es to his mind a habit of scientific thoroughness which it will not otherwise acquire ; it has a reality that does not belong to mere literary knowledge of science. A teacher who has received his scientific instruction from a text-book or from a literar)' teacher of science, knowing nothing by direct discovery and experiment, can never have the enthusiasm of the real scientific student. Whatever doubt there may be, on the part of the persons whose education is wholly literary as to the proper way of learning science, there is no doubt whatever on the part of the only persons competent to judge, viz., the scientific men themselves. Apart from such learning of science being very defective, the text-book and literary method is a bad qualification for those who, by teaching, have to impress the rising generation with a recognition of what science means to the modern world ; to say nothing about the impossibility of their inspiring those among their pupils whom nature designed to be scientific investigators with a recognition of their special tendency, or with that enthusiasm which is an essential in all scientific education. Even if the knowledge therefore, of science were satisfactory, which it is not, the methods of the Department of Public Instruction do not tend to generate the right instinct, nor a wholesome view in regard to the scientific elements of the curriculum through which their teachers are passed. Again, disregarding altogether the absolute necessity of learning scientific subjects in other than a literary way, the picking up ot scientific information out of text-books cannot be compared in efficiency to properlv-organised study under a specialist in each scientific subject. This is one of the most critical diiferences between the attempt to learn something about science in the New South Wales system and the systems of Europe and America. 11. Contrast between New South Wales and European and American Systems of qualifying Teachers in Science. — Wholly ignoring the thoroughly methodical character of the majority of European text-books on science, which would give even the merely literary student the advantage in that country, the results produced by the European system must inevitably place the teacher on a higher intellectua plane ^ As a paidagogic method, the "heuristic " is subject to limita^Ofls ^y^^icIi are elaewheve (liscussed. 280 plane than is possible under the system of this State. Since the European teacher's preparation for teaching is either in a secondary school with a special section of psedagogy or in a pajdagogical seminarium, he is instructed in science subjects always by persons who have, in addition to a superior education {i.e., an education higher than secondary) acquired special knowledge therein. Each teacher, therefore, has practically a command of all the most recent knowledge in his own branch, and such an acquaintance with text-books that he is able to advise a student with regard to reading. Further, his specialism enables him to communicate more respect and enthusiasm for his subject ; and yet again both teacher and student have the advantage that they are unexhausted by the fatigue of the day's teaching. In the case of the pupil-teacher or assistant- teacher, even if the master be competent in any way to assist in regard to the learning of science, the opportunity comes only after the fatigue of a day's teaching. Again, however brilliant a head-master may be in some branch of science for which he has an affection, he cannot have a commanding knowledge of many subjects. The fact that the Training Colleges of the Department of Public Instruction are absolutely without chemical or physical laboratories or the apparatus necessary for geological, botanical, and physiological research and demonstration, is an evidence of how little it is realised that such material is essential for the learning of science. So far as the Commissioners are aware this defect is unique. It should, however, bo stated that the Department is endeavouring to utilise the advantages which the University of Sydney can offer — that is to say, as far as the students in the training-school are concerned. It should be mentioned that at the Hurlstone Training College no instruction is given in Physics, nor do the students attend elsewhere for instruction. Both at Fort-street and Hurlstone there are first-aid classes formed, and a little elementary physiology is given. 12. Serious Omissions in the Curricula of the Training Colleges. — Apart from neglect to give systematic scientific instruct ion to those who aspire to be teachers, it may be observed that such subjects as the General History of Education, the Contributions of Psychology to Paidagogy, Subject- Methodology ,i and School Hygiene are conspicuous by their absence, or are inadequately treated. In continental and American methods of training to teach, knowledge of these subjects is considered to be a pre-rcquisite. When students enter the training colleges they have been no less than four years teaching ; and yet in the fifth year of their professional career, the importance of these subjects is not systematically brought under their notice, and the only semblance of Methodology that they have had is what they have acquired from " Gladman's School Work " and " Laurie's Kindergarten Manual," or from " Landon's Work on School Methods." The study of Practical Domestic Hygiene commences when the teacher prepares himself for a third-class certificate, and the study of Education as a Science, and Elementary Psychology and Education, do not commence until preparation for the first-class certificate, when, probably, the teacher has been for ten or fifteen years engaged in his professional work. Assuming that a teacher has the slightest professional interest in his calling, and we may regard those who have not as unworthy of consideration, the history of education must inevitably be to him a source of inspiration. Xo one with any adequate conception of what education means to mankind, with the slightest clement of philanthropy, or with any feelings of patriotism, can fail to be strongly impressed by the magnificent self-sacrifice and unspeakably noble labours of the great figures of educational history. And there could be no more fitting impulse in the start of a professional career as teacher, than that which could come from a lecturer on such a subject, sufficiently educated and broad-minded enough to liimsclf feel a passionate admiration for the great jjcrsonalities whose toil and devotion have done so much for humanity. The omission therefore of systematic instruction in regard to the general history of education, is an omission of the most serious character; and however much individual teachers may iiavo made good the want of this, there cannot be the slightest doubt that the general outlook of the teaching-staff of the Public Instruction Department of this State has seriously suffered through this omission. The absence of any systematic attention to pedagogic-psychology is almost equally serious. However much the Herbartian theory of our mental faculties and their operations ma^ have been or may have to be modified, no educationist can afford to dispense with that broadening of the mental view which comes therefrom ; neither can a real teacher allow himself to be ignorant of such works for example as Langc's splendid monograph on the " Theory of Apperception " and its application to pjedagogy and similar treatises. Some acquaintance with general psychology, viz., with the theory of the whole range of our mental pha;nomena, and with their application to educational processes, is essential in intensifying the professional teacher's recognition of the nature of his task. With such knowledge, much of the tedium of the teaching work will disappear for every true teacher, and his professional life will afford interesting material for study. Uut; what is far more important than this is, that the real siqnificance of education romcs into startling relief. He realises, as he cannot otherwise, the complexity of the problem with which he is called upon to deal. He realises, moreover, that to inform the mind and to train the will are no light tasks. He learns, too, that the creation of habits of intellectual activity and the formation of noble ideals in a child are worthy of his highest efforts, and that unless he is successful in achieving these things ho has failed in his task, and not only will his pnpils suffer but through them the future of the people to whom they belong. No one can read the chapter on "Habit" in Professor James' "Psychology," for example, without perceiving the weightiness of psychology as a preparatory subject for all who propose to undertake teaching. This subject is wholly omitted from the departmental scheme of training teachers, and there cnn be no doubt that the outlook of continental teachers ujion their task is, inasmuch as they all receive instruction in such subjects, _/rom a correspondingly higher platform. It ought, moreover, to be said that the teaching of a student of psychology must always, other things being equal, be better directed than one ignorant of such a subject. The fact that often in Europe and in America, some of the ablest teachers elect to teach infant classes, is only to be explained by their realisation of what psj'chology has to say upon the value of a good beginning, and the establishment of sound mental habits in the earliest stages of education. Every ' Gladman'a and Landon's Treatises contain a certain amount of Subject-Methodology. \ 281 Every subject of teaching has its own logical and psBdagogical order, and while it is necessary to aim at establishing it finally in its logical order, it may initially be necessary to follow some other, viz., what may be called the psedagogical order of development, i.e., tliat order which most readily, efficiently, and firmly establishes it in the juvenile mind. Here again the New South Wales scheme is defective, for the young teacher embarks on his career without the slightest conception of such a fact. The evidence of absence of anything like adequate knowledge of school-hygiene is conspicuous in almost every school seen by the Commissioners in this State. Seating, lighting, and arrangement of rooms conflict with the practice of all other parts of the world where school hygiene has been thoroughly studied. In other countries the matter has received such a degree of attention, and the advance that has been made is so considerable, that had systematic regard been paid thereto in this State, the public school buildings recently erected would have been quite differently arranged, the variation involving no material addition in the way of expense. There is throughout our public schools a serious disregard of what would, for a long time past, have been considered essential in Switzerland. For example, ihe position of children at their school-desks is distinctly unhygienic, the orientation and lighting arrange- ments are bad, and the absence of single rooms for each class ia wholly unsatisfactory. The use of glass and wooden partitions between the classes is an unsatisfactory makeshift, and would not be tolerated elsewhere. The full significance of the hygienic defects will be better understood by reference to the chapters on " Hygiene." It will suffice to mention that the Commissioners made a special visit to some of the most rdcontly-built schools in this State, in order to see whether their arrangements more closely corresponded with modern school hygiene. The result, as above indicated, was disappointing. This fact may be taken as illustrating the necessity of teachers receiving systematic instruction in such a subject, not in a literary way by someone whose knowledge of the subject is secondary, and drawn probably from obsolete text-books, but from a special teacher whose business it is to keep himself informed in regard to the world's most recent contributions to the knowledge of his subject. Had such an instructor been in existence under the Department of Public Instruction, the conditions under which our school-children are engaged in their daily tasks would be very much more favourable. These matters are unimportant only to those who have failed to give the matter thorough attention. What has been said in regard to the teaching of hygiene applies to the teaching of all other subjects. Each teacher, in his own subject, should keep himself informed in regard to all recent additions thereto, and his linguistic attainments ought to be at least equal to the task of so doing. Such an instructor is really a professor in his subject, and is able to keep his students moving onward with the world's progress. It may be added further, that a specialist in a subject has all the advantage which a knowledge of its historical development can give, thus he perceives the organic relation of recent contributions thereto in a much mere significant way than a mere sciolist. It ought to bo pointed out that any responsibilities in regard to these matters do not rest upon the teaching-staff of the Department, who, doubtless, are in many cases most able and zealous workers ; the fault lies in the system. 13. Professional Traditions of New South Wales System. — Under such a system as that which obtains in our State, there will at all times be a large number of pupil-teachers, that is, of uneducated and immature persons, who neverthless are charged with responsible teaching. The fact that one of the most important departments of the State sanctions their employment, without any previous adequate preparation, and while as yet they have had the advantage of only the most elementary kind of education, most seriously tends to degrade at the outset their esteem of their profession. Through them, the system lends also to lower the general tradition in regard to what are reasonable educational requirements for a teacher. Public opinion, in a teaching-stafE so constituted, cannot be on a high plane ; and the higher type of teacher whose zeal and intelligence, and whose high ideals, compel him to realise the necessity for forward movement, will always have a dead load to work against, for he will not have the support of earnest and splendid traditions, but, on the contrary, will have to encounter a sort of general feeling that the profession does not call for any special qualifications. If it it he true that pzipil-teachers are capable of doing their work properly, then it is also true that high qualifications are unnecessary. On that point the whole weight of professional tradition in Europe and America, and recent developments in the United Kingdom, are decidedly antagonistic. For this reason it will be necessary to outline hereinafter the scheme of training teachers in Europe, and the system of training in the United Kingdom and America. The question of the emoluments of teachers, and the reaction of their rate of pay upon their status, and the consequence of that status upon the community, will be considered elsewhere. 14. Fundamental issue between the Pupil-teacher System and Previous-training System. — It is often urged by advocates of the pupil-teacher system, that all persons engaging in any avocation should have proper preparation, which is, of course, incontestable. And it is alleged that pupil-teachers, in relation to teaching as an art, are similar to apprentices learning a trade. Apart from any question as to the complete failure of this view to distinguish between the importance]of the moral and intellectual education of a human being, and the mere fashioning of a piece of material, it ought to be pointed out that even in industrial apprenticeships, when the material operated on is of great value, considerable preparatory practice is required on valueless or less valuable material ; and, where this is impossible, very thorough preparation is always deemed necessary. The previous- training system regards the child as too sacred for crude experiments. In reviewing the methods of training in other countries, such a defence for the pupil-teacher system should be borne in mind. The allegation that the pupil-teacher system responds to the demand that there must be an apprenticeship to teaching, carries a kind of implication that in some other supposed system there is no apprenticeship or practical training. This view is, of course, wholly in error. No system proposes to absolutely dispense ivith training except the pupil-teacher system itself, since in that system untrained teachers teach, that is to say, when 2^upil-teachers commence teaching they have had 710 preparation. In the previous-training system, a child mind is regarded as of too much value to be more or less sacrificed to the crude experiments of a pupil-teacher. Those who propose to teach are asked at least to thoroughly prepare themselves beforehand for their work. When 282 When the pupil-teacher commences teaching he is immature and uneducated. When the previous- trained teacher commences teaching, he is at least better educated, more mature, and has been seriously- prepared for his work, and that not by men who have had no other experience than that of primary education, but by such as have been prepared for their work by specially-educated men in touch with all higher education. A consensus of opinion of primary teachers, if their experience be restricted to the pupil-teacher system, is subject to the limitation that they are hardly in a position to judge of the effects of that system, and are certainly not in so favourable a position as teachers of superior education (secondary and higher), to judge of the efEciency of the preparatory work, since it does not come so directly under the observation of the primary teachers. • In secondary schools and universities, the state of preparation is at once under observation, and it is easy to recognise whether the quality of the primary instruction has been good or otherwise. It is obvious that the tests of any system in vogue are of the following nature, viz., what has it done for — (a) The moral status of our people? (b) Their practical power and skill ? (c) The development of conspicuous intellect ? Whether the pupil-teacher system is likely to justify itself in respect of (a) may bo easily answered : similarly in regard to (6). In regard to (c), can anyone engaged in higher teaching say that he finds his students have been properly prepared, or that their elementary knowledge is thorough, and their habits of thought generally satisfactory ? The number of examination-passes which the State-school, or any other school, secures, is, as regards this question, not to the point, as higher education has to take the pupils as it finds them. In discussing the systems of training in other countries, it ought to be taken into consideration that, as a matter of fact, the intellectual plane reached is higher than with us. And the question that ought to be asked is, " Has the fact of employing only educated men as teachers, and not half-educated children, really anything to do with this result ? " lieyond this it may also bo asked, " Will education by better educated and more mature teachers lead to increased power and intelligence in the industrial and commercial activity of the people ? " Purther, •' la the pupil-teacher system not the analogue of the old apprenticeship system, where boys picked up slowly and unsystematically their handicraft, a system which the good sense of mankind has replaced by systematic education in technical schools ? " In regard to the moral and practical elements, reference may be made to the chapters on " Ethical and Eeligious Instruction," and " Education of the Will," and these read in connection with what we know of the real truth as regards our own community. CHAPTER XXIX. 283 CHAPTER XXIX. The State Training Schools of New South Wales. [J. W. TURNER.] 1. Classification. — The teaclicra engaged in tlie State schools of New South "Wales may be divided into three classes : I, trained ; II, partially trained ; 111, untrained. 1. Trained Teachers. — The trained teachers of the State, almost without exception, are from the ranks of the pupil-teachers. 2. Pupil-teachers^ Examinations. — Admiseion as pupil-teachers takes place as a result of competitive examinations. Candidates must not be less than 11 years of age nor more than 18 years. The subjects of examination are reading, writing, dictation, arithmetic, grammar, geography, drawing, vocal music, skill in teaching. The skill in teaching is judged by the ability of the candidate to teach a junior class in the presence of an Inspector. This practical test is made after the results of the written examination have been determined. A candidate having satisfied the examiner in the written work, and the Inspector in the practical test, has yet to pass the medical officer. The three tests having been satisfactorily passed, and the certificates of moral character confirmed, the candidate is eligible for employment. The competitive examinations for applicant pupil-teachers attract large numbers of desirable young girls ; but the lads who wish to enter the Government Service see a more liberal remuneration, and far better prospects of success in life, in other branches of the Public Service. Many of the best lads of the State, for these reasons, do not find their way into the teaching profession. As vacancies occur, candidates are appointed according to position gained at the examination. The first three months is a period of probation in a school, at the expiration of which, if the head teacher reports favourably on the candidate's work and the Inspector concurs, the appointment is confirmed, and the probationary period is included as service. The youthful teacher then starts on his or her career, and is placed in charge of a class, but generally with the head teacher, mistress, or an assistant near to give a helping hand. 3. Remuneration. — The remuneration of a pupil-teacher consists partly of instruction to be given by the teacher, for at least one hour on every school day, and partly in a yearly salary. Pupil teachers' salaries are paid at the following rates : — rirst class ... Se ond class Third class ... Fourth class Eegarding the daily int^truction to pupil-teachers, it In laid down in the " Instructions to Principal Teachers and Mistresses of Departments" that "they will devote at least one hour daily to the instruc- tion of pupil-teachers, and will see that all the prescribed subjects are duly studied by them. Suitable programmes are to be prepared, and a register is to be kept («) thowing the time of commencing the daily lesson, and the time at which it was concluded, (A) the exercise or home-lesson appointed for the day. It must be clearly understood that mistresses of departments are to perform a fair share of the work of instructing pupil-teachers." 4. Apportionment of Pupil-teachers. — The subjoined instruction, No. 28 on the list, shows the apportionment of pupil-teachers in the schools in which they are employed. In actual practice the number of assistants or temporary assistants is increased, and the pupil- teachers correspondingly decreased. In a mixed school, or in a separate Boys' or Girls' Department, having an average attendance of — 50 pupils, the Ktaff may consist of teacher and pupil-teacher. 70 „ „ „ teacher and assistant. RO to 110 „ „ „ teacher and 2 pupil -teachers. 110 to 140 „ „ „ _ teacher, assistant, and pupil-teacher. 140 to 180 „ „ „ ' teacher, assistant, and 2 pupil-teachers. 180 to 220 „ „ „ teacher, assistant, and 3 „ 220 to 270 „ „ „ teacher, 2 assistants, and 2 pupil-teachers. 270 to 310 „ „ „ teacher, 2 „ „ 3 „ 310 to 350 „ ,. „ teacher, 2 „ „ 4 „ 350 to 400 „ „ „ teacher, 3 „ „ 4 „ 400 to 4.50 „ „ „ teacher, 3 „ ' „ 5 „ 450 to 500 „ „ „ teacher, 3 „ „ C ., In every separate Infants' Department having an average attendance of — 100 to 120 pupils, the staff may consist of teacher and 2 pupil-teachers. 120 to IGO „ ,, „ teacher, assistant, and pupil-teacher. IGO to 200 „ „ „ teacher, assistant, and 2 pupil-teachers. 200 to 240 „ „ „ teacher, as.-istant, and 3 24() to 3f'0 „ „ ,, teacher, 2 assistants, and 3 pupil-teachers. 300 to 310 „ „ „ teacher, 2 „ „ 4 Male. Female. £08 £4(1 £57 £34 £40 £30 £40 £24 340 to 380 „ „ „ teacher, 2 380 to 440 „ „ „ teacher, 3 440 to 480 „ „ „ teacher, 3 „ „ „ 480 to 550 „ „ „ teacher 3 „ „ 7 „ 5. 15—2 281 5. Examinationg for admission io Training School. — In December of each year a general examina- tion of pupil-teachers, in written subjects, is held ; and if examinees are successful in gaining a pass at this examination, and the Inspector's reports on their skill and conduct, based upon his own observations at the annual school examination and on reports furiyshed by the principal teachers and mistresses, are Batisfactorv, they are promoted to the next class and get the increased emolument. At, the expiration of their fourth year of service, if they have successfully passed all the yearly examinations, pupil-teachers take their final examination, in which they compete for scholarships admitting to the Training Schools — • either Fort-street for males, or Hurlstone for females. Thirty full scholarships, each worth £72 per annum, and twenty half-scholarships, each worth £30 per annum, are awarded at this examination. In the case of the Hurlstone students, who are residential, board and lodging are provided in lieu of the money values of'the^gfholarships. Prior to admission into the Training School, the successful pupil-teacher is required to make a declaration that " he intends, in good faith, to follow the profession of a teacher in schools under the Minister, ahd that he will accept a situation in any district to which he may be appointed. He must algo procure a guarantee from two responsible persons that the whole expense of his training defrayed by the Stftte will berefunded, if, from any cause whatever, he shall not enter- the service of the Minister, or shall leave it in less than three years from the date of his first appointment." (Eegulation 83.) ' J 16. Cour/es of Studj/. — The course of training in both Tort-street and Hurlstone Training School^ lasts one year, and embraces academic and professional instruction. The Eegulation bearing on practical, tiraining and the courses of study for both Training Schools are as foUo.w : — UWi. PRACTICAL TRAINING > 86'. The students shall be trained in the practical management of schools by attendance at the Practising Schools or alt such t)ther schools as the Minister may direct. ■■' COURSES OF STUDY AND STAFF, rORT-SXRKET TRAINING, SCPOOL. * ■ Ulrnt Tear Arts Course. Latin : Cicero in Catilinam. Virgil, /Eneid, Books XI, X [I Composition. French ; Dauiiet — Tartarin de Tarascon. Bornier — Fille de Roland. Reynard — Le Joueur. Composition. English : Lectures on Language, Composition, Style. Siiakespeare — Twelfth Night. Chaucer — Sweet's Stleitions Algebra : Elementary course, including three Progressions. EuclTd': Books I.-VI. Trigonometry: Elementary course, including properties of triangles without logarithms. ' ' ■i^'f Chemistry ; Non-metals (subject not taught in Training Schools). Physics : Elementary course (subject taken at Technical College). i Physiography : Brief course, with special reference to Australian Physical Geography (subject not taught in Training Schools), : t«ir Art of Te.vcuino. — Fokt-strekt Teainikg School. Course of Lectures upon Education. 1. A course of lectures upon the History of Education, comprising : — Greek Education ; the Theories of Plato and Aristotle; • RoBijtn , Education ; Early Christian Education. The Development of Schools to the Reformation; Effect of the; RefpFmation ; Jesuit Schools ; Comenius ; Pestalozzi ; Froebsl ; Herbart and Herbartianism. .■ : j 2. A course of lectures iu Method in Education, comprising : — Development of Cliild's Powers ; Characteristics and, Advantages of (Jood Methods ; Typical Methods of Procedure in actual Use ; Different kinds of Lessons ; Method of preparation of notes— Subject matter and delivery ; Different forms of Questions^ and their advantages ; Mca'n^ of Discipline ; Organisation. "V l*i'.r:i^»4i< .-, •>.• Drawing. — Fort-street Training Scjiocl. A Course of Twenty Lessons on Brushwork. Direct from Nature. Design based upon same. 1. The manipulation of the brush only. 2. Bamboo foliage 3. Moreton Bay fig 4. Rose — leaf .* 5. Pepper foliage 6. Myrtle foliage 7. Choisya foliage 8. Marguerite and leaf 9 to 20. All the foUowingllessons will have to be based upon blossoms in season, but the designs from them will be as stated in next column : — Repeating border for dado To (ill a square, for a tile To fill a circle. Upright border. Border — without suggestions. Square — another tile. For an all-over, repeat on xV To fill an oblong. net. 10. Circle. 11. All-over for wall hangings ; on ^^ net. ' . ' 12. All-over for table cover on I net. 13. Stencil for border. 14. Stencil for surface (all-over) and a drop repeat. 15. Painted panel. 16. Stencil. Book cover. 17. Stencil — frieze. 18. Inkid wood panel. 19. Christmas card. 20. Book plate. ?^P SyijjAnns of the Departmext of Manual Training (Fort-sireet Students of the Traininci College. SyllabuF, — One year Course. Etenrentary Solid Geometry and Medhanical or Construction Drawing. (Vide Solid Geometry First Year.) Principles and practice of isometric projection. Tlniher. — Names and peculiarities of the difTerent kinds of timber principally grown in New South M'ales ; growth, composition, age, when to fell, season to fell, natural and artificial means of seasoning, cutting up for economy and beauty, decay of timber and common modes of preservation, measuring and selection. Tods. — The names, shape, and construction of the principal hand-tools for working in wood ; how to grind, sharpen, and keep them in order. .o^ e,':.!(r.L'.-'. Ci.-it '■» ■ " ~ ' '■ '• ■■■- ' " ■•' ■ ■ '*•■ '' '•-'•■ :^'h. .'i"..*'., Staff of Tokt-street Training School. .: . . nv ' Principal — Art of Teaching, Class Management. Lecturer — Languages and Mathematics. (Also at Hurlstone.) ,, English. (On staff of Model School.) Master Practising School. Lecturer — Manual Training. ■■■■ 'r . ' Visiting Lecturer — Drawing. ,.,•■■ -t -.V.' *•■■ ■ i ,) i> ' Music. (Also at Hurlstone.) ' : ,, „ ■: Drill. (Officer from Cadet Office). ,ii , . ,, ,, Physiology. (Also at Hurlstone). COURSE OF STUDY AND STAFF.— HURLSTONE TRAINING SCHOOL. Standard o:f Matriculation Examination. — P.iss Work. 1. Latin. — Translation into English of passages from set authors and of Latin passages at sight, and translation of simple English sentences into Latin. Candiciates are expected to show an accurate knowledge of Latin Accidence. Subject set for March, 1903. Livy, Book XXII. 2. Arithmetic. .3. Algebra. — To quadratic equations involving an .unknown qxiantity. 4. Geometry. — Euclid. Rooks I, 11, and III. 5. French. — An examination similar to that in Latin. Subject set for March, 190.3. H. Grdville, Perdue, In addition to the above, the course includes : — • ,, i.r , (5. English. — Tempest (Shakespeare). 1 1 . Art of Teaching. — Principles of Class Management. ^■■^. 7. History. — Growth of the Empire (Jose). 12. Drawing. 8. Kindergarten Lectures — one hour a Week. 13. Drill. ■ ■•iii'':i!*'l'> 9. Physiology. 14. Cookery. — The primary school coutae. f.k;*(ifl'j. 10, Music. 15. Needlework. »'' .'"'■■ >':■' ;■ ■ ■.v>.>,i:,,v^;.\. ■'■;'■■■ ■ . ■ ■.•■•-,v.,.i; .■■> Kindergarten. ■' " ' '/ • Course of Kindergarten work done by the Students at Hurlstone Training School, and instruction giveo them in Froebel's system. . . ..-.,- '-*„,!» 3. A short account of the life and work of Friedrich August Froebel. . /iio: \ V /jriiijij Vj.--.»i s.'i^ 2. The following gifts and occupations are studie:-:A( .' '.,u^ ! ?.'.>*S.-. ..*•!»; ■%v:'U: <■ »ya;i ■bif^: .' ■.!:/.'<. ■i-'y ' ,.nw(^>- ■\i. .M . b.-j« . ■4S ;■.!..■..- ■• *"^*} - ?i»«. !ij>..y. v.V £•««.■;.:. • o\iJii;.i iw^if) •• h :-Wi> .■ •■ .■! v.fir^'u >;:1??'-»^fl 286 Music. i Synopiii of Miisical Course, — Training Schools, Fort-street and HiirUtone. .Introductory Lessons. Sonnd, How produced. Pitch, How measured. Notation of Pitch — both in Tonic Sol-Fa and Stiff Notation. Notation ' - .Sydney < ?, -iSiWellihgton Armidale Braidwood East Maitland Hay . Newcastle Tamworth Woll9ngp»g„ .., Bathurst Broken Hill Forbes Kempsey Parramatta Taree Yass Bega Crook well Glen Innes Liamore Quirindi ' Wagga .^ Blackheath Dubbo Goulburn .[Urgent.] ,^ _ ', ' ' ■" ^ '-"', .^'-v^ Memorandum to ,. , Proposed Examix.\tion of Small School Candidates. It is requested that you will be good enough to arrange to hold an examination of .candidates for small schools on . The names of the candidates will be forwarded to yon in due course. Please inform me in what building you will conduct the examination, in order that the candidates may be summoned to attend thereat. ,,, A supply of application forms js forv.grdcd herewith. Department of Public Instruction, ' ' " F. BRIDGES, Sydney. '" Chief Inspector. '« ■ Form to be filled up by Applicants fou Employment in ScnooL.s under tue Department of Public Instruction. Name in full. If Maified. Date and Year of Birth. Country where Bom. Period of Residence in New South Wales. ]f trained, and where. s Where employed, and during what length of time, as teacher. ^'" ' ■■ (Signature) •(Date) h (Address to which . ,j Letters may be sent) (Post Town) Xote. — Applicants are requested not to leave any blank spaces I. State the particulars of your early education. (You should state what Public Schools you have attended, and ,for what period.) ' 2. How has your time been occupied since you left school ? "•'' H. If ever in a Court of Law, state under what circumstances. '.■-, ia^- it'. 4. Have you ever been trained as a teacher ? If so, state the particulars. i„, .5. If you have ever been engaged in teaching, state explicitly whore and how long. . , 6. If you have discontinued teaching, state your reasons for doing so. ' ' e. «. The candidates' papers should be posted to me immediately after the close of the e?;amio^tion. . / !.- F. BRIDGES, ...,,,, Chief Inspector.'; Names of Candidates. • ■ . I Department of- Public Instruction, Sydney, jiepartment 289 Department of Public Instruction. Inspector's Rkport upon Applicant for the Office of Teacher of a Small School, Examined at t 1. Apparent Age. 2. Constitution. Manners and Address. Appearance. : 3. IJodily Infirmities. 4. Eyesight and Hearing. 5. Apparent Character. G. Ability to Read. 7. Inspector's general opinion of Applicant. Inspector's Office. • ' ' ' Inspector. KoircK TO Applicant. Department of Public Instruction, Sydney. MEMORANOtJM tb Mr. With reference to your application, amongst others, for appointment as Teacher of a small country school, I am directed to acquaint you that an examination of candidates will be held on . You are requested to attend at the Public School at on tliat date, at 9 o'clock, a.m. A copy of instructions to candidates attending examination is forwarded herewith for your information. F. BRIDGES, — ' Chief Inspector. Department of Public Instruction, ■>!..»■ ■> ■ ■ . . Directions to Examinees. , • 1. No books, manuscript, writing paper, or blotting paper, are allowed to be brought into the Examination Room. No communication whatever between candidates can be allowed during the Examination. Should any Examinee desire to refer tothe Officer-in-eharge, he must stand up 'and dcso audibly, in order to prevent misconception. Any Candidate wilfully violating any of these rules will be expelled from the f'xamination Room. 2. A margin of two inches must be left on the binding edge of each sheet of paper. The writing should be full, clear, and legible, and should not approach within one inch of the foot and top of page. 3. Every Examinee should put his name at the top right-hand corner of every sheet of paper, the date and place of examination, and the class of paper taken. 4. In the answers to the mathematical questions, the work must bo sent up. No marks will be given for answers only. 5. When the papers on any subject are called for, the pages must be numbered, the sheets fastened together on the top left-U»n(i corner, and at once handed to the Offioer-in-charge. . New South Wales. — Department of Public Instruction. EXAUINATIOX OF CANDIDATES FOR SMALL SCHOOLS. Grammar. Tuesday, 7th April, 1903. 9-.'0 a.m. to 11 a.m. 1. Analyse the following sentence, and parse the words in italics : — And, as he s/epi, he dreamed that the God rohose image' Overshadowed him, spoke to him, and promised Aim the Kingdom and a long and prosperous reign, but hade him in return to clear away the ifand in which the great image was half-buried. 2. State what you know about the Pronoun. 3. Write a short essay on Discipline. New South Wales. — Department of Public Instruction. Examination of Caxdidate.s fob Small Schools. Geography. Tuesday, 7th April, 1903. 11 a.m. to 12 30 p.m. 1. Name the countries through which the Equator passes. 2. State briefly what you know about— Algeria, Bulgaria, Ceylon, Dundee, Echuea, Fremantle, Gulgoag, Hyderabad, Ischia, Jamaica, Krakatoa, Munich. 3. Draw an outline map of New South Wales, showing the chief headlands and indentations. . ' New South Wales.— Department of Public Instruction. .; '^' Examination of Candidates for Small Schools. Dictation. Tuesday, 7th April, 1903. 1230 p.m. to 1 p.m. But the age of chivalry is gone. That of sophisters, economists, and calculators has succeeded, and the glory of Knrope is extinguished for ever. Never, never more shall we behold that generous loyalty to rank and sex, that proud submission, that dignified obedience, that subordination of the heart, whicli kept alive, even in servitude itself, the spirit of an exalted freedom. The unbought grace of life, the cheap defence of nations, the nurse of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise, is gone. It is gone, that sensibility of principle, that chastity of honour, which felt a stain like a wound, which inspired courage whilst it mitigated ferocity, which ennobled whatever it touched, and under which vice itself lost half its evil by losing all its grossness. New South Wales. —Department of Public Instruction, Examinations of Candidates for Small Souools. Arithmetic. Tuesday, 7tli April, 1903. 2 p.m. to 330 p.m. • 1. Reduce "C of £1 + "ti of 5s. 3d. + '375 of a crown to the decimal of 16s. 2. In what time will interest on £812 10s. lOd. amount to £771 ISs. SJd. at 4Jd. per cent. ■* ... 3. Standard gold coin is made of gold 22 carats fine, and 1 lb. Troy of this metal yields 46 fj Bovercigns : W hat weight of pure gold is there in 100 sovereigns? 4. Find the side of a square whoso area is 12 acres. . • ' V 5. A person buys teas at 3s. and 4s. the lb., and mixes them in the proportion of 4 ; 7 ;- -what will he gain per cent, by selling the mixture at 3s. 9d. per lb ? • • '■• NOTinOATIOS 290 KOTIFICATION OP BESULT OP EXAMINATIOX, Sir, Department of Public Instruction, Sydney, 190 . With reference to yonr application for appointment as Teacher of a small country school, I am directed to inform you that the result of the literary examination which you underwent on the is considered satisfactory. 2. Before you can be adjudged fully eligible for employment, however, it is necessary that you should attend the Public School at for a period of weeks from in order to receive instructions in making out Return ', &c , keeping the School Records, compiling the Lesson Registers, and injthe practical work of teaching. 3. At the end of your attendance, if the report upon you bs satisfactory, you will receive an allowaucc at the rate of £1 per week. I have the honor to be. Sir, Your most obedient Servant, Mr. Under Secretary. Notice to Applicaxt Reoabdixo Medical Ckktificate. Department of Public Instruction, Sydney, 190 . I am directed to request that you will call upon a legaly qualified medical practitioner with a view to obtain the medical certificate necessary to render you eligible fur employment as a Teacher. The doctor's fees must be paid by you, hut he should forward his certificate direct to this Office, in the form appended. 2. The accompanying statement should be filled up, signed, and handed by you to the doctor before being examined by him. 3. Before being finally accepted, it is necessary that you should furnish a registration copy of your Certificate of Birth or other unquestionable documentary evidence as to your exact age, and that you should fill in and sign the accompanying declaration, and return it to this Office. I have the honor to be. Your most obedient Servant, Under Secretary. Statement to be made by Candidates for the Office of Teacher, presenting themselves for Medical Examination. Name. Date and year of your birth What h.is been the state of your health since childhood ? > What was the nature of your last illuess ? Have you ever had, or are you subject to, spitting of blood, asthma, rheumatism, or St. Vitus' dance? Do you know of any hereditary disease to which you are liable, such as consumption or insanity ? Are your parents alive ? If dead, what was the cause of death ? Are you aware of any circumstances regarding your state of health which might interfere with the proper performance o your duties as a Teacher ? Arc the auswers above given, to t'le beat of your knowledge, perfectly correct ? (Signature of Candidate) (Address in full) (Date) (To be filled in and handed to the Medical Officer by the Candidate. Teachers. — Certificate of Physicai ALilUy. MEMOaASDUiM for information of Medical Gentlemen signing certificates: — Scrofula, fits, asthma, deafness, squinting, great imperfection of the sight or voice, any marked disfigurement or deformity of face, the loss of an eye from constitutional disease, the loss of an arm or leg, the permanent disability of either arm or leg, curvature of the spine, hereditary tendency to insanity, and any constitutional infirmity of a disiblimj nature, will be regarded as positive disqualifications for the office of Teacher. Place Date * Having duly examined a candidate for employment as a Teacher in the service of the Department of Public Instruction, I hereby certify that is not subject to any disease or infirmity likely to interfere with the effective performance of the duties pertaining to the office of Teacher. Note.— The Doctor signing this Certificate should forward i)t direct to the Under Secretary, Department of Public Instruction, Sydney. Applicant's Declahatiox. f (Place) ¥ (Date) I' . ■ an applicant for employment as Teacher of a Small School, do hereby declare that I am willintr to accept s sitaation in any locality the Minister of Public Instruction may deem fit. I further declare that I am aware that I shall not be eligible for permanent employment in a School in or near Sydney until I have served for at least three years in a Country School ; and that I cordially concur in this requirement. (Signature of Applicant) Notice 291 Notice to Teachee. Department of Public Instruction, Sydney, 190 . Memorandum to tlic Teacher, Public School, Male Candidates for Small ConNXRY Schools. Mr. having been declared eligible for employment as Teacher of a small Country School, has been instructed to attend the school under your charge for a period of weeks from It is requested that you will give him good sound instruction in the making out of Quarterly, Half-yearly, and Annual Returns, in the keeping of School Records, and the compilation of Lesson Documents, and in the practical work of Teaching. At the end of Mr. attendance, you are desired to furnish to me a report in the form herewith supplied. Chief Inspector. Department of Public Instruction. Report of the Teacher of the Public School at upon Mr. , Applicant for employment as Teacher of a small Scliool. ;. Apparent Age 2. Personal Appearance and Address 3. Constitution. 4. Bodily Infirmities 5. Conduct 0. Attention to Instruction 7. Progress while attending the School under your charge 8. Teacher's general opinion of Applicant I. — As to Information II. — As to Intelligence III. — As to Aptitude for Teaching 9. Period of attendance. From to I certify that I have instructed Mr. in accordance with directions, and that he is fully competent to teach and discipline a class, to compile the necessary Lesson Documents, and to keep the prescribed School Records. (Teacher's Signature) Teacher's Classification by Examination. Date Note— (a) The Applicant should give a Certificate on the back hereof to the effect that he has been made fully acquainted with the documents specified, (b) You should be very particular in replying to 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. I hereby certify that I have been fully instructed as to the keeping of the various records, and in making out the Returns named : — Time Table, Programmes of Lessons, Class Roll, Daily Report Book, Admission Register, Lesson Register, Fee Return, Quarterly Return, Half-yearly Return, Annual Return, Salary Abstracts. (Applicant's Signature) Date Notice to ArrLicANT. Department of Public Instruction, Sydney, Sir, With reference to your application for appointment as Teacher of a small Country School, I am directed to acquaint you that the result of the examination which you .underwent on the is not considered sutficientiy satisfactory to warrant your employment. Your testimonials are returned herewith. I have the honor to be, Sir, Your most obedient Servant, J. C. MAYNARD, Under Secretary, Mr. CIIAPTEE XXX. 15— 2 P 292 CHAPTER XXX. Pupil-Teacher Systems: United Kingdom. [J. W. TURNER.] Introductory.- — The pupil-teacher system as a training scheme for primary school teachers prevails in England, Ireland, and Scotland. Side by side with this system Ireland and Scotland have also a monitorial system. In the United States of America, and in Canada, admission into a training college for positions in elementary schools does not take place earlier than the completion of the high-school course, viz., about 18 years of age. English opinions concerning the pupil-teacher system. — The following English views of the pupil- teacher system seem to the Commissioners worth recording: — At the 34th Annual Conference of the National Union of Teachers (an association of about 50,000 members), held during the Easter vacation, 1903, the President, Mr. Henry Coward, of Bristol, in an address, characterised as being an excellent one, both in matter and manner, and quite up to the standard set by able men who had preceded him in that important position, commented on the question of training teachers as follows : — " The supply and training of teachers is a difficult and complex question. The work of teaching is important enough to demand that the best intellects should be devoted to it ; and how to select these, how to train them, and how to provide such a career for them as will compensate them for giving up their chances of success in other professions, in commercial or manufacturing pursuits, is a problem which both the State and the locality will do well to seriously set themselves to solve. " While many educationists see grave difficulties and disadvantages in the pupil- teacher system, they have failed to find any adequate substitute for it ; in fact, it has to continue — amended, under new condi- tions, with different conceptions of its aim and scope, perhaps, — but continue it must, in order to supply the large army of trained teachers necessary for our schools." On training colleges the following observations were made : — " What is being done in our training colleges ? For several years the Board of Education has directly encouraged students to read for University degrees instead of taking the ordinary certificate examination ; and, owing largely to the better preparation of our pupil-teachers, a large and increasing number of students each year have been able to take advantage of the teaching for a degree which many of the colleges have laid themselves out to provide. In fact, it was becoming something more than a dream that the training colleges would get closer and closer into touch with the Universities, and that at no distant date a University degree would be part of the ordinary oufit of a student when he left college." The following impressions, written after an interview with Dr. Eorsyth, head-master of the Central Higher Grade School, Leeds, will indicate the Commissioners' opinion as to his views : — The Central Higher Grade School, Leeds, under Dr. Eorsyth, ranks among the foremost of the Secondary State Schools of England. It has an enrolment of about 2,000 pupils, whose ages range between 8 and 18 years, 700 being over 14 years of age. Co-education exists in certain classes, for some reason not altgether clear, in the extreme lowest and highest grades. The head-master believes in co- education, and if left to himself would have boys and girls taught together in every class. Specialisation, more in classes than in individuals, takes place after pupils have completed the ordinary primary course. The higher work of the school is on a sound basis, and the entire equipment is excellent. Science, modern languages, drawing, commercial subjects, and preparing for the teaching profession, are the chief lines for special work, while English and mathematics are strong subjects in every class throughout the course. Dr. Eorsyth did not give the impression that he approved of the pupil-teacher system. The fact that boys and girls remain at the school to the ago of 17 and IS years, and that some of them undergo a course of instruction to fit them for admission into a training college, without taking up a pupil-teacher course, points to an opposite conclusion. A recently published work of considerable interest, viz., " The Making of Citizens," comments upon the question of pupil-teachers in the following terms : — " There can be no doubt that these figures mean (a tabulated statement showing an increase of adult teachers m the primary schools of England and a decrease of pupil-teachers) that the pupil-teacher system is slowly dieappearing from the English schools, and that at present the deficiency of pupil-teachers is being filled by the appointment of adults, it is true, but absolutely unqualified adults. This is a very serious state of afTairs, and is recognised as being so by every authority who has considered the subject. It is the employment of these unquaiified people under Article 68 that is the despair of all true educators in England to-day. Too often, indeed, is the school made the dumping-ground of aspiring incompetence. That the pupil- teacher is disappearing is not to be regretted. The system is not even economical, much lefis efficient. School Boards are discovering that it is cheaper to staff their schools with qualified assi^itant- teachers than with pupil-teachers; other schools with less funds have to content themselves with unqualified adult teachers. The number of teachers entering the school with no experience has recently been increased by the Central Authority qualifying young people possessing University or other examination certificates as assistant-teachers." The 293 The Eev. E. P. M. MacCartliy, M.A., cliairman of the Birmingham School Board, in his address on "Thirty years of educational work in Birmingham," delivered 26th October, 1900, made the following pertinent remarks relative to the pupil-teacher system : — No part of the Board's work has been more difficult and anxious than the task imposed upon it of providing recruits for its teaching staff by means of pupil-teachers. The first Board found the pupil-teacher system firmly established in the sphere cf elementary education, and though individual members had strong feelings about the serious defects of the system, and directed the severest criticism against it, the Board has not been able to do more than ameliorate the conditions under which pupil-teachers do their work, and to reduce very considerably the extent to which they were employed generally in elementary schools when the Board first had schools of its own. In those days (1873) the Education Code permitted pupil-teachers to be as young as 13 years of age, and they might be engaged in schools for as much as six hours a day or thirty hours a week. The number of pupil-teachers allowed in a school was then four for every certificated teacher serving in it. The instruction of a pupil-teacher was given, as a rule, out of the above school-hours by the head teacher of the school. The Education Code of 1900 is many steps in advance of the Code of 1873. Under its regulations a pupil-teacher must be not less than 15 years of age, though he may be employed as a probationer from 13 years of age. During the probationary period he must not serve in school for more than thirteen hours, i.e., half-time, but during pupil-teachership he may be required to serve for five hours in one day or twenty hours in one week. The number of pupil-teachers (including probationers) cannot now exceed three for the principal teacher and one for each certificated assistant teacher. The report of a Departmental Connnitteeon the pupil-teacher system (1898), while acknowledging that the pupil-teacher system " has some merits as well as many defects," admits that " its de/e.cts are so nerious that they liope to see early measures taken hy ler)ishtion and by administrative acts by the Education Department toivards its ultimate complete reformation.^ The fruition of that hope is not accomplished, but is reaerved for the years— and I sincerely trust the early years — of the twentieth century. The Birmingham Board has always been much in advance of the Code in its provisions for the training of pupil-teachers. Special training-classes were formed in 1S83 and placed under a superintendent. All pupil-teachers were released from school on one half-day in each week, and they attended training-classes on two evenings a week, and on Saturday mornings, and were taught by the best qualified of the Board's head-teachers. Ten years later (1893), the Board decided to establish a half-time system for candidate pupil-teachers and first and second year pupil-teachers ; so that they wei-e serving in school for thirteen hours in the week, and the other thirteen hours were spent at the training-classes, while the evening classes for these teachers were discontinued. In the following year (1894), the Board resolved to extend the half-time system to the third-year pupil-teachers ; and in 1897 it further resolved to complete the arrangement for half-time instruction all througli the periocl of pupil-teachership by extending these advantages to the fourth-year pupil- teachers. The advantages of the Pupil-Teachers' Central School over the old system of individual instruction by their respective head-teachers were recognised by the Royal Commission on the Elementary Education Acts, 1888, and by a Departmental Committee in 1898, and are borne out by practical experience. Economy of labour, uniformity of teaching- standard, instruction by a specially selected staff, the possibility of greater elasticity of curriculum, the development of the social side of pupil-teachers' lives by intercourse with others of their own age, the improvement in the general tone and morale by the influence of the superintendent ; all these advantages are in favour of the system, besides the fact that it affords much needed relief from the responsible duty of instructing their pupil-teachers after school hours, which weighed heavily under the old system upon the head-teachers of their schools. The London School Board System. — The London School Board employs upwards of 3,000 pupil- teachers, and the course of instruction lasts five years. Applicants are not accepted under the age of 14 years. One year is spent as probationers, the second year as candidates, and three years as pupil-teachers, known as the first year, second year, and third year. Probationers are called upon to pass an entrance examination, which is conducted by the School Board. The certificates of the Intermediate County Council, the Junior Oxford or Cambridge Local, the Senior Oxford or Cambridge Local, and the Martricu- lation Examination of the University of London, are accepted in lieu of the entrance examination. These examinations are comparable to the University Junior Examination of this State. Applicants holding the above-mentioned University certificates get preference in regard to appointments, and receive privileges in the way of shortened courses of training. No appointments are made until the Board's Inspector has certified to the moral character and physical condition of the applicants ; and so careful is the Board in this particular, that an ofllcer is deputed to visit the homes of the applicants to see whether the surround- ings are in every way likely to conduce to their physical and moral well-being. Probationers receive no salary. Successful probationers attend provisionally the pupil-teachers' centres for a short term on half- time until they are nominated for a school, when their time is divided between the centre and the day school. Probationers who have received satisfactory reports from the head teachers of the pupil-teachers' centres, and the head teachers of the day schools, during their year of probation, are required to sit at the examination for candidates of the Board of Education. Successful candidates receive the following salary, viz :— Males £13, females £7 16s. per annum. Their time is divided between the day school and the pupil-teacher centre. No further examinations are required from pupil-teachers until the completion of their third year, when an examination is held for " King's Scholarships," which admit to the training colleges. The advance from class to class, and the award of an increase of salary, depend on the general good conduct of the pupil-teachers. The cases of candidates and pupil-teachers who fail to maintain a satisfactory standard, as tested in the pupil-teacher centres and day schools, are specially considered by the School Management Committee ; and when they are of opinion that the candidates or pupil-teachers are unfitted for the profession of a teacher, the necessary notices are given for the termination of their engage- ments. Pupil-teachers who fail to gain King's Scholarships remain on, as a rule, as ex-pupil-teachers, continue their studies, frequently at the evening classes, and qualify in time as untrained teachers with a low certificate. The rates of pay for pupil-teachers are: — First year, males £13, females, £7 16s. ; second year, males £31, females £20; third year, males £36, females £20, per annum. Senior pupil- teachers — I.e., those in the second and third years of apprenticeship — are considered as responsible teachers counting for twenty pupils. Juniors — i.e., candidates and first year pupil-teachers — do not count on the staff, except as supplying the place of seniors when absent at the pupil-teachers' centres. The latter are engaged at the day school in learning school management under the general superintendence of the head teacher, in examining home lessons, and in preparing lessons in simple subjects to be given under the supervision of the head teacher or one of the assistants. Pupil-teachers sitting at the King's Scholarship examinations are allowed, at the discretion of the he.ad teacher of the pupil-teacher centres, and under certain restrictions, to attend University Extension Lectures or Evening Classes for Science and Art subjects in which they do not receive instruction at the pupil-teacher centres. It is part of the duty of head teachers of day schools to instruct and to exercise the pupil-teachers, candidates, and probationers in the best methods of teaching and in school management. The academic training of the three grades is carried on at a puiiil-teachor centre. There are thirteen of these centres under the London School Board — twelve are mi.sed schools, and one— Stepney — is for females only. There are two sessions, ■" - ' The itaiics are not in the original. 294 sessions, morning and afternoon, on ordinary school days, and a session on Saturday morning. Attendance, which is regulated by the Board, is for one session daily. One afternoon in the week, other than Saturday, is a half-holiday, and strict injunctions are issued to the effect that it must be kept as such. The Saturday session lasts from 9 to 12 ; all grades are released from work at 12 noon and at 430 p.m. on other days. Home lessons must not exceed two hours on any evening, or twelve hours in the week. The Marylehone Pupil-teachers' School. — The Marylebone Pupil-teachers' School, Burghley- road, N.W., London, may be considered as typical of the pupil-teacher training system in London; and as the management of this particular school came under notice, a short description of its scheme of work is given. This is a school of males and females, the latter ses, however, greatly predominating. Boys in London are not eager to become pupil-teachers, as they can command far better salaries in other walks of life, and promotion elsewhere is also much more rapid. The better class of boys therefore do not take up the teaching profession. At an entrance examination of candidates for pupil-teachers, held recently at one of the centres, there were upwards of 100 girls and only two boys. The buildings at the Marylebone centre consist of two floors. On the first floor is the large general hall, used as a general assembly room, from which branch off eight class-rooms. The class-rooms are all well furnished, although the type of desk is neither very new nor equal to that seen in Switzerland and America. Upstairs are the Art room. Demonstration room, two Laboratories (Physics and Chemistry), and two class-rooms. The Demonstration room is a good one, and may be used for lantern lectures. Both laboratories are well equipped. There is no manual training at this centre for either bovs or girls, neither is there any physical training for the boys, but for the girls there is a modified form of Swedish drill, practised more for their physical welfare than for teaching requirements. Drill has a small place in the curriculum of the London School Board. The great effort in this pupil-teacher centre is in the direction of mental culture, and all the teaching converges towards University examinations. All text books, &c., required are provided gratuitously, and an allowance of 2d. a day is made to each pupil-teacher living at a distance, to enable him or her to travel to a centre. The visit to Burghley-road centre took place a few days before the fixture of the London Matriculation Examination, and in connection with University examinations the following information was supplied by the Principal : — 33 candidates had entered for the London Matriculation. 5 „ „ „ Welsh 3 „ „ „ Intermediate B.Sc., London. 2 „ „ „ B.A., London. The Principal has eight permanent assistants and four visiting masters, and the attendance is about 350, The Principal himself takes Mathematics (Matriculation work) and The Art of Teaching (Theory). The first assistant, who is B.A., London, is responsible for English (Senior), Latin, French, Mathematics (Intermediate) ; the second assistant, also a B.A., London, takes Mathematics (First-year), English (Junior), Science. The Principal is a zealous advocate of the pupil-teacher system, and considers it the best training possible when head-masters give their young teachers good instruction in teaching methods. This opinion is shared by many of the leading masters of the London Board Schools, one of whom stated that in his experience a well-trained pupil-teacher is a better man in a school than a University graduate without practical training i. The pupil-teachers of Burghley-road were seen in the assembly hall during the period of recreation, and also in their class-rooms during the hours of study. Under both conditions they created a very favourable impression, and it was very evident that a good selection had been made in the first instance. They were without exception an intelligent, well-ordered, well-dressed body of young men and women. They were all of good physique, and some of the young ladies were tall, well set up, and very prepossessing in appearance. The young men did not compare so favourably in the matter of physique, but there was abundant evidence of good home-training. Great care had been taken to admit none but healthy candidates. The service is very popular with young women, and many of the better class of children from the higher grade Board Schools are among the list of applicants. The ages of those in attendance at the Burghley-road centre ranged from 14 to IS years. The aim of every ambitious pupil-teacher in the pupil-teacher school is to gain a King's Scholarship on the completion of his or her course. This admits into one of the Training Colleges. The scholarship does not, however, cover the whole expense incurred in the Training Colleges. A small amount has to be paid by the parents of the successful scholarship-holders, and the Government grants a subsidy to the College for the balance. The London School Board has no Training Colleges in which, the course commenced in the pupil-teacher centre may be completed. The unsuccessful competitors at the King's Scholarship examinations get ready employment as ex-pupil-teachers in the Board Schools. These are afforded opportunities for attending evening training classes instituted by the Board, and many succeed in obtaining lower-grade certificates. The School Board's responsibilities and liabilities in regard to their pupil- teachers cease with the completion of the term in the pupil-teacher centre. It is not part of its duty to find positions for these young teachers, although as a matter of fact employment is readily obtained by all. The Birmingham School Hoard and its Pupil-teacher Centre. — The pupil-teachers' centre in Birmingham is attended by upwards of 400 girls. Boys evince no desire to take up the teaching profession, as their chances of success in life are much brighter in the business world. The supply of female pupil-teachers is large, and this is necessary to cope with the number of resignations. The average teaching-life of a Birmingham lady-teacher, after her term of pupil-teachership is through, is between six and seven years. The majority marry, and their services are then lost as teachers ; for, by an unwritten law in Birmingham, when a lady-teacher marries, she resigns. The teaching of science is a strong point in the Birmingham Board-schools and the pupil-teachers' classes. The final examination, viz., the King's Scholarship, admits to the Day Training College, Birmingham, or to one of the resideniial colleges. The time-table of subjects, not including science, and the syllabus of studies are given. The rates of pay for pupil-teachers employed in the Birmingham Board-schools are : — Probationers... £ 8 per annum. First year ... £1.5 per annum. Candidates ... 10 „ Second year ... 17 10 „ Third year ... 20 Syllabus (') He was, ot course, referring to graduates of the United Kingdom. 1 UNIYZRSfTY 295 81/llahus of BirmingJiam School Board Pupil-teacliers Centre. — The following is the programme of work of the pupil-teachers' centre of the Birmingham School Board : — BIRMINGHAM SCHOOL BOARD— PUPIL-TEACHERS' CENTRAL CLASSES. Time-table. Probationem. First Tear. Third Year. A. B. A. B. A. B. Monday— 1. French English Need, or English Need, or Arith. English Music 2. Arithmetic French Need, or Comp. Need, or Comp. Music English 3. Needlework Reading Reading French Reading History Tuesday — 1. Scripti are Script ;ure Scripti are 2. English Geograpliy Geography English French Arithmetic 3. Geography Arithmetic English or French (ieography Mathematics English 4. History Music Latin French Wednesday — 1. French Rcarling History French Need, or Study Needlework. 2. Reading French French History Need, or Study Need, or Comp, 3. Gymnasium Mathematics Arithmetic Study Geography Thursday — 1. (Jeography English G eography English Mathematics Arithmetic 2. English History Englis.li (ieography French History 3. History Geography Gymnasium Latin French Friday— 1. Arithmetic Needlework T.atin Arithmetic Logic English 2. Reading Arithmetic History Reading History Geography 3. Music Arithmetic History Gymnasium. Candidates. Second Year. Preparatory. A. B. Matriculation. A. B. Monday — 1. Arithmetic Gymnasium Mathematics Arithmetic French 2. Geography Arithmetic Geography History French G eography 3. Frencli (Jeography French Latin Geography Arithmetic Tuesday— 1. English History English Gymnasium 2. Composition French Arithmetic French History English 3. Arithmetic English History Latin English History Wednesday— 1. Geography Music French Needlework or Mathematics 2. History Arithmetic Reading English Needlework or Mathematics 3. Needlework Reading Geography Mathematics Music Thursday— 1. Scripture Scripture Script ure 2. French English Arithmetic French Geography 3. Arithmetic (ieography French Mathematics English 4. Reading Friday— 1. History History English Latin French Needlework or Composition Mathematics Reading History 2. English Needlework or Composition I'^iiglish Arithmetic French 3. Reading French H istory Latin History Reading BIRMINGHAM SCHOOL BOARD PUPIL-TEACHERS' CENTRAL CLASSES. Syllabus of Work. Third Year. Arithmetic. — Mathematics for Matriculation Syllabus. General Revision— Practice chiefly in stocks and shares. Profit and loss, ilitficult problems. Algebra. — Factors — Equations (simple and simultaneous). Problem.s — Quadratics. English. — ( I) Outlines of History of English Literature (twelve great authors for Matriculation E.xamination). (II) History of English Language. (III.) Essay Writing. History.— Outlines of English History from li.c. 55 to 1870, a.d. Geography. — British Colonies — The world in general (according to Scholarship syllabus). French. — "La Tour des Maures," by E. Daudet (set for Matriculation Examination) with Dictation, Composition, and revision of Grammar. Latin. — Tianslation — Caesar, Books IV and V. Grammar — Sonnenschoin'a Second Reader and Writer. Needlework. — Patterns and specimens preparatory for Scholarship Examination. Music- Practical — As far as required for Intermediate Certificate. Theory Revision of work done in other years. Reading and Scripture. Second Year. interest, discount, percentages, stocks and shares. Miscellanooua Simple equations — Problems based on Arithmetic. — Area, cubical contents, metric system, problems. Algebra. — Factors, Least Common Multiple, Highest Common Factor, Fractions, simple equations. Simultaneous Equations. English. — Two lessons of 45 minutes weekly; one fortnightly lesson. (I) Grammar — Parsing, Analysis of Sentences. (II) Writing of Essays. (Ill) Literature. The aim of these lessons is:—!. To give an interest in and a liking for English writing of the best kind. 2. To make the girls acquainted with the real works, and not merely to know about them. ' Ballads, " Patient Griselda," " Chevy Chase," " Agincourt" (Drayton), "John Gilpin " " We are Seven " (Wordsworth), " Ancient Mariner " (Coleridge), " Battle of Baltic " '(Scott), "Scots of Eskdale " (Scott), " Loohinvar " (Scott), " Macgregor's Gathering " (Scott), "Rosabelle" (Scott), "Ivry" (Macaulay), "Charge of the Light Brigade" (Tennyson), "The Revenge" (Tennyson), "Defence of Lucknow " (Tennyson), "Incident in French Camp," "Ghent to Aix" (Browning), " East and West " (Kipling), " Earl Haldan's Daughter" (Kingsley). . Lyrical Poetry. — "Under the Greenwood Tree" (.Shakespeare), "Blow, Blow, Thou Winter Wind" (Shakespeare), "Ariel's Songs" (Shakespeare), Fairies' Songs from "Midsummer Night's Dream" (Shakespeare), "Fear No More the Heat o' the Sun" (Shakespeare), "To Daffodils" (Herrick), "Night Piece to Julia" (Herrick), " Piping Down the Valleys Wide " (Blake), " When the Green Woods Laugh" (Blake), " Daffodils " (Wordsworth), " The Cuckoo " (VVonlsworth), " Three Years She Grew " (Wordsworth), "The Lesser Celandine " (Wordsworth), " The Daisy " (Wordsworth), "Waken Lords and Ladies (Jay " (Scott), " Coronach " (Scott), "Pibroch of Donnil Dhu " (Scott), " County Guy " (Scott), " Autumn " (Shelley), " Skylark " (Shelley), " Songs from the Princess " (Tennyson), " The Brook " (Tennyson), " Blow, Bugle Blow " (" Coming of Arthur ") (Tennyson), "Break, Break, Break" (Tennyson), "Home Tlioughts from Abroad" (Browning), "The Year's at the Spring "(Browning), " Love Among the Ruins " (Browning). Shakespeare Ballad Poetry.—" Robin Hood' (Cowper), " Lucy Gray," (Campbell), "Glentinlas' (.Scott), "The Outlaw'' 296 Shakespeare (a) as a Dramatist, {b) as a Poet. Plays to be read : — " As You Like It," " Hamlet," " Henry V," Keading, — Reading and learning passages from Tennyson and Laureate. Voice Production. History. — Outlines from 1G85-I815 Geography. — Australia, New Zealand. Polynesia, America. Trade routes, river banina, sketch maps. French. — (a) " Laurette " and " Seulette." (6) Spier's French Drill, (c) Dictation — Conversation and Translation founded on books given. Latin. — Accidence. Declensions and Conjugations. Translation. First Latin Reader and Writer. Rctranslation. Needlework. — Garments and specimens showing stitches used on calico and flannel. Scripture. — History of Jews from Moses to David. First Year. Arithmetic. — Interest — Simple and Compound. Averages. Percentages and their applications. Discount. Metric System. English. — Parsing and Analysis. Paraphrasing. Syntax of all parts of Speech. Introduction to General Literature. Works of Tennyson, Longfellow. Writing of Essays. Heading. — Voice production. General practice in sight reading. Memorising of poems chosen by students. Stories from "Earthly Paradise," History.— From 1685-1760. Geography. — Europe and Asia— chief countries in detail — river basins, sketch maps. French. — (a) " Une aventure du c(5lebre Pierrot." " Histoire de la Mfere Michel." {b) Spier's French Drill, (c) Dictation — Conversation and Translation founded on books given. Needlework. — Small garment made. Calico, flannel, and print patches learnt. To cut out and fix in paper a woman's cooking apron. Scripture. — Old Testament History. Latin (beginners). — Declensions and Conjugations. First Latin Header and Writer. Candidates. Arithmetic. — Prime Numbers, Factors. Least Common Multiple. Highest Common Factor. Vulgar and Decimal Fractions. Metric System. Areas. Miscellaneous problems. English. — Analysis and Parsing. History of Language. Composition. Longfellow. Reading. — (a) Scott's "Kenilworth." (fc) Voice Exercises, (c) Gray's Elegy for Recitation. History. — B.C. 55— A. D. 1603. Tudors in detail. (Jeography. — (o) Preparatory for Government Examination. (/;) General Geography of Europe and chief countries of Asia. French. — Dent's School French Book. Grammar. Dictation and Composition. Needlework. — Child's pinafore made. Specimen of darn in stocking web. To cut out and fix in paper a man's nightshirt and a child's nightgown. Music. — Practical — Begin to prepare for Elementary Certificate. Theory — Structure of Common Scale. Some of its intervals and division of pulses and measures. Scripture. — Probationers. Arithmetic. — Fractions — Vulgar and Decimal. Ratio and Proportion. Bills of Parcels. Practice. English. — Analysis and Parsing. Grammar of Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adjectives. Reading. — Voice Production. General practice — memorising of poems — "Young Lochinvar," "Rosabelle," "Earl Haldan's Daughter," " A World of Leafage " (Henley), and others chosen by students. History. — General outlines from Roman Occupation of Britain. Geography. — Commercial Geography based on Lyle's"Man on the Earth" and "Man and his Markets." Detailed Geography of British Isles. Outlines of the World. French. — Reading, Conversation, Dictation— Grammar arising therefrom. Needlework. — Practice in easy stitches. Making-up of bodices. Music. — Practical — Begin to prepare for Elementary Certificate. Theory — Structure of Common Scale. Some intervals and divisions of pulses and measures. Scripture. — Story of the Jews from the Patriarchs to David and Solomon. The Manchester School Board and its Pupil-teacher Centres. — Manchester has two pupil-teacher centres, with an aggregate attendance of about 800. Pending the erection of entirely new buildings, the Robey-street Centre, attended by pupil-teachers occupied in the northern division of the city, was being conducted at the time of inspection in temporary premises near the Central School. There were present 380 girls and 7G boys. The better class of boys do not enter the pupil-teacher service, the inducements outside of higher salaries and greater prospects of promotion taking them in other directions. The pupil- teachers receive the whole of their ordinary instruction at the centres, with the exception that the principal teachers of the day-schools are held responsible for their instruction in the principles and practice of school management. An examination is held each year by the Board's Inspector. Eeligious instruction, which was at one time given by the principal teachers of the day-schools, is now taken up at the pupil-teacher centres. Juniors are required to attend si.x half-days and Saturday mornings ; seniors, four half-days and Saturday mornings. By arrangement with the Manchester City Council, pupil-teachers are enabled to attend the drawing classes at the Municipal School of Art on Saturday mornings. Courses of lectures to pupil- teachers in their last year are given in connection with the University Extension Committee of the Victoria University. On the conclusion of their fourth year of service pupil-teachera sit for their final examination — ^the King's Scholarship — and those successful enter one of the training colleges, Owen .College, Manchester, being the one usually selected. Speaking on the question of the employment of pupil-teachers, there is an opinion among some educationists in Manchester that the status of pupil- teachers is not sufficiently recognised, and that thev do not receive sufficient advice and encouragement from the principal teachers of the day-schools. Pupil-teachers in the Manchester Board Schools are paid on the following scale : — - Boys. Girls. Probationers, per annum ... £12 to £15 £0 Candidates, „ £20 £16 Pirstyear, „ £22 10s. £12 Second year, ,, ... ... ... ... £25 £l(i Third year, „ £27 10s. £18 The LeedK School Board and its Pupil-teacher Centre. — Leeds has one pui)il-teacher centre, with an attendance of (iOO, the great majority of whom are girls. The buildings are quite new, and are of the most modern design. Prom a large central hall, well-furnished class-rooms radiate. The structure has three floors. The science and art rooms are splendidly equipped. There is accommodation for 712. In the construction of these buildings the Board has given most careful attention to ventilation, heating. I 297 heating, and lightino^. The Board has adopted the system of mechanical ventilation by propulsion, after having tested it in two of their day-schools. Fresh, warm, filtered air is propelled through the buildings by means of fans driven by gas-engines. The foul air is extracted by means of shafts communicating with the large roof ventilators. The lighting of the largo central halls and the spacious well-fitted class- rooms is from the left-hand side. The area of the site in square yards is 2,455 ; the cost of the site, £18,600; buildings and fittings, £31,200 ; total cost, £49,800. VV'ith the exception of practical school management, the pupil-teachers receive their instruction chiefly at the centre, where they attend on alternate half-days. On Saturday mornings pupil-teachers' classes are held at the Central Higher Grade School adjoining for instruction in Science, Drawing, and French. The Board has also arranged for the senior pupil-teachers to attend courses of lectures in English History and English Literature in connection with the Victoria University. In the Tenth Triennial lieport of the Board the Chairman points out the immediate results of these advantages in the improved status of the pupil-teachers, as shown both at the Government examinations and the King's Scholarship examination, and, later on, in the improved condition of the whole teaching body. He says : — " Seeing that majority of the pupil-teachers, on the completion of their apprenticeship, either remain in the Board's service or proceed to a training college, and return as certificated assistants, the Board has felt the importance of giving its pupil-teachers a liberal education, and thus securing a well-educated body of teachers." It is worthy of note that the Board in appointing assistant teachers gives the preference, wherever possible, to those who have been trained in the service of the Board ; and, in promoting teachers to head- teacherships, its own teachers are exclusively selected. The Board's duties, so far as the instruction of teachers is concerned, cease at the end of the pupil-teachers' apprenticeship ; but, in order to do the best possible for their teachers, they provide training classes for those who, for various reasons, are unable to enter a training college. These are held in the evening at the pupil-teacher centre. Those attending receive instruction which enables them to qualify for the certificate examination. The Pupil-teacher Si/stem in Ireland. — The experience of the system was gained in visiting the model schools of Belfast and Dublin. The number of model schools in operation in Ireland, according to the latest returns obtainable, 1899-1900, was thirty, and in these establishments 203 pupil-teachers (111 boys and ninety-two girls) were employed. In some of the model schools, male puj)il-teachers are boarded and lodged at the public expense; this is the case in the Belfast model school. In others, they receive an allowance for maintenance. Female pupil-teachers are always non-resident. In addition to the employment of pupil-teachers, a system of paid monitors exists, their salaries being much lower than those of the pupil-teachers. These monitors, drawn from the senior boys and girls, are accepted as candidates for employment when they are 13 or 14 years old, and undergo a course of training extending over five years. The candidates, who remain at school until they are IG years of ago and then apply for employment, receive a course of training extending over two years. Neither Belfast nor Dublin has a pupil-teacher centre. The training of both classes in the ordinary subjects, as well as in practical school-management, is in the hands of the head-teachers of the schools ; these devote one hour and a half daily, outside the regular school-hours, to this duty. As far as could be ascertained, it appears that pupil-teachers are principally employed in the model schools, and monitors are sent to the ordinary day-schools. The plan of practical training, as carried out for the pupil -teachers in the Belfast model school, came under the Commissioners' notice. There were four pupil-teachers at work under the direction of the head-teacher. The main room where they were engaged is large, and supplied with two long rows of desks, arranged so that there is a wide passage between the rows, and ample space at each side. In this space the four pupil-teachers, two on each side, were occupied in teaching sections., of boys who stood round them in a semi-circle. The pupil-teachers were seated on a high stool placed so that every boy was well under observation. Monitors and Pupil-teachers' Programmes, ^c. — The following Monitors' Programme, Eevised, Programme of Examinations, etc., will give a sufiBcient indication of the details of the system in Ireland : — NATIONAL EDUCATION (IRELAND). Monitors' Pkogeamme. First Year. The ordinary Prograiame ot the Standard in which the Monitor is enrolled as a pupil and, in addition, the following special subjects : — Literature.— To recite correctly, and with taste, 100 lines of poetry selected from the poems of Goldsmith and Wordsworth, and to be able to write a short sketch of the life of each of these poets, with dates. Grammar. — Orthography, and Etymology of nouns, adjectives, and prunouns. Geography. — A good knowledge of the tieography of Ireland. The position of the three most important towns in each county to be indicated on a blank map, as well as other important features. Methods of Teaching. — (a) Joyce's Handbook, "Reminders for Monitors," and " How to toieh First Lesson Book." {It) To teach to a small class (six to ten) of First Standard pupils any two of the English and Arithmetic lessons of the class for the day appointe Husta 10. Languages. Staff Notation. Kotes, their shape and relative value ; the treble and bass staves ; the scales of C, G, and F major ; intervals found in the major scale ; minims, crotchets, and equivalent rests : }, -J, *, J, v, ! time. Tonic Sol-fa Notation. The common major scale, its structure and intervals ; the standard scale of pitch ; mental efi'ects, and how they are modified ; accent ; two, three, and four pulse measure ; whole pulse notes, and con- tinuations, and rests of the same value. Staff Notation. All the major scales and signatures ; dotted notes ; tied notes ; semiquavers, triplets, -"> h and I time. Tonic Sol-fa Notation. First removes of key ; bridge notes ; six and nine pulse measure ; quarter pulse notes and re.sts ; thirds of a pulse. Staff Notation. Various forms of the minor scale ; the scales and signatures of A minor, C minor, D minor, E minor, and G minor ; intervals found in the minor scale ; easy trans position ; construction of tests for schools common musical terms. Tonic Sol-fa Notation. The minor scale and the intervals found in it ; names of chromatic notes ; relative pitch of keys ; construction of teats for schools ; common musical terms. N.B. — Candidates may work the paper in either Notation, but not in both Notations The examination of pupil- teachers in languages will be conducted according to the following course : — The 1st and 2nd years' study laid down in Appendix No. 6. (Language Course.) The 3rd year of study laid down in Appendix No. C. More difficult text-book, com- position, and grammar, with knowledge of more advanced reading-book, and greater conversational facility (in modern languages), and Cffisar, Gallic War, Books II and III (in Latin), Xenophon, Anabasis, Books II and III (in Greek). U. Drawing. AH pupil-teachers must receive instructions in Drawing, according to a course sub- mitted to, and approved by, the Scotch Education Depart- ment. Marks will be awar- . ded at the King's Scholarship Examination to candidates who have satisfactorily com- pleted a three years' course of instruction at one of the approved courses. 4th Year. (King's Scholarship Examination, Article 92.) ' Pupil-teachers will be tested by His Majesty's Inspector at one of his visits to the school as to their practical skil in music, and marks will be allowed therefor. I'upil-teaohers will be required to perform individually tests in time, tune to., such as are set to be performed by the highest division of the school. Pupil-teachers may be examined at the end of any year in subjects prescribed for preceding years in Columns 4, 5 6, 7, and 9 of this Schedule. Female pupil-teachers, before engagement, must satisfy the Inspector that they possess reasonable competency as sempstresses ; and, at the annual inspection, must produce certified specimens of plain needlework. They will be expected, at the end of each year, to perform an exercise in needlework. Note. — The original note-books and exercise- books used by pupil-teachers in connection with their special instrue tion along with the marked papers of any examination held by the teacher in any subject of the pupil-teachers' course for the year should be preserved, and will be called for by His Majesty's Inspector on the occasion of any visit to the school or central class at which the pupil-teachers are instructed. Such examination should be held at least quarterly under the supervision of the Managers, and the results should be noted in the log-hook. Pppii Tbaohbbs. 303 Pupil-Teaciieks (Giels). First Year. 1. A woman's chemise or a man's nightshirt, cut out, tacked together, and partly made in every detail. 2. Gusset making. 3. A reduced and an enlarged pattern of the garment selected for the year's work (paper or material) ; measurements to bo stated. Second Year. 1. A child's nightgown or a girl's overall, cut out, tacked together, and partly made in every detail. 2. Patching in calico, print, and flannel. 3. A woman's stocking or a knitted sampler showing the intakes at the back of a stocking, the turning of a heel, and the decreasings and finishing-off of a toe. Third Year. 1. A tucked flannel petticoat or a child's pair of drawers, cut out, tacked together, and partly made in every detail. 2. Darning on coarse linen (diagonal cut) and on woollen material (hedge-tear or three-cornered darn). 3. Cutting out in paper the flat pattejn of a small niglit-dress (the folding or the measurement system may bo followed). Fourth Year. (Preparatory to King's Scholarship Examination.) 1. A sampler in calico, showing all the stitches required in the making and mending of calico garments. 2. A sampler in flannel, showing all the stitches required in the making and mending of flannel garments. 3. Paper patterns cut out by proportion or l)y measurement of a chemise, and pair of drawers, and a petticoat. Notes. 1. In all cases the specimen garments and patterns must be done witliout assistant and must be presented to His Majesty's Inspector as they left the worker's hands. All garments must have been cut out by the makers. 2. Only one of the two garments mentioned in paragraph 1 (first, second, and third year), is to be made up by the pupil- teacher, but the measurements and manner of making up the other garments must be learnt by her. 3. Whether a child's garment or the pattern of a child's garment is made, the age of the child for whom the garment is intended should be stated. 4. The garments should be of plain simple pattern showing intelligence and good workmanship, but without elaborate detail. Pupil-teachers. On the day of Annual Examination, an exercise may be given testing the pupil-teacher's knowledge of the noodle- work of their year, in accordance with the requirements of the Schedule. The materials required for these exercises arc as follows ; — • First Year. — One piece of calico 9 inches square. One linen button (unpierced). Suitable needles and sewing cotton. One sheet of lined paper. Second Year. — One piece of calico 9 inches square. One piece of print 6 inches square. One piece of flannel G inclies square. One linen button (unpierced). Suitable needles and sewing cotton. Four knitting pins and knitting cotton. One sheet of lined paper. Third Year. — One piece of calico 9 inches square. One piece of coarse linen 4 inches square. One piece of flannel inches square. One piece of flannel binding J yard. One piece of tape 2J inches long. Suitable darning and sewing needles and cotton. One sheet of lined paper. CHAPTER XXXI. 304 CHAPTER XXXI. Some English Opinions on the Fupil-teacher System. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introductory. — During their tour, the Commissioners endeavoured to ascertain whether in any country adhering to the pupil-teacher system, persons holding responsible positions and having also personal experience of its system of education, through the necessary linguistic knowledge and sojourn in any country of Europe, still shewed preferences for their own {i.e., the pupil-teacher) system. The condition indicated gives the qualification to judge, so far as it is not overcome by prejudice. The Commissioners, however, could meet no one, who having in this way really understood the continental systems, yet deliberately preferred our form of the pupil-teacher system. It would of course be unwise to affirm that such persons do not exist ; and it has to be remembered that for any syslem, quite apart from its merits, natural conservatism will always secure defenders. On the other hand, expressions of dissent from an accepted system, imply some degree of conversion or perversion to some other, or at least a belief that the accepted system is in error. Although this change is, in itself, not conclusive testimony against the system abandoned, it must in the ease of able men, be taken as prima facie evidence. At least they have felt that the system they abandon is inferior. It ought here to be pointed out, that in any country, where no other system is in vogue, it is perhaps natural to expect, apart altogether from its merits, a rather strong support of the system ; ^especially if it be espoused by the higher authorities, and especially if there bo any, even only supposed, intolerance of adverse criticism. Without applying it to the case in point, this fact will often explain the entire absence of criticism of things by no means perfect. Again, the fact that all people who depart from an accepted or popular opinion have to face conservative opposition, guarantees, at least in the absence of other motive, sincerity in their change of view. Finally, it may be said that in presenting an argument on any subject whatever, the highest class of mind will naturally go directly to its rationale. With such, the argument from experience although of considerable weight, can never have a predominant value. There are many, however, who are considerably swayed by the opinions of men of varied experience, quite apart from any inquiry into the ground of their opinions. Probably with the majority, the two elements, viz., reason and authority, combine to bring about conviction. Hence the testimony of men of culture who have abandoned their adherence to a particular system, in the traditions of which they have been reared, is important. They at least cannot be accused as having s. prejudice in favour of the new system they espouse. It will be remembered that the pupil-tcachcr system still exists in the United Kingdom, although it is now widely recognised as a bad system. 2. Opinions in paper on Ulementary Schools of Prussia and Saxony. — The following comments are made by Mr. E. M. Field, one of His Britannic Majesty's Inspectors of Schools, in a paper on the Schools of Prussia and Saxony.i He says : — " The German teacher has much more professional consciousness than his counterpart in England He is not allowed to teach until his mind and body are mature and be is old enough to utiderstand what teaching meai)s Gifted or not gifted he is always formed ; whatever the metal the coin comes from the mint." " There are admirable teachers in England .... but they are more the works of nature than the products of a system." '■ The English teacher . . . may or may not have passed through a training-college, in the latter case it is uncertain on what pedagogic principles he puts his trust ; how far it is a homogeneous organism of which the practising schools form an essential part, or how far on the other hand it is a loosely knit concourse of various teaching forces." — (p. 302). " He has in most cases been a pupil-teacher. . . . Ilis sympathies may have been hardened by premature responsibilities and strain, or he may have acquired practices which he finds it difficult to unlearn. The empiricism of early years tends always to persist." 2 — (p. 303). The passage italicised may be regarded as indicating in Mr. Field's opinion one of the possible causes of a tenacious clinging to defective system. But to continue: — " He has neither the solidarity nor the steady aim of the German teacher." " The greatest strength of the latter seems to me to lie in his power of exposition and his appreciation of his own language and literature — a direction in which the average English teacher is perhaps least strong. It is impossible not to be struck . . . with the care he takes to inculcate respect for the mother-tongue upon his pupils." " The eager faces and engrossed expression of the children in the best schools impress themselves on the observer's memory." " In ' Special Reports on Educational Subjects. — Board of Education, London, Vol. 9, pp. 287-352. ^ Tho original jsflot italicised. 305 " In good schools he is another illustration of the truth that the personality of the teacher is what matters most." — (p. 303). Although the German never got as far as employing children to teach children, he has for some time past been anxious to improve the training of his teachers. In discussing recent proposals for reform in this connection, Mr. Pield says : — " The better general culture of the teacher by means of the Ecal-Schule before, and the University after, the Training College course, is a need which has its counterpart in England ; but if the German teachers require a broader education, the English teachers, taken as a body, require it still more. The German teacher has, at least, the training college, w'hich none of our assistants, and little over half of our certificated teachers, ever enter ; and as regards his technical training, he has very much surer guidance. If it is deplored that " Padagogik " is neglected by the German universities, how much greater is the defect in England, where even in training colleges the science of education has not in any full sense a sure 7,oZ<;."i_(p. 324). " 3 Opinions in report on Bilingual Teaching in Belgium Schools. — The head-master of the Pembroke Dock Country School (T. E. Dawes, M.A.), in a report as Gilchrist Travelling Student, presented to the Court of the University of Wales, on Bilingual Teaching in Belgium schools, says, in referring to normal schools for elementary and secondary teachers (vide p. 48) : — "There are no pupil-teachers in Belgium. In the employment of children to teach children England enjoys a ' splendid isolation.' I found that teachers and inspectors were greatly surprised that in- England young pupils should be employed in teaching. The course in the normal schools for elementary teachers is four years, the age of entrance being fifteeen." 4. Ojnnions expressed in report on Swiss Education. — In a very fine report on " The Training and Status of Primary and Secondary Teachers in Switzerland," by Dr. Alexander Morgan, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., lecturer at the Church of Scotland Training College, Edinburgh, may be found the following references to the pupil-teacher syotem, and the proper method of preparing teachers for their calling. It may be remarked that Dr. Morgan fully recognises the great excellence of the Swiss system, and is thoroughly informed as to the nature of the pupil-teacher system. There can be no reason to suppose that he had any antecedent prejudice against the system. He says : — 2 " It may safely be asserted that in no country in Europe is the importance of training for the teacher more clearly recognised than \\\ Switzerland, as will be at once apparent when we state that this little country, with an area about twice that of Wales, and a population of about three millions, had in 1895 no fewer than forty-two state or private training colleges. ... Of the forty-two institutions whose sole purpose is to train elementary school teachers a few general facts may be stated. They contain altogether about 2,600 students, the men having a small and diminishing majority" — (pp. 179-180). "But perhaps one of the most significant facts for us to observe is that only twenty-three of the institutions are training colleges pure and simple, the other nineteen forming part of higher primary schools, or of secondary schools and gymnasia. In these higher schools the future teachers receive the same general education as those about to enter the universities or preparing for scientific and commercial pursuits. . . . There is nothing more detrimental to a profession than too early specialisation. If teachers, even until the age of sixteen, studied side by side in our higher schools with those preparing for the other professions and walks of life, they would doultless gain much in toidth of outlook and of culture. "There are no pupil-teachers in Switzerland. That system, indeed, has nov; been discarded by the whole of Europe, except Britain and some of the poorer villages of liussia "— (pp. 180-181). Dr. Morgan points out that there are five universities in Switzerland, and it may be said that their influence and that of the higher schools permeates the whole system of education. This has beneficent results, for all persons occupying higher educational posts are cultured gentlemen, strongly influencing their subordinates in the common endeavour to make Swiss educational institutions approximate to their noble ideals of what education should be. Wherever the Commissioners mentioned our system of teaching without previous training, as in the pupil-teacher system, it was at once evident that the Swiss regarded it always with astonishment, that never savoured of appreciation. 5. Origin of the Pupil-teacher System in Holland. — When in Holland, in 18IC, normal schools were first established in that country, the only system of training available for the ordinary teacher was the pupil-teacher system ; and Matthew Arnold, referring thereto, says : — " It was the first serious attempt to form a body of regularly trained masters for primary schools. In our eyes, it should have a special interest: we owe to it the institution of pupil-teachers. "3 Mr. It. Balfour, of the Board of Education, London, remarks, however, upon this as follows: — " But to record the fact that England borrowed her pupil-teacher system from Holland, would not in itself convey an accurate explanation of what that system actually was. With us, the system has never been so complete as it was in Dutch schools, and modifications have been from time to time introduced."* In this connection it should be recollected that there is in Dutch schools about one qualified teacher for about every fifty children, and that " pupil-teachers are not recognised for the purpose c^ the school-staff."6 6. Reason of Retention of Pupil-teacher System in the United Kingdom. — Mr. E. M. Field, one ot His Britannic Majesty's Inspectors of Schools, previously referred to, in referring to the teaching strength of Prussia, says : — "Thus the main differences between the teaching staffs of England and Prussia are — (i) that in Prussia only adult teachers are employed ; (ii) that nearly all arc fully qualified, and very few untrained"; etc. (0/. czY., p. 297.) Again, 1 The original is not italicised. ' Special Reports on Educational Subjects — Board of Education, London, Vol. 8, pp, 177-261. 'Contemporary SeviexD. Vol. 7, p. 139. 'Special ReporU. Vol. 8, pp. 293-440. Ibid. p. 374. 306 Again, referring to Prussia and Saxony, he says: — " The general supply of teachers is supplemented from time to time by an increase in tlie number of training colleges, — i.e., in the output of trained men and women. All fully employed teachers are qualified adults. The employment of unripe minds and bodies in the work of education is rejected as needless and unsatisfactory. In England, on the other hand, we fit the staff by a strict arithmetical process to the school; and only a very sparing distinction is made between large schools and small, as regards syllabus. When we have to provide more teachers, the plan is to sioell the army of the untrained, the partially qualified, and the wholly unqualified. We rely upon pupil-teachership, not only as a means of training, hut as an economy in staffing. The Prussian or Saxon youth improves his mind, and does not teach, till he is mature ; the English pupil-teacher improves his mind much less, and after long teaching practice does not teach better in the end. If it be asked how it is that the German teacher acquires his technical skill in so short a period of practice, the answer is that he starts well equipped with the all-important instrument of language. By its means he can create interest, make the most of what he knows, decorate his facts. Ho has ready to his hand the power of communicating ideas, of establishing an intellectual rapport between his scholars and himsolf."i (p. 351.) The above opinion shews clearly enough that the real reason for the employment of pupil-teachers is that the system is cheap. It would hardly be possible to say in plainer terms that, in Mr. Field's opinion, it is a bad system. This fact will go far to discount some testimonies that it is the only practicable system. Eor example, Mr. Henry Coward, President of the National Union of Teachers, says : — " "While many educationists see grave difficulties and disadvantages in the pupil-teacher system,, they have failed to find any adequate substitute for it." If such a dictum means that to find an equally cheap system as that of employing immature children is impossible— it is simply a truism ; if it means that the pupil-teaching system is the only way of training, it is answered at once by the superiority of European teachers. An affirmation that it is the only way of training teachers would need no answer. Everything depends upon whether education is taken as a serious thing or not. If it be satisfactory to employ absolutely untrained persons, the pupil- teacher system is undoubtedly the cheapest, because children will accept a mere pittance. If, on the other hand, there is any ground for the opinion obtaining throughout Europe and America, and even, it may be said, Japan, that the education of the people is a matter of importance, and one that should bo undertaken, even in the case of infant classes, by properly educated and trained teachers, — then the cheapness of employing children may be questioned. If teaching children by children really mean failure to equip in the best possible manner the individuals constituting any community for their life-work ; if it mean that morally and intellectually they are being put on an inferior platform through such a method of teaching, — then it is quite possible that the supposed saving by the employment of children is really a very serious loss, and possibly one that, in the struggles of modern competition, cannot be afforded. The hope, therefore, of the Eev. Chairman of the Birmingham School Board, Rev. E. F. M. MacCarthy,^ M.A., in his address in October, ] 900, that there will be a complete reformation in the early part of the present century of such a system of preparing teachers, may after all express the truest economy. The people of the United States of America will hardly be accredited with lacking practicality in regard to their views of life. It is almost too well known to need mention that the people of the United States believe it good economy to have previously trained teachers teaching their little ones, and do not think it wise to employ children for the sake of the saving. Is it necessary to affirm that they do not believe that untrained children teach better than trained adults ? ' Tho original is not italicised. ^ Vide p. 40 of his acklr«»9. CHAPTEll XXXII. 307 CHAPTER XXXII. Training Schools of the United Kingdom. [J. W. TURNER.] Iniroduction. — The institutions for training primary school teachers in England are of two kinds, residential and day training colleges. The residential colleges are chiefly under the management of religious bodies, but are largely maintained by the State. The day training colleges are unsectarian, and ai-e attached to universities. Admission to both kinds is, as has been stated, by King's scholarships. The scholarship does not cover expenses in the residential colleges, and as the students receive no salary, only those who have friends to help them can afford to complete their course of training. In Ireland there is only one training college directly under State control, although others are subsidised by the Commissioners for Education. The training colleges of Scotland are controlled by the religious bodies, but arc largely supported by the State. Provision is made in some cases for the boarding and lodging of students, but not in the colleges. Some of the training colleges in the United Kingdom are described in this chapter. Borough Bond Training College. — The Borough Eoad Training College is governed by a Committee appointed by the General Committee of the British and Poreign School Society, and is residential and unsectarian. It is situated in Islesworth, about 7 miles out of London, in spacious and well-arranged grounds. Although the facilities for teaching elementary agriculture are really good, the subject does not appear in the curriculum of the College. The lecture-rooms and common hall are on the ground floor, the dormitories for juniors on the second floor, and those for seniors on the third floor. The teaching rooms are lofty, well lighted, and well ventilated. The recreation rooms are largo, well equipped with apparatus for indoor games, but there does not appear to be a gymnasium attached to the College. The laboratories and libraries are well appointed. The dietary table is liberal, the dormitories roomy and well lighted, the beds clean and comfortable. The conditions of admission are — • " Success in gaining a King's Scholarship, and satisfactory health, evidence of good conduct, promise of teaching, pov,-er and willingness to carry on school work in a Christian spirit, without interfering with denominational peculiarities. The aim of the College is to provide public elementary schools with thoroughly capable teachers — well-equipped, earnest, fair-minded Christian men." The syllabus of class studies for 1901-3 is as follows : — BOROUGH ROAD TRAINING COLLEGE (ISLEWORTH).— SYLLABUS FOR 1901-1903. Syllabus for a Two Ye.\us' Coi:rse. Srriplnre. 1. Old Testament. Lectures by the Principal, senior students. 2. New Testament. Lectures by the Vice-Principal, junior students. (A College examination is held and a report made on Bible knowledge in each student's leaving testimonial.) Reaxling and Herilalion. At least 600 line3 of verse of short passages from the book.s selected for study. Dravmrf. (a) With Pencil :— 1. Freehand. — Simple copies from flat examples, more difficult ones to ba analysed and loading lines drawn. Special attention to l)e ») The Character op Cyrus : His Gexerosity and Tact. Aapa 5e irXf'iffTa fity o7/xai ety y( av}}p 4\(i^&ai'f Sik voWd' ravra he travTuv ^)) ^aKKXra rots tpiXois 5i€5/5ou, Tfpbs tovs rp6trovs iKtiffTov iTKonwy Kal otov fidXtara iptfiri fKdffrov Sf6fj.€Poy. /fai (Jffa T£p (Tu/^aTi auToii K6(rp.ov Tre/iirot Tts I) ws els ■tr6\ffioy -?) ws fij KaWwtri(r/x6y^ Kal irepl rovrwv \iyeiv ahrhv ^(paffav ijTt Th /.l^v eaurov irQJfj.u qvk i.v ^vvaiTO tovtois iratri KotT/x7j07}vaif eas (itKrirai. \ os ris aiSpfi-pwfXdffrjKatfpfldyyoy aKOVffp I J^ftp'fjva}y,r^^^ otj riyvy^ Kal vfjtrta r€Kva \ otKa^e voo'r-fi(ravrnrapi(Trarai ov5f ydvvvrat, \ dwd re'XeipriVfS \iyvpi} 0f\yovectures are given on the usual branches of school-management by the Principal, as. Common and Civic Law '> Hygiene 1 Klocution Drawing 4 8 Oaligraphy 1 Music 7 Gymnastics 5 Practising School 1 Total 33 33 35 35 136 Optional Subjects — 2 ... 2 1 ... 2 i 2 3 i 2 3 "i 1 8 6 Stenography 2 Music (Chorus) 4 Gymnastics 1 5 3 6 7 29 In taking these subjects in detail, the order of the time-table will be abandoned. General pajdagogy is taken in the second class when the pupils are 17 years of age, and occupies two hours a week. It is developed according to the official programme, here translated, as follows : — General Psedagogy. Instruction. — The child and hLs development. Sensation, imitation, observation. Initial experience, comparison, relation. Introduction of symbols ; drawing, reading and writing, numeration. The association of ideas, reflection, generalisation, combination and invention. Collective Instruction. —The school ; its advantages and inconveniences. Discipline ; the role of persua.sion and constraint. Scholastic organisation ; primary, secondary, and higher education. Kducational systems and methods. The history of education is taken in the first class when the pupils are 18 years of age, and occupies two hours a week. It is developed in a manner calculated to make each pupil appreciate in the fullest manner the splendid history of education. The programme is developed pretty much as follows :— History of Pedagogy. Greece. — The system of education in Sparta and Athens. Greek educational theory. Plata. Aristotle. Rome. — The system of education under the Republic and under the Empire. Roman educational theory. Quintilian. The Middle Ages. — The monasteries and the cathedral schools. The communes and the city schools. The universities. The Renaissance.— Humanism : Er.xsmus. The Reformation : Luther, Melanchthou, Calvin, Sturm, Rabelais, Montaigne. The Congrogationists. — Jesuits, Oratorians, Port Koyal, Brothers of the Christian Schools. Seventeenth Century. — Descartes, Bacon, Ratichiiia (Ratke), Bossuet, Fenelon, Madame de Maintenon, Comenius (Komensky), RoUin, Daniel de Foe. Eighteenth Century. — Locke, Rousseau. (Reading of the first three books of the Emile.) The Pietists and Pliilanthropists. — Francke, Basedow. The Frencli Revolution and the Empire. — Theory and design of laws, the University of France. Modem Paidagogy. — Pestalozzi, Pere Girard, Madame Necker de Saussiire, Froebel, Fellenl>erg, Herbao't and liis school, Herbert Spencer, Aotual Scholastic Institutions in Switzerland, France, and Germany. One has merely to read any of the monographs on pajdagogy by Swiss writers to realise how much living interest and stimulus there is in the course above outlined. Mathematics 15—2 Y > Schweizerische Schnlstatistik 18»4-5, Ud. VIII, pp. 441-2. 348 Mathematics. — The detailed programme of Mathematics will also be given. Algebra. — 4th Class, age 15, four hours per week. Introduction : Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of algebraic expressions. Particular cases of multiplication and division. Decomposition of an algebraic polynomial into factors, in the simplest cases. Elementary calculation of fractional algebraic expressions. Equations : principal definitions and introduction to the solution of equations Equation of tlie first degree of one unknown ; its application to the solution of equations, numerical or literal. Discussion of several results ; impossibility, in- determination. Two unknowns. Elimination by substitution, by reduction, and by comparison. Numerous problems. Geometry. — The plane and the different lines that may be traced thereupon. Angles, perpendiculars and parallels. Triangle ; isosceles, right-angled. Equality of triangles. Sum of the angles of a triangle and of a convex polygon. Quadrilaterals. The parallelogram. The circle. Properties of chords and tangents. Angle at centre, and inscribed angle. Inscribed and circumscribed polygons. Regular polygons and tlieir properties. Proportional lines and similar figures. Principal cases of similarity between two triangles and two polygons. Metrical relations. Calculation of ir. The area of plain figures, viz., of the rectangle, parallelogram, triangle, trapezium, polygon, and circle. Comparison of areas. Niimerous exercises on all parts of the programme. Mathematics (continued). — Third class, age 16, four hours per week. Algebra.— Question of the first degree of several unknowns. Elimination by substitution and reduction. Literal equations of the first degree. Square and square root of numerical and algebraical quantities. Roots of the second degree. Equations of the second degree of one unknown. Formula;. Bi-quadratic equations. The simplest cases of equations of the second degree of several unknowns. Development of equations and problems. Geometry. — The plane. The perpendicular and oblique to a plane ; parallel planes, perpendicular planes, dihedral angles. Equality of two trihedrons which have their three faces respectively equal. The polyhedrons ; Prism, parallelepiped, pyramid, truncated pyramid, surface and volume of these figures. Spherical bodies : Cylinder, cone, truncated cone and sphere, their surfaces and volumes. Numerous exercises upon all parts of the programme. Mathematics (continued). — Second class, age 17, four hours per week. Algebra. — Algebraic quantity ; the various developments of the notion of number. Powers and roots ; integral exponent, positive or negative. Roots of integral index, application to calculation. Fractional and irrational exponents. The exponential function. Logarithms ; application to the calculation of numerical expressions. Simple exponential equations. Arithmetical and geometrical progressions. Compound interest. Annuities. Permutations, arrangements, and combinations of distinct elements. The binomial theory of Newton with positive integral exponent. Trigonometry. — Trigonometrical ratios of an acute angle. Solution of right angle triangle ; applications. Study of the trigonometrical functions of any angle whatsoever. Problems of inverse functions. Relations subsisting among trigonometrical functions of supplementary and complementary arcs, etc. The theorem of projections. Addition and subtraction of arcs. Multiplication and division of arcs. Transformation of products of the sum of two sines or two cosines. Simple trigonometrical equations of one unknown. Relations subsisting between the angles and sides of any triangle whatsoever. Solutions of any triangles. (The results should as often as possible be verelied by means of drawing). Various applications. The elements of spherical trigonometry. Fundamental relation. The solutions of triangles. Mathematics (continued). — 1st class, age 18, six hours per week. Analytical Geometry (2 hours). Introduction. The graphical representation of a phajnomenon or a law. The notion of co-ordinates. Problems concerning the point ; harmonic division. Area of the triangle and polygon. Transfor- mation of co-ordinates. The straight line— equation of a line, its various forms, intersection of two lines, angle of two lines, distance to a point from a straight line. The Circle. — Equation of the circumference of a circle, circumference passing through three given points, tangents. Power of a point in relation to a circumference. Intersection of two circumferences. (Geometrical positions. Conic Sections. — Synthetic studies ; demonstration of fundamental properties by means of a cone of revolution, construction of conies by points, property of tangents. The ellipse and equation of a curve related to its axis of symmetry, equation of the tangent, the ellipse considered as the orthogonal projection of the circumference of a circle, congugate diameters, area of the ellipse. Hyperbola. — Equation of the curve related to its axis of symmetry, discussion of the equation, the equation of the tangent, conjugate diameters. Parabola. — Equation of the curve related to its axis of symmetry and the tangent at its summit ; the equation of the tangent, sub-langent, and sub-normal, conjugate diameters. The equation common to the ellipse, hyperbola, and parabola in rectangular and polar co-ordinates. Exercises (2 hours). — Exercises upon the whole of the mathematical programme in the preceding classes and upon the programme in analytical geometry. Complementary arithmetic. (One hour). — Arithmetical operation with whole numbers. Divisibility. Proofs by nine. Greatest common divisor. Least common multiple. Prime numbers. Operations with fractions. Decimal fractions. Complex numbers. Continued fractions. Theory of numerical approximation. Psedagogical directions for teaching elementary mathematics. (One hour). — The function of mathematics in intellectual education. Special conditions which the study of that science presents. Methods. Logical order and p.-edagogical order. What must be attributed to experience, and what to induction Special and definitive study of teaching calculation and the first notions of geometry. Preparations of some lessons upon arithmetical, algebraical, and geometrical subjects. Physics. Class II, age 17. (Three hours per week). — Mechanics. Uniform motion. Uniformly varied motion. Galileo's principle. The parallelogram of forces. The composition of parallel forces. Equilibrium of forces. Mass. The proportionality of constant forces to the accelerations which they impress on the same moving body. The conception of work, and of the conservation of energy. Equality in simple machines of the work done in motion and resistance. Force of gravity. — Direction of gravity. Centre of gravity. Weight. The law of falling bodies. Atwood's machine. Inclined plane. Intensity of gravity. The balance. General properties. — Units of measurement. Instruments of measurement. Principle of equality of pressure in fluids. Free surface of liquids in equilibrium. Pressure upon the bottom and sides of vessels. Hydraulic pressure. Communicating vessels. Principles of Archimedes, density, areometers. Weight of the air. Barometer. Mariotte's law. Manometers. Air-pumps, pumps, syphons, aerostats. Heat. — Dilatation of bodies by heat. Construction and use of thermometers. Coefficients of dilatation, of solids, liquids and gases ; their applications. Specific heat. Calorie. Conceptions of equivalents of mechanical work. Determination of tlie specific heats of solids by the method of mixtures. Fusion in solidification. Latent heat. Refrigerant mixtures. Formation of saturated and non-saturated vapour. Maximum tension. Evaporation; Ebullition. Density of vapours. Freezing-machines. Steam-engines, etc. Physics (continued). First class, age 18. (Two hours per week). — Electricity and magnetism. Electrification by friction; Law of attraction and repulsion. Distribution of electricity on the surface of conductors. Power of points. Elementary conceptions in regard to electric potential and capacity. Electrification by influence electroscopes. Electric-machines. Leyden jar. Lightning and lightning-conductors. Fundamental laws of electric currents. Resistance. Calorific and chemical effects of currents. Natural and artificial magnets. Poles. Definition of declination and inclination. Compasses. Oersted's experiment. Galvanometers. Action of currents upon currents, and upon magnets. Solenoids. Magnetisation by currents. Electric induction ; fundamental experiments. Piles. Thermo-electric couples. Principle of dynamos ; their reversibility. The telegraph and telephone. The above is from a programme for the year 1900. The Commissioners are aware that some indication is given of the principle of recent developments in telegraphy, such as wireless telegraphy, etc. Accoustics.l 349 Acoustics. — Production and propagation of sound ; its reflection, intensity, pitcli, musical intervals, sonorous tubes, timbre. Optics. — Rectilinear propagation and velocity of light. The photometer. The laws of reflection. Plane and spherical mirrors. Laws of refraction, the prism. Lenses. The astronomical telescope. 'J'he composition of white light. Dispersion. Spectra. General conceptions in regard to the phaenomena of the emission, reflection, transmission, absorption. Fundamental conceptions of crystallography. In the course in Physics, it is insisted that special attention be paid to such phasnomena as maybe readily observed; and that also regard be had to their practical application. During the course, the pupils develope on the blackboard the conceptions previously taught. The various measurements, the use of the principal instruments described in the course, and the solution of physical problems, are learnt and undertaken in the physical and chemical laboratory. Chemistry. Class I, age 18. (Two hours per week, together with two hours' laboratory praotife per week). — Chemistry. Generalities. Simple and compound bodies. Physical mixture and chemical combination. Metalloids and metals. Acids, bases, salts, and neutral bodies. Principal laws, the atomic theory. Chemical notation and nomenclature. Hydrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine, fluorine, oxygen. Combustion ; water. Sulphur. Sulphurous and sulphuric acid. Sulphuretted hydrogen. Nitrogen, atmospheric air, oxides of nitrogen, nitric acid, ammonia. Phosphorus, phosphoretted hydrogen. Pljosphoric acids. Arsenic and antimony. Carbon. Carbon monoxide, ' carbonic anhydride. Bisulphide of carbon. Carbides of hydrogen ; coal-gas. Flame. Silicon and boron. Metals. Generalities. Metallic oxides. Principal salts. Alloys. Classification. Study of ordinary metals, and of their most important salts. Laboratory practice includes the ordinary chemical manipulation. Cosmography. Class I, age 18. (One hour per week). — The earth ; its form, magnitude, atmosphere, heating by the sun. Universal attraction. The fixed stars. Distinctive characters. Principal constellations. The diurnal movement. Its characteristics. Proofs of the earth's rotation. Astronomical instruments. Determination of longitude and latitude. The annual motion of tlie earth. Its characteristics. Proof of the motion of translation of the earth. Form and magnitude of the terrestrial orbit. Law of sectorial areas. Precession of the equinoxes. Measurement of time. The Roman calendar. The Gregorian reform. The sun : Form, magnitude, physical constitution and motions. The moon : Form, magnitude, physical constitution, movements and phases. Eclipses of the sun and moon. The planets. Generalities concerning them. Kepler's laws. Details concerning the principal planets. Comets. Shooting stars. Star-clusters. Nebul.T. Geography. — Class IV, age 15. (Three hours per week). — Construction of globes and maps. Scale. Planimetry. Form of surface. Reading the military maps. General geography of Europe. — Limits, dimensions, configuration. Place of Europe in the old continent and in the world. The seas of Europe. Development of its coast-line. Surface formation of Europe. General features of its relief. Division in natural regions. Centres of distribution and general directions of its streams. Principal groups of lakes. Climates. Distribution of its flora and fauna, etc. Zonal distribution. European races and families. Religions, languages, density of population. Special geography of the countries of Europe. — Situation, form, surface formation, orography, hydrography, for each of them. Analytic distribution of towns and cities. Climates. The relations between vegetation and climate. Economic conditions. Agricultural and mineral resources, industries, roads of communication, external commerce. Population, languages, religions. Government. Material and moral state. Comparison of the productive energy of different European States. Principal industrial regions. International railroads. Geography continued. — Class III, age 16. (Three hours per week). — General geography of Asia, Africa, America, and Oceania. General view of each part of the world. Situation, form, seas and sea-shores. Characteristic features of geological constitution and physical geography. Climates. Distribution of plants and animals. Populations. Aboriginal races. Immigration. Languages, religions, density of population. Description of countries and colonies. — Situation, general configuration, relief of the surface, and streams for each one of them. Historical regions. Principal cities. Economic conditions. Principal agricultural, mineral, and industrial productions. Lines of communication. Relations with Europe. Populations, languages, religions, governments. Material and moral state. General considerations. — History of great discoveries. Resumd of the productive energy of the globe. Principal markets. Great international lines of communication by land and sea. Expansion of European colonisation. Geography. Class II, 17 years. (Two hours per week.) Physical Geography. — The earth : its general aspect and structure. The atmosphere. Distril)ution of heat upon the surface of the earth. Isothermal lines. Barometric pressure and isobars. Movements of the atmosphere. Atmospheric precipitation. Classification of climate. Oceans, depth, ssltness, temperature. Waves. Tides. Ocean-currents. The land. Plains, plateaux, mountains. Volcanoes and their geographical distribution. Earth tremors. Continental waters. Glaciers. Streams and rivers, lakes, regime of streams. Plant and animal zones. National history and geography. Class I, 18 years. (Two hours per week). — Review of the history and geography of Switzerland. 01)ject of historical and geographical teaching. Its educational bearing. Method to be followed. Examination and mode of using manuals. Practical exercises with classes. Common Law and Civiclnstruction. Class II, age 17. (Two hours per week). — Common law. — General conceptions concerning individuals and the family. Laws. Etat civil. Guardianships. Marriage and its civil conse(]uences, etc. Study of the principal laws of the federal code which have regard to indivitlual obligations to the State. Obligation and contracts. Effects. Execution. Extinction. Evidence. Sale and exchange. Rent. Warrant. Attorneys. Contracts of transport, particularly as regards railroads. (Special federal law.) Loans, security, mortgage, etc. Bills of Exchange, Cheques. Letters of credit. Ordinary associations. Associations under collective name. Joint stock companies. " Soci(St& anonymes." Rights of commerce. Commercial register. Account-book. Insurance. Patents. Trade marks. Industrial and artistic property. (Special federal law.) Inheritances and wills. Civic instruction. — The man and the citizen. The rights and duties, individual and social. Constitutional conceptions. National sovereignty. Government and its different forms. The Constitution. Separation of the powers of State : legislative, executive, judiciary. The commune and its diplomatic relationships. Study of the Federal and of the Genevese constitutions. Hygiene. — Class I, age 18 (One hour per week). — Tlie airand ground from the point of view of their general influence upon health. Dwelling-houses. The conditions of health in regard to the dwelling ; position, construction, dimension, management. Ventilation, heating, and lighting. Clothing.— Property of the different materials for clothing. Form of clothing. Hygienic use of clothing. Foods. — Their end. Nutritive power and digestibility. Principal foods and the commonest adulterations. Condiments. Kitchen and table utensils. Drinking fluids. Potable water, its cjualities, and various sources. Danger of impure waters. Purification of water. Acid and acidulated drinks. Aromatic drinks. Alcoholic drinks (fer- mented, distilled). Theiruseandabu.se. Alcoholism. Proper alimentary regime. Care of the body. Ablution, bathing, douches. Care of the hair, of the teeth, etc. Exercise. In general. Various special exercises. Concep- tions in regard to the transmission of contagious maladies. General prophylaxis. The elements of school-hygiene. Elocution, etc. (One hour a week for the four years). — Theory and practice of the art of reading and speaking. Pronunciation, articulation, accent. Seeking out the emphatic words, principal and incidental phrases. Correction of defects of pronunciation. Recitation of select pieces. The processes of pronunciation. Vowels and consonants. Reading of autliors of the 18th and 19th centuries by the master and by the pupils. Improvisation exercises (extempore speaking, etc.) Prose and poetry, recitations. Recitation and reading. The nuances of pronunciation. Correction of defects of articulation (enunciation). Tone modulation. Reading by articulation aWne, without the use of the voice organs (silent reading). Drawing, -Two hours a week during each of the four years. Egyptian, 350 Egyptian, Assyrian, and Greek Art. — Demonstrations by means of drawings, photographs, and models representing the most characteristic monuments. Freehand-drawing and sketching of constructive, decorative and furniture elements. Flowers and plants from nature and their decorative applications. Drawing from memory and picture-drawing. Perspective. — The various methods of normal perspective. Picture plane, point of view, distance point, line of the horizon. Pavement with application of shading. Koman and Medieval Art. — Demonstration from drawings and photographs representing the most characteristic monuments of Roman and Medieval art. Sketching. Freehand-drawing and sketching from constructive and decorative elements, and also furniture. Of flowers and plants from nature. Decorative applications. Drawing from memory. Picture drawing. Perspective. — Scale of heights. Perspective of elevations. Very simple ohjocts from nature to scale and in perspective. Freehand drawing of simple types borrowed from the art of the Oriental epoch. Furniture dwellings, religious edifice* and their decoration. Flowers and plants from nature, conventional developments from them, and their application to decoration. Drawing from memory. Composition. Normal perspective of natural objects. School of application. Class I., 18 j'ears. (One hour a week). — Lessons are given by the pupils in the various classes of primary-schools during this last year, under direction and criticism. (The whole psedagogic experience is under the hands of highly educated teachers, who have passed through the same education as has been here outlined. The instructors in the piudagogical section have passed also a still highet course.) The other subjects mentioned in the time-table are taught equally well, and the subjects are treated in the same methodical and exhaustive manner. The above programme may be taken as sufficiently indicating the conceptions ot' the French-Swiss in regard to what constitutes a reasonable course, in paidagogical training. In order to fully grasp the significance of the course, however, it is necessary to bear in mind the illustrious history and traditions of Switzerland in regard to education, and to recollect at the same time that the higher Swiss pfedagogue has the most lively appreciation of the great work of such men aa Eousseau, Pestalozzi, Fellenberg, and P^re Girard. 8. The admission io ihe Normal School in the Canton of Vaud. — The programme oE the entrance examination to the Normal Schools of the Canton of Vaud is as follows : — (1.) Reading. — Prose and poetry with summary, analytical reading, with rational discussion. (2.) Grammar. — Grammatical and logical analysis, various forms of proposition. (3.) Composition. (4.) Dictation. (5.) Arithmetic. — (a) OraZ examination; oral solution and the reasoning of a problem upon whole and decimal numbers; ordinary fractions; the Metric System; Proportion and Interest, specially from the point of view of mental calculation, (b) Written examination; written solution of a number of arithmetical problems, of various degrees of difficulty, with whole or decimal numbers, or ordinary fractions ; the Metric System. (7.) Geography and History. — (o) Geography ; knowledge of geographical terms ; geography of Switzerland and Europe, and particularly of the countries adjoining Switzerland. General notions in regard to the other continents, (b) Principal facts of Swiss history to the end of the 18th century. Those who have not studied Swiss history must pass in the principal facts of general history up to the same epoch. (8.) Singing. — The examination aims at ascertaining the correctness of the ear and the quality of the voice of the candidate. The training course for men is four years, and for women three. The subjects are as hereunder and are indicated as for men, special attention being drawn where the course is different tor women: — (1.) Psedagogy. (2.) French language and literature. (.3.) Arithmetic, commercial and agricultural book-keeping. (4.) The elements of Algebra, of Geometry. Practical exercises in Surveying. (Women take only the elements of Geometry.) (5.) Geography and Cosmography. (C.) History. (7.) Civic instruction. (8.) German. (Optional for women). (9.) General Physics. "" , (10.) The elements of Chemistry and of the Natural Sciences. (11.) Hygiene. (12.) Caligraphy. (13.) Vocal and Instrumental Music. (14.) Drawing. (15.) Manual work. (Women take needlework instead.) (16.) Elementary notions of Agriculture. (Women take instead domestic economy.) (17.) Gymnastics. Candidates for the final examination must bo at least 19 years of age. The written examination precedes the oral, and the marks range from one to ten. 9. Details of the Zurich Si/stem. — The following subjects are those of the Zurich course: — (1.) Paedagogy and Methodology. — (a) History of Psedagogy. (b) General Pa?dagogy. (c) Metho dology. (rf) Test lessons in the school. (2.) German. — (a) Grammar, poetry, and literary style, (b) Eeading and explanation, (c) Litera- ture. ((/) Composition. (3.) French. — {a) Grammar, reading, translation, conversation. (i) Knowledge of literature, (c) Composition. (4.) History. — («) General History. (A) Swiss history. (5.) The history of religion (optional, no examination). (6.) Mathematics. — {a) Algebra. (4) Geometry, (c) Numerical calculation, (d) Practical Mathe- matics (field surveying, etc.). The examination in Mathematics is divided into two stages. In the second part, combinations and the binomial theorem, complex numbers, the principal properties of higher equations and of algebraical functions, and also spherical trigonometrj, are taken. (7.) Natural Science Subjects. — (a) Botany and Zoology. (J) Chemistry, (c) Mineralogy and fieology. (d) Physics and Physiology. (8.) Geography. — (a) Special Geography, (b) Mathematical and Physical Geography. (9.) Music. — (a) Theory and principles of musical composition. (6) Singing, (c) Violin playing. (rf) Pianoforte (optional). (10.) Drawing. — («) Freehand drawing from Nature, (b) Linear drawing. Previous work must bo shewn. (11.) Caligraphy. — ( 19i 184 12 6 12 3 144 Once the optional subject is selected, its study must be carried on. < The pjedagogy includes the history of education, and the methodology is taught by each lecturer for his own subject. The whole of the students in the last year listen to model-lessons given by the professor, and are subsequently discussed. In rotation, students go three or four times during the year, for three days each time, to study the organisation of the practising-school, and to give lessons under guidance ; they correct errors in written exercises, and so on. Each student must make a written report of his visit, and has, moreover, to teach certain subjects to a class continuously for two or three weeks. At the end of the last year he is allowed to undertake the whole management of the practising-school with its four classes of about sixty pupils, of ages ranging from G to 10. 11. Training Schools in Hungary. — One of the most splendid schools seen by the Commissioners was the Superior Normal School, "Queen Elizabeth," at Budapest. Tho building and its equipment were a revelation of how incomparably different is the Hungarian people's estimate of what is desirable in the way of a training college, for the education of teachers, from our own estimate. The first normal schools of Hungary date from 1840. At the beginning they had two courses, and were without a practising school, and were, without exception, denominational. The primary education law of 18G8 submitted the entire system to a radical change, aud distinguished clearly between the education for primary elementary-school teachers and primary and superior education. According to Hungarian law, a normal school must have its special building ; its teaching personnel independent of all other institutions; an elementary primary practising school of six classes; and also a garden for tlio purpose of demonstration in agriculture and horticulture, etc. The course is three years ; and at the end of each year the students, on passing an examination, are admitted to the next higher class. After finishing the three-years' course, and passing an examination as to their aptitude, they receive a diploma as primary-school teacher, provided that they have had two years' practice or more. In this examination the interrogatory covers the whole of the subjects declared obligatory by the law. Admiesion 352 Admission connot bo before 15 in the case of youths, nor before U in the case of girls. Candidates of both sections must be of blameless life, good constitution, and in sound health. The male are non-resident and female resident in the " ocoles nurmales." The subjects of instruction : — (1) Eeligion and morals. (10) Physical and Natural Science. (2) Piedagogy. (11) Rural Economy, with practical agricultural and (3) Teaching Method. horticultural demonstrations, (■i) Geography. (12) Hungarian Constitution. (.5) History. (13) Singing and Music. (G) Mother Tongue. (14) Drawing and Caligraphy. (7) Hungarian Language. (15) Physical Exercises. (8) German Language. (16) Practice in Teaching in a School of Application. (9) Mathematics. The above is the programme for male teachers ; for females the same subjects must be taken, excepting music and physical exercises. A course of housekeeping replaces agricultural economy. In order to realise how these subjects arc taught, it is necessary to remember that Herbart's influence is very strong in Hungary. Professor Eein, of Jena, Dr. Karman, of Budapest, and Dr. Veredy, Chief Inspector of Budapest, were all comrades of the Leipzig Seminarium, and are all zealous Herbartians. The general scheme of instruction, with its unity of plan, the teaching methods, the utilisation of the pupils' environments, and the school journeys, etc., books, language-teaching, and training college are all impregnated with the Herbartian ideas. Iteterence hus been previously made to the influence of the secondary-school teacher upon the primary-school teacher. In this connection, it may be mentioned that the students at the Budapest Pedagogical Seminary are men who have spent eight years iu a secondary school, four years in a University, and have also passed a general and special examination. The Hungarian (Tovernmeiit, with a view of keeping its educational system well advanced, send out from time to time qualified teachers to report on the education of other countr'es, and to broaden their own views. CHAPTEE XXXVIII. Training of Teachers in Germany. [G. [I. KNIMSS.] 1. German Vieie of Education. — Professor Dr. AV. Rein, of Jena, contributed in ISOS a paper on " The Drift in German Education "' to the Special Reports Deiiartment of the Board of Education, London," the divisions of liii p^oer being :— A. On the education of teachers — 1. Participation of the Univei-sities in the matter of education; 2. Elucatiou of teachers for higher schools ; 3. Education of teachers for J oUc schooh. B. On school organisation — 1. The State, Church, community, family; 2. Common folk school; 3. Continuation and professional schools ; 4. Higher schools. He opens with the following weighty sentences: — " The future of a people depends upon a right development and strengtheninij of its working pouter. That is the capital upon ivhicli the economic and political independence of a people rests. Therefore, the problem for all who have the loell-beini/ and progress of the nation at heart must he directed to strengtheninq and increasing this national cap>ital. Now there are two elements embraced, viz., the ideal and the material, in so far as the working power of a people is concerned; on the one hand the raising and reinforcing the spiritual endowments, science and art, morality and religion ; the other, the multiplication and extension of the material goods, whether belonging to original production, industry, or commerce. The latter is cared for by the State through its economic policy, the former by the superintendence of the school and educational organisations. "3 This shews the German point of view as to the real function of education ; and this, after all, is the view of all educationists who have any outlook. After combatting the materialistic position of Marx, in adirming that all development, whether moral or intellectual, is merely the outcome of the economic position of the moment, he points out that external hindrances and obstacles can be overpowered ; but that, as testified in the history of Rome, riches may increase, but decline of religious and moral energies nevertheless shatter a nation as it does an individual. In his view, it is the ideal and not economic mir/ht which should play the leading role. When the spiritual element vanishes, then the worth of the individual sinks, and the community perishes. And thus, he continues : " Before this background, the work of the school and of education discloses its reality," no unimportant matter fur a statecraft that would influence the future of a people so that it shall walk in the right way. And 'StrSmungen au{ dem Gebiet des Schul und Bildungswesen in Deutschlaud. 'Vol. 3, pp. 415-460. ' Vol. 3, p. 416. Translation is as nearly as possible literal. 353 And further : " At the side of statecraft stands psedagogy — the science of education, — pointing out the certain way for the unfolding of the health, power, and activity of the rising generation, so that it may become strong."^ Such is the outlook of a German educationist on the problem of the education of the people, and that is the view that must take possession of us also if our people are to progress and be worthy of their heritage. 2. Insufficiency of German ITnicersities ag rejards the Science of Education. — Dr. Kein points out that while political economy has been well represented in the University education by such men as Schmoller, Wagner, Brentano and other?, the science of education has lagged behind; and while men like Eucken in Jena, Baumann at Gottingen, .Turgen Bona Meyer at Bonn, L. Meyer at Tubingen, Paulsen at Berlin, Schiller at Giesscn, Uhlig at Heidelberg, Vogt at Vienna. Willman at Prague'^, and Ziegler at Strasburg have all worked devotedly in the field of pedagogy, the University provision is inadequate. He points out the seriousness of this ; that it is a matter for profound regret that the centres of scientific research (the Universities) should fail to maintain close sympathy with the predominant tendencies of the people. This remark is worth our takinq seriously to heart m the State of New South Wales. The need of greater touch between the University and those who, by teaching our children, are to develope the tendencies of our people is obvious to every thoughtful mind. Dr. Eein refers to the appointment by the Education Department in Berlin of chairs of education in Berlin and Halle. It may be remarked that in the half decade since this was written much has been done to intensify the study of education as a science, not only in Germany, but all over the world. 3. The importance of the tr lining of Teachers for Primari/ Schools. — Some idea of the magnitude of the work of teacher preparation in that country alone can be had by remembering that in it there are over 100,000 persons engaged in elementary school teaching. And it is worthy of note that the educationists of Germany do not view with complacency the attitude that it is sufficient to equip the children of the masses with readins;, writinK, arithmetic, and religion — in other wor js, to resign them to the portion of the poor and lowly, witb which perforce they must be contented. No American could more stronj^ly put the case for popular education than does Dr. Eein. He says: "Christianity has set on high the value of ihe individual human soul — an immense step forward. In former times, mnn, like anything else, was a chattel ; to-day ho is a free personality, whose independent education in the social organism is r.»surcd. No despot's command, be it never so powerful, can annul the idea of the freedom of a Christian man. On this human institutions are shattered. To freedom belongs, before all, the inner equipment of the personality. A wise statesmanship, therefore, in dealing with this ])opular need for education, craving satisfaction with an equal urgenc)' as does the need for food, will try to put it on the right road, and safeguard its progress on iho ascending path." This development of the people may be achieved through education. Speaking of the need for the teaching stalf to keep abreast of modern progress, Dr. Eein says : " With the forward movement of the people, the teachers' education must keep jjace, not hanyiny behind popular education, but rather preceding it" ; not, however, so much as to lose sympathy and touch with the people, for then its lead might fail. He points out that if it be demanded that every primary teacher's education should be completed in the University, the strain is over tense, and unnecessary. 4. German " Prepariny Schools" for Primary Teachers. — -In considering the German system of training primary teachers, it has to be borne in mind that the aim of the primary school (folk school) is not so high in Germany as it is in any democratic country — for e.xample, America, Switzerland, etc. Each year, however, is making a difference, and the spirit of progress is rapidly changing the popular idea. The belief in the education of the people as a whole will soon revolutionise the German folk school for the better. Boys who desire to become teachers, after receiving their primary-school education, generally enter a higher school, the special work of which is to prepare them for the training college. These are known as Priiparanden Anstalten (preparing schools). These are generally affiliated with the training colleges, and may be in private hands, belong to the municipalities or to the Government. The work in the preparing schools amounts to 30-35 hours in class per week, beside eighteen hours preparation out of school and pnictice of musical instruments, etc. Admission to the preparing school takes place either at 15 years of age, as at Wandersleben, etc., where the course is two years, or at 11 years of age, when the course is three year.^, as at Oranienburg. etc. ; 8o that in any case the lad is 17 years of age before he enters the training college. The recent tendency has been to convert all the preparing schools into three-year schools. Admission is determined through examination by the Principal and Staff, and continuation in the course by tests of progress during its currency, scholars whose progress is indifferent being sent away. The following time-table will give some idea of the work done : — P REPAKi\G School, Wandersleben. Hour. Year Monday. Taendau. Wednesday. Thursday. Friday. Saturdiy. 7-8 I Arithmetic Rihle History Arithmetic Catechism Natural History Church Music II Bible Histjry Arithmetic Catechism Geography Catechism Physics 8-9 Catechism Grammar Oral Discussion Geometry Hihle History Oral Discussion Geometry Oral Discussion Arithmetic Bible History Arithmetic; „ 9-10 Geography French Natural History Grammar Physics Essay Church Music Piano French Natural History French Geography 10-11 History Physics Harmony Geography ,, Arithmetic Natural History Writing Grammar Geometry Piano Harmony 11-12 Piano Drawing Organ Piano Drawing Piano Essay ^j History Writing Granmiar History KecreatiOTi Violin Singing 2-3 Geometry Violin Singing History 3-4 History Writing 5. 'Vol. .3, p. 417. ' It is but proper to acknowledge here the very great kindness shown to the Commisaioners by Dr. Willmann at Prague. 354 5. Prussian Training Colleges for Primary Teachers. — On leaving the preparing echool at 17 the candidate for a primary teachersLip enters a training college for three years, where he is usually employed 1^ follows : — First year. — Studies " History and Theory of Pa)dagogy." ■ Second year. — Teaches a very little, after very thorough preparation (at Oranienburg, one hour a month for r.bout nine months : in last three months somewhat more, standing by and observing teaching a good deal). Third year. — Teaches 6-8 hours a week, taking a subject continuously for ten weeks, then passes on to another. At the end, a 2-3 days' written examination has to be passed, and aLso a short oral examination in all subjects. There are few failures, because all indifferent students have been weeded out, either in the preparing school or the training college. On passing, the candidate receives a sort of provisional certificate. Each student on reception into the college engages under a bond not to leave of his free-will before the end of covirse, and not to refuse any post offered him for five years after passing. In from two to five years after receipt of the provisional certificate, a second examination has to be passed. Its object is to ascertain whether or not the provisional teacher has acquired practical skill, a deeper knowledge of educational principles, and extended his general culture ; but it does not test mere details of knowledge. It is possible also, if the candidate so desires, for him to be tested in any subjects in which he was weak at the previous examination. In this way he can improve his position. The examination covers the following programme : — (a) Written. Essay — (i) A subject of school management ; (ii) A religious or ethical subject; (ill) A secular subject of instruction, (i) Practical teaching. Lesson on a subject selected on the previous day. (c) Oral examination in Historical, Theoretical, and Practical Psedagogy. Special success in both examinations qualifies for lower classes in Mittelschulen (middle schools) and for hohere Tochterschulen (higher girls' schools). To qualify for higher classes, a third examination has to be passed, viz , the " Mittelschulpriifung " (middle school examination), and if the position of rector or head-master of a full school (six or more classes) is coveted, or tutorship in a training college, a fourth examination must be passed, viz., the " Bektoratspruf ung " (rectorate examination). The staff of a training college is usually the following : — Office. QuaUfi cation. Direktor (Director) ) .i .. • • ui r tt • -l ^ i- Oberlehrer (Professor or Head-teacher) j ^1"'°^' invariably men of University education. Lehrer (Tutors or Teachers) ... ... Must possess rector's certificates. The numbers of students who are residential and non-residential are about the same. The extra cost of residence, etc., to the student is about £10 a year ; the total cost to the non-resident is about £30 a year. The above represents the education in teaching for men. For women it is given in a secondary school ; and it may be mentioned that the social status of women teachers is usually much higher than it is for men. 6. Training of Teachers in Saxony. — In Saxony the system is different, the candidates being .admitted at 13 after successfully passing an entrance examination, and the course is six years ; so that in the Saxon system the preparing-sehool and the training college are united. The following is the programme of work : — Sabject. Ueligion German Latin History Geography Natural Science Arithmetic. Geometry Theory of Psedagogy Teachmg Practice Music Stenography (optional).. Gymnastics Drawing. Freehand . . Geometrical Tean. 4 3-4 7-6 2 2 2 4 4 3-4 7-6 4-6 2 3 2 4 3-t 5-4 2 2 3 5 4-7 2 3 2 4 3-4 4-3 2 2 3 4 4 '3-6 1 3 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 4 5 4 3-5 Private. Examined quarterly. 1 1 The teaching practice in years five and six consists mainly of watching teaching, and very little actual teaching is done. The students of the last two years are divided into groups of about six, and hear lessons given illustrating matter previously treated theoretically, one series of subjects being adhered to till completed. At the close of the course, examinations are held, under the oversight of a Commissioner appointed by the Government (Ministerium) . These examinations, Abgangspriifung oder Schulamtskandi- datenpriifung (departure examination, or examination of candidates for school offices), embrace : — (a) Theses (written in ten days, not under supervision), (i) Essay on educational subject, (ii) Full notes of lesson on a religious subject. (b) Written examination (four days, under surveillance). Mathematics, " Eealien," Music, Latin translation. (c) Practical examination, (i) Delivery of above lesson on religious subject, (ii) Twenty minutes' lesson, after one day's preparation, (iii) Drawing, writing, music, gymnastics. (d) Oral examination. All subjects; about four hours for six students. Students who fail may have a second, but not a third examination ; but failure is very rare. On 365 On passing, a teacher is qualified as assistant ; and to qualify for the independent charge of a sehool he must pass a second or eligibility examination (Zweite Priifung oder Wahlfahigkeitspriif ung), not before three nor more than five years after the former. This embraces : — («) Theses (fourteen days allowed ; no supervision), (i) Essay on educational subject. of lesson, (iii) Questions of method, etc. (under supervision). (J) Practical examination. Half-hour lesson, after half-day's preparation, (c) Oral examination. Eeligion, German, psychology, psedagogy. (ii) Sketch The examining Commission classify on the basis of both examinations. Those who receive first- class go to the University of Leipzig for two years, taking up psedagogy as their special subject. Those who get second-class passes may also go on to the University, but only with the consent of the Ministerium. This feature is very much appreciated, and the progress of teachers to distinguished positions is thus made possible in Saxony. The admission for women is at 14, with a five-year course, or 15, with a four-year course. The subjects are as follows : — Subjects. Years. (1) (2) (3) (4) (6) Keligion German French English (optional) History Geography Natural Science Arithmetic and Geometry P.tdagogy, Theory ,, Practice Music Caligraphy Stenograpy (optional) Gymnastics Drawing Needlework 7. The Jena Seminarium. — The details of teacher-training at Jena are given in the next chapter, and may be regarded as supplementary information, shewing how thoroughly the professional training of teachers is carried out in Germany. CHAPTER XXXIX. 15—2 Z 356 CHAPTER XXXIX. The Jena Practising School. fG. H. KNIBBS.] 1. The Jena Seminarium. — In order to give a more exact conception of the defimtenesB of the professional training of teachers in Germany, the following translation of the " Ordnung des piidagogischen Universitats-Seminars zu Jena und seiner Uebungs-schule " has been made, the original pamphlet having been very kindly forwarded to the Commissioners by Professor Dr. W. Eein, the Director of the Seminarium. The details given will serve to shew that teachers are really thoroughly prepared, trained and practised in the art of teaching before professionally engaging ir Jt. 2. So7ne English Tteferences io Jena. — The reputation of the Jena 3eminarium and of Dr. Eein are so widely known that it is almost an impertinence to make any comment in regard thereto. The following remarks, however, from the very able paper of Mr. J. J. Findlay, Headmaster of the Cardiff Intermediate School for Boys, and ibrmerly Principal of the College of Preceptors' Training Department for Teachers in Secondary Schools, on "The Study of Education,"! are of interest. Speaking of training colleges and their small attached demonstration schools, he says : — " There ia the famous little school at Jena, conducted by Professor Eein," and he goes on to point out how excellent these adjunct schools are. His words are : — A Demonstration School ia bound to be kept up to the mark, or else it would bring the whole institution into disrepute. It stands before the public gaze in a way that other seliools do not. Its staff are not only teachers of the children, but demonstrators to the students ; they cannot assume such a position unless they are efficient. Further, an amount of attention is bestowed on every part of the organisation, the curriculum, and upon each individual pupil, which is neither possible nor necessary in the ordinary school. Against these advantages there is, undoubtedly, the necessary evil that the pupils are taught by a greater variety of teachers than is usual elsewhere, and many of these are beginners. Nevertheless, the beginners are obliged to make careful preparation for every lesson, and thus the evil is greatly diminished. So far as the boys are concerned, the work of education goes on in a demonstration school such as that at Jena exactly as it does in other schools. True, there are generally several adults in the room as well as the boys, and when a student is teaching the class the form master is also present. The boys, of course, know why he is there, and know that the student is a student ; but it is the custom of the place, and the process of teaching is not disturbed. The whole institution is organised so that training may proceed without disturbance, and boys become quickly habituated to the system. This is an additional reason for having a school wholly devoted to the purposes of training ; there is less disturbance and irregularity in such an arrangement than in plans whicli require students and demonstrators to go to other schools as visitors. In the latter case special arrangements are always necessary, and the disturbance of order is an evil which pupils feel as much as their teachers. The teachers are always willing to take the necessary trouble, but the pupils can hardly get over the feeling that the instruction by their visitors is of an amateur type. It will be evident to the reader that the staff of teachers in a School for Demonstration and Practice, if they also act as guides to students, nmst increase beyond the provision necessary for the school classes ; but this is a question of finance, and is not fundamental to the problem before us. There is no doubt that training for any profession is a costly process, and the work will be badly done if it is not adequately supported. But the lack of means, while it may lead us to hesitate to embark on schemes of training, ought not to serve as a plea for countenancing schemes which tend to injure, rather than improve, the teachers' power. If it is expedient to train teachers at all, it is surely expedient to conduct that training on principles which the experience both of our own and of other professions have approved.' 3. A TJniversUy Seminarium. — The attachment of the training college or seminarium, as at Jena, to a University, has many obvious advantages. The university influences and traditions, the wider and more liberal culture, of which universities are the repository, tend to develope liberality of view, and large outlook, and to oppose the contrary tendencies of mere professionalism. The daily intercourse with all classes of university students will tend also to intensify sympathy between the students of different professions. Through daily conversation, a fuller knowledge of each other's work is obtained, and a better appreciation of the various forms of professional aspiration. Not only will the teacher in daily touch with university life reach a better understanding of the trend of huaian achievement in literature, art and science, and a deeper knowledge of the aims and requirements of other professions, he will also be the means of imparting to others something of his own appreciation of the significance of education, and of the aspirations of the school teacher. It is hardly possible in any other way to bring about a liberal and cultured outlook upon those higher requirements and needs of the human race to which university life is, more than any other, open, and in regard to which the primary-school teacher, whose duty it is to lead us in our first steps in the path of education, stands in so much need. Daily contact with the ignorance and immaturity of childhood may, and often does, lead to fatal blindness of one's standing in the intellectual world ; but, if the teacher commence his professional career with a broad education and a large outlook, not only is he forced to keep in touch with general progress, but even the child life with which he is in daily contact offers material for study of the profoundest interest and difficulty. Thus the teacher is saved from becoming a pedant, and becomes a pasdagogue, not in the narrow, but in the noble sense. lit would be hard to over-estimate the value of university iufiuence from this point of view. It need hardly be mentioned that the teaching equipment of the university also offers unique ndvastages. 4. ' Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London. Vol. 2, pp. 337-377. » im, pp. 366-367. 357 4. The Regulations of the Seminarium at Jena. — The following will give an idea of the regime of the Jena practising school : — Prefatorij Remarks. — The following regulations are for the purpose of rapidly acquainting incoming members of the Seminarium and its practising school with its general scheme. More accurate informa- tion may be had from the third " Seminarheit," in which the detailed Seminarium regulations are given, (see pp. 24-51.) These are actually an extract therefrom, with but slight changes, viz., as regards the order of the paragraphs. While informing members of the Seminarium in regard to the duties to be fulfilled by them, these regulations will, at the same time, serve to give an insight into the spirit of the Institution, and the mission it has assigned itself. It will, on the one hand, contribute to the development of piedagogic science, and on the other hand to the scientific and practical training of earnest teachers. The whole organisation is designed to the attainment of this end. ORGANISATION OF THE JENA P.EDAGOGIC UNIVERSITY SEMINARIUM AND ITS PRACTISING SCHOOL. General Regulations in force at the Seminabicm. (I.) Memljern and their duties. (a) Acquisition of Membership. — (l). Every regular or occasional student of the Jena University may at any time be admitted as member of the Seminarium, upon personal application to the Director. New members must be enrolled , in the "Seminaralbum," with their name and calling, (i) Classification of Memters. — (2). Be.sides professors (Oberlehrer), there are ordinary members (Praktikanten)', extraordinary memliers, and auditors (Hospitanten.)^ All members that have taken up studies at the Seminarschule, are clas.sed as students (Praktikanten.) All members are required to attend the weekly meetings of the Seminarium. (c) Professors (Oberlehrer). (3). Under supervision of the Director, tlie professors conduct all tlie practical school-work as class teachers. The Practising-school contains three classes, and consequently three professors. (4) The professors instruct tlie ordinary students (fraktikanten) as to the preparation of lessons; receive written preparations, and submit them from time to time to the Director. They superintend the lessons given by " Praktikanten," and have the right to intervene in the teaching itself. Conversation with the students during the lesson is forbidden, only short instructions and hints being allowed. Critical observations on the lesson shall bo given, if possible, by the professor to the student immediately upon its close. Only in exceptional cases are "Praktikanten" allowed to give independent lessons. From time to time each professor shall discuss with all his students the question of the concentration tables for the coming week, as well as in reference to uniform measures of government and discipline. (rf) The students. (Praktikanten.)— (.5) The student must arrange with the proper professor and the class teacher concerned, in regard to the assumption of some subjects of instruction. Students must first attend lessons (hospitiercn) in the subjects which they select for a considerable time as auditors before being allowed to do any practical teaching. It is desirable for them to furnish a written description of the instruction in which they have taken part. (6) Every subject of instruction must bo taken up for a "semester" (half-year.) A/l teachimj mud lie based on a written preparation, vAich so far as the matter v;iU o/loir must have methodical unity of form. The matter of instruction must be exactly and clearly articulated, the individual parts being indicated by marginal headings. Above all, the concentration questions (Konzentrationsfragen)' and the desired results of the synthesis and system are to be exactly defined, while the details of the instruction may be more freely shaped. Since the teaching in the practising school is based upon concentration, every student must familiarise himself with the concentration development of other subjects. He must further attend for some considerable time lessons in the subjects of instruction which are closely related to the one he has selected. Further, he is to study the intuitive means of instruction, especially pictures, etc., contained in the school museum. (7) The first preparation is always to be handed to the senior professor, the following ones to the class teacher of the class in which the instruction is to be given. In teaching, the remarks of the professor and of the director thereon are to be regarded. The student must consider, also, the disciplinary regulations in force in the practising school. (8) All questions and explanations of the teacher's are to be directed to the whole class. The children who desire to reply to the questions, indicate that desire by holding up the right hand, and b}- that sign only. A particular child is pointed to for the answer. Every scholar who desires information, must hold up his hand, and wait until the teacher inquires the cause. Restlessness in one's place, and reply without permission are to be regarded as disturbances of the lesson. (e) Regarding members principally. (9) It is expected that the members of this Seminarium will, from public spirit, take part in as large a number as possible of the school festivities, May excursions, and the travelling excursions of the practising school. * (10) A special book has been devoted to information concerning Seminarium Festivities (Emperor's and Grand Dukes' birthdays, ChrLstmas festivities, etc.). A member receives the news. (11) The hospices of members attending in.struction, and all interchange of thought concerning the same, and concerning the reports in the hospice-book, are peculiarly suited to further the maintenance and cultivation of a com- petitive espr!(. Reciprocal hospices are specially recommended. Extraordinary members, too, should, as often as possible take the opportunity of attending lessons and using the hospice-book. Anyone criticised in the hospice-book has a right to enter a rejoinder, — the professor associated may make his own comments thereupon. No polemics are to be continued on to the next conference. (12) In connection with the Christmas festivities for the pupils of the Seminarium's school, a banquet for the members of the Seminarium takes place in remembrance of the day of its foundation (9tli December, 1843). Tliis banquet also gives former members of the Seminarium opportunity of shewing their continued attachment. (1,3) The Seminarium publishes from time to time serial parts (Seminarhefte). Communications for publication, especially about literary activity of late members, are much desired. So far nine parts (Hefte)have appeared. These may be had in the Seminarium from the professor at a price of 1, 1'50, 2, and 3 marks. (/■) Dejxirture from Seminarium. — (14) Departure from the Seminarium, like admission, follows on personal application to the Director. Members leaving .Jena are expected to remain in communication with the Seminarium, and especially also to furnish information for the " Seminaralbum." (II.) Weehly meetings of the Seminarium. (a) "Theoretikum." (15) In the "Theoretikum," held in one of the lecture halls of the University, ethical and psychological, especially professional (fachwissenschaftliche) and methodological questions are discussed. The Director conducts the discussion, every member of the Seminarium having the right to take part therein. (h) " Praktikum." (16) The " Praktikum" consists of a " Trial lesson," before the Director and all members of the Seminarium ; th^ students (Praktikanten), and sometimes even the professors being nominated for it by the Director. At least one "Praktikum" per week must be held. (17) The "Praktikum" is not to be confused with examination, but must give a true representation of the student's teaching, and form therefore part of his general course of instruction. The preparation forming the basis for the instruction is to be exhibited for general inspection during the "Praktikum." The place is to be accurately indicated where the teaching in the "Praktikum" commences. (18) The proper professor nominates for every " Praktikum" a chief critic, who must prepare a written criticism of it, to be handed to the " class teacher" the day before the conference, and be delivered afterwards to the Director. This criticism will be read and discussed at the Conference. A scheme for the criticism will be found in the appendix to the ninth "Seminarheft." (19) ' Practitioners who, in this case, are learning their art . ' Hospitanten are occasional auditors at lectures. ' Konzentrationsfragen are the questions which, being put in a lesson, direct the mind of the child to tne fundamental elements, intensifying the attention, and concentrating it on those elements of the lesson in which its logical unity inheres. 358 (19) The reading of the criticism is preceded by a criticism l)y the student (Praktikant) himself, in which he openly expresses his ideas as to the mistakes made by him during the trial lesson, without having conferred with the nominated critic, or the professor, beforehand. (20.) A Question Registrar (FrageprotokoUant), nominated by the professor directly concerned, keeps a record during the " Praktikum", of the number of questions directed to the different pupils, and answered correctly, erroneously, or not at all ; and further of the recapitulations made by the pupils, according to the following plan : — Questions. Recapitulations. Total. Pupils. Not answered. Correctly answered. Badly answered. Erroneously answered. Fluent. Hesitating. Average. These notes are to be used in the criticism. Criticism as well as the self-criticism are to be recorded in special books. (c) Conference. — (21.) The conference is held weekly under superintendence of the Director, or in exceptional cases, that of the regular professor. General school- matters, and especially the weekly " Praktikum" form the subject of discussion. The conference is detailed according to the following categories : — (1.) New Registrar ; (2.) Old minutes ; (3.) Koll ; (4.) Supervision between lessons ; (5.) New " Praktikum" ; (6.) Hospice-book; (7.) Generalities; (8.) Discussion of ' Praktikum"; (a) Reading of criticism by student himself, and general criticism ; (li) Discussion. The professor reads aloud the categories, that are to be treated, or whatever is necessary to lie communicated. At the conclusion of the conference, a collection of regular contributions towards the expenses of the school excursion is made, it l>eing the Registrar's duty to take charge thereof, and to hand the money thus collected to the professor. Besides the chief conference, the senior professor holds minor conferences, in which such matters as disturlmnces in school exercises, negligences, punishments, " Individuality books", weekly aim (concentration tables) etc., are discussed. Students arc required to take part in these conferences. (22.) The minutes are kept in turn by every one of the members (in alphabetic sequence). These must not contain the discussion in detail. Only points in dispute, reasons ]}ro and con, and results, are to be embraced. (23.) The main part of the conference must be devoted to the discussion of the " Praktikum," and will be introduced by reading aloud the " self-criticism." The last should indicate to the " Praktikanten" that they must look for an explanation of the mistakes made, v:ithin themselres, avoiding the attribution of fault to the pupils, or eLsewhere. The self-criticism of the student is followed up by general criticism. At the close of the various parts a discussion follows, for which all members of the Seminarium are expected to prepare themselves. The discussion must keep close to the point under debate, personal remarks and applications being avoided. II, REauLATioNS OF THE Seminakium's Pkactisinq School. (A) InatriictionK concemimj Adminhtration. Introduction. — The Administration embraces all institutions, which the school needs for establishing and maintaining order, .as a prerequisite for every kind of instructive or educative influence. Its aim is to establish suitable fixed practices in school life. To develope these, therefore, there must be, above all, on the part of teachers the most strict and punctual observance of all rules, which obviously have to be uniform. (1.) Commencement of Instruction. — School begins in the summer semester at 7 ; in the winter at 8 o'clock (lower classes at 8 or 9 o'clock). The lessons start fifteen minutes after the hours, the school clock being standard. (2.) Certain pupils are charged with small duties, such as to see that the material, books, apparatus, maps, pointer, boards, pencils, etc. , are to hand at the right time and place. The teachers, when it is necessary, must themselves co-operate. Those materials must not be sent for during the lesson. (3.) At the beginning of every lesson the teacher, so long as no fixed custom has been developed, quickly ascertains if all is right by putting the question, "Is everything in order ?" to the monitor. Rep'.y in the aflirmative having been received, a confirmatory glance round is made by the teacher. The children are to be accustomed, when the order to "sit down " is given, to report themselves if guilty of any neglect or omission of duty by remaining standing. These matters are to be quickly discharged, and disciplinary measures taken, either immediately, or at the close of the lesson. (4.) Since the instruction can only operate favourably when the most thorough order prevails, the teacher must, as soon as the children have taken their seats, have careful regard to the following points : — The children are lo sit in their places in a decorous manv.r, hut without restraint, with their eyes directed to the teacher, their hands resting quietlj' on the desk ; they must also keep their legs quiet. The instruction must not begin until everything is in order, when the command " Ready," is given. (//. ) Order during and at close of Lesson. (5.) The children are to be accustomed, as far as it is possible, to report their homework, and also the object of the lesson. (6.) Order must, as at the beginning, be maintained throughout the lesson. Unless this be attained, and especially if there be lack of attention, the teacher should not contiime speaking, but must restore attention by suitable command, or by knocking. (7. ) The teacher must himself, during the instruction, occupy a definite place on the platform, from whence he can get a view of all the pupils. He looks steadily, but not exclusively, at any pupil who is speaking or answering a question. He must not, except under pressing necessity, turn his back upon the class or upon any pupil ; nor must he vacate his place should a pupil happen to want special assistance. Seizing hold of, orr pulling a scholar back, is not permitted. It may be here stated that throughout Europe there is a very strong feeling against anything approaching to insolent encroachment on the personal dignity of the pupil. Such a thing as grasping a boy's ear, or roughly seizing him, is practically unknown. The well educated teachers of Europe respect themselves, and are taught also to respect the personal dignity of the children, one of ihe best ways of teaching the children individual and mutual self-respect. It may be further noticed that these lessons in self-respect commence in the Kindergartens, where mutual esteem and appreciation of individual liberty are strongly cultivated. The consequence of this was seen in the characteristically amiable aud polite manners of the continental children. Throughout Europe it is strongly realised that a teacher must be gentlemanly in his manners to the children under his care. Only exceptionally is a teacher allowed to sit. Sitting militates against that exemplary conduct which the teacher should in everything endeavour to maintain. (8.) All questions and explanations should be addressed to the whole class. Pupils wishing to answer the question, are to mdicate it by raising their right hand, and with this sign alone. Some particular child is then pointed out to answer the question. In the same way any pupil desiring special information, should raise his hand, and wait till the master asks the reason. Moving in the seat, and answering without command, should be rejected as disturbances of the lesson. (9. ) When the teacher has called upon a child by name, he should rise quickly and assume an erect position, neither loweriujj his head nor starting. When giving an answer, ho should speak vigorously and in a clear tone. Speaking in a faint voice in consequence of shyness is to be overcome by repeatedly speaking altogether. The teacher should afterwards convince himself that the desired result has been reached. To excuse a scholar who speaks in a faint voice is to confirm him in his bad habit, (10.) 359 (10.) Orders concerning the whole of the class, such as : — 1. Producing and putting away of books, note- books, pencils, and other writing material. 2. Gathering or distribution of writing, drawing, reading-books, etc., and other instruction-material. 3. Falling in, when leaving school-room, and similar things, should, until a fixed method has been developed, be executed on a given command, which indicates the various phases of the action by counting. This is to be con- tinued until pupils have acquired the habit of doing it without counting. Such commands are : " Books out !" "Write!" " Pens away ! " "Turn over!" "Close books!" "Distribute books!" "Books together!" "Stand!" "Ready!" "Fall in!" "Disperse!" (It should be remembered that tliose commands arc given somewhat in military fashion). ( U . ) Pupils shall be informed as to the proper use and treatment of the material of instruction, and in particular that : — 1. All reading and writing books must be provided with a protecting cover, writing-books with blotting-paper. -. When reading, line or words, and places, etc., on maps must not be pointed at with finger, but always with a pencil or small pointer. 3. On the black-board or slate-slab, nothing shall be wiped off with the hand, nor shall anything be written on the wet surface. Cleaning cloths, etc. i. Pens and pencils must not be touched until used, and after use they should be put away at once. (12.) When the Director or guests enter or leave the school-room, at a sign from the teacher pupils will rise, sitting down again, upon another sign. Hospitanten must not give any sign of their opinions during the lesson. With the exception of the Director and class-teacher, no one is permitted in any way to interfere with the teaching or ruling of the class, even though the teacher makes an obvious mistake. The teacher must not converse with anyone during his teaching. (13.) Continual attention is necessary in regard to matters of hygienic importance, such as protection against glaring sun-light, heating, etc. Leaving the schoolroom is permitted only in exceptional cases. (14.) The sign for the closing of the lesson should be given by the teacher. Teaching must not be carried on beyond the striking of the hour, even for giving out home-work or making up any time lost at tlie beginning of tlie lesson. This may be done in exceptional cases after consultation with the pupils after the close of the morning or afternoon lessons. Pupils leave school-room quietly, in pairs ; this being done, the teacher makes his entries into the class-book. (15.) Order must be kept, especially at the close of the day's lessons. Unrest, or premature packing up of the school things, should be punished by warning, and making child leave the class-room last of all. Praktikanten must afford information regarding anything observed in respect of pupils when outside of the school. (16.) 1 . Aim and purpose of special assistance (to backward pupils). This assistance should not take the character of punishment which is reserved for pupils who for continued negligence in their written or verbal work (neglect of corrections especially, etc.), for continual laziness, are to be " kept in." The special assistance has the purpose of helping the backward pupils to reach the scheme of work of their class, again raising them to its level. 2. A criterion for determining where this special assistance will be needed is usually given by the marks of the written work, or may appear from the insufficiency of the verbal exercises. In the first case it is left to the teacher concerned, what limit he will adopt, or where there be more than one, whether the formal or the material one shall be regarded as decisive. Even the general impression may suffice. The main thing is systematic procedure, with due consideration of the pupils' individualities. 3. Who is to afford the special assistance ? The assistance is daily given after the morning lessons, by the class teacher. Other members, however, (Praktikanten) who take an interest in this matter, may take over during a semester, one or more assistance-lessons weekly, provided they are sufficiently informed about the scale of marks, marking of mis- takes, the treatment of pupils, etc. 4. How is it to be executed ? During the assistance-lesson absolute quietness for the work of the pupils shall be maintained, strict adherence being the instructions ; and in giving information of concern to all pupils present, they ought all to be called to attention, and to contribute. It is undesirable to put many pupils in an " assistance-lesson," lest the teacher be unable to devote himself to any one weak pupil thoroughly and kindly. II. EegulatioiiK Concerning Discipline. Introduction. — Discipline has the same aim as instruction, viz., to develope a moral-religious character in the pupil. It tries, by its dispositions, to act immediately on the mind and will, while the instruction tries to reach this end immediately, by extending the sphere of ideas. (17.) The following arrangements are in the interests of discipline : — 1. The morning prayer. — Every school-day starts with a general prayer in all clMses. At the close of school, another • prayer is said. 2. A weekly prayer is said at the end of the school-week by the professors. 3. School festivities such as those on the (a) birthday of Emperor and the Grand Duke ; (li) Christmas ; (c) May excursion ; (d) departure of those who have been confirmed. 4. School trips (See E. Scholz : Die Schulreise, also organisches. Glied in Plane d. Erziehungsschule. From the Ptedagogic University Seminarium III, 5th Heft and seq.) For the sequence of trips, see in the " Lehrplan" (9th Heft). 5. School "Savings-box," specially recommended to pupils wishing to take part in the school trips, to save up the required amount little by little. 6. Pupils' library, the enrichment of which students (Praktikanten) are specially expected to take to heart. 7. Monitorial offices. Certain pupils are nominated to undertake various offices in the school, garden, or workshop. Such offices are to be considered as offices of honour. The following duties are to be performed by two pupils (class monitors), nominated according to their sequence in the class, with weekly changes, viz. : — (a) Look after the black-board, sponge and chalk. (6) See to the teacher's table and chair, (c) Open windows in the intervals between lessons. (d) Write the date on the tablet hung up in each class-room (for the purpose). (#■) I'rovide clean water for jug and basin. (J) Pour out ink into the various inkstands, as required. A pupil is also charged with keeping the books, and other teaching materials in the class-press, in order, as well as fetching, collecting and distributing them. For each special subject, a pupil is to be nominated for the period of a semester, to attend to the corresponding teaching-material, such as maps, rulers, compasses, etc., with due regard to the individuality of the pupil. The necessity of fixed method in regard to each office is to be kept in view. 8. The individuality book. As does the professor, so also must the students (Praktikanten) endeavour, by visiting the parents of the pupils, to work for the latters' welfare. It is recommended that every pupil be accurately observed during the lessons, in the garden, the workshop, and in the play-ground, and in walks and excursions, and that the teacher enter into his circle of ideas and circumstances, by closer contact and hearty conversation on occasions of walks and excursions. If this be done in the proper way, the notion that he is being observed will not enter the pupil's mind. On the contrary, the pupil's confidence will be won, and he will be induced to speak freely about everything that moves him, and will gladly seek his teacher's advice. This relation will thus be of direct assistance in the formation of his character. , All observations made are to be collected, and entered into a book for the purpose, kept in each class, and will be worked up into an " individuality-sketch," as soon as sufficient material is collected, and entered into the " Individuality book." The following scheme is to be followed :— (a) Home circumstances. {h) Age, primary education. (c) Appearance (build of body, condition of health, carriage and look, neatness m cloths and school-books). (rf) Development on the side of intellect (abilities, interest in lessons, homework, favourite occupations and inclinations). (e) Manifestations of sentiments (intellectual, moral, aesthetic, religious sentiments ; intercourse with housemates, teachers, and school-mates). (/) Proposition for improvements of faults on the result of scheme, instruction, or discipline. In compiling these individuality-sketches, special care is to be devoted to the inner, easnal interdependence of all observations and experiences made. Compare C. Schubert " Eltemfragen," etc., 5th Siauinarheft, pp. sk et seq., and Rein's "Encyklopadie." fir ^ TIT. 360 III. Punishments. Introduction. All school punishments are to he regarded as measures for improvement, and they either act indirectly (by accustoming to order) or directly. Tliey fall under two principal groups : Punishments in res|)ect of authority, and in respect of discipline. (I.) Punishments for authority, etc. — These have the jjurpo.se to re-establish proper order after disturbances during instruction. The strenuous aim, therefore, should be to make such punishments surperfluous, by constantly accustoming to order. (18.) The following details are to be observed :— Children entering the class-room after the teacher has arrived, must stand near tlie door until he calls upon them to take their seats. Tlie teacher should not keep them too long, but inquire the reason of their being late. The punishment of neglect in the case of pupils missing any part of the lesson, is detention for the purpose of learning whatever has been missed under supervision of teacher or professor. To eliminate the causes of neglect, it may often be necessary to refer to the parents (communications, parent's evenings). (19.) The admiuistrativo measures for the maintenance of order during the lessons fall under two divisions, (1) general, and (2) special. The teacher should in general succeed with the general measures. These on a rising scale are : — (a) Pausing during the teaching, (ft) A knock. or stroke on the table, (c) A general call of warning to the >vhoIe class or to a special form. (d) Blame and menace, without the mention of names. The special measures are : — (a) A sharp glance or sign with the hand, (ft) Appeal, (r) Threat of punishment, v)ith mention of name, (d) Removal out of place at school desk ; making stand at the side or in the rear, so that, unconditionally, good behaviour may be secured, (c) Personal report to a particular professor. {/) Report to the permanent professor. (20.) In traversing the matter of punishments, care sliould be exercised to observe this ascending series. No stage B'lonld be omitted, neither should any be repeated. If punishment has been threatened, it must follow on repetition of the offence. The direction to stand ontside the class-room door, corporal punishment (as a disciplinary measure to maintain control) are excluded as punishments. (21.) The detention of pupils in a special punishment class is not allowed. Should a pupil neglect part of a lesson, through his own fault, or if by neglect he be late, he is to be punished by detention for work (to make good what he has neglected or missed). (22.) If in teacliing it be found that several pupils cannot accomplish their tasks, deprivation of liberty is not permitted ; a more careful and methodical preparation of the teaching matter should be undertaken ; since, above all, the tc'icher should Jirst look to himwiffor the root of the defect. Vide I (23). (2:!.) For negligences in regard to home-work a similar ascending scale of punishments must be applied, c.f/., report before the next lesson with the neglected work done ; recitation of the neglected work ; bringing it to the teaclier after school hours ; execution of the work under the personal supervision of the teacher. (24.) The assigning of special punishment lessons — repeated copying of badly written work — is inappropriate, though the corrections of the faulty parts may be written out two or three times, wliere it cannot be connected with a special basis. (25.) If a pupil has forgotten to bring au}'thing needed for a lesson, and wliich is required also in the next lesson on the same subject, he has to shew to the teacher before beginning the next lesson, what he is supposed to have to hand, and in ease of repeated forgetfulness, this is to be done some time before every lesson, with the object of becoming accustomed to this regulation. Tlie class-teaclier must undertake, from time to time, an inspection of the books. In connection therewith, care should be taken that pupils do not unnecessarily bring books, completed excrcise-ljooks, etc., to school. (26.) Where negligences, offences against regulations and custom, occur, they should be exi)ressly brought back to memory. (27.) Irrelevant, untimely questions or expressions of doubt must be rejected without further discussion. Such questions and doubts which children express, not for information but to occasion the teacher emiiarrassment, injure the teacher's authority. At times the teaclier may refer to them later on in the lesson, to shew the preposterousness or inconsequence of the question. (II.) Punishments for the sake of Discipline. — The second group of punishments are those which should act directly upon the dispositions of the children. Far more important than the correction of errors, watchfulness in regard to tilings forbidden, and punishments, are such positive institutions as those for the development of the moral judgment, for warning or encouragement ; ''.y., those in the shape of free conversation; repeatedly talking over of various occurrences from a moral standpoint ; further the. stimulation to actiiitij of nolde senlimentx, nuch «-< those of i/ratitiide, pit;/, and loi/aity. (28.) Should offences have ooouired, the following is to be observed :^The teacher must, without force, endeavour to bring the facts to light. This, however, iniHt not be attempted by a single investigation, inasmuch as the boy is likely to endeavour to close the matter by generally disavowing everything. He, the teacher, must be on his guard against fabricating a false representation of the affair, by artfully grouping various occuriences. He must not be infliienced against anyone accused by former offences or accompanying circumstances. Tlie investigation of the offence before the whole class is to be considered a special intensification of the punishment. (30.) lu general the following is to be attended to : — The principle to be observed in regard to all punishments is: They must be applied with uniformity ; they must be meted out without passion and with the necessary moral earnestness. Jiut cold disziplim must never take the place of kindly treatment. (31.) The punishment must cause the pupil to recognise his fault. Both in the pupil to be punished and in his fellow-pupils the consciousness must be awakened, that the punishment was fully justified. The above regulations are only a brief epitome of a much more complete list, bavingfor tbeir object the proper preparation of teachers for their duties, in a methodical manner, and the securing of uniformity on approved lines intelligently apprehended. In translating them it was not always possible to be at all literal, but the e.xact sense has, as far as possible, been given. All persons who had been students or auditors for any time at the Jena practising school, with whom the Commissioners came in contact, regard the methods of the school as excellent. That the professors there are highly educated, and thoroughly and carefully trained, is incontestable. Students^ enter the practising school at Jena older and better educated than with us, and the results are correspondingly better. The system is one that commends itself. It brings the teacher into direct contact with university influences, and this, in its turn, reacts ujjon the university. Before the teacher commences his work, he has, to some extent, matured ; he has had his conceptions of his professional duties enlarged ; he knows something of its theoretical and much of its practical side ; his education has been suSicieutly broad to help to defend him against the narrow spirit which tends to develope through contact only with the child-mind. He has learnt what will make his work real, that is, his knowledge must not he merely information memorised from text-hooks, but direct knowledge thoroughly grasped, and able to be freely applied in helping his pupils. 5. Conclusion. — The Jena school in Germany, that of Kiisnacht in Switzerland, and similar training colleges, are the models on which a training college for this State should be founded, and it sh'.uld bo remembered in this connection, that its efficiency will assuredly depend upon the culture, liberality of view, and ability to awaken ideals, in the personality of its Director. ' That is, Student-teachers. CHAPTER XL. 361 CHAPTER XL. Reform in the Training of Teachers. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introductory. — Sii)ce the realisation of any scheme of public education depends upon the thoroughness of the professional qualifications of the teachers who are to he the instruments hy means of which the State shall mould the character of the community, the question of their proper training is one of the highest importance. i It is extremely unfortunate whenever the office of the teacher is not adequately understood or respected. For a very considerable part of their time, our children, in the formative period of their physical, intellectual, and moral growth, are in the teacher's hands for good or evil. Among the influences that determine the child's tendency, the teacher's is probably pre-eminent, and yet we have made, so far, no sufficient provision to educate him for his responsible work, and have placed his emoluments on a scale that virtually expresses no high degree of respect for his office. If education is to ennoble and invigorate our people, i.e., if we are to have a system which shall develope a physically, intellectually and morally robust race, then there are several things to which assuredly we must attend, viz.: — (a) The cultivation of respect for the teaching profession, so as to induce able men and women to enter and to remain therein. (S) The raising of emoluments of teachers, so that they may live with a reasonable degree of comfort, and in touch with the proper classes of the community. (c) The ensuring of thorough general, and thorough professional education of the teachers, so that they may discharge their professional work ably. This chapter proposes to deal with the last question (c). Before passing on, it may be remarked that when the teacher's avocation is adequately respected, it will attract, as the Church attracts, men and particularly women, who are influenced by other con- siderations than rate of pay. In Germany ladies of good social standing are entering into primary and kindergarten teaching, their status being mvich higher than that of the men engaged in such teaching. The same is true of other countries of Europe. Ladies of good status are also undertaking teaching in America, and with beneficial results as regards the refinement of the pupils. There is reason to believe the same thing will happen here when public opinion supports such a movement, and when the general status of the teacher has been raised by the reform herein indicated. The question of emoluments need not bo now dealt with. It is sufficient to note that in the interests of education and of the country, distinguished ability must take precedence of mere seniority if the services of able teachers are to be retained, and the whole rale of emolument put on a somewhat higher scale. * 2. Principles determining preliminary education proper for primary teachers. — The question of the degree of preliminary education required of those who would become primary-teachers is of consequence for the following reasons : — (n) The importance of thorough apprehension of the fundamental principles of all subjects appears only when education is advanced to the higher stages of those subjects. (J) The unity of knowledge and the significance of its formative function commence to be realized only in the secondary stages of education. (c) The comprehensiveness of education, the range of human knowledge, its inter-relations, and its moral, intellectual, and practical tendencies, reveal themselves only in the secondary stage. These may be restated as follows: — From the standpoint of propedeutics, the preliminary education should ensure some degree of (a) Maturity as regards the grasp of the principles of subjects of instruction. (b) Maturity as regards realization of the formative function and unity of educative instruction. (c) Maturity as regards outlook upon the moral, intellectual, and practical significance of education. Excepting those countries whose estimate of education sanctions the employment of wholly untrained persons (children) as teachers, viz., the pupil-teachers, all countries demand that the primary school teacher shall, before teaching, have at least a secondary education!' This is the requirement practically throughout the whole of Europe (excepting of course the United Kingdom, where primary education is certainly in an unsatisfactory condition) and America. That this is as stated will be seen from Chapters XXXV, and XXXVII to XXXIX. It^ ' The question of tlie professional training of teacliers is very briefly but ably discussed by Miss Margaret Hodge, M.A., in a paper on the subject read before Section J of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Hobart Meeting, 1902, pp. 779-784. '' It ought further to be said that in such countries the primary education is also far better than in New South Wales, hence if a preliminary secondary education is there required, then, a fortiori, it is more necessary here. Pupil-teachers in New South Wales have bad only a very poor primary education when they enter upon professional teaching. 862 It is quite immaterial how this secondary instruction is received, provided only it bo Ihorough, that 18 to say it may be in : — (i) Secondary or superior schools. (Ecoles secondaires, ^colea supi^rieuros ; gymnaaiuras, high schools, universities.) (ii) Special preparatory schools, or colleges (Priiparanden Anatalten, or any schools specially designed for the teaching career. to afford secondary education to those who intend to adopt the career of teacher.) (iii) Preparatory classes of training schools (Ecoles norniales, normal schools, training schools, and colleges. seminaries, etc. ) This absolute fieedom of preparation up to the grade of a good secondary education should aluai/s he assured. It may be said that all these modes of preparation are in voguo throughout Europe and America, often all of them being in vogue in any one country. 3. Principles determining the professional education proper for a teacher. — Irom the theory of education outlined in Chapter 111, it is clear that the solution of this matter depends wholly on whether schools are to be educative, or merely places where subjects are taught. It will be assumed that this State will totally reject the latter or empirical form of education, and adopt in its integrity the rational or educative form, viz., that which in conveying instruction endeavours also to mould the dispositions and characters of the pupils. There are two sides to a teacher's efficiency, viz. : (a) His moral efficiency ; (i) His mechanical eflBciency. Proper professional education takes account of both, in all countries. What these qualifications involve will appear from the following outline : — Efficiency of Teacher depends upon his — (o) Moral — 1. Character. {h) Mechanical. — 1. Intelligence. 2. Moral outlook. 2. Intellectual outlook. 3. Grasp of moral significance of education. 3. Grasp of intellectual significance of edu- cation. 4. Knowledge of moral or ethical subjects. 4. Knowledge of subjects of instruction. 5. Sympathy and enthusiasm. 5. Force and vitality. 6. Knowledge of the art of stimulating ethical C. Knowledge of the art of stimulating expression, will, purpose, etc. intellectual effort, developing practical skill, etc. 7. Ability to direct in regard to moral cnlturo. 7. Ability to direct in regard to intellectual and physical culture. The outline is, of course, not exhaustive, but merely suggestive. To secure this efficiency, involves the student-teacher's 1 stimulation and development by certain educational and technical processes, which touch each plane of his being. These, in the main, are the — (1 ) Deepening of the student-teacher's appreciation of educational effort, by a historical review thereof. (2.) Awakening his consciousness to its scope and significance by a re\icw of the history of its formal, or theoretical developments. (3.) Broadening his outlook upon the subject, and forming his view in regard thereto, by a systematic study of the philosophy of education. This is formative loork of the highest value, and is, therefore, always undertaken. (See any of the continental programmes for the training of teachers). Notwithstanding the importance of the work, it is not attempted in the training colleges of this State, an omission of the gravest character, as wil'. immediately appear. ■1. Function of the history of education. — As a special subject of professional instruction for student-teachers, it may be said that the " History of Education " alone, treated historico-philosophically, will completely efface any tendency to empiricism in education (See Chapter III), and disclose not only how great the subject really is, but also afford that inspiration, which a revelation of the splendid efforts made to educate the human race, is so well calculated to produce. Eor anyone embracing the teaching career, the history of education, or de facto the founding of modern civilisation, is of unique interest, the uplifting of humanity depending upon it. Continental countries attach, therefore, great weight to a knowledge of educational history, as a factor in creating an intelligent recognition of the drift and development of education, and in assuring liberal view and broad outlook. 5. Function of the philosophy of education. — The philosophy of education has a double purpose, viz., of ensuring : — (ff) A sufficient recognition of the aim and process of education. (J) Thoroughness of professional equipment. The two great branches of this subject are those which concern education in respect of — (1.) Its purpose (teleology). (2.) Its method (methodology). The first reveals the real nature of educational operation on the human mind, etc. {See Chapter III), with a view to helping the pupil to develope his personality in the best manner possible. The second discloses the educational processes through which this is attained. One might say, therefore, that these correspond to two aspects of psychology, viz., those which concern the phcenovienn, and the conditions of mental-life. But psychology is a somewhat wide subject, so that for the immediate purpose of professionally equipping the teacher, it has to be restricted to elements directly concerning education, in its ethical and methodological aspects. 6. ' Throughout this chapter, the term "student-teacher" must be taken to mean the primary (or other) teacher receiving his professional e lucation. 363 6. The relation of psi/clwlogy io education. — It has been said that tact and sympathy, etc., make psychology unnecessary for ibhe teacher; to which it may bo rejoined, that the systematic study of mental conditions and phsenomena in no way runs counter to these very necessary qualifications, but, on the contrary, assists to develope them. Modern educational method is wholly founded on psychology, and the psi/choloffical method stands in contradistinction to the various empirical methods, such as the socratic,i the heuristic or discovery method, the so-called analytic and synthetic, the affirmative, the developing or genetic, the catechetic, and others.'^ The use of such books as Gladman's and Landon's treatises on method, etc., in lieu of a systematic study of psychology, is thorough-going empiricism ; notwithstanding the fact that those books are of some value. ^ The study of fwdagogic pgycTiology communicates to the student-teacher a rational understanding of mental processes, so that the methodology of teaching in general, and also of teaching special subjects, is rationally understood. The adherence to particular methods, is a rule-of-thumb idea of teaching, for different subjects require different treatment, and the function of psychology is to enlighten one as to the rationale of the teaching of all subjects, not by empirical prescription, hut hy rational guidance. This is its highest function, and exhibits the essential difference between empirical and rational methods. 7. The place of ethics in the student-teacher s curricidum. — The significance of morals in public education is dealt with in Chapter XV. The high place assigned to morals in other countries may be illustrated by the appointment some time back by M. Jules Ferry, with the express intention of maintaining a high standard of moral-life in France, of M. Buisson as director of primary education of France, M. Pecaut at the normal-school at Fontenay -aux-Iloses, and of M. Marion in the chair of pa)dagogy at Sorbonue, three men eminent in this field of human knowledge. The teacher is daily moulding the child and therefore the nation, by establishing his : — (i) Physical habit, (ii) Mental habit, (in) Moral habit. As previously shewn all this must be determined by the moral aim, viz., the development of character. The period when this is done is the plastic period, when it is possible to give a direction or tendency which will assert itself through life. Eight tendency in regard to body and mind, and right moral feeling and habit engendered in school-life, tend to perpetuate themselves. The celebrated French formula " La function fait Voryane," may be applied to this matter. The mode of control and direction of our bodies, our minds, our wills, brings about definite alterations in our physical organism that assist the continuance by the "force of habit." As Ur. Carpenter says: ''Our nervous system grows to the modes in tuhich it has been exercised."* Professor James sums up the influence of habit in the following propositions : — ^ (a) Habit simplifies the movements required to achieve a given result, makes them more accurate and diminishes fatigue. (b) Habit diminishes the conscious attention with which our acts are performed. Professor Bain says we must : — (i) Launch ourselves with as strong and decided an initiative as possible. (ii) Never suffer an exception to occur till the new habit is securely rooted in your life. To which Professor James adds: — 5 (ill) Seize the first possible opportunity to act on every resolution you make, and on every emotional , prompting you may experience in the direction of the habits you aspire to gain. Habit will be seen on investigation to be that which conserves the whole social organism and maintains its steadiness, and the ethical implications of the law of habit are momentous. Ethicb"-in relation to education has clearly two sides, viz.: — {a) Ethical psychology ; (i) theory of morals. These together constituting Fcedagogical Ethics. Character is of course the foundation of the teacher's influence, and without it his influence will be adverse, and his work ineffective. The moral philosophy of education will at least awaken him to a sense of his responsibility and enable him to reinforce his endeavour to discharge his duty. It will also make his conception of how to discharge it rational, and it will guide him rationally. The significance of helping children to realise their duty to their bodies, minds, and characters, appears in quite a diilcrent light to the intelligent student. The proper development of bodily habit, the necessity for clear thought, accurate mental habits, of inhibiting evil and developing good impulses, of developing the will, stand out in clear relief only through a study of the subject in question. Hero again the teacher of New South Wales has not had the advantage of proper training. 8. The place of Anatomy and Physiology in the education of teachers. — The efficiency of teaching is considerably affected by the health of the pupil, and the health by proper attention to the requirements of the phvsical organism. In the chapter on physical culture (chapter XVII), the importance of the whole matter is formally stated. The proper care of children, that is an intelligent oversight of them as regards their condition during school-hours and during recreation, absolutely demands an intelligent appreciation of physiology and moreover of anatomy. (S'fe chapters XLVII-XLIX on questions of hygiene). Physical culture exercises are of an importance which can hardly be realised without systematic study. By increasing the vitality of the body they develope its resistance against disease, and make all tasks, mental or ' Sckool-work. F. 6. Gladman, 6 edit., p. 120, 121. The Principles and practice of teaching, etc. J. Landon, 1902, p. 101. » See Chapter III, Sect. 15, 16. > Gladman's smaller book is the one actually used in the pnpil-teaoher stage, and till lately at the training-college. • Mental Physiology. 1874. •Principles of Psychology, pp. 112, 114, 124. 1890. 15—3 A 364 or physical, easier. They may be said to strengthen body, intellect, arid will, m fact fb intensify life in respect of its every phase.i Here again the State method is deficient. When the teacher commences his professional career he is ignorant of those matters, and even in the Training College has no teaching, excepting what has been incidentally received in "First Aid" instruction. 9. Hygiene as a necessary suhject in ihe student-teacher s curriculum. — In chapters XLVII-XLIX the question of hygiene in relation to the school, its buildings, and premises, to the liygienic importance of proper school furniture and equipment generally, and in relation to the school pupil himself are brieflv treated. It is of the highest importance that in the formative period of life the hygienic conditions should be as excellent as possible. The direction and safe-guarding of the people's development is the care of the State, and the State can practically determine the future of the people, by seeing that in every possible way the children during school-life shall have proper opportunity to grow normally. A visit to some recently built schools shewed that they do not at all conform to standard requirements, from failure to appreciate, not architecture,^ but school-Tiyqiene. With proper knowledge of school-hygiene, the arrangement of the public-school buildings in Sydney will be totally different {see chapter XLVII and XLYIII), much to the advantage of the children, who must attend. 10. The Methodology of Teaching Individual Subjects. — So far, the contemplated instruction for the student-teacher may be regarded as ensuring general qualification for the proper discharge of teaching. Such qualification is, in the higher sense of the word, formative ; that is, it equips the teacher so that he may discharge his duties freely and rationally, and in keeping with his own personality. But it is necessary also to consider the methodology of the teaching of individual subjects. The contributory science is, of course, psychology, operating rationally and not empirically ; that is to say, it will guide, but diOBs not prescribe. It leaves every teacher free to respond to the suggestions of his own individuality; free, also, to vary his method by way of adapting himself to particular pupils, or particular classes of pupils. It simply ensures that whatever he does, will be done for definite reasons, and in the light of some knowledge of the laws of the human body and mind. There are two methodologies for the guidance of teachers ; one gives rules and directions, the other discusses the rationale of processes. Tne latter is alone worthy of consideration. The qualifications for a good teacher of methodology in any subject are: — A knowledge of the principles of methodoJoqy in general; a knowledge of the methodology of individual subjects. Teaching, however, has to be specialised to be made of the highest efficiency ; it is customary, therefore, to require the teacher of any given subject in a teachers' seminary to be the expert in regard to its methodology. This is of course correct, for, since the psychological or rational method is the only one worthy of adoption, no one is, in general, so icell qualified to reach an accurate judgment as regards the nature and difficulties of a particular suhject, as the adept therein. Such a position as '■^Master of Method" is therefore ill-advised, as it implies empiricism. There is no such thing as a general methodology which embraces details of all subjects. General methodology is not a set of rules, but points out what is known of mental processes in relation to efficient teaching. Hence for special methodology the teacher expert in each subject is the only one to deal with its difficulties. 11. Summary of the Educative Instruction Necessary for the Student-teacher. — AVhat has been stated so far reveals the great difference between a liberal rational training of teachers (so that they may be qualified to give educative instruction) and the training which aims at qualifying them merely to teacii a few subjects. It is impossible to insist too strongly upon the difference. In the one case education is what is aimed at, in the other Case instruction. Education throughout Europe and America is incomparably superior to ours in virtue of this very difference. The element of character-building involves higher training and larger outlook, and technical efficiency in instructing demands a thorougti ■ knowledge of the services which psychology can render. The superiority of European and American ducation, therefore, is due, it may be said, to two things, viz :— (1) Making character the supreme aim of education. (2) Abandoning empirical processes in teaching, and accepting the guidance of psychology. Thus far this chapter has dealt with those elements in the student-teacher's education which confer educative /jojper. They may be summed up as : — (i) History of Education, (ii) Theory of Education, (iii) Psychology in relation to Pedagogy, (iv) Ethics in relation to Pedagogy, (v) Elementary anatomy and physiology. (vi) School Hygiene, (vii) Physical culture and gymnastics. In accepting this view of what is really necessary in the professional education of teachers, the State will only be following the lead of the ablest countries in the world, as may readily be seen by reviewing their programmes. And there can be no doubt that, until these elements are included, we shall make no substantial improvement in our educational system. 12. Technical Efficiency in the Art of Instruction. — In reviewing the curricula of the training- college of this State, and the list of subjects in which teachers are supposed to pass examinations at different stages in their career, one is immediately struck with the absence of any adequate scientific basis for teaching subjects, directly or indirectly, related to natural science. Excepting by students who have taken courses in the University, Science is acquired in a literary way ; that is, by memorising the material of text-books, and not by actual laboratory practice. Such methods of learning cannot lead to efficiency in teaching these subjects. A ' It may be mentioned that in all European agricultural schools, zootechnica (animal anatomy and physiology) are studied, so that animals may be properly hanclled. Is the child to be regarded as demanding le.si attention ? Wlioever answers "yes" has totally different opinion as to proper ([ualilication for teaching from the European opinion. ' The professional work of the architect as such is not at fault ; the difficulty is that the buildings do not conform to the proper hygienic requirements, either as regards orientation, lighting, disposition of the rooms, furniture, etc. 365 A second striking feature is tlie absence of adequate material for illustrsiting intuitive teaching, and for making it, as far as possible, realistic. Notwithstanding the fact that both interest is increased, nnd a deeper understanding of subjects attained through intuitive and realistic teaching, we adhere in this State largely to literary and logical methods. Geometry, for example, is tanght by reading through the several books of Euclid, notwithstanding that such a method is obsolete in almost every country excepting the United Kingdom. One consequence of this method is that the subject, notwithstanding its value and intrinsic interest, is generally greatly disliked. It may also be noted that, even were all the books of Euclid read, which is rarely the case in our primary schools, very little Geometry has, after all, been learnt. And yet, by abandoning this form of teaching, it would not be difficult to give children in the primary schools a real outlook on the subject, certainly up to the elementary conceptions of geometry of three-dimensions, and of projective geometry. Algebra is taught in much the same way. It also could be made more interesting by illustrating its applications, and by shewing how many questions of a practical character arise, in which it is of real service. The relation of Algebra to Geometry, for example, the use of curves and graphs, would increase the interest of both subjects. It would not be difficult to introduce, in a very simple toay, the most elementary ideas of the infinitesimal calculus, so that, when the secondary stage of education is reached, the mind would already be familiarised with its conceptions. Many subjects we learn are really made difficult by the method of teaching them. Efficiency demands, therefore, both knowledge of the subject, and skill in teaching it; and, also, it may be said, knowledge of the contact with other subjects. 13. Eealism in Teaching. — This distinguishing characteristic of modern teaching, to which reference has been made in the preceding section, is what may bo called " realism," and the material equipment of modern schools is specially designed to facilitate realistic teaching. Geometry, to which reference has already been made, affords an illustration of the advantage of such teaching. Much of geometry really requires no formal proof, ai:d when the truths of propositions can be made quite clear in a few moments by means of proper teaching-material, it is unwise to treat them logically, and to elaborate formal proofs with much verbiage. Many euclidean proofs of equality are obvious through the ])rinciple of symmetry, and to devclope the proof in detail is sheer waste of time. Kot only so, but clearness of conception is often impaired by mere clouds of words. Practical life is continually demanding clear perceptions, from which alone clear conceptions are to be derived. Hence, as far as direct and experimental methods are possible, they ought to be followed. Knowledge learnt intuitively is rarely forgotten, inasmuch as the first impression is vivid, whereas rela- tively few minds are capable of appropriating abstractions. A very few simple but well- chosen chemical and physical experiments have far nioro educative value than a mere recitation of them, and, apart frona the failure of children to learn by recital, it is well known that the most egregious mistakes are liable to be made by persons teaching science, who have learnt it only in a literary way. Sometimes, also, in dealing with one science, they touch on another without understanding it, and are committed to errors that generate utterly false ideas. The following example will shew how this may occur. The question here given was set in the arithmetic paper for the CLiss I Examination of June, 1903, for teachers. That is the highest examination held. The question as given cannot be solved ; but on the rrroneons assumption that the flow from the tnps would continue uniform for all licights of water in the cistern, an answer of course, can bo found. AViih complete data the real solution involves the use of the diffjrential and integral calculus, wliich are not subjects in the primary teacher's curriculum. Questinn No. 4. A cistern, wliich U fed by a, unifm-ni supply of water, ia furnished with five taps; when it is partially filled, two taps are turned on, and, after four hours, it is found tiiat the cistern contains twothirils of what it originally did ; a third tap is then .also turned on, and after two liours the cistern contains one-third of what it did at first ; if the remaining two taps are now also turned on, in what time will the cistern be emptied ? A knowledge of physics would prevent such a question being given, and its injuriousness lies in the fact that it leads teachers and pupils aliko to fail to recognise the true circumstances of the phicnomenon, viz., the no., uniform character of the efflux. Such questions have been propounded for at least the last tiiirty years, and may be found in modern treatises on arithmetic. ^ , An experiment would have at once shewn that the usual arithmetical result was not realised, and, therefore, that the conception which led to it must be false. It need hardly be added that all arithmetical examples should be taken so as to avoid false conceptions of the pha;nomena to which they refer. Errors of this kind bring into relief the great value of clear ideas, and shew how much more secure realism is than the mere literary learning of science subjects. 1-1. The absence of Science in Public Schools. — The part that science is playing in the world is growing daily more and more significant, and it touches the most commonplace things. Our school- systems have, however, practically ignored the fact. Teachers have frequently to give object-lessons upon subjects, the value and interest of which would be greatly enhanced by scientific knowledge, which, however they (the teachers) have had no sufficient opportunity of acquiring, their training ignoring the necessity for it. The little smattering of physics which the male students of the training-college get at the Technical College of Sydney is not in any way comparable to the teaching in science given at the normal schools of Europe and America. More and more it is recognised that in a secondary stage of teaching at least, each branch of instruction must be given by a specialist, who keeps himself in touch with all modern develop- ments in his own subject and ia things relative thereto. That is the class of instructor by which our teachers , mus t ' Sec for example, p. 216 in Lock's " Arithmetic for Schools," Macmillan, 1900. With a view to shewing how erroneous the conception of the problem is, the following true solution is givon of a Bimplo c ise. Suppose water to flow out of a prismatic cistern of constant cross-sectional area A, through taps (or orifices) wiiosc effective area is a, and to bo lowered thereby from the height H above the taps, to the height h. Then the time X of lowering, when there is a uniform supply of q units of water per unit of time, is ^ 2A ( _ _ _ aVayH — ?1 T= __ „ V2-/ (VH-VA)+ 2-3026.. . 7 log.o -J^r -\ « V2r/ ( , a \J-Z^h —q) in which formula rj denotes the acceleration of gravity. It soircely neoAs affirmation that tho proponents of the question have no conception of its real complexity. 366 must be trained, if they are to be equipped as well as European teachers. We have, it is true, University graduates as teachers, and given jifoper opportunity of specialisation, they, and any other serious students, will have no difficulty in discharging ably their tasks. But the present system will have to be consider- ably reformed to attain to this. Nothing short of a commanding knowledge of a subject will inspire the rising generation with reverence for their teachers, and with vivid ideas regarding the meaning of science to the modern world. 15. The Teaching of Languages. — Although in some schools French and German, etc., are taught with regard to accent and pronunciation, this is uot invariably the case. The mispronunciation learnt early in life is difficult to unlearn, consequently it is desirable that greater attention be paid to accuracy of pronunciation in educating our teachers. In view of the difficulty of obtaining a sufficient number of qualified instructors, it is desirable that the phonograph be brought into requisition as a means of securing proper accent and pronunciation. It has been largely used in America, and though not comparable to the living teacher, it helps one to avoid mispronunciation. It is well known that many pass examinations in continental languages who are not iutelligible therein through bad pronunciation. The question of the theory of language teaching, and of the value of languages, is set out in chap. XXII. In the future training of teachers, any language or languages decided upon should be properly spoken, and learnt thoroughly, as indicated in the chapter mentioned. 16. Special methodology. — Both science and languages afford illustrations of the value of realism in teaching. But teachers need to be trained, not only in realistic ways of teaching, but also in what may be called the methodology of realism. Not only will it bo necessary, therefore, to give them a direct and practical acquaintance with the various subjects they are called upon to teacli, but also some concep- tion of that methodical development of experiments Ciileulatcd to call into exercise the pupils' powers of observation and reflection. In this way the pupils become finally conscious of its orderly and systematic development. Stress should consequently be laid, in training teachers, upon the necessity of solidly establishing what may be called tha foundations of knowledge, that afterwards they may be competent to really help those whom they are to teach. For, in education, it is vastly more important to lay a good foundation than it is to cover a large area, all of which is imperfect. Imperfect apprehension of anything is of little practical, and little educative, value. While it is of course true that the powers of abstract knowledge in dealing with practical issues are incomparably greater than is commonly supposed, it is equally true that the concrete fact and the abstract conceptions derived from it should be fused together in the mind and memory. A confidence comes in this way that literary learning can never give. Direct derivation of ideas from the actual objects greatly helps in the formation of sound knowledge. The principles of the methodology of special subjects may, as will be seen, be formulated as followB : — (i) Subject-teaching ought to be based upon the appropriate psychological principles. (ii) As far as possible the intuitive teaching-method should be followed, as many things as possible being demonstrated. (iii) Fundamental principles in every subject should be fixed in the memory by concentration and abstraction, the pupils' attention being so directed that they may apperceive these principles. 17. Subjects of instruction for teachers. — In section 11, subjects (i to vii) are subjects whose main object may be said to be that of ensuring on the part of the teacher the possession of large outlook and educative power. To some extent they are, of course, also subjects of instruction ; but there are others that may be more properly classed under this latter title. These last may, in the training of teachers, be regarded from two points of view, viz., (a) that of acquirement, (6) that of teaching. The latter point of view will occupy the student-teacher more and more as he approaches the time for the full exercise of his art. If our teachers are to bo trained equally well with those of European countries, the subjects of instruction will have to cover about the following range : — (i) English — (a) The development of the English language and literature; (h) Grammar an Analysis; (c) Prosody; (rf) Outlines of logic and rhetoric, (ii) Languages — (a) Latin, or (b) French, or (c) German, (iii) History — (o) Ancient, {b) Modern, (c) English. (ivj Geography — (a) Topographical, (b) Industrial, (c) Commercial, (d) Political, (e) Physical, (/■) Mathematical, (v) Cosmography — (a) The Solar System, (b) The Stellar Universe, (vi) Mathematics — (a) Arithmetic, (i) Algebra, (c) Trigonometry, (d) Planimetry, (e) Stereometry, including spherical trigonometry, (/) Projective geometry (y) Historical development of mathematics, (vii) Natural Science — («) Botany, (b) zoology, (c) chemistry and mineralogy, ( maintained at the high state of efficiency possible in a practising-schooli. The purely professional education of the teacher consists of instruction designed to qualify him morally and intellectually for his avocation, supplementary to that which he has earlier received. The. subjects treated and the teaching-personnel depend upon whether or not the seminary is associated witk ft university. 39. Seminary associated tcith a University. — The possibility of special teaching in universities is- frequently such that it is desirable to utilise it in connection with the training of teachers, apart alto- cether, that is, from any question of demanding that teachers shall bo graduates therein. It m.iy here, be said that tlu-re is a wide consensus of opinion that it is not only unnecessary but also unwise to attempt, to make all primary teachers university graduates. At the same time it is equally widely recognised that, those who give evidence of special ability should bo afforded opportunity of graduation. Chairs of Paidagogy have been established in many universities, and there is some advantage in making a Professor of Pa-dagogy also Director of the Seminary. This .idv.antago may briefly be stated to bo the ensuring that the most eminent authority of education, viz., the Professor of Piedagosy, shall have both theoretical and practical experience. His chief qualifi-^ations would, of course, be- bciiad outlook, general The great, excellence of practising-schools lias made it pos-siMe for tljem to sometime* obAT^o \vm ft^». 370 general culture, special knowledge of paodagogy as a science, and it is desirable that he should have some practical knowledga of teaching. It cannot bo too strongly insisted in this regard that he should have a wide theoretical knowledge of education, and that he should know something of its history. That he should be a psycholouist is indispensable, since it is owing to tl.e developments of that science and the services it has rendered to educational methodology that the purely empirical methods arc being reformed out of existence . 40, Length of Curriculum. — The course in tlio Scminaiium at Kiisnacht, where the entrance age is 15, is for four years. This, however, is nut the longest period of attendance at any one institution. The following schedule will give- some idea of the length of preparation in different countries: — Country. Earliest Entrance. Preparatory. Trainii g. Ago. Francs Switzerland F. 1.5, M. 16 15-16 F. 14, M. 15 14-15 13 M 14-15 15 14-15 18 (lit) 16 16 '1 3 2 Years. 3 1-4 3 3 6 5-4 4 4 2 (3) ? 4 3 4 18-19 19 Hungary 17-18 20 19 Prussia ISaxony 19 19 Pelijium' Holland 18 19 Norway' 20 .Sweden' 20 Russia 19 Finland 9 From this schedule it is evident that there is a general consensus of opinion that teaching should not be undert.Tkon before 19 years of age ; and it may also be said that a three years special course seems to be regarded as a minimum. This would moan that the education for the teaching profession should extend from 14-16 in a middle or secondary school, and from 10-19 in a special seminary for the education and training of teachers. Even with such an arrangement it would be some years before our teachers, as a whole, could be as thoroughly equipped as those in Europe, because it will take time for the better education to permeate the whole community, so as to enable the general level of education at any given age to bo materially raised. That of course is necessary for real progress. 41. Conclusion. — It is evident from what has preceded that our whole scheme of training teachers needs reorganisation. The present system is a natural sequence to the pupil-teacher system, and is equally unsatisfactory. It is impossible to compare our curriculum and general method with the curricula and methods of other countries, without recognising that considerable progress is necessary in order to equip our teachers educationally as well as they are equipped in Europe. The following are recommend- ations, which if carried into effect, will place the training of teachers on a sounder footing: — (1) Establishment of a Seminarium with a three years course, sufficiently near the University of Sydney to permit of attendance there, for special subjects. (2) Entrance to the Seminarium to take place not earlier than IG, and after passing either the Senior examination or its equivalent (3) The curriculum to be practically as outlined in sections 11 and 17 herein. (4) All subjects to be taught by specialists. It may be remarked that the necessity of oflbring special inducements for persons to enter the teaching profession will probably cease when the rate of the emolument of teachers is reasonably increased. During the transition period the present principle may perhaps be maintained, the extent of the inducement being however diminished. (5) Finally, to sufficiently influence the ideals and educational future of this State, it is eminently desirable that say two at least of the younger and ablest men of the staff of the Department of Public Instruction should be sent to Europe for a period of not less than nine months, to study the methods of training teachers in the Kcole norniale of St. Cloud, Paris, in the University Seminarium at Jena, Germany, and in the Seminarium at Kiisnacht, Zurich, Switzerland. They should be thoroughly qualified to converse in French and German before starting. If there be any difficulty in obtaining men who speak both languages freely, it would still bo worth while if, in the case of two, one spoke German freely and the other French freely, provided that both could read thefe languages easily. Jt would be good economy to give these officers twelve months to complete their mission, including a brief report on the methods, written during their sojourn in the countries. They would have an opportunity of seeing the various classes of schools, their equipments, the method. of teaching in them, and would return with renewed enthusiasm to the great task which is. before this State, viz., the radical reform of the educational system. American education is progressing so rapidly, and has such excellent features, that it would also be an advantage to send say one student to study for six months the American and Canadian systems of training teachers. These students should prepare themselves by a special study of educational history and theory, psychology, etc., and should be of University standing. They would inevitably become foci of influence afterwards in the direction of the reform that is so badly needed, and would greatly help in the transformation of the educational system. ' The Belgian programme is an excellent one. ' Storthing's bill proposes to make the period three years. ^ ■• Folkskoleliirare (piiuiary sohool teachers). The course for the Smaskolelii4;a,rc is shorter. CHAPTER XLL 371 CHAPTER XLI. Schools for the Feeble-minded. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introduction. — Schools for children of weak intellect, imbeciles, or idiots are a feature in the educational systems of Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Great Britain, Holland, Hungary, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States of America, and experience has shewn that their education is by no means so hopeless a matter as was formerly supposed. The instruction is necessarily special, and very simple. Backward children may be divided into two classes, viz., those that are simply abnormally slow in developing, and those that will, practically, never develope a normal degree of intelligence. There is, of course, no absolute line of demarcation between the two classes. The latter may again be divided into those that can, and those that cannot be educated. > 2. General Principles of Educating WeaJc-minded Children. — The /ir?««}57es of educating imbecile children are naturally the same as for any other, but there are certain differences in their application. The intuitive method of teaching is practically often the only available method. Each child also must, to a large extent, be separately treated, and hence classes are alivays small. Suitable manual training involves healthv use of their powers, and is well calculated to awaken the maximum of interest, hence it is an important, perhaps the most important, factor in their education. The passage from the period of child- hood to the period of puberty has to be most carefully watched ; for the mentally abnormal frequently exhibit abnormally developed sexual instinct, and are also usually deficient in that which tends to control their impulses. Idiots often become purely animal in their instincts ; imbeciles, violent ; feeble-minded, morally uncertain. Hence it is customary to keep the children in the special schools for as long a period as possible, and certainly well over the critical period. In some countries the children are all resident, in others they live with their parents and visit the school as ordinary children, travelling alone or being brought to school by guardians. The teachers of the imbecile are generally, and ought always to be, special teachers. In some caseo women are preferred on account of their graciousness and patience, in others men, because of their firmness. Every teacher must be a psychologist, and must specially study the abnormal developments of the mind, in order to wisely deal with the children committed to his care. In some countries, Germany for example, the post of Director of a school for the mentally weak is rightly regarded as one demanding far more than ordinary qualifications. Fundamentally the scheme of special education depends upon the application of physiological and psychological knowledge in assisting the mental and physical development so as to bring about a normal childhood. This me'dico-paidagogic treatment involves taking the child as it were by the hand, helping him to build up his physique, passing from his physique to his nervous system and his senses, from the senses to conceptions, from conceptions to ideas, and fr(un ideas to moral life. All this the feeble-minded child of himself cannot achieve, but he is helped by the personality and guidance of his teacher to pass through these different stages, the one leading directly to the other. The teacher for the kindergarten and the primary-school needs a knowledge of physiology and psychology, in order to properly discharge his or her task, that is even with normal children, and it is well recognised that this qualification needs to be still more thorough in the case of the teacher of abnormal children. The art of the teacher must be most highly developed for these unfortunates, because they, more than others, need the most kindly teaching and attention, not only wisely directed, but also prompted and influenced by a kindly heart. The teaching of imbeciles has to be largely individual teaching. Each child presents his own peculiarities, each needs special study and treatment. Empirical methods are useless ; tact and sympathy, guided by the necessary knowledge of psychology and physiology, are the chief requisites. Some idea is hereinafter given of the way in which these children are taught in several of the countries above mentioned. In concluding the remarks of this section it ought to be pointed out that hopeless idiots, epileptics, and morally perverse children should not be associated with the imbecile or merely mentally feeble. The latter are indicated by weakness in memory, and in mental synthesis and analysis. This condition mayor may not be associated with lack of veracity, or with an absurd credulity. The morally defective betray themselves by intense egoism, mischief, spite, perverted animal tastes, perverted affection, etc. They must be dealt with on different lines, and not entered in the same school with the feeble-minded. 3. General History of the Education of the Imbecile. — Originally idiots and imbeciles (as unfortunately they still are by the thoughtless) were looked upon as fools, and were treated as such. That attitude to them is, however, rapidly disappearing in enlightened countries. Eor a long period there have been, of course, asylums for them and the insane, going back certainly to the IGth century. The systematic education of these unfortunates is, however, comparatively recent, commencing only in the earlier part of last century. Late in the 18th century, Philippe Pinel (1745-1826), a distinguished Prench physician, devoted a chapter in his Traitc mi'dico-philosophique de Valienation mentale, to the question of idiocy in children. One of his pupils had later occasion to concerp himself in regard to the education of the weak-minded. Itard. 15—3 B 372 ItarJ, Pinel'a pupil, undertook (in 1800 ?) the education o£ a remarkable child, 15 years of age picked up in the woods of Caure iu Aveyron, and known as the savage of Aveyron. Itard explained his method of educating this child in two reports, these constituting afterwards the first chapter of a work on the treatment and education of idiots and degenerate children, which, despite its defects, is said to be still a model worthy oF study. In 1816, a simple schoolmaster, Groggenmoos, opened the first educational institution for abnormal children at Salzburg, which, however, despite the splendid results obtained, ceased to exist in 1835 for want of funds. The same fate attended the institution founded at Wildberg in Wurtemberg, by the Pastor Haldenwang. Itard's ideas were taken up in 1821 by Belhomme of Salpetriere and by Ferrus who, in 1828, installed the first school for these children at liicetre. Prior to this, viz., in 1818, Esquirol had shewn that idiocy ought not to be confounded with mental alienation, though he regarded it as practically irremediable. Itard took a different view from this, and his work was carried on later by his pupil Edouard Seguin, who developed (he method of medico-paidagogic treatment of idiocy. In France, the education of idiot children commenced in 1837. In 1838 Seguin published his Conseils a Mnnsieur O. sur Veducation de son enfant idiot. He regarded idiocy not so much as a defect br malformation of the nervous system, as an arrest of the mental development, produced before, during, or after birth, and caused in a variety of ways ; and his idea was that this arrest could, to a gre.at extent, be overcome by proper treatment, so that the idiot might bo returned to society and ordinary life, and occasionally restored even to a life of normal intelligence. Through the powerful influence of Esquirol, Seguin was authorised to put his method in practice in the hospital for incurables then at Bicetre. His monograph Traltp.ment moral, liygiene et education des idiots et des auires evfants arrieres, in which he explains the methods employed in the education of idiots, was honoured (couronne) by the Academy, and remains to-day an excellent manual on the education of the feeble-minded. In 1850, Seguiu went to Kew Tori<, where he continued liis work until his death in 1880. In Switzerland in 183lj, a young phy., quoted above, hereby direct Mr. , the Divisional Superintendent for the Division, to take the legal proccuilings herein set forth against the parents of the following cliildren, viz. : — Name of Parent. Name of Chiia. Summons for breach of By-laws. A.B. CD. Summons under Elementary Edac:ttton Act, 1870. Summons under Employers' Summons Elementary | under Elenientary Education Act,' Education Acts, 1876. i 1870 and ISclO. Summons under the Elementary Educa- tion (Rlind and Deaf Children) Act, 1893. Summons under the Elementary Educa- tion (Defective and Epileptic Children) Act, 1899. \ Members of the / School Board for London. Special Belurn. — "From a special retiirti which the Board had prepared in December, 1808, it was shown that one-fifth of the pupils in Elementary Schools made only SO per cent, of attendance. This leakage of 20 per cent, the School Attendance Committee made a special effort to stop, and the remedy applied was reducing the number of pupils for whom any one of the visitors was responsible, from 3,000 to 2,800. This arrangement gave the visitors opportunities for a closer investigntioii of the cases making about 80 per cent, of attendance. The re-arranged plan necessitated the appointment of additional visitors, and thfi Board issued a special instruc/ion thai its officers should st/s/emaficaUt/ visit all children who lost two a/tendances per toeeJ:, that is, two half days. Dealing with those whose attendance fell below 80 per cent, the Board on the 7th November, 1001, decided to appoint visitors, one for each Division, for special duties in the districts ])resenting peculiar difficulties. The School Attendance Committee, in its latest report, refers to the excellent results brought about by those special officers. 'Slip" System. — The Board, always alive to the necessity for raising the average attenda/nce at its schools, commissioned its ]irincipal attendance clerk and the head as^istant clerk, together with two Divisional superintendents, to make investigations in several of the largest provincial towns where the " Slip " System is in operation. This system, which works well in Birminiiham, is now on its trial in the Divisions presided over by the two superintendents who accompanied the Commission. The main features of the "Slip" System are given in the Board's report for 1902, and are as follow: — The name of every child upon the roll of a school is tntered upon a printed slip, and each week the attendances of the child are entered upon the slip by the teacher, who then forward.s the slip to the visitor. The visitors then take out the slips for the children who have made irregular attendances, and, without any additional clerical work, are enabled to visit the homes of the absentees, and enter upon the slips at once the reasons given by the parents for the absences of the child. Street Visitors. — One of the most valuable branches of the Board's duties is that allotted to the Street Visitors. There are fifteen of these officers in London, and their particular mission is to deal with all children of school age found frequenting the streets or open spaces, quays, markets, parks, railway stations, etc. REPORT ON THE WORK OF THE STREET VISITORS, 1902. No. OF Children Foc.nd i.n the Streets, and now Occupied. (a) Playing or loitering in streets or open places 13,960 (/() Selling matches 330 ((■) Sweeping crossings, collecting rags, etc 514 (d) Going errands 8,284 (e) Begging or wandering, and having no home 207 {/) Miscellaneous 378 L'3,739 Disposal — 4,077 to other Divisions. Leaving to be accounted for 19,002 Total cases under inquiry, including uudisposed cases, those from other Divisions and above stated number 21,550 Result of Inquiry. (a) On rolls of efficient schools 17,580 (h) Receiving instruction at home 13 (c) Under compulsory age ... 43 Id) Totally exempt ,. 122 (e) On the rolls of non-efficient schools 6 (/) Wrong address given and cannot be traced 944 (tl) Given into custody by street visitor for begging, etc 207 (A) Not on roll of any efficient school 2,635 (i) Undisposed of 6 21,556 Detailed Report with reference to (h) Remit of Inquiry. (a) Child now attending school ,. ... 1,471 (fc) Sent to an institution 35 (c) Family removed 275 (d) 111 or illness in home 579 (e) In the country 7 (/) Under surveillance 218 ( foot, is of the highest utility. The garden is small, but highly prized. The iufirrnary is the newest part of the building. It contains special rooms and wards with modern liftings. Provision has been made for isolating infeciious cases. A medical man attends daily. The dormitories are situated on the lir.-it floor, and are bri};ht, roonny, clean, and well ventilated. Eich bad is supplied with a sheet, blanket, rug, and a horsehair pillow. The white night-shirts and the socks worn by the boys are made by the girls of the Board day-schools. The dormitories are well supervised, oflScors' quarters being ro arranged that all the inmates are easily under observation. To mini?nise the amount of absconding all the windows of the dormitories are barred. In view of the recent sad disaster in a largo English public school, " barred windows" in boys' dormitories will, according to a recent cable, be no longer tolerated. Shoe-making is confined to repairing boots for the establishment. Two classes of ten each receive instruction on alternate half-days. Those having aptitude for the work are employed, but there is no attempt at teaching a trade. Tailoring is carried on under an expert. Two classes of ten each work on the half-day principle and make all the clothing and uniforms for the school. The work seen was uniformly good. Only one sewing-machine was in use. Darning is taught to all the junior boys by the assistant matron. A bakery exists for supplying the inmates with bread. The management finds that this arrangement is cheaper than purchasing from the trade. Boys assist the baker, and may intuitively learn the business. Laundry work — washing, ironing, and mangling — is performed by the boys, for the school and the staff. No objection is made by the lads in the performance of this menial work. Cookery is under the control of a professional cook, who is assisted by a number of boys. The kitchen is well provided with steam coppers, kettles, and gas-stoves. Here again no special effort is made to teach a trade. The whole aim of the industrial training is educative rather than utilitarian. One serious defect exists in this school, which is surprising where there is so much that is admirable — there is no manual training A caution similar to that impressed on boys licensed out from Day Industrial Schools is given to these lads after their term of probation expires, and the same vigilance is exercised by the visitor in watching their attendance at the day elementary school. As in the case of lads in the Day Industrial Schools, parents of boys in this school are allowed to choose the schools which they wish their sons to attend. Highbury Truant School. — The Governor of Highbury Truant School, in his latest report, states : " The school continues to do excellent work in training and educating the disobedient' and wilful boys of London. It is safe to assert that, but for the work of the Truant School, many boys would grow up in absolute ignorance, as many continue to be admitted who scarcely know their letters and cannot write. It may be open to remark that in some cases the correction of the Truant School fails to produce the desired end of a regular attendance at an ordinary elementary school, and no doubt this is occasionally so, but, even in these cases, we have the satisfaction of knowing that these repeated admissions hero empower us to give them what no outside machinery appears able to effect, viz., a "ood, sound, elementary education." His Majesty's Inspector reports : — A really admirable display was given of gymnastics, and it was as instructive as ever to compare the physique of the old hands and the newcomers. There Mould be less talk aljout the physical degeneracy of a town-bred population if all town boys were put through the mill as they are here. There has been no occasion for serious punishment since last inspection, and the short list is made up almost entirely of such offences as disobedience, neglect of work, and general miscondnot in the dormitory and elsewhere. All that has been said in past years in favour of this admirable school has only to be repeated to-day. It will be interesting to see how the school will cope with the higher standard now required for labour certificates. The raising of that standard {VII), however commendable on general grounds, has hit hard some of the big backward truants, who are not vicious in character, and have plenty of ability, though not of a bookish kind. The Gross. Net. £33 13 7! £28 1 3 £25 16 10^ £19 19 lOi Officers. Boya. lOs. 9id. 2s. OJd. 108. 74d. 23. 4id. 892 The following stati.stics regarding cost of supporting the Truant Schools are from the latest report of the Industrial Schools Committee, London School Board : — Annual cost per head. Upton House , Highbury Average weekly cost for provisions, Upton House Highbury The Q-overnment Inspector, reporting on the partially subsidised Truant School, Lichfield, remarks : " A new feature this year is a bugle band. The mark system continues to work well. Two boys absconded, but were soon brought back, and before they left on license both earned the highest Ct.C. (good conduct) badge. The probability is that no truant passes through a course of training at this school without having his moral character raised and his general attitude towards society softened and improved." The Board Inspector reports : "The boys have two complete suits, which are all made in school. The drill is excellent. Swimming is systematically taught. Many friends in the city take a great interest in the school, and invite the boys to tea, sports, tf'c." Heijulations of Upton House and Highbury Truant Schools — The Board for London Certified Industrial School, Upton House, LTrswick-road, Homerton, E. ; the Dietary Table for Upton House and Highbury Truant Schools ; the time-table for Upton House Truant School ; License Notice ; Boys' License ; Medical Certificate ; Rules as to visiting ; are as follow : — RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR THE M.4.NAGEMENT OF THE SCHOOL BOARD FOR LONDON CERTIFIED INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, UPTON HOUSE, URSVVICK ROAD, HOMERTON, E. 1. This School shall be called the " Upton House Industrial School," Upton House, Urswick-road, Homerton, E. 2. The object of the school shall be the reception of boys who are sent by a magistrate, at the instance of the School Board for London, under the provisions of the Industrial Schools Act, 1866, 29, 30 Vict., cap. 118, to be fed, clothed, lodged, educated and trained in some industrial occupation, under the management of the Scliool Board for London through a committee appointed by them. 3. The number of inmates to be provided for at any one time in the premises now used shall not exceed 150, of whom not more than forty may be Roman Catholics. 4. No boy shall be admitted under 6 years of age. A medical certificate shall be furnished in every case that the boy whose admission is applied for is free from infectious disease, and capable of receiving instruction. 5. The boj-s shall have separate beds, and shall be supplied with a sufficiency of plain, useful clothing. 6. The boys shall be supplied with plain, wholesome food, according to a dietary to be approved by the inspector ; no substantial alterations thall be made in the dietary without previous notice to him. 7. The secular instruction shall consist of reading, writing, spelling, cyphering, vocal music, and the elements of English history and geography. Each boy shall receive three hours' schooling daily. The religions instruction shall be given daily, in accordance with the following resolution passed by the Board on the 8th March, 1871 : — " That in the schools provided by the Board the Bible shall be read, and there shall be given such explanations and such instruction therefrom in the principles of morality and religion as are suited to the capacities of children : provided always — (11 That in such explanations and instruction the provisions of the (Elementary Education) Act (1870) in Sections VII and XIV be strictly observed both in letter and spirit, and that no attempt be made in any such schools to attach children to any particular denomination. (2) That in regard of any particular school, tlie Board shall consider and determine upon any application by managers, parents, or ratepayers of the district, wlio may sliow special cause for exception of the school from the operation of this resolution, in whole or in part." In case of any child being admitted who is specified in the order of detention as belonging to some particular religious persuasion, a minister of such religious persuasion shall be allowed to visit such child for tlie purpose of religious instruction, on such days, and at such hours, as shall be fi.xed by the Secretary of State, in conformity wich the provisions of the Industrial Schools Act, 1866, Section 2.). The industrial training shall comprise gardening, and sucli otiier handicrafts as can be conveniently practised, and shall occupy five hours daily. 8. Each day shall be begun and ended with simple family worship, consisting of prayer, singing, and the reading of Scripture. On Sunday the boys who are not Roman Catholics shall attend worship at some convenient church or chapel. In the case of Roman Catholic boys, a minister of that religious persuasion shall be allowed to visit the school every morning from 8'40 to 9 (being the same time at which religious instruction is given to the other boys). In the absence of such minister the religious instruction and observances of tiie Roman Catholic children shall be conducted either by a Roman Catholic teacher or other person of that per3U.^sion, approved liy such minister, and duly authorised by the Board, at the times specified in the time-table, and the Sunday service shall be held every Sunday morning at 9'30. The Roman Catholics are to be allowed to attend their own services occasionally, under arrangements with the minister of that persuasion. 9. The Governor shall be authorised to punish any boy detained in the school in case of misconduct ; all offences jind punishments being entered in a book kept for that purpose, and laid before the Committee at their meetings. No corporal punishment shall be inflicted except by order of the Governor, and in his presence. 10. Ordinary punishments may consist of forfeiture of rewards and privileges, reduction in quantity and quality of food, confinement in a room or cell for not more than three days, and moderate personal correction, not to exceed twelve strokes, with a rod or school cane ; but no boy shall be deprived of two meals in succession, and any boy in confinement shall be allowed not less tlian 1 lb. of bread, and gruel or milk and water daily. 11. The boys shall be allowed two hours daily for recreation and exercise, and shall be occasionally taken out for exercise beyond the boundaries of the School. 12. The parents and near relations of the boys shall be allowed to visit them once a month for one hour, at a time to be appointed by the Managers ; such privilege to be forfeited by misconduct or interference with the discipline of the School. In the case of serious illness of any boy, or of his intended removal from the School by license, transfer, or legal discharge, notice shall be sent to the parents by the Governor. 13. On the discharge of any boy from the School he shall be returned to his relatives or friends, and the expense of such return shall be defrayed. 14. The School shall be open for inspection by visitori at convenient times, to be regulated by the Committee. 15. The Governor shall keep a journal of all that passes in the School, and shall lay the journal before the Committee at their meetings. 16. A medical officer shall be appointed to visit the School once a week, and oftener when required. He shall enter his visits in a book kept for that purpose, with a note of all serious illness attended by him in the School, and of the treatment prescribed. 17. In case of the sudden or violent death of any inmate of the School, immediate notice shall b3 given to the coroner of the district in which the School is situated, and the circumstances of the case reported to the inspector. 898 18. The Governor shall keep a register of admissions and discharges, with particulars of parentage, previous circumstances, &c. , of each boy admitted, and tlie disposal of each one discharged, and shall regularly send to the office of the inspector the returns of admissions and discharge, the quarterly list of boys under detention, and the quarterly accounts for their maintenance. 19. All books and journals of tlie School shall be open to the inspector for examination. Any schoolmaster engaged in the institution shall be examined by him if he deem it necessary. Kotice shall be given to tlie inspector of the resignation or dismi: 4 piug may be given in addition when obt...inable from joints. Salt and pepper — At discretion. Rhubarb. — Rhubarb, with sugar, may be substituted for vegetables, provided no extra cost is incurred. Green vegetables. — When green vegetables can be obtained they are to be substituted for 4 oz. of potatoes, providing no extra weekly cost is incurred. Vinegar. — When corned beef or fish is given for dinner, vinegar may be served out at the rate of IJ gallons per meal for the whole of the boys. Note. — For boys while on the Tender "Themis," the allowance of uncooked beef is to bo increased to 12 oz. each per day. Boats' crews may receive, in addition to the ordinary allowance, in cold weather, 8 oz. of bread and 3 oz. of marmalade, at the discretion of the Captain-Superintendent. • These weisfhts are uncookoii. fBreacl and dieesc and onion dinner may be substituted for mc.%t pie at discretion of CaptainSuperintcndent, viz. :— 7 oz. bread, 3 oz. cheese, 3 oz. (about) onions. Approved by the Managers, 2Sth June and 2Gth October, 1S98. Approved, 1st August, 1898, and 2ath April, 1S90. (Signed) A. E. GARLAND, Clerk of the Managers. (Signed) .JAMES G. LEGGE, H.M. Chief Inspector of Reformatory and Industrial Schools. SCHOOL BOARD FOR LONDON.— TRAINING SHIP GRAYS, ESSEX. Leave of Absence Note. ' .SHAFTESBURY,' 18 ermittcd to be away on leave of absence to inclusive. Captain-Superintendent. School Board for London. 1249 1249. Training Ship "Shaftesbury." Leave of Absence Note. 18 . Boy's Name From f™™ To Captain-Superintendent. Section 34 of the Industrial Schools Act, 1866, is as follows :— 34. If any person do any of the following things (that is to say) — First, knowingly assists, directly or indirectly, a child liable to be detained in a certified Industrial School, to escape from the school ; Second, directly or indirectly induces such a child so to escape ; ■ • i. i Third, knowingly harbours or conceals a child who has so escaped, or prevents him from returning to school, or knowingly assists in so doing ; J>ery such person shall be guilty of an offence against this Act, and shall, on summary conviction thereof before two justices or a magistrate, be liable to a penalty not exceeding two months, with or without hard labour. 6250. School Board for London. Training Ship " Shaftesbury." Visiting Note. Boy's Name Date of Visit Name o Visitor Captain-Superintendci.t. 6250 SCHOOL BOARD FOR LONDON. -TRAINING SHIP " SHAFTESBURY," GRAYS, ESSEX. Visiting Note. You are permitted with friend to visit hours of 1 p.m. and 4 p.m. between the To N.B.— This Note must bo produced before being allowed on board. Captain-Superintendent. SCHOOL 398 SCHOOL BOARD FOR LONDOX.— TRAINING SHIP "SHAFTESBURY," GRAYS, ESSEX. GuAiiANTEE Note. 19 . I, residing at hereby pledge myself responsible for the good conduct of my son, during his leave of absence, and do hereby guarantee his punctual return to the Ship at the time and on the day specified in his Leave of Absence Note. I also certify that there is no infectious disease about the house or neighbourhood. Parent's Name. The following certificate must be signed by cither a clergyman, a doctor, or a schoolmaster. 190 . I hereby certify that the homo of Mr. is clean and respectable, and fit for the reception of while on leave from the training ship "Shaftesbury." Clergyman, doctor, or schoolmaster. Address. The whole of this Form must be filled in correctly and returned by addressed to the Captain-Superintendent, and the railway fare enclosed. Postal orders must be sent, not stamps or post office orders. Leave cannot in any case be granted until these conditions are complied with. Train leaves Grays at ; return train leaves Fenchurch-strcet at Gordon Souse Girls Home, Richmond Bond, IslewortJi. — In December, 1900, tlio Home Office certified the School with the Cottage Hoino for 70 girls. The 1002 report gives the following information : — There are 70 girls in the Home. A distinguishing feature of the school is the large numl)cr of young children, four of them being four years of age. Classes in housewifery lessons have been re-started, and are a great help in the training of the girls. During the winter a course of lessons in " I''irst Aid " has been given to the elder ones. They have shown great aptitude in the practical side of the work. As the school grows older the girls are of much more use in the making of tlioir own garments. The elder ones are taught to cut out, fix, and make clothing, becoming thoroughly acfjuaintcd with the use of the sewing machine. The weekly washing, ironing, mending, and darning, in addition to some branch of housework to be done daily, make the little lives here very busy ones. — Amy E. Challenger, Superintendent. The Government Inspector reports: — It is impossible for anyone with experience of industrial schools to over-rate the value of the training courses. They not only quicken the intelligence, they give children an interest and pride in their work. The Swedish drill given to the girls is thoroughly good, and the excellent results on the bearing and gait of the girls remain as striking as ever. Attention may be called to the healthy way in which the girls have been trained to amuse themselves in the garden. It woulil be well if in all schools of this kind it were recognised that really useful recreation is largely a matter of training. It is always a pleasure to inspect this school, the children are so bright and well-mannered, and evidences that they are well cared for so abundant. The Board School Inspector reports : — ■ Number for which the school is licensed 70 Number of children in the school 70 Number of London children 70 Number of whole-timers in school 65 Number of London children who are whole-timers in school 65 The walks per week are of about two hours each ; from one to two hours' play per day. Some of the girls have their own gardens. Each girl has a locker for her dolls and other toys. Fortunat a e the little " waifs and strays " gathered into Gordon House. The following statistics of cost of maintenance, Gordon House Girls' Industrial School, are from the 1902 report :— Average number maintained 68 Annual cost per head, including salaries £42 1 5 gross „ ,, 34 8i nett Average weekly cost for provisions (officers) 11 5 „ ,, „ (childicn) 2 lOi EJjiiciencij of Schools and Disposal of Children. — In concluding these remarks on the Industrial Schools ot' London the final paragraphs in the latest report of the Chairman of the Industrial Schools Committee are very significant, and are as follow : — The Committee have given much attention to the satisfactory disposal of the children upon their leaving the Schools, for it is obvious that unless gre it care is exercised in this respect the children will turn out badly, the instruction and training which they have rcjeived will, in a large meisurc, be lost, and the money which has been expended upon them Mill have been spent in vain. It is most important that children should be placed in situations which afford prospects of future advancement and an ultimate means of livelihood, even at comparatively low commencing wages, rather than that they should be placed in unskilled employment, such as errand boys, shop boys, and van guards, in which the initial remuneration is comparatively high. These latter posts are easy to obtain ; but, on the other hand, they rarely lead to permanent adult employment ; the lad in a few years has to make way for younger boys at lower wages, and ho probably drifts into merely casual labour, and may even degenerate into the ranks of the so-called " Hooligans." For this reason the Committee liave Sur I'lSducation physique de I'enfant, 1762. * Sur la mortalitii du premier age, 177C. 15— 3 F social, par M. le 404 apply themselves to the serious study ofhi/gienic questions, and end hy leing penetrated with their importance ; " and speaking of the practical means of reacliinK a deeper appreciation, he adds: "A national exhibition of school hygiene ought to assist marvellously the obtaining of so desirable a result. In no place could or ought interest to be better awakened ; no better occasion could be offered to teachers to see, examine, and study the advances so frequently realised in school hygiene. In a real and very important sense, the hygienic elements of school-life, of schools and their equipment, seen by the ("omnn'ssioners during their tour, constitute an hygienic "exposition" of the most complete kind. And it may be said that in respect of almost every clement of the subject, we have, much, indeed we have almost everything, to learn. It is proposed, therefore, to dwell at considerable length upon it, and in doing this to draw largely from Swiss sources, for in the Commissioners' judgment the Swiss school-hygiene ranks as high as that of any other place in the world. By way of illustrating the point, the Genevese liegulations as to school-hygiene, dated 28th January, 1898, may bo quoted, and also their liegulations for the sanitary inspection of schools, dated 24th December, 1888. 4. Swiss School-hygiene. — The Eegulations translated from official documents are as follows : — GENEVESE REGULATIONS AS TO HYGIENE IN SCHOOLS (28th JANUARY, 1S98). Art. 1. — Tlie plot destined for a school-building irniat be as central as possible, airy, of easy and sure access, away from every source of noise, and remote from all unhealtliy or dangerous establishments. It must be at least 100 metres (about 110 yards) from any cemetery. The soil shall be rendered wholesome by drainage. Art. 2. — The disposition of the buildings shall be determined by the position, configuration, and dimensions of the plot of land, the free view of the sky, and especially the distance of neiglibouring structures. Art. 3.^In such communes as have the mayoralty and the school in the one building, the two services shall be wholly separated. No service, foreign to the school, may be installed in school buildings without the authority of the Department of Public Instruction. Art. 4. — In every school-group, the various schools should have distinct entrances, and, if possible, these should not be contiguous. The placing of the recreation-yard of the infant-school in the immediate neighbourhood of tho primary classes should be avoided. Art. 5. — A school-group should not exceed 500 pupils. Art. 0. — The caretaker's apartments ought to be arranged as a lodge at the main entrance. Art. 7. — Ever}' school-building shall be provided of a recreation-yard and a gymnastic hall. Art. 8. — The area of a recreation-yard shall be calculated at the rate of about 4 square metres (43 square feet) to each pupil. One part shall be covered so as to form a shelter in case of bad weather. The ground shall be sand, or else covered with fine gravel. Paving or cementing may not be used except for pathways or walks. The levelling of the ground sliall be so arranged as to insure the proper flow of the water falling thereon. Art. 9. — The class-rooms on the basement ought to have their floors 0'60 metre (2 feet) at least, above the external ground level. Class-rooms may not be installed in s-jch places as are ground-floors on one side and below the ground on the other, unless these localities have two fa s completely free and the others isolated by the level plots. Art. 10. — If the floor is not placed above spaces, it shall be put upon a platform, or upon a stratum of impermeable material. Art. II. — Each class-room shall have an independent entrance. The gates must not open directly either upon the street or upon the yards. When the class-rooms are provided with lobbies, these ought to have a breadth of at least IJ metre (5 feet), and should receive air and light directly. Art. 12.' — The flight of stairs giving access to class-rooms should have a minimum breath of IJ metre (5 feet). The treads should have a breadth of 0'2S to 0'30 metre (11 to 12 inches), corresponding to a rise of 0'15 to 0'16 (5j to 6J inches). In no case shall the access be mere ladders. Art. 13. — The classroom shall be of rectangular form, and its area calculated in the ratio of 1'20 square metres (13 square feet) per pupil. Art. 14. — The lighted faces of the school-buildings should be sufficiently distant from neighbouring buildings, so that in the class-rooms of the lowest story, even the pupils furthest from the windows may get the direct light of the aky ; and so that the eye, placed level with the table, can still perceive a vertical extent of the sky of at least 0'30 metre (12 inches) measured on the window. Art. 15. — The lighting shall be unilateral and come from the left of the pupils, or bilateral, with a predominance of daylight coming from the left.^ In case of need, the lighting can be completed by demi-windows placed behind the pupils and as near the ceiling as possible. Art. IG. — The windows shall be rectangular, as large as possible, and shall be separated by narrow mullions. The window-sill shall be weathered, and lie about O'SO metre (2 feet 8 inches) above the interior floor. The embrasures shall be widened in such a manner that the daylight shall enter the angles of each class-room. The underneath of the lintels of the windows shall also be as near as possible to the ceiling. The glazed surface shall be preferably equal to a third and not less than a fourth part of the surface of the class-room. Art. 17. —Upon the non-lighted faces there may be bays for the aeration of tlie room, or for its insolation during recreation and in the absence of the pupils. There must, however, not be bays for lighting in the front of the pupils. In order to intercept direct sunlight (insolation) or its reflection, the windows shall be provided with blinds of thin material. Art. 18. — The rooms for drawing or for sewing may be.lighted from above. Art. lO.-^The height of the ceiling shall not be less than 3i nor more than 4 metres (UJ to 13 feet.) Art. 20. — The ceiling shall be white with a faint shade of yellow, and the walls of a colour a little less bright.' Art. 21. — The ceilings shall be flat and in one, and there should not be a cornice round the walls. The angles formed by the meeting of the walls or partitions with each other or with the ceilings shall be rounded with a radius of O'lO metre (4 inches.) All the interior mirfaces of the walls shall be covered toith .smooth material, allowing it to he frequently] tvashecl and di>iiiifected. The bottom ought to be provided with a plinth in faience (tiles) or cement. Art. 22. — The floor of the class-rooms shall be in hardwood jiarquetri/, bedded as much as possible in bitumen. Art. 23. — Tho school-room shall lie cleaned every day. The cleaning shall be by the damp method* (sawdust, dusters, &o.). It shall be scoured at least three times a year. Art. 24. ' The italics are i\ot in the original. 'The Commissioners think it should also come slightly from the rear. ' Tiie Commissioners believe it to be established ttiat pale green is the beat colour for the walls. See reference tt Dr. Com'ies ideas of hygiene. ♦ This is hygienically of great importance. 405 Art. 24. — The stoves ought to be sufficiently large to give, without overheating, a good wanning to such class-rooms. The metal stoves should have a double envelope and be ornamented. Cast-iron stoves with direct fire are prohibited. The stoves shall be provided witli a water-reservoir for evaporation. Art. 25. — Arrangements shall be so made as to assure thorough ventilation to every part of the class-rooms. Pure air should be conducted immediately from the outside. The orifices of access and escapement should have a sufficient sectional area. Art. 20. — The cabinets (closets) and urinals must be isolated from the rest of the builrling by good doors, etc., and must be provided with water and ventilators. The drains shoidd bo separately ventilated, and so constructed as to be perfectly water-tight and hermetically sealed. The «alls and the Hoors of the cabinets and urinals should be of impermeable material. Kvery angle should be rounded. Art. 27. — Every school-building shall be installed with lavatories in sufficient number, and provided with soap and towels. Art. 28. — For artificial lighting, the best sources of light are electric incandescent lamps. If gas or petroleum is used, it is necessary to have one lamp of circular flame (argand) for every four, or for every six pupils as a maximum. The flame ought to be about I metre (3 feet) above the table or tlie desk, enclosed in a cliimney provided with a sliade of appropriate form in metal with polished interior. The gas flames known as bats-wing (",'i papillon ") are prohibited in school-rooms. A lamp with reflector will serve to illuminate the black-board. Art. 29. — School furniture. Tlie school-rooms ought to be provided with the Mauchain type of furniture or some other presenting the same advantage. (This means with adjustable scats and desks.) Art. .SO. — The distance between the seat and the table shall be negative ; that is to say, the table shall slightly overhang the seat. Tlie height of the seat in relation to the table ought to be such that the forearm of the ciiild seated, is horizontally placed upon the desk when he lets his arm fall. The teats ouyht to he provided vith a hack demjned to serve as a rest/or the hod;/ when the child is not m-itimj. The height of a seat shall be calculated so that the feet of the scholar rest flat upon the floor. Art. 31. — The inclination of the desk ought to be such that the place of the paper is sensibly perpendicular to the visual ray. Art. 32. — The "black-board" shall be slate or slated. It shall be so placed as to avoid reflecting light. Art. 33. — The pads used for cleaning the board shall be suppressed, and shall be replaced by wet spcnge. Art. 34. — Slates sliall be prohibited. 5. Swiss Regulations regarding sanitarg inspection. — Sanitary inspection in Switzerland is not merely nominal. There is a real recognition of wnat good sanitation means, and confequently the matter is treated with a thoroughness to which we have not jet attained. 'J he Regulations are as follows: — GENEVESE REGULATIONS CONCERNING THE SANITARY INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS (24th DECEMBER). Art. 1. — The sanitary inspection of public or special schools \s placed under the orders and surveillance of the Director of the Health Bureau. (Statute, Art. 3. ) This inspection is specially exercised in regard to primary and infant schools Art. 2. — The Canton of Geneva is divided into twelve school-districts (according to a table given). Art. 3. — The first district is entru.sted to the Director and the physician associated with the Bureau of Health. In all the other districts the sanitary inspection is made by a physician nominated by the Department of Justice and Police. The municipal authority of the town of Geneva supervises the sanitary visitations of the infant schools. Art. 4. — At least two general visits take place annually in the infant and primary schools — one in January, the other after the longer summer vacations. The medical inspectors of the schools are bound to make supplementary visits in these establishments in their districts every time that they are required to do so by the Director of the Health Bureau. Art. 0. — The medical inspector must control the hygienic state of the class-room from the point of view of light, of heating, of ventilation, of furniture, of cleanliness. He will go to the local-annexes, vestibules, yards, gymnastic and reunion halls, cabinets (w.c's), installation of water, etc. Art. G — Each child is to be individually examined. Art. 7. — Every child presenting symptoms of a contagious malady is to be sent away from the school. The medical inspector will immediately address a letter of advice to the parents, containing the reasons of the sending away of the pupil. The pupil shall not be admitted again except on presentation of a medical certificate certifying that his re-entry may take place without bad consequences. Art. 8. — The medical inspector is bound to deliver the above certificate gratuitously to the children of his district who present themselves at his place at the days and hours of consultation. After each inspection a report is made according to the following formula : — Sanitary visit of Date School A. Locality, lighting, heating, school furniture, cabinets and urinals, yards, gymnastic halls, meeting halls, water installation. B. Class No. 1. — Temperature; 2.— No, of children on roll; No. of children present; No. of children sent away ; 3. — Diseases noticed ; 4. —Observation. Signature of medical inspector. This report is sent directly to the Health Bureau, which tran.smits it to the Department of Public Instruction to tliC municipal authority, and to the Inspector of Primary Schools in the district. Art. 10. — The masters must regularly exercise a strict superintendence in regard to the cleanliness and state of health of the children confided to them. Art. II. — The medical inspector will send to each master an instruction containing a list of the contagious diseases and the description of the first syniptions of them. Art. 12. — If in the interval of the medical inspector a master believes that he recognises in one of the pupils the symptoms of a contagious disease, he will send him provisionally away from the school, and at once advise the Director of the Health Bureau, the Medical Insi>ector, and the Chief Inspector of the district. The Director of the Health Bureau will direct that an inquiry be made, and make known to the Instruction Department, to the Communal authority, and to the Inspector, the result of this inquiry and the measures taken. As concerning the pupils, the process is otherwise, and follows the method fixed by Arts. 7 and 8. Art. 13. — In serious cases the Director of the Health Bureau may direct the closing of one or several schools, and inform the communal authority and the Public Instruction Department. Art. 14. — (Repeal of certain dispositions). 6. Local hygienic standards defective. — It is now obvii)iis, and certainly these Kegulations indicate clearly enough, that Swiss ideas of hygiene are seriously entertained ; and in regard to the element fo cleanl'nsss alone, even in the old buildings, it may be said that the schools of our State bear no comparison; nor do our schools compare favourably with those of America. In regard to airiness, convenience, lighting 406 lighting, sanitary fitting, playgrounds, general appearance, internal arrangement, Tcntilation, and in means for moderating or increasing temperature, our schools are hopelessly behind ; and, in fact, such schools as we here have are, class for class, very poor indeed compared with the schools of Switzerland, or with those of the United States, which are recently constructed. This is not only in matters which effect the external appearance, but the comfort and health of teacher and pupil, as well as the possibility of profitably employing the school hours. The truth is that our public standard here is very low as compared with some parts of America, with Switzerland, St. Petersburg, Finland, Norway and Sweden, and indeed almost the whole of Europe, excepting perhaps Italy ; and even in regard to Italy it should be pointed out that no public school, even in Sydney, is in any way comparable to the last built public school in Turin. From the Continental and American points of view our schools are badly built, unhygienic, and poor, and as the matter is one of great importance it is necessary to treat the question of hygiene very thoroughly in this report. It is practicall}' immaterial whether one takes the best American public schools or the Swiss public schools as a model; they are both worthy of their peoples. Dr. Combe, before quoted, says : " The Swiss people may well be proud of their school-buildings. Wheresoever one may be travelling in our country, whether in the cities or villages, in tov/nships or in hamlets, when one finds on the road a house more beautiful, richer, more spacious, better situated than the rest, one may be sure that it is a school building at which he is looking. "The construction of fine schools is one of the prepossessions of all the authorities of our country Unhappily a knowledge of school hygiene cannot be demanded of the municipal authorities of the smallest villages, and very often those authorities are more concerned about the facade than about the schoolroom and its orientation, and they do not take sufficient account of the hygienic conditions, which should be fulfilled in the schoolroom where the child passes a great part of its existence." Remembering even these supposed improperly orientated schools, one might indeed be satisfied if they replaced the very best schools in our own State. The fact is. that we have nothing approaching them. They stand as a splendid monument of Swiss estimate of the value and dignity of education, and in unfortunate contrast with our own. It is impossible to view the Swiss schools without a vivid admiration of the people who deem education worthy of such an effort, for both in respect of beauty, completenes, and hygiene, they are incomparably superior to the schools in this State.' And this is no exaggeration, but the sober truth — a truth we shall do well to take into our very serious consideration. Such schools as those of Switzerland must inevitably leave their impress upon the instincts, habits, and tastes of the nation for good. One cannot help realising that our estimate here of the importance of the scholastic surroundings of our children and the estimate of Switzerland are wholly dissimilar. " Is this difference one of any moment ? " may well be asked. The answer is, that an intensely practical people like the American has seen fit to follow in the footsteps of Switzerland and are well satisfied with the result. 7. Outline of systematic school /;yyiene.— Systematic school hygiene embraces throe main elements, viz. : — -(a) That concerning the school itself ; (b) that concerning the scholar who frequents it; (c) the inspection of both of these from a hygienic point of view. The following outline will exhibit this more fully:— SKETCH OF SCHOOL HYGIENE. A Concerning Kchoo!. B. Concerning scholar. c. School-Inspection. A 1. School premises — (i) locale; (ii) B 1. School maladies — (i) non-con- o 1. General. building; (iii) yards. tagious ; (ii) contagious. 2. School grounds, etc. ; building, etc. 2. vScliool equipments— (i) furniture ; 2. School-work — (i) conditions ; (ii) 3. Scholar, (ii) laboratories, etc. overwork. 3. School materiil. 3. Physicaloulture— (i)gymnasium; (ii) military drill ; (iii) games — ■ both from standpoint of physical culture. A 1 (i). School locale.— (a) Localisation of the school premises ; (b) natural features of suitable plot ; (c) character of its soil, drainage ; (d) necessary size and area ; (e) provision for future development. A 1 (ii). School Buihling.--(a) Forms and dimensions of building; (b) orientation of principal facade ; (c) construction — materials, disposition, etc. ; (d) school-rooms — dimensions, cubic and floor sp.ice, colour of walls ; (c) adjuncts — corridors, vestibules, cloak and hat rooms ; (f) lighting — by windows, artificial ; (g) ventilation : (h) heating and cooling ; (i) lavatories and latrines ; (j) douches and bathing rooms ; (k) gymnastic hall ; (1) cleaning. A 1 (iii). School-yards and Courts. — (a) Courts and yards ; (b) gardens and shade trees, etc. ; (c) provision for physical exercise, and for wet weather. A 2 (i). School Furniture. — (a) Black-boards ; (b) school benches ; (c) school maps, etc. A 2 (ii). School Laboratories, &o. — (a) Physical and chemical laboratory ; (b) school museums ; (c) school libraries and reading rooms. A 3. School Material. —(a) Abandonment of slates ; (b) hygienic care of material ; (e) school dispensary. B 1 (i). Non-contagious Maladies. — (a) Defective sight, hearing, etc. ; (b) general physical defects ; (o) aniemia, caries, adenoid growths, etc. ; (d) brain diseases. B 1 (ii). Infectious, Contagious, and Parasitic Maladies. — (a) Minor infectious, contagious, and parasitic maladies found in school ; (b) serious infectious and colitagious diseases ; (c) prophylaxis as regards all forms of infection and contagion. B 2 (i). Conditions for School-work. — (a) Lighting ; (b) ventilation, heating, and cooling ; (c) position of scholars at work ; (A) school furniture. B 2 (ii). Overwork at School.— (a) Physical and mental fatigue ; (b) school hours ; (c) home-work. B 3 (i). Gymnasium. — (a) Physical exercise generally ; (b) gymnastics for boys and girls ; (c) equipment and care of gymnasium. B 3 (ii). Military Drill. — (a) Ordinary drill ; (b) military operations. B 3 (iii). School Games. — (a) Provision for school games : (b) games and their supervision. c 1. Inspection in (!eneral. — (a) School hygienic inspector ; (b) qualification and function ; (c) duties devolving upon directors and teachers. c 2. Inspection of School-building, grounds, etc. — (a) Locality ; (b) school- building ; (c) school grounds, c 3. Inspection of Scholar. — (a) Physical fitness for ordinary school duty ; (b) disease ; (c) educational statistics. It ' And, indeed, of Australia. 407 It will be noticed that sometimes the same subject appears under two headings. It is naturally convenient to treat it under either, the two relations being simultaneously discussed. It will, however, be impracticable to discuss the subject exhaustively in this report ; consequently the above outline will not be implicitly followed, but the details taken as may seem convenient, and no attempt will be made to discuss them at all. 8. Choice of site for scltool. a1 (i) (a). — Little can be added to the direction of Art. 1 in the Genevese Regulations. The directions in the different cantons are much the Fame, viz., that the schools shall be situated either on dry plots, or on plots that can be thoroughly drained; the sites shall, moreover, be airy, of free and easy access, away from all noisy, unhealthy, and dangerous establishments, and shall not be near cemeteries. The immediate surroundings used for gymnastic exercises, drill, or school games and recreation, should be of the same character. (b) Position of sclwol plot. — The site should, wherever possible, be a commanding one, and worthy of a noble building, even if there be no intention to erect it for the next century, for it is certain that such sites will ultimately be required. In many countries the public school, though rarely ornate, is noble in its architectural character, and beautifies the city or town in which it is found. It would be well to remember that this State is only in its infancy, and that the school is one of its institutions, the dignity and importance of which must inevitably advance with its development. To-day, in many countries, the school, from its lowest to the highest form, has already attained to a very high place, and the school-house, as already said in the case of Switzerland, is to be found among the noblest of the buildings. That should hereinafter he true also of this country. Our opportunity to make the necessary provision is, of course, the present time, and in view of the fact that we have over and over again suffered the limitations of want of foresight, it is desirable that we should take care, in our appropriations for school purposes, to satisfy not merely the conditions indicated by our present needs, but that we should look ahead at least one century. (c) Soil and drainage. — The character of the soil is satisfactory, provided it admit of good foundations and thorough drainage, and if the subsoil be such as cannot be injuriously affected by industrial or other establishments.' (d.) Area of school plot. — A plot of a minimum of 8 square metres (about 8G square feet) per pupil is exacted by the ordnance of the Swiss Pederal Council of 16th April, 1883, concerning the gymnastic teaching to boys of 10 to 15 years of age ; this, for a school of say 500, would be a rectangular plot of 200 feet x 215 feet for the gymnastic exercise alone. And this is the minimum ; outside of this, provision for the school-building and its adjuncts must also be made. "Where the school has a kinder- garten department, it should have rooms for small classes, and actual gardens to assist the children in nature-study, etc., and for them recreation grounds separated from those of the primary classes. (e.) Provision for future school development. — Provision for the future ought really to be of two kinds, viz., for schools immediately required and their development, and schools that will be needed in the far-distant future. The world-wide estimate of what schools ought to be, is such that future appropria- tions for school areas should be on a far more liberal scale than in the past ; and it wonld be well to over, rather than under, estimate our future needs. We are certain to be stunted if we neglect this matter. When school areas are to be obtained only through costly resumptions of land that has become valuable, there will be hesitancy as to acquiring a sufficient area. Assuming that no school ought to have more than 1,000 pupils, we may say that 5 acres may be regarded as an absolutely minimum provision — say a plot of land about G50 feet x 330 feet. This probably would be sufficient whenever the school lands are adjacent to the park lands of the town in which thev are situated, and there does not appear to be any reason why the parks should not invariably be contiguous to the school area. On the contrary, such an arrangement is eminently desirable, and it would afford splendid opportunities for the military evolutions of cadets. Where such an arrangement is not possible the school area should be larger. It is quite certain that the generation that makes noble provision in this respect will be recognised in the future as having ris-en to dignity in its conception of the future educational needs of the State ; and the liberal provision will never, and can never, be regretted. In London it has already been keenly realised that the acquirement of extremely valuable sites for school purposes, however costly, is inevitable ; and it will not be long before their experience is repeated in Sydney. 9. Form and dimension of school huildings. — A.I., ii (a). In few places has the question of the best form for school buildings been so systematically and thoroughly studied as in Switzerland, and, recently, in the United States. There is, however, a very decided consensus of opinion the whole world over, since nearlv all the recently-built schools substantially follow the same principles in their construc- tion. This question of form obviously involves a reference to what may be called the class-room require- ments of a school. The past practice of New South Wales of having a row of classes in a very long room is practically unknown, except in England, and, as far as modern schools are concerned, it is abandoned there also. In the opinion of all educationists of recognised authority, such an arrangement is a very had one. Obviously mental concentration on the part of the pupils is made thereby nearly impossible ; the teacher cannot get into touch with his pupils as he can in a single room ; and the only thing that can be urged in its favour, are convenience of stipervision by a head master, and a poor economy. The matter may be dismissed, therefore, as not requiring further consideration, for no one would now advocate such an arrange- ment in a school that was intended to reach a high degree of efficiency^ The ' In the ordinance of 30 December, 1890, for Zurich, it is declared that : •" I.e batiinent Bcolairo doit utre . . . cloignfj de tout (itablissement industriel pouvant infecter Tatmosph^re ou le sous-sol et dont le voisiuage est daiigereux au premier chef pour la sante." ' See L'^cole populaire Suisse, Genfeve, 1896, p. 224. 1.5—3 G 408 The rooms to be provided in a completely equipped school are the following, and such rooms are found in all modern school buildings where efficient teaching is aimed at, and where that is not sacrificed to economy. The proper shape for building will be considered ia section 10 : — 1. Each class-group should have a class-room ; more than one room, therefore, may be required for the whole of the pupils of one grade. 2. In addition, there should be a large room for manual work for boys. 3. Similarly, a work-room for girls. 4. A large hall for gymnastics. 5. A large hall for general meetings, reunions, etc. 6. A laboratory for physics, astronomy, etc. 7. A laboratory for chemistry. 8. A museum of natural history. 9. A library. 10. A reading-room. 11. If cooking be taught, one or two kitchens will also be required. 12. A pantry and store-room. For lower-grade schools Nos. 6, 7, and even 8 may be altogether ; so also may Nos. 9 and 10 bo in the one room. Such provision as has just been indicated is obviously very different from what has heretofore been thought necessary; this, however, is simply because there has, so far, been no adequate attempt to teach the elements of science, nor to equip the schools of our State in a manner comparable with those of Europe and America. (b). Orientation. — Although orientation is a matter of some importance, school buildings have generally been erected without regard to the cardinal points, their position being decided merely by the street directions, etc. ; unfortunately there is not yet absolute agreement among hygienic authorities as to this question. Those of France claim that — for the northern hemisphere, of course, — the principal fafade should face to the north, that being the only position which avoids the direct rays of the sun, and gives an equal light, while the hygienists of other countries absolutely reject such an orientation. Three imjiortant cantons in Switzerland, viz., Berne, Yaud, and St. Grail, expressly prohibit such a position. A west orientation — i.e., the fa9ade facing west — is unanimously rejected because of the heat, and of the changing and disagreeable light, and is allowed in only a single canton of Switzerland, viz , Fribourg. The objection to this orientation would of course be the same for the southern hemisphere. An east orienta- tion is exacted by Aargau, Berne, and St. Gall, and is interdicted by no canton. A sotifh aspect is recommended by no less than ten Swiss cantons, viz., the two Appenzells, Aargau, Berne, Pribourg, Neuchatel, Thurgau, St. Gall, Vaud, and Zurich. This would correspond to north for this hemisphere. A south-east orientation, corresponding to north-east here, ia advocated by Koch, a Zurich architect, and is strongly recommended by five cantons, viz., one of the Appenzells, Aargau, Basel-Town, St. Gall, and Zurich. Eestating these ybr this hemisphere, these results are : — Orientation. Comments. South. — Advocated by French, othervrise rejected ; sometimes expreassly prohibited. West. — Rejected by all authorities. North. — Strongly recommended, except by French authorities. East. — Permitted ; nowhere strongly objected to. North-east. — Nowhere strongly objected to ; sometimes strongly advocated. Bearing in mind that there is practically great difficulty in adhering to any single position, it is necessary to point out the limits of proper orientation rather than the best position, which after all may be greatly modified by local circumstances, such as the prevailing direction of wind and weather. The advantages of the north, east, and north-east aspects are that, although insolation of the rooms exists, it occurs early in the day, viz., at a time when it is either beneficial or least injurious. The question of the proper orientation of buildings in latitude 35° south, which will therefore apply fairly well, as a mean, to all parts of this State, and of insolation at different times of the day and year, have been treated by one of the Commissioners in connection with the whole theory of city-design.' Making use of these results, it would appear that the maximum advantage is obtained with north-east or northerly orientation ; and any orientation lying between east and north will be satisfactory for this State. 10. Construction of building, and material tj-c, A. i, ii (c). — It is unnecessary to discuss the question of merely temporary school-buildings, constructed of wood for example, excepting to observe that more attentiou should be paid to the comfort of pupils, for as much as their educational progress depends very largely on their physical comfort in the school. In regard to the generalities of construction, t may be pointed out that schools should not imitate barracks as regards their form — that is to say, in no case should a large building of many storeys be erected as a school-building. At Basel there is a school of twenty-four, at Aargau one of thirty-six, and at Chaux-de-Fonds, one containing more than forty classes. Such buildings are now deemed too large by the great majority of Swiss authorities. This at once suggests limits as to the number that can be aggregated in a single school-building, a number which has hereiubefore been placed at 1,000. The Genevese Regulation, Art. 5, Sect. 4, that a school-group shall not exceed 500, has already been noted. The one building could, of course, contain more than one group ; the idea of separation is for better control and discipline generally. Several types of buildings have much to recommend them, viz., the building round a square courtyard shaped thus, Q, of which there are several fine examples in German cities; the I I-shaped and ITI-shaped buildings, of which also there are many fine examples ; and finally a long straight building. The first has, of course, two parts necessarily subject to adverse criticism with respect to orientation, and the second and third at east one part ; with, however, special utilisation of these parts for other than ordinary class-rooms, the ' See Sect. 7. The theory of city-design, by G. H. Knibbs, F.R.A.S., etc., Journ. Royal Society, Vol. XXXV. p. 72-78 409 the fundamental objections fall through, and all forms can be very satisfactorily employed. In Germany, the interior courtyard is glazed. The form which most strongly commends itself to the Commissioners is, however, the long building with small wings at the end, and a long corridor running along the whole length of the class-rooms, etc. The following plans and view will give some idea of the character of schoola suggested. It will be observed that the quantity of light is all that could be wished. "^mrf- Grundriss des I. Stockes. 1 : 600. (Plan of 1st floor.) GnindrisB des Erdgeachoases. 1 : 500 (Plan of ground-floor.) THE PRIMARY SCHOOL AT KLINGENSTRASSE, ZURICH, SWITZERLAND. Building cost £17,500. Twenty-four rooms. P^ Pi' SOUTH-EAST VIEW OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL AT THE BUHL, ZURICH, SWITZERLAND. Building cost £21,000. Thirty- three rooms. Two other buildings besides the one shown, 15—3 H 11. 410 11. Materials used in construction of schools (c), continued. — In regard to material of construction, it may be stated that walls may be of stone or pressed bricks. In some places very permeable materials, as for example, porous bricks, porous stone, etc., are prohibited for sanitary reasons. The roofing may be tiles or slate, but should not be galvanised iron except for temporary structures The flooring ought to be in seasoned hardwood. The ordinary system of flooring in this State is the reverse of satisfactory hygienically ; parquetri/ alone prevents the entry of dust into the grooves, and admits of really proper cleaning. For corridors, etc., there now exist very fine concretes and cements, closely imitating marble. The cost of parquetry is not felt to be too great in Europe ; all the modern schools are so floored. "Where it cannot be used, pine, thoroughly saturated on the surface with hot paraflSn, is fairly satisfactory and tolerably impermeable, and can be kept clean. With our present consciousness, or rather want of consciousness of hygiene, these matters may appear of light moment : that feeling does not exist in Switzerland, and is rapidly disappearing elsewhere, at least in all places where hygienic researches are made the subject of careful consideration. A point to which attention may again be directed, is that schools kept as they are in Switzerland are splendid object-lessons in hygiene, and cannot fail to leave their impress on the people. It may be again noted that hardwood parquetry is prescribed in Art. 22 of the Grenevese regulations, see Sec. 4 of this chapter. Art. 21 of the same regulations, directs the ronnding-off of all angles of walls : this is an excellent provision both for internal and external angles. The suggestion of the same article of a plinth or wainscot in faience, or in one of the very beautiful cements now available, is also an excellent one. The ceilings should either be of metal or fibrous plaster, both are perfectly safe : the old plaster ceiling should disappear. It need hardly be pointed out that rough walls such as we have in many of our schools here, and pine floors with wide, dust-filled grooves, would be strongly condemned in Switzerland as inconsistent with good hygiene. 12. Schoolrooms and their Dimensions. A 1 (ii) (d). — The dimensions of schoolrooms obviously depend upon the number of pupils that are to be admitted to a class. The practice in regard to this is very variable, but the principle that small classes are to be preferred is universally admitted: it is obvious that a greater amount of individual attention can be given to the pupils whenever the class is small. Writing in 1898, Dr. A. Combe, an eminent Swiss authority on school hygiene, says: — "In regard to teaching, a schoolroom however spacious it may be, ought not to contain too large a number of pupils. To exceed fifty pupils is to exceed the powers of surveillance of the best endowed master. " In relation to hygiene, the number of fifty pupils appears to us also to represent a maximum, for the respiration and perspiration of fifty children rapidly bring about a dearth of oxygen, an excess of carbonic acid, and vitiation of the air. Unfortunately this number is too often exceeded in Swiss schools." The following table will shew the number allowed in some of the Swiss cantons :~ Appenzell Ext 40 Geneva 40 Schwytz 80 „ Int nonile Claris 70-60 Soleure 80 Aargau 70 Grisons no rule St. Gall 70-80 Basel City 54 Lucerne 70 Thurgau 80 Berne 60-70 Neuchdtel 50 Vavd 50 ■ Fribourg 70 SchafiHionae no rule Zurich 50-60 It may be noted that the recent tendency is not to exceed the limit of 40, viz., the number in Appenzell Ext. and Geneva; this is the case not only in Switzerland, but generally. In the code of regulations and instructions of the School Management Committee of the School Board of London, for the guidance of managers, correspondents, and teachers, Art. 13, it is stated: — "As a general rule in determining the staff needed in a school, the average attendance under a single teacher in Standard I, II, or III shall not exceed 60 ; in Standards IV and V shall not exceed 50 ; and in Standards above V shall not exceed 40 In fixing the staff of combined departments the head teachers are not counted upon the staff"." Here also the tendency has shewn itself to further decrease the numbers, both for hygienic and paedagogic reasons. In this relation it must be recollected that the school-life is the serious part of child- life ; and the future of the individual, and therefore of the nation, depends upon it ; and in an intelligent view it is therefore absolutely necessary to secure such conditions as admit of efficient teaching, i.e., the physical conditions for the pupil and for the teacher must be favourable. When classes are large, and the hygienic conditions are indifferent, lassitude and inattention are the result, and both pupils and teachers are in a bad way for progress. One need only take account of the summer temperature and conditions of some of our schools, and of the winter temperature of others, to realise how imperfect is their psedagogic eSSciency. This last question will be referred to later on. Beside the limits for a class above indicated, there are others which may be noted : — The length is limited by the vocal conditions; that is, for many hours teaching, the voice ought not to be strained in the least: and it is limited also by the visual power of master and pupil, for it is necessary to distinguish everything that is written on the blackboard. The Swiss limit is 950 metres, say 31 feet, and it is pointed out that there is some difficulty in seeing blackboard work at S'50 metres, say 28 feet. The breadth is limited by the lighting conditions, and with the unilateral system of windows, the lighting is not suiBciently good if the breadth be more than 7 metres, say 23 feet. The limits of height depend upon satisfactory acoustic conditions, and if excessive give rise to a d'sagreeable resonance. A limit of 4 metres, or 13 feet, is suggested by Dr. Combe, and 13 or 14 feet neems very satisfactory. It may be mentioned that the building regulations of Western Australia direct that the height shall be 14 feet, see B 1, page 114, Eegulations for 19(X). There 411 There exists a considerable diversity in ratio of height, length, and breadth in Swiss schools, as the following table shews — the values are given in metres : — Canton. 1 Heitfht. Length. Breadth. Canton. Height Length. Breadth. 3 0-3 -6 8-4 3-5 100-110 ! 3-8-40 9-6 3-4-3-5 90-100 6-2 8-0-9-0 6-3 6-8 V 6-0^7 7 0-1 10 9 Neuchatel 3-2-4-5 9 0-10-0 6-2-6-5 Aargau Basel City Berne 2-7-4-0 3-0-3-5 3-3-3-5 3-0-3 5 2-8-4-0 3-5-3-9 12-0 10 0-11-0 1 10-6-11-5 ! lO-O-U-O 1 7-5-110 ! 90-1 1-0 ! 9-0 Soleure St. Gall Thurgau Vaud Zurich 7-0-8-0 6-8-7-2 Fribourg Geneva Claris 2-5 3-5-4 3-0^-0 2-7 9 8-0-il-O ! 9-0-10-0 9 7-0-8-0 6-0-7 6-0-8-5 Lucerne The lengths of ll'O metres (;{6 feet), or more, is excessive; these are marked "!" on the above table. All recent construction has been in the direction of having higher class-rooms. Soleure alone had in 1873 only schools out of 170, with a height of over 3 metres (10 feet) for its class-rooms ; in 1891, it had 64 out of 248 ; and in 1896, 96 out of 308 schools. Very recent buildings all exemplify the greater heights. The floor-surface per pupil is a matter to which school hygienists have gi^en some considerable attention. The following table gives in English measure the practice of several countries: — rLooR Surface per Pup:l. Country. Prussia, Saxony Wurtemberg . . Hesse, Bavaria. Alsace Spain Baden Austria .. England Square feet. 6-5 6-5 8-6 81 8-1 9-7 12-9 10-0 Canton. Appenzell Ext. . Aargau Basel City Berne Fribourg Claris Lucerne West Australia Square feet. 14-5 L2-9 11-8-14-6 10-8 18-3 8-6-26-9 8-6 (min.) 11 Neuchatel Schwytz Soleure St. Gall Thurgau Vaud Zurich New South Wales Square feet. 12-9-14 8-1 10-8 10-8-14-5 10-8 16-1 10-8 8-0 Just as the height of modern school-rooms has increased, so also has the floor space. For example, in Soleure, in 1873, only 37 out of 179 schools had more than 16-1 square feet per pupil, in 1891, 91 schools out of 248 ; and in 1896, 140 out of 308 ; in percentages these are 21, 37, and 45 per cent. In a country like ours where the heat is great in summer, and especially where it is also humid, it is desirable to be liberal in our estimate of space per pupil. If now we allow 16 square feet, or I'S square metres, that will give agreeable rooms. For example, taking 40 pupils as about the proper number to be aggregated in a single class-room, one obtains say Breadth (from windows across class). 22 ft. by Area. 060 sq. ft. Length (from master to back of class). 30 ft. by Height. 14 ft. This is a ratio very nearly of 8 : 2 : 1, which will at once be recognised as very agreeable ; in fact, it would be well, in the Commissioners' opinion, if these simple proportions were adhered to as the ideal proportions of class-rooms. From forty to forty-five pupils could be aggregated in such rooms ; and there is no doubt in the Commissioners' minds that such a number should not be exceeded, and cannot be exceeded without impairing efficiency. Were it not that the expense of education is thereby greatly increased, still smaller classes would be better ; but it is obvious that there is a practical limit, soon reached in any scheme of public instruction. Classes of the size indicated can, with better equipments than those now existing, be made manageable. Oolour of Walls. — In order that the school-room shall be well-lighted, it is necessary that the walls shall be light-toned, but tinted with colour as soft, agreeable, and reposeful as possible to the eye. The following are the colours used in some of the Swiss Cantons, where the matter has received careful consideration. All the colours are oil-colours : — Canton. Colour. Canton. Colour. Light-greeu. Light-blue, or grey. Yellow, or light-blue. Pale blue, or yellow. Light-grey. Light-grey, or white. Light tint. Light tint. Blue-grey, or sea-green. Light-blue, or green. Pale sea-green. Aargau Neuchatel Soleure Thurgau Fribourtf Various light tints. Pale-grey. Various light colours. Claris Vaud St Gall Zurich Professor Marc Dufour, of Lausanne, strongly commends pale-grey. Any pale colour is really satisfactory, but pale-green seemed to the Commissioners to be, from every point of view, the best, and to be the most restful colour for the eyes. The paint should be of very good quality, so as to admit of washing, when deemed necessary. 13. Vestibules, Corridors, Cloak and Mat-rooms, etc. Al ii (e). — Two attractive features of almost all modern schools are the fine vestibules and wide corridors, the latter running along the whole course of the class-rooms. For the width of corridors 10 feet is regarded in many places an absolute minimum ; in Basel 13 feet, in (Geneva 16-4 feet. The Commissioners recommend 15 feet as a minimum for the best grade of schools ; this width for corridors is compatible with good hygiene ; it should never be less than 10 feet. Neatly -furnished 412 Neatly-furnished cloak and hat-rooms are invariably found in modern schools, and the arrangement in this respect is vastly superior in Europe and America to what it is even in the most recent and best- appointed public-schools in this State. Whether these vestiaries be recesses off the corridors, or special rooms, as they generally are, aod, as is preferable, they should be so arranged that the cloaks and hats are quite safe, and are not liable to injury ; the condition of our State schools generally, as is well known, is not satisfactory in this last respect. The care taken of hats and garments is really part of the people's education, and is not unimportant in establishing them in thrift, in hygiene, and in good behaviour. Good hygiene also demands that the hats, cloaks, etc., shall be kept separate. 14. Lighting, Natural and Artificial. Al ii (f). — The question of the proper direction for rays of light to enter a school-room has been very carefully studied. Light coming from windows in front of the pupils is absolutely ^ejected by all hygienic authorities. It prevents pupils seeing the master and blackboard, etc., properly ; it grqatly fatigues the eyes, and such lighting otight never to exist in any school whatever. Light from the rear only is equally disagreeable and injurious for the master, and, for the pupil, it projects his own shadow on to his work. High rear windows are not so objectionable, and may, with caution, be used to provide some light where necessary. This defect of strong light from the rear of the class exists even in our most recently-huilt schools. Light from above is excellent for certain purposes, e.g., for reading, for oral exercises, etc. It is, however, disagreeable for drawing, writing, and similar exercises where the shadow of the pupil's head is thrown, more or less, upon the paper. It gives rise to considerable heat in summer, and, in the few places where snow falls here, it would be occasionally inconvenient in winter. In regard to other directions, authorities are, to some extent, divided. Some advocate — Unilateral lighting, viz., from one side, the left of tlie pupils. Bilateral lighting, viz., from both sides, the right and left of the pupils. Rectangular, or from two sides, the left and hack of the pupils. Multilateral lighting, vie., from all sides. Each of these will be discussed. Unilateral lighting, which, since the right hand is used, must come from the side which does not project the shadow of the hand on the paper, viz., the left, has been recommended by Trelat, an eminent hygienist. It is good with very large and high windows, but, in dull weather, rather handicaps pupils remote from the window, i.e., to the right of the class, facing the master. In bilateral lighting it is usual to have a predominance of light from the left, the balance from the right. This has been advocated by Gariel, Javal, and Ferraud, in France, and by Forster and Eembold in Germany. In this system, the objects of the room throw shadows of different intensity, depending on their distance from the two series of windows. This variation of shadow-intensity is said to so solicit the eye, through the play of the two sets of rays, as to develope fatigue, and lead to myopia. For this reason Liebreich, in 1874, rejected bilateral lighting. Multilateral lighting is arranged with a maximum from the left, less from the right, and a minimum from the rear. It gives a considerable quantity of light, but also several shadows, which are said to be objectionable. The best form of lighting is undoubtedly that which has herein been called rectangular. This gives a considerable quantity of light, and, when the rear-windows are small, and sufficiently elevated, they are not seriously objectionable to the majority of masters. The preponderance of the light coming from the left, and at an angle less inclined to the horizontal than that from the rear, which is more nearly vertical, seems to give, on the whole, the most satisfactory results, and it is found that fewer pupils suffer from myopia in schools so lighted than in those which are unilaterally lighted, other things of course being equal. For this reason the rectangular system should have the first place, the bilateral the second place, in the lighting scheme for schools. In the rare instances where the high windows are disagreeable to the master, suitable blinds will overcome the diificulty. It is obvious that in large schools, as in a long series of class-rooms, unilaterial lighting is often all that is possible for a majority of the rooms. 15. Quantity of Light, (f) contd. — The quantity of light admitted depends of course upon the number and size of the windows provided for a room ot given dimensions, and the obvious relation which suggests itself is the proportion of glazed-surface to the floor -area. As in various countries, however, the floor-area per pupil varies, another relation is suggested, viz., the glazed-surface per pupil. Both these relations have been employed ; but the former is clearly the better one. The range of the ratio is very large. For example, the area of the glazed-surface being 1, that of the floor-surface for various places is — Place. Floor-area, Place. Floor-area. Canton of Vaud 3 4 -t-toS 7 to 8 5 4 to 6 Geneva, St. Gall Russia 6 61 In regard to the other measure, it may be noted that it is equally variable. In Vaud, for instance, it ranges from 0*12 to 0'40 square metres per pupil (1'3 to 4'3 square feet). In France, about 0'16 square metres (17 square feet) are demanded, and in America about 0'26 (2'8 square feet). If the dimensions of the school-room (see section 12) be — length, 28 feet; breadth, 21 feet; height, 14 feet — and the number of pupils 42, one will obtain 14 square feet floor-area per pupil, i.e., a square of 3 feet 9 inches side, and of course if necessary two-thirds of the area of the side wall can be pierced for the unilateral light. The appropriation of only one-third, however, for this purpose will, though giving a less ratio than is asked for in the Canton of Vaud, give more than is deemed necessary in America. . It 413 It is for most purposes undesirable that the light should enter nearly horizontally ; it should rather fall at an angle inclined about 35 degrees with the horizontal ; hence the upper part of the windows should be as near as possible to the ceiling. Swiss practice is to allow a distance from the ceiling of O'lO to 0'30 metres, i.e., from 4 to 12 inches. In regard to the form of the windows, it may be noted that the full semicircular top, and also the G-othic top, are interdicted in Switzerland ; so also are Venetian shutters, and any form of blind that obscures the upper part of the window from which place the light is most valuable. The schools of our State are often defective in this respect. The rectangular form for windows seems to the Commissioners much the best, and there is no doubt that the Swiss schools have a noble appearance, due largely to their simplicity of outline, the absence of meretricious ornament, and the absence also of everything detrimental to their efficiency. A glance for example at the fa^'ade of the superior school at the Derriere-Bourg in Lausanne will indicate ECOLE^SUPERIEURE COM MUNALE, DERRIERE-BOURG, LAUSANNE, SWITZERLAND. what is meant. In the Commissioners judgment no more appropriate style or type of building than the better class of Swiss schools exists. See the attached plan, which also will give some indication of the lighting of Swiss schools. Grundrias deall. Stoekes. (Plan of 2nd Floor.) THE GIRLS' SCHOOL AT THE HIRSCHENGRABEN, ZURICH, SWITZERLAND. In regard to artificial lighting, there is no doubt that the incandescent electric light is hygienically the best. The oxygen-exhaustion by gas-flames, and the combustion-products, are deleterious elements in that and similar forms of lighting. In some classes of schools only diffused light is suitable. In such cases the light is reflected upward on to the ceiling by a hemispherical reflector, which at the same time cuts off the direct light. This was seen in Sweden, and in America ; and for Art-«chools an eminent authority in Stockholm — Baron von Cederstrom — strongly commends it. 16. 414 l6. Ventilation, Heating, and Cooling. — A. l.ii (g) and (h). There can be no doubt that if school rooms are to thoroughly serve their purpose, the questions of their ventilation, heating, and cooling must rereiee in this State a greater degree of consideration when school buildings are being constructed than hitherto. As soon as the air in a room is poor in oxygen, the vitality of pupils is reduced ; they become drowsy : so also when heat is excessive. The discomfort moreover in winter, in the colder parts of the State, is sufficiently acute to be not merely disagreeable, but to greatly impair the school-work. Our practice of introducing fire-places as a remedy is wholly unsatisfactory. These various adverse conditions press with exceptional force upon the pupil, for whose benefit of course the school exists ; and though he has seme relief through his activity, even the master himself is subject to some limitation through them. The school-pupil being subject to the usual discipline, has to endure the discomfort as best he may, to the prejudice of his scholastic-effort, and also to his liking for school. These things of course do not matter, so long as a people believe that education is unimportant, but as soon as it is recognised as a serious factor in our national future, then everything promoting the efficiency of schools stands on quite a different plane. Here again we see the tremendous influence of public intelligence. Europe and America are not as indifferent to such matters as ventilation, heating, etc., as we practically have been and are ; and when one compares our schools in these respects with those of the continents mentioned, one can hardly find an appropriate expression which will not appear exaggerated. To turn first to the question of ventilation. In this State we trust largely to mere convection currents. More or less air is allowed to pass in through so-called ventilators, and the variations of gravity through the heating of air by the pupils do the rest. Certainly in the warmer weather the windows are also utilised. The vitiation of air in inhabited rooms arises from the diff'usion of the expired air, the volatile products of skin exhalations, the gaseous emanations of the alimentary canal, and the distribution of dust with its various contents, many of which are by no means innocent of danger. Although the carbon dioxide in air is by no means the most important impurity therein, it is often sufficiently constant in its relation to the real organic poison, the anthropotoiine in expired air, to be taken as a basis of comparison in lieu of tliis volatile ptomaine itself. Huscher is said to have shewn that even in one hour the maximum rate of vitiation of the air is attained, and health is menaced. Breiting, who made researches in the schools of Basel, found that the carbon dioxide wa-- quintupled in one hour, and Kranzfeld, that it was tenfold in three hours. It is at once evident that the larger the school-room the better it is for the pupils, and that the cubic space per pupil is an important hygienic factor. In some of the Swiss Cantons regulations about this matter exist. The following table will give some idea of the necessary space required ; — Cubic Space per Pupil in Switzeklakd. Locality. Cubic feet. Appenzell Int 141-171 Aargau 148 Basel (City) 141-212 Berne 141-176 Fribourg 150 Locality. Cubic feet. Geneva ... Glaris ... Neuchatel Schwytz Soleure ... 141 71-238 159-198 78^106 106 Locality. St. Gall Thurgau Vaud Zeurich New South Wales Cubic feet. 106-176 106-124 173-212 124-141 100 In actual practice, Soleure, however, is greatly increasing the cubic space, as the following statistics will show : — Year 1873, 1881. 1896. Total schools 179 242 308 From 106-141 cubic feet 37=21% 66=27% 70=23% Above 141 cubic feet 51=28% 113=47% 180=58% The rule in France is 5 cubic metres, = 176 cubic feet ; West Australia is the same. Erismann, an American authority, demands 141-176 for young children, 212-247 for adolescents. The New South Wales requirement of 100 cubic feet is altogether too small. Adopting the school-room suggested hereinbefore, one has : — Boom. Pupils. Cubic feet per pupiL (28x21x14)^ 42= 196 This relation is sfitisfactory. In schools which are very cold in winter, and at the same time not hot in summer, the above cubic space might occasionally be slightly reduced, inasmuch as it is more difficult to warm a room in proportion to its largeness. The total allowable reduction of cubic space would, however, not be appreciable in this respect. The most elementary scheme of ventilation is by opening windows and doors, a scheme fairly satisfactory even with almost insensible air currents. Since each class should have 5-10 minutes recrea- tion interval between lessons, it is a fitting opportunity to have all windows wide open. In fine weather this should be invariably done, unless the weather is also extremely cold. The practice is general throughout Europe. ■ ' In order to overcome the difficulty during wind and rain, and also in cold weather, various schemes have been invented, as for example, movable panels, glass Venetians, etc. The latter are glass strips which rotate about their horizontal axis, so that they can all be opened or closed together at will, as much as is requisite. These devices so turn that the current of fresh air is directed against the ceiling, and not directly on the children. In Switzerland mere ventilation gratings are not employed. In some parts of Switzerland ventilating conduits are used for the summer ventilation. The supply-conduit of pure air from the outside to the class-room for summer is generally arranged so that the entrance of air is at the lower level of the class-room, and the conduits of efflux carry away the vitiated air from near the ceiling. Summer ventilation can be much improved by fans, driven electrically, by water turbines or other- wise, and also the disagreeable heat can thereby be much moderated. This is a matter which would go far to make the school work in our climate more constant in its peedagogic value. ^ i'- 415 17. Heating (continued). — In cold weather, and particularly in the colder parts of the State, the opening of windows is more or less dangerous for pupils ; and, moreover, when they feel the cold^to be unpleasant, their mental concentration is greatly diminished, and as a consequence the school^work falls off in paedagogic value. Winter ventilation ought then to be different from summer. When children are able to move about, cold is a matter of indifference; when, however, they are kept, as during their school- tasks, physically inactive, this is no longer true. Mental effort involves a withdrawal of the.blood from the body generally to maintain the cerebral activity, and therefore the temperature condition should be adjusted artificially, unless one decides to be reckless, both as regards the health of the child and the efficiency of the school, since both are prejudicially afEected. In every cold country where practical psedagogy has systematically availed itself of scientific research, this matter of warming the class-rooms has received attention. The simplest arrangement is the heating 'Stove for local heating, suitable for small schools. The ordincn-y stove is never used. In the first place, it is dangerous ; it borrows its oxygen from the room itself ; it heats the vitiated air of the class-room without introducing pure air ; and it is possible under certain circumstances for deleterious ^ases to escape into the room. For these reasons, the open fire, and the ordinary cast-iron heating-stove, ought to be absolutely interdicted, as it is in Switzerland, and almost everywhere. SCHOOL STOVE. A. Charging-door. B. Cleaning-door. c. Ash-door. D. Bell-cover, r. Hearth, g. Grating, h.h. Lining of fire- proof bricks, i. Canal supplying external air. J. Valve regulating draught. L.L. Slides regulating the access of air to be heated. N. Reservoir of water for evaporation, o. Openings to allow heated air to escape into room. p.p. Passages where the air is heated. Q. Flue. R. Ashpan. The proper ventilating-stove heats and supplies to the room only pure air; its radiated heat can never be intense and unpleasant ; and the supplied air has a proper degree of humidity. This last matter is not unimportant. Rietschel, Falk, Deuecke, and many others have shewn that the relative dryness of the heated air occasions to both master and pupil considerable discomfort and weariness, which, however, is not the case when the proper amount of humidity is supplied. The ventilating-stove with mantle is so arranged that it may be supplied with coke, cleaned, and regulated from the corridors. The air-supply is from the outside of the school buildings, and is led in by a suitable conduit ; the combustion products do not enter the room, but are carried away in a proper flue ; the apparatus has a water-vessel for giving moisture to the air. {See Illustration ) A somewhat larger apparatus is the faience-stove, which heats slowly, conserves its heat twice as well as iron, has a conductibility thirty-three times less, and gives up the heat stor-'^H therein but slowly, and will give only a moderate heat. Neither of these stoves is dangerous. Before the opening of the schools, the air is allowed to circulate in the double envelope of the stove, which makes the heating more rapid and economical ; the external air is supplied at the time of entry into the school. For 416 For larger schools three methods of central heatfng are used, one by means of hot water, another by means of hot air, and a third by means of steam. The water method need not be considered. When heated air is used it is supplied to each class-room, and forces out the vitiated air. This method combines heating and ventilation. Where the steam-heaters are used, the heating and ventilation are independent. In large schools of 500 or more pupils, the installation of heating and ventilating apparatus is very thorough, at least in the greater part of Europe and America. In many places the supply to each room is controlled automatically by a thermostatic contrivance. In many cases the temperature of each room in the school can be ascertained iii the furnace-room ; every room has its thermometer let into the wall, and can be viewed from the exterior of the room, and in a few cases the heat can be regulated from the room itself. 18. Lavatories and Latrines. A I (ii) (i). — Modern schools in Switzerland and America, and also in many other places in Europe, are splendidly furnished as regards their lavatories and latrines, and, from the hygienic point of view, are themselves an education in hygiene, and clearly indicate the superiority of their sanitary ideas to our own. 8uch objects as the tin-dishes seen in Sydney schools are conspicuous by their absence. Generally, the washing basins are white earthenware ; sometimes, but rarely, enamelled-ware. The bench is often of marble, and in all cases should be of impermeable material. Wood and porous substances are not hygienic. There should be two basins for each class of forty-two pupils. Clean towels should he frequently provided: the promiscuous use of towels is, however, unhygienic. Urinals of the usual kind in white earthenware, set at different heights, are preferable to the slate slabs commonly seen in the schools of this State. The urinal should be practically odourless. Two per class will be sufficient. Latrines (water and other closets) should be provided in the ratio of two seats for each class. One ingenious system is to make the closure of the seat and opening of the door interdependent, so that when the door is opened the seat is closed, and when the seat is open the door is closed. This prevents entrance to the " cabinet," notwithstanding that the child has not closed the door, and, tijce ««»•««, the child cannot leave without closing the seat. The arrangements in some of the schools in this State tvhich admit of no individual privacy are inconsistent with a due regard to decency, and ought to be no longer tolerated. The evils that it is supposed to avert are better combatted in other ways ; and the depressing of the sense of decency is a positive moral injury. With sensitive children it is often physically injurious. The consensus of opinion elsewhere is also against us in this matter. The lavatories and latrines ought to he vnder the same roof as the school ; with hygienic arrangements this is far preferable to their removal into the yards and recreation grounds. 19. Douche and Bathing-rooms, Gi/mnastic-hall, Cleaning, etc. A 1 ii (j), (k), and (1). — Shower- baths are a feature of very many modern schools, and generally children are compelled to bathe once in a given period, usually a week. {See Illustration.) The water is heated by steam in winter, and supplied always at an agreeable temperature. In many schools also there are large and well-appointed swimming baths. These are cemented, have steam-heating apparatus, by means of which steam is passed into the water, so that it can be raised to any required temperature in winter. The baths are provided with the usual paraphernalia for systematically teaching swimming, diving, etc., and are an excellent feature, both hygienically and physically. Splendidly equipped and large gymnastic-halls are a feature in almost all modern schools in Europe and America. These are well cared for hygienically. The floors are sometimes of wood, sometimes of elastic material, as for example, a kind of cork preparation, to diminish the liability of injury through shock, and for special exercises proper cushions are provided. The question of physical culture, however, is referred to more fully hereinafter. Cleaning is done very thoroughly in all continental and American schools. The walls are not merely kalsomined brick, common in our schools, which, being rough, retains the dust, but are smooth. The floors and furniture are scrupulously cleaned, and the former being generally parquetry, are free from crevices filled with all sorts of dust. The schools are looked after by concierges, or caretakers, who generally do their work excellently. They live in the school building, and seem as a rule to strongly identify themselves with its interests. This system is undoubtedly the only way to have the school in the best order, and when schools and grounds are properly kept, there is abundant work for a concierge. 20. Courts and Yards. A 1. iii. (a). As already stated, the recreation yards are calculated in Geneva at the rate of at least 4 square metres, say 43 sq. feet per pupil. All school hygienists are agreed as to the great importance of places for games and recreation generally, and in Switzerland generally 8 square metres, that is, double the above quantity is now fixed, as the normal allowance per pupil. The Canton of Aargau requires this amount ; so also does the Canton of Schwytz, but the latter for boys only. A rather curious fact in Switzerland is that it is in the country parts where the land is cheapest that the school yards are generally smallest. The Swiss idea, we see, therefore, is to devote a plot of from, say, about 200 feet each way to about 300 feet each way, as a recreation ground for 1,000 pupils. This seems little enough. 21. Gardens and Shade-trees, etc. — (J.) School gardens are absolutely required for properly developed kindergartens, and much interesting material for instruction, and many things to excite the powers of observation, are in this way immediately to hand. Nature-study can commence in this way at the earliest age. These gardens would be attended to by the caretaker. In summer, in this State, shade trees are almost a necessity, and it is possible to have a large part of a playground so completely covered, that the whole of the ordinary play may take place in the shade. Where there is no one to look after school grounds, deciduous trees are troublesome, but where the school grounds are taken care of, the objection fails, and the deciduous trees have the advantage that they allow the inroad of sunlight in winter. A splendid example was seen of this method of dealing with part of a recreation yard at the k.k. Eriedrich's Gymnasium, near the Zoologischer Garten, at Frankfort. The plane-trees (Platanus orientalis) are trained with an upright stem for about 10 feet, and then all branches are trained horizontally 417 horizontally so as to form a horizontal stratum of foliage, constituting a perfect shade in the summer months,' but, since the trees are bare in winter, allowing also the full play of sunlight when it is really needed, viz , in the winter months. Such recreation grounds stand in startling contrast to some of our own ; but, here and there, this State has plots connected with its schools that could easily be made excellent. In the Commissioners' opinion, an insulBcient use is made of shade trees in our recreation grounds. If small gardens were made a feature of every school ground, opportunities for object-lesson teaching, for nature study, and for the study of natural history are afforded. This, however, is treated elsewhere. 22. (c.) Provision for Physical Exercise, and wet weather, etc. — In appropriating land in the future for schools, it will be well to remember that large areas give far better opportunity for physical exercise, gymnastic and military drill, and free games ; and to realise also that in order to secure the greatest advantage, orovision must be made for wet weather. In this climate, the latter need be but moderate, School Shower-bath. Boiler, etc., for the School Shower-bath. SCHOOL AT THE BUHL, ZURICH, SWITZERLAND. Bince we have so large an amount of fine weather ; still, it should exist, and, therefore, a part of every play ground chould be covered in. It is well also, in school grounds of anything like normal size, that part should form lawa, part should be asphalted, and part may be of such earth as will form a good surface, and not become hard, so that a sufficient variety of play may be possible, and the pupils regard the conditions of school life as among the most agreeable in their existence. This is a state of things which, though too little realised here, is realised in many parts of Europe and America, and, perhaps especially, in Switzerland. For kindergarten plots, the only asphalted parts should be the walks or paths ; lawn and garden should be the chief features, and the little ones may then play with much more safety. All these things help to reinforce the rural power of the school, and when it is agreeably situated, properly orientated, and has suitable recreation grounds, child-life will stand in a better way of profiting by what the school has to bestow. 23. 15—3 1 ' One is reminded of the Groves of Academus. 418 23. Illustrations of School Buildings. — Swiss schools, and, in general, modern European and American schools, are so incomparably superior even to the most recently-constructed schools here, that to get any real idea of them photographs are necessary. For that reason, representations of several schools, with some descriptions underwritten, are here added. Drawings of their ground plans are also essential to illustrate the proper methods of school- building. It is impossible to visit even one of our most modern schools without feeling how much we have to learn, and how deplorable it is that the school-building is not in accord with the results of systematic study of the question, in the light of modern psediatry. A drawing of a suitable warming-stove has previously been given. Complete drawings of a school, and of proper heating and ventilating apparatus, are, perhaps, a little outside the scope of the report. A systematic statement of the Commissioners' conclusions will be set out at the end of Chapter XLIX, hereinafter. 24. GirW School at Monbijou, Berne, Switzerland. —The fine building in the",illustration hereunder is the finest Girls' School in Berne. Its site was chosen'with regard to'quiet, and it is agreeably situated with regard to general surroundings. The length of the building is north and south, so that for most of the rooms light is received from the east side. The two rooms for dratving are lighted by windows on the north. The principal aim in designing the building was to realise a simple, bright, and convenient GIRLS' SCHOOL, MONBIJOU, BERNE, SWITZERLAND. Cost, £34,600. Rooms designed to seat thirty-six pupils only. disposition of the class-rooms, access to which is had by a fine corridor running longitudinally along the building. In general appearance the schoolhouse was intended to express a noble simplicity, such as would make it serve as a means of aesthetic education (doch als asthetisches Erziehungsmittel wirken). The ventilating and heating arrangements are very perfect, and the whole place is kept scrupulously clean. The dimensions of the rooms in metres^ are : — Rooms. 6-60 X 9-75 X 3-6 7-20 X 8-90 X 3-6 - 64 08 8-70 X 7-80 X 3-6 - 67-i Floor Area. Cubic Space. Cubic Space per Pupil. 64 "35 square metres = 231 '66 cubic metres 6'43 230-68 = 244-29 6-40 6-78 Each room is designed for thirty-six pupils, and is lighted by three windows (1-60 x 2-70 = 4-32) X 3 = 12-96 square metres — the ratio to floor space being therefore 1 : 5. The > Add about 10 % to the measurement in jnetres and the result will be yards. 419 The rooms for drawing are, in dimensions, 11"58 i 8*63 = 99"93 square metres, and have four room8 on the north side (1'90 x 270 = 5' 13) i 4 = 20'52 square metres — the ratio to floor space being about the same as before (1 : 4'87). The furniture in the rooms for drawing consisted of eighteen double drawing-tables with movable seats, three model-tables, large presses, two large glazed presses for plaster models, etc. The laboratory for practical instruction in Physics and Chemistry is very finely equipped both as regards convenience for laboratory practice and in respect of apparatus. The natural history room is equally well developed, and has a fine and well-supplied museum. In the school -hit chen are gas, and wood and coal stoves, so that the pupils may learn both methods of cooking. The equipment is very complete. There is also a laundry, and close thereto an ironing room, with gas-heaters for the flat-irons. The bathroom has ten closed cabinets of 220 metres high ; by pulling a chain one gets a shower- bath — the temperature of which can be adjusted as required. The dressing, toilet-rooms, vestiaries (cloak-rooms), etc., are all excellently arranged. Near the kitchen is a comfortable dining-room. The school has a large asphalted play-room (Spielhalle), the dimensions of which are in metres : — 10 X 30 X 5 ^ 300 square metres = 1,500 cubic metres, and a gymnastic-hall (Turnhalle) — 14 x 28 x 850 = 39200 square metres = 3,332 cubic metres. In the basement there is a boiler and heating-room, and t\\e fuel-room belonging thereto, and under half of the gymnastic-hall, a store-room. 25. The Girls' School at the Hirschengraben, Zurich. — The finest school-house in Zurich is the Girls' School at the Hirschengraben. It was erected in 1893 at a cost of about £32,800 ; the ground plan being shewn in the illustration hereunder. In selecting the site the conditions previously outlined, viz., in section 8, were attended to. The building contains twenty-three class-rooms, three work-rooms, a room for drawing, a large and beautifully designed conference hall, a chemical laboratory, a museum, a THE GIRLS' SCHOOL AT THE HIRSCHENGRABEN, ZURICH, SWITZERLAND. Grovind Plan, etc. library, two children's rooms, two teachers' rooms, a large bathroom, a large play-room, two very fine gymnastic halls, and the caretaker's residence. The cost of the gymnastic hall was about 17s. 6d. per cubic metre, or, say, 6d. per cubic foot. The entrances are very handsome — the chief entrance being from the Hirschengraben, and the other from the north-west playground. 420 SUdoBt-Anaicht. DAS MADCHENSCHULHAUS AM HIRSCHENCRABEN. "X&dmxZa -V vf^^vsniiiSi^ - MAIN ENTRANCE TO GIRLS" SCHOOL AT THE HIRSCHENGRABEN, ZURICH, SWITZERLAND) Cost of Building, £32,800. Kooms, 33. Xo Fees are paid by Scholara. 421 GIRLS' SCHOOL AT THE HIRSCHENGRABEN, ZURICH. Entrance at the North-west Playground. 422 27. Primary School at the Buhl, Zurich. — The view shewn in section 10 is the south-east yiew of the primary school at the Biihl in Zurich, erected at a cost of £21,200. Here there exist, on the one plot, a primary school and a secondary school, separated by a large gymnastic building. The primary-school building has twenty-three class-rooms, three work-rooms, a school workshop for carpentry and joinery, etc., a modelling-room, a school kitchen, a museum, a teacher's-room, a bathing- room, a caretaker's residence. The adjoining secondary school has eighteen class-rooms, two rooms for drawing, a work-rooni hall for singing, etc., a museum, a teacher's-room, a bathing-room, a caretaker's dwelling. The Gymnastic building contains two gymnastic halls, two class-rooms, two work-rooms, and for each hall a retiring-room for girls and one for boys. 28. Konig Wilhelmg-Beahchule, Stuttgart. — The Realschule (real school) of Stuttgart is an example of a school built in a somewhat confined and awkward area. It has eighteen class-rooms for the lower and five for the upper division, a festal hall, four rooms for drawing, one room for physics and one for chemistry, and so on, and also a gymnastic hall. These are distributed as follows : — Basement. — Caretaker's-room and dwelling, professor's work-room and library, two library-rooms, a general room, a lavatory. Ground floor. — Eight school-rooms, one room for drawing, one teacher's-room. First floor. — Eight school-rooms, one room for drawing, one rector's-room with registrar's-room, one assistant's-room, one teachers'-room. Second floor. — Five school-rooms, one room for drawing, one conference-room, one chart and map room, one lecture-room for physics and chemistry, with apparatus cabinet on one side, and on the other a chemical laboratory. Third floor. — One music-hall, one apparatus-room for scientific material, one room for models, etc. These rooms are 4-5 metres high. The gymnastic-hall is 26 i 13 x T'lO metres. The heating of the building was the first experiment in gas-heating. The^Karlsruhe school gas- heater, with self-acting regulator (Boehm system) was used. Each school-room has one heater, the rooms for drawing, music, and physics, two each. The rector's and assistants' rooms are furnished with gas-heaters in the form of fire-places, Massstab, 1:760. FIRST FLOOR- KING WILLIAM'S REAL-SCHOOL, STUTTGART. WURTEMBERG. Ventilation. -^The air is always filtered, entering ordinarily, or in passing to the gas-heater during the winter period. Lighting. — Each school-room has two arc-lamps for indirect lighting. The gymnasium has two large arc-lamps. Besides these, the rector's and some other rooms hav^ incandescent electric light. The whole cost was about £25,850. 29, 423 29. A Swiss School Eitchtn. — The illustration hereunder represents the school-kitchen in a school at Wolfbach, Zurich, Switzerland. It is fairly representative of the modern equipment of a Swiss school, for the teaching of one branch of domestic economy. Much the same thing was seen in Holland, the equipments in Amsterdam and the Hague being very complete. In many places there are both gas and ordinary stoves. 30. A Belgian Normal School. — The Etablissement des TJrsulines, Wavre Notre Dame, near Malines, Belgium, shewn in the following illustrations, is a normal and middle school for girls, having accommodation in all for about 1,000 boarders. Fig. 1 represents one of its chapels. Figs. 2 and 3 are two views of its splendidly equipped science apparatus room, and museum of natural history. In Fig. 3 one may notice the "tellurium" and " planetarium," telescopes, phonographs, camera, etc., besides a large quantity of physical apparatus. Fig. 4 is a " dortoir " (dormitory) on the Belgian system. Fig. 5, the toilet-room. Fig. 6, the kitchen and its very complete equipment, where it may be mentioned the walls are covered with white glass tiles, it having been found that, when cleaning is taken into account, they are the most economical. The refectory tables are white plate-glass and white marble. In future, all additions will be white glass. All floors are in parquetry as in Switzerland, waxed, and scrupulously clean; and all walls are varnished. Schnitt. 1 :600. DAS PRIMARSCHULHAUS AN DER KLINGENSTRASSE. THE PRIMARY SCHOOL AT KLINGENSTRASSE, ZURICH, SWITZERLAND. 424 (1) Chapel. (2) Science Apparatus-room. (3) Science Apparatus-room. ETABLISSEMENT DES lURSULINES, WAVRE NOTRE DAME, NEAR MALINES, BELGIUM. 425 (4) Doruiitoiy. (5) Toilet-room. (0) Ivilclieii. ETABLISSEMENT DES URSULINES, WAVRE NOTRE DAME, NEAR MALINES, BELGIUM. 15— 3 K 81. 426 31. Elementary OirW School in Sweden. — The illustration hereunder is that of an elementary school for girls at Gothenberg, in Sweden. The folk-schools of Sweden are noble buildings, and in their general design and internal arrangement are not dissimilar to the Swiss. The modern buildings are particularly fine. ELEMENTARLAROVERKET FOR FLICKOR GOTEBORG. CHAPTER XLVIII. 427 CHAPTER XLVIII. School Furniture and its Hygienic Importance. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introduction.— T\\e furnishing of a achool may be considered in two distinct relations, viz., the psedagogical and the hygienic. It has, however, been already seen that psediatry and psedagogy are really so inter-dependent that there will be some advantage in passing freely from either aspect of any question considered to the other, This must excuse all alternation between paedagogy and hygiene in this chapter. For a great many years past a degree of attention has been given to the matter in Europe, and especially in Switzerland, such as place.s all other parts of the world under very great obligations for the thorough manner in which the paediatrieal researches have been carried out. A little later, it will bf= necessary to more fully refer to them. Proceeding consistently with the order indicated in the sketch of the subject-matter of school hygiene, it becomes necessary in referring to school furniture to AeaX ?irst with the so-called "black- board." In passing, it may be said that, inasmuch as the purely psedagogical aspect of school equipment has already been considered, the present discussion will, in the main, be hygienic. 2. School black-boards, A 2 1 (a).— In order that the pupil's eyes may be in no way fatigued, the black-boards used in school should invariably be dull black, and they should be so lighted and arranged as to avoid all troublesome reflection. In some schools strong artificial light is projected by means of a reflector on to the board in dull weather, the direct light being screened from the eyes of the pupil by the reflector itself. It will be remembered that in Article 32 of the Geneva Regulations (see Section 4 of the preceding chapter), it is prescribed that the black-boards should be of slate. The slate is undoubtedly preferable to wood, both from the point of view of convenience and hygiene. The best material, however: is ground-glasn with a black backing.' Writing on the ground-glass is very much easier, faster, better, and the glass is also better for hygienic reasons. A convenient accessory is an endless band of " toile ai:doisee," a sort of black cloth on which one can write as freely as on slate. This passes over two rollers and has some advantages, especially fur secondary instruction. In America a green writing-board was seen. 3. The History and Theorif of School-seating (J). — The desks and seats commonly seen in the public schools of this State — and this applies to the equipments of schools recently built quite as much as to old schools — are an anachroni.sm. Theg implg an absolute disregard of the progress that has been made in the serious study of the whole matter, and their replacement by proper furniture is very desirable, in connection with a thorough overhaul of all schools, and their rearrangement with regard, as far as possible, to the demands of hygiene. Some account of the progress made in this subject is necessary, in order to arrive at a definite understanding of our position in relation thereto. In 1841, Henry Barnard, of America, published a memoir upon " School Architecture," in which he shewed the inconvenience and injurioiistiess of badly-designed school furniture. Later, Dr. Fahrner, of Zurich, viz , in 18G3, attracted public attention in Europe to the same question, and it is to the influence of Fahrner, perhaps even more than to that of Barnard, that recent progress is due. School-desks, systematically considered, ought, as far as paedagogy is concerned, to answer to the following requirements : — (1.) They should be so arranged as to allow each child to take his place without disturbing other children. (2.) Their manipulation and alteration ought to be noiseless, and without danger to the child's fingers, etc. (3.) They should be provided with places for books, note-books, ink, pencils, etc. (4.) They ought to admit of easy supervision by the master. From the hygienic point of view, the conditions to be satisfied are : — (5 ) They ought to enable the pupil during writing, drawing, etc., or during rest, to take up a position which is normal as regards his vertebral column, and as regards the distance of the eye from the paper. (6.) They ought to be proportioned to suit the bodies of the children that occupy them. (7.) They ought to be made without sharp edges, or points which could wound the child. From the standpoint of convenience, etc., they ought to be : — (8.) Light, movable, so as to admit of easy shifting from place to place, and so as to facilitate sweeping and cleaning. (9.) They ought to be simple, firm, compact, cheap. One of the most important of these conditions is what may be called the anatomical, and for the following sketch in regard thereto we are indebted to Dr. A. Combe's paragraph on " Les conditions anatomiques de la position assise," which freely translated is as follows: — In the sitting position, tlie body, sustained by the vertebral column, rests upon the two ischia. The ischium having very nearly the form of the stave of a casli, it follows that the human being when sitting may be well compared to a rocking-horse — that is to say, it is in a position of unstable equilibrium; consequently it is necessary to have another point of support. In front, tliis may be afforded by the thighs; hence this position may be called the " foruxird-iiUing position." The fulcrum may also consist of the point of the sacrum ; this latter may therefore be appropriately denominated the " backward-filling position." We ^ See Section 21 hereinafter for further reference to this matter. 428 We proceed to examine successively the two positions in respect of their anatomical conditions, and to see wliat modifications they impress upon the physiological functions of the human organism. It is sufficient for tliia purpose to clearly call to mind the reciprocal relationship between the vertebral column and tlie viscera, and to remember that the vertebral column, our support, lies in the middle of the back, and that the viscera, viz., the thoracic and abdominal organs, lie in front of it. Forward Position. — In the forward-sitting position the weight of the head and of the thoracic and abdominal organs necessarily drag the body forward. The first movement of a child sitting in that position is the bending of the head. Held in place by the muscles of the nape of the neck, the head draws the thorax with the vertebral column so tliat through the weiglit of the tlioracic viscera, and in proportion as the muscles of the back become more and more fatigixed, tlie vertebral coliinm i.s incurved, or curved forward. This bending movement is acoentuatetl still more by the weight of tlie abdominal viscera. Then the muscles of the back and the nape of the neck become so fatigued that thn child involuntarily seeks another point of support, and then it ia that he commences to lean upon his elbow or elbows, whicli, instinctively, he puts up on the table. Such are the anatomical conditions of tlie " forward-sitting position." Let us uowe.xamine the consequences which flow from them. The forward position brings about : — (a) First, by bending of the liead : a reduction of the distance between the eyes and the paper on the desk, tlie consequence of which is temporary myopia. This myopia may become definitive from ilie nearness becoming habitual. (6) Secondly, through the bending of the back : a diminution of the thoracic cavity by the approximation of the chest-walls causing difficulty of respiration and circulation. (c) Thirdly, by bending the lumbar region : an increase of abdominal tension is caused, impeding the movements of the stomach and intestines, and thereliy making digestion difficult. (d) Fourthly, by leaning upon the elbows and the two fore-arms ; an elevation of the two scapulse is produced, and they are obliged to sustain tlie weig'at of the body. (e) Finally, when the muscles of the scapuhe are fatigued, the child leans his chest against the table in order to support himself. This augments still more the difficulty of the respiratory movements. That is not all. Tlie child, unhappily, often prefers to lean upon a single arm, or upon a single fore-arm. This last position is even worse than the other, for it produces an elevation of the scapula on one side only, and inevitably brings about a lateral deviation of the vertebral column. In short, the forward position, which is forcibly brought about wherever benches or seats without backsare provided, or with backs that are too vertical, causes an incurving, ami even a lateral deviation, of the vertebral column ; it causes, also, an abnormal and difficult action in respiration, circulation, and digestion ; it provokes too great an approximation of the eyes ; it ought, therefore, never to be tolerated in schools where it is possible to do otherwise. Backward-sitting Position. — In the backward-sitting position, tlie three points of support, viz., the iachia and the sacrum are fixed and immovable, the viscera and the vertebral column are in equilibrium ; no compression is produced in the cavities of the body. This position would be ideal if it could be maintained. Unfortunately the sacrum is an insuffi- cient point of support when the body is lightly inclined backwards, consequently, a back to the seal with a slightly backward inclination is indispensable. 4. Application of the theory of posture in sitting to the dimensions and form of school-desks. — The above expresses the view of a physician of the Schools of Lausanne, an able authority in psediatry. It is well to remember that cliildren spend a great deal of their time in the school ; that their articular framework is far more plastic than in adult life ; and, further, that the adult consciousness is no adequate gauge of the need of children, or of their subjective impressions, unless that consciousness is informed by properly qualified research. The main results of paediatry have been accepted by all persons who have taken the trouble to acquaint themselves with its subject-matter, and have been widely acted upon throughout Europe and America, much to the advantage of the young life in their school-houses. There is but one general rule to be followed, and that is the very obvious one that the furniture ouffht to be proportioned to the pupil's body ; but in translating this into practice, considerable difficulty arises from the fact that the height of children, even of a given age, varies so greatly. It varies also with race and climate. For particular ages the mean is Ibund to vary in Switzerland, even as between one Canton and another. There is still another difficulty, viz., the great variation in the relative length of the trunk and limbs ; even difference of mere condition affects the result, the seating of thin children being sensibly different from fat ones. The measurement which, better than all others, gives what is required, and which best escapes the difficulties arising from these varied relations, is the height of the elbow above the seat upon which one is resting. This even does not escape all difficulty, because children have been known to grow 4, 5, and 7 centimetres {\\ to 2f inches) iti a year — that is, during the time they are assumed to remain in one class. With a view of facilitating the placing of the children, the seats in each class may vary a little above and below the mean for the age, or they may be made adjustable, so that the children can be distributed properly according to their height. In order to assist this, especially when the desks are not adjustable, the door of the school-room has a graduated scale in centimetres from 90 to 180, say, from 2 feet 1 1 5 inches to 5 feet II inches. The height of the pupil cau then be seen at a glance, and the school-tables indicate pretty well where he is to be placed. The school-desks consist of the following parts:— the table, the seat, the bach of the seat, theybo^- re*t, and the repository for the books. The dimensions and relative positions of each of these will be considered. 6. The Desk-seat. — The height of the seat should be such that when the foot is flat on the floor, the leg and thigh form a right angle. When the seat is too high the legs swing, and their whole weight falls on the popliteal space (the cavity behind the knee), where vessels and nerves exist that soon give rise to an intolerable irritation, to escape which the child slides himself forward, and is thus prevented from holding himself erect. When on the contrary the seat is too low, the thighs bear against the abdomen, the legs making an acute angle with them, a very fatiguing position ; and then the child extends his limbs so as to rest them; he is, of course, thus deprived of the support of his feet. It is necessary to observe that in the case of girls the height of the seat should be between I and 2 centimetres (say, i to f inch) less than for boys, on account of the thickness of the clothing. The breadth of the seat from back to front is determined by the length of the thigh. It is agreeable to have the front third of the thigh free, consequently the breadth of the seat is made only two-thirds of the length of the thigh. If the seat be too narrow, some degree of injury to the child very rapidly occurs ; if too wide, the anterior part presses on the nerves and vessels of the popliteal space, and, hindering the circulation in the legs, gives rise to a sensation of discomfort. The front of the seat also should be rounded, to avoid the same discomforts. The 429 The form of the teat should be slightly convex upwards in front, concave upwards in the rear ; this so as to prevent the tendency to slip thereon, and to give the sensation of repose. Many authorities urge that a alight backward inclination be given to the seat for the same reason, thus ** ^> or, better, < "' ■ '• 6. Sack of seat. — Seals without backs ought to be absolutely prohibited, and the testimony of hygienists is uniform on this point. They are an offence against the physique of the rising generation, which remark is also true for improperly shaped backs ; and a reasonable regard for the future of our people, to say nothing of the moral responsibility involved when we compel attendance at school, demands that this matter should be corrected. There are several types of backs to seats, viz., what may be called the sacral, lumbar, and dorsal types. The sacral back is, of course, a very low one, corresponding to the region of the sacrum, and admits of complete freedom of movement for the body and arms. This was supposed to assist in keeping the vertebral column erect, but experience has shewn that the leverage against the pelvic support is too slight, and it therefore gives rise to the forward-sitting position with all its disadvantages. The lumbar back is higher than the sacral, and reaches as far as the base of the dorsal column. Like the sacral back, it also admits of considerable movement of the vertebral column, but not supporting the back, it does not permit the child to rest his fatigued muscles. The dorsal back rises in some seats as far as the point of the scapula, in others as far as the spine of the scapula. It ought never to be higher than this Zos/, otherwise it will impede the arm-movements by its reaction on the scapula. This last form of back is the one to be preferred. According to Kocher, the most agreeable shape of seat-back is that which is slightly inclined to the rear, and is also slightly convex in the lumbar-dorsal region, the curve being made to correspond with that of the vertebral column ; and the Commissioners have not the slightest doubt that experience has confirmed this opinion. If the back be erect, the child will become fatigued, and will either take the forward position with its attendant disadvantages ; or leaning against the back, he will slip forward in his seat, and adopt an attitude also injurious as regards his physical development. The same thing happens in school-seats in which a simple tranverse bar, in the superior dorsal region, replaces a complete back, as in seats one sees in many other places as well as in some schools. When the back of the seat is too much to the rear the pupil will either not use the back at all — and the disadvantages of the forward position reappear, or else he will feel so immobile that his arm- movement, depending then wholly on his muscular effort, will be difficult. The seat and back ought, therefore, to take the form roughly illustrated in the diagram,' viz. : — 7. Foot-rest. — When the seat of a school-desk has a proper height, a foot-rest is neither necessary, nor, on the whole, is it desirable ; for, impeding to some extent the movement of the legs, it limits the freedom of movement of the pupil. It also constitutes, especially if narrow, a sort of foot-scraper ; and mud and dust tend to accumulate under it. Wherever it is introduced, it ought to have a breadth front to rear, of, say, 10 to 15 centimetres, or, say, 4 to 6 inches, so that the whole sole of the foot may rest thereon. A narrow bar of wood is not comfortable. Since the seat and its back are inclined in properly constructed seats, the foot-rest should also be inclined, so that the function of the nerves and vessels in the popliteal space shall not be impeded. 8. Table. — The length of the table for a school-desk is determined by the space occupied by the two fore-arms of the pupil placed lengthwise, with the fingers extended thus : — Fore-arm. Fingers. Fore-arm. X • Body of Pupil. ' that is, from elbow to elbow. This would be from, say, 50 centimetres for a little child, to about 90 centimetres for an adult, or, say, from about 20 to 36 inches For school children the range, therefore, would be, say, from about 60 to 70 centimetres, or from 24 to 28 inches. Where the highest psedagogic efficiency is desired, a single table for each pupil is by far the best condition ; but with forty-two pupils in a class, this would involve the class-room being rather large, certainly greater than 28 feet by 21 feet, as previously mentioned. It is customary, therefore, in the majority of schools, to have a single school-desk for each two pupils, and to make its length from 120 to 140 centimetres, say, from about 48 to 56 inches in length. With these double tables, there would be ample space for the aisles between the desks, so that pupils may enter and leave their seats easily, and without creating disturbance ; further, all the places are easily supervised by the master. The question of the seating for schools of the highest class, and the dimensions of class-rooms in connection therewith, will be reverted to hereinafter. When the table is at right angles to the line of sight, the whole field of vision thereon, a book for example, involves practically the same degree of accommodation in the crystalline lens of the eye. Hence, for reading, the slope of the table, as a simple measurement will easily shew, should be about 30°. For writing and drawing, such an inclination would, of course, be inconvenient ; and it is necessary, therefore, to approximate more closely to the horizontal. A slope of one-half the above, viz., about 15°, has been very widely adopted as a compromise, and a small portion of the table, most remote from the pupil, is also made quite horizontal. This arrangement gives about 35 centimetres (13f inches) as the distance from the eye to the work, which, being about the normal distance, produces a minimum of fatigue, and is in every respect satisfactory. The custom of fixing a fillet at the lower edge to prevent such articles as books, etc., falling off, is not well conceived, because in certain positions of the arm the projection gives rise to a compression of the nerves and vessels of the fore-arm. If, however, the fillet be central and short, it is unobjectionable. 9. Height-relation between seat and table. — The two important elements defining the relative position of seat and table are obviously the height and distance between the two. Fahrner, in his discussion of the question, called the former the ''difference," i.e., the difference of absolute height ; and he __^ called ' In the illustration the back is inclined too much to the rear. 430 called also the distance between the verticals at the nearest edges of the table and seat, the " distance." The " difference" 0Ui;ht to be the distance from the isnliium to the elbow, when the humerus is hanging vertically, and is easily ascertained, on seating the pupil with his humerus vertical and his fore-arm horizontal, by measuring downward to the seat. Its correctness, also, is easily verified by seating him a little distance from the table with his hand, palm downwards, flat thereupon. Then, if the " difference" be normal, the fore-arm she ild be horizontal, the humerus being vertical. The table-height may very slightly e.vceed the ''difference" so determined. Apart from the sensation of comfort to the body, there are certain effects on the eyes to be considered. When the table is too high, and the books, etc., are consequently too near the eye, there is a tendency to myopia ; on the other hand, when the table is too low, there is a temptation to lean the head, and this position being accentuated by fatigue, restores again the tendency to myopia. Moreover, the right elbow has, when the table is high, to take a position which leads to lateral bending of the vertebral column, with a convexity to the right; and, when too low, a forward incurving, with its attendant mischief. In general, when the table is too high or low, there is myopic tendency, aljnormal curving of the vertebral column, compression of the blood-vessels in the neck, diminution of the intercostal spaces, diminution of the chest cavity, and diminution of respiration and circulation ; the abdominal wall is folded, the stomach is compressed, and its movement hindered. Hence the question of proper height is not without moment ; on the contrary, it has an importance which is understood and rightly estimated only by those who have seriously studied the question, and observed the consequences that flow from defective positions of the body in case of children. 10. Distance-relation between seat and table. — When a plummet on the near edge of the table falls on the seat, the "distance" is said to be negative; when it falls in front of the seat, positive; and when it is coincident with the edge of the seat, zero, as is illustrated hereunder : — Table. Table. Seat. Seat. " Distance " — Is negative ; is positive ; is zero. In order to stand erect, the " distance " must be positive. For an adult, it should be about 16 centimetres (or, say, 65 inches) at least. This would be practically an impossible position for reading or writing, for the head and body would have to be inclined forwards a very considerable amount. Even when the positive "distance" is very small, the forward-sitting position, with all its injurious consequences, is involved. With zero "distance," it is possible to enter the seat comfortably, but not to stand upright. A negative "distance," even of a few centimetres, makes rising in one's place difiBcult, if the table or seat are fixtures; but it is the best position for reading and writing, and the eyes are at a normal distance. It is now eviAent t\\aX all seating involving positive '^ distance" should disappear from our schools, and be replaced by seating with slightly negative "distance." 11. The Repository for books, etc. — -Beneath the table there is an available space of something like 15 centimetres, which can be utilised as a repository for books, paper, pencils, etc. ; or, it may be well under the table and lower down. Both types have been made, the Pestalozzi, Zurich, Fribourg, Schenk, Jornod at Vuille, and similar school-desks, being examples of the one kind, and the Mauchain, and similar desks, examples of the other. 12. The construction of school-desks. — In order to get rid of the difficulty of standing erect, when the " distance," as it should be, is negative, seats are usually made to rotate ; that is, they can be turned up out of the way, and in some schools they are provided with springs, so that automatically they lie against the back of the seat, and have to be kept down by the weight of the pupil sitting upon them. Other desks, as for example those of Zurich, have tables with a rotating leaf, which serves as a book-rest. Others again slide to and from the pupil. All these arrangements have the object of making the standing position possible and comfortable. Among the exhibits at the Paris Exhibition of 1900 was a school-desk on the Jagerink system for one pupil, so designed that, while the inclinations of the different parts remained constant, the relative positions of the table, seat, and back being independent could be changed, the desk admitting of eighteen different positions. The manipulation was perhaps a little complicated. Various forma of school-desk were exhibited in 1889 at the Champ de Mars Exhibition, Paris, and again in the Exhibition of 1900. Illustrations of the latter maybe seen in the " Rapports du Jury International," Glroupe I— see " Mobilier Scolaire," pp. 559-561, figures 227-23 i, for desks supplied by the houses Hachette, Delagrave (Nisius), and Feret. The last figure, 234, is a somewhat elaborate table, designed by Mr. V. Brudenne. Three types of school-desk, one with chairs, illustrated in figures .336-338, pp. 975-976 of the same " Rapport," come from the factory of Mauchain, of Geneva. Various forms of seats and tables were also seen at the establishment of Hachette et Cie, Paris, as for example, the "Tables d'ecole maternelle, modele de la Ville de Paris " ; the " table du petit commen9ant," and the " table du petit dessinateur " ; the two last being according to the method of Madame H. Monternault. In Austria also various forms of school-desks (" Kinderpulte"; were seen at Pichler's establishment in Vienna. A still larger number of school-desks were exhibited in the " Exposition Nationale Suisse de Geneve, 1896," when nine cantonal departments, and eight makers shewed twenty-seven different models of desks. The Cantons were Basel, Berne, Geneva, Neuchatel, Soleure, St. Gall, Tessin, Vaud, Zurich ; and the inventors were Troefel, and Rudlinger of St. Gall ; Jornod et Vuille of Neuchatel ; Niffeler and Schenk of Berne; Mauchain of Geneva; Wahl of Chaux-de-Fonds; and Wannor-Burckhardt of Zurich. There are several different types of desk in the United States and Canada which are very neat in appearance, but they do not respond, in the Commissioners' judgment, to all the requirements previously explained as well as do some of the Swiss desks. School-desks 431 School-desks may be divided into four types, viz. : — (a) Desks with both " distance " and " difference " fixed, (i) Desks with only the " distance " variable. (c) Desks with only the " difference " variable. (d) Desks with both " distance " and " difference " variable. The four types will be fully referred to. 13. Kindergarten-desks. — In the Swiss Exhibition of 1896, at Geneva, three models in kindergarten- desks were shewn — one by the Department of Public Instruction at Zurich, one by that of Neuchatel, and one by the manufacturer Mauchin, of Geneva. The kindergarten-desks are generally of type (a). The smaller Zurich kindergarten-desk, for two pupils, has a horizontal table, size, 100 x 55 centimetres ; and two small chairs. The larger desk measures 179 x 48 x 56 in height. The chairs, four, for this latter, have square seats, 295 x 29'5, and 30 centimetres high. The top of back is 34 centimetres higher than seat, and is 81 centimetres in breadth. The Neuchatel kindergarten-desk has places for three pupils, a somewhat narrow table, that can be slightly inclined ; this last feature is a real advantage. The "Table-banc normale (L. Nisius)," with the table ruled in squares, is a good form of kindergarten-desk, but has the disadvantage of not beint; in any way adjustable. It seats two pupils. The Mauchain kindergarten-desk is for three pupils, and the table can be arranged in four different ways, viz , for manual work, for reading, for writing, and for writing, Hrawinn;, etc., on the table itself. It is certainly one of the best desks seen by the Commissioner.'*. It is light, and may easily be shifted by the little children themselves. Dr. Combe expresses a preference for the Mauchain kindergarten-desk, with the little Zurich chairs, rather than its own seat. The colour of the writing surface (ardoisee) for work with chalk, has been made brown instead of the usual black : this is said to avoid the phsenomena of astigmatism. The possibility of four positions, one of which admits of writing and drawing with chalk, is claimed to be thoroughly in keeping with the demands of the Froebelian method. This work with chalk, it is asserted, gives great lightness of touch to the hand ; and the opportunity for writing or drawing objects in large dimensions is said to more vividly impress the imaginations of the children, and to more firmly engrave on their minds the form of letters, etc., and the mode of writing them. With this assertion the Commissioners are in agreement. The illustration hereunder shews the desk, with the children at work thereat. Its dimensions, in centimetre.-*, are 136 x 34, and is known as " modele No. 10 ". 14. Primary school-desks. — -In section 4 of the preceding chapter, Article 29 of the Swiss regulations is quoted as aflBrming — The school-rooms ought to be provided with the " Mauchain " type of furniture, or with some other presenting the same advantages; and Article 30 prescribes the adoption of — (1) a negative " distance " ; (2) a correct height, so that the feet may be flat on the floor, and that there may be a proper "difiference" ; and (3) that the seats shall be provided with backs. The special advantage of the ^lauchain desk lies in its adjustability as regards "difference." The various forms of desk in respect of which experience is now to hand is much greater than might at first be supposed. Some of these will now be referred to in detail. Reverting to section 12 of this chapter, it was noted (a) that some desks had both " distance " and " difference " fixed. Such are the following : — The old Bernese desk, seen in the Permanent Exhibition of School Material at Berne, is illustrated in the figure hereinafter (A). It has a negative "distance" of 2 centimetres. The table is hinged, and when lifted, a spacious repository for books is disclosed. The desk has a place for atlases and large books in front {see drawing), and is made in five sizes. The Eoux desk has zero " distance." It is made in no less than nine sizes. The section of the desk is shewn in figure (B). A slight modification is known as the Roux-Isoz desk. THE OLD BERNESE SCHOOL-DESK, BERNE, SWITZERLAND. Fig. B. THE ROUX SCHOOL-DESK, CANTON VAUD, SWITZERLAND. The 432 The Grisons desk has a negative " distance" of 3 centimetres. It has the advantage of a lumbar- dorsal back, closely following the normal curvature of the vertebral column. The Fribourg desk is either of a single height, with chairs of different heights, or both chairs and desks are of various heights. The Basel desk has a negative " distance" of 3 centimetres, and a straighter back than the Koux desk. The Schwytz desk has a negative " distance " of 2 centimetres., and, as regards the " difference," three sizes are made. The Valais desk may be either zero " distance" or negative, of from 2 to 3 centimetres; and eight or nine sizes are made, to deal with the difficulty of " difference." 15. Variable " distance" desks. — The second form of desk referred to was (i), viz., that with the "distance" variable. In order to allow the pupil to «tand erect, some parts of the table or seat, or of both, must be movable. The various forms of desk may then be classed': — (e) Desks with tables, part or the whole of which can be rotated about a horizontal axis. (/) Desks with sliding tables. {g) Desks with rotating seats about a horizontal aiis. ih) Desks in which the table and the seat can be rotated. First, as to desks of class (e). The Zurich school-desk has cast-iron standards, and table and seat of wood. It is undoubtedly the most pleasing form of school-desk seen by the Commissionirs. The " distance " is invariably 3 centi- metres negative. In order to allow pupils to stand, a leaf of the table can be lifted. {See the Figure C, which, however, is not to scale.) This leaf is intended to receive the reading-book ; but the distance is so increased, that the pupil is tempted to adopt the forward-sittint; position, with its disadvantages. The back is inclined backwards, and has the proper supports. The desks numbered I to IV are proxided with large foot-rests ; the larger ones, V to VllI, have foot-boards only. It will be seen from the following Table, giving the dimensions for different classes, that the difference proceeds by single centimetres from 18 to 28. This desk is a very good one, even from the hygienic point of view, and despite the defects mentioned. Unfortunately, it is not as excellent as it is graceful in form, and it is certainly not equal, hygienically to the Mauchain desk. Fig. C. THE ZURICH SCHOOL-DESK. PROPOKTIONS OP Zurich School-desks. 6-7 101-110 I 7-8 111-120 II 8-9 121-130 III 9-10 131-140 IV 10-11 141-160 V 11-12 151-160 VI 12-13 161-170 VII 13-14 171-180 Class VIII Inclination of the table (14°) mm. 80 190 260 220 7S0 480 230 190 80 340 160 180 200 1,200 200 mm. 87 200 300 163 750 463 240 200 80 360 180 180 200 1,200 210 mm. 90 210 340 no 750 453 250 220 80 380 200 180 200 1,200 220 mm. 95 220 370 66 750 435 260 230 80 400 220 180 240 1,200 230 mm. 100 2.30 400 "7s6 400 280 240 100 420 240 180 240 1,200 250 mm. 100 240 430 "770 430 295 250 100 420 240 180 240 1,200 265 mm. 100 260 460 "820 460 320 260 100 430 250 180 240 1,400 290 mm. 100 280 490 Height of desk 870 Seat— Height Breadth 5ack — Distance from the seat 490 340 280 Breadth Table— Breadth 100 430 Fixed part Movable leaf Breadth of repository 260 180 240 Length of desk 1,400 Distance from table to back 310 ' The several desks are known as — (e) pupitres avec tablette a valve, or Klapptisch ; (/) avec tablette i, gliasement, or Sohiebtisch ; (3) avec si6ge k valve, or Klappstuhl. The 433 The official school-desks of St. Gall are o£ wood. The table is less inclined thau in the Zurich model. The distance throughout is 3 cm. negative. The following are the tnaiu proportions : — Proportions of St. Gali, School Dk.sks. Class I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Inclination of table, 9-36. "Difference" Floor to foot rest ,. cm. 21 18 40 45-5 74 38 18 120 80 74 cm. 225 12 40 44 74 39 18 120 82 74 cm. 24 40 42-5 74 40 19 120 85 74 cm. 25 5 '4V" 74 42 20 120 00 74 cm. 27 cm. 27 Breadth of foot rest Seat heiglit 46 80 44 20 120 95 80 47 Back height 83 Table breadth 41 ,, movable leaf 20 ,, length of desk 120 ,, breadth of desk 99 ,, height of desk 83 The desks of Aargau, Appenzell Int., and Thurgau are the same as the above. Among desks with sliding tables (f) may be noted the Pestalozzi desk. The sliding table in tin's is similar to that in the Austrian desks used in Olmutz. It has a large slope, 20°, which, with respect to the hygiene of reading, etc., is excellent. On sliding the table towards the pupil a groove is exposed, in which the pens, chalk, and ink are kept. The atlases and large books may be placed in front, as in the old Bernese desk. The sliding forwards or backwards of the table is so easy that it can reach the pupil's body when seated ; it sometimes leads to the fingers being pinched. The lower side of the table is hollowed out about 8 centimetres to receive the chest of the child, and in the centre of this is a ^mall fillet about 1 centimetre in height, to prevent books, etc., sliding off. The sides form a rest for the arms of the pupil, and are free from any projection causing pressure on the vessels of the forearm. This arrangement allows the "distance" to he positive when the table is pushed 'back, so that the pupil can stand comfortably, and, nevertheless, to be negative when he is sitting for writing, etc. The seat is made too broad, and the front portion would, therefore, involve compression of the nerves of the popliteal space. This defect, however, could easily be remedied. The foot rests are double ; one is inclined, the other is flat. The desk is shewn in the illustration hereinafter, and is made in five sizes ; see figure. Soleure has desks of the type (g), viz., with the seat rotating about its horizontal axis. The desk of the manufacturer Niffeler, of Signau, has a table of about 15° inclination, a zero " distance," a slightly- hollowed seat, rotating so as to facilitate the pupil's entry, a back of agreeable height, that could easily be made to satisfy the proper conditions in the lumbar region — which at present it docs not, — and it has the advantage of being very simple in construction. The Schoenentverd desk has a negative distance of 3 cm. fi.'ced table ; large seat that can turn ; tlie foot rest is an iron bar — an unsatisfactory arrangement ; and the back is without rest for the lumbar region. In regard to seats of the type (h), viz., witJi both table and seat taming, there are two that may he mentioned. In the Oianini desh, Locarno, the " distance is positive, 2 cm. ; this delect is serious. In the Kluss desk, Soleure, the " distance " is negative, 3 cm. It has in general the same merits and demerits as the St. Gall desk. The back is inclined backwards ; has proper support for the lumbar region ; the foot-rest is replaced by a cross piece of 40 cm. width, which can be moved for cleaning. 16. The desks of variable ^•difference." — The third type of desks (c) referred to in section 12 were desks with the " difference " variable. The Hudlinger desk of St. Fiden, in St. Gall, is a wooden desk, with cast-iron supports. It has a negative " distance " of 3 cm. The table has a movable leaf like the St. Gall and Zurich desks, and, generally speaking, it has the same advantages and disadvantages as those desks. The seat, foot-rest, and back are all movable; but despite this the desk is not a good one, and the manipulation is liable to pinch the fingers of children. In the Jornod et Vuille desk, of Noiraigue in NeuchAtel (and also in the Feret desk of Paris), the table can be made any height at will. In addition to the rack by means of which this is done, there is a device enabling the table to be set at any angle of inclination from 0° to 40°, which makes it excellent for reading, and the child may sit or stand at the desk. The '" distance" however is positive ; the seat is not correctly shaped ; the back is too high, and without proper lumbar support. The mechanism also may even crush the fingers. The desk may be made a good one. The Fritz Wahl desk of Chaux-le-Fonds, is a more complicated mechanism than the preceding. The old Mauchain desk was made in two models, one entirely of wood, the other with cast-iron standards; it has the defect of positive "distance" ; all its merits are now included in the new desk I0 which reference will be made later, so that it does not require further description. 17. Desk of variable " distance" and " difference" — i.e., of type (d). Two desks aim at embodying all the required advantages ; these are the Schenk and New Mauchain desks. The Schenk desk has two tables, one for each pupil, inclined 15°, and provided with a fillet at its lower edge to keep books, etc., from sliding off. These tables can, without changing the inclination, be raised; the "distance" and " difference" changing together little by little. The argument of Dr. Schenk is, that the length of the forearm is equal to height of the elbow above the seat, so that all that is necessary is to draw the table towards one till the elbow touches its edge, when the table will, it is said, be adjusted to the pupil's licight, and present the necessary negative " distance." The foot-rest is very much inclined. The following are some of its defects : — It is liable to injure the fingers of the pupils ; its fillet ought not to extend the whole length of the table ; it slides too easily; the seat is too broad for little children, and will press on the nerves, etc., of the popliteal space ; the back is too high for the smaller pupils : the foot-rest is inconvenient. The 15— 3 L 434 The new Mauchain desk is, excepting its adjusting mechanism, made either entirely of wood, or has cast-iron standards. In its prospectus it affirms that it presents the following advantages as compared with other desks, viz. : — 1. Of adjustment to various heights of the pupils. 2. Of maintenance during their several exercises of a physiologically correct position, without bending the trunk or limbs, ensuring freedom of action for the viscera, and avoiding the serious disadvantages to the sight, found in existing school-furniture. 3. Of lending itself to the various requirements of teaching, writing, reading, drawing, dressmaking, etc. With this desk, work may be done either sitting or standing. It received the gold medal at the 1900 Paris Exhibition. While hygienically altogether superior to the Zurich desk, it unfortunately is not so graceful in form. This is regrettable, for the form of school furniture affects, favourably or otherwise, the aesthetic consciousness of the school-pupil, and is part of the education of his artistic sense. (Standing position.) (Sitting position.) THE MAUCHAIN SCHOOL-DESK- Adjuatable for height : table any angle. The mechanism allows of a great many positions, both as regards " difference" and angle. The (iesk is solidly constructed, may be manipulated quietly and easily, and without risk of damaging the fingers. The fillet on the edge is only in the middle parts of the desk, so that it cannot press on the nerves and vessels of the forearms of the pupils. The seat rotates, has negative distance of 3 to 5 cm., and easily turns, so that the entry of the pupils is also easy. The back can occupy five different positions, ranging through 9°, and can thus be adjusted so as to give fairly good support, whatever the femoral length, thus preventing pressure upon the popliteal space ; the sacral support is not perfect except for the tallest pupils. This is a slight defect. The back can be raised through the angle 27 to 30 cm. The 435 The foot-rest may be laterally varied through 12 cm. in three positions, and vertically from 17 to 26 cm. in three corresponding positions. This table undoubtedly admits, as claimed, of good positions for reading, writing, drawing, sewing, etc., and from the standing point of hygiene is the best table seen by the Commissioners. It has of course the usual repository for books, etc. The illustrations give some idea of form of the desk {see figures). A seat absolutely fulfilling all the conditions has yet to be invented. 18. Desks for higher schools. — One of the very best seen was " Mauchain's Modele No. 18," in use in the Polytechnicum of Zurich. Its sizo is 140 by 68 cm. ; it has all the advantages previously indicated ; and has been designed for schools of drawing, commerce, housekeeping, and light manual work — as, for example, that for girls. The illustration shews its form ; see figure hereunder. Some of the United States and Canadian desks are perhaps more attractive in form ; but whore they have adjustment both for height and angle, they are not so firm as the Mauchaln desk. The use of chairs of adjustable height is common in America. The necessity for hygienic care is greatest of all in the earlier years of childhood, and therefore great attention has been given to the seating of the child from the fir.st entrance into school till about the age of puberty. The secondary school-work should be also treated with care in the matter of school- hygiene, for greater pressure is now being put upon the organism, which, although less plastic and not so quickly afEected as before, nevertheless needs every possible care till maturity is reached. The intelligence of the pupil is however such, that he can no longer be regarded as at the mercy of bad conditions imposed upon him by compulsion of the educational system. 19. School-maps, etc. A 2 i (c). — The maps and larger charts used in schools may be on brackets carrying a series of spring-rollers, and should be conveniently placed with respect to the class. Thus they may be in front of the black-board, or at its side. The other charts should bo well varnished to prevent dust lodging, and, so far as hygiene is concerned, are better kept rolled-up. It may be noted however that much is learnt by casually looking at good charts and diagrams, and that if affixed to spring- rollers they can be easily defended against dust, and brought into view when required. Pictures illustrating the ethnological, physiographical, geological, or artistic characteristics of different parts of the world, and permanently exposed, ought to be glazed. 20. School-laboratories, museums, libraries, etc. A 2. ii (a) and (b). The only thing that need be specially mentioned in this connection is the use of proper draught-cupboards to carry off corrosive, poisonous, or offensive gases. The draught is easily obtained by means of gas-jet or special forms of ventilating mechanism. School-museums need to be safeguarded against the attack of various insects, etc., and naphthalene is largely used for the purpose. School-libraries and reading-rooms require attention, especially in regard to the presence of dust. Cleanliness in handling the books of the library ought to be insisted upon as part, not only of defence against their insanitary condition, but also as part of education in hygiene. The books should be protected against the accumulation of dust thereon, and, therefore, should be in proper cases, or, at least, protected by roller blinds, especially during the cleaning of the room. 21. 436 21. School material and Us hygiene. A 3 (a). — Slates are everywhere being abandoned on account of their insanitary character, and paper is being substituted with advantage. This matter, it is presumed, is beyond the necessity of serious discussion ; no hygienic authority would countenance the use of slates, even where they they are not, as is generally the case, used promiscuously by all the pupils in a class. Paper should be at once substituted in every school in charge of the State. In regard to the proper colour for paper, Horner and Javal recommend a yellowish tone, with intensely black ink. Much of the ink sold is too pale in colour. Books. — With respect to books, it is important that, for children the type should be sharp and bold, and also that the paper should be of good colour. The oculist Cohn states that all type less than 1"5 mm. in height is injurious to the eye, and ho urges that the reading books should be printed in type known as "ciciTo" — that is, about 1"75 mm., or 07 inch ; that is exactly the size of the type in, for example, the " New Canadian Readers," Twentieth Century Edition, of Messrs. Gage and Co., Toronto. The distance between the lines, according to Dr. Combe, ought to be not less than2'5 mm. Those in the " Keaders " just mentioned are much greater than that, being, between the bottom of one small letter and top of next, about 4'1 mm. This is excellent for the lower classes. It is agreed that bright white paper is very fatiguing to the eyes, and Javal, as well as Horner, recommend, as abovementioned, a very pale yellowish tint as agreeable and not fatiguing, and, therefore, as a proper colour to be used for printed book.'s, as well as for writing-paper. The blackboard and slate slab. — Horner, the oculist of Zurich above referred to, made a large number of experiments to determine the colour and ground which were most favourable with respect to sight. He found the following degrees of visibility : — Ink. — Black letters on white or yellowish ground 496 degrees. Blackboard. — White letter.s on black ground 421 ,, Slate. — Grey letters on black ground 340 ,, He recommended the banishing of slate, and the use of an absolutely dead surface. The slate surface is, however, very agreeable to write upon, but, as previously mentioned, ground glass is better. {See section 2 of this Chapter.) 'Ground glass also presents the required dead surface. The question of copy-books for writiug will be referred to later on in connection with the position which should be occupied. 22. The School Dispensary. — Slight accidents are not rare in schools, and even trifling injuries may lead to bad results if unwisely treated. Children should, and easily can, learn that asepsis is not unimportant; and that, though on the whole they are safe enough with a whole skin, the moment the skin is broken there is need for care. In more serious matters, too, "first aid," rapidly and well given, often avoids serious complications, and may often even prevent death. The primary-school affords opportunity for children acquiring an intelligent and interested attitude in relation to this matter. The physicians in France, Switzerland, etc., otficially connected with schools, have urged that small chests, containing a few medicaments and surgical material, should be placed in each school. In the Swiss schools are found, disposed in suitable eases, the following -. — L Solution of subacetate of lead ; phenol of oO per cent. (5 per cent. ?) strength ; sal volatile, menthol, eucalyptol ; emetics, in doses already prepared ; gramme tablets of corrosive sublimate for 1 litre of water ; a packet of styptic material ; a box of ordinary sticking plaster and court plaster. II. Five packets, each containing iodoform gauze, cotton wool impregnated with corrosive sublimate, 1 roll bandaging, safety-pins, 2 splints, the whole in impermeable paper ; 4 rolls of calico, viz., 2 wide and 2 narrow ; 3 rolls of gummed tarlatan; 4 splints; 2 triangles, viz., 1 large, 1 small; 1 packet corrosive sublimate cotton wool; 1 packet ordinary cotton wool. III. Pair scissors ; pair forceps ; graduated medicine glass. A resume of simple directions, for the purpose of reminding one what to do in the absence of the surgeon, is placed in the case. It may be here mentioned, also, that courses of twenty lessons are given to school teachers, touching— 1. Human anatomy, with demonstrations by means of anatomical models. 2. Wounds ; their complications ; antiseptic bandaging. 3. Haemorrhages, and means of stopping them. 4. Burns and their treatment. 5. Contusions ; sprains ; fractures ; dislocations ; with practical exercises demonstrating the use of " first aid " apparatus. 6. The most usual cases of poisoning, e.g., belladonna, hemlock, fungi, etc., and their treatment. 7. Foreign bodies in the eye, nose, ears, larynx, and the usual remedial means. 8. Asphyxia, through carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, illuminating gas, or other mephitic gases, and its treatment. 9. Sudden accidents and their treatment, viz., those depending on the (a) Nervous system — Fainting. cerebral congestion, cerebral disturbance, nervous cases of" an epileptic or hysterical character. (b)Digestive system — Toothache, inanition, indigestion, colic, (c) Circulatory system — Feverish- ness, epistaxis, haemoptysis, hsematemesis. (d) Respiratory system — Asthma and false croup. The whole course is accompanied, as far as possible, by practical exercises. The example thus set is one that we shall do well to follow ; and it would soon create, indirect as the means is, a public opinion as regards matters of hygiene. 23. 437 23. Retrospect. — Reviewing the question of the choice of school-sites, the design and furnishing of Schools, as these subjects are regarded in Europe and America, and looking at them, either in the light of what has been written on the subject or in the light of what was seen of the practical realisation of hygienic theory in actually existing schools, the Commissioners feel that we have here almost everything to learn. Some of our buildings are by no means unworthy as regirds ordinary architectural ideas, but through and through they shew a want of knowledge of the contributions of modern research to the subject of school hygiene, and are built on principles that are completely discrediltd, and quite out of date. Compared with modern schools in Europe and America, they are poor and unhygienic — a serious misfortune for the generation that must receive its tuition therein — and yet, considered in themselves, they are often fine buildings, of good appearance. 24. Conclusions. — The conclusions that flow from this chapter, and from the preceding one, are — 1. Our State schools at present are unsatisfactory as regards («) their orientation, (4) their general design, (c) their internal arrangement as to classes, {d) their system of seating, (c) their arrangement as regards lighting, (/) as regards heating and cooling, (y) ventilation, (//) lava- tories, (i) latrines, {j) in the continuing to use slates, (Jc) in insufficient provision for accident and " first aid." 2. An inspection should be made of all State schools, with a view to immediate amelioration of their condition, by some one technically familiar {a) with the forms and equipments of school- buildings approved in Europe as hygienic, (/;) and with European school hygiene as a specialty. 3. All selection of sites in future should be made by pomo person competent as regards modern ideas of school hygiene. 4. All future school-buildings should bo designed by an architect familiar with modern schools, esj)ecially those of Switzerland, and with school hygiene as a specialty. 5. Every school should be thoroughly cleaned, repainted, and generally renovated o;7C« « ycnr. AH the material should be then thoroughly overhauled and put into proper condition i ' During the Commissioners' stay in Switzerland, the opportunity was t.iken of seeing the very thorough manner in which the schools are cleaned, renovateii, painted, varnished, etc., during the summer vacation. All wooilwork is scraped with steel turnings, then treated with glass-paper, all floors treated so na to look like new, and the whole renovation is equally thorough. CHAPTEE XLIX. 438 CHAPTER XLIX. Hygiene in Relation to the School Pupil. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. General. — As already pointed out, a State that compels the children of its subjects to attend school is obviously involved in the moral obligation of safeguarding the hygienic interests of the children, individually and collectively, during the time they are in school. This duty requires (a) hygienic care of the individual child, (i) protection of all against maladies affecting individuals. The former («) involves the establishment of satisfactory hygienic conditions in the school, care as to its surroundings, attention to prophylaxis concerning all ordinary sources of danger, regard for the conditions of the imposed work, and for physical culture as part of the general training. It will be necessary, therefore, to consider the subject of hygiene as it concerns the pupil in respect of the non-contagious maladies that appear in schools and occasion trouble ; in respect, also, of the contagious ones, of the conditions of school-work, and to consider, too, the question of overwork. This will be done in this chapter, physical culture being reserved for a later one. One may include under the heading of non-contagious diseases those that, while not strictly non- contagious, may be so regarded for the purposes of a general hygiene ; and, further, it will somctimod be convenient to refer, while discussing the defect of a senae-organ, to contagious maladies that may be associated therewith. As the purpose of the chapter is not systematic nosology, a departure from strict- ness of classification will be excused by convenience. 2. Defects of sight. — Defective vision is far more common with children than is generally supposed, and much unwitting cruelty has been inflicted through ignorance upon children whose failures to profit by their lessons were partially due to defects of sight, hearing, etc. The common defects in school children are feeble vision, myopia, hypermetropia, astigmatism, blemishes in the cornea, etc. Feeble vision implies merely a weak sense of sight even at normal distances ; the only way of dealing with it is to bring the child near the blackboard, etc. Myopia or hypometropia, is a condition of the eye such that the focus of objects falls in front of, instead of upon, the retina ; and can be remedied only by concave glasses. The following will give some idea of the frequency of myopia in Lausanne, a frequency which it may be said is much less than in German Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Marseilles, or Lyons, for which places there are fairly complete statistics. In 3,500 school children in Lausanne 130 were found to be myopic, i.e., 37 per cent.' Ratio of myopia : — Boys and girls Town pupils to country pupils French Swiss to German Swiss Ratio of hereditary myopia : — Boys to girls .. . Ratio of myopic pupils from 9 to 15 years of age :^ Age in years 9 Ratio 10 A similar result is obtained by taking classes in the schools instead of age. This, in the absence of other causes, is an indication that school life tends to develope mi/opia. In 222 myopic eyes, the degree of myopia was found to be as follows : — Per cent. Slight myopia (less than 3 diopters) 65 Medium myopia (from 3 to 6 diopters) 19 Considerable myopia (more than 6 diopters) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 16 Where the lighting of the school ivas not good, mi/opia was found to be more frequent and sever^; and Professor Bryan, of the University of Indiana, U.S.A., mentions that in the test oi 3,000 school children, a defect of vision, increasing from grade to grade with increase of school requirements, was clearly exhibited.^ Prophylaxis involves — • (a) Proper lighting of class-rooms, i.e., direction and quantity of light properly determined. (6) Adaptation of desks to pupils. (c) Adaptation of reading and similar material to pupil's sight. Later on other elements of prophylaxis will be referred to, viz. : — {d) Suppression of all home-work for lower classes, and reduction to a minimum of hours of home work for upper classes. (e) The adoption of upright writing. Other defects of vision and their percentages were found to bt* : — Per cent. _ Per cent. Hypermetropia 23 Mixed astigmatism 03 Myopic astigmatism IS Irregular astigmatism 4 3 Hypermetropic astigmatism ... 9'4i These however, shewed no signs of augmention with age or class, and therefore could not be considered as in any way a consequence of school-work. The production of the myopic condition is evidently the chief danger. 3. ' R^sum^ d'hygiine scolaire, par le Docteur A. Combe, p. 88. * The statistical results are directly taken from or are deduced from those given in the work above cited. ' See Report of the Commissioner of Kducation, 1893-4, vol. 1, p. 451. * Hygi ' See P. Riemann's BeeiiiflussuiiK (leg Seelcnlebeus duroli Taubheit Kinderfeliler 1900. Vol. V, pp. 241-269. ' Lcs deviations de la, colonne vertebrale dans \ea ucolca de Lausanne, Zurich, 1901. • Cf. The behaviour of amyotrophic and poliomyelitic patients. 440 The frequency of lateral deviatiou of the vertebral colutim is also greater than is generally thought, although rare in the new-horn. Coville, who examined 1,000 newly-born children, found only a single case of congenital scoliosis.' That this is a school disease is only too terribly apparent when one regards the statistics. Por example, in 294 scoliotic children examined, the division was as follows: — Before school-age. 0-2 years 2 2-3 3-4 4 5 5-6 Durhiij -school-aye, 0- 7 years 7-10 „ lO-lt ,, 71 159 38 Total before school-age 26 ,, during school-age 268 It was affirmed that these results were inconclusive, for obvious logical reasons. Krug, of Dresden, however, examined 200 children before entrance into school, all of whom were free from scoliosis. Two years afterwards no less than 42 were scoliotic. Combe and others, of Lausane, found, in 2,314 children, 571 scoliotic = 25 por cent. Guillaume, of Neuohatel ,, 731 ,, 218 „ = 29 „ Krug, of Dresden „ 1,418 ,, 357 „ = 25 „ Hagmann, of Moscow ,, 1,664 (girls) ? = 29 ,, Kallbach, of St. Petersburg „ 2,.3.'{3 „ ? =20 „ Well may Kocher declare that scoliosis is a school-disease ! And " ho who runs may road" the duty that devolves upon those who are responsible for the hygiene oj our schools. Another point is worthy of notice. OrthopsBdists generally affirm a great preponderance of scoliosis in the female sex. Thus Eulenberg, Ever, Resch, Roth, Wildbergen, Behrend, \dam, Scholder oil give results shewing that six-sevenths of scoliotic eases are girls ; but the following results explain how this happens : — ., Krug, in Dresden, found in 691 boys 181 scoliotic = 260 per cent. 723 girls 163 „ = 22 5 Ojinbe, etc., Lausanne, found in 1,290 boys 297 scoliotic = 23 per cent. „ 1,024 girls 274 „ = 26 7 Now, it appears that in the primary schools, where piano-exercises, embroiderv, painting, etc., are not, as in the superior schools, superadded to the fatigue of the ordinary school-work, the proportion of scoliotic boys to girls is about equal. That the injurious influence of school-work is evidenced for both sexes appears in the following results, giving the percentage of scoliotic pupils for each age: — ■ \ Totals Age in years. Boys, per cent. Girls, per cent. Age in years. Boys, per cent. Girls. per cent. Lausanne . 8 9 10 8 17 18 9 20 22 11 12 13 12-13 13-14 14-16 24 27 26 31 30 38 43 51 77 09 ! Totals 8-10 10-11 11-12 Dresden .... 11 17 28 17 17 21 28 35 33 21 31 32 56 Co 96 84 Scoliotic and myopic trouble progress together, as will be seen from the following results from the examination of 2,314 children : — Classes (lowest to highest). Percentage of scoliotic ,, myopic VII. 9 VI. 18 V. 20 IV. 27 6 III. 28 9 II. 32 14 I. 31 19 The Lateral deviations are of three VmAs, sinistro-convex, dextro-convex,a,nA covabincdi; and are referred to the region of the vertebral column, as dorsal, lumbar, etc. They may also be associated with incurvations, i.e., with the antero-posterior deviations. The disposing causes are (a) heredity, (J) anaemia, (c) muscular weakness, (J) rapidity of growth,^ (b) rachitis, (/") goitre and myxoedema. Prophylaxis is much the same as for myopia. The question of ])osition in writing, a matter of considerable importance in this respect, will be considered later. It may be added, finally, that a good gymnastic will do much to remedg some of the defects of the vertical column. G. AncBnia. — Anaemia is, unfortunately, only too well in evidence in the schools of our State. Inquiry has shewn beyond doubt that even the ordinary conditions of school-work tend to develope it. According to Duval, the more direct causes of this kind are (a) indifferent quality of the air respired ; (4) excessive heat in the class-rooms; (c) insufficiency of muscular exercise ; and {d) cerebral fatigue. In regard to (a), it may be said that the proper oxygenation of the bie«d demands a large proportion of oxygen, and a small quantity of carbon dioxide in the respired air. The breathing of air, charged with the anthropotoxines respired by the pupils, also adds to the injury. Anfcmia arises from (i) and (c) in much the same way ; that is to say, the o.xygenation is inadequate, and not at all comparable to that which comes from the increased action of the heart and lungs in open air. The question of cerebral fatigue will be relegated to a subsequent section of this chapter. ' Hevuo orthop. No. 96, p. 309. ' Combe. Zoitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege. 1896, p. 688. 441 7. Carief, Adenoid Growths, etc. — Everywhere, it is affirmed, dental diseases are on the increase, and in this State, as is well iinown, we have quite our share of such trouble, and early decay of the teeth is very common. A child suffering acute toothache is absolutely incapable of receiving the normal benefits which his school is able to bestow ; in fact, his attendance during trouble of this kind is of very little value. The children of the poorer classes are, perhaps, the greatest victims, even when they are very young, and in these State schools, where the pupils are drawn largely from this stratum, the instruction, whatever its quality, must often lamentably fail of its due effect. The same is also true wherever children are inadequately nourished, as is occasionally the case among the lower working classes. With school-physicians it would be comparatively easy to deal with these troubles, at least in their more aggravated forms. In many schools in Europe the children are actually provided with a good, substantial meal, either free or at a purely nominal charge. Adenoids are a source of deafness too often unrecognised. 8. Brain, nervous, and minor diseases. B 1, i {d.) — The circumstances pointed out as leading to the anaemic condition are productive also of headaches, nasal hsemorrhage, etc. ; that is to say, cerebral work, a forward leaning position for the head, a vitiated atmosphere, which is, moreover, often unpleasantly warm, are determining causes of these maladies. Very often the conditions in the homes of the children are also far from being satisfactory. Two attitudes are possible : the one that, as long as the school is better than the home, it is satisfactory ; the other, that the State does well to see that at least while the child is at school it shall live hygienicaUy. The latter is the spirit which is governing Europe and to some extent also America at the present day, and which tends to build up a capable and vigorous people. Epilepsy, unfortunately, occasionally presents itself in schools. It is very desirable that, as far as possible, other children, especially the younger ones, should avoid the spectacle, as their imaginations are often strongly affected, and insomnia, or grave nervous disorder, may follow. So strongly is this felt by some school hygienists that they recommend that "every epileptic should be sent away from school until complete recovery, certified by medical declaration, the recovery being assured by the lapse of a considerable period of time." Chorea, etc. — Children that exhibit twitching of the eyelids, rhythmical motion of the eyeball, twitching of the face, hand, or fingers, muscular restlessness, marked inattention, grinding of the teeth, stammering and stuttering, whose writing is apt to be strangely irregular, ought to be referred to the school-physician. Some simple further indications of nervous disease, however, ought to be known to every paedagogue, as, for example, absence of iris-reflex on the exposure of the eye to light after it has been shaded a little while ; inability to stand on one foot with the eyes closed, etc.^ — a symptom of motor inco-ordination. Cases of chorea (St. Vitus' dance), though not so serious as epilepsy, ought also to be sent away at once from the school, on account of the imitative tendencies of children, as well as for the patients' own sakes. Retarded intelligence. — The tardy appearance of intelligence is usually associated with slow physical development, slow dentition, walking, speaking, etc. ; the intellectual development sometimes even approaches zero. Children so afflicted ought to be made the subject of special treatment, which will be discussed in a different chapter. There are one or two maladies which require the banishing of the patient, despite the fact that they are not in themselves very serious. For example, such maladies as ozcena and enuresis (incontinency of urine) ; the former on account of the extremely offensive smell, the latter on account of the unpleasant odour due to ammoniacal fermentation. 9. Infectious, contagious, and parasitic diseases. B 1, ii. — Passing now to infectious, contagious, and parasitic maladies, their order of gravity is pretty nearly as follows : — • Grave — Variola (small-pox), (plague), diphtheria, febris scarlatina, tuberculosis (consumption, etc.). Ordinary— Rubeola f measles), febris typhoides (typhoid), influenza, pertussis (whooping-cough). Slight — Varicella (chicken-pox), parotitis (mumps), roseola (rash). Eye diseases — Gonorrhoea! ophthalmia, purulent conjunctivitis, granular conjunctivitis, catarrhal ophthalmia (blight). Skin diseases — Tinea capitis (ringworm of the scalp), alopecia (falling out of hair), herpes circinnatus (ringworm), scabies (itch), eczema impetiginodes, impetigo. Mouth diseases — Stomatitis (ulcers of mouth). Variola (small-pox). — Fortunately this State has so far escaped the first-mentioned disease. Should it once get a hold it would be necessary to issue detailed instructions to all schools, conveying the latest special knowledge as to prophylaxis and general precautionary measures. The last remark applies also to what is also popularly known as plague. The following indicate Swiss opinion as regards isolation, etc. : — Diphtheria. — The bacillus, discovered by Loeffler, affects the entrance of the respiratory and digestive organs. The disease is contagious. The germs contained in the membranes are ejected, infect the air, the clothing, etc., not only of the patient, but also of those about him, and, being dried, may then be carried to a distance. The germs are difiicult to destroy, and, after months, and even years, of exposure to heat and cold, they are still living and able to develope the malady. For this reason," pupils ill with diphtheria, their brothers, sisters, and all who have come in contact with them, shall be excluded from school, and shall not be readmitted except on producing a medical certificate that they have recovered, or that their return to school is without danger." Scarlatina — This malady, marked by strong fever, vomiting, headache, very sore throat, a scarlet eruption, abates in a few days ; but then desquamation commences, and continues for several weeks. The flakes of skin, unfortunately, are able to spread the malady, which is sufficiently tenacious of life to be transmitted great distances. Hence the rule: " Every infant affected with scarlatina, and everyone who has been in contact with him, should be excluded from the school, and should not be readmitted except on medical certificate testifying that all danger is passed." Tuberculosis. — The germ of phthisis, unfortunately, is found in the sputa of people affected with the disease ; the dried sputum, converted into dust, infects the air with the germs of the contagion. Hence the dictum of the Swiss and many European hygienists : " It is of the highest importance for the health of pupils that every person affected with phthisis should be excluded from the school." Rubeola. 15— 3 M 442 Bubeola. — The virus of measles is found in the mucous discharges which are associated with the severe cold in the head, and the bronchitis with which the attack commences. Hence it is contagious before the fever declares itself or the rash becomes visible. For this reason, in many places the isolation of rubeola patients has been abandoned. In other places, it is believed that " the affected child, his brothers, sisters, and 'contacts' with them, should be sent away for three weeks," so that the school shall not become a source of infection. Typhoid. — As typhoid is not propagated by direct infection, the brothers and sisters of the pupil affected are not excluded from school, at least where the sickness receives proper sanitary attention ; that is, where the disinfection of stools, of the soiled linen, etc , is properly attended to. But " the children affected should be excluded from school until complete recovery." Influenza. — Influenza is a very contagious malady, consequently it is recommended that "children affected should, with their brothers and sisters, be excluded for a fortnight." Whooping-cough. — The initial stage is like an ordinary or bronchial cougb, but in the second week it becomes convulsive. The virus is in the mucus which the child expectorates, and this, dried, spreads the malady. The brothers and sisters of the patient may carry the germs in their clothes. For these reasons " children suffering from whooping-cough, together with their brothers and sisters, ought to be excluded, for the whole of the convulsive period, or say six weeks at least, and ought not to be readmitted except on production of the certificate of complete recovery." Varicella, Parotitis, Roseola (chicken-pox, mumps, and ordinary rash) are not serious, and " children affected may be readmitted instantly on recovery "; the brothers and sisters do not need to be excluded. 10. Eye diseaset. — Various forms of preventible eye disease are frequently met with in the schools of this State ranging in seriousness from gonorrhceal ophthalmia down to catarrhal ophthalmia. And here there is acute need for teaching children that they should not convey their finger.s to their eyes, except with great precaution as to cleanliness, and similarly too they ought to be warned as to the danger of allowing flies to remain upon them. Further, the lavatory arrangements in our schools are seriously defective in guarding against such infections. 11. Parasitic diseases. — Both tinea capitis, or " scald head," and the milder form of ringworm of the head (" la veritable teigne," and "la teigne tonsurante," of the French) are both very contagious and difficult to cure. Another form of ringworm frequently occurring is not contagious (" la teigne pelade"). Herpes circinnatus (ringworm) is very contagious, but easy to cure. It is often taken from dogs, cats, etc., a fact which children should know. " Children affected therewith ought to be sent away from school, and readmitted only on presenting a declaration of complete cure." Scabies (itch) no doubt troubles those lacking in cleanliness most, but it may also affect the cleanest and most careful. The child should be remitted to the school-physician. The Pediculus capitis (louse) in course of time developes a special eruption that also has been called " granular ringworm " (" la teigne granuleuse," of the French). In America, where there are a great many poor immigrants, it has been found very necessary to establish precautions against discomfort to other pupils, from immigrant children affected with any of the above troubles. The following is the treatment noticed : — The children are thoroughly bathed ; their heads are specially treated with a wash destroying the pediculus, the hair being cut or shaved if necessary, and the sores if any are treated with oil or an unguent. Whatever their past habits may have been, it is found that the children soon acquire habits of cleanliness; and once learnt, both public opinion and their own sense of comfort keep them in the good way. Impetigo of the head, etc., eczema, and impetiginous eczema are not seriously contagious ; and, as long as the children are submitted to treatment, there is no objection to their remaining at school. Prophylaxis in these matters is assured by having sufficiently large vestiaries, each child being assigned a certain place with a definite number, and no child being allowed, under any circumstances, to use the place of another. There is nothing like an adequate sense of the unwisdom of promiscuity in our State schools. 12. Prophylaxis and disinfection. — Cleanliness goes a long way in safeguarding against the various ills that menace us each day ; and from the kindergarten up, it should be strenuously inculcated. The ordinary maxims about the importance of disinfection can be easily instilled into children, and their customary heedlessness in conveying their fingers to their mouths, eyes, etc., can be corrected. A knowledge of the general nature of disease, and in particular of germ-diseases, is also easily imparted, and is very important.' After the appearance of grave contagion in a school it is necessary to disinfect it. This is carried out in some countries by a service expert in the matter. The hair of the disinfector is covered with a calico cap ; the ordinary clothes are protected by special pantaloons and overalls of similar material, fitting at the neck and ankles tightly. A solution of mercury-perchloride (corrosive sublimate), 1 in 1,000, is largely used. The washing is done very thoroughly. After disinfection, all furniture is, if possible, left several hours in the sun. Articles that cannot be washed, are cleansed with rag, soaked either with sublimate solution, or with a solution of formaldehyde (formalin), or they are subjected to sulphurous acid gas, or to the vapour of paraformaldehyde (solid formalin). For the sulphurous acid disinfection, the acid liquified under great pressure (Pictet liquid) in steel syphons is very convenient. The latrines, urinals, lavatories, etc., are also carefully disinfected with the sublimate solution. A solution of the so-called chloride of lime, or a milk of lime, made with about 100 of lime to about 50 of water, is used for the sewers, etc. ' 13. ' In order to make the instruction intuitive, charts shewing typical germs would be useful, since they would interest ildren, and impress their minds with the reality of the existence of such germs. 443 13. Belgian directions as to hygiene. — The practical instructions for the use of all public depart- ments in Belgium, including schools, for " the prevention of the appearance of transmissible diseases and combating their propagation," are very thorough. In the 1902 edition the contents deal with the following subjects: — Preijmikary Notions : General Instructions. I. Information. II. Isolation. III. Disinfection. IV. Sanitation. III. (A) Disinfection during disease. — Disinfection of morbid matters, of persons, of linen, clothing, etc. (B) Disinfection after the disease. — I. Operations in the house — (a) with gaseous formic-aldehyde ; (6) by washing. II. Operations at the disinfecting station — (rt) by steaming ; (b) by wetting ; (c) by formic-aldehyde. (C) Communal disinfecting service. — (o) personnel ; (b) material ; (c) station ; (3) disinfecting stoves ; (e) apparatus for gaseous formic-aldehyde. IV. Sanitation, in respect of : — (A) 1, plague ; 2, cholera ; 3, typhoid fever ; 4, small-pox j 5, scarlatina ; 6, diphtheria ; 7, measles ; 8, whooping- cough ; 9, erysipelas ; 10, puerperal fever ; 11, granular ophthalmia. (B) 1, tuberculosis. (C) 1, exauthematous typhus ; 2, military fever ; 3, dysentery ; 4, chicken-pox ; 5, mumps. (D) 1 , anthrax ; 2, glanders or farcy ; 3, hydrophobia. (E) 1, trichinosis ; 2, taenia ; 3, juvenile anaemia ; 4, itch ; 5, ringworms. (F) 1, syphilis; 2, blennorrhagia. The information given throughout is very complete, both as regards symptoms and disinfection, and as regards the special reasons for care in each case. One example will suffice for the purpose of illustration. The disease, scarlatina, e.g., is thus referred to : — ' ' Scarlatina. — The period of incubation varies from two to fourteen days. The disease comes on quickly, with a violent access of fever, usually accompanied by sore throat. The eruption, formed of red patches, commences on the neck and on the front of the chest, and extends therefrom to the rest of the body. About the ninth day the fever has ceased, the eruption has faded, and the skin commences to peel off. These pellicles and flakes of skin continue to fall off from two to four weeks. " Scarlatina is a very contagious malady, of epidemic character, varying greatly iu malignity. It is always a serious disease, not only in itself, but also in its later consequences (albuminuria, etc.). "The germ of scarlatina is not known, but it is certain that the seat is in the pellicles and flakes of skin. It appear!) to exist also in the secretions of the nose and throat. It is after recovery, and during the period of desquamation, tha; contagion is most to be feared. The contagious germ is extremely resistant, adhering to objects and retaining its nocuou character for weeks and months. "The contagion can make its way directly — that is to say, by direct contact with a scarlatina patient — or indirectly, viz., by the intermediary of healthy people or objects that have been in contact, not necessarily immediately, with a person aflected with scarlatina. Among other things may be indicated bedding, linen, furniture, playthings, and even letters and milk." The detailed directions for isolation, disinfection, etc., are as follows : — "1. The patients should be completely isolated. The brothers and sisters of the child affected with scarlatina, and all the children in the same house, snould not attend school, at least, until two weeks have passed since the complete isolation of the patient, this isolation having been certified as perfect by the attending physician. " 2. The persons nursing the patients should be themselves submitted to all the directions indicated in the chapter on isolation. They should be covered with a special overall, which should be taken off on disinfecting themselves to leave the room. "3. The disinfection ought to rigorously conform to the general instructions. It must apply to the walls of the room, floor, clothes, bedding, and all the objects which the patients have used. The disinfection of the rooms and furniture ought to be made with formic-aldehyde (formalin) ; that of the linen, bedding, clothes, should take place in the vapouf stove. The flakes of the skin ought to be collected as carefully as possible, thrown into solution No. 2, or destroyed by fire. " The same applies to playthings and objects of little value, as also to the books and the copybooks of the pupils. " 4. The child should not return to school till the desquamation has completely disappeared (about six weeks after the beginning of the disease), and till he has had several soap-baths. A certificate of the attending physician should be demanded for readmission. "5. If several cases simultaneously or successively present themselves in any school .... a disinfection of the place will Ije directed. " The above passage will give a fair idea of the degree of thoroughness of the hygienic directions. The whole document is about 150 pages. It is couched in language — slightly technical at times, perhaps — that ordinarily intelligent people can readily understand, and contains plates illustrating very fully the apparatus at a disinfecting station. It may be mentioned that it is an extract from the " Bulletin special du Service de sante et de Vhygiene publique," and, as a guide for public bodies, answers requirements very satisfactorily. 14. Circular concerning infectious diseases in N.8. W. — The following is the o£Bcial memorandum touching the matter of infectious and contagious diseases for this State : — MEMORANDUM FOR THE INFORMATION OF TEACHERS. iNPECTIOnS AND COMMUNICABLE DISEASES. The Minister of Public Instruction has approved of the following suggestions, submitted by the Board of Health, in substitution of the directions contained in the Chief Inspector's Memorandum of 30th April, 1894 : — The Public Health Act, 1896, expressly forbids the sending to school of any child who " within the previous two months has been suffering from an infectious disease, or who has been resident in any house in which such disease has existed within the space of six weeks, without furnishing the head teacher of the school with a certificate from a legally qualified medical practitioner that such child is free from disease and infection." (Section 28.) It is the duty of every teacher to protect his scholars by taking care that this law is duly executed in every case which comes under his notice. By Regulation under the Act the local authority for the district is required to furnish the head teacher with a notice of the occurrence of any of the statutory infectious diseases in the person of any of his scholars as soon as such occurrence is reported to it. If a teacher finds that the local authority does not promptly give him this warning, he should report the neglect with a view to its being made known to the Department of Public Health, so that steps may be taken to remedy it. Statutory ' Solution No. 1 is— corrosive sublimate, 10 grammes j common Bait, 100 grammes ; water, 10 litres (1 in 1,000), Solution No. 2 is— 250 grammes of soft-soap, melted with 250 grammes of eresol, then mixed with 10 litres of water. No. 3 is merely milk of lime. 444 Statutory "infectious" diseases are those' declared to be such by proclamation in the Qovemment Oazette. At the present time they are three in number, viz. : — Typhoid fever, Scarlet fever, and Diphtheria and croup ; and the abovementioned law and regulation apply to them only. But there are many other infectious or communicable diseases ; consequently, whenever possible, the teacher should obtain medical evidence as to the kind of illness suffered by any scholar who ceases to attend school on account of alleged illness, and, if the disease is one of the communicable kinds mentioned in the additional list of such diseases given below, no other child residing in the same house sliould be admitted to the school while the illness lasts. The patient and other children from the same house should not be readmitted to school until tlie teacher is satisfied that the risk of infection is over. This, of course, is best ascertained from the medical man, if any has been in attendance. Whenever more than one child from the same house is absent from illness at the same time or in quick succession, no matter what name is given to the complaint, the teacher should be especially careful in his inquiries as to the nature of the illness, as an infectious disease may not be recognised at first, or may be wrongly named. The teacher should take note, especially when an epidemic threatens or is piesent, if any symptoms occur in any of the scholars which might indicate the commencement of disease, such as heat of the skin, shivering, headache, and languor, especially if they begin suddenly ; also vomiting, rashes on the skin, or sore throat. Measles is very infectious in its early stages, even before the characteristic rash has appeared, and while the symptoms resemble those of a common cold. When scarlet fever or diphtheria are in tlie district the teacher should be especially careful when scholars show throat symtoms, for these usually mark the commencement of those diseases ; and, if necessary, he should himself look at the scholars' throat, when he would sometimes be able to detect unusual redness, or white specks or patches, indicating a diseased condition. Alteration in the accustomed tone of a scholar's voice (speaking through the nose, etc., etc.) is often due to partial paralysis of muscles about the throat ; and diphtheria, which is not always an acute disease, is a common cause of it. When observed, therefore, the scholar should be excluded (a) until recovered, or (b) until positively certified by a medical man not to have been suffering from diphtheria. It is a prudent precaution not to allow a child who lias had diphtheria to return to school under three months from the beginning of illness. If a case of infectious or communicable disease occur in the house in which a teacher lives, lie should remove, arranging so that he wears clean clothes at his new residence until those which have been exposed to infection can be cleansed, etc. If removal be impossible he should refrain from attending school until such time as the risk of conveying infection to the scholars has passed. For the purposes of these instructions, the following are also communicable diseases, in addition to the three statutory infectious diseases already mentioned above : — Measles. Chicken Pox. German Measles (Rotheln) Whooping Cough. Mumps. Influenza. It is requested that you will give careful attention to these suggestions. By order of the Minister, Department of Pubhc Instruction, F. BRIDGES, Sydney, 9th January, 1899. Chief Inspector. 15. Oonditions of school work. — B. 2. 1. The question of lighting, ventilation, heating and cooling, and school furniture has already been referred to. The object throughout is to avoid all occasion of unnecessary fatigue, all undue tasking the organs of sense, all injurious posticus of the body, and to have the oxygenation of the blood, and all life-giving conditions at their maximum. 16. Position in writing. — The position of scholars at work, especially in writing, is a matter to which reference may now be made. If one sits symmetrically in front of a table, placing paper or copy book thereon directly in front of him, he must, on attempting to write, inevitably execute what is called upright writing. A sloping hand is practically impossible. Now, this position is the only absolutely symmetrical one, and, therefore, prima ■facie, it follows that upright writing executed in it is best from the hygienic point of view. The researches of men like Schubert of Nuretnburg, Cohn of Breslau, Mayer of Fuerth, Schenk of Berne, Boux, Eperon, and Combe of Lausanne, Javal at Paris, Fuchs at Vienna, Fahrner, Ellinger, Gross and others at Zurich, and many others, have abundantly shewn that cases of deviation of the vertebral column, of myopia, etc., are more numerous in classes where sloping writing is practised than in classes that adopt upright writing. And, further, the testimony is unanimous that the carriage of the body is better in all classes that adopt this form of writing, the advantage being conspicuous. In Basel, in 1892, the resume of a report on the subject stated that, " In the classes where upright writing is adopted the carriage of the body, apart from every other point of view, is better than in tho.se where slanting writing is retained. In two parallel classes, subjected to exactly identical work, out of forty-eight pupils who wrote upright writing only two had a defective carriage, while, out of forty-three who wrote sloping writing, fifteen were imperfect." A special commission appointed in Zurich in 1893 reported, " Taking into account the hygienic advantages of upright writing, we decide in its favour." In order to discuss this question clearly, one or two definitions are necessary. . The position of the copy book is said to be : — Median, when exactly in front of the pupil. Lateral, when on his right hand, a« is usual for sloping writing. Upright, when the bottom is parallel to edge of desk. Inclined, when it makes an angle therewith ; the inclination invariably requires rotation counter clockwise. This may be called left inclination. Automatically, the heavy or down strokes are produced by flexion of the finger joints ; the light or up strokes by an extension of them, with slight rotations. Now, the copy book being upright, in whatever position it is, even if to the left of the body, it will be found that down strokes are, by this flexion, directed towards the middle of the chest. It ' The region of exact vision is very smaUj 445 It follows from this that, when no special effort is made, the inclination oftoriUng depends solely on the position of the paper. Thus for — Paper or copy book upright gives : — Median position — Down strokes upright. Lateral position — Down strokes slanting to right. Paper or copy book inclineil left gives : — Median position — Down slopes slanting to right. Lateral position— Down slopes slanting yreatly to right. That is to say, for lateral position the writing is always inclined (except by equal counter rotation to the right, which need not be considered. Consider the sight line of each eye, i.e., the line from each to any point seen clearly.' The plane passing through this point and containing these lines, or what is the same thing, the plane determined by the point seen and the centres of the eyes (or, say, the pupils), is the plane of vision The intersection of this plane with any surface may be called the transverse line of vision, or, more shortly, the vision line. By instinct, the vision line tends always to take up the ])ositi(>n at right anales to the down strokes in writing, as can easily be seen by rotating a book in front of one. The vision line is rotated — by rotating and bending the head — in order to read with comfort. Now, this happens also in regard to writing, as anyone may notice by watching young children at their attempts to write with their copy books or slates, etc. in the lateral position This head rotation will obviously have some physiological effect, which we may now examine It is known, and it will be easily seen on reflection, that the lateral position involves either: — (a) Rotation of the head to the right, with bending of the head toward the right shoulder, both becoming greater in proportion as the paper is inclined. (b) Rotation of the head to the right, with bending toward the left shoulder. Fatigue often leads from a change of one position to the other, generally (a) to (b). Again :-^ (c) The eyes are rarely at equal distances from the paper, hence the temporary myopia is different for the two eyes. Its becoming definitive from habit, explains the observed fact of a common variation of the myopia in the eyes of school children. The asymmetry of position leads to fatigue, and to the close approximation of the eye to the paper with its myopia-producing tendency. On viewing from the rear, the figure of a nude child writing and seated in this position, it will be readily seen that the result either of the upright, or of the inclined lateral position is a curvature of the vertebral column ; so that this position must be regarded as injurious and it oui/hi to be rejected. In the median position with the paper upright, everything is symmetrical ; nor can there be, if the desk be the proper height, either myopic tendency, or tendency to any form of scoliosis. Some have recommended sloping-writing with the paper upright in the median position. This, it will be seen on examination, produces a torsion of the body with a sinistro-convex deviation of the spinal column If the paper be inclined in the median position, there is still the same tendency to rotate the trunk of the body and to bend the head, producing deitro-convexity of the vertebral column and myopia. For these reasons, scarcely more than suggested, it may be concluded that: — The median position, with the paper upright, is the best position from the hygienic point of view, and therefore in the earlier years of school-life, only upri(/hl writing, with the paper upright and in front of the pupil, ought to be permitted. In the highest classes, if sloping writing be desired, the paper or book should be in the median position inclined not less than 30°. It is alleged by some that upright-writing is less free, less delicate, less {esthetic than sloping, and to obtain this grace it is worth while making some sacrifice. Those who have really learnt what the sacrifice is, do not appreciate the force of this opinion ; but rather would make custom conform to the celebrated formula of " (xeorges Sand " — " Ecriture droite, papier droit, corps droit " — i.e., let the writing, paper, and body be upright. [Mr. J. W. Turner would recommend sloping writing, the down strokes however being only about one-eighth of a right-angle from the vertical, leaning of course to the right. Mr. Or. H. Knibbs prefers upright writing, for the reasons above indicated.] . 17. Physical and mental fatigue. — B. 2. ii (n). It would be hard to over-estimate the significance of the work of men like Axel Key of Norway in his investigation of the physical condition of growth ; of such researches as those of Dr. Kotelmann, of Vienna, which aim at a thorough understanding of the phsenomena of mental fatigue ; of inquiries like those of Dr. Preyer's into the stages of intellectual growth ; and Dr. Ziehen's into the scheme of association of ideas in children. Some faint idea of the activity of study of the conditions of child-life may perhaps be had when it is remembered that the treatises on this subject for 1900 alone numbered about 331, and all these have the object of determining the factors concerned in our best evolution. Hence they are of great importance to the psedagogue from the hygienic point of view. Both on the physical and mental side, the question of fatigue has been carefully investigated with a view of determining the part it plays in developing or hindering our general educational evolution. Leo Biirgerstein, of Vienna, at a meeting of the Society of Hygiene in London in IS92, represented the results of his investigations on mental fatigue graphically, by a curve now known as the fatigue-curve. The following year, 1893, Professor Iloepfner of Berlin, shewed also the results of further investigations of the same phsenomena. In 1804, Professor Emil Kraepelin ' discussed the limit of the mental capacity in youth, from the physiological and psychological standpoint. From these writings it appeared that overmuch mental pressure was being placed upon youths, greatly to the detriment of their health. Dr. Gustav Richter opposed so serious a view in his rediscussion of the whole question ; and Dr: Otto Jager, in reviewing Kraepelin's work, has remarked that in an experience of forty years of both small and large educational institutions, he has, after all, found but few bad cases of nervous disease. Axel 446 Axel Key, of Stockholm, in his school-hygiene investigations of 1889, where the children then in the upper grades had fourteen hours (?) of daily work to perform, found thirty-six per cent, of the girls chlorotic, and ten per cent, with deviation of the vertebral column. Outside myopic cases, nearly forty per cent, of the children in the schools of Sweden and Denmark were said to suffer from chronic diseases. Dr. Heinrich Schuschny, of Budapest, also found that over forty-six per cent, of the children in a certain institution suffered from nervous symptoms ; and Professor Nesteroff in Moscow, who observed 216 students for four years in a Moscow gymnasium, states that the number of nervous ailments ranged from eight per cent, in the preparatory to sixty-seven per cent, in the highest grade. This shews the need of care a» to the possibilities of overwork, or of indifferent conditions, or of a mixture of both ; while however, in itself it is not conclusive, since other than purely pedagogic causes may be operative. Professor M. V. O'Shea of the School of Psedagogv in the University of Buffalo, in a discussion of this question,' argued that, provided school buildings be hygienic, the dangers supposed are not so acute as sometimes imagined, and he evidently considered that we do well not to be overpowered by any tendency to microscopic view of the hygienic specialist. It may be well to indicate the modern views of fatigue. Dr. W. W. Krohn, a specialist in psychology, remarked that when mental disintegration takes place, it is the finest mental faculties that are the first to prove victims, and in pointing out that even the minor mental abnormalities require to be carefully sousrht for, otherwise the mischief may be irreparable, and that fatigue is the common source of danger in this connection, he argued that "close watch should be made for fatigue signs." '^ It has been shewn that there is a physical poison generated by the muscles in action, re-acting on the brain and causing the sense of fatigue, and the nature of this poison has actually been investigated by Wedensky, a Kussian chemist, and by Maggiora and Mosso, Italians. It was said by Krohn that from 8 to 10'15 a.m., of course, is the best period for mental activity, 1 1 to I'i the worst, 1 to 2"80 is somewhat better, and from 3 to 4 only second to 8 to 10' 15, and he urged that the tasks should be correspondingly alloted. Sufficient time has not been available to make anything like adequate inquiry on this point, but enough has been shewn to indicate that the qualifications of anyone, who proposes to direct the programme of instruction of an educational system should be such as to make him alive to the advancing results of psychological and physiological research. As Krohn has pointed out, both teacher and parent should at least be alive to the abnormal nerve signs consequent upon either fatigue, imperfect methods, or inappropriate and inopportune studies {e.g., disturbance of balance, twitching of hands and face, restless eye movements, peculiar postures of head and hands, excitability, irritability, inattention). It is of course quite beyond the limits of this report to enter into the details of this question at the present time. It is known that there are very curious psychic limitations to fatigue-effects; to take a simple example, it is well known that fatigue supervenes quickly when the emotions are unfavourably afi'ected, slowly when they are pleasurable. And just here lies a difficulty. A definite quantity of work to be mastered by a pupil fatigues him in proportion as his interest in it is low. An hour's teaching by a dull, uninteresting, muddle-headed teacher, is far more exhausting than the same time spent with a vivid, intelligent teacher, and yet in the latter case there is much more actual cerebration. Wherever teaching was bright, the Commissioners noticed that fatigue signs were practically absent ; the spirit of the teacher seemed to have infected the children, and one is reminded of the testimony of Professor Munsterberg : — "The individual teacher, for his teaching methods, does not need scientific psychology ; and tact, and sympathy, and interest are far more important for him than all the twenty-seven psychological laboratories of this country "; although he admits it is necessary for the teacher, as a man of wide interests, to know something of psychology, and to bring that knowledge to bear, in dealing with his pupils. Life cannot be got through without considerable fatigue, neither can the tasks at school. But both can be reduced to a minimum by invoking the favourable reactions o( interest. Thus the school-boy, awakened by the art of his teacher to interest in his subject, is largely saved from fatigue, ^\x&t as surely as the workman, proud of the excellence of his craftsmanship, is also delivered from its tedium. This points to one great factor in the true remedy. All this applies to both the mental and physical sides of the subject. All one need say here is that gymnastics, etc., and school games, should not be pushed to the extent of creating fatigue great enough to impair the balance, in the sterner part of the school work. The application will always have to be largely left to the intelligence of the educated teacher. Let teachers be properly educated ; let them be taught the significance of the marks of fatigue, and of defective hygiene; let them have something like an intelligent appreciation of the scientific investigation of conditions, through the study of the psychology of the question, and they will have far less diflBculty in avoiding the misapplication of teaching pressure, individually or collectively, or of injuring the children by unwise psedagogy. 18. School-hours. — On the continent, generally, school-hours are longer than with us, 30-32 hours in the upper classes of primary schools. Any proposed increase here should undoubtedly be compensated by creating deeper interest in work and in improving the conditions of school life. Let our schools and play-grounds be constructed and arranged with regard to the conditions demanded by sound hygiene ; let their equipments be what are indicated in regard to furniture and paedagogic material ; let the teaching be done by teachers with a larger command of human knowledge, and in touch with the progress of modern psedagogy, and much of the difficulty about fatigue will be annihilated. The gymnastics, if light, and manual instruction can be considered as practically a recreation and relief from the mental work, and once children have been made to appreciate school work, as indeed they can, and as the Commissioners have seen over and over again, the fatigue question is solved, for by an intelligent arrangement of the curricula, the necessary change of effort will relieve the pressure. 19. Some-work from the hygienic standpoint. — Brain-worrjing tasks, imposed in the younger years of school life, are undoubtedly an offence against the normal development of the child, and the discretion of the teacher must be carefully exercised in the imposition of all home work. There are widespread complaints ' Reports of the CommUsioner of Education, U.S.A., 1895-6. pp. 1175-1198. > Report of the Commissioner of Education U.S.A.. 1898-9, Vol. 1, p. 476. 447 complaints as to this matter. The trouble doe* not so much inhere in the tasks themselves as in the psychical relation of the child to them. Create, for example, the same interest in a problem in arithmetic or algebra, as the children spontaneously find in various self-imposed problems, and the tedium of solution, with its adverse physical consequences, will disappear, and there will be some relief. The subject, however, requires more thorough investigation. Much of the necessity for home-work undoubtedly exists because the schools teach indifferently and are poorly staffed. 20. Conclusions. — The following are the conclusions drawn from a wide comparison of the conditions under which the pupil works in the schools of our State and elsewhere :— 1. There should be systematic examination to determine the existence or otherwise of physical defects, especially such as defects of sight and hearing, of every child entering school. 2. The troubles from which any child is suffering should have the attention of a physician, in regard to his fitness to remain at school, whenever the master is in doubt. 3. The general effect of the school-regime on each child should be a subject of observation for the responsible master of each class. 4. G-eneral ideas of hygiene should be communicated to the teachers of all schools under the Department of Public Instruction, explaining their importance ; and hygienic instruction should be given in every school. This should include at least the importance of cleanliness, of asepsis, and of general hygiene. In secondary schools the physiological aspect should be also included. 5. The upright-system of writing should be adopted up to the ago of twelve at least. Some efibrt to create a sound public opinion on this matter should be made, so as to win its support, and to correct the prevailing prejudice in favour of sloping writing.' 6. The question of fatigue should be systematically considered, so as to regulate the future school-practice of the State. 7. It is desirable that regular school-physicians be appointed, to whom children might be referred in needful cases ; and further that a physician, who has specialised in school-hygiene, should be permanently associated with the Department of Public Instruction, to make all necessary hygienic investigations, and to advise on all matters of school-hygiene. 8. Hygienic statistics should be taken in every school, on a scheme sufficiently extensive to admit of a criticism of our school-methods and conditions." ' See Note at end of Section 16. ' The great importance of the subject of anthropometric measurement in connection with school children and its significance for school-hygiene is revealed in the Presidential address by Mr. T. A. Coghlan, F.S.S., Government Statistician of N.S.W., in the Economic and Social Science Section of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Hobart meeting, 1902, pp. 541-569. The injportance of physical culture is revealed in the paper by Mr. C. Bjelke-Petersen, in the same volume, pp. 823-829. CHAPTER XL. us CHAPTER L. School Equipment. [J. W. TURNER.] The proper equipment of schools is a matter of the greatest importance in any school system which is progressive in its aims. No country wishing to keep in the van of civilisation can afford to lose sight of the immense value of thoroughly organised schools. Every country to-day which has made its mark among the nations for its educational work can point to splendidly equipped schools for its children. Switzerland, Germany, France, Norway, Sweden, America, possess school buildings which are the pride of the cities in which they are situated. To Switzerland must be awarded the position of honour for excel- lence of school buildings and character of equipment. Switzerland. Buildings. — With so much that is good in the way of school architecture it will suffice here to describe briefly a few of the best types of buildings in the different Swiss towns. Lausanne. — " Enning " Primary School, endowed by a public. man of that name, magnificent stone and cement structure of three stories, situated in commanding position ; separate class rooms opening from long and wide corridors ; drinking fountains placed in the corridor, drinking cups made of aluminium. " Vinet " Secondary School. The gift of M. Vinet, a Swiss author, who wrote books for the young — splendid buildings — separate class-rooms — wid^, roomy, bright corridors. Jk M ECOLE VINET A LAUSANNE. Neuchatel. — School of Commerce — Beautiful building of four stories, in the new part of the town, near the shores of the Lake — constructed of very hard white stone to about height of 1 feet, then a light brown stone to top of walls — architecture simple and bold — nothing ornate, but beautifully proportioned — floors are laid down in parquetry — corridors are tiled — staircases are of granite from the Alps — railings ai-e of iron — there are no elevators — the electric light is installed throughout the building — the special equipment is described in the Chapter on Commerce — cost of structure 1,000,000 francs (£40,000) — every class-room is connected with the Director's office by telephone. Bern. — Girls' Secondary School — stone and brick structure — same solid square style of architecture characteristic of Swiss schools — single class-rooms opening out from wide corridors — corridors of double width, divided to admit of usual passages and compartments (wired in) for hats and cloaks — both class-rooms and corridors constructed to get the maximum of light and air — complete cost of building and furniture 864,000 francs (£34,560). Spitalacker Primary School. — Large buildings in three floors — more ornamentation than usually seen in Swiss school buildings which are noted for their solidity, simplicity of style, and good proportion — single class-rooms and double corridors well arranged with regard to light and air. Cost 700,000 francs (£28,000). Lucerne. — Primary school in new part of town — stone to first floor, then brick — three stories — single class-rooms — wide corridors. Cost 400,000 francs (£16,000). Zurich. — Polytechnic — an immense range of buildings with magnificent technical equipment — in com- manding position — entire cost of buildings 2,000,000. francs. (£80,000.) Hirschengraben. 44.9 Hirschengraben. — Primary and Secondary under one roof — style departs from the usual solid square stone structure — architect has provided a little ornamentation — the material is of brick — contains fine hall, nicely decorated, for general assemblies — iron stands for hats fixed in a wide recess at each end of corridors — building lit with electricity — cost 1,500,000 francs (£60,000) — the most costly and the finest public school building in Switzerland. Basle. — Gotthelf School — Primary school work on the ground-floor. Secondary above — new building in a growing suburb — bright large class-rooms, cheerful corridors, both beautifully painted. Playgrounds and Weather sheds. — Every city school is provided with a playground and weathershed. The playgrounds are spacious, and are covered with small loose gravel. Great attention is paid to planting trees suitable for shade. In the lovely grounds of the Ecole Vinet, Lausanne, a space has been set apart for the cultivation of Alpine plants, which supply specimens for the lessons in Botany. There is no inconsistency on the part of the architects entrusted with school architecture in Switzerland. The design and finish of the weathersheds are in harmony with the main buildings both externally and internally. The weathershed in the playground of Hirschengraben is beautifully finished. The floor is of wood, and the windows are of pretty design. The upper part of the pillars and some of the windows are adorned with figures illustrating child stories, and the ceiling is nicely painted. No pains have been spared to give the child jesthetio ideas when in the playground. Teacliers^ Room. — In planning their large city schools Swiss Architects adopt the series of distinct class-rooms with parallel corridors, giving due care to the proper direction of light in the class-rooms and sufficient ventilation throughout the building. In every school the office of the director or head master is conveniently situated, generally in the middle of the series of class-rooms on the first floo;-. In the more recently erected schools, rooms are provided for the convenience of the teachers. The room for the teachers in the Primary School, Spitalacker, Bern, is well furnished and is a little palace in the matter of comfort. In the Primary School in Lavater Strasse, Zurich, the teachers have a well appointed room in which to meet after their lessons are over. Caretaker's Room. — In every city school there is a caretaker or concierge. His quarters are in a part of the school building, on the ground floor generally. He is a most necessary and useful man about the school. His chief duties are the material care of the buildings, and the heating and ventilation of the rooms. He is always to be found on the premises, and if a handy willing man, can render assistance in many ways. The head master in Switzerland has little concern regarding the material condition of his school. Basement. — The machinery for heating and ventilating the building in the cold months of winter, and the wood and coal required for the boilers, are lodged in the basement. The concierge is in charge of the machinery. Baths. — Shower-baths are provided in every school in the city, and in some of the country schools. They are situated in the basement and are in charge of the concierge. Attendance is obligatory, unless exemption is claimed on a doctor's certificate, in all classes in the schools. The concierge is responsible for the temperature of the water, for the towels, and for the general cleanliness of the baths. The attendance of the pupils in the bath is considered one of the regular school lessons, and the teachers are responsible for good order. In some schools pupils attend the baths once a week, in others twice a week. A room adjacent to the baths is fitted up in little private compartments which are used as dressing rooms. Parents approve of the douche for their children because few of the houses of the poor are fitted up with baths. (A bath in a hotel on the Continent costs the tourist, who would be clean, two francs.) The douche is also a further aid to cleanliness, inasmuch as mothers, knowing that their children must once a week prepare in the dressing-room to take their place in the baths, look more carefully to the condition of their boys or girls' underclothing, Outdoor bathing among school boys is very general in Switzerland, and the facilities for indulging in the pastime are great. Bathing houses are numerous in the lakes and rivers. The best equipped for teaching school boys is that of Uto-quai, Lake Zurich. Gymnasium. — The Swiss educationists are earnest advocates for physical culture, and in their most important schools have splendid rooms and the best apparatus for gymnastic training. In the Girls' Secondary School at Bern the gymnasium is 100 feet in length, 54 feet in width, 30 feet in height, and is supplied with lockers for clothes and with bath-rooms. In a primary school in Lucerne attendance in the gymnasium is compulsory for boys and girls, who take their exercises at different hours. This particular gymnasium has a floor of cork. The gymnasium in Lavater Strasse, Zurich, has a splendid equipment in a fine, large, lofty room. Parallel bars and balancing poles are among the apparatus. The floor is of cork. Attendance is obligatory. Hirschengraben has two rooms set apart for gymnastics — one is fitted out with a tennis court of full size and is also used for marching exercises and evolutions. The parallel bars are much used. The equipment is small. Neat dressing compartments are provided. The height and weight of pupils are carefully recorded from time to time by registering machines kept in the gymnasium. Furniture. — The Swiss Architect of school furniture has laid himself out to design a desk and seat which shall approach the best hygienic conditions. All schools are not yet supplied with the best desks, but all the new buildings have adopterl the most modern types of furniture. A very fine type of desk made by Mauchain of Geneva is seen in the school of Commerce, Neuchatel. In Bern, a dual desk on the Signau patent, costing 30 francs (£1 4s.), is used. In Lucerne a dual desk on the Schenk patent, costing 34 francs (£1 7s.), is seen in some class-rooms, while in another school in the same town a dual desk bv Hunziker and Zimmerli, costing 45 francs (£1 16s.), is favoured by the school authorities. The Dr. Schenk desk is used in tlte schools of Zurich. A desk patented as 17263 is used in Basle. The desk is a fixture but the seat is adjustable. Xt/jTOrM?.— Libraries are general in the schools but are not large. The books arc no read on the premises, but lent out under the supervision of the class teacher. Sanitary 460 Sanitary Arrangements. — The sanitary arrangements are very good. In the centre of the corridors are the drinking fountains, stands for umbrellas, and receptacles for paper and refuse. At the extreme ends of the corridors the lavatories and necessary conveniences are placed. Laboratories. — In the secondary schools of Switzerland laboratories with lecture theatres for the teaching of physics and chemistry are general, and on a smaller scale are sometimes seen in the equipment of the primary school for elementary instruction in science. Museums. — Small museums of natural history are common to all the elementary schools of Switzer- land. Animals, birds, plants, are well represented. Pictures. — In the elementary schools the walls have but few pictures. The portraits of Pestalozzi and William Tell are in every school, and in one Canton the picture of the Crucifixion is added. In the secondary schools excellent photographs and other pictures adorn the walls of class-rooms and corridors. Maps and diagrams are not very common in the Swiss schools, but the very fine map of Switzerland (by Keller) was noticed on the walls of a secondary school in Geneva. This map gave a splendid idea of the surface of the country and the system of drainage. Permanent Exhibitions of School Equipments. — In addition to the individual equipment in the public schools of Switzerland there are three permanent Public Exhibitions fitted up with all the most modern furniture and teaching apparatus. These are the Exhibition attached to the Training College for Primary Teachers in Lausanne, the Exhibition in Bern, and the Pestalozzianum in Zurich. The Lausanne Exhibition is a great museum of school inaterial. It is a series of rooms which have been fitted up specially with the view to bringing under the notice of teachers in training all the most suit- able appliances, furniture, wall decorations, and apparatus which can be used in a school. The collection is a splendid one, and all the articles are good. Foremost among much that proved interesting are the wall decorations which consist of well executed maps and very fine diagrams. In the collection there are little cabinets shov.ing products and all their derivatives, and a series of botanical charts which give the pupils good ideas of the people and industries of other countries. All the important manufactures are treated in concrete form. The raw product is placed first, and specimens showing the various stages in the manufacture follow in order, and the whole is nicely mounted on a card suitable for use in the class-room. Furniture is well represented. In addition to the desks already mentioned the collection contains one called Kettigs Schulbank. Physiological charts and models, and charts of insects, birds, animals, fishes, are numerous, and all are of the best quality. The display of Kindergarten material is that usually seen in Kindergarten schools. The writing in copy books has considerable slope. The moral code, which is read daily in the schools, hangs on the wall. Everything that the Canton can obtain to make the teaching attractive and entertaining to the pupils is gathered into this Exhibition. The Bern Exposition is not connected with any particular school, but is a collection of school apparatus and school work intended as an object lesson for teachers. Its best features are : — 1 . Relief maps and models for teaching geography. These are of excellent construction and great utility. 2. Apparatus for teaching elementary physics, diagrams of various kinds illustrative of local and foreign subjects, etc., well executed photographs of scenery and buildings of different countries. 3. Cards of textile fabrics and alimentary proiducts showing the various stages of manufacture from the raw to the finished article. There is a large display of plain needlework of a useful character. The Pestalozzianum in Zurich is a teachers' museum on a small scale, in rather poor buildings, but interesting on account of its associations. The exhibits are housed in small rooms which may be briefly described thus : — (a) Museum of Pestalozzi's writings, largely in manuscript, many pictures of Swiss scholars and philosophers, library of school work and publications, (i) Diagrams and models — Physiology (including first aid), ethnology, Scripture, geography, agriculture, botany, physics, manufactures. (c) Museum of Industry — models in clay, wood, iron, tin. (d) Copy books and the teaching of caligraphy generally. (e) Drawing designs and patterns, flowers, iron railings, and similar ornamental work. (/) Class room apparatus — a very fine map stand on which maps may be folded up after use ; a wire frame with squares on which are placed imitations of all coins in use in the country ; vessels showing the various liquid measures ; charts showing addition tables ; blackboards of style usually seen in schools, viz., a dark slate in a sliding frame, some of wood. The Commissioners have collected the catalogues of the great school publishing firms of the United Kingdom, Europe, and America, and have personally inspected many establishments noted for school equip- ment in London, Leeds, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Paris, Berlin, Leipzig, Vienna, New York, Boston, Chicago, Toronto. A description of the materials and apparatus best suited for our schools, the catalogues, pictures and some specimens of work collected, will be handed over to the Minister of Public Instruction with a suggestion that they be placed in the newly formed Departmental Library for the benefit of teachers. An enumeration and description of all that could be suggested for school use would unduly lengthen this report. 451 PLAN DU REZ-DE-CHAUSSEE DE L'ECOLE SUPERIEURE, LAUSANNE. CHAPTER LI. 452 CHAPTER LT. The Educational Equipment of Schools and Museums of Paedagogy. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introductory. — During the Comniissioners' tour it was impossible to fail to recognise tlie inferiority of our school-equipments compared with those in the schools of almost every country visited. Whether the lower or higher primary schools, or the secondary schools are considered, the result is the same ; and it matters but little to what special material one refers. Owing to this fact, viz., that in respect of educational material our schools are not well equipped — that even our training colleges are without museums or educational material, and without physical, chemical, or natural-history laboratories ; that they possess but a poor general outfit — there are not sufficient sources of good tradition as to what really constitutes a proper equipment for a modem school. "With no example of a well-equipped school, teachers in training or visiting Sydney can hardly be expected to carry away an adequate conception as regards the proper character of either ordinary or model 1 schools. Proper equipment in a school will certainly greatly help in giving the teaching reality and thoroughness which at present are often, perforce, absent, as elsewhere explained. And the value of a general Pedagogical Museum is that it is an important factor in the education of the teacher, revealing to him the possibility of the part that mechanical aids, models, drawings, etc., may play in his work. ]n its hygienic relation, school equipment is discussed in Chapters XLVII-XLIX, which sufficiently deal with the matter, though not of course exhaustively. 2. Pcedagogical Equipment of Schooh.— As stated, the proper furniture for schools generally is elsewhere discussed, but it may be remarked that we retain the long unadjustable desks and seats, very often manufactured in cedar, and this in the most recent schools, though the defects of these have long been known, and were pointed out by Dr. Eoth in 1885.^ The equipment to which reference is hereinafter made is for primary schools designed to carry on the education of children up to the age of 14 years. Such equipment would embrace, for example — (1) Maps, charts, diagrams, wall-sheets, pictures, etc., necessary for the purpose of illustrating subjects of instruction. (2) Simple, physical, chemical, and, perhaps, biological apparatus, adequate for the purpose of illustrating scientific teaching, object lessons, nature-study, etc. (3) Lantern-apparatus for the projection of pictures on a screen. (4J Phonographic language records for the purpose of securing a proper pronunciation of foreign languages. (5) Equipment for manual-training exercises. (6) Equipment for the teaching of domestic economy. (7) School library. (8) School museum, cabinets, etc. All these forms of equipment are to be found in a great many Continental schools and in most of ihc modern primary scliools of Switzerland. Eecent tendency in England is much in the same direction. Speaking generally, America also recognises the value, educationally, of such equipments. These will be referred to seriatim. 3. Maps, etc. — In regard to maps, the importance of systematic revision is obvious. With a view to making geographical conceptions realistic, the value of illustrative pictures, such, for example, as ^'photochromes^," which shew exactly, with photographic accuracy and in their natural colours, what the various parts of the surface of our earth are like, can hardly bo overstated. In a well equipped school the whole panorama of the earth's surface can be thoroughly understood. Maps ' Schools illustrating the constitution of an ideally equipped school. » "Sitting inschools as a cause of deformity."— R. E. Both, Australian Medical Oazetle, November, 1885. Dr. Roth says :— "Having unlimited opportunities of observing girls during school-hours, I feel quite convinced that most of the deformities they are liable to, such as curvature of the spine, contracted chests, round shoulders, myopia, etc., are due to the bad positions they assume whilst at their work. In order to appreciate thoroughly these various injurious positions, wo must have some idea of the anatomy and physiology of sitting This exceedingly unhealthy and injurious position is due to the improper relations of the desk to the seat and to the position of the copy-book, and to the absurd way in which the pupil is taught to hold the pen. A properly constructed desk should be of such a height that the elbows may be advanced forward and rest lightly on the desk. The use of the arms in writing is not to support the weight of the body, but for the left hand to fix the copy-book, and the right to hold the pen. Finally, the desk should be so near the pupil's body, without touching, that there is no necessity to stoop forward There is no doubt that these various injurious positions being maintained for many hours daily must give rise to affections of the spine and various important organs. Their injurious effect is much more seen in girls than boys. The latter counteract the evil effects by I'ndulging in various games characteristic of the country ; whilst girls are precluded from entering in such pastimes on the false plea of modesty. For this reason it is most urgent that some system of physical training, suitable for girls, be introduced and made compulsory in all girls' schools, and this physical training should be carried out on scientific principles, and not by " professors " and sergeants who are ignorant of anatomy and physiology, and of the laws which govern the healthy development of the body." " A fine illustrative series was obtained from the Photochrome Company, Cheapside, London. 463 Maps, cbarts, wall-sheets, diagrams, etc., if made interesting, aa for example when they are used to illustrate the progress of war, the acquisition of territory, the journeys of travellers, the significance of strategic movements, or occupations, can become of high educational value in broadening the minds of children and giving them a definite interest through which their attention can be focussed to more methodical matter of instruction. Consider some of the recent events which demaud geographical treatment, and have this general type of interest. One might quote for example : — (a) The acquisition of the Transvaal and Orange Free States. (b) The new treaty between France and Siam and its import on the East. (c) The development of railways in Africa. (d) The volcanic outbreak and earthquakes in Central America. (e) The Canal-schemes of Central America. (f) The blockade of Venezuela. (ff) The Acre question (Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil). (A) The Pacific cables. (i) The Arctic expeditions of O. Sverdrup, E. N. Peary, and Baron E. Toll. (j) The Antarctic expeditions. (k) Dr. Sven v. Hediu's journeys in Lob-nor district and in Tibet. (Z) Journey of the Dr.". Sarasin through the Celebes. (m) Journey of Oberst Pavel and Ur. Hoesemann in the Cameroons. (n) Journey of Barcn Erlanger in East Africa. (0) The Hussian movement in Manchuria, etc., and other matters of the same kind. Old maps, or any maps that cannot be corrected or altered, are not convenient for geographical tcachins;; maps that could be readily brought up to date would be preferable. Kelief maps, if accurate, are excellent to give some rough idea of the orography of difl^erent countries ; but it should be pointed out that the sevtral makers have very different ideas as to what constitutes reasonable accuracy, a fact obvious on comparison of two reliefs of the one country. In regard to the hanyinrj of maps, etc., the best arrangement seen by the Commissioners was a magazine of spring rollers in the form of a bracket, each roller being set a little higher than the one behind it. This has been elsewhere referred to (Chap VI., sect. 33). Reference is also elsewhere made (Chap. XLVIII , sect. 2) to the matter of blackboards, and to the fact that, from every point of view, i;rotmd-glass tablets are preferable to blackboards. 4. Physical, Chemical, and Katural-histort/ Laboratory. — If object lessons are to be realistic, each school should possess a little simple physical and chemical apparatus, and material for ihe teaching of natural history. In the French official instructions of 1897, it is said that "It is by simple experiments, costing but little, that the conceptions of physical science for the primary schools are established." And they recommend the selection of those which have direct relation to agriculture. In the " ecole normale d'Arras," each student-teacher takes away, on leaving, a box, made in the workshop during the exercises in manual work, provided with material for chemical experiments. The box contains the following material: — (1) A spirit-lamp, tripod, triangle, a holder made of iron wire, one made of wood, a support; all made by the student-teacher. Occasionally a more powerful lamp is added, for operating with glass, etc. (2) A small collection of glass tubes, corks, india-rubber tubing. In some of the boxes of the normal schools there are about half a dozen stoppers and sizes of rubber tubing. (o) A small assortment of laboratory glass, four flasks, six test tubes, three beakers, six large-necked flasks, etc. (4-) File, and wires of various sizes. (5) Various reagents. The whole is illustrated in the report on the Paris Exhibition of 1900.' (Group 1.) The modern Swiss primary schools are better provided than this, and their laboratories are fairly well equipped. In the ordiiuiry ])rimary schools it is ])erhaps suflicient to have the one laboratory for both physics and chemistry, though in the better class of school it is very desirable to have separate rooms. To dispense with the science-teaching is not possible, unless our primary education is to remain inferior ; and to teach science subjects thoroughh', whether in the form of object lessons or not, suitable apparatus is necessary. It is the experimental teaching that is interesting, realistic, and valuable. 5. Lantern Apparatus. — A feature of one of the Museums of Pa;dagogy in Paris is the despatching room for lantern views. These are sent to all the departments, and in each department a distributing centre has been established, through the initiative of the "Teaching League.'' These views are very fine, and extend over quite a large range of subjects, viz., a:j;riculture, history, tine arts, and travel, the last beini,' coloured. The lantern is being used more and more for intuitive teaching purposes, and there can be no doubt that the time spent with the lantern can be made not only very interesting, but also very profitable. G. Fkonograpliic Records for Lanquages. — In the chapter on the teaching of lantjnages (Chap. XXII), the value ot the phonograph is referred to as a means of indicating the true sounds of a foreign language. The ))honograi)h is not, of course, comparable to the living teacher; but in this State wo are at present at some disadvantage, owing to the absence of a snfiicent number of people competent to teach modern languages. The phonograph is a temporary way out of the difEcultv. 7. • Op. cil., pp. 53- 54. 454 7. Equipment for Manual Training. — The equipments for manual training are well developed in a great many primary schools of the United Kingdom, Europe and America. The work-benches, though simple, and the accessories for tools, etc., leave little to bo desired in the way of convenience or efficiency. In some parts of Switzerland, Germany, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Eussia, in the United Kingdom, the outfits are excellent, and the work done by the pupils was of high quality. The excellent manual-training equipments of the primary schools in London and its suburbs are a feature of interest, and these are well distributed also over the IJnited Kingdom. Throughout the world it is being more clearly recognised that education must take a more active and practical and more intuitive form, and the manual-training equipments are the evidence of the serious way in which this opinion is entertained. 8. Equipment for the Teaching of Domestic Economy. — -Another feature noticed in a very large number of schools, was the equipments for the teaching of cooking (with both gas and ordinary stoves), and for the teaching of washing, ironing, etc. In the former, it may be mentioned that the science of the subject is touched upon, the equipment being designed in such a way that the whole process may be rationally understood. The apparatus was particularly fine in Switzerland and Holland, although it must be admitted that it is also excellent in manv other countries. 9. The Making of Apparatus in School. — In the chapter on " Manual Training and Sloyd " (Chapter XIX) attention has been drawn to the fact that much of the apparatus required for the teaching of science in Public Schools could easily be made in the school workshop. Apart from all questions of economy, the undertaking of exercises of this kind has a high moral value, perhaps especially so if the master bo able to so interest his pupils as to make them identify themselves with the school and with the maintenance of its credit. Then the improvement of the equipment will have some attraction. The pupil's concern for the reputation of his school, is one of the important elements in its ethical progress, inasmuch as it is the aim of every good school to create esprit among the pupils, and a desire to maintain high traditions in regard to its reputation and work. The fact that all apparatus will have to be made some time in advance of the actual lesson may be used to focus attention, and to beget interest in the subject which the apparatus is to illustrate. Some- times also it will happen that the devices of pupils for the improvement of the apparatus will shew considerable ingenuity. All such original effort is to be strongly encouraged, not only for the pupil's own sake but also because of its favourable reaction upon other children. 10. Interest in Science in Schools. — Beference has elsewhere been made to the utility of scientific observations made in schools. Every Public School in the State could, without any difficulty, be made a meteorological observing station, and the keeping of the records assigned as a task of honour to the more deserving pupils. In this way important meteorological information could be obtained at a minimum cost to the State, the pupils deriving real teaching and benefit therefrom. Erance avails itself of this idea. So also in places of great geological interest, specimens could be collected for the cabinets and museums of schools in other places where the same opportunity does not exist. 11. School Libraries and Museums. — School libraries are a feature in a very large number of European and American schools. They are of two kinds, viz : — (a) Libraries for the use of teachers, containing dictionaries, encyclopfedias, works ot references, works on education (theory and history), works on mental science, ethics, philosophy, on sciences connected with education, such as anatomy, physiology, hygiene, gymnastics, physical culture, manual training, Sloyd, text books on various subjects, educational law, etc. (J) Libraries for the use of children, of a somewhat more popular character, but containing also suitable scientific works, text books, the latter generally being somewhat more advanced than those required in following the ordinary work. In regard to museums, it may be said that they are excellent factors in education and they are a common feature in primary schools all over the world. Children readily collect specimena for them, and often shew great interest in the school musuem. The proprietors of local industries very readily and generously add their tribute, often a very valuable one, to the school museum, and in this way both the pupils and the public are induced to take special interest in the school's development. The concentration of attention, on the part of the pupils, on the material they obtain for the school museum is often a valuable aid in their education, through the arousing of their interest and curiosity. 12. Pcedagogical Museums and Libraries. — An important institution which has grown up in recent years is the Museum of Pedagogy, represented in many European countries and in America. Its special purpose is to exhibit various educational appliances, and thus to render apparent the progress made in the material organisation of education. Some of the finest of these museums are in Switzerland, one of special interest being the Pestalozzianum in Zurich. This permanent school exhibition was founded m 1875 by a secondary-school teacher and town councillor named Kol'.er, and in 1878 was connected with the Gevverbemuseum (Museum of Industry). According to the statute of 1882, the purpose of the institution is the development of matters pertaining to Swiss school education, and especially to education in the schools of the people, furthering and helping it by enlightening the authorities, teachers, and the public above all, as to the present state of the schools, and 456 and their history in comparison with those of the different cantons and with those of foreign lands, so that there should be real knowledge as to progress in such matters. In order to attain to this end were established the following : — (1) Public collections, including : — (a) The present equipment of Swiss schools in general, and individual teaching material, school apparatus, and furniture. (i) A permanent exhibition of any new teaching material, and anything that might assist in regard thereto, introduced into Swiss schools and adapted to the improvement of the instruction, without regard as to whether it is of Swiss or foreign origin. (c) Pestalozzi room. (d) Archives for statistical and historical material relating to schools. (e) A library for pedagogical literature, with a reading room. (2) A bureau for the purpose of supplying information to authorities and private people regarding questions concerning the institution. (3) The arrangement of public discourses and special travelling exhibitions. (4) Literary publications. The archives possess about 10,000 numbers concerning school-law and administration. There are about 2,400 volumes in the general section of the library ; about 4,200 in its pajdagogic section ; it has about 5,900 te.\t-books ; about 1,200 children's manuscripts ; about 1,000 manuscripts and 1,350 brochures in the " Pestalozzi room." There is also a very fine permanent school exhibition in Berne. This has a model school-room with various types of furniture, the sections for teaching-material being arranged according to the different subjects ; and it has a library, a reading room, and a room for general administration. The following sections are represented, the arrangement being as in the plan hereunder : — Entrance Hall. 1 Languages. Hygiene. Bureau. Pm Latrines, etc. o o o o State Depot. History. Natural History. Pliysics. Bureau of Local Information. (icography. Arithmetic. Gymnastic. Kindergarten. ' History of Education. Special Institutions. 1 > T Statistics. Luggage- 1 room, etc. Court. On the 1st Floor arc Drawing, Writing, au'l Manual Training, e*- hibits. At the time of the Commissioners' visit a large model of part of the Alps was being finished, it having taken several years to complete. There 456 There is also a Bchool-museum at Fribourg founded, through the activity of M. Leon Genoud, in 1884. This has a collection of samples, a library, the works of Pere Girard, and school-history, school-law, and school-statistic sections. There is also a permanent school-exhibition at Neuchatel opened on June, 1887, each of the departments being arranged in its special sectional room as follows : — Geography. Natural History. (iirls' liandwork. School law. History. Mathematics. School of industrial work. School statistics. Drawing. Language. Singing. Pa;dagogy. Writing. Kindergarten. Gymnastics. Scliool furniture. The piedagogical library of Paris is a very large one, containing something like 50,000 volumes. Besides this there are in Paris two large pedagogical museums, in which are exhibited a variety of school material, the one being in the Eue Gay Lussae, and the other — the Municipal Pcedagogical Museum — being in the Rue Montmartre, No. 47. Eeference was made in section 5 to the Despatch Eoom in the Pa;dagogical Museum of Paris, for the issue of lantern views. This is shewn in Pig. 85 of the Report on Group I, (Education et enseignement). Exposition universelle Internationale, 1900, Paris, p. 239. There were, in 1898-9, about 3,450 collections of about twenty views each. The collection is at present considerably larger. At the Pffidasogieal Museum of the municipality of Paris, specimens of every type of furniture, and of all teaching material in use in the public schools, may be found. This is illustrated in Fig. 92, p. 257, of the Report above referred to. Examples of the work of pupils, and of the class of exercises, are given on pp. 274-5 and 280-1. It may be mentioned that the psedagogical equipment (museum) of many of the normal schools of America is also excellent. That seen in connection with the training college of the Columbia University, New York, is worthy of mention. According to the catalogue of the Columbia University (year 1902-3), the Bryson Library, in the main building of the College, contains 20,000 volumes. This building also contains a fine educational museum. The best series of models for the Sloyd form of manual training was that seen at the museum of the Naas Seminarium. Besides the educational museums distributed throughout Europe, the L^nited Kingdom, and America, many of the warehouses, where educational materials are sold, are practically extensiTe exhibitions of the variety and character of the apparatus provided to assist teaching. 13. Conclusion. — A Pedagogical Museum is an important factor, not only in the education of teachers, but also in the education of the public as to the needs of the popular school, for, as yet, we have no adequate conception in this State of a modern, well-equipped primary school. In a centre like Sydney such an institution, properly fitted out, would reveal the state of progress in the material organisation of education in various parts of the world. A teacher's seminary, associated with the University, possessed of a good adjunct-school, and a well-equijjped lihrari/ and museum, could bo made a focus of interest for members of the teaching profession. It would also give the public an opportunity of learning something definite in regard to the material organisation of modern education. The following recommendations sum up what has been previously indicated : — (1) The present educational equipment of the primary schools of the State needs to be greatly improved. (2) There should be some simple apparatus for the teaching of the natural sciences. (3) All primary schools should bo equipped for manual training; and the teaching of domestic economy should be better provided for. (4) The manual training classes should be encouraged to make such simple apparatus as is serviceable in the teaching of natural science. (5) A fully-equipped educational museum should be established, preferably adjuinins; the teaching seminary and its practising school. This museum should contain examples of all new teaching material of value from all parts of the world. CIIAI'TER LII. 457 CHAPTER LIl. Inspection u Examination. [J. VV. TURNER.] Practically outside our own State, certainly outside our Commonwealth, the question of Inspection V. Examination at the time of the Commissioner's visit was receiving little attention. One of the States was making an experiment in favour of inspection in place of examination, but the test was confined to a few of what were considered the best schools in the city. In the schools of the United Kingdom the question had been settled for some years in favour of inspection, and inquiry among His Majesty's Inspectors, head teachers, and assistants, revealed the fact, that, although a small minority did not approve of the step, a very decided majority agreed that the change was a wise one to make. Several of the most prominent head teachers under the London School Board and under the Pro- vincial School Boards, whose schools were specially recommended as being worthy of a visit by the Commissioner, were good enough to speak out very plainly on this question. '■ In one large suburban school in the West End of London, there appeared to be little inspection and no examination. No Inspector had visited the school for a year. When the head teacher was asked for his " Observation Book " ' he did not understand what was meant by the term, but on the Commissioner explaining that it was a record of the work done by pupils and teachers during examination, he produced a very small exercise book, which he called his Log Book. 1 n the book were a few sentences telling of the material condition of the school, but specifying nothing about the work of the classes, teaching methods, or the values of subjects taught. Judging from this simple record His Majesty's Inspectors gave little time to examination in that school. Yet one is satisfied that the moral tone of the school was good, and that the teaching carried on there was intelligent. Looking about for the cause of such results under these circum- stances, the conclusion was forced upon one that the head teacher was the power at work. The absence of lengthy reports and subject valuations in the Log Book was due to the fact that the Inspector had confidence in the head teacher. His visits to that school, as in many others, were merely formal and always encouraging. The confidence of the Inspector was shown in the infrequency of his visits, and the stimulus to the head teacher lay in the fact that he was thoroughly trusted by his superior officer. In this particular school the sjdlabus of work, which managers and head teachers draw up to suit the requirements of their district, was formulated on the Higher Grade Standard, and prominence was given to ordinary commercial work and drawing. The head teacher taught classes occasionally (in the Higher Grade Board Scliools heads are not responsible for a class), directed his pupils' education generally, and held examinations frequently. He maintained a good standard of work, and was successful, as indicated by honour boards in the school central hall, in passing many of his pupils for the Oxford and Cambridge Junior Local Examinations, the lower certificate of the Chamber of Commerce, and for the London County Council and private Scholarships, admitting to secondary schools. His lower grade work was always directed towards a preparation for the vacancies in the higher grade, and in this way he kept up a healthy tone throughout his school without the aid of examinations by Inspectors. The Commissioner cannot help pointing out very forcibly that the main value of the system of inspection lies in the possession of thoroughly efficient, earnest teachers, men and women, who can be implicitly trusted by the State to do their work. The Inspector then has a simple duty to perform — to advise, where necessary, to suggest improvements in method where desirable, to encourage everywhere. That the Inspector has risen to a proper sense of his duty under the system is true. In a letter from one of the officers of the National Union of Teachers, England, to the Secretary of the Public School Teachers' Association of New South Wales, it is stated, corroborative of the above, that "the relations between teachers and Inspectors have undergone a complete revolution." Under the examination system, public school teachers in England were often the victims of Inspectors' caprice, and a bad report on the day of examination meant something serious for the unfortunate teacher. " Now," says the same writer, " if an assistant is not working properly it becomes the duty of the head teacher to report to the teacher's employers, whose duty it is to remove that teacher if he cannot be brought up to the mark. We find that if a teacher is so reported upon and so removed, it occurs only after careful investigation and observation and every opportunity is given to the teacher to improve. Under the old system teachers not infrequently were adversely reported upon, sometimes dismissed, not because their work was unsatisfactory during the year, but because the children were nervous on the examination day, or the Inspector was out of touch with his work on that particular occasion." The head teacher of the suburban school already referred to, since gone to his long rest, would have in his day seriously resented any attempt to return to examination as indicating an imputation on his honour or a belief that he was incompetent to manage his school. The mistress of the Infants in the same school stated that the Government Inspectors listened to the teaching, and observed the methods of instruction in carrying on the ordinary work according to time-table, but conducted no systematic examination, and that the Board Inspectors neither inspected nor examined, but were chiefly employed in making inquiry into matters of organisation noteil by the Government Inspectors. Another ■This book in the State Schools of New South Wales is a record of examination by an Inspector, anil contains a printed list of school suljjects, opposite which he places, cither in words having a numerical value or the numbers themselves, bis valuations obtained as a result of his tests. The InspoctDr's instructions arc to till up the "Observation Book " immediate' v at the close of his examination. The New South Wales teacher knnwa the " Observation Book," This explanation is not intended f.a- him. 45^ Another head teacher gave his experience of inspection. In his school, lie said, the practice is for the Inspector to listen to the regular work of each teacher for a short time. On no occasion is the work as laid down by time-table interfered with. Exercise-books, which show class work from the previous examination, are presented for inspection, and a few only, as a rule, glanced at. This is the only test applied in the school under notice to ascertain the value of the teaching methods practised, the efficiency of the staff employed, and to what extent the intelligence of the pupils has been developed. Again the great amount of reliance placed upon the head teacher can be seen. The Inspector leaves no written report of his observations. This comes later on from the Head Office and is entered in the Log Book. If the Inspector during his visit finds anything wrong in the method, organisation, or discipline, he brings it under the notice of the head teacher whose duty it is to convey the verdict to the teacher immediately concerned. It would appear that, except perhaps in very glaring cases of inefficiency, these remarks are never embodied in a written report, but made in a friendly way to the head teacher, by whom they are communicated to the proper person. This head master, speaking for himself and the teachers of his acquaintance, prefers the system of inspection because it makes for more freedom in the curriculum, whereas examination cramps the work and conduces to mechanical results. A paragraph from the letter already quoted confirms this view : — " We find that children are not able to work four sums in twenty minutes certain that they will be accurate to the third decimal place. But they can now explain the rules upon which they are working, why they have done it, and under what conditions a difierent method would be required. They may not spell with accuracy a list of catch words, but they can write a letter with some intelligence." In the same letter the writer points out further advantages gained from inspection, and states "that managers and teachers are compelled to take greater care in the choice of a curriculum which must be suitable to the district. The capitation grant (an amount paid by Government for each child efficiently taught) instead of being dependent upon results secured at the Inspector's examination now depends upon the suitability of the instruction, the thoroughness and intelligence with which the instruction is given, the sufficiency and suitability of the staff, discipline, and organisation." The feeling regarding the question was freely tested among the assistant teachers as well as head teachers in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and the views elicited generally favoured inspection. Many who had had experience of the examination days, now rejoicing in what they termed natural freedom in the school, hoped that there would never be a return to examination with its system of espionage, results, and cram, and predicted that any tendency that way would be met by a spirit of hostility on the part of British teachers. These all agreed that the general intelligence of the pupils was quickened under the system of inspection, and that the change from examination had proved of enormous advantage to popular education. Some Board teachers, certainly a small minority, are still in doubt as to whether inspection is better than examination. They admit that examination was carried too far, that it aimed at a rigid maximum, and further, produced too great uniformity in class attainments. Inspection, they say does not go far enough, and is satisfied with too little in the way of results, or an easily obtained minimum, although at the same time giving scope for broad intelligent work. The pendulum has swung from one extreme to the other. These teachers contend that a modified form of the old examination system would be in the best interests of teachers and their pupils. In their opinion much of the abuse heaped upon the system of examination is due to Inspectors who have not the requisite qualifications for the office. Men of culture, men of kindly feeling and encouraging manner, men of broad views, men of healthy constitution, are wanted in school inspectorial ranks. There is no place for the one who requires results just on his special methods, who sets out to find faults before he is on the school premises, who tires teachers and pupils by his prolixity or discursiveness, or irritates by his imperiousness, or who takes a special delight in bewildering the little ones. The Commissioner took every opportunity that presented for coming into contact with Inspectors and finding out their methods of testing, and their views on inspection and examination, and he was fortunate to meet, sometimes engaged in schools, several of His Majesty's Inspectors in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and some of the Chief Inspectors of secondary and primary schools in the large cities of the Continent and America. Through the kindness of ^he Board of Education, England, the Commissioner was present at the inspection of a Board School situated in one of the poorest divisons of East London. The Senior Inspector was good enough to give his views on inspection and examination. He him.self favours inspection, but considers that the real issues of the two sides are not yet fully determined. The old Inspectors, perhaps with a disinclination to break away from long-established practices, and still bound by their conservatism, favour examination, but these the Inspector thinks are in a considerable minority. It appeared to the Commissioner, when seeing the school inspected, that if the system of ^testing school work en^ed too much on the side of mechanical results with a rigid standard, the system in the Board Schools of London did not show very satisfactory results with a free standard. The actual standard sufficient to satisfy the Inspector was of course known only to that official, but the conclusion formed from observa- tion was that it was low. The condition of the school, to all appearances, was not satisfactory. Making all allowances for environment, the teaching, from the Commissioner's standpoint, did not seem efficient. The head teacher was earnest, energetic, anxious, and strove well against the influence of his surroundings, but there was little real life in the school. His staff, with few exceptions, was not strong or helpful. Here was an opportunity for condemning the school if ever one existed (so it appeared to the Commissioner, who did not know all the circumstances), but the Inspector seemed to be in full sympathy with the head teacher in his peculiar position, and judged the school on the basis of its possibilities. Taking an opinion from the excessive anxiety of the head teacher of this school during the time of the Inspector's visit, it is proper to remind advocates for inspection that the system as seen in England exacts a very trying ordeal from the head masters, and really increases their responsibilities by placing the charge of the entire school on their shoulders. The weight of these responsibilities, even under the most favourable circumstances, 459 circumstances, is sufficient in itself to create considerable anxiety at so trying a time to most as a regular visit from an Inspector, and fortunate are the teachers who feel that their Inspector is a friend, ready to give credit for what is good, and quick to point out what is defective. This Inspector's kindness in dealing with the boys, and his fairness in dealing with the teachers, impressed the Commissioner very favourably. In watching his work on the morning of the visit one could not help noticing that, as the consequence of his manner and methods, he was respected by the staff and pupils. There is no quarter of Sydney comparable to the locality in which this school is situated, and this was made clear to the Commissioner, who gained some idea of an East London community, in company with the Chairman of the Divisional Committee, when making a visit to the schools in his section. Wherever the Commissioner met with His Majesty's Inspectors throughout the United Kingdom, he could not help but admire their splendid conceptions of duty, their trust in their teachers, and their cheerful happy way with children. The school which the Commissioner saw inspected through the courtesy of the Board of Education and the Senior Inspector of the Division is one in a district which has enrolled in its schools 76,000 pupils — a number about equal to that which our metropolitan area contains. This district is worked by two Inspectors — senior and junior — with a lady assistant. The Boys' Department, containing seven classes with about 300 boys, was inspected by both gentlemen together, and the work was finished in a little over two hours. The Senior Inspector took Standards II., V., VI., VII. The following was the procedure : — Standard II. — Age 8;^ years. Arithmetic. — Teacher gave usual subject on time-table, mental arithmetic, concrete examples in multiplication and division, e.g., 6x4. Inspector followed on similar lines, but used addition too. Then worked by pupils on board concrete example 17 x 5, first by addition, and then by multiplication. Teacher set written work on board, e.g., 24 sacks of potatoes, 352 in a sack : how many in all ? A few questions only, reasonable time allowed, but no time limit specified. While written work was proceeding the Inspector was working in another room. Teacher left in charge. On his return Inspector looked through about one-third of the books. Teacher and boys trusted. Stading. — Conducted by teacher. Inspector listening ; no comment at this juncture, but in the final summing-up verdict given. This completed the examination of Standard II. Standard V. — Age IIJ years. Arithmetic. — Inspector examined arithmetic in a few cases only, of work done on paper in school. He took a proportion sum from the examples and asked the teacher to explain ratio to the pupils. Inspector asked occasional pertinent questions during the teacher's explanation. Teacher was then instructed to sot four sums to be worked by the pupils, including bills of parcels properly made out, and to superintend the work. Time allowed 45 minutes. Inspector took up another class, again in a different room. He returned at the expiration of the time, and examined a few of the books in arithmetic, but made no valuations or comment. Dictation. — Exercise-books showing work done in school inspected. Composition. — Exercise-books containing essays set by teacher looked through rapidly. Geografhy. — Teacher questioned boys on physical features of countries round Baltic Sea. The Inspector listened, but asked no questions. Later on, he had something to say to the head teacher. {See summary, page 14.) This concluded the examination of Standard V. Standards VI and VII. — These were combined, but with the Inspector's customary fairness the work was more on the lower standard. Arithmetic. — Book-work, simple interest examined. Inspector gave a few mental operations in interest. Mensuration.— Ca.T-peting a room — simplest process. Heading. — Macmillan's Historical Eeader 7. Taught and questioned by teacher. Once oulj did the Inspector put a question. Geography. — East Indies and their natural products. Teacher did nearly all the questioning. Inspector put a few general questions. When he asked a question his manner was courteous in every case, especially towards the youngest teachers. This concluded the actual examination. There was no examination in grammar, object-lessons, drawing, or singing, in any of the above classes. The Commissioner was privileged to listen to the summing-up of the Inspector's opinions, which were verbally communicated to the head teacher, who is the medium for their transmission to the rest of the staff. The Log Book was produced, and matters concerning a previous examination referred to. The head teacher then received the verdict on his work. In a very friendly way, as man to man, it was pointed out by the Senior Inspector, in the presence of the Assistant Inspector, that reading in Standard II. was unsatisfactory. The head teacher was advised to give the class, a large one of 70 boys, more of his own time, and to place some of the very backward boys in a small section for special attention by the pupil-teacher. The head teacher contended strongly that he should have a better staff in such a district, lie argued his point, quietly, respectfully, and ably, and all his remarks were ciirefully listened to. He spoke under the strain and pressure of great responsibility, but with a feeling that he had the sympathy of his Inspector. The work of the teacher of Standard V. was adversely criticised in 460 in a fair and kindly manner. His general work was first referred to. The head teacher, while not seeking to excuse his assistant, whose results he considered ought to have been better, pointed out that he was ill, and that only for the inspection he would have returned to his home immediately after reporting himself for the morning work. The Senior Inspector's sympathetic remarks are quoted : " Do not be too hard on him ; I have had worse cases and certainly better." A few words of commendation to those who merited it, and a warm expression of sympathy and encouragement to the head teacher, were given, and sharp at noon, after a visit of little more than two hours, the Inspectors left the school to fill up the afternoon with similar work in another part of their large district. On the Continent inspection is almost if not entirely universal, and the same implicit trust in the teacher, and the same sympathy with the teachers' work and efforts, are noticeable. K. Ten Bruggencate, Esq., Chief Inspector of secondary schools in Holland, and formerly over the primary schools, a gentleman with a thorough command of the English language, and an intimate acquaintance, from residence in England, with English people, pronounced entirely in favour of inspection. Mr. Bruggencate showed the Commissioner the greatest kindness while they were in Holland, personally accompanied them to many schools, and enabled them to see many features of the country's very fine system of primary, secondary, and industrial education. Throughout the country the system of inspection prevails, and, in so far as could be judged, with satisfactory results. The intercourse between teachers and Inspectors was of a very friendly nature. The Chief Inspector of Schools, St. Petersburg, and Dr. Erodi Bela, of Buda-Pest, may be cited, among many thoughtful educationists whom the Commissioner met, as men strongly in sympathy with the teachers' work, while in the person of J. L. Hughes, Esq.. Inspector of Schools, Toronto, Canada has not only an advocate for inspection as against examination, but a forceful, able writer on educational questions, and a hearty supporter of the earnest, painstaking teacher. The Commissioner found that the system of inspection is in general use throughout the United Kingdom, Europe, United States, and Canada, and is advocated by a large majority in every country. He considers that, if the success of inspection has been so marked wherever it has been introduced, it might very safely be at least tried in New South Wales, for the trained teachers of the State are equally as intelligent, trustworthy, and loyal as those of other countries. Even in the case of teachers not fully trained, who are equally as trustworthy and loyal as their more fortunate brethren, the best results should accrue from inspection, as under the system Inspectors would be able to spend more time in explaining good teaching methods. Many of these teachers in New South Wales have not had the best opportunities for learning the art of teaching, and if the Inspectors in their yearly rounds could be relieved from the humdrum of individual examination, they would be able to give their teachers, far removed in many instances from the means of self-improvement, practical suggestions and useful advice in the manage- ment of schools. These are the men and women who would materially benefit by the system of inspection. The Inspectors' visits should be the teachers' opportunity for gaining a knowledge of the most approved modern methods in teaching, and of the most serviceable text-books in use, and the same visits should be the Inspectors' opportunity for extending a friendly hand to the teachers in their eiforts to improve their own status and raise the standard of their work. It is within the knowledge of the Commissioner that as far as possible this course is adopted by some Inspectors in New South Wales, but detailed examination work hampers so much that little time remains for suggestions and advice. If an Inspector has to make an exhaustive valuation of all the subjects taught in a school, and subsequently to prepare a mass of statistics for the Head Office and enter his verdict in the " Observation Book," he has no time, and perhaps little inclination, to confer with his teachers on matters of vital interest to him and them professionally. In the very large schools of the State, a positive waste of time takes place during examination, for while the Inspectors are on the premises the regular course of instruction is disarranged in all classes, time-tables are cancelled, and the even tenor of the work gives way to an unhealthy excitement. There is a feature in the examination work, called exemption-certificate work, which is open to objection, and which has caused much heart-burning, humiliation, and degradation to teachers, and as it only gives mechanical results it might well be dispensed with. Other opinions from various sources, and from different standpoints, the Commissioner thinks it right to add : — (A) Extracts from general report by the Board Inspectors for London, 1901 : — ■ The Sopeevision of Schools by the Head Teachers. When the Education Department changed their method of testing the efficiency of the schools receiving Government Grants, and determined to give up the rigid system of individual examination previously in force, atul to depend exclusively upon inspection, we viewed the change with mixed feelings. We rejoiced that the rigid individual tests, with their tendency to produce overstrain of teachers and scholars, were to be modified, and we were especially glad that the old tendency to produce classification by age, which brought undue pressure on the dull, and cramped the progress of the brighter children, was gone ; but we viewed with some apprehension the loss of thoss influeiibes which an intelligent system of examination would secure. It is absolutely necessary that some means should exist for testing the results of the efforts and methods of the teachers. Inspection, properly understood, should secure tiiis, for it implies not only looking at the surface appearance of things, but the thorough probing of them ; and with regard to the work of our schools, this absolutely necessitates some examination of an earnest character. With some exception we feel sure that Inspection as now understood and administered does not do this, and does not penetrate far below the surface. On several occasions we have drawn attention to this danger, and to indications we had seen that some evils were arising from it. This change has made the supervision of the Head Teachers more important, as upon them falls the duty of testing tne work by examination, which had previously been done by Inspectors from outside the schools. In the absence of examinations the New Code wisely requires detailed schemes of work to be prepared liy each class teacher, and records should be kept of work actually done. These schemes aud records need also careful supervision cii the part of the Head Teachers. Feeling 461 Feeling the importance of ascertaining how thoroughly these duties were carried out by Head Teachers, we have' tested as many cases as possible, and for this purpose have used the subjoined form : — (Copy of Form) School Board for London. Report of School. I. Are periodical Examinations held by the Head Teachers '! •2. How often are these Examinations held, and do they cover the whole field of work of the A-arious classes ? 3. Are there any other occasional tests of progress imposed by the Head Teacher ? 4. Is a record kept of these Examinations ? (a) Detailed results reduced to figures in case of the three R's. (b) General estimate of the work. (c) Schedule of individual progress — in the three E's especially. (d) Criticisms. 5. Are these criticisms sufficiently exhaustive and helpful to the Class Teacher ? 6. Is there a record of the questions, etc., given at these Examinations ? 7. Are these questions suitable, having regard to the District and the period of the Edu- cational year ? 8. Does the Head Teacher's estimate of the work fairly correspond with the actual con- dition of the school as revealed by recent or present work "; 9. What steps are taken by the Head Teacher for the guidance of weak or young teachers ? 10. (a) Do the Class Teachers keep a detailed account of their work, or ( b) Does the Head Teacher prescribe the course for each subject which is to be exam- ined by him periodically ? II. Are the lessons, as a rule, carefully prepared by the Class Teachers ? 12. Are the methods generally adopted by the Head Teacher calculated to cover the ground prescribed by the Code, and to promote the thorough efficiency of the school '! In this work we have been ably assisted by the Assistant Inspectors. The result of our inquiries shows that the Head Teachers generally appreciate the importance of their new duties, though we have in some cases had to draw attention to some points of neglect. The important question remains as to the efficiency of examinations by Head Teachers only to secure the required results. There is the undoul)ted weakness arising from the fact that they are partly testing their own work, which is always best tested by an outsider. How far their conclusions can be made to influence their Assistants who may have been found to fall short of a satisfactory standard of work must largely depend upon the force of character of the Head Teacher. Individual Examination. Some forty years ago it was laid down as a principle or rule that, in the annual inspection of a school, the examination of the children individually thould form tlie essential feature. The backward state ot education in many schools was thought to justify and call for such a rule. The general impression formed of a school, valuable though it was when coming from a sagacious and experienced observer, and the performances of a few bright scholars, valuable as they also were, did not furnisli a sufficient guarantee of the steady, continuous growth of the bulk of the scholars, especially of those who were naturally more backward. It cannot be denied that tlie new system produced a certain degree of levelling up and an increase of thoroughness, but it brought with it certain very serious evils, which were indeed foreseen from tlic first by thoughtful persons. It was found that testing results without reference to methods of teaching tended to discourage the preparation and careful working out of schemes of instruction, and offered an incentive to continual drilling in tests which were likely to be oflfered. And as the instruction became unsystematic the memory was unduly trusted to, and too little appeal was made to the intelligence. Further, there was a tendency to rectuce the whole bo,3i].22l' — 91 per cent, of all pupils enrolleil in elcmentar}' and secondary schools. In the grades below high schools (as a rule 14 years and under) co-education is practically universal and excites no comment. ' The subject has hecxK Yfry fully (Jiscufsoil in thp J^gt Report of tlie Commissioner for Education, U.S.A., chap, cxviii, pp. ISIT-lSl.'jlIOOl). ' • . ■ ■ 465 comment. The Commissioner of Education, United St.ates Bureau of Education, "Washington, feeling that the policy of co-education in the public schools of the United States was one which affected the most delicate social relations of a country, instituted special inquiries among superintendents of education and others, as far back as 1891, and repeated them in 1901, with respect to this particular feature of the schools under their charge. Some of these replies, together with some opinions of the leaders of education in other countries, are given for and against. 11. American opinions. — Boston, Massachusetts. — Superintendent: "The subject of co-education does not excite discussion in this city. Everybody, so far as I know, appears to be satisfied with the present condition of things." Providence, Rhode Island. — State Commissioner of Education : " Co-education is being more and more recognised as the proper method in all grades." Providence, Rhode Island. — Superintendent : " Personally I favour co-educational institutions." Greater New York City. — Superintendent: "The present trend of opinion appears to bo towards co-education." Newark, New Jersey. — Superintendent : " I am of opinion that boys and girls are best educated together during the whole period of the elementary and secondary course." Wilmington, Delaware. — Superintendent: "The trend of opinion of teachers and parents is now decidedly in favour of the plan." Chicago. — Superintendent : " The trend of opinion on the subject favours co-education." St. Louis. — Superintendent : " It is my opinion that co-education is more firmly intrenched in popular favour to-day than it was twenty-five years ago." San Francisco, California. — The subject of co-education has not evoked much discussion in this community, but among teachers there is a division of opinion. Cincinnati, Ohio. — Superintendent : " I am thoroughly in favour of co-educational high schools." I>es Moines, Iowa. — Superintendent: "I do not think there is an educator in the State so rash aa to advocate separating the girls and boys during their school life." Trenton. — Superintendent : " I do not believe it wise to keep the sexes apart in education. Each sex alone intensifies its own peculiarities. The presence of the other sex modifies this process, and the result is exactly what is now in the world. Intellectually, the influence of the sexes upon each other is most marked. Girls in the presence of boys have a higher intellectual idea. They unfold intellectual possibilities that society did not think they possessed, and that they themselves were not aware of. The boy is, of course, stimulated by the unexpected competition of the other sex." Philadelphia. — Superintendent Dr. Brooks, advocating the establishment of additional high schools to bo placed in the outer sections of his city, in the suburbs really, obtained recently a return of high schools from fifteen cities in the States. Eighty-six high schools forwarded returns, 75 per cent, of which were co-educational. After pointing out the necessity for these "territorial" schools in the interests of pupils living at some distance from the old-established high schools in the centre of the city, he raises the question of the uniting or separating of the sexes in the proposed new high schools, which ho views from another standpoint to that usually taken : — " Shall we put up two distinct buildings with two distinct principals and faculties, thus doubling; the expense ; or shall we erect one building in which the boys and girls shall be educated together, with one principal and faculty for such a school?" After discussing a plan for organising the new high schools on the separate system, he proceeds to say : — " If the board should decide to adopt the principle of co-education in these new high schools, the probleni is greatly simplified, and the expense largely reduced. Then I would recommend three distinct courses of study in each school — a general course for boys and girls, a commercial course for girls, and a manual course for boys. All three classes of pupils could recite in similar branches for about three hours a day, while during the remaining two hours the girls of the commercial course could take typewriting and stenography, and the boys of the manual course could take the shop work, while the girls and boys taking the general course could go on with its distinctive branches. . . . I do not hesitate to recommend that these new high schools should be open to both boys and girls. The system is a natural one, and when properly conducted is found to be conducive to bettor discipline and a higher standard of moral thought and feeling. While I believe it is in accordance with a true theory of education, I advocate it in respect to our new high schools on the ground of economy and convenience." Philadelphia. — Dr. Macalister, late Superintendent of Schools, now Principal of Drexel Institute, writing in 1890, said, — " My own conviction is that boya and girls can be taught to better advantage in every way together." His opinions under the changed conditions of school work, expressed to the Commissioners in 1903, have undergone no change as regards co-education. Springfield, Massachusetts. — Superintendent Dr. Balliet, while pronouncing in favour of co-education, states his opinions plainly of the separate system: "I have observed in places in which tlie sexes were separate that such separation in school had the effect of leading to evils in other unavoidable associations in the street and on social occasions, evils which, but for this artificial separation in school, I believe would not have existed. I believe that what objections there have arisen in certain localities to co-education are due to evils which are not due so much to the effect of co-education as they are due to the fact that there are weak teachers in the school who have not the power to create either a stimulating, intellectual, or a wholesome moral atmosphere in the school. Wherever the separation of sexes appeared to bo a necessity, I have found weak teachers and poor schools in general. I believe that they are related as cause and efiect." Newhuri/port, J/'as««c/(?<«e<('s— Superintendent. — I should say that the boys have been benefited by the presence of the girls ; but that the girls have not gained by the change. I bclipve in all grades the girls have been the losers in many ways by co-education. OreatfiT' 1.5-3 P 466 Greater New York — Superintendent. — Dr. Maxwell states, from personal observation, that there is much opposition to co-education in the more densely inhabited parts of New York City, particularly where there is a large foreign element present in the schools. It was noted by the Commissioners that in Boston, in similar quarters, separate schools were used for the sexes, and the fact stated by Dr. Maxwell was attested by several of the masters whose schools were visited. Mr. Davis, Assistant Superintendent, is strongly opposed to co-education on moral grounds. He is of opinion that the teaching of the sexes together in the same class is only safe in the hands of a thoroughly tried and experienced man with a great amount of common sense, immense tact, and a close acquaintaiice with child life. He is also opposed to co-education for economic reasons. Pemale teachers of mixed classes in New York are paid extra. Atlanta — Superintendent. — It is my decided opinion that it is better that the sexes should be separate and taught entirely apart after they have reached the liigh school age. I am very sure, from both experience and observation, which extend over a period of fifty years, that we pursue the better plan. Z)enyer, Colorado — Superintendent. — I think cn-educ.ation of youth in their teens is not productive of the desired results. I object to an identical amount of time for both sexes, and to identical courses of instruction. The requirements and duties of the girl demand a training over and above that demanded for a boy. The boy 15 years old can well afford to put in six hours a day in study and class work ; his sister, 15 years old, has duties of which ho knows nothing, but which are important, and which demand time for execution. Boston School Document No. 19, 18C0. Extracts from Majority and Minority Eeports on Co-education of the Sexes : — Majority lieport. — If it is right for brothers and sisters to live in the same house and eat at the same table, then it is ri^ht that they should attend school together. Let them be brought up separately, and if they meet only clandestinely great harm is likely to result. If wedlock is right and proper, then co-educatinn is right and proper. If men and women are to marry, they should know each other, summer and winter, before marriage, and the more they know of each other the less likely will divorces result. The serious objection raised by physicians to co-education is based upon the delicate organic condition of girls, but by the introduction of the excellent system of physical culture made in our public school, the weak and delicate girls will become strong, and the objection will ultimately .vanish. The committee recommend — 1. That the normal school be so arranged that young men may enter, and join the young women in the same course of study. 2. That the boys in the Latin and English high schools, and the girls in the girls' Latin and high schools, be united in mixed classes as soon as practicable. 3. That the grammar schools, on separate system, be arranged for mixed classes as speedily as the necessary changes in the buildings will warrant. 4. That in the grammar school buildings, where boys and girls attend, but where the sexes are separated, the change be made by having mixed classes. 6. That all newly-erected buildings, and buildings to be erected, be arranged for the co-education of the sexes. Minority Eeport. — Large numbers of letters have been received from teachers in favour of mixed schools, chiefly on the grounds that it is easier to maintain discipline when boys and girls are together ; and, second, that the influence of the sexes is mutually salutary. The minority would reply that a good teacher has no difficulty in maintaining discipline in separate schools .... and it remains to be shown whether the supposed advantages of association in schools are not by far overbalanced by certain evils of such association. To the argument of the social value of co-education, the minority would reply that the duty of the State is to educate her, children in the public schools in the branches of common-school education, and not to provide for social intercourse between the sexes, however desirable that may be. Much could be said of the unwisdom, cousido'ing the differing aptitudes and mental attributes of boys and girls, of teaching both sexes after the same methods, even if the studies pursued are identical. Much, too, could be said of the unhealthful rivalries between boys and girls, and of the baneful stimulus to delicate girls to overwork their minds at times when they should be allowed to rest. 12. Opinions of Co-education in America hy Foreign Educationists. — Dr. E. Schlee, Eeal G-ymnasium, Altona, Prussia, says : — " A schoolman of large experience personally told the writer that co-education had a favourable effect on the general behaviour, on the bearing of the pupils towards each other, and, on the whole, discipline. Germany takes in this respect, perhaps, the right medium between France and America; but if one observes how beneficial in general is the comradeship of the children of intimate families, one might, where the nature of the studies and where outer circumstnnces, especially in smaller places, make the union desirable, consider that the American way would bo advantageous in our country also." Professor StepTian JVaetzoldt, University of Berlin, Chief Commissioner, German Educational Exhibit, Chicago : — "At the Congress of Education at Chicago, this subject was often discussed, and not one disapproving voice was heard. Americans see only the advantages of co-education, believed to refine the boys and strengthen the girls. The intercourse of boys and girls, of adults and children, is altogether different from what it is among us, and I doubt whether it has a moral advantage. Certain it is, however, that the girls on the average are more intelligent than the boys ; they go to school longer." Professor Emil HausknecJit, of Berlin, for several years Professor in the National University at Tokyo: — " As a makeshift, co-education is better than nothing. As a principle, it entirely ignores tho needs of tho separate sexes, arising from the differences in the development of boys and girls. Boys and girls, from the ages of 14 to 18, must be differently treated, both in regard to the intellectual and emotional nature. Co-education is possible, however, in America more than in Germany or elsewhere, because custom and education have given to the girl and the woman greater freedom and determination in their manners and appearance, but also give them strong protection against encroachments and improprieties. Co-education is possible in America, also, because the week has only five school days, Saturday being a holiday, and the school day has only five lessons, of which one is usually a study hour. Besides, grammar and high schools require much less severe intellectual efforts, and a much more concentrated and simple exertion of the mind than is required in our secondary schools for boys." Mile. 467 Mile. Marie Dugard, delegate to the Chicago Congresses of 1893, reporting to the Minister of Public Instruction, France, summarises the arguments on co-education from both sides of American view, and adds her own impressions, as follow : " It did not seem to me that, in the mixed schools, the hygiene, the work, and the order sufTered from the presence of the pupils of another sex, and the appearance of the classes seemed to me even better than in the separate schools But would co-education be acclimatised anywhere else? And in Prance, where it exists already in some departments of instruction, should it be extended to all ? " (Her final conclusion is that co-education is impracticable for France.) Anna Bentzen, of Norway, who visited the United States for the purpose of studying the system of co-education, says : "It is plain that the cause obtains footing more and more, instead of losing it. All school authorities, superintendents and directors, pronounced themselves unconditionally in favour of the policy, and presidents of colleges and universities expressed themselves in the same terms wherever co-education had been introduced. In vain they look for intellectual inferiority of women, even in the highest educational institutions. It must not be imagined that all schools possess a class of clean, well-situated, well-educated children, who might be sent to an exhibition ; but, although there are schools which use up all the energy of a teacher within a short period of time, destroying her good humour, and tempting her to use a cane, we find that such is most often the case in those schools where no co-education is advocated, and where now, as in some schools in Boston, they are afraid of introducing co-education because wildness and roughness seem to be their inheritance and possession. In America, young boys and girls associate in a friendly way together from their earliest childhood. They have all opportunities to become acquainted in school. I had special opportunities in the Western States to observe these natural relations, both in University cities among the students, and other young people who were following practical careers. The young girls were strikingly easy and natural in their manners. From a moral standpoint, I discovered only healthy results from the American co-education. It still remains to examine its effect in a physical aspect. I have been much impressed in American schools by the weakly, pale- looking children, with bad carriage of the body, and much nearsightedness. But I did not receive the impression that the girls looked more delicate, nor do statistics report to this effect. Both boys and girls suffer from overcrowded classes, from bad ventilation and severe di'afts, the want of playgrounds, and one-sided mental work. Finally, I will add a remark on the economical feature of co-education. When I consider the equipment of the American high schools, and then imagine these expensive buildings doubled in order to accommodate each sex separately, there arises a strong doubt in my mind. Would it be possible to furnish these schools with expensive laboratories (not with one, but with three), with excellent microscopes, well-suppled libraries ? Hardly in smaller cities, where there is at present only one high school ; however well the boys' high school might be equipped, the girls' high school would no doubt leave much for improvement." 13. Opinions of Michael E. Sadler, Esq., M.A., and Br. W. T. Harris. — In the English-speaking world of to-day, there are no greater authorities on educational questions than Mr. Sadler, of England, and Dr. Harris, of the United States, each holding in his own land the foremost position among educational thinkers, and both retaining the respect and confidence of all interested in education, foreign or otherwise, for their sound views, their straight-out opinions, their able and valuable contributions in regard to educational literature. Mr. Sadler's latest views on the subject are set out in a work entitled " Co-education," edited by Alice Woods, 190.3. Dr. Harris' views are quoted from his reports on Public Schools, St. Louis, 1872-1873, when ho was superintendent of schools in that city. An interview with this most courteous gentleman in .Tanuary last disclosed that he is still the whole-souled advocate for co-education on lines laid down over thirty years ago, and that his wider experience as Commissioner for Education, United States of America, has not changed his views of its benefits one iota. Mr. Sadler s Opinions. — "For my own part, I am impressed, but not fully convinced. The co-education of little boys and girls, if carried on under very careful supervision, and in suitable surroundings, seems beneficial beyond dispute. But the co-education of boys and girls beyond the age of 13, or thereabouts, is a different matter altogether. ... I feel that, to some extent in day-schools, and to a very much greater degree in boarding schools, the co-education of elder boys and girls is likely to prove, as a rule, less desirable in its results than a course of co-education up to, say, 12, or possibly 13, followed by some years in separate schools with rather different courses of study. . . . No one who is at all aware of the complexity of the facts involved, or sensitive to the differences in the social ideas which, consciously or unconsciously, affect people's wishes for the training of the young, would think of laying down a hard and fast line about co-education. But I, for one, believe that, in the greater number of cases, to be educated in common with boys throughout the latter part of her secondary school career would not be the best kind of training for a girl. Many of the studios most suitable or necessary for boys of 14 years and upwards would be a good deal out of gear with her future practical needs, at any rate if she is to be a home-maker, and still more so if she is to be the mother of children. Again, at the age in question, a girl ought not, as a rule, to work at the same pace as a boy We shall all agree at any rate,' that throughout boyhood and girlhood it is right and good for boys and girls to be . much in one another's society in a friendly, unconstrained kind of way, and to have many interests and pursuits in common." Dr. Harris' views. — " My observations have led me to endorse the statement of Richter — " To insure modesty I would advise the education of the sexes together ; for two boys will preserve twelve girls, or two girls twelve boys, innocent, amidst winks, jokes, and improprieties, merely by that instinctive sense which is the forerunner of natural modesty. But I will guarantee nothing in a school where girls are alone together, and still less when boys are." 1 had noticed that the atmosphere of mixed schools was desexualised, where that of separate schools seemed to have a tendency to develop sexual tension. Again, whatever tendency toward indecency might manifest itself was far more easily checked in mixed schools by reason of the cross-fire of watchfulness which made intrigue far more difficult to keep secret. . . . The fact that the chief association between the sexes in mixed schools takes place under the eye of the teacher and in recitation, wherein tho contest is purely intellectual, and whore the manifestation of mere femininity — softness and sentimentalism — would cause the pupil to lose rank as a scholar, and where mere masculinity — 468 inasculiuity — roughness and wilfulness — would make an unattractive spectacle, leads one to expect that the tendency of co-education is to elevate the standard of admiration from mere external charms of person to the spiritual graces and gifts which lie deep in the character." Dr. Harris claims for co-education as existing in the city of St. Louis that — " (1) Economy has been secured through the circumstance that the co-education of the sexes makes it possible to have better classification and at the same time larger classes. (2) Discipline has improved continually with the adoption of mixed schools. (3) Instruction is also greatly improved. (4) Intellectual development is far more sound and healthy." 14. Conclusions. — In the public schools of the rural districts of New South Wales, and in all public schools excepting those of the first and second class, which are always located either in the metropolis and its suburbs or in the large towns, co-education prevails. The first and second class schools have three depart- ments—boys, girls, and infants. In the infant department the classes are mixed. The system of mixed classes in New South Wales has given rise to no serious discussion on the part of parents or others, and it may be said that existing arrangements regarding the teaching of the sexes together are satisfactory. (It is within the knowledge of the Commissioners that some parents living in a thriving metropolitan suburb, in which the local public school has much improved in numbers, but is not yet converted into three departments, are sending their boys and girls to a public school in an adjoining suburb where the sexes are taught separately. But there are no grounds ior believing that this practice is at all general, or that the local school will suffer from reduced numbers to any great extent.) The trend of public opinion in English-speaking countries is in favor of co-education ; on the Continent it is against co-education. As far as it exists in the higher education in this State, co-educa- tion has been found satisfactory. The Commissioners favour the system of co-education of the sexes, but not to the extent of interfering with_ existing arrangements. They give a general endorsement to the views of Dr. Edward Brooks, Philadelphia (already quoted), and are of opinion that some of his recommendations are worthy of consideration in developing the scheme of higher education. CHAPTER LIV. 469 CHAPTER LTV. The Co-ordination of Education. [G. H. KNIEB3.] 1. Introduction. — The moment a system of education in a country aims at being iliorougli, just so soon does the question of co-ordination of its different grades rise into prominence. Consequently, in all countries that may be said to have educational systems, the scheme of co-ordination is fairly well defined. In this State, however, there is as yet, no complete co-ordination. In the schools of the Department of Public Instruction, entrance to a High School is determined by its own entrance examination, or by the attainment recorded in the lower school. And similarly the University holds entrance examinations to determine, not whether students shall be allowed to attend its various lecture-courses, etc., but whether they may be considered as regular students, entitled on passing the yearly examinations, etc., to the degree of the course. The injuriousness of the system of entrance examinations will be dealt with hereinafter. The marking off of the stages of education at certain years, may be perhaps somewhat arbitrary ; nevertheless, fairly well-defined periods in educational life are so determined. To these one may now refer. 2. The stages of education. — The following outline will illustrate in what manner the various grades of education may be said to naturally divide off. The figures denote ages in years, and the course indicated is the direct path to University education. 12 13 U 15 16 17 18 18i School Life. Kindergartou. Transition. Elementary. Primary. Higher Primary. Secondary. Higher Stjcondary. Super or. -6 6-7 7—10 10-12 12—14 14—16 16—18 18— The real significance of such division can be adequately illustrated only by reference to the schemes of countries that have definitely co-ordinated systems. That of the Canton of Zurich, Switzer- land, may be taken as a first example. In this the thick lines represent free education ; figures, the age in years ; Eoman figures, the class. Throughout, M. P. will denote " male" and " female," not only in this section, but throughout the chapter. ZURICH EDUCATIONAL SCHEME. SpectcU Edxuation Public Education. Private Education, (Uebungsschule der Seminarklassen. ) Practising School at Training Colleges. (Schwachsinnige Kinder u.s.w.) Schools for Defectives, etc. fPrimarschuIe) Primary School. (6-14.) I II I III g s IV r^ ■J II t3 (Primarschule) Higher Primary ^_ School. I II I II III IV V VI VII L VIII II 2" III ~l S.2 IV o g ^ -Sti ' 1 ! T7-: Kindergarten optional. (Elementarschule) Elementary School. II _• III i a IV i •4^ I III c .2 3 0) to M 1^1 s E a o H O 6 5 6 7 8 -9 J 10 T J . [ (Realschule) I Primary School. .12 J 13 ^ I -14- j- -15 J 16 17 18 18i Private Kinder- gartens, etc, X Private Primary Schools. I II (Sekundarschulc) Secondary School. Ill 1 3 J. j= s a 'u o 7", •s-s o ^ e n S! a s % '■^ -2.S .2 OS V u o a a S g 'o S: c ■5 ^ a s ^ 6 w 6 Private Secondary Schools, and Continuation Schools. fc~ S d §2" hni nee cts, |-s i"^^. .H ^3-f r^S an ^ O U " w? OH ? -.a (".a-c H .2 » § « ex a ■ " U 5 P ii c B s g o v> 2 ^1 In the above diagram the horizontal lines denote merely the scheme of connection. For example, one can leave the Gth class of the primary school and enter the first of the four classes of the lower gymnasium. It is evident also that the University can bo reached in more ways than one. Explanation is unnecessary. The above will give some idea of the Zurich system. In section ^ of chapter V, the co-ordination of the Geneva system was outlined. 3. 470 3. Further outlines of the co-ordination in some educational systems. — The following examples, taken at random, will give some idea of the scheme of co-ordination of education in several countries. In the Canton of Berne, Switzerland, the division is pretty much as follows : — Kindergarten. M.F. Obligatory Primary 6-15 6-10 7 Lower Primary. 8 9 10 j-^ 11 II, 12 Cantonal Secondary 13 school M.F. 10-15 U Progymnasium 10-14 14, 15 15 r .14 I Artisans Commerce Industry Continuation Commercial Seminary for Commerce Science 14-18 14-18i Classics 14-18i 15-16 or 17 16-1 '-17 School 15-18 Teachers 15-18 L 18 18—1 J- IS The system at Basel City is hereunder : — Kindergarten 18- Commerce -18 ISi— 18J_I Polytochnicura University 6-10 10-14 Elementary School, M.F. ^Secondary School 10-15 ^Lowe Solioc 1 ^Communal Schools Middle Schools M.F. Pro-(lyninasium 10-14 M. or F. r Science 1 (Real) 0-14 ^Lower Division Higher School for Girls F. 10-14 14 14_ ,15 lation 3, etc. Univei 14 Contini School ^Gymnasium 14-18 M. or F. 18 Polyte ■sity, etc. Hig Kea 14- .174 chnic ler 1 School 174 um, etc. ■^Commercial School 14-17 17 17 ■ • Higher Division F. 14-17 Knglish, Italian, Special branches of Commerce. The system of Sweden for lower education is as follows :- -10 10-13 Elementary School ^Folkschool <" Real " School 10-14 ^Classic School 10-14 Secondary Education. It may bo noted that if Latin and Greek arc taken, instruction therein commences when the pupils nre about 12| years of age. The system of Norway is — 7-10 Folk school 10-14 Kxamn. — — Elementary Technical Schools. Continuation Schools, etc. 14-17 or 18. Preparatory School. Middle Schools^ 10-12 12-16 Examn. 16-19 -"■19 Arbiturienten £!xani«ii, Higher Technical School. 16-20 -20 Secondary 16 Education. 17 Modern. -19 "1 Ancient Languages and History. 17-1-19 Scientific. 1-19 19 1 19 "1 19 English 471 English and Latin are commenced at about 13 years of age; and at 16,9-10 hours a week are given to Latin, and to Grreeli 6-7. What has been indicated is sufficient to illustrate how educational progress is made along certain definite paths according to the ultimate career intended to be followed. These examples are, of course, to be taken merely as illustrative. The essential features of a co-ordinated system, and its true significance, will be fully discussed in the light of the experience of other countries. First of all, it may be pointed out what thorough co-ordination demands in the way of initial conditions. 4. Requisites of co-ordination. — Co-ordination in education involves the prescription of — (a) Definite curricula, not necessarily identical at each grade, but pffieially and legally recognised as implyiug specified standards of qualification. (b) Defloite standards of professional qualification for teachers for each grade of teaching, so as to ensure teaching efficiency, and as a guarantee of their certification of the standard of education attained by pupils. (c) Examinations of pupils at definite stages of education to prove qualification up to the given stage; such examination being conducted by the teachers themselves. (d) Eecognition of a scheme of equal values among the elements of the several curricula, with a view to securing the greatest freedom, consistent with thouroughness of education, in passing from any one line of development to any other. I'hese will hereinafter be referred to seriatim. Before passing to their consideration, however, it is necessary to point out that thoroughness of system is essential in any scheme of co-ordination. All schools of a given type must afford a reasonable guarantee that the class of education given therein is of the same general standard, so that a pupil possessing their certificates of competency, may be accepted as having proved his educational qualifications up to a particular grade. That the present regime does not lend itself very readily to satisfactory co-ordination, does not touch the question of its final desirableness or practicability. The subject is important as shewing the drift that the organisation of education must take in order to be radically improved. The defects of unco-ordinated education may now be referred to. These are chiefly of two kinds, viz. : — (i) Uncertainty as regards preparatory education for particular careers, occupations, etc. (ii) Injurious influence of the system of entrance examinations. Both these evils can be avoided by securing proper qualification on the part of teachers, and making the curricula definite. 5. Deiinite curriculum. — Given thoroughly qualified teaching, a definite curriculum is the only essential guarantee that education shall cover a certain range that may be accepted as a minimum in regard to proper preparation for practical life or the higher education. Throughout the kindergarten period, the transition from kindergarten to the elementary school, and the period of the elementary school itself, or say the educational period up to 10 years of age, it is desirable that the system should be abso- lutely uniform— that is to say, the programme should be identical throughout all schools embraced in the co-ordination. While it is impossible to treat children of 10 as if they were called upon to decide as to their subsequent career, differences in intellectual tendency, taste, and aptitude often commence to exhibit them- selves between the years 10-13 ; hence, if languages are to be learnt, there seems to be no strong reason why some alternatives should not be then allowed, so that from 10-12 there mirrht be two courses permitted — as, for example, decision to learn ancient or modern languages or both: this to apply in all the better classes of schools (town-schools). There is great advantage, however, in unity of plan; and as the State has made 14 years the limit of the age of compulsory attendance, the periods might well be divided into — Primary Higher Primary. Secondary. Higher Secondary. 10-12. 12-14. 14-16. 16-18. Then languages (beyond the mother tongue) could commence, say, at 12 years of age, a little etymology etc., of course being taken earlier, with a view to the better understanding of the mother tongue. Under the latter arrangement there would be either absolute, or at least substantial, identity of education up to 12 years of age, and differentiation only from 12-14, in the primary system of public instruction. This would give a sufficient common basis. The various curricula to cover the years from 12 to 18 need only to be made definite, and an exact scheme, for passing (with a minimum loss of time) from any one course to any other, outlined, in order to make co-ordination thorough. 6. Definite qualification for teachers. — Identity of curricula, however, has very little significance unless the teaching is qualified. Where untrained and indifferently educated teachers are employed, all is uncertain, for their best teaching is necessarily poor ; but with the abandonment of pupil-teachers, and the substitution of properly educated and properly trained teachers, the whole aspect of education is changed. Although the teachers themselves will always exhibit differences iii natural aptitude for teaching, that matters little as regards unity of curriculum as long as they have been thoroughly educated and trained to teach. That they will have a great variety of material in the way of pupils to deal with, is far more likely to introduce difficulty in maintaining uniformity, since the general curriculum will have to be somewhat modified to meet the varying circumstances of those to whom it is to be applied. These things, however, can, with complete confidence be left in the hands of trained teachers, though not with the untrained (or pupil) teacher, for in the latter case there is no proper ground of confidence, but rather for its absence. A properly-qualified {i.e., educated and trained) teacher can, moreover, correctly judge of the standard reached by his pupils, and can be trusted as regards his estimate of their progress, provided, of course, that his official treatment is made independent of the pupil's success. No other person has the same opportunity of forming a correct judgment. 7. 472 7. Examination of pupils. — There must, of course, be some kind of examination to determine the promotion of pupils. In general, this may take almost any form ; but at what may be called the critical stages of the educational career, it should be more than ordinarily thorough, so as to guarantee qualification up to the particular stage. The question is at once suggested : " Should these examinations be held by those in daily contact with the pupil, or by examiners who know nothing of them ? " Examination by the latter is sometimes assumed to ensure impartiality, and incidentally to offer some criterion of the efficiency of the teaching. It is, however, liable to very grave objections. Success in examinations held by persons unfamiliar with the pupils is largely secured by — (a) Intense preparation within a limited field (" cramming "); (h) Careful estimation of probable subject-matter of examination (correct judgment as to the examiners' idiosyncrasies). To meet the actual conditions of very many examination?, it is customary to aim at developing great — (c) Eapidity of working. It is well known that those who professionally prepare for examinations (" coaches ") study these matters systematically. It may be at once said that wherever examinations lead to " cramming," instead of thorough work, they are injurious. Children and adults, by natural endowment, have very different rates of working, and the main thing to he aimed at, especially in the initial stages of education, is thoroughness rather than mere rapidity. If the fundamental work in the educational career be well done, there need be no fear as to subsequent developments, and while rapidity should to some extent be cultivated, it is not a requisite of high importance. Examinations conducted as throughout Europe by the teachers themselves, not by Inspectors or by outside authorities, have the advantage of being able to take all the facts fully into account ; and when there is no doubt as to the quality of the training in teaching, there is no valid reason for introducing outside examiners, less able, in the very nature of the case, to reach an accurate judgment. AVhcn, however, untrained and indifferently educated teachers are employed, all examination is rendered somewhat uncertain, whether conducted by the teachers or by outside authorities. That the persons best qualified to judge of pupils under examination are the masters or professors who are in daily contact with them, when at least the latter are properly qualified to teach,i% obvious from the fact that they can best discriminate between mere memorising and intelligent following of the courses of instruction. They, too, can best make allowances for any temporary disturbance of normal conditions. " Cramming " is so serious an evil in the incidents of modern English education that a word or two may be allowed in respect thereof. For illustration, let the Public Examinations held under the auspices of the University be considered. Since the reputation of any school is greatly affected by the percentage of passes it secures on the number it sends up, there is the strongest temptation to do several things, viz. : — (i) To devote too much of the teaching energy to the preparation of the candidates (involving neglect of the other pupils in the school), (ii) To sacrifice general thoroughness of education to special excellence in the subjects undertaken for examination (that is, to concentrate effort in a limited field), (iii) To sacrifice the physical and mental well-being of the pupil to attain to this supposed excellence, (iv) To exhibit to the learner the fact that in the official view "cramming " is more profitable than thoroughness (which is morally injurious). The result, where education is required to be thorough, is on a totally different platform. Here the teacher himself must be examiner. The pupil can then devote special attention to his weak subjects, instead of neglecting them for those in which he has natural aptitude, perfectly assured that his aim at normally developing his education will be rightly appreciated and estimated. Under this latter system, instead of being tempted to abandon the study of those subjects wherein he is weak, he is, on the contrary, moved rather to make them good, especially when he is assured that they are essential to his proper educational development. It is obvious that, with sufficient guarantee of the qualification of a teaching staff, the method of certificating by the school is better than passing examinations held by outside authorities ; thus it may be said the passing of an " Arbiturienten Examen " at the close of a career in a Gymnasium, as a certification of sufficient education to profitably attend a University, is preferable to an Entrance Examination held by a University to determine Matriculation. And at this thoroughness of educational method an educational system must aim if it intends to be properly co-ordinated. This practically expresses the continental view. 8. Equal values among various curricula. — This is a question that must be fully discussed in connection with secondary and higher education. Here it will be sufficient to point out that so long as thorough preparation is assured, it is really immaterial on what particular paths the preparatory steps are taken ; hence, among the curricula of various higher schools, there should be recognised not only an equality of academic dignity among them, but certain courses might also be reciprocally substituted. All possible liberality of initial preparation is desirable. Thus a definite course of mathematics in a continuatioit school may be regarded as the equivalent of one in a secondary school, and similarly with other subjects. 9. Uncertainty in the absence of co-ordination. — Throughout the world there is a marked tendency to demand that for certain careers and occupations there shall be a definite educational preparation ; thus, for employment in commercial houses, the passing of a special examination is becoming necessary even in New South Wales. And the movement will extend here as elsewhere, for general progress is demanding special, in addition to general education. Bearing in mind that the proper authority to examine, in any fully developed educational system, is within the school organisation itself, and not some outside body, and that the outside examination can never assume the same degree of thoroughness, it is evident that the proof of proper educational preparation can only be complete in a fully co-ordinated system of education, where certification at a particular stage is a guarantee of competency either to proceed to a particular career or to proceed in a regular way to higher education. 10. 473 10. Co-ordination to end of Higlter Primary Education. — In the earliest stages of general education, the pure kindergarten type is probably the only healthy type of fchool activity ; and whatever changes may come about through criticism of its details (gifts, occupations, etc.), one may assume its principle to be permanent. The only special education up to the end of the kindergarten age (C years, say) will be private, for defectives. From 6-7 should be a transition period, during which the child, accustomed only to the free discipline of the kindergarten, may bo prepared for the severer and steadier work of the primary school. The free organisation of the kindergarten cannot, of course, be maintained in the primary school, and the year of transition is necessary for the chddren to accustom themselves (without coercion) to the now and less free organisation. During this year, and the first year (7-8) in the primary school, children who are backward can be under observation, so that they may be chissed either as mentaUy weak, or as mentally normal but slow, in the former case being drafted off into special schools for defectives, in the latter kept under the stimulus of the ordinary school. The period 7-10 may be called ilemenlnry, from 10-12 primary, from 12-14 higher primary, the point at which obligatory education ceases in New South Wales. This may be represented as follows: — Commencement of compulsory education by Law of New South Wales Special Schools for Defectives and for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind. Other forms of Primary Education, Private (classic, etc.) 11 14 Other forms of higher Primary Kducatiou (Private, etc.) 13 _End of obligation for deaf, dumb, and blind. -6 Optional Kindergarten. I 6-7 Transition period (compuliory). III III VEIomcntary Education (compulsory) IV A I Primary Education (compulsory) — > Commence Simple Physics, VI I Chemistry, etc. VII 1 Higher Primary (compulsory) — VIIT I (Languages commence). U U End of obligation in all schools except schools for Defectives. 16 _End of obligation in schools for Defectives. lu Hciioois lor i>reieci;ives. The above may be called the normal development for town schools, and in country schools the grade of corresponding classes could be determined in special ways. 11. Co-ordination in advanced stages of Education. — Tn the stages of education following on the primary school, the classes of school may be divided into those that are — (a) Supplementary (Special and Technical education, etc ). (6) Secondary (Advanced general education). (c) Superior (Higher technical, professional, and general education). The distinction, however, has to bo drawn as to which lead on to other forms of education ; for in organising education certain curricula, as previously mentioned, ought to be regarded not only as complete in themselves, but also as preparatory to higher forms of education. This is the essential principle of organisation. To understand [t in practice, an illustration may be taken from the system of some other countries. Some of the cantous of Switzerland have excellently developed their educational systems in this respect, and one of their schemes will serve to make the point clear. Schools that supplement the education received in the primary school without necessarily leading to still greater forms of education, are known in Switzerland as complementary sctiools. ( Ecide complementaire, Ergiinzungsschule.) They may be of several kinds, as, for example, schools for — (i) Professional education, industrial, commercial, agricultural, etc. (ii) Greneral culture, with professional tendency, (iii) Geacral culture, without professional tendency. All countries have some form of such schools. In many of the cantons of Switzerland they are free and obligatory, the attendance being from l.S-1.5, 14-1(5, 15-18, 16-19, etc. Such schools are not designed to lead to higher forms of education, but to equip for practical life either by better general, or by special education. The Fortbildungsschule (continuation school) of Germany has the same object. 15—3 Q Schools 474 Schools that aim at preparing for still higher education, or for technical or professional education, may all he classed as secondary schools, and may be divided practically into three kinds, viz. — (1) Schools taking account mainly of modern development, (eg., science, modern languages, and modern commercial and industrial development). (■ ■" (2) Schools takinjf one dead language (Latin), generally only one modern language, and science, etc. (3) Schools in which stress is laid on Greek, Latin, and literature proper. Any of these may have special tendency, or be entirely devoted to education from its general point of view. The following diagram will give some idea of the organisation of supplementary, and secondary schools. The dotted lines in the diagram imply some degree of inter-relation, whieh naturally is less marked in the later stages, this being characteristic of the whole course of education : — 10 Private and Preparatory Schools. 12 Science. I Mixed. ^1 Classic. 14 I (French and German.) I (Latin, and French or German.) (Latin and G reels. Unskilled AVorkmen and Workwomen. Continuation or Supplementary Schools. (Lower Agricultural, Lower Commercial, Lower Professional, Trade and Industrial courses). I Skilled tradesmen, Lower grades of professional callings, etc. 16 Secondary Education. Higher Secondary Education. 18 — Superior Higher Agricultural, Commercial, Professional, Scientific, and General Education. Education. Medicine, Law, Pharmacy, Dentistry, Scientific and General Education. General Education, Theology, etc. Higher grades of professional callings. Among the various courses indicated under the heading " Superior Education" there must necessarily be some having much in common. A satisfactory co-ordination scheme will; make this clear. In the sphere of secondary education also there is a certain amount of possibility of passing from one line on to another. The exact way of doing this may bo defined in an educational organisation. To achieve this without holding special examinations is much to bo desired, in order that education may aim solely at thoroughness, and that mere solicitude to pass examinations may become an incident of the past. 12. Conclasions- co-ordination : — -The following conclusions are suggested by a review of the subject of educational (1) The ultimate possibility of replacing special examinations held by outside authorities by examinations held by the schools ihcmselves should be ke])t in view in every future attempt 1o more thoroughly co-ordinate our educational system, since the present method is not the best in the interest of educational thoroughness. (2) A definite programme of educational possibilities under existing institutions should be officially outlined from time to time, shewing clearly the scheme of qualification for particular callings. •-3S i GlIATTER LV. 475 CHAPTER LV. State's Relation to Education, Unification, Subsidy, etc, [a. H. KNIBBS ] 1. Introductory . — Since the Education of the People is the State's true concern, every educa- tional instutioa should be, if not under its cegis, at least embraced in its care for the public well-being. The State has, undoubtedl}', the deepest interest in such an organisation of education and liberal unification of educational methods as shall assist in creating a self-reliant, mentally and practically able, and moral community ; for, as said by an eminent Hungarian, " the strength of a people depends upon the number of wise heads in it." A sketch is consequently given shewing the present state of the org'anisation of education in New South Wales, and matters cognate therewith are also considered. 2. Organisation of Education in General. — In so far as the State is concerned, the organisation of education is of two kinds :— (V) Private C") Public \ <^'^ ^"^ directly controlled by State. ^ ' •V--' I (-ji^ Directly controlled by State. The former (i) has many incontestable advantages, and the right to educate children privately, i.e., in the Itome should be here, as it is everywhere else, respected, so long as the education given is adequate for the proper discharge of individual duty to the State, and satisfies reasonable requirements.. The division of the latter (2), into scliools, contrtilled or not controlled by the State, is hardly fundamental. Another subdivision may, therefore, be indicated, viz. : — , (a) Schools organised under a definitive scheme, i.e., having a definite plan of organisation and administration, viz. : — (i) Gener.il denominational schools and colleges of all kinds, (ii) Municipal schools and colleges, (iii) Slate Schools and colleges of various grades, (iv) Universities and their affiliated colleger. (i) Schools of independent organisation, that is, not administered as units in a general administrative scheme, viz. :— (i) Autonomous denominational schools and colleges, (ii) Autonomous private s-jhools. 3. Organisalion of Education in New South Wales. — In the State of New South Wales there are all types of educational organisations except (a) ii, viz. Municipal Schools and Colleges. " Communal^" "Municipal," or " City " schools are, however, a feature in the educational machinery of many countries throughout the world, their cities and towns including some of the most magnificently equipped nstitntions. They are likely to arise in any country where the interest in education is great. In this connection it may be mentioned that in places where there is rivalry between State and Municipal provisions for education, the Municipal or Cityi Schools are, with very few exceptions, very much superior.to the Stale schools, both, in respect of buildings and internal equipments, at least in the larger cities and towns. On the other hand, in the smaller towns, and in the villages the State school is usual!}-, but not always, somewhat better than the Municipal school. 4. Effect ofPuhlic Opinion on the Organisalion of Education. — It vfas observed by the Commissioners ■ during their tour that a strong public opinion on the importance of education was invariably followed by : — (a) A thorough discussion of the educational problem. (6) The erection of well-equipped schools and other educational institutions. In some places, the public opinion on these matters is so strong as to be properly described only 'by the word entlmsiasm. Throughout Europe and America, one caunot help recognising, both how wide- spread and how intense it is; and it ought also to be said that a similar feeling seems to be growing in ■England, and in other parts of the United Kingdom. There is, certaini)-, distinct evidence of an awakening to its importance. , t,\\ This enthusiasm, as above indicated, seems very often to express itself in a practical form, viz., by promptinii various corporations to erect schools, that as buildings will be monuments worthy of .thoir cities, and at the same time institutions exemplifying the most modern ideas concerning educational equipment. So firmly convinced are people in such places, that expenditure on education brings' an inevitable return, that very often apparently nothing necessary to make the material organisation as perfectai possible, is spared. Between one city and another, natural rivalry seems to delight in expending itseli on making their educational institutions excellent, a fortunate circumstance for the rising generations of those places. • • i 5. Absence of General Educational Organisation in Neto South Wales : — Although as stated, all the types of schools mentioned in (a) and (i) with a single exception, exist in our State, there is no real liomogeneity of organis.ation ; nor is there any definite or oven general Slate control, ensuring some kind of recognit-ed relaiion between the various curricula. Consequently in the passage of a pupil from one school to another there is no definite scheme of mutual recognition. For example, the correspondence of relation of a particular " form " or " class " in two schools is quite indefinite. As between the different State-fchools themselves there is of course less uncertaintv about the matter. On 476 On account of the absfnce of organisation, the entrance to superior or university education has to be under conditions fixed by the University itself, and rietermined by the University entrance-examinations. The advanlages and disadvantages of this will not bo here diseusfed. It will suflice to say, that at present there is no other course, which any responsible person, acquainted with the facts, could recommend. G. State and Private SelwoJs. — Some idea of the numerical importance of the "State" and "Private" schools may be had from the following educational statistics, compiled from the Statistical llegister of 1001, published by the Government Statistician : — SCHOOL STATISTICS. Denomination. No. of Schools. Enrolment and Average Attendance. M. M.F. Total. M. Totala. Roman Catholic Church of England.... Other Denominations Undenominational . . . . Totals.. State Schools ., 3S 11 3 35 87 2 23 5 1 31 65 36 5 421 341 52 9 487 737 2,814 889 2.818 18,731 14,817 1,868 1,431 665 603 5,344 4,301 22,755 18,160 2,098 1,585 619 544 8,202 6,693 41,486 32,977 3,966 3,019 1,284 1,147 13,546 10,994 2fi,608 21,155 126,768 81,988 f 33.674 \ 26,982 f 115,022 I 72,416 S 60,282 / 48,1.37 / 241,790 \ 154,404 M. denotes male; F. female; M.F. mixed. All State Schools except the High Schools are classed as mixed, though the instruction of the sexes is separate. The upper figures denote enrolment, the lower average attendance. The following shews the rate of progression of the tfl-o classes of schools for the last decade :- Average Attendance in Thocsasds. Year 1892. ; 1893. 18S4. 1895. 1890. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 35-9 35 156-4 4-47 i 40-0 il74-2 4-35 40-8 182-8 4-48 43 1 187-4 4 35 44-9 191-8 4-27 45-4 186-2 4 08 47-6 190-4 4-13 47-8 •201-9 4-22 481 167 4-65 201-9 Ratio (State to Private Schools) 4-20 It will be seen that the average attendance of the private schools is increasing at a more rapid rate than that of the "Public" or State schools. SCHOOL STATISTICS. Total Numbbk of Private and Pitblic Scuool.s. Year 1892. 1893. 1891. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1893. 1899. 1900. 1901. Private 719 2,502 3-48 782 2,520 3-22 863 2,508 2-90 884 2,.'56:i 2-90 893 2,.574 2-87 918 2,.577 2-72 956 2,602 2-72 1,053 2,693 2-56 912 2,745 3-01 889 State 2,818 Ratio 3-17 Since 18S9 it will bo noticed there is a diminution of private but a steady increase of public schools. These figures are sufficient to shew the preponderance of State schools over private. The State, however, has a very real interest in the well-being of all of them, and it should be its policy to ultimately bring about, without friction, thorough cordiality or relation ; and to promote in this way, a real homogeneity of the educational machinery of the territory. To do so is really of great importance; but it is an undertaking which must be wisely handled, and followed as a consistent policy for many years, in a generous and liberal way. In this connection it should be remembered that manv of the Private Schools exist because, rightly or urovgly, some people believe the State system to be defective in several regards. The adverse view, of those opposed to it, may be summed up practically under three heads, viz. : — (a) That the promiscuous association of all classes of children, without distinction or safeguards, is unwise, (i) That the system is uncertain or variable in its teaching efliciency. (c) That it is deficient in moral, or in religious influence, or in both. It is not here implied either that there is, or is not, any valid reason for such contention. 7. Different Classeg of Schools. — First of all in regard to the first reason, viz., (a) in the preceding section ; it may be said that in all large towns of the State, there is reason to believe that there are large numbers of people who are deterred from sending their children to ordinary " public schools," and these would readily pay a fair fee for special privileges, a? foy ^sample, a rpore finely equipped or more select school, etc. It 477 It may be said that tlie logiciil consequence of compulsory educatioa is, of course, that it should be free; and in some of the Swiss cantons, and in some of the States of America, there ii absolutely free education, even the school-material and text-bonks beinp; supplied gratis. So also there are even free Universities. And in them there are no disliuctions whatever. And if this community become truly democratic in spirit, and more uniformly developed as regards its conception of ])crsonal hygiene, then much of the reason for separation between t!ie various classes of the community would vanish. In considering the proposal to abolish school-fees, so as to do away with the necessity for inquiry into the poverty of pupils, it is well to bear in mind that there is apparently no cogent reason wh}' people who desire for their children the j)rivilege of attending a select school, should not be allowed to do so when they nre ready to pay for it. That, of course, they do now, but they are compelled to send their children to private schools. These questions must be dealt with in the light of existintr facts, and are subject to our instincts and traditions as a British people. That all the citizens "f the State s'lnitld have reasonable opportunity of being educate'! under the one si/sten>, is obvious ; especially when, behind the perfecting of that system, both ill the teaching staff and material equipment, lic-< the whole power of the public purse. And if, without violating any important principle of public policy, the needs and wishes of all classes of the community can be equitably met, those needs oui;ht to be satisfied by our administrative scheme. There i-> no disguising the fact that, a])art from the difficulty arising out of the promiscuity of association between differently circumstanced children in the community, general conceptions of personal hygiene differ somewhat widely, so much so, indeed, as to demand attention ; and whether wisely or not many people seem to |)refer a private school of indifferent organisation, to a " public school." In impartially reviewing the matter, it is impossible to be ohlivious of the fact that there is soirfe ground fur this hesitation, and it ought also to be notics-d that hesitancy to use a public school always involves the purse of the objector — a sufficient testimony as to the seriousness of his objection. Further, it ought to be said that it behoves all persons ta be extremely careful about the associations formed by their children ; and self-res2}'-ctinrf people of the poorest cla-^sea feel this, quite av acuteli/ as do any others. The only persons w ho do not feel it are those whose traditions are indifftirent, or who are more or less negligent in regard to the highest welfare of their children. In view of the fact that at the present time the schools of the State are not absolutely free, and that there is always a possibility of the logical consequence of compulsory, i.e., free education being realised, it may be said that a change of the regime would be a fitting occasion to consider the wisdom of establishing two classes of schools, \\i. ,free schools, and schools in which a jee is charged. The consideration of (6) viz., the question of efficiency in teaching, and of (<;) viz., the religious and moral influence in schools, may be postponed, as they will be discussed along with other cognate matters. 8. The Nationalisation of Education. — Just in proportion as the importance of nationalisation of an educational scheme is realised, so will it be seen that it is desirable to outline a policy that shall aim at finally including all educational institutions, not in a narrow but in a liberal control; a control such as will lead to homoseneilv in regard to the plan of instruction, and the thoroughness of teaching, and yet which will admit of a sufficient degree of independence to promote real individuality and true development. The first step will of course bo to put the Slate ygstem in order, and then to work for the more remote end, so as to produce a minimum of disturbance ; and so as to disclose the fact that homogeneity is consistent with individual development and with a reasonahle degree of freedom. This aspect of the question needs to be under review during the reading of the next few sections of this chapter. What has been suggested, involves immediately, a consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of having different classes of schools, and of the means of harmonising all schools with the State scheme, as the most systematic development. n. Adcanlaqes and Disadvantages of different Classes of Schools. — There appears to be only two ways in which a distinction can be made in actually establishing schools of different classes under our State svstem. First of all, it may be said that for Primary schools two classes are sufficient. In determining the condition of pupilage in the two classes, the following courses are iiossiblo • — (a) Both schools may be free' ; promotion into the better being determined by merit (intelligence and good conduct:). (b) One school may be free' ; pupilage in the other being dependent upon the payment of a suitable fee. Both methods of dealing with the difllculty have their advantages and disadvantages. The most obvious are the following : — • The advantages of (a) are — (i) That the principle of democratic equality is asserted without qualifuMtion, and the abler and better children are brought into clo.ser contact, (ii) That this association of the intelligent and meritorious tends to establish an aristocracy of mind and character, the effect of mere differences of position as regards wealth being reduced to a minimum, (iii) That in this way it opposes, therefore, the tendency to the formation of a more plutocracy, with its concomitant disadvantages for the community. (iv) That this association tends to promote cordial svmpathy and friendly relations, between those individuals from all classes of the community who are by nature endowed with nobility of character and intellectual ability, (v) That such a regime tends to break down mere c'ass distinctions of an unhcalthv kind, and tends al.^o to unify the better elements of the iiuman r.ice. while leaving the inferior in no worse position thati under any other regime; or rather, be it said, in a better posiii m, because the sympathy of all classes will tend to be increased. The * Or subject to thn present small weeklv fee. 4V8 The only ohvious dlsadvan/ajes appear to he: — (i) The association of diildrea of different social circumstances, and differently circumstanced in respect of wealth, is not always pleasant for either, (ii) The matter of personal hygiene may sometimes operate adversely. This latter docs not seem to be an insuperable difTiculty, and probably could be easily overcome. The advantages of (i) are : — (i) Difficulties as to personal hygiene would in the main disappear. (ii) Those willing to pay for the education of their children, something in addition to what they pay through taxes, are enabled to avail themselves of the State system of education in its best form, (iii) In this way a larger proportion of the population will tend to inclusion under the educational system of the State, with the result of intensifying the nationalising of the State system, (iv) Such inclusion will tend to abolish the inferior class of private school, which the other system does not, and in this way also promote nationalisation of our educational system. The disadvantages of this system are : — (i) Tt tends to produce a plane of cleavage in society depending merely upon wealth. This probably can never, however, bo avoided, and is not necessarily a positive injury. (ii) It fails somewhat to cement sympathy between talented children who are differently circumstanced only in respect of wealth. This in its degree is a real disadvantage, but one that can be corrected in the higher branches of education. 10. Practical Policy, independent of the Settlement of the Si/stem of greatest advantage. — In the present condition of the social organism there is no doubt that (h) is somewhat more practicable than («), and there can be no reasonable objection to such a development, except that which depends upon a realisation of the advantages of breaking down social distinctions, depending merely upon differences of wealth. The advantage of getting rid of all inferior private schools is very great, but that cannot be said of the superior private schools. And it has to be remembered in this connection that all such, schools have been started, and are maintained, to meet a real public want, and to ruthlessly auniliilate the vested inteiests would be recognised as an unwarrantable use of the public purse. If, however, the educational policy of the State definitely covered a sufficiently long period, and was ; fully declared, the incidence of the clianu'e would be so lightened as to be of no moment, or, at the worst, it could be easily d^alt with, and those who absolutely disregarded impending changes would be themselves responsible. It may here be incidentally remarked that the fnndament.il outlines of an educational policy for the country, ought undoubtedly to look ahead for at least ten years, so as to get real unity of method and development ; and if amendments are continually made, i.e., from year to year, with a prevision always of about ten years, there will be a continual uiifelt adjustment of the community to the changing educational conditions, and the necessities of progress could be most perfectly satisfied. Two classes of free schools, with a condition demanding special ability and good character for entrance into the better-equipped, would doubtless cans? considerable emulalion, and in this way bo a stimulus to the better and more ambitious children in all classes of the community; and there is some ground for believing that sympathies would grow up between different classes, tending ultimately to bring about a healthy form oF democracy, in which mere class distinction and mere plutocracy would, at least, have but little meretricious weipht. All over the world it seems to be realised that a democracy can yield good results, only by making it possible to discover the ablest and best human units in all classes of society, and by fusing as far as possible their senarate interests, to found a real aristocracy of character and intellect that icill be in touch with all classes without distinction, and thus by its wise guidance help democracy to achieve its ideal aims. If it be deemed that we are not yet ripe for such a development, it would be wise to establish the two classes of schools on the latter basis, viz. (A) that is, that one school, viz., the better-equipped, should , charge a higher fee, or one should be free, and the other not free. Then at any time, when deemed desirable, the fees could be abolished, and the conditions of entrance be made that of conspicuous merit in respect of ability and conduct ; that is to say, it could be instantly put on the other basis without disturbance in any way of the educational machinery. In regard to the two classes of school, viz., the indicated "free public school," and the public ■ school in which fees are to be paid, it may be said that they would be similar in character, but, perhaps, not quite identical with, the folk-school and pro-gymnasium of Germany, and would represent the type of schools in some States of America, where the fystem is unified, but there are two grades of schools. The establishment of much better-equipped schools ought to tai.e place slowly, so as not to seriously injure vested interests in private schools ; and it goes without saying that the greatest possible care should be taken to inquire into all the circumstances, in this respect, surrounding the establishment of any particular school. 11. The Question of Veiled Interests in Education and of Subsidy. — The State must inevitably face the issue, that ultimately it should, in the interests of the people, definitely control their national policy of education, and while it may not ruthlessly confiscate vested interests, it will never do to disregard the .paramount interest of public welfare. By a far-sighted policy, it will be easy to achieve State control of education, without injury to private interest, but such a policy is a sine qua non. In the public interest it is desirable, in this connection, to take into consideration a future movement, having for its object the securing on the part of all persons who desire to undertake public teaching, proper qualification for such ofTice. When public opinion is thoroughly seized of the importance of education, this will be felt, as it is in many countries, to be not only natural and just, but the only tolerable scheme. Keverting to the incidence of a State system ui)on vested interests, it maybe said that there is alfio a ])ossible alleviation of the whole difficulty through a wise system of sub^-idy. But the subsidising of schools carries with it an acceptance of the principle of the State's right of control in regard to " curriculiim 479 curriculum and efficiency, and could never be considered, except under such conditions. This would mean that the scheme of qualitication of teachers would have to be thoroughly organised, so that in regard to the instructional part of the programme there would be identity with the State system.' Obviously this involves clear definition as to the efficiency of the training of teachers for subsidised schools. It may be pointed out here that this system works well in Belgium, in which country however it ought to be stated that practically the entire population is Roman Catholic. As soon as strong public enthusiasm arises in regard to the matter of education, and there is, as in many other countries, a strong desire to have finer schools, it would relieve the State of an enormous expense to allow religious bodies and municipalities to erect them, and provided the State retain adequate control over theejjjciency of the equipment, of the curriculuyn and of the teaching personnel, there would be no very strong objections to moderate subsidy, and a better condition of things would be reached than now exists, in regard to thoroughness of our educational system. The matter is so important in regard to the trend of the State relationship to private education, that it is desirable to set out the advantages and the disadvantages of the granting of subsidies. 12. Advantages of subsidising schools. — Pirst of all in regard to the advantages of subsidised schools, the most important which suggest themselves are the following : — (i) The unification of the educational system in all essential particulars. (ii) The securing of efficiency in the entire teaching-staff of the State, or at least in all better-class schools for each section and class of the community, (iii) The improvement of the material of teaching, both in respect of schools and furniture by giving full play to the emulation of private teaching bodies, and assisting them to achieve their ends, (iv) The acquisition of a larger teaching-staff and larger equipment for education in the State, at a minimum of expense to the State itself, (v) Improvements in educational method, resulting from a generous rivalry between different teaching bodies. (This indicates at once loJiy the administration must be liberal in spirit.) (vi) The creation of a wider public opinion on matters of education, and the unification of the various teaching-elements, which at present tend to separation, (vii) Greater efficiency resultiug from friendly co-operation between the different classes of the community, thus promoting general cordiality of relationship. 13. Visadvantnges of Subsidising Schools. — The disadvantages of the subsidising of schools are more fancied than real, and the principle wherever applied seems to have worked excellently. They may be detailed as follows : — ■ (i) The State has not absolute educational control. (It ought, however, to be said that it would have a great deal more than under the present system, and further that it is not possible in an English community at present, and does not seem likely to be, to vest the State with absolute educational control. It is also very doubtful whether it would be wise to do so.) (ii) Watchfulness against the abuse of the subsidy would have to be very great, until the system had been thoroughly developed. (This difficulty would tend to disappear as the educational system was unified and developed.) 14. Principle of subsidy already exists. — The practice of this State already recognises the principle of subsidising schools which have its approval, as for example in the case of the Grammar School, Hyde Park, Sydney ; and the extension of the principle hereinafter can be made not only to alleviate the great work and over-centralisation of the State system, but also to afford opportunity for securing the best men for the highest offices. The Sydney Grammar School, though receiving subsidy from the State, is not under the control of the Department of Public Instruction, but under that of trustees, and its principal is appointed under conditions determined by them. This is no public disadvantage, nor would it be in the case of a general extension of the principle of subsidy, when of course certain details are attended to, which will hereafter be referred to. 15. Conditions of State Subsidy. — The conditions of State subsidy are really very simple. The subsidy should depend upon an institution making approved arrangements as to : — (i) An efficient teaching staff. (ii) Satisfactory school buildings, furniture, and equipment. (iii) Satisfactory arrangement in regard to curriculum, and its scheme of development. (iv) And in regard to fees and financial policy. In order to make clear what is meant, let a concrete ease be taken as illustration. A town wants say a municipal school, or a religious body is willing to put up a good school. On a sufficiently guaranteed undertaking that it would employ only certified teachers ; that it would submit its plans, its buildings, its furniture, and other teaching equipment to proper official approval ; that it would follow a certain approved curriculum and general plan in its scheme of educational development ; that its fees would not exceed a certain limit ; and that in its financial policy it would limit its profit, if any, to a fixed percentage, undertaking to devote the balance to educational work ; the State could agree either : — («) To grant a yearly endowment, or (i) To grant an initial sum, or (c) To grant both initial help and yearly endowment. IG. Opposition to State control. — The strength of all opposition to the State system will probably vanish when it is more fully realised that its administration is really aiming at : — (a) A liberal interpretation of the function of the department. (6) The acquisition of knowledge of the real needs and spirit of secondary schools, (c) Jicquiring a knowledge of the needs of superior education generally, and of the spirit of University teaching and technical training, (i) Touch with all higher educational movement. (e) The maintenance of liberal culture, address, and enthusiasm in the higher spirit of education. To • The disadvantage of sectarian feeling being maintained is referred to in Chapter XV, section 4 (c). One of the freat advantages of having but one class of schools, is that the association of the children therein tends to diminish bigotry, 'or this reason it is felt by many people in France that the elementary school should be absolutely- undenominational, and that ethics of a high character should replace any special denominational teaching, 480 To bring about a B])irit of cordiality in ibe effort of all persons engaged in education, and a recognition of the common aim of all educational institutions, would bo to greatly advance the Cause of Education in the State. The State, as such, is more interested ir the Edu(al:on of ihe People, than in the schools of its Education Department merely. We must recollect that all schools which do not cxUf Jor mere money- making are properly the object of its care. (Kven in regiird to the others, they should perhaps in ten or fifteen years time be compelled to guarantee efficiency and hygiene). 17. What can he accomplished thronyh suhsidy. — It is important to bear in mind what can be accomplished through subsidy, looking out in a large way upon the whole question of State Education. Some of the details of advantage and disadvantage have already been set forth ; but it is necessary to supplement these with a still larger consideration of the question. Under sustained, generous, and able direction of the policy of the State Department of Education, keeping steadily in view the closer association of the various educational institutions, unity of effort will tend to develope, and with it that common recog;ntion of the unity of aim of all educational institutions, without which it will be very difficult to achieve our ideals. And it may also be pointed out that under an tcndeviating policy there would finally be ready acquiescence to that degree of State control, under which alone subsidies could be granted. It is to be hoped also that, in the very near i'uture, the jiublic spirit of many a municipality will provoke it to provide a better school for its town or city, than could be provided by a State Depaitment. Jt is not too much to hope that the generous rivalry in that respect among continental cities will bo repeated in ?v'ew South Wales, and lot us hope throughout Australia. State subsidies to such institutions would stimulate their development, and at the same time not exhaust the public purse to an extent which would, perhaps, cause difficulty. independent action bv each town would also constitute an important element in bringing about decentralisation, intensifying local independence and activity, and liberalisiui: by its independence the whole community. It would in this way also tend to correct the supine habit of looking to the Govern- ment for every advance, and would constitute a focus for local civic effort. It would too be a factor in habituating the citizens of New South Wales to take an interest in their educational institutions comparable to that characteristic of so many other countries. Would it not constitute also a very real help in bringing about that uprising of educational eftbrt, without which the education of our community will never be comparable to that of the great people of America, or the peoples of advanced Europe ? 18. Development of Secondary Schools thronyh Subsidy — There is a very real necessity for provid- ing a greater number of secondary schools. Wc have certainly approached the time wli<-n greater opportunities should be given to the citizens of our State to acquire a fair secondary education. At the present time nearly all the second.irv schools arc in the hands of private individual. These must neces- sarily charge somewhat large fees ; for although, greatly to their credit, it may be said that, ia many cases they are not merely institutions for profit, they are obviously more or less affected by commercial con- siderations, which their undoubted zeal in educational matters cannot completely overcome. Eeverting to a previous section, it may be again said that moderate subsidies would probably lead to the establishment of many such schools under satisfactory conditions, at an early date. On the other hand, if loft till the State undertake their erection and equipment in the ordinary «ay, long intervals will transpire before secondary education in the State is on a satisfactory basis. The whole question of subsidy needs to be reviewed in n far more tjenrrous li'/ht than in the. pat^t, and with a wider outlook upon our educational future. Should it be decided to promote some control over private education in this State a scheme could be readily outlined for securing the State against improper exploitation and against supporting inelEcieut teaching bodies. 19. Unification of all important Educational Estahlishmenis. — A liberal scheme of unifying all education is an aim toward which the State Educational policy should be directed. It cannot be brought about at once, nor is it desirable that it should, but by wise direction of that policy, the sympathy and goodwill of the important educational bodies, or institutions within the State, will be won ;,then the rest is easy. For it is evident that the time must fast approach when the impulse to unify all education in the Stale will arise, and cordial feeling and the bond of a common aim, viz., the education of the citizens of our State, will help to harmonise discordant elements. In the past some degree of antagonism has unfortunately developed between the State and other educational organisations ; any such antagonism is of course opposed to the public interest} Throughout it has to be remembered that since Education is the upbuilding of our people, and their welfare is a matter of uniform concern for the State, all educational institutions should be within the sphere of its liberal influence and care, not certainly in the way of overpowering control, but of watchful and kindly regard. In short, there should be such an attitude as will make that co-operation possible, through which alone the best results can be attained, and opportunity afforded for ail classes of the community to secure for their children the possibility of that progress for which their natural endowments have fitted them. That is the ideal relationship to which any Department of Ptiblic Instruction, rightly so called, must aspire. Such a department specialises its interest in no class ; but the Education of the People on every plane is its regard. The primary system initially commands its attention, merely because it is the basis upon which all that follows is built ; and though its regard must be more intense in rospei-t of the schools under its direct control, it is interested in all others, for they also all make for the development of the people. For this reason its administration must take accurate account of and thoroui'hly understand all planes of education, and the direction of primary education must take systematic cognisance of the final issues in technical, secondary, and higher (university) education. An administration, controlling primary education in the interest of every possible phase of the people's development, qualified to understand the higher jilanes, will be able to wisely direct the lower which lead thereto. It is this higher experience that gives that sufficient horizon, to appreciate the people's real needs ; and not only so, but its liberalising influence is indispensable in promoting that sympathy of relation between all educational organisations through which liberal unification— not coercive control — may be achieved. CHAPTER LVI. ' Much of this antagonism has doubtedly arisen because of the defective character of the education offered by the •' pubUc Bchools," and must necessarily disappear under a better system. 481 CHAPTER LVI. General Criticism of Courses of Study and Standards of Instruction of the Primary Schools of New South Wales. [J. W. TURNER.] Introduction. — It is perhaps unnecessary to say that this criticism is a candid effort to indicate the good and bad points in the administration, teaching methods and practices, and curriculum of the Public JSchool System of New South Wales, and is the result of a careful investigation of the different Primary School Systems of other countries. At the outset, it may be said that our Primary Schools and our Primary Elementary System will take a worthy position when placed side by side with the schools and systems of other countries ; and our head teachers, mistresses, and assistant teachers, are as intelligent and earnest as will be found elsewhere. There are, however, some defects in our .system, chiefly in the upper primary schools, or, as they are called, Superior Schools. In the matter of managing schools, of imparting knowledge, and disciplining classes, the teachers of New South Wales are quite as efficient as those of other countries ; but, as a class, they lack the thorough training given in the Normal Schools of France, Switzerland and Germany, and fall short of the higher ideals of teaching common in those countries. The Commissioner thinks that, with an improved training system, which should be introduced without delay, and the substitution of inspection for examination, which will allow Inspectors opportunities for suggesting good teaching methods, the educational status generally of New South Wales teachers will be raised considerably. Primary School Courses. — The schools of the State may be classified in two divisions — (a) those with one department, and (b) those with more than one department. In division (a) the infants are known as pupils of the first class ; in (b) the infants always form a separate department. The instruction given to infants in a first-class under division (a) is divided into three half-yearly courses. There seems no good reason why there should not be four half-yearly courses in the first classes of schools under division (a) as there are in the infant schools of division (b). The two Standards of Proficiency are almost identical, and the pupils in division (a) are expected to reach, in their three half- years of instruction the same standard of work as those in division (6) with four half-years of instruction. Some adjustment is necessary in these courses. A child starting school between the ages of 5 and 6, and attending regularly, is able to complete the Infant School Standard by the time he attains the age of 7 or 8. In our large Infant Schools, an advanced class, called a fifth class, is formed to prepare pupils for promotion to the second class of the Primary Departments. The pupil passes into the Primary Department about the age of 7 or 8, and, in accordance with the compulsory clauses, attends school till he reaches the age of 14. During the six years that he spends in the Primary Department he has the opportunity of passing through four classes, known as second, third, fourth and fifth. If the pupil is promoted on the annual examination he will reach the fifth class about the age of 12 or 13. Promotions may be made on the pupil's progress in a half-year, or for less periods at the discretion of the head teacher. In these cases the pupil may reach the fifth class earlier than the time mentioned. The question of age is only referred to in this connection to indicate the necessity for a different arrangement of the classes. A pupil's fitness for a class, it is well known, is not in our schools determined by his age, but by his attainments. Each class, except the third, has two half-yearly courses. The third class has four half-yearly courses. The time devoted to teaching is forty-four weeks each year, almost equally divided between the half-yearly courses. The Commissioner is of opinion that the classes of the Primary School, and consequently the standards, should be remodelled, and should be made to coincide with a six years' course, divided into half- years of work, commencing at the age of 8 and ending on the completion of the pupil's 13th year. The classes should be named according to the years in the course, and when the pupil has completed the fifth class work by the scheme suggested, he should be considered eligible for promotion to a Superior School. The Primary School course in America starts at the age of 6 and ends with the Grammar School about the age of 14. The length of the course, either 8 or 9 years, is giving rise to discussion among educationists in that country. The time spent in the Grammar School, some argue, should be shortened in the interest of intelligent, healthy pupils, and opportunities for earlier admission into the High Schools provided. Thos. M. Balliet, Esq., Superintendent, Springfield, Massachusetts, at the Conference of the National Educational Association of America, held in Boston last July, suggested a plan for saving time below the High School. Several devices he pointed out, had been proposed to accomplish this, and among those most widely adopted he mentioned the half-yearly and individual promotion systems, and the system known as the " CambridgePlan" which provides three courses below the High School — a nine years' course, an eight years' course, and a seven years' course, for pupils of various degrees of talent. Mr. Balliet's particular views on the question are as follows : — " I wish, however, to suggest what seems to me a better plan for general adoption than any of them, namely the establishment in cities of special Grammar Schools, with shortened courses, for pupils who are both gifted and healthy and are to fit for College. There ought to be in every city at least as many such 15 — 3 R Grammar 482 Grammar Schools as there are High Schools. They should not be ward schools, but be independent of ward lines. The requirements in the 'common branches,' except in English, should be reduced, and modern languages be introduced the 5th and 6th year of school, and algebra the 7th year. Such pupils could complete two years of French or German, one year of algebra, and possibly one year of Latin in these Grammar Schools, and enter the High School at the age of 1 3, and College at 1 7. " Such special schools would not bp undemocratic, because rich and poor alike would be admitted if properly qualified. Those who cannot decide the question of going to College until the end of the regular Grammar School course would be exactly as well off as they are now. It would be financially economical to establish such schools where more school facilities are needed, as each one would relieve a whole group of regular Grammar Schools which happen to be overcrowded. The plan is, therefore, financially as well as educationally practicable." Standards of Instruction. — Our Standards of Instruction, to be brought into line with the best noted in other systems, require some remodelling. Kindergarten. — Starting with the youngest classes, it will be necessary to make instruction in Kindergarten principles general in all Infant Schools and in all first classes of Primary Schools in which an assistant teacher is employed. Kindergarten exercises are in the Standard of Proficiency for Infant Schools, but the actual teaching is seen in very few schools. It is not intended that pupils in Infant Schools should spend all their time with Kindergarten gifts, games, and occupations. The modified form of teaching, as explained in the chapter on Kindergarten, is recommended. This teaching was seen in the Infant Schools at Fort-street, Riley-sti'eet, and Waverley, and what is suggested now is that the system be extended to all Infant Schools, and first classes of Primary Schools with an assistant teacher. The buildings at Riley-street are admirably constructed for Kindergarten work, with the exception of the galleries, and the teaching equipment is very superior. Galleries and fixed seats are not proper furniture in an Infant School where much space is required for games and plays in the daily programme. At the very least one large room should be sot apart for movements, and the necessary furniture should be light, inexpensive, and easily moved. An indispensable requisite of all Infant Schools for the satisfactory teaching of Kinder- garten is the garden or playground. An initial difficulty in making Kindergarten teaching more general will be found in the want of experience on the part of our infant niistresse.s to deal with the practical part of the work. Already steps have been taken by some of our lady teachers to overcome this difficulty, and, acting on the advice of their Inspectors, they are adopting the best means at present available to qualify for the work, viz.: occasionally attending one of the schools where Kindergarten principles are taught. A suggestion has come from the lady teachers in question, which, as forming a temporary scheme,is worthy of every consideration. Their suggestion is (a) that a Kindergarten class for infant mistresses, not more than thirty in nvimber, be established by the De- partment of Public Instruction in a suitable room fitted with Kindergarten appliances, (6) that the mistress of the Kindergarten at Fort-street be asked to conduct the class, and (c) that two hours a week be devoted to the theory of the subject, and one hour a week during the course — extending over six months — to practice in one of the Kindergarten schools in the city. This scheme, while serving to show the true teaching spirit of our infant mistresses, can only be regarded as a temporary arrangement for dealing with the subject, for the importance of the instruction necessitates the establishment of a thorougly equipped Kindergarten College, so that the State may have the basis of its educational system secure. At present the female students of Hurlstone Training School receive one lesson in the week on the theory of Kindergarten, but no practice in teaching it. It is recommended that, until the establishment of a Kindergarten College, one of the teaching rooms of the Practising School, Hurlstone, be set apart for Kindergarten purposes, and that more time be devoted to the training of the stuflents in the theory and practice of Kindergarten. The excellent grounds of Hurlstone provide all that is necessary for outdoor instruction in teaching the subject. Lower Classes, Primary Schools: — Manual Training. — The Manual Training given in the lower part of our Primary Schools is not sufficient. In our second and lower third classes, about the ages from 8 to 10, there is little provision for boys, outside drawing, for any training of the hand and eye. There should be a course of cardboard modelling (this form of work gets general preference) following on the simpler work of the hand-and-eye training of the Kindergarten. A few of our boys of the age mentioned above receive training in our school workshops, but many go through the classes with no manual training other than ■what is obtained from drawing. The Commissioner was much impressed with the scheme of manual instruction adopted by the Superintendents of Manual Training in the large towns of Canada, and would strongly urge the necessity for introducing more hand-and-eye training into the lower classes of our Primary Schools. Superior Schools. — Our Superior Schools, which are the Upper Primary and Higher Grade Schools .of other countries, have perhaps the greatest defects. The instruction in our upper classes for boys 12 years of age and upwards is directed altogether too much in one channel, and the best efforts of our teachers are spent in preparing lads for the public service, for clerkships in offices, and for positions as office boys. Specialisation is permitted in the case of schools where the pupils have been six months in a fifth class, but the practice is not so valuable as it ought to be, because little provision has been made for the teaching of special subjects, or directing pupils along different lines of study. Commerce. — A lad wishing to study for a commercial life can generally get all the instruction necessary in such subjects as mathematics, history, and geography, and in some schools a foreign language, from his regular teacher ; but the technical and special subjects of the course, as for example shorthand, book-keeping, typewriting, (tc, are outside the daily school course, and are not recognised in the daily curriculum. The teacher wishing to prepare his boys in the best possible way for business pursuits negotiates with a teacher of these special subjects, who is not connected with the Department of Public Instruction, except that he is employed as a teacher of Technical Classes, to give instruction at his school 483 school, either in the dinner hour or after i o'clock. The Commissioner considers that teacherf! ■who are specialising in the direction of commercial work arc to be commended. He is of opinion that the special teachers employed are capable men and women, otherwise they would not be engaged by principals of schools. His objection to the practice is that the special work is excluded from the regular daily curriculum of the school, and forced into a part of the day that should be devoted to recreation. ]f a teacher in our Superior Schools chooses to specialise in the direction of commerce he should be allowed to do so, and he should be granted every facility for teaching all the necessary siibjects vntliin the ordinary teaching hours. Our present method of teaching commerce stands in need of alteration in two particulars — (a) as to its place in the daily programme, and (4) as to the status of the special teaching staff. In connection with (b), the persons employed should be under the direct control of the Department of Public Instruction. Science. — The Standards of Proficiency in use at present in the different classes of Primary and Superior Schools provide for lessons on animals and plants, with special reference to agriculture ; on the human frame and laws of health ; on elementary physiology ; on the chemical and physical principles involved in agriculture ; on light, heat, and air in relation to health ; on elementary physical science ; on botany, chemistry, electricity, physiography. This is the science programme from third-class to fifth-class inclusive, and it will at once be admitted that it is very comprehensive. 'J'he defect in the scheme, however, lies in the fact that no State School has a laboratory for the teaching of elementary science. It is known that many of our teachers make their own simple experiments and construct their own apparatus for the demonstration of their lessons ; but such an arrangement, good though it be, is not to be compared to that provided by a science equipment. The provision for the teaching of elementary science in the Higher Grade Schools of Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, Glasgow and Edinburgh, and in the Upper Primary Schools of France, is admirable. Manual Instruction in the Higher Classen.— In the upper classes of our schools, pupils from 11 to 15 years of age, some Manual Instruction for boys has been provided. Workshops for wood have been established in a few schools, and some Public School classes attend the workshops of Technical Colleges ; but, while unable to quote the exact numbers in attendance at both classes, it is known that only a small percentage of the advanced pupils is enrolled. Two causes militate against a large enrolment: first the expense of tools, which has to be borne by parents ; and second, the limited number of workshops. To obtain the greatest results in Manual Instruction, the tools necessary foi' the training of the lads should be supplied by the State, and increased facilities for attendance provided. The instructors are capable men, but they would b3 batter qualiliod for the diff.H-cnt branches of Manual Instruction if they had the experience of Engli.sh or Continental Training Scliool--. Work in iron should bo included in Manual Training for boys, and centres should be established in industrial districts. The schools in London and other large towns, which are provided with shops for working in iron, are well attended. Cookery for girls, which has formed part of the school curriculum for the last fourteen years, has developed to a large extent, and the success attending the establishment of cookery centres has been very marked. The training is so valuable and so educative that the question of further development should be considered, and in connection therewith other features of Domestic Economy — such as house-keeping and laundry-work — might be introduced. Classes for house-keeping are very common in the girls' schools of England, Holland, and Denmark. Drawing. — Our schools fall short of the ideals reached by many of the primary schools in other countries. The facilities given for the teaching of drawing in other places are great, and the subject is one of the finest features in the programmes of the Higher Grade Schools of Great Britain. The course oE studies in the subject, as prepared by the Superintendents of Drawing, is definite and graded for each class, and for each branch of the work (see Chapter XX). Teachers specially trained in the Art Schools of England are placed in charge of centres, or travel from school to school, taking the higher classes themselves, and giving hints on the subject to the regular teachers of the lower classes. The Commissioner is of opinion that the drawing in our schools requires remodelling throughout all the classes. To effect this change he recommends that an Art Master from one of the great English school centres, with the latest experience of art work in Primary Schools, and with the ability to teach and discipline, should be at once introduced, and tliat he should be given full power in organising the work on modern lines. Agriculture. — Whatever the character of the instruction given in our scliools may be, the fact remains that many of the children of our State must earn their living on the land. This being the case, the question arises, to what extent should agriculture and kindred subjects be taught in the schools ? Great prominence is given to this kind of instruction in the schools of Belgium, France, and Holland. The Commissioner does not support the view that a boy should be satisfied to hold the position in life that his father held. He is of opinion that the best education, and the best position in the world, should be open to every boy. At the same time, he contends that, by reason of their environment, many of our boys and girls will remain on the soil. These, he thinks, should have an opportunity of becoming intelligent farmers, and a bent should be given towards the teaching of agriculture. The admirable practical instruction given in the Upper Primary Schools of France is giving the best results. The instruction it will be noted is educative while practical. It is not an apprenticeship as a farmer, but it is a good scientific preparation for agricultural apprenticeship. The schools aim at nothing further. The French farmer prefers to teach his son the practice of his calling. Regular Glass Subjects — Reading. — The Commissioner heard reading in every English-speaking community, and he has no hesitation in saying that the reading in the schools of New South Wales is equal to that of any other country. He attended lectures in P]ngland where specialists arc engaged by the School Boards to explain their methods of teaching reading. One of these methods, that by Miss N. Dale, was investigated. Briefly stated, this lady, in her preliminary lessons, leads the child by familiar chats to discover sounds 484 sounds for itself, and afterwards to classify the sounds. Later on the child is helped to find the sign (printed on tablets) which represents the sound, and then to combine the sounds to form words. The child having built up the word in a frame by means of the tablets is required to print the letters on a slate or on the board, and finally to draw a picture from imagination of some incident emphasised in the chats, and connected with an important word in the lesson. Ijater on primers and readers are introduced. Miss Dale claims for her method that children learn to read quickly by it. She pays particular attention to enunciation. Mrs. Walker, of Fleet-road Infant School, has an admirable method of teaching the alphabet by means of picture charts. A combination of the Phonetic and Look-and-Say methods is generally adopted by all Infant School teachers in teaching the subject, and the lessons are made interesting and attractive by the free use of pictorial representations and chalk sketches. The teaching of English in the Secondary Schools of Holland is very thorough. The reading lessons in English, conducted by Dutch teachers, give evidence of the great care that is bestowed on enunciation by those giving the instruction, and reveal the wonderful aptitude of the Dutch boy for acquiring the language. In the Secondary Schools of Hungary, English teachers are engaged to teach English. The great care taken to obtain a clear enunication and correct articulation by teachers in the United Kingdom and America, as well as in foreign countries, suggests to our teachers the necessity for continual vigilance on their part, in order that the purity of the language may be preserved. The practice of public speaking in the schools is a wise one. The Commissioner knows that the practice is general in the senior classes of several of our large public schools during the ordinary reading lessons, and that debating societies exist in a few schools, The movement is deserving of encouragement. The simultaneous repetition of words, which often degenerates into a sing-song, and which is sometimes heard in our schools, is a bad feature in the reading lesson. The amount of school reading matter obtained by our pupils is very limited. One set of readers used in schools all the year round does not give a reading boy sutficient opportunities for extending his vocabulary. The teachers under the London School Board can make a selection from the following series of scliool readers : — Russell's Citizen Reader. Collins' Reader. Laws of Everyday Life. Cassell's Reader. Golden Rule. Nelson's Reader. Palmerston Reader. Waverley and Crown. The Ideal Reader. All these readers were seen in use in the London Schools. The Commissioner recommends that complete sets of those and other readers used in the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada, bo obtained, and that the best be selected, revised (to suit Australian conditions), and added to the teachere' requisition list with a view to their use in the public schools of New South Wales. Writijig. — The writing generally, in all countries visited, is taught by means of headlines, and teachers have no difficulty in selecting good copy-books. The copy-books most generally in use in England are the Philip's series, which have a slight slope like that in the Collins' Graphic Copy-book, and the Aus- tralian Copy-book published by Angus and Robertson. In most of the Continental schools the slope given to the writing is very great ; in England, Ireland, Scotland, Canada, and some of the United States, the slope is generally very slight ; and in one of the United States upright writing is much favoured. There is a good deal of difference of opinion among teachers, and more, perhaps, among School Committees, as to the amount of slope that should be given to writing in public schools. While some of the merchants of a city in Canada distinctly refuse to employ lads who have learnt the upright style, the School Committee of a city in the States gives a general instruction to its teachers that vertical writing is to be used in all school-work, and prescribes the book to be used. The hand-writing which meets with the greatest approval from the business men of Sydney, in the Commissioner's experience, is that with a slight slope, and very satisfactory results are obtained from the series mentioned above. Writing on paper with pen or lead pencil is early introduced into the schools of France, even in the highest classes in the infant schools. Several of our State schools have abolished slates entirely in the primary departments and substituted paper. The departure is to be commended if only on hygienic grounds. Arithmetic — In our Standard of Proficiency notation to hundreds of millions in the second class is too difficult, and the requirements for the arithmetic of third class are not definitely slated. "Miscel- laneous exercises in simple and compound rules" might involve some knotty problems for pupils in third class. In fourth class the work in vulgar fractions should be practical. Long operations in complex fractions are not required even as mechanical tests. Decimal fractions should be of the terminating order. Simple operations in vulgar fractions and in decimal fractions might well be introduced into the curriculum earlier than the fourth class. Recurring decimals should be taught in the advanced classes of the Superior School. It is feared that mental arithmetic is not receiving the attention in our schools that its importance demands, for too frequently we find that our boys are inaccurate in the ordinary processes. Every lesson in arithmetic should be preceded by a few minutes' mental work, and the questions set in the arithmetic lesson should be largely practical. Preparation for examination work has sometimes forced it into a mechanical channel. The Board of Education for California (see Chapter XIII), gives some good suggestions to its teachers on the teaching of arithmetic, which are worthy of being considered by our own teachers. The immense advantage of the Metric System over the system of weights and measures is acknow- ledged by those who have witnessed the work done under each. While America has decimalised her money system, she retains the old-fashioned method of dealing with weights and measures. The United Kingdom still clings to the old processes in all commercial transactions — money, weights and measures — and Australia, though possessing many modern ideas, seems reluctant to break away from English practices. A large amount of the work in arithmetic in the Board Schools of England is concrete in character, and has a direct bearing on the practical everyday requirements of business life. The New South Wales public schools which are represented from year to year at the University Junior and Senior Examinations of the Sydney University show some good results in the subject of arithmetic. The medal in Arithmetic at the University Senior, 1902, was gained by a public school boy. Geography. — 485 GeograjAy. — Programmes of work in. commercial geograpliy seen in actual operation this quarter in some of our Sydney public schools show that the subject is treated intelligently. Parrot-like repetition of lists of names of places forms no part of later-day teaching in our schools. The subject is taught with interest, and the teacher with modern ideas gets away from the environment of four walls, into the play- ground or the adjacent country, to make the best use of Nature for his illustrations and descriptions. Where practicable, outdoor teaching of the subject is to be commended. In some countries schools are supplied with splendidly illustrated geographical readers. Two series are specially adapted for the use of children — the Canadian Geographical Reader, published by Gage & Co., Toronto, and an Australian Geographical Reader issued by Collins Bros. & Co., of Glasgow. In both publications the illustrations and descriptive matter are of great teaching value. The Photochrome Co., Limited, London, publishes a fine series of pictures suitable for illustrating the lessons in Geography. The firm of Delagrave in Paris supplies many fine maps and diagrams which are seen in the schools throughout the Continent. The Swiss teacher makes great use of models in teaching the geography of his country. Arnold and Son, Leeds, England, and the Chicago Educational Company are supplying splendid relief maps. Some of these maps, as well as photographs of towns and scenery, are already in use in our State Schools. Grammar. — Our New South Wales Standards of Proficiency set too much value on parsing and analysis, and teachers are inclined to spend too much of their time in preparing these subjects for the annual examination. The best schools in all countries are giving more attention to composition on paper and correct express'on hi conversation. The tests for spelling in our standards are unnecessarily long. Singing. — The tonic sol-fa method is very general in the schools of the United Kingdom, and pupils show great proficiency in singing from this notation. In no country where the singing was heard are the results in reading at sight from staff notation etjual to those of our own children. Great care is given to voice production in the schools of Ireland, p]ngland, Holland, and America, and the. .ringing in many of these schools is characterised by softness and sweetness. History. — Historical readers are much used in England, and the amount of oral teaching is small. The Standard of Proficiency in New South Wales sohouls provides for the general teaching of English History in third and fourth clashes by means of simple connected stories or biographies, from the Roman Conquest to the present time, given orally; and in the fifth class, from William III. to the present time, by more detailed descriptions, such as may be found in any ofdiniry text-book. Teachers who follow the course prescribed for the University Junior Examination toach the general outlines of English History from the year 1485 to the present time, and the special period specified. The subject is generally well taught in our public schools. In two at least of our Superior Public Schools the History of Europe and Ancient History are included in the regular course of study for fifth classes. The medallist in English History at the 1903 University Junior Examination is a public school boy. Australian History is not introduced into the Standard of Proficiency before the fourth half-year of third class. The subject might very well be started earlier, and taught by means of simple connected stories. There is good reason for saying that many of our pupils leave school with but a limited knowledge of the history of their own country. Object Lessons. — Object Lessons in the middle and lower classes of our schools should be closely associated with Nature study, and in the upper classes with elementary science. The students in our training schools have for years past connected their object-lesson teaching with Nature study, and many of our schools in the city and countrj' are provided with cabinets of Natural History for teaching object lessons. In the matter of visits and ia the collection of information and concrete illustrations our teachers and pupils have been most generously treated by the Directors of the Hawkesbury College, the Technical College, and the Botanic Gardens. In addition to visiting such public institutions the pupils of our schools under the guidance of their teachers frequently make excursions to particular places in the country for special instruction in certain subjects. The practice of outdoor teaching through such excursions is a good one, but it has its limitations. It is practicable in a school where thtre is a teacher to every class-. It is not so easy of accomplishment in schools where teachers are in charge of two classes, or in schools with only one teacher. The teacher has always to bear in mind that the greater part of his daily work lies in.side his school. The excellent charts and models which are seen in the schools of France and Germany are most useful adjuncts in teaching this subject. Pictures, especially good ones, have a wonderful attraction for children. Our native flora and fauna have not yet received nmch attention from the artist. A splendid diagram representing the snakes of Australia has been supplied to our schools, but the diagram of Australian animals, though equally worthy of a place on the school walls, has not yet been introduced. Cayley's charming pictures of Australian birds should be in all our public schools. To further the systematic teaching of Nature study and elementary science, the Commissioner recommends that a bonus to cover expenses be granted to any public school teacher, and extended leave at Summer or Winter vacation if necessary, who would voluntarily spend the time in a Technical College or other institution for the purpose of qualifying himself to give instruction in the^e subjects. It is believed that with this encouragement many country teachers especially would gladly avail themselves of such a course of study. The benefit to the pupils would be great. The teachers could specialise according to the industries of their district — mining, pastoral, or agricultural. With the establishment of science laboratories in the Superior Schools, and in the District Model Schools as proposed, this temporary provision would be terminated. Moral Lessons. — The necessity for moral training in the school curriculum is uni\'ersally admitted, but opinions vary as to what is the best form of giving the instruction. Some teachers give special lessons on moral subjects, others let the moral teaching permeate the daily instruction, and point a moral as opportunity ofiers. The 486 The moral code hangs in a conspicuous place on the walls of the schools of the United Kingdom and the Continent. France considers the teaching of morality of so much importance that one hour daily is devoted to it in the Upper Primary Schools, and the instruction is entrusted solely to the head-master. In the schools of Holland moral truths are inculcated in part by mean.s of mottoes printed in large letters over the entrance to the class rooms. Some of these mottoes are " Gentleness and tolerance ai-e two sublime virtues." " Have the courage to be true and you will be great and good." Over the entrance to the sewing-room in one of the Dutch upper primary Industrial Schools, the following motto may be seen, " Vanity is the rook on which many a one slips." The teaching of morals, as occasion arises in the daily i-outine, is the plan adopted generally by our own teachers. Whatever the methods adopted, whether in the form of set lessons or by means of incidental conversations, the value of the moral instruction and its eifect upon the pupils depend on the man or woman in charge of the class. Our teachers, it is believed, are alive to the great responsibilities connected with the moral training of the youth of our State. Brill. — The military system of dismissal is not seen outside New South Wales schools. With us the function is carried out with great precision, and the sight presented by one of our great city schools when it pours forth its hundreds of well-drilled, orderly pupils, on the completion of the day's work, is indeed a pleasing picture. In other countries the usual practice in dismissal is very different to that adopted by uS; The pupils on the close of lessons for the day leave their desks for the hat lobbies and pass out of the school into the street without any formation of ranks, and without supervision. In but very few schools does the dismissal approach our own practice. The perfection of our system of Drill is witnessed at the interesting events which annually form part of the grand displays of physical training held under the auspices of the Public Schools Amateur Athletic Association. These splendid exhibitions of physical training organised by our various School Associations, and loyally supported by our teachers, are unequalled in any part of the world. The physique of our boys and girls will compare favourably with the l>e8t seen in schools of other countries. America and Sweden are giving great attention to the physical training of their girls in the primary schools. Both countries have special rooms for gymnastic exercises, which are taught by trained instructors, and both encourage free movements in the open air in addition to indoor practices. The American girl obtains a vigorous training in basket ball, hockey, and lawn tennis under the direction of her teacher ; the Swedish girl gets grace of movement by joining in dances and games conducted by her mistress. The calisthenic exercises set down for our own schools and carried out in the open air are producing a very fine physique in our girls ; but except lawn tennis our girls' schools have little in the way of well- organised outdoor games. " Fire Drill " is practised regularly in the large city schools of America. Cadet corps are not a great success in any country. The expense to parents of the uniform is the main obstacle. In Switzerland target practice is provided for the senior boys of the schools. Every boy in our fourth and fifth classes should be trained to the use of arms. Drill rifles should not be used in these classes. The same classes of boys should have rifle practice regularly, and attendance in uniform should not be compulsory. The aim of our Cadet authorities should be to turn out many good marksmen. Conscription may yet become necessary in Australia, and a body of men trained to the use of the rifle would prove a valuable defence in case of attack by a foreign power. Needlework. — This branch of Domestic Economy in our schools is well taught, and compares favourably with what is done elsewhere. The movement in British Schools is in the direction of practicality and the girl is taught to cut out garments. In many schools, rooms are specially fitted up for teaching the subject. Geometry. — Euclid should be taken out of fourth class standard and placed in the Superior School Courses. Practical Geometry should be coiTelated to modelling in cardboard, drawing, and manual training. Certain regulations which have recently been made on the recommendation of the Board for conducting the Public Examinations at the Sydney University, Junior and Senior, will necessitate some changes in the teaching of Euclid in our public schools. In the Junior Examination, 1905, candidates will have the choice of one of two papers in geometry. In one paper the examination will be on the first three Books of Euclid, and easy questions upon their subject-matter. This examination, as our teachers will readily see, is no departure from former lines. In the other paper the examination will be based upon a study of courses corresponding to those in use in the Universities of the United Kingdom in which the changes that have been recommended in the teaching of geometry have been adopted. In the Commissioner's opinion both public school teachers and boys will welcome the new move- ment in the teaching of geometry. In connection with the new development in teaching the subject, teachers are advised to read the report of the Committee of the British Association on the teaching of elementary mathematics ; the report of the Committee of the Mathematical Association ; and the regulations for the Oxford and Cambridge Local Examinations. Algebra. — The subject is intelligently taught in our schools. The medal in Algebra, in the 1903 University Junior Examination, was taken by a public school boy. Latin. — The usual school course is Abbott's " Via Latina " to page 53, with the first conjugation and the verb " sum," and in some schools the Latin author of the Junior Examination is added. In the 1903 Junior Examination a public school boy gained the proa;, ace. in the subject, and eight boys from the same school passed in the First Class. Scripture Lessons. — The scripture books of the Irish National Series are systematically read in the State schools of New South Wales. The teachers explain the subject-matter of the lessons without any reference to dogmas. The Commissioner in a long experience of the use of these books in our State schools knows of no instance where the teacher has intruded his own religious opinions during the scriptural instruction or at any other time. The conscience clause is always respected by teachers. Suff^esied 487 Suggested Improvements. — The Commissioner considers that our system of public instruction is capable of improvement in the following ways : — (1.) By extending Kindergarten Teaching. (2.) By introducing Manual Training in the lower classes of the primary schools. (3.) By establishing Superior Schools for purposes of specialisation. Such schoolri should provide for classes, not necessarily in all subjects, in — {a) General Education. {b) Commerce. (c) Science. {d) Art. (e) Manual Instruction. (/) Agriculture. In carrying out any alteration in connection with these suggestions the present buildings could be largely utilised. Some changes in the furniture of Infant Schools would be necessary, but not in the direction of increased expenditure. The Manual Training in the lower classes could be carried on in the ordinary class-rooms, but the Superior Schools, with classes for specialisation, would require additional rooms and pro])er equipment. Admission, as a rule, should not be earlier than 13 ye^rs of age, the conditions of entrance should be a pass in fiftli-class woi-k (new classification), or the merit certificate as at Bruntsfield, Edinburgh ; and the course should be for three year.^. A scheme of scholarships, especially for children in the country, should be considered carefully. The French scheme is a good one. Ihe head-masters of Superior Schools should receive special salaries. The General Education section should include Latin, and should form the connecting link between the Primary and Secondary Schools. The Superior Schools doing specialised work should form the connecting link between the Primary School and the Secondary Technical and Conmicrcial Colleges. The scheme of specialised work could only be introduced into schools gradually. While many of the subjects in the various sections could be undertaken by the regular teachers of the State, specialists would be required, at the commencement at any rate, for the teaching of languages, book-keeping, short- hand, typewriting, physics, chemistry, drawing, agriculture. There are persons outside the service of the Department, who are competent and willing to teach these subjects. These would need to be certified as special teachers under the Department of Public Instruction and should be appointed to the charge of groups of schools as in PJngland ; indeed, the peripatetic science and drawing teachers might very well be employed both in the city and the country at the inception of the scheme. When the Training Schools are estfiblished, in accordance with the courses suggested in the chapter on Training School Systems, students will bo well qualified for much of the work of the Superior Schools. CHAPTER LVII. 488 CHAPTER LVII. The Drift of Modern Primary Education. [G. H. KNIBBS.] 1. Introduction. — Great as is the superiority of education in almost any part of Europe or America as compared with that in this State, not only in the matter of curriculum, training of teachers, and school-hygiene, but also in that of appreciation of the meaning of education for a people, the necessity for continued progress, though less imperative than with us, is yet vividly more appreciated. An illustration of this is the fact that in July this year, 35,000 educationists and teachers met in conference in Boston for professional discussion. All educational questions, the education of the people as such, its national significance, are subjects that seem to be regarded in every country with a degree of keenness which is collateral with the excellence of the system in operation. And in education, as in most other things, the sense of self-sufficienc;/ is likely to be in the inverse latio of the .system's excellence. It is a matter of importance that we should properly estimate our place in the world's educational activity. There are certain well-defined movements in modern education to which attention therefore should lie di'awn, certain general matters which stand out with great prominence, and yet which are apt to be lost sight of in dealing with detail. These will form the subject for consideration in this chapter. 2. Generality of Effort to Improve Education. — The establishment of a system of Conferences of teachers, similar to that referred to above, for the purpose of discussing educational mattei-s, is a feature in almost all countries visited by the Commissioners. In some instances failure to attend is punished by fining the member concerned. Attheseconferencesevery endeavour is made to facilitate the free expression of personal views, and the fact that such views may happen to be opposed to those of the chiefs of the official departments, is not regarded in any hostile way. In fact it may be said that the greatest freedom in discussion is encouraged, the object being to focus the experience of many educated workers, and to maintain the only condition which admits oifree and thorough criticism of all educational questions.' Papers are read and discussed at these conferences on all sorts of educational subjects, and there can be no doubt that to this attitude is to be ascribed much of the success of P]uroppan and American education. There is also an attitude which is very pleasing, that is the recognition of the fact that all true teachers are engaged in a common cause of great significance, the upbuilding of humanity. One of tlio effects of the good education which teachers receive as preparation for their work is that they realise that the subject is worthy of life-long study, and that all teachers, inspectors, etc., are fellow students. This attitude of mind eliminates as far as possible any tendency to undue official domination of opinion, which (as may be readily understood) is a real danger, especially in an educational service, where every worker must, in order to achieve good results, put his heart into his work. Under the European .system the tendency to merely re-echo the opinion of the official head of a department is minimised. 3. Wide Recognition of Moral Aim of Education. — The formative function of education touches two elements of the human being, viz., his character and his intelligence ; or to express it otherwi.se, his will and his intellect. There is a tendency to forget that knowledge, and even the power of applying it is not the "end-all and be-all" of an educational system. That the first aim of education is to develope a good vnll through the creation in the child mind of noble ideals, is receiving everywhere the most earnest attention. There is no educationist of world-wide reputation who does not recognise that character- building is the first aim of education, though naturally there is great difference of opinion as to the question of how best to develope moral education. The method of aggregating one day a week children of all ages in a class for religious instruction under a visiting clergyman, is obviously defective. The French view, that the popular school must necessarily confine itself to ethics, has much to be said for it, since the children do not so strongly tend to become partisans to sectarian bad feeling, which is really both irreligious and morally injurious. Dr. W. T. Harris endorses the view that religion in the theological sense cannot be taught in the day school ; but that view is strongly opposed also in the United States. This much may be said, however, viz., that whatever differences exist as to the policy of introducing denominational instruction in the elementary and primary schools, there is no division of opinion as to the teachers' character and conduct being of the highest importance in moulding tl'.c character of the pupil, and as to his nobility of idea, and the width of his outlook," being the greatest factors in the most fundamental element of education, the formation of the character of the children committed to his care. This is why the immaturity and lack of both knowledge and breadth of view of the " pupil-teacher," are felt by continental people to be so serious, and is the main reason why such a system as ours cannot be entertained for a moment in Europe. 4. Function of knowledge of one^s ov;n language. — The excellence of the power of exposition of the primary teachers of France, Switzerland, and Germany, has been recognised by many visitors of the schools of those countries. A good knowledge of one's own language, is the foundation of this power. To aid it, in every school in the United States is to be found a comprehensive dictionary (not a small edition, but one of the largest) ; the teachers of other countries are also well-educated in their own language. Such education does not depend so much upon the merely technical parts of the language, i.e., grammar, analysis, composition, etc., though this last comes nearer to the matter, as upon an exact appreciation of the true meaning of words, with their nuances, and relationships with other words, and upon ' The great value of these discussions depends upon the state of education of the teachers ; they have all read the history and theory of education, and have all be^n trained in the sense previpualy indicated. 489 upon exact thinking. Great stress is laid upon the clear expression of thought, and in most German schools (all?), children are required to frame a sentence by way of answer, instead of replying to a question by a single word.i This tends to overcome the slovenly habits of abbreviating, which are apt to assert themselves in children. These two matters are of great importance to the State. The language of Australia depends largely upon the education and care of the primary school teacher in his pronunciation, and upon the propriety of his use of the language ; it depends upon the example he sets to his pupils in reading and speaking, the care he takes in correcting their defects of enunciation, pronunciation, tone, and elocution. Ahd here again it may be asked : "What can be expected of the pupil-teacher system as compared with the system of previous training, where these matters are specially studied before the teacher embarks upon the practice of his profession V Care as to the proper development of the mother tongue, based upon a recognition of the reaction of precision in expressing one's thought upon the power of clear thinking, is a feature being recognised with increasing clearness in educational circles. The practical as well as the educative value of language in all the affairs of life is more vividly realised" to-day than perhaps ever before, and in other countries a degree of attention is paid to the matter to which as yet we are foreign. The realisation of the part that language may play in moral education is also more developed in Europe. The power of good reading to awaken emotion, to stir up ideals, to arouse patriotism, is more thoroughly appreciated, and this appreciation of its function is growing throughout the civilised world. 5. Attitude to dead lavguages. — Speaking generally, a knowledge of the dead languages is not demanded of those who propose to terminate their education in the primary school. That is a characteristic feature. It is based upon the view that the ordinary workman does not really need a knowledge of the dead languages to carry out his life work properly. And there can be no doubt that much is to be said for this view in countries where the different social strata are well defined. In a democracy, however, where the government of the country depends upon uniform voting power in each adult, the neglect of the specially 'humanistic' element in popular education is fraught with more serious consequences, and can be met only by the teaching of ancient and modern history and civic instruction, subjects two of which are practically absent in our educational system. The benefit of I^atin to the ordinary individual is etymological and humanistic. To some extent also it is a discipline in clear thinking. But the trend of modern education is to assign a place of higher importance to realism, and self-expression, and hence intuitive methods, and all those features of education which call forth .self-expression and invention are characteristic, while dead languages tend to be correspondingly neglected. And there is a wide consensus of testimony that this attention to the practical needs of life is what is needed for the people as a whole, rather than a smattering of dead languages. And it is further held that practicality may be made consistent with maintaining the educative value of instruction. Not only have Latin and Greek been assigned a place of less importance, but higher education is now allowed in which modern languages may take the place of ancient. It is claimed that they have both humanistic and practical value ; humanistic, because they enlarge the field of vision, tend to overthrow insularity, as well as to develope the linguistic sense and the general appreciation of language and literature ; and practical, because in addition to their direct utility, they afford a logical training through the re-expression of ideas in another language. The idea, that the way of culture lies through dead languages only, has practically disappeared, though it is widely held that if by better teaching, Latin and perhaps also Greek, can be acquired without serious loss of time, the nation that retains these will receive distinct benefit therefrom. The solution of the difficulty is indicated in Chapter XXII. One has to remember that in practical knowledge we are very much behindhand as yet, and our scientific need is more urgent than our linguistic need. 6. Formative and Informative Elements in Education. — Modern psedagogy is attaching relatively less importance to the informative, and increasing importance to the formative, elements of education. Thus any modem European teacher is more regardful of his pupils' attitude to independent observation and reflection, than he is to their mere exercises of memory ; to the accuracy of their grasp of fundamental principles, rather than to the mere accumulation of facts ; to their power of application of knowledge, ' than to their mere receptivity. This is evidenced among other ways by the wide acceptance of kindergarten principles, and by the part that the Pestalozzi-Froebel-Herbartian ideas play in the development of all branches of education. It is shewn in the importance attached to everything affording opportunity of self-expression ; in the belief that the normal child should be encouraged to act and think, rather than to be passive and memorise ; that his mental activity should tend toward practical activity, and should have the stimulus which comes therefrom ; that inert information, even though encyclopaedic, is insufficient ; that the power to know should express itself in the power to do. The replacement of the guidance of psychology for empirical educational methods, the didactic, heuristic, and so on, points in the same direction ; so also does the increasing recognition of the importance of individuality in teaching, that is to say, the treating of each pupil as a unit, to be developed on his own particular line, and not merely reduced to conformity with some mechanically designed standards. It is shewn also in the educative value assigned to such exercises as those acquired in manual training, and in the unification of this with other branches of study, e.g. drawing, geometry, etc. It is shewn in the freer methods of teaching and discipline which can be allowed to teachers of good education, and who discharge their duty in the light of a sound knowledge of educational theory. 7. Manual Training as an Integral part of an Educational System. — The recognition by physiologists and psychologists of the close connection that exists between tactual skill and mental development, has intensified the recognition of the formative value of manual training. It educates by demanding for its proper execution the co-ordination of mental and physical effort. Providing, as it does, an 'For example : A teacher asks, " Wie viele laseln eiebt es in der Nordsee, und wie heissen sie ?" The pupil answers, "Es giebt ja viele Insein in der Nordsee und ich heisse Hans Schmidt." (It will be noticed the pupil gets out of a difficulty by affecting to understand " sie "as " Sie.") The structure of the reply illustrates the point above referred to. 15—3 8 490 an opportunity for the self-expression of children, and thus satisfying an innate need of child, and indeed also, of adult nature, it gives them interest in abstract things by focussing their effort on the concrete to which the other leads. They are compelled to exercise their sense of form, to develope geometrical ideas. The manual training unmistakeably tends to establish them in habits of industry, neatness, and precision. But what is perhaps most important is, that it gives the normal impulse to thinking, i.e., thinking for a definite purpose, and in a connected manner about a task, the successive stages of which disclose finally its scheme of development. Manual training does not in any way limit the power and tendency to reflect upon the abstract principles underlying the work undertaken, but, on the contrary, tends in exactly the opposite direction ; and hence one naturally finds that there is no real disagreement among educationists as to the value of educative manual training. This perhaps explains why it is becoming a more and more striking feature of modern education. For the artisan, the artist, the technologist, the impulse to work practically is of the highest importance ; it assures real understanding, practicality, executive ability. In Chapter XIX it has been shewn that the manual exercises should take the form of " Sloyd," that is to say, they should be a connected series of exercises with a definite plan running through them, and carefully designed so that their educative value shall be a maximum. To substitute for any form of " Sloyd " mere lessons drawn from carpentering, or from some other trade or occupation, would be to mis- conceive the whole matter, and to reduce the educative value of the manual training. Here it may be incidentally mentioned that both agricultural and horticultural exercises may also be treated so as to be of educative value ; that is, of course, by any teacher who has had proper instruction in natural science. This is what is perceived by educational experts, viz., that our manual powers want cultivation as well as our mental, and the evidence of this necessity can easily be recognised. 8. Practical Orientation of Education. — Another distinct feature to be observed in general education is what may be called its practical orientation. Care has to be taken in regard to this, not to diminish the educative value of teaching, but it is fully understood that when teachers are properly educated it is comparatively easy to guard against this danger. A scientifically educated teacher will be able to maintain the educative efficiency of a practical course unimpaired. It ought to be said, however, that just in proportion as it is desired to make education at once practical and cultural, so is it necessary to see that the teacher receives a liberal education. The practical orientation of an educative course is secured by making the illustrative part of the teaching touch local things, with which the children are already, or can easily be made, familiar. Thus in agricultural districts illustrations are to be drawn from agriculture, not however in such a way that the children are informed of matters which both they and their parents probably know better than the , teacher, but rather in regard to the underlying scientific principles. These they are more or less ignorant of, and yet, if success is to be secured in their practical life, they must become acquainted with them. Similarly any local industry may be regarded as an opportunity of focussing the child's knowledge on practical things. This will help it to turn naturally to the realities of life ; while at the same time those realities will acquire a deeper interest, and be more truly understood, because the underlying principles of science, and those abstract forms of knowledge which constitute the accumulated intellectual wealth of humanity, will be recognised at the same time. Notwithstanding that the abstract, and not the concrete, attracts the highest of all types of mind, there is never loss, but rather great gain of power, in the dual gift which enables the practical and theoretical to be apprehended together. This is what has been realised in Belgium, France, Germany, Holland, Switzerland, etc., as their programmes shew. And America no less keenly appreciates the value of an education that is at once liberal and practical. 9. Individuality and Self-expression. — Reference has been made to the importance of self-expression. Many of the older forms of education tended overmuch to mould all human beings on the same model. They took no sufiicient account of individual differences and tendencies or of the very marked aptitudes and inaptitudes of human beings. Such .systems of education frame hard and fast curricula, to which each pupil is supposed to respond. They gauge success by examination based on these curricula, and naturally strain after securing uniformity. With a mechanical system, especially with a teaching staff insufficiently educated, a system of supervision must be adopted which is also mechanical. Instead of qualified teachers dealing with the children in their discretion, an officer or inspector is appointed to determine how far the teacher is capable of making his pupils respond to the mechanical demands of the system. It is obvious that this leads to all sorts of untoward results, and gives no proper gauge of the true educational eflSciency of teachers whose pupils are very variable material. Under such mechanical systems a teacher is driven to study the view of the examiner rather than the sound education of his pupils, and this actually happens. Such a conception of education, as is referred to above, has disappeared from European countries and America, and the effort in the United Kingdom is undoubtedly in the direction of delivering the British nation from the evils of mechanical systems by the proper qualification of their teachers for service under a free system. The methods of education which are being so well developed in other parts of the world are such as allow the individuality of the pupil the greatest possible liberty, and aim at giving him the fullest possible opportunity at self-expression. This characteristic difference commences in the kindergarten, and is based upon the fundamental idea that the natural spontaneity of the human being demands direction rather than suppression, that education which coerces a child into a more or less affected submission to a mechanical routine of study, impairs, just in so far as it is successful, his development as a human being, who has inevitably to learn self-direction and to maintain a positive attitude to the totality of things that surround him in practical life. This has been discussed in Chapter XVI. More and more is it recognised that school- life should lead to self-direction and self-control ; that its discipline should be such as to help the child rather than coerce him ; that he should not be the victim of any failure to conform to some mechanical notions of education in the minds of persons not in daily contact with him. The idea that real education can be assisted by corporal punishment has disappeared. The keeping of boys at tasks by fear of flogging is a system that has also gone, though not entirely in this State. Eegarding 491 Regarding the attitude of pupils and teachers in other parts of the world, it is easy to recognise that the relation is friendly, and this is much stimulated by the realism of the teaching, and by that personal contact which is developed through such institutions as the school excursion, carried out with a definite educative object and not merely for sport, and where the children both learn and enjoy themselves at the same time. 10. TJie Will, and Physical and Mental Activity. — Another striking feature in recent and better methods of education, and oYie of the fruits of the application of psychology to that subject, is the recognition that all undue coercion of children, in so far as it is successful, tends to diminish their will-power, and is, therefore, wrong. This has been referred to in the last section, but it may be added that the modern tendency in education is to stimulate physical and mental activity by stimulating the will of the pupils, and by indicating the channels in which it may find normal exercise. Education of this kind does not aim at communicating merely information, but rather makes the communication of information afford an opportunity for the formation of character, by enlisting the will i.e., the co-operation of the pupil. Information is but the means to the end; knowledge, and the power and impulse to apply it, are what are of practical value in life. While this is true, it is recognised also that it is the right activity of the will, of the intellect, and of the physical organism at its command, which must be directly promoted in true education, and that all failure to take official account of this, is failure to understand its significance. This has, of course, been adverted to in Chapter III. It remains to be said that the recognition of this view is world-wide. In this aspect it is easy to see that the employment of immature and uneducated children as teachers, which is unquestionably the characteristic of the pupil-teacher system, is absolutely indefensible. Judged from the lower standpoint, viz., its efiiciency to afford sound information, this system cannot be compared with the systems of Europe and America. From the higher point of view, viz., the duty to develope to the utmost a right action of the will, and a normal activity of the mind and body of the child, it is seen in a still less favourable light. This wide recognition of the true character of education is the secret of its superiority in other countries, and affords an explanation of the strenuous efforts of leading educated men in the United Kingdom to reach a better method than the existing pupil-teacher system. 11. Increased attention to Physical Culture. — Basedow (1723-1790) who, by the way, aimed in his method at thoi-oughly educating and training teachers for their work, endeavoured, in the elementary work he published in 1774, not only at constituting a complete system of primary education capable of developing the intelligence of the pupils by " contact with realities rather than mere words," but also at securing a sound development of the powers of the body. It was reserved, however, for Sweden, through Per Henrik Ling, to develope a throughly scientific system of physical education and gymnastic. His work on the " General Principles of Gymnastics " is divided into the various branches, viz., psedagogic, military, medical, and aesthetic gymnastic, and he has demonstrated how necessary it is to base all gymnastic upon a thorough anatomical and physiological knowledge of the human organism in its entirety, together with a knowledge of the laws of motion, considered from the standpoint of physics. His work was extended by his immediate successor, Gabriel Branting, and his own son, Hjalmar Ling. Branting, developing his predecessor's theories, brought medical gymnastics to a high degree of perfection. So also did Hjalmar Ling, though psedagogic gymnastic was that to which the latter gave his more special attention. By means of his pen he made drawings of thousands of forms of gymnastic movement. These were collected and grouped in particular categories, according to their action upon the human organism, and it is in this manner that the 'ten categories' of gymnastic movements have been constituted. Hjalmar Ling arranged, moreover, the movements appropriated to different ages, and made the psedagogic gymnastic available and suitable for the primary school, and for the development of both boys and girls of all ages. He further designed gymnastic games to supplement the more severe forms of systematic gymnastic. "For," said he, "the whole ought to be instinct with joy." The physique of the Swedish people has been distinctly altered for the better by the wide adoption of gymnastics, based upon a proper knowledge of the human organism ; and recently improvements are said to be taking place in the physique of the American woman from the same cause. The recognition that a true gynmastic must take the form of physical culture is intensifying all over Europe and America; and what is still more important, the realisation that it is as much the duty of school authorities to see that the elements of physical culture are attended to, as it is their duty to take into account the culture of the mind, is world-wide, although we have neglected the matter somewhat seriously in this State. The teaching of gymnastics by mere athletes may be worse than useless, and this distinction is fully recognised in Europe and America. The basis of physical culture must always be a real knowledge of the human organism, and the views expressed in Chapter XVII represent the modem ideas of the subject. 12. Better Training of Teachers. — Notwithstanding the incomparably better methods of Europe in the matter of training teachers, the disposition to bring their training up to the highest practical degree of perfection is distinctly marked throughout Europe, and not less throughout the United States of America. English measures are, so far, half-lisarted, even under the reform of education now being undertaken. Sir William Anson, speaking in Parliament on the matter (see The Times, 10th July, 1903, p. 4), said, "At present the pupil-teacher may commence his work in rural districts at the age of 14, and in urban districts at the age of 1.5." He merely proposed unbroken preparation to 16, and half-time preparation to 18. This means that the Government of England is not yet prepared to make the English teacher the peer of the teacher of Europe. The education of the people of England must inevitably reflect this. Able Englishmen who have travelled in Europe, with a knowledge of its languages, and who thus have placed themselves in touch with its realities, have spoken out with no uncertain voice on the defects of English education, and are strenuous in their attempts at reform. Such men have pointed out that England is paying dearly for this failure to educate her people as well as they are educated in Europe. England's pupil-teacher system is not a thing to be copied by us. Its best men deride it in no equivocal terms. ,' Throughout 492 Throughout Europe and America, it may be added, the fact that they are far beyond us in the matter of training teachers in no way gives birth to a sense of self-sufficiency, or leads to a diminution of effort. The United States, no less than Europe, vividly realises the necessity for stimulating the educa- tion of the primary teacher to the utmost. They believe that it is of the highest importance that he should perceive the significance of his work, viz., that he is charged with the upbuilding of the character of the nation. The importance of awakening and directing the intelligence of the child, of imparting to his various powers an impulse in the direction of practical realisation, and the tremendous difference between teachers working without or with the inspiration of a knowledge of the history of education, are features strikingly pre- senting themselves to any, even a superficial observer of American and European educational activity. The formative influence on a teacher of a knowledge of what has been done by his great predecessoi-s in the field of education is one of the secrets of the keen recognition of the value of proper education of teachers. The perception of the great gulf that exists also between the old rule-of -thumb methodology, and that based upon psychology, is also to be attributed to the very different attitude of Europe and America to the question of the training of the teacher. Here it may be said that just as it is important to consider the formative functions of education in regard to the children, so also is it necessary to consider them in regard to the teacher. Why is it, for example, that teachers in Europe and America, even of kindergarten, are required to have a good secondary education, and seriously study such subjects as psychology 1 Is it not because in those countries it is realised, as it has not officially been realised here, that such knowledge has a high formative value 1 A teacher who has read psychology has not longer the same narrow outlook on his work, and the same is true as regards the teacher who has read the history of piedagogy. The theory of education, as it stands to-day, has been won by an amount of thought and experience, which it would be difficult to pourtray, or to properly estimate. The interest taken in educational theory is unmistakable in time past in Europe and America, and though it has not yet made English education what it ought to be, it is recognised by all those who are labouring to place it in. a position worthy of the Empire, as the most important formative element in the preparation of the teacher. 1 3. Definite Curricula with Freedom in Teachiny. — The development of somewhat elaborate curricula is a feature of all institutions where education has been thoroughly studied. This has often led to the false impression that under such curricula the individuality of the teacher is seriously restricted — that his personal opinions are allowed no freedom. Nothing could be further from the truth. A fully developed curriculum may be used to enforce mechanical treatment, but it is not so used in Europe or America. Its office is to indicate definitely the general aim of the instruction. In the hands of the well educated and competent teachers, it is handled with considerable freedom. With an uneducated and immature teacher, it may, perhaps, have to be regarded as a direction from which he may not deviate, for fear of committing serious error. It cannot, and does not fetter the competent teacher, while, with the inferior teacher, it marks out the path he is to follow. Here again one realises the characteristic difference between the teaching of properly educated and mature teachers and the teaching of relatively uneducated child-teachers. In applying a curriculum to any class of children, it is essential to take into account their general calibre and their surroundings. The competently educated teacher may safely be left to consider how he will take the details of his curriculum. The practical orientation of teaching necessitates free treatment of curricula ; and there is to-day a growing and wide-spread recognition of this fact. The best results are not obtained by dictating to a teacher how he shall treat details, but rather by outlining a general programme, and shewing him, as it is done in Europe, a typical development of it ; then leaving him to apply this, according to his discretion, and according to the characteristics of the children with which he has to deal. 14. Sclwol Directors. — Large European schools are placed under a director, who does but little or even no direct and regular teaching, but whose office is that of general supervision — the stimulating of the teachers, and care of the larger matters pertaining to school development. He is, of course, free to undertake any teaching he thinks fit, and has, of course, the power of intervention. Such an officer is expected to be a student of education, and to endeavour to help his subordinates to keep in touch with all forward movement. Often he takes up some subject as a specialty, and does original work therein, so that his activities are such as command for the teaching profession public recognition, public respect, and contact with the larger world. The influence of such men is undoubtedly good, and the post of director is one to which the abler men in the teaching profession naturally aspire. 15. The function of Inspectors. — The maintenance of efficiency of unity of teaching and unity of organisation involves in the administrative scheme of any department of instruction the appointment of persons, whose duty it is to have an oversight over a number of schools lying within a particular area or district. These are known as inspectors. The work they are called upon to do is undoubtedly of a very high and responsible order; for it is through their influence largely that the efficiency of the organisation is maintained. Different conceptions exist as to the proper work of such officers ; and, as a matter of fact, the most varied opinions are entertained as to what their office really is. The two most fundamental differences in the view of their possible functions are : — ■ (a) That their main duty is to ascertain the efficiency of the school by periodical examination of the children, and of the mode in which school records are kept. (6) That their proper work is that of general oversight, and that they should be the friend and adviser of the teacher in regard to his teaching methods. Which rdle he ought to play depends very much upon the view taken as to the teacher's efficiency and natural tendency. If teachers be appointed who are inefficient, half-educated, and have no interest in their work, it may be necessary to drive them by periodically examining the children unfortunately placed in their charge ; if, on the other hand, teachers are efficient, well-educated, and have an interest in their work, there can be no doubt that their daily contact with the children in their charge qualifies them to form opinions as to the progress of the children, which no such casual visitor, as an inspector, can possibly form. Wherever 498 Wherever the pupil-teacher system is in vogue, the examination of the children by inspectors has been also in vogue ; and the fact is worth observing, for it carries on the face of it an implication that there is no confidence in the teaching staff. Certainly, if the inspector is a better examiner than the teacher daily in contact with the pupils, that is almost in itself a declaration of incompetency. The matter is important. The principle proper to follow may best be illustrated by taking an extreme case. In the schools for defectives the teachers have absolute control of details ; that is to say, they are regarded as absolutely the best judges of the proper way to educate the children in their charge. The reason of this is, that, with the feeble-minded, no stereotyped method would be of value. Consequently the principle followed may be stated as follows : — (a) Care is taken that the teacher appointed is efficient. (6) It is assumed that, so far as lies in his power, he will discharge his duty. (c) The daily contact with the child gives him unique opportunities of discerning the best way of educating it. (rf) Real education demands thoroughness rather than attempt at satisfying some superficial and stereotyped standard, (e) The teacher himself is best able to estimate the suitable way of carrying forward the education of the children committed to his care. What is so clearly seen in the case of the feeble-minded, applies really to the education of all children. From one year to another they are known to vary, and no casual inspection can shew whether they have been dealt with to the best advantage from the standpoint of sound education or not. How far they have been specially prepared to respond to some probable programme of examination can of course be estimated, but this is a gauge of tlie master's shrewdness rather than of the reality and thoroughness of the pupil's knowledge. It is well known that the predilections of the examiner are made objects of research on the part of the teacher with a view to ensuring a good report. The least reflection will make it obvious that no teacher in conducting his teaching should have to take into consideration the special views of an inspecting examiner. The teaching to be good must be governed by two things, viz. : — (a) The curriculum, expressing the general aim of the education. (6) The mental endowment of the children to be taught. Bearing in mind that teaching is to some extent en masse, that a teacher called upon continually to sacrifice the whole class to the backward pupils, or to sacrifice the backward pupils to the rapidity of progress of the better pupils, it is preferable that his experience should guide him as to his proper course of action without regard to the results of inspectorial examination. As his experience of teaching increases, he will learn what, with his own personality and endowments, he himself is capable of doing ; and his decision in regard to the dilemma just pointed out will, in regard to his own personality, probably be the wisest one, provided only that originally he was properly educated for his profession. The method of inspection, wherever there are no pupil teachers, i.e., throughout Europe and America, is practically wholly different from that of this State. The inspector exercises supervision, he advises, inspires, encourages, suggests details, comments upon educational developments, and so on. In Germany the programmes of work are drafted by inspectors and directors, working in collaboration. As to the advantage of the method, there is no room for doubt. The results attained in our schools are undoubtedly inferior. 16. Relation between Teachers and Pupils. — No system of education is satisfactory which fails to promote the most cordial sympathy between the inspecting and the teaching staffs, and similarly between teachers and pupils. Children, to profit by their school education, must recognise in the master their friend and helper, a man, or woman, who has their interests truly at heart. For, as previously stated, in Europe and America, the teacher is regarded as the character-builder. The wider outlook, the better knowledge, the more serious view, of the matured and well-educated teacher, are calculated to enable him to fully realise that mere mechanical discharge of his teaching duty is a failure to discharge his real duty as a teacher. He cannot deal effectively even with the informative element of his work, to say nothing of the ethical, without putting his heart into it. The teacher is necessarily largely the ideal on which the children build up their ideas of manliness, integrity, etc., and therefore sympathy with his pupils is a prerequisite if he is to favourably influence them. That the teacher's calling is really in the highest sense a vocation — a duty that is — to which he ought to feel the call of an inner voice, is a view which is really very widespread, and is clearly recognised in the official documents of Europe, as translated passages in this report will perhaps have shewn. 17. Status of Teachers. — Except perhaps in some parts of the United States, qualified and educated teachers are, the wide world over, inadequately paid. It probably will always remain true that the earnest teacher will never be adequately paid. At the present time in this State his emoluments are on a scale which must tempt to abandonment of what really ought to be regarded as one of the most important and honourable professions. The question of the emoluments of teachers will, however, not here be dealt with. Here it will suffice to say that the recognition of the fact that the well-being of humanity depends largely upon our appreciation of the teacher's work, is a distinct feature in the views of educationists in Europe and America. It is well for any country that so comports itself to the teaching profession as to secure men of gentlemanly conduct and of integrity of character, because the character of the teacher is a large factor in forming the character of the child with whom he is in daily contact. All teachers of the young are in danger of being narrowed by their contact only with children, who can present to their opinions and statements and views no effective opposition. This absence of adult mental attrition has a consequence that can be distinctly recognised, and which is unquestionably more pronounced in those who have embarked on teaching, without the liberalising effect of a good secondary education, than in the case of those who are engaged in teaching at a more adult period of their lives and after a good education. The more, therefore, teachers involve themselves, or who are involved, in the wider life of the community, the better ; and any regime which restricts them in this respect hampers their development. 'The 494 The sending of teachers out in a state of better preparation for their task, the giving themvat first a much higher education, will do much to command for them that public respect which is necessary to induce the better class of men to remain therein. A larger outlook will not only act as a corrective to their daily association with children, but will also in its turn make their influence of greater value to the children, and help to increase our national vigour. 18. — Chwraeter of the Teacliers Work. — It may, or may not, be true that national existence is bound up with the system of education. There is, however, a growing opinion that it is at least one of the greatest factors of national strength ; and certainly, in so far as intelligence and character determine the industrial, commercial, and moral activity of the people, it may well be said that the function of the schoolmaster is of great and growing importance. Public men throughout England are calling attention in no unmistakable terms to the duty that lies upon us of providing better education for the people. 8ir William Anson, in the place before referred to, says : — " We want a good liberal education, with such knowledge of science as will enable a man to understand the world he lives in ; such a knowledge of science, I am sorry to say, as is not given to the youth of the period in which we live (that is in the United Kingdom) ; and we want a good technical education, something that will fit our youth to compete in the commercial struggles of the day, coupled with such a knowledge of language and literature and history as will remind them after all there is a past, and that great men have said great things worth saying and worth recording." It is perfectly clear that if we are to get the best results, the real character of the work of the teacher must be appreciated. He must be correspondingly respected. His emoluments must enable him to take a I'easonable place among his fellow men. 19. Tlie Direction of /idiicatioii. — The liberalising of education, the freeing of the narrowing tendencies before referred to, the maintenance of a high state of efficiency, all demand that the educational system of each country shall be under continual review in comparison with the systems of other countries. In all countries visited by the Commissioners, the chief officials had considerable knowledge of and the widest sympathy with educational movement in other countries of the world, and kept the educational practice and theory of their own countries under continual criticism. At the centre of educational administration in each country a pjedagogical library, containing reports of educational work and progress in other countries, enables changes in systems to be systematically noted. The special pedagogical libi'aries contain also all the most important works on education, so that the administration has the opportunitj' of studying the educational systems of the world. For an administrator to spend the whole of his time on the details of administrative duty, is recognised in other parts of the world as a thorough misconception of his function, and a serious misuse of his time. The case is similar with inspectors, other high officials in the department, and even with directors of schools. To be able to inspire their subordinates, the higher officials must be widely cultured, able by linguistic and general attainments to keep in touch with world-wide educational movement, not so much with its mechanism, although that is important, as with its theory and spirit. It is obvious that the best equipped schools do not necessarily ensure a good system of education. Equipment is, of course, important, but the spirit of the teaching is vastly more so. To maintain in teachers some approach to continued high eflbrt, an effort upon which the whole character of the nation so largely depends, it -is necessary that the superior officers and chief of administration should, in addition to possessing wide culture and large sympathies, use their personal influence to inspire the effort of their staff. Dictation of a policy may answer in some walks of life, but Education depends upon the morai, earnesttiess and technical ejficiency of the teacher. Hence he needs to be supported by high influences, and may not perform his work perfunctorily, for such performance fails to possess the most important element, viz., that which builds up character. Over the whole of Europe and America the importance of a liberal direction of education is fully recognised, and the culture and attainments of the men directing education are matters to which more and more prominence is being given. 20. Free Education. — Over a large part of Europe, and a considerable part of America, free education is provided. Some places, Denmark for example, have for their primary system free schools, and also better equipped schools charging slight fees. In some cases free education extends right up to the University inclusive, as, for example, in California. The whole question will, however, be dealt with in treating of secondary and higher education. In almost all countries, too, facilities exist for the talented to acquire the benefits of good education. Switzerland, with its free elementary education, its excellent and well-equipped schools, and well-educated teachers, stands in marked contrast with the educational equipment of our State. And the same thing is true of almost the whole of Europe and America. 21. Urban and Rural Education.^Ail towns have schools of the highest class which represent the highest organisation of education attempted in the particular country. Once the character of the town school is fixed, and the scheme of staffing, there is no difficulty in arranging the simpler rural school. The teacher of either should be fully qualified ; aiid that is a point at which Europe and America are strenuously aiming, and the use of only partially qualified assistants working under supervision is dis- appearing. The pupil teacher in our schools is a teacher really teaching independently ; that is a feature which does not exist anywhere in Europe, as far as the Commissioners could learn. 22. Conclusion. — The drift of modem education may be summed up by saying that the spirit of progress is thoroughly alive in European and American education. Better education of teachers, better methods, better hygiene, better schools, better equipments, are characteristic. It will be seen by comparing some of the old programmes that we are here lamentably behind, and that the most strenuous efforts will be necessary to reach the condition of either Europe or America of to-day in two decades from the present time. '■ CHAPTER LVril. 496 CHAPTER LVIII. Rural Schools. [J. W. TURNER.] The difficult question of providing means for edueatinf; children in the sparsely populated districts of the State was fully and ably discusfed at the 1002 Conference of Inspectors and Officers. Several Inspectors with a full acquaintance of the school needs of such districts gave their experience, and made valuable suggestions as to the best means of overcoming the difficulty. District Inspector Long moved, "That, while in full accord with the desire to extend the means of education in sparsely populated localities, this Conference is of opinion that nothing is at present practicable in addition to what the Department now does in that direction." The following is the discussion, in part, which took place on Mr, Long's motion : — ^ " Mr. Long : I take it this item refers to the provision of means of education in localities which are not served by methods already adopted by the Department. The suggestion is that it should be done by in some way subsidising private teachers. Those who have had experience of the more^^mote regions of this State will agree with me that it is so rare to meet private teachers who can be regarded as worth subsidising that it is hopeless to attempt anything in that direction. I have often seen children running about in places where they are quite removed from educational influences. I have given the matter much thought, and so far as I can see it is not possible to do anything to extend the means of education into the remote districts beyond the provision already made by the Department, and 1 move a resolution to that efTect. CENTRALIZED COUNTRY SCHOOL-KINGSVILLE, ASHTABULA CO., OHIO. This was the first Centralized School in Ohio ; opened 1892. The cut shows the School at dismissal, with the waggons ready to take the children home. " Mr. Bradley : I beg to second the motion, and to state that my experience, which is, perhaps, as large as that of any inspector in country districts, coincides with Mr. Long's. 1 was going to suggest that those who are engaged in the country should be canvassed to ascertain how many families there are within their knowledge for whose education this special provision needs to be made. I only know of two in my own district whose wants have not been met by the provision we now have for supplying Half-time Schools and House-to-house Schools. The exceptional cases are so few, and the difficulty of meeting them so great, that, with Mr. Long, I consider the scheme would be impracticable. Further, if vre subsidise, we must see that we get the value of the money. That means that we have to hunt up these people, and appraise the value of the work they are doing. I am just as anxious as any one that every family, no matter how isolated, shall be reached by the educator; but I can see that the matter is simply impossible. "Mr. Blumer 496 " Mr. Blumer : Some time back the plan was carried out of appointing teachers to the small schools where they received very little salary, on condition that the people themselves provided board and lodgings free for the teacher. In other words, we paid the salary, and the only expense the people were put to was in the provision of board and lodging. How did the plan work ? 1 think it was the unanimous opinion of those who had experience of such cases that it was a most ignominious failure. The teachers were horribly housed and fed. They received their board and lodging, not in the way of remuneration, but in the same way as the swagman who was allowed to camp and feed there. " Mr. Board : With regard to the subsidising of teachers, 1 have very little to say. Ft seems to me to be beset with so many difficulties that I must pass it by. But, with regard to the first portion of the matter, we are considering the provision of educational advantages in localities too thinly populated to support any school prescribed by the regulations. I am disposed to think that something might be done, in a few cases especially, where small Provisional Schools have had to be closed because the necessary attendance of ten could not be maintained. There are many of these schools that are so situated that when we close them we can make no other provison for them by working them at half time with other places. Yet we have these schools within the radius of 6 miles of existing schools. In Victoria they have adopted a plan that, as far as I can see, has very much to commend it, and that is the conveyance of children to school by the aid of subsidies towards conveyance granted by the Department. When a school is closed an offer is made to the residents to pay 3d. or 4d. per day for each child conveyed to school during the year. Under that regulation, adopted in the first place for purposes of economy with a view to closing up many of their small schools, last year children were conveyed to 190 schools in Victoria, at a cost, of £2,020. Since that regulation has been in operation, about 270 small schools have been closed and the children conveyed to neighbouring schools. It seems to me, without going anything like as far as they do in Tictoria — because I think they have carried the matter rather to an extreme — we might apply the principle to many of those small schools that lie within a 5 or 6 miles radius of an existing school, but which cannot maintain the average of ten. Taking my own district as typical, the Provisional Schools average in cost about £4 lOs. per head on the enrolment in them. If we paid 3d. per day for the cost of each child to school, it would not reach the average cost of that child in a Provisional School. It is possible, if we get seven or eight children carried by means of vehicles to a neighbouring school, that school will be raised from a Provisional School to a Public School, and the actual cost per head will be decreased, while we still bring within the range of our education those unfortunate children who would otherwise be deprived of it. I do not know whether there are really so many practical difficulties in connection with the operation of this plan in New South Wales above what they find in Victoria as to make it impossible for us to adopt it. I will move : — That, with a view of supplying eduiational advantages in localities too thinly populated to support any school prescribed by the regulations subsidies be granted for the conveyance of children by vehicle to existing schools where such may be found practicable. The details can be left to departmental regulation. I only want to affirm the principle. I think we might pay 4d. per day per child without adding a single penny to the expense of our system in New South Wales. " Mr. Rooney : This question has been before me for years. In the district in which I live there are hundreds of creeks, and along these creeks are abandoned gold-fields. When the good days are all over all the good men leave and the old crawlers remain behind. There are no horses or vehicles within miles. The families that live along the creeks eke out a most miserable existence. I know families that do not, on an average right through the year, earn os. per week. Their children never have boots ; they have ragged clothes ; many of them are half-castes. To bring these to school in vehicles would cost the State an enormous amount. In fact, a vehicle would have to be got probably 20 miles away. The Government should see that such a state of things should not exist. People of low intellect and low character will go as far away from society as they possibly can. They will go to the mountains and eke out a miserable existence by fishing and washing in the creeks for gold. They bring up their children like animals. Schools would be the best thing they could have ; but, with Mr. Long, I say, after seventeen years' consideration, it is impracticable. You cannot get children, far from an existing school, to value the school. The parents will take no interest in it. The children are not clad; they have no possible means of going to school — there are no vehicles anywhere near. In cases where there were, would not this be a grand opportunity for milking the Government cow ? Respectable families who are making some sort of a living can always find a way of sending their children to school ; but if they find they are to get a subsidy they will at once claim it and make no effort to get to the nearest school. " Mr. Board : That is a matter for regulations. " Mr. Rooney : I say the thing is impracticable. I know that at present there are fully 100 children in the Mudgee district receiving no education whatever, and I can see no practical way until the Govern- ment steps in and prevents the state of things that now exists of people living in a state of semi-barbarism and eating kangaroos and wild animals as their chief food. Why should the Education Department bear the expense ? People are allowed to settle anywhere, to live in any sort of way, and bring up their children like animals, and the Education Department has to try some means to educate them. I do not think anything more can be done than the Department is doing. " Mr. Cooper : I think that we all agree with the principle of the resolutions submitted by both Mr. Long and Mr. Board, and are in accord to a certain extent with the speeches of those gentlemen and the members who supported them ; but I think we ought to turn to the law and the regulations, with a view to seeing whether a remedy to meet the difficulty is not already in force. Clause 23 of the Public Instruction Act provides that, in districts where, owing to the scattered state of the population, it is not practicable to secure sufficient children to form a school, the Minister has power to so regulate matters of administration that every child in the community may be reached. My experience has been that of Mr. Bradley. I have been in some very rough and isolated places, where it has been difficult to take education ; but nevertheless it has been provided for. There has been a difficulty that we all have had to experience. It so happens in these cases that the people are of the poorest class, and the least able to obtain the co-operation of any neighbours, and yet they are called upon to bear the full cost of providing rooms in which to hold the school. By a gracious administration, inaugurated by Mr. Bridges, we have had an opportunity of getting some money in the case of Half-time Schools ; but I do not know whether-that 497 has yet been extended to House-to-houee Schools. It always seems to me to be a reversal of the natural order of things that those that are least able to help themselves should be called upon to do some- thing — however small it may be in the way of providing money, it is very great to this class of people — in order to provide the building in which to hold a school. If they fail to do this, they cannot have the means of education. I think that, if it was suggested to the Minister that some pecuniary aid should be given within reasonable limits, which could be easily regulated by the inspectors in each individual case, the diflBculty experienced in this matter would be largely met. My experience has been that the people in these outlying places are oftentimes very eager to avail themselves of education ; but the diflSculty is the practical one of money. I would move : — That it be Bugge^ted to the Minister that the granting of pecuniary assistance to the residents of isolated places to help them in prOTiding the necessary rooms for Half-time and House-to-house Schools woiJd probably meet this difficulty. " Mr. Sheehy : In connection with this question, I would point out that the 23rd clause of the Public Instruction Act, referred to by Mr. Cooper, provides that the teacher shall be appointed by the Minister. The question is whether aid should be granted in certain cases to the residents by subsidising teachers engaged by them, and providing school materials. In order to test the feeling of the Conference, I move : — That educational advantages should be provided for private schools in localities too thinly populated to support any school prescribed by the regulations. I have in my mind several country schools that have been closed, but which have been continued by teachers engaged by the residents. The Department made no objection whatever to give them the use of the schoolroom, and the books therein, but when those books and the materials were exhausted, no fresh supply was given them. I know of one case where the residents were so anxious to have a school that they applied to have the Provisional School that was closed removed to another site 4 or 5 miles away. They got permission to remove it, and at the present time they have a teacher employed to carry it on. In my opinion these schools should receive encouragement. I have not much more to say. Everyone here understands as much as I do, perhaps more, about the matter ; but I mean to say that these small schools that we have closed under the Department and have been continued by the residents should receive every encouragement. I have several of them in my district. The teachers are employed by the residents. We need not inquire whether the accommodation is comfortable or not — that is a matter for the residents ; but in the matter of House-to-house Schools the inspector has to find a suitable place for the teachers to lodge. In the case of the other schools he has nothing of this kind to do, and, consequently, they stand on a different footing altogether. Although we might not be prepared to go to the extent of subsidising the teacher, even by a small amount, once a year, provided that the inspector is satisfied with the teaching of the four " E's," such schools should get every encouragement in the way of books and materials. "Mr. Hunt: No doubt these inspectors who afBrm the desirability of subsidising private teachers or private efforts mean well ; but I am quite sure that if the Department do not hold the reins very tightly we shall bring trouble upon ourselves. I have a very large district, and, owing to the size of many of the blocks of land taken up by the parents, it is sometimes difficult to meet the education requirements of the people ; but I know that there are very few families, and I make full inquiries when travelling about, who are being educationally neglected Where we are not meeting the educational wants of the outlying districts there are teachers and governesses employed ; but there are a few instances where people have to drive their children great distances to attend the school. In the case of the Combarra School, I know that there is one family which has to go 8 miles every school-day to attend the school ; what they feel the want of is a paddock in which to feed their horses. There happens to be a common there, but not a paddock. If the Department would meet such a case as this by fencing in the school-ground, and by fencing in, say, an acre in which the horses may be put by those who drive to school, I think these people will then see that the Department is trying to meet their case. I saw a letter last evening in the Stock and Station Journal, in which the writer spoke of a case — it happens to be in my own district, somewhere between Warren and Quambone, and he says that no Minister has visited that part since the time he has resided there, some twelve or eighteen years, and he suggests that the Department should send forth travelling schools, teachers travelling in a vehicle in which they might live, and visit such outlying families. I believe that this is now done in America. I daresay that there are cases here in which this system might be tried, where we could send somebody out who could visit these out-of-the-way places, and find out the families that are rcallj not being educated. " Mr. McCredie : Before the question is put I should like to say that whilst I agree with Mr. Cooper's suggestion, I think we should go a little further. He has suggested that a grant be given in the case of applicants for Half-time or House-to-house Schools. No doubt great hardship is suffered by many of these people if we call upon them to bear the cost of erecting schools, for many of them are among the poorest people in our land. I know that, because of several applications of this kind that I have dealt with personally. It would be a great hardship for them to find the money to build the school, or even to assist in erecting it by their own labour. There is one clause of our regulations that I would like very- much to see expunged, and that clause is No. 50 of the regulations framed under the Act. ] think thak would be a step in the right direction. It states that ' Aid will not be granted towards the maintenance of Half-time Schools if suitable rooms are not provided by the applicants.' I can speak from my experience during the last three or four months. Inspectors have sent in applications for Half-time Scnools, and I have found it very hard to concur in their recommendations that these schools be established. The Department should do something to meet the case wherever a small average attendance can be assured. I would, therefore, move : — That Clause No. 50 of the regulations framed under the Public Instruction Act of 1880 be expungetl, and provision made for the granting of aid in the erection of buildings for Half-time Schools. " Mr. Lobban : We are to submit a proposal with regard to the question of subsidising teachers engaged by parents to provide educational requirements. It is well-known that on some of the large stations, a stockman, with perhaps three or four children, resides on one portion of the run, and another stockman, also with a family, resides perhaps 10 or more miles away. These people are unable to engage teachers, and, of course, their children have to be provided for by means of itinerant teachers. My experience is this : I have not yet seen a place where the people have not engaged such a teacher, in such 15— 3 T 498 such circumstances. We are supposed to be legislating for a certain class of people. I have not met any families where there is half a dozen children between them without their having engaged a teacher. Up to the present the only gentleman who has spoken to the latter part of the proposal is Mr. Sheehy. He made a definite proposal. Before we come to vote on this qustion, I want to understand what we really mean by subsidising teachers engaged by parents and providing school requisites. " Dr. Morris : I think that the matters brought forward this morning point out to the Conference that the Department should be prepared to strain their purse somewhat rather than allow the terrible state of things described by gentlemen like Mr. Eooney to continue. I think it is a blot upon our civilisation that any responsible human beings should be rising into life under the conditions described — and, I am sure, described faithfully — by Mr. Rooney. It rather causes a shudder in my mind that they should be allowed to grow up like kangaroos and wallabies. I think we should be careful about shirking our responsibilities with regard to these persons. I do not think that any sum within reason should be spared to save these children from such utter degradation. " Mr. Thomas : I have a resolution to move, which, I think, will, perhaps, meet the difficulty. I beg to move : — That the subsidising of teachers engaged by parents presents unsurmountable difficulties, but steps should be taken tojiberalise the^existing regulations as to the establishment of Half-time and House-to-house Schools. ^ CENTRALIZED COUNTRY SCHOOL, GREENE TOWNSHIP, TRUMBULL CO., OHIO. Opened September, 1900. "Mr. Bridges: There has been a great deal of talk about this matter, and, perhaps, a certain amount of irrelevant discussion ; but I recognise that the matter is a most important one, and have, therefore, permitted a wider scope than usual in the discussion. I think I am justified in taking these as substantive resolutions instead of taking them as amendments on Mr. Long's motion. Adopting that course, I will put the last resolution first. " Mr. Thomas' motion was carried, the voting being 26 for and 6 against. " Mr. McCredie's resolution was put and carried. " Mr. Cooper's resolution was put and carried. " Mr. Sheehy's resolution was put and lost. " Mr. Board's resolution was put and lost. " Mr. Long : I withdraw my motion. We ought all to form our opinions about matters that come directly under our notice. I will say this : that I feel quite sure that to grant pecuniary aid for the erection of buildings for Half-time Schools — I will not say itinerant schools, for I do not think that is provided in the regulations — will operate most prejudicially. Very often there are people who have a small school within accessible distance, but who, if they could get a little building put up for their own particular children a little nearer at hand, would begin agitating for it. No doubt all these matters can be viewed differently, but I certainly think it will operate badly if we do such a thing, more especially if this is to act in regard to itinerant schools as well. The Department will have such a number of applications as to be exceedingly troublesome, and result in the waste of the official's time. " Mr. Bridges in referring to a statement made by one of the speakers said that within the last ten years no school with an average of eight had been closed. The Department keeps schools going that have only an average attendance of six. And we have been abused for keeping these particular schools in existence ; but we will continue to do it, so long as we may be hopeful that the attendance will increase." At the Annual Confereijice of the National Educational Association of America, held in Boston in July this year, the question of improving the conditions of schools in the rural districts was one of the items on the programme for consideration. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction for Nebraska, Mr. Fowler, was one of the speakers. The 499 The population of the State of Nebraska is a little less than that of New South Wales. Agriculture is the leading industry, stock-raising is only second in importance to agriculture, while fruit-growing and dairy and poultry farming are important and growing industries. The public school enrolment in 1896-7 was 266,317, the expenditure, £684,248. The State has passed a law which provides for the free education of pupils, who have not opportunities for advanced classes in their own districts, in neighbouring High Schools. Nebraska claims the lowest rate of illiteracy of any State in the Union. Mr. Fowler favours the consolidation of small rural schools into a common Central School, to and from which pupils should be conveyed from every part of the district by means of covered vans or waggons. The plan of centralisation of schools in some form is adopted by several of the States. The chief merits of such a plan are : It permits of a better classification inasmuch as pupils work in graded schools under better methods ; it affords an opportunity for more effective teaching in such subjects as drawing, music, and Nature study ; it insures fewer and better teachers ; it quickens public interest in the schools ; the health of the children is better for they are less exposed to dangers arising from travelling in bad weather. Finally, the plan makes for contentment with farm life, inasmuch as boys and girls may secure through the common Central School the advantages of a higher education similar to those obtained by pupils living in large centres of population. Mr. John T. Prince, the agent of the Massachusetts State Board of Education considers it is a matter of grave doubt whether some features of the rural schools consolidation plan should be made subjects of legislation. He is of opinion that it would not be well to fix by law the maximum distance at which pupils may be conveyed to school, the minimum sum for the transportation of each pupil, op the provision for the payment of a sum of money for each pupil or family living at a distance from the school, with the understanding that the father may or may not perform the service of transportation for which he is paid. He doubts the wisdom of closing schools for the purpose of consolidation on the grounds of economy, or because they are small, and contends that in any reform in the direction of consolidating the schools, the question of efficiency should be the only or chief determining factor. He considers that the most legislation needed is a general law permitting schools to be closed and the pupils conveyed at public expense, whenever in the estimation of the County Board it was desirable to do so. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Mr. Baylies, Springfield, Illinois, gave particulars of his experience in the consolidation of rural schools. The State of Illinois has a population of nearly 5,000,000. The Public School enrolment in 1896-7 was 920,425; private, 138,542; expenditure, £3,267,110. The manufacturing industries are very extensive, and a large amount of mining and agriculture is carried on in some parts of the State. The consolidation of the schools in the State of Illinois is in Mr. Bayliss' opinion the result of local conditions. In the State there are, he says, more than a thousand schools with fewer than fifteen scholars ; six or seven hundred schools with less than ten scholars ; and two hundred others where the attendance is less than five. He advocates consolidation, and points out that all that is asked in the State is permission to consolidate where it appears to be advisable. Approximately he believes the plan would give thousands of children a better chance. Judging from the general tone of the discussion it would seem that the great aim of the Americans is to bring the child to the school and not so much to send the teacher to the child. The success of the Central School system has been established in some of the Eastern States of America, and in the State of Ohio. The first Central School in Ohio was opened in Kingsville Township, Ashtabula Co., in 1892. A cut of the school is shown on page . The picture shows the pupils leaving the school at the close of the day to enter the waggons. The cut on page shows the loaded waggons en route for home. Each waggon is provided with a hood and curtains which give effective shelter trom winds and storms The drivers, who also act as daily mail carriers, are as carefully selected as the teachers of the schools, and they are placed under a bond to faithfully perform their work. The Central School, Gustavus Township, Trumbull Co., Ohio, takes the place of nine small schools. The school has four departments and four teachers as against nine in the scattered schools. The average daily attendance has increased in two years from 125 pupils in the nine small schools to 144 in the Central School. But a still greater success is seen in the large enrolment in the High School room of the institution. More than one-third of the pupils, boys and girls, are receiving the higher education, and at the same time all the advantage of the home, where they are able to spend their evenings with their parents secure from the temptations of town or city life. In scattered small schools High School education is impossible. On the question of cost the Superintendent, Cook Co., Illinois, in recommending the scheme of Central Schools in Ohio to his own people in 1900, said : — " On the whole, the evidence seems to be that the school expense in the Ohio townships is about what it was before the consolidation ; possibly it is somewhat greater, but the school facilities furnished, including the High School, the regularity of attendance, the absence of tardiness, the increased number of months during each school year, and the comfort of the children, are strong factors in estimating the expense. It would seem that the schools are at least twice as effective and the cost about the same." Consolidation of schools, which has proved satisfactory in some American States, is practicable in some of our rural districts. It is necessary to give our boys and girls engaged with their parents in farm life an opportunity for obtaining an education something like what is given to town children, and the question to be considered is what is the best way of reaching this end ? Consolidation of schools into one common Central School is one way. Another plan has been suggested in our own State, viz. : — providing scholarships from the small country schools to the nearest District Model Schools, which should be situated in every town of importance. The awarding of such scholarships might very well be entrusted to the Inspector at the time of his annual visit. In consultation with the teacher he could find out without the process of a minute examination what pupils have the intelligence and the desire to go further in their studies. Of the two schemes the plan of consolidation of schools is preferred to the plan of scholarships because (a) of the better preparation which the pupils receive under it, and (6) of the greater numbers which are likely to benefit by it. One of the great purposes of the Commissioner's report is to educate the narents, as well as the children, of the State. At present the parents do not realise the difference Detween school and school ; particularly is this the case in the country. Parents 500 Parents in every small centre of population agitate until they get a school building, utterly unmindful of the fact that the multiplication of these small schools deprives their children of a lot of advantages appertaining to schools of a higher standard. The statement is often made that the city has all the educational advantages, and that the country has to be satisfied virith a lower grade standard of instruction. Some steps should be taken to bring home to the parents concerned the great difference between the standard of instruction in Provisional, or Ninth or Tenth Class Schools, and in that of a Third or Fourth Class School. If parents could be led to dispossess their minds of the idea that by getting a certain amount of Government money spent in small centres of population they were consulting the best interests of their children, a great reform would be effected, because it is not merely the establishment of any sort of school that means the advancement of their children's education, but rather the establishment of such a school as will result in their children being thoroughly taught to the standard of town schools. If our Inspectors were instructed to continuously address the parents in the different centres on this point, the Commissioner thinks that the Department would have less applications for the establishment of small schools teaching the three " E.'s," and that these small communities would combine to secure the establishment of a school of higher standard, which would give their children equal advantages with those attending schools in the populous areas. In this connection the Department should undoubtedly assist parents in the matter of conveying children to schools so established. One good concentrated school would supply the educational wants of a community which now has to rely on several small schools of no particular character. The amalgamation of several small schools into a school of the Fourth Class, for example, would ensure, in the first place, the appointment of a head teacher of good attainments, and trained assistant teachers. With the better qualified teachers higher standards of work could be reached. A parent would IWACCONS LOADED FOR HOME AT ONE OF THE OHIO CENTRALIZED SCHOOLS. not be under the expense or inconvenience of sending his child from home if he wished to give him a good education. The local Central School could be so organised that there would be no general necessity for such a course. Many, if not all, the subjects taught in the city schools, could be taught in the Central School. The establishment of Central Schools need not in any way clash with the District Model Schools. The former are intended to give certain educational advantages to children living away from towns, the latter are designed to give the best public school education to the children of a town and district. The District Model School no doubt would have a wide curriculum, and possibly would teach some subjects beyond the course of the Central School, and some parents, for very good reasons, might desire to send their children to it. To meet the wishes of such parents, it might be considered advisable to have a scheme of scholarships providing admission from the Central Schools, on the completion of the course by the pupils, to the District Model Schools. On the mere question of c3fet, the Central School system would prove cheaper than the present arrangement of separate small schools, because the Department would be relieved of the necessity of building and repairing small schools, as well as of paying salari9s to teachers, and providing school material. Even if the scheme cost more, the great benefit conferred upon the children in the matter of providing a higher education would warrant the change. The Commissioner makes these recommendations because he feels convinced that the community would benefit considerably if our small schools were considerably reduced in number, and a more uniform quality of education given to the whole of the children of the State. At present, without doubt, the children of the towns and cities have many educational advantages over the children spread through the country. The propositions, which were carried in the New South Wales Conference, outline methods for a very liberal treatment of schools situated in the sparsely populated districts of the State, and the action of the Minister of Public Instruction in putting into effect some of the best features of the resolutions is an earnest of his sympathy in the movement. Sydney : William Applegate Gullick, Government Printer— 1004 YR 0\S1D UNIVEE^lTY OF CAUFORNIA UBRARY