'QRTIETH THCU -AND SYSTEM REINHARDT. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA ARCHITECTURAL DEPARTMENT LIBRARY LETTERING FOR DRAFTSMEN, ENGINEERS AND STUDENTS A PRACTICAL SYSTEM OF FREEHAND LETTERING FOR WORKING DRAWINGS. BY CHAS. W. KEINHARDT \ (Former Chief Draftsman, Engineering News.) THIRTEENTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. FORTIETH THOUSAND. NEW YORK: D. VAN NO STRAND COMPANY, 1913. "371 f [113 Copyright, 1895. D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY. E F^V C IN looking over the books on lettering, which have come under the writer's notice, he has found, that while doing full justice to the principle of ornamentation and the theories governing the shaping of each letter, no author has as yot attempted to treat lettering from a purely practical point of view. The need of a practical work on lettering, however, has been and is daily experienced by many draftsmen, and in the following pages the writer has endeavored to s set forth the proper methods of forming purely free-hand lettering in a simple, easily acquired way, giving, at the same time, the proper safeguards against the errors most commonly committed. The letters exhibited are actual free-hand work and can readily be copied. In this respect the writer has made a radical departure from works of a similar charac- ter which generally give ornate, carefully engraved alphabets, being of little more use to the average draftsman than ordinary printed type, i. e., they can only be copied with a great sacrifice of time and patience. The whole system out- lined is the result of the writer's experience during years of practice on the staff of a leading technical journal and is in- tended to be a thoroughly practical guide for doing the best class of work in the shortest possible time. BBOOKLYN, September, 1895. CHAS. W. EEINHAEDT. 271359 PREFACE TO TWELFTH EDITION. The encouraging reception given to former editions of this book has convinced the writer of the practical use- fulness of the system of lettering which he advocates, and has induced him to add material which tends to enlarge the scope of the book, making it complete in every respect. The subject of lettering, as applied to working drawings and the construction of titles, has been taken up more in detail, and the chapter devoted to lettering for purposes of photo-reproduction will be found interesting and useful by many readers. Besides the extension of the text some twelve illustrations and four full page plates have also been added, thus considerably enlarging the work, which, it is hoped, will continue to prove a desirable hand-book to those wishing to acquire the art of freehand lettering in a simple and rational way. C. W. B. INCLINED LETTERING. TN the following system of lettering no attempt has been made to imitate any special form of printed alphabet, and for all ornate and elaborate lettering the draftsman is referred to some one of the many published collections of this character. What is here intended is to illustrate and describe a type of lettering that looks well upon working drawings ; is reduced to its simplest form ; one that is rapidly made and is clear and distinct under almost any reduction by photography. It is, in fact, especially designed for photo-reproduction. With the purpose of fairly treating the subject, the lettering here illustrated has been reproduced without any attempt at touching up or cleaning; it is actual freehand work, such as should be used in general practice. The ordinary slanting and, further on, the upright lettering are described in a somewhat detailed manner, as when the draftsman once becomes proficient in form- ing these two types properly, it will then be a very easy matter for him to form also the more ornamental letters satisfactory. The first requisite is to produce sharp, clean corners and bold lines of uniform strength, and this is especially necessary in work for photo-reproduc- tion, as usually such apparently unimportant things as filled in corners and uneven lines are greatly exaggerated on the plate. In Fig. i the correct and incorrect ways of doing this are shown. It will be well at first, for the purpose of obtaining clean corners, to resort to the artifice of slightly curving Incorrect ~* the lines outwards at their One. Stroke Lettering ends - as exhibited n th Correct third line of Fig. i. For One Stroke Lettering very large letters the writer Fig. 1 finds a " ball-point " pen (Leonardt's 5 1 6 F.) most satisfactory ; for medium sized One Stroke Lettering Inrnrrpfh J letters, not less than 2 millimeters high, he uses Soen- necken's No. 108 or 208, and for small sized letters, Gil- lott's No. 303, or the " Lithographic " pen. Esterbrook's pens; "Fine Business 97," "Double Spring 126" or " 127" have also been found serviceable for coarser work. All of these pens should be "broken- in " somewhat be- fore being applied to lettering ; they should also be fre- quently cleaned when using waterproof ink, especially the "Soennecken" pens. The nibs of the pen should, while doing this, be worked back and forth gently against a soft rag, which process will cause the dried up parti- cles of the ink to drop out from between them. As to the type of lettering to be employed, the slant- ing letter is well adapted to descriptive matter, dimensions, etc., while the upright letter will contrast well with the former type used as reference letters or sub- captions. A uniform pressure should be brought to bear upon the pen a trick only acquired by practice. The pen should be held pointed forward, as in ordinary writing, and not sideways, as in " round writing." In lettering on tracing linen a sheet of black cross-section paper divided to millimeters, such as given on detached plate (XIII) ac- companying this book, will be found useful for indicating the proper spacing, slant, etc. On drawing paper, pen- cil guide-lines will be indispensable to the beginner. A slope of i to 2 y z is sufficient for the stems or down-strokes of the letters, and ordinarily an angle of 45 with the horizontal will suffice for the upstrokes and the axis of ellipses, excepting that of the letter " o." The latter angle will have to be increased, of course, when the lettering is compressed, as shown in Fig. 2. In lower case letters, like " b" or " p" with part extend- ing above or below the wj main body of the letter- compressea- Fig. 2. the length of these parts I should be about 2-=; the / ^ E total height ; the body of the letter representing 3 parts of the total height- The exception is the lower case "t" which is one part less in total height than " b " or " h," for example. In the illustrations following, the incor- rect forms of letters, as being constantly observed by the writer, are shown in brackets, and the correct method of forming each letter is shown beneath. Lower Case Letters. The letters " n " and " m," Fig. 3, should be made with almost sharp upper corners ; '< u " is best j formed by three strokes, .Lg 1*43 .i?. ., . r MMM MJf as in this way parallel : positions are secured for Fig. 3. the straight lines, which should be made first, and these can be then joined by a lower curve. In forming the letter " v," Fig. 4, make the first stroke nearly vertical, . and the second at an anele of about 45 with the horizontal. ' g ; * ; The common error in making : this letter lies in curving the two Fig. 4 lines and giving the letter the appearance of a "y." The letter "w" is formed on the same principle as the " v." In putting in the short hori- zontal cross-line of the "t," Fig. 5, great care should be taken to use Fig. 5. very little pressure upon the pen, as otherwise the ink h h 1 1 \ if-. i u. will spread at the intersection of the two lines and make clean corners impossible. The second part of the letter " r " should be purely an up-stroke, slightly curved at its end. In making the letter " f," start with a curve extending down about one space ; the "f " shown in brackets would come out with a heavy black knob at top in any considerable re- duction. The rule laid down Fig. 6. for forming the " n" may also be applied to the letter " h," Fig. 6, and the down-stroke for the "j " is practically the same as for the " f " revers- ed. Make bold, oblong dots over the "i " and "j." The third stroke of the letter " k," Fig. 7, should be vertical and begin at about the / >. .1. middle of the second stroke. In constructing the letter " x," care Fig. 7. should be taken to have the first stroke either verti- cal or leaning slightly backwards, and the second stroke ought to cross the first a little above its centre ; in order to produce a clean intersection it may be well to make the latter stroke in two parts. The letter " y," Fig. 8, should be drawn on the lines of the " v," and . from the point of the angle the tail should be drawn pi g in exact line with the upper down-stroke, terminating, if desired, in a slight curve to the left, to avoid the little blot of ink which would otherwise form at the bottom of the stroke. In this letter the second stroke may be modified as shown. The "z" is best drawn in one stroke, stop- ping the pen every time before changing direction. The letter " o," Fig. 9, is produced by two curved strokes, with their ends sufficiently bent, forming a perfect ellipse, the axis of which lies in the direction of the down-stroke. The joining of these two curves, in this and similar let- ters, can be effected very neatly after a little practice. The ovals of the following letters should be made somewhat narrower at the top than at the bottom, for obvious reasons ; and especial care must be taken to have the axis of these ovals lie at an angle of 45 with the horizontal. For the purpose of increasing the width of the enclosed space at the bottom of the down -stroke and the oval, the right-hand curve should be somewhat flatter than the opposite one. For the advantages of so doing see Fig. 9. should be at ex- actly the proper I angle, rather in- === creasing this = angle at the be- In these letters the down -stroke Fig. 9. ginning, for the learner almost invariably makes the mis- take of drawing this stroke too slanting. To further guard against this error, the beginner may slightly curve the end of the down-stroke towards the left, thus widening the angle at the bottom of the " a " and " d," and the down- stroke of the " g " should be made as long as possible in its straight part by turning very short with the lower left- hand curve. The letters " p " and "b," Fig. 10, should be siiaped exactly as in- / ' U f fi- fn\ rr^h /hi f U/ IS ffl-l-UJ- vertecl letters "d" and " q." With practice these letters can also be made to look well by Fig. 10. using the oval of the letter " o." The letter " c," Fig. 1 1 , is formed with one stroke, care being taken to have its general direction parallel to the down-stroke. The "e" is commenced in the same way, and the upper loop is formed by a second stroke with the axis of the loop again at an angle of 45. ^ The beginning of the .if- ^fM f& X D " s " is a very short curve F 'g- 11 - from left to right at its apex ; the rest is carefully joined on, turned down into a neat ogee curve and finished by a little crook upwards. The middle part of this letter should be nearly horizontal. If a very narrow letter is to be produced, it may be constructed with one stroke and a flatter curve, making the upper curve somewhat shorter than the lower one. In the ordinary letter a first separate stroke at the top is made necessary by the fact, that while turning in a hori- zontal direction from right to left and then descending into the ogee curve, the pen will either clog up and not give the required strength of line at one stroke or other- wise will in turning detach minute particles of paper or tracing-cloth saturated with ink and deposit them at the side of the stroke, necessitating erasures. The method outlined (employing two strokes) is therefore by far the simplest and quickest way of producing a clean letter, as experience will show. It will at first be a somewhat difficult matter to the beginner to lay the main axis of this letter parallel with the down-stroke, but this is nevertheless an essential point and should not be lost sight of. Capital Letters. As in the rule laid down for the lower case letters, the capital letters will generally be nve spaces high. Sharply defined clean corners are again necessary, and to secure this the beginner may find it advantageous to curve the upper and lower ends of the down -strokes a little outwards. The letter "A," Fie. 12, should be made in three strokes, with the second almost vertical. The cross- stroke should be placed low about the middle of the A (Hi LL (L. i r~rr~ second space from the bottom. Fig. 12. The short third stroke of the " E " should be slightly above the center of the letter, and should not be too short. The two down-strokes of the letter " H," Fig. 13, should be ex- actly parallel, and the horizontal stroke should be made as directed for the third stroke of the " E." If the capi- tal " I " is to be followed by a lower case ' 1," two short horizontal strokes of even length and projection may be added to the top and bottom. The second V 1 ^ '- stroke of the letter Fig. 13. "K" should join the first at the top of the second space from the bottom, and the third stroke should join the second nearly one space higher up. The letter " L" can easily be made with one stroke, analogous to the forming of the same stroke of the letter " E." The "J," Fig. 14, is commenced as a perfectly straight down-stroke to the top of the lower space; then it turns to the left in a gentle curve, tangent to the base line, and finally rises to the top ate strokes, putting in the two parallel lines first; the two other strokes should join at the top of the first space. If desired, this letter may be made slightly wider at the bottom than at the top. The letter " N " is also formed by drawing the two parallel strokes first. The horizon- tal stroke of the " T " should be neatly balanced on top of the down-stroke, and if it is not perfectly straight, as often is the case, a hardly noticeable crook downwards , , at both ends will improve it. i7 The letters shown in Fig. 1 5 are to be con- structed precisely upon the lines laid down for the cor- responding lower case letters, with the exception that they should be a trifle narrower in proportion. The " Y" is formed with two strokes without any lower crook to the left ; the " Z" is made in one stroke, with the axis of the letter in the direction of the down- stroke. Fig. 15. n / n\ n M-v 7 Jr 1 If of the first space. The " M " is made with four separ- found easier, this Fig. 6 Z " can be made with three strokes. 10 With practice the letters "P," "B" and "D"can each be formed with two strokes, with the curves terminating as shown. In forming the two curves of the letter " B," begin at the top, and after joining the stem, return exactly on the horizontal while the ink is yet moist and complete the lower curve. The space enclosed by the lower curve should be somewhat larger than that in the upper ont. The curve of the " D " should be parallel with the down- stroke in its middle third, but it may sometimes be ad- visable to make the lower part of the " D " a shade wider - than the upper part. The first and second strokes of the " R " are identical with the letter " P." The "C," Fig. 17, is formed with one stroke, nearly completing the ellipse of the letter " O," though this let- ter should be proportionately narrower than the lower case " c." In making the " G," a somewhat wider ellipse is required, and this letter is most easily made with two strokes ; the second horizontal stroke should be about -j one-half of the I total width of I the ellipse. The capital ^^ Fi g. 17. " O " should be an almost perfect ellipse, special care being taken in joining the two curves. The third stroke of the " Q " should begin about the middle of the second space, and extend one space below the base. The letter " S " can be formed, for small-sized lettering, in two strokes, or with an additional stroke, as shown, for larger letters. Numerals. / / As a rule, numerals should occupy the same height is used in proximity with " I " or " 1," it is well to use a -]- A=z-?r\ /-f~?\ ~Z /7)~? - as ca pital letters, short up-stroke at the top ; otherwise, it may be repre- sented by a simple down-stroke. The " 4 " is commenced with the stroke inclined at an angle of 45, terminating at the second space from bottom and then turning sharply or five spaces, though the use of fractions may Fig 18. slightly modify this rule. When the numeral "i," Fig. 18, into the horizontal. The down-stroke should intersect 11 the horizontal in such manner as to leave about 3-5 of the horizontal to the left of the down-stroke The " 7 " is best formed with one stroke, the down-stroke being on an angle of 45. The " 3 " should be drawn in one stroke, beginning as with the " 7 " to a point a little below the top of the third space, and then curving into a portion of an ellipse, with an axial angle of 45. Another type of the numeral " 3 " is shown, -. o O / O I /"" / Cf= 1-1 i (j C- f- \ ^Lr tl? t<~s / which can be made in one == = ,p > /^^= stroke also. f- 't~- 3*^ ^ / The (f o " Fig. 19, Fig. 19. ought to be a perfect ellipse, like the capital " O." The " 5 " is commenced with the down-stroke, ending in the ellipse of the " 3 " and the horizontal upper stroke. The " 2 " can be constructed by one stroke, beginning at the top of the fourth space, nearly completing an oval with an axial angle of 45, and then turning shortly into a down-stroke running into the base line, where a sharp /.-'.-/*) & /ft] SJ /}) turn ' s ma de in a horizontal direction. The " 6," Fig. 20, nO' aij" l ^y>i- i j s commenced like the "o," Fig. 20. except that its initial point is somewhat beyond the axis of the ellipse. For that rea- son the first stroke is very short, curving to the right ; the second stroke descends nearly to the base, where a stop is made, and the pen then returns in the same stroke, and, gradually turning to the right, nearly completes an ellipse with an axial angle of 45, joining its lower part with the bottom of the incomplete second stroke. The figure " 8 " is commenced with an ogee curve, using a slight crook at its lower end, and is finished by two other curves, as shown. The lower loop should always be somewhat larger than the upper one. The numeral " 9 " is made in two strokes. The ellipse at the top is nearly finished in one stroke when the down-stroke is assumed, which, beginning at the initial point of the ellipse and completing the latter, terminates with a somewhat fuller curve then that employed in lower case l 'g." Though Roman numerals are seldom employed on working drawings, they may sometimes be re- quired. The chief requisite is to so form them that they are neat in ap- pearance and easily = distinguished from the Fig. 21. rest of the text. They should be of the same height as the Arabic numerals, and short horizontal strokes 12 should be used with them, as indicated in Fig. 21. In the modified forms shown in Fig. 22 it will be noticed that all the letters and numerals are based upon the general form of the letter " o," modified to suit de- mands. The second stroke of the _ " r " is really a part of the elemen- flPflt U == tary ellipse, as are also the second stroke of the " n " and the second and third strokes of the 'm." The " u " is here made in two strokes the first, a down-stroke with the curve attached, and the Fig 22. second a straight down-stroke, tangent to and touching the curve. The numerals follow similar lines of construction. The " 2 " begins at the upper part in an ellipse and ends in a down-stroke, laid at an angle of 46, turning sharply to the right in a horizontal line. The " 3 " is formed with one stroke, with its lower curve, as also that of the " 5 " and " 6," encircling somewhat more than half of the ellipse. In the " 6 " and " 9 " care must be taken to have the curved down-strokes only tangent to the respective ellipses, and not cutting off a portion of the latter. UPRIGHT LETTERING. Upright lettering is employed most advantageously for reference letters, designating lines of section, and for captions. In some instances however, it may be deemed advisable to use uprights also for such descrip- tive matter, dimensions, etc., to which some prominence is to be given, though, as a rule, the slanting lettering will answer this purpose very well. The relative height of the letters ought to remain the same as that of the inclined lettering. The down- strokes should be perfectly vertical, and in order to pro- duce this effect properly, it will be best for the beginner to form the habit of making the letters at first lean over somewhat to the left at the top, as the natural tendency would be to have them lean the opposite way. It will be noticed that in some of the uprights a comparatively greater number of strokes is required, as many portions of these letters are being executed in a horizontal direction or nearly so. The letters are again simplified as much as possible, a fact which will be especially notice- able in the lower case "a" and " g," which, though at variance with the ordinary gothic print, look fully as well. Lower Case Letters. In the letters shown in Fig. 23, the same number of strokes is employed as in the slanting lettering pre- viously described. The letters are as a rule made wider than those of the slanting type. The second stroke of the " n " and the two last strokes of the letter " m " are started with a very slight curve in an upward direction rounding off the corner at the top, making it somewhat more full than in the corresponding slanting letters. The letter " u " V \YI W \W] j s mac i e i n three ^= VV : strokes as usual, Fig. 23,. connecting the two down-strokes with a well shaped curve. If preferred, however, the ordinary form of gothic lower case " u," as U U y shown, may also be employed. In constructing the letter " v," the two slanting strokes ought to make the same angle with the vertical. The beginner will in- variably construct the second stroke at a greater incline than the first, and will do well to guard against this habit, until after some practice the hand wjll become accustomed to form the point of juncture of the two strokes equidistant from their starting point. The letter " w " is composed practically of two somewhat narrowed v s. The letter " 1 " (Fig. 24) is sometimes constructed with a lower crook to the right, when used at the side of capital letter " I," otherwise it is made as a down -stroke pure and simple. The second stroke of the " r " starts 14 from the top of the second space upwards as a very slight curve, similar to the one forming first part of the second stroke of letter " n." Letter "f" is best formed by three strokes ; the first a very short curve to the right, being joined by the second or main stroke. The horizontal third stroke should be Fig. 24. made sufficient- ly prominent. The letter "j " ought to extend two spaces below the base line and should be made in one stroke, being perfectly straight until the point of curve is reached. If found easier, however, a second right hand stroke, form- ing the curved portion, may be employed. The latter should be almost a semicircle and one space high. The second stroke of letter " k " (Fig. 25) should extend down to nearly the first space. The third stroke be- F 'g- 2 5' gins at about the centre of the second one. The letter " x " is constructed with two strokes, making the first one apparently more inclined than necessary for reasons explained above. When the pen is very full, the second stroke may be made in two parts, as shown, thereby preventing the forming of a clot of ink at the intersection of those two strokes. The upper part of letter " y " forms a perfect " v." The second stroke may either be executed with a slight angle terminating in a vertical direction, or in a perfectly straight inclined line, according to the draftsman's individual taste. Letter " z " is as usual formed in one stroke ; its starting point should be vertically above the point of turning into the horizontal. The ellipses of the letter shown in Fig. 26, are as usual constructed in two strokes, joining the respective initial and terminal points carefully. The first curve starts in an - *.J( <(^j+ almost horizontal di- rection towards the m ^'2- left and terminates similarly at the right, thus prevent- ing the forming of a point at the top and bottom junctures. The second (right hand) stroke of the ellipse ought to be made apparently more curved than necessary, as that portion is invariably made too flat by the beginner. The ellipses should be made quite full. The vertical 15 down-strokes of letters " a," " cl " and " g " ought to run tangent to their ellipses so that the thickness of the second curve at the joint of juncture is not increased. The curved portion or the fourth stroke of letter "g" extends to the left almost or nearly the full width of the oval of this letter. The mode of construction of letters " q," " p " and " b " (Fig. 27) offers no novel features. If the pen, while rounding in the lower part of the curve of letters " p " and " b," should contain too 3 much ink, the curve may be completed by a third stroke, Fig. 27. running in an opposite direction, as shown, as in turning into the lower portion of the curve a somewhat greater pressure is involuntarily brought upon the pen, resulting if too full, in a badly proportioned lower end. Letters " c " and " s " (Fig. 28) are started with a short curve towards the right ; the upper end of letter " c " should be slightly more curved than the lower one ; still, the form of the perfect oval should be predominant in this letter. The letter "e" is constructed in three strokes. If, as is sometimes the case, the upper part of letters " c " and " e " should not precisely fill the allotted space, or otherwise they should appear too narrow, a slight flat- tening of the lower _ C C. (CA P. P. (P. P^ ^ (*? c.'T portions of the curve, ^ w ^ v * ^ Q \^-^l oyjop making those letters *C C S&l 6 Xp 3 = appear leaning back- Fig. 28 ward ; will help matters and otherwise not at all injure their appearance, as shown. The completed ovals of letter " s " should, as in the inclined one, form a perfect figure "8." If at all uneven, the lower oval should be made more prominent than the upper one. Capital Letters. Upright capitals are, as a rule, 5 spaces high, with the exception of the " Q," the appendix of which ought to reach one space below the base line. These letters should be made narrower in proportion than the cor- responding lower case letters. The second stroke of letter "A" (Fig. 29), should 16 be made rather more inclined than the first one by the beginner. The first strokes of letters " E " and " F " must be made perfectly vertical or leaning back- wards, as even the slightest inclination forward in these two letters will be painfully noticeable, especially in the " F." The length of the short third stroke in the " F," is generally depending on the shape of the succeeding . . ,_ . .,. -, -TY- (lower case) letter ; shorter, if the latter j/v? t r~_ !i~ h/\ E T& 3 ? ip? h 3 ;vLi begins with a verti- Flg. 29. cal stroke, longer, if an oval or inclined stroke is to follow. We will not attempt, however, to lay down any definite rule on this point, as the determining factor in each case should be the draftsman's eye and good taste. Letter " Z " is best formed in one stroke, care being taken to make especially the inclined portion perfectly straight. The letters comprising Fig. 30 are constructed upon nearly the same : principles given in : the case of the cor- responding slanting capital letters. The ft t 1 Fist. 30. termination of the last stroke of letter " K " should in a well formed letter be vertically below the initial point of the second stroke. The length of the horizontal portion of the " L" is again, as in the case of the " F," determined by the succeeding (lower case) letter. It is obvious, that by unduly lengthening that portion of the letter, an unproportionally wide space will result between its vertical part and the succeeding letter. The curved part of letter "J " (Fig. 31) ought to be a well shaped semicircle, beginning and ending not above the middle of the second space. The second and third strokes of letter "M" converge at the second line, and this point should, of course, be at an even distance from the vertical stroke, m To attain this end _ exactly, some; draftsmen will per- Fig. 31. haps find it easier to put in the two verticals first and the oblique strokes afterwards, as in the construction of the letter " N." The angles in those two letters should be sharply defined, the strokes forming them ending in a clearly cut, though somewhat blunt point. The second horizontal stroke of letter " T " ought to be evenly balanced upon the main or down-stroke. 17 The construction of the letters shown in Fig. 32 is chiefly guided by the principle that the rate of inclina- tion of the slanting strokes should be uniform in each In the case of 32. the "V" and " W" care should be taken that only the center lines of the inclined strokes join at the base or top lines of the ruling, thus avoiding two extremes, either the formation of a vertical short end or the reverse, a flattened-out point. This is made apparent in the small illustration, Fig. 320. The first and fourth strokes of letter " W" ought theoretically to be made parallel to the second and third; p ig Incorrect^, but as the latter two strokes are involuntarily made more upright than the first one, the fourth stroke should again be made more slanting to correspond with the first. The reverse mode of procedure would result in a badly shaped letter, as shown in brackets. Letter " X " is usually made in two strokes, or, if preferable, a stop may be made in the second stroke shortly before crossing the first, continuing it on the other side, avoiding thus the forming of a lump of ink at the point of intersection. The two inclined parts of letter " Y " should join on the top of the second space ; from there the second stroke is continued in a vertical direction down to the base line. Letter " P " (Fig. 33) is constructed in two strokes, the second one beginning at the top of the first, care- fully round- ingthe curve ni "v? '.r?)3 il"^V" H!^) a \\ \ and joining = =^j>s= *U zJEfen U; the fi r s t Fig. 33. stroke again at right angles as a perfectly straight line. The third stroke of letter "B" begins at the point of curve of the second, enclosing a slightly larger area than the second one. The second stroke of letter " D " should begin and terminate in a hori- zontal direction. If a slight " sagging " should happen in the curve, it ought to be near its lower portion. The rule given for the forming of the second stroke of letter " B " applies also to letter " R;" its third inclined stroke begins at the point of curve of the second. The two vertical strokes of letter " U " are made first ; a right hand carefully formed semi-circular curve con- nects the two. 18 Letter " C" (Fig. 34) is made with two strokes, and is simply a repetition of the lower case letter, relatively narrower. The second stroke of letter " G " follows the outline of the ellipse wards near- ^t/^S ,'^, V"Vf [Qf *.QziI ly a space ; ~ ^^ there a short stop is made and the pen point is carefully pushed up- wards in a vertical direction, terminating that stroke as shown. The final horizontal stroke should not be made too short. To those who might find it difficult to exe- cute the second stroke neatly in the way outlined the suggestion of a separate vertical downward stroke is made. The mode of construction of the ellipses of the "O" and "Q" differ somewhat from that of the lower case letters ; the point of juncture is shifted diagonally in order to lessen the chance of a point forming at the top and bottom of the oval. The third stroke of letter "Q" begins as shown, and extends one space below. The second stroke of letter " S " should for a very short space run perfectly horizontal. The rules given for the forming of the lower case letter otherwise apply to this letter also. Numerals. I Upright numerals ought to be like the inclined ones, five spaces high. Figure " i " may again, if used in proximity with capital letter "I" i = P = -yzif :-" r !/ ""rf^ v< : or lower case I ^fr / / &<_:' "1," be con- Fig. 35. structed with a very short upstroke. Numeral " 4 " is started with a perfectly straight inclined downstroke, as shown, whence it assumes a horizontal direction. The rule given above and illustrated by Fig. 32^ on the forming of a clear cut angle, applies to the top part of this figure espec- ially. The lower terminal point of numeral " 7 " should, in a perfectly formed figure, be vertically below the center of the horizontal portion. The upper part of numeral "2" ought to form portion of a flattened oval. The mode of its construction is clearly shown in the illustration, Fig. 36. 19 Numeral " 5 " (Fig. 36) begins with a vertical stroke to nearly the middle of the third space; from there the stroke follows the outline of the ellipse, which is to be three spaces high. The middle portion of the second stroke of numeral "6" ought to follow the vertical direction a short distance, as the general tendency in constructing this Fig. 36 figure is to have that part too much curved. The third stroke ought to enclose a perfect ellipse. Numeral " 8 " is formed in three strokes ; its first a well-shaped ogee curve, with its middle portion running very nearly horizontal. The first stroke of numeral " 9 " ought to be part of a perfect ellipse and comprising as it does, nearly two-thirds of its -circumference, is somewhat difficult to construct. The middle portion of the second stroke should for a short distance, run almost vertical. The upright - X Roman num- - erals, Fig. 37, Fig. 37. are constructed, analogous to the inclined ones, with upper and lower short horizontal strokes. After explain- ing the mode of forming of capital letters " V " and " X," nothing new can be said concerning these, except that as a general rule it will be well to make them a trifle narrower in proportion. Extended Form of Upright Lettering. In the following illustration, Fig. 38, the upright letter- ing is shown in extended form. It will be noticed that for the construction of some of those letters a compara- tively greater number of strokes is required. The axes of the ellipses lie in a horizontal direction in every case, and it will be well to shape parts of the curves, composing them, decidedly flat, sometimes going to the extreme to have the top and bottom parts of the ellipses running perfectly straight for a certain distance. The complete alphabets of the slanting and upright type are shown in Plate I., together with samples of lettering as used on working drawings. The single 20 letters, composing a word, should, especially in slanting Sufficient space should be allotted between different lettering, be placed as close as possible, so close, in fact, words. Of all the theories set forth upon the spacing Jk. .i 1 1 ia i -n- - 1 1 ,\f - ,- -x ^T> m v V Fig. 38. that they sometimes nearly touch each other. If this of lettering the writer has found that no one really principle is followed out at first, the golden middle gov- " works " in practice ; therefore he would advise the erning the spacing of letters will soon prevail. The draftsman to depend solely upon his eye in determining beginner generally spaces his letters too far apart. the proper space. The spacing of a word for instance, 21 should be so arranged that, when the drawing is held at some distance, or is looked at with half closed eyes, no unusually large white space appears between letters, as shown for example ONLY STANDARD, in Fig. 390, Which, (Corrected.) an actual specimen Fig. 39. of printed type, demonstrates the fallacy of one of the theories upon spacing, and should appear corrected as in Fig. 39^, showing, as it were, a more even tone of coloring. In expressing fractions, the accepted custom is to place a horizontal dash between numerator and denominator, excepting the instance when numeral " 4 " happen to be the latter, in which case, for obvious reasons, a slanting dash is employed. The several lines of lettering compos- ing a sentence, for instance, should be placed rather close. Freehand Lettering applied to Working Drawings. Lettering as applied to working drawings, should be side, and a dotted reference line with arrow head point- bold, clear and uniform in size, with the exception of the sub-captions, which may be a trifle larger. Diminutive and t .35/|>|" cramped lettering on a drawing will 15; If possible, the letter- never look well, ing should be kept distinctly by itself and never be allowed to run across line?. If some words can not be put on the ob- ject itself, which they are intended to des- cribe, they should be boldly placed out- Ends. 22 ing to the subject attached, as shown especially in Figs. dimension lines, and an appropriate space left 40, 41 and 42. The lettering read from the base and right hand side of the sheet, that is to say, lettering running at an angle of 90 to the base line should be made to read from the right hand side, if at a greater angle, its base should be reversed in such a way that it can be read from the lower left hand corner; if the angle be small- er, one should then be enabled to read it from the lower should be placed so as to while drawing those. rT.!fo"i Details of Long Raising Girder and Truss Connection. Fig. 41. open If the space allotted for a dimen- sion is too small to place the same comfortably be- tween arrow heads, Dislriliuling Girder, eKlvsiw , i r i 11 the figures should be written outside, parallel to dimen- sion line, and refer- ence line used. Arrow heads should be bold, with even sides, the two strokes composing them tapering in thick- ness from the point; " lop sided " ones should be avoided. The length o f \i ] ^^ ^ I o :; 3 F/oorTrvtafff\. WutfKISLii't 1 N*S TsflBott^f-i^S. Amwf>^ ^ -* f. , n t * 'y -K ,7T Xiru s i_ .y. Cross Section, right hand corner, as Fig. 44 demonstrates. the arrow heads depends upon the size of the dimension Dimensions should be placed between, not on top of numerals, which are to go between them ; at any rate, 23 the numerals themselves should stand out free and not touch the former. Where the space does not permit this, the reversed arrow heads may be. used, so as to leave a clear space between them, as shown, for instance, at left of Fig. 40, in second row of dimensions from be- low. In the same figure the relative size of upright an inset sheet in "Engineering News'" and yet shows the lettering of the strain-sheet legible, sharp and clean cut, even under a magnifying glass. The pin points, as shown, are also made prominent by using upright refer- ence letters. Similar prominence may be given, for in- stance, to portions of a building, as shown in Plate XI a*r S "'* "'* ^ P! ' M S' V * fr . ^^^^^JH^B^^^^^H **!*. E i22'iok"overall(B- -2SK -300'^ /Bulls Ferry Rood Rxkor Boulder'*, ..., EI.-IS}.--' KtxkorKaalcler of which have been exhaustively explained in the fore- going, will experience no trouble whatever in sketching these letters in good shape. As shown, the relative height of lower case and capital letters remains unchanged ; the width of the stem of the capital maybe taken as 4-5, in some cases 7-8, that of the lower case letters as 3-5 the width of a square. 'ft -*!00 . NEW YORK, i -*I50' I -*IOO' --100' ISO' -200' --Z50 1 -300' 1000' Fig. 45. of lower case " a " and " g." This lettering is best pro- duced with a ball point pen, insuring a stroke of almost uniform strength. As a precaution, it may be said that the pen should never be too full while making this type of lettering. Plates V to VII inclusive, contain Freehand Letter- ing suitable for main titles, which may easily be con- structed by dividing the space to be lettered into squares and sketching in the letters in outline afterwards, as shown ; on tracing linen, cross-section paper may of course be used for this purpose. A draftsman able to satisfactorily construct the upright lettering, the principles Doll. 6000' 7000' On Plate V sug- gestions are made as to sev- eral methods of shading these letters, although, as a rule, they look very well without it. When this kind of lettering is de- sired to be of medium or small size, it can neatly and e s cJ o: "Z. Dollars \ >: | .,' \ / ^ 4 /| \ \ , ,< // / / \ / \ \ / , K \ . | s / \ J ?BO 1 / \ \ - :- \ '-' 1 - -bO. -"" ? > " -M ' ;: ** ^ - n : / / L ; / > * . '-. a. 1880. 1895. Metal Prices 1879, I860 and 1895. Fig. 46. 28 expeditiously be constructed in the way shown by Fig. 470 : Throw in the stems of the letters with a broad nibbed pen, insuring a bold stroke analogous to ordinary WAY IN L, Gothic upright lettering, with TXTR-V./'XTT-' < Spurred bat,k.) \A/AYNr the exception of the horizontal X/T.I i it- strokes, which, together with (Plain 6otf ,/^ \/\^YN E the tops and bottoms of the Fig. 47a. letters, rule in, and fill in the corners freehand, as shown enlarged in 47*5. As is well known, short freehand strokes are somewhat difficult to draw horizontally, therefore this method is certainly pre- ferable to that of turning the paper, so as to permit the draftsman to draw these strokes in the direction towards him. If, as the case may be, the draftsman should desire more ornamental letters, he will be able, by the aid of his eye, and the exercise of some originality, to devolve the letters desired out of the types given. It should, however, be borne in mind, that a title, composed of highly ornamented letters, does not atone for any poorly drawn and lettered sheet to which it may be attached, but on the other hand, a simple W*^ ~Y ~T" \\ V V several lines composing it, centered, will make an ample heading for any well executed draw- ing, and conform in style with the subject represented. The draftsman is occasionally called upon to employ the Greek Alphabet in his work. There seems to be a lack of uniformity in the construction and shaping of these letters, so that at times the "alpha" cannot be distinguished from lower case "a," or the "gamma" from the "y," etc. Therefore a plate (VIII) representing the principles of construc- tion, of the slanting Greek letters, analogous to the Italian Script, shown upon a preceding plate, has been added. Remember, these letters are all shaded charac- ters and must therefore be drawn with a flexible, well pointed pen. 29 LETTERING OF TITLES. On Plates IX and X and the accompanying text figures, reduced specimens of freehand titles are given, ..as". Bridge 720 B/g /fun, Evansi////e, Arizona. M. K. and 77/?y. M/DDLED/V. 3 Spans, 5/ng/e Track, Throt/yh '7S-o'c.c.F/7c/P/ns. TOP CHORDS />ND END POSTS. Sco/e, AMERICAN BRIDGE CO., A.B.CO. Contr. No Mtdeby.kZ^T. EDGEMOOR PLANT. In Charge v Ink Border ORDER No..>2.3a .'JBHEET NQ.../.2. V Gist e/ua Print onftij //at Fig. 48. and pains have been taken to present, as much as pos- sible, different types of easily formed and fairly well bal- anced titles, such as could be selected during the daily routine work in the drafting office of a technical journal. These samples, as given here, represent reductions from originals which range in size from one-half to nearly one-fifth linear measure. These specimens exhibited on those two plates show more or less clearly, that the prominence which is to be given to different portions of a title, depends upon the relative importance of the lines. The draftsman is generally given considerable latitude in regard to this matter. The title given under Fig. 4g is one of the standard arrangements of the con- cern named and shows good points. The lower part, as noticed, is stamped on the drawing, and the blanks are subsequently filled in by hand. A style of title seldom used nowadays is that shown in Fig. 49. The letters are arranged in curved lines and an ornamental, flourished effect is sought after. Where such is desirable, the general scheme is a fairly satisfactory one. - 30 A few words in regards to centering of titles may here be added. A title should in nearly all cases, be arranged systemetically about a vertical center line. After the location of this line and the height and spacing of the different lines of letters have been determined, the spaces equal to the width of the letters can be marked off with pencil on the edge of a strip of paper and the center of a strip placed on the vertical center line of the title, with OUtl et Sewer All" INDEX TO MAP IN SHEETS ATTACHED Fig, 49. its edge just below the line of letters to be sketched. The letters can then be penciled in very readily. A space between words counts as a letter in spacing, therefore, a line containing three words of 7, 3 and 6 letters represents 18 divisions, so that 9 divisions, or the first word, one space and one letter of the second word are to come to the left of the center line, and the re- mainder of the line to the right. If, after all, the spacing of a line of letters needs re-adjustment after the letters are penciled in, the draftsman may easily rectify the matter by going over that line again, working first to the left and then to the right of center. In Fig. 50, an actual fac-simile of a title once met with is exhibited. It explains in short how not to do it, and shows the drafts- man's lack of prac- tice in freehand work, while rely- ing solely upon his skill with bow pen and ruling pen. The writer would not consider this END ECTTIONAIL VGEW OF EUREKA DRIER LONGITUDINAL SECTION Fig. 50, work complete without giving passing notice to Round Writing, the principles of which are shown on Plate XI. For the production of this kind of lettering regular round writ- ing pens are used, although very satisfactory lettering of this type can be produced with goose-quills cut by the draftsman, and the writer even yet prefers the latter. 31 LETTERING FOR PHOTO-REPRODUCTION. The lettering and drawing for reduction purposes may be made on any quality of drawing paper, tracing linen or paper. Yellowish tinted papers however, will as a rule, not give as good results as the pure white or blue- ish ones. In order to insure good, unbroken lines on tracing cloth the writer would recommend the thorough rubbing of the surface with purnice powder. The other materials mentioned, of course, require no special prepa- ration. Erasures on tracing cloth are also best made with the same agent ; the powder is sprinkled upon the part to be erased, and a little brisk rubbing with the end of the finger or a hard rubber, while replacing the dis- colored pumice with fresh powder, will thoroughly clean the effected surface, which may be lettered over again without danger of the ink spreading. Where, however, erasures have otherwise been made, Chinese white may be applied with a soft brush over the discolored parts. Letters and lines must be made perfectly black ; if very fine lines are used on a drawing, they will still reproduce at considerable reduction, provided each is formed by a solid ridge of ink. A good standard to adopt for lettering for reproduc- tion is to have the smaller lower case letters, such as " a," " e," etc., reduce to not less than one millimeter (slightly more than -sV in.) in height ; therefore, if a drawing is to be reduced three-fourths, (i. e., to one- fourth its original length) make those letters 4 times Freehand Lettering Fig. 51a. ORIGINAL FOR THKEE-FOUETIIS REDUCTIONS. ters (about A in.) high with the strength of body in pro- portion ; the height of the capitals and numerals must be in accordance. A drawing to be reduced to one half size (one-half its length) has to contain lettering just twice the standard given above. The lettering on draw- 32 ings to be reduced to a size about halfways between three -fourths and two- thirds reduction, should be made Freehand Lettering- 2 * millimeters ( aboilt * in.) high, minimum size. All the foregoing is sufficiently made clear by the illustra- Fig. 51&. OEIGINAL FOR REPRODUCTION BETWEEN ONE-HALF AXt> TWO-THIRDS. tions, Fig. 5 1 a, b and c. The two illustrations shown on Plate XII (details o rail-joint and section of reservoir) have been reproduced from originals five and "&' r \o CAST four times their re- spective sizes. Al- though the draftsman is supposed to know the exact rate of re- duction, the directions to the engravers are better given in inches or fractions thereof, placed in pencil un- Fig. 52a. clerneath ; they are for our puposes reproduced on Fig. 5ia and b, but would, of course, not be reproduced by the engraver ordinarily. Freehand Lettering- Fig. 51c. BEFIiODUTICS FROM EITHEB OF THE ABOVE ORIGINALS. reduction is one-third its condensed on drawings A drawing should never be reduced at a lesser rate than to three-fifths of its original length. What may be called a good average the two-thirds (i. e., to length.) When the type of lettering is used ior reduction purposes a proper safeguard to adopt is to exaggerate somewhat the width of ovals or small loops, such as for instance of the letter " e," to guard against the " filling in " of those parts. A close study of the three types of lettering given on Fig. i of this work, which tend to illustrate the same principle, will also be useful. The reason for giving a limit of reduction (i. e., one Nate:- 77w Top af~Cap tvitt bt sh'ghtfy oval, and rhiCttj- tral squart, triangle, and circle will ot raised about ering. Section of Cost Iron Cap. Fig. 526. millimeter height for smaller lower case letters) and the employment of gothic letters of uniform strength, is made evident by referring to the illustrations, Fig. 52a, 33 which presents an example of engraving, such as is sometimes indulged in, and Fig. 5 26, redrawn and reduced to some scale. The strength of the lines of a drawing to be repro- duced depends of course altogether upon the rate of re- duction. For larger reductions it will be quite essential to show as much of a white space between lines as possi- ble, for instance such as designates the thickness of flange of an I-beam in elevation. The work should in all cases be clear and open, and this detail, immaterial as it may appear, not be overlooked. The processes of photo-reproduction ordinarily em- ployed are the photo- lithographic and zinc etching pro- cess. Both require a similar grade of preparation of the drawing. The writer uses on such drawing the water- proof ink, which is perhaps blacker than the ordinary kind and possesses more body, Any kind of black drawing ink, however, is suitable for the purpose ; well rubbed stick India ink will permit of very fine black lines. The main objection to the use of ordinary inks, however, is their liability of blurring, when handled, or the ink mixing with the Chinese white, render- ing the application of the color sometimes very difficult. 34 abcdefqhijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.; I 23456789 10. 1894. ABCDEFOHIJKLMNOPQR5TUVWXYZ. Ordinary Type. III1YVWW WJKI. Details of Cross Framing. CROSS SECTION OF OIRDER. Extended Lettering. LONGITUDINAL SECTION. &. Compressed Type. INTERSTATE BRIDbE. 5/^A^#'2fe^ a bcdefghij kl mnopq rstuvwxyz. 12345678910. 13^"-, -]|" %". ABODE FOHIJ K LM N OPQ RSTUVWXYZ. IIINVVIVIIWKX.. Ordinary Lettering. I Beam. Eye Bar. 4^,6'x6"x-ji"= 85.12 D " 2Webs,48"xl" r~ "XX"! i*""^ Vn /""""''i C~> /*""N ^ t^^S l-^ ^" f \ V^^\ /"^*S l^^l W* W* "1 /"! X^ / i ^^*>. v ^ / j^^^*4- /* [ ^^ I C^ I I \*-*A <^_^r X^--^ * ^^ -^ X^^J | I ^ J P "^ ^ ^ I f | 1 V.^^ ^/ 1 C_V-^ %T ^/ , C __ It I C ^^ , Compressed. I, ie"C,-lbs.peryd. NEW YORK CENTRAL. 2V 5'7|', l"Bolt ; Outer Elevation. & Material for Reenforcinq Bottom Chord : Material for 1 Chord Section : The samples of Letter,^ on Lower IReenf.PI. 24"* "* 6 ft" OUTS above Chord ' ^ Wa ^ p/s ^-" y -" y ?/r//7 " Portion of MS piateshowappwimM I '' ,72^4 *8'0" next to Web. ,72"* I" Outs. St/ffeners,frL s ,4"x5"x%'x3'IOl '' 3 5" Fillers; Diaphragm5(lnsj,l> 'PI* % "thick. xx * ZWebPI; 2. " " Ifri" >( iz"x25'0" Crowding in Fraction Numerals. 5 ofunes and also Mode of " l" r '/i " It will also beseen that it becomes l 77 " & n " , .)/ *2 x v V necessary to occasionally shorten a ? v if PI 5 ll-'y-L'^l'in 1 " Capital or longer Lower Case Letter. ., c ; "?*2 , Occasional Brackets orHorizontal 4 Batten Pff. 15*1 *2 1 D "shes are best made Free Hand, /i iS j" 7 /" 5" o/-'/i" the latter with a slow, "wobbling" 4L, 4 *3$ *j x 250 Stroke of the Pen. PLATE I. Island Parts of System not yet begun- '. ton factSectiQnsvre indicated by Upright Letters and Fiqwts PLATE Highest Point gf_R0fff_ *i I'fl, _ _ . -^ %ftf Point of Root ' ^* Vertical Section at fbirrt-31, Enlarged. Detail Showing Elevation of Girders and Bracing at Center of Trusses. Connections of Fbnel Points 28-3], Section on LineA-B, Showing Connection of ISXhannels to Strut 5-8. a b c d e f g h ijklmnopqrstuvwxyz w &$$ fyl K i-J Ji i #% n^'olp^/l t* sf yr&Mf % yt A B C D E F G H fj K LMNOPQRS TUVWXYZ -y O o /l r" 1 /~* r*y f~\ Freehand ' '/ ' Printing Shaded Inclined (Italic) Lettering, Used for Working Drawings. X a bcdefg h i j klmnopqrstuvwxyz ABCDEFG HIJKLMNOPQKSTUVWXYZ . , 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10. Freehand Lettering for Captions, Produced very Fast. - THROUGH PASSENGER SERVICED etc. PLATE IV PLATE V PLATE VI. PLATE VII - si 1 I . ~ I a S o Jt v (j) ABFAEZH 61 KAMJVZOTTP Z T Y$ X

c Stays. ROUND CORNER DETAILS. SC/JLE /2 INCH-=IFT. These details fbr<5.E.Corner-Similar construction at N.E.comer. ffoowf Oov/vrr /f Y. G&nero/ E/erof/on, Cross -S&c-hons sco/e *'/*'=/&. Office. Chi'coffo Cfy/coyo. 0ec.30*99. Scale >^in.to I ft. Sept. I9OI. Approved PITTSBURGH, PA. DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS BUREAU OF FILTRATION CONTRACT NO. I FILTERS.BASINS AND APPURTENANCES INTERIOR DRAINS DETAIL PLAN OF ONE FILTER PLATE X. a/ /v /w /a/ /V7 A/ /y /v / AW /w o /v ^x . 12/3456789 10^ So. Setter AVI/ aw 1S92/. PLATE XI. O 1 10' 20' 30' Baggage Room H finish M ,- floor 6 12 ..... i ..... I 10' 0' 30' 40' 50' 60' 10' 20' 30' 40' 50' 60* Plan of Joint. O' 10' 20' 30' 40' 50' Meridians. - PLATE XII. - ; -::. t:: PLATE XIII. Cross Section, Millimeters. STANDARD TEXTS FOR DRAFTSMEN PUBLISHED BY D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 25 Park Place, New York A PRACTICAL COURSE IN MECHANICAL DRAWING By \\ I I.I.I V Instructor Cornell University Complete in Two Parts Parti. BEGINNING DRAFTING, SKETCHING.ETC. The aim of the first part is to not only give the student practice in the making of good line drawings, intersections, the principles of construction, etc., but by a proper selection of practical examples to im- part to him information of a practical nature, such as every designer should know. A defi- nite system of standards is arranged with a view to its being followed throughout the course. ii "" "'* """" Ml Part II. EMPIRICAL DESIGN The second part is intended to give the student an idea of proportion. Numerous tables of pro- portions of parts that have become standard, formulas, etc., are provided as well as many problems from which a course of study may be arranged. It is arranged to thoroughly train the student to take up "Advance Machine Design." Price, each, $1.25 Net MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR TRADE SCHOOLS CHARLES C. LEEDS Assistant Professor of Mechanical Drawing, Carnegie Technical Schools. School of Applied Industries The author's conviction that the use of models serves to develop copyists, and often tends to stunt or destroy a draftsman's creative faculties, has led him to discard entirely the use of models in teaching mechanical drawing, and he has arranged these lessons in a manner which he believes will attract and hold the attention of the student. Each lesson will guide the student by easy steps, illustrate some fundamental point in mechanical drawing, and work as a whole towards the development of the creative draftsman. MACHINERY TRADES EDITION 58 Lessons to . xj Inches Illustrated Price. $2.00 Net HIGH SCHOOL EDITION 4O Lessons lo'\ x7 Inches Illustrated Price, $1.25 Net PERSPECTIVE Jtff ELEMEMTMRV TEXTBOOK By BEN J. LUBSCHEZ Member of the American Institute of Architects This book is a concise treatise on Perspective primarily intended for home study by the beginner or draftsman without the aid of a teacher, but also of great value to the experienced draftsman and to the layman wishing to in- form himself regarding the general principles of the science. It contains a chapter on Short Cuts and Special Manipulations of great value to any worker. The whole subject is very clearly and simply presented in a unique way, the text being the result of manv years of experience in the drawing of Perspectives in an architect's office, as well as in teaching the subject to beginners. CONTENTS I. Introductory. Scope and Plan of the Book. II. Preliminary. Seeing in Perspective. Picture Plane. Definition of Perspective. Photograph and Perspective. Vanishing' Points. Horizon. Foreshortening. Size of Image. Vanishing Points of Horizontal lyines. Position of Picture Plane. III. Making a Drawing in Perspec- tive. Elevations and Perspectives. The Problem. Dia- gram of Working Points. Location of the Point of Sta- tion. Finding the Vanishing Points. Finding the Measuring Points. The Perspective Plan. The Perspec- tive Projection or Picture. Redrawing Without Instruc- tions. IV. Second Problem in Perspective. (To be solved in the s;ime general way as the first problem.) Statement of Problem and Discussion of New and Diffi- cult Points. The Perspective of Points in Front of the Picture Plane. Any Problem in Perspective may be Solved if the Perspective of any Point in Space can be found. Different Methods of Finding the Persoective of the Same Point. V. Vanishing Points and the Point of Station. -locating the Point of Station. Obliquity of View and Foreshortening. Crowding of I^ines as they Approach the Horizon or Vanishing Points. Planes and their Vanishing Lines. Horizontal Planes and the Hori- zon. Oblique and Inclined Planes and their Vanishing Lines. Vanishing Lines and Vanishing Points. Vanish- ing Points of Oblique Lines. The Vanishing Point of any Line and Explanation of Construction for Finding Van- ishing Points. Two Vanishing Points for Every Line. Conjugate and Reciprocal Vanishing Points. Tri-Con- jugate Vanishing Points. VI. Measuring Points and Scales. Scales. Front Lines. Measuring Points, what they are, how they are found, and why. Special Cases. VII. Parallel and One Point Perspective. Conditions of. Vanishing Points and Measuring Points. Definition and Limits of. Special Case of Ordinary Perspective with Conjugate Vanishing Points. Problems in Parallel Per- spective. Use. VIII. Special Manipulations and Short Cuts. Perspective Centers. Plotting and Craticulation. Circles and Curves. Mitre Points and Lines. When Vanishing Points are Off the Board. When Measuring Points are Off the Board. When the Point of Which We Wish to Find the Perspective is Off the Board. When the Distance between Vanishing Points is Limited. Discus- sion of So-called Distortion. IN PRESS tOO Pages, .5x7 3O Illustrations THEORY OF Engineering Drawing By ALPHONSE A. ADLER, B.S., M.E. Instructor in Mechanical Drawing and Designing, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn J4n unusually complete, thorough course, treating the subject matter in a radically and. rationally new way. The text is divided into four parts as follows : PART I. "Principles of Parallel Projecting -Line Drawing," also printed and bound separately. (See book below.) PART II treats of the usual problems found in the various Descriptive Geometries ; the Classification of Lines and Surfaces ; and Intersections and Developments. The problems are numerous and cover nearly every phase of the subject. "Warped Surfaces are not included, as the author did not think these essential in view of the more important material which is usually omitted. PART III treats of Perspective Projection and gives this subject in much better form than is now obtainable. PART IV treats of the Pictorial Effects of Illumination and is that part which is usually headed, "Shades and Shadows." 328 Pages, 6x9 275 Illustrations Price, $2.00 Net THE PRINCIPLES OF Parallel Projecting- Line Drawing By ALPHONSE A. ADLER, II. S., M.E. Instructor in Mechanical Drawing and Designing, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn A complete and concise discussion of the rapid methods of making drawings that find wide application in drafting rooms. Arranged by topics so that reference to a particular type of projection is easily accomplished. The complete classification of the types of projection makes an excellent survey of the entire subject. It is a book that teaches principles rather than methods, and for this reason it should be useful as a text for elementary instruction in drawing, since it approaches the subject in an interesting manner. The book contains four chapters as follows: - -1. Introductory. 2. Oblique Pro- jection. 3. Orthographic Projection. 4. Axonometric Projection. Kach chapter shows the commercial appli- cation of the type of projection considered, and gives a set of questions which thoroughly cover the text. A complete index is also included. 72 Pages, 6x9 48 Illustrations Price, $1.00 Net ELEMENTARY COURSE IN PERSPECTIVE By SHERMAN M. TVRRILL Civil Engineer. Assoc. Am. Soc. C. E. This book shows the mechanical application of the principles of descriptive geometry to the making of a perspective drawing. Two methods are explained the ' ' Method by the Use of the Plan," which requires the use of instruments and is intended for the mechanical draftsman, while the "Method by Scale" is the quicker process where the accurate location of the leading or important points only is de- sired, and is helpful for the freehand drafts- man and artist. There are eighty-eight problems for solution by either method covering the principles as applied to the illustrated subject in a variety of position. CONTENTS METHOD BY, ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION : Defini- tions and Descriptions. Notation. Pictorial Perspec- tive of a Pyramid. Perspective of: a Pyramid ; a Build- ing; a Cube and Parallelepiped ; a Plane Curve ; a Cylin- der ; the Shadow of the Frustrum of a Pyramid by Use of the Horizontal Projection ot the Shadow ; the Shadow of the Krustrum of a Pyramid by the Method of the Vanish- ing Point of Rays; a Shadow of a Cube and Parallel- opiped ; the Shadow of the Fmstrum of a Pyramid on an Oblique Plane. Problem. METHOD BY SCALE: Com- parison of the Two Methods. Perspective of: a Pyra mid ; a Building ; a Cube and Parallelepiped ; a Cylinder ; the Shadow of a Cube and Parallelepiped . Problems. 81 Pages, 5x7}& /6~ Illustrations and Folding Plates Price, $1.25 Net D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY Publishers 25 Park Place, New York THIRD EDITION " While deprecating any need- lessly elaborate finish, the writer advises the use of just sufficient shading and finishing touches to render a drawing thoroughly comprehensible and to preclude any possible ambiguity. ' " The illustrations in this work, quite a number of which have appeared in the columns of 'Engineering News," are in- serted to demonstrate the points involved and have been reduced more or less in size so as to save space. They may however be copied by enlarging to about 3 or 4 times their linear dimensions." REINHAUDT'S / TECHKK ^ OF MECHA1N1C41 FPI A PDACTICAL GUIDE TO NEAT.CODRECTAND LEGIBLE DRAWING. Third, Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged Edition JO Text Illustrations, 11 Plates. Price, 81.OO TESTIMONIALS Price, $1.00 " It is of course to be under- stood, that this book is not a manual for beginners exactly ; it serves its purpose best, where used by the draftsman who is familiar with the mathematical principles of mechanical drafting. It will then, as the writer hopes, prove a valuable aid to the rapid production of neat, correct "and legible drawings." (PREFACE.) "I have examined the book carefully and am much pleased with it. Mr. Rein- hardt is to be congratulated on having clearly, simply and briefly explained the methods he has used in making his drawings remarkable for their great clearness and legibility. It is a book that should be on the desk of every draftsman." Prof. C. B Wing. Leland Stanford. Jr.. University. "I find it most excellently adapted to the purpose for which it is intended." Prof. Walter Flint, University of Maine. "Am greatly pleased with it: itoccupies a fleid of its own among books on draft- ing." Prof. Robt. L. Lund, Vanderbilt University. "It should be in the library of every draftsman." Prof. C. W. Marx. Missouri State University. "It admirably fills a long-felt want." Prof. John L. Mann. Thayer School of Civil Engineering. "It is certainly the best compendium of instruction and elegant examples that I have seen." Prof. Robert Fletcher, Ph.D.. Director Thayer School of Civil Engi- neering. "It will form a useful supplement to Mr. Reinhardt's 'System of Lettering.' " Prof. E. H. Lockwood. Sheffield Scientific School. "Have adopted it as a reference book for our civil engineering students. Your 'Lettering' has been the means of bringing about a distinct lift in the standard of freehand lettering, anfl 1 predict a like result in the field covered by your new work." Prof. W. D. Pence, Purdue University. "Reinhardt's 'Technic of Mechanical Drafting.' is a book that should be in the drafting department of every engineer's office. H describes those subtle details in execution which constitute the essentials of effective expression in a drawing, both as to truthfulness in its representation as well as its artistic finish. This state- ment is admirably illustrated by the contrasts shown in Figs, (i, 7, 22 and 46. In view of the important part of detail drawings in all kinds of construction, it is an important service to show how the element of thorough legibility may be assured without necessarily increasing the cost of the drawing. My early experience of six years in a drafting-room leads me to appreciate the importance of manyhints which might otherwise appear to be of little, if any, value. Each of the chapters on 'Outline Shading,' and on "Section Lining.' are alone worth the price of the book." Prof. Henry S. Jacoby, Cornell University. FOR SALE BY D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 25 ParR Place, New York . UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. LD 21-100m-9,'48(B399sl6)476 /o, YE 01982 I