UC-NRLF B 3 3MT 351 Prof. Alden H. Miller FACTORS * IN ORGANIC EVOLUTION U FACTORS IN ORGANIC EVOLUTION SYLLABUS OF A COURSE OF ELEMENTARY LECTURES DELIVERED TN LELA.VD STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY BY DAVID STARR JORDAN UNIVERSITY PRKSS ICELAND STANFORD JVNIOR UNIVERSITY CALIFORNIA v N CONTENTS. PAGE The Unrolling of the Universe. Organic Evolution : The Development of Forms of Life, - 1 Evolution as a Working Hypothesis, 4 What Evolution Is Not, 6 Variety in Life, 9 Unity in Life, - 11 Heredity: The Great Conservative Force in Evolution, 13 Theories of Heredity, - 15 The Cell and Heredity, - - 16 Amphimixis, - 19 The Meaning of Sex, - 21 The Cell Theory, 23 The Physical Basis of Heredity, - - 26 The Inheritance of Acquired Characters, - 28 The Inheritance of Acquired Characters Continued, - 31 Significance of Morphology, - 34 Ontogeny and Phylogeny, - 36 Contemporary Evolution of Man, - 37 The Gastrsea Theory of Hseckel, - - 40 The Origin of the Eye, 43 The Origin of the Ear, - 45 The Law of Individuality, 47 The Struggle for Existence, ' - 48 Response to External Stimulus, 50 Natural Selection, - 52 IV CONTENTS. PACK Natural Selection and Ethics, 56 Law of Self-Activity, - 61 Law of Mutual Help, or Altruism, - 64 The Origin of Goodness, - - 68 Degeneration, - 70 Degeneration in Man, - 72 The Industrial Struggle for Existence, 75 Isolation as a Factor in Evolution, - 77 Are Species Real ? 78 Classification, - 82 Application of Theory of Descent to Taxonomy, - 84 Application of Theory of Descent to Taxonomy. Object and Methods of Taxonomic Work, - 85 Application of Theory of Descent to Taxonomy. Illus- tration of the Application of This Method. The Descent of the Lepidoptera, 87 Evolution of Plants, - 91 Evolution of the Higher Plants, 93 Spontaneous Generation, - - 95 Man's Place in Nature, 96 Evolution in Social Institutions. Principles, - - 101 Evolution of Social Institutions. Applications and Il- lustrations, 103 History of Evolution, - 105 After Darwin, - 109 Spencer's Formula of Evolution, - - 110 Present Battle-Grounds of Evolution, 112 The Philosophy of Despair, - 117 The Way Out of Pessimism, - 119 Philosophy and Science, - - 122 Religion and Science, - 125 The Evolution of Religion, - - - - 127 EVOLUTION. LECTURE I. THE UNROLLING OF THE UNIVERSE. ORGANIC EVO- LUTION : THE DEVELOPMENT OF FORMS OF LIFE. /. Evolution Considered as a Science. The study of changing beings as affected by unchanging laws. " Nothing endures save the flow of energy and the rational order that pervades it." - - Huxley. No one dipping his hand in the river can be twice wet with the same water. Shortness of human life as compared with duration of world processes. Objects seen by a flash of lightning during a storm appear immov- able. So the phases of nature seem unchanged to the casual observer. His view so short. Parable of the rose and lily who thought the gardener immortal. ; ' Dauer im Wechsel ": persistence in change. Epochs in science study. " Die neue Weltan- schauung." Seeing the objects in nature. (1) As they appear. (2) As they really are. (3) As they were (4) As they are, their present condition being an inevitable result of what they were, the laws of their being lead- ing on to what they are to be. , W W. LOCAL, 174 - 7w ST OAKLAND. CAl 2 ORGANIC EVOLUTION. Seasons return because conditions return, but con- ditions never return in the world of life. AVhat we know we know not as a permanence, but as a phase of change. Nothing in the universe due to chance or whim. Meaning of law. " The ascertained sequence of events."- -The necessary sequence of events. The fall of a leaf follows fixed law as much as the fall of a planet. This true of everything we can know of. The creation of man or the growth of a state as much nat- ural processes as the formation of an apple or the growth of a sand-bank. The exact sciences, those in which data are most simple or most accessible. The inexact sciences the sciences of life are inexact only because the human mind can never seize all their data. The law of rain. It never rains when it can do otherwise. A broken law means the failure of the universe. In this sense laws can never be broken. The laws of nature not the executors of human justice. Each law has its own result and no other. Each one tends in its own way toward cosmic order. " If Clod should wink at a single act of injustice, the whole universe would shrivel up like a cast-off snake skin." (Arab proverb.) Each law the expression of the best possible way in which causes and results can be joined. Emerson's remark on being "sound and solvent." The laws of nature, expressions of the soundness and solvency of the In- finite force. A broken law would be the expression of unsoundness and insolvency. The gradual recog- nition of law constitutes the progress of science. Cost of every step. Analogy to individual growth. ORGANIC EVOLUTION. > Science of Evolution depends on all other sciences, and embraces them all, as no science can be separated from the study of the development of that which it treats. Organic Evolution concerned by all pheno- mena of life. Immense literature of Evolution. LECTURE II. EVOLUTION AS A WORKING HYPOTHESIS. 77. Evolution as a Theory. The theory of the formation of species by divergence and development; in narrower sense, the theory that all forms of life now existing, or that have existed on the earth, have sprung from a few primitive forms, or, more likely, from one. "That whilst this orb has gone circling on in obedience to the fixed law of grav- ity, endless forms most beautiful and most wonder- ful have been or are being evolved." Darwin. This theory at first " a working hypothesis." All contrary hypotheses have long since ceased to work. The theory of Evolution as the method of creation of species as well attested as the theory of gravitation. All biological investigation must assume it ; without it most such investigations impossible. Naturalists could no more go back to the old notion of separate creation for each species and its organs, than astron- omers could go back to the pre-scientific notions of guiding angels as agents controlling planetary mo- tions. No naturalist whose studies give him the right to an opinion on the origin of species now holds this view ; no one could hold it and look an animal in the face. ///. Evolution as a Method of Study. Studying the present in the light of the past. The easy work of EVOLUTION AS A WORKING HYPOTHESIS. O science mostly done. Those who would continue work must study not living objects, but the laws that govern them. " Whether planets, or mountains, or mol- lusks, or subjunctive modes, or tribal confederacies be the things studied, the scholars who have studied them most fruitfully were those who have studied them as phases of development. Their work has directed the current of thought." John Fiske. IV. Evolution as a System of Philosophy. Work of Herbert Spencer, John Fiske, and others. Systems of philosophy based on scientific knowledge can be re- written as knowledge progresses. Systems resting on aphorisms, or definitions, or assumptions must wholly die as knowledge increases. Philosophy never iden- tical with truth. Partial truth in philosophy becomes absolute falsehood as the growth of exact knowledge transforms the truth to science, leaving the error. Conflict between science and philosophy. Phil- osophy the evanescent perspective in which the facts and phenomena of the universe are seen. Philos- ophy changes with the point of view. Science the same to all minds capable of grasping it. V LECTURE III. WHAT EVOLUTION Is NOT. I. Not that "man is a developed monkey." No monkeys or apes now existing could have been ances- tors of primitive man. As man changes and diver- ges so do they. None of them conceivably ancestors of future races of man. Evolution is essentially movement toward better adaptation to conditions of life. Movement of monkeys toward simianity, not humanity. But all evidence points toward descent of all mammals, of all vertebrates, from a common stock. The simian races nearest man, and their divergence from a common stock comparatively recent. II. Not that all living forms are tending toward hu- manity. Not that " every favorable variety of the turnip is tending to become man."- - Wilberforce. Not " the growth of the highest alga into a zoophyte, a phenomenon for which sharp eyes have sought and which is not only natural, but inevitable on the Dar- winian hypothesis, and whose discovery would make the fame of any observer." Seelye. Humanity not the goal of Evolution. Humanity the goal of human Evolution, perhaps. Goal of Evolution adaptation, mostly by slow divergence. III. Not series of sudden and radical changes. Not that a flying fish in the air would see his " scales dis- parting into feathers." Not that a horse should give WHAT EVOLUTION IS NOT. / birth to a cow or a cow to a horse. Seasons change, but midsummer never changes to midwinter, or the re- verse, except by gradual stages. Life is conservative and changes slowly, but must constantly change. IV. Not "an innate tendency toward progression." Degeneration in Evolution as well as progress. Di- vergence and adaptation not necessarily progress. Gradation not necessarily progression. V. Not spontaneous generation. Ancient belief in spontaneous generation. Modern belief in it. Tyn- dall's experiments. No evidence that generation ever occurs without parentage. Theoretical argument for it. How else could life begin ? We do not know how, or where, or when life began. Theoretical evi- dence against spontaneous generation. If occurring once would occur again under like conditions. All life seems bound in unity, as if arising from one com- mon stock. Spontaneous generation implies many stocks. If spontaneous generation exists we would have no means of recognizing it. Spontaneous forma- tion of protoplasm an organism fresh from mint of creation would be too small too simple for recog- nition by any human instrumentality. Size of a molecule of protoplasm. VI. Not identical with the Hindoo theories of re- incarnation. Science not advanced by speculative philosophy or by philosophic meditation. VII. Not a creed or body of doctrine to be believed without being understood. VJ1I. Not a new religion, " the religion of the future." IX. Not to be controverted by authority in the name of philosophy, theology, or religion. " Roma locuta est : 8 WHAT EVOLUTION IS NOT. causa finita e*t" no-t a dictum recognized by science. Her causes never finished. Science cannot admit that any power on earth possesses the answer to her ques- tions. Human knowledge her only court of appeal. Science is " knowledge set in order." LECTURE IV. V A R I E T Y IN LlFE. Variety everywhere. "Nature likes to know her creatures." Commonness the cloak of variety. The green cloak which covers the brown earth the shield under which millions of organisms, brown and green, carry on their life work. Meaning of Species. A single kind of living object. " Species are the twigs of a tree, disconnected from its parent stem. We name and arrange them arbitrarily in default of ability to reconstruct the whole tree in accordance with nature's ramifications."- Coues. Linnaeus ; Systema Naturae, 1758 : Four thousand species of animals. Zoological record 10,000 each year now added. Each volume thicker than the one before it. Number of species of animals now known, high in the millions ; no one knows how far. Still more of plants. Ex- tinct hosts. All these species phases of change. Vari- ety within species ; no two individuals alike. No one ever matched two clover leaves. Immense range of individual variation. The variations due to : (1) In- nate tendencies, the "unseen powers" within. (2) To stimulus of surroundings, the " unseen powers" of environment. (3) To double parentage, the "unseen powers" of heredity. (4) Unlikeness of germ cells of same individual. 10 VARIETY IN LIFE. Advantages of variety in nature enables existence of more life ; saves waste ; saves destructive competi- tion. "Purposes of nature." Analogy to human de- vices. Teleology. Species made up of individuals. They change with space and with time. With space, because with space comes barriers ; with time, because it brings events producing divergence. Neither time nor space flow on evenly in the world of life. Variations grow greater with lapse of time and space, for these bring other events and form other barriers. Is there a law of variation ? If variation exists it has its meaning. It is produced by fixed laws ; it is governed by fixed laws. What is the origin of spe- cies ? While species change, their types persist. Essential unity in variety. LECTURE V. U N I T Y I N L I F E. Essential unity amid variety. Persistence of plan. Types of structure very few. Embryology shows like plan in organisms seemingly unlike. All organisms are cells or clusters of cells filled with protoplasm ; each cell provided with a nucleus and its chromatin. and with the associated structures hy which the work of a cell is performed. Homology. Its existence; its significance; its dis- tinction from analogy. Homology in structure; ho- mology in development ; man and dog ; man and alligator. Homology through descent. Homology through common descent. Common descent the sole known source of homology. Homology means blood relationship. Homology is the stamp of heredity. The law of unity has its basis in the influence of heredity. All laws of life apply to man, to the low T er animals, and to "our brother organisms, the plants," each in its degree. Principal factors in Organic Evolution: /. Heredity. " Like begets like " ; creatures resem- ble their ancestors. ' //. Irritability. All living beings respond to ex- ternal stimulus. They are moved by or they react from every phase of their surroundings. 12 UNITY IX LIFE. ///. Individuality. No two organisms are exactly alike. IV. Self -activity. Development of structures de- pends on the exercise of functions. V. Natural Selection. The survival of the fittest in the struggle for existence. VI. Mutual Help. The race not to the swift nor the battle to the strong, but to those who can keep to- gether. VII. Isolation. Effects of individual separation from bodies of organisms. The interaction on protoplasmic structures of these factors or groups of forces and of others more or less known the cause of Organic Evolution. LECTURE VI. HEREDITY : THE GREAT CONSERVATIVE FORCE IN EVOLUTION. Like begets like/' "Blood will tell." Creatures resemble their ancestors. Eacb creature in a sense a mosaic of its ancestry, rather than an " ego." " The specialization of the single cell, which is capable of repeating the whole with the precision of a work of art/- With birth " the gate of gifts is closed." These gifts the hereditary stock which one generation receives from that which precedes it. "Science finds no ego, self, or will that can main- tain itself against the past. Heredity rules our lives like the supreme primeval necessity that stood above the Olympian gods. i It is the last of the fates and the most terrible. It is the only one of the gods whose name we know.' . . . We are possessed, not In- dentions, but by the dead. These are the real ghosts which throng our lives, haunt our footsteps, remorse- less as the furies. We are followed by the shades of our ancestors, who visit us, not with midnight squeak or gibber, but in the broad noonday, speaking with our speech and doing with our deed. On the stage of life the actors recite speeches and follow stage direc- tions written for them long before they were born. v - Edward A. Ross. 1 4 HEREDITY. " Vom Vater hab' ich die Statur, Des Lebens ernstes Fiihren ; Vom Mutterchen die Frohnatur Die Lust zu fabuliren." Goethe. " Stature from father and the mood, Stern views of life compelling ; From mother I take the joyous heart, The love of story-telling. Grandfather's passion was the fair. What if I still reveal it ? Grandmother's pomp and gold and show, And in my bones I feel it. Bayard Taylor's Translation. Laws of heredity seem to be the same for all living creatures. This is a strong evidence of their common origin. Value of pedigree. Galton's suggestion as to the possibility of charts of heredity, like charts of harbors. Difficulty in their compilation. Persistence of hereditary qualities. Atavism. The colt from Milpitas with three hoofs on two of its feet. LECTURE VII. THEORIES OF HEREDITY. The cell regarded as the unit in phenomena of life. Reasons why the cell may not be the life unit. Cells forced to form organs. Organs built up of cells. The sexual cell specialized to carry all the qualities of the parent, both latent and developed. I. Theories of Encasement and Evolution. II. Theory of Epogenesis ; building up of structure ; one cell upon another. III. Darwin's theory of Pangenesis. Each cell send- ing out from itself to every part of the body gem mules or minute buds ; u these inconceivably minute and numerous as the stars in heaven." Each of these cap- able of reproducing the qualities of the cell it came from. IV. Brooks. Differentiation of sex in gemmules. The male gemmules active and varying, the female sessile and conservative. V. Weismann's theory of continuity of germ plasm from generation to generation. Germ cells and so- matic cells. Nucleus the directive part of the cell ; virtually unchanged from generation to generation ex- cept by forces within it. External changes of the xoma do not reach it. LECTURE VIII. THE CELL AND HEEEDITY. First animals (protozoa) one-celled. Consisting of a sac rilled with protoplasm, the physical basis of life. Qualities of protoplasm. Within the protoplasm, the nucleus, composed chiefly of loops and bands of chro- matin. The chromatin presides over the development and differentiation of the protoplasm, action itself be- ing a function of the protoplasm. Action of the astern or attraction spheres. Limitation in size of protozoa. Cell division of protozoa. Rapidity of multiplication. One would fill the bulk of the sun in a month if all the conditions were favorable. Law of Mutual Aid. (1) Its beginning shown in aggregation of cells. So-called immortality (Unsterb- lichkeit) of protozoa not immortality of the fabled demigod Ares, who when hurt " bellowed like ten thousand bulls," but could not die. They die only when the activity of their protoplasm is checked by outside influences. Natural death not known to them. Must be fully alive or fully dead. No intermediate stage. Aggregation of cells leads to increased size, specialization of parts, sensitiveness, intelligence, and natural death. Natural death a necessary resultant of differentiation of structure. Simplicity, ignorance, and immortality in the process of Evolution exchanged for sensibility, pain, and death. How "Brahma fell THE CELL AND HEREDITY. 17 from unity and serenity to multiplicity and pain." Was this "a gigantic mistake, a stupendous blunder of the blind unconscious force from which there is no escape until the world is hurled back into nothingness by the supreme efforts of the human will " ? (2) Its beginning shown in conjugation of cells. Exchange of experiences. Development of conjuga- tion into the complex sex phenomena of the metazoa. Sexual cells in metazoa (many-celled or compound animals). These primarily alike and like protozoa. Become specialized by sex differentiation into: (a) spermatozoa, mobile cells composed chiefly of nucleus ; and (6) ova, sessile, immovable cells provided with food yolk for the nourishment of the new cell struc- tures. How a cell divides. Lengthwise splitting of chromatin under influence of asters or attraction spheres. Equal division ; never quite equal. Boveri's experiments. Transfer of nucleus from egg to egg in echini. As the nucleus is, so is the result- ant animal, whether developed in its own egg, or its own protoplasm, or in that of another. Analogous transfer of nucleus in protozoa. The chro- matin determines what the resultant animal shall be. Many-celled animals really compound. Edmund B. Wilson's experiment with the lancelet. Division of egg; when of two cells into two, each forms one animal, half normal size ; division when segmented into four forms four animals, each one-fourth size ; division into eight, each cell seems a ciliated in- fusorian, but dies before further division. Could be true of all animals at all times were it not that mutual aid induces mutual dependence. 18 THE CELL AND HEREDITY. Amphimixis, mingling of chromatin units ; idants, ids, biophores, gemmules. This mixing supposed to correspond to the mixing of elements of character or of structure in the new individual. Dimorphism of living beings. Primary purpose of amphimixis to in- crease variation. Lack of variation means destructive competition and wasted opportunities. Parthenogenesis ; its occurrence when an immediate brood is needed, and variation undesirable. A char- acter of degeneration. Its analogy to budding. The polar bodies. Their origin and significance. Female mother cells form four daughter cells. These unequal ; one with food yolk and half normal amount of chromatin. The three others (polar bodies), with- out food yolk, are cast off and do not develop. Male mother cells divide into four daughter cells, all alike. Studies of Ascaris. LECTURE IX. AMPHIMIXIS. Amphimixis consists in fusion of chromatin in two cells prepared for the process. Sex cells fundament- ally alike. This is shown in : 1. Their origin. 2. Conjugation of equal protozoa. 3. Homology of spore-producing organs. 4. Low feeding produces males ; high feeding, fe- males. 5. Maupas's experiment : Heat produces males ; cold, females. 6. Parthenogenesis of male cells ; produces weak in- dividuals from lack of food substances. 7. Formation of sex cells in male and in female by division of mother cell into four. Two phenomena (first noticed by Harvey, 1651) : 1. Heredity ; mixture of parental character in off- spring, through mixture of idants ( ah nen plasma) car- ried in the chromatin. 2. -Sex differentiation, in growth of individual after the cell-growth has begun and idants are mixed. Units of heredity. Their combinations infinite. Galton's estimate : Twenty-five per cent, from each parent ; six and two-thirds per cent, from each grand- parent ; remainder unidentified variation and at- avism. 20 AMPHIMIXIS. The embryo of both sexes fundamentally alike, but the germ cell develops in one of two ways, according to unknown and doubtless varying stimuli. Without a stimulus each nucleus is sexless. ( Wdtase.) Fertilization not a rejuvenation, but a mixing of characters. Each new individual would be a "branch or elongation of the parent " (Erasmus Darwin), except for amphimixis. Inherited dependence prevents ordinary cells from acting as germ cells in higher animals. Growth by budding or fusion in lower animals or plants. Inherited dependence prevents parthenogenesis in any of the higher forms of life. " Nature has no better way of encouraging varia- tion than by preventing individual germ cells from developing alone." " Whatever is desirable in Nature becomes necessary as soon as it is possible."-- Weismann. The infinitely little shown in units of heredity. The question of size a relative one ; on either side extends infinity. LECTURE X. THE MEANING OF SEX. "Whatever is desirable becomes necessary as soon as it is possible." Law of natural selection. Division of labor in organs and organisms. Division of labor between sexes. Neither sex superior nor prior to other. Mutual help involves mutual dependence. Specialization involves helplessness. Progress implies certain degradation of non-specialized structures. Law of "Compensation." Egg-bearing creatures less active than those not so burdened. Activity co-ordinated with strength. Co- ordination of sensorium, brain, and motion. Progress of Evolution makes embryo more and more important ; the waste less and less. Retention of eggs saves them from early destruction and lessens their number ; saving of eggs through fertilization before extrusion ; by viviparity ; by nour- ishment by milk ; by care for young. Destruction of Saurians, who did not care for the young. Viviparity, and lactation, and care make a birth important. u But one young one at a birth ; but that was a lion." Saving with plants through flowers and insect help. Petals are leaves modified to call insects. One of Nature's advertisements. Winds and pines. Waste of pollen. Parents differentiated as protectors of young. Give 22 THE MEANING OF SEX. to the young more and more of environment, as well as of heredity. Continued life of adult animals, justi- fied in Evolution, by care for the young. Sex differentiation produces change in life-habits, and this reacts on the organism. Strength, push, and initiative more and more thrown on the male. Devo- tion and sympathy ; radicalism and conservatism. Mental and physical qualities of men and women as affected by division of labor. Women rarely excel as explorers, investigators, judges, or warriors. Excel in delicacy, devotion, sympathy, and self-sacrifice. Excel as defenders of young. Female animal always most dangerous when at bay. The defender of the young must be a partisan ; not a judge. Growing demand for longer environment on part of parents. Demand for mothers, not merely nurses or chambermaids, but capable of becoming life-long parts of the environment of the strongest and noblest men. u Das Ewigweibliche." That division of labor best which will justify itself by being. Nature corrects inequalities by submerging those not in harmony with her purposes. Agitation loosens the bond of the past, and leaves freer in- fluences of the future. The movement of Evolution renders justice to all alike. The best to be is what can be. " For woman is not undeveloped man, but diverse." - Tennyson'' 8 " LECTURE XI. THE CELL THEORY. Prof. Oliver P. Jenkins. The cell theory is a conception of the nature of the organization of plants and animals, which has been the result of the gradual growth of ideas in regard to the structure of organisms since the application of the microscope to this study. The theory has been from time to time modified in the light of a clearer understanding of the cell its relationships, its minute structure, and its properties. Investigations and discussions now in progress in regard to the minute structure of the cell and the in- terpretation of its parts promise further greatly to modify our conceptions of the organization of living forms. Still the cell theory in its main outline represents the present conception of the structure of organisms. It forms a most valuable point of view from which to consider the whole world of living forms, both from the standpoint of structure (morphology) and from that of activity and function (physiology). Statement of the Cell Theory. That the cell is the unit of organization in both the plant and animal world. All organisms consist of cells and cell-products. 24 THE CELL THEORY. The most simple organisms consist of a single cell. The most complex of countless numbers of cells so united that they are thrown into groups (the tissues), which are arranged into such structural relationships that they form special mechanisms (the organs). The whole has that mutual relationship of parts, both in structure and function, that constitutes a complex yet complete organism. An organism consisting of a single nucleated cell possesses in a certain degree all the physiological properties the power of accomplishing the physio- logical processes, e. #., assimilation, disassimilation, irritability, contractility, reproduction, etc., that any organism possesses. An organism consisting of great numbers of cells differs from the more simple one-celled form in that in it development has proceeded to the point where groups of cells have become more adept in performing a certain physiological process (e. g., gland cells secretion; muscle cells contraction), while other groups accomplish better other processes ; thereby there having been accomplished in the organism what has been termed the "physiological division of labor." Every cell arises from a pre-existing cell by division of the first. The countless multitudes of differently formed cells of the most complex organism can in each case be traced to a single cell, the ovum, all having arisen from this one by growth and repeated divisions. Hence all the properties of the cells produced by the last division came by descent from the first. All the forms of organs and their arrangement into the THE CELL THEORY. 2 whole organism is the result of the methods of growth, reproduction, and grouping of the cells. These views of the cell place its study at the foun- dation of structural (morphological), of physiological, and of what may be termed the philosophical studies of organisms. While for the conceptions above set forth the cell may be taken as the unit, it must be kept in mind that the cell itself is of very complex organization. It has parts, each with its special properties and func- tions. The cell is the unit in the sense that its parts live and act only in the relations in which we find them organized in the cell. While a single cell may live alone, its parts cannot do so. In the growth and development of the organism the advancement is made by the repetition of the whole cell as the unit. i W W. LOCAL, 174 569 - 7TH STRE OAKLAND. C LECTURE XII. THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF HEREDITY. Prof. Frank M. McFarland. I, Heredity. The law of persistence in a series of organisms. Like produces like. 77. The Cell. The physical basis of life. 1. Its structure. (^4) Protoplasm. (a) Spongio- plasm ; (b) Hyaloplasm. (B) Nucleus. (a) Chro- matin ; (c) Achromatin ; (d) Nuclear membrane. 2. Protoplasm a morphological, not a chemical con- ception. Its complexity. 8. Its fundamental phenomena. Assimilation and metabolism. Growth, irritability, contractility, re- production. 4. Cell multiplication. "Oninis cellula emcellula" changed to " Omnis nucleus e nucleo." The spindle, attraction spheres, and centrosomes exist for the purpose of dividing the chromatin, the probable vehicle of heredity between the two daughter cells. ///. Multiplication Among Protozoa. Macronuclei and micronuclei. Fission and conjugation. Amphi- mixis. IV. Multiplication Among Metazoa. Histological differentiation into body or somatic, and reproductive cells. The origin of sex. 1. The reproductive cells. Ova and spermatozoa. THK PHYSICAL BASIS OF HEREDITY. 27 Their difference only an apparent one. Fundament- ally alike, as seen in their development. V. Fertilization and Amphimixis. VI. Recent Theories of Heredity. Their use as work- ing hypotheses. * Even error, if it originate in correct deductions, must become a step towards truth." Dar- win, Spencer, (lalton. Brooks, Niigeli. DeVries, Weis- mann, Wiesner. VII. View* of Weixmann. Morphoplasm and idio- plasm. The structure of the germ plasm. The chromosomes or idants the bearers of heredity ten- dencies. These made up of : 1. Biophore*. or Lebenstrager, the ultimate vital units. Various, but perfectly definite numbers of them form '2. Determinant*, vital units of the second order. Each of these is the Anlage of a particular cell or group of cells. r J hese constitute &nd occupy definite positions in the architecture of the vital units of the third order, the 8. Id*. In the process of development of the in- dividual, its ontogeney, these ids break up with a qualitative distribution of each group of determinants to its appropriate place in the adult organism. These ids may correspond to the visible " microsomes." 4. The origin of variations. LECTURE XIII. THE INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS. An acquired character one gained after birth as a result of action or non-action, or of reaction from environment. Distinguished from an innate char- acter carried over in process of heredity. An acquired character not a new thing, hut one resulting from change in relative development of organs or qualities. Results of winning or losing in life, as the "gate of gifts closed " at birth. Is it closed rather with amphi- mixis ? with process of conception ? Affirmative View. Neo-Lamarckism. The parable of the owl and the egg. McFarland's application of it to the present problem. Which is first, the soma or the ovum ? Can the life experiences of the soma affect the ovum ? Are latent and de- veloped characters alike inherited ? " All that has been acquired, begun, or changed in the structure of individuals in their life time is pre- served in reproduction and transmitted to the new individuals which spring from those who have in- herited the change." Lamarck : Fourth Law of Evolu- tion. " Change of function produces change of structure ; it is a tenable hypothesis that changes of structure so produced are inherited." Herbert Spencer. (1) The Darwinian principle : Natural selection. (2) The sup- THE INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS. 29 posed Lamarckian principle : Inheritance of acquired character. The Madeira beetles, without wings. (1) Their wings lost through inherited disuse. Lamarckian principle. (2) Their wings lost through natural selection. Darwinian principle. The webbing of ducks' feet. (1) Grows through in- herited results of effort. (2) Grows through natural selection. Fishes in caves become blind. (1) Through in- herited disuse. (2) Through panmixia or cessation of selection. The monkey's dread of snakes. The mocking-bird's dread of owls. Pointer dogs. Snapping turtles. Pawing for water. Change of feet of animals through strains on ankle- bones. Has functional activity a directive power, as giving a line of least resistance to activity of next generation ? Inheritance of education ; noble effort. Experience ; effects of environment. Is my hered- ity my grandfather's environment ? Is there reality in Ibsen's "Ghosts"? (1) Inheritance of mutila- tions ; experiments of Brown-Sequard. (2) Previous fertilizations ; horse and jack. (3) Pre-natal im- pressions ; many cases on record ; few of them veri- fied ; none conclusive. Watching the reapers day by day, that the child may love the harvests. Striped calves ; Weismann's sheep. Diversion of heredity by forces not understood. In- heritance of acquired characters less than usually supposed. If existing at all, probably chiefly in- 30 THE INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS. heritance of reaction tendencies produced by func- tional activity. Determining line of least resistance. May be wholly imaginary, but almost universally taken for granted. Growth of Neo-Lamarckism. Civilization the inheritance of the successes of the past. "Considering the width and depth of the effects which the acceptance of one or the other of these hypotheses must have on our views of life, the ques- tion, Which of them is true? demands beyond all other questions whatever, the attention of scientific men." Herbert Spencer. LECTURE XIV. THE INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS. CON- TINUED. Negative View. Neo-Darwinism. Weismann's essays on heredity. Contradicted two ideas long unquestioned : (a) Inheritance of char- acters acquired ; (6) Fertilization a process of rejuvenation. His work a great stimulus to investi- gation. Weismann's distinction between germ cells and soma or body cells. Is this " a biological myth " ? Germ cells from same body never alike, because of in- equality of division of nucleus. Germ cells of new body like those of old, except that qualities of two are fused through amphimixis. Germ cells immortal as the protozoa are. Each new soma a reincarnation of the germ cell. The soma and its experiences cannot affect a germ cell, except to lower its vitality. " Mens sano" must be "in corpore sano." Ibsen's ghosts. Effect of waist-compression, ciga- rette, alcoholism. Are these inherited, producing a more and more vicious and less and less vitalized race ? Are these not inherited, but showing their effects in lowered vitality ? Are these not inherited, but directly useful in weeding out the weak and 32 THE INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS. foolish, leaving room for the " deep-lunged children of the fatherland " ? Strength comes from surmounting difficulties, weak- ness from being helped over them, or from being unable to conquer them. Is such strength or weak- ness inherited ? If not, much that has been written on social pathology and degeneration must be re- written. A new history of civilization must be writ- ten, a new philosophy of ethics, and a new definition of instinct. Is instinct inherited habit, or is it selected habit ? Is civilization the inheritance of past successes, or is "civilization a storing-up of achievements : the sum of those contrivances which enable human beings to advance independent of heredity" ? Is Neo-Darwinism the " Gospel of Despair " ? The truth is never a cause of despair. What we have gained in Evolution is gained, even though the pro- cess be slower than we had supposed. This gain is the guarantee of future progress. "It is plain that the swift spread of science has brought men into a new universe. Few there are that can adorn the new home except with ornaments saved from the old. For most men the universe science tells of rises about them unsightly and barn-like, with bare walls and naked rafters. Until art can beautify the walls, and poetry gild the rafters, men will have that appalling feeling of being nowhere at home, that awful sinking as if the bottom was dropping out of all things." J. A. Ross. Every age is henceforth to be an age of trans- ition. In transition lies the growth of the human THE INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS. 33 mind, which we may speak of as Nature's present purpose. "The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the chil- 'dren's teeth are set on edge. As I live, saith the Lord God, ye shall not have any more to use this proverb in Israel. Behold all souls are mine, as the soul of the father so also the soul of the son is mine. The soul that sinneth, it shall die." Ezekiel, xviii, 1-3. LECTURE XV. SIGNIFICANCE OF MORPHOLOGY. Prof. Frank M. McFarland. I. Scope of morphology as a branch of biology. Its divisions : comparative anatomy and comparative em- bryology the first dealing with the structure of adult forms ; the second with the structural changes passed through by them in their development. Ho- mology and analogy. II. The most important contribution which compar- ative embryology has made to the science of biology is the establishment of the principle that ontogeny, the development of the individual, recapitulates in a measure phylogeny, the development of the race. Growth of this idea : 1. At the beginning of this century the fact gener- ally recognized that the higher animals pass through stages in their development, during which they closely resemble lower forms in their structure. 2. Karl Ernst von Baer, 1828, recognized this as a general law, but insisted that embryonic stages could only be correctly compared with embryonic stages, and not with adult ones. u The more different two forms are, the farther back in their development must one go to find similar stages." Finally con- cludes that in earliest stages all animals may be SIGNIFICANCE OF MORPHOLOGY. 35 similar that "the individual development is a pro- gressive change from a more general form to a more specific one." 3. Influence of Darwin's theory. Fritz Miiller, " Fur Darwin," Leipzig, 1864 ; Recognizes the full significance of the facts hitherto accumulated, and points out their relation as proving the theory, of de- scent. The developmental processes of the individual a more or less complete recapitulation of the develop- mental history of the species, complicated and short- ened by secondary variations due to adaptation, which have been acquired in the struggle for existence. 4. HseckePs " Biogenetisches Grundgesetz " ; "Die Ontogenie ist eine kurze wiederholung der Phylogenie." III. Complications of the embryonic history to be distinguished. 1. Palingenetic characters which indicate ances- tral structure ; e. V crl JT 60 NATURAL SELECTION AND ETHICS. modified in prayer was the will of man." Bernard Bomnquet. Strength of John Brown. " The games! man I ever saw," the governor of Virginia said. " Nobody sent me here. I ohey only my own im- pulses and those of my maker. I acknowledge no master in human form." u Let no man trouble me. I bear on my body the marks of the Lord Jesus." "Careless seems the great avenger, history's pages but record One death grapple in the darkness twixt old systems and the Word. Truth forever on the scaffold wrong forever on the throne ; But the scaffold sways the future, and behind the dim unknown Standeth God within the shadow, keeping watch above his own." Lowell. LECTURE XXVI. LAW OF SELF- ACTIVITY. Progress of Evolution through interaction of par- tially opposed forces. Regular movement could not spare either. Variation and heredity ; Nature and nurture ; change and conservatism ; egoism and altru- ism ; cooperation and individualism. Law of mutual aid, and law of self-activity. Nature a thrifty investor ; withdraws all unused in- vestments. Parable of talents. Branch in which no sap moves dies. Unexercised functions disappear in the individual. The organs atrophy. So in the race. What is latent long, atrophies by degrees. Nature changes her plans as conditions change. Heredity causes her to remember them. Pineal eye. Gills. Environment affects the individual chiefly by modi- fying local or general self-activity. What comes out of a man determines his life. Learn to do right by doing right. 1. Self-activity the cause of individual progress. 2. Cause of specific acceleration. Is it inherited ac- celeration ? Or does Nature favor those who use their powers as against those with equal powers unused ? Are use and non-use hereditary, or not ? 3. Source of happiness. Enjoyment of life. Misery comes from lack of self-activity. Causes of personal degeneration : 62 LAW OF SELF-ACTIVITY. 1. Ennui, the pressure of existence, unvisited by effort. " The very fiends weave ropes of sand rather than taste pure hell in idleness." Spiritual pauper- ism a phase of decline. Lady Clare Vere de Vere. Galton on the English peerage. Sickness or injury not necessarily the causes of ennui. Darwin ; Tom Dunstan. 2. Dissipation. Passions which burn and burn out. Deceptions of the senses. The " pleasures like poppies spread," are not pleasures, but tricks on the nervous system. These destroy it ; their results phases of degradation. " The world looks different to the man, and he looks different to the world." These sub- jective imaginary pleasures followed by horrors which are equally subjective. Alcoholism ; opium ; narcot- ism ; sensuality ; trances. Pessimism largely result of affected sensorium. Religious excitement. Nature favors the creature which looks with clear eyes on its surroundings. " Who ever with a frolic welcome takes the thunder and the sunshine." 3. Slavery. Dragging down of effort without the element of consent. No virtue in hard work, but work to a purpose. Work without a pride in it tends to degradation. Tendency to drown evil feelings arising from degradation in self-deceiving stimuli, which tend in the same direction. Even a slave need not work slavishly. 4. Old age. 5. Evil associations. 6. Arrested development. Natural selection destroys those who find no pleas- ure in action ; for such do not act. Natural selection eliminates the victims of ennui, dissipation, or slavery. LAW OF SELF- ACTIVITY. 63 Happiness comes from exercise of functions in any grade ; overcoming of opposition ; doing good to others ; conquests of mind ; love of friends. All hap- piness is positive and strengthening. Athletics ; war ; exploration ; study ; mountaineer- ing. No man engaged in positive exercise of functions, either high ones or low ones, ever complained of ennui. Knnui means that dry rot has set in. It is Nature's means of telling us so. " Most of the vice of the world is vice of corrosion." - G. S. Hall. Greek philosophy: "Though life be sad, there is joy in the living it." Those who do are paid as they go. Hamlet ; content only in action. Thoreau's " word for freedom and wildness." " O, to have passions like these." Myron Wilkins. " The man that had a sore heel on the tramp always re- members it with a grin." Myron Reed. " By the brand upon my shoulders, By the gall of clinging steel, By the welt the whips have left me, By the scars that never heal, By the eyes grown old with staring At the sun-wash on the brine, I am paid in full for service, Would that service still were mine." Kipling. Freedom; a fundamental need of human beings for their own development. Its limitations ; bounded by mutual aid. William Watson's " Dream of Man." LECTURE XXVII. LAW OF MUTUAL HELP, OR ALTRUISM. 1. Shown in conjugation of cells. Hence arises di- vision of labor between the sexes. Conjugal love. Filial love. Parental love. Formation of the family. Source of variation. 2. Shown in the aggregation of cells. Hence arises compound animals. Specialization. Physical divis- ion of labor. Source of variation. 8. Shown in altruism. Qualities that bind men and animals together in tribes or nation. Live and let live rising to live and help live. From the Silver Rule to the Golden Rule. Progressive ethics. From the basis of altruism rises human justice, re- ligion, science entering into the work of others. Altruism. Mutual help in the three-fold struggle against forces of Nature ; against others of unlike character ; against others of like character. Civilization essentially security against violence in the struggle for existence, enabling us to enter in work of the others of the past as well as of the present. The animal virtues giving way to the Christian vir- tues. Rights of others. Rights of lower animals. Bayary Taylor's story. A bounty on Cain. Ishmaelites. Our strength drawn from others. LAW OF MUTUAL HELP, OR ALTRUISM. 65 " No man is great till he can see How less than little he would be If all alone and stark and bare He hung his sign out anywhere." Riley. Will altruism do away with the struggle for exist- ence ? Can we save all the waste of competition by cooperation ? Can do little more than do our own duty, and work for civic freedom, justice, and honesty. Evolution moves slowly. The world never moved by dynamite, nor lifted by boot-straps. Loss in altruism. Mutual help induces mutual dependence. The self-sufficiency of single all the independence 'of Robinson Crusoe. Weakness of civ- ilization. But this price must be paid for the ad- vantages. Specialization goes with integration ; that with mutual dependence. Degradation of cooperation. Hydroids. Corals. Sponges. Portuguese man-of-war. Wherever there is no premium placed on variations nor on superior self-activity, degeneration sets in. New Harmony. Icaria. Kaweah. Bellamy's plans. All colonies must fail where men reap who have not sown ; where rewards come alike to the active and the idle, the bright and the dull ; where drones and workers have equal access to the honey cells. Each man must be responsible for his own destiny. Marriage by official selection. Life of official per- mission. Failure of socialistic attempts through see- ing half-truths only. Law of self-activity must not be impeded by law of help. Future possibilities of altruism. Tendencies towards state socialism. Dangers. LECTURE XXVIII. THE ORIGIN OF GOODNESS. Prof. Edward A. Ross. Right-doing may have any one of many motives, No mystery when prompted by fear, dread of punish- ment, hope of reward, love of praise, pride, vanity worldly prudence, confusion as to one's own interests force of conventionality, or habit. Only when sucli motives are wanting do we ascribe goodness. Right-doing is outward, and means conduct looking to the well-being of others. Goodness is inward, and means making the welfare of others our interest joj in another's joy, pain in his pain. The springs of oui action come to lie elsewhere than in ourselves. W< say in effect : " Thy ill is my ill, thy weal my weal thy ends are my ends." Goodness amounts to altru- ism, or otherness, which in turn implies sympathy. The origin of otherness the great mystery of hurnarj nature. Selfness or egoism easy to understand, bul altruism challenges explanation, seems unnatural Can there be soul nerves ? Some even deny that pure altruism exists. The romantic explanations. Is union or sepa- ration our primitive state ? Plato. Kant and the " Ding an Sich." Hegel's " Absolute." Schopenhauer Hartmann's "Unconscious." Emerson's "Oversoul.' THE ORIGIN OF GOODNESS. 67 "One central fire glows in all." "Parts of a single continent." Matthew Arnold, The heaven before in- dividuation. Sympathy a reminiscence of the soul's ancient estate. We are Brahma fallen into multi- plicity, and hence into selfishness and sin. Sympathy recognizes our underlying oneness intimates the identity of all life. " Tat twam asi." The self transi- tory. The I is an ice crystal born of the All, and des- tined to melt into the All. We are from the One en route to the One. Sympathy a reminiscence and a prophecy. " Some little talk awhile of Me and Thee, There was and then no more of Thee and Me" Omar Khayyam. The explanation from Evolution. The individual came first no primeval soul-plasm consciousness of self preceded consciousness of others. Egoism older than altruism. Man not fallen from unity into multi- plicity, but rising from multiplicity to unity. Sym- pathy a derivative feeling of practical origin in no wise supernatural or mystical developed by the cos- mic process of selection through struggle. The moral paradox. Sub-human altruism. Family cohesion love, ma- ternal, sexual, paternal. Group cohesion in gregar- ious species ants, bees, rooks, wolves, deer. Such altruism developed and limited by natural selection, instinctive, irrational, inconsistent. Human altruism. Vast changes with growth of intelligence. (1) Range of sympathy widened with greater power of interpreting signs of feeling. (2) 68 THE ORIGIN OF GOODNESS. Altruistic impulses developed into moral rules or principles. (3) Society in its own interest curbs self- ishness, and stimulates self-sacrifice by ethical codes and religions and moral ideals. Simple ethical forms. Love, hate, sympathy, pity, malice, generosity, greed, revenge. Derivative ethical forms. Sense of honor, of duty, of sin, conscience, remorse, repentance, self-renuncia- tion, self-mortification, contrition, atonement, justice, veracity, honesty. Altruism and our duties to others. Mother love, conjugal love, filial affection, claims of kindred, caste and professional spirit, esprit du corps, loyalty, patriot- ism, civism, philanthropy, humanitarianism. The so-called duties to self. Partly altruistic cleanliness, decency, chastity; partly egoistic tem- perance, self-control, abstinence from suicide ; partly esthetic - abstinence from sensuality, brutishness, gluttony, filthiness, uncouthness, slovenliness. The foundations of altruism. Shall we give a cup of water to the thirsty wayfarer for the sake of a re- ward in this life "casting bread on the waters" ; or in another life Mohammedan paradise ; because it is God's will the "Commandments" ; from a sense of duty " Categorical Imperative " ; for the sake of some one we love "in His name" ; or for the sake of the wayfarer himself ? The justification of altruism. Whence flow our chief miseries. How men torture each other. Each can in- flict more injury than he can ward off. Egoism leads to collision, strife, wounds, pain, and disappointment ; THE ORIGIN OF GOODNESS. 69 altruism leads to harmony, joy, cooperation, peace, contentment, and social health. The greater abounding of altruism. We err on the side of egoism. Our natures more altruistic than we think. We gain prosperity, but lose peace of con- science. What men live by. In what riches consist. Opulence in love. LECTURE XXIX. DEGENERATION. Meaning of high and low in biology. High may mean : complexity of structure in gen- eral ; complexity of special structure ; complexity of nervous organization ; adaptation to complex environ- ment. Man the highest animal through complexity of nerv- ous system and derived powers of will, self-activity, cooperation, speech, and abstract reasoning. All the product of emphasis laid on living by his wits. But specialization of one or many parts implies deteriora- tion in others, as the ape-like strength and spryness are little needed by man. Degeneration of single organs as their highest functions become useless. A law of Evolution. Example : pineal eye ; jaw and jaw muscles ; gills in mammals and birds. Strength in simplicity ; in government ; in education ; in lan- guage. Degeneration is decline in rank. Takes place when- ever the struggle for existence permits life on a lower plane of activity or of adaptation. 1. May take the form of adaptation to less complex surroundings, as in the seal, or blind fish. Then ac- companied by specialization in minor structures. 2. Reduction of vigor. Preliminary to extinction. 3. Simple divergence, from isolation and narrowed range. DEGENERATION. 71 4. Reduced self-activity, and simultaneous with- drawal from struggle for existence. Examples : Para- sites, quiescent animals, compound animals. Distinction of degenerate forms from forms primi- tively simple. Used up potentialities. Myrick's law of lost organs. Degeneration and extinction of too highly special- ized forms ; Dionaea compared with Drosera. When individual self-activity is lowered, and con- ditions of environment are such that destruction does not set in, we have conditions of continuous degenera- tion. Origin of degenerate forms shown by embry- ology. For the individual in its development goes over the whole road, be it upward or downward. Amblyopsis, the blind fish, descended from Cholo- gaster, the fish of the Dismal Swamp. Deep sea fishes. Typhlogobius, the blind goby of Point Loma. Tunicates, and their fish-like young. Sacculina, and its crab-like progeny. Born as a young crab, but, living at the expense of others, loses self-activity, but is not destroyed in competition, and is degraded into a parasitic sac, with no organs except root-processes, ovaries, and brain. Further degradation of male sacculina. LECTURE XXX. DEGENERATION IN MAN. Possible to breed human sacculina by same meth- ods ; shelter from destruction, remove incentive to individual action, and allow unfitness to mate with unfitness. Cretinism in Valley of Aosta. Elements. Military selection ; heredity susceptibility to goitre ; influence of indiscriminate charity whereby the worst fares bet- ter than the best. Pauperism. Analogy to sacculina. Its existence de- pendent on getting something for nothing. The Lord's poor, the devil's poor, and paupers. Dr. Dugdale's studies of the Jukes family. " Mar- garet, the mother of criminals." Hereditary para- sitism. McCulloch's studies of the " Tribe of Ishmael." Paupers of California, Missouri, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Virginia, and the Carolinas derived from England's stock, and kept alive by public and "pri- vate outdoor relief." Origin of Georgia " poor-white trash." Pauperism can be exterminated, as swamps are drained ; not by giving, but by removal of causes. Remedies : Destruction of the slums and their social gangrene ; closing outdoor relief ; checking feeding of vagabonds, and indiscriminate giving ; saving the DEGENERATION IN MAN. 73 children, and stimulating them to self-activity ; cut- ting off the root tentacles, and making parasites self- helpful, or confining them that the generation may cease. Slums a culture-basis for moral and physical disease. Make parasitism the hardest mode of life and the most active. Sicily. Venice. Climatic effects. The duty of charity to save the unfortunate ; to permit those incapable by heredity to become extinct with the least possible suffering. Good and evil of pension systems. No way to make humanity happier, except to make humanity stronger and better. If humanity has some- thing to do, and does it with a pride in its work, it will be reasonably happy. Train those we have, and let heredity repeat the best, and not the worst. Slums breed slums ; idlers and criminals are not the stock from which the men of the future may spring. Charity consists in making men better adapted to environment, not in easing up the environment around individual men. "What shall we do with John Jones ? " What did we do with Tom Huxley, or Mike Faraday ? " Whatever begot the charitable impulse in the first place, it survived because it was useful." Warner. Survival of people and races with altruistic sentiments " a sufficient answer to those who object to all philan- thropic undertakings as mischievous meddling with the benign course of Nature." " Why not be brutal ? " Because brutality is barbarous ; brutality is expensive. Why not let the vicious and profligate, the dirty and the diseased, exterminate themselves ? Because gan- grene is not a profitable caustic. " Social cancers in- 74 DEGENERATION IN MAN. feet more than they eat away." The slums destroy those who live in them, but infect and drag others to destruction. "If enlightened self-interest is a good thing, enlight- ened self-sacrifice is a better thing. One instinct as well as the other may be misdirected and harmful, but is equally capable of enlightenment." " No race ever became extinct through excess of brotherly love." Warner. Charity as fire insurance. Charity scat- tered as corn to catch the chickens. "The final result of saving people from their folly would be to fill the earth with fools." Spencer. Charity as an ethical duty. Read Warner : " Ethi- cal Aspects of the Question ; Evolution of Charities " (pp. 268-9). LECTURE XXXI. THE INDUSTRIAL STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. Dr. Amos G. Warner. I. The number of persons who can maintain a given standard of living in a given territory depends upon 1. Original resources of the district. 2. Amount and character of accumulated informa- tion. State of the arts and sciences, and the organ- ization of industry. 3. Character of the people, especially as to physique, intelligence, and morality. 4. Amount of accumulated capital. II. The expansibility of the civilized man tends 1 . To limit population before the pathological checks of war, pestilence, and famine are operative ; but 2. To maintain the struggle for existence even when there is no absolute pressure of population against the means of subsistence. If all were content with the bare necessities of life, Europe could support a popu- lation of eight hundred millions. " Progressive de- sire" makes it common for one man to consume what would suffice for the maintenance of thousands. III. The industrial struggle for existence is to secure possession of economic goods. It is waged 1. Between man and natural forces, including plants and animals as a part of Nature-distinct-from-man. 76 THE INDUSTRIAL STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. 2. Between individuals, a family counting as an in- dividual for most purposes. 3. Between classes, (a) Employer and employed. (b) The propertied and unpropertied, and lenders and borrowers, (c) Organized and unorganized labor. (d) Producers and consumers, (e) Races, in so far as different races live together under one government. 4. Between enterprises, (a) Source of variation here is often conscious effort to vary, (b) Between enterprises differently located, (c) Between enter- prises differently organized : factory vs. shop ; ma- chinery vs. hand labor ; cooperative and profit-sharing enterprises vs. those under "captains of industry"; stock companies vs. partnerships ; etc. (d) Large en- terprises vs. small ones. 5. Between nations, (a) By war opium war. (b) By tariffs, bounties, and restrictions. Example of successful aggressions : English navigation acts. Example of unsuccessful aggression : German sugar bounties, (c) By so regulating the interval between individuals, classes, and enterprises that general and permanent interests may not be sacrificed to general and temporary gain, e.