,il«"'l Southern Branch of the University of California Los Angeles Form L 1 fnm NORMAL BOOK STOffL This book is DUE on the last date stamped below i'J/g^ blC^ 8 1930 1 ^ 193/ M/\R 2 2 1957 aCT5 - 195S ^JUL '-2 1960 AUG 2 1960 WOV 2 1. 136|i Form L-9-5(,v-5,"24 PRACTICAL Exercises in English BY RUBER GRAY BUEHLER MASTER IN ENGLISH IN THE HOTCHKISS SCHOOL ARRANGED FOR USE WITH ADAMS SHERMAN HILL'S "FOUNDATIONS OF RHETORIC" / OZiy' NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMEKICAN BOOK COMPANY \ OO Z.S' Copyright, 1895, by Harper & Brothers. All rights reserved. W. P. 5 PE 11 / / PREFACE The art of using one's native tongue correctly and for- cibly is acquired for the most part through imitation and practice, and is not so much a matter of knowledge as of habit. As regards English, then, the first duty of our schools is to set before pupils excellent models, and, in all departments of school-woi'k, to keep a watchful eye on the innumerable acts of expression, oral and written, which go to form habit. Since, however, pupils come to school with many of their habits of expression already formed on bad models, our schools must give some attention to the special work of pointing out common errors of speech, and of leading pupils to convert knowledge of these errors into new and correct habits of expression. This is the branch of English teaching in which this little book hopes to be useful. All the " Exercises in English " with which I am ac- quainted consist chiefly of " sentences to be corrected." To such exercises there are grave objections. If, on the one hand, the fault in the given sentence is not seen at a glance, the pupil is likely, as experience has shown, to pass it by and to change something that is not wrong. If, on iv PREFACE the other hand, the fault is obvious, the exercise has no value in the formation of habit. Take, for example, two " sentences for correction " which I select at random from one of the most widely used books of its class : " I knew it was him," and " Sit the plates on the table." A pupil of any wit will at once see that the mistakes must be in "him" and "sit," and knowing that the alternatives are "he" and "set," he will at once correct the sentences without knowing, perhaps, why one form is wrong, the other right. He has not gained anything valuable ; he has simply " slid " through his exercise. Moreover, such " sen- tences for correction " violate a fundamental principle of teaching English by setting before the impressionable minds of pupils bad models. Finally, such exercises are unnatural, because the habit which we hope to form in our pupils is not the habit of correcting mistakes, but the habit of avoiding them. Correct English is largely a matter of correct choice be- tween two or more forms of expression, and in this book an attempt has been made, as a glance at the pages will show, to throw the exercises, whenever possible, into a form consistent with this truth. Though a pupil may change "who" to "whom" without knowing why, he cannot repeatedly choose correctly between these forms without strengthening his own habit of correct expression. This book has been prepared primarily as a companion to Professor A. S. Hill's " Foundations of Rhetoric," in answer to the request of many teachers for exercises to PREFACE V use with that admirable work.' Without the friendly en- couragement of Professor Hill the task would not have been undertaken, and to him above all others I am indebted for assistance in completing it. He has permitted me to draw freely on his published works ; he has provided me with advance sheets of the revised edition of " Principles of Rhetoric ;" he has put at ray disposal much useful mate- rial gleaned from his own experience ; he has read the manuscript and proofs, and, without assuming any respon- sibility for shortcomings, he has suggested many improve- ments. I am also indebted to Mr. E. G. Coy, Headmaster of the Hotchkiss School, for many valuable suggestions, and to my colleague, Mr. J. E. Barss, for assistance in the proof-reading. The quotations from " The Century Dictionary " are made under an arrangement with the owners of the copyright of that work, I am also indebted to Professor Barrett Wendell, Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., and Messrs. Macmillan & Co. for permission to use brief quotations from their works. H. G. B Lakevillk, Conn., September, 1895. * See Appeudix : Suggestions to Teachers. CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER Q I. GOOD USE ' 12 II. ARTICLES . . . , III. NOUNS ° IV. PRONOUNS V. VERBS VI. ADJECTIVES ANlt ADVERBS i'^^ 134 VII. PREPOSITIONS 142 VIII. CONJUNCTIONS 151 APPENDIX INDEX .,.,.. 158 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH IMIACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH CHAPTER I. OF GOOD USE Why is it that for the purposes of English composition one word is not so good as another? To this question we shall get a general answer if we examine the effect of cer- tain classes of expressions. Present Use. — Let us examine first the effect produced by tliree passages in the authorized version of the Eng- lish Bible — a version made by order of King James in 1611:— * "For these two years hath the famine been in the land, and yet there are five years, in the which there shall neither be earing nor harvest " (Gen. xlv. 6). " O ye sons of men, how long will ye turn my glory into shame? how long will ye love vanity, and seek after leasing?" (Psa. iv. 2). " Now I would not have you ignorant, brethren, that oftentimes I purposed to come unto you, but was let hitherto" (Rom.i. 13). See also Gen. xxv. 29; Matt. iii. 8; Acts viii. 3; 1 Thess. iv. 15. An ordinary reader of our time cannot without assist- ance fully understand these passages, because the words " earing," " leasing," and " let " convey to his mind either no idea at all or a wrong idea. Two hundred and eighty 4 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH years ago, when this translation of the Bible was made, these words were common words with plain meanings ; but "earing" and "leasing" have since dropped out of com- mon use, and "let" has acquired a different meaning; con- sequently an ordinary reader of the present time must consult a dictionary before he can be sure what the pas- sages mean. Words and meanings which have gone out of use are called obsolete. There is not much temptation to use obsolete words; but the temptation sometimes comes. Therefore we note, as our first conclusion, that a person who wishes to be understood must avoid expressions and meanings which are not m present use. National Use. — A boy from southern Pennsylvania was visiting in New York State. In the midst of some prep- arations for a fishing excursion he said to his host, " Shall I take my gums along?" His host burst out laughing and said, " Of course ; did you think of taking them out of your mouth and leaving them at home?" ' Unconsciously the boy had used a good English word in a sense peculiar to the district in which he lived ; his host had understood the word in its proper sense. On another occasion a gentleman who had just arrived at a hotel in Kennebunkport, Me., agreed to a proposal to "go down to the beach in the barged Going to his room, he prepared for a little excursion on the river which flowed by the hotel. When he returned, he was greatly surprised to find his friends about to start for the beach in a large omrdbus. . Another gentleman once asked a young lady to go ^'•riding'''' with him. At the appointed hour he drove to her house in a buggy, and she came down to meet him in her riding habit. These incidents show that if we use expressions that ' This and the two following incidents are from the writer's own obser- vation. OF GOOD USE 5 are only local, or use words in local senses, we are liable either to be misunderstood or not to be understood at all. Obscurity also arises from the use of words in senses which are peculiar to a certain class or profession. For example, to a person who is not familiar with commercial slang, this sentence from the market columns of a newspaper is a puzzle : — "Java coffees are dull and easy, though they are statistically strong." The following directions for anchoring in a gale of wind are taken from a book called " How to Sail a Boat " : — "When everything is ready, bring the yacht to the wind, and let the sails shake in the wind's eye; and, so soon as she gets stern-icay, let go the best bower anchor, taking care not to snub her too quickly, but to let considerable of the cable run out before checking her ; then take a turn or two around the knight-heads," etc. If a landsman's safety depended on his understand- ing these directions, there would not be much hope for him. The following extract is from a newspaper report of a game of ball : — " In the eighth inning Anson jumped from one box into the other and whacked a wide one into extreme right. It was a tliree-base jolt and was made when Gastright intended to force the old man to first. The Brooklyns howled and claimed that Anson was out, but McQuaid thought diffei'ently. Both teams were crippled. Lange will be laid up for a week or so. One pitcher was batted out of the box." This narrative may seem commonplace to school-boys, but to their mothers and sisters it must seem alarm- ing. Our second conclusion, therefore, is that a person who Avishes to be understood must avoid words and phrases that are not understood, and understood in the same sense, in 6 PRACTICAL EXERCISES L\ ENGLISH every part of the country, and in every class or profes- sion.' Reputable Use. — Let us examine now the effect produced by a third kind of expression, namely, words and phrases "not used by writers and speakers of established reputa- tion."^ Let us take as our illustrations the familiar ex- pressions, "He done it" and "Please set in this seat." Each of these expressions is common at the present time, and its meaning is instantly clear to any one who speaks English. But these expressions, not being used by well- informed and careful speakers, produce in the mind of a well-informed hearer an impression of vulgarity like that which we get from seeing a person eat with his knife. In language, as in manners and fashions, the law is found in the custom of the best people ; and persons who wish to be classed as cultivated people must speak and write like cultivated people. There is no moral wrong in a person's saying " Please set in this seat," and if he does say it he will probably be understood ; but persons who use this or any other expression which is not in reputable use run the risk of being classed as ignorant, affected, or vulgar. Good Use. — It appears, therefore, that words and phrases, in order to be proper expressions for use in English prose, (l) must be in common use at the present time ; (2) the}'- must be used, and used in the same sense, in every part of the country, and in every class and profession ; (3) they must be expressions used by writers and speakers of established reputation. In other words, our expressions must be in present, national, and reputable use. Expres- sions which fulfil these three conditions are said to be in good use. The next question that presents itself to one who wishes 1 A. S. Hill : Foundations of Rhetoric, p. 28. ' Ibid., p. 20. OF GOOD USE 7 to use English correctly is, How am I to know what words and expressions are in good use? Conversation and Good Use. — Good use cannot be de- terniiiu'd solely by observing the conversation of our associates ; for the chances are that they use many local expressions, some slang, and possibly some vulgarisms. " You often hear it " is not proof that an expression is in good use. Newspapers and Good Use. — Nor can good use be learned from what we see in newspapers. Newspapers of high rank contain from time to time, especially in their editorial columns, some of the best modern prose, and much literature that has become standard was first printed in periodicals; but most of the prose in newspapers is written necessarily by contributors who do not belong to the class of "speakers or writers whom the world deems the best." As the newspaper in its news records the life of every day, so in its style it too frequently records the slang of daily life and the faults of ordinary conversation. A newspaper contains bits of English prose from hundreds of different pens, some skilled, some unskilled ; and this jumble of styles does not determine good use. No one Book or Writer Decisive. — Nor is good use to be learned from our favorite author, unsupported by other authority; not even, as we have seen, from the English Bible, when it stands alone. No writer, even the greatest, is free from occasional errors ; but these accidental slips are not to be considered in determining good use. Good use is decided by the prevailing usage of the writers whose works make up permanent English literature, not by their inadvertencies. " The fact that Shakspere uses a word, or Sir Walter Scott, or Burke, or Washington Irving, or who- ever happens to be writing earnestly in Melbourne or Sid- ney, does not make it reputable. The fact that all five of 8 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH these authorities use the word in the same sense would go very far to establish the usage. On the other hand, the fact that any number of newspaper reporters agree in usage does not make the usage reputable. The style of newspaper reporters is not without merit; it is very rarely unreadable ; but for all its virtue it is rarely a well of Eng- lish undeliled."' " Reputable use is fixed, not by the practice of those whom A or B deems the best speakers or writers, but by the practice of those whom the world deems the best, — those who are in the best repute, not indeed as to thought, but as to expression, the manner of communicating thought. The practice of no one writer, however high he may stand in the public estimation," is enough to settle a point; but the uniform or nearly uniform practice of reputable speak- ers or writers is decisive." "^ Good Reading the Foundation of Good Speaking and Writing. — To the question how to become familiar with good use the first answer is, read the best literature. Language, like manners, is learned for the most part by imitation ; and a person w^ho is familiar with the language of reputable writers and speakers will use good English without conscious effort, just as a child brought up among refined people generally has good manners without know- ing it. Good reading is indispensable to good speaking or writing. Without this, rules and dictionaries are of no avail. In reading the biographies of eminent writers, it is interesting to note how many of them were great readers when they were young ; and teachers can testify that the best writers among their pupils are those who have read good literature or who have been accustomed to hear good English at home. The student of expression ' Barrett Wendell : English Composition, p. 21. * A. S. Hill : Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 16. OF GOOD USE 9 should begin at once to make the acquaintance of good literature. The Use of Dietionapies. — To become acquainted with good literature, however, takes a long time ; and to decide, by direct reference to the usage of the best writers, every question that arises in composition, is not possible for be- ginners. In certain cases beginners must go to dictionaries to learn what good use approves. Dictionaries do not make good use, but by recording the facts learned by professional investigators they answer many questions regarding it. To one who wishes to speak and write well a good dictionary is indispensable. "The Foundations of Rhetorie." — Dictionaries, however, are not always a sufficient guide; for, being records, they aim to give all the senses in which a word is used, and do not always tell which sense is approved by the best usage. Large dictionaries contain many words which have gone out of good use and other words which have not yet come into good use. Moreover, they treat of words only, not of constructions and long expressions. Additional help in determining good use is required by beginners, and this help is to be found in such books as Professor A. S. Hill's "Foundations of Rhetoric." The investigations of a specialist are there recorded in a convenient form, with particular reference to the needs of beginners and of those who have been under the influence of bad models. Com- mon errors are explained and corrected, and the funda- mental merits of good expression are set forth and illus- trated. Puppose of these Exepeises. — In the following exercises, which are intended for drill on some of these elements of good expression, care has been taken to put the questions into the forms in which they arise in actual composition. The notes which precede the exercises are only hints; for 10 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH full discussions of the principles involved the student must consult larger works. Some Convenient Names Phrases that have gone out of use, said to be AKCHAic or obsolete. Brand-new words which have not be- come established in good use: as, "bur- glarize," "enthuse," "electrocute." Phrases introduced from foreign coun- tries (called POREiGNisMS, alienisms), or peculiar to some district or province (called provincialisms). A phrase in- troduced from France is called- a Oalli- cism; from England, an Anglicism. A phrase peculiar to America is called an Americanism. Similarly we have the terms Latinism, Hellenism, Teutonism, etc. All tliese names may be applied also to certain kinds of Improprieties and Solecisms. Barbarisms : Words and phrases not English ; ^'.e., not authorized by good English use. The name comes from a Greek word meaning " for- eign," "strange." Most errors in the use of English are Improprieties, which are far more common than Barbarisms and Sole- cisms. No classification of them is here attempted. Improprieties: Good 1 English words or phrases us^d in wrong senses; as, "I giiess I'll go to bed;" "He is stopping for a week at the Berk- j shire Inn." Solecisms : Constructions not English, commonly called cases of "bad grammw"" or ''fgfAe syntax": as, "She ^nvited Mrs. Roe and J to go driving vvith her."' '''Solecism" is derive'd from SoU, the name of a Greek tribe who lived in Cilicia and spoke bad Greek. Slang is a general name for current, vulgar, unauthorized language. It may take the form of barbarism, impropriety, or solecism. A Colloquialism is an expression peculiar to familiar conve^sa^ tion. A Vulgarism is an expression peculiar to vulgar or ignorant people. OF GOOD USE 11 EXERCISE I. 1. Make a list of the provincial expressions you can think of, and give their equivalents in national Englisli. 2. Make a list of the slang or vulgar expressions you can think of, aud give their equivalents in reputable English. 3. Make a list of the words, forms, and phrases not in present use which you can find in the second chapter of the Gospel of Matthew, authorized version, and give their equivalents in modern English. EXERCISE II. Which word in the following pairs should an American prefer? Consult Hill's "Foundations of Rhetoric," pp. 28-29: Coal, coals; jug, pitcher; street railway, tramway ; post-card, postal-card ; de- pot, station. EXERCISE III. 1. Arrange the following words in two columns, putting in the first column words that are in good use, in the second, words that are not in good use. Consult Hill's "Foundations of Rhetoric," pp. 27-29: Omnibus, succotash, welkin, ere, nee, depot, veto, func- tion (in the sense of social entertainment), to pan out, twain, on the docket, kine, gerrymander, carven, caucus, steed, to coast (on sled or bicycle), posted (informed), to watch out, right (very). 2. Give good English equivalents for the words which are not in good use. SlA'lBNOKMALSCaoOL CHAPTER II. OF ARTICLES A or An.' — The choice between these forms is determined by sound, not by spelling. Before a consonant sound " a " is used ; before a vowel sound " an" is used. EXERCISE IV. Put the proper form, "a" or "an," before each of these expres- sions: — Elephant, apple, egg, union of states, uniform, uninformed - person, universal custom, umpire, Unitarian church, anthem, unfor- tunate man, united people, American, European, Englishman, one, high hill, horse, honorable career, hypocrite, humble spirit, honest boy, hypothesis, history, historical sketch, heir, hundred, hereditary disease, household. The or A.° — " The " is a broken - down form of the old English thoet, from which we also get " that," and is used to point out some particular person, thing, or class : as, " The headmaster of the school gave the boys permission." When " the " is used before the name of a particular class of persons or things it is called the "generic" article (from genus, ^^ a, class"): as, " None but the brave deserve the fair"; " 77ie eagle is our national bird." "An" ("a") is a broken-down form of the old English woi-d ane, meaning "one." It is properly used when the object is thought of as one of a class: as, "There is an eagle in the zoological garden." It cannot properly be used before a word which is used as a class name, because a class name includes in its meaning more than " one." ' " Foundations," pp. 32-33. 2 Ibid., pp. 3«-34. OF ARTICLES 13 Superfluous and Omitted Aptieles.' — The use of a super- fluous "a" or "an" before a class name, especially after the words " sort " and " kind," is a common and obstinate error. We may say, "This is an eagle," meaning "one eagle." But we may not say, '^ An eagle is our national bird," "This is a rare kind of an eagle," or, "It is not worthy of the name of cm eagle"; because in these sen- tences " eagle " is used as the name, not of a sinsrle bird, but of a class of birds, and includes in its meaning all the birds which belong to the class called "eagle." The sentences are equivalent to: "The kind of bird called 'eagle' is our national bird ;" "This is a rare species of the class of birds called ' eagle;' " " It is not worthy of the name given to the birds which belong to the class called ' eagle.' " EXERCISE V. Tell tJie difference in meaniivg between : — 1. The (a) house is on fire. 2. Yes, I heard (the) shouts in the street. 3. About eight o'clock (the) gaiests began to come. 4. Yes, I heard (the) noises in the next room. 5. The (an) elephant stood on a cask, and the (a) clown sat on the elephant's back. 6. The President has appointed a commission to investigate the cause of (the) strikes. 7. Will he let us look at (the) stars tlirough the (a) telescope? 8. (The) teacher and (the) pupil are interested in this question. 9. He told us about an (tlie) accident. 10. Fire is beautiful. The fire is beautiful. 11. He was a belter scholar thau (an) athlete. 13. A young and (a) delicate girl. 13. He liked the bread and (the) butter. 14. A pink and (a) lavender gown. 15. The wise and (the) good. 16. Wanted, a cook and (a) housemaid. / 17. Tlie black and (the) white cow. ' "Foundations," pp. 34-39. 14 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 18. The athlete, (tlie) soldier, (the) statesman, and (the) poet. 19. A secretary and (a) treasurer. 30. The corresponding and (the) recording secretary. 21. The honest, (the) wise, and (the) patriotic senators voted against the bill. 32. A cotton and (a) silk umbrella. 33. The tenth and (the) last chapter. EXERCISE VI. Insert the proper article {"a," "an," or "the ") in each blank place in the following, if an article is needed ; if no article is needed, leave the place blank : — 1. I began to suffer from — want of food. 3. There are two articles, the definite and — indefinite. 3. He did not say what kind of — horse he wanted to buy. 4. Did Macaulay die of — heart disease ? 5. Nouns have two numbers, — singular and — pluraL 6. — third and — fourth page are to be learned. 7. — third and — fourth pages are to be learned. 8. Many names of — states are derived from — Indian tongues. 9. This is a curious species of — rose. 10. Study carefully — first and — second chapters. 11. A black and — white boy were walking together. 13. — violet is my favorite flower ; — robin, my favorite bird. 13. There is an impenetrable veil between — visible and — invis- ible world. 14. — lion is — king of beasts. 15. Thackeray was a greater writer than — artist. Thackeray was greater as — writer than as — artist. 16. The bank closed its doors from — lack of ready money. 17. I despise not — giver, but — gift. 18. — whole is greater than any of its parts. 19. He is entitled to the name of — scholar. 30. I do not use that sort of — pen. 31. In — warm weather you do not need so many wraps as in — cold weather. 23. The Queen conferred on Tennyson the title of — baron. 33. It does not matter what kind of — man is appointed. 24. It is found in both — old and — new editions. OF ARTICLES 15 25. Tlie fourth and — fifth verse. 26. Tlie fourth and — fifth verses. 27. Abraham Lincoln was — great and — good man. 28. — families of — strikers are sadly iu — need of food. 29. Here are two bottles, — one empty, — other full of — red liquid. 30. Ariel had — power to control — sea. 31. Evangeline travelled far in — search of Gabriel. 32. Illustrate by an original sentence — preterite and — past par- ticiple of the following verbs. 33. To — student of Latin or Greek a knowledge of — difference in meaning in English between — indicative and — subjunctive is especially important. 34. In the verb "to be" — present and — past subjunctives have different forms. 35. — life in Madras iu — time of Clive was different from what it is now. 36. I like so many sports that it is hard to tell which I like — best. I like swimming, foot-ball, and riding more than — others, but I do not know which of these three I like — best. CHAPTER III. OF NOUNS How to Form the Possessive Case.' — As a rule, the pos- sessive of nouns in the singular number is formed by add- ing an apostrophe and " s " ('s) : as, " The boy''s coat." Often the pronunciation of the added "s" makes a new syllable; and if this additional syllable makes an unpleas- ant sound, the possessive is indicated by the apostrophe alone ('): as, "For goodness' sake." The putting in or the leaving out of the "s" in such cases is chiefly a matter of taste. If the "s" is sounded, it is always written ; and M^henever there is doubt, it is well to follow the regular rule: as, '' Horace's odes," "Charleses ball," '■'■Dickens's David Copperfield." In the PLURAL number, when the nominative plural ends in " s," the possessive case is formed by adding an apos- trophe alone ( ' ). If the nominative plural does not end in " s," an apostrophe and an " s " ('s) are both added, as in the singular: as, *' il/en's and hoys' shoes." The possessive case of compound nouns and expressions used as compound nouns is formed by adding the proper sign of the possessive to the end of the compound : as, "That is my sister-in-law^ s pony," "This is the Prince of Wales's palace." EXERCISE vn.2 1. Write the possessive case, singular and plural, of: Actor, king, fahy, calf, chiki, goose, lady, monkey, mouse, ox, woman, deer, eagle, princess, elephant, man, witness, prince, fox, farmer, countess, mouth, hoi'se, day, year, lioji, wolf, thir f, Englishman. ' "Foundations," pp. 41-43. ^ To THE Teacher. — To have its full value this should be given as a dic- tation exercise. OF NOUNS 17 2. Write the possessive case of: James, Dickens, his sister Mary, Miss Austen, the Prince of Wales, Frederick tlie Great, Harper and Brotliers, father - in - law, Cliarles, Jones, William the Conqueror, Henry the Eighth, man-of-war, Douglas, Eggleston and Company, j Use and Misuse of the Possessive Case.' — It is sometimes a question whether to use the possessive form or the pre])- osition of. " As a general rule, the possessive case should be conlined to cases of })Ossession." '^ EXERCISE VIII. Express relation between tJie words in the folloioing pairs by putting one of them in the possessive case or by tising the preposition "of," as may seem best : — Charles the Second, reign ; witness, testimony; hors^, hoof; the President, puhlic reception ; Partridge, restaurant ; aide - de - camp, horse; General Armistead, death; Henry the Eighth, wives; Napo- leon, Berlin decree; teacher, advice; eagle, talons; enemy, repulse;^ book, cover; princess, evening gowns; France, army; Napoleon, de- feat; Napoleon, camp -chest; Major Andre, capture ; Demosthenes, orations; gunpowder, invention; mountain, top; summer, end; Wash- ington, sword; Franklin, staff; torrent, force; America, metropolis; city, streets; strike, beginning; church, spire; we (our, us), midst; year, events; Guiteau, trial; sea, bottom; Essex, death; Adams, ad- ministration; six months,^wages; world, government. EXERCISE IX. Distinguish between the following : — 1. The President's reception. The reception of the President. 2. Mother's love. Love of mother. 3. A sister's' care. Care of a sister. ^ 4. A brother's picture. The picture of a brother. ' 5. Clive's reception in London. The reception of Clive in London. 6. Charles and Harry's toys. Charles's and Harry's toys. 7. Let me tell you a story of Doctor Brown (Brown's). • " Foundations," pp. 43-44. » Ibid., p. 44. ^ Tlier«i is, properly, no "objective possessive" in English corresponding to the " objective genitive " in other languages. It seems best to say " Tlie siege of Paris," rather than "Paris's siege." 18 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH EXERCISE X. Correct the following, giving the reason for each correction: — 1. A dog and a cat's head are differently shaped. 2. Whose Greek grammar do you prefer — Goodwin or Hadley? 3. It is neither the captain nor the manager's duty. 4. I consulted Webster, Stormonth, and Worcester's dictionary. 5. I like Hawthorne better than Irving's style. 6. John, Henry, and William's nose resembled one another. 7. The novel is one of Scolt. 8. I have no time to listen to either John or Joseph's talk. Singular and Plural.' — In modern English most nouns form the plural by adding " s " to the singular. The fol- lowing variations from this rule are important: — 1. When the added sound of "s" makes an additional syllable, "es" is used: as, box, boxes; church, churches. 2. Nouns ending in "o." If the final " o " is preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed regularly, i.e., by adding "s": as, cameo, cameos. If the final " o " is preceded by a consonant, the tendency of modern usage is to form the plural by adding " es": as, hero, heroes; pota- to, potatoes. The following common words, however, seem still to form the plural by adding "s" alone: — canto lasso proviso torso duodecimo memento quarto tyro halo octavo solo junto piano stiletto 3. Nouns ending in "y." If the "y" is preceded by a vowel, the plural is regular: as, valley, valleys. If the "y " is preceded by a consonant, "y"is changed to "i" and " es " is added to form the plural: as, lady, ladies; city, cities. 4. Proper nouns are changed as little as possible : as, Henry, Henrys; Mary, Marys; Cicero, Ciceros; Nero, Neros. 5. Most compound nouns form the plural by adding the proper sign of the plural to the fundamental part of the word, i.e., to the part which is described by the rest of the phrase : as, ox-cart, ox- carts; court-martial, courts-martial; aide-de-camp, aides-de-camp. Note the difference between the plural and the possessive of compound nouns, — forms which are often confounded. See page 16. ' " Foundations," pp. 45-47. OF NOUNS 19 6. Letters, figures, and other symbols are made plural by adding an apostrophe and "s" ('s) : as, "There are more e's than a's in this word"; "Dot your i's and cross your t's." 7. Some nouns have two plupals, which differ in meaning: — Singular. Plural. brother brothers (by birth), brethren (of a society). die dies (for coining or stamping), dice (for play). fish fishes (separate fish), fish (collective). index indexes (in books), indices (in algebra). penny pennies (separate coins), pence (sum of money). shot shots (discharges), shot (balls). staff staves (poles), staffs (bodies of assistants). EXERCISE XL' Write the plural of: Lash, cage, race, buffalo, echo, canto, volcano, portfolio, ally, money, solo, memento, mosquito, bamboo, ditch, chim- ney, man, Norman,'' Mussulman, city, negro, baby, calf, man-of-war, attorney, goose -quill, canon, quail, mystery, turkey, wife, body, snipe, kniglit-errant, donkey, spoonful, aide-de-camp, Ottoman, com- mander-in-chief, major-general, pony, reply, talisman, court-martial, father-in-law, court-yard, man-trap. Brahman, journey, Henry, step- son, deer, mouthful, Miss Clark,* Mr. Jones, Dr. Brown, Dutchman, German, forget-me-not, poet-laureate, minister-plenipotentiary, hero, fish, trout, Mary, Geoige, bill-of-fare. EXERCISE XIL Distinguish between : — 1. Two dice (dies) were found in the prisoner's pockets. 2. He was always kind to his brothers (brethren). 3. How many shot (shots) did you count? 4. He carried two pailfuls (pails full) of water up the hill. 5. I have two handfuls (hands full) of gold-dust. 6. He gave the beggar six pennies (pence). 7. There are serious errors in the indexes (ind ices) in this new Algebra. 8. Ten shot (shots) were fired from the gun in fifteen minutes. 1 To THE Teacher. — To have its full value this should be given as a dic- tation exercise. ^ Consult a dictionary for this and similar nouns. ' Proper names preceded by a tide are made plural by changing either the name or the title, and using " the " before the expression. We may say "the Miss Smitlis " or "the Misses Smith," "the Doctors Young" or "the Doctor Youngs." 20 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH EXERCISE XIII. Which of the following forms should be used? Consult Hill's " Foundations," pp. JfS-47 : — 1. The members of the committee were greatly alarmed at this (these) news. 2. Tidings was (were) brought to them of the massacre on Snake River. 3. The endowment of the college was greatly increased by this (these) means. 4. The widow's means was (were) at first large, but it was (they were) soon exhausted by the prodigality of her son. 5. The assets of the company are (is) $167,000. 6. The dregs in the cup was (were) found to be very bitter. 7. The eaves of the new house are (is) thirty-two feet above the ground. 8. Athletics are (is) run into the ground in many schools. 9. Politics is (are) like a stone tied around the neck of literature. 10. The nuptials of Gratiano and Nerissa were (was) celebrated at the same time as those (that) of Bassanio and Portia. 11. Ethics are (is) becoming more and more prominent in the dis- cussions of political economists. 12. Have you seen my pincers ? I have mislaid it (them). 13. The proceeds was (were) given to the hospital. 14. His riches took to themselves (itself) wings. 15. This (these) scissors is (are) not sharp. 16. Please pour this (these) suds on the rose plants in the oval flower- bed. 17. His tactics was (were) much criticised by old generals. 18. The United States has (have) informed Spain that it (they) will not permit Spanish interference in the affairs of Central America. Nouns of Foreign Origin.' — The following is a list of nouns of foreign origin in common use which have peculiar number forms : — Singular. Plural. alumnus (masculine) alumni alumna (feminine) alumnse analysis analyses bacterium bacteria > " Foundations," pp. 47-48. OF NOUNS 21 Singular. beau cherub crisis curriculum datum genus (meaning "class") genius hypothesis oasis parenthesis phenomenon seraph stratum tableau thesis Plural. beaux cherubim (or cherubs; crises curricula data genera geniuses (persons of great ability) genii (spirits) hypotheses oases parentheses phenomena seraphim (or seraphs) strata tableaux theses EXERCISE XIV.' 1. Write the plural of: Alumna, analysis, beau, cherub, crisis, cur- riculum, genus, genius, hypothesis, nebula, oasis, parenthesis, phe- nomenon, synopsis, seraph, stratum, tableau. 2. Write the singular of: Alumni, curricula, data, bacteria, cheru- bim, oases, phenomena, seraphim, strata, theses. Gender. — Tlie following nouns of different genders are sometimes confounded or othei'wise misused : — Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine. abbot abbess gander goose actor actress hero heroine bachelor spinster. maid lion lioness buck doe (fallow deer) marquis, marquess marchioness bullock heifer monk nun czar czarina ram ewe drake duck stag, hart hind (red deer) duke duchess sultan sultana earl countess tiger tigress Francis Frances wizard witch 1 To THE Tkacher. — To have any value this must be given as a dictation exercise. 22 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH EXERCISE XV.i 1. Write the feminine word corresponding to: Abbot, actor, bachelor, buck, bullock, czar, duke, drake, earl, Francis, hero, lion, marquis, monk, ram, stag, sultan, hart, tiger. 2. Write the masculine word corresponding to : Spinster, duck, doe, Frances, goose, heifer, ewe, hind, witch. EXERCISE XVI. Correct thefolloicing sentences: — 1. The marquess was the executor of her husband's estate. 2. He married a beautiful actor. 3. The tiger broke from its cage. 4. Tlie duck was pluming his feathers after his swim, and the goose had wandered from his companions across the meadows. 5. The baby girl in "The Princess" m&y be called the real hero of the tale. Abbreviations. — For the following exercise consult Hill's Foundations of Rhetoric, pp. 49-50. EXERCISE XVIL Which of these words are in good use? — Pianist, harpist, poloist, violinist, phiz, ad, co-ed, curios, exam, cab, chum, gent, hack, gym, pants, mob, phone, proxy, photo, prelim, van, prof, varsity. Misused Nouns.^ — Many errors in English consist in us- ing words in senses which are not authorized. Sometimes the use of a word in a wrong sense makes the speaker's meaning obscure. Sometimes it makes him seem ridiculous, as when a person of the writer's acquaintance told a friend to clean an oil-painting by washing it in " torpid " water. • To THE Teacher. — This should be used as a dictation exercise. * To THE Teacher. — It may not be desirable to drill pupils on all the words whose meanings are discriminated here and in chapters V. and VI. In that case it will be easy to select for study those words which the pupils are most likely to misuse. The words discriminated in this book are for tlie most part those which are mentioned in the " Foundations of Rhetoric," and they have been arranged in the same order. A few other words often misused by my pupils have been added. OF NOUNS 23 In every case the misuse of a word leaves an unpleasant impression on the mind of a cultivated person, and, like all bad Engrlish, should be avoided as we avoid bad manners. In the following definitions and exercises a few nouns* are selected for study. The distinctions given are not always observed by reputable authors, but they indicate the ten- dency of the best modern usage. I. A RESEMBLANCE IN SENSE MISLEADS.' House, home.— A house is a building. Home means one's habitual abode, " the abiding place ot the affections." It may or may not be in a bouse, and it may include the surroundings of a house. Person, party.— A person is an individual ; a ^9«/% is a company of persons, or, in legal usage, a person who is concerned in a contention or agreement. Series, succession.— A series is a succession of similar things mutu- ally related according to some law. Succession is properly used of several things following one after the other; it denotes order of oc- currence only, and does not imply any connection. Statement, assertion.— A statement is a formal setting forth of fact or opinion ; an assertion is simply an affirmation of fact or opinion. Verdict, testimony.— A verdict is a decision made by a number of men acting as a single body. Testimony is an expression of individ- ual knowledge or belief. The whole, all.— TV'e wliole is properly used of something which is considered as one thing. When a number of persons or things are spoken of, the proper word is all. EXERCISE XVIIL Tell the difference in meaning between the following : — 1. Mr. Roscoe has no house (home). 2. The hotel clerk says he expects three more parties (persons) on the six o'clock train. 3. There are three persons (parties) concerned in this contract. 4. A succession (series) of delays. 1 For misused verbs and adjectives see pages 92 and 119. 2 " Foundations," pp. 50-53. 24 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 5. Tliis morning's papers publish an assertion (a statement) by Mr. Pullman, which throws new light on the strike. EXERCISE XIX. Insert the proper icord in each blank, and give the reason foi' your choice : — House, home. 1. Whenever a tramp comes to our — , the dog b untied. 2. His new — will be finished in November. 3. Mr. S. owns a beautiful — and has a happy — . 4. One can build a very good — for $6000. 5. — s are built to live in, not to look on. Party, person. 6. There is another — comiag on the evening train, but he will leave to-morrow 7 A cross-looking — alighted from the stage-coach and entered the inn. 8. The cause of both — s shall come before the court. 9. Is the — that wants a carriage at dinner or in his room? 10. He is attached to the king's — . 11. Who was that fat old — who kept us all laughing? Series, succession. 12. The — of Presidents is a long one. 13 This stamp belongs to the — of 1864. 14. A — of calamitous events followed this mistake in policy. 15. A — of accidents prevented the sailing of the yacht. Statement, assertion. 16. The last — of the bank has been examined. 17. — unsupported by fact is worthless. 18. The Declaration of Independence contained a clear — of griev auces. 19. The orator's — was shown to be false. Verdict, testimony. 20. The — of history is that Christianity has improved the condi- tion of women. 21. Let us await the — of the public. 22. The early Christian martyrs sealed their — with their blood. 23. The — of those who saw the murder was contradictory. OF NOUNS 25 The whole, all. 24. — (of) the dishes came tumbling to the floor. 25. Tell — (the) truth. 26. Then you and I and — of us fell down. 27. Washington was respected by — (the) people. 28. We sold — (of) our apples at sixty cents a bushel. 29. He has already packed — of his books. 30. — (the) adornments took an appropriate and sylvan character. 31. He readily confided to her — (the) papers concerning the in- trigue. 32. In the afternoon — of thera got into a boat and rowed across the lake. II. A RESEMBLANCE IN SOUND MISLEADS.' Acceptance, a.eeev)ta.tion.— Acceptance is the " act of accepting "; also "favorable reception": as, "The acceptance of a gift," "She sang with marked acceptance." Acceptation now means "the sense in which an expression is generally understood or accepted." Access, accession.— J-Ccess has several meanings authorized by good use: (1) outburst; (2) admission; (3) way of entrance. Accession means (1) the coming into possession of a right; or (2) an addition. Acts, actions.— " -4c^s, in the sense of ' things done,' is preferable to actions, since actions also means ' processes of doing.' ""^ Advance, advancement.— J.fZm/(«3 is used in speaking of something as moving forward ; advancement, as being moved forward. Allusion, illusion, delusion.— An allusion is an indirect reference to something not definitely mentioned. Roughly speaking, an illusion is an error of vision; delusion, of judgment. " In literary and popu- lar use an illusion is an unreal appearance presented in any way to the bodily or the mental vision ; it is often pleasing, harmless, or even useful. ... A delusion is a mental error or deception, and may have regard to things actually existing, as well as to illusions. De- lusions are ordinarily repulsive and discreditable, and may even be mischievous."^ Avocation, vocaXion.— " Vocation means ' calling ' or ' profession ' ; avocation, ' something aside from one's regular calling, a by-work.' " * ' "Foundations," pp. 53-56. ' A. S. Hill ; Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 18. ' The Century Dictionary. * A. S. Hill : Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 39. 20 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Completion, completeness.— Completion is "the act of complet- ing''; completeness is " tlie state of being complete." Observation, o\isevva.nee.— Observation contains the idea of " looking at "; observance, of " keeping," "celebrating." •' We speak of the ob- servation of a fact, of a star ; of the observance of a festival, of a lule." ' Proposal, proposition.— "A jjroposal is something proposed to be done, which may be accepted or rejected. A proposition is some- thing proposed for discussion, with a view to determining the truth or wisdom of it." - Relationship, relation. —lielationship properly means "the state of being related by kindred or alliance": as, "A relationship existed between the two families." Relation is a word of much broader meaning. It does not necessarily imply kinship. Solicitude, sol\eita.t\on.—8oUcitude is "anxiety"; solicitation is "the act of soliciting or earnestly asking." Stimulation, stimulus, st\m\xlz.nt.— Stimulation is "the act of stimu- lating or inciting to action"; stimulus, originally "a goad," now de- notes that which stimulates, the means by which one is incited to action; stirnulant has a medical sense, being used of that which stimulates the body or any of its organs. We speak of ambition as a stimulus, of alcohol as a stimulant. EXERCISE XX. Tell the difference in meaning between — 1. The acceptance (acceptation) of this word is doubtful. 2. The acts (actions) of Napoleon were carefully observed. 3. The colonel's advance (advancement) was not long delayed. 4. Literature has been Dr. Holmes's avocation (vocation). 5. The list of African dialects is approaching completeness (com- pletion). 6. The completion (completeness) of this new dictionary of the Latin language will make scholars glad. 7. The professor advised me, when I went to Rome, to be espe- cially careful in my observation (observance) of the religious cere- monies of Passion Week. 8. This proposal (proposition) made both Republican and Demo- cratic senators indignant. ' A. S. Hill : Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 39. - The Century Dictionary. OF NOUNS 27 9. His mother's solicitude (solicitation) induced Washington when lie was a boy to give up his intention of going to sea. 10. Shall 1 give your son a stimulus (stimulant)? EXERCISE XXI. Insert the proper word in each blank, a,nd give the reason for your choice : — Acceptance, acceptation. 1. The word " livery" is used in its original — . 2. This is a true saying and worthy of — . 3. The — of a trust brings grave responsibility. 4. He sent to the President a formal — of the position. 5. The assertion finds — in every rank of society. 6. In its common — "philosophy" signifies "the search after wisdom." 7. The probability of this theory justifies its full — . Access, accession. 8. We are denied — to the king. 9. An — of fever occurred at nightfall. 10. The emperor at his — takes an oath to maintain the constitu- tion. 11. — to the outer court was through a massive door. 12. The only — which the Roman Empire received was the prov- ince of Britain. 13. A sudden — of violent, burning fever had laid Peter's mother- in-law prostrate. 14. Victoria married after her — to the throne. 15. This allusion led to a fresh — of feeling. Act, action. 16. I cannot do so cruel uu — . 17. Another mode of — was proposed by Henry Clay. 18. The fifth book of the New Testament records the — s of the Apostles. 19. To attempt resistance would be the — of a madman. 30. The monkey imitates the — s of its master. Advance, advancement. 31. The — of the expedition was impeded by bad roads. 23. — in the army is slow. 28 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 23. The Don and his companions, in their eager — , had got en- tangled in deep glens. 24. My old position offered no hope of — . 25. His hopes of — in England failing, Swift returned to Ireland. Allusion, illusion, delusion. 26. There were two — s in his sermon to the riots. 27. The cleverest, acutest men are often under an (a) — about women. 28. Longfellow's "Footsteps of Angels" contains — s to the death of his wife. 29. Our judgment of people is liable to be warped by — s of the imagination. 30. Those other words of — and. folly, Liberty first and Union afterward. Avocation, vocation. 31. Surgeons in the army are allowed by the enemy to pursue their — unmolested. 32. The young lawyer, surrounded by his law-books, took up his — with enthusiasm. 33. Let your base-ball be a pastime, not a trade ; let it be your — , not your — . 34. Heaven is a pious man's — , and therefore he counts earthly employments — s. 35. It seems that after his return, his disciples left him and re- turned to their ordinary — s. Completion, completeness. 36. The — of the railroad was celebrated by a general illumina- tion in the village. 37. The comfort of passengers is secured by the — of the equip- ment of the steamers of this line. 38. We hope for the — of our new building by September, 39. We were surprised at the — of the collection of minerals. Observation, observance. 40. The — of a few simple rules of health would have prolonged his life. 41. The North American Indian has great powers of — . 42. He insisted on the prompt — of the regulations. 43. The Pharisees were strict in their — of religious festivals. 44. He is arranging for a careful — of the eclipse. OF NOUNS 29 Proposal, proposition. 45. I submit two — s for consideration by the assembly. 46. The — that each of us relinquish something was accepted. 47. Sealed — s for building the cottage were handed in by three contractors. 48. He made a — of marriage to her. 49. I dissent from that — . 50. A nation dedicated to the — that all men are created equai. Solicitude, solicitation. 51. He made frequent — for money and clothes. 52. My mother watched over my infancy with tender — . 53. Coriolanus yielded at the — of his mother. Stimulus, stimulant, stimulation. 54. He worked hard under the — of a desire to get rich. 55. The providential — of conscience is always present. 56. The doctor came and administered a gentle — to the patient. III. ADDITIONAL NOUNS SOMETIMES !MISUSED,i Ability, capacity.— J.&^7^Y^/ is the power of doing ; capacity, the pow- er of containing, of understanding, of acquiring. Adherence, 2iA\iQS\on.— Adherence is used of moral relations, adhe- sion, of physical connection. We speak of the adhesion of glue to wood, of a man's adherence to the principles of his party. Amount, quantity, nvimh^v.— Amount means "sum total," and is used of numbers or quantities; quantity is used of things which are measured ; number, of things which are counted. Argument, plea.— "Pfea (in the legal sense) is properly used of the pleadings or the arraignment before a trial, not of the argument at a trial. A plea is always addressed to the court ; an argument may be addressed either to the court or to the jury. A similar remark applies to the verbs 2:>lead and argue." "^ Balance, rest, vem^mAQV.— Balance, meaning "the difference be- tween two sides of an account," is a commercial term, and cannot properly be used for rest or remainder. Rest is used of persons or I "Foundations," p. 56. If it seem undesirable to drill pupils on all the words which are here discriminatea, the teacher may select those words whicli they are most likely to misuse. See note 2, p. 22. ' A. S. Hill : Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 40. 30 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH things, and of large as well as of small parts. Remainder is used only of things, and denotes a comparatively small part. Centre, middle.— The centre is a point, or a definite place ; the middle is a line, or a space, and is less definite than centre. Character, reputation.— CA«rac^e/' is what a man is; reputation is thf prevailing opinion of his character. Complement, compliment. — A complement is a "full quantity or mimber" or "that which is needed to complete"; a cmnpliment is "an expression of praise." Conscience, eonscXousness.— Conscience is that within us which dis- tinguishes right from wrong. Conscioustuss is the state of being aware of one's existence, thoughts, and surroundings. Council, eounsel.—A council is " a body of persons convened for consultation." Counsel denotes "advice," or " a person, as a lawyer, engaged to give advice." Custom, haXiit— Custom denotes the frequent repetition of the same act, and may be used of a number of persons taken together. Habit is the effect of custom in a person. Custom is voluntary; habit is involuntary, often uncontrollable, sometimes unconscious. D&ce^Vion, d.eee\t.~- Deception is "the act of deceiving"; d£ceit is " deceitfulness," a trait of character; or a " trick," an "artifice." Egoists, egoism, egotism.—" The disciples of Descartes were egoists, the ego being the basis of their philosophy." Egoism is the name of their system. Egoism is sometimes used also in the sense of undue admiration of self, the outward expression of which is egotism. But "egotism, in the sense of 'self -worship,' is preferable to egoism, since egoism also designates a system of philosophy." ' Emigration, imm\sTPa.X\on.— Emigration is the moving out from a country ; immigration, the moving into it. Foreigners who come to live in America are emigrants from their fatherland, immigrants to America. Enormity, enormousness.—'' Enormity is used of deeds of unusual horror ; enormousness, of things of unusual size. We speak of the enormity of Caesar Borgia's crimes, of the enormousness of the Roth- schilds' wealth.'"' Esteem, estimate, estimation.— ^s^gem as a noun seems to be going out of use ; the word now commonly used in the sense of ' ' opinion " ' A. S. Hill : Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. ' Ibid., p. 38. OF NOUNS 31 or "regard" is estimation. An estimate is "an approximate judg- ment, based on considerations of probability, of the number, amount, magnitude, or position of anything." Falsity, falseness. — " Fafo'%, in the sense of ' non - conformity to trutli,' without any suggestion of blame, is preferable to falseness, since falsriu'ss usually implies blame." ' Identity, identification. -M'//i% is "the state of being the same." Identificatioit, denotes "the act of determining what a given thing, or who a given person, is." Import, importance.— /mpo?'i!, in the sense of "meaning," must be distinguished from iiuportance, "the quality of being important." Invention, diseovepy.— We invent soqiething new, contrived or pro duced for the first time. We discover what existed before, but re- mained unknown. Limit, limitation.- Z/emj^, in the sense of "bound," is preferable to limitatiou, since limitation also means " the act of limiting," or a " restriction." Lot, number.— iyO« denotes "a distinct part or parcel": as, "The auctioneer sold the goods in ten lots." The word does not mean "a great number"; therefore it- is improperly used in the sentences: "He has lots of money," and " I know a lot of people in New York." Majority, plurality.— A majority is more than half the whole num- ber ; a plurality is the excess of votes given for one; candidate over those given for another, and is not necessarily a majoi'ity when there are more than two candidates. Negligence, nesleet.— '' Negligence is used of a habit or trait; neglect. of an act or succession of acts." "^ Novice, noviXAaXe.— Novice properly means one who is new in any business or calling : novitiate, the state or time of being a novice. Organism, organization.— An organism is a " living body composed of a number of essential parts." Organization denotes "the act of organizing," or "an organized body of persons," as a literary so- ciety. Part, portion.- " Pr/r^ is the general word for that which is less than the whole : as, the whole is equal to the sum of all its parts. . . . Portion is often used in a stilted way where part would be simpler and better ; portion has always some suggestion of allotment or as- ' A. S. Hill : Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. 2 Ibid., p. 39. 32 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH signment: as, this is mj portion; a portion of Scripture. 'Father, give me the portion of goods that falleth to me.' " ' Plenty, abundance.— Pfcn^jr is enough ; abundance, more than enough. Produce, product, production.— PrwZiice is always collective, and is ased only of raw products : as, the produce of the soil, of the flock. Product denotes the result of some operation, usually physical labor. Production, meaning "the act of producing," is also applied to a work of literature or art, as a book, a statue, or a painting. "Prod- uct, in the sense of ' thing produced,' is preferable to production, since production is also used in an abstract sense."* Prominence, predominance.— P?'omi%ence means "a standing out from something, so as to be conspicuous." Pi'edominance denotes "ascendency," "a superiority in strength or influence," "an over- ruling." There may be many prominent traits in a person's char- acter ; there can be only one predominant trait. Receipt, recipe.—" Receipt, in the sense of ' formula for a pudding, etc.,' is preferable to recipe, since recipe is commonly restricted to medical prescriptions.'"'' Relative, relation.—' 'Relative, in the sense of ' member of a family,' is preferable to relation, since relation is also used in an abstract sense. " ^ Requirement, requisite, requisition. — A requirement is something required by a person or persons. A requisite is something required by the nature of the case. A requisition is an authoritative demand or ofiicial request for a supply of something. Resort, recourse, vesowree. — Resort denotes "the act of going to some person or thing"; or "that which is resorted to or habitually visited." Recourse means "resort for help or protection." Resource denotes "something which is a source of help or support." Secreting, seGveWon. — Secreting is the act of hiding; secretion, a physiological process or fluid. Sewage, sewerage.— ^Sswa^'e means the contents, sewerage, the sys- tem, of sewers. Situation, site.—" Situation embraces all the local aspects and rela- tionships ^ in which a thing is placed. The site is confined to the ground on which it is erected or reposes."'' ' The Century Dictionary. "^ A. S. Hill : Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. ' Is "relationships" the proper word here? * Smith's Synonyms Discriminated. OF NOUNS 33 Speciality, specialty.—" Speciality, in the sense of ' distinctive qual- ity,' is preferable to specialty, since specialty is also used in the sense of ' distinctive thing.' " ' Union, \xx\\ty.— Union is "the joining of two or more things into one." Unity means "oneness," "harmony." Visitant, visitop.— Fmtoft^ was formerly used to denote a supernat- ural being; visitor, a human one. Visitant seems now to be going out of use, visitor being used in both senses. EXERCISE XXII. Tell the difference in meaning between — 1. He is a person of great ability (capacity). 2. A good character (reputation) is a precious possession. 3. The man seemed to be without conscience (consciousness). 4. The counsel (council) was not wise. 5. It is John's custom (habit) to speak slowly. 6. Her deceit (deception) amazed me. 7. This man is an egoist (egotist). 8. The government does not encourage immigration (emigration). 9. In Mr. E.'s. estimate (estimation) the cost of lumber and paint is low. 10. It was only yesterday that I heard of the identification (iden- tity) of the men who robbed Mr. Jones and Mr. Smith. 11. Mr. Gladstone's remark at the banquet was an utterance of great import (importance). 13. This is a remarkable discovery (invention). 13. Calhoun was nominated by a majority (plurality). 14. His death was caused by his own neglect (negligence). 15. The privileges of a novice (novitiate) are not many. 16. What a queer organism (organization) ! 17. The expedition has plenty (an abundance) of provisions. 18. He proposes to lay a tax on all English produce (products, productions). 19. He quickly attained prominence (predominance) in the com- mittee. 20. Please copy this receipt (recipe). 21. My relatives (relations) here are charming. ' A. S. Hill : Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. 2* 34 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 22. Wanted, a boy to do light work in a first-class store. Ability to read and write is a requirement (requisite). 23. The sewage (sewerage) of inland cities presents problems of great difficulty. 24. The site (situation) of the temple is not known. 25. Unity (union) of religious denominations is hoped for by many, EXERCISE XXIII. Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice :— Ability, capacity. 1. The — of the room is not great. 2. They gave, each according to his — . B. What is — but the power of doing a thing ? 4. Let me drink of Thee according to my — . (From a prayer.) 5. Some students do not have — to master Greek ; but what most need is — to work persistently. 6. My father does not think Judge X. has much — as a lawyer. Adherence, adhe&Ion. 7. The — of the parts which were cemented together is still perfect. 8. He showed an obstinate — to false rules of conduct. 9. Marks on the blackboard depend on the — of clialk to the slate. 10. Professor A.'s — to the doctrines of Adam Smith is seen in his last book Amount, number, quantity. 11. Our monthly expenditures vary in — . 12. You could see any — of cabs standing in front of the theatre. 13. A great — of books and papers covered the table. 14. Gulliver asked the king of Lilliputfor a large — of iron bars and a considerable — of rope. 15. What — of paper is needed for one issue of Harper's Weekly? 16. Such a (an) — of sheep as we saw to-day ! 17. There is a large — of silver bullion in the Treasury waiting to be coined. Argument, plea. 18. Every whisper in the court-room was hushed as Mr. N. rose before the jury and began his — in behalf of the prisoner. 19. The — of Smith, when arraigned before the court, was that he had acted in self-defence. 20. The only — available with an east wind is to put on your over- coat. OF NOUNS 35 Balance, remaindep, rest. 21. The — of the hour is spent in the study of some poem. 22. I have a — at my banker's. 23. The — of the boys went home. 24. For the — of the week we stayed at home. 25. The account shows a — of $12.46. 26. Give John and Horace four of the six apples ; you may have he — . 27. Give the — of our dinner to Tommy, our cat. Centre, middle. 38. There is a crack running down ilie — of the wail. 29. A table stood in the — of the room. 30. A path runs through the — of the park. 31. In the — of the garden was a fountain. 32. He parts his hair in the — . 38. The arrow struck the — of the target. Charaetep, reputation. 34. This man has an excellent — for lionesty. 35. Every one admires the — of Washington. 36. Mr. Arnold won great — as a critic. 37. . Oh, I have lost my — . 38. The outlaws of Yorkshire were men of loose — . 39. A distinguished general may lose his — through a single blunder. 40. — is an idle and most false imposition ; oft got without merit, and lost without deserving. Complement, compliment. 41. Present my — s to your father. 42. The ship has its — of stores. 43. The — of an angle is the difference between the angle and a right angle. 44. "True friendship loathes such oily — ." 45. In the sentence, "He is ill," "ill" is the — of the verb "is." 46. "This barren verbiage, current among men, Light coin, the tinsel clink of — ." Conscience, consciousness. 47. The — of the purity of his motives consoled him for his un- popularity. 48. My — hath a thousand several tongues. 49. I felt a shock, I saw the car topple over, and then I lost — . 36 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Council, counsel. 50. "No man will take — , but every man will take money; there- fore money is better than — ." — Swift. 51. The members of the cabinet form a sort of secret — of the President. 52. Webster was one of the — in the trial of the Knapps for the murder of Captain White. Custom, habit. 53. De Quincey acquired the — of using opium from first using it to relieve neuralgic pains. 54. Dancing round a May-pole is a — many hundreds of years old. 55. As his — was, he went to the synagogue on the Sabbath. 56. Man is a bundle of — s. 57. Those national — s are best which lead to good — s among the people. 58. A loose life brings a man into — s of dissipation. 59. It was the — of Scotch Highlanders to go bareheaded. 60. It is a good — to rise early, because this will soon become a — . Deception, deceit. 61. He was guilty of a long course of — . 63. Her character would be charming if it were not for her — . 63. He won my confidence by base — . 64. Deceivers seldom profit by their — . 65. — is of the very nature and essence of sin. Egotist, egoist. 66. He is an — , for he is always talking about himself. 67. — s are the pest of society; they are always obtruding their ailments on others. Emigration, immigration. 68. The increase in Chinese — is a matter for serious consideration by the United States Senate. 69. The Chinese government encourages — to America. 70. — is one cause of the rapid growth of our population. 71. The — of the French nobility at the time of the French Rev- olution was a political blunder. Enormity, enormousness. 72. The — of the cost of the civil war startles the student of his- tory. OF NOUNS 37 73. Burke drew such a vivid picture of the — of the Nabob of Aj- Cot's crimes that ladies in the audience fainted. 74. Visitors do not at first realize the — of St. Peter's, at Rome. Esteem, estimate, estimation. 75. In what — is he held by his townsmen V 76. In my — she is the best of women. 77. We can form an — of the amount of water in the air. Falseness, falsity. 78. We have already seen the — of that hypothesis. ^ 79. Arnold was despised for his — . 80. Piety is opposed to hypocrisy and — . 81. The prince is in danger of betrayal through the — of his servant. 82. The — of this reasoning is evident. Identity, identification. 83. The bodies were so disfigured that their — was difficult. 84. In no form of government is there absolute — of interest be. tween tlie people and their rulers. Import, importance. 85. He heard the tolling of the bell and trembled at its — . 86. The oath of the President contains three words, all of equal — ,■ namely, that he will "preserve, protect, and defend " the Constitution. 87. He was engaged in business of the highest — . 88. You misunderstood the — of my remarks. Invention, discovery. 89. Newton's — of the law of gravitation. 90. The — of the telescope was made by Galileo. 91. The — of the properties of the magnetic needle is said to have been made by the Chinese ; also, the — of gunpowder. 92. The — of the circulation of blood was made by Harvey. 93. The steam-engine is one of the greatest — s of this age. 94. The — of the telephone is claimed Ijy several persons. Limit, limitation. 95. All kinds of knowledge have their — s. 96. Titus Quintius was appointed to the command of the army without any — s. 97. Athens insisted upon — of the right to vote. 98. The prisoners were free to roam within certain — s, but their employments were subject to — . \ o o ^,5" 38 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Majopity, plurality. 99. If A has 21 votes, B 18, and C 10, A is elected by a — , not a — . 100. Smith had 37 of the 52 votes, a good — . 101. Jones had 20 votes, Smith 14, and Brown 11; Jones therefore was elected by a safe — . Negligence, neglect. 102. "Without blame Or our — we lost her as we came." — Gonitis. 103. Through — to do what ought to be done we soon acquire habits of — . 104. Rescue my poor remains from vile — . 105. The gate has fallen from its hinges, the wooden steps are rotted, and the house shows similar signs of — . 106. — is a grave fault. Novice, novitiate. 107. For most men a — of silence is profitable before they enter on the business of life. 108. I am young, a — in the trade. 109. It was in this abbey that I served my — . 110. When I was a ^ in this place, there was here a pious monk. Organism, organization. 111. Germs of microscopic — s exist abundant!}^ on the surface of all fruits. 112. Lieutenant Peary has completed the — of his arctic expedi- tion. 113. The Jacobin club was a political — . 114. What a^complex — the human body is ! Part, portion. 115. A — of my work is done. 116. The younger — of the community. 117. The priests had a — of land assigned them by Pharaoh. 118. The whole is equal to the sum of all its — s. 119. Each received his — of the estate. 120. The lower — s of his body were cold. 131. "This," said he, " is a — of the true cross." Plenty, abundance. 122. Lf you do not waste your money, you will have — for your expenses. OF NOUNS 39 123. They did cast in of their — ; but slic of her want. 124. The expeditiou has — of provisions, but none to spare. 125. Last year there was — of corn ; it was estimated that we had enough to feed the whole nation for two years. Produce, product, production. 126. The maniifMCturers brought their — s to market. 127. The farmeis bring their — to town or haul it to the nearest railway station. 128. The apple is especially an American — . 129. Lowell's " Commemoration Ode " is a noble — . 130. Great Britain exports chiefly manufactured — . 131. The component elements of — are labor and capital. Prominence, predominance. 132. The Indian race is marked by a — of the cheek-bones. 133. The English settlers were prominent {predominant) in the New World. 134. " C'hilde Harold " brought Byron into — as a poet. 135. As a man Byron had many prominent {predominant) faults ; it is not easj' to say which one v/as p7'o?ni7ient {predominant). Recipe, receipt. 136. Please send me your — for making chocolate ice-cream. 137. Paracelsus furnished a — for making a fairy, but had the delicacy to refrain from using it. 138. He gave me a — for a liniment, which he said was excellent for sprains. Relative, relation. 139. He has no — in this part of the country. 140. I am the nearest — he has in the world. Requirement, requisition, requisite. 141. One of the — s in a great commander is coolness. 142. The — s for admission to college vary. 143. One of the — s in a United States minister to France is that he be wealthy, for the salary paid is insufficient to defray the expenses of the minister's social obligations. 144. That locomotive engineers be not color-blind is a just — . 145. The wars of Napoleon were marked by the enormous — s which were made on invaded countries. 40 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Resort, Resource, Recourse. 146. The woods were her favorite — . 147. The United States has unlimited — s. 148. Asheville has long been a — of wealthy society people. 149. When women engage in any art or trade, it is usually as a last — . 150. General Lee had — to stratagem. Secretion, secreting. 151. Jailers are watchful to prevent the — of poison in letters sent to condemned prisoners. 153. Saliva is a — . Sewage, sewerage. 153. The water of rivers that have received — is not good to drink. 154. The vast and intricate — of Paris is described by Victor Hugo in "Les Miserables." Situation, site. 155. The — of Samaria is far more beautiful than the — of Jeru- salem, though not so grand and wild. 156. Dr. Schliemann made excavations to discover the — of Troy. 157. Our school buildings have a fine — . 158. Has the — of Professor Richard's house been fixed ? 159. One of Nebuchadnezzar's temples is thought to have stood on the — of the Tower of Babel. Specialty, speciality. 160. It is the — of vice that it is selfishly indifl'erent to the in- jurious consequences of actions. 161. Diseases of the throat are Dr. Hall's — . 162. Fountain-pens a — . 163. "Toughness" is the — of Salisbury iron ; therefore Salisbury iron is much in demand for car-wheels. Union, unity. 164. How good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell to- gether in — . 165. The — of soul and body is ended by death. 166. In the temper of Lord Bacon there was a singular — of au- dacity and sobriety. 167. This composition lacks — ; the writer treats of several distinct subjects. OF NOUNS 41 EXERCISE XXIV. Tell why the italicized words in the following sentences are misused, and substitute for them better expressions : — 1. The West End Railway Company is the factor'^ wbicli can I'emedy all this. 2. Addison's " Cato " was a success. 3. Decoration Day is a iitting observance of those who gave their lives for their country. 4. At the end of each day the teams'^ are so brolven up that tliey have to go into the repah'-shop, where the carpenter and blaclismith are able to fix any part of them. 5. The majority of the news is unfavorable. 6. Search-lights would be an indispeusable/ac< " Clothes are ' hung ' on the line ; men are ' hanged ' on the gallows."— " Foundations," p. 79. 62 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Present. lie ("to recline") plead prove ride Past Indicative. lay- pleaded proved rode Past Participle. lain pleaded proved ^ ridden rise (intransitive) raise (transitive) rose raised risen raised run ran . run see /"to put"; of set I ^ . V, moon, etc. , sit saw the sun,\ . , „ set ' to sink "/ sat seen set sat shake shook shaken shoe shod shod show showed shown speak slay steal spoke slew stole spoken slain stolen take took taken throw- threw thrown wake (transitive) write woke wrote waked written In using the verbs drink, ring, shrink, sing, sink, spring, swim, it seems better to confine the forms in " a " to tlie preterite tense, and the forms in " u " to the past partici- ple : as, " The bell rang five minutes ago " ; " Yes, the bell has rungy ^ The following forms also should be distinguished : — Present. Past. Participle. ,. , /"to get down from," " to\ ,. , , •, v i,*. j alight ( ^^^^^^ „ ) alighted ahghted light ("to ignite," "to shed light on") lighted' lighted* (" to settle down as a bird from\ flight," or "to come upon ) lighted or lit lighted or lit by chance " 1 "'Proven' is borrowed from the Scotch legal dialect." — "Founda- tions," p. 92. ^ Ibid., p. 91. =" " ' Liglited ' seems preferable to ' Ht ' ; but ' lit ' is used by some writers of reputation." — Ibid., p. 92. x/ OF VERBS 63 EXERCISE XXXVIII. Change the italicized verbs in these sentences to tlie past tense •— 1. The guests begin to go home. 2. I beseech you to liear me. 3. The wind bloios furiously. 4. The steward bids nie say that supper is ready. 5. IVJr. O. bids forty-two dolhxrs for the picture. 6. George dives better than any other boy in the crowd. 7. I do it myself. 8. They eat their supper as if they were half starved 9. The enemy fl^e before us. 10. The door flies open. 11. The wild goose flies southward in the autumn. 12. He flees at the smell of powder. 13. The Susquehanna river overflows its banks. 14. The workmen lay the rails for the track with great care. 15. Obedient to the doctor's directions, she lies down an houi every day. 16. Our cat lies on the rug by the hour watching for mice. 17. The cows lie under the trees in the meadow. 18. Helen comes in and lays her coat on a chair. 19. The envoys plead with Caesar earnestly. 20. Both short-stop and pitcher run for the ball. 21. He runs up to Mr. C. as if to strike him. 22. I see two cannon and a company of infantry. 23. Harry sees me coming. 24. The negro women set their baskets on their heads. 25. They sit in the third pew from the front. 26. Mr. N. always shoes my pony. 27. The savages who live on this island slay their captives. 28. The catcher often throws the ball to the second base. 29. The sun wakes me early. 30. The bell rings at seven o'clock. 31. The stag drinks his fill. 32. She sings sweetly. 38. Armed men spring up on all sides. 34. Tom swims very well indeed. 35. The vessel sinks with all on board. 36. The colonel and his staff alight in front of the general's tent. 64 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 37. He lights tbe lamp with a splint. 38. On tbe trees a crested peacock lights. EXERCISE XXXIX. Change these sentences so that th^ italicized verbs will be either in the perfect tense or in tJie passive voice : — 1. The sleeper aicakes. 2. The Guuls beseech Csesar to be merciful. 3. The wind blows my papers off the table. 4. Ethel broke her arm. 5. His wrongdoing breaks my heart. 6. The pressure of the water breaks the pipes. 7. They choose Mr. W. to be their chairman. 8. The enemy come in force. 9. The boj'S dive three times. 10. John is driving the cows out of tbe corn. 11. The boys are eating their supper. 12. An absconding cashier ^ees to Canada. 13. A Tohin flies to the vines by my window. 14. The Ohio river overfloirs its banks. 15. The water in my pitcher //"(jge. 16. 1 forget \\\& navae 17. He gets along fairly well. 18. They go by steamer. 19. The sheriff hangs the condemned man. 20. The maid hangs up my cloak. 21. I lie on the couch twenty minutes to rest. 22 Tramps lie by the road below the .gate. 23 Boys lay traps for hares. 24. They lay burdens on me greater than I can bear. 25. They plead their cause well. 26. This proves the truth of my assertion. 27. He rides alone from Litchfield to Waterbury 28. A mist rises before my eye. 29. I see the President often. 30. I set the lamp on the table. 31. He sits b.y the hour talking politics. 32. Rab shakes the little dog by the neck. 83. He is shoeing my horse. OF VERBS 65 34. This fact clearly slioics the prisoner's guilt. 35. He speaks his declamation well. 86. They slay their prisoners. 37. He stole my watch. 38. Some one takes my hat. 39. He throios cold water on my plan. 40. He writes home. 41. He wakes me every night by his restlessness. jfoTK. — If the teacher thinks that the class needs more drill of this kind, E-Kcrcises XXXVIII. and XXXIX. may be reversed, that is, the verbs in XXXVIII. may be clianged to perfect or passive forms ; the verbs in XXXIX. to the past tense. If this is done, some of the sentences will have to be slightly recast. In the next exercise drill on the same forms is continued in a different way. EXERCISE XL. Insert the proper form in each of the blanks in the following sen- tences : Awake, wake. 1. I — at six o'clock this morning ; I have — at about the same time ever since I came to school. 3. Lord Byron one morning — to find himself famous. A certain Mr. Peck — one day last week to find that the Nation had made him notorious. 3. A few nights ago Mr. Michael Di.xon was — by a burglar in his bedroom. 4. He — me an hour before time. 5. Have you — your brother? 6. He — as I opened the door. Begin. 7. He had — his speech before we arrived. 8. The Senators — to ask him questions. Then he — to be con- fused. Bid. 9. When the Major passed us he — us good-morning very po- litely. 10. Father has for — us to go there. Blow. 11. Before the sunset gun was fired the bugler — a strain on his bugle. 12. The top-mast of the sloop was — away. 66 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Break. 13. Did you hear that Waldo has — his legV 14. The window was — by Jack. Burst. 15. When the South Sea bubble — , thousands of families were made poor. 16. The cannon was — by an overcharge of powder. Choose. 17. If they had — him, they would have — more wisely. 18. A better day for a drive could not have been — . Come. 19. Harry — running up to me and asked me to lend him my cap. Dive. 20. The loon saw the flash of my gun and — . 21. It had — several times before. Do. 22. I know he — it; for it could not have been — by any one else. 23. Ask him why he — it. Drive. 24. He was — out of town by his indignant neighbors. 25. This stake has been — in deep. Eat. 26. The scraps were — up by the dog. 27. The men have — their dinner. Flee, fly, flow. 28. During the night the river had over — its banks. 29. Benedict Arnold was forced to — the country. He — to Eng- land. 30. The birds have — away. 31. The guilty man has — . He — with his family to Mexico. 32. Our meadow was over— during the freshet. 33. The yacht — like a bird before the wind. 34. The lotus-eaters watched the gleaming river as it — seaward. 35. It had — through the same channel hundreds of years. 36. • The terrified savages — to the mountains. 37. They shall — from the wrath to come. 38. The plantations along the Mississippi are over — . OF VERBS 67 Forget. 39. Once Sydney Smith, being asked his name by a servant, found to his dismay that he had — his own name. 40. Maude is late ; she must have — the time. Freeze. 41. I thought my ears were — . 42. He Avould have — to death if he had not been found by tlie St. Bernard dogs. Get. 43. They have — home. 44. Whenever any milk was wanted it could be — from the magic pitcher. 45. Grace has — three seats for to-night. 46. Franklin asked the boy where he had — the bread. Go. 47. The price of coal has — up since last year. 48. He would have — with us if he had been invited. Hang. 49. Judas, overwhelmed with remorse, went and — himself. 50. In olden times in England a man was — for stealing a sheep. /^ Lay, lie. 51. Two men — imder the hay-stack all yesterday morning. They must have — there all night. 52. — down and rest. 53. He came in and — his books on his desk. ^ 54. After he — down he remembered that he had left his pocket- book — ing by the open window. V 55. He played until he was so tired that he had to — down. 56. He has — himself at full length on the grass. V57. You had better — down for a while after dinner. 58. I have — down, and I feel rested. 59. I — down an hour ago to take a nap. 60. The scene of " The Lady of the Lake " is — in the lake region of Scotland. ,61. The tired lambs — down to rest. 62. Darkness settled down while the soldiers — behind the breast- works. 63. Had you not better — down a while ? 64. After they had been — ing silent for an hour, the command 68 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH was given to prepare for a march; afterward the men — down again and waited for tlie next order. 65. When Romeo saw Juliet — ing in the casket, he — down hy her side and drank the poison. Wlien Juliet awoke, seeing Romeo — ing beside her dead, she took a sword which — near and killed herself. Plead. 66. He — tearfully to be set free, but his captors were firm. 67. Yesterday he — " not guilty." Prove. 68. It cannot be — that Mars is inhabited. 69. He tliinks that the prisoner's innocence has been — . Ride. 70. We had — only a short distance when rain began to fall. 71. Have you ever — on a bicycle? Rise, raise. 72. She could not get her bread to —'. 73. The price of corn has — . 74. I — so that I might look around. 75. The students — him upon their shoulders. Run. 76. You look as if you had — all the way home. 77. He — up to me and asked what time it was. 78. He said some thief had taken his coat and had — away with it. See. 79. Charlie, who has just come in, says he — two suspicious look- ing men near the barn. 80. Yes, I — him an hour ago. 81. That is the best dog I ever — . Set, sit. 82. Please — still while I try to find her. 83. The old man was — ting in his easy-chair. 84. He — out for Boston day before j^esterday. 85. — down and talk awhile. 86. The sun — s at six o'clock twice a year. 87. I — the basket on a rock while I went to the spring. 88. We — with our friends at the table for over an hour. 89. In which seat did you — • ? / fl OF VERBS 69 90. I am —ting in my study by the window. 91. The cliildren are dreadfully sunburnt; yesterday they — in the sun on the beach all the morning. 92. Just — down, till I call her. 93. Annie, I have — the pitcher on the table. 94. He has — there all the evening. 95. We were all — ting round the fire. 96. I had to — up all night. • 97. The farmer after felling the tree found that it had fell (fallen) on a — ^ting hen that had laid (lain) her eggs under its branches. Shake. 98. All the restraints of home had been — off long before. 99. John — the tree; Lida picked up the nuts. 100. After they had — off the dust, they entered the house. Shoe. 101. Go, ask Mr. N. whether he has — the horses yet. 102. He says he — them an hour ago. Show. 103. They have — their good intention. 104. Has Edward — you his yacht ? Yes, he — it to me this morning. Speak. 105. English is — in many parts of the world. 106. After he had — a half-hour we had to leave. Slay. 107. David — Goliath with a pebble. 108. A brave man never boasts of having — his thousands. Steal. 109. He thinks the horse was — . 110. Some one has — my purse. Take. 111. I found upon inquiry that I had mis — the house 112. Yesterday she — me home with hor. 113. You look as if you had — root there. Throw. 114. He — the bull to me and I — it back. 115. The Governor's son was — from his pony this morning. 70 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Write. 116. I think he should have — and told us. 117. He — for the book two days ago. 118. Slie has — for samples. Drink. 119. The toast was — with great enthusiasm. 120. Then they — to the health of the President. 121. He had once — sour wine and slept in the secret chamber at Wolf's Crag. Ring. 122. The fire bell — twice last night. It had not — for two months before. . 123. Has the last bell — ? Sing. 124. The choir boys — the "Hallelujah Chorus" from "The Mes- siah." It seemed to me that they had never — so well. Sink. 125. The steamer struck an iceberg and — wnth all on board. 126. They have — two wells, but have got (gotten) no water. Spring. 127. The grass — up like magic last night. 128. Homer describes a race of men who — from the gods. Swim. 129. I once — three-quarters of a mile without stopping. 130. Having — the river, the fugitives plunged into the forest. EXERCISE XLI. Illustrate by original sentences the projyer use of tJie past indicative and the past participle of each of the following verbs, thiis: A swallow FLEW into my room, but before I recovered from my surprise it had FLOWN out again. Oive to tJie sentences variety : — Awake, beat, begin, beseech, blow, bid (to order), bid (to offer), break, burst, choose, come, dive, do, drive, eat, flee, fly, flow, forget, freeze, get, go, hang, lay, lie (to recline), plead, prove, ride, rise, run, see, set, sit, shake, shoe, show, speak, slay, steal, take, throw, wake, write. OF VERBS 71 Contractions.' — Some writers hold that in careful writing contracted forms should be avoided ; but all are agreed that in conversation some contractions, if correctly used, are natural and proper. The conversation of a person who never said "can't" for "can not," "don't" for "do not," or " doesn't " for " does not," would seem stiff. Care should, however, be taken not to use plural contractions for sin- gular, or singular for plural. DorCt is a contraction of " do not," doesn't of " does not." The proper contraction of "is not" is ishH ; of "are not," aren't. Daresn't, if used at all, should be used only when " dares not " might be substituted. AinH is a gross vulgarism. EXERCISE XLII. Insert the proper contraction {doesn't, don't) in each of the blank places : — 1. It — seem possible. 2. The captain — know what it is to be afraid. 3. John says he — understand the pioblem on page 266. 4. Why — she come ? 5_ — it seem strange that they — come ? 6. Waldo — improve in penmanship as fast as he should.. 7. It — looli like pure water. 8. Why — be answer ? 9. The boy will fail, but he — seem to care much. May (might) or can (eould).^— Caw and could, which de- note " ability " or " possibility," are often wrongly used in the place of may and might, which are the proper words to denote "permission." EXERCISE XLIII. Mil the blanks with the right words :— 1. — I leave the room ? 2_ You ^— go to the concert, but I doubt whether you — get a seat. 3_ — we by searching find out God ? ' " Foundations," pp. 81-82. ^ ibj^^ pp 82_83. 72 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 4. — I have some more lemonade ? 5. — I have another piece of cake ? 6. — you tell me which is Mr. Ames's house ? 7. Mother says I — invite the girls to tea. 8. A man who knows himself to be right — afford to await the judgment of posterity. 9. — 1 write at your desk ? 10. You — come to see me whenever you — find time. 11. They asked whether they — have a holiday. 12. They were wondering whether they — be recognized in their disguises. 13. — I have the use of your sled? 14. — I trouble you to get me a glass of water ? Will or shall.' — Some gram mar i an s teach that the future tense of " go " is : "I shall oi' will go," " You shall or tcill go," " He shall or will go," etc. The fact seems to be that there is only one form for the future ; the other form, often given as an alternative, expresses something more than futurity, and is somewhat like a distinct mode. A help to the j^roper use of shall and imll is found in the original meaning of the words. At first shall and will were notional verbs,^ shall meaning " to owe," " to be obliged," and will meaning " to wish :" as, " That faith I shall (owe) to God." ^ At present shall and will often retain some trace of their original meaning, will implying a reference to the will of the subject, and shall implying obligation or com- pulsion : as, " I will follow him to the end ;" " He shall be brought to justice ;" sometimes they are mere auxiliaries, with no trace of their original meaning: as, "It will ram to-day ;" " I shall be glad." ' "Foundations," pp. 83-88. * By " notional verb " is meant a verb that has some distinct idea ornotion of its own : as, " I have a ball." Here " have " expresses the idea of posses- sion. In the sentence "I kavA lost my ball," the word "have" does not express a distinct idea ; it only helps to form a tense of the verb " lose " : that is, it is not notional, but auxiliary. ' Chaucer. OF VERBS . 73 For practical purposes the distinction between shall and will may be exhibited as follows : — I. IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. Simple Futurity. Volition, implying that the matter is within the control of the speaker. I (we) sJiall ^ I (we) will ) jonwilP > go. J ou sJiall^ > go. he (they) will J he (they) sIiuU '■' ) II. IN DEPENDENT SENTENCES. In noun clauses introduced by "that," expressed or un- derstood, if the noun clause and the principal clause have different subjects, the distinction between shall and will is the same as in independent sentences : as, My sister says (that) Dorotliy will be glad to go with us. (Futur- ity ; the same as, " Dorothy will be glad to go with us.") My sister says (that) Dorothy shall not be left behind. (Volition ; the same as, " Dorothy shall not be left behind.") In all other dependent clauses, shall is in all persons the proper auxiliary to express simple futurity ; will in all per- sons implies an exercise of will on the part of the subject of the clause : as, Dorothy says (that) she shall (futurity) be able to go with us. She says (that) she inll (volition) meet us at the corner. If Bessie will come (volition), we will try to make her visit pleasant. When He shall appear (futurity) we shall be like Him. Remark. — It is worthy of notice that in noun clauses introduced by " that " — clauses which are really indirect quotations — the same auxiliary is gener- ally used that would be used were the quotation in the direct form : as, " My sister says, 'Dorothy luiU be glad to go with you,'" "My sister says that Dorothy will be glad to go with us ;" " Dorothy says, ' I shall be glad to go with you,' " " Dorothy says that she shall be glad to go with us." This re- mark, however, is not an adequate statement of the best usage, for it is not true of such sentences as 21, p. '76, and 8, 22, p. 'ZT. ' Sometimes used in a courteous command to a subordinate oflScer. * Also used in speaking of what is destined to take place, or of what is willed by some ruling power. 4 74 ' PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH III. IN QUESTIONS. In the Jirst perso?i " will " is never proper, except when it repeats a question asked by another person. " Will I go?" would mean, "Is it my intention to go?" — a useless ques- tion, since the speaker must know his own will without asking. In the second and third persons the auxiliary which is expected in the answer should be used. Will you dine with me to-morrow ? I will. (Volition.) Shall you be glad to come ? I shall. (Futurity.) Will your brother be there, too ? He will. (Futurity.) Would or should.' — "Shoidd and would follow the same rules as shall and loill, but they have in addition certain meanings peculiarly their own. ^^ Should is sometimes used in its original sense of ' ought,' as in ' You should not do that.' "Woidd is sometimes used to signify habitual action, as in ' The 'Squire would sometimes fall asleep in the most pathetic part of my sermon ;' and to express a wash, as, ' Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son !' " ' EXERCISE XLIV. Distinguish in meaning between tJie following sentences : — 1. I will (shall) meet you iu the village. 2. I will (shall) be obeyed. 3. Will he come ? Shall he come ? 4. You will (shall) repent of this. 5. He will (shall) not see me. 6. You will (shall) have a new suit to-morrow. 7. Shall (will) you stay at Ijonie to-night ? 8. We will (shall) not be left alone. 9. She will (shall) have a reward if she continues faithful. » "Foundations," pp. 88-90. ^ A. S. Hill : Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 63. OF VERBS 75 10. He would (should) start in spite of the danger. 11. Shall (will) you be a candidate ? 12. He said he would (should) not go. 13. I shall (will) never see him again. 14. You will (shall) know to-morrow the result of the examina- tion. 15. Will (shall) he who fails be allowed to try again? 16. Will (shall) the admission fee be twenty -five or fifty cents? 17. He thought there would (should) be a charge 18. I will (shall) be the last to go 19. He thought 1 would (should) wait. 20. He says that she will (shidl) not eat watermelon. 21. If she disobeyed she would (should) be punished. 23. Do you thinl; I should (would) go under the circumstances? 23. If they would (should) come, the danger would be averted, 24. If I would (should) say so, he would dislike me 25. He says he will (shall) not come, since she forgot him itl first. 26. We will (shall) come as soon as we can 27. I will (shall) not endure his rudeness. 28. John says he will (shall) stay to see the game. EXERCISE XLV. Insert the proper auxiliary (will, shall) in each blank in the follow- ing sente?ices : — \ 1. I — be drowned ; nobody — help me, 2. You — have a wet day for your journey. 3. He says he — not be able to come. 4. We — not soon forget this picnic. 5 He — repent of his folly when it is too late. 6. We — be pleased to have you call. 7. The gathering — be informal; therefore I — not need my dress suit. 8. We — have occasion to test the wires tonight 9 I — be obliged to you for your autograph. 10. He — be obliged to you. 11. The managers have agreed that the race — be rowed again, 12. Do you think we — have rain ? 13. If the fire is not put out soon, we — have the whole town to rebuild. 76 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 14. Do uot fear ; we — be all right. 15. A prize is offered to whoever — guess this conundrum. 16. We • — find ourselves much mistaken. 17. The time is coming when we — have to go elsewhere for lum- ber. 18. Are you not afraid that you — miss the train ? 19. Yes, I fear that I — miss the train. 20. He is afraid that he — miss the train. 21. They say I — find picture-galleries in every city, 22. Think what a happy life we — live. 23. If you will call for me, I — be glad to go with you. 24. I — be sixteen in May. 25. John thinks he — be sick to-morrow. 26. He says James — be sick to-morrow. 27. Howard thinks he — piobably live to old age. 28. Howard thinks his brother — probably live to old age. 29. He tells me that he — be ten next month. 30. We — be all right if Congress will (shall) adjourn without tampering with the tariff. 31. If we examine the falling snow, we — find that each flake con- sists of particles of ice. 32. He has resolved that he — not answer the letter. 33. She has resolved that her daughter — not answer his letter. 34. I — feel greatly obliged if you — tell me. 35. When He — appear we — be like Him. 36. I hope we — be in time to get good seats. 37. When — I come to get my paper ? 38. — I put more coal on the fire ? 89. — you be sorry to leave Boston ? 40. — you be elected ? 41. When — we three meet again ? 43. — I fetch a chair for you ? 43. — you be surprised to hear it ? 44. — you do me the favor to reply by return mail ? 45. — we have time to get our tickets ? 46. — you have time to get your ticket ? 47 — he have time to get his ticket ? 48. — there be time to get our tickets ? 49. — you be at leisure after dinner ? 50. — I find you at home ? OF VERBS 77 51. When — we have peace ? 52. — lie find gold there ? — we find any ? 53. — we heiir a good lecture if we go ? 54. If I fail on this examination, — I be allowed to take it over again ? EXERCISE XLVI. Insert the proper auxiliary {would, should) in each UanTc in the fol- lowing sentences : — 1. I — like to know who he is. 2. We — prefer to go by boat from Rhinebeck. 3. He — prefer to go by boat from Poughkeepsie. 4. He — be sorry to miss his train. 5. I — be sorry to lose this umbrella. 6. I — feel hurt if he — abuse my hospitality in that way. 7. Were I to go, I — get tired. 8. He ought to have known that we — be ruined. 9. I — think he — know they are fooling him. 10. The head-master decided that you — be promoted. 11. Ralph said he — (volition) not stay at the hotel if it were not better kept. 12. Though I — die for it, yet — I do it. 13. I was afraid she — not come. 14. If I knew where she is, I — write to her. 15. We — have been paid, if the treasurer had been at home. 16. They — have been paid, if the treasurer had been at home. 17. I said nothing lest she — feel hurt. 18. I asked her whether she — come again. 19. He promised that it — not occur again. 20. If it — rain, we would not start. 21. Queen Isabella offered a reward to the first man who — dis- cover land. 22. Cornelia was afraid that we — miss the train. 23. I expected that they — accept the proposal. 24. He said Miss Anderson — not return to the stage. 25. Franklin resolved that Collins — row. Collins said that he — not row, but that Franklin — row in his place. 26. At first I did not think I — enjoy seeing the World's Fair. 27. What — we do without our friends ? 28. If he — come to-day, would (should) you be ready ? 78 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Questions of Tense.' — The tense of a verb should cor- rectly express the time referred to. Most errors in the use of tenses are violations of some one of the following prin- ciples, vv^hich are established by good usage : — 1. Principal verbs referring to the same time should be in the same tense. 2. The perfect indicative represents something as now completed — as begun in the past but continuing till the present, at least in its consequences : as, " I have lost my book" (so that now I do not have it); "This house has stood for ninety years " (it is still standing) ; " Bishop Brooks has died, but he has left us his example " (he is not now among us, but we have his example). 3. The tense of the verb in a dependent clause varies with the tense of the principal verb:'' as, I know he will come. I hnew lie loould come. I have taken the first train, that I may arrive early. I had taken the first train, that I might arrive early. Blanche tcill be frightened if she sees the bat. Blanche would be frightened if she saw the bat. Blanche would have been frightened if she had seen the bat. Present facts and unchangeable truths, however, should be expressed in the present tense, regardless of the tense of the principal verb; as, "What did you say his name is'r 4. '^i^he perfect infinitive is properly used to denote action which is completed at the time denoted by the principal verb : as, " I am glad to have seen Niagara Falls ;" " He felt sorry to have hurt your feelings." Exception. — Ought, must, need, and should (in the sense of " ought ") have no distinctive form to denote past time ; with these verbs present » "Foundations," pp. 93-98. ^ This is sometimes called the " Law of the Sequence of Tenses." OF VERBS 79 time is denoted by putting tlie complementary infinitive in the present tense, past time is denoted by putting the complementary infinitive in the perfect tense; as, " You ought to yo," " You ought to have gone;" "He should be careful," " He should have been careful." A similar change from the present to the perfect infinitive is found after could and might in some of their uses: as, "I could yo," "I could have gone;" "You might an- swer" " You might have answered." EXERCISE XLVII. DistinguisJi in meaning between tlie following : — 1. The house stood (has stood) twenty years. 2. The messenger came (has come). 3. He should stay (have stayed). 4. It rained (has rained) for two weeks. 5. He was believed to live (to have lived) a happy life. 6. He ought to go (to have gone). 7. He deposited (has deposited) the money in bank. 8. I am sure I could go (have gone) alone. 9. Yesterday at three o'clock I completed (had completed) my work. 10. He must be (have been) weary, 11. He appeared to be (have been) crying. 12. He need not go. He need not have gone, 13. The horse jumped (had jumped) into the field, and began (had begun) to eat the corn. 14. Achilles is said to be (have been) buried at the foot of this hill. EXERCISE XLVIII. Which of the italicized forms is right ? — 1. Where did you say Pike's Peak is {was) ? 2. I intended to do {to have done) it yesterday. 3. Atlas is {was) a mythical giant who was supposed to hold {to have held) the sky on his shoulders. 4. I do not think that any one would say that winter is {was) preferable to spring. 5. Cadmus was supposed to build {to have built) Thebes. 6. Your father grieves to hear {to have heard) of your bad conduct. 7. Would he have been willing to go {to have gone) with you ? 8. I meant to icrite {to have written) yesterday. 9. He tried to learn how far it is {was) from New York to Syracuse. 80 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 10. He hardly knew that two and two make {made) four. 11. His experience proved that there is (was) many a sUp 'twixt the cup and the lip. 12. Carrie knew that water is {was) composed of two gases. 13. It was their duty to prevent {to have prevented) this outrage. 14. He was reported to rescue {to have rescued) the drowning man. 15. It would have been unkind to refuse {to have refused) to lielp {to have helped) him. 16. It would not have been difHcult to prevent {to have prevented) the disaster. 17. Where did you say Gettysburg is {was) ? 18. It was as true as that he is {was) listening to me when I said it, 19. It was harder than I expected it would be {have been) 20. Homer is supposed to be {to have been) born about 850 B.C. 21. When I came I intended to buy {to have bought) ail Paris. 22. Washington is known to have {to have had) many narrow es- capes. 23. If you would only wait, your success will {would) be certain. 24. Is he very sick ? I should say he is {was). 25. Who first asserted that virtue is {was) its own reward ? 26. We have done no more than it was our duty to do {to have done). 27. What building is {was) that which we just passed ? 28. He impressed on us the trutli that honesty is {was) the best policy. 29. He expected to see {to Jiave seen) you to-morrow. 30. He expected to xoin {to have won) the suit, and was astonished at the decision of the court. 31. The result of such constant reading by poor light would have been to destroy {to have destroyed) his sight. 32. It would have given me great satisfaction to relieve {to have re- lieved) him from his distress. 33. Who would have thought it possible to receive {to have received) a reply from India so soon ? 34. It would have been better to wait {to have waited). 55. I should like to hear {to have heard) the speeches of Hayne and Webster. 36. The furniture was to be {to have been) sold at auction. 37. It was a pity I was the only child, for my mother had fond- ness of heart enough to spoil {to have spoiled) a dozen children. OF VERBS J^ ^ , \y^ 31 38. I am ■writing to him so that he may {niigJit) Ue ready for us. 39. I have wi'itlen to hini so that he may (might) be ready for us. 40. I wrote to him so that he may (might) be ready for us. EXERCISE XLIX. Examine the tenses in the following sentences, explain any errors which you find, a7id correct them : — 1. I knew him since boyhood. 2. It was a superstition among the Mexicans that a bullet will not kill a man unless it has his name stamped on it. 3. Being absent from the last recitation, 1 am unable to write on the subject assigned this morning. 4. Soon after Oliver reached home a servant announces the pres- ence of Charles. 5. " ' Got any luck ?' says I. 'No,' says he. ' Well,' says I, ' I've got the finest siring of trout ever was seen.'" 6. Be virtuous and you would be happy. 7. Stackhouse believed that he solved the problem he had so long studied over, and yesterday afternoon he started from his house. No. 2446 North Tenth Street, to make a test. 8. This beautiful little bird that appears to the king and tries to warn him, was not an ordinary bird. 9. Next September I shall be at school three years, 10. I know very little about the "Arabian Nights." for I have never read any of the stories before I came to this school. 11. If he received your instructions he would have obeyed them. 12. Before he was going to have the sign pi'inted he submitted it to his friends for corrections. 13. The Balloon Society recently invited Mr. Gould to read befoie ihem a paper on yachting. Mr. Gould, in reply, has expressed regret that the shortness of his visit will prevent him from accepting the invitation. 14. I should be obliged to him if he will gratify me in that respect. 15. While he was in England the British had given him very hon- orable positions in America in order to have his help if they had any trouble with the colonies. 16. Up and down the engines pounded. It is a good twenty-one knots now, and the upper deck abaft the chart-house began rapidly to fill. 4* 82 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 17. Ml", and Mrs. Lincoln regret that a previous engagement will prevent them from accepting Mrs. Black's kind invitation for Thurs- day. 18. Mr. Rockwell will accept with pleasure the invitation of Mr. and Mrs. Pembroke for Tuesday evening, December 3d. 19. 1 am sure that he has been there and did what was required of him. 20. He might probably have been desirous, in the first place, to have dried his clothes and refreshed himself. 21. He could not have failed to have aroused suspicion. 22. "When, on the return of Dr. Primrose's son Moses from the Fair, the family had discovered how he had been cheated, we are shown an admirable picture of home life. 23. Apart from his love, Orlando was also a noble youth. When old Adam, at last overcome by fatigue, sank in the footsteps of Or- lando, Orlando tries to encourage and assist him. 24. The increase in tonnage was not so rapid as it would have been were it not for the Act of 1790. Indicative or Subjunetive.'— The modern tendency to drop the subjunctive is unfortunate, for the distinction be- tween the subjunctive and the indicative is too useful to be abandoned. ** A knowledge of the difference between these modes in English is especially important in view of the difficulty which pupils complain of in mastering the uses of the Latin subjunctive or the Greek subjunctive and op- tative.' For these reasons more space is given to the sub- junctive in this book than would be called for by a mere discussion of modern English usage. ' "Foundations," pp. 98-101. 2 "Some people seem to think that the subjunctive mood is as good as lost, that it is doomed, and tliat its retention is hopeless. If its function were generally appreciated, it might even now be saved. ... If we lose the Subjunctive Verb, it will certainly be a grievous impoverishment to our literary language, were it only for its value in giving variation to diction — and I make bold to assert that the writer who helps to keep it up deserves public gratitude." — John Earle: English Prose, its Elements, History, and Usage, p. 172. ' " The lecturer also put in a plea for more vitality in the teaching of OF VERBS 83 Forms of the Subjunctive. — In form the English subjunc- tive differs from the indicative in several ways : — 1. In the sinojle case of the verb to be there are distinct forms for the present and past tenses, namely : — Present. Past. 1, we ^ I were, we \ thou, you [■ be. thou wert, you i were. he, they ) he were, they ) Examples. — "See that my room be^ got ready at once." "I will work you a banner if you 6e' victorious." "The headsman feels if the axe fee' sharp." "Take care lest you he deceived." "Judge not that ye be not judged." "I will beard them, though they 6e' more fanged than wolves and bears." " If I ivere you, I would not say that." " If you ivere more studi- ous, you would rank high." " Would that my parents were here!" 2. In other verbs the subjunctive form is distinguishable from the indicative in the second and third persons singu- lar by the absence of the personal endings -th, -s, or -st: as, Present Indicative : I have, thou hast, he has (hath). Subjunctive : I have, thou have, he have. Past Indicative: I had, thou hadst, he had. Subjunctive: I had, thou had, he had. Present Indicative : I come, thou comest, he comes (cometh) SubjuTictive : I come, thou come, he come. Past Indicative: I came, thou camest, he came. Subjunctive : I came, thou came, he came. English, which ought to be made the gate to other languages. Many of the difficult questions of Latin syntax might be examined in the field of Eng- lish, if only we were careful to treat our English critically. Whereas most grammars cut the ground from under them by denying the existence of a Subjunctive Mood. Until teachers recognize generally that, in such a sen- tence as ' If he had done it, it had been better,' we have a Subjunctive in both clauses, and a sentence essentially different from ' If he had loved her before, he now adored her,' English must forfeit half its value, both as a mental discipline and as a means of approach to Latin, Greek, and Ger- man." — From a report of a Lecture by Prof. Sonnenschein, of the Mason College, quoted in Earle's "English Prose," p. 55. ' In such sentences the mdicative would be, according to modern usage, correct, and it is more common. 84 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGIJSII Examples. — " Long live the king !" " If thou go, see th.-it thou offend not." "It is better he die." "Though he slai/ me, yet will I trust him." " Unless he behave^ better, he will be punished." " If I will that he tarry^ till I come, what is that to thee?" "Govern well thy appetite, lest sin sur- prise thee." "If my sister saw this snake, she would be fiightened." "I wish I knew where Charles is." The perfect and pluperfect subjunctives are of course formed by means of the subjunctive present and past tenses of "have." 3. Very often, instead of the simple subjunctive forms, we use auxiliary verbs — may (past, might) and tvoulcl or should — to express the subjunctive idea. "May" ("might") is common as an equivalent for the subjunctive mode in clauses denoting a purpose, a wish, a hope, or a fear : as, " Bring him the book, that he may read to us ;" " May he rest in peace ;" "I hope you 7nay succeed f'^ "They Avere afraid we might lose the way." "Would" and "should" are common substitutes for all tenses of the subjunctive : as, " Walk carefully lest you (stumble) should stumble f^ " If he (come) should come, he will find me at home ;" " It (were) would he better if he (went) should go alone ;" "If my sister had seen this mouse, she (had been) woidd have been frightened." In these sentences either the form in parenthesis or the italicized form is correct, though the lat- ter is more common. Note. — It does not follow that the verbs " may," " would," and " should " always express the subjunctive idea. In the following sentences, fur in- stance, they express the indicative idea: "You may {i.e., are permitted to) stay an hour;" "You should {i.e., ought to) be punctual;" "Edith would not (i.e., was unwilling to) come." In sucli sentences "may," "should," and " would " make simple statements of fact. Uses of the Subjunctive. — The indicative form is used in expressing a fact or what is assumed to be a fact : as "He thinks he is ill ;" the subjunctive form indicates some * In such sentences the indicative would be, according to modern usa'^e correct, and it is more common. OF VERBS 85 uncertainty or doubt in the speaker's mind : as, " Whether it rain or not, I Avill go." The subjunctive idea occurs most frequently, perhaps, in conditional sente7ices. A conditional sentence is one that contains a condition or supposition. A supposition may refer to present, past, or future time. If it refers to pres- ent or past time, it may be viewed by the speaker as true, untrue, or as a mere supposition with nothing implied as to its truth ; if it refers to the future, it may be viewed as either likely or unlikely. A supposition which is assumed to be true, or which is made without any hint as to its cor- rectness, is expressed by the indicative. A supposition which is viewed by the speaker as untrue or unlikely is expressed by the subjunctive or a periphrase' for the sub- junctive. When the character of the supposition makes the conclusion untrue or unlikely, the conclusion also is ex- pressed by the subjunctive or a periphrase' for the sub- junctive. The use of tenses is peculiar, as will be seen from the following table of a few common forms of conditional sentences. The tenses should be carefully noted : — ii ( If it rains {is raining) now, I ain sovrv. H J Present indicative: A simple supposition without any hint as to its correctness, g I If it rained [were raining)^ I should he soriv. P-( [. Past subjunctive, both clauses: The spealier implies that it is not raining. If it rained (was mining)^ I wns soriv. Past indicative: No suggestion of doubt. If it liad rained, I should have been sorrv Past perfect subjunctive, both clauses: The speaker implies that it did not rain. If it rains, I shall be sorry. Present indicative: The common, though inexact, form of a simple future sup- If it rain, I shall be sori'v. [position. ^ ■{ Present subjunctive: Less common, but more exact. The future is uncertain. If it shoidd [were to) rain, I should be son v. Subjunctive, both clauses : The uncertainty is emphasized by the auxiliary form ; the chances of rain seem more remote. ' See paragraph 3, page 84. The forms in " would " and " should " in conditional sentences, though they express the subjunctive idea, can hardly be called the "subjunctive mood." Sometimes they are called the "con- ditional mood." Eh CO <: Ph 86 PRACTICAL EXP:UCISES in ENGLISH Note 1. — When if is equivalent to " whenever," the condition is called "general," to distinguish it from "particular" conditions, which refer to some particular act at some particular time. General conditions always take the indicative: as, "If (whenever) it rains, I stay at home." Note 2. — Sometimes there is no " if," and then the verb or a part of the verb precedes the subject: as, "Were it raining, I should be sorry;" "Had it been raining, I should have been sorry." Note 3. — In such sentences as " If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died," it may perhaps be questioned whether " had not died " is indica- tive, as in the Greek, or subjunctive, as in the Latin, idiom. Note 4. — Clauses introduced by though and unless take the same forms as clauses introduced by if. Wishes are naturally expressed in the subjunctive. The present subjunctive denotes a wish for the future: as, "Tliy kingdom comey The past subjunctive denotes a wish for the present which is unfulfilled: as, "I wish I were a bird." The j)cist perfect subjunctive denotes a wish contrary to a past fact : as, " I wish you had been there." EXERCISE L. Tell tlie time o^ef erred to in each of the following sentences, and wheth- er the speaker regards tlie condition as true, untrue, or uncertain : — 1. If all men did their duty, there would be less misery hi the world. 2. Had I heard of the affair sooner, this misfortune would not have happened. 3. Were it true, I would say so. 4. I would go with you if I could spare the time. 5. She could sing if she would. 6. If love be rough with you, be rough witii love 7. If all the year were playing holidays, to play would be as tedious as to work. 8 If thou warn the wicked, and he turn not from his wicked ness, he shall die in his iniquity, 9. He brags as if he were of note. 10. If the natural course of tliis stream be obstructed, the water will make a new channel. 11. If the natural course of a stream is obstructed, the water will make a new channel. OF VERBS 87 12. If the book was in my library, some one must have borrowed it. 13. If lie knows the way, he does not need a guide, 14. If he still wishes to go, he may take my horse. 15. Had he followed my advice, he would be rich. 16. Had she lived a twelvemonth more She had not died to-day. 17. Though gods they were, as men they died. 18. Though the law is severe, we must obey it. 19. If the law be severe, we must change it. 20. Though the vase were made of steel, the servant would break it. 21. Though the vase was made of steel, the servant broke it. EXERCISE LI. Tell the difference in meaning between the italicized forms : — 1. If he is {were) studious, he icill {would) excel. 2. If he icas {had been) studious, he excelled {would have excelled) 3. Oh, that you may be {were, had been) blameless. 4. Though he deceive {deceives) me, yet will I trust him. 5. Though he deceived me, yet will {icould) I trust him. 6. Though he deceived (had deceived) me, yet would I trust him 7. Though the boy's coat was {were) made of silk, he soiled {would soil) it. EXERCISE LII. Wliich of the italicized forms is 'preferablel Oice the reason : — 1. They act as if it was {were) possible to deceive us. 2. If l,was {were) in his place, I would go. 3. I wish my mother was (were) here. 4. See that no one is {be) forgotten, 5. If this is {be) treason, make the most of it. 6. If it rain {rains), the work is delayed. 7. If it rain {rains), the work will be delayed. 8. Take care lest you are {be) carried away by your feelings. 9. If he acquire (acquires) riches, they may make him worldly. 10. I could jump across the stream if it teas (were) necessary, 11. If to-morrow is (be) breezy, we will go sailing. 12. If my father was (were) here, he would enjoy this. 18. If she rcas (were) at the reception, I did not see her. 14. If he speak (speaks) only to display his talents, he is unworthy of attention. 88 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IX ENGLISH 15. I wish I was {were) at home. 16. Though this seem {seems) improbable, it is true. 17. I should be surprised if this marriage take ( took, will take, sliould take) place. 18. If the book was {were) in my library, I would send it. 19. I will see that he obey {obeys) you. 20. If a man smite {smites) his servant and the servant die {dies), the man shall surely be put to death. 21. Though he is {be) poor and helpless now, you may rest assured that he will not remain so. 22. I wish I was {were) a musician. 23. Make haste lest your ardor cool {cools). 24. He will continue hi.s course, though it cost {costs) him his life. 25. Though a liar speak {speaks) the truth, he will hardly be be- lieved. ' 26 Govern well thy appetite, lest sin surprise {surprises) thee. 27. Though gold is {be) more precious than iron, iron is more use- ful than gold. 28. Whether he go {goes) or not, it is your duty to go. 29. If he was {were, sliould be) elected, it would be bis ruin. 30. If a picture is {be) admired by none but painters, the picture is bad. 31. If one went {should go) unto them from the dead, they would repent. 32. If an animal of any kind was {were) kept shut up in a box, it would surely die. 33. They will not believe, though one rose {rise) from the dead. 34. Clerk wanted. It is indispensable that he wi'ite {writes) a good hand and have {has) some knowledge of book-keeping. 35. If the debtor paj/ {j)ays) the debt, he shall be discharged. 36. If my sister go {goes), which I think is doubtful, she will surely call for you. 37. The most glorious hero that ever desolated nations might have mouldered into oblivion did {had) not some historian take {taken) him into favor. 38. He will see his error if he substitute {substitutes) " that which " for "what." 39. Though Dorothy is {be) young, she is tall. 40. Unless he take (takes) better care of his health, his constitution will break down. OF VERBS 89 41. If I lend you my horse, I shall {should) have to borrow one myself. 42. I hope that if any of my readers comes (come, should come) to New Haven, he may tind the city just as I Iiave described it. Singular or Plupal.' — The following principles, estab- lished by good usage, writers or speakers are liable to for- get :— 1. The expressions each^ every, many a, either, and neither are singular. 2. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pro- nouns connected by or, either — or, or neither — nor, the verb raust be singular. 3. Words joined to the subject by vnth, together %mth, in addition to, or as well as, are not a part of the grammatical subject, but are parenthetical, and therefore do not affect the number of the verb. 4. Since a relative pronoun has the number and person of its antecedent, a verb whase subject is a relative pro- noun agrees in person and number with the antecedent of the relative. 5. " When the subject though plural in form is singular in sense, the verb should be singular ; when the subject though singular in form is plural in sense, the verb should be plural :" ^ as, " ' Gulliver's Travels ' was written by Swift;" "Five hundred dollars is a large sum;" "Half of them are gone." 6. " A collective noun, when it refers to the collection as a whole, is singular in sense, and therefore requires a singular verb ; when it refers to the individual persons or things of the collection, it is plural and requires a plural verb." ' • "Foundations," pp. 101-108. ^ A. S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 56. 3 Ibid., p. 57. 90 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH EXERCISE LIII. Insert the proper form of the verb "to be" in each of the blank places : — 1. "Horses" — a common noun. 2. Such phenomena — very strange. 3. The ship with all her crew — lost. 4. No less than fifty dollars — paid for what was not worth twenty. 5. Homer, as well as Virgil, — once students (a student) on the banks of the Rhine. 6. The committee — divided in its (their) judgment. 7. The genii who — expected to be present — deaf to every call. 8. France was once divided into a number of kingdoms, each of which — ruled by a duke. 9. Sir Richard Steele lived in the reign of Queen Anne, when the tone of gentlemen's characters — very low. 10. Each man employed in this department — paid for his (their) work. 11. Mathematics — my hardest study. 13. There — once two boys who were so exactly alike in appear- ance that they could not be distinguished. 13. Each of the heads of the Chimera — able to spit fire. 14. The jury — eating dinner. 15. "Plutarch's Lives " — an Interesting book. 16. One of the most beautiful features of Kennebunkport — the tremendous rocks all along the coast. 17. The richness of her arms and apparel — conspicuous in the foremost ranks. 18. My robe and my integrity to heaven — all I dare now call my own. 19. Refreshing as springs in the desert to their long-languishing eyes — the sight of his white cravat and his boots of Parisian polish. 20. The "Arabian Nights" in complete form comprise (comprises) twenty volumes and — written by different men. 21. Fifty dollars a month — paid by the government to the widow of the colonel. 22. Ten minutes — spent in a writing exercise. '. 23. — either of you going to the village? 24. Our happiness or our sorrow — largely due to our own actions. OF VERBS 91 35. The guidance as well as tlm love of a mother — wanting. 26. Every one of these books — mine. 27. General Custer with his whole force — massacred by Indians. 28. Three times three — nine. ^ 29. Nearly three hundred yards of the track — under water. < 30. To admit the existence of God and then to refuse to worship liira — inconsistent. w 31. The ebb and flow of the tides • caused by the attraction of the moon. 32. Six dollars a week — all he earns. 33. Nine-tenths of his time — wasted. 34. Three quarts of oats — enough for a horse's meal. 35. "Tales of a Wayside Inn " — written by Longfellow. 36. The rest of the Republican ticket elected. EXERCISE LIV, Which of the italicised forms is preferable? — 1. A variety of pleasing objects charm {charms) the eye. - 2. Already a train or two has {have) come in. 3. Each day and each hour bring {brings) contrary blessings. 4. The Senate has {have) adjourned. 5. No monstrous height, or lehgth, or breadth appear {appears). 6. I am the general who command {commands) you. 7. Many a captain with all his crew has {have) been lost at sea. 8. The jury who {which) was {icere) out all night has {have) just returned a verdict. 9. He dare {dares) not touch a hair of Catiline. 10. The ambition and activity of this railroad has {have) done much towards the civilization of tlie world. 11. Thackeray's "English Humorists" treat {treats) not of the writings of the humorists so much as of their characters and lives. 12. Addison was one of the best.writers tliat has {hace) ever lived. 13. This is one of the books that give {gives) me pleasure. 14. Give me one of the books that is (a?'e)'' lying on the table. 15. This is one of the most important questions that has {have) come up. 16. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight {delights) some persons. 17. Six months' interest is {are) due. 92 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH ^ A 18. You are not the first one that has (have) been deceived in that way. 19. My room is one of those that overlook (overlooks) the garden. 20. A committee was (were) appointed to investigate the matter. 21. The greater part of the audience teas (were) pleased. 22. The public is [are) respectful!}' invited. 23. Tlie jury loas {were) not unanimous. ' 24. Generation after generation pass {passes) away. 25. A glimpse of gable roof and red chimneys add {adds) far more to the beauty of such a scene than could the grandest palace. 26. The society liold {holds) their {its) meetings weekly. 27. What is {are) the gender, the number, and the person of the following words ? 28. He made one of tlie best speeches that Jias {have) been delivered before the school. 29. He is one of those persons who is {are) quick to take offence. 30. This {these) scanty data is {are) all we have. 31. If the meaning of these passages is not carefully explained, some of the congregation may think, that Matthew or Paul is {are) guilty of some unorthodox opinions. Misused Verbs. — See the remarks under "Misused Nouns." I. A RESEMBLANCE IN SOUND MISLEADS. Accredit, credit.— "T(? accredit means 'to invest with credit or au- thority,' or ' to send with letters credential;' to credit means ' to be- lieve,' " '^ or "to put to the credit of." Arise, rise.— "The choice between these words was primarily, and slill often is, a matter of rhytlim [euphony]. The literal meanings, however, or those which seem literal, have become more associated with rise, and the consciously figurative with arise : as, he rose from the chair; the sun rose; the provinces rose in revolt: trouble arose ; ' music arose with its voluptuous swell.' " ' Captivate, capture.— To captivate means "to fascinate " ; to capture, " to take prisoner." Depreciate, deprecate.— To depreciate means 'to bring down in 1 "Foundations," p. 109. * A. S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 38. ® The Century Dictionary. OF VERBS 93 value," "to disparage;" to deprecate means "to argue earnestly against " or "to express regret for." Impugn, impute.— Tb impugn means "to call in question:" to im- pute means "to ascribe to." Loan, lend.— The use of loan as a verb is not sanctioned by good use. Properly the word is a noun. A loan is money which a per- son lends. EXERCISE LV. I'ell tJie difference in meaning between — 1. The Amazon captivated (captured) our hero. 2. The king depreciated (deprecated) Napoleon's effort to raise a new army. 3. The readiness with which men impute (impugn) motives is much to be regretted. EXERCISE LVI. Insert the proper word in each, bltiiik, and give the reason fo^' your choice :— Accpedit, credit. 1. Mr. Lowell was — ed as Minister Plenipotentiary to England. 2. These reasons will — his opinion. 3. He did not — the strange report. 4. The contribution of five dollars previously — ed to Mr. Will- iams came from Mr. Brown. 5. Mr. Sherman is well — ed as a writer on finance. 6. The bank has not — ed me with the interest on the deposit. Arise, rise. 7. The court — at four o'clock. 8. At the discharge of a gun whole flocks of quail would — . 9. The idea of a reward did not — iu his mind. 10. Most of these appalling accidents — from negligence. 11. The men — against their ofiicers. 12. Other cases of mutiny may — . Captivate, capture. 13. Her husband was — d in the battle of Gettysburg. 14. Mr. S. was — d by the young widow's beauty. 15. Let us attack them now and try to — the whole squad. 16. It is not merely what Chaucer has to say, but even more the agreeable way he has of saying it, that — s our attention and gives him an assured place in literature. 94 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Depreciate, deprecate. 17. Financial panics are likely to follow a — cl currency. 18. His purpose was — d by all who knew it. 19. Both parties — war. 20. It is natural for those who have not succeeded to — the work of those who have. 21. He — s his daughter's desire to earn her own living. 23. An injurious consequence of asceticism was a tendency to — the character and the position of woman. Impugn, impute. 23. We cannot deny the conclusion of a proposition of Euclid without — ing the axioms which are the basis of its demonstration. 24. The gentleman — s my honesty. 25. The power of fortune is confessed only by the miserable, for the happy — all their success to prudence and merit. 26. Mr. X. is uncharitable ; he always — s bad motives. II. A RESEMBLANCE IN SENSE MISLEADS.' Antagonize, oppose.— To antagonize means properly ' ' to struggle against," "to oppose actively," or "to counteract." "In England, antagonizing forces must be of the same kind, but in the political phraseology of the United States a person may antagonize [i.e., op- pose) a measure."^ Calculate, intend.-To calculate means properly " to compute math- ematically," or "to adjust or adapt" for something. In the sense of intend it is not in good use. Carry, bring, feteh.-To carry means " to take along in going;" to hring means "to take along in coming;" to fetch means "to go, get, and bring." Champion, support.— The word chamjnon is very much overworked, being often used iu the general sense of "support." It should be restricted to cases in which there is the idea of entering the lists as champion of a cause. Claim, assert, allege, maintain, declare, affirm, state. — To claim means properly " to demand as one's own or one's due." It is often loosely used, especially in the United States, for "assert," "allege," "maintain," " declare," or "affirm." To assert is " to say or declare in the face of implied denial or doubt." To allege is " to assert with- 1 "Foundations," pp. 110-114. '■' Murray's Dictionary. OF VERBS 95 out proof." To maintain is "to uphold by argument." To declare is "to say publicly, clearly, or emphatically." To affirm is "to assert on one's reputation for knowledge or truthfulness." To state, which is also often misused in the sense of "say," " assert," " allege," "de- clare," or "affirm," means properly " to express formally and in de- tail;" it always implies detail. (See "Foundations," pp. 113, 114, and "Practical Exercises," p. 99.) Confess, z.&mli.—''' Admit, in cases into which the idea of confession does not enter, is preferable to confess. On grounds of idiom, how- ever, ' I must confess ' and the parenthetical ' I confess ' are exempt from the operation of this rule." ' Demand, ask.— Tc* demand means " to ask for with authority or with insistence." Tlie use of " demand " in the sense of "ask" is bor- rowed, possibly, from the French use of demander. Hire, let, lease.— To hire means "to obtain the use of;" to let, "to give the use of." To lease means "to give the use of by lease." The owner of a house leases it ; the person who occupies it takes a lease of it. ^ Learn, tez.ch.— Learn means to "acquire " knowledge, not to " im- part" it. In the latter sense the proper word is teach. " I have more information to-day than I had before," said Mr. Slieehan. "This has learned you something," said Mr. Goff. " Oh no," replied Mr. Sheehan, " it has taught me something." ^ Like, love.— Like and love differ greatly in strength or warmth, and may differ in kind. Like may be feeble and cool, and it never has the intensity of love. We may like or even lone a person; we only like the most palatable kind of food. With an infinitive, like is the common word, love being appropriate only in the hyperbole of poet- ical or rhetorical feeling.' Materialize, appear.— I'w materialize properly means "to make or to become physically perceptible :" as, " by means of letters we ma- terialize our ideas and make them as lasting as ink and paper ;" " the ideas of the sculptor materialize in marble." Plead, argue.— See ])lea, argument, p. 29. Stay, stop.— "Stay, as in 'At what hotel are you staying ?' is prefer- able to stop, since sto2) also means 'to stop without slaying.' "* 1 A. S. Hill : Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 18. '■' Newspaper report. ^ See the Century Dictionary. * A. S. Hill : Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, j). 19. 96 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Transpire, happen.— Tci transpire means properly "to escape from secrecy to notice," " to leak out ;" it should not be used in the sense of to happen. EXERCISE LVII. Tell t?ie difference in meaning between — 1. Please bring {fetch) a chair from the next room. 2. You had better carry (bring) an umbrella with you. 3. He asserts {alleges, maintains, declares, affirms, says) that he has been robbed. 4. Mr. A. stated {declared) his opinion. 5. He admits {confesses) the fault. 6. The grocer asks for {demands) his money. 7. He has let {hired) the boat for the afternoon. 8. We have leased {taken a lease of) the cottage. 9. He is learning {teaching) the alphabet. 10. Dorothy likes {loves) Helen. 11. Washington stayed {stopped) at this house on his way to Phila- delphia. 13. It transpired {happened) that we disagreed. EXERCISE LVIIL Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice : — ' Antagonize, oppose. 1. Ex-Secretary Windom — d ex-Secretary Sherman's bill. 2. The body is balanced by an incessant shifting of the muscles, one group' — ing the other. 3. I am too weak to — your cunning. Calculate, intend. 4. To-morrow he — s to hunt the boar. 5. Bradley was able to — the velocity of light. 6. He — s to go. Carry, fetch, bring. 7. Farmers — their potatoes to market. 8. What shall I — you from Paris ? 9. Harry, please — a chair from the hall. 10. Go to the flock and — me two young lambs. ' In some of the sentences one verb or another is allowable, according to the meaning intended. OF VERBS 97 11. The Spartan was to — his shield home, or to be borne home on it. 12. When he dieth, he shall — nothing away. Champion, support. 13. The Republican party — ed this measure. 14. He — ed tlie policy of tlie administration. 15. Gareth — ed the cause of Lynette in the combats with the craven knights. Claim, assert, allege, maintain, declare, affirm, state, say. 16. The heavens — the glory of God. 17. Rhoda constantly — d that it was even so. 18. I have endeavored to — nothing but what I have good authoi'- ity for. 19. Nay, if my Lord — d that black was white, My word was this, your honour's in tlie right. 20. She — s her innocence in the strongest terms. 21. I will — what He hath done for my soul. 22. What if Nemesis — repayment ? 23. It is not directly — d, but it seems to be implied. 24. That such a report existed in Claudian's time cannot now be— d. 25. Geologists — that before there were men on earth this im- mense gulf was a forest. 26. He fared on in haste to — his kingdom. 27. Will Mr. L. — his reasons for disagreeing with the rest of the committee ? 28. He — s that he will not come. 29. Both sides — the victor3^ 30. There is another point which — s our attention. 81. He — d that he had been robbed by A., but he showed no proofs. 32. He — s that the thief attacked him on Tbird Street. 33. Please — all the particulars of the disaster. 34. The woman — s that she left Bangor Thursday night, and was put off the train at Hermon for not paying her fare. Confess, admit. 35. He — s that his opponent is a good man. 36. I — that I spoke too hastily. 5 98 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 37. I — that John was a thief. 38. Every man must — that he has occasional fits of bad temper 39. The problem, I — , is difficult. Demand, ask. 40. He — s why I will not e;o with him. 41. The highwayman — ed their purses. 42. Tlie pound of flesh which I — of him I dearly bought; 'tis mine, and I will have it. 48. He — ed the way to Chester. Hire, let, lease. 44. Boats to — ; twenty-five cents an hour. 45. We will — our country-house during the winter, 46. — us some fair chamber for the night. 47. Bathing suits to — , Like, love. 48. I — to go rowing. 49. He — s to talk of the days before the war, 50. All children — their mothers. 51. She — s her blue gown. 52. Don't you — strawberry short-cake ? 53. A maid wliom there were none to praise And very few to — . Materialize, appear. 54. The representatives of the other colleges did not — . 55. His hopes have not — ed. Stay, stop. 56. The King of Denmark — s there during the summer. 57. — a few moments longer. 58. She is very kind to ask me to — overnight. 59. I am very tired ; let us — here and rest. 60 I've been — ing with my mother for a week. Transpire, happen, elapse. 61. After a considerable time had — d, he returned to the ofllce, 62. Silas takes an interest in everything that — s. 63 Presently it — d that Henry Roscoe was the obstinate jury- baan. 64. Many things have — d since the war was ended. OF VERBS 99 III. ADDITIONAL MISUSED VERBS.' Accept, except.— y Illustrate hy original sentences tlie proper use of each of these terhs: — Allow, learn, leave, let, loan, locate, accede, accredit, credit, arise, rise, captivate, depreciate, deprecate, impugn, impute, like, love, an- tagonize, champion, calculate, bring, carry, fetch, claim, assert, allege, maintain, admit, confess, demand, hire, let, lease, materialize, plead, argue, state, slop, transpire, accept, except, advertise, advise, affect, effect, alleviate, relieve, augur, compare to, compare with, contrast, construe, construct, convince, convict, detect, discriminate, disclose, discover, dominate, domineer, drive, ride, eliminate, elicit, insure, se- cure, esteem, estimate, expose, expound, investigate, persuade, con- vince, predicate, predict, prescribe, proscribe, purpose, propose, re- pulse, start, suspect, expect, anticipate. ' See Note to Teacher, p. 41. CHAPTER VT OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS An adjective is a word joined by way of description or limitation to a noun or a pronoun. An ADVERB is a word joined by way of limitation or em- phasis to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Vulgarisms." — Every educated person is expected to know the correct use of the following words : — Good, vfeU.— Good is an adjective; the adverb corresponding to it is well. We say, "He bad a good sleep;" "He slept well." Well is sometimes an adjective, as in " You look well" Likely, probably, lilie.— Li kelt/ is now used as an adjective only, ex- cept in the phrase "As likely as not;" the corresponding adverb is probably. We say, " He is likely to come ;" " He will probably come." Like as an adjective means "similar," as, "Men of like excellence;" " He looks like liis grandfatliei- ;" " He was a man of like passions as we are." In the sense of "in the same manner as" like is followed by a noun or a pronoun in the objective case, and is called by some an adverb, b)' others a preposition: as, "He talks like her." Less, fewer, smaller.— Zdss refers to quantity, fewer to number, smaller to size. Most, aXmost.— Most denotes "the greatest number, quantit}^ or de- gree.". It is always superlative and never means "nearly," which is the proper meaning of almost. We say, "Most of the boys are here; the time has almost come," Near, nearly.— Am?" is an adjective; the corresponding adverb is nearly. Plenty is now in good use as a noun only, as " Plenty of corn and wine.'"' Shakespeare used the word as an adjective in "Reasons ' "Foundations," pp. 118-120. ^ gee page 32. 110 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH as plenty as blackberries," but this use is obsolete. The use of plenty as an adverb, as "The food is plenty good enough," is a vul- garism. Some, somewhat, something.— ^Some is an adjective, as, " Some wa- ter;" "Some brighter clime." Somewhat is an adverb, as, "He is somewlmt better." " Somewhat" is occasionally used as a noun, as, "Somewhat of doubt remains," but in this sense sometMng is more common. This, these; that, those.— T/ziS (pluial these) and that (plural t1wse) are the only adjectives in English that have distinct forms for tlie plural. A common mistake is to use the plural forms with singular collective nouns, as "kind," "class," "sort." First, second, secondly, etc. — First is bolh adjective and adverb. Second, tJdrd, elc, ave adjectives only; the corresponding adverbs are secondly, thirdly, etc. Firstly is a vulgarism. Everywheres, illy, lesser, light-complected, muchly, nowhere near, un- beknown are not in reputable use. EXERCISE LXIIL Insert the proper word in each blank, a7id give the reason for your ^^^^^■^•— Good, well. 1. George played — in the football game this afternoon ; he is a — runner. 2. She embroiders very — . 3. The draperies do not hang as — as I thought they would. 4. Your coat fits you very — . 5. He always behaves — . 6. This pen will not write — . 7. He did the work as — as I could expect. 8. This is a — picture ; the artist paints — . 9. Mr. A. is a — workman. See how — he has laid this hearth. 10. George writes — . 11. Charles does not look — to-day. 12. He says he does not feel — . Likely, probably, like. 13. It became evident that the duke ^vas not — to have his own way in the assembly. 14. There is a difEerence between what may possibly and what may — be done. OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS HI 15. Just as — as not j'oii will meet liim ou the road. 16. He is — to die of liuugcr. 17. He will — die of hunger. 18. It seems — that he will be elected. 19. — he will be elected. 20. Japan will — defeat China. 21. If a man does not care for himself, it is oot — that he will care much for others. 32. They are as — as two peas. 23. Tell me who is married, and who is — to be. 24. This is a — story. 25. As — as not you love her yourself. Less, fewer, smaller. 26. A proper fraction is — than a unit, because it expresses — parts than a unit contains. 27. I caught seven fish ; Carl caught a — number. 28. Look for no — punishment than death. 29. I saw not — than twenty beggars to-day. 30. Rebellion is sometimes a — evil than endurance. 31. Not — than twelve banks in New York failed to-day. 32. We have — than a half a ton of coal left. 33. People who live in the country have — things to talk about than city people. 34. He received — good than he conferred. 35. I have — books than you. 36. There were — people there than I expected Most, almost. 37. I have — finished my lesson. 38. You will find me in my office — any day. 39. — men dread death. 40. We come here — every summer. 41. We have — done. 42. This wheat is — too thick. 43. Though I saw — everylhiug else, I failed to see Hagenbeck's trained animals. 44. — everybody has imperfect eyes. 45. The old man's strength is — gone. 46. — boys like play. 47. It rains in some places — every day. 48. — all flowers are beautiful. 112 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Near, nearly. 49. It isn't — finished yet. 50. We are — the end of the lesson. 51. I am — suffocated. 53. We are not — through our work. 53. He is not — so young as L 54. I will answer you as — as I can remember. 55. We are — the end of the term ; our school-days are — over. 56. Mr. Patterson came very — breaking the greatest record ever made in America. Some, somewhat, something. 57. Thank you, I feel — better this morning. 58. — attempted, — done, has earned a night's repose. 59. He resembles his father — . 60. She felt — encouraged by this (these) news. 61. — evil beast hath devoured him. 63. He knows — of Arabic. 63. We came back — sooner than we intended. 64. If a man thinkeih himself to be — when he is nothing, he de- ceiveth himself. 65. Dorothy looks — like her mother. 66. Yes, I'm — frightened, I admit. 67. It provoked me — . 68. A widow, — old, and very poor. This, these ; that, those. 69. You will always see — kind of man lounging in front of tav- erns. 70. Take up — ashes. 71. — pile of clothes is (are) to be carried to the laundry. 73. — kind of tree is (are) common in Pennsylvania. 73. — brass tongs cost three dollars. 74. • — class will be graduated in June. 75. In New England there is not one country-house in fifty which has not its walls ornamented with half a score of poems of — sort. 76. How do you like — style of shoe ? 77. Do you like — sort of pen ? 78. — sort of person is always entei'taining. 79. Look at — assortment of knives. 80. Beware of — kind of dog. OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 113 81. Problems of — sort are very easy to solve. 82. Young ladies should let — sort of lliiug alone. First, second, secondly, etc. 83. I shall — show vrhy we should worship God, and — explain how we should worship hjm. 84. Adam was formed — , then Eve. 85. Let us consider — what the young ruler desired ; — , what he had ; — , what he lacked. 86. My — proposition is that the measure is unnecessary ; my — , that it is unjust; my — , that it is unconstitutional. 87. I will not lie; I will die — . 88. I like the old English ballads because, — , they are very quaint ; — , they show the derivations of many of our words ; and, — , they show different steps which our language has taken in becoming what it is. Adjective or Adverb.' — Illiterate persons often forget that adjectives go with nouns and pronouns, but adverbs with verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Even cultivated per- sons are sometimes in doubt whether to use an adjective or an adverb after certain verbs, as " grow," " look," " sound," " smell," " taste." If the added word applies to the sub- ject of the verb, it should be an adjective ; if to the verb, it should be an adverb. We say "We feel warm,'''' when we mean that we are warm ; we say " We feel warmly on this subject," when we mean that our feeling is warm. "As a rule, it is proper to use an adjective whenever some form of the verb 'to be' or 'to seem' may be substituted for the verb, an adverb when no such substitution can be made."' Thus, "He looked angry; he spoke angrily.'''' Sometimes we may use either adjective or adverb with no difference in meaning : as, " We were sitting quiet {quietly) round the fire." Regarding the form of adverbs, ill-taught pupils often suppose that all words ending in "-ly" are adverbs, and 1 "Foundations," pp. 120-123. ' Ibid., p. 121. 114: PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH that all adverbs end in "-ly." A glance at the italicized words in the following expressions will remove this delu- sion : " Come heref " very pretty;" " he then rose ;" " lay it lengthioisef "he fell backward f^ "run fast /^ "now it is done;" "a. friendly Indian;" "a buzzing yTy." Though no comprehensive rule can be given for the form of adverbs, which must be learned for the most part by observation, it may be helpful to know that most "adjectives of qual- ity," like gentle, true, take the suffix "-ly " to make a corre- sponding adverb; and that the comparative and superla- tive degrees of adverbs ending in "-ly" usually prefix more and inost. EXERCISE LXIV. Which of the italicized words is correct? — 1. Write careful {carefully). 2. His teacher spoke cold {coldly) to bim after she found he had acted dishonor'able {dishono7'ably). 3. Speak slow {slowly) und distinct {distinctly). 4. He behaved bad {badly). 5. He is a remarkable {remarkably) good shot. 6. They were in a terrible {terribly) dangerous position. 7. I am ouly tolerable {tolerably) well, §ir. 8. He acted very different {differently) from his brother. 9. It is discouraging to see how bad {badly) the affairs of our na- tion are sometiaies managed. 10. He writes plainer {more plainly) than lie once did. 11. You are exceeding {exceedingly) kind. 12. He struggled manful {manfully) against the waves. 13. You have been wrong {wrongly) informed. 14. Sure {surely) he is a fine gentleman. 15. She dresses suitable {suitably) to her station. 16. That part of the work was managed easy {easily) enough. 17. You behaved very proper {properly). 18. I can read easier {more easily) than I can write. 19. She knew her lesson perfect {perfectly) to-day. 20. I Wvufree {freely) from care. 21. Lessons are easiest {most easily) learned in the morning. OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 115 22. Walk as quiet {quietly) as you can. 33. He acted independent (^independently). 24. He spoke quite decided {decidedly). 25. We ought to value our privileges higher {moi'e highly). 26. He was ill (illy) equipped for the journey.' 27. Relative {relatively) to its size, an ant is ten times stronger than I man. 28. That will ill {illy) accord with my notions.' 29. He is an exceeding {exceedingly) good boy. 30. One can scarce {scarcely) help smiling at the blindness of this critic. 31. I had studied grammar previous {previously) to his instructing me, but to no purpose. EXERCISE LXV. Distinguish between — 1. We found the way easy (easily). 2. The prunes are boiling soft (softly). 3. He appeared prompt (promptly). 4. It looks good (well). 5. We arrived safe (safely). EXERCISE LXVI. Wliich of the italicized words is preferablef Give the reason : — 1. Velvet feels smooth {smoothly). 2. Clouds sail slow {slowly) through the air. 3. This carriage rides easy {easily). 4. How sioeet {sweetly) these roses smell ! 5. They felt very had (Jmdly) at being beaten.^ 6. Your piano sounds different {differently) from ours. 7. The storm is v&g\ng furious {furiously). 8. This milk tastes sour {sourly). 9. The soldiers fought gallant {gallantly). 10. She looked cold {coldly) on his offer of marriage. 11. Ethel looks sweet {sweetly) in a wiiite gown. 12. How beautiful {beautifully) the stars appear tonight ! 13. This coat goes on easy {easily). 14. How beautiful {peautifully) Katharine looks this morning. 1 See page 110. ^ gee "Foundations," p. 121. 116 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 15. Luther stood Jirm {firmly) in spite of abuse. 16. It looks strange {strangely) to see you here. 17. Deal gentle {gently) with them. 18. The cry sounded shrill {shrilly). 19. Larks sing sweet {sweetly). 20. He felt awkward {awkwardly) in the presence of ladies. 21. He has acted strange {strangely). 23. The water feels warm {warmly). 23. We feel warm {warmly) on that subject. 24. The dead warrior \ookQd fierce {fiercely). 25. The wind blows very cold {coldly) to-day. 26. War clouds rolling dun {dimly). 27. The shutters are ■painted' green {greenly). 28. She works good {icell) and neat {neatly). 29. Protestants believe that the bread of the Lord's supper is not real {really) changed, hut remains real {really) bread. 30. Homer says the blood of the gods is not real {really) blood, but only something like it. 31. Real {really) kings hide away their crowns in their wardrobes, and affect a plain and poor exterior. Alone, only. — " In the Bible and earber English alone is often used for the adverb 07ily, but it is now becoming re- stricted to its own sense of ' solitary,' ' unaccompanied by other persons or things' ;" * as, " He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone.^'' Only is both adjective and adverb. EXERCISE LXVII. Fill each blank with the proper word {"only," "alone ") : — • 1. She — of all the family had courage to go — into that darkened room. 2. These books are sold in sets — . 3. Man cannot live on bread — . 4. This fault — is enough to make her disagreeable. 5. By chance — did he escape the gallows. 6. Not — at Ejjhesus, but throughout all Asia, Paul persuaded many people. ' The Century Dictionary. OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 117 7. To be successful a school paper must be supported, not — with subscriptions, but also with contributions. Omitted Adverbs.' — Adverbs necessary to the sense should not be onutled. Tliis fault is especially common after so, too, and very — words which, as they express degree, prop- erly qualify adjectives or adverbs, and not verbs or parti- ciples ; also after behave, which, like the noun " behavior," requires a qualifying word to determine the meaning. EXERCISE LXVIII. Supply the omitted adverbs : — 1. He was very struck by what she said. 2. I wisli you would behave. 3. The king was very dissatisfied with his wife. 4. I have too trusted to my own wild wants. 5. If you cannot behave yourself, you had better stay at home. 6. We are very pleased to see you. Redundant Adjectives and Adverbs.^ — A word that is not needed is said to be " redundant." Redundant expres- sions should be carefully avoided. EXERCISE LXIX. Strike out tlie useless adjectives and adverbs: — 1. From thence they marched twenty miles. 3. Which do you prefer most, apples or oranges ? 3. Whenever I meet him he always stops me. 4. Celia wished to accompany Rosalind ; therefore they both set out together. ■' 5. The view from the top is simply beautiful. 6. Finally Rosalind disclosed her true identity. 7. The exercises are appointed for 2 p.m. to-morrow afternoon. 8. There are numerous mountain streams all throughout this region which abound in bi'ook trout. 9. The centrai'pith of the report is as follows. 10. Secluded and alone, he now partook of his solitary repast, which he entirely consumed. 1 "Foundations," p. 123. " Ibid., pp. 123-125. 118 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 11. Out of the second term I tookT»Ht the factor x. 12. Right "in behind East Rock we have a beautiful lake. 13. When everything was -aH- ready ,tliey started off. *■ 14. He was a boy of eighteen years "WtfT 15. If the ground is uneven they just level ittrff with a shovel. 16. Once thcfrwo twins were shipwrecked while on a sailing voy- age. 17. The purple bird was umuat first finish your work. 27. He did it equ ally-a s well as his friends. 28. It must be ten years ftgcLsince he left town. 29. Collect together -ail-the fragments. 30. The play opens -a4i_with a scene in a forest. 31. He has the uuivcistll good-will of everybody. 32. Please raise -viji the window. 33. The story ends »p..happily. 34. They always entered school -together ever y " inoi - n iag. 35. Out of the entire pack Oftly-two dogs remained. 36. He went away, but soon reappeared again. 37. A monstrous large snake crawled ■»»* from under the identical stone on which you are this very minute sitting. 38. I was deceived by false misrepresentations. 39. This question opened up the whole subject. 40. Let us, however, endeavor to trace up some of this hearsay evi- dence as far towards its source as we £|,re able. 41. I will see you later on. OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 119 Misused Adjectives and Adverbs.' — See the remarks under "Misused Nouns." An amusing illustration of mis- used adjectives was furnished by an illiterate man who introduced his second wife to a friend as " My late wife." Aggravating, irritating.— In good use aggravating ■me?iU^ "making lieuvier, more grave, worse in some way." It is often misused for irritating, exasperating, or provoking. All, the whole.— See page 120. Apt, likely, liable. — ^^Ji! implies a natural predisposition, an ha- bitual tendency. "Likely implies a probability of whatever charac- ter; liable, an unpleasant probability."'^ One is apt to speak quick- ly, fo"A;e?^ to hear good news, liable to be hurt. Both, each, every.— iJo!"//^, meaning "the two, and not merely one of them," groups objects, as, "Both were men of hot temper." Each means "all of any number, considered one by one," as, " EacJi boy recited in his turn." Every means "all of any number, consid- ered as composing a group or class," as, " Every pupil should have a dictionary and use it freely." "Every dii-ects attention chiefly to the totality, each chiefly to the individuals composing it. It may also be observed that each usually refers to a numerically definite group. . . . Thus, 'Each theory is open to objection' relates to an uuderstood enumeration of theories, but 'Every theory is open to objection ' refers to all theories that may exist."' Many, much.— Jl/«?i?/ refers to number, much to quantity. Mutual, common.— Mutual properly means "reciprocal," "inter- changed." It is often misused for common in the sense of "belong- ing equally to both or all," especially in the phrase, " A mutual friend." Partly, partially.— "P«r%, in the sense of 'in part,' is preferable \o partially, ?>mce partially also means 'with partialitJ^' "* Quite, very.— Quite properly means "entirely"; in the sense of " very " or " to a considerable degree " it is not in good use. So-as, as-as.— Both so and as are used as adverbs of degree correla- tive with the conjunction "as"; unless there is a negative in the • "Foundations," p. 125. "^ Ibid., p. 128. ^ Murray's Dictionary. * A. S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. 120 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH clause as is generally used ; with a negative so is preferable to as We say " It is as cold as ice," " It is not so good as it looks." EXERCISE LXX. Tell the difference in meaning betioeen — 1. The circumstances of the offense are aggravating (exasperat ing). 2. She gave an orange to both (each) of them. 3. Each (every) man has his faults. 4. I had a call from both (each) of the boys, 5. He is apt (likely) to win the race. 6. A mutual (common) friendship. 7. The weekly reports are partially (partly) made out. EXERCISE LXXI. Insert the proper word in each blank: — Aggravating, irritating. 1. Some of his remarks were — . 2. The prisoner said his wife's conduct had been very — . 3. He has an — manner. 4. He was too — by half. 5. The murder was committed under — circumstances. All, the whole. 6. — (of) the boys were sent off at a day's notice to their homes. [For additional exercises, see page 125]. Apt, likely, liable. 7. An industrious man is — to succeed. 8. The ship was — to founder at any moment. 9. Bad books are — to corrupt the reader. 10. If a man does not care for himself, he is not — to care much for other people. 11. Youth is — to err. 12. Any kind of taxation is — to be looked on as a grievance. 13. We are constantly — to accidents. 14. Men are — to think well of themselves, their nation, their courage, and their strength. Both, each, every. 15. — of them has (have) taken a different course. OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 121 16. — went his way. 17. He told me to invite — brother and sister. 18. He gave his hand to — of them. 19. In — cheek (cheeks) appears a pretty dimple. 20. I am feeling better in — way. 21. The oak and the elm have — a distinct character. 22. He'll be hanged yet, though — drop of water swear against it. 23. — soldier has a musket, and — one fires as fast as he can. 24. — inhabitant, male or female, young or old, was there. 25. In — ten women that the gods make, the devils mar five. 26. There is a row of beautiful elm-trees on — side(s) of the road. Many, much. 27. We saw as — as twenty tramps.' 28. He blames his uncle for — of his misfortune. 29. I found that — of the accidents on this railroad are caused by negligence. 30. How — of your peaches have you sold ? Mutual, common. 31. Charles and his wife were happy in their — love. 32. They parted with — good feeling. 33. We have a — friend in Mr. Phelps. 34. I find, Miss Vernon, that we have some — friends. Partly, partially. 35. Beware of acting — . 36. All men are — buried in the grave of custom. 37. This is — true. 38. The city of York is — surrounded by a wall. Quite, very. 39. The country is — open. 40. The snow has — covered the ground. 41. Books — worthless are — harmless. 42. The island is — close to the mainland. 43. He was — dead when they found him. 44. You are — mistaken. 45. He is — ill. So-as, as-as. 46. She is — amiable as she is beautiful. 47. He is — tall as his brother, but not — tall as I. 48. You have never — much as answered my letter. 6 322 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 49. Come — quickly as you can. 50. No other country suffered — much as England. II. Apparently, evidently, ma.nifesUy.— "Apparently is properly used of that which seems, but may not be, real; evidently, of that which both seems and is real." ' Manifestly is stronger than evidently. Average, orAma.vy.— Average implies an arithmetical computation; if four persons lose respectively $10, $20, $30, and $40, the average loss is $25. The word is used figuratively by Dr. O. W. Holmes in " The average intellect of five hundred persons, taken as they come, is not very high." In the sense of "usual," "common in occur- rence," "of tlie usual standard," ordinary is preferable to average. Bound, determined.— 5oM?i(^ properly means "obliged," "fated," or "under necessity": as, "A man is bound by his word;" "We hold ourselves in gratitude bound to receive ... all such persons." In the sense of "determined" bound is not in good use. in the sense of "sure" it is in colloquial, but not in literary, use. Continual, con\.m\xo\xs.—" Continual is used of frequently repeated acts, as, ' Continual dropping wears away a stone ;' continuous, of uninterrupted action, as, 'the continuous flowing of a river.' "^ Deadly, deathly.— " Z^eai/i^y, in the sense of ' resembling death,' as, 'She was deathly pale,' is preferable to deadly, since deadly also means ' inflicting death.' " ^ Decided, decisive.— " A decided opinion is a strong opinion, which perhaps decides nothing; a decisive opinion settles the question at issue. A lawyer may have decided views on a case; the judgment of a court is decisive. " ^ Dumb, stupid.— Z)MWi6 properly means "mute," "silent." Its mis- use for stupid is partly due, especially in Pennsylvania, to its resem- blance to the German dumm. Existing, extant.— That is extant which has escaped the ravages of time (used chiefly of books, manuscripts, etc.); that is existing which has existence. Funny, odd.— Funny means "comical;" in the sense of "strange" S)T " odd " it is not in good use. Healthy, healthful, wholesome.— That is liealthy which is in good ' A. S. Hil! : Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 39. * Ibid., p. 38. ' Ibid., p. 18. OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 123 health ; that is healthful or wholesome which produces health. Wiole- some commonly applies to food. Human, humane.— -Hwmaw denotes what pertains to man as man; as, "human nature," " hvmian sacrifices." Humane means 'com- passionate." Latest, \&st.— Latest, like the word "late," contains a distinct refer- ence to time ; that is latest which comes after all others in time : as, " The latest news ;" " The latest fashion." Last, which was original- ly a contraction of "latest," is now used without any distinct refer- ence to time, and denotes that which comes after all others in space or in a series : as, " The last house on the street ;" " The Last of the Mohicans." Lengthy, \ons-— Lengthy is said to have originated in the United Slates, but the earliest quotations found are from British authors. In the introduction to the second series of The Biglow Papers, Mr. Lowell wrote : " We have given back to England the excellent ad- jective lengthy . . . thus enabling their journalists to characterize our President's messages by a word civilly compromising between long and tedious, so as not to endanger the peace of the two coun- tries by wounding our national sensitiveness to British criticism." Lengthy is used chiefly of discourses or writings, and implies tedious- ness. Long is used of anything that has length. Mad, angry.— J/«(? means "insane ;" in the sense of "angry" it is not in good use. New, noveh— That is new which is not old ; that is novel which is both new and strange. Oral, vepbal.— " Oral, in the sense of 'in spoken words,' is prefer- able to verbal, since verbal means ' in words ' whether spoken or writ- ten."' Pitiable, TpmiM\.~" Pitiable, in the sense of 'deserving pity,' is pref- erable to pitiful, since pitiful also means 'compassionate,' as, 'The Lord is very pitiful, and of tender mercy.' " ' Practicable, practical.— That is practiGoble which can be done ; that is prcLCticaZ which is not theoretical only: as, "a practicable plan," " a practical electrician." Prominent, eminent.— Pr