INFORMATION JL A ^1 A V-x JL X^ JL T JL ^L JL JL .A. V_X L ^1 Elementary Electricity Motor Car Electric Systems The Gas Engine ;from an Ignition Point of VieW Driving the Car HARVEY E. PHILLIPS American Electrical Supply Co. 517 ADAMS ST. DAYTON, OHIO EE=DISTRIBUTOR== ********* s. js. ITS a, Scut* i+*>n Place H. F. WES, 1841 &>. n Place HARVEY E. PHILLIPS ELECTRICAL ENGINEER ELECTRICAL INVENTOR DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION CHIEF ENGINEER GENERAL MANAGER SALES MANAGER FORMERLY BELL TELEPHONE Co. NATIONAL CASH REGISTER Co. DAYTON ENGINEERING LABORATORIES Co. NOW PHILLIPS ENGINEERING Co. AUTO ELECTRIC SYSTEMS PUBLISHING Co. "THE DIAMOND PRESS" CONSULTING ENGINEER TO AVIATION MECHANICS TRAINING SCHOOLS INFORMATION Elementary Electricity Motor Car Electric Systems The Gas Engine from an Ignition Point of View Driving the Car BY HARVEY E. PHILLIPS Price, $2.50 American Electrical Supply Co. : 517 ADAMS ST. DAYTON, OHIO =EEDISTmBUTOR== PREFACE The purpose of this book is to present in a compact, con- venient form, at a price within the reach of all, a reasonably comprehensive and thorough training course for teachers and students in mechanics' training schools; also repairmen and owners who desire to learn. It is hoped that this book will be found to meet the need for a more adequate course, which is at the same time brief. To those, who have been accustomed to the use of outline courses, this book will be very helpful. It will be found that the form of the lessons lends itself readily to adaptation to class work, and it is believed that the course will be found practicable for use in class work. It is the earnest hope of the author that the book will ap- preciably aid in the greatly needed and the exceedingly im- portant work of preparing men for certain lines of work. The author gratefully acknowledges his obligation to Mr. James M. Copland, Chief Instructor Army Schools, St. Paul, Minn.; Professor'C. G. Arthur, Detroit Institute of Technology, Detroit, Mich., the Remy Electric Company, of Anderson, Ind., for valuable criticisms, suggestions, and matter used in this book, also Mr. H. C. Brokaw, of the West Side Y. M. C. A. New York City, for the Information covering the driving course. The price of this book is $2.50 postpaid to all parts of the United States and Canada. HARVEY E. PHILLIPS. CONTENTS Page Section 1. Elementary electricity 9 Mechanical principles 11 Mechanical units and terms 13 Electrical principles 15 Voltage drop 20 Wire sizes and drop 21 Ohms law 22 Watt law 22 Magnetism 25 Information (Electrical terms explained) 28 Switches 32 Ignition '. 34 Ignition coils 34 Interrupters 34 Condensers 35 Operation of coil and condenser 36 Distributors (Distributor and timer combined y 37 Purpose of the breaker mechanism 37 Care and adjustment of contacts 37 Distribution of high tension current 38 The rotor 38 Spark plugs 39 Ignition theory 40 Theory of the storage battery 45 The storage battery .". 50 Battery instruction 53 Motors '.,... 60 Generators 60 Water analogy 62 Motor and generator instruction 62 Soldering 67* Inspection 68 Signs and Symbols 70 Section 2. Driving the car 72 Before leaving the garage 72 Starting crank 72 Starting pedal 72 Clutch pedal '. 72 Running brake pedal 73 Gear shifting lever 73 Accelerator pedal 73 Throttle lever 73 Emergency brake lever 74 Spark control lever 74 Ignition switch 74 Steering wheel 74 Priming device or "choke" 75 The gasoline tank 75 The lubricator 76 The water tank (radiator) 76 Tires 76 To start the motor 76 To start the car 77 To stop the car 78 6 2047O72 CONTENTS Page To reverse the car 78 Turning in narrow streets 78 Turning corners 79 Climbing hills 79 Descending hills 80 Driving in congested streets 80 Shifting gears by touch and not by sight 81 Washing the car 81 Cautions 81 Section 3. The gas engine from an ignition point of view 83 The cycle 84 Carburetipn 84 Acceleration and gasoline consumption 87 The dash pot, 87 The metering pin 87 Proportions of gasoline and air 87 Carburetor with metering pin and dash pot 87 Priming the carburetor 88 Carburetor heating 88 Parts to adjust 88 Float adjustment 88 Auxiliary air valve adjustment 88 Adjusting the average carburetor 89 Valves 89 The inlet valve 90 The exhaust valve 90 Valve construction 90 Valve timing 90 Valve opening and closing 91 Inlet valve opening 91 Inlet valve closing 91 Exhaust valve opening 91 Exhaust valve closing 91 Periods of time valves are open 91 Valve timing position 92 Setting valves of a single cylinder engine 92 Setting exhaust valve 92 Setting inlet valve 92 Setting valves of a multiple cylinder engine 93 Timing by marks on a flywheel 93 Timing a "T" head engine 93 Procedure of marking a fly wheel 94 Setting exhaust cam 94 Setting inlet cam 94 Timing valves of an "L" head engine 94 Checking valve timing 94 Average valve timing 95 Timing valves of six cylinder engines 95 Firing orders 95 Ignition timing 96 Advance and retard of spark 96 Control of the spark 96 Automatic control 96 Time of spark and time of combustion 97 Time of spark to occur 98 Relation of speed to time of the spark 98 Speed relation of crank shaft, cam shaft, armature of magneto, and distributor 98 Magneto troubles 99 Spark plug troubles 100 Care of spark plugs 100 Ignition system troubles 100 Compression system troubles 101 Carburetor system troubles 101 Gas energy theory 102 CONTENTS Page Section 4. Delco Systems (1910 to 1915 incl.) 104 Wiring diagrams 105 Switches 135 Distributors 141 Installing and adjusting contacts 145 Installing distributor heads 147 Installing rotors and condensers 147 Ignition coils, levers, and spark plugs 148 Ignition timing 149 Ignition coils 149 Ignition relay, care and adjustment 150 Resistence units 152 Cut-out relay 152 Ampere hour meter , 153 Controller switch 154 Magnetic latch coil 155 Voltage regulator 155 Circuit-breaking relay 157 Current regulator 158 Battery charging 158 Troubles and remedies 159 Testing : 159 Troubles 161 Motor and generator internal circuit diagrams 164 Section 5. 1916 Delco Systems 166 Wiring diagrams Fig. 1, Cadillac 8 167 Fig. 2. Buick D 44, D 45, D 46 and D 47 168 Fig. 3. Auburn 6-40, Buick D 54, D 55 and truck, Davis 38 B, 38 C and 6 E, Meteor 6-40, Moon 6-30 and 6-40, Oak- land 38, Sayers-Scoville 6 and Westcott 41 and 51. .. 169 Fig. 4. Hudson 6-40 170 Fig. 5. Oldsmobile 8 171 Fig. 6. Oakland 4 and Oldsmobile 43 172 Fig. 7. Packard lighting and ignition 173 Lubrication 174 Ignition coil 174 Distributor and timer 174 The Ammeter 174 Tools and tests 175 Motoring generator 176 Testing 176 Resistance units 177 Condenser 177 Testing 178 Ignition timing 178 Section 6. Automobile Electric Systems 179 Atwater Kent systems 180 Auto-Lite systems 186 Bosch starting systems 191 Bijur systems 192 Chalmers (Entz) systems 196 Dyneto systems 197 Gray and Davis 199 North-East system 206 Remy systems 208 Simms-Huff systems 219 Splitdorf-Apelco systems . . . 221 Wagner systems 223 Ward Leonard controller 228 Section 7. Magnetos 230 Phillips magnet charger 233 Bosch magnetos 233 Eisemann magnetos 243 CONTENTS Page Mea magnetos 249 Remy magnetos 255 Simms magnetos 260 Splitdorf systems 265 Section 8. Electric Testing .268 Water analogies 269 Symbols 272 Cranking circuits 272 Battery testing 273 Switch testing 275 Testing at motor 277 Battery ground test '. 278 Special battery test 279 Generator tests 280 Testing circuits with and without cut-out relay 280 Voltage and current regulation 286 Lighting system tests 289 Ignition coil tests 293 Condenser tests 295 Cut-out and circuit-breaking relays 297 Phillips test set . 300 Third brush regulation 301 Hydrometer 303 Section 9. 1917 Internal circuit and wiring diagrams 304 Note. The names of cars are arranged alphabetically. SECTION I ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY 1. While we do not know what electricity is, its action is well understood, and when we come to study the natural laws under which this action takes place, we find that our diffi- culties are few and they are not great when the subject is presented in the proper way. 2. To understand the principles of electricity, we must first understand the meaning of many electric terms. They are not only necessary if we wish to understand our subject, but they are such that when we have grasped their full meaning, we have grasped the subject itself. They are the links that we have to forge before we can make a chain, and when they are once forged, they form the chain itself. 3. In magnetism, we have a very important thing. Something invisible like electricity, easy to understand and use, and controlled by a few simple laws. While electricity and mag- netism are two different things, their relationship to each other is very interesting. 4. Let us suppose that all magnetism was to cease to exist. The result would be that all of our electric power plants would become useless, because the generator must have its magnetic field before it can generate a current of electricity. In the operation of electric apparatus magnetism plays one of the greatest parts. 5. Electricity for our purpose may be looked upon as existing in two conditions, these being a state of no pressure and a state of pressure. A comparison is often made of the action of water and electricity when it is necessary to make the subject clear. 6. If we had a large body of water, such as a sea or lake, as a means of power, it is useless; that is, it has no pressure unless we let some of it fall to a lower level, in which case the water that falls loses its head or pressure, and in so doing it gives up the energy that was in it; or, to put it more clearly, it does a certain amount of work, depending upon the quantity that falls and the distance through which it travels. 7. In a similar way we may say that electricity exists in a state of no pressure, but we can give it pressure by means of a generator, and when we allow the electricity to escape, as we may term it, it gives up its pressure, then it is like water, giving up energy and doing work. 8. The amount of work that can be done depends upon the pressure and the rate current flows. We know that electricity is invisible, yet there is pressure behind it in one state and it flows under this pressure. 9. We cannot measure the rate or flow in gallons per hour as we do in water system; instead, we measure the rate it flows in amperes. We haVe said the electricity to flow must have pressure behind it. In a water system water flows under a certain number of pounds of pressure. In an electric system, current flows under a certain number of volts pressure. 10. When a wire or any substance is used to transmit current from one place to another it is called a conductor. These conductors offer a resistance to the flow of electric current; therefore, we must have some means of measuring this resistance. The resistance offered to the flow of current depends upon the kinds of metal used as a conductor, its area and length. The ohm is the unit of electric resistance. 11. The three terms just mentioned: the volt, as the unit of electric pressure; the ampere, as the unit of electric current, and the ohm, as the unit of electric resistance, are related to one another, this relationship being known as Ohms Law, which is as follows: 12. Volts divided by Amperes equals Ohms. Volts divided by Ohms equals Amperes. Amperes multiplied by Ohms equals Volts, ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY 11 MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES. 13. To thoroughly understand the principles of electricity it is necessary to know first of all the meaning and application of the fundamental mechanical principles. 14. Nothing can be accomplished without expending energy. In other words, energy must be expended when any work has to be done. 15. The subject of energy should be carefully studied, because all work of whatever kind is based on the principles or laws governing the transformation and transmission of energy. 16. Energy cannot be created, nor can energy be destroyed. When energy is used up in doing work, it is simply transformed into other forms. For example, when a gas engine is running, it depends upon the fuel as to how long it will run. In this case, we say that the fuel has a certain amount of energy stored up in it, and a gas engine is simply a device which is designed to take energy from the fuel and transform it into mechanical motion. 17. This mechanical motion is represented by the turning of the crank shaft. A gas engine, therefore, is fundamentally an energy transformer. It receives energy in the form of stored fuel energy and transforms part of it into mechanical motion. In no case is it possible to transform all of the energy into useful work. Any heat formed and radiated represents a certain amount of lost energy. Friction also causes a further loss. 18. When we come to consider electricity, we will see that it is only energy in another form, or rather a means of transmitting energy. 19. Work. When work is done, energy is expended. For example, if a weight is resting on the table it possesses energy which can be expended only if the weight is allowed to fall. The amount of energy that the weight is capable of expending depends on two things: (a) The amount of weight. (b) The distance the weight falls. 20. In this case the amount of work done by the weight in falling is equal to the energy expended. 21. Another important fact that must be noted here, namely, that the work done by the weight in falling is exactly equal to the amount of work that must be done in order to replace the weight on the table. 22. Measurement of Work. If we assume the weight to be one pound, and the distance to be one foot, we say that the work done is one foot pound. 23. That is to say, a weight of one pound is capable of doing one foot pound of work when it falls through a distance of one foot. 24. Also an amount of work equal to .one foot pound must be done in order to raise a weight of one pound through a vertical height of one foot. 25. The foot pound, therefore, is taken as the unit for measuring Work and Energy in a mechanical form. 26. Note the following example of a moving weight: If the weight is attached to the string of a clock, it will move down slowly and so drive the mechanism of the clock. Work is being done as long as the Weight is in Motion. 27. When the weight gets to the bottom is must be raised again, and work must be done in Moving the weight up. 28. A certain amount of Energy, therefore, has to be expended in winding the clock, and the weight may be considered as a means of storing this energy. When the weight has fallen again to its lowest position, it has delivered an amount of energy exactly equal to the amount expended in raising it. 29. If the weight is ten pounds and the distance is three feet, the amount of work is 10 multiplied by 3, or 30 foot pounds. 30. How much work must be done to raise a weight of 55 pounds to a height of 10 feet? 12 INFORMATION 55 multiplied by 10 equals 550 foot pounds (usually written this way, 55X10 = 550 foot pounds). It must be noted here that it is not necessary to actually have a weight of so many pounds. A Force (or pressure) gives the same result, if it causes motion. 31. Work, therefore, can always be calculated if we know the weight, force, or Pressure and the Distance through which it acts. This can be written in the following way: Weight of force or Distance The amount of work pressure (meas- Multiplied by (measured hi Equals (measured in ured in pounds) feet) foot pounds) 32. Power. No mention has been made yet of the length of tune it takes to do a certain amount of work. The reason for this is that the time taken to do work makes no difference in the amount of work done. If a weight of 10 pounds has to be raised through a height of 5 feet, it will take 50 foot pounds of work to do it. The time spent in doing work may be a second or it may be a minute, but the amount of work remains the same. 33. When time is taken into consideration in connection with doing work, it determines the Rate at which Work is done. Suppose two men start out to do the same amount of work. One man finished in 4 hours, while the other man takes 8 hours. We would say that the first man was working twice as fast as the second man because he did the job in half the time. 34. Another way of looking at it would be to figure that if the first man kept on working for 8 hours at the same Rate as during the first 4 hours, at the end of 8 hours he would have done twice as much work as the second man in the same Time. 36. It is quite apparent that the rate at which he is doing work is twice as great as the rate at which the other man is doing work. 36. The rate of doing work is a measure of the Power developed. 37. If a weight of 55 pounds is raised 10 feet in one second, work is being done at the rate of 55 times 10 divided by 1, or 550 pounds per second. This can be written = 550 foot pounds per second. 38. If the same weight is raised the same distance in two seconds, work is being done at the rate of 55 times 10 divided by 2, or 275 foot pounds per second. 55X10 Also written =275 foot pounds per second. m 39. In this case the rate of doing work (Power) is just one half as much as in the first case. To illustrate this, suppose the distance between two places is 12 miles. One man walks this distance in 6 hours. The rate at which he walks is divided by 6 (or 12 -i- 6) =2 miles per hour. 40. Another man walks the 12 miles in 3 hours, just half the time of the first man. The rate at which he walks is 12 divided by 3 (or 12-^3) =4 miles per hour. His rate is twice as great as that of the first man because he covered the same distance in half the time. The distance corresponds to the amount of work that has to be done, and the rate of walking corresponds to the rate at which the work is done. 41. While the amount of Work is the same for both men, the Rate at which one man works is just twice that of the other man, because he does the same amount of work in half the time. 42. Measurement of Power. We have seen the unit of measurement of Work is the Foot Pound, which is equal to the lifting of one pound through a height of one foot. If it takes one second to perform this amount of work, the rate is one foot pound in one second, or one foot pound per second. 43. When the word "per" is used, it indicates Rate. (5 miles per hour is a rate of movement. 20 cents per gallon is a rate of cost.) One foot pound per second is a very small unit, so a larger unit is usually taken for the measurement of Power. For example; ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY 13 44. When an amount of work equal to 550 foot pounds is performed in one second, Work is done at the Rate of 550 Foot Pounds per second. This is called one Horsepower, just in the same way that we take 5,280 feet and call this distance one mile. 45. Equal amounts of work may be performed in a number of different ways. For example, 10 pounds raised 55 feet equals 550 Foot Pounds. 11 Pounds raised 50 feet equals 550 Foot Pounds. 55 Pounds raised 10 feet equals 550 Foot Pounds. 550 Pounds raised 1 foot equals 550 Foot Pounds. 46. And if the time taken is one second in each case, the same power is required. 47. How many horsepower would be necessary to raise a weight of 500 pounds to a height of 110 feet in 10 seconds? The total amount of work to be done is 500X110 = 55,000 foot pounds. This has to be done in 10 seconds, so we divide the 55,000 by 10. 55,000 This gives the rate, or = 5,500 Foot Pounds Per Second. 48. One Horsepower is required when work is done at the rate of 550 foot pounds per second, so dividing 5,500 by 550 gives the number of Horsepower required to do 5,500 foot pounds per second. 5,500 = 10 Horsepower. 550 Note that if the work had to be done in 5 seconds (half the time) the answer would be 20 Horsepower (twice the rate). 49. The answer can be arrived at in a slightly different way and it is very important to notice the difference. For instance, the Distance divided by the time (110^-10), or 11 feet per second, is the "Rate of Movement" of the weight. If a weight of 500 pounds moves at the rate of 11 feet per second, the power expended in moving it is equal to 500 X 11, or 5,500 foot pounds per second. 50. The result, therefore, may be written as follows: Weight Rate or force or Multipled b.y Movement Equals Power. Pressure 51. It should be noted here that instead of actually using a weight, we can get the same results by using a Pressure or Force. For example, a Force or Pressure acting upon the piston of an engine causes the piston to move, and work is done. The rate at which the work is done is a measure of the power of the engine. 54. Rate of Movement. If a weight of 500 pounds is moved at the rate of 11 feet per second, the power expended in moving it is equal to 500X11, or 5,500 Foot Pounds per second, which is the same result as before. 55. It is very important to note the above result and the reasoning leading up to it. Reference will be made to it again in dealing with the Fundamental Principles of Electricity. MECHANICAL UNITS AND TERMS. 56. Work. The overcoming of resistance through a certain distance, force tunes the distance through which it acts. Weight times the distance through which the weight falls or is raised. Energy Work in a stored form. The ability to perform work. This energy, stored in a tank of water, represents the amount of work the water will have done in falling a certain distance. Also the amount of work that would have to be done to put the water back into the tank. 57. Power. The rate of doing work. 58. Foot. A unit of distance. 59. Pound. A unit of weight, force, or pressure. 14 INFORMATION 60. Second. A unit of time. 61. Foot Pound. A unit of work. The lifting of one pound through a height of one foot. A Pressure of one pound exerted through the space of one foot. 62. 1 Foot Pound Per Second. The Unit of power. The lifting of one pound to a height of one foot in one second. 63. Horsepower. A larger unit of power. Doing work at the rate of 550 foot pounds per second. QUESTIONS 1. Do we know what electricity is? What is known of its action? 2. What should first be learned in studying electricity? 3. What may be said of the relation between magnetism and electricity? 4. What would result if all magnetism should cease to exist? 5. With what may the action of electricity be compared? 6. How is power produced in a water system? 7. What is the purpose of a generator? 8. The amount of work that can be done electrically depends on what? 9. How is electric pressure and rate of flow measured? 10. What determines the resistance of a conductor? 11. Define the terms Volt, Ampere, and Ohm. 12. Give Ohms law. 13. Why should mechanical principles be understood? 14. What must be expended before work can be done? 15. Why should the subject of energy be carefully studied? 16. Can energy be created? 17. What is a gas engine? 18. What is electricity? 19. How may the amount of energy stored in a weight be determined? 21. How may we store energy in a weight? 22. Explain the term "Foot Pound." 25. The foot pound is the unit of what? 26. When is work being done? 28. How much energy must be expended to wind a clock? 30. How much work must be done to raise a weight of 55 pounds to a height of 10 feet? 31. How may work be calculated? 32. What may be said of time taken to do work? 33. Give a comparison in rate of doing work. 37. Give table for determining rate of doing work. 42. What is the unit of measurement of work? 43. Give meaning of the word "Per." 47. How many Horsepower would be required to raise a weight of 500 pounds to a height of 110 feet in 10 seconds? 56. Explain the term "Work"; "Energy." 57. Define the term "Power." 58. Define the term "Foot." 59. Define the term "Pound." 60. Define the term "Second." 61. Define the term "Foot Pound." 63. Define the term "Horsepower." 15 ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES 64. When we consider electricity it should be kept in mind that we are not concerned with the nature of electricity, but rather with the laws which govern its action. Electricity, of course, is invisible, yet we can study its effects just as well as if it could be seen. We must, of course, assume certain things about electricity, but as long as nothing comes along to prove our assumptions to be wrong, we may continue to use them in explaining the action of elec- tricity. 65. It is also useful to compare the action of electricity with the action of water, with which everybody is more or less familiar. Let us assume, first, that electricity is something that flows or moves. We can then say that if it flows it must have a rate of movement (or flow). (Electricity is usually spoken cf as flowing in a circuit.) 66. Comparing this with water, note that we usually measure the flow of water by noting how much water flows in a given tune. For example, if 10 gallons flow past a certain point in one minute, we say the water is flowing at the rate of 10 gallons per minute. 67. Rate of Flow. We measure the rate of flow of electricity also by taking the quantity that flows in a given time. Instead of using the quantity unit and the time unit to express the rate of flow as in the case of water, we take one word to include both. We use a new name for it and say the rate is measured in amperes. Note that we never say "one ampere per second" or "one ampere per minute," etc. The rate of movement of flow of electricity is measured in amperes. 68. Pressure. Before anything can move, it is necessary to have some force or pres- sure applied to it. This holds true with regard to all material or physical bodies and we can assume that it applies to electricity also. 69. We measure the pressure of water or steam by pressure gauge which is made to show pounds per square inch. 70. An electrical pressure gauge is called a Voltmeter, and is marked to show volts. 71. The word "volt" need be no more mysterious than the words "pound" cr "inch." We measure weight in pounds and distance in inches, yet very few people could ever say why we use "pounds" and "inch." All we have to remember is that whenever "volts" are men- tioned it means the measurement of the electrical pressure. 72. Electricity is a means of transmitting energy. By this we mean that work can be done by the use of electricity, and the way in which this is brought about is not very hard to understand. 73. Laying electricity aside for the present, let us consider water with which we are more familiar. If we connect a pipe to a water motor and then turn on the water, the motor will operate and deliver energy. The energy does not come from the pump but from the water, and to follow this line of thought further, we find that the energy is due to the fact that the water is in motion. 74. Going still further, we would ask, What gives the water its motion? Where does the energy come from? Water will not move unless there is a force making it move. Where does this force come from? 75. There are two ways in which this force can be procured, or to say the same thing correctly, there are two ways of imparting or giving Energy to water. 76. First, by allowing the water to fall from a high level to a lower, level. When the water has reached the lowest level it gives up its energy either in doing useful work, as in the case where we make it flow through a water motor, or the Energy is simply wasted, as in the case where the water strikes the ground and forms a pool. 77. Why do we continue to have plenty of water flowing in our rivers and over the natural water-falls? There is only one answer. The sun is the agent that raises the water again and in doing so gives to it what we call Energy or the capacity for doing work. It should be noted at this point that the water has moved in a complete circle or circuit, as follows: 16 INFORMATION 78. Starting from a low level represented by the sea or a lake it is evaporated by the heat from the Sun and -raised up in the air. It becomes condensed and forms clouds, when it falls back to the earth in the form of rain or snow. The rain or snow that falls on the high levels the mountains forms small streams. These run together and become rivers, gradually descending to the lower levels. . 79. When the water takes a sudden drop as in the case of a waterfall, it gives up the Energy it possesses, due to the difference in height between the top of the waterfall and the bottom. After some of this Energy has been used in doing useful work as previously described, the water returns again to the starting point and the circle or circuit is completed. 80. The second way of imparting or giving energy to the water is by the use of a pump. This enables us to raise the water up to a high level again and "store up" Energy. When we allow the water to fall, it gives up the energy that was stored up. It is not necessary, however, to actually lift the water each time and allow it to fall. 81. Instead we can take the water as it leaves the pump, when it will be under a certain pressure, and lead it directly to the water motor. We would then get just as much energy from the water as we would if we lifted it up to a corresponding high level and let it fall again. 82. The question might be asked here, Where do \ve get the energy that enables the pump to raise the Water? This may be in various forms, such as animal power, steam engine, Gas or Gasoline Engine, Electric Motor, etc. All of these things are simply energy trans- formers. 83. That is, they change energy from one form into another. They receive energy in one form and give it up again in another. The gasoline engine must have gasoline, and the electric motor must have electricity. Animals, too, must be fed if they are to be kept alive and able to perform work. 84. Following up the Gasoline Engine as a means of operating the pump, we have traced the source of energy back to fuel. Where does the fuel get its Energy? Again we find that we are indebted to the Sun. During the long period, ages ago, when the earth was being formed, the sun was storing up energy in various forms. One of these is the crude oil from which we obtain Gasoline, Kerosene, etc. 85. The conclusion we arrive at, therefore, is that Energy is already provided for our use. We cannot create energy ourselves in any shape or form. As long as the supply lasts, we can use it in a large variety of ways. Another thing to remember is that a certain amount of energy is lost whenever it is changed from one form to another. 86. Turning now to the subject of Electricity, it has been shown that water in itself does not possess any Energy. It is only a means by which energy can be transmitted from one place to another, and we must impart motion to the water before it will transmit energy. 87. Electricity is also a means or medium by which energy can be transmitted. It does not possess any energy of its own, and it must be in Motion before any energy can be derived from it. Although electricity is invisible, yet we can understand its action very readily if we regard it as a fluid; that is, something that flows. 88. Water will flow only when there is a pressure of Head, as it is often called, to cause it to flow. In the case of water delivered from a force pump, the pressure is obtained from the moving plunger. In the case of water from an open tank, we can only put the water in motion by having the tank at a high level and allowing the water to flow, due to gravity, to a lower level. 89. We do not manufacture electricity any more than we do the water or the air we use. We might say that electricity exists everywhere, but it is not in motion; therefore, we are not aware of its presence. We might compare it with the air in this way. 90. When it is not in motion we call it air and are hardly aware of its presence; when it is in motion we call it wind, and it can be made to perform work by operating a windmill. 91. By means of an electric generator (which is more fully described later) we can generate or collect some of the electricity and put it in Motion. ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY 17 92. The Electric Generator (as we will call it in the future) does the same thing to electricity that the water pump does to the water. It collects electricity and forces it through the wires or conductors. Its effects can then be studied, and by means of suitable devices lamps, electric motors, electric heaters, etc. we can make use of the electricity in Motion. 93. When electricity has been used in operating one of these devices, we have simply used it as a means of transmitting Energy from one place to another. The Energy is used up in operating the lamp, motor, or other devices. The electricity loses its motion, and there- fore has no more power or ability to do any further work. 94. A closed path or Circuit is necessary before electricity can flow. That is, it must return to the starting point. Fig. 1, page 17, shows a water system in which "A" is a rotating pump and "C" and "D" the pipes, and "B" is a water motor. This whole system is filled with water. When the pump "A" is caused to rotate water will be forced through the pipe "C" through the water motor "B", causing it to rotate and return through the pipe "D." This completes the water circuit. By means of the water in motion, energy is transmitted from the pump to the motor; where it can be converted into useful work in a number of (mechan- ical) ways. 95. Fig. 2, page 17, illustrates an electric system in which "A" is an electric generator, "C" and "D" the wires, and "B" an electric motor. When the generator is caused to rotate it forces a current of electricity through the wire "C," through the motor "B," returning to the generator through the wire "D." This completes the "electrical" circuit. Fi*. j fie. 2 96. By means of the electricity in motion, energy is transmitted from the generator to the motor, where it can be converted into useful work in a number of (mechanical) ways. The wire "C" is called the positive side of the circuit, often indicated by the sign "+". The wire "D" is called the negative side of the circuit, often indicated by the sign " ". 97. The terms positive (+) and negative ( ) simply indicate the direction. The terminal on a generator from which current flows is the Positive Terminal. The terminal through which the current returns to a generator is the Negative Terminal. 98. The terminal on a motor by which current enters is the Positive Terminal. The terminal on a motor from which current leaves is the Negative Terminal. Again, the part of a circuit used for the delivery of current is the Positive side. The part used for the return of current to the source is the Negative side. 18 INFORMATION 99. Two things govern the amount of power which can be transmitted by the water system of Fig. 1. First, the pressure with which the water is forced through the pipes, and second, the size of the nozzle at the motor. 100. The size of the nozzle governs nothing more than the amount of water which will flow through this hole in a given time; the smaller the hole, the less would be the amount of water which would flow through. In other words, the two things which govern the amount of power transmitted by this water system are, first, the pressure, and second, the rate of flow. 101. This principle is used in figuring the amount of power which can be obtained from the water-fall. If the water-fall ie not very high, a large quantity of water would be required to furnish a given amount of power; if, on the other hand, the fall is extremely high, the same amount of power could be obtained from a small amount of power, if the pressure is increased, then the amount of water flowing must be decreased and vice versa. 102. To make the above clear, Fig. 3, page 18, in which "A" represents a pump and "B" a motor. At "G" is shown what might be called a pressure meter, which is connected to "C" and "D." The meter consists of a cylinder with a piston; behind the piston is a spring. When the pump is standing still, the pointer of the meter would stand at zero. If the pump is turned, it Will cause the pressure in the pipe "C" to rise. Fie- 3 . 103. This would press down the piston of the meter "G" and move the hand over the dial, thus indicating the difference in pressure between the two pipes. This pressure does not indicate the amount of power, as the valve at "E" may close. If the valve is opened and the water is allowed to flow through, the motor will turn. At "F" is placed a meter like the ordinary house meter, and measures the amount of water which flows through the pipe. 104. In this way the amount of power which is transmitted by this system can be determined. Both the pressure and the amount of water flowing must be known. Suppose the water motor is used to drive a small fan and it requires a pressure of 10 pounds, as indi- cated on the meter "G," and a gallon of water per second flowing through the meter "F." 106. Now if the pressure can be raised to 20 pounds, a smaller nozzle can be used on the water motor; in this case the pressure has been doubled and therefore the quantity of water which is needed to run the motor would be only one half as much. The meter "F" would show only one half the number of gallons per minute. If, however, the pressure was reduced to five pounds, the amount of water flowing through the motor would have to be increased to double that which is required for 10 pounds pressure. 106. In Fig. 4, page 19, is given an illustration of an electrical system of transmitting ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY 19 power. This system consists of a generator, a motor, and two meters, the functions of which will be explained later. 107. At "G" is a meter corresponding to the pressure gauge in the water system. If the circuit at "E" was open, and the generator turned, their pressure meter would show tke difference in the electrical pressure between the two wires. 108. The motor will not run, however, until the switch is closed, but just as soon as this is done, the current will begin to flow and thus operate the motor. In our water system the rate of flow is measured with a meter at "F." In the electrical system (Fig. 4) the rate at which the current is flowing is measured by a similar electric meter at "F." 109. Pressure multiplied by rate of movement equals Power. In dealing with elec- tricity the same thing is true. Electrical pressure is measured in Volts, and the rate of move- ment of the current in Amperes. Volts multiplied by Amperes, therefore, gives the Power. 110. An example will help to make this clear. If current flows at the rate of one Ampere, and the pressure causing it to flow is one volt, Power is being delivered at a definite rate. 111. Power is measured then by the Rate at which it is being delivered or used. When current flows at the rate of 1 Ampere with a pressure of one Volt, power is being delivered at the rate of 1 Watt. The Watt is nothing more than a measurement of the Rate at which Power is used or produced. 112. To measure the power produced or used, take the rate of flow in Amperes and multiply this by the pressure in Volts. 10 Amperes flowing in a circuit where the pressure is 32 Volts means that Power is being delivered at the rate of 320 Watts. (10X32 = 320 Watts.) 113. When 1000 Watts are being delivered, the word "Kilowatt" is used. (Kilo is a Greek word meaning a thousand.) (1000 Watts = 1 Kilowatt or 1 K. W.) 114. The relationship between the mechanical measurement of power and the electrical measurement of power must be remembered, namely: 746 Watts equal one Horse Power. This can also be stated: 1 K. W. equals l|? H. P. or 1 H. P. equals "K K. W. 20 INFORMATION VOLTAGE DROP 116. When electricity flows through a wire (or conductor), the wire offers some resist- ance to the current. This means that some of the pressure or Voltage is used up in overcoming the resistance of the wire. The amount of voltage lost in this way, or the difference between the voltage at the source of supply and the voltage at the point where current is used, is known as Voltage Drop. 116. Where water is flowing through a pipe to a distant point, the pressure is loss at the. point of delivery than at the source. When electricity is flowing through a conductor (wire) io& distant point, the pressure (voltage) is less at the point of delivery than at the source. 117. It should be noted that in order to measure the voltage drop, the current to be used must be flowing at the time when the voltage is being measured. If a voltmeter is used at the end of a line when current is not flowing, the voltage reading will be practically the same as at the source. 118. The amount of resistance in a wire depends upon three things: (1) The material. Copper is a better conductor than iron, which is the same as saying that the resistance of copper is less than the resistance of iron. (2) The area or cross section of the wire. A large wire offers less resistance to the flow of electricity than a small wire. (3) The length of the wire. For example, 100 feet of No. 10 wire has twice tho resistance of 50 feet of No. 10 wire. QUESTIONS 64. Can we see electricity? 65. With what can the action of electricity be compared? 66. Give a comparison. 67. How is rate of flow of electricity measured? 68. What may be said of force or pressure? 69. How is water or steam pressure measured? 70. What is a voltmeter? 71. Weight is measured in what? How is electric pressure measured? 72. Give the use of electricity. 73. Explain how power is produced by a water system. 77. Why do we continue to have water flowing in the rivers? 80. How can energy be given to water? 82. Where do we get the energy used to operate a pump and raise water? 83. How long will a gasoline engine run? 84. Where does the fuel get its energy? 85. Can we create energy? 86. Does water possess energy? 87. Does electricity possess energy of its own? 89. Do we manufacture electricity? 90. Is there any difference between air and wind? Explain this. 91. How can we collect electricity? 92. Name some devices operated by the use of electricity? 94. How is energy transmitted from the water pump to the water motor? 95. How is energy transmitted from the electric generator to the electric motor? 97. What do the terms "positive" and "negative" indicate? ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY 21 99. What governs the amount of power which can be transmitted by a water system? 102. To what is the pressure meter connected? What is it for? 104. Why must the pressure and rate of flow be known? 105. Name the instruments used to measure water pressure and rate of flow. 106. Name the instruments used to measure electric pressure and rate of flow. 107. Volts multiplied by Amperes equals what? 111. Define the term "Watt." 113. Define the term "Kilowatt." 114. Give relationship between mechanical measurements of power and electrical measure ments of power. 118. What determines the resistance of a conductor? WIRE SIZES AND DROP 1. A conductor offers a resistance to the flow of current, and when current flows through the conductor a certain amount of pressure is lost in overcoming this resistance. 2. The greater the distance current flows through a conductor the greater the loss of prassure. This is known as volts drop. See Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, page 24. 3. If we have a boiler with the gauge showing 100 pounds pressure and an engine 200 feet away that is to be operated by this steam, the pressure of the steam at the engine end of the pipe will be less than 100 pounds. 4. The farther away we take the engine from the boiler, the greater the loss of pressure to the engine, or the greater the pressure drop. 5. The resistance of a piece of wire depends upon three things: First, the kind of metal in the wire. Copper offers less resistance to the flow of current than iron. Second, the area or size of the wire. 6. The larger the wire the less the resistance to the flow of current. Third, the length of the wire. The longer the wire the greater the resistance offered to the flow of current. 7. The size of a wire to use in a circuit depends upon the amount of current that must flow and the length of the wire. 8. If two number 10 wires made of copper are run for a distance of 1,000 feet, and a lamp that consumes one-half ampere of current is connected across the ends of the wires, there will be a drop in pressure in carrying the current this distance. 9. If the pressure of the source is 110 volts, the pressure of the current at the lamp will be 109 volts. This resistance offered to the flow of current is one ohm per 1,000 feet when number 10 wire is used. 10. The two thousand feet of number 10 wire used in this case offers 2 ohms of resist- ance. (To find voltage drop, multiply ohms resistance by Amperes flowing.) Then 2 ohms resistance times one-half ampere is equal to one volt drop. 11. If ten of the same sized lamps are connected across the end of these wires in the place of the one lamp, the drop in pressure will be much greater. The 10 lamps will consume 5 amperes of current. Then 2 ohms times 5 amperes equals 10 volts drop. 12. This means that the pressure across the lamps will be only 100 volts, and the lamps will burn dim, due to the great drop in pressure. In this case the pressure drop is about 9%. 13. A conductor must be large enough to carry the desired amount of current to a certain point with less than 5% drop. 14. In the cranking circuit the drop should be held to not over 2%, 22 INFORMATION QUESTIONS 1. What results when current flows through a conductor? 2. What is meant by "Volt Drop"? 3. What is meant by drop in steam pressure? 5. Upon what does the resistance of a wire depend? 7. Upon what does the size of a wire depend? 9. What is the resistance of 1,000 feet of No. 10 copper wire? 10. How is voltage drop determined? 11. What regulates the drop in voltage? 12. Why will the lamps burn dim? 13. How much drop is allowed? 14. How much drop is allowable in a cranking circuit? OHMS LAW Volts divided by Amperes equals Ohms. Volts divided by Ohms equals Amperes. Amperes multiplied by Ohms equals Volts. WATT LAW Watts divided by Amperes equal Volts. Watts divided by Volts equals Amperes. Volts multiplied by Amperes equals Watts. EXAMPLES Q. If current under 110 volts pressure flows through a circuit at a 10- Ampere rate, what is the resistance of the circuit? A. 110 (Volts) divided by 10 (Amperes) equals 11 Ohms resistance. Q. If current under 32 Volts pressure flows through a circuit at a 4-Ampere rate, what is the resistance of the circuit? A. 32 (Volts) divided by 4 (Amperes) equals 8 Ohms resistance. Q. The resistance of a circuit is 24 Ohms and the pressure upon the current flowing is 32 Volts. What is the rate of flow of current in Amperes? A. 32 (Volts) divided by 24 (Ohms) equals IK Amperes. Q. The resistance of a circuit is 55 Ohms and current flows at a 2-Ampere rate. What is the pressure upon the current in volts? A. 2 (Amperes) multiplied by 55 (Ohms) equals 110 Volts. Q. The resistance of a circuit is 16 Ohms and current flows at a 2-Ampere rate. What is the pressure upon the current in Volts? A. 2 (Amperes) multiplied by 16 (Ohms) equals 32 Volts. Q. If current under 100 Volts pressure is being consumed at the rate of 1100 Watts per hour, what is the rate of flow in Amperes? A. 1100 (Watts) divided by 110 (Volts) equals 10 Amperes. Q. If current under 32 Volts pressure is being consumed at the rate of 352 Watts per hour, what is the rate of flow in Amperes? A. 352 (Watts) divided by 32 (Volts) equals 11 Amperes. Q. Current under 110 Volts pressure is flowing through a circuit at a 5- Ampere rate. How many Watts will be consumed in 4 hours? A. 110 (Volts) multiplied by 5 (Amperes) equals 550 Watts per hour. 550 (Watts) multiplied by 4 (hours) equals 2200 Watts. Q. Current under 32 Volts pressure is flowing through a circuit at a 7- Ampere rate. How many Watts will be consumed in 4 hours? A. 32 (Volts) multiplied by 7 (Amperes) equals 224 Watts per hour. 224 (Watts) multiplied by four (hours) equals 896 Watts. ELE-MENTARY ELECTRICITY 23 Q. Current flowing through a circuit at a 5-Ampere rate is being consumed at the rate of 550 Watts per hour. What is the pressure in volts? A. 550 (Watts) divided by 5 (Amperes) equals 110 Volts. Q. Current is flowing through a circuit at a 9-Ampere rate, and is being consumed at the rate of 288 Watts per hour. What is the pressure in Volts? A. 288 (Watts) divided by 9 (Amperes) equals 32 Volts. Q. If a 110-Volt motor consumes current at an 8- Ampere rate, how many Watts will be consumed in 5 hours? A. 110 (Volts) multiplied by 8 (Amperes) equals 880 Watts per hour. 880 (Watts) multiplied by 5 (Hours) equals 4400 Watts. Q. If a 110-Volt motor consumes current at a 10-Ampere rate, how many Kilowatts will be consumed in 10 hours? A. 110 (Volts) multiplied by 10 (Amperes) equals 1100 Watts per hour. 1100 (Watts) multiplied by 10 (Hours) equals 11,000 Watts. 11,000 (Watts) divided by 1000 (1000 Watts equal one Kilowatt) equals 11 Kilowatts. Q. If a 32- Volt motor consumes current at a 10-Ampere rate, and current costs 3 cents per Kilowatt, what will it cost to operate it for 100 hours? A. 32 (Volts) multiplied by 10 (Amperes) equals 320 Watts per hour. 320 (Watts) multiplied by 100 (Hours) equals 32,000 Watts. 32,000 divided by 1000 equals 32 Kilowatts. 32 Kilowatts at 3 cents per Kilowatt equals 96 cents. Q. If twelve 32- Volt lamps consume current at a 24-Ampere rate, what is the average Wattage per lamp? A. 24 (Amperes) divided by 12 (Lamps) equals 2 Amperes per lamp. 2 (Amperes) multiplied by 32 (Volts) equals 64 Watts per lamp. Q. What will it cost to burn five 50- Watt lamps three hours per night for 30 nights if current costs 9 cents per Kilowatt? A. 5 (Lamps) multiplied by 50 (Watts per lamp) equals 250 Watts per hour. 250 (Watts) multiplied by 3 (Hours per night) equals 750 Watts per night. 750 (Watts) multiplied by 30 (Nights) equals 22,500 Watts. 22,500 divided by 1000 equals 22^ Kilowatts. 22^ multiplied by 9 equals $2.025. Q. If it costs one dollar to burn four 50- Watt lamps for 100 hours, what is the cost per Kilowatt? A. 4 multiplied by 50 (Wattage per lamp) equals 200 Watts per hour. 200 (Watts) multiplied by 100 (Hours) equals 20,000 Watts. 20,000 (Watts) divided by 1000 equals 20 Kilowatts. SI. 00 divided by 20 (Kilowatts) equals" 5 cents per Kilowatt. ' Q. If a gas engine driving a 32- Volt, 20-Ampere generator will run five hours on a gallon of kerosene which costs 10 cents per gallon, what is the cost of current per Kilowatt? A. 32 (Volts) multiplied by 20 (Amperes) equals 640 Watts output per hour. 640 (Watts) multi- plied by 5 (Hours) equals 3,200 Watts. 3,200 (Watts) divided by 1000 equals 3.2 Kilowatts. 10 (Cents) divided by 3.2 (Kilowatts) equals 3.1c+. VOLTAGE DROP Ohms multiplied by Amperes equals Volts drop. Volts drop divided by Ohms equals Amperes. Volts drop divided by Amperes equals Ohms. Q. If a 32-Volt generator is delivering current to a motor that consumes 2 Amperes and the Voltage at the motor terminals is 30 Volts, what is the resistance of the conductors (wires) between the generator and the motor? A. 32 (Volts) less 30 (Volts) equals 2 Volts drop. 2 (Volts drop) divided by 2 (Amperes) equals 1 Ohm resistance. Q. The resistance of a circuit (wires) between a 32-Volt generator and a 32-Volt motor- is .2 Ohm and the Voltage at the motor terminals is 30 Volts. What is the rate of flow of current in Amperes? A. 32 (Volts) less 30 (Volts) equals 2 Volts drop. 2 (Volts drop) divided by .2 (Ohm) equals 10 Amperes. Q. A 32-Volt generator is delivering current to a motor which is consuming 4 Amperes and the resistance of the conductors between the generator and the motor is .5 Ohm. What is the Voltage drop at the motor terminals? A- .5 (Ohm) multiplied by 4 (Amperes) equals 2 Volts drop, 24 INFORMATION VOLTAGE DROP # 10 COPPER W/ f STO RA>GE. BATTETKY FJG. -f- 7 YOL.TS ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY 25 Q. Two Electric fans consuming 2 Amperes each and 4 twenty-five Watts lamps are being operated from a 32- Volt battery. In how many hours will they consume one Kilowatt? A. 2 (Amperes) multiplied by 32 (Volts) equals 64 Watts per hour for each fan. 64 (Watts) multiplied by 2 (Fans) equals 128 Watts per hour consumed by the two fans. 4 multiplied by 25 (Wattage of each lamp) equals 100 Watts per hour consumed by the four lamps. 128 Watts (current consumed by fans each hour) plus 100 Watts (current consumed by lights each hour) equals 228 Watts per hour. 1000 (1000 Watts equals one Kilowatt) divided by 228 (Watts consumed per hour) equals 4.39 hours +. Q. If a 32- Volt generator is generating current at a 20-Ampere rate and a motor, con- suming 5 Amperes and four 40- Watt lamps are being operated, at what rate is the battery being charged? A. 4 (Lamps) multiplied by 40 (Watts per lamp) equals 160 Watts per hour consumed by the four lamps. 160 (Watts) divided by 32 (Voltage of the generator) equals 5 Amperes. 5 Amperes (current consumed by the motor) plus 5 Amperes (current being consumed by the lights) equals 10 Amperes being consumed by the motor and- lights. 20 Amperes (output of the generator), less 10 Amperes (current being consumed) equals 10 Amperes, which is the charging rate. MAGNETISM 1. To understand the principles of magnetism, we must first learn its action and the natural laws under which it takes place. It is invisible, like electricity, easy to use and under- stand, and controlled by a few simple laws. 2. Iron and steel is said to be composed of molecules (little magnets) which lie in the metal in confused positions. If an insulated wire is-wound around a bar of iron or steel and a current of electricity is passed through the wire, the molecules have a tendency to straighten out in the metal parallel with each other. 3. For instance: If only a small amount of current is passed through the wire, which surrounds the core, a small portion of the molecules are affected and straighten out parallel with each other. Increasing the current flowing through the wire causes an increased number of molecules to be affected, until a point is reached where all the molecules are straightened out parallel with each other. At this point the core is said to be saturated, and an increase in the flow of current will not have any further effect. 4. If an insulated wire is wound around a core made of iron or steel and a current of electricity is passed through the wire, the core will attract other pieces of iron or steel as long as current flows through the wire. 6. This power of attraction is called magnetism. If the core of iron or steel is very soft it will lose its magnetism and the molecules will fall back in their confused positions as soon as current ceases to flow. This is called an Electro-Magnet. If the bar is of hardened steel it will retain its magnetism after current ceases to flow and will be known as a permanent magnet. 6. A permanent magnet, when placed on a pivot or suspended by a string, will turn so that one end will point to the north and the other end to the south. The hand of a compass is nothing more than a piece of hardened steel that has been magnetized. 7. The end that points to the north is called the north pole, and the end that points to the south is called the south pole. 8. If another permanent magnet is brought close to a permanent one that is suspended, the following interesting things will be observed: When the north pole of the magnet is brought close to the north pole of the suspended one, the suspended one will immediately rotate away. If the north pole of the magnet is brought close to the south pole of the sus- pended one, the suspended one will rotate toward it. 9. The simple laws of magnetism are: A magnet has two poles. One is called the North Pole and the other is called the South Pole. The North Pole points to th*> North, 26 INFORMATION and the South Pole points to the South, if the magnet is free to turn. Also that like poles epel and unlike poles attract. 10. To show attraction of unlike poles and repulsion of like poles, sprinkle iron filings on a paper. Bring two like poles up close to the paper just beneath the iron filings, keeping the poles at least an inch apart.- See Fig. 7, page 27. The iron filings will present the ap- pearance of two jets of water being forced against each other. If two unlike poles are placed beneath the paper, in the same positions as that of the like poles, the iron filings will form in strings or cords between the two unlike poles. See Fig. 8, page 27. 11. It is impossible to insulate from magnetism. Magnetism will always follow the path of least resistance to complete its circuit. Magnetic lines of force (often called flux) always pass through the core from the south to the north pole and through the air from the north to the south pole. 12. The strength of a magnet depends upon three things: The number of turns in the magnetizing coil, strength of current flowing, and the quality of the path (core) through which the magnetic flux passes. 13. Facing the dial of a clock, wind an insulated wire around the hand spindle in the direction the hands travel and pass a current of electricity through the wire in the same direc- tion. The end of the spindle the hands are on will be the south pole and the other end the north pole. 14. Wire should always be wound around a core in the same direction. Then the polarity of this magnet will depend upon the direction current is passed through the wire. 15. Iron or steel is a better conductor of magnetism than the air, and lines of force exert their powers in the direction of shortening their travel. A piece of iron or steel, if placed within the range of the flux from a magnet and left free to move, will be pulled into the posi- tion which gives the lines of force the shortest path through it from the north to the south pole of the magnet. 16. An armature is the moving part'of an electro-magnet (called relays) or the revolving part of a motor or generator. In operation it will always be drawn into that position which gives the lines of force the shortest path from pole to pole through the armature within the range of its movement. 17. There is always a limit to the magnetic flux that can be forced through iron or steel. Beyond certain degrees of magnetization called "working points," the magnetic re- sistance of iron or steel increases so rapidly that a considerable increase of magnetizing power produces only a small amount of magnetism. 18. Then the magnets core is said to be nearing saturation. Finally a point is reached when an increase in magnetizing power produces no appreciable increase on magnetism. Then the core is saturated. QUESTIONS 1. What is necessary to understand the principles of magnetism? 2. Name two good conductors of magnetism. 3. What results when current flows through an insulated wire which surrounds an iron core? 4. Will the core always lose its magnetism as soon as current ceases to flow? 5. What is an electro-magnet? What is a permanent magnet? 6. What is the hand of a compass made of? 7- What names are applied to the poles of a magnet? Which poles attract? Which poles repel? 9. Give the simple laws of magnetism. 10. Explain how attraction and repulsion can be demonstrated. 11. Give direction of flow of lines of force through magnetic material and the air. 12. Upon what does the strength of a magnet depend? 13. Upon what does the polarity of a magnet depend? ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY 27 N< * - k \ *- " x BAR MAGNET AND LINE'S or r-oRCET 5 HORSESHOE- MAGNET AN O LINES OF" SJI * M X x N ^---' X ' / fl . 7 OF TWO \ \ N4 c ^ O POLES N N / / / . S ATTRACTfOfV a^F TWx->-*-^~ If TO EXTERNAL. CIRCO/T . /3 C/RCUIT FIC. FIC. /7 62 INFORMATION external circuit. When the coil has revolved through half a revolution segment "A" will be under brush "D," while segment "B" will be under brush "C," as shown in Fig. 12, page 61. This means that although the current has reversed its direction in the coil, it is still flowing in the same direction through the external circuit or wire joining "C" and "D." Notice that current flows from "A" to "B" in the coil during this half revolution, while the direction is the same in the external circuit as in the first half revolution, that is, from "C" to. "D." In this way we have a flow of current always in the same direction through the external circuit. An armature consists of a steel shaft upon which are placed a number of iron disks, slotted out to receive a number of coils similar to the one described, and these coils are connected to the segments of the commutator, which is also mounted on the same shaft. As each coil in turn revolves through the magnetic field, current is generated into it, and the brushes are placed in such a position that they collect this current from the various coils and deliver it to the "line" as it is called. This current may be used for charging batteries or for any other purpose where direct current is required. We will now explain how magnetism is produced in the pole pieces. This can be obtained in two different ways: First, by means of permanent magnets as used on magnetos where there is no regulation of current. Second, by means of Electro Magnets for the pole pieces, when we wish to regulate the amount of current generated. Series Wound. Fig. 13, page 61, shows how the current is taken to magnetize the poles of a Series Wound Machine. It will be noticed that all the current generated in the armature passes out of brush "A," and from there goes through the upper field coil, as it is called, then through the lower field coil before it passes out to the line, the return circuit being completed through brush "B." Fig. 14, page 61, illustrates how this circuit is shown in a simplified way. Shunt Wound Machine. This type of generator is so called because only a part of the current flows through the field coils to magnetize the pole pieces, or to "excite the field," as it is usually called. The word shunt really means to switch or divide the flow of current. In this machine some of the current is sVitched off the main circuit and goes through the field coils. This machine is shown in Figs. 16 and 17, page 61, the latter being a simplified machine. WATER ANALOGY The following analogy or comparison between the action of an electric system and that of a water system will explain some of the terms used. The pump (generator) forces the water (current) through the pipes (wires) at a certain number of pounds (volts) pressure, as indicated by a pressure gauge (voltmeter) to overcome the friction resistance of the pipes (wires) in order that the water (current) may flow at the rate of so many gallons (amperes) per hour, as indicated by a water meter (ammeter). If the pipes (wires) are too large the cost will be too great. If they are too small the loss will be too great. The pipes (wires) might be so small that the friction (resistance) would absorb a very large portion of the power of the pump (generator), leaving little remaining for useful effect. The pipes (wires) require valves (switches) to regulate and direct the flow of water (current) without leak (drop) and safety relief valves (fuses) must be provided to prevent damage from over-pressure (over- voltage). , : MOTORS AND GENERATORS 1. A Motor is a machine used to convert electric energy into mechanical energy. 2. A generator is a machine used to convert mechanical energy into electric energy. 3. The most important parts of a motor or generator are the frame, pole pieces, arma- ture, field coils, and brushes. 4. The material in the frame of the best generators is made of drop-forged steel. 5. Drop-forged steel is an excellent conductor of magnetism, and more lines of force can be produced from the same volume of metal. ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY 63 6. The part of the metal frame surrounded by the field coils is called "pole pieces." 7. The metal on the end of the pole piece next to the armature is often called the "pole shoe." In the construction of most machines it is a part of the pole piece. 8. The armature of a motor or generator is the revolving part of the machine. The armature of an electro magnet (cut-out relay) is the moving part of the electro magnet. 9. The armature of a motor or generator is located in the center of the machine, and is mounted in bearings which are located in the end frames. 10. In the operation of a motor or generator the armature revolves continuously. 11. An armature is composed of a shaft, laminations, commutator, wire, and insulating material. 12. The laminations, with slots cut in their outer edges, are assembled on the shaft along with the commutator. Into the slots of the lamination the insulated wire is wound, the ends of the ceils of wire being connected to the commutator. 13. The commutator is composed of copper bars assembled side by side in a cylindrical form. The bars are insulated from each other with strips of mica. The bars of copper are called "segments." 14. The purpose of the commutator is to assist in making a flexible connection between the outer circuits and the windings of the armature. It also assists in reversing the direction of flow of current. 15. All currents generated into the windings of an armature are alternating currents. 16. By the use of the commutator and brushes these currents are converted into direct current as it leaves the commutator. 17. The brushes rest on the commutator and serve to make a connection to the windings of the armature. 18. When a machine is being used as a motor, current is being introduced into the windings of the armature. 19. When a machine is being used as a generator, current is taken from the windings of the armature. 20. The brushes of a motor or generator may be made of carbon, carbon and metal, or metal alone. 21. The commutator is fastened to the armature shaft and revolves with the armature. 22. Brushes are mounted in pockets and on arms. Mounting on arms is their best method. 23. Where pocket type mountings are used the brushes often stick up, due to dirt and gum, and fail to make good contact with the commutator. 24. When brushes are mounted on arms it prevents sticking up and assures even tension in the commutator. 25. The total end surface of all brushes should come in contact with the commutator. 26. If the total end surface does not make contact with the commutator, the resistance between the brush and the commutator will be increased. 27. To fit brushes to a commutator use a strip of about number "0" sand cloth the full width of the commutator, and insert between the brushes and the commutator with the rough side next to the brush. Then sand as shown in Figures 23 and 25, page 66. Care must be taken that the sand cloth is not pulled back and forth, as shown in Figs. 24 and 25, page 66, as this will cut the corners of the brushes away. 28. Emery cloth must not be used, as emery is a conductor, and may lodge between the segments of the commutator and cause short circuits. 29. Never lubricate a commutator. Lubrication in a commutator will cause dirt and gum to accumulate, which will cause poor brush contact and arcing. 30. The segments of a commutator are insulated from each other with strips of mica. 64 INFORMATION 31. These mica insulations do not always wear as fast as the copper segments. This depends upon the material of the brushes used. QUESTIONS 1. What is a motor? 2. What is a generator? 3. Name the most important parts used in the construction of motors and generators. 4. What is the material in the frames of the best machines? 5. Why is this best? 6. What is a pole piece? 7. What is a pole shoe? 8. What is an armature? 9. Where is the armature located? 10. How can it be distinguished? 11. Name the parts used in the construction of an armature. 12. How is the armature constructed? 13. What is a commutator? 14. What is the use of the commutator? 15. Are currents generated into the armature alternating or direct? 16. How are they converted into direct current? 17. What are brushes used for? 18. When is current introduced into the armature? 19. When is current taken from the windings of the armature? 20. What is the composition of the brushes? 21 Why is a flexible connection to the commutator necessary? 22. WTiat is the best way to mount brushes? 23. What are the objections to pocket type brush holders? 24. What are the advantages of mounting brushes on arms? 25. How much of the end surface of the brushes should make contact with the commutator? 26. Why? 27. Give proper method of fitting brushes to commutator. 28. Should emery cloth be used? 29. Should a commutator be lubricated? 30. How are the commutator bars (segments) insulated from each other? 31. Do mica insulations wear as fast as the copper? 32. Carbon brushes are nearly always used on generators, and metite or metal brushes on motors. 33. Where metal or metite brushes are used the micas seem to wear away as fast as the segments. 34. When carbon brushes are used it is necessary to keep the micas grooved out below the surface of the commutator. 35. If, in the wear of the commutator, the micas become high, the brushes will not make good contact, and arcing and burning will result. 36. The armature must always be removed from the machine before the micas are grooved out. 37. When the armature is put in a lathe, the tool carriage should first be run along to see that it will not strike the armature while the commutator is being trued up. 38. Then the commutator should be trued up so it is perfectly round. 39. To start the groove in the micas use a three-cornered file, as shown in Fig. 18, page 66. This cuts the micas out so a hack-saw blade can be used. 40. After the groove is started with a file, use a piece of hack-saw blade the thickness of the mica to cut the micas out, as shown in Fig. 19, page 66. ELEMENTARYELECTKICITY 65 41. If the hack-saw blade is too thick it can be ground down to the proper thickness. 42. The groove should be cut about one thirty-second of an inch below the surface of the commutator. 43. If the micas are not cut away they will break clean off and get under the brushes and cause arcing. See Figs. 20 and 21, page 66. 44. After grooving out the micas the commutator should be sanded and polished. Use dmeium fine sandpaper. Speed up commutator and sand as shown in Fig. 22, page 66. Pulling the ends of the sand paper back and forth. Then use cheese cloth and polish. 45. The commutator can usually be sanded while in the machine. To do so, first lift the brushes and then sand same as out of a machine. 46. Sandpaper must not be held on the commutator under finger pressure. It will cause grooves to be cut in the commutator. 47. Always refit brushes to a commutator after truing up and undercutting micas. 48. Coal Oil (Kerosene) should be used on a commutator to loosen up the dirt and gum. 49. Before applying the coal oil be sure to lift the brushes and not allow the coal oil to get on them. 50. Apply the coal oil to the commutator with a cloth, being careful to apply only to the commutator. 51. Allow the coal oil to remain on the commutator for about 10 minutes. 52. Always use cheese cloth to wipe a commutator. Never use waste. 53. Cheese cloth is nearly free of lint and is very soft and flexible. 54. If a cloth containing lint is used the lint will be caught in the segments and will prevent good brush contact, which will cause arcing. 55. Never use gasoline to clean a commutator. It will get into the winding of the ar- mature and evaporate away slowly. When the machine is operated an explosion may occur. 56. When oiling parts of a car always oil the motor and generator. 57. The circuits of a motor or generator are called internal circuits. 58. External circuits is a term generally applied to the wiring used between different pieces of electrical apparatus. 59. When testing a machine do not use a buzzer. The resistance of many circuits that are good may be so high that a buzzer will not operate. Use a test lamp connected to a 110- volt circuit. 60. The term "shunt field" applies to a field winding that is connected directly across the brushes. See Figs. 16 and 17, page 61. 61. The term "series field" applies to a field winding that is connected in series with the brushes. 62. The care a user should give a motor or generator is to keep the commutator clean and the bearings lubricated. QUESTIONS 32. What kind of brushes are most commonly used? 33. With what kind of brushes do the micas wear as fast as the copper? 34. Where carbon brushes are used what should be done to the micas? 35. If, in the wear of the commutator, the micas become high, what will result? 36. Can the micas be ground out when the armature is in the machine? 37. What should be done first when the armature is put in the lathe? 38. What should be done then? 39. How should the grooves in the mica be started? 40. How should the grooves be finished? 41. What should be done if the hack-sa\v blade is too thick? 42. How deep should the groove be cut? 66 INFORMATION COMMUTATOR Ar BRUSHES iTATNG C^OOVr r< MICA WITH 3-CORNE.REO F-IUE - /S. SJ-OTT/NC /V//CA WTH p/ece" o^ HACKSAW BLADE. R/GHT WAV SU'OTTINC: MICA RIGHT WAY .- 23 WAV MICA MOST IYOT BE LEFT WITH A TH/N COQE' WCXT TO S'C/ v f'MTS. M/CA SANO' PAPER WOfs/G WAY r.c.-25 SANO/NG BRUSHES F-/C- ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY 67 43. What will result if the edges of the micas are not cut away clean? 44. What should be done to a commutator after grooving out the micas? 45. How can a commutator be sanded in a machine? 46. W T hat will result if a piece of sand cloth is held on the commutator under finger pressure? 47. After grooving out micas, do the brushes require attention? 48. What can be used to loosen an accumulation on the commutator? 49. What should be done before applying coal oil? 50. How should coal oil be applied? 51. How long should the coal oil be left on the commutator? 52. What should be used to wipe a commutator? 53. Why cheese cloth? 54. What effect will lint have? 55. Why not use gasoline to clean a commutator? 56. How often should the bearings be lubricated? 57. What are the circuits of a motor or generator called? 58. What are external circuits? 59. What should be used to test a machine (motor or generator)? 50. What is meant by "shunt field"? 51. What is meant by "series field"? 52. What care should the owner of a car give a motor or generator? SOLDERING 1. Very few mechanics or repairmen working on motor cars or electric devices as applied to motor cars realize the importance of soldering all joints or splices when they are made. 2. If a piece of wire is attached to another or to a terminal and taped up without being soldered, the connection will be of a very low resistance at the time, but corrosion of the parts will soon take place and offer added resistance to the circuit. 3. This will cause the system to work bad, and, as a rule, the trouble will be hard for the average man to locate. All connections should be soldered when they are made. 4. In soldering wires to terminal clips, care should be exercised that the solder does not flow over the portion of the clip that goes under a terminal. 5. When soldering a wire to a clip or making a soldered connection, the tinned side of the iron should be held close to the point where the solder is to unite the two parts. 6. The iron must be held still, that all the heat may be transmitted to one point, so the solder will flow freely. After soldering always test these parts to see that a good joint is made. 7. Another thing of great importance is the solution used in soldering. The following solutions are used: Soldering acid (cut, muriatic acid), soldering salts, soldering paste, rosin, rosin dissolved in grain alcohol, and a solution known as ruby fluid. 8. To make soldering acid, dissolve zinc into muriatic acid until the acid becomes so veak that it will not dissolve any more of the zinc. This solution may be used with very good results on large work, but should never be used around insulated wire with a cloth covering. 9. If this solution is used as soon as the work is done the parts soldered should be washed with a strong solution of cooking soda and water, that all of the remaining acid is removed. 10. This acid is a conductor of electricity, and if left on the parts where soldering is done, it will cause light grounds or short circuits, which are very hard to find. Soldering pastes often cause the same trouble, as they are composed of substances as a rule that are high- resistance conductors. 11. Plain rosin or rosin dissolved in grain alcohol is an excellent solution to use. When this is used the parts to be soldered must be cleaned thoroughly. 12. To make this solution, dissolve resin and grain alcohol into a solution like a thin syrup. If this solution becomes too thick at any time, add more grain alcohol and be sure to keep the container closed when net in use. 68 INFORMATION 13. Ruby fluid is made by the Ruby Chemical Company, of Columbus, Ohio, and is used by many electrical manufacturers in their work. This solution does not act as a con- ductor, and can be used at all times with safety. 14. The size and shape of a soldering iron depends entirely upon the class of work to be done. When doing small work use about one-half pound iron with a medium sharp point. Never tin but one side of the iron, and then the flow of solder can be controlled at all times. 15. If the work is large, it is best to use an iron of from one to two pounds in weight. The point of the iron should be blunt. Remember that you are trying to solder, and not scrub, so hold the iron still when soldering, 16. Where an electric iron is used almost continually, it is best to make up a block with switch attached. Then connect a 32-candle power lamp in series with the iron. Then connect the switch so when closed it will short-circuit the lamp and let the required amount of current flow into the iron. 17. When not soldering, snap the switch off, which will let the light burn. This will reduce the amount of current that will flow through the iron. 18. Then there will be a saving of current, the iron will last much longer, point will remain tinned longer, and the iron kept warm enough that when wanted again it will only require a few seconds until it will be hot enough. 19. When tinning an iron the parts to be tinned should be cleaned and hammered first, then tinned. This will cause the tin to remain longer. Use a sal ammoniac solution to dip iron in when tinning. QUESTIONS 1. Should all wire connections be soldered? 2. What will result if connection is not soldered? 3. W T ill this effect the working of a system? 4. What should be done when soldering wire to clips? 5. Give method of holding iron when soldering. 6. Why should the iren be held still as a rule? 7. Name some solutions used. 8. Give method of making soldering acid. 9. What should be done when acid is used? 10. If surplus acid is not removed after soldering, what will result? 11. Name one good solution that is not a conductor. 12. How is the solution made? 13. Is Ruby Fluid good? Where made? 14. Give size of irons to use. 15. What should be the shape of a heavy iron? 16. What should be done when using an electric iron? 17. What effect will a light have when connected in series with iron? 18. What benefits will result? 19. Give method of tinning an iron. INSPECTION 1. It is a common error to suppose that a lot of instruments are necessary in order to locate electrical troubles of a Gas Engine electric system. A reliable voltmeter and ammeter test set (see Phillips test set, Model 302), page 70, is all that is necessary at any time. 2. The fact is that the greatest number of troubles arise from small causes, and in some cases instruments are not necessary in detecting these causes. The thing most needed is a solid understanding of the simple Principles of Electricity. 3. The next thing is to cultivate the useful habit of using your eyes to examine every- thing carefully. In the first place, all apparatus should be kept as clean as possible. Remember that dirt is one of the most common causes of electrical troubles. ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY 69 4. For example, a very small piece of dirt getting between the distributor contact points will cause the failure of ignition. Dirt on a commutator causes arcing at the brushes, excessive wear of both brushes and commutator, low generator, output, etc. 5. Corroded connection may also be classed along with dirt, because corrosion acts in the same way and prevents the proper flow of current. Corrosion will usually be found on bolted connections where exposed to moisture or acid fumes. Storage batteries should be particularly examined from time to time to see that the terminals are clean and firmly fastened in place. 6. Loose wires and connections form another source of trouble. Therefore all connections should be carefully examined from time to time and cleaned and fastened securely. Defective insulation should be looked for and attended to at once. 7. Repair or replace all insulation that is cut, worn, or broken. Cut or worn insula- tion will usually be found where wires enter a circuit or where wires rub together or become chafed by rubbing on some metal part. 8. All wires should be firmly secured with the necessary cleats, and must not be allowed to hang loosely or unsupported. Broken insulation will usually be found in the shape of broken insulating washers, bushings, sleeves, etc. If any of these are broken or even cracked, they should be replaced with some new ones immediately. 9. Sometimes in reassembling apparatus an insulating washer or bushing may have been left out. Therefore examine carefully to see that no parts are missing. In almost all cases where trouble arises from any of the above-mentioned causes, a careful inspection will show where it is. In all cases of trouble a thorough examination should be made, as this will usually locate the cause and make further testing unnecessary. QUESTIONS 1. What instruments are necessary in locating electric troubles? 2. What is most needed in locating electric troubles? 3. Name one of the most common causes of electric troubles. 4. Give two examples of dirt causing trouble. 5. Give the effects of corrosion. 6. What is meant by "defective insulation?" 7. What will cause defective insulation? 8. How should insulation be protected? 9. What precautions should be taken when reassembling apparatus? 70 INFORMATION SIGNS, SYMSOL.&. AMP ASgRgWAT-/g/VS INEGATI ARROW OIRECTtON CLOCKWISE" c. c. w. COUNTER-CLOCKWI&E: RE: vot-u-r ION. COIL. OF" iNSuL.A~reo co/u OP- /rvSui_ATO WIRE. MACHINE:. S/?ITS WOU/YD MACH/A/E". CRO.SS//YG. RHEOSTAT OR ^frs/STA/vcer. VOL-T D.C. A.C. ALTERNATING K.W KILONVATT. (/ooo WATTS). H.R HORSE (74-6 WATTS). SECTION 2 DRIVING THE CAR DRIVING THE CAR 1. Before Leaving the Garage. See that there is sufficient gasoline and oil in the tanks to carry you the distance you wish to go. Examine the radiator or tank to see that it is full of water. Have sufficient air in the tires. All grease cups should be filled and turned down properly. If batteries only are used, two should be carried, and one of them fully charged. 2. If you are carrying only one battery, be sure that it is sufficiently charged to make the desired run. Have on the car at least one extra shoe, and three extra tubes, with the ordinary equipment of tire pump, jack, oil, gun, tire tools, tire patches and cement, and the regular kit of other tools. 3. A set of non-skid chains will be found very useful on wet asphalt. They should not be used, however, any more than is necessary, as they wear the tires excessively. A couple of extra spark plugs should be carried to save the trouble of cleaning a short-circuited one on the road. 4. Starting Crank. In a gasoline automobile it is found that the motor must draw a supply of gas into the cylinder and compress it before this charge can 'be ignited to expand and give power. It is therefore necessary to have some means of turning the engine over to accomplish this. 5. The starting crank, placed usually on the front of the machine, just in front of the radiator and between the front spring horns, is for this purpose. It is operated as a rule with the right hand, and is rotated clock-wise (the -direction the hands of a clock travel). When there is a self-starter provided, the starting crank is carried in the tool box and is used only when the starter will not operate. 6. Starting Pedal. The starting pedal or button may generally be found somewhere on the floor board. Pressing on it connects an electric motor to the crank shaft of the engine and closes a switch that allows current from the storage battery to flow to the motor and crank the engine. This takes the place of the hand starting crank. 7. Clutch Pedal. It is quite often desirable to run the engine without moving the car and it will also be found necessary at times to bring into mesh different gears so that more power or speed may be obtained. A clutch is therefore placed between the engine and the rear wheels. 8. It is controlled by means of a pedal placed just back of the dash. The clutch is released by pressing on this pedal with the left foot, and when released the engine will con- tinue to run, but will not deliver power to the driving wheels. 9. When the pressure of the left foot is released from the pedal the clutch will become engaged automatically by means of a stiff spring and the car will move forward or backward, according to which gears are in the mesh. 10. If the gears are in the neutral position, however, power will not be applied to the car when the clutch' is engaged. The clutch must be released every time the gear shifting .lever is moved and whenever the brake is applied. Remember, it is depressing or pushing this pedal that overcomes the tension of the spring and releases the clutch, and when no pressure is applied to the pedal the clutch is engaged. 72 DRIVING THE CAR 73 QUESTIONS 1. What should be done before leaving the garage? 2. Give lists of extra parts that should be carried in kit. 3. When should skid-chains be used? Why not all the time? 4. Explain the use of the starting crank. 6. Where is the starting crank located? 7. What is the purpose of the clutch pedal? Where located? 8. What is the purpose of the clutch? Where located? 9. Explain in detail the operation of the clutch. 12. The Running Brake Pedal. The running brake is used for bringing the car to a standstill. It is operated by means of a pedal placed just back of the dash and to the right of the clutch pedal. To apply the brake first release the clutch by pushing on the clutch pedal, then push down or forward on the brake pedal with the right foot, gently but firmly, until the car is stopped. 13. After removing the foot from the brake pedal the brake will be released automat- ically by means of a spring. Use the brake gently to save discomfort to the passengers, wear on tires, and the machine in general. Do not run close to the point where .the stop is to be made and then jam the brake on hard, but begin early to apply it and bring the car to a stand- still gradually. 14. Gear Shifting Lever. This lever is usually placed forward and to the right of the operator's seat, and to the left of the emergency brake lever. It is operated with the right hand. By shifting this lever, which engages different sets of gears, the machine may be made to go forward at different speeds while the engine turns at a practically uniform speed. 15. It also controls the reverse gear. When the car is standing the lever should be left in neutral position. When in this position, even if the clutch is engaged, the machine will not move. To start the car, release emergency brake, release the clutch with left foot, grasp the gear shifting lever with the right hand and shift from the neutral position to the first speed notch, accelerate slightly, then allow the clutch to engage slowly, and the car will start. 16. After the car has started release the clutch again and shift the gear lever to the second speed notch and engage the clutch quickly but gently. Repeat this operation for third and fourth speeds. Always release clutch when shifting this lever. Whenever the car is brought to a standstill, put the lever in the neutral position before applying emergency brakes. 17. Accelerator Pedal. This pedal operates the throttle on the carburetor and regu- lates the amount of gas going to the engine and thus controls the power which the motor develops. It is sometimes placed between the clutch and brake pedals, but usually to the right of the brake pedal, and is operated by the right foot. 18. More gas is permitted to enter the cylinder and therefore more power is obtained by pressing on it, and when released the throttle will be returned to its minimum position by means of a spring. 19. Push on the pedal very slowly, for a slight movement greatly increases the power developed by the motor, and a too sudden application of power will strain the whole machine. It should be pushed slightly when the clutch is engaged to increase the power of the motor, and should be released when the clutch is disengaged, so that the engine will not race. 20. The Throttle Lever. This lever controls the throttle on the carburetor the same as the accelerator pedal, but it has a spring latch and when it is desirable to run the machine for some distance at a nearly constant speed, this lever may be used, as it will stay placed, thus relieving the right foot, which would become tired holding the accelerator pedal in one position for a long time. It is usually placed on the steering post, above the steering wheel, and is operated with the right hand. 74 INFORMATION QUESTIONS 12. What is the purpose of the running brake pedal? Where is the running brake pedal located? 13. Explain operation of running brakes. 14. Explain operation and use of the gear shifting lever. 15. What should be done to the clutch when shifting gears? 17. Explain use of accelerator pedal. Where located? 18. Explain when to use and when not to use accelerator. 19. Give use and operation of the throttle lever. 20. Where is the throttle lever located? 21. The Emergency Brake Lever. The emergency brakes are used chiefly after the car has been stopped and the operator wishes to leave it. They are applied by means of a lever operated by the right hand. This lever is usually placed just forward and to the right of the driver's seat. 22. It is fitted with a spring latch and when applied will lock on, and so is very con- venient in stopping on a hill or when the car is left standing at the curb. The brake is applied by pulling] back. the lever. This brake can be used alone or in connection with the running brake for quick stops when necessary, but it should not be used for ordinary stopping as it is usually not designed for such work. Do Not Advance Throttle Lever Too Quickly. 23. The Spark Control Lever. It takes some time after the spark occurs for the gas to get thoroughly ignited and give power. It is therefore desirable to have the spark occur earlier when the engine is running fast, so that the gas may be thoroughly ignited at the beginning and deliver power for full length of the working stroke. 24. This means that the spark when advanced actually occurs when the piston is still traveling upon the compression stroke and so gets the gas in the cylinder at its maximum pressure when the crank passes top dead center. 25. When the motor is cranked in starting it is turned so slowly that to avoid a kick back the spark must be retarded so that it occurs after the crank has passed top dead center. 26. The spark control lever is connected with the spark timing device and so controls the time at which the spark occurs in the cylinder. It is usually placed on the steering column above the steering wheel, and is operated with the right hand. 27. On some cars it is moved forward and on others backward to advance the spark. When the engine is cranked in starting the spark should be fully retarded. After the motor has started it can usually be advanced about two thirds, but there is no set rule for this. 28. In general advance as the motor (not the car) gains speed, and retard as it slackens speed. Keep the spark advanced as far as possible at all times, but retard it as the engine labors or knocks. 29. Ignition Switch. Usually placed on the dash. It is for the purpose of closing and opening the electric circuit and thus stopping the motor or allowing it to be started. It is generally provided with a removable plug or key so that the car may be safely left at the curb.' Be sure that switch is in "off" position when the motor is stopped. 30. Steering Wheel. The steering wheel is usually placed on the left-hand side of the car, directly in front of the operator's seat. By its means the direction of the car is con- trolled. When moving forward, turning the wheel counter clockwise will cause the car to go to the left and turning it clockwise will cause the car to go to the right. 31. It should be operated with the left hand only unless steering is very hard, when both hands may be used. Grasp the wheel firmly with one or both hands, but not with a strong, nervous grip, as this becomes very tiresome. 32. If the hand is always kept in one position on the wheel when only slight turns are desired, there will be no difficulty in knowing by its position when the front wheels are point- DRIVING THE CAR 75 ing straight ahead. When turning corners the position of the hand on the wheel may be changed and both hands should be used. 33. Do not attempt to turn the steering wheel when the car is not moving as this throws a very great and entirely needless strain on the whole steering mechanism. QUESTIONS 21. Give use of spark control lever. 22. Explain advance and retard of the spark. 23. What would cause a back fire? 24. Will wrong position of throttle lever cause loss of power? 25. What should be the position of the throttle lever when running? 26. Give use of the emergency brake lever. Where located? 27. Give use of the ignition switch. 28. Where is it located? How operated? 30. Give use, location, and operation of the steering wheel. 31. Explain operation in detail. 34. Priming Device or "Choke". When the engine is cranked in starting it is turned so slowly that the air going in through the carburetor has not sufficient velocity to draw the required amount of gasoline from the spray nozzle. The mixture that -goes into the cylinder is therefore weak and cannot be exploded easily. 35. To enrich the mixture a valve is placed in the carburetor air passage, to choke off the air and feed more gasoline to the motor. This valve is operated by a lever or button usually found on the dash or attached to the steering column under the steering wheel. 36. It is often combined with a device for making the mixture richer or leaner to take care of different weather conditions. Some engines will start nearly every time without priming the carburetor; others must be primed every time the engine is started. Do not prime to excess; as soon as the engine starts, return the lever or button to the running position. 37. The Gasoline Tank. The gasoline tank carries the fuel that is to be fed to the engine. It will sometimes be found under the front seat, and may be filled by removing the cushion. In this system the gasoline flows by gravity to the carburetor, and a small hole about the size of a pin will be found in the filler cap to. allow air to enter as the gasoline leaves. 38. This hole should be kept clean, because if the air cannot enter the gasoline will stop flowing to the carburetor and the engine will stop running. Some cars carry the gasoline tank on the rear of the chassis, under the body, and air pressure is kept on the gasoline to force it to the carburetor. 39. This pressure is obtained by a hand pump placed on the dash, and is kept constant automatically. This system differs from all others in that there should be no hole in the filler cap of the tank and the gasket on the cap should be kept in good condition to prevent air leakage. A gauge will be found on the dash and by this means the pressure on the tank can be determined. 40. Other cars with the tank under the rear end of the chassis have a system of drawing the gasoline by means of a vacuum to a small tank located by the carburetor by gravity. Still other cars have a gasoline tank in the cowl of the dash from which the gasoline flows to the carburetor by gravity. QUESTIONS 34. Give use of priming device or choke. 35. Explain its operation. 37. Why is a large gasoline tank necessary? 38. Describe three systems of supplying gasolhie to the carburetor. 39. Is it necessary to have a hole in the filler cap of all gasoline tanks? Why? 76 INFORMATION 41. The Lubricator. The lubricating system is generaly built into the crank case of the engine. The oil is supplied through a pipe or other opening found on the engine and gauge, or pet cock is provided to indicate the amount of oil in the motor. The system should be kept filled with a light to medium weight high-grade gas engine oil. 42. The lubricating system usually oils all internal parts of the engine only. The trans- mission, steering, and different gears being lubricated by heavy oil or grease placed in their respective housings, and all other parts of the cars are taken care of by oil or grease cups. Any oil put into the engine should be carefully strained to remove dirt or grit. 43. The Water Tank. The water tank or radiator is placed on the front of the car and should be kept filled with clear water. Any sediment that is allowed to enter the radiator will clog it and the engine will then overheat. 44. During the winter it is well to fill the radiator with some anti-freezing solution. 45. Alcohol is good for this purpose, mixed with water in the following proportions as desired: 46. 2 pints wood alcohol to 1 gal. water, freezes at zero. 1% pints wood alcohol to 1 gal. water, freezes at 10 below zero. 3 pints wood alcohol to 1 gal. water, freezes at 20 below zero. 4 pints wood alcohol to 1 gal. water, freezes at 30 below zero. 47. If steam is discharged from the radiator, examine the fan directly back of it and the water pump, and See that there is no clog in the pipes leading to and from it. 48. Tires. Keep the tires free from oil and grease as they rot the rubber. Drive very carefully in wet weather because rubber cuts very easily Avhen wet. Drive slowly around corners and start and stop without jerks; also be very careful not to rub the tires against the curb. 49. Have all small cuts vulcanized so that moisture cannot get in and rot the fabric. Do not run on a flat tire unless it has been damaged beyond repair. Run slowly on the rip, or wrap a rope around it if no other tire is to be had. 50. It is very important to keep the tires fully inflated at all times. If tires do not give satisfactory wear, report it to the manufacturer at once. When the car is to be laid up for some time, place jacks under it to keep the weight off the tires. QUESTIONS 41. Why is lubrication necessary? 42. Describe a simple lubricating system. 43. Give use of the radiator. 44. What should be done to prevent freezing of water in winter? 45. What solution is most commonly used? 46. Give proportions to use for various temperatures. 47. What does a discharge of steam from a radiator indicate? 48. What effect does grease and oil have on tires? 49. What should be done when small cuts are detected in tires? 50. What should be done to the tires when car is laid up for the winter? 51. To Start the Motor. Place the gear shifting lever in the neutral position, put the emergency brake on, retard the spark fully or, if well acquainted with the motor, to a point where the spark will surely occur after the crank has passed top center. 52. Open throttle about one third (after getting acquainted with the machine you will find a position for the throttle where the motor starts best). Put the switch in "On" position. If the motor habitually starts hard, prime the carburetor with choking or enriching lever. 53. If the car is equipped with electric self-starter, press hard on starting button or pedal. When the engine starts remove foot from pedal immediately, then close throttle and advance spark lever two-thirds. 54. In cranking the motor by hand, grasp some part of the car with the left hand to DRIVING THE CAR 77 steady yourself, place the feet wide apart, and stand close to the front of the machine. Grasp the starting crank with the right hand, having it at its lowest position or a little to the right of this point. 55. Push crank in as far as it will go and turn slowly clockwise until it engages the crank shaft. It will usually catch when about at its lowest position. When engaged, brace yourself firmly and pull up quickly on crank, turning it about one half revolution. 56. If after repeating this operation several times, the engine does not start, it may be found necessary to spin the motor. This means cranking for a full revolution or more. In spinning the motor, care should be taken to always start with an up pull so as to gain momentum for the down thrust and so reduce the danger of a kick back to a minimum. 57. After the engine starts, advance the spark about two thirds and close the throttle. If the engine has been started on the battery and a magneto is used, switch immediately from the battery to magneto. Do not allow the motor to race. When running idle it should turn over at its lowest speed. 68. To Start the Car. Take your place in the driver's seat, place left foot on clutch pedal and press hard to release the clutch. Keep it disengaged while with the right hand the emergency brake is released and gear lever is shifted from neutral to the first speed notch. 59. Then with the right foot press the accelerator pedal gently until the motor speed is increased a little and at the same time with the left foot allow the clutch pedal to come back until the clutch starts to engage and the car begins to move. 60. From this point decrease the pressure on the pedal very gradually until the clutch is fully engaged, at the same time listening to the engine to see that it doesn't slow down sufficiently to stall. 61. If it shows signs of stalling, press accelerator pedal a little more to increase the speed, at the same time keeping a slightly greater pressure on the clutch pedal. Stalling the motor is the result of feeding too little gas with the accelerator or of not keeping pressure on the clutch pedal during the time the clutch is engaging. 62. The jerking of the car comes from feeding too much gas and engaging the clutch too suddenly. Both of these faults may be overcome by listening to the speed of the engine and keeping it right through the proper use of the accelerator pedal, and by releasing the pressure of the foot from the clutch pedal very gradually from the time it starts to engage until it is fully engaged. 63. It is impossible to become a good driver until the ear learns to judge the speed of the motor by its sound and the left foot learns to engage the clutch gradually. When the clutch has become fully engaged, press accelerator pedal slightly to speed up the machine. 64. As soon as it has attained fair momentum, release the clutch and at the same time let up on the accelerator pedal. Change gear lever quickly until you feel it take hold and then gradually at the same time pressing slightly on the accelerator pedal. 65. When the clutch pedal is pushed out the accelerator pedal should be released. When the clutch pedal is in, the accelerator pedal should be pressed slightly. Change from second to third and from third to fourth if your speeds are employed, always releasing clutch when gear is shifted, and always accelerating slightly while the clutch is being engaged. 66. Do not forget that the clutch is released when the clutch pedal is pushed out, and that it is engaged when the pedal is allowed to come back. Run on high-speed gear as much as possible, and when it is necessary to drive more slowly, release the clutch and apply the brake gently until the car is brought to the desired speed. 67. Then if the speed of the machine is low enough to warrant it, release the brake and with the clutch still disengaged, change from the high to the next lower speed notch and let in the clutch. 68. If the car has lost much momentum it may be necessary to change to the lowest gear before letting in the clutch, otherwise the engine may be stalled. Do not drive too close to 78 INFORMATION the other vehicles or objects before releasing the clutch and applying the brakes, as the brakes may not hold as well as you think and you may not be able to operate them correctly when in close quarters. 69. If while the machine is standing it is found impossible to move the gear lever from neutral to first or reverse, leave the lever in neutral, allow the clutch to engage slightly, then release it quickly and shift lever to desired notch. QUESTIONS 51. Give position of gear shifting lever, emergency brake, spark and throttle levers when preparing to start motor. 52. If motor naturally starts hard, what should be done? 54. Give method of cranking engine by hand. 55. What precautions should be taken? 57. When engine starts, what should be done? 58. Give position of clutch pedal, accelerator pedal, and running brake pedal. 59. Describe method of starting car. 61. If engine shows signs 'of stalling, what should be done? Why? 62. What will cause jerking of the car? 63. How would you overcome jerking of the car? 65. What should be done when changing gears? 66. What is the position of the clutch pedal when clutch is released? 68. What precautions should be taken when driving car close to other vehicles? 70. To Stop the Car. Select a lamp post, tree, or other object along the curb and when still some distance from it, disengage the clutch and apply the brake gently, and get the car under control so that you can if you wish stop ten feet before the object is reached. 71. Then release the brake pressure slightly, allow the car to drift to the object, stop- ping with the rear directly opposite the object and the car close enough to the curb to allow passengers to alight on the sidewalk. 72. Shift gears to neutral, apply emergency brake and allow clutch to engage. Be careful that the tires do not scrape along the curb, as this is very damaging. The brake should be applied so that the car is not brought up with a jerk. This can be accomplished easily with a little practice, as can also starting of the car. Remember that you are driving for the com- fort of the passengers, and they can feel the jerks and jars much more than you. 73. To Reverse the Car. Bring it to a standstill first, then with the clutch released place the gear lever in the reverse notch. Allow the clutch to engage gently with the left hand only on the steering wheel, look backward and gauge the direction by the rear end of the car. 74. Do not attempt to steer by watching the front wheels; ahva3 r s look to the rear when going backward, to make sure the way is clear. 76. Turning in Narrow Streets. W T ith the car going slowly, first look back to see that there is no other vehicle coming and then turn the wheels sharply to the left as far as possible. When within five feet or more or less, depending upon the speed of the car, of the left hand curb, release the clutch and apply the brake gently, at the same time turning the steering wheel quickly to the right. 76. Stop turning the wheel when the car is brought to a standstill. With the clutch still released and the brake on, shift to the reverse gear. Then release the brake, accelerate vlightly, let the clutch in carefully, and when the car starts to move continue turning the Ivheel to the right or clockwise. 77. This will point the car in the opposite direction. When going backward, look toward the back of the car and also up and down the street to see that no other vehicle is approaching. After the car has traveled back a sufficient distance, release the clutch, take DRIVING THE CAR 79 foot off of accelerator pedal and apply brake, at the same time turning steering wheel to the left until the car stops. 78. Then with the clutch still released and the brake still on, shift from reverse gear to first speed gear. Take right foot from brake pedal and accelerate slightly, allowing the clutch to engaged gradually, and as soon as the car starts to move, continue turning steering wheel to the left until the car goes straight ahead. Do not turn the steering wheel while the car is standing. Start to turn when the car begins to move. Do not allow tires to strike curb. 79. Turning Corners. Before turning a corner, hold out the hand so that any driver behind you may see it, and also look back to make sure that he does see it. If another ve"hicle is close behind you or if there is one in front coming toward you, slow up your car and wait until it has passed before turning. When turning a corner to the right keep as close to the curb as possible, so that the car will be on the righthand side when you get into the side street. 80. When turning to the left, go past the center of the street into which you are travel- ing and then turn sharply, so that you will be on the right side of the road. Do not cut close to the left curbs. Always go around a corner at a low enough speed to make the use of the second speed gear necessary and reduce speed so that the gear shifting must be done before starting to turn, not after, as this gives better control of the car. 81. Turning corners at a high rate of speed puts a great strain on the tires and causes them to wear excessively. It is also uncomfortable for the passengers. Use both hands on the steering wheel, and if the car is found to be going too fast, check it by releasing the clutch and applying the brake slightly. Do not shift gears before slowing the car. The idea is to slow the car sufficiently to make shifting to a lower gear necessary. QUESTIONS 70. What should be done first when stopping the car? 71. What precaution should be taken when stopping along a curb? 72. How should brake be applied? 73. Give operations necessary to back up a car. 75. Explain method of turning in narrow streets. 79. Give method of turning corners. 82. Climbing Hills. When approaching a hill accelerate and advance the spark, as speeding up the motor makes it more powerful, and adding momentum to the car will often carry it over hills that would need an intermediate speed gear if an attempt is made to climb them slowly. As the hill is reached open throttle fully. 83. If the engine begins to feel the grade and labors or knocks, retard the spark until the knocking or laboring ceases. If the hill is a very steep one, as soon as the engine begins to lose speed, release the clutch, remove pressure from accelerator and, without applying the brake, shift to a lower speed gear. 84. Let clutch in quickly and at the same time open accelerator wide. It will then probably be found that the spark can be advanced without causing the engine to knock. On some hills it may be found necessary to shift to the first speed gear, but this should not be done unless the engine will not pull the car on a higher gear. 85. When gears are shifted on a hill the change must be made quickly and the clutch let in immediately, as slow work will allow the car to lose momentum, and then when the clutch is engaged the engine will stall. If the engine stalls, put on the emergency brake and put gear lever in neutral notch. It will be well to place a stone or block back of the rear wheels before cranking the motor as the vibration of the engine may jar the emergency lever loose. 86. In starting again, release the clutch, put lever in first speed gear, accelerate strongly, release the emergency brake and at the same time let in the clutch. This must be done quickly, otherwise the oar will start to back down the hill. 87. With some cars it may be found easier when starting from a standstill on a steep 80 INFORMATION hill to apply the foot brake, release the emergency brake, engage the clutch while the foot brake is released gradually, at the same time feeding gas to the engine with the hand throttle. Do not attempt to climb steep hills until you have thoroughly mastered shifting gears on the level. 88. Descending Hills. When descending slight grades throw off the ignition switch and leave the gear lever in high speed with the clutch engaged. This will cause the engine to act as a slight brake and if necessary the running brake may be operated in connection with it. There is no harm in applying the brake under these conditions with the clutch engaged, because switching off the ignition causes the engine to stop giving you power. 89. When a very steep grade is encountered, before attempting to descend it, stop the car and shift to second or first speed gear. The lower the gear used the greater will be the breaking power, and when first speed is used it is almost impossible for the car to get beyond control. 90. The ignition may be switched off or on as the occasion requires. Switching it off gives greater braking power. The clutch must be left engaged, and the brakes may be used to help. It is well to use first one brake and then the other in descending long grades, as too long an application of one will cause it to heat and burn the friction material. 91. Do not wait until you are hah" way down the hill before finding out that it is too steep for the brakes to hold the car. Make up your mind before starting to descend and shift to first gear if necessary. 92. Do not allow the brakes to get in such condition that they will not hold to the best of their ability. Never descend the hill at a high rate of speed, no matter how safe it looks. Brakes do not hold so well when the car is going fast as they do when it is moving slowly, nor will they stop a car as quickly going down a grade as they will going up. QUESTIONS 82. Give best method of climbing a hill. 83. Give positions of spark and throttle. 84. How would you shift gears on a hill? 88. Give best method of descending a hill. 89. Give best use of brakes when descending a hill. 90. What precaution should be taken when descending a hill? 94. Driving in Congested Streets. Procure a copy of the rules of the road of the city in which you are driving and obey them. Keep to the righthand curb unless it is lined with standing vehicles, in which case you keep close to them. In overtaking another vehicle, pass it on its left. In passing a vehicle coming in the opposite direction go to the right of it. 95. When stopping, hold your hand out at the side of the car to warn the man who may be behind you. Do not at any time slow down or stop without holding out your hand and looking back to make sure that it is seen. Pedestrians have the right of way at crossings, but you may warn them of your approach by blowing the horn. 96. However, do not make a nuisance of yourself by using it more than necessary. When traveling in a side street, upon coming to a main thoroughfare, slow up so that you can stop quickly, as vehicles on these streets have the right of way. When on a main thor- oughfare it is not necessary to slow up at any cross street. 97. Watch the traffic policeman and when one holds up his hand, stop, first holding out your hand to warn anyone behind you. Remain standing until the policeman motions you to proceed. In some places the policemen use whistles instead of motions, and the signals used by them should be learned. 98. Whenever it is necessary to reduce the speed of the car considerable, release the clutch and apply the brake. When the car is going slow enough, shift to a lower speed gear to prevent stalling the motor when the clutch is let in. When it is found necessary to keep DRIVING THE CAR 81 behind a slow-moving vehicle, shift to a speed so low that it will not be necessary to slip the clutch. 99. If it is desirable to go slower than first speed gear, however, the clutch may be slipped by keeping a slight pressure on the clutch pedal. A great variation in speed may be obtained when in any gear by the proper manipulation of the spark and throttle levers. 100. Do not attempt to keep pace with other vehicles until you are an experienced driver. When in close quarters, perform every operation slowly, and a move made slowly but surely will probably take less time than a move made incorrectly. There is no occasion for getting excited, as it is safe to assume that every other vehicle is under perfect control. 101. Learn to shift gears without looking at the lever. Because you will need your eyes to watch the road. Sit straight in the seat; do not get hunched over the steering wheel, as this indicates a novice. Always drive into the garage on the first speed gear. 102. Washing the Car. The car should be washed immediately upon coming into the garage, before the mud has had time to dry. Do not scour off the mud as this scratches the varnish. Use the hose with a slow stream until the mud is well loosened and then finish by soaking (not rubbing) off with a sponge well wet with water. 103. Where a hose is not procurable the mud may be loosened with a wet sponge and then washed off entirely by throwing pails of water on it. Be careful that water does not go through the radiator or any other opening and get on the engine, as this is likely to short-circuit the magneto or spark plugs and prevent the motor from running. 104. If there is grease on the car, soap must be used to remove it. Castile soap is best for this purpose. However, do not apply the soap itself to the car, but make suds in luke- warm water. 105. After all mud and grease has been removed, wipe dry with chamois skin. Wash and dry the body before the running gear,_and be careful that no grease is collected on chamois from wheel bearings and steering arm joints. QUESTIONS 94. What precautions should be taken when driving in congested streets? 95. When should horn be used? 96. Give some signals of traffic police and how to obey them. 102. Give method of washing a car. 103. How should car be washed to prevent scratching paint? 104. Give method of drying and polishing car. 106. Cautions. Don't twist the steering wheel when the car is standing. Corners should be turned at a slow speed to save wear on tires. The brakes should not be applied with too much force except in an emergency, as it is hard on tires and the machine in general. Don't let the motor labor or knock when ascending hills. 107. \Vhen going down long hills use one set of brakes and then the other. Shift to first speed gear before descending steep hills. Change from first speed to reverse and from reverse to first only when the car is standing. Be very careful of skidding on wet pavements. Put non-skid chains on for wet or icy roads. Always start and stop the car without a jerk. 108. This constitutes good driving. Don't forget to see that the license pad is attached before leaving the garage. Inspect oil, gasoline, and water tanks before making a trip, and see that the necessary tools and extra tires are in the car. 109. Don't let the car stand with the motor stopped in the winter time, unless the radiator is filled with anti-freezing solution. Look the car over thoroughly after each run. 110. The records of the examination held at the school show that there are a few points of driving which a large majority of the students do not entirely master. This is not due to lack of instruction in the subjects, but is rather the result of poor memory or insufficient practice. 32 INFORMATION 111. Failure to perform these operations perfectly does not necessarily mean that the student is not a safe driver, but it does show that he needs more practice before being rated as an expert. 112. If you want to be a little better than the average driver, keep in mind the follow- ing points, go back and read them over again in this booklet, think about them when driving the car, and try your best to master them. 113. When about to turn a corner, or turn in a street, or in fact whenever swerving from a straight line, look back to see if it is safe to make the turn and hold out your hand to signal what you intend to do. 114. Make sure that the spark is retarded, the gear lever is in neutral, switch on, and other levers in their proper positions before cranking the engine. 115. When the car has been slowed down to a very low speed for any reason, shift to a lower gear; don't try to pick up speed on high gear. Don't shift to a lower gear until the car speed has been reduced sufficiently. 116. In New York City traffic traveling north and south has the right of way; therefore, when crossing an avenue, go slowly and make sure you will not cut off vehicles on the avenue. 117. When starting the car, allow the clutch pedal to come back until the clutch begins to engage, then keep enough pressure on the pedal to allow it to become fully engaged very gradually. 118. Letting the clutch engage all at once makes the car jump or the engine stall, and observers smile knowingly. In this connection you should listen to the engine and operate the clutch and accelerator so that the engine is not raced or stalled. SECTION 3 THE GAS ENGINE FROM THE IGNITION POINT OF VIEW The Gas Engine From the Ignition Point of View 1. The Cycle. Two or Four Cycle Engines. Gas engines are divided into two classes in regard to the succession of the events which take place in the cylinders. These two classes are: The two-cycle and the four-cycle engine. 2. By the name cycle is meant one complete rotation of events which takes place over and over in an engine cylinder while the engine is running. A cycle consists of four events: an intake, a compression, an expansion, and an exhaust. A four-cycle engine, which is the class of engine almost universally used in Automobile work, is one which makes one stroke for each event. 3. Beginning with the intake or suction stroke, when the charge of gasoline vapor and ah* is drawn into the cylinder through the intake valve, we next have the compression stroke, during which the charge is being compressed. Following the compression stroke is the work- ing or power stroke, when the explosion takes place. Then we have the exhaust stroke, during which the piston forces the burned gases out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve. 4. This cycle of events takes place over and over in each cylinder, regardless of the number of cylinders, the only difference being the time of the events in the different cylinders, no two cylinders having the same event taking place in them at the same time. 6. In the two-cycle engine the cycle consists of the same four events as in the four-cycle, but in this case only two strokes are made per cycle, and therefore more than ore event is taking place in the cylinder at once. On account of the very limited use of the two-cycle engine, space will not be taken up with its description in this work. 6. Carburetion. By carburetion is meant the mixing of gasoline vapor and air. Gas- oline is not inflammable, but a mixture of gasoline vapor and air is very inflammable; in fact, combustion takes place so rapidly with this mixture that it is called an explosion. The energy produced by the explosion resulting when a mixture of gasoline vapor and air is ignited is made use of in driving a gasoline engine. 7. In order to get the best results, the mixture should be of the proper proportions of air and gasoline vapor. A mixture of proper proportions will ignite immediately and the combustion will be complete, whereas in case of a too lean mixture, or one having too small a proportion of gasoline, the expansion will be slow, and in case of a too rich mixture, or one in which the proportion of gasoline is too great, expansion will also be slow and incomplete, as will be indicated by black smoke in exhaust. 8. A carburetor, besides providing a mixing chamber for mixing the gasoline vapor and air, automatically controls the amount of each, so that a proper mixture is provided for differ- ent speeds and loads; that is, if it is properly adjusted. 9. The carburetor is attached to the intake manifold of the engine, so that the suction from the cy Under on a suction stroke when the intake valve is open draws a current of air through the mixing chamber of the carburetor. A small pipe, called the spray nozzle, pro- jects into this mixing chamber, so that the air rushing past the opening in the spray nozzle creates a suction and the gasoline is drawn out in the form of a spray. 10. This breaking up of the gasoline into a spray causes it to vaporize and mix with the air on its way into the cylinder. The amount of air that may flow through the carburetor and the quantity of gasoline that may flow out of the spray nozzle are adjustable, so that the proper proportion of gasoline and air may be maintained. 84 THE GAS ENGINE 85 11. A float, sometimes composed of well varnished cork and sometimes of sheet metal, with an air space inside, is provided for automatically regulating the flow of gasoline into the carburetor. The pipe from the gasoline tank enters the float chamber and the flow of gas- oline into this chamber is regulated by a needle valve. 12. This needle valve is called the float valve, it being connected to and controlled by the float. The float valve mechanism is adjusted so that when the engine is not running the gasoline level will not quite reach the top of the spray nozzle or jet, but may be drawn out by the suction of the passing air current when the engine is running. In Fig. 1 is shown a simple diagram of the carburetor. MIXTURE TO CYLINDER M/X/N6 CHAMBER SPMYNOSSLE AJUST/N6 SCREW Fig. l AIR MLET 13. The air is drawn through the carburetor on the suction stroke, enters through the air intake, and passes around the spray nozzle, drawing gasoline with it. The level of the gasoline in the float chamber then drops and the float also drops, opening the float valve and allowing more gasoline to enter the float chamber. 14. At this time the inlet valve to the cylinder must be open to permit the gas to be drawn into the cylinder, which it is if the piston is on the suction or intake stroke, but on no other stroke. 15. A gasoline needle valve is provided in the gasoline passage from the float chamber to the spray nozzle or in the spray nozzle itself, for adjusting the amount of gasoline leaving the nozzle. 16. A Throttle Valve, usually placed in the passage between the mixing tube and the intake manifold, is used to govern the amount of mixture entering the cylinder. The throttle valve, which is usually of the butterfly type, is connected with the throttle lever on the steer- ing column, so that the amount of mixture can be regulated according to the power required. 17. The simple form of carburetor shown in Fig. 1 is satisfactory only for an engine which runs at a steady and constant speed, for then the rate of the air through it does not change, and the gasoline may be adjusted to correspond. The speed of an automobile engine is not steady, however, and the rate of flow of the air through the carburetor changes with the speed of the engine, increasing as the engine speed increases and decreasing as the engine .speed decreases. 18. The greater the rate of flow of the air, the more gasoline will be drawn out of the spray nozzle, and the adjustment that will give a correct mixture for a low speed will give a rich mixture at high speed. 19. Carburetors for engines which run at changing speeds are therefore made so that 86 INFORMATION an extra supply of air is admitted when the air current flows so fast that it results in too rich a mixture. The extra supply of air is admitted through an auxiliary air inlet valve, as shown in Fig. 2. At/Jt/Lll/tRr /HR/NLET '"LET Fig.2 20. This type is called a compensating carburetor, and is used on practically all auto- mobiles. This auxiliary air valve is held in the closed position by a spring and is opened by the suction of the engine, so that the amount of air admitted depends upon the greater or less suction that faster or slower speeds of the engine give. 21. The gasoline adjustment needle is provided on most makes of carburetors, and is a very important part of the carburetor. The regulation of this valve is very sensitive. After the carburetor is once adjusted by regulating the auxiliary air valve and the opening of this gasoline needle adjustment valve, the slightest turn one way or the other way of this valve will make a difference in the running of the engine. 22. The type of gasoline needle valve shown in Fig. 2 is of the hand-operated type, being adjusted by hand only occasionally; other types are the mechanically-operated needle valve operated by movement of the throttle by hand through a cam arrangement, and the automatic mechanically operated needle valve, operated by action of the auxiliary air valve. These are called metering pins. 23. The main air intake on modern carburetors is usually placed below the jet or spray nozzle, at the bottom or side of the carburetor, while the auxiliary air intake is usually above the jet, and is controlled automatically by the suction of the gas going into the cylinder. The air is drawn through the auxiliary air intake valve, which operates against a spring. In some cases metal balls are used for this auxiliary air valve. 24. In some carburetors the extra air inlet is arranged so that an enlargement of the main air intake is made instead of having a separate air intake. While this works fairly well, it is not as good as if it were placed so that the extra air is admitted above the spray nozzle, so lhat it dilutes the mixture. The auxiliary air valve type of carburetor which is shown in Fig. 2 may be considered to-day the simplest form of carburetor which operates satisfactorily, and there are several different models now being manufactured which are based upon the principle of the auxiliary air valve only. QUESTIONS 1. Name two classes of gas engines. 2. Explain the term Cycle. 3. Name the four strokes necessary to complete a cycle. THEGASENGINE 87 4. Explain the difference between two- and four-cycle engines. 6. What is carburetor? 7. What is the effect of too lean a mixture? Too rich? 8. Explain fully the function of a carburetor. 9. To what is the carburetor attached? 10. In what form does the gasoline enter the mixing chamber? 11. How is the flow of the gasoline to the mixing chamber regulated? 12. What should be the height of the gasoline in the carburetor? 13. Explain the operation of the carburetor shown in Fig. 1. 14. Would this carburetor be suitable for automobile work? 15. How is gasoline to spray nozzle regulated? 16. Give use and operation of throttle valve? 17. Explain operation of carburetor shown in Fig. 2. 18. What type of carburetor is most commonly used? 23. Give location of main and auxiliary intake. 24. Why should auxiliary intake be above spray nozzle? 25. Relation of Acceleration to Gasoline Consumption. The rapid advance of high-speed and multiple cylinder engines has demanded quicker acceleration; that is, quicker "get away" or "pick up." This calls for a sudden greater amount of gasoline or a higher percentage of gasoline to air. Quick acceleration, therefore, demands a surplus of gasoline for but a brief period, after which the normal supply will care for the engine. 26. To meet this sudden demand for gasoline the added nozzle or multiple jet has been introduced by some makers, so that when the suddenly opened throttle brings the auxiliary air valve into use the valve in turn brings more gasoline into the mixture an added supply. 27. The Dash Pot. One method of doing this is by meajis of a dash pot on the auxiliary air valve stem, this dash pot performing a regular pump stroke and forcing gasoline into the mixing chamber by way of a separate nozzle as the auxiliary valve opens. When the auxiliary valve is once open, the pumping action ceases, but the nozzle remains open for a more even demand for more fuel. 28. The Metering Pin. Another method is by use of the metering pin. In some cases the throttle is connected with the needle valve and the spray nozzle, so that by a care- fully computed cam action it is possible to give a sudden lift of the needle and thus give the desired fuel supply quickly. In other makes of carburetors the auxiliary air valve is connected with the needle valve in the nozzle, so that as the air valve opens there is a larger nozzle open- ing for the flow of gasoline. This principle is called the metering pin method. 29. Proportions of Air and Gasoline. The basis of all these methods of providing for acceleration is the accepted belief that in carburetion different mixtures of air and gasoline are needed for different engine requirements. It is no longer the belief that a uniform mixture is correct for all speeds. 30. The new rule is that the amount of gasoline fed into the air must be changed ac- cording to demands, and that if a 12 to 1 or rich mixture is best for quick acceleration; that a 15 to 1 or leaner mixture may be best for pulling with the throttle wide open, and a 17 to 1 or still leaner mixture for particularly high-speed work. Therefore a varying mixture must be supplied. 31. Example of Carburetor with Both Metering Pin and the Dash Pot. The Rayfield carburetor has two spray nozzles, each of which is provided with a needle valve or metering pin. The metering pin in the main nozzle is connected by a combination of levers with the throttle valve, and opens as the throttle opens. The metering pin in the auxiliary nozzle is actuated by the auxiliary air valve. A pumping action is also exerted on the gas- oline in the auxiliary nozzle, whereby a very rich mixture is furnished for acceleration when- ever the air valve is suddenly opened. 32. This is accomplished by a piston on the lower end of the air valve stem, which works in a dash pot filled with gasoline. The gasoline flows from the float chamber through a passage, 88 enters the dash pot above the piston and is admitted to the space below the piston by a disk valve in the piston. When the auxiliary air valve suddenly opens, forcing the piston down- ward, the disk valve is closed, forcing the gasoline upward through the auxiliary nozzle and spraying it into the inrushing air. 33. Only while the valve is opening does this pumping action take place, and at other times the gasoline issues through the auxiliary nozzle according to the suction of the engine. Thus the Rayfield is a combination of two pins in conjunction with the pumping function of the dash pot for quick acceleration or pick-up. 34. Priming the Carburetor. It is sometimes necessary, especially in cold weather, to prime a carburetor before starting the engine. This is accomplished in two different ways: one by depressing the float by hand, so that the float valve will open and admit a flood of gasoline to the carburetor; the other by closing a valve in the air intake, thereby causing an increased suction of gasoline. This latter is called choking the carburetor. 35. Carburetor Heating. Gasoline vaporizes more readily when warm than cold, therefore it is advisable to provide some means of furnishing heat to the carburetor. The most effective temperature seems to be about 170 degrees Fahr. This heating the mixture adds greatly to economy of fuel by more thorough vaporization. 36. There are several methods of applying heat to the mixture, some of which are: (a) By passing hot water from the water circulation system through the water jacket of the carburetor or intake manifold. (b) By passing exhaust gases from the exhaust pipe through the water jacket instead of the water. (c) By taking hot air from around the exhaust pipe and passing it through the main air intake of carburetor. (d) By heating the mixture electrically before it passes into the cylinders. This is done by placing an electric heating coil around the carburetor. 37. Adjustment of the Carburetor. A carburetor should never be tampered with as long as it is working properly. Test for motor compression: See that there is good hot spark occurring in each cylinder at the right time and plenty of gasoline. The carburetor should be the last thing to touch. If the motor refuses to start, first flood or prime the car- buretor; if gasoline does not appear, look for a leak or obstruction in the gasoline feed pipe, a closed shut-off valve, a dirty strainer, or clogged spray nozzle. 38. If a carburetor floods or leaks gasoline when the car is standing,, look for an obstruc- tion under the float valve, a leak at one of the connections, or a leaking float. If the motor starts, but a popping noise occurs in the carburetor when the throttle is suddenly opened, it indicates a lean mixture. Open the gasoline needle valve slightly. If the motor runs sluggishly, with a black smoke at the exhaust, it indicates too rich a mixture. Close the needle valve slightly. If the motor refuses to idle properly, or lacks "ginger" or "pep" at high speed, close the air adjustment slightly, and if not already too rich at low speed, the gasoline may also be opened slightly by turning to the left. 39. Parts to Adjust. The three principal parts of a carburetor used for making ad- justments are: the auxiliary valve, the gasoline needle valve, and the float mechanism. 40. Float Adjustment. When a carburetor drips it usually indicates that the float or float valve mechanism is out of adjustment or. the float is leaking, so that the gasoline reaches too high a level, resulting in an overflow at the spray nozzle. The adjustments for this are: see that the float valve seats properly, that the mechanism is properly adjusted to bring the gasoline level about }i" or less below the top of nozzle, and if float leaks to repair it. 41. Auxiliary Air Valve Adjustment. The needle valve should be set for slowest running, with the air valve held firmly against its seat, and then the spring adjustment should be backed off until the slightest further increase in throttle opening causes the valve to leave its seat. The adjustment from here on is that of spring strength. Too strong a spring will cause too rich a mixture, because the valve will be more difficult to open by suction. 42. Too weak a spring will give too much air or too lean a mixture. The hand air ad- THE GAS EXGIXE 89 justment is very popular. This consists of a valve in the air intake operated by hand from the steering column. By the use of this hand adjustment more air can be admitted 'as the engine heats up and requires a leaner mixture. QUESTIONS 25. What is meant by Acceleration? 26. Give operation of the Dash Pot. 27. Explain the operation of Metering Pin method. 28. Should the proportion of gasoline and air always be the same? 29. Give example showing proportion. 30. Explain operation of carburetor described in paragraphs 31, 32, and 33. 34. What is meant by priming a Carburetor? Why necessary? 35. What effect does heating have on the operation of Carburetor? 36. Give four methods of heating. 37. What would cause carburetor to run dry when there was plenty of gasoline in the tank? 38. What would cause carburetor to flood or leak? 39. Name parts of carburetor to adjust. 40. Give proper adjustment of the float. 41. Give proper adjustment of the auxiliary air valve. 42. Explain method of adjusting average carburetor. 43. Adjusting the Average Carburetor. Carburetors are usually adjusted to the best advantage when the engine has been run and all parts are warmed up. Even if the car- buretor is properly adjusted an engine will not hit just right when starting, especially in cold weather; it will miss and not run evenly or smoothly until it has run a few minutes and is warmed up. 44. For the average carburetor having an auxiliary air valve and a needle valve adjust- ment, the following rules for adjusting will apply: First. Run the engine at what will be nearly maximum speed in ordinary use, with the throttle well open and the spark rather late. This speed of course will be considerably less than the maximum speed of the engine when running idle. Second. Then turn the mam gasoline adjustment until the mixture is so weak there is a popping in the carburetor. Third. Note this position and then turn the adjustment till so much gas is fed that the engine chokes and threatens to stop. Fourth. Set the adjustment half way between these iwo points, which will be very close to the correct position. Turn the adjustment first in one direction and then in the other until the point is found where the engine seems to run the fastest and smoothest. Fifth. Gently and gradually cover the auxiliary air inlet of the carburetor by placing the hand over it, if necessary, in order to exclude the air. If the engine slows down, the spring should be weakened, since not enough air is allowed to enter the carburetor. Sixth. Next try opening the air inlet slowly and gradually by pushing the poppet off its seat with the finger or the end of a pencil. If the engine speeds up there was not enough air and the spring should be loosened, while if it slows down the mixture is correct or a little too lean, according to the degree to which the speed is affected. If it is found to be too lean the spring needs tightening. Seventh. After the air inlet has been adjusted, open the throttle again and adjust at high speed, as the adjustment may now need to be altered. VALVES AND VALVE TIMING 45. There are at least two valves for each cylinder in all four-cycle gasoline engines: an inlet valve and an exhaust valve. Some four-cycle engines have four valves for each cyl- inder, two inlet valves and two exhaust. 46. There are three types of the valves in use the poppet, sleeve, and rotary. The poppet type is the one in general use, and we will confine ourselves to .a discussion of it only. 90 INFO R M A T I O X 47. The Inlet Valve admits fresh gas to the cylinder, and since fresh gas is taken into the cylinder during only one stroke of every four, or, in other words, during one stroke for every two revolutions of the crank shaft, the inlet valve is open during only one stroke in every four. 48. The Exhaust Valve permits the burned and useless gases to escape, and it too must be open during one stroke of every four. 49. Mechanically operated valves are opened and held open by means of cams on a shaft which is geared to the engine crank shaft. This shaft is called the cam shaft, and gears which drive it are called timing gears. The exhaust valves are always mechanically operated, except on some of the old engines. 50. The valves of a gasoline engine always open inwardly, so that the pressure from the power and compression strokes tends to keep them firmly on their seats. 51. Types of Engines using Poppet Valves are the "T" head engine, the "L" head engine, and the overhead valve or "valve in the head" engine. 52. In the "T" head engine two pockets are provided at the head of the cylinder, one on each side, with the inlet valve in one pocket and the exhaust in the other pocket. There are two cam shafts in this type of engine, one on one side for operating the intake valves, and one on the other side for operating the exhaust valves. 53. In the "L" head engine there is only one pocket, with both the exhaust and inlet valves placed in it. The cams for operating the intake as well as those for operating the ex- haust valves are on one cam shaft. 54. In case of the valve in the head engine there are no pockets, and both valves are placed in the cy Under head, one cam shaft being provided, as in the "L" head engine. 55. Different methods for operating Poppet Valves are: (1) by a plunger or tapper; (2) by an overhead rocker arm; (3) by an overhead cam. 56. The valves in "T" and "L" head engines are operated by a plunger or tapper which comes in contact with the valve stem and raises the valve. The tappet is actuated by the cam on the cam shaft, and is adjustable as to length in order to take care of wear. 57. Overhead valves are operated in some cases by tappets through a rocker arm which extends over the top of the cylinder, and in other cases by an overhead cam shaft which ex- tends along the top of the cylinders. 58. Valve Construction. There are three different valve constructions: (1) the "side or pocket type"; (2) the "cage" type; (3) "the detachable" cylinder head type. 59. The "side or pocket type" valve is always placed on the side, and can be removed from its seat by lifting it through the valve cap opening, but it must be ground in its seat in the cylinder. 60. The "Cage" type is made detachable, so that it can be screwed into or out of the cylinder head. It can be removed with its valve seat for grinding or repairs. The "detachable cylinder head" type: The head of the cylinder must be removed in order to grind or remove the valve. 61. Valve Timing. Since the valvas are open during only one stroke out of every four, or one stroke during two revolutions of the crank shaft, and since the cams open the valves, it is evident that the cam shaft must be driven at a speed equal to half crank shaft speed, or, in other words, must make one revolution to two of the crank shaft. It is also evident that the cams must be placed on the same shaft in such a position that each valve is opened at the proper time and held open for the proper length of time. Valve clearance must be made be- fore setting the time of valves. 62. Valve Clearance means the distance between the end of the valve stem and the end of tappet when the valve is seated. When an engine becomes noisy and a clicking sound is heard, the trouble is likely to be that the valves and valve stems have worn considerably, or the adjustment nut on end of tappet has become loose. 63. This adjustment can usually be made by screwing up the adjustment screw and then locking the position with lock nut. Ordinarily the clearance is from .003" to .005". THEGASENGINE 91 64. After valves have just been ground, give, say 1-64" clearance; then after car has been run about 20 miles and engine is well warmed up, give the final adjustment. If, when final adjustment is made an ordinaiy sheet of paper can be easily passed between valve stem and tappet, it should be about right. 66. If valves become pitted and leak, they need grinding; and if they are warped or shoulders form in the seat, then the valve and seat should be refaced. 66. Valve Opening and Closing. The cams are so placed on the cam shaft that the valves are opened at the correct time, held open the proper length of time, and closed at the proper time. 67. Inlet Valve Opening. If one of the cams raises an inlet valve just as the piston is starting down on the suction stroke, a charge of gas will be drawn into the cylinder as long as the piston is on the suction stroke and the valve is open. The valve should therefore open in time to give the piston a chance to draw in a cylinder full of gas. 68. If the valves were to open kte in the stroke a full cylinder of gas would not be drawn in, and the power of the motor would be less than what it should be. The inlet valve timing gear is used for timing the inlet valve to open at the right time, this being done by meshing the gears at the right place. 69. The practice is to allow the piston to descend about an eighth of an inch in the cyl- inder on the suction stroke before the inlet valve opens, so as to reduce the pressure and create, if anything, a suction before admitting the gas. 70. Inlet Valve Closing. It is almost a universal practice to leave the inlet valve open until the piston has not merely reached the bottom of the stroke, but has actually traveled slightly up again on the compression stroke. It would seem that part of the gas would be forced out of the cylinder, but this is not the case, as the high speed at which the piston is traveling causes the suction to continue for a short tune on the compression stroke. 71. This will of course vary with the speed of the engine, so that a certain valve setting will not be correct for all speeds, since if the inlet valve is closed at the correct time for slow speed it will close too early for higher speeds and less gas will be drawn in than would be with correct setting. 72. However there is an average speed for all engines, and the valves are set to it ac- cordingly. This average speed on most engines is approximately 1,000 revolutions per minute. 73. Exhaust Valve Opening. The exhaust valve must open considerably before the piston reaches the end of the expansion stroke, and although this may waste some of the force of the explosion, it is amply compensated for by the freedom afforded the piston in connecting the exhaust stroke. 74. It would be wrong to keep the exhaust valve closed up to the very moment when the piston is about to move upward, for on commencing the exhaust stroke, the piston would be confronted for an instant with the force that had just driven it down, and until the valve was wide open it would be considerably impeded on "its journey." 76. The exhaust valve is usually opened when the piston has moved through about seven-eighths of the power stroke; that is, about half an inch from bottom of dead center. Exhaust valves opening too early, however, cause pounding and clatter. 76. Exhaust Valve Closing. The exhaust valve must not close before the end of the exhaust stroke, on account of the gas which remains in the cylinder head being slightly under pressure at the end of the stroke. The valve is often allowed to remain open until the piston has moved about 1-20" down on the suction stroke, so as to give full opportunity for as much exhaust gas to escape as possible. 77. Periods of Time Valves are Open. Valves are timed in degrees; that is, one rev- olution of the crank or flywheel can be divided up into 360 degrees the same as a circle; then we can speak of a whole revolution of crank shaft as 360 degrees, a half revolution as 180 degrees, and one-quarter of a resolution as 90 degrees. It is evident, then, that one stroke of the piston will represent 180 degrees on the flywheel, and two strokes will represent 360 degrees. 92 INFORMATION 78. In this manner we can speak of piston travel and the relation of valve movements or time of opening and closing of valves to piston travel in degrees, and if we wish can mark the positions of top and bottom dead centers on the flywheel and the time of valve opening in degrees as referred to these markings. 79. The time the valves are usually held open and time of opening and closing are shown in Fig. 3. QUESTIONS 45. Give number and names of valves employed in four-cycle engines. 46. Give three kinds of valves. 47. What kind is best? 48. Give use and operation of intake and exhaust valves. 49. What causes the valves to open and close? 50. Why must the valves open inwardly? 51. Give types of engines using Poppet valves. 52. Where are valves located in "T" head engines? 53. Where are valves located in "L" head engines? 55. Give three methods of operating poppet valves. 56. How are valves operated in "T" and "L" head engines? 58. Name three different kinds of valve construction. 59. Give location of each. 61. Why is valve timing necessary? 62. What is meant by valve clearance? Why necessary? 63. Give average valve clearance. 66. What is meant by valve opening and closing? 67. When should the intake valve open? 70. When should the intake valve close? 74. When should the exhaust valve open? 76. When should the exhaust valve close? 79. Describe valve opening, time held open, and valve closing, as shown in Fig. 3. 80. In practice the inlet valve is seldom opened on top of dead center, but from five to fifteen degrees later in the stroke, as shown in Fig. 3A. It is also customary to have the inlet to close from 5 to 28 degrees after the bottom, Fig. 3B ; the exhaust valve to open from 40 to 50 degrees before the bottom, Fig. 3C, and the exhaust valve to close from 5 to 10 de- grees after top of dead center, Fig. 3D. 81. The time that a valve is held open depends upon the length of the nose of the cam. The nose of the inlet cam is usually shorter on its length of face than the exhaust cam, on account of the exhaust cam holding the valve open longer than the inlet cam holds the inlet valve open. 82. Valve Timing Position. The position of the crank shaft determines the position of the piston, and the position of the piston determines the point where the valve is set to open or close. Therefore the cam shaft must be so placed that the cam will raise the valve when piston is at a certain position. This is accomplished by meshing the cam gear with crank shaft gear when piston is in correct position. 83. Setting Valves on a Single Cylinder Engine. Suppose the valves on a single cylinder engine are to be set with exhaust to close on dead center and inlet to open when the piston is W after top dead center on suction stroke. 84. Setting Exhaust Valve. Place piston (by turning crank shaft) on top dead center, then mesh exhaust cam gear with crank gear, so that exhaust valve is just seating. 85. Setting Inlet Valve. Move piston down yi" from top dead center; mesh inlet cam gear with crank shaft gear. It will be noted that the inlet opens and suction stroke begins right after exhaust closes. THE GAS ENGINE 93 Fig. 3 Therefore the closing of the exhaust and opening of the inlet is the point to work from a single cylinder engine. 86. Setting Valves on a Multiple Cylinder Engine. Setting 'the valves or timing a multiple cylinder engine is identically the same operation as timing a single cylinder engine. 87. If it is a four-cylinder engine, the crank shaft is made so that pistons 1 and 4 are in line and directly opposite pistons 2 and 3, which are also in line. That is, pistons 1 and 4 will be on one dead center when pistons 2 and 3 are on the other dead center. If it is a six- cylinder engine, pistons 1 and 6 are in line and 3 and 4 are in line, also 2 and 5. 88. If cylinders are "L" type or valve-in-head type, there is only one cam shaft to set, and the timing is done from only one cylinder, usually the one next to radiator, called No. 1. 89. If cylinders are "T" type, then it will be necessary to set the inlet cam shaft sep- arately, but it is necessary only to set valves in one cylinder, as the other cams are fastened permanently on the cam shaft, and must open and close all other valves at the correct time. 90. It is therefore not necessary to set the cams on cam shaft, but by meshing the cam gear in front of the engine with the drive gear, the position of the nose of the cam can be ad- justed. The usual plan is to place piston of No. 1 cylinder at the top of its stroke and work from that point. 91. Timing by Marks on Flywheel. Usually marks appear on the circumference of the flywheel, which indicate position in which crank shaft is to be placed for correct setting of valves. A center mark is usually placed on the cylinder or elsewhere, and the marks on fly- wheel placed in line with it. 92. If there are no marks, then it will first be necessary to determine where you wish to set the valves. 93. Timing a "T" Head Engine. Suppose we have a "T" head four-cylinder engine, and wish to time the valves as follows: Exhaust to close 2}4 degrees past upper dead center. Inlet to open 10 degrees past upper dead center. 94. In actual practice this is really all that is necessary to know, as the other points of opening and closing will be taken care of by the other cams on the cam shaft. 94 INFORMATION 95. Procedure of Marking Flywheel. Place No. 1 piston exactly on top dead center. Now- make a line on face of flywheel and mark it "1-4 UP," moaning pistons 1 and 4 are on upper dead center. Next measure 2> degrees from this line to the right and make another mark on the flywheel; mark it "E C", meaning exhaust closed. 96. Now make another line 10 degrees from the dead center line to the right on flywheel; mark this "I O," meaning inlet opens. Note that you are supposed to be in the rear of the engine, facing flywheel, and engine is supposed to revolve counter-clockwise as you look at it. 97. Setting Exhaust Cam. Now turn flywheel slightly until line marked "E C" is in line with mark on cylinder. At this point piston is 2> degrees down (measured on flywheel in direction of rotation from top). Take exhaust cam gear out of mesh with crank shaft gear; turn exhaust cam in direction of rotation (opposite of crank shaft), place exhaust cam at closing point. Mesh exhaust cam gear and exhaust valves are timed. 98. Setting Inlet Cam. Next turn flywheel to left until line "I O" is in line with center mark on cylinder. Take inlet gear out of mesh and turn inlet cam shaft in direction of rotation until it is just at the point of opening. Mesh gears and inlet valves are timed. 99. Timing Valves on "L" Head Type of Engine. Only one cam need be set when all valves are on one side or in the head of cylinders, and all cams are on one cam shaft, as is the case with "L" head and "valve-in-head" engines. 100. The usual plan is to place No. 1 piston in the position where exhaust valve is to be closed, and mesh the cam shaft gear at this point. Although it is only necessary to set the exhaust cam so the exhaust valve will close, on all "L" type engines there are other marks which are used for checking the timing. 101. As an example, the Regal four-cylinder engine, with timing scale as follows: Dead center of cylinders 1 and 4 are marked on flywheel "1-4 dead center." Intake valve opens 5 degrees past top center, marked on flywheel "1-4 I N opens." Intake valve closes 40 degrees past bottom center marked "1-4 I N closes." Exhaust valve opens 40 degrees before bottom center marked on flywheel "1-4 E X opens." Exhaust valve closes 7 degrees past top center marked on flywheel "1-4 E X closed." The same marks appear for cylinders two and three. 102. Checking the Valve Timing. The purpose of checking the valves is to see that they are opening and closing as marked on the flywheel. 103. To determine whether or not the valves are properly timed, first open the relief cocks on top or side of cylinder, then turn flywheel to the left until the line marks "1-4" is opposite the center line of the cylinder. At this point the exhaust valve in either No. 1 or No. 4 cylinders should just commence to close. 104. If you find that the exhaust valve in No. 4 cylinder is beginning to close, and you wish to check up the valve timing of No. 1 cylinder, turn the flywheel around to the left one complete revolution, until line "1-4" is again brought opposite the center line of the cylinder; then continue slowly turning the flywheel about one inch farther to the left until the line marked "7" coincides with the center line of cylinders. This is the point at which the exhaust valve in No. 1 cylinder should just seat itself or close. 106. To determine whether or not the valve is seated, see if tappet can be turned with the fingers. If the tappet turns freely the valve is seated, but if it is hard to turn this will show that the valve is still being held slightly open. If this is the case, loosen the lock nut on the tappet screw and turn the screw down until the valve just seats; then turn the lock nut down tight against the tappet. 106. To check up the timing of the inlet valve in the same cylinder, turn the flywheel to the right until the line "1-4" is in line with the center of the cylinders, and then turn the flywheel about ^" to the left, until the line marked "5" coincides with the center line of the cylinders. At this point the inlet valve should just begin to open. 107. Turn the flywheel half a turn to the left, stopping when the line marked "4. O," just to the right of 2-3 comes in line with center of the cylinders. At this point the inlet vrlve should just close. To see if the exhaust valve opens at the proper time, revolve the flywheel THE GAS ENGINE 95 three-fourths of a turn to the left, and stop when the second line, "40", which is the first line to the left of the "2-3" center line, comes up in line with the center of the cylinders. This is the point where the exhaust valve in No. 1 cylinder should just begin to open. The above completes the timing of cylinder No. 1. 108. To time cylinder No. 2, turn flywheel until line marked "2-3" is in line with center of the cylinders. If the exhaust valve in the No. 2 cylinder is closed, turn the flywheel through one complete revolution until the line "2-3" is up. again; the exhaust valve in No. 2 cylinder should then be just starting to close. Proceed now in the same manner as when timing the No. 1 cylinder. 109. Cylinders Nos. 1 and 4 are timed from the center line "1-4," and cylinders Nos. 2 and 3 from the line "2-3." 110. Averaging Valve Timing. There is very little difference between the average timing of the four- and the six-cylinder engines. On the six the average inlet opening is 10.7 degrees past top dead center, and closing point 35.6 degrees past bottom center. On the four, the average for inlet opening is 11.1 degrees after top center, and closing point 36.8 degrees after bottom center. The small difference would hardly be noticeable. The exhaust on the average six opens 46 degrees before bottom center, and the four 46.3. The closing point of sixes averages 7 degrees after top, and the four 7.7. Therefore there is very little difference between the four and six in this respect. 111. Timing Valves on Six- Cylinder Engines. Example: Inlet valve opens 15 de- grees after top center and exhaust closes 10 degrees after top center. When the line marked "1-6" is in line with center mark on engine, pistons Nos. 1 and 6 are at their highest point or top dead center. After turning flywheel to this mark, turn flywheel to the left until the small dot mark is opposite mark on engine. This is the point 10 degrees to set exhaust valve just closing. 112. Fig. 4 shows the flywheel markings for a six-cylinder engine. The cranks in a six-cylinder engine are set in pairs, each pair being 120 degrees from the others. That is, pistons 1 and 6 are in line, so also are 2 and 5 and 3 and 4. The timing for the cylinders will then begin from the marks on flywheel 120 degrees apart, as shown in Fig. 4. The principle of timing the six is similar to that of the four. tO[XHMST- mVECLOSCS PISTON TOP- Fig. 4 113. Firing Order. The cylinders of a gasoline engine are generally numbered from the front, the one next to the radiator being No. 1. Now it would not be practical to fire the cylinders in succession 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., on* account of the rocking motion which would result. 96 INFORMATION For this reason the crank shaft of a four-cylinder engine is made so that the pistons 1 and 4 are 180 degrees from pistons 2 and 3, and cranks 1 and 4 will be on top dead center when cranks 2 and 3 are on lower dead center. The firing order of a four may then be 1, 2, 4, 3, or 1, 3, 4, 2. 114. There are two kinds of six-cylinder crank shafts left-hand and right, the differ- ence being distinguished as follows: If, when looking at the engine from the front, cranks 1 and 6 are on top center and cranks 3 and 4 are to the right of 1 and 6, the crank shaft is then a right-handed one, whereas if they are to the left and 2 and 5 are to the right, the crank shaft is a left-handed one. The firing order of a six-cylinder engine is usually 1, 5, 3, 6, 2, 4 for a right-handed crank, and 1, 4, 2, 6, 3, 5 for a left-handed one. 115. The timing of six-cylinder valves is identical with that of the four. It is only neces- sary to time with the exhaust valve closing on the first cylinder on the "L" head type, with exhaust valve closing on exhaust side and inlet opening on inlet side. 116. Eight- and twelve-cylinder engines are usually built with the cylinders cast in a block in "V" shape, and are called "V" block engines. The eight is similar to two four-cylinder engines working on a regular four-cylinder crank shaft at an angle of 90 degrees. The twelve is similar to two sixes working on a regular six-crank shaft, the two sets of cylinders being set at an angle of 60 degrees with each other. The cylinders are numbered from the front, the two next to the radiator being IL (No. 1 left), and IR (No. 1 right). 117. The firing order of eights is usually IL, 2R, 3L, IR, 4L, 3R, 2L, 4R; and of twelve, IR, 6L, 4R, 3L, 2R, 5L, 6R, IL, 3R, 4L, 5R, 2L. Considering each side of a twelve-cylinder engine as a separate six-cylinder engine, the firing order would be 1, 4, 2, 6, 3, 5. IGNITION, IGNITION TIMING 118. Time of Firing. In the regular operation of a gasoline engine, combustion should take place as a piston is on top of the compression stroke, and the charge must, therefore, be ignited an instant before the end of the compression stroke in order that the charge may have time to take fire. In case of magneto ignition, the magneto armature is so set, relative to the engine crank shaft, that the maximum voltage occurs at that instant. 119. It is, however, necessary to be able to shift the point in the cycle at which the spark occurs for different engine speeds. When the engine is cranked by hand the spark must occur after the end of compression stroke, otherwise the engine may kick back. 120. If started by some form of self-starter, it is possible to start with slightly more advance than when starting by hand, because the self-starter turns the engine faster. 121. The spark should always be fully retarded when starting. 122. Advance and Retard Spark. The meaning of advance of spark is to cause the spark to occur earlier, before piston is on top of compression stroke. The meaning of retard of spark is to cause the spark to occur later in the compression stroke. 123. The exact position to advance or retard is determined by running as far advanced as possible at all times until a knock is detected, and then retard until the knock disappears. The driver will soon learn the exact position where the engine gives the greatest power. 124. Control of Spark. As the spark occurs only when the primary circuit is broken by the opening of the circuit breaker contacts, the timing of the spark can, therefore, be con- trolled by having these contacts open sooner or later. This is accomplished by moving the breaker by means of the timing lever which is attached to it. This movement gives a timing range of about 30 degrees. 125. The spark is fully retarded when the timing lever is pushed as far as possible in the direction of rotation of the cam, and is fully advanced when pushed in the opposite direc- tion as far as it will go. This is the hand method of spark control; the timing lever is connected to a conf- lever on the steering column which is operated by the driver. 126. Automatic Control is used on some ignition systems for automatic! the spark as the speed increases. Centrifugal force is employed, this being accomplished by THE GAS ENGINE 97 weight mounted on the distributor shaft, which swings out as the speed increases and turns the cam on the shaft which supports it. 127. These weights are connected by a system of levers to the cam in such a way that as they swing out the cam is moved on the shaft in. the direction hi which it is rotating, thus causing the spark to occur earlier in the stroke as the speed increases. 128. Relation Between Time of Spark and Time of Combustion. The combus- tion should take place as the piston is on top of the compression stroke (Fig. 5), because at that point the gas drawn into the cylinder has been forced up into the head of the cylinder, and is at the point of greatest compression, hence more force is exerted on the piston if the explosion occurs at this point. 0KNOrf*0tfD SO TIGHT fffCSSU/tC WPtfTON a n Noresma 'T'. "." .'V '-.' /WTOV ON TOP Or COMftifSSON /^ ^^ I ffl ( ,Wu $W 5*Cj @ 2SM _>: JD nSTOH/fTfflTOf OfCOMPftSSW STROKf Fig-6 (a) (b) (c) Fig. 8 (a) (b) (c) (d) 129. If combustion occurs before or after the piston has reached the top of compression stroke (Fig. 5), loss of power will be the result. 130. If combustion occurs before or after the piston has reached the top of compression stroke, the compression is not as great as if it occurred at top of stroke. If the explosion occurs before the top of stroke, the force will act against the pistons' travel and cause knocking and loss of power. 98 INFORMATION 131. For example : Fig. 5A piston is going up on compression stroke, compressing the gas which was drawn in at the previous suction stroke. At the point where the piston is shown in Fig. 5A the gas is but slightly compressed. 132. Fig. 5B. The piston has now reached the top of compression stroke and the gas is well compressed into head of cylinder. It is easily seen that if the combustion took place at this time the force against the piston would be greater than if it took place earlier in the stroke, as in Fig. 5A, or later, as in Fig. 5C. 133. Time for Spark to Occur. There is a difference in time between the time the spark is made at the spark plug and the time the combustion of the gas actually takes place, this space of time being required for the gas to ignite and expand. Therefore, since we desire that full expansion occur at the highest point of compression, we must figure out just how far in advance of the top of the compression stroke the spark must be set to occur in order to accomplish this. 134. Relation of Speed to Time of Spark. When the engine is running slow, the spark must be set (retarded) to occur later or nearer the top of compression stroke, than if the engine were running fast. 135. Suppose engine were running at 500 revolutions per minute. Taking (x) Fig. 6C as top of compression stroke, the distance to set the spark would be at, say (y) Fig. 6C in order to give the combustion time to take place when the piston 'is on top of compression stroke. 136. Now if the spark was set to occur at (Y) Fig. 6C and the speed was increased to 1,000 revolutions per minute, then the piston would go to the top of compression stroke at (X) Fig. 6D and pass over and down to (Y) on the other side, or down part way on the power stroke, before the process of expansion was completed. The result would be a loss of power during the piston down travel between the points (X) and (Y), Fig. 6D, the full force of the expansion not being exerted on the piston until the latter point (Y) was reached. 137. It will then be necessary to set the spark or advance it to a point, say (Z), Fig. 6B, which will allow of complete expansion by the time piston reached top of stroke (X). 138. Speed Relation Between Crank Shaft and Cam Shaft, also of Armature of Magneto and Distributor. On four-cylinder four-cycle engines the cam shaft turns > revolution while crank shaft turns 1 revolution. 139. Two revolutions of crank shaft are necessary to complete the four strokes, and four sparks, one in each cy Under, are necessary during these two revolutions of the crank shaft. 140. Therefore if the magneto or generator armature revolves but two revolutions, the same as the crank shaft, then it must make two sparks to each revolution, or one spark to each half revolution, or four sparks to two revolutions. 141. In order for the distributor to furnish two sparks during this half revolution of the armature, it will be necessary to gear it to run one-half the speed of the armature, or the same speed as the cam shaft. 142. A two-point cam is used on a magneto circuit breaker, which interrupts the pri- mary circuit twice during a complete revolution. 143. On a six-cylinder four-cycle engine the cam shaft turns one-half times crank shaft speed. Magneto armature turns one and one-half times crank shaft speed. Distributor on magneto turns one-half crank shaft speed. 144. Two revolutions of crank shaft are necessary to complete the four strokes, just the same as in the four-cylinder engine. Six sparks are necessary for the two revolutions of the crank shaft. The distributor revolves at one-half crank shaft speed, or same as cam shaft. Therefore on a six the distributor is geared 3 to 1 of the armature, which will cause it to re- volve at one-half crank shaft speed. 146. In battery ignition systems the distributor and breaker cam are driven at one-half crank shaft speed, a six-point cam being used on a six-cylinder engine and a four-point cam on a four-cylinder engine. THE GAS ENGINE 99 QUESTIONS 82. Describe proper valve timing position. 84. Give method of setting intake valves. 85. Give method of setting exhaust valves. 86. Describe method of setting valves on a multi-cylinder engine. 91. What do the marks on a flywheel indicate? 95. Give proper method of marking a flywheel. 97. Give exhaust valve setting. 98. Give intake valve setting. 102. Give method of valve checking or timing. 110. Give average valve timing. 112. Give method of timing valves on a six-cylinder engine. 113. Give possible firing orders of four-cy Under engines. 117. Give usual firing order of an eight-cylinder engine. 118. When should combustion take place in the cy Under of a gas engine? 119. What results if combustion takes place too soon? 120. What results if combustion takes place too late? 121. When should the charge be ignited? 122. When cranking by hand, when should the charge be ignited? 123. What is meant by advancing and retarding the spark? 124. Give best position to set spark for running. 125. When does the spark occur with the average ignition system? 126. Describe the operation of an automatic spark control. 127. Describe relation between time of spark and time of combustion. 130. Why not set the spark at a certain point and leave it there? 131. What would result if combustion took place before piston reached top dead center when cranking by hand? 136. Give relation of speed between crank shaft and cam shaft. 137. Give relation of speed between cam shaft and magneto shaft for four-cylinder engines. For six-cylinder engines. 139. Give speed of a magneto on four-, six-, and eight-cylinder engines. 140. How many sparks does a magneto produce per revolution of its armature? 145. Give speed of timer or distributor in battery ignition systems. MAGNETO TROUBLES 1. Carbon dust, oil, or dirt in distributor. 2. Metal dust in distributor. 3. Brushes not making firm contact. 4. Worn or burnt distributor segments. 5. CoUector brush or collector ring broken. 6. Distributor brush broken. 7. Oil-soaked windings. 8. Magnets weak. 9. Magnets reversed on Magneto. 10. Magnets loose on pole pieces. 11. Rubbing Armature. 12. Worn bearings. 13. Breaker points pitted. 14. Breaker points out of adjustment. 15. Defective bearings. 16. Defective condenser. 17. Magneto armature out of time with distributor. 18. Magneto loose on bracket on engine. 19. Interrupter cam worn. 100 INFORMATION 20. Worn fiber block. 21. Fiber bushing in breaker arm binding. 22. Broken breaker arm spring. "23. Weak breaker arm spring. 24. Ground wire grounded. 25. Ground wire broken. 26. Dirty safety spark gap. 27. Safety spark gap too close together. 28. Spark advance lever sticks. 29. Magneto shorting switch short-circuited. 30. Magneto shorting switch open-circuited. 31. Loose platinum breaker point on breaker arm. 32. Excessive lubrication. 33. Water on magnets. SPARK PLUG TROUBLES 1. Cracked insulator. 2. Oil-covered insulator. 3. Loose insulator. 4. Porous insulator. 5. Wire loose in insulator. 6. Carbon deposits on electrodes 7. Broken gasket. 8. Gap too close. 9. Gap too wide. 10. Mica insulation oil-soaked. CARE OP SPARK PLUGS 1. Clean with gasoline, and brush and scrape. 2. Use new gaskets occasionally easy on plug. 3. Do not wedge carbon particles or tools between insulator and shell. 4. See that all electrodes burn white. 5. Do not drop plug. 6. Do not screw cold plug tight in hot engine. 7. A drop of oil on threads prevents sticking. 8. Insure equal plug gaps in all cylinders of engine. 9. Do not allow globules of metal to short-circuit plug gap. 10. Keep spark plug insulators dry. IGNITION SYSTEM TROUBLES MOTOR HARD TO START 1. Ground wire short-circuited? 2. Defective magneto (no spark at plugs). 3. Broken spark plug insulators. 4. Carbon deposits or oil between plug points. 5. Spark plug points too close or too far apart. 6. Wrong wires on plug terminals. 7. Short-circuited high tension lead. 8. Broken high tension lead. 9. Incorrect ignition timing, spark late or early. 10. Defective platinum points in breaker box. 11. Breaker points not separating. 12. Broken breaker arm spring. THE GAS ENGINE 101 13. No contact at collector brush. ' 14. Breaker points burned or pitted. 15. Breaker arm stuck. 16. Fiber bushing swollen. 17. Short-circuiting spring grounded. 18. Dirt or water in magneto casing. 19. Oil on breaker points. 20. Distributor filled with carbon dust and oil. MOTOR STOPS WITHOUT WARNING 1. Broken ground wire, short-circuiting magneto. 2. Water on high tension terminals. 3. Magneto out of time (drive slipped). 4. Water or oil in safety spark gap. 5. Badly worn block (fiber) or breaker arm. MOTOR RUNS IRREGULARLY OR MISFIRES 1. Loose wiring of terminals. 2. Broken spark plug insulator. 3. Spark plug points oiled or sooted. 4. Incorrect spark plug gap. 5. Leaking high tension lead. 6. Poor breaker point adjustment. 7. Wire broken inside of insulation. 8. Loose platinum point in breaker box. 9. Weak breaker arm spring. 10. Broken collector ring or collector brush. 11. Carbon dust or oil in distributor. 12. Worn fiber block or interrupter cam. 13. Oil-soaked magneto windings. 14. Weak magnets on magneto. 15. Oil on breaker points. COMPRESSION TROUBLES 1. Broken valve. 2. Warped valve head. 3. Broken valve spring. 4. Bent or stuck valve stem. 5. Dirt or carbon under valve seat. 6. Leak between cylinder head and spark plug. 7. Leak between spark plug insulator and shell. 8. Leak at valve chamber cap. 9. Improper valve stem clearance. 10. Defective priming cock. 11. Broken piston rings. 12. Slots in piston rings in line. 13. Piston rings stuck in grooves. 14. Leaking cylinder head gasket. 15. Pitted valves. CARBURETOR SYSTEM TROUBLES MOTOR WILL NOT START, OR STARTS HARD 1. No gasoline in tank. 2. No gasoline in float chamber. 3. Tank shut-off closed. 102 INFORMATION 4. Clogged filter screen. 5. Fuel supply pipe clogged or dented. 6. Gasoline level too low. 7. Gasoline level too high (flooding). 8. Bent or stuck float lever. 9. Loose or defective inlet manifold. 10. Cylinders flooded with gasoline. 11. Fuel-soaked float. 12. Leaking metal float. 13. Water in spray nozzle. 14. Dirt in float chamber. 15. Gasoline mixture. 16. Frozen carburetor (winter time). MOTOR STOPS WITHOUT WARNING 1. Gasoline shut-off valve jarred closed. 2. Gasoline supply pipe clogged. 3. No gasoline in tank. 4. Spray nozzle stopped up. 5. Water in spray nozzle. 6. Broken air line or leaking tank (pressure). 7. Air vent in tank filler car closed, and float needle valve stuck. MOTOR RUNS IRREGULARLY OR MISFIRES Carburetor or float chamber getting dry, water or dirt in gasoline. Too much gasoline, incorrect jet or choke, or broken cylinder head gasket between cylinders. GAS ENGINE THEORY. The eight figures on page 103 are intended to make clear the operation of a gasoline engine. Figures 1, 2, 3, and 4 represent the cylinder of a gasoline engine, and figures 5, 6, 7, and 8 represent the barrel of a cannon. At "A" in Figure 1 is the intake, "B" the spark plug, and "C" the exhaust. At "E" in Figure 5 is point where fuse is placed. "F" is the ball, "G" is the powder (fuel), and "H" is the barrel of the cannon. At "I" in Figure 6 is shown the Tamper used to compress the fuel in the cannon, and at "J" in Figure 8 is shown the "swab" used to clean the barrel of the cannon. In Figure 1 fuel is being drawn into the cylinder, and in Figure 5 fuel is being placed in the caoinon. In Figures 2 and 6 the fuel is being compressed into a small space. In Figures 3 and 7 the fuel has been ignited. In Figure 3 the piston is forced downward, and in Figure 7 the ball is forced from the cannon. In both cases the movement was due to rapid expansion due to ignition of the fuel. In Figures 4 and 8 the burned gasses are being forced out of the chamber. In Figure 4 we say the piston forces the burned gasses out through the exhaust, while in Figure 8 the barrel of the cannon is being cleaned out. The operation of a gasoline engine is very similar to that of the cannon, as just described. THE GAS ENGINE 103 FIG. 9 FIG. 7 SECTION 4 DELCO SYSTEMS 1910 TO 1915 INCLUSIVE INSTRUCTION, OPERATION, AND CARE WIRING DIAGRAMS Internal Circuits of Ignition Relay, Cut-Out Relay, Circuit-Breaking Relay, Vibrating-Regulator Relay, Coils, Voltage Regulator, Switches, Motor Generators, and All Important Parts and Wiring Diagrams of DELCO SYSTEMS DELCO SYSTEMS 105 Fig. 1. 1910 CADILLAC 106 INFORMATION Fig. 2. 1911 CADILLAC DELCO SYSTEMS 107 Fig. 3. 1912 PAIGE DETROIT 108 INFORMATION Fig. 4. 1912 CADILLAC DELCO SYSTEMS 109 Fig. 5. 1913 CADILLAC 110 INFORMATION Fig. 6. 1913 COLE 4-40, 4-50 and 4-60. 1913 OAKLAND 4-42 and 6-60 DELCO SYSTEMS 111 Fig. 7. 1913 HUDSON 37 and 6-54 112 I X F R M A T I N Fig. 8. 1913 OLDSMOBILE DELCO SYSTEMS 113 Fig. 9. PACKARD 13-38 114 Fig. 10. 1914 BUICK B-24, 25 and B-36, 37 DELCO SYSTEMS 115 Fig. 11. 1914 BUICK B-54, 55 116 INFORMATION Fig. 12. 1914 CADILLAC DELCO SYSTEMS 117 Fig. 13. 1914 CARTERCAR 7 118 INFORMATION Fig. 14. 1914 COLE 4-40, 4-50 and 6-60. 1914 MOON 4-42 and 6-50 DELCO SYSTEMS 119 Fig. 15. 1914 HUDSON 6-40 120 INFORMATION Fig. 16. 1914 HUDSON 6-54 DEL CO SYSTEMS 121 1914 OAKLAND 36. Fig. 17. 1914 PATERSON 32 and 33 122 INFORMATION Fig. 18. 1914 OAKLAND 43, 48 and 62 DELCO SYSTEMS 123 mw 2 u 5 5 r. o I i S C C Fig. 19. 1914 OLDSMOBILE 42 124 INFORMATION Fig. 20. 1914 OLDSMOBILE 6 DEL CO SYSTEMS 125 tn 5 3 o - ow MAC. U BACK xC 1 "I di Q IOC Fig. 32. 1911 CADILLAC 136 INFORMATION / \ >" ^ (T i) (/J (g) \Ji/ S OFF M* 1C 1C f 1 FRONT BACK Fig. 33. 1914 BUICK B 24, 25 and 36, 37 1914 CARTERCAR 7 1914 OAKLAND 36 1914 PATERSON BACK Fig. 34. 1913 CADILLAC CIRCUIT SACK CIRCUIT Fig. 35. ALL 1913 COLE, HUDSON, OAKLAND and OLDSMOBILE DELCO SYSTEMS SACK CIRCUIT Fig. 36. 1914 CADILLAC 137 BACK Fig. 37. 1914 HUDSON CIRCUIT Fig. 38. 1914 BUICK B 54, 55 1914 OAKLAND 43, 48 and 62 1914 OLDSMOBILE 6-54 1914 MOON 4-12 and 6-50 1914 COLE 4-40, 4-50 and 6-60 F-R.ONT SACK CIRCUIT Fig. 39. 1915 CADILLAC 8 138 INFORMATION T w TO TO COIL. TO Offf HEAO HEAO TAIL. 6KK2HT OlM * CIRCOIT LIGHTING M S o o o o o Fig. 40. 1914 HUDSON 6-40 (LIGHTS CIRCUIT BREAKER O O O O O Fig. 41. 1915 JACKSON DELCO SYSTEMS 139 r*|i=0 r-Hcfl (- Uaa^v 1 0IM*1EK (4) l5l WSISTAWCrS-/ V-X l_l QHTS i_IGHTS o o o o o 1915 BUICK TRUCK 1915 BUICK C 24, 25 1915 BUICK C 36, 37 1915 BUICK C 54, 55 1915 CARTERCAR Fig. 42. 1915 COLE 4-40 1915 COLE 6-50 1915 HUDSON 6-40 1915 MOON 6-40 1915 OAKLAND 37 and 49 1915 OLDSMOBILE 42 1915 MOON 6-60 1915 PATERSON 1915 WESTCOTT-U 140 INFORMATION 1=1 C3 CIRCUIT o o o o o Fig. 43. 1915 STEVENS-DURYEA U/GHTS C 5 C ) C ) r CIRCUIT ^ i.f CHTS M O O O O O Fig. 44. 1915 COLE 8 DELCO SYSTEMS 141 Fig. 45. 1911, 1912 and 1913 BATTERY SYSTEMS Fig. 46. 1912 and 1913 MAGNETO SYSTEMS 142 INFORMATION Fig. 47. 1913 OLDSMOBILE 6-53 Fig. 48. 1913 COLE 4-40, 4-50 and 4-60 1913 HUDSON 37 and 6-54 1913 OAKLAND 4-42 and 6-60 DEL CO SYSTEMS 143 urv/T 1914 BUICK B-54, 55 1914 CADILLAC 1914 COLE, 4 and 6 Cyl. Fig. 49. 1914 HUDSON 6-54 1915 HUDSON 6-54 1914 OAKLAND 48 6-60 and 1914 MOON 1914 OLDSMOBILE 6-54 1915 OLDSMOBILE 6-55 1914 BUICK B 24, 25, 36 and 37 1915 BUICK C 24, 25 UNIT Fig. 50. 1914 CARTERCAR 7 1915 CARTERCAR 9 1914 HUDSON 6-40 1914 OAKLAND 36 1914 PATERSON 144 INFORMATION 1915 BUICK C 36, 37 and 54, 55 1915 HUDSON 6-40 Fig. 51. 1915 OAKLAND 37 and 49 1915 Auburn 1915 COLE 6-50 1915 MOON 6-40 and 6-60 1915 OLDSMOBILE 42 1915 WESTCOTT-U 1915 CADILLAC Fig. 52. 1915 COLE 4-40 DELCO SYSTEMS 145 HIGH Fig. 56. HIGH TENSION DISTRIBUTOR This high tension distributor differs from the .usual form of ignition systems in that it embodies in one unit a timer, means of advancing and retarding the spark, and a high tension distributor. It requires but one induction coil for any number of cylinders. The high ten- sion wires are connected from their respective cylinders to the terminals of the distributor. The connection to the distributor terminals is made by peeling the insulation off of the high tension wires back about H of an inch and inserting the bare wire through the hole in the terminal and spreading it on the under side. When the terminal cap is screwed down the wire is securely clamped and cannot get loose. INSTALLING AND ADJUSTING DELCO TIMER CONTACTS All of the Delco timer contact points with the exception of the battery points used in the dual distributors are tungsten metal, which has a very high melting point, and is too hard to file. These will burn but very slightly when conditions are normal, but with im- proper or shorted out resistance unit, or a defective condenser or improper voltage (such as is secured by running the car without a storage battery) they will bum and pit very rapidly. Whenever burned or pitted, they should be dressed so as to give a smooth, flat surface across the face. This can be done by holding in a vise and using fine emery cloth under a flat file. Care should be taken to dress these perfectly square. If they are burned too much to permit the proper dressing, they should be replaced by new ones. After they are put in position and adjusted, as shown hi Fig. 59, the ignition resistance unit should be tested as follows: Close the "M" ignition circuit and, with the distributor head and rotor removed, bring the timer contacts together, at which time the resistance unit should heat up sufficiently in 30 seconds' time to make a drop of oil placed on it smoke. If the resistance unit does not heat up properly, it is either shorted out or the circuit is open at some other point, or the storage battery is completely discharged. The resistance unit should always be tested in this manner, because if it is shorted out, the timer contacts will burn very rapidly, the ignition will be poor at low speeds, and the ignition coil and con- denser are subjected to abnormal voltages, which are very apt to result in damage to either or both in a short time. After making sure that the resistance unit is in the circuit properly, observe the action of the contact points while the starter is cranking the engine. If a decided spark- occurs each time the contacts open, a broken-down condenser is indicated, which, of course, should be 146 INFORMATION replaced by a new one. A very small spark may sometimes be observed even with a good condenser. Care must be taken to see the pig tail (that is, the flexible stranded wire) is held firmly by the screw that holds the contact stop arm. If the pig tail is not properly secured, the contact pivot will sooner or later become burned and stick, due to the ignition current being carried through the pivot. Fig. 59. CONTACT MAKER ARMS AND ADJUSTMENTS To adjust the distributor contact note the following instructions: When contact arm is directly on top of lobe of cam the distance between points "A," Fig. 59, should be about fifteen thousandths of an inch. When the lobe of cam of timer has broken contact with the contact arm, the distance between the points "B," Fig. 59, should be about ten thousandths of an inch. These distributors are constructed to care for battery or magneto ignition, or both, as the case may be. HOUO DOWN CLIP H/GH TENSION CONTACT RUBBER. TRACK CO/VTACT NOTCH COCAT//VG TONGUE Fig. 60. 147 INSTALLING DISTRIBUTOR HEADS All the Delco distributor heads are now fitted with a rotor track of hard rubber com- pound especially developed for this purpose. This overcomes the burning of the distributor heads which occasionally occurred at this point in the bakelite heads and which resulted in faulty ignition. At the time of installing the new distributor head the breaker contact points should be checked up as given under "Installing and Adjusting Delco Timer Contacts." Also the condenser should be checked as described under "Instructions for Installing Con- denser." It is important that the distributor head be held firmly in place by the hold-down clips shown in Fig. 60. If necessary, bend these clips to hold the head firmly. Also the locating tongue on the distributor must be in the notch in the distributor head provided for it. Other- wise the rotor button will not be in contact with the high tension terminal in the distributor head at the time the spark occurs, which will cause burning of the head and poor ignition. The distributor head should be kept clean. All dust and dirt should be wiped from the interior with a soft cloth and vaseline applied as described in connection with the rotor. ROTORS The important features concerning the rotor are: (1) That this rotor button is polished smooth and bright. If not to subject the rotor button to undue pressure on the distributor head. (2) That this rotor button is polished smooth and bright. If necessary, burnish this button by first using fine emery cloth, then a piece of cloth or leather. The idea is to have the button polished bright so as not to cut the distributor head and, high tension contacts, the dust from which causes a conducting path in the distributor head which causes a spark to be carried to the improper terminal and results in burning of the distributor heads. (3) Occasional lubrication of the track of the distributor head by a particle of vaseline no larger than the size of a breaker contact may be necessary to prevent wearing by the rotor button, but grease or oil containing graphite must not be used for this purpose, as graphite is an electrical conductor. NO L?AD IS, USED HETRE WHEN THE. BREAKER CONTACT IS GROUNDED IGNITION COIL MOUNTING SCREWS DISTRIBUTOR HEAD GROUNO Fig. 61. INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSTALLING CONDENSERS A condenser consists of two strips of tinfoil separated from each other by paraffined or oiled paper with the necessary mounting and connections. When broken down a condenser causes poor ignition, usually irregular missing, and sometimes complete failure. If broken 148 INFORMATION down in such a manner as to cause irregular missing, the distributor contact breaker points will burn and slacken. This can be seen by removing the distributor head and rotor and observing the operation of the breaker contact when the starter is cranking the engine. If the condenser is at fault, there will be a decided spark each time the contacts open. (A slight spark will sometimes be noted even with a good condenser.) Whenever a condenser is in- stalled the contact points should be carefully inspected, and if blackened or burned, they should be removed and dressed as described under the heading, "Installing and Adjusting Delco Timer Contacts." Figure 61 shows a Delco Condenser and at the right is a circuit diagram of the ignition circuit, with the exception of the switch. A condenser is always connected across the timer contacts. In some systems the resistance unit is in the circuit between the ignition coil and the timer contacts, but this in no way changes the working of the system. Current does not flow through the condenser, but instead current flows into the condenser and back out in a reverse direction at the time the contacts open. It is this charging of the condenser that prevents the burning at the contact points and the discharging from the condenser that pro- duces the high voltage from the ignition coil. Therefore, it is very evident that the condenser affects the contact points and the size and nature of the spark obtained from the ignition coil. All the late type condensers have a dull nickel finish. IGNITION COIL Ignition coil troubles may be separated into two classes. These are primary and secondary. Primary troubles tnay be either open or grounded, either of which can be determined when the resistance is tested, as described under the heading, "Installing and Adjusting Timer Contacts." If the primary winding is grounded, the resistance unit will not heat up properly, though it may heat up partially, depending upon the nature of the ground. The most common method of grounding is by the coil being turned until one of the terminals comes in contact with the mounting bracket. If the primary winding is open, no current will flow through the resistance unit and it will not heat at all, but a loose connection may sometimes test as apparently good and only open when the car is vibrating. About the only satisfactory test for locating this is to have an ammeter in the circuit and observe the reading while the car is running. Secondary troubles always result in a weak spark. This can be located by removing the high tension lead from the coil and observing the spark. With a defective secondary a weak spark will result. With a good coil the engine should fire regularly while the spark is jumping at least one fourth of an inch. ADVANCE LEVERS The connection to the advance lever on all distributors and generators should be so made that when the spark lever on the steering wheel is fully advanced the advance lever on the generator or distributor should not be advanced to its full movement. If this lever is advanced to its full movement and is held in this position, it throws an undue strain on the advance mechanism, which causes unnecessary wearing on the distributor gears. If the proper advance cannot be secured without advancing this lever to its full move- ment, the engine should be retimed, as there is ample advance provided in Delco distributors. SPARK PLUGS The best results from Delco ignition are obtained when the spark plug setting is thirty thousandths of an inch. This is approximately the thickness of the gauge on the distributor wrenches, though the ignition will work very satisfactorily with considerable variation from this setting. No advantage is obtained by having more than one gap in a spark plug. Electric adhesive tape should never be used around high tension wiring, as this contains sufficient conductive material to carry ignition current and often causes serious ignition trouble. DELCO SYSTEMS 149 TIMING OF IGNITION In general, the timing of Delco ignition is the same as a magneto. That is, the spark occurs when the contacts open, and this should occur at or near dead center on the firing stroke when the advance lever on the steering column is fully retarded. This method may be employed to time any Delco system when more complete timing instructions cannot be had, but it is always better to get the timing instructions from the general instruction book, as different engines require different timing, but the general timing can be outlined as follows: 1. Fully retard spark lever on the steering wheel sector. 2. Turn the engine to dead center with No. 1 cylinder on the firing stroke (practically one half a revolution after the intake valve closes). 3. Loosen the screw A, Fig. 52, in the center of timing mechanism and locate the proper lobe of the cam by turning with the rotor on the cam until the button on the rotor comes directly under the position the No. 1 high tension terminal in the distributor head will occupy when the distributor head is properly located. 4. Set the cam B, Fig. 52, so that when the back lash in the distributor gears is taken up clockwise the timing contacts will be open, and when the rotor is rocked backward to take up the back lash the contacts will just close. (Caution: The dual distributors always time by the magneto contacts. These are the larger contacts.) HIGH TENSION TERMINALS I_OW TENSION TERMINALS F/.- A COIL. SOX HIGH TENSION TERMINAL LOW TENS/ON TERMINALS )2. U U3 CIRCUIT F/C.-S COIL BOXES AND IGNITION COILS 1910 Coil box. This unit contains four ignition coils (without vibrators), one for each motor cylinder. Fig. A shows the box with high and low tension terminals. The top of the terminal is designed to receive the "Connecticut," "Rajah," or regular type of terminal. The five terminals at the bottom are for the primary connections. The middle one is the common and connects with the zinc of the battery. The other four connect with the timer contacts. The interna! circuits are shown in Fig. 8. 150 INFORMATION Ignition Coil. Fig. C shows the type of coil used on all Delco systems later than 1910. The internal circuit (Fig. D) shows one end of the secondary connected to the primary. This is used on all battery systems, and 1915 Cadillac. In all magneto systems and all dual systems except 1915 Cadillac the secondary is not connected to the primary in the coil, but is con- nected to the frame of the coil, therefore it is necessary in this case to run a wire from frame of coil to frame of car (ground). Note. If this wire is omitted, the ignition will be defective. In case of doubt, ground the frame of the ignition coil, as no harm will be done should this be unnecessary. IGNITION RELAY This piece of apparatus is for the purpose of breaking the primary circuit and thereby producing a spark from the secondary windings of the induction coil. It takes the place of the four vibrators on an ordinary coil unit or simple coil system timer. In this way it replaces what is commonly known as a master vibrator. It differs from the ordinary vibrator, how- ever, in that it uses but one spark for each contact of the commutator. C is the magnet coil, composed of two windings: one heavy winding through which the primary circuit passes when the timer makes contact, thus drawing down the armature A, which swings on a rust-proof pivot at X and opens contact P. This contact opens the circuit and the armature would again return to its first position, making contact and breaking it again as an ordinary Vibrator if it were not for a second fine winding, wound on the same coil, but shunted around P. The current flowing through this holds the armature A against pole piece PP until the timer slips off contact, when this auxiliary circuit is opened, thus releasing the armature and allowing the platinum iridium contact P to come together and be ready to break the circuit when the timer makes the next contact. PP Ln awvuaa ygfff, ] ill B Fig. 62. DELCO SYSTEMS 151 When the vibrator button on the switch is pushed on, it opens this auxiliary or holding coil and permits the armature to vibrate the same as any vibrator, sending a shower of sparks to the cylinder for starting. S is a hard rubber spacing support which holds the lower contact spring in a definite position. H is a hard rubber insulating stud which, when the armature A is pulled down to pole piece PP, pushes the spring S2 and S3 away from the spring SI, thus opening the con- tact P. PP is a pole piece which screws in or out as desired by means of a ratchet R. This is the only adjustment on the entire system and is only used to get the proper opening of the contacts P. As this relay is unusual in construction, it is but natural that people should attribute almost every little trouble to it. Loose connections, grounded wires, and weak batteries make the relay work improperly, but through no fault of the relay itself. The only point in the care of the relay which it should be necessary to watch is the pole piece adjustment. This should be set so that the opening between the contacts when the armature (A) is shoved down against the pole piece PP will be about the thickness of one sheet of the paper upon which this is printed. A simple way of determining this is to screw the pole piece outward that is, in the direction opposite to the hands of a watch, until the motor stops firing. Then go the other way four or five notches. Sometimes particles of dirt get between the armature and the pole piece at the point M. This will sometimes cause the armature to stick down when running the engine on the battery side, while it will still work with the button pushed in. This can be cleaned out by slipping a piece of paper between the pole piece and armature, pushing down lightly on the armature and pulling out the paper. If the parts become bent, or if there is a reason to believe that the springs have become bent or are not of the proper tension, test as follows: The spring SI should be so adjusted that the rubber button "S" is held firmly against the upright, and the spring S2 should be so adjusted that the two platinum points at "P" are very lightly in contact when the spring S3 is held away from it; and the spring S3 should be so adjusted that it will press just hard enough against spring S2 so that when the primary timer is in contact and the switch lever is on the battery side of the switch and the push button is out, the vibrator will continue to vibrate when four common 1^-volt dry cells are connected, and should not vibrate when five common l>^-volt dry cells are connected. The condenser is cylindrical in form, located beside the relay coil, and needs no attention. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE CARE OF THE IGNITION RELAY 1. If for any reason a relay should need adjustment, follow carefully instructions given above. This adjustment is only to compensate for the wearing of the contacts and under no conditions should you screw the pole piece very far in or out. Screw it carefully one notch at a time, and remember the number of notches turned, so you can return it to the original position if desired. 2. If it should vibrate rapidly on contact when the switch lever is on "Battery," the holding coil circuit is open somewhere. Test out the circuit. In emergency connect the two terminals on the relay marked B and S with a wire. This will stop the vibration if the trouble is outside the relay. 3. If it should vibrate freely under the same conditions, it indicates weak batteries or dirty timer. 4. If a cylinder should miss, do not look for trouble in the relay, because it acts in the same capacity for all cylinders; if it hits on one, it will hit on all. 152 INFORMATION Fig. 63. Fig. 64. RESISTANCE UNITS Figs. 63 and 64 show the two types of resistance units used. This unit is in series with the magneto type ignition circuit, and, under ordinary con- ditions, the coil of special wire remains cool and offers little resistance to the passage of the current. However, if for any reason the primary circuit of the magneto type ignition should remain closed for any length, of time, the passage of current through the coil would heat it, thus in- creasing its resistance to a point where very little current could pass, insuring against waste of current and damage to the ignition coil and timer contacts. Fig. 65. CUT-OUT RELAY The cut-out relay is an electro-magnet with a compound winding. The voltage coil or fine wire winding is connected directly across the terminals of the generator. The current coil, or coarse wire winding, is in series with the circuit between the generator and the storage battery, and the circuit is opened and closed at the contacts "A." When the engine is started the generator voltage builds up and when it reaches about six and one half or seven volts current passing through the voltage winding produces enough magnetism to overcome the tension of the spring "B," attracting the magnet armature "C" to core "D," which closes the contacts "A." These contacts close the circuit between the generator and storage battery. The current flowing through the coarse wire winding increases the pull of armature and gives a good contact of low resistance at the contact points. When the generator slows down And its voltage drops below that of the storage battery, the battery sends a reverse current through the coarse wire windings, which kills the pull on the magnet armature "C." The spring "B" then opens the circuit between the generator and battery, and will hold it open until the generator is again started up. Note. Some relays have only two terminals. Where the No. 3 terminal is omitted the fine winding is connected to the frame of the relay instead. DELCO SYSTEMS 153 SHUNT FIEL-D J-ETADS 00 / 2 B 4- GENERATOR AMPERE-HOUR METER The ampere-hour meter measures the current flowing into and out of the battery, but does not indicate the state of charge in the battery. The large hand on this meter runs clock- wise when current is being taken from the battery and the opposite way when current is going into the battery. The little hand on this meter serves as an indicator, which enables one at a glance to determine whether the battery is idle, charging, or discharging. The meter contacts are on the side of the meter and serve as a means of opening the shunt field of the generator. This is accomplished by the large hand when it gets around to zero while the 154 INFORMATION battery is being charged. The only care of this meter is to lift the large hand and reset it back to "70" once every two weeks while filling each cell of the storage battery with distilled water. Fig. 66 shows the ampere-hour meter contacts, and motor generator terminals. The current from the armature for the shunt field flows through line "B" into contact spring "C," through contacts "D" down through contacts "G," through contact spring "H," through the line "I," and back through the armature. As the large ampere-hour meter hand rotates past "O," Fig. 66, it begins opening con- tacts "D" by pressing against contact spring "K." When the contacts "D" are opened, the field current flows from line "B" through the resistance coil "L" to connection "E," instead of flowing through contacts "D." This cuts more resistance into the shunt field circuit of the generator, thus reducing the charge, rate of the storage battery. If the gasoline motor continues to run, the meter hand will continue pressing contact spring "K," which will engage with contact spring "F," opening contacts "G" and cutting off the charging current of the battery. If the lights are turned on, or the engine cranked, the large meter hand will travel in the clockwise direction, gradually releasing contact spring "K" and closing contacts "G," which will cause the battery to be charged at a slow rate. If more current is consumed than is being delivered by the generator, the battery continues traveling in the clockwise direction, releas- ing all pressure on contact spring "K," which closes contacts "D," causing the battery to charge at its full rate. The contact points at "D" and "G" should be examined occasionally to see that they are properly adjusted and making contact. Once every two weeks the large hand on this meter must be set back 20 points in order to give the battery its overcharge. Never reset the hand past "70." To set the ampere-hour meter, disengage glass cover from bayonet lock, making sure to lift the large hand before trying to turn.' Fig. CONTROLLER SWITCH The controller switch is an eight-pole double throw switch. When the controller switch is in running position "A" it connects four 3-cell sections of DEL CO SYSTEMS 155 the storage battery in parallel, giving six volts, and also making the proper connection for lighting, magneto type ignition, and charging. When the controller switch is thrown to position "B" this connects the four 3-cell sec- tions of the storage battery in series, giving twenty-four volts and making the proper con- nections for cranking. For owners who drive at very low speed, a special shunt wire will be furnished which will increase the charging rate of the battery. This resistance wire is connected between points Resistance and Meter. Wipe off controller blades occasionally with a clean cloth. THE MAGNETIC LATCH COIL This is nothing more than an ordinary solenoid magnet coil and is connected in series with the starting switch and the motor. Its purpose is to prevent the engaging of the starting mechanism while the engine is running and to assist in engaging this mechanism when the engine is standing still. Note the following adjustments: V Adjustment of the Magnetic Clutch. The magnetic clutch arm U should be so adjusted by the adjusting screw Z that the arm T will pass the arm V, just allowing the points indicated by the arrows to clear each other when the main clutch is disengaged, and when the magnetic latch is in the disengaged position. Screwing up on the adjusting screw Z decreases the distance between points T and V. Unscrewing the adjusting screw Z increases the distance between these points. VOLTAGE REGULATOR The voltage regulator serves to control the amount of current flowing from the generator to the storage battery. Reference to Fig. 69 will assist in making the construction and opera- tion clear. A magnet coil mounted on the top of the bracket surrounds the upper half of the mercury tube. Within this mercury tube is a plunger comprising an iron tube (core) with a coil of resistance wire wrapped around the lower portion on top of a mica insulation. One end of this coil resistance wire is attached to the tube (core) and the other end is connected to the needle in the center of the plunger. The lower portion of the mercury tube is divided by an insulating tube into two concentric wells, the plunger tube (core) being partly immersed in the mercury in the outer well and the needle immersed in the mercury in the inner well. The space in the mercury tube above the mercury is filled with a specially treated oil which serves to protect the mercury from oxidization and to lubricate the plunger. 156 INFORMATION 4_ /NET Fig. 69. Inasmuch as the voltage of the battery varies with its condition of charge, the amount of current flowing through the voltage coil varies also. As the current flowing through the voltage coil increases, the plunger rises, and as the current decreases the plunger lowers. This is due to the variation in the magnetism produced by current flowing through the voltage coil. When the battery charge is low, the plunger assumes a low position in the mercury tube, and when the battery charge is high the plunger assumes a high position in the mercury tube when current is being generated. When the plunger is at a low position the coil of resistance wire carried upon its lower portion is immersed in the mercury, and as the plunger rises the coil of resistance wire is withdrawn from the mercury. Now, the current to the shunt field of the generator must follow a path leading into the outer well of mercury, through the resistance wound on the plunger tube, to the needle car- ried at the center of the plunger, into the center well of mercury and out of the regulator. IN/LET PUMP Fig. 70, DELCO SYSTEMS 157 It will be seen that as the plunger is withdrawn from the mercury more resistance is thrown into this circuit, due to the fact that the current must pass through a greater length of resist- ance wire. This greater resistance in the field of the generator causes the amount of current flowing to the battery to be gradually reduced as the battery nears a state of complete charge, until finally the plunger is almost completely withdrawn from the mercury, throwing the entire length of the resistance coil into the field circuit, thus causing a condition of practical electric balance between the battery and generator, and obviating any possibility of over- charging the battery. VOLTAGE REGULATOR .(Water Analogy) To make the operation of the Voltage Regulator more easily understood, we give the following analogy: When the tank (storage battery) is empty (discharged), little resistance is offered to the flow of water (current). Small pressure (low voltage) is therefore required to overcome this resistance and force water (current) into the tank (storage battery) and the valve (plunger in tube) will remain wide open (set low in tube) allowing a large quantity of water (current) to be pumped (gen- erated). As the water (current) continues to flow into the tank (storage battery) the pressure on the line increases, and this pressure acting through the pressure cylinder (voltage regulator coil) closes the valve (lifts the plunger out of the mercury) and decreases the flow of water (current). When the tank (storage battery) is about full of water (fully charged) the valve is nearly closed (plunger nearly all out of the mercury) and only a small amount of water (current) is pumped (generated). Fig. 71. CIRCUIT-BREAKING RELAY The circuit-breaking relay is an electro-magnet .with a single winding. It opens and closes the circuit leading to the lamps, heater unit, horn, and ignition apparatus at contact "E." When a ground or short circuit gets on one of the wires, it causes an excessive flow of current, which goes through the winding of the circuit-breaking relay. The increased current produces a magnetic pull between the pole piece "B" and the armature "A," which in turn causes the extension "C" of the armature "A," which in turn causes the extension "C" of the armature to give a hammer-blow effect on the point "D," which opens the contact "E" and cuts off the current supply. The opening of the contact kills the magnetic pull between the pole piece "B" and armature "A" and the contacts close again, but are opened as soon as the contact is made. 158 INFORMATION The relay will continue to vibrate until the ground or short circuit is removed. A current of approximately 25 amperes is required to trip the circuit-breaking relay, but after it is hi operation a current of approximately 5 amperes will cause it to continue vibrating until the ground or short circuit is removed. The use of the circuit-breaking relay is the same as that of the fuse block and fuse, except that it eliminates the necessity of replacing fuses. The relay will require no adjustment. Do not attempt to increase the tension of the spring "F" to overcome short circuits or grounds. Remove the short circuit or ground from the system and the relay will operate properly. CURRENT REGULATOR ON COLE 4-40 The current regulator, which is mounted on the top cover of the motor generator, con- sists of a magnet coil arid pivoted armature carrying a contact on the upper end. The coil consists of three windings, one of which is a heavy wire and carries the full output of the generator which produces the major magnetic attraction for opening the con- tacts. The second winding is very small wire connected across the tungsten contacts, and is shown in the circuit diagram, Fig. M, page 165, in which the current flows only when the contacts are open and is so connected that its magnetic effect opposes the magnetic effect of the heavy winding. The third winding consists of comparatively few turns of resistance wire, which is also connected across the contacts. This is for the purpose of carrying the major part of the field current when the contacts are open. Its Purpose. The purpose of the current regulator is to control the charging current. It does this by controlling the current through the shunt field winding, which in turn controls the magnetic field of the generator, and therefore the output or charging rate. Its Operation. The tungsten contacts are held together by the spring against the magnetic attraction of the charging current flowing through the coil until this current reaches the value at which the regulator is set, this having been established at approximately fifteen amperes; the charging current will reach this value at from 600 to 700 R. P. M. of the gen- erator. At higher speeds the contacts open and insert resistance in the shunt field circuit, which decreases the output of the generator, which in turn allows the contacts to close and the operation is repeated, causing the contacts to vibrate very rapidly in fact, the vibration is so rapid that it is invisible to the eye, but it must not be understood that the regulator is not working because this vibration is invisible and at the higher speeds the contact points remain open, at which time sufficient field current is conducted through the fine winding and the resistance winding to allow the generator to deliver a full charging current, and the con- tacts are not subjected to any wear at this time. On account of the fact that there is very little current conducted through these contacts at any tune, and that no current is conducted through them at high speeds, and that no sparking is possible, there is practically no wear on them. Therefore, the adjustment remains permanent and no adjusting of this regulator is necessary. The original adjustment positively must not be changed without having an ammeter in the charging circuit and checking the charging current, as attempted adjustment without an ammeter may result in serious damage. CHARGING A STORAGE BATTERY FROM AN OUTSIDE SOURCE ' Fig. 72 shows method of charging a storage battery from an outside source with direct current. If only alternating current is available a rectifier must be used. DELCO SYSTEMS 159 1 1 o VOL.T D. C. FUSE: 5 DOUBL.E POL.E SINGL.E THROW SWITCH AMMETER LAMPS O O Q o j T i L .J k HORN IK HORN B T^\ Fig. 11. Auto-Lite on Overland Cars. 188 INFORMATION piece of about No. 14 bare copper wire is connected from the generator terminal to the frame of the generator. This will prevent injury to the generator windings. Be sure to remove this wire when the storage battery is put back in the car. The storage battery is used rated at six volts and 80 ampere hours. The care of this battery is the same as that of any starting battery. The wiring diagram for this system is shown in Fig. 11. Figures 12, 13, 14 show wiring diagrams of the Auto-lite System as applied to other pleasure cars. Fig. 12. Auto-Lite Standard Two-Unit Systems. AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS 189 Fig. 13. Auto-Lite on Monroe Cars. 190 INFORMATION Fig. 14. Auto-Lite on Chevrolet. AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS 191 BOSCH STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS The Bosch Starting and Lighting System is composed of a motor, starting switch, gener- ator, switch box (switch board), and storage battery. The Starting Motor is of the series wound type, and is constructed to operate on either 6- or 12-volt battery. Copper gauze brushes are used. The construction of the motor is such that the armature can be shifted endwise in its bearings, parallel to its axis. In the normal or non-operating position, the armature is held out of its electrical center, or, in other words, out of line with the pole shoes, by means of a spiral spring in the commutator end of the armature shaft; therefore when in the normal position, the pinion on the driving shaft of the starting motor is out of mesh with the gear ring on the flywheel of the engine. The motor is regularly provided with three terminals, two of which are heavier or larger in diameter than the other. The two heavier terminals are for the main circuit, and the single small terminal is for the shunt circuit. The Starting Switch is operated by means of a pedal, which, when depressed, causes current to flow from the battery to the motor for cranking the engine. The plate which carries the terminals of the switch also supports the metal band or strap termed the switch "shunt." The cable terminals are secured to the switch by means of a lock washer and nut. When releasing the switch pedal the foot should be lifted entirely clear, so as not to retard the quick action of the spring. If for any reason the switch is operated too quickly, there will Fig. 16. Bosch Starter and Lighting Systems. 192 INFORMATION be no serious consequence, for the pinion on the motor shaft will not engage with the flywheel arid the armature will rotate freely. It then becomes necessary to allow the pedal to resume its non-operating position so the starter an be operated. The Generator is a simple shunt wound machine of water-proof construction, obtain- ing all regulations from external appliances. The regulator, which is located in the switch box, is so constructed that the voltage remains constant, irrespective of changes in speed or load, no matter how suddenly they may be made. The regulator is so constructed that it will maintain a fixed voltage while carrying the entire lamp load or at low speeds, and will not vary when a change is made either in speed or load. The generator carries the entire load, and the battery, should it be fully charged, simply "floats" on the line. This arrangement allows of the battery being used only when the engine is at rest. The battery may be dis- connected from the system and no damage will result, as the regulator will prevent the voltage from rising to a pressure which will cause injury to the system. The Switch Box contains the voltage regulating devices as well as the control switches, which are used for the purpose of cutting the generator circuit in or out. The meter for giving condition indications is also incorporated in the switch box, as are the switches necessary for controlling the different generator and battery combinations as well as lighting combinations. On the underside provisions are made for making the individual circuit connections. It is possible by means of the switch levers to run with or without the battery, with or without the generator, and have any lights burning the driver may wish; any position of the switch ' can be retained by the combination locking arrangement. Figure 16 shows the system as applied to the Marmon car. BIJUR SYSTEM FOR STARTING AND LIGHTING This system consists of a motor, starting switch, and a generator. The motor is in oper- ation only when the starting operation is taking place. The generator supplies current to the system at car speeds of about 10 miles per hour or over. An automatic switch at the gen- erator closes the circuit between the generator and the storage battery when the voltage of the generator is high enough to charge the battery and opens the circuit between the gener- ator and the battery when the voltage of the generator falls below that of the battery. The output of the generator will vary all the way from 4 to 25 amperes, this all depending upon the state of charge in the battery. If the state of charge is low the charging rate may reach from 15 to 25 amperes, and when the battery is in a changed condition the charging^ rate may drop as low as 4 or 5 amperes. Do not attempt to regulate the charging rate upon finding the charging rate low. First test the battery, and if the battery is found to be charged, that is the reason for the charging rate being low. When making connections at the generator or in the generator wire to the storage battery, no attention need be paid to polarity. Simply connect one wire to each terminal. If the wires are put on in a reversed order from where they were when taken off, the polarity of the generator will reverse and the generator will charge the battery. Fig. 17 shows a general wiring diagram of the system where ammeter is used. The instruction as given us by the manufacturer of this sytsem in regard to care, maintenance, oiling, and how to locate and remedy troubles is as follows: DIRECTIONS FOR CARE AND MAINTENANCE Regularly every month the disconnecting plug should be pushed inwardly to unlock it, and turned past its vertical position until it springs back and locks. This turning of the disconnecting plug in its socket should not be done after the car has been standing for a prolonged period with lights in use. It should be done when the battery is in a charged condition. The disconnecting plug is the brass plug containing the generator wires, and which fits into the extended brass receptacle on the end of the regulator box on top of the generator. This plug has two flat parallel faces. The plug should never rest in its receptacle so that these flat faces stand in a vertical AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS 193 position, as in this position the generator is disconnected, but should be pushed in and turned in either direction past its central position until it locks. To remove the regulator box from the generator disconnecting plug should be pushed inwardly and turned to its central position. When in this position the plug may be with- drawn from its socket. After removing the plug, the knurled screw head on top of the box should be loosened and the box lifted from the generator by grasping the plug receptacle and the box at the same time. Do not hammer the receptacle in order to release the box. OILING Regularly every two weeks, or every five hundred miles, two or three drops of thin neutral oil should be put in each of the two oilers of the motor and in each of the two oilers of the generator. Do not flood the bearings with oil. Regularly every two weeks, or every five hundred miles, the square shaft of the starting motor should be oiled with about ten drops of cylinder oil. Note. In cold weather only light oils should be used for the gas motor, as heavy oils become stiff and make cranking difficult. Fig. 17. Bijur System. 194 I N F O R M A T I N Fig. 18. Bijur System. A U T M O P> I L E SYSTEMS 195 il P * ' FMg. 19. Bijur System on Packard Cars. (Simplified Circuit.) 196 INFORMATION Fig. 20. Chalmeis (Entz) System. THE CHALMERS (ENTZ) ELECTRIC STARTING SYSTEM The parts of this system are as follows: Motor-generator, starting switch, and 18- volt storage battery. The starting switch controls both starting and ignition. The motor-gener- ator has two windings in the field coils and one winding on the armature. When operating che motor-generator as a motor the series and shunt fields work together and make it a com- pound wound machine, thereby increasing the cranking power. When operating as a gen- erator the field windings operate differentially, the series winding acting as a reverse series and controlling the output of the machine. There are no automatic cut-outs used, as the switch AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS 197 for starting and ignition is also the means of opening and closing the circuits between the generator and storage battery. Turning the starting switch on the "ON" position closes the ignition circuit and at the same time connects the motor to the storage battery and the engine is cranked. When the engine is running from its own power at a speed equivalent to 7 or 8 miles per hour the motor-generator is automatically converted into a generator and charges the battery. For all ordinary driving the starting switch should be left in the "ON" posi- tion. If the engine is running below speeds of 7 or 8 miles per hour the switch should be in the neutral position. This prevents the waste of current, as the motor-generator will act as a motor at these speeds. At all times when the speed of the engine is above 8 miles per hour, be sure that the switch is in the "ON" position. Fig. 20 shows the system as applied to the Chalmers Light Six, which is better known as Model 26-B. If at any time the starting system should fail or the generator does not supply current to the system, follow the instruction as given with other systems in regard to keeping the commutator clean, brushes making good contact, wires loose or terminals corroded. The lamps used in connection with this system are 21 -volt. As a dimmer these lamps are connected in series, and for ordinary driving they are connected in parallel. This is done by the operation of the lighting switch. Atwater Kent ignition is used. For information on the ignition system, see instruction on the Atwater Kent System. THE DYNETO SYSTEM This system consists of three main parts: Motor-generator, starting switch, and storage battery. The motor-generator is wound for 12 volts and combines in one machine means for starting, lighting, and battery charging. No automatic cut-out or regulator is used. As a generator it will begin charging the battery at 1 , 100 revolutions per minute of the generator. Charge at 5-ampere rate at 1,400 R. P. M., and 10 amperes at 1,700 R. P. M. Note that this is a 12-volt system, and the charging rate need be but half of that of a 6-volt system. In this system there is but one machine with but one armature, one set of ball bearings, one set of brushes, and very simple wiring. The motor-generator is of very high efficiency, which is permanently connected with the engine by means of a silent chain with a reduction of 2J/2 to 3 to 1. The three units are connected together by very simple wiring, consisting of two wires from motor-generator to the switch, one wire to the battery, and one wire through the switch to the battery. In starting the switch is to be closed and left so. The motor-generator will then operate as a motor and spin the engine at from 125 to 200 R. P. M., depending upon the engine to which it is connected. After the engine b egins to run under its own power the motor-generator will automatically change to a generator and charge the battery. At speeds of about 10 miles per hour the motor-generator operates as a generator, and at speeds below 10 miles per hour it operates as a motor. The power available as a motor increases as the engine speed decreases, and at very low speeds prevents the engine from stalling. The regulation of the generator is accomplished by the differential action of the shunt and series field windings, the maximum current being fixed to suit the capacity of the battery used. The armature coils are form wound, and are so designed that no two wires cross each other, thus preventing the development of short circuits. The main frame is made of pressed steel and has six pole pieces bolted to it. The field coils are all form wound, the shunt and series coils being separately taped and in- sulated before placing in the machine. Starting switch has three positions off, start, and neutral. The switch may be locked in the off position so that the car cannot be started, even by hand, as ignition is also controlled by it. The neutral position is for long drives with a fully charged battery. In this case, while the armature will run just the same, it will not generate. The position start is for starting. This position is also for running when lights are being used or the battery is charged. The starting switch replaces the usual ignition switch, as ignition is also controlled by it. A 12- volt, 60-ampere hour battery is generally used. The lamp bulbs for head lights should be 14 volts, side lights 14 volts, and speedometer and tail lights when in series 7 volts. Be sure that the speedometer and tail lights are of the same voltage and candle power on all systems where they are in series with each other. No fuses are used in the main circuits of the system, but INFORMATION are generally used in the lighting and ignition circuits. See Fig. 26, which gives a simple circuit and wiring diagram combined. Fig. 26. Dyneto System. TROUBLES, AND HOW TO OVERCOME THEM If starter will not start (crank engine), do not leave switch on start position. Turn on If they burn bright, watch them and try starting again with the lamps on. If they do not drop in candle power it is quite likely that there is an open circuit in the starting wires, starting switch, terminals, or brush connection to the commutator. Be sure that the brushes are not worn out, are free in the brush holders, and that the springs are in a condition to press AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS 199 them firmly against the commutator. If, with switch on start, lamps drop slightly in candle power and motor fails to crank the engine, the trouble may be due to loose connections, rough or dirty commutator, brushes worn out, or not fitted to the commutator, weak brush springs, grounded or defective armature or field windings and weak battery. If lamps burn very dim when switch is turned to start, look at the battery, as it may be discharged or nearly so, loose or corroded connections at the battery or other wires in the circuits may be loose. If starter cranks engine but very slowly, look for high resistance in cranking circuit due to wires being too small, loose terminals, bad soldered joints, poor switch contacts, rough commutator, short brushes without sufficient spring tension, and weak battery. The cause for the battery being weak may be due to grounds, unnecessary use of the lights, or from cranking the engine too long at a time when it fails to start due to poor ignition or gasoline. Also the carburetor may be out of adjustment. If the generator fails to generate, the trouble will probably be found in an open shunt field circuit. See Fig. 26. This circuit may be traced as follows: From negative pole of bat- tery to terminal Xo. 1 through shunt field in generator to terminal No. 3, then to terminal on starting switch marked Sh Fl, through switch to terminal marked Ser Fl, then to terminal No. 4, and to positive of battery. This circuit may be tested out independently of the main circuits by removing wire from terminal No. 2 so as to cut out the armature circuit, being sure that the switch is on start. If the circuit through shunt field is all right a bright spark will occur when wire is removed from terminal No. 3. If no spark occurs, look over all wires and connections and an open circuit will be found. To test shunt field alone, remove all wires from the generator and test from terminal No. 1 to terminal No. 3. If generator does not generate enough current, connect ammeter in charging circuit. To connect ammeter remove wire at terminal No. 1. Attach one side of ammeter to terminal No. 1, and the wire taken off of this terminal to the other side of the ammeter. This will give the rate the battery is being charged. Be sure that all lights are turned off. Examine battery and connections. Be sure that there are no loose connections in the circuits; go over the shunt circuit through generator; note that the commutator is clean and smooth and that the springs keep the brushes pressed firmly against the commutator. Grounds and short circuits often occur in wires not being protected, then- insulations being cut or oil- soaked. These grounds and short circuits are often found in lamps, lamp sockets, and their connections. See Fig. 26 for complete wiring diagram. GRAY AND DAVIS SYSTEMS (TWO-UNIT SYSTEM) The Generator has two principal parts: The field, in which magnetism is induced, is stationary. The armaturg, in which electrical current is generated, rotates within the field. The generator has the characteristics of a compound wound machine; that is, the field strength, or magnetism, automatically increases as additional work or load is applied, or vice versa. But it is of the shunt wound type and is thus classed, because its shunt field windings are connected in shunt with, or across, the armature. Reference to Fig. 27 shows the shunt field windings in parallel; one side connected to the positive brush; the other passes through the regulator points and is connected to the negative generator brush. The Regulator Cut-Out performs two duties: One to regulate the generator for uniform output. The other to connect the generator into the system only when sufficient current is generated, and when generator slows down, when current is insufficient to charge the battery, to disconnect generator from the system to prevent battery from discharging back through the generator. The shunt winding, series winding, cut-out points, regulator points, and field resistance are shown in Fig. 27. The shunt winding is permanently connected across the gen- erator armature. It causes the cut-out armature to be attracted, closing the cut-out points. The series winding when the cut-out points are closed, assists the shunt winding in holding the cut-out points firmly together. The cut-out points, when closed, connect the generator into the system. The regulator points, when closed, short circuit or shunt the field resistance, and when drawn apart, insert the field resistance into the field circuit. The field resistance retards the flow of current into the fields. When generator is at rest the cut-out points are 200 INFORMATION open and the regulator points closed. As generator first speeds up, the regulator points re- main closed. Thus, the field resistance is short-circuited, permitting the generator to build up under full field strength. When the proper voltage is reached, the cut-out points close, per- mitting current to flow through the series winding to the system. As the generator speed in- creases beyond that necessary for full output, the pull of the shunt winding attracts the reg- ulator armatures. This reduces the pressure at the regulator points and inserts a resistance into the field circuits which prevents further increase of output. The varying of the pressure at the points which allows the resistance to be put into the circuit is intermittent. The fre- quency is in proportion to the speed variation. When lamps are turned on the frequency at the regulator points is reduced and the generator output is increased, giving the generator compound wound characteristics. The regulator cut-out terminals are marked B, L, A, F, and Fi. B is negative ( ). B is the end of the regulator cut-out series and connects to the battery through the indicator. L is also negative ( ). L is connected to series at a given distance from the end and connects to the lamps through the lighting switch. The positive brush holder of the generator connects to, or "grounds" to the frame of the generator. There- fore generator frame is positive (+). Connections between regular cut-out and generator are as follows: A connects to generator negative brush. F connects to one field coil, and Fi connects to the other field coil. The generator must be driven as designated by letters C. C. W. D. E. (counter clockwise driving end), or C. W. D. E. (clockwise driving end). The gen- erator must be kept clean and the bearings lubricated regularly. Lubricate generator once every two weeks or every five hundred miles. Be sure that the oilers are not stopped up. Do not assume that oil has reached the bearings, but be certain. Overflow of lubricant at oiling places does not always indicate that bearings have been properly lubricated. Type "T" generator is rated at 6X volts, 10 amperes, 1000 R. P. M. Type "S" generator is rated at 6>4 volts, 10 amperes, 650 R. P. M. This means that the generator will deliver a current of 10 amperes and 6X volts pressure when armatures are rotated at 1000 or 650 revolutions per minute, respectively. The generator output will vary slightly with battery condition. When battery gravity is low the output will be higher. When battery gravity is high the output will be lower. At speeds of 10 to 12 miles per hour, with lights off, battery receives full charging rate, but as lights are turned on, current flows to the lamps, and charging rate is reduced. Owing to the compound wound characteristics of the generator, it permits the battery to receive a low charge when all lights are on. Generator Fails to Generate. This is shown by the indicator, which will not indicate "Charge" when the engine is running at high speed, but indicates discharge when lights are turned on. To prove if the indications of the generator are reliable, turn all lights on; then, when the engine is running at a speed equivalent to 10 miles per hour, disconnect wire at terminal "B" on regular cut-out. If lights go out it proves that generator or regulator cut-out is at fault. Reconnect wire at terminal "B," then remove side plates from generator to ex- amine brushes. Slide the brushes in and out and be sure that they slide freely in the brush holders, make good contact with the commutator, and that the wires from brush holders and fields to generator terminals are firmly connected. The commutator, if coated or dirty, should be cleaned by using kerosene and a piece of cheesecloth. Use kerosene sparingly, and be sure to wipe dry. If micas are high they should be grooved out below the surface of the metal. See that the screw between terminals "L" and "B" on regulator is securely fastened. If, after following the foregoing instructions, the trouble has not been corrected, connect a wire at regulator cut-out from terminal "A" to terminal "B" when engine is speeded up above 10 miles per hour and all lights are turned off. If indicator then indicates charge, the regulator cut-out is at fault. But if the indicator slows neither charge nor discharge, the brushes are not making good contact to the commutator or there is an open in the generator circuit at some point. If indicator indicates discharge, reduce the engine speed to 8 or 9 miles per hour. Then connect another wire from "F" and "Fi" to terminal "A." If indicator then indicates charge, the regulator is at fault; but if indicator still indicates discharge, it shows that the generator field circuit is open or armature is short-circuited. AUTO MOBILE SYSTEMS 201 THE STARTING MOTOR The starting motor has two principal parts: The field, which is stationary, and the ar- mature, which revolves within the field. The starting motor cranks the engine until it runs from its own power. It is the link between the battery and the engine. Electrically the start- ing motor is connected to the battery through heavy cables and the starting switch. Mechan- ically it is connected to the engine through a gear reduction having a sliding flywheel engaging pinion and an over-running clutch. The sliding engaging pinion and starting switch are operated by the same operation of the starting pedal, so that electrical and mechanical con- nections and disconnections occur at the same time. When starting pedal is pressed to the full limit the electrical energy stored in the battery is transmitted to the motor, causing thfe armature to rotate. This mechanical energy is transmitted to the engine through the gears and over-running clutch, causing the engine to rotate. Pressing the starting pedal to the full limit of its travel moves the sliding pinion forward and also closes the starting switch. If the sliding pinion is in a meshing position it slides into mesh with the fly-wheel gear. If the pinion teeth, instead of sliding between, should strike the ends of the flywheel teeth, the switch and rod complete then- travel, which compresses the shifter fork spring and closes the switch. When the pinion begins to turn, the compressed spring throws the sliding pinion into full mesh with the flywheel gear and permits starter to crank the engine. When the engine picks up and runs from its own power the roll clutch prevents the engine from driving the starting motor, as the gears are in mesh until starting pedal is released. The purpose of the over-running clutch is to prevent the engine, -when cranked by the starting motor, to pick up without driving the starting motor, which is tem- porarily connected to the engine when starting pedal is pressed. When the engine runs faster than when revolved by the starting motor, the rolls in the over-running clutch are released from wedge-shaped angles, permitting over-running action of clutch, thus preventing any dragging effect on the motor. Lubricate starting motor regularly every two weeks with good oil. At all oiling places apply eight or ten drops each time and return oiler covers to their closed positions. Sliding surfaces and rods must be oiled frequently. The gear case should receive one tablespoonful of heavy motor oil every three months and return oil plug to oil hole. If starting motor cranks the engine when starting pedal is pressed to the full limit of its stroke and engine does not start (run from its own power) after 10 or 15 seconds, release the pedal and determine reason for failure. Any of the following may be the cause: Fuel supply exhausted or turned off; ignition switch not turned on; ignition wires not firmly con- nected; spark plugs duty or defective; cylinders need priming; cylinders flooded from too much priming; carburetor out of adjustment, or the fuel supply may be of poor grade. If pressing the starting pedal to the full limit of its stroke fails to rotate the motor and crank the engine, release the pedal at once. The battery may be weak or discharged, battery cables may not be in firm contact with the battery, starting switch or motor; starting switch not making good contact, engine may be very stiff or stuck in bearings, or motor brushes may not be making good contact with the commutator. If starting motor rotates and the engine fails to spin, any of the following may be the cause: If same is accompanied by little noise the trouble is likely in roller clutch, which does not grip properly. Sliding surface of shaft may be dry or injured, preventing flywheel pinion from sliding easily into mesh with the flywheel gear. If accompanied by much noise, the trouble is most likely with sliding pinion, which fails to mesh with the flywheel. In this case a heavier shifter spring should be used. Lighting Switch. The fused lighting or junction switch serves the purpose of a com- mon center for lighting, ignition, and horn circuits. It controls head, side, and rear lamps from one base and centralizes all fuses and connections in an accessible position. When dimmer bulbs are used in head lights instead of side lights, these wires are connected to the side-light connections on the switch. The fuses mounted on rear of lighting switch are in the lighting, ignition, and horn circuits. Always use fuses of same carrying capacity as taken out or replaced. 202 INFORMATION Obtaining Service When Battery or Generator Is Out of Service. When emer- gencies require temporary corrections of the trouble, proceed as follows: If battery is de- fective and is to be removed, disconnect the two wires to each battery terminal and wrap the ends with insulating tape. All lamps should be turned on to prevent excessive voltage at the lamps. Generator will furnish sufficient current to the lamps when the engine is running above ten miles per hour. If the generator is at fault and must be removed from the car, disconnect wires from terminals B and L on regulator and connect these two wire ends firmly together, being sure to wrap with friction tape. This will complete the battery circuit to the lamps. If the battery should be found discharged and the generator is out of service, it should be charged from an outside source at once. The Indicator. The indicator is a current indicating device. It tells if the system is working right. It indicates charge when current is flowing to the battery, and discharge when current is flowing from the battery. When it indicates neutral no current is flowing to or from the battery. If it indicates discharge when lights are not turned on with engine standing still, it indicates that there is a ground or short circuit in the system. If it indicates neutral when generator should be charging the battery, it shows that the charging circuit is open or the generator is at fault. The indicator is not free from error. The pointer may become bent as a result of short circuits. To prove if in error, disconnect wires from indicator terminals or disconnect wires from negative terminal at the battery. The difference between neutral (zero) and where pointer stopped is the variation to be allowed whenever talcing the indicator readings. If indicator does not indicate discharge when the lights are turned on and the engine is at rest, the indicator is at fault. If indicator shows discharge when generator should be charging the battery, and shows charge when the engine is at rest with lights turned on, the wires to the indicator terminals are reversed. If indicator hand swings intermittently from charge to neutral when engine is running above 10 miles per hour, any of the following may be the cause: Screw on regulator cut-out between terminals B and L not making good connection from regulator to ground; loose wire in the charging circuit; poor contact through brushes to the commutator; high micas in commutator or loose wires at battery. An ammeter is used on certain makes of cars instead of the indicator. Its charge and discharge scale is graduated. Otherwise it is similar to the indicator and performs the same function. If a car is equipped with an ammeter instead of an indicator, substitute the word ammeter for indicator where the latter appears in these pages. The units of this system should be connected with wire or cable of the following sizes: Generator wires to battery and lighting switch should be No. 10 B & S gauge. Wires from lighting switch to head lights, No. 12 B & S gauge. Cable from battery to starting motor and starting switch, No. 1 B & S gauge. All other wires, No. 14 B & S gauge. In replacing defective wires never use wires smaller than given above. Wires or terminals when fastened under a screw or nut must be provided with a lock washer to prevent loosening, due to vibra- tion. Use a plain brass washer between lock washer and terminal wire. In order that wiring troubles may be quickly corrected, it is important to have a general knowledge of a system, which can be gained by studying the wiring diagrams. Figs. 27 and 28 are very similar to each other, the only difference being in the starting motor circuit. On some cars the system is grounded at the motor and on others at the starting switch. The system on the Peerless, Chandler, Stearns, Winton, Metz, Velie, Crow, Imperial, Jones, Elkhart, Partin, Palmer, Enger, and Meteor is grounded at motor. On Chalmers, Paige, and Maxwell the system is grounded at the starting switch. AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS 203 STARTING MOTOR, Fig. 27. Gray & Davis Two-Unit System (Grounded Motor). 204 es D D TL/C*/TJ>TC*T /f)re<;.A7vff <. Cirrvr W"vo//YG- M i WWWVVV i GR. Fig. 28. Gray & Davis Two-Unit System (Grounded Switch). AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS 205 *D IKNf mtHING nKULKnn cvrwr MAIN UHt FVU Fig. 29. Gray & Davis Single Unit System. 206 THE NORTH-EAST SYSTEM The single unit North-East Starter-Generator is connected by a silent chain drive. The complete system consists of this starter-generator, the starter switch, the 12-volt storage battery and current indicator. The starter-generator is connected at all times to the engine by means of a sprocket keyed on the front end of the crank shaft, another sprocket on the armature shaft of the starter-generator, and a silent chain running over both of them. The ratio of armature shaft to crank shaft revolutions is 3 to 1. The negative terminal of the storage battery is connected direct to the starter-generator and the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the current indicator, and from this indicator to the starter-generator. The two lower wires on the starter-generator connect it directly with the switch. STARTING After the ignition switch has been turned on, pressing down the starter switch pedal will crank the engine. This operation closes the circuit between the battery and the starter- generator and causes the latter to act as a motor, turning over the crank shaft of the engine by means of the silent chain drive. As soon as the engine begins to run under its own power the starter switch should be released, thus breaking the circuit between the battery and the starter-generator. REGULATION After the car has attained a speed of 10 to 12 miles an hour an automatic cut-out, built integral with the starter-generator, closes the generating circuit between the starter-generator and the battery, thus allowing a charging current to be conducted from the starter-generator to the battery. When the car speed falls below 10 to 12 miles an hour, this automatic cut- out opens the generating circuit and thus prevents the battery from discharging through the starter-generator, except when the starter switch is pressed down for starting the engine. To prevent overcharging the battery the windings of the shunt and series fields are differ- entially compounded when charging, and in addition there is built integral with the starter a regulating device which inserts sufficient resistance into the shunt field winding so as to prevent the generator current from ever exceeding a certain fixed rate at which the battery can be charged indefinitely without danger of overcharging, regardless of what speed the car may attain. The starter-generator is of the 12-volt single unit type, one armature and one set of field windings, acting both as a motor and a generator. Both the cut-out and regulating devices are contained in the sealed compartment directly beneath the brush compartment. If for any reason the battery be disconnected from the circuit, the starter-generator should not be run by the engine unless the small fuse, which is located directly above the brushes, is removed. Otherwise, this fuse will burn out and open up the shunt field winding automatically, thus protecting this winding from the excessive internal current generated by the starter-generator when the battery is disconnected. As soon as the battery is replaced the fuse should be reinserted in its clips, as otherwise no current will be generated to charge the battery. The burning out of this fuse can be detected when the car is running at a speed of 10 to 12 miles an hour or greater by the failure of the current indicator to show "Charge," providing, of course, that all of the wiring connections are tight and there are no short cir- cuits or grounds. Even if this fuse has been burnt out the engine can still be started, pro- viding that the battery has not been discharged too much, as the series field circuit, which does most of the work when the starter-generator is used as a motor, has not been broken. STORAGE BATTERY The battery is of the 6-cell, 12-volt type. It is located under the driver's seat, at the left side. Besides the two wires leading from it to the starting system, a ground wire is con- nected to the frame to complete the single wire or grounded lighting system; the battery thus furnishing current both for lighting and starting the car. AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS 207 nS w 6* There are two head lights, a dash light, and a tail light. The lamp sizes are. Head lights 15 candle power 14 volts Tail light 2 candle power 16 volts Dash light 2 candle power 16 volts Both headlights are connected to one terminal of the lighting switch by separate wires, so that if one wire should be short-circuited the other light would still burn. The tail light and dash light have separate wires leading to another terminal at the back of the switch. The lighting switch has three positions, "Off," "Dim," and "On." In the "Dim" position the tail light, dash light, and head lights connected to the dimmer are turned on. In the "On" position the tail light, dash light, and head lights bright are turned on. All of the lights are connected in parallel so that the burning out of any one of them will not affect the others. 208 INFORMATION At the back of the ignition and lighting switch are five terminal connections. Starting at the top of the switch and moving in a clockwise direction, the terminals are for the following wires: Magneto to switch wire, current indicator to switch wire, tail light wire and dash light wire, two head light wires, and the switch ground wire. To the back of this switch is connected a dimmer resistance coil through which the current flows when the lighting switch handle is turned to the "Dim" position. CURRENT INDICATOR The current indicator is located on the left side of the instrument board and is inserted along the line of the wire leading to the starter-generator from the positive terminal of the bat- tery. To one of the current indicator terminals are connected the wires which conduct the current to the lighting switch and the horn. This indicator not only registers the charge and discharge of the battery, due to starter-generator action, but also registers discharge when the battery is supplying current for the lamps; when the generator is supplying current to the battery, the indicator will show "Charge" even when all the lamps are burning. "Dis- charge" will appear on the indicator when the starter-generator is used for cranking the engine, or when the lights are being used while the engine is not running above a speed cor- responding to a car speed of 10 or 12 miles per hour. If at any time the current indicator fails to register properly, inspect its terminal posts and see that the wires leading to it are tightly attached. Also see that there is no short circuit in the wiring system. The indication of "Discharge" when "Charge" should be indicated is almost a sure sign that there is a short circuit in the wiring system, unless the wires connected to this current indicator have been connected up in reverse direction to the actual current flow. If no short circuit can be found in the wiring, remove the current indicator and inspect it for an internal short circui 4 ELECTRIC HORN AND BUTTON The electric vibrator horn is located under the hood and attached to the cowl dash. Current is conducted to it by a wire attached to one of the binding posts of the current indi- cator, leading through the horn button on the left front door to the horn. A single wire is employed and the horn is grounded. The horn button is of the all-way type and can be operated by the driver's left knee. REMY STARTING-LIGHTING-IGNITION Two Units Six- Volt System IGNITION-GENERATOR The Ignition-Generator is a low speed, six-volt Generator of the four pole, shunt wound type. It starts charging the battery at a very low speed and its output is sufficient to keep the battery fully charged under starting, lighting, and ignition loads. The control of this output is automatically obtained by means of a regulator with vibrating contacts which intermittently throws a high resistance in series with the generator field. A special copper-carbon composition is used for the brushes and these are mounted upon arms pivoted to the rocker ring. The position of the rocker ring should never be changed, as this is determined upon and the ring accurately set at the factory. The ignition distributor, which embodies both the distributor and the circuit breaker, is simple in^design and is readily accessible for inspection at any time. In addition to its simplicity, the strength and durability of the unit are emphasized by the very small number of moving parts, the large size bearing for the rotating shaft, the constant lubrication of this bearing by an oiler, the extra large contact points, and the grade of material used. The distributor is of the most reliable form, the high tension current being distributed to the spark plug cables by a segment which revolves close to but does not touch the pins in the distributor head. This ignition distributor and coil produce a spark which is of practically constant in- tensity, regardless of engine speed, which gives ideal low-speed operation, the very best of AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS 209 engine acceleration, and which reduces the necessity of carburetor adjustment to a minimum. Furthermore, as the spark is synchronous throughout the entire range of speed of the engine and as the sparks delivered to each cylinder are equal in intensity, it tends to develop at all speeds the maximum horsepower of which the engine is capable. RELAY-REGULATOR It is necessary to have some device to connect the generator to the battery while the engine is running, and to disconnect the battery when the engine comes to rest. If this con- nection is not made when the engine is running, the generator output will rise to a high value and the generator protective fuse, located on the relay-regulator base, will be burnt out, thereby rendering the generator inoperative. If the generator is not disconnected from the battery when the engine comes to rest, the battery will discharge itself through the generator windings. A simple electrical switch which is mounted beside the regulator on a bakelite base automatically performs this opera- tion. It is known as "relay" and consists of an arm mounted upon pivots and iridium- platinum contact points. When the engine and consequently the generator is at rest or running at a speed below that necessary to generate -voltage equal to the battery voltage, a spring holds the contact points apart. As soon, however, as the voltage of the generator reaches the value of the battery voltage, the current flowing through the shunt coil of the electro-magnet energizes this magnet to such an extent that it pulls the arm down, thus bringing the contact points together and connecting the generator to the battery. Up to this point all current used is supplied by the battery. When the relay points close the generator starts delivering current into the line and supplies part of the current used for lighting and ignition. As. the engine speed rises, the output of the generator builds up very quickly, so that at very low speed the generator supplies all of the current used for lighting and ignition. At any higher speed than this, the current delivered by the generator is in excess of that necessary for lighting and ignition, and this excess is stored in the battery. The reky contact points are held together as long as the voltage of the generator is in excess of the battery voltage, but as soon as the generator voltage drops below that of the battery the spring forces the contact points apart, thus disconnecting the generator from the battery. Two different regulators are employed, one having but one set of contact points and the other having two sets, one set being mounted upon springs. Then- operation, however, is the same, the output of the generator being controlled in the same manner in each case. The correct maximum output for the generator is determined by the tension of the spring under the regulator arm adjusted so that when the generator is running at a speed lower than that necessary to generate this maximum output, the spring holds the contact points together. The current supplied to the generator field passes directly through these points. As soon, however, as the speed of the generator tends to cause its output to rise above this predetermined maximum, the current flowing through the coil on the electro-magnet ener- gizes this magnet to such an extent that it pulls the arm down. This pulls the contact points apart, forcing the field current, which heretofore had been passing through them, to pass through the resistance unit. This resistance decreases the field current, which in turn de- creases the output of the generator. Further,' as the entire output of the generator passes through the coil on the regulator electro-magnet, the energizing effect of this electro-magnet coil is reduced, so that the spring forces the contact points together again, thereby cutting the resistance out of the field circuit. With a normal field again, the generator output immedi- ately starts to build up and the operation just described is repeated. A continuous repe- tition of this operation sends a pulsating current to the generator field and holds the output at a practically constant value. For the purpose of protecting the generator, a readily accessible fuse is fitted to the relay regulator base. If the battery should become disconnected, either through accident or neglect, this fuse will burn out, rendering the generator inoperative and damage proof, 210 INFORMATION IGNITION COIL The coil supplied with this system has been designed and so developed and proportioned that an exceptionally efficient spark is produced at all speeds. It possesses the further distinct advantage of operating satisfactorily on as low as 2^2 volts should the voltage of the battery ever fall that low due to leakage of current, indiscriminate use of starting motor, or lights, or to other causes. The metal base of the coil makes an electrical connection with the bracket upon which the coil is mounted for one side of the secondary or high tension winding and the condenser. It is very important, therefore, that the coil be fastened down securely to this bracket at all times. STARTING MOTOR The starting motor is a four pole, series wound motor and is very sturdy and compact in construction. While developing ample power to spin the engine at a high rate of speed, it has been so developed that the current consumed has been reduced to a minimum com- mensurate with the power required. The commutator and brushes of this motor are designed to carry very heavy current without injury. The position of the rocker ring upon which the brushes are mounted should never be changed, as this is determined upon and the ring accurately set at the factory. INSTRUCTIONS FOR OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IGNITION-GENERATOR In order to procure the best results from any mechanical device it is important that it be properly installed and that it be operated and cared for with consideration. This ignition- generator is sturdy in construction and efficient electrically, yet it is essential that it be prop- erly cared for in order that perfect results may be obtained. Anpiler is provided for oiling the bearings on each end of the ignition-generator. Oiling should be in proportion to conditions of usage, care being taken not to flood the generator with oil. Under normal conditions the bearings should be given 5 or 6 drops of oil every 1,000 miles. Do not oil the commutator. The grease cup directly underneath the distributor head should be kept full of a medium cup grease. The cap should be screwed down 2 or 3 turns occasionally in order to force the grease into the distributor shaft bearing. In case the cup should be supplied with a wick use pure vaseline instead of cup grease. COMMUTATOR AND BRUSHES As a matter of precaution, we advise that an inspection of the commutator and brushes be made occasionally. Under average running conditions an inspection should be made about twice during a season. This may easily be accomplished by removing the band around the commutator end head. The surface of the commutator should be clean and bright. If it appears rough and blackened the armature should be rotated slowly and the surface smoothed down with a piece of fine (00) sand paper (preferably worn or used paper). Never use emery cloth for this purpose. After cleaning commutator carefully remove all sediment from between the com- mutator bars and from the generator body. The brushes should make perfect contact with the commutator and should swing freely upon their pivots. The brushes are of a copper-carbon composition and under average condition will last indefinitely. If replacement should be necessary from any cause, do not use carbon substi- tutes, but obtain the special brushes furnished by the Remy Factory, Branch Houses, Service Stations, or Parts Stations. IGNITION The circuit-breaker points should be inspected occasionally by removing the distributor head. They should make good contact at all times and should have a smooth, clean surface. AUTO MOBILE SYSTEMS 211 If found to be rough or worn unevenly, they should be smoothed up with a very fine file, or preferably by drawing between them a piece of fine (00) sandpaper. The contact screw should be adjusted so that the maximum opening of the points is .020 or .025 inches, or the thickness of the piece riveted upon the side of the small wrench furnished with the system. The rebound spring should be at least .020 of an inch from the breaker arm when the points are at the maximum opening. We recommend the use of spark plugs which permit of their points being adjusted to a definite gap. To obtain the best results the gap between these points should be from .025 to .030 of an inch. . If the motor misses when running idle or pulling light, the spark plug gaps should be made wider. If the motor misses at high speed or when pulling heavy at low speed, the gaps should be made closer. It should be borne in mind that there are many things which will cause the motor to rniss and act like ignition trouble, viz.: carburetor being out of adjustment, leaky valves, incorrect valve timing, air leaks in intake manifold or around valve stems, motor not oiling properly, lack of compression, etc. BULBS In the event of bulb replacement use single point Mazda bulbs only. Use seven-volt bulbs of the same candlepower unless the dash and tail lights are connected in series, in which case use 3X-volt bulbs. INSTRUCTIONS FOR STARTING MOTOR The starting motor is intended to perform one function only, viz., spin the engine, and should only be used for such purpose. Any attempt to propel the car by the starting mqtor or indulge in needless use of same are experiments of no material value and are no test of the starting motor, but simply impose an extravagant demand upon the battery. The closing of the starting switch completes the circuit and puts the starting motor in operation. If it does not spin the engine, release the switch at once, ascertain if all connec- tions are tight and secure, and inspect the battery. If the starting motor turns the engine over very slowly it is evident that the battery is weak or the engine exceptionally stiff. If the starting motor is spinning the engine at a reasonable cranking speed and the engine does not fire, remember that the starting motor is performing its duty, so do not let it con- tinue to spin the engine longer than necessary, as a needless drain is placed upon the battery. If the engine does not fire, it is evident that the trouble is confined to carburetor or ignition. Oilers are provided for oiling the bearings on each end of the mqtor. These should be given 4 or 5 drops of good oil once every 1,000 miles. As a matter of precaution, an occasional inspection should be made of the commutator and brushes to see that the brushes are not sticking in the holders and to see that the com- mutator is clean and bright. Carefully clean off all dirt from the commutator and brushes. SHORT CIRCUITS AND GROUNDS If the insulation is worn off any one of the wires and the copper touches any of the metal parts of the car, that wire is said to be "grounded." As the metal parts of the car are used for one half of the electrical circuits, this forms a complete circuit, joining two opposite sides of the generator, and is called a "short circuit" inasmuch as there is no apparatus in the circuit to utilize the current. A short circuit of this kind dissipates current from the gen- erator and battery and will either cause a fuse to burn out or will, in time, completely dis- charge the battery. If the wires are not insulated again, there is danger also that the output of the generator will rise to a value that will burn out the generator protective fuse. IGNITION FAILS A break in the ignition circuit is the first thing to look for when trouble of this kind is experienced. See that there are no open or short circuits, then follow out the instructions given carefully. 212 INFORMATION Examine the high tension leads, see that they are all fastened securely to the distributor head and to the spark plugs, and that they are not grounded to the engine at any point. Examine particularly the lead connected to the middle terminal on the distributor head; see that it is making good connection to the terminal on the side of the coil. ALL LIGHTS GO DIM A short circuit in the wiring or a defective -battery might be the direct cause of this trouble. The indirect cause is a discharged battery due to short circuits in the* wiring, leaving > 1 2 O o DC O bl J U > 5E u ff Fig. 32. AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS 213 the ignition switch turned on when the engine is not running, using bulbs or greater candle power than those recommended, indiscriminate use of the lights or starting motor, using low efficiency carbon filament bulbs, or generator not charging properly. If the ammeter registers discharge with all lights and the ignition off and the engine idle, it would indicate that there is current from the battery being dissipated in a short circuit in the wiring or that the ammeter is out of order. To test this, disconnect the cable from one of the battery terminals. If the ammeter hands return to zero, it is proof that there is a short circuit in the wiring which is dissipating current from the battery. E LS j J O-^ E o. Q t in order to encourage investigations with regard to the inside of a magneto, the following points are mentioned: For the satisfactory operation of a magneto, it is essential to have the breaker open at the proper relative position between armature and field. The output of the Mea is greatest if the spark occurs after the armature has passed through the neutral position and at the moment when the distance between the edge of the ar- mature pole piece and that of the field is about 1-16-inch. In assembling instruments with distributors the proper relation of the armature and distributor gears is important, as at the moment of firing the distributor car- bon must be on one of the contacts. To assist in assembling, three holes are drilled into the end shield, the distributor gear and the end plate of the armature, in such a manner that if the three parts in question are assembled with the three h'oles in line, the relation between armature and distributor positions is correct. All that will.be necessary, therefore, will be to introduce a pin into the hole at the end shield and to assemble. REMY MAGNETOS RD TYPES. While the RD type is not reversible, it can be furnished to run in either direction of rotation, but the adjustment for direction of rotation is made at the factory and cannot be changed. Remy magnetos are made in many different types, all of which are what is known as low tension magnetos. Attaching Magneto and Coil. The magneto must not be set on iron or steel bracket or sub-base. Aluminum or brass should be used. Fasten coil by screw holes provided only. Screws must not be put in coil or coil box, even though the screws do not reach through the wood or fiber. When tube oil is used, the holder must be made so it does not entirely circle the coil. The magneto must be wired strictly in accordance with the wiring diagram as shown in Fig. 19. Each of the three oilers of the magneto should be given a few drops of oil about every thousand miles. The cam is lubricated by means of a felt wick. This wick should be inspected often enough to keep it from running dry. It should be well saturated with oil, by means of a squirt can, whenever it appears to be getting dry. Timing Magneto With Motor. This magneto is to be timed to the motor by the break of the contact points. When the piston is on exact dead firing center, cam house must be in full retard Type RD Four-Cylinder Wiring Plan Fig. 19. MAGNETOS 255 position, and the platinum points must just be separating. The high tension cable from this cylinder, which is on exact dead firing center, should then be connected to the distributor terminal, corresponding to which the distributor segment is oppo- site. The remaining distributor terminals should be connected up in the proper firing order of the motor. Spark Plug Points. Different motors require different plug gaps. About .025 or .030 inch between the sparking points is best for most motors. If motor misses fire when running idle or pulling light, plug gaps should be made longer. If motor misses when pulling heavy, particularly at low speed, plug gaps should be made shorter. Magneto Adjustment. This magneto has but one adjustment, that of the contact screw. The adjust- ment should be made so that the maximum break of the platinum points is between .025 and .030 inch. REMY TYPE RL MAGNETO WITH LE COIL OR LC COIL AND D OR H SWITCH. See Figs. 20, 21, and 22. Rotation. These magnetos are set to run in one direction only. When ordering, it is necessary to specify whether the magneto is to run clockwise or counter-clockwise, the magneto being viewed from the driving end. Installation. It is absolutely essential, to obtain the best results, that the magneto be mounted on either an aluminum or brass bracket, or base. Magneto must be securely fastened to the base by cap screws or bolts, using the holes which are provided for this purpose, or else fastening same with a strap, in which case dowels are used in the magneto base instead of bolts or cap screws. Do not, under any conditions, drill or tap the magneto base. Drive. The magneto is to be positively driven, preferably by Oldham coupling, se- curely fastened to the shaft by Woodruff key and locked by nut. Do not leave the key out of the shaft, because the coupling is liable to shift, and this will throw the magneto out of time. Timing Magneto. , Turn the engine over by hand until No. 1 piston reaches top dead center on compression stroke. Press in on the timing button at the top of the distributor and turn the magneto shaft until the plunger of the timing button is felt to drop into the recess of the distributor gear. With the magneto in this position, make the neces- sary connections to the motor. Pay no attention to the circuit breaker when coup- ling or setting gears, as the breaker is automatically brought into the correct posi- tion, and the distributor segment is in contact with No. 1 terminal. This No. 1 terminal is plainly marked on the distributor. Spark Plug Connections. The high tension cable from distributor terminal No. 1 is to be connected to 256 INFORMATION No. 1 cylinder of the engine. The remaining distributor terminals are to be con- nected up in the firing order of the engine. Wiring Coil to Magneto. Red wire goes to ground binding post in timer end bearing. Yellow wire goes to contact screw post on circuit breaker. Green wire goes to insulated screw post on timer end bearing. Coil Connections. The three colored wires of the primary cable must be connected to the terminals of the coiled marked Y (yellow), R (red), and G (green). Connecting Battery to Coil. Connect the two battery wires to the coil. Use either 6 volt storage battery, or five dry cells connected in series. If the other electrical apparatus on the car requires a ground connection, the grounded side of the battery should be connected to the coil battery terminal marked "R" on the LE coil or H switch, or to the red wire of the two battery wires projecting from the type D switch. Be sure to make good tight connections to all terminals. Oiling. Two oilers are provided, one at the rear of the magneto and the other just back of the top of the distributor. Give each of these three or four drops of good oil for each one thousand miles. Be careful not to flood the magneto with oil. Magneto Connections. The control arm is furnished on either side of the cam house as convenience demands, but in every case the yellow wire must be connected to the terminal of the platinum pointed contact screw. The green and red wires must be connected to the G and R screws respectively, which are located on the timer end bearing. Spark Plugs. The gaps between the points should be between .020 and .025 inch. If the motor misses when running idle or pulling light, the plug gaps should be made longer. If motor misses when pulling heavy, particularly at low speeds, the gap should be made shorter. Circuit Breaker, Platinum Contact Points. These points may be inspected by removing the cam house lid, or the cam house may be entirely taken off for inspection. The points should have clean, flat surfaces at all times. Do not allow dirt or grease to accumulate on these points. Connecting Spark Control. In connecting spark control to circuit breaker control arm, be sure that both full advance and full retard positions are obtained and that movement is free and positive. The last link in the control mechanism should not cause any cramping or binding of circuit breaker at any position. MAGNETOS 257 2 O 258 INFORMATION MAGNETOS 259 260 INFORMATION SIMMS HIGH TENSION MAGNETO SYSTEMS. A gasoline engine requires regular sparks at certain predetermined positions of the crankshaft, and as the high tension magneto is capable of producing two sparks per revolution, 180 degrees apart, it is obvious that magneto must be driven at a fixed speed ratio to the crankshaft, this ratio depending upon the number of sparks required by the engine per revolution. So, for four-cylinder, four-cycle en- gines the magneto must be driven at crankshaft speed. For four-cylinder, two- cycle engines, the magneto must be driven at twice crankshaft speed. For six- cylinder, four-cycle engines, the magneto must be driven one and one-half times crankshaft speed, and for six-cylinder, two-cycle engines the magneto must be driven three times crankshaft speed. See Figs. 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, and 28. ' The magneto must be driven by positive gearing, or in case silent chain is used for driving, care must be exercised to see that possible back-lash is prevented, and in no case should the attempt be made to drive the magneto by means of friction devices. The cam which actuates the contact breaker is made of hardened steel, and accurately ground. This insures perfect timing and prevents uneven wear. Three oilers are provided: one on the driving end plate, the other two at the top of the distributor end plate. These oilers lubricate all bearings in the magneto and should be given three or four drops of light machine oil every thousand miles. Care should be taken to not over-lubricate and the contact breaker should never be oiled. These magnetos are made to run only in the direction shown by engraved arrow on the driving end plate. MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS. Timing of Ignition. To time magneto to motor, turn engine over until No. 1 cylinder is on top dead center with valves closed (beginning of working stroke, with connecting rod swung over on downward stroke side); remove the contact breaker cover and distributor board; turn magneto armature in the direction it must run until the platinum con- tact screws are just opening with the timing lever in the full retard position (the retard position is obtained by pushing the timing lever down in the same direction the magneto armature rotates). The distributor carbon brush must at the same time be in position to touch the distributor segment serving cylinder No. 1. Driving gear or coupling should be securely tightened on magneto armature driving shaft, using key in keyway provided on shaft. Magneto can now be coupled to the engine (care being taken not to change the foregoing adjustments) and wired according to the firing order of the engine. It must always be remembered that the distributor brush rotates in the opposite direction to the armature, and that No. 2 terminal on the distributor does not neces- sarily lead to No. 2 cylinder of the engine, but to the cylinder firing after that to which No. 1 leads. The same applies to the rest of the terminals. Any advance or retard desired in addition to that to be obtained by the varia- tion of the timing lever, must be secured on the engine alone, by advancing or re- tarding the engine timing gears, but in no case should the setting of the magneto distributor or internal armature gears be changed, as they have a certain fixed re- lation to each other. Different settings of these two gears will seriously impair the efficiency of the magneto. Oiling Magneto. The magneto should be oiled every two weeks, or each 1,000-mile run, with 4 or 5 drops of light machine oil (not cylinder oil), in each of the oil holes, which are located over the armature driving shaft, and at the top of the distributor board at MAGNETOS 261 the back. The contact breaker should never be oiled. It may cause serious diffi- culty if oil is allowed to remain on it. Care of Contact Breaker. The platinum points should be set so as to open on each cam about one-sixty- fourth of an inch, or the thickness of an average business card. The points should be kept clean and free from oil, and make flush contact with one another. The bell crank lever should pivot freely in the housing, which can be slightly reamed out if sticking. The contact breaker should be inspected occasionally, and freed of dirt and oil. Only, if it should become absolutely necessary, should the platinum points be trued with a very fine flat file. Distributor Board. Cable connections should be kept tight and occasionally the inside of the board wiped with a dry cloth to remove any oil or dirt. The distributor carbon brush should at all times press firmly against the board. Safety Spark Gap. The safety spark gap is to protect the insulation of the magneto armature from injury caused by excessive voltage, which would occur should a high tension con- nection come loose or be taken off, as the spark will then jump at the safety gap. If sparking should be detected in the safety gap, the high tension wiring should be gone over carefully at both the magneto and spark plug ends. The distributor car- bon brush and the conductor bar should be examined to see if they are in place and making contact. Also see that the spark plug points are not more than one-fiftieth (.020) of an inch apart. If sparks can be obtained at the safety gap, it is an indi- cation that the magneto is generating, and that the trouble is most likely in the wiring, as mentioned. Attaching Couplings. Care should be taken when driving couplings or gears are attached to or taken off the magneto armature shaft, that the slip ring on the armature is not cracked or broken by violence to the armature shaft or magneto end plate. Spark Plugs. The plug points should be set with a gap of about one-fiftieth of an inch. Greater distances than this will cause mis-firing at low speeds and sparks may also occur at the safety spark gap. Testing spark plugs out of the cylinders will not give accurate information, as the compression of the cylinder is absent. The plug may also be short-circuited by carbon. If the plug has a cracked insulator, the spark may short-circuit in the cylinder, but may spark properly when out. Wiring. Cables should be of good insulation and not allowed to become oil soaked. The cables should not be wrapped or grouped in a non-metallic tube. Separate them about one-half inch, or run them through a metal tube, care being taken to prevent cables from being chafed at points where they enter or leave the tube. Terminals should always be used on the cable, as otherwise loose strands of wire may cause short-circuiting. Switch. Should the ignition stop suddenly, the trouble is most likely in the switch. Re- move the magneto cable leading to the switch and see if the magneto will then operate. Also remove the commutator cover on the magneto, in case the trouble should be there. 262 INFORMATION Dual System. The care of the magneto is the same as the independent systems, but the mag- neto commutator must be wired strictly in accordance with diagrams, as it will not work if the cables are reversed. Where dry cells are used, the pasteboard covers may chafe through or become wet, grounding the ignition entirely, or cutting out two cylinders. WIRING DIAGRAMS TYPE SU4 Fig. 23. SU4 CLOCKWISE MAGNETO WIRING DIAGRAMS Fig. 24. 1 SU6 CLOCKWISE MAGNETO MAGNETOS 263 WIRING DIAGRAMS TYPE SU4-S 25 - SU4-S CLOCKWISE SYSTEM WIRING DIAGRAMS TYPE SU6-S Fig. 26. SU6-S CLOCKWISE SYSTEM 264 INFORMATION WIRING DIAGRAMS TYPE SU4-D Fig. 27 SU4-D CLOCKWISE SYSTEM WIRING DIAGRAMS TYPE SU6-D Fig. 28, SU6-D CLOCKWISE SYSTEM MAGNETOS 265 SPLITDORF MAGNETO IGNITION, MODELS A, AW, AX and W, X, Y, AND Z. The four-cylinder models, A, AW, AX, and X runs at crank shaft speed, and six-cylinder models, Y and Z, at one and one-half crank shaft speed. The drive should be either geared direct to the crank shaft, or by means of a universal coup- ling known as the Oldham Coupling. The latter method is very much to be preferred to the former, because the accurate setting and alignment absolutely necessary with the direct gear on the armature shaft is not essential with the latter method. See Figs. 29, 30, 31, 32, and 33. There is another drive possible the chain but on account of the many wear- ing points, back slack, and other faults, this should only be used where gear drive is impossible on account of inaccessibility, or where a large number of gears are objectionable. If the Oldham drive is employed, the driving flange is first slotted to fit the Woodruff key supplied with the magneto and then fitted. The other flange of the coupling is left loose on the end of the pump shaft or other shaft used to drive the magneto, and the cross block is slid into place. Installing. After securing the magneto to the prepared base on the motor, crank engine until cylinder No. 1 is exactly on firing center, that is, the point of greatest compres- sion. The motor must remain in this position until the balance of the work is finished. Retard the spark advance mechanism at the steering wheel to its limit and con- nect it to the spark advance lever on the breaker box of the magneto, so that if the magneto shaft revolves in a clockwise direction looking at the driving end, the breaker box lever will be at its topmost position. If the shaft revolves lefthanded the lever should be at the bottom limit, and advanced upward. Now revolve the armature shaft in direction of its rotation until the oval breaker cam comes in contact with the roller in the breaker bar and just begins to separate the platinum points. The flange of the coupling can then be drilled and reamed for a taper pin, and the timing of the magneto is then effected. Then connect the ter- minals of the magneto to those of the transformer, as shown in the wiring diagram. After ascertaining the position of the bronze sector of the distributor, connect the cup directly over it to the spark plug in cylinder No. 1. Since the direction of rotation of the distributor is always opposite to that of the armature shaft, the wire from the cup next in rotation goes to the next cylinder in sequence of firing, and so on until all wires are connected. On six-cylinder types it is always best to find out from the manufacturer or agent how the motor fires, because there are a number of ways it can fire, and unless connected up in the right sequence of firing, the results will be very bad. In starting the motor, always retard mechanism to its limit, throw the switch on the transformer to the side marked "Battery," and crank the motor. If it is desired to start on the magneto side, ignoring the battery entirely, advance the spark mechanism about half way or two-thirds of the way and crank as before. No backfire should take place. Do not drive the motor with the spark retarded, but as far advanced as the motor will permit. This is easily ascertained after driving the car a few times. All of these magnetos can be changed to run in either direction. To change from one direction to the other, remove the breaker box, hold the driving end of the armature shaft firmly with a pair of gas pliers, and remove the little nut which holds the same in place. Pull off the cam which is keyed on with a Woodruff key, turn the cam over, replace the cam and nut and reset nut on the shaft with a 266 INFORMATION Fig. 29. s Wiring Diagram of Model X Magneto and "T S F" Transformer Fig. 30. Wiring Diagram of Model W Magneto and "T S B" Transformer Fig. 31. * T Wiring Diagram of Model Y Magneto and "T S F" Transformer Wiring Diagram of Model Z Magneto and "T S B" TranslowneT prick punch so that it will not jar loose. Then remove the distributor block. Also remove the insulated brush that is located at the driving end of back plate of magneto, take out the four screws that hold same, then remove back plate and slide armature back. This will bring the two gears out of mesh. Then set the armature back in mesh so that the position of the segment will agree with either Fig. 34 or Fig. 35, according to the direction of rotation. MAGNETOS 267 All of these systems absolutely require that both poles of the battery be brought to the transformer. The battery must not be grounded under any cir- cumstances. If the platinum points, after much usage, become pitted so that a bad contact results, they can be dressed flat with a fine file, being careful to not file off more than is absolutely necessary. When resetting these points be sure that the cam is in the proper position and that the points open not more than .025 of an inch. The gap of all spark plugs used with these magnetos should be about 1-32 inch and no more. Be careful not to over-lubricate the magneto bearings, but be sure to oil them sufficiently once every two weeks with good oil. To Plugs Fig. 33. Wiring Diagram of Model A Magneto and "T S A" Transformer NOTE. On Models AX and AW Magnetos the wire leading to "Post A" on the Trans- former Is connected to the Brush Holder at the driving end. of the Magneto. D C Left Hand Magneto. Looking at Machine from Driving End fioints (S) about to Open as Armature Core leaves Pole Piece about 1/16" Segment just trader Brush. Fig. 34. Right Hand Magneto. Looking at Machine from Driving End Points (S) about to Open as Armature Ct*e leaves Pole Piece about 1/ia". Segment jo* under Brush. Fig. 35. SECTION 8 ELECTRIC TESTING Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems ELECTRIC TESTING Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems. Realizing that nearly every motor car mechanic is called upon daily to repair or adjust something about the electric system on motor cars, we have gathered the data contained in this book and have pictured the tests in a way that they should be easily understood. Electric troubles are easily located and remedied if the mechanic understands the simple principles of electricity and electric terms. To all who are new at this line of work we especially recommend our No. 1 book entitled Elementary Electricity, Motor Car Electric Systems and Delco Light. This book explains the meaning of electric terms in a way that they are easily understood. The instruction on elementary electricity is such that many of the best schools in the world have adopted this book for their elementary text. The operation of an electric system is often compared to that of a water system as their operations are similar in nearly every way. Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 are used to explain the first principles of the operation of a water system which may be compared to that of an electric system. VALVE CLOSED FIG. 1 In Figure 1, the pump compares with the electric generator, the check valve with the cut-out relay, the valve with a switch, the pressure gauge with a voltmeter, and the tank with a storage battery. When the pump is operated and the pressure of the pump becomes greater than that of the tank, the check valve opens and water flows to the tank. As soon as the pressure of the pump falls below that of the tank, the check valve 269 270 INFORMATION closes and prevents the water in the tank from flowing back to the pump and being wasted. The pressure gauge shows the pressure in pounds. When an electric generator is operated and the pressure of the generator be- comes greater than that of the battery, the cut-out relay closes and permits cur- rent to flow to the battery. As soon as the pressure of the generator falls below that of the battery the cut-out relay opens and prevents the current from the bat- tery flowing back upon the generator and being wasted. A voltmeter shows the electric pressure in volts. When the valve in the water line is opened, water will flow. When a switch used in an electric system is closed current will flow. GAUGE VALVE PARTLY OPEN FIG. 2 Figure 2 is the same as Figure 1, excepting that two pressure gauges are used instead of one and the valve is partly open. If the pressure gauge nearest to the tank shows 50 pounds pressure, the pressure shown by the other gauge will be less, due to the resistance offered to the flow of water by the valve, which is only partly open. The resistance offered to the flow of water by the valve in this system com- pares with poor switch contacts or a high resistance joint or connection in an electric system. Figure 3 shows a clog in the pipe. If the valve is all the way open the pressure shown by the gauge nearest the tank will be much greater than that shown at the other gauge, due to the resistance offered to the flow of water by the clog in the pipe. The clog in the pipe of this system compares with poor joints or connections in an electric system. Figure 4 shows a clog in the pipe from the main line to the tank. If the pump is operating, the pressure shown by the pressure gauge will be extremely high, due to the resistance offered to the flow of water to the tank, by the clog in the line. If the pump is not being operated and water is taken from the tank, the pressure shown by the pressure gauge will be extremely low as the clog in the pipe will prevent a full flow of water. It often happens with an electric system that when the generator is supplying current for lights or other demands that the voltage rises extremely high, and ELECTRIC TESTING 271 when the generator is not running, the current then being supplied by the battery, the voltage will be extremely low. When the generator is supplying the current the lights are exceptionally bright, GAUGE FK3. 3 -i=li-= TANK _ CLOG IN PIPE GAUGE VALVE OPEN FIG. 4 and when the battery is supplying the current the lights are exceptionally dim. In this case we always find a poor connection in one of the battery lines between the switch and storage battery. In the water system the clog in the pipe compares with the poor or loose connection in the electric system. 272 INFOEMATION O I o H O o FIG. 5 Figure 5 shows a number of symbols which are used in the various illustra- tions. A shows a motor or generator brush. B a field coil. C a motor or generator commutator. D shows resistance wire. E shows a cut-out relay. F is a push button. G is an ammeter. H is a voltmeter. I and J are contacts. K is a storage battery. Study these symbols carefully and compare them with those used in the illustrations. In doing so the illustrations and parts will be more easily understood. X CD > H m o O FIG. 6 Figure 6 shows a cranking circuit with the brush lifted. When the brush is lowered and comes in contact with the commutator, the motor will operate. The upper brush acts as a starting switch. When the systems being tested are of the ELECTRIC TESTING 273 single wire type, the lower line from the battery to the generator or the motor should be considered the same as "Ground" or "Frame of Car." This applies to all illustrations of this nature. STARTING SWITCH FIG. 7 Figure 7. A switch is used in the cranking circuit showing the contacts open. When a voltmeter is connected at the terminals of the battery as shown, it should always show six volts or a little over. In this case the battery is idle. This test is of little value, as it is not an assurance that the battery is charged or is good. A battery while idle may show a pressure of six volts, and when put under a load the voltage will drop excessively. Should the voltage drop excessively, the battery is weak, due to discharge, or may be defective. STARTING SWITCH FIG. 8 274 INFORMATION Figure 8. This shows the starting switch closed and the voltmeter connected across the terminals of the battery. If, when the starting switch is closed, the volt- age drops excessively, the battery is at fault and the trouble is likely to be a dis- charged or defective battery. If the voltage drop is not over 1^ volts, the battery is all right. STARTING SWITCH FIG. 9 Figure 9. This shows the starting switch closed and three positions of the voltmeter connected across the terminals of single cells. If the voltage dropped extremely low when making test as shown in Figure 8, then tests as shown in Figure 9 should be made, taking voltage of each, cell separately. If the voltage of all cells is low, then it is likely that the battery is weak, due to discharge. If part of the cells show the voltage to be all right and others show low voltage, it is likely that the ones showing low voltage are defective. To be sure of this, first try charging the low cells individually and see if they can be brought up to a charged condition. Then make test again as shown in Figure 9. Figure 10. This shows the starting switch closed and the voltmeter connected to the terminals of the wires at the battery. If voltage was all right when test was made at the terminals of the battery, as shown in Figure 8, and there is a de- cided drop in voltage when test is made as shown in Figure 10, the terminal con- nections at the battery are loose or corroded. If a corroded condition is found they should be cleaned at once. To remove corrosion, first take all of the battery bolts, nuts, and washers off of the battery and put them in a strong solution of cooking soda and water. Let them remain in this solution for 10 or 15 minutes. Then use a stiff brush on them and be sure they are clean. It may be necessary to scrape them entirely to remove the corrosion. After they are cleaned they should be giv"en a good coat of vaseline. Clean the terminal posts of the battery with the same solution, being careful not to allow the solution to get into the battery. Be sure to give all terminal parts a good coat of vaseline before and after they are assembled. Then make test as shown in Figure 10. The voltage drop should not be excessive. ELECTRIC TESTING 275 STARTING SWITCH FIG. 10 Tr- VOLTMETER FIG. 11 Figure 11. This shows the starting switch closed and the voltmeter connected to one side of the battery and to one side of the switch. If the drop in voltage is great at this point, it is likely that the switch contacts are bad. To determine this, make test as shown in Figure 12. Figure 12. This shows the starting switch open and the voltmeter connected across the terminals of the starting switch. The voltmeter should show the full voltage of the battery. Then make test as shown in Figure 13. 276 INFORMATION STARTING SWITCH i VOLTMETER FIG. 12 STARTING SWITCH VOLTMETER FIG. 13 Figure 13. This shows the voltmeter connected across the terminals of the starting switch and the starting switch closed. When the starting switch is closed, the voltmeter should not show a reading. If it does show a reading, the starting switch contacts are either dirty or defective. Figure 14. This shows starting switch closed and voltmeter connected to the terminal of the motor and one side of the battery. If voltage is all right at this point and the starter fails to operate properly, it is an indication that the motor is defective. ELECTRIC TESTING 277 STARTING SWITCH -O- -O- V) VOLTMETER O FIG. 14 The troubles may be due to worn-out motor brushes, brushes stuck up in holders, brushes not properly fitted to the commutator, weak brush-spring tension, dirty commutator, high micas, low segments, loose or poorly soldered connections, or open field windings. To test for open field windings, first make test as shown in Figure 14, and then make test as shown in Figure 15. STARTING SWITCH VOLT METER FIG. 15 Figure 15. This shows the voltmeter connected to the brush end of the field coil and to the battery. If voltage was all right when test was made as shown in Figure 14, and voltage is low or no voltage at all is shown in test Figure 15, the field coil is open or there are loose or poorly soldered connections to the field coil. Be careful to note the position of the starting switch at all times. WHEN VOLTAGE TESTS are made the starting switch should be closed. 278 INFORMATION STARTING SWITCH FIG. 16 Figure 16. This shows the starting switch closed and the voltmeter connected at the brushes of the starting motor. If voltage is all right at this point, then in- spect the conditions of the commutator and brushes as described under Figure 14. STARTING SWITCH BATTERY GROUND^ FIG. 17 Figure 17. This shows starting switch closed and the voltmeter connected to the ground terminal of the battery, and the other side of the voltmeter connected to the frame of the car. If the voltmeter shows a reading, the ground connection at the frame of the car is poor. Remove the battery ground connection to the frame of the car and clean the connection as well as the frame of the car at the point where the connection is to be made. Then give the cleaned surfaces a good coat of white lead. Attach the ELECTRIC TESTING 279 terminal to frame of car and be sure that a good, tight connection is made. Make test over again. Voltmeter will not show a reading then. ! * ) ; C A_ ) ; c \- ) O zc > T D \ K T u O ^.i w I rViff u ^ I v ;i 2 '* < CD 9 ~^ ^ J, n v> J u > (n( UJ ) O---. - C )^ 1 i C { _^ ") FIG. 18 Figure 18. This shows a method of testing a storage battery. To make this test, first secure 9 feet of No. 16 soft iron wire and wind it in the form of a spiral spring. Then stretch the spring so that when the ends are released that no two coils of the spring touch each other and short out a part of the wire. This may be used as a resistance unit. Then connect voltmeter as shown. The voltmeter should indicate six volts or a little over. Leaving the voltmeter connected to the terminals of the battery, connect resistance unit as shown. If a decided drop in voltage is noted, the battery is either weak, due to discharge, or bad cells 'exist. -^ o- z D LJ U en 10 LJ en FIG. 19 280 INFORMATION Figure 19. This shows three positions of the voltmeter connected to a single cell. Leaving the resistance unit connected to the battery as shown in Figure 18, test each cell for voltage separately. If voltage of all cells is alike, the trouble is likely due to discharge. If the voltage of one or two cells is extremely low, it indicates bad cells. Unless you are experienced in battery repairing, it is best to take the battery to a battery service station. When the resistance unit is connected at the terminals of the battery, as shown in Figure 18 and Figure 19, the battery is being discharged at about a 30-ampere rate. AMMETER CONTACTS 00 DO (V) VOLT METER FIG. 2O Figure 20. This shows a generator wired to a battery with an ammeter con- nected in series with them and a voltmeter connected across the lines between the CONTACTS o-DD-0 \ O FIG. 21 ELECTRIC TESTING 281 generator and the battery. The circuit is completed by hand in this case. In many systems when the ignition switch is turned to the "ON" position it also causes these contacts to close. The voltmeter shows the pressure of the generator and the ammeter indicates the output of the generator. Connected as shown, it will indicate discharge of the battery for lights or horn. Figure 21. This shows a generator wired to a battery. Contacts are closed by hand. Note the dotted line between generator terminals. Field regulators should be connected to these two terminals in all generators where this dotted line appears between these terminals. CUT OUT RELAY B C FIG. 22 Figure 22. This shows a generator wired to a battery with a cut-out relay connected in one side of the line. The cut-out relay takes the place of the contacts in the two preceding figures and is automatic. In this sketch "A" is the voltage winding, "B" is the primary winding, and "C" is the contacts. Figure 23. This diagram is the same as Figure 22, excepting that the cut-out relay contacts are closed. The cut-out relay closes the circuit between the gen- erator and the storage battery when the generator voltage is high enough to charge the battery. It also opens the circuit as the generator slows down and its voltage becomes less than that of the battery, thus preventing the battery discharging back through the generator. The cut-out relay is an electro magnet with a compound winding. The fine voltage winding is connected directly across the terminals of the generator as shown. The primary or coarse winding is in series with the circuit between the gen- erator and the storage battery. The contacts are closed and opened at contacts "C" (see Figure 22). When the engine is started the generator voltage builds up, and when it reaches about 7 volts a current passing through the voltage winding pro- duces enough magnetism to overcome the tension spring (see Figure 50), attract- ing the armature to the core which caused the contacts to close. The contacts close the circuit between the generator and the storage battery. 282 CUT OUT RELAY FIG. 23 The current then flowing through the coarse winding increased the pull on the armature and gives a good contact of low resistance at the contact points. When the generator slows down and its voltage drops below that of the storage battery, the battery sends a reverse current through the coarse wire windings which kills the pull on the armature. The tenson spring then pulls the armature away from the core and the con- tacts are opened and will remain so until the generator is operated again. CUT OUT RELAY FIG. 24 Figure 24. This shows a bridge between terminals "L" and "F" of the gen- erator. When an external regulator is used and generator does not generate, make test as shown by bringing these terminals together with a piece of wire. If gen- erator now generates, the difficulty lies in the regulator or circuit to it. It may be said that the regulator circuit is open. 283 FIG. 25 Figure 25. This shows an ammeter connected across the primary terminals of the cut-out relay. If, when the generator is running and it does not ciose at the proper time, test as shown. If generator is generating, the ammeter will show a reading. This indicates an open circuit in the primary or coarse wire circuit. If, when armature is pressed and contacts are closed, the generator charges bat- tery, look for open voltage winding. CUT OUT RELAY FIG. 26 Figure 26. This shows test for open shunt field. Be sure to disconnect all wires from the generator. Then use test cord from 110-volt circuit, with lamp cut in on one side of the line as shown. If the lamp burns at all or there is a spark when the two points are touched as shown, the shunt field is not open. 284 INFORMATION AMMETER CUT OUT RELAY SIX VOLT BATTERY Q Q FIG. 2.7 Figure 27. This shows the ammeter connected near the generator terminal, which will show the output of the generator. In many cases short circuits occur in the lines between the generator and the storage battery. First make the test as shown, which gives the output of the generator. Then make test as shown in Figure 28. CUT OUT RELAY FIG. 28 Figure 28. This shows the ammeter connected in the circuit between the gen- erator and the storage battery, near the battery. This will show the rate the bat- tery is being charged. If the generator is generating current at a 15 ampere rate and the battery is being charged at a much lower rate, there is a loss in the line due to short circuits or grounds. ELECTRIC TESTING 285 To make these tests be sure that your lights are not burning, and if ignition is taken from the generator system an allowance must be made for that. Figure 29. To be sure that a cut-out relay is regulated right, connect the volt- meter across the generator terminals. Then have engine running. Watch the volt- meter and cut-out relay closely. When the voltage of the generator reaches seven volts, the cut-out relay should close. CUT OUT RELAY TO LIGHTING SWITCH 11 S' o 6 9 FIG. 34 ELECTRIC TESTING 289 Figure 34. This shows the lighting wires tapped off the two lines from the generator to the storage battery. There is a corroded joint, or connection, at "A." When the generator is running and supplying current to the system, the lights would be exceptionally bright; and when the current for the lights is taken from the battery, the lights are dim. This is due to the corroded or high resistance con- nection, as shown. o- c LJ UJ S HEAD FIG. 35 Figure 35. This shows a standard lighting circuit with the voltmeter con- nected across the terminals of the battery and switch contacts open. The voltmeter indicates the battery voltage, battery idle. o- LIGHTING O SWITCH T UJ f- UJ IZ H o > HEAD FIG. 3 6 Figure 36. This shows same circuit as in Figure 35, excepting that the light- ing switch contacts are closed. If the battery is good and is charged, the voltage 290 INFORMATION should not drop so as to be noticeable. If it drops when lights are turned on, make test as shown in Figure 37. o- LIGHTING 6 SWITCH HEAD FIG. 37 Figure 37. This shows same circuit as in Figure 36, excepting that three po- sitions of the voltmeter are shown. If voltage dropped when making test as shown in Figure 36, test each cell separately for voltage, being sure to have all lights on. If one cell is lower than the rest it may be bad. If all cells show a voltage alike, it indicates discharge. FIG. 38 ELECTRIC TESTING 291 Figure 38. This shows same circuit as in Figure 37, excepting that the volt- meter is bridged across the lights and lighting switch. This gives the voltage up to the lighting switch. Full battery voltage should be maintained up to this point. FIG. 39 Figure 39. This shows same lighting circuits as in Figure 38, excepting that the lighting switch is in the off position and the voltmeter is connected across the contacts of the headlight circuit. The voltmeter should show the full voltage of the battery. FIG. 4O Figure 40. This shows same lighting circuit as in Figure 39, excepting that headlight switch contacts are closed. When headlights are turned on, the voltmeter should not give an indication. If it does, the switch contacts are bad or there is a bad connection in the switch in this circuit. INFORMATION FIG. 41 Figure 41. This shows same circuit as in Figure 40, excepting that all switch contacts are closed and the voltmeter is bridged across the headlights from the switch to the opposite side of the line. The voltmeter should show full voltage up to this point. LIGHTING O SWITCH FIG. 42 Figure 42. This shows same circuit as in Figure 41, excepting that the volt- meter is connected directly across the headlights. There should not be a drop of over one-half volt over that of a reading taken at the terminals of the battery. If voltage is all right up to this point, and the light burns exceptionally bright, the voltage of the lamp used is too low for the system. If the voltage is all right and the lamp burns exceptionally dim, the lamp is of too high voltage for the system or is old and nearly burned out. E L E C T R I C TESTING 293 AMMETER FIG. 43 Figure 43. This shows the primary winding of an induction coil as used for ignition purposes connected in series with an ammeter and a six-volt storage bat- tery. This is a practical test for open or partially short-circuited primary winding. If ammeter does not show a reading, the primary winding is open. With the primary winding of an induction coil connected in the circuit as shown, about ten amperes will flow. This will vary with the different makes of coils. If an excessive amount of current flows, it indicates a partial short circuit of the primary. To be sure of this, first take a coil that is good and note the amount of current that will flow through the primary. Then try the same test with the coil that is to be tested. Be sure that the coils used in these tests are of the same make and construction. If in doubt at any time as to the construction of a coil, write its manufacturers for this information. VOLTMETER * % ^ FIG. 44 294 INFORMATION Figure 44. In this diagram one side of the circuit is connected to one end of the primary of the induction coil, and the other side of the circuit is connected to the secondary winding of the coil. If the voltmeter shows a reading, these two windings are either connected together in the construction of the coil or they are shorted together. In the construction of some coils the primary and secondary are connected together, while in others they are not connected. Be sure of this when making tests. Note in Figures 43 and 44 that the secondary is not connected to the primary. VOLTMETER -o X r CD > H m FIG. 45 Figure 45. This shows same coil as shown in Figure 44. The voltmeter is connected in series with the secondary winding and a storage battery. If the stor- age battery does not show a reading, the secondary winding is open. If the sec- VOLTMETER FIG. 46 ELECTRIC TESTING 295 ondary is all right, the voltmeter should show a reading of about half the voltage of the battery, or three volts. Figure 46. This shows the same test as in Figure 45, excepting that the pri- mary and secondary of the induction coil are connected together in the construction of the coil. B TIMER O FIG. 47 Figure 47. This shows a standard battery ignition circuit using a timer. Note that the condenser is connected across the timer contacts. By making and breaking the primary circuit at the timer contacts and connecting a piece of wire to the secondary terminals of the coil, as shown, a spark should be produced at the ter- minals of the secondary. Always be sure to have a condenser connected across the _I RESISTANCE UNIT *~\ r\ r\ m .j.-. , O h n n- \J \J V_f 1 UCTION ID 5 9 0) X r* n " -2 k A z , \ TIMER (J CD t-e:^ <=&* ' f ; k ^~ CONTACTS > H r-dHV* 1 ^ Sr H A 9 n 33 -< I FIG. 46 I 296 INFORMATION point where the circuit is broken when making these tests. Each time the timer is in operation and the contacts open, a spark should occur at the terminals of the secondary. Have a one-fourth inch gap between the secondary terminals and the wire. Figure 48. This shows the same circuit as in Figure 47, excepting that a re- sistance unit is connected in the circuit. A resistance unit is used in nearly all bat- tery or generator ignition systems. It serves to regulate the flow of current used for ignition and protects the coil if switch is left on and the engine is not running. To test the condenser, first make and break the circuit with the timer, and note the sparking at the timer contacts. Then disconnect one side of the condenser and hold this connection away, as shown by the dotted line. Now make and break the circuit with the timer and note the sparking at the timer contacts. If the con- denser is good there should be considerable difference in the sparking at the inner contacts when the condenser is connected and when it is not connected. CONDENSER f LAMP FIG. 49 Figure 49. This shows another method of testing a condenser. If the lamp burns with the wires at "A" held apart, the condenser is short-circuited. If the lamp does not burn, the condenser is not short-circuited, but it may be open-cir- cuited. To determine this, momentarily bring the ends of the test wires at "A" together. If the condenser is good, the spark obtained will be snapping and similar to that obtained when a wire is connected across the terminals of a storage battery, although much less in volume. If such a spark is not obtained, the condenser is defective. It would be well to compare the resultant spark obtained at the wires at "A" with and without the condenser in the circuit. There should be considerable difference in the quality of the spark. With the condenser in the circuit, the spark should be snapping and without arcing. Without the condenser in the circuit, an arc should be noted. Figure 50. This shows the frame of the cut-out relay. In many cases the separating rivet was filed off. This rivet is there to prevent the armature from touching the iron core. The rivet is either made of German silver, brass, or copper. These metals are not affected by magnetism. If the armature should touch the iron core it would form a complete magnetic circuit, which might cause the relay to be slow in opening or it might not open at all. Note that all parts of the relay are given names in diagram. ELECTRIC TESTING 297 TENSION SPRING \ \ ARMATURE PIN ARMATURE HEAD CUT OUT RELAY CORE SEPARATING RIVET FIG. 5O CONTACTS V V V V *. WINDING CONTACTS CIRCUIT BREAKING RELAY FIG. 51 Figure 51. This shows the frame, contact, and armature arrangement and the circuit of a standard vibrating circuit-breaking relay. A circuit-breaking relay is so constructed and adjusted that when over a certain amount of current flows through it it will vibrate. It takes the place of fuses. Figure 52. This shows a circuit-breaking relay in a headlight circuit, and a fuse in another headlight circuit. If an overload, or more than 10 amperes, passes through the fuse, it will blow and open the circuit, and must be replaced with a new one. The circuit-breaking relay is set so as to start vibrating when over a 298 INFORMATION 10 AMPERE FUSE CONTACTS CIRCUIT BREAKING RELAY CORE WINDING ARMATURE H m z (/> A en TJ 3 Z O FIG. 52 certain amount of current is taken through it. It will vibrate until the current is turned off or the amount of current flowing through it is back to the amount it is set for. The circuit-breaking relay acts as an automatic fuse. PRIMARY WINDING CONTACTS FIG. 5 3 V V LIGHTING SWITCH Figure 53. This shows the circuit of a lockout circuit-breaking relay. Note that there as two windings, a primary and a holding coil. The contacts are in a closed position. Figure 54. This shows the same circuits as shown in Figure 53, excepting that the relay contacts are open. When an overload is put on the relay, the armature must pull toward the core of the relay, this opening the contacts. Before the con- tacts are opened, current flows only through the primary. ELECTRIC TESTING 299 m FIG. 54 When the contacts open, current flows through both windings, which causes the contacts to be held open. They will remain open until current is cut off, when the armature will be released and the contacts will go back together again, and will remain so until an excessive amount of current attempts to flow through the relay again. Figure 55. This shows 'a storage battery, resistance unit, ammeter, and wires to be connected to the terminals of a circuit-breaking relay. To make the resistance unit, secure about 30 feet of No. 16 soft iron wire. Wind it in the form of a spiral spring, and then stretch the spring until, when released, the coils of the spring do not touch each other. 300 INFORMATION To set the relay to break the circuit when a given amount of current flows through it, proceed as follows: Be sure that there are no connections between ter- minals 1 and 2, or from terminal 2 to the resistance unit. Then connect wires 3 and 4 to relay. Now connect a wire to terminal 2. Then touch the other end of this wire to terminal 1 and note the reading of the ammeter. Less than ten amperes will flow. Now touch the wire that is connected to terminal 2 to the coils of the resistance unit, as shown at "A." "B," "C," and so on, watching the ammeter each time contact is made. If the relay is to be set to break the circuit at 15 amperes, watch the ammeter until a point on the resistance unit is touched when that amount is flowing. If the relay has a tendency to break the circuit before 15 amperes is reached, the tension spring should be stiffened. If the relay does not open at 16 amperes, the tension spring should be weakened until the contacts will open. Then test again in the same way. Do not attach wires from 2 terminal to the resistance unit at any point. Only touch it to the resistance wire long enough to get a reading. PHILLIPS TEST SET MODEL 302 Your garage or Service Station is not complete without a reliable electric testing instrument. We believe that our instruments are the best to be had at any price. We are pleased to refer you to the service manager of any motor car manu- facturer in America. Standard set as shown in cut above $25.00. Special set with voltmeter reading from to 15 volts and to 150 volts with same ammeter, cords and instruction book, $30.00. ELECTRIC TESTING 301 STANDARD MODEL 302 This is a new design and is very small and compact. The cabinet is made of oak. Size of cabinet is 9x6x4 inches. The voltmeter reads from to 15 volts and the ammeter reads from to 30 amperes either way, being known as the center zero type. One pair of No. 10 test cords and special picture instruction book are supplied with each set. No service station or garage is complete without this instrument. No danger of injuring the instruments if wrong connections are made in testing automobile electric systems. If the user allows the ammeter to remain in a circuit too long where the drain on the battery is above the scale reading, the attachment cords may be burned up. In this case it will cost $2.00 for a new pair. PHILLIPS ENGINEERING COMPANY, Dayton, Ohio. FIG. 5 8 Figure 58. Method of increasing or decreasing the output of a generator em- ploying third brush regulation. Dotted line represents the field coil circuit. To increase the output of the generator, move brush "A" toward brush "B." To de- crease output of the generator, move brush "A" toward brush "C." Figure 59. This shows top view of a cut-out relay with primary terminals numbered 1 and 2. No. 3 is the frame or one end of the voltage winding of the relay. To find the terminal that the other end of the voltage winding is connected to, use a pair of test cords with a lamp in the circuit. Use 110 volts. Touch one end of test cord to frame of relay and the other end to terminal 1, and then to terminal 2. When terminal is touched and lamp burns or a spark is produced, this is the other end of the fine winding. This terminal should be connected to the generator, and the other terminal, where the light would not light or no spark was produced when touched, should be connected to the storage battery. "A" shows contact springs, "B" tension spring, "C" armature pin, and "D" is the armature. 302 INFORMATION FIG. 59 Figure 60. This is used to show a hydrometer. This is the part that is in the glass barrel of a hydrometer syringe. The hydrometer is used to test the specific gravity of the electrolyte of storage batteries. Directions for using are as follows: After removing the filling plug from the cover of the cell, compress the rubber bulb of the syringe and insert the pipette in the solution of the cell to be tested. Holding the instrument as nearly vertical as possible, gradually lessen the pres- sure on the bulb until the electrolyte rising in the barrel causes the hydrometer to float. In general, only enough electrolyte should be drawn to float the hydrometer free of the bottom by about one-half to three-quarters of an inch. The specific gravity reading is taken on the hydrometer at the surface of the electrolyte in the glass barrel. If the electrolyte is below the top of the plates, or so low that enough cannot be drawn into the barrel to allow of a proper reading of the hydrometer, fill the cell to the proper level by adding pure water; then do not take a reading until the ELECTRIC TESTING 303 F G FIG. 60 water has been thoroughly mixed with the electrolyte. This can be accomplished by running the engine for several hours. The specific gravity of the electrolyte is an indication of the amount of charge in the battery. In a fully charged battery the specific gravity should be from 1.275 to 1.300. When the gravity registers from 1.150 to 1.175, the battery is prac- tically discharged and should be recharged. If surface of electrolyte is at "A," the gravity of the solution is 1.100. If sur- face of electrolyte is at "B," the gravity is 1.150. At "C" it is 1.190. At "D" it is 1.225. At "E" it is 1.260. At "F" it is 1.300. At "G" it is 1.320. The solution should never test over 1.300, and if it does test over 1.300 it should be weakened until it is at or below 1.300 when battery is fully charged. SECTION 9 Head Light- 1917 Internal Circuit and Wiring Diagrams 1917 Abbott Detroit Remy System 305 306 I N F K M A T I X NIMH Ahrens-Fox Fire Engine Company 1917 Delco System DIAGRAMS 307 1915 Alter Remy System 308 INFORMATION 1913, 1914 and 1915 Auburn Rehiy System 309 1916 Auburn, 4-38, 6-38 and 6-40 Remy System 310 INFORMATION * 5 PHI- 1 1 p> Q-fr Q-" Auburn Automobile Company Model 6-44 1917 Delco System DIAGRAMS 311 Auburn 6-39, 1917 Remy System 11 312 INFORMATION o o *- 4-* o o si .11 O u.o o - 0o c> OVO eg o Buick Motor Company Models D-34-35 1917 Delco System DIAGRAMS 319 Cadillac Motor Car Company Model 551917 Delco System 320 INFORMATION CHALMERS 1916-17 Hi" 3 BL, o \ T ] 1 li n Kin n H I'I'H Chalmers 1916 and 1917 Ignition Remy System DIAGRAMS . 321 jfc 1918 Chalmers Remy System 322 . INFORMATION 9** I Cole Motor Car Company Model 880 1917 Delco System DIAGRAMS 323 i u'S Cole Motor Car Company Model 860 1917 Delco System 324 INFORMATION 111-* Commerce Model E Remy System DIAGRAMS 325 I' Dodge Brothers 1917 Delco Ignition 326 INFORMATION Geo. W. Davis Motor Car Co. Models 6-H, 6-1, 6-K 1917 Delco System DIAGRAMS 327 ^Hfcl ! Geo. W. Davis Motor Car Company Model 6-J 1917 Delco System 328 INFORMATION u ' c -S .2 c 8 Elgin Motor Car Corporation Model 6-E-16 1917 Delco Ignition DIAGRAMS 329 rs. o Elkhart Carriage & Motor Car Company 1917 Delco Ignition 330 INFORMATION 1915 Empire Remy System DIAGRAMS 331 Enger 12 Cylinder 1916 and 1917 Remy System 332 INFORMATION General Motors Truck Co. Models 15, 25, 26, 30, 31, 40, 41, 70, 71, 100, 101 1917 Delco System DIAGRAMS 333 Grant Model K, 1916 and 1917 Remy System 334 INFORMATION 1917 Harley-Davidson Emy System DIAGRAMS 335 1917 H. A. L. Remy System 336 INFORMATION \> Harroun A A 1 Remy System 337 300 5x3 fg- > 5 -5 z z tt EES 00*. wo- 1916-1917 Haynes Remy System 338 INFORMATION $li il \ 1 k t- The Haynes Automobile Co. Models 40-40-R-41 1917 Delco Ignition 339 Hudson Motor Car Company Super-Six Model 1917 Delco System 340 INFORMATION 1916 and 1917 Interstate Remy System DIAGRAMS 341 H"- 1916 Kissel 6 Remy System 342 INFORMATION SJ.HOI7 Q* <51Hp;i OV3H &> & /wfrn -ntft Q+ MOJL/-M* . Awei 1 * jwo ^-*^. o > G't ^M "se 35 s l| & J MW b O 2S n> ja il g.2 OQ ; A W JJ-i W? JtMWlUC The Kissel Motor Company 12 Cylinder Model 1917 Deko System DIAGRAMS 343 1915 L. P. C. Remy System 344 INFORMATION 1916 L. P. C. Remy System DIAGRAMS 345 l^-Tn / / c Df V) >^^7 '3 u I' r. Of, Liberty Motor Car Company 1917 Delco System 346 INFORMATION Madison 6-Cylinder Remy System DIAGRAMS 347 Madison 8-Cylinder Remy System 348 INFORMATION KH* c U -B-s - c E Meteor Motor Car Company Models 75 and 80 1917 Delco System DIAGRAMS 349 Meteor Motor Car Company Models 75-A-80-A 1917 Delco System 350 INFORMATION 9-M3 O> Oil Michigan Hearse & Motor Company "Light Six" and "Big Six" Chassis 1917 Delco System DIAGRAMS 351 1914 and 1915 Mitchell Lewis Remy System 352 INFORMATION Moon Motor Car Company Model 6-43 1917 Delco System DIAGRAMS 353 28 Moon Motor Car Company Model 6-66 1917 Delco System 354 INFORMATION 1914 National Remy System DIAGRAMS 355 c 1 7 i i i j j \ i . j i S M II National Motor Car & Vehicle Corp. Series A-K 1917 Delco System 356 INFORMATION The Nash Motors Company 1917 Delco System DIAGRAMS 357 Norwalk Motor Car Company 1917 Delco System 358 Oakland Model 32 Remy System DIAGRAMS 359 Oakland Model 34-B Remy System 360 INFORMATION o o ss CO o **' II II l> O OU 0100 d r-. O Oakland Motor Car Company Model 32-B 1917 Delco System DIAGRAMS 361 U "^ II II Oakland Motor Car Company Model 34 1917 Delco System 362 INFORMATION Olds Motor Works Model 37, 19171917 Delco System DIAGRAMS 363 Olds Motor Works Model 451917 Delco System 364 INFORMATION Packard Motor Car Company Models 2-25 and 2-35 1917 Delco System DIAGRAMS 365 Paige 1917 Remy System 366 X v.5 *> IIH 1916 and 1917 Paige 6 Remy Ignition DIAGRAMS 367 r * ss . i: io tf5 $. Saxon 1916 and 1917 Remy System 382 INFORMATION Stearns S. L. K. 4 Remy System DIAGRAMS 383 Stearns 1916, 1917 and 1918 Remy System 384 INFORMATION !y- fo-fr Sayers & Scovill Company Model 1917 Delco System DIAGRAMS 385 I e e o o ou m>4 2S Stephens Motor Branch of Moline Plow Co. 1917 Model Delco Systei 386 INFORMATION 2? Sun Light Six Remy System DIAGRAMS 387 1914 and 1915 Studebaker Grounded Battery Remy Ignition 388 INFORMATION Studebaker 1914 and 1915 Ignition Remy System DIAGRAMS 389 1916 Studebaker Street Flusher Remy Ignition 390 INFORMATION Studebaker 1916 and 1917 Remy Ignition DIAGRAMS 391 1914 and 1915 Stutz Remy System 392 INFORMATION 1916 and 1917 Sweeney Tractor Remy System 393 1916 and 1917 Stutz Remy System 394 -.2 3 C OQ 8 21 ll Trompenburg Amsterdam, Holland 1917 Delco System DIAGRAMS 395 Velie 22 1916 Remy System 396 INFORMATION Velie Model L-28 Remy System DIAGRAMS 397 If* X *fl- J < 3 Q A $ I c* UljU Westcott Motor Car Company Series 17 1917 Delco System THE ABINGDON PRESS, CINCINNATI "INFORMATION" Printed and bound by THE ABINGDON PRESS C I N C I N N AT I AUTHORIZED PUBLISHERS FOR THE PUBLICATIONS OF H. E. PHILLIPS & CO DAYTON, OHIO &. E. South Wilton Place